VOL. 73 — 1950
TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
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CONTENTS
Simpson, D, A.: The Epiphyseal Complex in Trachysaurus rugosus Brack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia. No. 45 ....
Fenner, C,: Australites, Part V. Tektites in the South Australian Museum, with some Notes on Theories of Origin
Jounston, T. H., and Ancet, L. M.: Larval Trematodes from Australian Freshwater Molluses. Part XIII
Roprnson, E. G.: The Petrological Nature of some Rocks from the Mann, Tompkinson and Ayres Ranges of Central Australia
Spricc, R. C.: Thrust Structures of the Witchelina Area, South Australia TuHomson, J. M.: The Nullarbor Caves System Krne, D.: Geological Notes on the Nullarbor Cavernous Limestone
Corron, B. C.: An old Mangrove Mud-flat exposed by Wave Scouring at Glenelg, South Australia
Corton, RB. C.: Fossil Oysters used for Road Metal ....
Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M.: Some Nematodes from Australian Hosts, together with a Note on Rhabditis allgent ....
Spricc, R. C.: Early Cambrian “Jellyfishes” of Ediacara, South Australia and Mount John, Kimberley District, Western Australia
Mountrorp, C. P.: Gesture Language of the Walpari Tribe, Central Australia ....
Jounston, T. H., and Muirueap, N. G.: Larval Trematodes from Australian Fresh- water Molluscs. Part XIV ...
Sreenit, E. R.: A Soda-rich Composite Intrusive Rock located in the Booleoomatta Hills, South Australia ....
Womerstey, H. B. S.: Studies on the Marine Algae of Southern Australia. No. 3, Notes on Dictyopterts Lamourous
Mawson, D.: The Elatina Glaciation. A Third Recurrence of Glaciation evidenced in the Adelaide System
Jonns, R. K., and Krucer, J. M.: The Murray Bridge and Monarto Granites and Associated Rocks of the Metamorphic Aureole
Womerstey, H. B. S.: The Marine Algae of Kangaroo Island II], List of Species I BonytHon, C. W.: Evaporation Studies Using some South Australian Data .... Cooper, H. M.: Stone Implements from a Mangrove Swamp at South Glenelg .... Mawson, D. W.: Basaltic Lavas of the Balleny Islands. A.N.A.R.E. Report .... HossFietp, Paut S.: The Late Cainozoic History of the South-East of South Australia Love, J. R. B.: Worora Kinships ...,
Fry, H. K.: Aboriginal Social Systems ....
100
102
109
113
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VOL. 73 PART 1 DECEMBER 1949 NS anes Sy
TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
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THE EPIPHYSEAL COMPLEX IN A TRACHYSAURUS RUGOSUS
BY D. A. SIMPSON
Summary
Gladstone and Wakeley (1940), quoting earlier workers (Spencer 1886 and Legge 1897), describe the epiphyseal complex of two skinks, Cyclodus gigas and Gengylus ocellatus. In these lizards the parietal eye appears to be a degenerate structure. Cyclodus gigas has a long, well-developed pineal organ, and a parietal foramen, but no parietal eye. In Gengylus ocellatus, a parietal eye was found in the embryo only ; in the adult there was a large pineal organ, but again no parietal eye. A drawing of the parietal eye of Sincus officinalis, from Calvet (1934), is reprinted ; the nerve, lens and retina seem well developed, but the epidermal scale covering the eye is densely pigmented and quite opaque. Gladstone and Wakeley therefore conclude that in the Scincidae, the parietal eye is atrophied and purely vestigial.
THE EPIPHYSEAL COMPLEX IN TRACHYSAURUS RUGOSUS By D. A. Simvson* (Communicated hy A. A, Abbie) [Read 14 April 1949]
INTRODUCTION
Gladstone and Wakeley (1940), quoting earlier workers (Spencer 1886 and Legge 1897). describe the epiphyseal complex of two skinks, Cyclodus gigas and Gengylus ocellatus. In these lizards the parietal eye appears to be a degenerate structure. C'yclodus giyas has a long, well-developed pineal organ, and a parietal foramen, but no parietal eye. In Gengylus ocellatus, a parietal eye was found im the embryo only; in the adult there was a large pineal organ, but again no parietal eye. A drawing of the parietal eye of Scincus officmatis, from Calvet (1934), is reprinted ; the nerve, lens, and retina seem well developed, but the epidermal scale covering the vye is densely pigmented and quite opaque. Gladstone and Wakeley therefore conclude that in the Scincidae, the parietal eye is atrophied and purely vestigial.
-FRONTAL BONE
_-- PARIETAL BONE
PARIETAL FORAMEN
ORAMEN MACHUM
Fig, 1 A. Dorsal aspect af head of Trachasourius rugosis showing parietal Meck ant foramen (x 4). B. Dorsal aspeet of skull showine panetil foramen (» 4).
The epiphyseal complex im its fullest development, us seen in Sphenodon, comprises the following structures:
T. The pineal organ proper, a sac-like ependymal diverticulum, with an enlarged end-vesicle probably representing an eye which has failed to emerge from the cranial cavity. “he organ sends nerve fibres to the habenular ganglia (right nucleus in Siphenodon).
II. The parietal eye, a simple vesicular organ lying in the parictal foramen. It shows:
(i) a retina of three layers: an inner layer of cylindrical ncurosensory cells, a midile of plexiform nerve ffbres, and an outer layer of ganglion cells;
(vi) a lens, of translucent columnar cells;
(iti) a parietal nerve, ending in the left habenular ganglion in Sphenodon, but in the right in the Lacertilia,
The parietal eye lies anterior to the pmeal organ; it is suggested that in the earliest vertebrates, both lay side by side as dorsal paired eyes (Dendy, 1911),
It is of some interest, therefore, to find that all these structures noted in Sphenodon can be found in the skink Trachysaurus rugosus, Morcover, they are qititc as well differentiated.
* Department of Anatomy, University of Adelaide, Traus. Roy. Suc. &. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949
2
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The material comprised four adult lizards, and one 60 mm, foetus. These were investigated by gross dissection, and also microscopically, Both transverse and longitudinal sections were employed aud they were stained with haematoxylin and eosin, piero-indigo-carmine, Weigert-Pal, or De Castro’s silver stain, accord- ing to requirements.
FINDINGS
1. The dorsum of the skull shows a parietal foramen, less than + mm. in diameter on the surface, but expanding to a ctip-like recess on the innet aspect (fig. 1).
2. fn the parietal scale Gver this foramen there is a depression, in some lizards markedly paler than in the rest of the seaie. E.R, Waite’s (1929) descrip- tion of the "pineal area’ as a group of nine small scales may prove a little mis- leading, since the actual scale covering the parietal eye is single, constant and relatively large.
3. Sagittal sections show a parietal eye, a vesicle of columnar cells lying in the inner part of the foramen, in loose and extremely vascular connective tissue (fig.2). The vesicle shows regional differentiation, The superior quadrant consists mainly of very tall columnar cells, with a few interspersed splenoidal cells not attached to either basement membrane, This arrangemen( provides a biconvex lens entirely free from pigment. The remainder of the vesicle forins a tetina, skarply defined from the iens aud heavisy pigmented. Thige rather indistinct layers, comparable with those described in Sphenodon, can be identified: an inner, of heavily pigmented columnar cells, sending irregular processes towards the centre of the eye; a middle of tangential fibres, and an ill-defined outer layer of ganglion cells, with strands of pigment, The hyaliie external limiting mens- brane is very well developed, Whether the black pigment of the retina was imtra- cellular cou.d not be determined, Some debris in the centre of the vesicle may represent a vitreous body.
The epidermis oyer the foramen is less pigmented than elsewhere (in the section, fig. 2, the epidermis has slipped iu the left where the unpigmented area is clearly visible at *). The connective tissue filling the foramen belween eye and skin is devoid of pigment. This tisstic has a strongly lamellar structure in fixed material and seems comparable with ihe more massive parictal ping seen in Sphenodon,
Connective tissue immediately around the eye is condensed to form an ill- defined capsule and in the region of the (oramen contains many melanophores.
In the foetal specimen, the eye is represented by only a simple diverticulum from the roof of the third ventricle. extending up to the parictal region (hy. 4)-
4, The pineal organ proper, as distinct from the parictal eye, lies more posteriorly. It is a twisted cylindrical diverticulum, arising from the caudal end of the roof of the third ventricle, The cells are apparently ependymal, being clear and columnar, and they rest on a very clear basement membrane (hg. 3*)-
The sac is contitimous with a spherical terminal vesicle, very closely resernb- ling the parictal eye; there is even a lens-lke thickening of the superior wall. However, the rest of the vesicle is almnst devoid of pigment and, unlike the parietal ¢ye, contains no true gangtion cells. There is no gap in the skull over this pineal vesicle,
3
The stalk of the pineal sac is related anteriorly to the dorsal sae, which reaches almost to the terminal vesicle; it is a thin walled diverticulum, adherent in its turn to the paraphysis. The paraphysis is lined with cuboidal ceils and is in continuity with the choroidal plexus of the lateral ventricles. In the foetal specimen the paraphysis was extremely well developed,
5, The nervous connections were not satisfactorily established, A nerve was seen to leave the parietal eve from its postero-ventral quadrant, but could not be traced to the habenular region, where presumably it arose. No nerves attached to the pineal sac could be found.
The epithalamic structures, hahenular nuclei and commissures are, however, well developed, with a large median haberular nucleus. Nerve fibres ascend from these triclei in the direction of the parietal eye; but their destination could not be determined.
The whole complex is embedded in a loose connective tissue which is enclosed within a tubular meningeal sheath (fig. 5).
Bone Non-ProMeNTED Pomentco Bone EPIDCONIS EDIDEQMIS
Ria ovEn FoRFBaAIn
Pia oven
TH ventgicee Fig. 5 Compc site figure to illustrate most of the features of the epiphyseal complex (x23 approx.), DISCUSSION Trachysaurus rugosus has thus a well-developed parictal eye, with na obvious signs of degeneration, and at least the equal of that in Sphenodon. Like other vertebrate parietal eyes, it is very primitive, with no eqiipment for focussing. Jt has been much disputed whether the pineal sac and the parietal eye are developed from two bilateral eyes—later becoming median (Dendy, 1911), or
4
from primarily median diverticula (Tilney and Warren, 1919), Both theories are equally compatible with the observations made in Trachysaurus, and this investigation does nothing to settle the controversy.
lt is impossible in a discussion of forin to avoid speculation on function. Anatomically, the parictal eye of these lizards secms well adapted to uct as a simple light receptor, though most writers deny such function in living reptiles. The pineal sac may conceivably have a glandular function; ihe paraphysis is so evidently part of the choroidal system that it may be presumed to secrete cerebro- spinal fluid.
No physiological proof of a pincal glandular activity in reptiles is available; the only real evidence for a photo-receptive function comes from the work of Clausen and Mofshin (1939). These authors studied the oxygen consumption of lizards (Anolis carolinensis) in the light and in the dark, before and after pinealectomy, and found that pineal “vision” makes a significant difference.
TERMINAL PINEAL PARIETAL EVE
VEBICLE
PARIETAL NERVE(?) DORSAL SAC PANT GF PARAOHYSIS
FOREBRAIN
ComMmissuRe rg ErewovMaA —— of HABENULAR #QueDucY Commi Sssuge Fig. 6
Diagratiinatie reconstruction of the epiphyseal camplex, The course of the parictal nerve atl the relations of the dorsal sac and paraphysis are parth: hypothetical. (Not drawn to scale.)
Brom an anatomical yiew, one may say for Trachysaurus what Dendy (1911) said for Spkenodon:
“T think we must adnut that the pineal eye of Sphenodon is no longer at the summit of its career as a light percipient organ, but the evidences of degeneration are very slight. ... It is impossible for me to believe that an organ which retains stich a complex histological structure ... ¢an be entirely fuictionless,”
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS J am indebted to Professor A. A. Abbic, who first came upon this eye during an operation and suggested it as a subject for investigation; he has also assisted me with adyice throughout this work. Dr, Adey has helped me with the micro- photographs of sections kindly prepared by Mr. T, Canny. Miss G, Walsh was good enough ta make the drawings from my drait sketches. 1 wish to express my gratitude for all this assistance.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1949 Vol. 73, Plate I
N Fie. 2 Photomicrograzh of parietal eye. Note overlying parietal foramen, pigmeniation in retina and com- meneement of nerve (N). Tlaematoxylin and eosin, x 55, N.B—During preparation of this section unpig- ise eae memed epidermis over parietal foramen has slipped Oe : : to the left (*). a _—— : —
“Prcudcoparictal eye” or terminal vesicle of pineai organ (HH. and E., x 32). Note: (a) eye-like structure except for pigmentation and nervous connexion; (b) attached, saccular, pincal organ (*). (c) that the magnification is less than in fig. 2 in order to show the absence of a foramen in the overlying bone.
Fig. 4 Sagittal section of the region in a 60 mm. foetus to show the dorsal diverticulum from the root of the third ventricle from the terminal portion of which the parietal eye (P.E.) appears ta differentiate (11. & I, x 52).
5
SUMMARY 1. The cerebro-epiphyseal complex in the lizard, Trachysaurus rugosus, 1s described.
2. Contrary to all previous opinion on this system in skinks, the complex in Trachysaurus equals in development the classical example found in Sphenodon.
REFERENCES
Carvet, J. (1934) L’Epiphyse, Paris (J. B. Bailliere et Fils), quoted by Glad- stone and Wakeley (1940)
Crausrn, H. J. and Morstin, B. (1939) “The pineal eye of the lizard (Anolis carclitiensis), a photo-receptor as revealed by oxygen consumption stucies,” J. Cell. and Comp. Physiol, 19, (1), 29-41
Denny, A. 5. (1911) “On the Structure, Development and Morphological Interpretation of the Pineal Organs and Adjacent Parts of the Brain in tae Tuatara,” Philos. Trans., Ser. B., 201, 227-331
Giapstone, R. J., and Waxrey, C. P.G, (1940) The Pineal Organ, London (Bzilliere, Tindall and Cox)
Tiuwey, F., and Warren, L. F. (1919) “The Pineal Body. Part I. Mor- phology and Evolutionary Significance.” Amer, Anat. Mem., No. 9
Warts, E.R. (1929) The Reptiles and Amphibians of South Australia, p. 140, Adelaide (Government Printer)
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY J. M. BLACK
Summary
EPACRIDACEAE Conostephium halmaturinum, nov. sp. — Frutex erectus tenuis ramosus fere glaber; folia rigida, erecta, subimbricata, linear-lanceolata circa 5 mm. Longa supra concava, infra 3-nervia; flores parvi penduli axillares; sepala pallida, 3 mm. Longa 2 mm. Lata ciliolata; bracteolis dimidio brevioribus quam sepala; corolla conica sepala vix-superans intus villosa; antherae 1/2 mm. Longae cum filamentis prope basin corollae affixis; ovarium oblongum glabrum in disco annulari situm; fructus non visus.
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA No. 45
By J. M. Buiacr, A.L.S. [Read 14 April 1949]
TEPACRIDACEAE
Conostephium halmaturinum, nov. sp.—Frutex erectus tenuis ramosus fere glaber; folia rigida, erecta, subimbricata, linear-lanceolata circa 5 mm. longa supra concaya, infra 3-nervia; flores parvi penduli axillares; sepala pallida, 3 mm. longa 2 mm. lata ciliolata; bracteolis dimidio brevioribus quam sepala; corolla conica sepala vix-superans intus villosa; antherae 14 mm. longae cum filamentis prope basin corollae affixis; ovarium oblongum glabrum in disco annulari situm; fructus non visus.
Hundred of Heddon, Kangaroo Island—The only species hitherto found in South Australia. Appears nearest to the West Australian C. planifolinm, F. v. M., but has much smaller leaves and flowers, bracteoles scarcely half as long as the sepals, a glabrous ovary and a prominent annular disk (C. planifolinm has no
disk), Collector, J. B. Cleland.
LEGUMINOSAE
Acacia quornensis sp. nova—frutex gracilis circiter 2 m. altus; phyllodia plana, lanceolata, pallide viridula, 2-5 cm. longa, 4-5 mm. lata, uninervia, superne in mucronem inferne in petiolum brevem angustata; capitula numerosa, in racemis quam phyllodia brevioribus disposita; flores 8-15 in quoque capitulo; calyx cyathi- formis 4-5 lobis, petala 4-5, glabra; legumen planiusculum, super semina turgidum, 5-10 cm. longum, 8-10 mm, latun1; semina ovata, nigra, 6-7 unm. longa, funiculo duplicato cincta, in arillum parvulum desinentia,
Hills near Quorn (Flinders Range). Nearest to A. retinodes, but has smaller phyllodes, fewer flowers in head and glabrous calyx. Collector, M. E. Groves,
Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949
AUSTRALITES, PART V
TEKTITES IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM, WITH SOME NOTES ON THEORIES OF ORIGIN
BY CHARLES FENNER
Summary
Tektites are small glassy objects, averaging about 10 to 40 grams in weight, but ranging down to 0.15 grams and very rarely up to hundreds of grams, found widespread and in considerable numbers in nine known localities in the world. The group in which occurs the specimens of largest size is the Indochinite collection; one of these, in the Paris Museum of Natural History, is broken, but originally weighed four kilograms. Nothing comparable to this is known from any other group. The source and mode of origin of tektites has puzzled the minds of a multitude of workers. Australites have, for the past century, attracted particular attention, perhaps because they are so abundant and widespread and because they are able to be classified within a small number of regular forms. Moreover, as will be shown later, the australite forms show distinct evidence of two phases in their development, as was recognised by some of the earliest investigators (Walcott, ref 1, 1898).
7
AUSTRALITES, PART V
TEKTITES IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM, WITH SOME NOTES ON THEORIES OF ORIGIN
By Citaerns Fenner * [Read 14 April 1949]
PRELIMINARY NOTE
Tektites are small glassy objects, averaging about 10 to 40 grams in weight, but ranging down to 0-15 grams and very rarely up to hundreds of grams, found widespread and in considerable numbers in nine known localities in the world. The group in which occurs the specimens of largest size is the Indochinite collec- tion; one of these, in the Paris Museum of Natural History, is breken, hut originally weighed four kilograms. Nothing comparable te this is known from any other group, The source and mode of origin of tektites has ptizzled the minds of a imultitude of workers. Australites have, for the past century, attracted particular attention, perbaps because they are so abundant and widespread and hecatise they are able ta be dassified within a small ntumber of rerular forms. Moreover, zs will be shown tater, the australite forms show distinct evidence of two phases in their development, as was recognised by same of the earliest investigators (Walcott, ref 1, 1898),
Barnes (1940) records that the first printed word regarding tektites (Moldavites) was a note by Joseph Mayer, 1787, and in the subsequent 160 years over 250 scientific papers have been written on these objects. must of the papers being published in the past 40 or 50 years. Charles Darwin (1844) was the first scientist ta theorize on the origin of Atstraliles; his theory, like many athers, has long, been discarded,
The present writer was attracted by the australite problen about 40 years ago (1907), a time when research on these objects in Australia was very active and when the majority of Australian workers considered these glass blobs as heing originated by a vast shower of glass meteorites, Since then the study of auistralites has been linked up with analogous swarms of glassy blobs found else- where, and many fascinating facts have been collected and much interesting con- jecture put forward,
The “accepted” tektite groups or swarms teferred to in this paper arc, in the general order of their discovery: Moldavites (Moldavia), Bilivonites (Buti- ton, etc, Fast Indies), Australites (Southern Australia aud Tasmania), Inide- chinites (Indo-China), Rizalites (Philippine Islands), Javanites (Java), South American icktites (Colombia), Ivory Coast tektites (Africa), and Bediasites (Texas, U.S.A.). Thus each content has its share, and though there are distinct differences between each group, the possibility of some overlap in south- eastern Asia and the adjacent is!auds must not be overlooked. In the “Rocks and Minerals Magazine,” September-Octoher 1949, there is Teference to green and blue objects found in North Queensland hy H, HH. Batchelor, of Htghenden, Queensland, and referred to by him as “Australian Tektites’ Mr, Batchetor has kindly presented io me two of these so-called tektites. On examination I classify thim as jaspetoid fragments, such as are found in many places on the gibber plains of Australia, particularly on those formed om tlie Cretaceous rocks. They reveul no signs of their being meltec| glass, as true tektites are, and there is no indication whatever of the internal flow-line structure that is one of the most striking characteristics of tektites, ,
* South Australian Museum, Tras, Rov, Soc, S, Aust., 73, (1). 16 December 1949
&
Largely through the interest of Sir Douglas Mawson, a special etfort has been made by the Board of the South Australian Musetum to bitild up as com- prehensive a collection as possible of australites and other tektites in that institu- tion. The collection now ntimbers over 18,000 (March 1949), ineludimg 17,323 australites, 440 foreign tektites, and 364 other silica glass uobjecis, and it was considered worth while to describe the colection as a whole. One of the dangers that besets public and private eollections of these curious objects is that they tend to be dissipated by giits, loans and exchanges. For instance, the very fine Shaw collection, purchased by the South Australian Museum (Ferner, 1934), consisted originally af 3,920 pieces; it npw consists of only 3,370 pieces. The larger and more tecently piirchased Kennetr collection (Fenner, 1940) as originally deseribed contained 7,184 pieces, is now reduced to 7,155. It is probable that less than 10 per cent. of collected specimens are in registered collections, and maty of the latter are abraded, flaked or fragmentary.
The total number of australites that [ell on Southern Australia has been estimated ag at least one million, and at most ten millions, spread over 2,000,000 square miles (Fenner, 1935, pp. 128-129).
GENERAL DETAILS OF THE SPECIMENS DEALT WITH IN THLS PAPER
1, Australites, General Collection, 919 specimens.— This general collection includes smaller collections by Mrs. Leggitt, J. E. Johnson, J. 1. Johnston, A. Il. Warren, J. H. Nicholls, C. Fenner and other persons named in the register oi the tektite collections.
2. Australites, Florieton (Pent) Collection, 339 specimens. — These were collected in an atea north of Morgan, S. Aust., under the supervision of Sir Douglas Mawson,
3. Australites, Shaw Collection, 3,370 specimens, — These are from the Nullarbor Plains and southern Western Australia. They have been described in detail (Penner, 1934),
4, Atistralites, Kennett Culiection, 7,135 specimens —These are from a vast area of Central Australia, centred around Charlotte Waters. They have been described in detail (C. Penner, 1940).
5. Australites, Cook Collection, 5,186 specimens. — These ate from the Gold- fields atea of Western Australia, centred around Kalgoorlie, W. Aust.
6. Australites, Warren Collection, 368 specimens.— These are from the area surrounding Marree and Oodnadalia, South Australia.
Torat AustramtFs: 17,323 specimens.
7. Other tektites, Moldavite Collection, from Bohemia, etce., 89 specimens, mainly from Prof. Slavik, Prague.
§. Other tektites, Bilhtonite Collection, Billiton Island, 1 specimen from Dr. Shenton, F_.M,5,
9. Other tektites, Javan tektites, Java, 47 specimens, from Dr. G. yon Koenigs- wald, Java.
10. Other tektites, Indo-chinite collection, Indo-china, 42 specimens, from Prof, A. Lacroix, Paris,
11. Other tektites, Rizalites, etc., collection, Thilippine Islands, 212 specimens, mainly fram Prof. Otley Beyer, P.I.
12. Other tektites, Bediasite Collection, Texas, U.S.A., 39 specimens, from Proi- Virgil Barnes, Texas, and PW. W. Cassirer, Paris,
ToraL Oriner Textives: 430 specimens
9
13. Other natural silica glasses; Darwin Glass Collection, Tasmania, 29 speci- mens (from Launceston Museum).
14, Other natural silica glasses, Libyan Glass Collection, Libya, 2 pieces (from Dr, L, J. Spencer).
15. Other natural silica glasses, Impactite Collection, Arabia and Australia, 4 pices, Irom various sources.
Torat Orur:, Naruran Sittca GLasses: 35.
16. General related material, Straw Silica Glass, South Austraia, 11 pieces, collected hy the author, Trinityive (atom-bomb silica glass ).
17. General -elated material, Sand-tube fulgurites, 115 pieces, separately de- seribed (Fenner, 1949).
18. General elated material, Pseudo-tektites, smoke bombs from steam trains and steai-boats, etc, (ref. 8) (Fenner, 1938), 200 pieces.
19, General related material, plaster casts of ausiralites [rom the Walter Howchin collection, 103 pieces.
Tora Genesat Reatep Matertan: 429 pieces,
Granp Tota: op Preces Rerernen ro my rats Paver: 18,217.
PROPORTION OF VARIOUS AUSTRALITE SHAPES
Australis have been classified according to their various forms hy the writer (Feun:t, 1934 and 1940) (refs. 4 and 6), and this classification has been found to fit in with the various collections subsequently described. Nevertheless, it must he renientbered that only a small proportion of australites found are quite complete. ‘There are three outstanding reasons for this:
(a) All australites have passed through two phases; in the first phase the glass. apparently cooled siowly. and that part is stable; the anterior portion, which was melted a second time, appears to haye cooled rapidly and is very hable to break or crack; in all forms execpt the medium aud small lenses this portion flakes off (see Fenner, 1935, p. 131, and 1938. pp. 200-204). “This double melting does not apply to any other tektites, as far as is known.
(b) In the wetter areas of the strewn field, many specimens were swept by rain intu recent streams and have accordingly become somewhat waterworn ; many of these were recovered fram gold-bearing and lin-bearing gravels.
(c) Im the sand-dune areas af the strewn ficld sand-blasting has played a part in the abrasion. Insolation and consequent fracture and flaking must also be considered.
Round forms (flanged buttons and lenses) have been found ta be the most abundant in all collections hitherto described. Elongate forms are second in number, and there is a third group of unusual forms, mosily of small size.
Of 17,000 specimens taken at random in the South Australian Museum collection, the following gives an idea of the proportion of the various best known types; apart from a number of broken chips, anyone familiar with large numbers of australites can readily detect the group to which a flaked or abraded form belongs. Those called “indicators” were originally larger lenses or ovals, with rims, the equatorial and anterior parts of which have flaked away, leaving just enough of the original rim to “indicate” the shape of the form when it finally cooled (Fenner, 1935, vide ref, 5). In the South Australian Museum collection there are maty specimens in which this flaking has proceeded far but has nat been completed, one in particular is a fine large flanged dumbbell, No. T, 512.
An analysis of these 17,000 selected forms
Round forms -
Elongate forms
Teardrops -
Rare forms
Unclassified fragments
10
TABLE A Flanged buttons, whole = - - - , 108 Flanged buttons, chipped - - - - 968 Flanged button fragments - - - - 397 Lenses, complete - - - - - 1914 Lenses, slightly chipped or abraded - 744 Lens cores, front and margins flaked off - 4147 Other round forms, partly broken - - 1505 Total common round forms: 9783 Ovals, broad - - - - - - $73 Ovals, narrow - - - - - - 674 Ovals, general - - - - - - 339 Boats - - - - - - - 600 Canoes - - - = + te is 146 Elongates, general = - - - - - 1514 Dumbbells, complete - - - - - 264 Dumbbells, broken = - - - - ~ 499 Ladles, and other unusual elongate forms - 115 Total common elongate forms: 4724 Teardrops, typical = - - - - - 331 Teardrops, unusual - - - - - 5 336 Pitted discs - - - - - - 5 “Spheres”, probably deep lens cores - - 9 Crinkly tops - - - - - ” 23 Helmets, trays and other small forms - 50 Pear-shape, ati asymmetrical dumbbell - 1 Flat-tops (special type of lenses) - = - 53 “Indicators” as elsewhere described - 74 Air-bombs - - - - - - 19 234 Australite fragments + - - - 1923 Grand Total: 17000
is given in the following table:
Percent- Percent-
ageof ageof round total forms collection 1-1 0-64 9-9 57 4-1 2-34 19+5 11-2 7-6 4+38 42-4 24-4 15-4 8-9 100-0 57-56 12-2 3°38 14-3 3:97? 7:2 2-0 12:7 3°52 3-1 0-86 32-1) §°9 5-5 1-55 10-6 2-94 2e4 0-68 100-0 27°8 98-6 1-95 1-4 0-03 100-0 1-98 214 0-03 3°85 0-05 9-83 0-14 21-42 0-30) O-4 = 22:04 Qed 31°62 0-43 8-1 O-d1 100-0 1-37 11-3 100-0
il
An interesting comparison may be drawn from the three largest collections that have bven classified according to shape, namely, the Shaw Collection (Fenner 1934, ref. 4), the Kennett Collection (Menner 1940, ref. 6), and the South Australian Museum Collection, which includes the Shaw and Kennett Coltections, plus more than 7,000 additional specimens. The conclusion may be drawn that the various types shown in the following table occur throughout the strewn-field in about the same proportions. The absence of “tare and unusual forms” from the Shaw Collection may be due to the inexperience of the writer at that time, for many of the figured Shaw specimens (Tenner, 1934, ref. 4) would otherwise have been included in that group:
Tanie B Shaw Wennett 5.4, Museum 1, Round forms - - + 1369 3935 9783 2. Wlonpgute forms - - - 400) 1140 4724 3. “feardrops - - - - 134 62 336 4. Rare forms - - - not clagsificd 102 234 5, WJnelassified fragments - - 1927 1943 1923 Total forms cousidered - 3920 7182 17000
There is anotlicr group of collectors about which fittle has been written. These are the native birds that wander over the tektite-sprinkled area, particularly emus and “plain turkeys’. So niany aitstralites were fotund in the crops and gizzards of emus that in earlier years the popular name given to australites by the people of the Outback was “emu-stones’, a tame which still persists here and there. The Australian Bustard or Plain Turkey (Eupodolis australis) was also a collector. Somewhere about 1940 or earlier one of these birds was shot and dressed by Mr, M. Kirkham, as seen and attested ta hy Mr. H. McDonald, of Port Augusta, South Australia. There were 49 australites and two other black stumes in the crop of the bird. The author has one specinjen irom this collection and a photograph of 41 others. Seven were retained as souvenirs by members of the party. The total weight of the specimiens was 44 ounces. Of these 42, round forms were in the majority, as follows: 31 rounds, 6 elongates, 1 probable teardrop, 1 unusual form, and 3 iragments, This collection was, of coiirse, a specially Selected] one, but it indicates the abundance of australites among the rock fragments of the salt-bush and mulga plains, and the predominance of round forms.
The largest and least abundant of the round forms are those called “bungs”, 2-1 co 4:2 em. major diameter, 1°6 to 3°35 cm. minor diameter. Next in size and ahyiudance are the “small cores”, originally lenses as were the bungs, 1:6 ct, to 2.3 cm, major diameter, 1-1 cm. to 1°7 em. minor diameter, The beantitul and interesting group called “flanged buttons” cluster in the small range of 1-3 cm. to 1:9 cm. inajor diameter, ‘7 cm. to 1°1 em. minor diameter. The most alundant in numbers, and those which most comtnonly retain an unbroken shape, are the lenses, which are also the smallest of the round forms, -6 em. te 16 cm. major diameter, -3 cm. to 1:0 em. minor diameter, In weight, the smallest lenses arc less than -3 prams, and the Jargest bung is over 100 grams.
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‘The measurements and weighis shown in the foregoing paragraph and the graph (Fenner 1938, ref, 8, pp. 199-202) were dong in 1938 on a selected re- presentative series of VLU unbroken shapes, An application of these conclusions to the whole of the round specimens, over 9,000, in the South Anstrahan Museum Collection, confirms the sizes and relative abundance of these types in a large and comprehensive collection, +\ careful examination, without individual ieasurements, of the ovals, boats, lenses, fanged buttons, canocs, dumbbells and teardrops in the South Australian Museum collection also suggesis strongly that the variations in size and weight of the clongate types are in a practically similar proportion, There are very large, vety smal, and intermediate types of lenses. nvals, bouts, dumbbells, and teardrups, though there appear to he fewer very large canoes, end fewer very small teardrops,
Lt will be uferstood thit rhe observations ulade and thre colelisigns reached in this paper are specially based a the 18,217 specimens in the South Austrahan Museum, but sot without consideration of the collections in other Australian, Furopean, British and Americaty Maseuins,
OTHER NATURAL SILICA GLASSES
Passing reference should be maze to the other natural silica glasses in the South Australian Museum Collection.
Darwin Glass—This has commouly been accepted as a Lektite, but it presents peculiar differences of composition, form and distribution, Lt oceturs within the ‘Australite strewnfeld, but is limited to Mount Darwin, in North-west Tasmania. It consists of light-green, shapeless, small masses of flung glass. There is no evidence that itis an impactite and if oceurs much more abundantly than impac- tites do, and there is no sign of a crater, I has distinct differences [rom tektites (Fenner 1940, ref. 6), and though: it may he of cosmic ofigim it presents mary difficulties of inclusion among’ the tektites so far as our present knowledge goes.
Libyan Glass—This has been fully described by Dr. L. J. Spencer, who visited the area and collected much material. Dr. Spencer docs not consider it a tektitt. It appears iudeed to present a more puzzling problem tham the accepred tektites. Its coriposition is much more siliceous and its shapes quite ditferent from those of tektites. Its distribution suggests a cosmic origin, but there appears tu be oo other fellowship with the tektites.
Tmpactites—These are usually Fused country rock found in or m= close association with meteorite craters. Some microscopic forms figured by Spencer have the shapes of some tektites. There is no doubt of their origin either al Wabar, Henbury, or elsewhere. But their numbers and distribution show them to have uo bearing on the origin of the vast tektite swarms found in olher parts of the world.
Straw Silica Glass—This is fund where haystacks or strawstacks have been burnt. ‘The silica of the straw accumulates in shapeless masses. Analyses sliows a high goda-potash eontent, ‘There is uo doubt of their origin (Fenner 1940, ref. 6), and they are mentioned only because they are included in the collection.
Sandtube Fulgurites—Associated with these are rock-face fiilgurites, They are due to lightning and occur where sands or rocks are struck by lightning. Their forms are interesting, and their compositions ate those of the rocks or sands affected. There is no evidetice of their relation to tektites (Penner 1949),
Smuke Botnbs—These are small siliccous. forms, mostly spherical, but also with many dumbbell and teardrop forms, They ure “coughed” up irom the farinels of steamtrains or steamships and may be found by careful looking oi railway tarpaulins and along beaches wherever steamships oy steattrains ply-
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They are the product of the silica content of steam coal and are uf microscopic size. There is no doubt of their origin, and they have becn adequately described and figured (lenner 1938, ref 8).
Pseudo-T'ektites—In evety collection examined by the author there has been a number of specimens which Took like tektites but which are waterworn pieces of lydianite or iroustone, or other curiously shaped gevlogical ar niitieralogical specimens, Their origin is undoubted, and they are of no apecral interest except that they persistently occur, even when the colfectors have been as keetr anc observant as awe the aboriginal folk of Australia.
‘Trinityite--This is the name given to the silica plass forimed on the desert sorface from the melt produced by the firing of the first test atom bomb near Alamogordo, New Mexico. Several small specimens were presented by Lincoln La Paz, Direvtor of the Institute of Meteorites, Albuquerque, New Mexico, To bring the col ection up to date, the Director nf the South Australian Museum, Mr. H. M, Hale, has. receives! from the Officer Commanding the british Com- monwealth Occupational Forces in Japan samples of Silica glass that resulted from the fusion of tiles and building stones by the atom-bomtb at Hiroshima,
Taster wasts—The casts of the Mowehin collection prove ta be qunte typical, excep: that ane specimen has a very large central burst gas bubkic. The original How:hin collection, with a large number of other fine specinens, ts in the Tate Museum of the University of Adelaide,
DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALLTES
E J. Duan published a map in 1912, showing 70 spots where one or mahy australites had been found. Dr, Thorp, in 1914, showed 85 locality spots,
Using these two maps and nmch subsequent information (Henner 1935, ref. 5, pp. 134, ete.) the writer published a map showing about 300 spots or lucalities, but with many spaces where it would appear that none had heen found. Since then, from an exanunation of thousands more specimens, and frome informa- tion received, it would appear that there are few, if any, spaces south of the line drawn on the 1935 map where no australites have been found. ‘This limitation is of special interest.
With some hesitation the idea is put forward that there are many areas where australites are more abundant. such as Walgoorlie; Charlotte Waters, Nullarbor Pliins, Lake Eyre and district, Yorke Peninsula, Floricion, South Australia; Western Vietoria y Northern Tasmania; Port Campbell ( Victoria); and the goldfields of eastern New South Wales. On the other hand, collecting may have been easier or more carefully carricd out in these areas. y
Tt is ctirious that the large collection made by Sergeant Nennett should consist of specimens so much larger than the average (x7 in some groups) of those collected by W. H. C. Cook mostly on the southern Nullarbor Plains: Yet large specimens, as well as very small, are found everywhere within the strewnlield. From the South Australian Museum collection one geis the idea that the very largest are found in the north and north-west areas, bnt this cannot be proven, for the very large ones of other more populated localities may have been retained as souvenirs or curiosities by the finders,
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TEKTITES
A large aumber of chemical compositions is available, as set out in Sum mers (Summers 1908; Barnes 1940) and several others, such as Suess, Lacroix and Michel. Summers, earlier, and Barnes, later, haye graphed these various analyses jn a number of informative ways. The definite facts that emerge [ram
14
these analyses is that the recognised ltektite swarms are very similar 10 each other within that swattn, and that differences oceur between the characters of one swarin and those of another, There may be discerned considerable differences between the accepted tektites and such glasses as Libyan Glass and Darwin Glass. Also there may be some overlap within the four groups that occur m South-east Asia, the Biililonites, Indo-chinites, Philippine Island tektites, and the Java tek- tites; this has never been suggested or proved, Specific gravity and refractive index comparisons do not contradict these findings. Summers held a belief, founded on a small number of analyses, that australites increased in density towards the west, and Baker and Forster suggested (1943) “that the extra- terrestrial body from which the australites were shed travelled from north of west to the south of east across the Australian continent, since the specific gravity values of atistralites decrease from north of west to south of east.’" That means, and it is a point of importance, the australite swarm travelled with the rotation af the earth. The writer has nothing to add to the excellent and comprehensive work done by Barnes (1940) and others concerning the chemical composition of tektites and related bodies,
RADIOACTIVITY OF TERTITES In 1933, V. S. Dubey (Nature, 28 October 1933, p. 678) determined the radioactivity of several silica glasses, mostly tektites, He concluded that, apart from Darwin Glass, there was a significant correspondence in radioactivity, measured in radium and thorium per gram. His results were:
Ra x i9-¢ Th «i0-*
per grain per gram 1. Moldavite - - - - - 1-07 1-08 2. Moldavite (Habri) - - - 1-02 1:60 3. Moldavite (Probsch) - - - 0-78 1°40 4. Maldavite (Radomolice) - - 0-99 1:86 5. Billitonite - - - - - 0-96 0-96 6. Anstralite (Lake Fyre) - - 0-96 0-50 7. Australite (Victoria) - - - 0-85 1-84 8. Darwin Glass (Tastnania) = - - G50 1-13 9 Glass (old beads) - - - - 0-48 —
Facilities were not available to carry out a radioactive comparison tn the terms of this iable, but excellent instruments were at hand to make a comparison in terms of beta particles, using whole specimens, and the restilt is set oul in the following report. The results cover a wider range than those af Dubey, and are somewhat similar except so far as Darwin Glass is concerned. Though the radioactivity in terms of beta particles is m general low, Libyan Glass is practically non-radioactive, The report by W. G. Fen- ner is as follows:
“The examinations were carried out using a beta-particle counting tuhe, totally enclosed, plus specimen, in a lead-chamber. The background count was obtained in three separate runs of ten minutes each, distributed through- out the examinations, and was consistently within the expected random distribttion.
“Because of limited time, and as it was not permissible to break or crush the specimens, several major causes exist for discrepancies and for some lack of consistency, and make it impossible ta take the figures at their face value. These causes are:
"(i) Differences in geometry of the various tektites with rospect to the Geiger-Muller tubu
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“(i) Possible variation in distribution of the radio-active material through the different specimens, “(iii) Varying densities between specimens and within cach specimen. No allowance hag been made for absorption.
“The different weights of the specimens used is of little importance compared with the above irregularities.
“Despite these drawbacks, however, it secms reasonable, on the actual results, to assign a general order of degree of radioactivity. More specimens, and proper control, are required to confirm this.
TABLe C
“Column 1 gives the weight in grams; column 2 gives the count per mimite; column 3 gives the duration of the test in minutes; column 4 gives the excess coint per minute for each specimen or group of specimens.
1 Z 3 4 Reg. No, Locality Background a 79 30 0-0 T. 806 Libya, Africa One picce of sand-polished 15°0 92 10 1-3 Libyan Glass T,899 Vexas, U,S.A. Two Bediasites 418-6 10-0 10 2-1 T, 424 N.W. Tasmania [our pieces of Darwin Glass 10-7 11-0 10 3] T. 264 Cential Australia Two medium lens core Atis- 62:5 10:7 10 2-3 T. 266 tralites T. 283 Cental Australia Two large narrow oval Aus- 73-5 12-3 10 4-4 tralites T. 692 Indo-China Large fragment of Indechinite 72-2 10 10 2:9 T. 685 Indo-China Large fragment of Indocliinite 30-4 12:3 10 4-4 T. 708 Philippine Three meditim Rizalites 21-2 10 36 Islands T. 857 Philippine Two large regular Rizalites 78:5 12-0 10 4-1 T. 860 Tslands T. 885 Lhatiice "Three Moldavites 172 13-2 20 5-3 Bohemia T. 821 Te Wairoa, Large piece of volcanic obsidian 56-4 15°7 30 7°38
New Zealand
Taste D
“Extracting certain of the above and combining them we get the follaw- ing results: the numbers at the heads of the columns have the same signifi- cance as in the preceding table.
2 3 4 T. 424 } Nth.-West Darwin Glass 11:0 10 3-1 Darwin Glass count Tasmania T. 264 Central Australites 1-5 200 36 Australite mean count T. 266 Australia T. 283 1.685 |) Indo-China Indochinites 11-6 20 3-7 Indochinite mean count T. 692 I T. 708 Rizalites. 11-8 20 3-9 Rizalite mean count
T. 857 T, 860
Pailippine Islands
“Conclusions— From these results there would appear to be a radio-
active similarity between Darwin Glass, Australites, Indochinites, and Riza- lites. It would he of interest to compare their overall chemical compositions, particularly the rarer elements.
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Libyan Glass is lacking in any positive radioactivity while the volewnis obsidian is positively radioactive ta the greatest degree of the specimens tested: all others lic between these extremes, It must be remembered huow- eyer that even the volcanic obsidian hay but a minnte trace wi radioactive material present; it must also be rermembered that in each cause the material iu a portion of the surface layer of about 1 mm, thick only has been Sulyeet to examination, due to the softness of the beta particles. Assuming it to be aranium in equilibrium, that present in the obsidian is certainly Jess than D039 U,O,. Many igneous rocks of the earth's surfice haye the sine and greater orders of radioactivity.”
No spectroscopical analyses were available for inclusion. bul my atrenlion has been drawn to a separately published paper hy Ekkehard Preuss, ot Jena. Although not mentioned in the bibliographies quoted, this is a thorough and yalnable contribution to the tcktite problem. Incidentally, Preuss mentions Borneo tektites, which were to be expected but had not previously been reported.
SHAPES AND STRUCTURES OF AUSTRALITES
Australites have the most tegular shapes of all the tektites, and a= most af these shapes have been dealt with and figured fairly abundantly uy vurivus authors, little comment is necessary except to say that the greater the uum ber af specimens examined, the more remarkable appears the vegularity of the forms. Professor Skeats wrote about two unusual types, the ‘ise and the “pineseed” and Gearge Baker (ref. 1946) figured several special forms. Two of these (13 and 14) are abraded elongate indicators, and several of the others are variants of the teardrop form: there is always wt good deal of variety in thix group. The most interesting are Agures 3A and 3B. In the larger S.A. Museum collection there are about 50 such forms. They are all very small and very complete. The writer has called them helmets, tritys, scoops, ete. Mr. Baker calls the ones he figures “howls,” which tsa yery ap- propriate name for what have elsewhere been called “helmets”’ (n Fenster 1940, plate XIX, several of these small forms are figured,
Before passing on to a brief comment concerning the shapes und struc tures of other tektites, mention should be made of a very Ineniitiftal tuned an formative series of photographs of sections, especially of Manged buttuns. published by George Baker (Baker 1944, plates I, U1, I11). Ina plonge inte the theary of the evolution of round forms (ref. 8) the author drew a dia- grain (fig. 2) and graphs (figs. 1 and 3), to illustrate his ideas, IL ts of much interest ta find the very definite (Beeke linc effect) internal How structure just as wauld have heen expected on the basis of the two phase (twire- melted) theory of origin, Other tektite forms show equally definite internal flaw lines, but no signs of two meltings,
Apart from flanges; which mostly occur on buttons of the sizes already ctated. bul whieh also oceasionally but rarely eccur on ovals, dumbbells, ladles, and So on, there is little notable or characteristic external markings, ‘Abrasion is common, but erosion grooves are rare; the most notable of these erosion grooves which resemble arabic writing, and im some cases ennelfunn markings, which are generally considered ty be evidence of lomg berial in moist earth, are seen on those from the moister parts of the strewnheld. The curious and obviously incorrect belief that australites are still falling ig held hy a few people, who are unfamiliar with wall-known facts about tek- lite strewnfields (Fenner 1935, pp. 148-139).
Other interesting exterior features ure the flow lines visilile an the un- rerior surfaces of many farms, Ue pitting of the posterior surfaces mainly
Wv
due to small barst gas bubbles, and the spiral or cincentrie flow-ridges that occur on the anterior surfaces of flanges, Jenses, ovals, ete Such markings are ubsent from flaked lenses or oval cores,
Baker infers that australites with anterior concentric. Ayw ridges did not rotate in dlight; if this is true, the whole qtestion of fornr as evidence of ori- ain must be reconsidered. Practically every australilte, except very smalt forms has, or had, anterior ow ridges, here is a remarkabie and conyincing example of a fairly large flanged dumbbell indicator (No. T.512) im the South Australian Museum collection, as already mentioned.
SHAPES AND EXTERIOR SURTACES OF OTUER TEKTITES
Moldaviles have structures and heatty of colour found im no other tek- tites. A striking shape ig a flattish, dise-like, radially ridged rosette, Many are vesicular, som¢ appear to be considerably corroded, the greater number are practically shapeless, many are sharply broken across at right angles to the axis, sonie are tear-drops of a Jong and special type. The genera] charac- ier of the surfaces, with their wrinkles, grooves, and pits, is very charac- teristic. Im a large collection, as in that at Prague, one may detect groups or types, bur not in any way comparable with the regularity and symmetry uf ausiralites. Moldavites are possibly the oldest, as well as the first known of the tektites,
Indo-chinites are extremely abundant, and in Professor Vacroix’ museum in Paris there may be scen the greatest part of the largest known tektite, as well as a remarkably fine collection of indochinites generally. The suriace is usually rough and vesicular. Beautifully round flat ovals oceur, alsu large teardrop forms. The surface structure is of great variety, as figured by Lar- roix (1935), Surface corrosion is ef much importance on the Inde-chinices, ag it is on the Moldayites, but it is not nearly so general nor so important on the Anstrilites and the other tektite groups.
The Billitonites, of which the writer has examined only the British Museum collection and one ‘specimen in Adelaide, do mot reveal so much character as other groups. The Adelaide specimen is a flat oval, with bubble qats and possible corrosian marks, Although there may be some oyerlap between the Billitonites, Javan tektites, Indochinites, and Rizalites (PI.), yet in the well formed specimens they can be detected one from the other. All are shiay and pitchblack, with many forms approximating to spheres, orals, lenses and an secusional dumbbell. But the surface markings described and figured by Lacroix, Barnes, Beyer, Flodge-Smith, and von Koenigswald and those in the SA. Museum collection show distinct differences.
The writer has handled specimens from the Ivory Coast and from Colombia, but has not considered them closely enough to justify comment. They are black, glassy blobs, quite foreign to the places where they were found. On chemical and physical tharacters they have been accepted by several leading European authnrities. On this evidence we also may Certa- tively accept them as tektites until such time as material is available for com- parison and enquiry.
The latest group of tektites, the Bediasites, has been well described and figured by Virgil Barnes (1940). They are black, like all other tektiles except Moaldavives, and while many of the shapes approximate to flat rounds, ovals, rounded cylinders, and teardrops, many are shapeless and fragmentary... Many also have very deep U-shaped and V-shaped grooves. Though black. they have a light purple tinge, but are green jn transmitted licht, Both externally B
18
and in section, as well as in chemical composition and in distribution, they may well be accepted as ltrue tektites. Barnes did not regard them as costnic objects, but suggested a possible lightning origin. This, wrote Barnes, was an effort “to create enough interest to catise the investigation of all the ter- restrial possibilities before accepting the metearitie arigm with all its un- proven aud unprovable postulates.’’ In response to this the writer has pub- lished a paper (Fenner (949) on lightning-formed silica glass tuhes. The anpreven and unprovable postulates to a terrestrial origin for tektites have Leen closely considered and rejected by many high and competent au- thorities.
Two groups, Libyan Glass and Darwin Glass, are so different in many ways fram accepted icktites that they are not considered in this paper. If the origin of tektites constitutes an cnigma, as has 50 often been stated, there are faets associated with Darwin Glass and Libyan Glass that are even more puzzling. Tinpactites are not considered, also, but for the very definite rea- sous that their origins and ilixtribution are su clear and indisputable; they are not Lektites,
Yhe first people to collect and name australites were the Ausivalian aharigines. Ly these folk they were carried as curiosities, and also as objects of mystery and magic, as shown by the collection that had been thus tised, now displayed in the British Musenm at Bloomsbury. The aborigines called them ly various names meaning “staring eyes” or “emu eyes."
N. BG. Tindale, ethnologist of the South Australian Museum, has poinled out (hatin some cases aborigines made small implements from this obsidian materitl, but so far as is known none was made from the larger specimens.
It js significant that all such implements as are known, from the Broken Hill and Yorke Peninsula aveas, first appear in the Mudukian culture, This is the latest but one of the aboriginal ctillure sequences and lends support to the fact, indicated by all other available evidence, that the fall of the aus- tralite swarm was a comparatively recent occurrence.
Different tektite swarms are of different ages, but the australites appear to have been one of the last to occur.
Concerning the age of the australite fall, all the evidence is that this was a quite recent occurrence, though before the coming of the white men and probably alsa belore the coming of the aborigines. Practically all forms are lying on the surface of the rocks, or if buried they are under blown sand or shaliow recent alluvilinn, Early in 1949, Motinted-constabic Homes, then slationed at Marree, qiekecd up a “pickle-bottle full’ of typical australites on the dry flat surface of vasieru lake Myre. This area is a salt-pati ar playa, covered by shallow water only dt times of exceptional fladds, Constable Homes’s find thts provides additional eviderice of the recent origin of the australite swarm.
In “Nature,” 50, 1894, pp. 184 and 206, Dr, Cater Sir) Edward Sticling described in detail the finding of skeletons of the giant extinct bird Genyornis newlant, at Lake Callabonna, South Australia, Associated with the skeletons, whieh were practically on the surface of the “lake.* were numerous “gizzard stones," totalling in weight 14 ounces. All these stones were of materials com- mon to the desert plains of the interior; but, thotigh carefully examined and recoride:|, include nothing resembling obsidian or australite tnaterial,
The area where Genyornis lived was well within the australite strewn-field, and living birds (emus, plain turkeys, etc.) are well known, for their selection of ausiralives as gizzard stones. frewyornis was of yery late Meistocene to Recent
io
age, 50 that we have here another tem of evidetice stigeesting that the fall of the
australites was post-Genyornis; that ia, ta Has been concluded from other avail- able evidence, “geologically recent but historically remote,”
TINAT. CONSIDERATIONS
There ig no need to include a bibliography, except where spect! re- ference has been made in this paper, as excellent lists haye been included in the publications referred to, the best and latest being that of Virgil Barnes (1940) where he lists about 250 references. Through all this hterature the “problem” remains, as it does in subsequent publications. The theories put forward muy be classified as terrestrial voleanic, meteorite impaci, lunar yoleanic, eluctrical, and tneteoritic,
The exponents of terrestrial origin have shown mastetly ingenuity in their theories: Every conceivable possibility has been explored in the effort to avoid acceptance uf a cosmic theory, But three facts might be noted in this matter:
(1) Robert Hooke (1665) quoted by Spencer (1937) discredited the fall of iron meteorites from the sky. Fourcrey (and Biot?) in 1803, quoted by Paneth (1940), found difficilty in persuading their French colleagues of the authen- ticity of slune tneteorites.
(2) Most modern authorities who are familiar with the numbers and conditions of distribution of tektites (such as Lacroix, Suess, Michel, Paneth, Beyer, von Konigswald, as well as #l) Australian workers for the past 30 years) have accepted tektites as “ylass meteorites.” Virgil Barnes ix ap- parently an exception.
(3) Lightning, meteoritie impact, and lunar theories (except thal of H, H. Nininger) would not account for distribution. Lightning and dust storms oucur all over the world, but tektites occur only in special areas and with definitely distinct form and distribution. Meteoritic impact is too weak ah agent to have done the work, except for the few small impactites re corded from Wabar and Henbury.
Tektites, like meteorites, haye not been found in ancient geoluginal sys- tems, Doubtless they fell, and possibly they have devitrified, just as the ancient iran-nickel and stony meteorites have less slowly rusted away.
The bibliography of tektites shows several interesting variations (f the cosmic theory, A most interesting paper by Hardcastle (1926) should not be overlooked; his paper embodies his theory in its sub-title: “Plastic sweep- ings of a meteorite.” Forty years or so ago most Australian workers thought of tektites as a swarm of glass blobs, part of the solar system, arriving upon the earth, Michel, Suess, Lacroix, and others brought in the idea of a hight- metal meteorite, shedding its silica content as it blazed across the skys this is a modification of Hardeastle’s theory, who thought oniy of stany meteca- rites, all of which have siliceous “skins,” and some of which may haye shed siliceaus blohs,
Now, Fl, AH. Nininger, in a booklet entitled “Chips from the Maori,” (1940) puts forward the idea that the tektite swarms were formed by the impact of huge meteorites on the loose “hanite’’ chips of the moon, sending off showers, some of which reached the earth. Dr. Nininger does the writer the honour of saying that the cosmic theary advocated by this authar wauld, if true. explain the presence of the australites, with similar occurrences @x- plaining the presence of tektites in other parts of the world. The writer can doa no less than admic that Dr Niniger’s complicated and ingenious theory would, if teue, also explain the same puzzling facts.
20
But Lincoln La Daz writes of the “Chips from the Moon” theory (Popu lar Astronomy, No, 5, May, 141, p. 267), as follows: “Jf the lunar craters were known to be due to the impact of meteorites, and if such impacts on the surface of our satellite were known to produce molten misses, from which bodies with the chemical composition of the tektites could be derived, and to impart to these masses velocities sufficient to enable them to escape from the attraction of the Moon, and if certain other essential conditions were known to be fulfilled, then Nininger’s conjecture, ot his own words, “might indeed afford a very handy salution to many battling problems.”
On the other hand, Lia Paz himself (Abstracts Geological Society of America, 1940, p. 1919) leans definitely ta the lightning hypothesis. To the writer, who bas written on lightning-aused racks and sands as well as oti tektites, this appears as a theery whieh is not only unsupported by evidence, but is quite beyond belief, Consider the australites alone, which occur almost everywhere over 2,000,000 square miles of southern Australia, south of a line going from 5.1L. to N.W., in a land where heavy duststorms and electri- cal sterms occur with at least equal frequency over the northern areas. Why should such storms always form one kind of object, in form and composition in the south, and never produce any such forms in the north?
The writer falls back on Pateth’s comprehensive paper on “The Origin of Meteorites” and retains the theory of the Cosmic Origin af Tektites, re- calling the sapient words of de Fourcroy (1940, p. 6): “By climinating the absurd or impossible, one finds oneself compelled ta adopt what would pre- viously have appeared to be almast incredible.” Paneth’s authoritative paper is especially recommended to sceptics of the casmic theory.
One may be pardoned, perhaps, for quoting oneself (C.F. 1940, p, 324): "The present job before students (of tektites), it seems to me, is tentatively to accept tektites on the (well-enown and accepted) evidetice of distribution, form, composition, ete., us being wlass meteorites, and to «devote atiention to a study of the details of their possible derivation (within the solur system), so far as this may be revealed by physical examination and facts of dlistri- bution,” In this way may be added something to “the camplete story of the origin of meteorites,” and to a wider knowledge of the solar system itself.
Tlarrison Brown (1948) suggests that “in meteorites scientists possess a Rosetta stone that may well prove to be a major key in answering’ some of the problems of the solar system. and perhaps of the Universe itself. Brown makes no mention of tektites, but indicates that the earth’s compo- sition 15 probably equivalent to the mean composition of meteoritic or plane- tary matter. In this, the highly siliceous tektite swarms may well find their place,
Careful consideration of the South Ausiralian Museum collection of tektites has strengthened the cosmic theory of the crigin of tektites. All the available evidence tetids to confirm the opinion that tektites are of extra-terrestrial origin,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks are due for assistance given by the South Australian Museum Board, W. R. Riedel, W, G, Fenner, and Miss Helen Moody.
1 Watcorr, R. H. 1898 “The occurrence of so-called Obsidian Bombs in Australia,” Proc, Roy. Soe. Vict, 11 (ns), {1}, 25-53, with plates and analyses.
2 Basnes, Vircww E. 1940 “North American Tektites." Univ, of Texas Publication 3945, 477-583, with plates and analyses,
21
Darwin, CHartes 1844 “Geological Observation on Volcanic Islands.” London, 44, (p. 38, 2nd ed., 1876), with figure,
Fenner, C. 1934 “Australites, Part I. Classification of the W. H. C. Shaw Collection.” Trans, Roy. Soc, S. Aust. 52, 62-79, with plates and figs.
Fenner, C. 1935 “Australites, Part Il, Numbers, fornis, disiribution anil origin.” Trans, Roy. Soc. 5, Aust., 59, 125-140, with maps and figs.
Fenxex, C. 1940 “Australites, Part IV. The John Wennett Collection, wich notes on Darwin Glass, Bediasites, etc.” Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 64, (2), 305-324, with plate and figure.
Fensus, C, 1949 “Sandtube Fulgurites, and their bearing on the Tektite problem.” Reeords Sth. Aust. Mus., with plates and figure, 9, No. 2.
Fenner, C. 1938 “Australites, Part 1. A contribution to the problem of the origin of Tektites.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 62, (2), 192-216, with plates and figures.
Summers, H. S. 1908. “‘Obsidianites, their origin from the Chemical Standpoint.” Proc. Roy. Soc. Viet. 21 (ms.), (11), 423-443, with analyses.
Baxre Geonce, 1946 “Some utvisizal shapes and features of Australites (Tektites)”, Mem. Nat. Mus., Mclb., 14, (2), with plates.
Baker, Grorck 1944 “Flanges of Australites.” Mem, Nat. Mus,, Melb, 14, (1), with plates and figures.
Lacro.x, Arperr 1933 “Les Tektites de 1’ Indo-chine et de ses abords et celles de la Cote d'Ivoire.” Archives du museum d’histoire naturelle, Puris, vol, du Tricenteniare, Tom XII, 151-170, with plates.
Spencer, L. J. 1937 “Meteorites and the Craters on the Moon.” Nature, 139, 655, 17 April 1937.
Paneru, KF. A, 1940 “The Origin of Meteorites.” Halley Lecture, 16 May 1940, Clarendon Press, Oxford, with plate.
Harncastur, H. 1926 “The Origin of Australites: Plastic Sweepings of a Meteorite.” N.Z. Journ, of Sci, and Tech., 8, No. 2, 62-75,
Nisixcer, H. H, 1940 “Moon as a Source of Tektites.” Geol. Soc. of Am. Bull., 51, Abstracts, p. 1936; also booklet, “Chips from the Moon,”
Surss, Franz Ep, 1932 “Zur Beleuchtung des Meteoritenproblems.” Mit- teil. der Geol. Gesellsch, in Wien,” Band XXV, 115-143, with figure and analyses.
Brown, Harrison 1948 “Meteorites, relative Abundances, and Planet Structures.” Scientific Monthly, U.S.A., 67, No, 6, Dec, 1948,
Preuss, EKKEHARD 1935 “Spektralanalylische Untersuchung der Tektite.” Published at Jena, Mineralogical Institute, with Plates.
LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS PART III
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND L. MADELINE ANGEL
Summary
Cercaria beckwithae n. sp. On 27 October 1948, 6 of 49 Planorbis isingis collected from a small artificial rock pool in the garden of Mr. G. Jaensch, Tailem Bend, were found to be giving off stylet cercariae of a type of not previously encountered by us. This pool is fed with water pumped from the neighbouring swamps, being filled up approximately once per fortnight during the summer months. It is several years since snails were introduced into the pool by Mr. Jaensch, and as the life span of Panorbis isingi appears to be under two years, it follows that infection of the snails must have occurred in the pond itself.
22
LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS PART XIII
By T. Harvey Jounsron and L. Mave.mve Anoun* [Read 12 May 194]
Cercaria beckwithae n. sp.
On 27 October 1948, G of 49 Plahorbis tsingi coliected [rom a small artificial rock pool in the garden of Mr. G, Jaensch, Tailem tend, were found to be giving off stylet cercariae of a type not previously encountered by us. This pool is fed with water pumped from the neighbouring swamps, being filled up approximately once per fortnight during the summer months. Tt is several years since snails were introduced into the pool by Mr. Jaensch, and as the life span of Penorbis ising? appears ta be under two years, it follows that infection of the snails must have occurred in the pond itself.
Vrom 27 October 1948 to 24 January 1949 C. beckwithae has been identified from 16 of 403 snails—approximately a 490 infection. It was not present in any of 431 Planorbis cotlected from the same pond at the end of February 1949, Ht ts of interest that the only other kind of gastropod present in the pond, imerianni sp., is evidently not a snitable hust for this cerearia since none of these snails was tound infected with it. This cercaria has not been found in Planorbis collected from the swamps along the lower River Murray. As will be discussed later, we expect to find that the adult is a frog lung fluke and experituents ta ascertain the life history will be continued. That the infection was not an isolated case is indicated by the following facts:—(1) that of 69 Planorbis col- lected on 30 November 1948 and apparently negative when tested then, and agaitl a week later, one was found to he giving C. beckwithae when next tested on 23 December; (2) that the one Plusiorbis which was positive from among 180 collected ot: 24 January 1949, wag not quite half-grown, ‘his iatler must cer tainly haye been extremely siiall when the original infection Cound hy us hail taken place, and would have been unlikely to survive at infection at that stage.
Tue Crrcaria
The cerearia is small, an average of 20 specimens fixed iu boiling 106 farma- lin in the standard manner being 1652 by 100 wide. The range (105p by 105). to 240» by 862) is considerable, because some cercariae are fixed in ereathy extended positian, while others are completely contracted, The tail averaged 162m by 324; range 1126 by 30% to 202” by 37%. The oral sucker averazed 47p long by 4 wine, while the aceialmlum was 296 hy 32,, giving an approximate sucker ratio of 5:3. The acetabulum les in the posterior half uf the body, The stylet is rather delicate in appearances length 322; width at base 5*3n; width at tim, formed approxinmtely at (he end pf tie anterior third, AD. The tail is inserted on the ventral surface of the body and is provided with a tramsparent fn- fold dorso-ventrally placed and extending a very little distance around the tip on the dorsal side, but for about a third of the length of the tai! on the ventral
* University of Adelaide,
In this regard we nuay state that observations on xiphidiacercariue examined il this department corroborate the observation of Brooks (1943) that he bas bean “impressed with the uniformity of the dimensiuns of the stylets of various species" aud believes that “greater use can be made both of the shane at Jength of the stylet in describing anil identifying cercarjac of this groupe’ Further, the size of the stylet in pot altered hy prolonged jiimuersion in Vormaliy, aa we have yerifed with at least {wo kinds of stihitlorercarlie, Veons, Roy. SanS. Auer, 71), 6 December 1949
23
(fig. 5). When the tail is at rest, the flange is fluted, Under coverslip pressure, the tail tends ta keel over to give the appearance of a laterally placed flange. The tail stains blue with nile bluc sulphate but is uncoloured with neutral red,
The body is fairly clear; there are no coloured refractile granules as are scen in many xiphidiocercariae. ‘The surface is beset with mintte spines, though these are so small as to be indicated only under oil immersion magnification and under favourable conditions of imira-vitam staining. Ordinary methods recommended to show spincs, e.g., the use of picric acid and menthol, were ineffective. There was no indication of the fie protoplasmic hairs described by some writers tor related cercariae, Caudal pockets are not present,
Fir, 1; body of cercatia, outlines from camera fucida Grawing—letals of excretory system trom living: specimens. Vig. 2; sporocrst. ifig. 3: cercaria, gland cells and alimentary system. Figs, 4, 5, 6: sketches. 4, stylct. §, tail in dorso-ventral view. 6, excretory cornua in mure extended position.
Reference ta lettering’ ep = excretory pare.
On either side of the body there is a group of glanil cells extending from the bifurcation of the oesophagus almost to the level of the posterior horder of the acetabulum. It is impossthic to determine the number accurately, but there are from 3 to 5 (perhaps more) pairs. Specimens stained with nile blue sulphate following neutral red show two pairs anteriorly and medially which are finely granular btit tincoloured, while the remaining gland cells take on a dirty purple
24
colour; these and their ducts, however, tend to contract inte an indeterminate mass. In unstained specimens the nuclei of the glands appear clear and are slightly tinged with pink. Throughout the body there are a number of other cells, which are presumably cystagenons, and wnder extreme coverslip pressure when the nucier become evident it is not possible to distinguish such nuclei [rom those of the gland cells in the same region.
There is a short pre-pharynx, a quite circular pharynx and a very narrow oesophagus which biturcate: some distance anteriorly to the acetabulum. The angle of bifureation is characteristically acute (figs. 1, 3); the crura are very narrow, and in living specimens are not seen beyond the level of the posterior border or the acetahwlum, and rarely as far as its anterior border, Staining rendered them slightly more obvious, and in a few of the best preparations they could Le secu to extend almast to the end of the borly, ending level with the inser- tion of the tail Krull (1935) when deseribing the cerearia of Heematoloechus conplecus, indicated very narrow intestinal erura and noted that they were very diffiewll to see, even in the most lavourable specimens.
The excretory bladder is Y-shaped; the arms of the Y ienminating normally below the level of the anterior border of the acetabulum, but in sone specimens (notably in those which had been swimming in a solution of basic fuchsin in normal saline) the arms were well above this region. There is, of course, a con- silerable margin of difference between the levels reached in the expauded and contracted positions of the bladder, he maitr excretory tubes are attached at the anterior fips af the arms, ‘The flame cell formula is apparently 2[(343+43)+4+ ($+44-}-3) |. This is extremely difficult to determine, and for a long time we thought that there were only two groups eath of three flame cells, attached to the anterior collecting tubule, When the third group [rom the anterior cnil was seen its pomt of origin from the collecting tubyies could not be determined, and we are assuming that it is attached to the anterior tubule, as seems Imost likely, Aguin, the point of bifurcation of the anterior and posterior collecting julnies has not been seen definitely, though we [eel satisfied that it is on a level jnst behind the anterior border of the acetabulum in a position where the conyolutions Of the main exeretory tubule rendered any closer elucidation impossible, In the postetiar groups not all the flame cells have been seen; the last two groups however ‘re clearly indicated by the capillaries, In the first of the posterior groups only two of the Clements have been scen, but we haye no doubt thara third ts present. ‘Lhe excretory pore opens at the base of the tail hy a crescentic slit on the ventral surface. There is uo caudal excretory tube as shown by Sewell for several xiphidiovercariae. In stained, fixed gpecimens the genital rudiment shows as an irregular undiffereitiated mass dorsal to the acelabulum, and of about the same size.
EXPERIMENTAL INFECTIONS
We have not been able to obtain the cyst stage, though a number of different animals have been used for experimental infections, Nepative results were obtained with Daphnia sp.; Dytiseid beetle larvae; dragonily larvae, Aeschine brewistyla and Austrolestus analis; the yabhie, Cherar destrucior; mosquito larvae; leeches (Glossifhonia spp.) ; the molluses, merionna spp. and the host species, Planorbis isingi; as well as with tadpoles and the fish, Gdmbusia affinis.
Cereatia uf all frog iung flukes of which the life-history is known eneyst in larval insects, the majority in dragonfly larvae, In some species there is a corisiderable degree of specificity for the second inter'mediale host. Krull (1931) found that cercariae of Hacmalolocchus mediaplexus and H. parviplerus encysted in Gyo epecies of Syyupetrum but did not infect closely related dragon-flies. On
“y= oo
ihe other hand, he (1933) thought it probable that many species of diagon-flics, could serve as hosts tor A. complerus. Ingles (1933) suggested that the presence of the intection of Ostiolym oxyorchis in frogs collected from ponds and its absence froin ftogs of the same species collecled from small streams was due to the habits of the intermediate host sitice most of the natural infections of O. oxyorchis occurred in the pond-nhabiting dragon-fly, Sympetruim wah. Such a specificity may well explain the fact that C, beckwithae has been {ound only in a pond and not in the swarups, and also our failure to obtain jtg mera- vercaria in the only two species of dragon-fly larvae which were available to us fur experiment, and which had been obtained [rom the swamps. Krull (1932) reported thar the metacercaria of Puenmobites longiplexus whose atlult stage occurs in Kana sp, wus found in eysts or free in the body cavity of damsel Hies, Lestes sp. We have not found metacercariae in numerous dragon-fly larvae (Aeschua brvistyla) collected from swamps along the Lower Murray.
THE Sporocysr
The sperocysts are inconspicuous, and cannot be discerned as finite hudies when the sril is dissected after death. Numbers of cercariae are found in the liver; these apparently migrate from the sporocyst soon after the death af the host, leaving the sporocyst as an empty sac. Staining of some of the dissected liver material gave one good preparation of a sporocyst, a small body containing (and more or less fled by) three or four cercariae (fig. 2). TF we had had suffi- cient material ro sacrifice a living snail, the spurocysts would probably have been nore obvious.
AFFINITIES
C. beckwwithae belongs to the Cereariae Ornatae, a group defined by Ltihe (1909) as “distome cereariae with a stylet. in which the stender tail is furnished with a fin fold.’ Since 1914, when Cort deseribed C. hemilophura and included it provisionally im the “Ornatac.” workers have stressed the fact that the group is probably an unnatural one.
Sewell (1922) created the “Prima” subgroup, and Faust (1924, table TL) in his “synoptic flame-cell formulary for digenetic trematodes” placed C, hemi- luphura Cort 1914 and C, frifwreata together in the “Hetilophura group,” as having a flame cell formula of 2[ (3-3) + (3+ 3+ 3) |. Tt may be noted thal Faust (1924) included Cercari prima with C. drdica LIM Sewell in the “Daswan” group, and thus denied the importance of the fin fold in the classifica- tion of cercariae, since C, indica L// has not this feature.
In 1929 McCoy, who did further work on the exeretory system of C. hemi- bphura and ascertained the formula to be 2[ (34-343) +(3+3-+3) I. found it tecessary to remoye this cerearia from the group, thotigh he did not create one to contain it.
In 1936, E. L. Miller divided the Cereariae Ornatae intu four subgraups, using the flame cell formula as the differentiating feature :—
II. Sewell’s Prima group, with aa exeretory formula 2x 6 x 1 (te, 2£(03)+(3) 3.
TT. Hemilophura (sic) group, containing only C. trifurceta Faust 1919; formula 2[ (3-|-3) + (3+3-+ 3) J.
TIT. A third subgroup (formula 2[ (3--34+3)+(3+4+3+43) |) con- taining C. hemilophyre Cort 1914 and C. mesotyphla E. L. Miller 1935. To this can now be added Cerearia merchanti Rankin 1939 (the larva of Haematolocchus sp.), GC. herbert McMullen 1938 (qhoted in Zool- Ree 1938 Vermes, p. 94, as C, horbert) and C. becknuuthae,
26
IV, Subgroup four—Cercaria racemosa Faust 1917, the excretory formula of which was not worked out, but was “obviously quite different Sram other forms of this group” (Miller).
MeCoy stated that “the exact location of the fame cells in C. hemilophura varied greatly in different individuals, prohably depending upon the way in which the animal was compressed. The second flame cell group from the anterior end was the most difficult to locate, and without careful study of abundait material miglit be entirely overlooked.” These remarks apply also ta C. beckwithae, excepting (hat it was the third group rom the anteriar end which snght have been overlooked. One wonders whether further study of C. irifurcata might not disclose another group of fume ceils, and thus place the cercaria in Miller's subgroup Il. McMullen in 1937 discussed the taxonomy ai the family Plagi- orchiidae Lithe and related trematodes, and used knowledge of the larval antl developmental stages to supplement classification of the adults, staiing that the exclusive use of adult characters for identification left much to be desired, On the other hand, classification of cercariae on their larval characters, without a knowleder of the life histories, could he only tentative. As to the importance of a fin fold on the tuil, he cited the genera Alleglossidiusn acd Macroderoides “which are evidently closely related?’ yet while the cercaria of Macroderoides iypieus has a fin fold, that of Alloglossidiwm carti has none (the only two life histories which were known for these genera); again, all cercariac of Jrog lung flukes and related trematodes with the exception of that of Iuplomelra cylin- dyvaeea have a fin fold on the tail. He concluded, therefore, that the possession of a fin fold on the tail (and other such larval wodifications) were of little more than specific value in the Niphidiocereariae. This confirmed the opinion held by most previous workers that the group Cercariae Omatae was an uniatural one.
From the point of view of description of cercarme, however, the fin fold does provide a valuable means of separation from, or comparison with, previously deserihed forms,
lt is evident that C. beckivithae resembles most closely the cercariae of Haematolocchus spp., as indicated by MeMullen (1937) in his composite diagrasn of Huematoloechus and Ostiolunt species. (Ostiolum is now given by Dawes, 146, as a synonym of Haemalolocehus). Among the characteristics of these cercariae of the troy lung flukes McMullen cites "a large oral sucker, four pairs of stylet glands” (though in the figure five pairs are shown, and C. herberi whiclr MeMullen described in 1938, has six pairs), “and a Y-shaped exerctory bladder which gous through extensive development in the maturation of the adult”; and (as mentioned previously) “all have a tin fob! on the tail with the exception of Haplometra eylindracea.” Tt would seem that to this description shauld be added “main excretory tubes attached to the tips of the arms of the bladder,” though this feature has not been indicated clearly im all of the ceseriptions, Tor C. herberi, McMullen stated that the origin of the wain callectiney tubule did mot agree with that given by Ingles (for Qstiohun oryorchis), ic, ladetal to the arms oi the ladder, and that thongh it was possible that the tibules did arise laterally in O. axyorchis, the same was at first beligved to be true of C, herbert, because the loop of the main tubule crossed ihe arm of the bladder and the rest of the tubule was difhcult ta see. As is shown in our figure, this is also the condition in ©. beckwithas, Ingles’ figure of the excretory system in the metucerearia i$ somewla? siticonyincing in that the anterior and pasterior collecting tubules appear to arise independently from ihe arms of the bladder, and we stiggest that tre origin of the main tubales should be similar to that in C. herberi and out cerearta,
Although the life histories of several from lung flukes have been described (Tngies, 1933; Kroll, 1931, 1934), in none of these has the anatomy of the cer
27
cariae been dealt with in complete detail. So far as the descriptions go we can only say that none of them resenibles C. beckwithae as closely as do C. merchants and C. herbert, 1t is of interest that the sporocysts of our species appear to con- form to the type found in Haematoloechus spp—t.ec., they are small and contain few cereariae, whilst in C. hemilopkura and C. mesolyphia the sporocysts are elongated.
Cercaria werchanti was shown by Rankin (1939) to be the larval stage of a species of Haematoloechus, but pending further study he deferred the specific description. “lhe general appearance of the alimentary canal, excretory system, arrangement of gland cells, ad fin fold of the tail in C. merchanti is simular to these structutes in C_ beckwithac, but the stylet of C. merchanti measures 40zp, the sucker ratid of the two forms is different, and C, merchant? has “fine proto- plasmic hairs’ on the bady, a feature which is lacking in our cercaria, Com- parison of ©. peckerithae with C. herbert shows that the length of the stylets is the same, the general sizes of body and tail seem to be comparable (although one is diffident about placing too much stress on meastirements of cercariae made by different workers and under different conditions) and the general appearance of the alimentary systems is similar. TJowever, the two cercuriae ditfer in the ratio of the suckers. probably in the extent of the fin fold of the tail (said to start at about the middle of the ventral surface for C. lerberi, and at the distal third for C. beckwithae) and the cuticular spines of C. herbori are evidently more obvious.
McMullen stated that C. herberi was similar to cercariae of genera belonging to the Haplonietridae MeMullen 1937, ‘This family included the Haplometrinae Pratt and the Prosthogoniminae |.ithe, |he genera of which, as far as known, were parasitic in the lings of Amphihia and the reproductive tracts of birds respec- tively, Dawes, however, included the genus Macrodera (from lung sacs of snakes) in the Haplometrinae, and placed both subfamilies in the Plagiorchii- dae, The only life history of a member of the Prosthogoniminae to which we have a reference is that of Prosthoganimus macrorchis Macy 1934. Macy did not describe the cerearia in detail, but stated thal there was no fin fold on the tail and that the exeretory formula of the metacerearia wa's 2[(2+2-+42)4-(2+2- 2) }- Wf this formula is correct, then it seems that the Prosthagouiminae can scatcely be included in the Plagiorchiidae.
We regard Cercaria beckwithae as the larval stage of Hoematoloechus, a parasite of the lungs of frags. Only oie species, WH. australis (S. J}, Johnston 1912), desetihed originally as Pnenmonocees australis, is known to ocour in Australian frogs, IZyla and Limnodynastes, and has been tentifiel by us in material belonging to these geneva from New South Wales, Victoria and South Agstralia,
Cercaria tetradenoidea non. noy.
In 1945 Johnston and Beckwith described a Turcocerearia, C. telradena, As the name had previously been given hy Miller (1935. 252) for a member of the Cereariae Armatae group, we siggest the renaming of Our cercaria as C. felyi- denotdea.
Sum ar4ry 1 A new xishidiocerearia, C. beckwithac, with a fin fold on the tail is leseribed front Planorbis isingi, 2. This was fuund at Tailem Bend, Sottth Australia, in a rock pool in 4 private garden, Over a period of three months tt was found in 16 of 403 snails. but has not been obtained from natural sites on the River Muryay, The cyst stage has not heen frum,
ww
28
4. The cercaria is considered to be the larval form of a frog lung fluke, Haema- toloechus (Plagiorchiidae, Haplometrinae).
5. A discussion is given of the classification of the group “Cercariae Ornatae” defined by Lithe, and later divided into sub-groups by several workers, the latest being Miller (1936),
6. Brooks’ observation (1943) regarding the uniformity of dimensions of stylets of various species is supported. Such measurements are unaltered by formalin.
7. An addition to McMullen’s list of characteristics of cercariae of frog lung flukes is suggested; namely, that the main excretory tubes enter the arms of the bladder at the tips,
8. C, tetradenoidea nom. nov. for C_ tetradena Johnston and Beckwith 1945 nee Miller 1935.
We desire to acknowledge our indebtedness to Messrs. G, G., Fred, and Bryce Jaensch of Tailem Bend. The work was financed through the Common- wealth Research Grant to the University of Adclaide. The species is named for a former colleague in our work, Miss A. C. Beckwith, now Mrs. J. Hardy. Type material has been deposited in the South Australian Museum.
LATERATURE
Brooks, F, G. 1943 Jour. Parasit., 29, 330-339
Cort, W. W. 1914 Jour. Parasit., 1, 63-84
Dawes, B, 1946 The Trematoda, 644 pp.
Faust, E. C. 1917 Jour. Parasit., 3, 105-123
Faust, E. C, 1919 Biol, Bull., 36, 322-339
Faust, E. C. 1924 Amer. Jour. Hyg., 4, 241-300
Incies, L. G. 1933 Uniy. Calif. Publ. Zool., 39, 135-162
Jounston, S. J. 1912 Proe. J.inn. Soc., N.S.W., 37, 285-362
Jounston, T. H., and Beckwith, A.C, 1945 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69, 229-242
Keun, W. H. 1931 Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., 50, 215-277
Krutit, W. H. 1932 Zool. Anz., 99, 231-239
Keutt, W. H. 1933 Zeit, f. Parasitewk., 6, (2), 192-206
Leen, W. H. 1937 Science, N.S., 86, 423
McCoy, O, R. 1929 Jour. Parasit., 15, 199-208
McMutten, D. B. 1937 Jour. Parasit.,, 23, 244-258
McMutten, D. B. 1938 Livr. Jub. Prof. Lauro Travassos, 299-306
Macy, R. W, 1934 Univ. Minn. Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull., 98, 7-71
Miiier, E. L, 1935 Jour. Parasit., 21, 244-254
Mitter, E. L. 1936 Ill. Biol, Monogr., 14, (2), 125 pp.
Rankin, J. S. 1939 Jour. Parasit., 25, 309-328
Sewe ti, R. B, §. 1922 Ind. Jour, Med. Res., 10, (Suppl. No.), 370 pp.
THE PETROLOGICAL NATURE OF SOME ROCKS FROM THE MANN, TOMPKINSON AND AYRES RANGES OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA
BY E.. G. ROBINSON
Summary
The rocks herein described were collected by Herbert Basedow, when a member of the Government Far North-West Prospecting Expedition of 1903. He first published an account of the geology of the country traversed (Basedow, 1905) and late (Basedow, 1915) the daily journal of the Expedition. In his geological report the rocks collected were dealt with on general lines only and many deserved fuller treatment.
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THE PETROLOGICAL NATURE OF SOME ROCKS FROM THE MANN, TOMPKINSON AND AYRES RANGES OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA
By E. G. Roprnson * [Read 21 July 1949]
The rocks herein described were collected by Herbert Basedow, when a member of the Government Far North-West Prospecting Expedition of 1903. He first published an account of the geology of the country traversed (Base- dow, 1905) and later (Basedow, 1915) the daily journal of the Expedition. ln his geological report the rocks collected were dealt with on gencral lines only and many deserved fuller treatment,
Basedow’s specimens, what remained of thera wheu he died, are now housed in. the Geological Museum of the University of Adelaide, and because af the unusual nature of some of them, their further investigation by present- day petrological methods was suggested by Professor Mawson. Accordingly, the more sigrificant of them, but not including any from the Musgrave and Everard Ranyes, were selected and are dealt with herein. The omission of any examples from the Musgrave and Everard Ranges is cofisequent on Allan Wilson's (1947) recent detailed work in that area superseding earlier investigations.
Rocks rrom THE TOmMPKINSON RANGES
Page Nature of the terrain =... at cl i ai eit cae Olivine-augtte-hyperstlrene- wabbto (15. 4) Ge ui ats ait we gl Hypersthenitte (1548) —.... ry atlas wpe yay Jap by os ont aA Crushed chartiackite (1542) . us seth xe ats Hose fare utc! ee Garnet-magnetite- cuiphavitesstanalite (6178) 454 un hoe, Oe Porphyroblastic hornblende-garnet-mica-oligoclase-quiartz- “schist: ¢ 1544) a. Ad,
Rocks Fram THK. Mann RANGES Nature of the terrai, ... ty Bi est a ye sai na ee et Sheared letco-granite (6181) ..,, one rf fx gust ua 4 Sheared garnctiferoas, gneissic, hornblende eriviite (6187) “a tes ede we «OD. Stressed and crushed granite (1543) it ee ope me py ~ 35 Mylonized gramte gneiss (6182) ve ha ve os oo ve ‘a oS Diopside peridatite (6199) ih has] ae silt Ce on a we = 86 Diapsidite (6197) ite tins ee “ine af ent we = 36 Sheared garnet-andesine- amphibolite (6179) py esl mt ys we 88 Charnockitic, tonalite (1541) nee 453 yotaeestiepe IEE. ai$t =i53 hae 37 Rocks rrom Ayres RANGES
Nature of the terrain .... nae bebe ont esi suas rite gaze art 38 Aplitic granodiorite (1547) ae 5: re rote — =~ Bare w 38 Tlornblende-granddiorite (1546) a Su —_ yt pr wh: a (38
ROCKS FROM THE TOMPRINSON RANGES
Referring to the Tompkinson Ranges, Basedow (1905, page 73) states— “Generally speaking, their dominant features are . . . . igneous intrusions within crystalline gneisses. In the case of the Tompkinson Ranges, the in- trusive rock consists largely of gabbro, accompanied hy diorite dykes. The Mount Davies chain includes, among others, a large intrusion of granular olivine-gabbro, varying in colour from dirty green, through shades of green
* University of Adelaide. Trans. Roy, Soc, 5, Aust, 73, (1), 16 December 1949
30
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ii
pete ag ; Se 3 F __8 og tae’ ol $s evs) 2 eon WH UespL sey aot sy i SATIN i] iS * Li S ! Be) Viivyulsny IWYLN39 dO NOILYOd > = y \ ag avW ALMYOOI tiny i eae “4 | | | > oF Sth — se
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16 faint blue. In the last case the predominance of plagioclase feldspar, and the presence of only a small amount of olivine have produced the bluish tint- The intrusion trends east and west as a massive, rugged chain, flaked ly less conspicuous diorite dykes, Ihe latter, though individually smaller, are very numerous,”
“North of Mount Davies, outcrops of hypersthene-bearing granulite which trend slightly east of north, present splendid examples of spherulitic weather- ing, The rock is compact and granular, with little or no evidence of foliation om freshly fractured suriace, though it is apparent on weathered faces. The rock has a peculiar olive-green, waxy appearance.”
Red garnet (almandine) schists are a feature of the north-eastern area about Gosses Pile and Prominent Hill.
Skirting the foot of Mt. Davies on the north side is a mineralised outcrop striking \W. 20°S, and extending westerly for same miles. This ferruginous and gossaneous outcrop includes chalcedonic and semi-opaline varitties of Quartz, some of which are bright green due ia chromium staining,
Ouvine Avorrr-ByTownite-Gassro (1540). Collected from Mount Davies adjacent to Camp 28, Tampkinson Range.
In the hand specimen this rock is dark grey and of an even-grained, saccharoidal texture. Lt consists ot highly weathered olivine, grey-green pyroxene ane light grey feldspar, the latter bemg the most plentiful.
Microscopically examined it exhibits a hoeloerystalline, allotriomorphic, granular texture. The avcrage size of the grains in section is of the order of 1-25 mun. to 1:5 mm-
Bytownite is hy far the most abundant mineral present, contprising about two-thirds of the rock. Jt is clear and usually cracked, The grains exhibit albite, Carlsbad and pericline twinning, It is biaxial negative, with 2V about 83°, extinction angle in the symmetrical zone is 52°. These properties confirm the mineral as bytownite with about 80% of the anorthite molecule,
Augite is the next in order of abundance. It is light grey-brown, only faintly pleochroic and ocenrs as anhedral grains averaging about 1 mm, in length. It has the following optical characters: biaxial positive, 2V = 46", ZAc== 34°, RL. in sodium light is y= 1-702. These characters indicate an approximate composition of Wo35 FEn33 Fel3 corresponding to a typical augite. To a very limited extent the diallagic 100 cleavage is shown, Many of these monaclinic pyroxene individuals have a selvage of hypersthene, which is generally of darker colour than the augite.
Next to augite in abundance is oheine, which occurs as greatly cracked, very pile pink individuals, Alteration especiaily along the cracks has developed iron staining and some tiny grains of iron oxide. In many instances marginal altera- tion has given rise to antigorite. IL is biaxial-posilive with 2V = 89°, correspond- ing to a maynesium-rich chrysolite. In some cases the olivine has borders of hypersthene,
Hyperstiuene occurs to a limited degree as separate individtials but more so associated, as already mentioned, with the augite and to a lesser degree with the olivine. It ts faintly pleochroic; N= pale grey, Y=Z —pale grey-brown; biaxial negative, 2V is 88° and c==Z, These properties suggest an enstatile-rich hypersthene with about 20% of the ferrnsilite molecule,
Accessory minerals are rare, consisting of a few grains of magnedite and some apatite.
32
HYpPersrHEN!ve (1548): from the west side of Mount Davics, Tompkinson Range.
This is a dark grey-brown, holocrystalline, even, granular rock.
In microscope slide the texture is observed to be holoerystalline, allotrio- morphic granular with a grain-size ranging from 2 to 5 mm. It consists entirely of hypersthene exeept for a few small grains of magnetite.
The hypersthene occurs as pale greyish-hrown cracked, anhedral grains, — It is weakly pleochroic: X= faint pink, Y= pale greyish-brown, Z== pale greenish-brown, Other optical properties may be summarized as follows: 2V = 88°, RI, (sodium light) a= 1°673, 71682, According to Larsen and Berman these optical characters correspond to a hypersthene which has an Mg: Fe ratio of approxmnately 6: 1,
The two prismatic cleavages are well developed. The orientation is length slow. While generally straight, sttain has itt some cases developed an undulose extinction. In some areag the larger hypersthene individuals are roughly rounded and set in fine granular interstitial hypersthene, apparently the result. of crushing.
Black iron-ore in tity grains is distributed mainly around the borders af the hypersthene: some, translucent in brown colours, are evidently chromite, Qthers appear to be magnehic. Analysis of this rock was made with the result as stated on page —,
CHEMICAL ANALYSES Norms Rock Number .... aw 1548 6199 Rock Number .... we 1548 6199 SiOz Rn Hee wee 94055 47-77 Orthoclase aes we O°556 nil TiO: we stn we O22 O12 Albite .., ~~ ae 6288 1+31 AbOs ..., on BBS 4-87 Anorthite = -. 6950 11-68 TesOq a, ‘ent van 1°85 1:42 Nepheline 1 0-99 FeO aig: viet we F208 321 Diopside _ 4168 55°16 MnO “3 sa) a O22 0-66 Hypersthenc .... eo. 73-468 —— MgO ren asis we 28723 23°27 Olivine nee ae 4252 20-40 CaQ ats on wee B48 16°50 Masucetite a, wa.) e784 20 NaO ..., ve, wae O73 0°37 Hmenite ng oe 0-456 0-30 KO ae sites ww. Q‘14 ()-02 Chlivoinite —_ _. O896 1-12 HQ+ us stn ay O32 0:58 Water + aa3 _. 6320 O58 HO- .... Aue wee O15 0-21 Water — a a. O-150 0-21 P20; ~~ acsa ajse a 0° OL —_ Creu ale ' we = 068 0-79 Total .... 100+298 99 +80 Total .,. 100:30 99-80
Crusnep Crrarnockire (1542) froim north of the Mount Davies Camp (31), which was located 3 miles north of Mount Davies, Tompkinson Ranges.
An even, fine-grained, dark brownish-grey rock which in the field is reported to exhibit splendid spheroidal weathering. Feldspar and quartz are the more obvious minerals.
lt is holoerystalline, allotriomorphic granular, with slightly uneven grain- size. In the microslide can be observed Jarger grains of microperthite and quartz which average about 1°6 mm, in diameter with a maximum of about 3-5 mm,, are distributed through an even-grained grantilar association of feldspar, quartz and hypersthene with an average grainsize of about 0°5 mim.
a3
Microcline microperthite is by far the most abundant mineral, constituting approximately two-thitds of the rock. Ji occurs as both large and small indi- viduals. The microcline base and the exsolution albite, which is developed on a fairly coarse scale, are wsnally clear and unaltered but extibit undulose extinction.
Oligoclase is present in very small amount in the form of small clear grains most of which exhibit albite twinning.
Onarlz is much less abundant than feldspar. It occurs as anhedral indi- viduals often cracked and exhibiting undulose extinction, sometimes ta a marker degree,
Hypersthene is nearly as abundant as the quartz. It occurs as very irregular grains which tend to form aggregations, frequently associaied with magnetite and apatite. The colour is pale brawn. Pleochroism noticeable with X = pinkish- brown, Y = yellow-brown, Z= green. Riaxial negative with a fairly high 2V, A very small amoutiit of non-pleochroic, pale green divpside is present.
Magnetite is plentiful, generally associated with the hypersthenc.
Apatite is very common, both associated with the magnetite and hypersthene as well as in che form of anhedral and subhedral grains dispersed throughout the rock, A few grains of zircon appear in the slide.
Garnet-Macverire-Ompuacisi-GRranuite (6178), Collected on 20 May 1903 near camp 30, adjacent to Prominent IGM, North Tompkinson Ranges.
A heavy, dark rock of an even, granular texture. The obvious constituents are a dark ferro-magnesian mineral, red-brown garnet, magnetite and a little greyish white feldspar. The light-coloured streaks of granular feldspar travers- ing the dark body of the rock appear to have developed under directed stress.
In thin section it is observed to be granublastic and noticeably eveti-grained for a rock of this type.
The predominant mineral is a diallagie pyroxene which occurs in grano- blastic individuals with an average grait size of 1-3 mm., arid a maximum ranging ta 3°5 mn; Schiller structure is. strikingly developed. Colour, very pale green, weakly pleochroic from a faint flesh colour to faint green, A few basal sections show cleavages: at 90°, alsa an additional rough parting parallel to the 100. Its optical character is negative, with a moderate to high 2V. A few individuals exhibit faint polysynthetic twinning, These characters suggest a diallagic pyroxene close to omphacite.
Granular pink garnet is the next most abundant mmeral, occuring as indi- viduals similar in size to those of the pyraxene,
Magnetil? is abundant and plays an important role in the make up of this rock. Hercynite, a green spinel, occurs to a notable degree included in some of the larger magnetites. Some of these spinels measure up to O14 mm. in length; they are a bright clear grecn. Another noticcable fcattire associated with the magnetite is the presence of clear yellow pleochroic anthophyllite which occurs only as a peripheral band on some of the grains of magnetite. Apatite, usually in association with magnetite is present as an accessory mineral.
Feldspar, which plays a minor role, exhibits undulose extinclion indicating
the effects of stress, Optical measurements detetmine it to be andesine of enm- pusition about Aby, Aityy.
Cc
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PorPHYROGLASTIC HorNe_eNbE - GAxNET ~ Mica-OLicaccase - Quartz - Scurst, (1544). Collected near Prominent Ilill, Camp 30, North-Eastern Tompkinson Ranges.
In the hand-specimen this rock is a dark grey-brown schist, for the most part tinely granular but with larger porphyritic erystals. of hornblende and red- brown garnet. The hornblende porphyroblasts reach 10 mm. in length and the garnet to 8 mni. diaineter. Banding and schistosity are notable features.
In thin-section the rock is seen to be schistose, with large porphyroblasts of green fernblende, pink garnet and sircon set in 2 fine even-grained base with average prain-size O-l mm, composed mainly of quartz and oligoclasc.
Orienttated flakes of biotite, pleochroic ycllow to green are distributed through a granular base of clear quartz and oligaclase (An,,). Yellowish-green horn- blende and pink garnet are well represented both as parphyroblasts and fine flakes through the quartzo-feldspathic base.
Fainlly pleochroic sphene is in notable quantity both in fine grains and as Jarger individuals. Other minor accessories are apatite, aircon and tiny wmagnetile and a yellow mineral conforming to allamite, faintly pleochroic in pale yellow to
pale brown. ROCKS FROM THE MANN RANGES
Rasedow (1905, p. 65) states, these Ranges “extend as ja more or less com- pact chain in a westerly direction... . a distance of some eighty miles ,... The western portion of the Mann Ranges, of no great width at this end, consists almost wholly of igneous rock exposures. In the centre, the core of the igneous intrusion is flanked on either side, namely the northern and southern boundaries, by complexes of green schist and gneissic quartzite; whereas on the eastern limits of the Ranges, by far the widest portion, the main intrusion lies hidden beneath the metamorphic series, into which it was injected, to appear once more at the surface to the eastward in the Musgrave Ranges”
OF igneous rocks “An intrusion of granite has been by far the greatest, it continuing uninterruptedly as a backbone of the whole Range, to disappear under superincumbent gneisses on the east, and occurring as isolated outliers [or a con- siderable distance to the west. The character of the rock varies, frum a true granite (in portien porphyritic) to various metapyrigen gneisses,”
At the western extremity of the Range, where there is a salt pai depression in the surface of the gneisses, erosion las developed yardangs on a tiotable scale along the outcrop.
Causuep Lpuco-Grasire (6181), Collected 4 June 1903 from the main intru- sion at Meridian Hill, Western Mann Range.
This rock is holocrystalline inequigranular, The larger individuals are grey feldspars usually seen to be embedded in finer material consisting essentially of granular feldspar and quartz.
Microperthiie is the most abwndant mineral, occurring as large individuals. The orthoclase host is generally clear but cracked, displaying undulose extinction, Apart from normal exsolution spindles which characterise the perthite, inclusions oi oligoclase are numerous.
Oligaclase (259% An) occurs usually as aggregations of small grains but larger individuals are not wncommion,
Quartz is plentiful usually in granular aggregates, apparently the crushed remains of former large individuals.
Garnet as tiny rounded grains, usually in aggregations, occur sparingly in the crush mosaics. In such locations also, hornblende in very small quantity and
35
occasional flakes of biotife are met with. Magnettte, though small in quantity but in comparatively large grains, at times with encrusting sphene, is a feature of this rock. Simiall grains of gircom are to be noted.
In thin section it exhibits many similarities in both textute and mineral com- position to specimen (1343), and so may be assumed to be a leucocratic phase of it. However, the effects of stress are more marked in this rock, while the quantily of ferromagnesian minerals present is appreciably less.
Smraren Horwe_eNpic GARNETIFEROUS Gweissic Granite (6187). Collected 6 Jurie 1903, just north-east si Camp 41; about 10 miles south-east by uorth of Mount Gosse, Mann Ranges,
This is a coarse holocrystalline rock with a mottled appearance, duc to the ramifications of finer grained, darker uggregates ramifying through it. The most obvious constituent is greyish-white feldspar in large mdividuals up ta 3 cms. in diameter.
Microscopically examined the rock is observed ta be holocrystalline and dominantly constituted of closely packed large feldspars embedded in tracts of fine, granular aggregates of feldspar, quartz and ferromagnesians.
Orthoclasé forms large phenwerysts and perthitic intergrowths ate common. lt is also prusent as a constilucnt with quattz and plagioclase of the fine granular aperegates surrounding the Jarger feldspars. The large feldspars are bent and otherwise distorted by stress.
Basic Oligoclase (about An,,) is present both as large individuals samewhat less in size than the orthoclase and as constituents. of finer-grained (0-1 mm.) vranoblastic aggiepates.
One of the most interesting featurcs of this rack is the presence of aggrega- tions of garnet, hornblende, magnetite, sphene, apatite and biotite, in association with greater or less quantities of granular quartz and plagioclase. These aggre- gates result from granulation and recrystalliization under stress.
The garnets ate small rounded light pink grains, present as tightly packed aggregations or strung ott like tiny beads, Associated therewith is green horn- blende and some clino-pyroxene,
Brown biotite occurs m very small amount. Zircon, sphene, magnetite and apatite are also present as accessories.
STRESSED AND Cruse Granite (1543). From the Mann Ranges at about
2 miles cast of Camp 41 and 11 miles south-east by north from Mount Gosse. Collected 6 June 1903,
A coarse textured, somewhat crushed and recrystallised granitaid rock, composed mainly of large grey feldspars up to 2 cms. in length and smaller quartz grains.
In micro-slide the large feldspars are secn ta he greatly cracked and slightly cloudy with marked undulose extinction, ‘hey are microcline as they give an off-centred cbtuse bisectric figure on sections parallel in the 010 face; contained in them are perthitic intergrowths of acid plagioclase. Irregular borders with embayment ire very prevalent, with fillings of crushed and recrystallized quartz and feldspar.
OF the smaller dimensioned constituents, quartz showing marked strain effects is dominant. A small amount of basic oligoclase can be recognised. Still less abundant is hornblende pleochroic m green and yellow. Occasional granular aggregates of garnet usually strung out in linear arrangement is a feature of special note. Finally, there are present oecasional flakes of biotite and grains of apatile and zircon.
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Mytonizep Granxrric Gnerss (6182), Described by Basedow as a compact, gneissic band in granite about 2 miles west of Hector’s Pass, Mann Ranges.
A very fine, and cyen grained, compact, light-coloured rock with sheer larnellalions clearly marked.
In thin section the rock is seen to be an excellent example of mylonization, crushing having been very regular and complete, resulting in granular lamellae, ranging from O-1 to 1-0 mm. thick, Latellae, constituted essentially of quartz grains, alternate fairly regularly with others dominantly of feldspar.
The feldspathic bands, which on the average exceed the quartz bands in thickness, are chiefly orthoclase hut are usually sa fine-grained and show the effects of crushing to such a high degree that their exact composition is in doubt. Cloud~ ing of the orthoclase appears to be due to the development af sericite. Larger augen with associated mortar structure ovcur in the feldspathic bands, These ate usually perthitic. Jn these cracked andl highly strained lenticles there is present, in addition Lo orthoclase, some ofiyoctase (26% An), showing albite and pericline iwinning.
The bands constituted of gnarts graius are readily distinguished, for the granules, though strained, are always quite clear.
The lamellar structure of the rock ig further emphasised by strings of tiny gornels and some grains of magnefite and sphene, also grains and clongated crystals of sircon; these are usually associated with the feldspathic bands and lenticles. A little biotite as very tiny flakes is met with in certain of the garneti- ferous strings. The average size of the grains af garnet is about 0:03 smm.
This rock has evidently résulted from the mylonization ahd apparently repre~ sents a sheer zone it the granite.
Drorsipy. Pertporrrg (6199). Collected near Camp 27, about 6 miles south of Mount Whinham, Mann Ranges. A holocrystalline, granular rock of fairly coarse grain; the latter about 4 mm, diameter.
In microscope slide it is seen to be holocrystalline, allotriomorphic granular, and is composed essentially of two minerals. The more prevalent of these is diapside which occurs as anhedral, clear to pale grey-brown individuals showing cleavages (86°) and cracking to a marked degree. Some sections are so aricnted as to show a faint ploochroism from a faint flesh colour to very light green. Both normal and polysynthetic twinning are exhibited. Some of its optical properties are: DLR. fairly high, hiaxial positive, 2V=58°( RL. it sodium light is.a= 1°676 and y= 1:702, These characters indicate a diopside with about LO% of the hedenbergite molecule.
The other abundant mineral, oline, contrasts strongly with the diopside, as it is more extensively cracked and is clearer, though it has a much higher degree of secondary iron staining. I[t occurs in anhedral individuals which are barely half as abtmidant as the diopside. Its optical properties are as follows: biaxial positive, 2V = 88°, RT. in sodium light is @—=1+651 and y—1-'688_ Ir is thus indicated that it has a compnsition af Mg: Fe — 88:12 approximately.
Grains of magnetite and chromite are to be observable in the slides but are rare.
So this is a Peridofite consisting of diopside (10% hedenbergite) and olivine (Mg: Fe = 88; 12) in the ratio of about 2:1, This rather striking rock was subjected to chemical analysis with the result tabulated on page 32.
Diopsinite (6197). An even-grained, green holocrystalline rock almost mono- mineralic, for in the hand specimen only diupside is yisible There are slightly pleschroic biaxial positive, 2V = 58°, RI. (soditim ght) »—1'677, y—=1°703.
a7
Labradorite distributed interstitially occurs in very small amount, Grains of magnetite are very rare.
This rock appears to be related lo (6199) from the vicinity of Camp {27}, but is labelled “Camp 28, Mann Ranges,” this is immediately south-east of Mount Erwin.
Suearpp Gaener-Aworsine-Ampurmonite (6179). Collected 11 June 1903 near Camp 51, Mount Cockburn, Mann Ratiges. This would appear to he from the “Diorite Dyke” reported by Basedow (1915), half-a-mile from the Camp.
It is a dark, dense, fine-grained rock which under the microscope exhibits « roughly banded structure, richer and poorer in amphibole, and sce tw haye suffered consideralile chloritization and retrograde changes.
Amphibole, pleochroic in light brown to green is the most abundan mineral. Garnet in cracked and rounded graing is. next, but andesine (33% An) closely approaches it in quantity, Maynotife is present both as tiny grains in aggregations and strung cut along shear lines.
Throng) the reck run bands, sometimes well defined, samelimes tenuous, which have the appearance and character of pseudo-tachylite.
CHarnocrreic Toxauire (1541). Collected 16 Juny 1903 near Camp 56 to tlic south-east of Mount Berry, Mann Ranges.
In the hand specimen this rock presents a greasy appearance and is observed to be holocrysialline, coarse, granular, with feldspar as. the dominant taimeral,
In microscope slide the texture is holocrystalline, allotriomorphic granular. Andesine is by far the most abundant mineral, and with it is associated a little microcline, quartz, hypersthene, etc.
“This rock consists chiefly of andesine which bas the following optical pro- perties: biaxial positive, 2V = 867, maximum extinction angle in the symmetrical zone of 20°, RI. (sodium light) «==1°552, y=1-560, ‘These characters indicate an aiidesine of compasition about 40% An. It occurs as anhedral indi- viduals showing marked undulose extinclion due ta strain, Crushed areas are to be observed along the borders of many individuals, and here oceur some myrmekitic quartz intergrowths, The albite twin lammelae are usually fine and pericline twinning is often superimposed resulting im a superficial resemblance to microsline. Tlowever, a litte microeling is recognisable. Orthoclase is present in very smell amount, some of it is antiperthite im (he plagioclase,
Onariz, clear and cracked with wundulose extinction, is present in small ambunts, mainly playing an almost interstitial role. It alsa occurs as inclusions in the feldspar and as recrystallised mosaics.
Next in abundance to andesine is hypersthene, which usually appears as rounded gritins whose colour is frequently masked by change praducts and schiller inclusions. The clezrer individuals are grey and pleochroic in faint green and pink, Clotdy grey-green altcration products, possibly anligorite are associated with if, ‘Lhis hypersthene is biaxial negative, with 2V of about 82°, pointing to the possibility of about 2095 of the fercosilite molecule in its composition,
A erern diopsidic pyroxene is present in very small quantity: biaxial posi- tive, 2V —60°. Notable amounts of granular moaguetite ate usually associated with the hypersthene, slpalite is present in rounded grains.
A fuller examination with chemical analysis may show this tock better classified as a charnockitic trondhjente,
3s
ROCKS FROM AYRES RANGES
A group of hills mare or less disconnected, The highest poi, though 2,200 feet above sea-level, stands only 300 feet abave the surrounding sea of scrubby, red sand plains,
Basedow (1905, p. 77) states, referring to the higher hills of the Ranges! “All these prominences have been determined by igneous intrusions. The more northerly ones consist uf granite and the southern ridge of diorite dykes, Lyitig between these masses, disconnected rounded hills of metamorphic racks appear."
Apiiric Granopiorite (1547): Mount Sir Henry, Ayres Range, This rock is probabiy a phase of (1546).
This rock is light grey-brown with an even-grained granitic texture. It is composed largely of buft-coloured feldspars and grey opalescent quartz. he lack of ferroimagnesian mitierals is noticeable. In some respects it appears to be not a normal igneous rock. The silica percentage is too high to be considered as an aplitic tonalite.
In this section the texture is holocrystalline inequigranular consisting essen- tially of anhedral individuals of feldspar and quartz. The average grainsize if about 1°5 mm., whilst some feldspars reach 4 mm. and quartz over 5 mm. in length. Quartz and plagioclase are present in approximately equal amounts.
The Quartz is generaily clear with inclusions arranged in strings. Cracking and undulose extinction are evidenced, ‘he larger individuals have highly irregular shapes. Wermicular quartz, frequently associated with the plagioclase in the form of miyrmekite is plentiful.
studesing im anhedral individuals is generally cracked but clear. Untwinned individuals are frequent but are easily distinguished from the potash feldspars by their optically positive character and their R.I, in the untwinned individuals the maxiniutn extinction angle measured in the symmetrical zone ig 20°, corre- sponding to a composition of 40% An, Some of these twinned members are optically negative, corresponding to a more albitic plagioclase.
Several examples of antiperthile were noted; these have andesine as the host and exsolution spindles of clear orthoclase,
Microcline is present in the fornt of small anhedral individuals which are generally clearer aud less cracked than the andesine. The microcline generally occurs in those areas of the rock which show the greatest strain effects and in such places it tends towards an intersticial role: with it is associated some mvrmckite,
Occasional grains of magrctite are present, and associated with it are a few small fakes of highly altered biotite,
The effects of strain are evident throughout in cracking and undulose extinction, as well as small areas that appear to have experienced a minor degree of crushing.
HorssLenbe-Grawnonrorite (1546): Mount Sir Flenry, Ayres Range.
A. light brown, even-grained, granular granitic rock, It is composed af quartz, buff-coloured feldspar and dark green to black ferromagnesian granules dispersed eventy throughout the rock.
Tn thin section the texture is holvuerystalline, granular with boundaries highly irregular. The average grain-size is in the order nf 3 mm, although in extreme cases intiyiduals reach 9 mm. in lenyth,
39
Andesine (about An,,) in cracked and cloudy individuals, is by far the most abundant mineral present and constitutes the major portion of the rock. Plagio- clase also occurs in myrmckitic intergrowths with quartz.
Microcline with perthitic intergrowths is a lesser feature. Antiperthite is also present.
Quartz is next mineral in order of abundance but plays only a minor role, tending to become interstitial.
Hornblende appears in notable amount as irregular grains. It is pleochroic: X=light brown; Y = green-brown; Z==grass-green, Biaxial negative, with moderate optical axial angle, Z Ac = 20°.
Magnetite is plentiful and with it often embedded or adhering to it are grains of zircon and apatite, Crusts of sphene adhere to some of the magnetite. A patite is also met with plentiftlly elsewhere in the slide.
REFERENCES
Basenow, Hrrsert 1905 Geological Report of the Country traversed by the South Australian Government North-West Prospecting Expedition, 1903. Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 29, 57-102
Basevow, Hursert 1915 Journal of the Government North-West Expedition of 1903. Trans. Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust,, S, Aust. Branch, 15, 57-242
Witson, At.an F. 1947 The Charnockitic and Associated Rocks of North- western South Australia, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, 195-210
THRUST STRUCTURES OF THE WITCHELINA AREA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA
BY REG C. SPRIGG
Summary
Upper Precambrian (Adelaide System) sediments near the north-western margins of the Flinders geosyncline have been deformed very differently from the rest of the folded geosyncline. The tens of thousands of feet of sediments concerned locally are dominantly slates and limestones, but they include a massive quartzite, 6,000 feet thick, which has exerted a major influence in the local tectonics.
40 THRUST STRUCTURES OF THE WITCHELINA AREA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA
By Ree, C. Spricc [Read 21 July 1949]
ABSTRACT
Upper Precambrian’ (Adelaide Systent) sediments near the north-western margin of the Flinders geosyncline have been deformed very differently from the rest of the folded geusyttcline. The tens of thousands of feet of sediments concerned locally are dominantly slates and limestones, but they include a massive quartzite, 6,000 feet thick, which has exerted a major influence in the local tectonics,
Great faulted sheets of the quartzite with overlying sediments have moyed differentially to the south-east, resulting in Jarge scale high- and low-angle thrust faulting. The major faults have followed obvious zones of weakness such as steep regional fold axes, or the junctions of the ntassive quartzite with its enclos- ing relatively incompetent sediments; in one case horizontal translation is measured in miles. There are ho signs of “lubrication” horizons along any of the thrusts and generally the faults are loci of intense brecciation. One fault zone is intrided by doleritic plugs.
Ty ts suggested that the thrusts constitute an example of tectonic sliding on the old continental platiorm induced by a rapidly rising continental foreland at the time of geosynelinal collapse,
INTRODUCTION
A group of remarkable regional thrust structures was recently discovered near Witchelina Station in the north-western Flinders Ranges of South Australia i younger Preeambrian or Adelaide System sediments (hg. 1), These sediments constitute the lower portion af the Flinders geosyncline and locally they have been folded in a manner which differs greatiy trom that of the main body of the sediments to the south and east. Instead of the simple folding along east-west ar north-south axes with coniplementary eross-warping and normal faulting, typical of the central portion of the geosyneline, there has been a great develop- ment of thrust faults, frequently with latge horizontal displacement,
Before discussing some of these aberrant sttuctures, the broader geatectoric pattern of the whole of the Flinders geosyncline will be outlined briefly.
THE GEOSYNCLINAL SETTING
The Flinders geosyncline which exceeds 500 miles in length (longitudinally ) and 200 miles in width, borders the eastern margin of the older Precambrian shield of Austraha (fig. 1). During its growth it probably had direct connec- tions with the MacDonnell geocynclitie of Central Australia, although its. develop- ments in that direction are now obscured by younger deposits. The central deeper portion of the Hlinders geosyticline now constitutes the so-called “shatter belt” of South Australia.
* Geological Suryey of South Australia.
Trans, Rey Soc. 73, (13
4)
During geosynclinal evolution, sedimentation was practically continuous throughout the Upper Precambrian and most or all of the Cambrian period. Significant sedimentary overlap occurred to the east of the basin during the depasition af the Stirtian tillites, and subsequently to the west, with the onset of Cambrian time. Altogether a maximum of more than 40,000 feet of sediments was deposited, including two stratigraphically widely separated quartzites each of which in the north attained 6.000 feet ar more in thickness.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
LOCALITY
Classification of the Flinders Geosvnecline within the systems of cither Kay (1947) or of Dapples, Krumbein and Sloss (1948) is difficult. In many respects it has much in common with the Miogeosyncline of Kay. For example, sinking progressed extremely regularly with continued deposition, and volcanic activity was generally very restricted. Sedimentary facies typical of the rapidly sinking linear gcosynclines (eugeosynclinal or island are types) were notably absent. Lithalogically the sediments indicate unusually prolonged environmental stability during the period of depusition. Quartzites are remarkably well sorted and reworked in spite of occasional abnormal thickness; greywacks, or even sub- greywacks, cecur infrequently or are absent. Shales grade from true claystones tu silistones: limestones are frequently thick. Reddish and greenish colours reflect oscillating shoreline conditions over wide areas.
Geosynelinal sedimentation closed in post-Cambriau times (? Tarly Cale- donian), following the “collapse” of the vast accumulation of sediments.
Within the central meridional portion of the geosyncline, folding developed with major axes essentially north-south or east-west, and while the longitudinal set were most strongly developed in the south, the latittidinal set dominated in the north, In the neighbourhood of Wilpena Station the two-fold influences had approximately equal intensity with the result that large centripital fold structures were produced. Particularly fine examples of these are the Wilpena Pound (or basin) and the Bibliande dome, which have been described by Sir Douglas Mawson (1940).
42
Away from the central region the cross folding becomes less strongly developed, so that towards the north or south the major (almost isoclinal) folds show only gentle reverse of pitch along their major axes. In this way, in plan, a particular formation may outcrop as a narrow elongated ellipse perhaps 20 miles long, but only 2 or 3 miles wide.
Faults oceur sparingly through the sediments and they are generally of the steep normal or reverse type with variable vertical throw, but without significant horizontal displacement. One normal fault in the Copley (or north) district has a stratigraphical throw of about 40,000 feet. In the south the faults usually trend meridionally in sympathy with the major axes of folding, but in the norik while the local fald influence is still important, the pattern of faulting is less regular,
The Adelaide System sediments are relitively unaliered except along the eastern extensions of the geosyncline where intense metamorphism accompanied eranitization and/or granite intrusion. This igneous activity modified or aceentnated folding locally in most instances, In the more northerly areas doleritic plugs are intruded along a number of the larger fault zones.
In relation to the foregoing generalised geoteclonic pattern, the thrust structiives of the Witchelina province (which forms the north-western extension of the geosyncline) can only be described ag erratic.
THRUST STRUCTURES OF THE WITCHELINA AREA
The fold and fault structures of this province are still inadequately known, but sufficient evidence is available to indicate that they are largely the outcome of regional thrusting. The local patterns of deformation have obviously been strongly influenced by a massive thick quartzite ericlosed in relatively very iticarti- petent slates and limestones (folded map), The quartzite belongs near the hase of the Adelaide System, but here it is underlain by some thousands of feet of slate carrymg minor horizons of sandstone quartzite.
Where thrust faulting’ can be recognised, the main criteria indicating horizontal tnovement are the enormous drag structures evident in plan in serli- ments Which are steeply dipping. Tn cases where the thrust faults cross the strike of sediments, stratigraphical evidence also. supports this interpretation. general, translation was to the south-cast.
Grecciation is extensive along the thrust planes, anil there ts no evidence of significant subaqtieots slumping within the area. Hence it is thought that the development of the thrusts was late or posi-geosynclnal, which is borne out hy the absence, so far as is known, of tmconformities within the overlying portions of ihe sedimentary system.
In view of this, the great horizontal translation inferred may be an example of tectonic sliding. On this interpretation, during the foundering of the Flinders geosyncline, the rising foreland ta the west would have tilted marginal sediments appreciably towards the deeper portions of the basin, and under locally favourable circumstances sliding would have commenced Tf the sediments had been water- soaked and unconsolidated, slumping would have dominated bttt this was not so, the sediments behaved as if they were consolidated. Consequently in the sliding mass, where varjations jn secimentary competencies were great, excessive stresses accumulated locally, eventually to cause failure along zones of weakness produc- ing thrust nappes along large faults with vertical shears If this is correct, the Witchelina quartzite provided a local control while the assumed zones of weak- ness included (a) axes of developing or pre-existing regional folds, and (Bb) contacts between competent and incompetent beds. Pre-existing normal faults may also have aided failure locally,
43
The thrusting was generally to the south-east, but thete are several additional regional faults of undetermined significance. These are usually accompanied by wide crush zones and some drag folding.
Minor fold structures of the region can usually be correlated closely with thrust movements aud are therefore probably contemporaneous, The Moun Nor-west vegivnal fold on the other hand was in existence or developing at the time of thrust faulting.
THE WITCHELINA TIIRUST STRUCTURE (Fig. 2, and pl. ii, fig. 1)
The mussive Witchelina quarizite outcrops vuxtensively to the north of Witchelina Station homestead. From a point approximately 17 miles north of the homestead where it is truncated abruptly by a cross. fault, the formation strikes uniformly south and displays conformable relations with its enveloping slates and limestones, The sediments dip east at a consistently high angle,
————— + interbedded
mite quertzites yess
Fig. 2 ‘The Witchelina Overthrust.
Within four miles of the homestead the quartzite flattens aml spreads in outcrop and at the same time swings castward and then back on itself until almost paralleling its origital strike. In being deflected in this manner, the formation thins out rapicly, and unduly sharply fot normal sedimentary lensitig, until it cuts out in 4 mass of large white quartz reefs in a highly shattered zone, In shearing out, the yuartzite apparently preserved its coarser bedding structure, so that on aerial photographs particular horizons within the formation can be traced almost ta the point of cut-out At the nose of the induced fold, the quartzite resumes its stevp dip cven though underlying beds haye been faulted, broken and breeciated in @ manner suggesting low angle overthrust faulting to the sosth» soulh-east.
44
The crush zone in the sole of this assumed thrust includes “‘erratic” blocks, some of them quite extensive, of dotomites, shales and quartzites, and extends for at least two or three miles transversely ta the asstmed direction of movement. The zone abounds with crush breccias, minor drag folds.and quartz recls, and from the angular nature of the brecciation there can be little doubt that the rock was consolidated at the time of movement The zone of maximum disturbance is usually less than half of one mile im width, but faults and crush zones extending into the sole of the thrust are probably complementary
TILE MOUNT NOR-WEST SINISTRAL TEAR FAULT (Fig. 3, and pl. if, fig. 1 and 2)
Sediments in the vicinity of Mount Nor-west have been deformed. into a steep regional anticline with a north-west and south-east-trending axis, The lowest formation exposed ainog the axis is the Witchelina quartzite which is overlain by the dolomite and magnesite series of the lower Adelaide system,
~ YCorpetent " massive quartzite...
and fillite, . ,
= ic, 3 Vhe Mt. Norwest Sutistral Fault,
This regional fold axis became the locus of large-scale regional faulting, and whereas the south-west limb of the fold is relatively undisturbed and stands vertically, the quartzite in the complementary limb evidences tremendous thrusting with relative movement to the south-east, Directly north of the Mount the northern limb of the quartzite was caught np on the great shear movement, and as it appears in plan, the quartzite standing on edge was “overtolded,” and secondarily thrist-faulted,
Where these various faults have been studied in the field they are obviously very steep, and in support of this, the regional “axial” fait strikes almost per-
45
tectly straight for 30 miles even though topographic relief freyuently varies several hundred feel quite rapidly, “Lhe tault instead of being “overthrist” in type is therefore more correctly labelled ‘‘sinstral.”
Adjacent to Mount Nor-west, the quartzite i ile north limb of the fold is missing over i distance of several uiiles and at first sight has che appearance of having been sheared or faulted-out Iocally, [lowever, this ts not sa, and the discontinuity is caused by a considerable degree of “dragging under” in the “oyer- fold’ structure which is not reflected very markedly in the overlying finer-grained sediments. Such selective overfolding of the quartzite has resulted in a great mashing of sediments bordering its upper face, particularly “overlying” the adlyancing aspect of the “lower” quartzile uapyie
Along the major regional fault, crushing and brecciation has been most severe where opposing limbs of quartzite are in contact. Large masses of quartzite have been “quarrierl’”? mto the broken zone, and in ene locality the fault has become a locus of dolerite intrusion, A cluster of four plugs occurs to the north of Mount Nor-west, the largest measuring some hundreds ot yards in diameter,
CALE ~~ a 4 MiLES
2 Handing ss Se Treth aeet"* Crush vane... 8° Fault... we
“Competent” quartzite. cos cccsescecy seveiunrveessve ctnameen eri” sletes & llmestone ot
*. incom
Vig. # The South [hl Nextral Vault and Dray Structures.
HE SOUTH HILL DEXTRAT. TEAR PAULT AND DRAG STRUCTURE (Fig. 4, and pl ii, fie, 2)
Several. miles south-west af Witcheling Station, in a zone of tremendous erushing, the Mount Nor-west sinistral tault splits off another steep shear to the north-east. Unlike the foregoing fault, this South Hill shear is dextral, On its western side a relatively incompetent magresite series, which dips steeply ta the north, is preserved in its entitety, while the massive Witchelina quartzite lies on its eastern aspect.
From the west, the magnesite series i8 almost undisturhed in its strike witil within about half-a-mile of the fault, froto where the beds become dragged and severcly attenuated. The drag has heen consistently to the north and the various formations haye been successively sheared off in thal direction,
46
East of the fault, the Witchelina quarizite stands vertically, and in spite of its relative ‘“competency” has been contorted into a pronounced drag fold. The quartzite did not fracture into individual blocks, bur folded perfectly in parallel manner with no thinning on the limbs of folds. As yet the attitude of the quartzite has not been determined satistactorily but evidence suggests that “face up” is away from the shear.
The South Hill fault itself is a marraw zone of very intense mashing, rarely exceeding a score or more yards in width, which includes a wide range of breceia types. ‘he shatter zone alsa extends into the core of the South Hill drag fold which consists of resistant masses of broken and niineralized slates and dolo- mites. No igneous bodies were encountered cutting either of these broken zones, but silicification was well developed about many centres.
SUMMARY AND TENTATIVE CONCLUSIONS
1 The Witchelina province lies near the margin of the ancient Flinders geo- syncline adjacent to the older Precambrian shield of Australia.
2 [t shsplays structural features which can be observed nowhere else in this upper Precambrian and Cambrian geosyncline.
2 The local sediments are lower members of the Adelaide System which locally
instance a remarkable vertical change in competency from slates, through a
massive (6,000 ivot) quartzite, into mare slates with limestones,
The relative competencies of the sedimentary members exercised a controlling
influence in the development af local structural patterns.
The sediments have been folded and faulted extensively.
Regional folcing, in part at least, preceded thrust faulting.
Thrust faulting is late or past-sediment consolidation, as brecciation pre-
domninates. along the fault zones and evidence of significant subaquvous
slumping is absent. The absence of unconformities above the thrusts also supports this, view.
8 Thrust faults in some cases followed obvious Hines of weakness, such as the axis of a steep regional anticline and the contact between competent and incompetent Tormations.
9 At least three of the regional thrust faults have large horizontal componerits, and relative movement has been to the south or south-east, apparentiy away from the inferred rising foreland of the old continental shield.
“SO in fe
(a) North of Witchelina, the Witchelina quartzite and iis associated magne- site series have over-tidden lower sedimentary members to the south. (b) The Mount Nor-west and South Hill faults appear to be complementary, enclosing a central block moving relatively to the south. The two faults lie almost at right angles and are respectively sinistral and dextral. 10 Additional regional faults are known, but their field relations have not yet been determined satisfactorily. 1) No “lubrication” ‘horizons have been met in association with any of the thrust faults, 12° The thrust structures described may constittite a case of tectonic sliding, and on present indications two major controls in deformation would appear to be; (a) Situation near the margin of the old geosyncline, In this position a rising continental foreland accompanying geosynclinal collapse wotild
increase sedimentary dip towards the centre of the hasin and finally Initiate tectonte sliding,
Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,1949 Vol, 73, Plate IT
Rie 1 The Witehelis Thrust Structure Photo looking north towards the Lake Eyre Plains. ROA ALL. phot Ne. 54, run 337 LO,
Lat. approx 30° 5S. Long. 138° UN" Fe.
Seale in foreground, approx. 45 chains ta the ineh,
Fig. 20 The South Hill Dras Strneture,
Vertical plroto from 20400 feet ROAST phote, No. 31, run a7, Jegt HNO HOF & tanow 1270-504
Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust, 140 Vol, 73, Plate TIL
-_> ~ "= - rs <n fenye | . , s-- =) ar pr oe sa e
Pig. 1 Mt. Norwest Fault, showing trumeated limls of quartzite in foreeroil, Photo looking south to Jake ‘Vorrens.
Fig. 2. The Mt. Nerwest Fault. Dark patches in centre forepround are doleritic plugs jniruding fault ernush zone. RAAT. vertical photo No. 68, rin 330.
Sep
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47
(b) The presence of a major competent formation, 6,000 feet thick, low in the sedimentary sequence, which during sliding concentrated stresses locally, to bring about severe local deformation.
REFERENCES
Mawson, D. 1942 The Structural Characters of the Flinders Ranges. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 66, (2)
Dapetes, E. C., Krumpetn, W. C., and Stoss, L. L. 1948 Tectonic Control of Lithologic Associations. Bull. A.A.P.G., 32, No. 12
Kay, M. 1947 Synclinal Nomenclature and the Craton. Bull. A.A.P.G., 32, No, 7
THE NULLARBOR CAVE SYSTEMS
BY J. M. THOMSON
Summary
The writer has organised five trips to the Nullarbor Plains (1932, 1934, 1935, 1939 and 1947) in order to study the vast cave system there.
48
THE NULLARBOR CAVES SYSTEM Ry J. M. Taomson [Read 21 July 1949]
The writer has organised five trips to the Nullarbor Plains (1932, 1934, 1935, 1939, and 1947) in order to study the vast cave system there.
The present paper details some of the results of the last expedition carried out in February 1947. Surveys by J, M, Thomson, Master Mariner, and F. E. Ellis (Licensed Surveyor). Geological Data by D. King.
Caves on the Nullarbor may be classed in two distinct types—Shallow and Deep.
Shallow caves may be again subdivided into four distinct classes according to the nature of the entrances,
(a) Those having a narrow elclt or fissure-like opening. These are usually only as deep as the upper hard crust, 60 to 70 feet, and consist for the most part of yariotts short passages, never more than a few feet wide. They nearly always contain some dead stalagniites and stalactites:
FExamples—FPlate y, fig. 1: One (unnamed), } mile north-west of White Weils Station. One, 3-7 miles north of Disappointment Cave. Mur- rioodna Cave (pl. v, fig. 2).
(b) Caves and passages leading off from the bottom and sides of Blow Holes. These are seldom more than 100 feet in length or deeper than 40 ta 60 feet. ‘They nearly always contain some dead stalactites and stalagmites.
Example—lvy Cave (see pl vy, fig, 4). Koomooloobooka Cave. Bildoolja Cave. The Catacombs (pl. iv, fig. 1),
(c) Bottleneck Caves (Blow-hole entrance).
These are always found in stony outcrops and invariably have several stunted quandong trees growing around the entrance and have been named from the fact that the interior is similar in shape to the interior of a bottle. At the base of the opening is always found the heap of mullock which ance formed the roof at this part. This heap of mullock is tiever found at the base of normal blow-holes. I have never found bottletteck caves to con- tain stalactites or stalagmites. They mostly consist of the one chamber only and rarely have passages leading off but often have inatiy small pipes a few inches in diameter leading into them at varying heights. They are generally about 40 fect deep,
Examples —Cave; one mile south of No. 3 Murrawadginie Cave. One; 4 nile north-west of No. 1 Diprose Cave, (d) Small sink-hole entrances, i.¢., with sink-holes 60 to 70 feet across and
10 to 30 feet deep, and generally having long passages leading down from the bottom of the sink hole and usually deepening to between 50 and 60 feet.
Examples—Diprose Caves. Disappointment Caves (pl, iv, fig. 3). Creck Tank Caves. Murrawidginie Caves.
Trans, Roy Soc. 73, (1)
ap
DEEP CAVIS
These have large sink-hole entrances, t.¢., sink-holes from 200 to 400 fect across, and as deep as the hard upper crust of the limestone, 60 to 80 fect. These large sink-hules are only found in the sparsely-timbered belt bordering the Nullarbor and have never yet been found actually on the Plain itself, probably because of the greater thickness of the limestone nearer the coast.
These all penetrate the hard surface crust and invariably lead down through huge passages to the water table, approximately 300 tu 340 feel, some containing large lakes of water, These, from their enormous size, are the most spectacular of the Nullarbor Caves.
Exomples—Koonalda (pl. iv, fg, 2), Warbla. Weebubbie (pl. vi, fig. 2). “KOONALDA CAVE-
bead . - re
Zs Z LYE yy YD till Ly , rl
A Description oF Koowaupa AS AN ExAmpLr or a DEEP CAVR
Matin Sinx-Hoxe (pl. iv, fig. 2)
210 fect long by 80 feet wide and 90 feet deep at its deepest part (pl. iv; fig. 2).
This sink-hole A has steep sides with overhanging lips from the north-west through west to the north-east portions the edge is slightly tilled, allowing reason- able access with a Jacoh’s ladder,
At the bottom of the sinl-hole and ar the north-west corner an opening leads down to the ‘ower chaiubers, After a descent to 200 feet a huge chamber, B (fi. 1), with domed roof is reached. This cavern is 280 feet long and 120 feet wide with the roof 100 feet high. T.ong underground passages lead from the northern and western ends of this chamber, the northern one 1,650 feet long with the root an average height of 50 feet and approximately 60 feet wide.
At 500 feet, C, a small pool of water 5 feet deep and extending 150 feet blocks the passage; then an “isthmus” 110 feet across, [allowed by a lake 475 feet long and 5 fect deep with an average width of 90 fcet.
Analysis of this water shows salinity 372 grains to the gallon total salts. This corresponds to a good sheep water, The relatively good quality of this water 1s probably influenced by recent heavy rains.
D
50
At the far end of this lake a huge fall again forms an “isthmus” 210 feet long in the form of a conical island, at its highest peak 85 feet above water level. This “isthmus” is also a fall from the roof and above it the roof is dome shaped, rising alinost to ground level.
Past this “isthmus” is a further lake 180 feet long and 40 feet wide (depth unknown, but it appears to be very deep).
Scattered along the centre and largest lake are huge boulders, fallen irom the roof, whose tops jut out above the water surface and could be very dangerous to the canocist.
480 feet along the main northern passage, near C, a passage forks off to the westward fpr 370 fect, ending in a lake of water 50 feet by 70 feet and about 10 feet deep at its farthest pomt. Analysis of this water showed salinity 493 wrains per gallon tatal salts, and the previous remarks may be applied to its freshness. The avcrage width of this passage is 90 feet and the root 40 feet high. Over the lake the roof rises and domes to 110 feet above water level.
‘The north-west passage commences at the north-west corner of the main chamber, B, at a point near the roof and continues. on for 640 feet, It is slightly undulating, the highest points being roughly 250 feet apart. This passage is roughly 30 fcet high aud between 40 and 50 feet wide. At the last high peak a steep slope of 45 degrees drops down to a narrow cat-walk barely a foot high which proceeds. through the limestone for 20 feet, ending at a narrow ledge 5 fect wide and 20 feet long.
In 1935 when we first discovered this passageway our lights would not illuminate the far side of this further cavern, but on dropping stones we found they landed im water approximately 100 feet down (E). In January 1947, when we thoronghly surveyed this cave, we discovered that the north-westera passage ended in the domed roof at the end of the western passage, commencing at (C), and that it is exactly 90 feet above water level in the end of the western passage.
This small ledge cannot be seen from ground level at the end of the western pissage.
There is a possibility that further passages lead off from the main chamber, B. in a south-westetly direction as this is indicated by the depressions above reound, but considerable removal of earth and botilders would be necessary before entrance could be obtained.
Particularly in the western passage and at about 20 feet above floor level several horizons of large nodular flints ornament the walls.
A Descripmon or THE CATACOMRAS, TYVICAL OF THE SHALLOW CAVES
J atitude 31 degrees 8 south; longitude 130 degrees 36’ cast, approximately- JJiscovered by Jones in 1880 and only partly explored,
Entrance to the Catacombs is in a stony outerep (pl. iv, fig, 1) scattered with small quandong trees, the actual entrance being a blow-hole about 3 feet in diameter and 25 feet deep. The sink-hole or depression surrounding this blow hole is 70 feet long by 35 feet wide but only LO icet deep.
After descending the blow hole a main north-west south-east passage 240 feet long by 50 feet wide is reached. The roof of this chamber is supported by a pillar 30 fect by 20 feet (it is not a Great Mite). This was described by Jones, but it appears that a very recent and quite heavy fall from the roof has blocked a considerable part of this passage which Jones penetrated.
$1
the roof 5 to 6 feet high and reaches a point 60 fcet below ground level and directions,
85 feet from the entrance hole and in an easterly direction a cross passage is reached; position C, fig. 2, running north-east and south-west. From C, we continues on. Branching off from this main passage, as is also the case from the
penetrated to D, a total distance of 150 feet. ‘This passage is 10 feet wide with
centre chamber B, are innumerable passages and cat-walks leading off in all
os, ~THE_CATACOMBS— ’ et te
at os,
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1 ; \ \ Zé { _———= cA 1 \ ‘ LOCALITY PLAN — \ 4 2 }
arene
Fig. 2 Plan of the Catacombs
Time would not permit further exploration in this cave, but we found slight evidence of drip stones, etc., and I belicve a thorough exploration of this cave might well be warranted.
12 miles north-east of the Catacombs is Kudna Rock-hole (see pl. v, fig. 2). It is really two holes capable of holding about 70 gallons of water. This was
found and named by Delisser in 1876. Jones also watered here in 1880,
4 mile south-west of the Catacombs we discovered and named Knowles Cave, which is a kidney-shaped sink-hole 1,000 feet long running north-west and south-
east. It is 100 feet deep at the north-western end and 80 feet deep at the south- eastern end. There are no branch passages from these deeper caverns,
GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE NULLARBOR CAVERNOUS LIMESTONE
BY D. KING
Summary
In the first portion of this paper the nature and environment of the Nullarbor caverns are discussed and theories put forward to explain their formation. The immense deep-seated chambers are attributed to solution of the the limestone in the zone of rock saturation below the surface of the water table, i.e., Phreatic conditions. The more numerous shallow caves, blow holes and minor sinks are related to the dual effects of solution and corrosion by precipitated surface waters making their way down to the water table — Vadose conditions. It is suggested that the caverns were for the greater part formed during the pluvial Pleistocene when the water table stood at a higher level.
52
GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE NULLARBOR CAVERNOUS LIMESTONE
Ry D, Kinet
ARSTRACT
In the first portion of this paper the nature and environment of the Nullarbor caverns are discussed atid theories put forward to explain their formation, The immense deep-seated chambers are attributed to solution of the limestone in the zone of rock saturation below the surface of the water table, ie., Phreatic conditions. The more numerous shallow caves, blow holes and minor sinks are related to the dual effects of solution and corrasion by precipitated surface waters making their way down to the water table— Vadose conditions. It is suggested that the caverns were for the greater part formed during the pluvial Pleistocene when the water table stood at a higher level,
In the stratigraphical portion uf the paper, a considerable thickness nf Upper Cretaceous bryozoal limestone is reported.
THE ORIGIN OF THE NULLARBOR CAVES
The fact that not one creek or watercourse of any consequence is met within the whole 30,000 sqtare miles of the Nullarbor Plain proper, reveals that the drainage oi the meag're rainfall of the area is cotnpletely restricted to underground waterways. The abundance and large dimensions of the caves suggest that they were developed during a highly pluvial period, and although tio direct evidence of their age was found, it is considered that they were for the greater part hollowed out during the Pleistocene, when Aust- ralia experienced a notably wet climate. Relics of an ancient river system, in the form of a stting of saline lagoons linked by partially sand-drifted de- pressions, occur in the Pidinga region on the eastern fringe of the plain, and present evidence of former high rainfall conditions,
Precipitated guriace waters, making their way downward through the limestone as vadose streams, created both erosional and solutional passages in the rock, ornamented with dripstones. At the water table, and below, solution alone was responsible for the formation of immense horizontal caverns devoid of dripstones.
The discussion of the origin of the caves thus resolves. itself into two categories.
CAVERNS OF Pureatic Ontcin
The large deep-seated caverns such as Koonalda, Weebabbic, Abra- kurrie and Warbla, ate confined to near the coast where the limestone is of greater thickness. The sinkholes of these range in depth from 60 to 100 feet. At ihe base of these sinks there are commonly found lateral passages, firstly with a down gradient and of cramped dimensions, but which pradu- ally open out into immense rounded chambers, with little or no gradient, and continue as stich for many hundreds of yards. The chambers meander, with gently rounded bends, but have a dominant north-south trend. In some cases there are off shoovs from the main caverns. The caverns end abruptly as an enlarged rounded amphitheatre.
* Department of Mines, Sotth Arstralia.
53
At a depth of 300 feet the water table is reached and below this “under- ground lakes” of perfectly clear water extend for great distances, interrupted by islands of material fallen from the roof.
The lower chalk horizon of the limestone (see stratigraphic notes) 1s extensively eaten out into such chambers. The possibility of access to them is only exceptional, necessitating the collapse of the overlying silicifed “hard crust”, and incomplete blocking of the charmbers. The writer's inter- pretation, of the structure of this type of cavern is illustrated in the accom- panying sketch. (Fig. 3).
=f, Ox
LOWER PLIOCENE
Dense stltciied? dimsestone, large sossese cages. Saraminitera ~y~macgipegera rertebretrs. Gas fropore - weed ive Fomor JOKE, ae UPPER MIDDLE MIOCENE Lease sifigtived’ frmastone. foraminiters - opercuttag Peel arr ASS.
fetcarina rercibalatea. —~—+-—-----
UPPER CRETACEOUS
Chathy Bryarceal frmestone.
Foraminttere ~ 3 eroplectadtes erhe Marssoralie erytere:
Fig 3 Sketch section showing a typical sinkhole entrance to a Nullarbor cavern, and the slratigraphical succession.
From evidence outlined below, the writer contends that these caverns were produced and enlarged under completely phreatic conditions hy solu- tion effects along major joint planes, the underground water being supple- mented by vadose streams. The periodic addition of carbonated rain water from above would greatly enhance the susceptibility of the limestone to solution, the carbon dioxide bringing about the formation of the much more soluble calcium bi-carbonate. Assuming an annual rainfall of 20 inches at the time of formation of the caves, the amount of water which fell in the course of a year on one square mile of the plain would alone he capable of dissolving some 350 cubie feet or tore of rock as calcium carbonate, or even more as bi carbonate,
54
The concentration of the solvent activity in localised places, stich as along joint planes, made possible the formation of the very large caverns. As circulation in the phreatic zone is confined to lateral drainage, which does not extend far below the water table, it may be asstimed that solutional effects on sgich a great scale as observed would only be possible just below the water table. A. C_ Swinnerton (3) has demonstrated that solution in the upper part of the water table is quantitatively adequate to perform the task demanded,
The data on which the phreatie origin of the caves is based may be summarised as follow :—
(a) The cavern floors show little or no gradient. This is well illustrated in the section of Koonalda cave. (fig. 1), neglecting the material that has fallen from the roof.
(b) The caverns have rounded cross-sections and, in general, there is no line of demarcation of roof and wall. The smooth and undulating surfaces of both toof and walls are diagnostic of solution effects. (See pl. vi, fig. 2.)
(c) The occurrence of calcite crystals and calcite encrustations on the walls and ceilings, in contrast to the absence of dripstones, has an im- portant significance. Under wholly phreatic conditions, the absence af air would eliminate the possibility of the formation of dripstones, whereas the saturated condition of the water which must occur in deep- seated more or less stagnant “circulation”, would bring about precipi tation of crystalline mineral matter while the rock material was actu- ally being dissolved.
(d) The general direction of the caverns (north-soutl) corresponds with the direction of water table drainage.
(ec) The ends. of the caverns are as sudden at their commencement as sink- holes (pl. vi, fig. 1), and are rounded out perfectly in continuity with the roofs and walls, Such a phenomenon is not in accordance with the habits of vadose streams,
The porosity of the chalky cavernous limestone, calculated to be 269, and the fall of ntaterial from the roof, would aid solutional effects in enlarging the caverns by exposing a larger surface area to attack.
At this stage a quotation from the thesis of W, M. Davis (2) would not be out of place, He says, ‘It ig proposed . .. that large caverns are ordin- arily excayated by ground water solution duting an epoch when the body of limestone in which they occur lies below the water table of its district, and the change from this epoch of solutional excavation to the following epoch of depositional replenishment takes place when the water table sinks below the cavern level in consequence of regional elevation or other effective cause .. .”,
The question arises, “What then has caused the draining of the Nullar- bor caves?”, There is no definite evidence that the plain 1g tising or has risen although there are indications in this direction. Inhabitants of Eucla say that the sea has receded gradually during the Jast generation but no scientific work has been done to verify this. The explanation of the drying out of the caves is more likely to be connected with the relative levels of the water table under changing climatic conditions. In consequence of a change from the pluvial Pleistocene to the arid present, it follows that the water table would stand at a much lower level today. The simultaneous draining of the caves and the change te arid conditions would also account
55
for the absence of dripstones in these deep chambers. ‘The collapse of the roofs with the production of sink-holes (fig 3) may have been prompted by the draining off of the water, which previously would have acted as a means of support.
The common occurrence in the ceilings of perfectly developed domes by a partial collapse of the rock material seems to be a natural means of resisting further collapse. Most domes are smooth and merge gently into the roof proper. This suggests that the rock fell during or at the decline of the phreatic phase of the cavern’s history. Enlargement of the caverns is probably going on to a minor degtee at the present time, the bottom of some being below the water table, where water accumulates as underground lakes, The extent of solution under present conditions is discussed in a later section.
Caverns or Vapose Orrcin
The origin of the numerous shallow underground passages, caves, swallow- holes and blowholes, in contrast to the large deep-seated caverns, appears. to have been dependent on corrosional and solutional effects of surface waters making their way down to the water table. The erosive action of the water would be enhanced hy suspended silty material carricd in from the surface. The walls and roofs are angular and irregular and, in general, they have a fairly steep gradient. The blowholes are olten vertical. The occurrence of dripstones in these shallower caves is evidence that they were formed hy vadose waters. The writer contends that the dripstones are mainly relics of the high rainfall period (Pleistocene?) existing when the caverns were formed. In some localised parts of the passages, at the intersection of joints and along planes of weakness afforded by the bedding, more active erosion has taken place and larger openings have heen developed. This is well illustrated in the natrow passageways of the Catacombs which occasionally open up into large chambers (fig 2.).
WATER ANALYSES
Samples of water from the surface of pools in Koonalda Cave, forwarded to the S.A.G. Department of Mines, were analysed by T. W, Dalwood of the School of Mines Assay Department. The results are tecorded below.
Koonalda Koonalda
Locality Cave Cave san risii Western Northern Water Cut Passage Passare 198 ft. Tons and Radicles (gruins per gall.) Chlorine, Cl - - - - - - - 264-95 201-60 749-43 Sulphuric acid, SO, -— - - = = 4654 30-70 145-31 Carbonic acid, CO, - - - - - 3-15 4-20 4-50 Nitric acid, NO, - = - - - - ttace trace = Sodium, Na - - = < - - 145-70 410-8 414+21 Potassium, Kf - - - - - - ~ - —_ Calcium, Ca ~- eee 1674 12-37 46-95 Magnesium, Mg - - - - = = 16-72 12-52 47-15 Silica, SiO, - - - = = - + - “ 1:90 Total saline matter (grains per gall.) - 493-80 372-19 1,409-45
Total saline matter (qunces per gall.) - 1+13 0-85 3-22
56
Assumed Composition of Salts (grains per gall.) Calcium carbonate - “ - - - 5:25 7*0) Calcrum. stiiphate - - - - - 49°66 52-51 149-43 Calcium chloride - - - - - - - rm — Magnesium curbonate - - = - - - ® — Magnesium sulphate - - - - - 14-41 9-73 49-79 Magnesium chloride 54:16 41-32 147-21 Sodium carbonate - - - - - - - — Sodium sulphate - - - - - - - - — Sodium chloride - - 370-32 281-63 1,053*f2 Sodium nitrate - - - - - - trace trace — Silica - - - - - - - - 6 - 1-90
‘ ' i} t !
The low lime content may be partly explained by the fact that the samples were taken after local heavy rains, and sufficient time may not have elapsed for appreciable solution of the limestone to have taken place. Nevertheless, samples fram bores on the Nullarbor Plain have shown a simular low figure for lime. The analysis of water from the chalk horizon in Muddaugana Bore quoted by Ward (4) has been listed for comparison...
The conclusion is reached that ander (he existing arid conditions, a sufficient influx of carbonated surface waters essential for the large scale solution of the limestone is lacking, and consequently, the excavation of the caverns at the present time is restricted to almost negligible proportions.
CAVE EARTTIS
The floorg of the eaves are covered with a thick Jayer of red-brown clayey soil, pattly residual, and partly washed in from the plain, as well as large heaps of fragmentary limestone fallen from the roof. Other mineral matter is uncommon and the following only occur locally.
Glauber’s Salty—Efflorescent crusts of Glauber’s Salts occur on the floor of certain passages of Koonalda Cave. The deposits are several feet thick. The lower portions are crystalline but promptly fall into powder on exposure to air.
But Guano—A small sinkhole about one mile south east of Koonalda Cave contains abundant bat guano oozing out of fissures in the walls. The material is almast black in colotr, moist and sticky where broken, and of an unpleasant odour. The outside surlace of the guano is smooth and polished, On drying, it becomes imuch harder and brittle. The occurrence suggests that it oozed along the fissures and down the walls of the depres- sion at reduced viscosity, in the presence of abundant water. There are considerable amounts of ligncous matter, mainly twigs, included ity the guano. A qualitative chemical test showed the presence of phosphate.
Gypsum—Long fibrous ctystals of gypsum commonly radiate from the flint nodules in the walls of most of the deeper cayes. The mineral was restricted to this occurrence.
Ochre—Nodules of soft powdery red-brown hydrated iron oxide oecur in some parts of the limestones. They may represent a leached residual. There are only a few isolated oceurrences of the ochre, best seen at Watbla Cave.
Carphosiderite—Minute yellow stains of this mineral are present in the lower horizon of Weebabhie Cave. The carphosiderite was determined by chemical spot tests. (The test was carried out because of its resemblance 1o carnotite stains).
KY
STRATIGRAPHY
The horizontal undisturbed Jimestones of the Nullarbor Plain cover more than eighteen thousand (18,000) square miles at South Australian territory, and extend mto W.A,, north of the Great Australian Bight, The thickness as observed from water boring varies from five hundred tq seven hundred feet, the basin becoming shallower land. They overlie lacustrine sedi- ments, including lignite, and Precambrian granites and gneisses,
An upper “hard crust " of silicified limestone from 40 to 60 feet thick, with abtindant casts of fossil shells (pl. vi, fg. +) abruptly passes down imto a soft white chalky horizon which continues down to a depth of at least 300 feet, In the upper horizons (100 to 150 feet) the chalk contains abun- dant echinvids (Cassidulus sp.). Ata depth of 150 to 200 feet Notestrea are cammon. Below this there are no large fossils. Thin horizons of nodular flints, clongated horizontally, and with longer axes measuring up to several feet, occur in the chalk at depths of 105, 140, 190 and 220 feet. The chalk has been the most susceptible to solution effects and the collapse of the overlying “hard crust” under gravily has given rise to sink lioles,
Samples of the limestones were collected at regular depth intervals. ‘T\wenty-six thin sections were prepared by the writer and forwarded {o Miss 1. Crespin, Commonwealth Palaeontologist, for determination of age rela- tions. Detailed work on zonal foraminifera carried cut by Miss Crespin provided most interesting results, Of particular importance is the discov- ery that the lower chalk is of Upper Cretaceous age.) Previously the lime- stone had been referred to Tertiary times only,
The sttface limestones apparently belong to two series, the Lower Pliocene and the Upper Middle Miocenc, and can be correlated with parts of the sections of the Adelaide Flains. Miss Crespin believes that the Lower Pliocene limestones represent a deeper water facies of the “Adelaidcan" which she is naw convinced is Lower Phocene, (but not Kalimnan) and which extends as far north as North West Cape in Western Australia. The chalky limestones from the caves are Upper Cretaceous, several well-known zonal foraminifera being noted in them. The nearest known Upper Crcta- ccous deposits are at Gin Gin in Western Australia.
Miss Crespin's correlation is outlined as under: (Report No, 1947/68).
The limestones came from three caves on the Nullarbor Plains, the Koonalda, the Abrakurrie und the Weebabbie, and from the surface erst in the vicinity of the caves. The surface samples are labelled Sl, 52 and S3, and were co'fected from the surface down to a depth of 10 feet.
1, Lower Purocenr (“Adelaidean")--0-10 ft. in thickness.
Si and S3 are hard, dense, pink to cream-coloured limestones containing furaminifera. Marginopora verlebralis is common and is associated with Sarites mearginalis, Malvulina sp., Jilintina triquetra, Triloculina tricarinata atid Discorbis evcloclypeus, all of which are typical of the Lower Phocene (“Adelaidean”) of South Austrilia. The common (“Adelaidean”) gastropod Neodiastoma provist is also present itt S3.
2 Uerree Minn. Miocene—S0-90 ft. in thickness.
Sample $2 is a hard, dense, dark cream-coloured limestone with numerous lyghter patches of the caleareous alga Lithothammium ramoassisimum. Numerous foraminifera are present in the rock, the commonest forms being Operculina wictoriensis and Calcaring vercibulata, Racer forms are Gypsma howchint and
~ ©) Later field investigations by the present wriler, how ever, stiggest that the chalky lunestone is of Middle Miocene age.
58
Crespinella umbonifera, This assemblage is typically Miocene and has recently been found at the top of the Miocene and immediately underlying the Lower Pliocene in bores in the Adelaide Plains. Present information suggests that this assemblage represents the uppermost portion of the Middle Miocene.
3 Upper CrETAcEouUsS—at least 200 ft. in thickness.
The samples from the Koonalda Cave (C5-C9, C11, C13, C16-C19) were collected from the depth of 60 feet down to 300 feet, those from the Abrakurrie Cave (M5, M6, M8) from 150 feet down to 240 feet, and from the Weebabbie Caye (W10, W16) from 100 feet down to 290 feet. Except for C5 from the Koonalda Cave. which is a crystalline limestone of indeterminate age, all samples from the three caves consist of chalky white bryozoal limestones of Upper Cretaceous age, The limestones contain foraminifera and radiolaria, an associa- tion which is frequently found in rocks of Cretaceous age in Australia. The Zonal foraminifera recognised are Spiroplectotdes clotho, Marssonella oxycona and Globotruncana sp. Other typical species are Guembelina globulosa and Globigerina cretacea, Small rotalines are common but are difficult to determine in thin section. The radiolaria all belong to the Spumellarian group.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer wishes to express thanks to Captain J. M, Thomson for the invita- tion to accompany him on the expedition to the Nullarbor Plain, and to Sir Douglas Mawson for the use af facilities at the University of Adelaide for the preparation of rock sections,
REFERENCES 1 Cresrin, Miss I 1947 Notes on Samples of Limestones from the Nullarbor Plains, South Australia. Report No, 1947/68—Unpublished (1947)
2 Davis, W. M. 1930 Origin of Limestone Caverns. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 41
3 Swryverton, A. C. 1932 Origin of Limestone Caverns. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 43
4 Warp, L. K. 1946 The Occurrence, Composition, Testing and Utilization of Underground Water in South Australia, and the Search for Further Supplies. Geol. Surv. of S. Aust., Bull, 23
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AN OLD MANGROVE MUD-FLAT EXPOSED BY WAVE SCOURING AT GLENELG, SOUTH AUSTRALIA
BY BERNARD C,. COTTON
Summary
On 17 June 1949 Mr H. M. Cooper drew my attention to an old mangrove mud-flat recently exposed by wave scouring. The site is situated between Broadway and Weewanda Street, Glenelg, and extends for a distance of about a quarter of a mile. At low tide the mangrove flat is exposed from almost the water’s edge for a distance of some twenty yards up the beach, and then follows an old quartzite pebble beach some three yards in average width, and then fine sand of the present beach.
9
AN OLD MANGROVE MUD-FLAT EXPOSED BEY WAVE SCOURING AT GLENELG, SOUTH AUSTRALIA
Ly Bernarp C. Corton* [Read 11 August 1949]
On 17 June 1949 Mr. H. M. Cooper drew my attention to an old mangrove mud-flat recently exposed by wave scouring. The site is situated between Broad- way and Weewanda Street, Glenelg, and extends for a distance of about a quarter of a mile. .At low tide the mangrove flat is exposed from almost the water's edge for a distatice of some twenty yards up the beach, and then follows an ald quartzile pebble beach some three yards in average width, and then fine sand of the present beach.
Dead trunks, roots and pneumatophores of the mangrove, dwvicennia offictnals are to be seen in numbers planed off Jevel with the mud surface by gentle tidal action, leaving sections exposed, Numerous dead shells are embedded in the mud in their living position. They are species similar to those found at the Port River mangrove flats today. The bivalves are Macoma deltoidalis, Macoma modestina, Venerupis crebrelamellata, Penerupis crenata, Soletellina biradiata, Enmarcia fiusmigata, Notospisida parva, Pholas australasiag and Noto- feredo edax. Gastropods are Bembicinm imbricatum, Zeacumanius diomenensis, Ausirocochlea sebra, Selinator fragilis, Uber conicum, Fhasianella anstralis, Jn addition to these there are reef shells such as Cleidotheerus albidus, Ostrea sinuata, Brachyodontes erosus, Cominella eburnca, Trichomya hirsuta and Melanerita melanotragus. The reet shells apparently attached to or lived upon the hard sandstone capping, two or three inches thick, found in patches on top of the black mud. Odd samples of the sandstone are covered with young dead “Port Lincoln” oysters of the species mentioned above. Dvad specimens of the “shipworm’ Nototeredo eda are fond in practically every mangrove slump examined,
Certain species of mollusca found im sift are larger than present-day livmg specimens, Bembricium imbricatum averages over twice the bulk of livmg examples, Austrocochlea zebra is taller and the mussel Brachyodontes is consistently slightly Jarger. Mangrove flats thronghottt Australia have a similar fauna and show little alteration in different faunal regions, except that produced by lower temperatures. The result is that the large species of the North are missing m the South, and even the apecies common to all mangrove areas become smaller in cooler waters. Therefore it is logical to expect that the mangrove mud-flat here exposed enjoyed a slightly warmer climate in its day, Mangroves are gradually retreating north in Gulf St. Vineet, Whereas there is every indication from fatal studies that the mangrove lived until.a comparatively short time ago on both sides of the present beach sand dune us far sunt as Port Noarlunga, it has now retreated north to the region of the Outer Harbour mud-flats. Here within the last twenty years silting has killed them Gyer most of the large area which is shortly to be reclaimed for harbour works.
The recently exposed site was rapiilly desiccated by tidal action, Tt was first examined on 17 June. On 19 June tt was partly covered by weed ( Pasi- dona). By 24 June the pebble recf was mostly covered with sand over its full length, and the sand has already thinly covered a large portion of the man- rrove flat.
*Sonth Austratian Museum. Trains Roy Soc. 73, 1)
40
By August 13th the scoured area was almost entirely covered with a smooth Jayer of fine sand like that so typical of Adelaide beaches.
It was ascertained by digging on 3 Vebruary 1950 that a minimum average ol twenty inches of sand covered this site.
‘Nhe shells could not remain in situ very long when exposed for a weel aiter 17 June. They were already being washed out of the soft black mud. A fisher- man, Mr, F. Page, says that a small purtion of mangrove flat, about 50 yards long and 20 yards wide, was exposed in front of Weewanda Street in January 1949.
Pebind the present sand-dunes, in the area known as New Glenelg, fresh water is struck at about 12 feet in a quartzite pebble bed, which is situated at about the same Jevel as the quartzite bed of the beach. This pebble bed evidently cartlinues almost to the foot of the old red sandhills, which stretch from Somerton tu Glenely in an almost uninterrupted sequence and are exposed near Brighton Koad, Sacred Heart College, and at the corner of the College playing fields near Walker's Road. ‘The western edge of the red sand-dunes runs north and south and a little west of Moseley Street. They were merely low ridges about 15 feet in maximum height, but buillings, roads and other influences have now obliterated traces in most areas. In June 1948 scouring took place at Brighton, and the surface sand was removed io a depth of four feet, exposing in places the top of the black mul, The vertebrae and rits of a whale skeleton were revealed in situ. The dis- covery was reported by Mrs. IE. M, Nairn of Rrighton, The Director of the Sout Australian Museum, Mr, H. M. Hale, identified the skeleton, which is in a poor state of preservation. as a whale-bone whale, probably a hump-back. It is possilie that the skeleton is contemporary with the mangrove fiat. It is suggested that the mangrove flat and quartaite reef may be con- temporary with the oll red sandhills. Te is difficult to decide whether the pebbles are of coastal origin or indicate an old opening of the Sturt River. The uceurrence of cross-béidded red sandstone typical of the Adelaide system favours an origin consistent with sea-shore transportation as rocks of this group outcrop in the sea-cliff regions from Marino South, Such rocks do not outcrop in the yalley of the River Sturt.
It is interesting to note that. a sketch of this area by Colonel Light in about 1836 depicts the beach pretly well as at present, the coastal dunes probably bound with trne spinifex (Spinifex hivsutus), Olearia and other dune vegetation, as they are today. The dunes are 250 yards wide and up to 30 to 50 fect in height, sloping to high water level towards sea. Streets and buildings now cover portion of rhe immer edge of what is really an unbroken dune ridge.
A test bore shows mangrove mud to be about two Feet in thicktess followed try glauconitic clay, then sand, but no rock. This suggests that the mangroves fluurished for only a comparatively short period.
lt may be that the tmuotial scouring of the beach in this area first commenced when the artificial projection of the Broadway sea-wall was built in 1928, The liattom of this sea-wall is just below high-tide mark, The scouring was strongly accentuated during a heavy sea in April 1948 when IT,M-A.S. “Bareoo,” survey irigate, was driven ashore at Glenelg Nerth. From then on the scouring con- tinued for about twelve months, exposing the first small portion of mangrove flat in Janvary 1949, mentioned by F. Page.
Mr. A. G. Edytist kindly directed my attention to the sequence of strata exposed in a recently excavated drainage well, Situated on a property in Farrell Streei at about 200 yards from high tide mark, the excavation has reached a depth of six Teet. The uppermost layer is of black swamp silt which may have heen
61
originally dune sand and vegetation, and is about twelve inches in thickness. Next follows a limestone band, six inches thick, apparently contemporary with that of the oyster bed in the mangrove flat.
Beneath this is two feet of yellow sand, Under the sand is about six inches of light coloured mud and sand in which is an abundance of Coxiella shells similar to those found in such quantity in the Coorong and around inland salt lakes,
Beneath is the black mud of the mangrove swamp with the cockle Katelysia and other marine shells of the mangrove suite.
This sequence, situated in the swale behind the present beach-dunes, presents an interesting contrast to the wave-scoured site on the beach front.
Some years ago a fresh water swamp existed here which accounts for the black swamp-silt resting above the limestone. The fine yellow sand beneath the limestone may be beach dune-sand. The Coxiella mud suggests a salt-lake with changing salinity as these molluscs flourish in changing salt concentrations, from water salter than the sca to almost fresh. Beneath this is the mangrove mud-flat.
On 9 February 1950 a similar though smaller site at Ilenley Beach, just north of the River Torrens outlet, was brought to my notice by Mr. C. V. Fischer. He states that the scouring was first observed about April 1948, with which date the heavy scouring at Glenelg corresponds.
H, M. Cooper intends to describe later some of the native stone implements and other material discovered by him on the site.
CoNCLUSION
The mangrove mud-flat recently exposed by wave-scouring flourished for a short period from, say, one thousand to three thousand years ago when the climate was a little warmer, and may have been contemporary with the old red sand- hills. The mangroves were comparatively quickly exterminated by sand-silting. This process is now proceeding at the Outer Harbour, and has previously killed the mangroves which once grew as far south as Port Noarlunga.
FOSSIL OYSTERS USED FOR ROAD METAL
BY BERNARD C. COTTON
Summary
Deposits of fossil oysters occur in certain areas near the River Murray. The photograph on pl. viii, fig. 2, shows oysters from an excavation made near the Swan Reach — Loxton road about two miles north of Swan Reach. The area so far dug out is about 50 feet in diameter and the sides display a compact mass of oysters, Ostrea sturtiana Tate (? = O. arenicola Tate), 15 feet in thickness and extending to within twelve inches of the surface which is of travertine limestone. The matrix becomes harder at the base, so that excavations have not beeen continued deeper than 15 feet. The oyster bed apparently continues further down. From a superficial examination it seems probable that the deposit may extend for at least three miles inland from the Murray River, the present site being within a hundred yards of the Murray cliffs. It was not observed on the face of the cliffs at this point as they are difficult of access and the normal section may have been covered by earth or sand falls.
62 FOSSIL OYSTERS USED FOR ROAD METAL
By Berwarp C, Corton *
Deposits of fossil oysters occur in certain areas near the River Murray.
The photograph on pl. viii, fig. 2, shows oysters from an excavation made near the Swan Reach- Loxton road about two miles north of Swan Reach. The area so far dug out is about 50 feet in diameter and the sides display a compact mass of oysters, Ostrea sturtiana Tate (? = O. arenicola Tate), 15 feet in thick- ness and extending to within twelve inches of the surface which is of travertine limestone. The matrix becomes harder at the base, so that excavations have not been continued deeper than 15 feet. The oyster bed apparently continues further down. From a superficial examination it seems probable that the deposit may extend for at least three miles inland from the Murray River, the present site being within a hundred yards of the Murray cliffs. It was not observed on the face of the cliffs at this point as they are difficult of access and the normal section may have heen covered by earth or sand falls.
Among the millions of oysters exposed only a few other Pliocene Molluscs were noted, There were two impressions of Proxichione cognata Pritchard, a Mimachlamys antiaustralis Tate and what may have been a Multhoidea hora Cotton, The common Gastropod of the Lower Pliocene (Adelaidean) Neadia- stoma provisi Tate was not seen during the brief examination. The oysters are being dug out im order ta surface about ten miles of the adjacent Swan Reach - Loxton Road and specimens spread on the road directly from the deposit are shown on pl. viii, fig. 2. It will be noticed that the shells vary from the narrow shliape of O. stwrttana which occurs in “the upper part of the River Mur- ray cliffs from Overland Corner to beyond Blanchetown” (Tate), to the rounder QO. grenicola Tate described from the “Upper Beds at Aldinga’ regarded as Lower Pliocene. A similar variation may be seen in the living Ostrea sinuata Lamarck or Port Lincoln Oyster. Another oyster bed of the same age is to be seen at Loxton at and below river level, exposed in the Murray cliffs in the new Engineering and Water Supply pumping station cutting. In this exposure occur Ostrea sturtiana Tate, Plebidonax depressa Tate, both originally described from the “oyster beds at Nor’-west Bend, River Murray,” Tylospira morwicki Finlay and Glycymeris (Tucetidla) rota Cotton from the ‘‘Adelaidean” and Uber balteatelium Tate, and Anapella variabilis Tate, both described from the Upper Beds at Halletts Cove and all common species of the Adelaidean and also Leiopyrga quadricingulata Tate and Cucullaea praelanga Singleton from the Upper Beds of Muddy Creek, all belonging to the Lower Pliocene. There is a large vertebra of a whale amongst the material examined from the Loxton site.
* Palacontologist, Department of Mines. Trans Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949
‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1949 Vol, 73, Plate VII
Fig. 1 Mangrove-flat looking north, showing the sea-wall projection at Broadway (top right), the sea, mangroye-flat, quartzite pebbles and present sand,
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1949 Vol. 73, Plate VIII
Macowa deltoidalis Humarcia -fumigeta
Zeacumantus _ diemencnsis
4
eden bering in
; atelysia Austrocochles 2ebra Vangroves,
perond
Cavetidens
Coulnelia eburnes
Brachyodontes erosus
Fig. 1
Suite of shells from mangrove flat.
SOME NEMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN HOSTS, TOGETHER WITH A NOTE ON RHABDITIS ALLGENI
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND PATRICIA M. MAWSON
Summary
The nematodes examined for this report are recent additions to the helminth collection in the Zoology School of the University of Adelaide. They were, unless otherwise acknowledged, collected by the senior author. Included in the paper are references to some genera and species of Australian nematodes discussed recently by C. C. Kung (1948).
63
SOME NEMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN HOSTS, TOGETHER WITH A NOTE ON RHABDITIS ALLGENI
By T, Harvey Jonwnston and Parricra M. Mawson* [Read 11 August 1949]
The nematodes examined for this report are recent additions to the helminth collection in the Zoology School of the University of Adelaide, They were, unless otherwise acknowledged, collected by the senior author. Included in the paper are references to some genera and species of Australian nematodes dis- cussed recently by C. C. Kung (1948).
Types of the new species are being deposited in the South Australian Museum, We desire ta acknowledge assistance in regard to material from Messrs. V. Haggard, Director of the Adelaide Zoological Gardens; G. G, Jaensch and L, Ellis of Tailem Bend; H. M, Cooper of the South Australian Museum; Bruce Shipway of the C.S.LR.O., Western Australia; M. Blackburn, Fisheries Division, C.S.L.R,O.; as well as Dr, P, O. Flecker and Mr. J. Wyer of the North Queetisland Naturalists’ Club, Cairns.
The work was carried out in connection with the Commonwealth Research Grant to the University of Adelaide,
LIST OF ITIOSTS AND PARASITES FisH ARACANA FLAVIGASTER (Gray), Capillaria sp., Glenelg, S, Aust. Pacrosomus auratus Bloch. Cucwllanellus sheardi J. and M., Outer Harbour, S. Aust, OFPHTHALMOLEPIS LINEOLATUS C. and V. Cucullanellus sheardi J. and M., Kan- garoo Island, S. Aust. Lovetria sEALit (Johnston). Stomachus marinus L., Tasmania.
AMPHIBIA
Hyia Peroni (Bibron) Tschudi. Oswaldocruzia limnodynastes Johnston and Simpson, Strathalbyn, 5. Aust. Physaloptera confusa J. and M. (larval stage), Tailem Bend, S. Aust.
LiIMNODYNASTES TASMANIENSIS Gunther. Physaloptera confusa J. and M., larval stage, Tailem Bend, S$. Aust.
Birps
Poptcers cristatus Linn. Cupillaria sp.; and Contracaecum podicipitis n.sp., Tailem Bend, S. Aust.
AMNAs suPERciILIosA Gmelin. Tetrameres fissispina (Dies.), Tailem Bend, S. Aust.
MamMMaLcs
Potorous tTripactyLus (ApPIcALis) Kerr. Ausivestrongylus potoroo n, sp.; and Labiostrongylus eugenti J. and M., King Island, Bass Strait, Tasmania.
MAcropus TASMANIENSIs Le Souef. Labiostrongylus longispicularis Wood, Tas- mania.
Macrorus ocynromus Gould, Dtpetalonema roemeri (Linst.), South-western Australia.
Macropus acitts Gould. Lahiostrongylus insularis (J. and M.); Cloacina digi- tata J. and M.; and Dipetalonema raemeri (Linst,), all collected by Dr. P. Flecker from Brooklyn Station, Cairns district, North Queensland,
*University of Adelaide. Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 72
64
Bos Taurus L, Ontchecerca gibsoni Clel, and Jnstn., North-eastern S, Aust.
Rattus Norvecicus Erxl, Trichosomoides crassicauda Bellingham; Cepillaria hepatica (Banecr.); Protospirura muris Gmelin; and Syphacia obvelata (Rud.), Adelaide, 5S. Aust.
Rarrus ratrus Linn. Cupileria hepatica (Baner.); Protospirura mauris and Swphacia obvelata (Rud.), Adelaide, S. Aust.
Mus muscurus Linn. <Aspicylaris tetraptera (Nitzsch); Protespirura muris (Gmel.) ; and Capilaria hepatica Bancr., Adelaide, S. Aust,
Lerus cunrcutus Linn, Trichostrongylus retortacformis (Zed.); Graphidium strigosum (Duj,); and Passalurus ambiguus (Rud.), from various South Australian localities.
CAPILLARIA spp,
Collections of Capillaria spp. were made from two hosts. In both cases the data available were not sufficient to identify the species. As both are new host records for the gents, the available morphological points are noted below:
(1) Capillaria sp. from Podiceps cristatus, Tailem Bend, One male present, 10:1 mm. in length, Ratio between oesophageal and intestinal regions 1:1-12, Spicule 11 mm. long, sheath not spinose, but spirally striated. Sheath is extruded in the only specimen, and the bursa, if present, was not observed.
(2) Capillaria sp. from the cowfish, Aracana flavigaster, from Glenelg, 5. Aust. Material consists of one whole male and one part, the Jength of the whole specimen being 6*1 mm., and the ratio of the anterior and posterior parts of the body being 1:0°85. The “bursa” consists of two small lobes posterior to the cloaca. The spicule is -13 mm. long,
CAPILLARIA HEPATICA (Bancroft)
The characteristic lesions caused by this species, together with its eggs, have been foutd in Rattus ratius, R. norvegicus, and Mus musculus in the Adelaide district. The parasite had not been recorded previously as occurring in South Australia.
TRICHOSOMOIDES CRASSICAUDA (Bell)
This parasite was found in the bladder of laboratory-bred white rats, Rattus norvegicus yar. in Adelaide, It has already been recorded by one of us from Eastern Australia.
Austrostrongylus potoroo n.sp. (fig. 1-5)
Numerous coiled reddish to colourless Trichostrongyle worms were taken from the intestine of a rat-kangaroo, Potorous tridactylus (apicelis), from King Island, Bass Strait. The animal was sent to us by the Adelaide Zoological Gar- dens. Both male and female worms are 3 to 3-4 mm. in length. The cervical cuticle is dilated and marked with annular striations, the rest of the body cuticle being smooth except for two narrow (lateral) and two wide (dorsal and ventral) longitudinal bands which aré transversely striated, These hands become narrower and tend to disappear towards the end in both sexes. The buccal capsule is distinct, the eversible dorsal tooth occupying most of the cavity. Two very small ventral teeth are present. The oesophagus is about -28 mm. long.
The spicules of the male are *21-:25 mm. long, The gubernaculum is poorly chitinised. As it proved impossible to obtain a view of the bursa with the lobes spread open, the symmetry of this structure has not been established, but in lateral views right and left lobes appear similar, The form of the rays is shown in fig. 5
65
The vulva of the female is 24 mm. anterior to the tip of the tail. Behind this the body narrows rapidly to a finely pointed tail, -15 mm, in length, The eggs in the vagina are 40u by 70.
The species apparently differs from others of the genus in the form of the dorsal ray, which was constant in all the specimens examined, and in the more backward position of the vulva, The specific name proposed is the native name for this small marsupial.
OswaLpocruzIaA LIMNODYNASTES Johnston and Simpson (fig. 6-7)
This species, originally recorded from Linnedyastes dorsalis from Adelaide, has now been recognised from Hyla peroni from Strathalbyn, collected by Miss L. M. Angel. The material consists of one female, one whole male and one broken male. These agree in general features with the original description, but
E
66
two minor variations have been noted ; firstly the shape of the dorsal ray in which the terminal bifurcation occurs nearer the root, and secondly, chitinisation in the cephalic region. This latter is in the form of a dorsal and a ventral “porose” plate, lying in the inflated cuticle. The structure was seen only in the male specimen; the anterior end of the female is greatly contracted so that observa- tion is in any case difficult. No mention of such chitinisation has been met with in the literature available, although it is probably a development of the “vesicular structure” noted by Morishita (1926, 14) in the inflated cervical cuticle of mem- bers of the genus. These twa differences occurring as they do in only one specimen, are not considered sufficient evidetice to indicate another species.
Figures 6 and 7 illustrate these points.
TRICHOSTRONGYLUS RETORTAEFORMIS (Zeder) Not uncommon in rabbits collected in the vicinity of Adelaide.
GRAPHIDIUM stricosuM (Duj.) Found occasionally in the stomach of South Australian rabbits,
The genus Lapiostronevius Yorke and Maplestone
Tt has been suggested by Kung (1948, 105) that the genus Lubiostrongylus ¥. and M,, 1926, was erroneously synonymised with Zoniolaimus Cobb by us (1939, 123), On re-examination of the evidence, we are in agreement with Kaing’s view.
LaBIOSTRONGYLUS EUGENT (J. and M.)
From Potorous tridactylus, King Island. Numerous worms were found ia the stomach of a rat-kangaroo which reached us by courtesy of the Director of the Adelaide Zoological Gardens. They agree generally with L. exgenii, differing slightly in the more forward position of the accessory lobes on the submedian lips.
LABIOSTRONGYLUS INSULARIS (J. and M.)
From the stomachs of the northern wallabies, Macrapus (Wallabia) agilis from the Cairns district, North Queensland, collected by Dr. P. Flecker. Pre- viensly known only from M. welsbyi from Stradbroke Island, Southern Queens- land.
CLOACINA DIGITATA J. and M,
From the stomach of Macropus agilis, Cairns district, North Queensland, collected by Dr. P. Flecker. Previously known from M. dorsalis, Burnett River, Queensland..
The genus ZonroLarmus Cobb 1898
Tn a recent paper Kung (1948) suggested that three species placed by us under the genus Buccostrongylus J. and M. (1939, 140; 139a, 526-7) should be referred more correctly te Zoniolaimus Cobb, These species are B. australis B, buccalis, and &. labiatus, of which the first was cited by us as the type species of Buccostrongylus, We agtee with Kung that the latter genus is therefore synonymous with Zontolatmus Cobb. Buecostrongylus setifer, subsequently described by ug (1939a, 527), from Macropus ruficallis becomes Zoniolaimus Setifer (J. and M,), but as this name is preoccupied by Z, setifera Cobb 1898 (with which it is not conspecific) a new name, 2. chactophorus is proposed for it,
ZONIOLAIMUS LONGISPICULARIS (Wood) This stont nematode has been identified from material collected from the Forester kangaroo, Macropus tasmanienus, near Ross, Tasmania, and sent {o tis im 1947 by the Tasmanian Museum, We had previously reported it as
67
occurring in that State (J. and M., 1940, 469) but s10 locality was mentioned. The parasite is known to occur in wallabies of kangaroos in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Central Australia, North-western Aus- tralia and Tasmania (Jolinston and Mawson 1938, 268-9),
Contracaecum podicipitis n. sp. (fig. 8-10)
A small collection of worms from a crested grebe, Podiveps cristatus, taken at Tailem Bend, was found to be referable to this large genus of nematodes.
Malcs and females up to 25 mm. in length were present, The head is shorter than wide, Each lip bears two lateral flanges; in the midlength of each flange is a well-defined indentation (fig. 8, 9). There are no denticles. The interlabia are very shart, The oesophagus is 1:4°8 of the body length; the oesophageal appendix and intestinal caecum are 1:3 and 1:173 respectively of the length of the oesophagus.
In the male, the spicules are 31 mm. long, 1: 6°5 of the body length. There are at least 34 pairs of preanal papillae, but only two small postanal pairs were seen (fig. 10).
The presence of very short interlabia is somewhat unusual in the genus Contracaccum, In the literattire available to us the bird-parasitic species described as having this character are C. ovale (Linst.) from Podiceps cristaius, C, prae- striatum Minnig from Podiceps capensis, and C. torgnatum Yamaguti from Larus canus. The present specimens differ from C. torquatwm in the absence of labial denticles, and from C. ovale atid C. praestriatum in the shape of the lips and in the greater length of the spicules,
CUCULLANELLUS SHEARDI J. and M.
This species appears to be common in fish in Australian waters (J. and M. 1944, 64; 1945, 116). It is now recorded from Ophthalmolepis lineolatis trom Kangaroo Island and Pagrosomus auratus from Outer Harbour, both caught by H. M, Cooper,
TETRAMERES FISSISPINA (Diesing) (fig. 11-19)
Adult males and females and young worms, agreeing in most features with Tetrameres fissispina, were taken from the black duck, Anas superciliosa, at Tailem Bend. As this widely spread parasite has not previously been recorded from a native bird in Austrada, a description of the present specimens is given hete..
There are, as indicated in the more recent descriptions of the species, two trilobed lateral lips, not three lips as in older accounts. The buccal capsule is barrel-shaped in the female, more cylindrical in the male.
The females ate from 1-7 mim. ta 2-0 mm. in length, and from -4 toe 1-4 mun. in width, according to the number of eggs present. On the female there are no spines except the cervical papillae which are ~22 mm. from the anterior end and lie just in Front of the nerve ring in a specimen 2 mm. long, The buccal capsule is 30p long, and 23, in internal diameter at its midlength. The tail, -1 mm. long in a female 1-7 mm, in length, ends in a simple point. The vulva is -2 mm. in fromt of the anus. Most of the smaller specimens have been damaged during collection, so the form of the reproductive organs has not been studied, The éggs measure 20u by 30p.
The males are from 2°8 to 4°2 mm, in lengih, Anteriorly the lateral alae may give the appearance of cordons as noted hy Wehr (1933), The “long bifid spines” on each side mentioned by some attthors (Sewrat; Canavan) appear to be,
68
14
‘5 mm.
69
The body spines commence at the level of the posterior end of the vestibule and are arranged in four sublateral rows, These continue past the midlength of the body, and then become sinaller and more sparse. The dorsolateral spines dis- appear in the hinder part of the body but the ventrolaterals become larger and more numerous, forming two rows of preanal papillae. Poslanally there are five pairs of submedian and three pairs af lateral papillae (fig. 13). The tail ends in 2 small highly cuticularised pomt. ‘The spicules are -li to -15 mm. aad 3-45 mm, in length respectively.
Several very young worms, in the early fifth stage, are present. They are from -95 to 1°4 mm, in length, The cuticle is without annulations or spines except for the large trifid cervical papillae +] mm. from the head. The lateral alae are present, though very narrow, and extend from the head to the anus- The tail is -12 mm. long, and a pair of elongate caudal papillae lie 704 hehind the anus, The tail ends in a pyriform “tail piece” (fig. 18), an exaggerated form of the caudal tip of the adult male. The vestibule is cylindrical, 10. tong and 8 wide. The excretory pore is about 50p behind the cervical papillae. As some- times occurs in young worms, a pair of lateral papillae are present at abont a third of the body length from the tail (fig. 19}. Three fourth stage larvae are also present, These are easily distinguished from the fifth stage by the form af the caudal extremity which ends bluntly about 80p behind the anus, the extremity being surrounded by about twelve large spines. The body length 1s 1°2-1-4 mm,, the cervical papillae are hardly distinguishable, and the latera) alae scarcely developed. There is a pair of large caudal papillae, 70” from the posterior end of the body, that is, in a similar position to those in the young fifth stage, but very much larger. We have referred to these two stages as fifth and fourth respectively, rather than fourth and third, since they were found in the iritestine of the definitive host.
Oncrocerca ctpsonr Cleland and Johnston Mr. L. Reese. of Miranda Station in the far north-eastern portion of South Australia and adjacent ta the Queensland border, informed the senior author that this “nodule worm” parasite occurred in the brisket of locally bred cattle. This is the first record of the occurrence of the parasite in this State, apart from infections in Abattoirs. cattle from Queensland.
Prvsatoprera conrusa J. and M.
The larval stage, enclosed in its typical heavily pigmented black cyst has been found in Limnodynastes tasmanicnsis and Hyla peroni from Tailem Bend, South Australia,
Protospirura MuRIS (Gmelin)
From Rattus norvegicus, R, ratins and Mus musculus in the vicinity of Adelaide, Already reported by one of us as occurring in these hosts in Eastern Australia-
DireTALONEMA RoEMERI {Linst.)
Mr. Bruce Shipway, of the C.S.LR.O, in Perth, forwarded specimens of this Filariid species from kangaroos, Macropus acydromus, from the south- western region of Western Australia. This grey kangatoo is closely related to M. major, which has a very wide distribution in Australia. Mr. Shipway reported finding it in about 60% of the Western Australian kangaroos exainined by him. We redescribed it in 1938 (1938, 111-112). We now record it also from Macropus agilis, fram Brooklya, Cairns district, North Queensland, collected by Dr, P. Mlecker,
70
SYPIHACIA ORVELATA (Rud.)
From Rattus rattus and R. norvegicus from the vicinity of Adelaide. Pre- viously recorded from these host species elsewhere in Australia,
ASPICULURIS TETRAPTERA (Nitzsch) Found occasionally in mice in Adelaide.
PassaLuRUS AMBIGUUS (Rud.)
This oxyttid is seen occasionally in South Australian rabbits. It has not been recorded previously as occurring in this State,
STOMACHUS MaRINUS (Linn.)
This larval anisakid has been recorded from several Australian marine fish, We now report it from the Tasmanian Whitebait, Lovertia sealii, from the Der- went River, the material having been submitted by Mr. Maurice Blackburn of the Fisheries Division of the C.S,1.R.0.
A Note on Ruasopiris ALLGeNr Johnston In 1893 Cobb described R, australis from grass roots. in New South Wales. Allgen (1932, 192) used the same name for a different nematode from Campbell Island (Subantarctic). Johnston (1938, 151) renamed the latter R. allgeni. Allgen, apparently unaware of Johnston's action, has proposed recently (1948) a new name, K, campbelli, for his species. R, campbelli is thus a Synonym of R. allgen, of which R. australis Allgen 1938 nec Cobb 1893 is also a synonym.
SUMMARY
1. Known species of nematodes are recorded from additional hosts and localities.
2, Austrostrongylus potoroo from a marsupial, Potorous tridactylus, from King Island, Bass Strait; and Contracaecum podicipitis from the crested grebe, Podiceps cristatus, from South Australia, are described as new.
3. Zoniolaimus setifer (Johnston and Mawson 1940) nec Cobb 1898 is tenamed Z. chaetophorus,
4, Tetrameres fissispina (Dies.) is described from an Australian duck, Anas superciliosa.
5. The free living nematode species, Rhabditis campbell. Allgen, ftom Campbell Island, is a synonym of 2, allyeni Johnston.
LITERATURE
A.icen, C. 1932 Nyt. Mag. Osto, B, 1932, 192-194
Auicen, C. 1948 Arkiy f. Zool, 39, (3), B (2), 1947 (1948), 14
Corn, N. A. 1893 Macleay Memorial Vol. (Linn. Soc. N.S.W.), 252-308
Copp, N. A. 1898 Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 9, 296-321, 491-454
Hst, H, F. 1935 Z. £. Parasitk., 7, 578-600
Jounston, T, If. 1938 Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 62, 149-167
Tosverot H., and Mawson, P. M. 1938 Trans, Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 62, 107-121
Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M. 1938 Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust,, 62, 263-286
JouNsToN, 7 ig and Mawson, P.M. 1939 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 63, 121-
71 Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M. 1939a. Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 64, 513-536 Jounsron, T. H., and Mawson, P. M. 1940 Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 65, 468-47
Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M. 1944 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 68,
60-66
Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M. 1945 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69, 114-117
Jounston, T. H., and Simpson, E. R. 1942 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 66, 172-179
Kune, C. C. 1948 Jour. Helminthol., 22, 93-108 Monisuira, K. 1926 Jour. Fac. Sci. Imp. Univ., Tokyo, 1, (4), 1-32
EARLY CAMBRIAN “JELLYFISHES” OF EDIACARA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND MOUNT JOHN, KIMBERLEY DISTRICT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA
BY REG C. SPRIGG
Summary
The richly fossiliferous horizon within the Pound Sandstone, near the base of the Cambrian in South Australia, has provided more new material. With the additional specimens it has been possible to classify several new forms with considerably more reliability. Some very close resemblances with modern genera have been established and the classification of most forms as coelentrates and even as members of either the Hydrozoa or Scyphozoa seems beyond question. One specimen is remarkably similar to the modern Dipleurosoma. A form from an equivalent horizon in the Kimberley or North-West Division of Western Australia collected by Dr A. Wade is also described and included within the Hydrozoa. This latter remarkable form buds daughter medusae at its margin very similarly to the living Niobia dendrotentacula.
72
EARLY CAMBRIAN “JELLYFISHES” OF EDIACARA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND MOUNT JOHN, KIMBERLEY DISTRICT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA
By Rec. C. Spricc * [Read 8 September 1949]
ABSTRACT
The richly fossiliferous horizon within the Pound Sandstone, near the base of the Cambrian in South Australia, has provided more new material. With the additional specimens it has been possible to classify several new forms with con- siderably more reliability. Some yery close resemblances with modern genera have been established and the classification of most forms as coelenterates and even as members of either the Hydrozoa or Scyphozoa scems beyond question. One specimen is remarkably similar to the modern Dipleurosoma, A form from an equivalent horizon in the Kimberley or North-West Division of Western Aus- tralia collected by Dr. A. Wade is also described and included within the Hydrozoa. This latter remarkable form buds daughter medusae at its margin yery similarly to the living Niobia dendrotentacula.
INTRODUCTION
Since the original discovery and publication of a short report on supposed jellyfish from Ediacara in South Australia, the locality has been visited by Sir D. Mawson and a party of students from the Adelaide University, and again by the writer accompanied by Dr. Curt Teichert, Altogether much new material has been forthcoming, and now nearly 100 fine specimens of (?) pelagic fossils are available from the locality.
* Senior Geologist, Geological Survey of South Australia. Trans. Roy. Sac. S. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949
73
As far as could be ascertamed, all the forms collected by the writer came from a single stratigraphic horizon or within a few feet of it. Obviously the particular parting in the fissile quartzites in which the forms occurred is packed with such impressions. The author collected mare than 50 specimens in less than three hours, indicating the abundance of the forms, The horizon has been traced for about three miles on the western side of an elongated synclinal basin. Several distinet new forms were discovered, and a form originally described from a single spectnen (Dickinsonia costata) has ptaved particularly common. Professor Mawson has indicated that he found evidence of two distinct fossiliferous hori- zons (personal communication) in the northern extensions of the fossil occurrences.
There can now be no doisbt as to the fossils’ otganic origin, nor can there be any hesitation in placing many of the forms with either the Hydrozoa or Seyphozoa of the Coelenterata. Some forms are referable to Algae, but these will not be described in this paper,
In the previous paper (1947) it was postulated that the environmental associa- tions of the fossils and the local palaeogeography demonstrate tidal flat or at least coastal conditions. This opinivt still holds, and practically all forms yet discovered appear to be pelagic; some were obviously free swimming. Such a state of affairs is in keeping with general theories. of life at the end of the Pre- cambrian, It has been suggested that most animals were then pelagic, and pos- sibly were only just “discovering” the sea floor preparatory to colonizing it (Hinde 1939).
Whatever the true facts, it does appear fairly definite that with the exception of a few lime-secreting algae, most animals umtil this time produced few hard parts and ihen usually chitinous. It is little wonder then that the fossil record below the base of the Cambrian is so devoid of fossils.
The Upper Precambrian has been termed an aye of jellyfishes mamly upon evolutionary considerations, hut also in view of discoveries from the Cambrian of New York, Sweden, Russia and Bohemia. From consideration of faunal associations of the Cambrian, such assumptions for the immediate Precambrian are quite logical.
There is no need to discuss further the question of the stratigraphical situa- tion of the horizon, as the arguments were summarized in the previous publica- tion and no evidence has been forthcoming since then. The close association with Archaeocyathinae (Pleospongia) leaves little doubt concerning their Lower Cambrian age.
The mode of occurrence and aspects of preservation have also been dis- cussed previously and little need be added here. It should be remembered that Agassiz (1862), in his observations of Aurelia flavida, noted that after the spawn- ing period there was a thickening of the tissues by an increased deposition of animal substance. The disc of the animal became thin and almost leathery and more elastic than before. Many marginal appendages of the umbrella and oral region dropped off.
Caster (1945) noted that when Aurelia and other medusae were stranded onshore in midsummer, they quickly dried out on the surface. The dehydration of the aqueous. jelly brought o1it in surface relief embedded structures, which in life would be hardly discernible, except by transparency at the exterior. These latter observations are extremely importatit in considering the present fossil forms.
The stranding of huge numbers of jellyfish high on beaches during strong winds is frequently observed in many parts of the world at the present day. Hence jt is stot surprising that once favourable conditions for preservation are
74
established large numbers of the forms may become fossilized in a somewhat restricted area. It should be also borne in mind that in Post-Cambrian times with increased number and yariety of sea-shore scavengers the possibility of preserva- tion was considerably reduced ; sea birds would quickly destroy stranded jellyfish and the chances of fossilization were therefore particularly remote.
Proslems or THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE Fossiis
In view of Agassiz’ and Caster’s various observations, classification on the zoological system is obviously hazardous. Where marginal or manubrial appen- dages are concerned there is need for particular caution, and obviously com- pletely satisfactory relattonships will rarely be possible. However, in some cases, matubrial structures, stomachs, gonads, radial and circular canals, and marginal notches are reasonably well defined, In two cases, delicate vclar membranes are exyuisitely preserved, and in the fossil from Kimberley there is clear evidence of marginal budding. For this reason the modern zoological classifivation will be followed wherever possible and the system as outlined by Parker and Hasweil (1940) will be adhered to with only slight modification, Obviously, detailed classifications of zoologists will be modified slightly to admit even the more cam- pletely preserved forms. In many cases diagnostic chatacters are fiot present which would allow even a broad classification, while in others, close relationships with other living forms are obvious. The writer has gone so far as to relate one form closely to a modern genus by erecting the subgenous Protodipleuresama, and although the wisdom of this may be questioned, it does serve to illustrate the remarkably faithful preservation of the fossil. Still another form (Wadeia) tan be related closely to a living genus (Niobie) and another placed fairly con- fidently in a modern family (¢.g., Beltanella in family Trachylinae), Others can be located with reasonable assurance in modern orders or classes, while still another group are of decidedly uncertain affinities.
Another group of fossils which it may be argued should more correctly he placed with the problemmatica are those thought to represent the oral regions of Rhizostomesze. The striking similarity of patternation of the fossil furrows with the mouth groove system of animals of that highly specialized group is thought to warrant such classification,
Additional complexity is brought about by a possible general tendency to degeneration and simplification over the great geological periods down to the present, Forms which were large and impressive in Cambrian times may now be quite insignificant. This appears to have been the case with both Beltanella gulesi and Protodipiewrosoma wardi. Their assumed modern relatives measure only a fraction of an inch (a few mmi.) in diameter and would scarcely be noticed when washed upon a beach. The velated fossil forms measured several inches (50-100 mm.) in diameter and were therefore of the order of “modern” scypho- zoan medusae.
As only to be expected, it appears almost certain that all modern orders af “jellyfishes” were represented by the beginning of the Cambrian, There were probably other orders that have since become extinct or which were intermediate
étween and ancestral to two or more modern otdets. With such possibilities, classification of the fossil forms must he tentative to some extent and dependent tipon the discovery of new and more conipletely preserved material,
TENTATIVE CLASSIFICATION AND DéscriPtion of THE Fossits All forms described in the present paper appear to be most satisfactorily placed in the phylum Coelenterata and sub-phylum Cnidaria. The Cnidaria include all Coelenterates except the Ctenophores (or Comb-jellies).
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The foilowing briet notes which have been extracted from “The Inverte- brates — Protozoa through Ctenophora” (Lyman, 1940) will serve to summarise some af the principal features of the subphylum,
The chief feature of the Cnidaria subphylum is the possession of striking radial symmetry. In one group, the Anthozoa, this is modified into biradial or radiobilateral symmetry brought about by elungalion of the mouth and other correlated changes.
There is one principal axis of symmetry, namely, the oral-aboral axis, which extends from the mouth to the base, and the organs are arranged concentrically about this axis. The body struciures may be definite or indefinite in number, and when definite the number is four or six or multiples thereof, Tentacles are very conspicuous, extensible projections that encircle the oral end in one or mare whorls and serve for defence and feeding purposes; they are absent in very few members of the subphylum.
Cnidaria are notable for their di-morphism—the polyp and the medusa—each of which can be derived froin the other piving an alternation of generations, The polyp is the sessile form, being vase-shaped and fastened at the ahoral end with mouth and tentacles at the free or oral end. The medusa, or free swimming form, contrasts with the polyp in the shoriening of the oral-aboral axis, radial expan- sion and in the excessive formation of mesogloea. The resulting form is a gela- tinous bell- or saucer-shaped animal with marginal tentacles. Polyp and medusa oceur in several morphological variations, several of which may be found in a single species. In the class hydrozoa, both polypoid and medusoid forms are present; in the scyphozoa, the medusoid is dominant, while the anthozoa are exclusively polypoid. Where a species includes both polypoid and medusoid forms the polyps reproduce exclusively by ascxual methods and bud off the medusae or their eqttivalents which alone are capable of sexual reproduction. In this way there is an alternation of generation—an asexual polypoid generatinn and a sexual medusoid generation, It is (hought probable that the polyp is a per- sistent form and the medusa the completely evolyed coclentcrate,
In the Hydrozoa and ‘Scyphozoa all diameters are apolar, that is, any two diameters selected at tight angles will be alike. In the Anthozoa, however, the radial symmetry tends to be strongly modified in biradial or bilateral fashion chiefly due to the elongation of the mouth and associated structures. In biradial symmetry the diameters temain apolar, hut the long or sagittal axis differs from the transverse axis at right angles to it, Each divides the animal into like halves, as there is no dorsal or ventral surface. In many Anthozoa the sagittal axis is heteropolar with the two ends unlike. Dorsal and ventral surfaces are then definable.
In the fossil forms to be described mnst jrave characteristic radial symmetry aying ther with the Hyidrozoa or Scyphozoa. In a few forms, in particular Dickinsomia, there is a strong biradial tendency and the systematic classification ai these is more difficult, the more sa as the fossils possess so few features of diagnostic value, It has heen suggested elsewhere in this paper that the bilateral tendency may indicate the assumption of creeping habit. It is quite possible that this fossil may be representative of a class now extinct,
In attempting to place the various fossils systematically within some system of Zoological classification much must remain tentative. The system given herein is essentially a summary of that of Parker and Haswell (1940) and the placing of the present fossils is indicated as far as possible keeping in mind that in many instances (he restricting criteria. as indicated in the |ceys, have not been observed. In such cases, classification hag been made hy making use of certain general similarities with modern genera and species
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In this manner it has been found possible to place most of the forms reason~ ably satisfactorily; a few forms have had to be relegated to Walcott’s genus of cotivenience, Medusina, This genus was erected to include all species of fossil medusae whose generic characters were indeterminable, In making use of this genus it is realised that there are arguments for also including some of the forms tentatively placed with the Discomedusae.
Phylum COELENTERATA Sub-Phylum CNIDARIA Class HYDROZOA Order Hydroidea—Hydrozoa in which there is a fixed zoophyte stage.
Sub-order Anthomedusae. In which the medusae bear the gonads on the manubrium, a.e., Proteniobia wadea (ci., modern Ntobie den- drotentacula,)
Sub-order Leptomedusae, In which the gonads occur in relation with the radial canals, ¢.g,, Protodipleurosoma wardi (cf. modern Dip- leurosoma).
Order Trachylinae—Hydrozoa with no known fixed zoophyte stage.
Sub-order Trachymedusae. Veiled medusae with simple entire bell margin not cleft into lappets. This is a distinguishing feature from the Narcomedusae. Tentacles spring from the margin of the umbrella and the gonads are developed in connection with the radial canals, ¢,g., Beltanella gilesi (cf., modern Rhopalonema).
Sub-order Narcoimedusae—in which tentacles spring from the exumbrella some distance from the margin, and the gonads are developed in connection with the manubrium,
Order Siphonophora—tilydrozoa in which the colony usually exhibits extreme polymorphism of its zooids, There may be strong bilateral symmetry.
Class SCYPHOZOA
Order Lucernaridae (Stauromedusae), Scyphozoa with a conical or vase- shaped umbrella mostly attached to external objects by an ex- umbrella peduncle. No tentaculocysts,
Order Coronata. Scyphozoa with the umbrella divided by a horizontal coronary groove. Four to sixteen tentaculocysts.
Order Cubomedusae, Scyphozoa with a four-sided cup-shaped umbrella. Four per-radial tentaculocysts.
Order Discomedusue (Semacostomeae). Scyphozoa with flattened saucer- shaped umbrella and not fewer than eight tentaculocysts. The square mouth produced into four long oral arms, ¢.g., Edtacaria fundersi, Tateana mflata.
Order Rhizostomeae—Scyphozoa having the mouth oblitcrated by growths across it of the oral arms, Stomach is continued into canals which open by funnel-shaped apertures on the edges of the arms, ¢.g., Pseudorhizostomites and Pseudorhopilema.
Meduscid Problemutica, Category Medusina—Medusae whose genetic charac- ters cannot be determined, e.g.: Medusina maqwsoni, M. asterotdes, M. filamentis, Cyclomedusa davidi, C. radiata, C. gigantea, Madi- gania annulata, Dickinsonia costata, D, minima,
7?
Order HYDROIDEA — Sub-order ANTHOMEDUSAE Genus Protoniobia Sprigg gen. nov. Genotype Protoniobia wadea Sprigg, gen. ely sp, nov. Lower Cambrian flags, Mount John, Osmond Range, Western Australia. Genus monotypic, generic characters include the circular form, the close association of the six (?) gonads with the stomach, and the development of medusae by a process of budding from the margin of the form.
Protoniobia wadea, Sprigg gen. ct sp. nov. (Plate ix, fig, 1, and) text tig. 2) Holotype: No. 192, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra, P.C.T. Coll, Dr, A. Wade-
Description—Impression circular, with few prominent annular undulations. Near the centre of the form iumerous nodular structures are arranged in a polygonal pattern about a central depressed zone. The nodular structures occur on a slightly wider platform, which in turn is surrounded by a deep circular groove without conspicuous ornamentation. Beyond the latter are annular ridges separated by a stcond deep groove, This latter groove gives some evidence of secondary sculpturing which tay bear relationships to inferred radial canals.
At the margin of the umbrella impression there form sub-cireular structures of uneven development which are arranged in an incomplete hexagonal pattern. The bud-like “appendages” have a concentric form within themselves and show an apparent tesemblance with the “parent” impression. There are no tentacles present,
Dimeénsion—Maximum diameter of the bell 4:1 mm.; average diameter of (?) gonadial nodes 2°5 mm.; maximum diameter of largest “bud” 1-4 mm.
Discussion and affinities—The specimen is the impression of a medusa. The numerous nodular subcentral nodes are probably gonaclial structures, in close asso~ tiation with a circular stomach, and it is just possible that the inner of the two outer antnilar ridges may be a velar stttcture.
The circular marginal structures of the form are peculiar features which at first sight may suggest coiled tentacles, and probably prompted the original description of this fossil by Dr. Wade (1924} as a “coiled (1) gephyrean or unsegmented worm.” (The impression is not spiral and is almost certainly coelenterate, However, closer inspection of the fossil shows that the marginal structures are essentially circular with annular internal patternation.)
One apparently modern parallel is known to the author, namely the unique Niobia dendrotentacula (Mayer 1900) of the Tortugas, Florida. Marginal tentacles. of this specics develop into medusae by a peculiar process of budding combined with fortuitous growth, and are set free into the water as independent animals similar to the parent medusac.
According to Mayer (1910, pp. 187, 188), Niebia dendrotenacula ig slightly flatter than a hemisphere and about 4 mm. in diameter. ‘There are 12 marginal tentacles, one at the foot of each radia-canal and one intermediate between each successive pair of radial canals, These 12 tentacles are arranged in a bilaterally symmetrical manner in accordance with age. The oldest and the youngest tentacles aré situated at the ends of the two simple radial-canals and the remain- ing ten tentacles are arranged in bilateral symmetry in accordance with their various ages, the axis being in the diameter of the two simple radial-canals and the oldest and youngest tentacles. Each half of the margin is thus a reflection of the other... . 2’ The order in age of each tentacle is shown in fig, 2D. “The oldest tentacle is the first to develop into a medusa and be set free, and the others follow in the order of their age until all of the tetacles have been cast off, They
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are immediately replaced, however, by new tentacles, but after every one of the original 12 tentacles has been developed into a new medusa, the process of form- ing medusae declines and finally ceases, and then the parent medusa becomes sexually mature. . ..” The gonads occupy four interradial situations in the upper part of the ectodermal wall of the stomach. After the budding medusae have been set free the gonads become mature and the ova are large and project from the interradial surfaces of the stomach. They are finally dehisced into the water.”
A—D, Niobia dendrotentacula; A, oral view; B, detail of manubrium bearing the gonads; C, side view; D, budding sequence. E and F, Protonobia wadea: E, the fossil; F, bud diagram.
In the present fossil there is an obvious unequal development of buds, but with only the one well preserved specimen it is impossible to determine the com- plete sequence of the animal. Certainly there is a pseudo-hexagonal arrange-
9
ment of the buds as in the case of Niobia, and it is perhaps legitimate to infer a rather similar life history. The two forms may be linearly related and a good case for parallel development of the buds can be made out.
tn the fossil form the two adjacent buds on the upper margin (fig. 2 E) ate of approximately cqual development, while the two diametrically opposed buds are larger and unequally developed. Such an arrangement cannot be matched exactly however the form is orientated or in whatever stage of development the fossil was entombed. If, though, the interpretation of the subcentral nodular structures as gonads is correct, then it may be fairly assumed that the form was approaching sexual maturity. In this case it is possible that the animal had reached a stage where the largest bud was in stage 4, the diametrically opposite one in stage 5, and the two smaller ones in stages 6 and 7. The buds in stages 1, 2 and 3 presumably would have been freed.
A second example of Protontobia has been discovered amongst material from Ediacara, he fossil is slightly simaller, its bell being about 20 mm. in diameter. There is evidence of four daughter buds, The example occurs on the same quartzite fragment as fossil] Ne 2010, Its discovery supports the view that the Kimberley fossil was approximately contempotaneous with the Ediacara suite,
Sub-order LEPTQOMEDUSAE (Haeckel 1866)
The modern Leptomedusae are thought to be descended from the mure simply organised Amthomedusac. These medusae are creatures of coasts and are rarely found far out to sea, for they cannot maintain themselves in situations unsuited to the growth of their hydroids.
Subdivision into families in the modern classification is based on the presence or absence of lithocysts and the number of radial canals. The placing of the fossil form in this instarice is based on general morphological similarities with 4 particular living species,
Genus Protodipleurosoma Sprigg gen, nov.
Form similar to that of Dipleurvosomo (Axel Boeck 1866) is observable features, but much larger. Dipleurosoma is characterised by three or more main radial canals, some of which give rise to nondichotomous branches. Gonads on the canals adjacent to the manubrium; monosexual,
Protodipleurosoma wardi Sprigg, sp. nov. (Plate ix, fig. 2 and text fig. 3)
Holotype: No, 2093, Tate Museum Coll, Adel. Univ. 5. Aust. Collected, RK, Johns,
Description—Impresston {bell) circular, flattened. Stomach subcircular constricted unevenly, lobate, radial canals developed irregularly, branched non- dichotomously, only one can be seen reaching the circular canal, but preservation oF the yelum impression has obscured complete observation, Primary canals are. sttong and give rise to shorter secondary canals which may not reach the circular canal. Branching occurs tear the bases of the primary canals. Ring canal cirenlar, and about 2 mm. in from the margin of the fossil. There are no signs of marginal appendages. The velum is wide and well preserved. Gonads are not present and the example by comparison with related living forms is therefore probably male.
Dimensions—Major diameter of fossil 59 mm.; length of stomach 16 mm,
Discussion and comparisons—The fossil forms are remarkably sitmilar to the living Diplewrosoma hemisphacricum (Allman), although the latter is usually only
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about 10 mm. in diameter. The velum in the fossil species is relatively slightly wider and the stomach relatively larger. Branching of the radial canals and the position of the ring canal agree very closely. Allman (1873), in his description, states that there are three main radial canals with branches; some of the branches enter the ring canal and others terminate blindly. It is noted that the sub-family Berenicinae as described by Mayer (1910) present all radial canals connecting with the circular canal.
There can be little doubt that this fossil form is closely related to the genus Dipleurosoma. In life the fossil form was probably subhemispherical, free swim- ming, and considerably larger than its assumed modern descendants. It is also assumed that the species experienced an alternation of generation although noth- ing is known of its hydroid stage.
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Order TRACHYLINAE Suborder TRACHYMEDUSAE (Haeckel 1866) Family (?) TRACHYNEMIDAE Gegenbaur 1856
Trachymedusae with eight or more simple radial canals, on some or all of which the gonads are developed.
Fig. 4 A. and B, Rhopalonema stristum; C, R. velatum, side view; D—F, Beltanella gilest; D, aboral view; E, side view with section removed; F, section through fossil,
Genus Beltanella Sprigg 1947
Genotype: Beltanella gilesi Sprigg. Pound Quartzite, Upper Adelaide System (Lower Cambrian), Ediacara, South
Ausiralia. j . Being monotypic this genus shares the species traits described below. Generic
characters include the octagonal arrangement of the circular gonads and their
EF
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(?) paired relation about the four radial canals; the presence of a well developed and expanded delicate peripheral umbral structure or velum, and the simple circular oral aperture,
Beltanella gilesi, Sprigg 1947 (Plate x, fig. 1, and text fig. 4) Holotype: No. 2056, Tate Mus. Coli., Adel, Univ., S. Aust,
Description—Medusa impression circular. Umbrella flat, but falling away sharply near its outer margin. (?) Velum horizontal, depressed approximately 4 mm. in relation to the flat ex-umbrella surface, Umbrella region subdivided into two zones Dy a faint annular groove as follows:
Inner Zone—Surface smooth, broken only by annular grooves, respectiyely 5 and 12 mm, in diameter at centre, Centremost area depressed very slightly. The whole zone corresponds with the original stomach.
Onter Zone-—Surface dominantly flat, but slopes away steeply near the outer margin of the umbrella. This secondary sloping surface has the form of a highly truncate cone whose apical angle is approximately 80 degrees. Zone is characterised by the presence of circular (7) gonadial structures, approximately 10 mm. in diameter. These regular structures are arranged ott either side of the major radial canals in an octagonal pattern centrally within the zone. At least four can be recognised and each has an inner concentric groove 3 to 4 mm. in diameter. Two paired radial grooves (? canals) are diametrically opposed and a third set lies radially at right angles. The grooves pass intermediate between the (?) paired gonadial structitres, but do not continue into the inner zone. The ex-umbrella surface is slightly irregular at the edge of the flat raised portion, but below where the conical surface meets the velum, the margin is smooth,
Velum—Structure marginal, obviously thin, well developed; undulose sur- face depressed ; tndulations annular in plan.
Dimensions—Maximum diameter of fossil] 110 mm., minimum 97; widths along single radii of inner and outer zones and velum respectively 18-20, 21-23 and 10-14 mm.
Discussion—The specimen is the cast of the ex-umbrella surface (ab-oral) of a jellyfish,
The central zone corresponds with the gastrovascular cavity, At its margin it gives (paired) grooves which are interpreted as radial canals. There are no signs of subdivision within the cavity, and no indication of complicated manubrial structures. The simple circular grooves situated centrally may be ora] structures, or possibly representative of a collapsed truncate gastric cone of the type which occurs in some jellyfish to aid in the even distribution of food to various parts of the animal’s stomach.
The radial grooves of the outer zone are very probably radial canals, although it is not known why they should be paired. There is no sign of branch canals from them, nor is there present any groove suggestive of a circular canal, The circular (?) gonadial structures which are distributed evenly around the centre of this zone may be considered as paired in relation to the supposed radial canals and the central annular grooves of each gonadial structure may mark a genital operctilum.
The peripheral velum is remarkably well preserved considering its obvious delicate nature; its contained annular undulations suggest ring muscles. Its expanded position in rest suggests that it swung to and fro within and without the bell cavity as the medusa swam.
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Affinities—In the original description this form was placed very tentatively with the Scyphozoa, although it was recognised that many characters were primi- tive, and indicative of the Hydrozoa, The simple mouth, the presence of a few unbranched radial canals were considered to be Trachylinid (Hydrozoan) charac- ters, while the flattened disc-shaped umbrella, its relatively large size, and the absence of large tentacles were thought to be more characteristic of the Scophozoa.
It is now considered that the presence or absence of marginal appendages in fossil jellyfish can have little significance, and as regards size, diameters of four inches und more are not unknown amongst Trachylinids, A more convincing point concerns the resemblance of the species with the modern Rhopalonema, Gengenbaur 1856 (Family Trachynemidae).
Rhopalonema characteristically possesses 8 radial canals, and 8 gonads occur upon restricted portions of these canals. Belfanella differs in that although it has 8 gonads lying oppusite the central portions of radial canals, these gonads do not appear to be on the canals. Also, evidence of only 4 radial canals can be recog- nised. Nevertheless, R, velatum and R. striatum (fig. 4) do show some striking similarities. R. velalwm possesses rounded gonads situated about half-way between the stomach and bell margin and associated with circular canals which give much the concentric appearance of the gonads in the fossil form. R. striatum in general external form approaches the fossil even more closely and is described as having the shape of a Chinese hat. Its velum is very wide and muscular and) swings to and fro within and without the bell cavity as the medusa swims. It was noted also that the tentacles of R. velutum are yery brittle and usually break off very readily. It would appear, therefore, that there is good reason ta asso- ciate this form fairly closely with RAopalonema, and therefore the order Trachy- medusae.
Rhopalonema is distributed throughout the tropical and warm oceans of the world and may live on the surface or at depth.
Order (?) SEMAEOSTOMEAE (Discomedusae) Genus Ediacaria Sprigg 1947 Genoytpe EprtAcarta FLINDERSI Sprigg 1947
Pound Quartzite, Upper Adelaide Series (Lower Cambrian), Ediacara, South Australia, Generic characters include the circular form, the bell-like manubrium, the simple circular stomach and association of the (?) gonads with the base of the manubrium, There are 4 and possibly 8 marginal notches,
Ediacaria flindersi Sprigg (Plate x, fig. 2, and text fig. 5)
Holotype: No. T1, Tate Mus. Coll., Adel. Univ., S. Aust.
Description—Medusa impression circular, radially symmetrical; surface flat- tened, but with radial and concentric features of low relief. Three conrentric zones are clearly distinguishable.
Inner zone—Manubrium bell-like, constricted near its junction centrally with the stub-timbrella surface and expanded distally. It lies over sideways and is compressed laterally. Length 15 mm., and maximum width (flattened) 14 mm, At least three pendant lobate pouches extend 9 to 11 mm, centrifugally from the base of the manubrium, Beyond these pouches the central zone is éssentially smooth, although there is au incomplete concentric groove half-way to the zone margin,
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Median zone—Surface smooth, somewhat inflated; zone delineated on inner and outer aspects by concentric grooves—one (or two) on the inner margin, and one deeper with associated minor and less regular grooves on the outer. Two well-marked radial grooves are present, while indistinct radial striations are more numerous,
External zone—Surface flattened or only slightly convex in transverse section with minor concentric undulations or flutings and numerous radial grooves or striae. In the annular segment, representing three-fourths of the perimeter, at least 44 separate radial grooves can be recognised, Although somewhat irregu- lar in themselves, they are distributed around the zone relatively evenly, Most diverge centrifugally, but some converge in this direction, The outer margin
8$
{perimeter of fossil), is fairly regular (ctrcilar), with the exception nf one or two doubtful marginal notches, A concentrate groove lies approximately 4 mm. in from the perimeter of the form, The tadial striations do not exlend beyond the epi-marginal groove.
Dimensions—Largest diameter 114 mm. Respective widths of inner, median and outer zones along greatest radius: 20 mm., 17 mm., and 25 mm,
Discussions and comparisons—The specimen is considered to be the impres- sion of the sub-umbrella surface of a “dried ont” jellyfish, Organs adjacent the oral surface of the animal have come to stand out in relief, and the manubrium is preserved clearly. The central zone corresponds with the gastrovascular cavity and the gonads at the base of the manubrium are superimposed on it.
The sub-triangular manubrial structure has been so interpreted in view of its apparent fusion centrally with the sub-umbrella surface, and because no other comparable structures are distributed radially about the centre. The flattened attitude of this manubrium bears a superficial resemblance to the insert lobes of the central discs of Kirklandia (Caster) and Rhizostomites (Haeckel). How~ ever, the absence of more of these strictures radially about the centre disputes this view. In life the manubrial structure would he suspended vertically from the central region (fig. 5). The shape of the mouth opening cannot be judged, although it was probably simple. On this impression the genus has been classified with the Semaeostomede and uot the Rhizastomeae.
The three pendant pouches extending radially from the base of the mantu- brium are almost certainly gonads. Judging by their distribution there were pro- bably eight of them originally,
Various concentric flutings, with the exception of that adjacent the margin of the form, are referrable to the circular muscles of the sub-umbrella, The epi- marginal groove is the circular canal. The radial canals do not extend beyond it,
The well marked radial grooves of the median zone are probably radial canals. There is evidence of branching, and although the grooves are sub-parallel they do increase in number centrifugally. The grooves could be merely shrinkage creases, but in any case these would tend to follow such lines of weakness as canal lines.
Two marginal notches can be interpreted; they occur at intervals correspond- ing with the major radial canals. In each cage deeper radial grooves continue to each notch, This would support the view that the notches are regular marginal features, possibly originally enclosing sensory structures. On the other hand, it is noted that in other portions of the fossil where continuous sections of the margin are preserved, other notches are not apparent, The observed notches could be accidental matginal invaginations due to deformation upon burial, There ate no indications af marginal tentacles but they probably had dropped off previously.
Bdiacaria is probably Scyphozoan. The form was large and obviously had a flatlened disc-shaped umbrella and may be referable to either of the order's Semaeostameae or Rhizostomeae. To decide further to. which of these orders the form belongs, a detailed knowledge of the structure of the mouth and oral arms would be necessary. The incomplete preservation of the specimen precindes this. However, it is noticeable that the manubrial structure as interpreted is rela- tively simple suggesting relationship with the Semaeostomeae.
Comparison with other fossils is exceedingly difficult in view of the absence of many critical features. Closest resemblance is perhaps with Rhisostomites and Semaeostomites (both Haeckel) of the Upper Jurassic of Selnhofen, Bavaria. In these forms three concentric 2ores can be inferred but otherwise there is little similarity in available detail of the central disc regions. Ring muscles are well
86
developed in the outer portions of Rhizostomites as they are in Ediacaria. No obvious ring canal is present in Rhigostomites as in Ediacaria and Semaeo- stomites, and whereas the margin of Semaeostomites is split into 120-128 marginal lobes, stich a subdivision is not apparent in the other two forms.
Genus Tateana Sprigg gen. nov. Genotype Tateana inflata Sprigg gen. et sp. nov- Forma a Upper Adelaide Series (Lower Cambrian), Ediacara, South ustralia,
Generic characters—Circular, slightly inflated medusa with very niumerous unbranched radial canals. Well developed submarginal circular canal. Four or eight marginal notches. The genus is distinguished from Cyclomedusa (see later) by its more inflated surface and the presence of marginal notches,
Tateana inflata Sprigg, pen. et. sp. nov. (Plate xi, fig. 1 and 2) Holotype: No. 2017, Tate Mus. Coll. Adel, Uniy,, S. Aust. Hypotype: No. 2018,
Description—Medusa circular, radially symmetrical, surface inflated slightly but with strong narrow radial striations; only very shght annulations can be distinguished.
The central zone (stomach) is simple and circular, representing one-third of the diameter of the complete form. The radial striations lead directly from the central zone to the epimarginal groove or circular canal. They do not appear to branch and number about 100. There is slight evidence of four or more marginal notches.
There is no sign of marginal appendages, manubrial structures or gonads,
Dimensiors—Greatest diameter 6-4 mm.
Comparisons—The form has much in common with Ediacara, and may prove to be generically identical when more material is available for study. However, in Ediacara a tendency to branching in the radial canals has been noted. This is definitely mot present in Toteana. In its unbranched radial canal system it approaches Cyclomedusa (see later under Medusoid problematica) more closely.
The decision to place this species in Semaeostomeae rested on its similarities with Ediacaria.
Order RHIZOSTOMAE (Cuvier 1799)
Scyphozoa without marginal tentacles and with numerous mouths which are borne on adradial fleshy branched arm-like appendages which arise from the centre of the sub-umbrella. The lips of the numerous mouths are bordered by minute constantly moying tentacles,
All living species are tropical and few extend far into temperate waters. None are known from polar seas. The animals are usually tough and large and therefore are not uncommonly preserved in the fossil state,
Genus Ruizostomites Haeckel 1866 Genotype RurzostomiTEs AMIRANDUS Haeckel 1866 Solnhofen Slates Eichstadt, Bavaria Generic characters (as defined by Brandt)—Disc as large as 0-4 metre, with 128 marginal lobes, without marginal tentacles: oral trunk rudimentary usually in the form of an oral disc, surrounded by eight arms. Genital cavities, four, Coelenteric central cavity simple, with sphero-quadratic roof, Mouth opening late, perhaps never completely obliterated, cruciform with eight branches.
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Pseudorhizostomites howchini, Sprigg sp. nov. (Plate xii, fig. 1} text fig. 6 F) Holotype: 2034 Tate Museum, University of Adelaide, South Australia. Locality: Pound Quartzite, Lower Cambrian, Ediacara, Australia, Coll. by R. Ayliffe.
Fig. 6 A, Rhopilema verrillii (living); B, Rhizostomites lithographicus (Jurassic) ; C, R. amirandus (J.); D, Hexarhizites insignis (J.); E, Pseudorhopilema chapmani; F, Pseudorhizostomites; G and H, Pseudorhizostomites sp. Description—Impression convex, with cruciform radial grooves each branch- ing simply once. The grooves alternatively cut off concave and convex isoscelean areas. There is a slight suggestion of secondary dichotomous branching at the end of one or more of the eight subradial grooves. Dimensiotis—Total width of form 30 mm. Discussions and compatisons—The four areas divided off by the secondarily branched furrows are interpreted to be the basal portion of the four great oral
BS
arms, or branches of the gastral trunk which hangs down from the centre of the umbrella cavity of scyphozoans. The grooves are the lines of fusion formed during the coalescence of lips of the primitive central mouth of the juvenile form. In this way the primitive central mouth has been obliterated in Rhizostomeae, but numerous other mouth-openings remain in the gutter-like grooves which extend down the ventral sides of the mouth arms,
Specimen No, T116 (pl. xii, fig. 3B; text fig. 6G) may also be referrable to this genus, although the number of primary grooves is somewhat excessive, and the dichotomous branching is essentially restricted to the immediate mid-field, In specimen 2043 (pl. xii, fig. 3A; text fig. 6H), on the other hand, dichotomous branching is very pronounced: In view of the problemmatic nature of these fossils there has been no attempt to make specific subdivisions,
Genus Pseudorhopilema Sprigg gen, tiov. Pseudorhopilema chapmani Sprigg, gen, et. sp, nov, Pound Quartzite, Upper Adelaide Series (Lower Cambrian), Ediacara, South Australia, As the form is known only from the very limited detail of its central field, generic characters tentatively will be taken to include the inferred presence of éight oral arms and associated paired (?) scapulets.
Pseudorhopilema chapmani Sprigg, gen. et. sp. nov. (Plate xii, fig. 2; text fis. G6 E) Ilolotype: No. 2036, Tate Mus. Coll., Adel. Univ., Coll, P. Healy.
Description—Midfield slightly convex with a central groove or furrow giving rise to a system of dichotomously branched primary, secondary and perhaps ter- tiary grooves,
Dimensions—Length of median furrow 7 mm, Width of central disc., as indicated by extension of scapulets, 50 mm.
Comparisons—The form beats definite relations with the restricted central portion of the well known Jurassic forms (fig. 6) Ahizastomites amirandus and 2. lithographicus (both Haekel 1866). Obvious differences concern the strong development of a central furrow and of the presence of tertiary dichotomously branched furrows, FR, lithographicus approaches the newly described form more closely in that it has a small single central groove which imparts a minor tendency towards bilateral symmetry as against the simple cruciform character of R. amirandus.
Assuming that the form was typical of modern and fossil Rhizostomae, there would have been eight oral arms. But the form has 16 tertiarily branched dicho- tomous grooves, and these are thought to cotrespond with the canals or ducts of scapulets which normally arise from the sides and near the bases of each of the otal arms.
A more complete comparison in so far as this is possible is with the living form Rhopilema verriulit (Haeke)). In this form both the strong central furrow and the scapulae are present (fig. 6 A), and ina general sense the restricted detail in the two cases is very similar.
MEDUSOID PROBLEMATICA
Category MEpusina Walcott 1898 Walcott erected this Category (calling it a genus) to include all species of fossil medusae whose generic charactets cannot be determined, It is now stig- gested that the idea of “genus” be dissociated from the term and for Medusina to be considered as a category of convenience for stitch medusoid forms, This
89
would provide for the development of some broader classification within the category and enable the use of new “generic” names additional to Medusina. Apparent relationships could be made more obvious in this way.
Medusina mawsoni Sprigg, sp. nov. (Plate xiii, fig. 4; text fig. 7 B) Holotype: No, T.39, Tate Mus. Coll., Adel, Univ., S. Aust. Type Locality; Pound Quartzite, Lower Cambrian, Ediacara, S. Aus,
Description—Impression circular, medusoid; central area depressed, circular and convex, occupying between one-third and one-half the full diameter. The outer annular zone is inflated centrally and there is a suggestion of radial ridges within the zone at close intervals. Margin simple, circular. No evidence of marginal appendates,
st
Discussions and comparisons—The form is obviously the fossil of a medusoid coelenterate. The central depressed area may correspond with a collapsed stomach area, and the indefinite radial structures of the outer zone with radial canals.
The specimen has much in common with Pompeckj’s Medusina radiata? of the Bohemian Lower Cambrian (fig. 7A). The radii in the present specimen are faintly and very incompletely preserved and it is impossible to tell whether they are branched as in Pompeckj’s specimen. The latter had 75 to 80 radii at the outer margin,
The writer feels that the tentative identification of Pompeckj’s specimen with Linnarson’s Medusina (= Astylospongia) radiata is unsatisfactory. Pompeckj (1896) notes that it agrees only in a general way and that some differences forbid its direct identification with the original Swedish form. “The string-of-pearls shape of radii, already noted by Linnarsson, cannot be observed, and the number of radii in the Bohemian specimens is less than in Linnarsson’s species." The intervals between the radii are larger in Pompeckj’s specimen, It is felt, therefore, that MM. Mawsont may be synonymous with M. radiata’ of Pompeckj.
Dimensions—Diameter of complete form 2-7 mm.; diameter of central depressed area 1°7 mm.
Medusina asteroides Sprigg sp. nov. (Plate xiii, fig. 3; text fig. 7 C) Holotype: No, 2021, Tate Mus. Coll., Adel. Uniy., 5, Aust. Type Locality; Pound Quartzite, Lower Cambrian, Ediacara, Flinders Ranges, South Australia,
Description—Impression circular, slightly inflated, central disc occupying approximately one-quarter of the diameter of the complete form and surrounded by a deep groove. The surrounding zone has an epimarginal groove and is traversed by widely spaced radiating grooves dispersed in an (?) octagonal pat- tern. Not all radii continue to the epimarginal groove. There are no visible marginal appendages,
Dimensions—Greatest diameter 24 mm.; diameter of the central disc 10 mm.
Dimensions and comparisons—The depressed central area may represent 2 collapsed stomach; the radial grooves are radial canals and the epimarginal groove corresponds with a citcular or ring canal, In view of an absence of restricting critical features, and simple circular form, it is referred to the genus Medusina, It differs from Medusina radiata and M. Mawsoni in the possession of fewer radu and a relatively small central depressed area,
‘Medusina filamentus, Sprigg spec. nov. (Plate sii, ig. 1; text fiz. 7 D)
Holotype: No, T68, Tate Mus. Coll., Adel. Univ., S. Aust.
Type Locality: Pound Quartzite, Lower Cambrian, Ediacara, S. Aust.
Description—Impression ovoid, inflated, Thirty to forty Alamentous (?) tentacles are given off at fairly regular intervals around the (complete) margin. The tentacles frequently appear to branch at least once half-way along their respective lengths which are only slightly shorter than the diameter of the fossils,
Affinities—The writer kriows of no similar fossil form. Apart from the inflated medusoid form and marginal (?) tentacles restricting features are absent.
Dimensions—Maximum and minimum diameters 22 and 16 mm. respectively. Average length of tentacular processes 1(} mm.
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Genus Cyclomedusa Sprigg Genotype Cyclomedusa davidi Sprigg Generic characters—Ex-umbrella sculptured by fairly prominent concentric grooves which may or may not extend to the margin, and numerous fine simple unbranched radial striations. The radial striations do not continue into the cirewlar zone which may or may not contain a central nodular structure. The margin is simple and an epimarginal groove is present in well-preserved specimens.
Key To SPECIES
C.davidi - = prominent armular grooves extend to the margin.
C. radiata + - outer zone essentially free of annular grooves.
C, gigantea + = large form, inner and outer zones divided by a deep annular groove. Radial striations extremely numerous.
Cyclomedusa davidi Sprige (Plate xiv, fig. 1, 2 and 4; text fg. 8) Holotype: No, T 5, Tate Mus. Coll, Adel. Univ., S. Aust. Typotypes: Nos, 2020, 2040. Description—Impression circular, flattened, and with concentric undulations. The form exhibits striking radial symmetry and its surface is subdivided by at jeast seven annular grooves. Central portion raised, distinctly nodular.
The original specimen (T5) was known to be incumplete, Three zones were tecognised, the imner being hermispherical and nodular and 5 mm. in diameter and 1:5 mm. in height, The outer two zones were of lower relief; annular portions within these were traversed alternately by radial striations (? radial canals) or were apparently free of sculpture, The form as preserved indicated a maximum radius of 50 mm. and there appeared to be about 16 radial striations per quadrant. .
A newer, better preserved specimen considered to be specifically identical exhibits essentially similar characters, except that it appears that the radial striations are continuous through the various subdivisions of the outer zone. They therefore would continue uninterruptedly from the central (?) stomach region to the margin of the form. A more critical examination of the holotype specimen has indicated a degree of agreement in this respect.
Dimensions—Overall diameter of specimen No. 2020 is 52 mm.
Reproduction—Specimen 2040 at first appearance has the suggestion of a flattened tabulate colonial pleospongian. Dr. Okulitch and others who have seeti photos of this specimen have recorded this impression on first viewing it. However, the fossil is more or less identical with accepted specitnens of C. davids except for its peculiar constrictions, It is felt that the constriction may be part of an irregular budding process in which the two daughter medusae each possess adult characters, If this is a reliable interpretation, it seems to be another unique method of reproduction amongst jellyfish. It is also remotely possible that the aninial may have been damaged and that the irregular form is completely for- tuitous, Fission has produced three segments in all, and two differ only slightly in width, while the third is significantly smaller,
A rather parallel but not identical case of reproduction by fission oceurs in Gastroblasta (Keller). Gastroblasta raffaelei (Lang), for example, is slightly elliptical and possesses four manubria. According fo Mayer (1910) “the medusa frequently reproduces by fission and the plane of division is at right angles to the long axis of the ellipse and passes between the oldest and next oldest Manubrium,
92
When about to divide, the oldest lithocyst divides into two and the cleft proceeds inward at this point until the medusa is completely cut into halves, the one being a reflection of the other. Each then develops tew radial-canals budding from the ring- canal and growing inward. When the original form has been restored a new fission thay take place. This is not a constant process, however, but is subject to much variability, for new radial canals may grow inward from the ring-canal in the regions of the old tentacles, and these new canals may fuse with the old canal-system and develop manubria.”
The occurrence of irregular transverse fission of this nature elsewhere in the kingdom of medusae greatly strengthens the view that the restrictions in the aberrant specimen of Cyclomedusa davidi have generative significance.
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Cyclomedusa radiata Sprige sp, nov. (Plate 13, fig. 2; plate xiv, fig. 3; plate xv, fig. 1; plate xviti, fig. 1, text fie. 83
Holotype: No, 2037, Tate Mus. Coll., Adel, Univ., S. Aust.
Hypotypes: Nos. 2010, 2032, 2027.
Description—Species similar to C. davidi, except in that the outer zone is practically free of annular grooves. Radial striations are continuous and pro- minent in the outer zone.
In specimen 2039 the central (7) stomach zone is relatively narrow, with a central node surrounded by two or three concentric grooves. In radial relation the outer zone is three times the width of the inner. It 1s traversed by numerous radial striations, and 50 of these cat be recognised clearly in one half of the fossil; the striations do not appear to branch and all appear to join the central zone separately. They connect with an epimarginal groove or (?) ring cadal at their distal ends. The margin appears to be simple.
Specimens 2032 and 2027 are essentially similar but differ in that the ratio of the radial widths of the inner and outer zones is approxemately 1:1. 2032 is apparently a juvenile form of 2027, Neither of these exhibit an obvious circular canal,
Cyclomedusa gigantea Sprigg sp. nav. (Plate xv, fig. 2; text fig. 8 E)
Holotype: No, 2035, Tate Mus. Coll.; Adel. Univ., 5. Aust,; Coll. IR. Ayliffe.
Descriptions — Form essentially similar tn many aspects to C. dazdi and C. radiata. There are two zones, the ittner af which is devoid of radial striations, whereas they occur weakly in the outer one; the complete form possesses ntumer- ous concenttic groovings.
The central zone is separated from the outer by an unusually deep sulcus or groove. The margin of the animal is incomplete and ill-defined. In the com- plete form there would be approximately 200 simple, unbranched radial grooves. These are much more numerous than in C. davidi (approximately 50) of C. radiata (approximately 100),
Dimensions—Ovetall diameter greater than 65 mm.; (?) stomach 42 mm. in diameter.
Discussion and comparisons—The foregoing three species have much in common and separation is rather arbitrary on this account. Nevertheless there appears to be some regularity in variation in surface sculpture which it is thought merits specific subdivision.
The anototnical organisation of the animals is unknown except by inference. The central zone, which is free of radial ornamentation, probably delimits the stomach. The significance of the radial grooves is open to argument but their interpretation as radial canals is probably justifiable. If so, these canals were simple and unbranched and mostly continuous from the stomach fo the circular canal. The form differs from Ediacara in this feature.
The fossils may be discoid Scyphozoans, but such classification is too optemistic far the present.
Genus Madigania Sprigg gen. nov. Genotype: Madigania annulata Sprigg gen. et sp. nov. Pound Quartzite: Upper Adelaide System (Lower Cambrian), Ediacara, 5, Aust. Generic characters—Circular form with numerous conspictious annular
provves, ridges or undulations. No radial ornamentation, It may or may not ve a central conspicuous papilla or node.
94
Madigania annulata Sprigg gen, et sp. nov. (Plates xvi, fig. 1 and 2; plate xvii, fig, 1 and 2)
Holotype: No, 2031, Tate Mus, Coll., Univ. Adel, S$. Aust.
Hypotypes: 2025, and T9 and TI4.
Descriptions — Impression circular, with numerous conspicuous annular undulations. Essentially flat; margin simple,
Specimen 2031 has a very conspicuous central papilla, but this is suppressed or poorly developed in the other specimens.
There is no evidence of radial canals, marginal appendages or notches, gonads or manubrial structures. The stomach cannot be defined.
T9 is the largest fossil medusa yet found at Ediacara, its greatest radius is 110 mm.
Diameter of holotype, 170 mm.
Comparisons—As the genus is founded solely on rather irregular cyclic sur- face sculpture useful comparison with other living or fossil forms is practically impossible, The annulat undulations may reflect musculations in the umbrella of .a medusa. ;
As in the case of Cyclomedusa it is impossible to be certain whether Madigania is Scyphomedusan or Hydromedusan. It differs from Cyclomedusa in that there are no conspicuous radial striations.
Genus. DicxrnsontA, Sprigg 1947
The affinities of the fossil group which will now be described are extremely uncertain, Practically nothing is known of the anatomy of the fossils concerned, and diagnostic characters are restricted ta the possession of a strong bilateral symmetry, an elliptical form, numerous radial grooves, a submarginal groove marking off a flange, and a median fnrrow.
The fossils may well belong to an extinct order or class, but until more is known of the group no attempt will be made to erect any such new categories. Obscure relations with some of the jellyfishes could be argued, as some have a tendency towards bilateral symmetry, and the possession of radiating (?) canals is a strong feature.
The presence of a well-developed bilateral symmetry may indicate higher specialisation and organisation, and perhaps the assumption of creeping’ habits, Bilateral symmetry is a common characteristic of the Siphonophora and the fossils in question may eventually be referred to that Order, However, for the present, even the assumption that they are Coelenterate may be questionable, but consider- ing theit geological age, their mode of occurrence and the few obvious details of their organisation, the coelenterate category seems the most logical association for the present.
Genus Dickinsonia, Sprigg 1947 Genotype: Dickinsonia costata Sprigg 1947
The genus was founded on a single ovoid form which possessed a marginal crentulate flange and a median longitudinal furtow giving off very numerous sub- radial grooves to the outer crenulate margin. The form was considered to be inflated aborally in life,
Since describing this form much new material is available from the same horizon with which to make comparisons and study variation, Variation has been found to be considerable while still preserving the same general form. The major differences concern the shape of the fossil and prevalence of radial grooves. It was felt that shape alone is insufficient evidence of specific variation, especially in view of the distortion which some forms have suffered and the probability that organisms in various stages of development are being dealt with.
95
To ovetcome these complications, it was felt by plotting the radial grooves in either symmettical half of the individual animals against respective overall dimensions, that some clearer relations might show up, This has been the case, and a fairly direct relation is seen to exist between growth stage and the number of radial grooves. All the specimens form into two series (fig. 9) which it is
To 86 80 HO WO 120 130 1460
so 680
ry) °
so 60 7a BO go LENGTH ALONG MAJOR AxiS
Vig. 9
assumed relate to specific differences, One series indicates less density of costae per unit length and, without exception, includes the larger specimens. It includes the genotype specimen Dickinsonta costatae. The alternate series has been named Dickinsonia minima.
Dickinsonia costata—Length 60-120 mm.; 70-140 costae.
Dickinsonia minima—Length less than 60 mm.; 60-100 costae,
Dickinsonia costata Sprigg 1947
(Plate xviii, fig. 2; plate xix, fig. 1 and 2; plate xx, fig. 1 and 2, text fig. 9 and 10)
Holotype: No, T5, Tate Museum Coll. Adel. Univ., 5, Aust,
Hypotypes: 2050, 2012, 2004, 2007, 2009.
Description — Impression ovoid, bilaterally symmetrical, essentially flat; median longitudinal furrow approximately 35 mm. long gives off 70-140 radiating or diverging grooves or costae (?) alternatively to the margin of the fossil. Margin slightly crenulate when complete, the notches corresponding with the inter- section of the radiating grooves. There is a definite crowding of costae towards one end in several specimens. This could be related to a specialisation leading to the development of an anterior end, or simply to distortion during burial. The well developed concentric epi-marginal sulcus in the holotype specimen marks off a marginal flange, In other specimens the flange is absent or weakly developed.
Variation—The smallest specimen of the series (pl. xix, fig. 2) exhibits characters not seer in the others. It is (?) deformed with the production of annular folds, The character is thought not to be of anotomical or morphological significance.
96
Certain of the specimens show considerable variation in their length over breadth ratios. Specimens 2012 and 2009 for example are exceedingly broad, whereas 2007 is at first sight much narrower, This apparent important difference is resolved however upon the closer inspection of specimen 2007. The deeper costae of the central region cut out relatively sharply away from the central plane of symmetty, but finer grooves of somewhat different type continue considerably further. These fainter lines are quite similar to the radial sculpture of 2012. It
would appeat moreover that the latter sculpture is more of a skeletal nature— perhaps representing chitinous rods. The coarser sculpture would appear to be more of surface significance. In this way there is a complete relationship between the apparently different fossils 2009 and 2012,
Truus. Roy, Soe. 5. Aust, 1949 Vol. 73, Plate
Fig. 1 Protentobia wadea, Sprige
Holotype No, 192, Commonwealth Palacontological Colleetiou, Can- herra, F.C\T. Specimen collected by Dr. A. L. Wade from Lower Cambrian flags, Motint John Osmond Range, Western Australia, The unpressign occurs ou the bedded surface of laminated sandstone,
folotype Ne, 2023, from the lower Canhriau “Meal Sandstune- quarizite ar Ediaeara, Seuth Ansiralia, This specimen and others figured below oceur as tipressiows in fissile flayuy suid poorly
Lunitiited ciasurbzites.
IX
Praus. Roy, Soc. Ss. Aust., 1949 Vol 74, Mlate NX
Pe bo Belhoedia piles, Molotype No, 2056
‘Trans. Ray. Soc. S. Aust., 1949
Vol. 73, Plate
Pig, 1
Tateana inflatu, Holotype Na, 2017
Trans, Roy. Soc. 'S. Aust, 1949 Vol. 73, Plate XII
Fig. 1) Psetidarhizastamttes horechint Fig. 2) Pseudarhoptlemn chapinani
Holotype No, 2034 Holotype No. 2036
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1949 Vol. 73, Plate XIII
Fie. 1 Medusina filamentis Fig. 2) Cyclomedusa radiata Holotype T68 Specimen No, 2027
Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust, Tao Val 74, Plate XIV
Fie 1 Cyelaineduse davis, Taloty pe No, TS
Viv. 3) C. radiata, Specimen No. 2032 hin. 4+ C. demer, Specunen No, 2040
Trans. Roy. Soe S. Aust, Lolo Vol, 73, Plite XV
iy, 1 Cyelomedusa ractivta, Lolotype No. 2037
Trans, Roy. Suc. S. Aust, 1949 Vol 73, Plate XVI
Mig lL Mirdiainta annnlala, Welotype Neo, 2031
‘Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Aust., 1949 Vol, 73, Plate XVIT
Vig 1) Madiyarie uanuletu, Specimen No. 2025
Vrins. Roy. Soe. S, Aust. 1949 Vol. 73, Plate XVI
Fig, Lo Cyrlomedisa radiata, Speennen Noo 2000
Trans. Roy, Soc, 5. Aust., 1949 Vol, 73, Plate XIX
Fin, 1) Phehorsounta eostala, Specimen No, 2050
Trans. Roy Soc. S. Aust, 1940 Vol, 73, Plate XX
f
View 1 Dickinsonta eostate, Specimen Nn, 2012
Bic, 2) Diekimnsonia castata, Specimen No. 2007
Vrans. Roy. Soe. S. Aust., 1949 Vol. 73, Plate XXN1
Fig. 1) Dickinsonia minima Kig, 2) D. minima, Specimen No. 2054 Specimen No. 2052
Fig. 4 YD. minima, Specimen No. 2001
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1949
VMOU aly NTIS tt
Fig. 2 (below)—The type specimen of D. nigricans (x 5).
97
Variation in the importance of the marginal flange of the species is puzzling. In 2055 it is exceedingly well defined, while in other specimens a complete grada- tion into insignificance can be observed, It probably has little diagnostic value. In specimen 2004 the transition can be observed in the one spécumen.
Discussion and alfinities—The fossils are the impressions of the (?) dorsal aspects of bilaterally symmetrical, soft bodied animals of very doubtful affinities. During burial the animals were flattened and compressed, often slightly obliquely in a manner which suggests that they were strongly convex dorsally, The animal was bilaterally symmetrical. Costae may represent superimposed chitinous rods and surface ornamentation, The epimarginal groove may represent a form of circular canal ot simply delineate a margina! flange.
The classification of Dickinsonia is still virtually impossible, allhough the animal was probably coelenterate. The aninial might well belong to an extinct order or even class, It therefore remains highly problematical.
Dickinsonia minima Sprigz sp. uby, (Plate xx1, fig, 1-4; text fe. 9 aird 10 E and F)
Holotype: No, 2000, Tate Mus, Coll, Adel, 5. Aust, Coll. by W, Reid),
Hypotypes: 2001, 2052, 2054, 1005.
Type Locality; Pound Quartzite, Ediacara, S. Aust.
Description—Impression essentially similar to, but smaller than, D. castata, The longitudinal furrow is well developed in the holotype, but there is only slight evidence of marginal flange formation. There is a slight notching at one end but this appears to be fortuitous.
The various specimens can be arranged serially, varying in Ictigth from 29 to 57 mr, and with costae ranging in number from about 60 to 100. The mumber of the latter increases fairly regularly with elongation,
The covttinuation of the costae across the cetitral longitudinal furrow is well shown in specimen 2052, which is apparently the youtgest of the series, The grooves ate not disturbed over their full length, and the last one describes an arc of almost 180 degrees as it reaches the longitudinal furrow. Its reflected half almost parallels its countet-part and leaves a narrow zone not traversed by sculpture,
Dimensions (of holotype)—length 62 mtn.; width 57 mm.; (of all specimens ) length 29-62 mm.; widths 22-57 mm,
Discussion—The crowding of the subradial grooves towards one end 18 noted in D. costata is also apparent in most of the specimens of D. minima. In specimen 2001 this is particularly noticeable and strengthens the impression that
ere is a tendency towards the development of an anterior extremity. The animal might have developed a creeping habit.
’ CONCLUSIONS
Study of the suite of fossils from the hasal Cambrian of Ediacata, South Australia, and the single form from Mount John, Western Australia, has sup- ported the theory that the immediate late Precambrian was an age of jellylishes. It has also demonstrated that many and probably all the modern orders of jelly- fishes were in existence by early Cambrian times,
The presence of so many stranded jellyfish within restricted horizons of the Pound Quartzite at Ediacara siiggests at least local conditions of the tidal fat type. The vattire of the enclosing sediments supports this view, The widespread areal distribution of this particular quartzite with little variation and thickness of up to 7,000 feet (Gammon Ranges, South Australia) indicates a great develop-
Gc
58
ment of shallow continental seas, The quartzite in South Australia appears originaily to have covered 30,000 square miles or more. At about the same strati- graphical horizon similar great sandy beds were deposited over great areas in Central Australia (MacDonnell geosyncline) and in the Kimberley Region of Western Australia.
The modern jellyfish with which several of the forms appear closely related are dominantly subtropical or temperate water forms. The early Cambrian climate was therefore probab!y warm and equable—a fact which is borne out by other marine fossils of this time,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer wishes to express appreciation to the numerotis palaeontologists and zoologists in North America and England who have offered helpful sugges- tions in the study of these fossils, In particular, indebtedness is expressed to Dr. Christina Balk, of Chicago University, and Dr, J. W-. Rees, of the British Museum, for their keen mierest and stimulation. Opportunity is also taken to thank Mr. W, B. Dallwitz for directing attention to Dr. A. Wade’s figure of the impression herein described as Protoniobia wadea, and to Dr. H. G. Ragegatt, of the Mineral Resources Bureau, for permission to borrow the original specimen.
REFERENCES
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Ammon, 1886 Abhandle, Math-Phys. Classe Konigl. boycrischen, Akad. Wiss., 15
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Browne, E. fT, 1897 “On British Medusae,” Proc. Zool. Soc,, London
Caster, 1945 “A New Fossil Jellyfish (Kirklandia texana, Caster) from the Lower Cretaceous of Texas,” Palaeontographica Americana, 3, No. 18
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Linnarson 1871 Kongl, Svensk. Vt.-Akad., Hande, 9, No. 7
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Mover, A. G. 1910 ‘“Medusae of the World,” Carnegie Inst,, Wash., Publict. No, 109, 1, 2 and 3
Narnorst, A.G. 1881 “Om Aftryck af Medusor,” K. Svenska Vetensk Akad. Handl Bd. XIX, Nr. LS. 22, Taf. VI, Stockholm. Kongl. Svensk. Vet-Akad. Handle, 19, No. 1
99 Spricc, R.C. 1947 “Early Cambrian (?) Jellyfishes from the Flinders Ranges, South Australia.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, (2)
Wane, A. 1924 ‘Petroleum Prospects, Kimberley District, Western Australia and Northern Territory.” Parliament of Commonwealth of Aus- tralia
Watcort, C. D. 1898 “Fossil Medusae,” U.S. Geol. Survey, Monograph 30
GESTURE LANGUAGE OF THE WALPARI TRIBE, CENTRAL AUSTRALIA
BY CHARLES P. MOUNTFORD
Summary
Whilst attached to the 1936 Adelaide University Anthropological Expedition to the Granites, Central Australia, I was able to photograph a small number of the hand signs used by the members of the Walpari tribe who inhabit the surrounding country. The accompanying test figures were traced from the photographs taken at the time.
100
GESTURE LANGUAGE OF THE WALPARI TRIBE, CENTRAL AUSTRALIA By Cuarztes P. Mounrrorn * [Read 8 September 1949]
Whilst attached to the 1936 Adelaide University Anthropological Expedition to the Granites, Central Australia, I was able to photograph a small number of the hand signs used by the members of the Walpari tribe who inhabit the sur- rounding country, The accompanying text figures were traced from the photo- graphs taken at the time.
In a previous paper on the subject (1), I listed the references in literature to the gesture language of the Australian aborigines, and recorded, at the same time, some fifteen hand signs in use in the Ngada tribe of the Warburton Ranges of Western Australia.
This paper records thirteen hand signs of the Walpari tribe.
Kanearoo (Macropus rufus), fig, 1, a,
The tips of the thumb and the fingers are first bunched together, then flicked outward. Dinco (Canis dingo), fig. 1, b.
The hand, with the fingers turned tightly inward, is moved upward and downward from the wrist.
Lizarp, small, fig. 1, c-
‘The hand, held with the forefinger in a pointing position, is vibrated side- ways ftom thé wrist,
Emu (Dromaius novae-hollandiae), fig. 1, d. and h.
These are alternative gestures for the emu. In the former sign, the hand, turned upward, and lightly clenched, is moved up and down from the wrist, In the latter, the hand is kept stationary, with the hand partly closed and the thumb placed between the second and third fingers.
Yam, fg. 1, e,
The hand is fully extended, held edgewise, and vibrated sidewise rapidly. Razsit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), fig. 1, £.
The arm is extended and the large ears of the rabbit indicated by the first two fingers of the right hand.
Opossum (Trichosurus vulpecuta), fig. 1, g.
The hard is partly closed, faced away from the body, then moved upward and downward from the wrist. Water, fig. 1, i.
The presence of water is indicated by the hand being lightly closed, held on its edge, vibrated quickly and rotated slightly. The position is not unlike that used to indicate the dingo (fig. 1, b), except that the hand is closed.
Came, fig. 1, j.
The hand, fully extended and facing downward, is moved in an undulating motion in imitation of the movement of the head of a camel. SNake, fig. 1, k,
The thiimb and forefinger are bent sharply at the first joint and vibrated in a siinilar manner to that used in the yam sign.
Mountain Devit (Moloch horridus), fig, 1, m. The second and third fingers are bent sharply inward while the hand and atm are held in a stationary position,
* Associate Curator in Ethnology, South Australiat) Muscum Trans. Roy, Soc. §, Aust, 73, (1),.16 December 1949.
101
Prain Turkey (Eupodotis australis), fig, 1 n.
The hand, fully opened and turned face downwards, is moved from the wrist, in imitation of the movement of the bird’s wing,
This paper records a small number of the interesting and practically un- known hand signs of gesture language of the Australian aborigines, It was only the lack of time that prevented me from collecting a much greater number,
REFERENCE Mountrorp, C. P. 1938 Oceania, 9, (2)
LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS PART XIV
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND NANCY G. MUIRHEAD
Summary
In December 1948 a new echinostome cercaria was found infecting 2 of 77 Planorbis isingi. The infected snails were collected from a small shallow lagoon beside the River Murray at Wood’s Flat near Blanchetown. In January 1949, 2 out of a total of 236 snails were found infected in the same locality. In February 1949 the same cersaria was found again, this time at Tailem Bend, where one snail from a total of 28 was infected. Although Planorbis snails were collected from the swamp at Wood’s Flat in April 1949 and at Tailem Bend in the following June, no infections with this parasite were found.
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LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS PART XIV
Ry T. Tarver Jounstoy and Nancy G. Mvigurap +
Cercaria natans f. sp. (Fiz. 1-6)
In December 1948 a new echinostome cercaria was found infecting 2 of 77 Planorbis tsingt. The infected snails were collected from a small shallow lagoon beside the River Murray at Wood's Flat near Blanchetown. In January 1949, 2 out of a total of 236 snails were found infected in the same locality. In February 1949 the same cercaria was found again, this time at Tailem Bend, where one snail from a total of 28 was infected. Although Plenorbis snails were collected from the swamp at Wood’s Flat in April 1949 and at Tailem Bend in the following June, no infections with this parasite were found.
Under laboratory conditions the cercarige were observed to emerge from the host snail at about mid-day, and after about two hours of swimming they encysted in the host snail. On some occasions one cercaria only was given off during a day. They swam about or floated in the bottom of the tube with periodic excursions towards the surface of the water, When at rest on the bottom or , suspended in the water the body was curved and made an obtuse angle with the tail, ‘
Measurements were made after fixing by the addition of an equal yolume o£ hot 10% formalin to the quantity of water in which the cercariac were swim- ming, In fixed specimens the body is flexed. Measurements based on 20 such specimens are:—body length, 252-2694; breadth, 184-176p.
Average length of 10 living specimens im fairly extended condition is 460,. Diameter of acetabulum, 100%; of oral sucker, 66%; giving a sucker ratio of 5:3. The acetabulum has a fringed margin, The tail, 460-482» in length in fixed material, is longer than the body, and, like it, is capable of a considerable degree of extension. There is a dorsal as well as a ventral fin fold on the distal half of the tail, but these folds do not extend to the tip. They can be seen best when a little pressure is exerted om the cercaria after staining with dilute neutral red, There are fin folds at the base of the tail also, but they appear to have no connec- tion with those situated distally (fig. 2, 3). The tip of the tail which is free of any fin fold, is capable of contraction and extension, as well as threshing move- ments, quite independently of the vest of the tail,
The collar of 35 spines is not readily yisible in living specimens but is obvious in killed material. There are 5 corner spines on each side ventrally, about 5 lateral spines on each side in a single row, and the rest are arranged in two alternating rows dorsally. The spines widen slightly at about the middle of their length and then taper to a broad point, The corner spines are larger than the rest. The dorsal alternating spines of the two series are all the same size (fig, 5}. Average measurements which were made from the metacercaria, are—corner spines, 15-5 long; lateral, 144; dorsal, 13-54, Spinules cover both dorsal and ventral surfaces of the cercaria; they are most abundant anteriorly and ventrally.
There is a prepharynx followed by a spherical pharynx. The oesophagus, when seen from the ventral aspect, appears to be composed of a single column of about & crescentic cells, It bifureates just anterior to the acetabulum and the caeca extend almost to the posterior end of the body.
The details of the excretory systemr are dificult to determine. A long descending tube on each side opens into a terminal bladder which at times has
* University of Adelaide. Trana. Roy. Soc. S& Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1549
103
the shape shown in fig. 1. This tube is widest at the level of the acetabulum and is packed with granules from this point to near the anterior loop where the granules become smaller.
The ascending tube is narrower than the descending and runs parallel with it. Ata point half-way between the acctabulum and the front of the bladder it divides into an anterior and a posterior collecting tubule, The anterior one éxtends to the level of the pharynx where a group of 3 flame cells is connected
104
with it, Between this point and the acetabulum there are two pairs of flame cells. Level with the acetabulum are two groups each of 3 fAlaine cells, and at the point where the ascending tube divides there is another group of probably 3, though only 2 flame cells of this group were actually observed. Posterior to this point there are three groups, each of 3 flame cells, giving a total of 25 on each side. Ciliary flames are present itt the descending and ascending tubes. The arrange- ment of the groups of flame cells is shown in fig. 1, A caudal exctetory pore opens dorsally at the base of the tail. From the bladder an excretory duct extends inta the tail, and at a point about 7Oe from the base of the latter, divides into two.
On the dorsal lip of the mouth are the openings of eight ducts which can be traced backwards to about the level of the pharynx, on each side of which are about 4 pyriform gland eells, which stain only very faintly with neutral red, On either side of the oral sucker is a group of greenish refractive bodies. Granular cystogenous cells are densely aggregated beneath the cuticle from about the level of the pharynx to the posterior end of the body (fig. 1).
Retiace containing living cercariac were dissected from the Hver of the snail. They contained up to five or six cercarnae. Nearly all the rediae possessed bright oratige pigment spats. Anteriorly the pharynx opens into a short darkly coloured intestine which occupies only about one-eighth of the body length: The collar is not obvious but im some specimens a birth pore can be sceti opening a short distance from the anterior end. Foot processes are short and of equal length and are more obvious in young specimens (fig. G}.
We suevessfully infected the pond snail, 4merianna sp., and the tadpole of Limnodynastes tasmaniensiz with the cercaria. The host snail, Planorbis isingi, is a host also for the metacercaria, the cysts occurring mainly in the liver among the rediae, Generally the hast snail bears a large number of cysts. Measure- ments of 30 eysts from Planorbis ranged from 176e x 176p to 191m x 206p. In the experimentally infected Amerianna sp. 10 cysts were found in each snail, mainly in the tissue of the mantle, and measurements of 20 of these cysts ranged from 1684 x 183 to 191p.x 191p. Two cysts were dissected from one of the infected tadpoles (fig. 4) and only one cyst from the other. They were found in the peritoneum surrounding the kidney and in the kidney tissue. Measure- ments of two of these cysts were 229. x 1684 and 168p x 139,.
The cysts are thick-walled and difficult to break bit metacercariae could be expressed from them in some cases. The spines of the metacercaria are larger than those of the cereara and their arrangement is shown in fig. 5. Their measurements have been given above, The spination of the body of the meta- cercaria is more pronounced than in the cerearia. The digestive system js similar and the sucker ratigs are the same, The acetabulum lies in the posterior half of the body.
This cerearia belongs to the Echinostomum group as the spines of the collar are uta double row, uninterrupted dorsally, and the spines of the two dorsal rows are equal in size.
The presence of a fin membrane on the tail, according to Sewell (1922) separated his Cercaria Indica XLVIIT from other Echinostomes. He placed it with others in a specially erected group—the Echinatoides group. Our cercaria in some respects falls into this group. Ilowever, the presence of spines. on the body and the fact that the excretory tubule divides into anterior and posterior tubules at a point half-way beween the acetabulum and the bladder world, avearding to Sewell’s diagnosis, exclude our cercaria from that group,
105
Wesenberg-Lund (1934) placed C. echinostomi Dubois in the Echinatoides group and stated that at first he determined this species as C. limbifera Seifert 1926 (later described by Brown 1931), but that after secing Brown’s description he decided that the two species were distinct though closely allied. Like our species the two cercariae just mentioned have 35 spines but both are larger; C. limbifera has hairs anteriorly; and both C. limbifera and C. echinostami have fin folds extending to the tip of the tail.
Ww Bo
‘Miu g.0 —_———,
Fig. 7-12 Cercaria lethurgica—7, sketch, showing usual flexed condition; 8, ventral view, showing gland cells, also pigmented cells surrounding acetabulum; 9, excretory system; 10, cyst; 11, metacercaria; 12, sporocyst.
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We might mention having found in Amerianna pyramiduta and Planorbis ising from Wood's Flat in February 1949 an echinostome cercaria possessing att anatomy very hke that of C. matans but having 37 spines. It is not the larva of Echinostomum revolutum because it has dorsal and ventral fin folds like C. natans. Its gland cells stain very readily with dilute neutral red whereas those of C, saténs are very difficult to stain even after prolonged immersion in the dye. Its metacercaria has been obtained in the host snails, 4merianna pyramidala and Planorbis isingi, and in the tadpole of Limnodynastes tasmaniensis.
Cercaria lethargica n. gp, (Fig. 7-12)
Since December 1937 a gymnocephalous cercaria has been found infecting the gastropod, Plotiopsis tatei, at yarious places along the lower River Murray. In April 1939, at Tailem Bend, it was found in 40 out of 200 of these molluscs, After February 1940 the incidence of the infection decreased until in P'ehruary 1948, out of 250 Plotiopsis collected near Mannum, only one snail was found infected with this cereatia. In April 1949 at Wood’s Flat, near Blanchetown, I out of 30 snails was found infected. The parasite has never been collected earlier than December but has been found as late as June. It is not an actively maving cercaria but remains for long periods suspended in the water with the tail, which is attached ventrally, and the bady forming 2 continuous curve so that the whole orgamsm is crescent-shaped (fig. 7). When in movement the tail is a little longer than the body and in this extended condition the cuticle is smooth. In a contracted state, as in preserved specimens, the cuticle is thrown into folds which become smaller towards the tip of the tail.
Measurements of the body of 30 specimens after fixation by the method described above, ranged from 268» in length by 114m in breadth to 190m in length by 130». in breadth. The breadth was measured acress the widest part of the cerearia, just posterior to the acetabulum. The oral sucker and the acetabulum are approximately equal, with an average diameter of 324. The tail varies in length from 153 t0 2682, The cuticle of the cercaria bears small spines which art arranged in rows and are embedded for part of their length in the cuticle. They are more obvious anteriorly than posteriorly,
Around the acetabulum and to a less extent behind it, the cercaria is coloured a yellowish-brown due to the presence of many cells containing yellowish granules. Beneath these cells are densely granular cystogenous cells which stain readily with many dyes. These latter cells do not extend much further forward than the acetabulum.
The oral sucker is oval in some preserved and extended specimens, round in living material. The mouth is subterminal. The pharynx can he seen only in stained preparations. The oesophagus is even more difficult tu observe but in one or two stained specimens it could be followed to its bifurcation about midway between the oral and ventral suckers. Caeca were net observed.
Anterior to the ventral sucker and extending forwards to a point about mid- way between the suckers is a conspicuous group of clear gland cells from which ducts extend forwards to open on the oral sucker in 3 groups, 4 dorsal and two ventro-lateral,
The bladder in its contracted state is approximately circular, Extended, it forms a conspicuous Y with a broad stem and with the anms reaching forwards on @ach side of the acetabulum. An excretory pore opens inte the depression into which the tail fits. When the bladder is contracted an excretory duct may be seen extending from it on cach side to the level of the pharynx where it forms
107
a loop (fig. &). When the bladder is in its extended condition, excretory ducts can be seen anteriorly but their points of entry into the bladder could not be detected, Several groups of flame cells have been seen (fig. 9), They are in groups of 3, two groups are aritcrior to the acetabulum and there are perhaps 3 groups behind it.
A rudimentary cirrus sac lies partly antcriot to and partly dorsal to the acetabulum and terminates in the midline or slightly to one side, at the genital pore.
The liver of the host snail may contain many sporocysts vatying in length from 1‘5 tn 2mm, At intervals along their length, between the contained cer- cariae, they are constricted and have the appearance of a string of beads. There are many relractive ylobules which in some specimens collect at one end of the sporocyst (fig, 12).
Successful experimental infections were catried ott using the aquarium fish, Gambusia. in 1940 when many infected snails were present with the fish, as many as 56 cysts were found in the muscles and body cavity of one fish, and 3 others in the liver, In the experimental infections carried out in 1948 cysts were found in the liver only, in the two fish which were successfully infected. These cysts measured from 3llw x 311lp to 328 x 303p.
The metacercaria, when excysted from the thick-walled cyst (fig. 10), shows many of the characters of the cercaria, The body has lengthened and measures from 1-] mm.-1'2 mm. in length and from 2504-229» in breadth. The oral and ventral stickers which are about equal in size, measuring 784-82u, retain their positions relative to each other, The spination is more marked than in the cercaria,
‘The digestive system is observable im stained specimens. The oesophagus bifureates about midway between the suckers and the caeca extend to the posterior end. A group of gland cells is present asin the cervaria, and their ducts open on the oral sucker. A few yellowish granular celis which were a feature of the cercaria, are present near the acetabulum.
The most obvious feature of the metacercatia is the excretory system which still retains its Y-shape. However, the arms of the Y extend anteriorly unti] they are level with the pharynx and the outline of the Y is not as well defined as, in the cercaria, The excretory system is crowded with refractive material which makes the metacercatia appear dark and obscures other features of the living specimen. When the metacercaria is fixed and staitied other structures can be seen (fig. 11).
There is a genital pore and cirrus sac in about the wudline some distance atiteriorly to the yentral sucker. A fine tube {possibly the uterine rudiment) extends from behind the ventral sucker to the region of the cirrus sac. Paster‘o- laterally from the acetabulum is a group of cells which may be the ovarian rudiment,
This cercatia belongs to the Leptocereous group of Tithe (1909), Sewell (1922) modified I.fihe’s scheme of classification and included a number of different groups in the Gymmocephalous cercariae, That classification was modified by Dubois (1929) and Wesenberg-Lund (1934). Sewell (1922) has described a cercaria very like ours—C, indica XJ. He stated that it fell into no known group or sub-group, It differs from our species however in size, amount of pigment, and in the arrangement of iis excretory canals and tubules, although it has the Y-shaped bladder. The excretory system of our carcaria is more like that of an echinostome and it is therefore possible that the adult may belong to the family Psilnstomatidae in which the life history is similar to that of Echinnstomes. However, the Psilostome cercariae described by Beayer (1939)
108
and by Szidat (1937) are different in many respects from ours and their develop- ment occurs in rediae not in sporocysts, The Y-shaped excretory system, packed with refractive material, of the metacercaria of our species is suggestive of the Fellodistomatidae, SuMMary
A new 35-spined echinostome cercaria, C. natans, is described from Planorbis istgt from the lower Murray. The metacercaria has been obtained expcrimentally from the gastropods, Planorbis isingi and Amerianna sp., and from the tadpole of Limnodynastes tasméniensis.
A closely allied 37-spined cercaria is reported from Amerianna pyramtidata and Planorbis isingi, its metacercaria haying been obtained experimentally from these two species of snails as well as from the tadpole just named.
Cercaria lethargica n.sp. is described from the gastropod, Platiopsis tatet, the metacercaria occurring (experimentally) in a fish, Gambusta. The adult is perhaps a Psilostome or a Fellodistome.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We desire to acknowledge assistance rendered by Messrs. G, G, and Bryce Jaensch of Tailem Bend, The work was carried out with the aid of the Com- monwealth Research Grant to the University of Adelaide.
LITERATURE
Beaver, P. C. 1939 The Morphology and Life History of Psilostomum ondatrae Price, 1931 (Trematoda, Psilostomidae), J. Parasit., 25, 383-393
Brown, F, J. 1931 Some Freshwater Larval Trematodes from Cheshire. Parasitology, 23, 88-98
Dusors, G. 1929 Les cercaires de la Région de Neuchatel. Bull. Soc. Neu- chatel, Sci, Nat., 53, n.s. 2, 1928, 1-177
Lite, M. 1909 Trematodes. Die Siisswasser Fatina Deutschlands. Heft 17
Serrert, R. 1926 Cerearia limbifera, eine neue Echinostome Cerearia, Zool, Anz., 67; 112-199
Sewe Lt, R. B.S, 1922 Cercariae Indicae. Ind. J. Med. Res., 10, Suppl, Num- ber, 1-370
Samat, L. 1937 Uber die Entwicklungsgeschichte von Sphaeridiotrema globulus Rud, 1814 und die Stellung der Psilostomidae Odhner im nattirlichen System, I, Z. Parasirenk., 9, 529-542
Wesennerc-Lunp, C, 1934 Contributions to the development of the Trema- toda Digenea. Part II. The biology of the freshwater Cercariae in Danish freshwaters, D. Kgl. Dansk. Vidensk. Selsk. Skr. Naturw. Math, Afd., Raekke 9, 5, (3), 1-223
A SODA-RICH COMPOSITE INTRUSIVE STOCK LOCATED IN THE BOOLCOOMATTA HILLS, SOUTH AUSTRALIA
BY E.. R. SEGNIT
Summary
Situated about one and a half miles south of the homestead of Old Boolcoomatta sheep station is a composite stock-like intrusive body of unusual nature. In plan it measures about 200 yards by 100 yards. The intruded formation consists of mica schist and other meta-sediments of middle Precambrian age. On one side of the intrusion the enveloping schistose rocks are riddled with a maze of large quartz feldspar pegmatites.
108
A SODA-RICH COMPOSITE INTRUSIVE STOCK LOCATED IN THE BOOLCOOMATTA HILLS, SOUTH AUSTRALIA
By E. R. Secnit * {Read 10 November 1949]
Situated about one and a half miles south of the homestead of Old Bool- coomatta sheep station is a composite stock-like intrusive body of unusual nature. Tn plan it measures about 200 yards by 100 yards, The intruded formation consists of mica schist and other meta-sediments of middle Precambrian age. On one side of the intrusion the enveloping schistose rocks are riddled with a maze of large quartz feldspar pegmatites,
The metamorphosed intruded formation is of the aureole of the granite bathylith of the Boolcoomatta Hills. The great outcropping mass of Binberrie is distant scarecly more than one and a half miles.
The intrusion is approximately oval in shape. The long axis of the ellipse trends north-east to south-west, which conforms to the directions of schistosity of the surrounding rocks,
The outcrop itself is rather wanting in topogtaphic relief and soil cover limits exposures in such critical areas as the mutual contacts of the intrusions and the encircling Precambrian formation. The area of intrusion 1s irregularly oceupied by two distinct igneous magrna types: one is more felds- pathic and lighter in colour; the other is darker and obviously more femic. ‘The relative areas occupied by each of these and their relation in the outcrop is plotted in the plan herewith.
SKETCH PLAN OF INTRUSION LOCALITY PLAN
‘= BOOLCOOMATA.... ES
TEAD'
; WOMAN iW Write. A AAA AA AA RAAT " . A NKNAANAKAAN » ARAAAAAAAAAASD = of G) tacazron pAAANANAAA AAS 8 INTRUSION STA OA AAN AALS {Pre *y
a Se
4
APPROX SCALE O Ea
As will be noted from the analysis the lighter rock is syenitic but abnormally high in soda. Its outcrops are semi-continuous piles of broken rock only a few feet high at most. The blocks are small and equidimensional, having broken up along closely spaced joints.
* University of Adelaide.
Trans. Roy. Soc. §. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949
110
The more basic rock, which may be described as a soda-tich dolerite, occupies outcrops only slightly above the ground level and in general has a pro- nounced schistosity parallel! to the long axis of the intrusion.
The main outcrop of albite syenite occurs along the north edge of the intrusion, A feature of it, especially in) some areas, is that it contains in small grains a surprising amount of magnetite, In one part of the outcrop coarse mag- netitic loadstone in lumps up to two inches in diameter has been shed. Outcrops of the syenite occur all around to the north-west projection oi the intrusion and isolated small outcrops appear at the north-east corner. Along the eastern side nothing can be seen due to soil cover, but it seems probable from the little shed material, that the syenilic rock extends right around the intrusion.
The central, more basic part of the iIntrasion is essexitic in nature. It is in part massive, but has been affected by the local metamorphism. A considerable part has been changed to epidote-hotite schist. Some unaltered rock occurs near to the contact with the syenite (apparently having been protected by the more massive character of this rock), and this has been taken as representative of the original intruded rock. It is characteristically rich in hornblende as compared with the biotite-rich altered rock.
Epidote is abundant in the central part of the intrusion. It occurs commonly as large nodules up to 12 inches im diameter, but generally 5 to 6 inches or less. These are almost pure bright green finely crystalline epidote. The biotite schist is frequently rich in small green lenticles of epidote about half to one inch in length. The unaltered essexitic rock contains a small amount of epidote which appears to be a primary constituent. It would scem that some at least of the epidote present is primary.
The transition from essexife to syenite is clearly seen on the northern side of the intrusion, There is no sharp line of demarcation, although the transition is relatively sudden and takes place over a distance of 3 to 4 feet. The syenite becomes coarser nearer the transition, while in parts the two rocks scem to be mixed, In some places magnetite is very abundant.
The outcrops on the southern side are poor or non-existent. Only occasional small patches are seen near the south-east corner. Shed material as well as these few patches of rock indicate that the syenite extends right around the intrusion. Some of the shed material contains coarse hornblende and calcite,
The schistosity of the basic centre is roughly parallel to that of the intruded rock, as would be expected, except where the latter follows the edges of the intrusion.
A quartz-feldspar pegmatite, generally similar though poorer in tourmaline and mica to those traversing the rocks of the surrounding hills, penctrates the intrusion extending right through both constituent rock types. It is up to 20 fect wide in places, A feature of it is a fine-grained border zone where it contacts the intrusion.
PETROLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE ROCKS
The Albite-Syenite—A light-coloured medium-grained rock composed chiefly af elongated albite crystals, with magnetite, quartz and a little apatite, muscovite, chlorite and rutile.
The feldspars tend to be elongated but apart from this show no pretence of crystal outline. They are frequently untwinned. Other crystals show fine roultiple {winning, commonly discontinuous, The individuals, although elongated,
{ll
are arranged at random and give no directional structure to the rock. Minute inclusions are common. Patches of small crystals, possibly due to metamorphic processes, commonly occur along the edges of larger crystals. Lxtinction angle measurements proved unsatisfactory, but the chemical analysis of the rock and low refractive index of the feldspar indicates it to be albite.
Magnetite is plentiful, distributed evenly throughout the rock. It occurs as aggregates of well-formed crystals, the individuals being of much smaller grain- size than the feldspar lathes, Minute octahedra included in the feldspar are also common,
Clear quartz, making up several per cent, of the rock, is in grains comparable in size to the magnetites.
Accessory minerals are muscovite, chlorite, apatite and rutile, The mica forms small bent flakes; the chlorite is pale green, has low D.R. and is derived from the mica. The transition can be seen in single crystals. Apatite is a common accessory, sometimes. well crystallized. Rutile forms groups of very small dark- brown crystals generally associated with the magnetite, They are sometimes dis- tinctly striated, and the occurrence in clusters suggests a secondary origin. The magnetite with which it is associated is well crystallized and shows no sign of alteration.
The chemical composition of the rock is given in the table herewith.
TABLE oF ANALYSES
I II I II SiO, - - 62:18 50-40 H,O+ - “25 -47 TiO, | - 16-91 6 -79 H:O- - - “01 “08 AlOa { 14-91 P.O; - - +34 +12 Fe.Os aes * 8-19 9 21 MnO - * — < 03 FeQ - = 3-29 6-92 BaO- - - 04 — MeO - - 68 4-70 S nil _— caQO_ - - “76 5-94 tonnes KsO - - “10 1-16 100+74 99-90 NaQ - - 7-99 5-17 I. Albite Syenite (6228); Old Boolcoomatta Stn. Anal. E. R. Segnit. II, Essexite (6226): Old Boolcoomatta Stn. Anal, E. R. Segnit.
Another specimen from another point on the outcrop differs from the syenitic rock described above in that it contains a notable quantity of actinolitic amphibole, some included in the feldspars. In this magnetite is fess in evidence, apalite is unusually abundant.
The Essexite—A dark grey medium-grained rock in which hornblende crystals 2 to 3 millimetres in diameter are visible in the hand specimen. It is aboul 35% mafic minerals, chiefly hornblende.
The feldspar is somewhat clouded owing to incipient alteration, In shape it tends to be elongated parallel to 010 face, but the crystal boundaries are irregular and pitted.
Rather fine albite twinning is widespread, although mainly indistinct. The maximum extinction angle observed in the symmetrical zone was about 11°, which with R.I, determination and high soda content of the rock indicates a com- position (Chudoba) of about Ab,An, oligoclase.
The dark mineral is chiefly an ordinary green hornblende, strongly pleochroic: X = dark straw yellow, Y = dark green, 7 = blue-green. It is plentiful as large irregular crystals which often include biotite, feldspar, epidote, sphene and magnetite,
12
The following minerals are present as accessories: Biotite as abundant small flakes frequently enclosed in the hornblende; minute flakes are frequently to be seen in the feldspar.
Epidote is distributed patchily, Forms large and small crystals, pleochroic yellow to colourless. Its made of occurrence, being quite free from any regular association with other minerals, suggests that it is here a primary constituent.
Magnetite is a common mineral occurring with the hornblende. Sphene is colourless, generally associated with magnetite. Apatite appears as occasional crystals,
The abundant oligoclase and the high alkali, particularly soda, contetit, place the rock in the essexite group of alkali gabbros.
Certain portions of the outcrop have suffered considerable metamorphic change, especially in certain belts where the effects of excessive stress are evidenced. There the feldspars of the essexite group have heen greatly crushed, epidote and zoisite are plentiful; quartz appears and biotite, almost opaque in direction of greatest absorption, is very abundant.
Specimens taken across the contact zone of the syenite and essexite show a genctal intermingling of the minerals of the two types and a rather sudden transi- tion. An interesting and mnexpected feature in one of the specimens which is rather coarser in grain than the normal syenite and is notably rich in magnetite, is the presence of calcite in the quite fresh and unweathered rock.
ORIGIN
The form of this intrusion is evidently a small composite stock. The albite syenite was first introduced. When solid, but still hot, the essexite magma was injected into the centre of the stock. The syenite reacted to a small extent with the essexite magma, causing the narrow contact zone of mixed rock seen in the field. At a later date the whole intrusion was subjected to the regional meta- morphism of the area, the more readily alterable essexite being changed largely to biotite epidote schist.
The later date of intrusion of the essexite is further supported by the small patch of the basic rock on the northern corner of the intrusion. This was evi- dently forced at a later stage between the cool syenite and the country rock. The syenite contact here is rather sharper.
The granite pegmatite was of course introduced still later, being one of the abundant acid pegmutites of the area,
The intrusion is apparently a cupola form introduction, derived from an early differentiate of the Boolcoomatta granite magma, A sodic differentiate had been formed probably with the help of volatiles; this further differentiated and then intruded as a small composite stock,
This occurrence recalls other soda rich intrusions, some descrihed as albitites, which appear to have somewhat similar relations to major granite masses of other areas in South Australia,
STUDIES ON THE MARINE ALGAE OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA
NO. 3 NOTES ON DICTYOPTERIS LAMOUROUX
BY H.. B. S. WOMERSLEY
Summary
Dictyopteris Lamouroux 1809 has been referred to in Australian algal literature as Haliseris Targioni — Tozzetti 1819 (Lucas 1936, p. 89, and previous authors) or Neurocarpus Weber and Mohr 1805 (May 1939, p. 200) but was included in the list of “Nomina Generica Conservanda” of the 1935 International Botanical Congress.
113
STUDIES ON THE MARINE ALGAE OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA No. 3 NOTES ON DICTYOPTERIS LAMOUROUX
By H. Bb. S. Womexsiey | Read 10 November 1949]
Dictyopteris Lamouroux 1809 has been referred to in Australian algal literature as Haliseris Targioni- Tozzetti 1819 (Taicas 1936, p. 89, and previous authors) or Newrocarpus Weber and Mohr 1805 (May 1939, p, 200) but was included in the list of “Nomina Generica Cotiservanda” of the 1935 International Botanical Congress.
DICTYOPTERIS AUSTRALIS Sonder 1852 and BD. PARDALIS {Harvey 1854) May
Dictyopteris pardalis is supposed to differ from D, australis in the absence of fine lateral veins running from the midrib to the margin, Sonder (1871, p. 47) first regarded D. pardalis as only a “variety with small thallus” of his D, australis, and he was followed by Askenasy (1888, p. 30) and Borgesen (1930, p, 173). Lucas (1936. p. 89) however considered them distinct species.
The type specimen of D- australis, collected at Lefevre Peninsula, South Australia, by F. von Mueller on 16 December 1847, and with Sonder’s ms, description on the sheet, is in Melbourne National Herbarium, This specimen, though rather battered, is specifically identical with colype specimens of Harvey’s of D. pardalis in Melbourne and Sydney National Herbaria, which also show fine lateral veins from midrih to margin, There is also no significant difference in thallus width between the specimens, and the spores in both (though almost denuded in the type of D. australis) are arranged in recuryed arches.
An examination of all the specimens available in Australian Herbaria of these species shows that the presence, and prominence, of lateral vemns is a very yatiable character. Some specimens show veins in only some parts, others all over the thallus; often lateral veins occur on one side of the midrib and not the other side, All specimens, however, show some veins, though often extremely fine.
2D, pardalts (Harv.) May must thercfore be relegated to synonomy of D, australis Sonder, with the following references:
Dictyopteris australis Souder herb, Askenasy 1888, p, 30. Borgesen 1930,
p. 173, Hualiseris australis Sonder 1852, p. 664; 1871, p, 47, Kiitzing 1859,
pl. 54. De Toni 1895, p. 257, Lucas 1936, p. 89. Haliseris pardalis Har-
vey 1854, p, 535; 1858, pl. 29. Kiitzing 1859, pl, 59, Il. De Toni 1895,
p. 258, Lucas 1935, p, 209; 1936, p 89. Dictyopterts pardalis (Harvey)
May 1946, p. 274.
Distrrnution Recorps—Herbarium abbreviatiens used below are: Botany Department, University of Western Australia— W; Botany Department, Uni- versity of Adelaide —A; Melbourne National Herbarium —M; Sydney National Herbarium — 5.
WESTERN AusTRALtA—Dongarra (A, Baird, April 1930; G. Smith, February 1944—in holes on reefs —W.). Coitteslue (G- Smith, January 1945, 1946—as bushy tufts on rocks in 10 feet of water —A.. W.). Fremantle (Harvey, No. 86 A, as H. pardalis, M. and S,). Point Peron (G. Smith, June 1949, W.), Bunbury (M.)- Champion Bay (M,).
* Department of Botany, Liniversity of Adelaide. Tees Roy. ‘Soc. S, Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949
114
Sours Austratta— Lefevre Peninsula (F. v. Mueller, December 1847, M.}. Port Noarlunga (E. Mackin, 1924, A.). Spencer's Gulf (A.).
Qvutenstanp—Caloundra (G. McKeon, August 1948, A.). Moreton Bay (Askenasy). Peel Islaid (J. Marshall, May 1949, A.). Margate (V. May, December 1943 (as D. pardalis). Redcliffe (A. Cribb, July 1949, A; G. McKeon, September 1948, A.). Port Denison (F. Kilner in Sonder), Cape Upstart (M.).
Extra Avstratia—Lord Howe Island (F. Perrin and A, Lucas, June 1933, S.—as H. crassinervia—see later ; also Lind and Fullagar, M.). Inp1a—Dwarka, Okla Port (Borgesen), Karachi (Harvey).
Most of the Australian specimens, except those of Smith from Dongarra and Cottesloe, were probably collected from the drift. D, australis probably occurs in deep pools on reefs and the sublittora,
DICTYOPTERIS CRASSINERVIA (Zanardini) Schmitz
Schmitz 1937, p, 219. Haliseris crassinervia Zan. 1874, p. 487, De Toni
1895, p. 258.
In the Melbourne National Herbarium is a sheet (see pl. xxii, fig. 1) labelled, in O, W, Sonder’s writing, Halyseris Mulleri Sonder
Halyseris crassinervia Zanard.
The specimens were collected by Fullagar at Lord Howe Islarid, and probably received by Sonder from F. yon Mueller, then Government Botanist at Melbourne. Mr. A. W. Jessep, Director of the Melbourne Herbarium, informs me that “Fullagar and Lind were together on Lord Howe Island for nearly a year, about 1873, and coliected extensively for Baron von Mueller,” He also states that Mueller apparently submitted the Lord [owe algal collections to Sonder-
Zanardini described a niimber oi species from Lord Howe Island, and this specimen in the Melhourne Herbarium agrees very well with his description of HH crassinervia, and is sterile, It seems probable that this is an authentic, pro- bably a cotype specimen of H. crassinervia. Souder apparently (from the label) had doubts as to whether it was distinct from his H, muelleri, but although closely related it differs in the much darker, wider and more robust thallus.
In Melbourne Herbarium is also a specimen of A. australis collected by Fullagar and Lind on Lord Howe Island, which was not however recorded by Zanardini.
Lucas (1935, pp. 209-210, pl. vii, fig. 1) describes and figures what he con- sidered to be H. crassinervia. Lucas’ specimens (in Sydney and his own herbaria) are clearly I/. australis, as is shown also by his description, and are quite distinct from the authentic specimen of H. crassinervia in Melbourne Herbarium, Apparently Lucas did not collect true H..crdssinerzia on Lord Howe Island, but presumed his specimens must be this species as it was the only one recorded from the island,
D. crassinervia hence is still only known from the sterile Fullagar collection, and Lucas’ comments apply to D. australis, as da those of May 1946, p. 274.
The other Australian species of Dictyopteris are as follows:
5. acrostichoides (J, Agardh) Borgesen from Victoria, Tasmania, Queens-
land, New Sotith Wales,
D. muelleri (Sonder) Schmitz from Western Australia, South Australia,
Victoria, Tasmania N, weodwardii (Brown) Schmitz from North Queensland. In addition the following species from Kangaroo Island is now described.
115
Dictyopteris nigricans n. sp. (Pig. 1, pl. xxii, fig. 2)
Thallus 5-20 cm. altus, tamis subdicholomis et parce lateralibus 2-5 mm. latis, adfixus basi rhizoidibus; apices interdum proliferi; costa prominens infra, venis nullis; cumulus paraphysium sparsus in una linea ab utroque latere costae; sporae sparsae in thallo cum angusta et sterili margine; color thalli fuscus.
Thallus 5-20 em. high, usually in tufted masses, subdichotomous with some lateral branches, 2-5 mm. wide, attached at the base by rhizoids; branch tips some- times proliferous; axils rounded. Midrih conspicuous, lateral veins absent, Hair groups. in a single irregular line on each side of midrib. Spores scattered, not on midrib and with a narrow sterile margin at edge of thallus, Colour very dark brown.
116
Locaitigs—On Kangaroo Island, South Australia:
Pennington Bay: in deeper pools on reefs, all seasons. Vivonne Bay: in pools on reefs in the bay, January 1948; drift, January 1949
West Bay: drift, January 1946.
D. nigricans probably occurs in deeper pools on reefs and in the upper sub- littoral along the south and west coasts of Kangaroo Island. The type specimen is A 2296 in the Algal Herbarium of the Botany Department, University of Adelaide.
D, nigricans resembles D. muelleri in possessing scattered spores, but differs in the much narrower and darker coloured thallus, with hair groups in a single irregular series on each side of the midrib. It resembles D. acrostichoides in the spores tending to be in a band on each side of the midrib, with a narrow sterile margin; the thallus of D. acrostichoides however is wider and the hair groups tend to occur in recurved arches.
Only 3 or 4 fertile plants of D, nigricans have been found in several hundred examined, and the spores in these may not be fully developed as they consist only of large cells with much darker, denser contents, scattered among the epidermal cells, and they do not protrude above the surface (fig. 1, b, ¢, d).
REFERENCES
Asxenasy, E. 1888 “Algen,” Forschungsreise S-M.5, “Gazelle.” IV Theil, Botanik
Borcesen, F. 1930 “Some Indian Green and Brown Algae, especially irom the ae of the Presidency of Bombay.” Journ. Indian Bot. Soc., 9, 151
De Tonr, G. B. 1895 Sylloge Algarum, 3, Fucoideae
Harvey, W. H. 1854 ‘Some Account of the Marine Botany of the Colony of Western Australia.” Trans. Roy. Irish Acad., 22, 525-566
Harvey, W. H. 1858 Phycologia Australica, 1
Kirztnc, F. T.. 1859 Tabulae Phycologicae, 9
Lucas, A, H. S. 1935 “The Marine Algae of Lord Howe Island.” Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 60, 194-232
Lucas, A. H. S. 1936 “The Seaweeds of South Australia. Pt. I”
May, V. 1939 “A Key to the Marine Algae of New South Wales. Pt. H, Melanophyceac.” Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 64, 191-215
May, V. 1946 “Studies on Australian Marine Algae, III.” Ibid, 71, 273-277
Scumirz, QO. C. 1937 “Beitrage zur Systematik der Phaeophyten, I.” Hedwigia, 77, 213-230
Sonprr, O. W. 1852 “Plantae Muellerianac. Algae.” Linnaea, 25, 657-709
Sonper, O. W. 1871 “Die Algen des tropischen Australiens.”
Zanarpint, J. 1874 “Phyceae australicae novae vel minus cognitae.” Flora, 57, 486-490, 497-505
THE ELATINA GLACIATION A THIRD RECURRENCE OF GLACIATION EVIDENCED IN THE ADELAIDE SYSTEM
BY D. MAWSON
Summary
Early in the year 1938 an apparently unbroken succession of beds directly underlying the fossiliferous Cambrian was located on Oraparinna Station in the Flinders Ranges. A geological section was run from near Mount Sunderland to the west, through the Brachina Gorge.
7
THE ELATINA GLACIATION A THIRD RECURRENCE OF GLACIATION EVIDENCED IN THE ADELAIDE SYSTEM
By D. Mawson | Read 10 November 1949]
Early in the year 1938 an apparently unbroken succession of beds directly underlyirig the fossiliferous Cambrian was located on Oraparinna Station in the Flinders Ranges. A geological section was run from near Mount Sunderland to the west, through the Brachina Gorge.
In the description of this succession stibsequently published (Mawson 1939}, item (44), outcropping in the vicinity of the locality known as Elatina, is 190 feet of flagey argillaceous limestone with some beds. of massive limestone. At its upper limit some sand and tiny pellets up to 6 mm, diameter were observed embedded in the calcareous strata,
Then follows, in upward succession, (item 45) 75 feet of a pinkish red sandy formation. At its base it carries some coarser layers composed of mineral particles distinguishable to the naked eye as feldspar, etc, Towards its upper limit the constituent particles are mainly dust-like, with in addition a little sand and odd very small pellets. When first observed in the ycar 1938, this formation was entered as being of a tuffaceous nature,
Above the foregoing is an unstratified formation, 12 feet in thickness (item 46) composed mainly of a very fine-grained base of a brownish red colour, in which are embedded random pebbles and boulders up to 2 feet in length, though most are but 4 few inches in diameter, These pebbles are mainly fine- grained melaphyres, some vesicular, and dolerites with only minor contributions of other rocks; several pebbles of coarse tuff and dolomite were met with.
Overlying this untisual formation is massive pink limestone, (item 47), 10 feet in thickness, which in turn passes upwards into a great thickness of chocolate shales-
When encountered in 1938, the boulder-bearing formation (item 46) was rather puzzling. Glacial transportation first suggested itself, but as the rocks contained in it are overwhelmingly of a basic igneous nature, and further, as the fine dust-like base is of a reddish chocolate colour, the conclusion reached was that it must be of a tuffaceous origin. Further investigation at that time could not to be undertaken owing to a breakdown of our transport unit, necessitating return south for repairs.
On another visit to Oraparinna during 1938, an examination was made of the sedimentary succession of the eastern side of the Flinders Ranges in the locality known as The Bunkers, In the published (Mawson 1938) geological section, items (43 and 44) include a reddish sandy and pebbly horizon, some features of which suggest fuffaceous contributions in a fluviatile formation. We were able to satisfy oursclyes that some part of this horizon at The Bunkers is approximately equivalent in time of deposition with item (46) of the section through Elatina, These two outcrops are separated by about 18 miles.
Since publishing the geological sections mentioned above, opportunities have arisen for further investigation. On passing through Oraparinna with students in 1944, we visited Elatina to collect boulders shed along the outcrop of the boulder-bearing bed in question with a view to checking the possibility of glacial
Trans. Roy, Sor. Si Awst., 73
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119
transport. On that occasion many faceted pebbles were collected, some of which retain pourly preserved striae. One of the students, A, F, Wilson, tracing the outcrop further to the north, picked up a really well preserved, smoothed and striated example which left little doubt that it owed these features to glaciation. As, however, the formation presents wnusual features and is located in the Pro- terozoic sequence at an horizon far above the well-known Sturtian Tillite, publica- tion was held in abeyance pending still further investigation.
Since then the Bunkers outcrop has again been visited, and boulders there shed along the ouicrop have again been examined. It was found that the types of rock illustrated in the pebbles embedded in this formation ure notably more variable than is the case at Elatina: there granitic and metamorphic racks are common Pebbles with facets were found to be not uncommon, but no good convincing example of glacial striae was met with, though in several cases there were visible what appeared to be faint traces of striae.
Early this year, efi route with students to the northern extremity of the Flinders Ranges, a break was again made at Oraparinna to allow of oxamihation of the Elatina outcrop in its extension further to the north than previously investigated, On this occasion we proceeded west from Etina, meeting the out- crop in question at a point one or two miles to the north of where previously obsetved along the Elatina Creek. In this locality the glacial formation is thicker, more than 20 feet. We soon collected numbers of well faceted and striated specimens, Thus, doubt no longer remains that this is a case of glacial transport.
THE CHARACTER OF THE TILLITE
Tt would now appear that much, at least, of the very fine-grained dust-like base of the rock is of the nature of glacial rock flour. In certain places along the outcrop, the percentage of coarser grit and pebbles is locally increased to produce the physical character of a normal tillite, with the exception that in this case it is uf a réddish to chocolate colour. We have not yet met Sturtian Tillite in South Australia of this colour. It is usually of a light to dark grey colour, often of an ashy to bluish-grey tone,
We may now regard thin bands of coarse arenites composed of fresh gtains of feldspar, quartz and other primary minerals appearing in chocolate beds asso- ciated with and about the horizon of this tillite as water transportations and concentrations from glacial debris.
The marked predominance of basic voleanic rocks among the erratics in the Elatina locality suggests that the ice-shed was probably localised as cappings on high basaltic volcanic piles) One such area can be visualised as having existed in the neighhourhood of Blinman, some 20 miles te the north of Elatina, Another possible location for such conditions is an area of basic volcanic rocks appearing below the heiroglyphic limestones, extending on Oraparinna down the east central portion of the Ranges. ‘hose igneous effusions appear to have burst through Lhe dolomites of the lower Adelaide System. The case at Wooltana (Mawson 1948) well exemplifies this.
It is presumed that transportation of the boulders was effected by floating ice in lakes or the sea surrounding the volcanic highlands. As already mentioned the physical nature of this formation 1s in places that of normal tillite, but for the main part it is of a finer thaty usual texture, The rock flour may in part have been transported! by water, bul where, as in some places, it is wanling in any kind of lamination it may, in part at least. be loessial, It is expected that fine voleanic ash has contributed to the Formation either directly or alter reworking by ice.
12)
Our knowledge of local atmospheric circulation in regions of high ice-caps leaves no doubt that violent outflowing winds would be a feature of the time, transporting rock flour and fine ash widely over neighbouring regions. It seems probable therefore that the chocolate shales of the upper Adelaide System owe mich to such aeolian activity which mtist have marked the closing stages of the great Late-Proterozoic glaciation.
The high iron content of the basic volcanic effusions, ground up by over- riding ice, would be a notable factor in developing the depth of colour im the chocolate shales of that time. That some of the chocolate shales (Mawson and Segnit, 1948) contain flakes of mica and grains of quartz, microcline, etc., suggests that this loess was derived not only from the glaciation of basaltic high- lands, but from granitic atid gneissic terrains elsewhere located and subjected to ice sheet erosion.
This proved tecord of glacial activity at the Elatina horizon of the Adelaide System has not yet heen demonstrated to have wide distribution and may indeed be very local. In this connection there should be considered the report (Segnit, R. W., 1940) of tillite occurring near Hallett Cove.
POSSIBLE ECHO OF THE ELATINA GLACIATION OUTCROPPING AT MARINO ROCKS
In his geological map of the Hallett Cove region, R. W. Segnit shows the occurrence along the coast, from Marino Rocks to the south, of an extensive a'ea af tillite which he held ta be Sturtian. No other geologist has yet been able to find a convincing tillite in that area (Sprigg, 1942) and it has been demonstrated (Mawson, 1940) that, if by any chance the chocolate-coloured rock formations there were tillite, they could not be the equivalent of the Sturtian Tillite horizon of the nearby Sturt Creek.
There are, however, along that strip of coast, some bands of arkose and pebbly arkosic grits of an ynusual nature, part of the Chocolate Series overlying the Brighton Limestones. Features unusual for normal sedimentary water-deposited rocks also occur there in another belt somewhat higher in the chocolate shales.
The late Sir Edgeworth David and [ carefully examined that area in the year 192] and on account of unusual features again studied it in 1925, We came to the conclusion that there was there no definite evidence of work of ice, Haw- ever, though there is no normal tillite, it would now appear, in the light of our discovery at Elatina, that in all probability some of the unusual sedimentary phena- mena of the coastal strip north of Hallett Cove may be the echo, so to speak, of distant glaciation. This horizon approximates to that of Elatina and it is note- worthy that similar arkosic bands are met with in the chocolate series at Elatina.
This new record of glaciation, it will be observed, post-dates the Brighton Limestones and in cur Brachina Creek section (Mawson,, 1939) and its sub- sequent extension (Mawson, 1942) is shown to be located somewhere im the neighbourhood of 9,000 feet stratigraphically above the topmost erratic-bearing horizons of the Sturtian glaciation of that atea of South Australia. For distinction I propose that this mew discovery be referred to as the Elatina tillite, a product uf Elatina glaciation.
Already attention has been drawn (Mawson, 1948b) to the existence in the Adelaide System of the records of two older and major glaciations separated by a prolonged interglacial period. As that evidenced in the Sturt Creek near Adelaide appears to be the uppermost of these two, the distinction of Sturtan should be reserved for it, For the lowest I have advocated {Mawson 1948 b) the adoption of the term Bibliando glacial stage.
12]
The evidence so far forthcoming indicates that the Elatina Glaciation was a comparatively weak and fading phase of the Late-Proterozoic glaciation; in all
probability represented by isolated minor cappings on the higher topographic features of the region affected.
REFERENCES
Mawson, D. 1938 The Mount Caernarvon Series of Proterozoic Age. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 62, 347-351
Mawson, D. 1939 The Late Proterozoic Sediments of South Australia. Trans. A.N.Z.A.A.S., 24, 79-88
Mawson, D. 1940 Tillite and other Rocks from Hallett Cove, S. Aust. Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust-, 64, 362
Mawson, D. 1942 The Structural Character of the Flinders Ranges. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 66, 262-272
Mawson, D. 1948a Sturtian Tillite of Mount Jacob and Mount Warren Hast- ings, North Flinders Ranges. Trans, Roy. Soc. $, Aust., 72, 244-251
Mawson, D. 1948b The Late-Precambrian Ice-Age and Glacial Record of the Bibliando Dome. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 82, 150-174
Mawson, D., and Secnir, E. R. 1948 Purple Slates of the Adelaide System. Trans Roy, Soc, S. Aust., 72, 276-280
Secnit, R. W. 1940 Geology of Hallett Cove and District, with special refer- ence to the distribution and age of the Younger Glacial Till, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust-, 64, 3-44
Spricc, R. C. 1942 The Geology of the Eden- Moana Fault Block. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust-, 66, 185-214
THE MURRAY BRIDGE AND MONARTO GRANITES AND ASSOCIATED ROCKS OF THE METAMORPHIC AUREOLE
BY R. K. JOHNS AND J. M. KRUGER
Summary
The area under discussion forms a belt on the eastern scarp of the Mount Lofty Ranges from the township of Monarto to the River Murray on the east.
122
THE MURRAY BRIDGE AND MONARTO GRANITES AND ASSOCIATED ROCKS OF THE METAMORPHIC AUREOLE
By R. K, Jouns and J. M. Krucer* {Read 10 November 1949]
CONTENTS Page ‘J. Dytropuctrion - + me oe = = & & £ = = 122 IL. Generar Geotocy anD PHYSIOGRAPHY - - - - - - - - 123 III. Perrocrarsy - + - £6 + we ef (A) Murray Bridge Granite (7885) a a a 22. (B) Xetoliths in the Granite = = © = = = = = = 126 (C) Rocks of the Inner Marginal Migmatic Belt— Actinolite-Cordierite Schist (7862) - eS = ee = = & £27 Actinolite-Albite-Quartz-Schist (J. K. 38) - - ~ - - - 127 Actinolite-Oligoclase-Quartz- Biotite-Schist (7865) - - - - J27 Quartz-Andesine-Actinolite-Epidote-Schist (7854) - = = = 127 Actinolite-Andesine-Biotite-Schist (7872) - - 4 s — & “127 Albite-Actinolite-Quartz-Cordierite-Biotite-Schist (J, K. 87} - - 128 Actinolite-Oligoclase-Schist (J. K. 85) 71 Biotite-Actinolite-Oligoclase-Quartz-Schist (7875) - - = = 128 Quartz-Feldspar-Anthophyllite-Schist (7866) - - = = = 128 Tremolite-Actinolite-Oligoclase-Schist (7877) os #4) Granulitic Cordierite-Quartz-Oligoclase-Biotite-Schist (7858) - - 129 Bimica-Quartz-Albite-Schist (J. K. 50) - = = = = = 129 Quartz-Albite-Cordierite-Schist (7860) - - - - - - =~ 129 Quartz-Alhbite-Cordierite-Biotite-Granulite (7861) - - = = 129 Quarte-Tourmaline-Migmatite (J. K, 100) - = - - - = = 131 Poukdloblastic Andesite Mommblende-Seapoline-\linazbisiter Sehist (7883) -— ee = ~~ = + 131 Porphyriblastic Andeésite- Hornblende-Schist (7884 - - = = 131 (D) Pegmatite Intrusives of the Migimatite Belt - - - - - Il (E) Basic Dykes intersecting the Migmatite Belt (7859 and 7887) - - 132 (F) Monarto Granites: Adamellite (7867), Granile (J. K. 95), Adamellite (7878), Granite (7856), Adamellite (7876) - - + 132 (G) Schists,; Granulites and Basified Arenite, associated with the Monarto Granites— - 134 Basified Arenite( (7871) - = as o< s ee Quartz-Biotite-Plagioclase-Schists (J. K 62) (7869) (7881) (7880) (7879) (J. K. 92) (7873) (7864), (7855) - - - - 134 IV. Summary Se te aa ee Cae AS a ef 85 V. REFERENCES - + =) = a se ee S oe = 136
I, INTRODUCTION
The area under disctission forms a belt on the eastern scarp of the Mount Lofty Ranges from the township of Monarto to the River Murray on the east.
Woolnough (1908) recorded petrological descriptions of several rocks from the Rocky Gully area.
Jack (1923), when dealing with the Building Stones of South Australia, makes reference to the Monarto and Swanport granites and quotes analyses thereof by W. S. Chapman.
* School of Geology, University of Adelaide. ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949
123
More recently, Kleeman (1934) has notably contributed to. knowledge of the Swanport outcrop of the Murray Rridge Granite and its Aplite. He furnished a chemical analysis and description of the aplile and, after estimating the fluorine in the Swanport granile, corrected Chapman’s analysis accordingly.
The Murray Bridge type of Auoriferous granite has recently been traced by Professor Mawson (1945) as appearing at intervals on a south-casterly course almost to Bordertown. The outcrop at and near Murray Bridge is thus part of a very extensive batholyth. Because of its importance in this connection, Professor Mawson suggested our undertaking this investigation,
We are indebled to the Professor and to Mr, Kleeman and to others of the Department of Geology for suggestions and facilities for the work, To S$, B. Dickinson, Director of Mines, our thanks are due for facilities offered in the final stages of field mapping.
In this paper we pay special attention to the Rocky Gully area, while at the samé time extending general observations over a wider field to include some of the important outcrops of the Monarto Granite type. The region thus selected is portion of a wider belt of granitic and metamorphic rocks extending along the eastern flank of the Mt. Lofty Ranges. This area of regiona! metamorphism is well marked as far west as Natrne and beyond Palmer to the north. The Murray Bridge atid Monarto granites are located in the region of most intense metamorphism. Progressively to the west. there is a well marked falling off in the metamorphic grade exhibited by the rocks,
The location fram which cach of the various specimens described was collected is indicated by the specimen numbers printed on the accompanying nap of the area.
Il. GENERAL GEGLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPRY
Retween the Murray River and an elevated region to the wesf, chiefly occupied by metamorphic rocks, is a low-lying belt underlain by a variable thickness of tertiary limestones resting at depth in granite, schists and gneisses,
West of Murray Bridge, this lower country extends for about two afd a half miles before meeting the eastern, fault-defined face, of the elevated block. This latter is one of the block fragments of Kosciuskan orogetiy which contributed to the elevation of the Mount Lofty Ranges. This particu- lar fragment which extends west to the Bremer Valley. offers for inspection many well exposed areas occupied by granite, schist and a range of migtna- tites,
The Bremer Valley is separated, by a ridge formed of schists, fram a much wider one in which Monarto lies, This valley, though possessing a well-defined north ta sonth trend, is not occupied by a stream lke the Bremet. The absence of stich a water course is to be accounted for by re- peated captures by small streams running direct to the Murray, as for in stance, the Rocky Gully Creck, through whose gurge the railway line passes-
Monarto Valley is filled with drift sand which hideg the bed rock from view. Where the sand drifts have been stripped, there are large areas of solid ringing travertine, whose conspicuous development near Monarto ani thence in patches east to Murray Bridge, is due to the occurrence of thin patches of Tertiary fossiliferous limestone lying on the upturned edges of the schists. This limestone outcrops at intervals over the Moor of the valley, hut does not there give rise to comspicuous features. The development of a
14
dense capping of kunkar travertine has. doubtless contributed to its preser- vation, The fragmentary nature ot the fossil remains and included pebbles and boulders of granite indicate a shallow water littoral deposit.
The elevated block to the west of Murray Bridge is characterised by a notable development of migmatites and lit-par-lit “injection.” Quartz-plagio- clase-hiotite schists are abundant, also coarse biotite schists compoged essen- tially of biotite, but in places enclosing large crystalg of fluorapatite which have gtown in place: these have been met with exceeding 4 cms. by 2:5 cms. in size, Interesting rocks here are actinolite and anthophyllite-schists which are in association with coarse mica-schists which are often puckered and close folded, The quartz-biotite-plagioclase schists, as they extend westwards, be- come richer in feldspars and grade insensibly into the so-called Monarto granite. Thig granite is typically of a fine and even grain, but it varies in, texture and grain-size and often contains small segregations of biotite flakes,
Fegmatites, the crystallised residual liquids. from the Murray Bridge granite, discurdantly intrude the gchists along the eastern scarp—these ate rich in quartz, microcline, muscovite and tourmaline.
Discordant pegmatic veins cut the schists and are exposed along Rocky Gully Creek—they vary from merely quartz-feldspar veins to a pegmatitic granite.
Two dolerite dykes are exposed along the bed of Rocky Gully Creek— due abont 4 feet wide, with strike N 60° EL, crosses the bed of the creek near the bridge (towards Monarto). The dyke is broken up into small blocks— large along the centre while the margins are more fragmentary. The second dyke is about 300 yards along the creek towards Murray Bridge, and stands out in relief across the bed of the creek—this one is about 100 feet wide Neither could be traced beyond the creek as they became lost under the cover of recent alluvium. These dykes are roughly parallel in dispusition,
tl. PETROGRATHY Murray BriwGe GRaNite
Specimen (7885) was obtained from a smali quatry opened up for build- ing stone in Murray Bridge township, between the river and Noske Bros’ Flour Mill, This quarried rock is exceptionally fresh. In the hand-specimen it has a handsome appearance dominated by large pink potash-feldspars. These attain 2 to 3 ems. diameter. They exhibit Carlsbad twinning. Much of the rock is composed of vitreous smoky quartz, which forms a matrix set- ting for the large pink feldspars. White plagioclase is much less abundant, bur observed in some cases to mantle the pink potash feldspar crystals, Small flakes of black biotite are also present. The specific gravity of the tock is 2.66,
Observed in microscope slide it exhibits a holocrystalline, hypidio- morphic, granular texture, dominated by the elongated feldspars averaging 2.5 cm. in length. Plagioclase, quartz and biotite are the more obvious minerals of the finer grained base. Minerals present in order of abundance are as follows :—
Microcline-microperthite is present in large crystals becoming slightly turbid, It displays typical *“‘cross-hatehing.” It is biaxial negative. In section 1 ta Z, X’A OOF is 11°. The intergrown soda feldspar has a higher R.1, and is more clonded than the host mineral.
— GEOLOGICAL MAP — i
OF PORTIONS OF THE HUNDREDS OF |
MONARTO_& MOBILONG
APPROXIMATE BOUNDARY OF
1 MONARTO GRANITE ‘ —
te
i
«fl
MONARTO. ‘SOUTH | APPROXIMATE LIMIT OF | wm TERTIARY LIMESTONE
LEGEND
Rw] RECENT = son & ALLUVIUM
fd TERTIARY= GRITTY FOSSILIFEROQUS LIMESTONE
\ \N PROTEROZUIC? SCHISTSI- METAMORPHOSED SERIES OF INTERBEDDED - QUARTZITES, SLATES & IMPURE CALCAREOUS BEDS
A do, do. ZONE OF INTENSE METAMORPHISM & |NJECTION
MONARTO GRANITE
MURRAY BRIDGE GRANITE CHAIMS -80 $0 2 : SMES a a a eS
Fig. 1 Map of locality under consideration. The township area of Murray Dridge is underlain by Tertiary limestone (though such is not indicated on the map). The locations of rocks referred to in the text are indicated by numbers. The line of Section C —D, detailed in fig. 2 (page 130), is shown on this plan.
125
Plagioclase is present, less altered than the potash feldspar. It is twinned on the Carlsbad, pericline and abite law. Extinction angle measured im the zone 4 to O10 is+ 16°, biaxial negative; R.I, > balsam; thus corres- ponding to Andesine of composition Aby;An,,.
Quartz is present as clear colourless anhedral crystals and contains lines of fluid inclusions often ag two sets at right angles.
Biotite has a subhedral tabular habit. Strongly pleochroic: X = light golden yellow, Y = Z = dark brown (almost opaque). Biaxial negative with a very low optic axial angle so as to appear almost uniaxial. It exhibits slight alteration to chlorite in marginal areas. Associated with the biotite are small grains of magnetite and zircon. The small grains of zircon em- bedded in the mica are surrounded by pleochroic haloes.
Sphene is present in stnall euhedral crystals with high relief. It is a weakly pleochroic, biaxial positive variety with birefringence masked by the depth of colour. Apatite occurs in the usual rod-shaped crystals, Zircon and magnetite are present but not common. The former appeats as small rounded grains of high relief and strong birefringence. No fluorite is contained in the sections examined but has been observed in other outcrops. The presence of fluorine is indicated in the analysis,
An analysis of this granite (No. 7885) was made by one of us and is given below,
TabLe A IT TI III IV
SiOs - - - - 73°83 74-20 76°07 70-18 TiOs - - - - 0-30 0:29 0-11 0°39 Al:Os - - - - 12°45 14+53 13°96 14:47 FeO. - - - - 0-74 1-14 0-14 1557 FeO - - - - 1:64 0:90 0°42 1:78 MnO - - - - trace 0-03 trace 0-12 MgO - - - - 0-24 0-20 trace 0-88 CaO - - - - 1:04 1-00 0-68 1:99 NaO - - - - 4-29 3°06 3-90 3°48 K;0 - - - + 5°13 3°55 4°64 4-11 H:O+ - - - - 0-26 0-15 0-18 0-84 H,O- - - - - 0-02 0-15 0-07 — COs - - - - —_ O11 — — P.O; - - - = 0-09. 0-08 0-01 0-19 ZrOs - - - - 0-06 —_— trace _ BaO - - - - 0-05 — _ — Ss - - - - = 0-06 — — _ F - - - - - 0-11 0-19 0+10 —_ cl - - - - - — 0°03 — — FeSa - - - - _— 0-10 0-13 —
100-31 99-71 100°41 100-00 Less 0 for F & Cl - - 00-05 0-09 0:04 _ Total - - - - 100:26 99 +62 100-39 100-00
I. Murray Bridge Granite (7885), Quarry near Noske’s Mill. Anal. J. M. Kruger. II. Swanport Granite. Swanport Quarry. Anal, W. S. Chapman; fluorine by A. W. Kleeman. Ill. Aplite of the Swanport Granite Quarry. Anal. A, W. Kleeman. IV. Granite of all periods. Daly's average of 546 analyses.
126
TABLe B Norm of Rocks of Table A I II Ill
Quartz - - Q 27-45 QO 41-40 Q 34-26 Orthoclase - 30°02) & 66-17 | re 21-13 297-24 Albite - - 36-15} ° SO°7} 93:62 | oy .6a F 49-31 | 95°40 || 33-01 |B 63-03 Anorthite ~ _ 2-50 2:78 Corundum—- — 4:69 C 4:69 1-33 C1453 Diopside Wo - 1+63 — 0-53
Fs - 0-50 — =
En - 1-727 P 3-85 — ;-P 0:76 _ \P 0-53 Hypersthene Fs | 0-76 | Las
En _— ir £ Magnetite = - = 0-98 t 1°62 ) ye 2.23 | 3-97 0-23 1 v4 9-38 Timenite « = ‘Ohi Ju 1s4l gar | oer} : ois Pytite - - 0-24 0-10 Apatite - - 0°34 0-20 0-13 | Fluorite - - 0°16 A 1-00 0°43. A 0-98 0-20 L A 0+33 Calcite - - — 0-25 = Zircon = - 0-18 — = Water = ~- 0:28 0-28 0:28 0-30 0-30 © 0-30 0-25 HsO 0-25 Total - - - 100-01 99-67
C,LP.W. Classification:— I, 1413 — Liparase-—Liparose II, 1.3 1 (2) 3’ — Magmatic name is Tehamose—Alaskose IIE. 1 (3) 4 1% 3’ — Alaskase- Liparose
XENOLITHS IN THE Murray Brince. GRANITE
The following two xenoliths were collected from the granite quarry and petrologically examined.
Xenolith (7886) is a grey rock in which are set pink feldspars of porphyritic dimensions. Microcline-microperthite predominates over plagioclase. It is observed to be undergoing sericitization. The pagioclase, which has a composi- tion Ab,,Aty, is less altered than the potash feldspar. Quartz is in small grains with sutured margins and is easily distinguished from feldspar by its clarity. Biotite Is similar to that in the granite, Hornblentie with extinction angle about 16° and strongly pleachroic in green and brown, Sphene, light brown and weakly pleochroic. Zircon associated with the biotite but in small rounded grains and apatite in minute rods.
In this xenolith there is a small development of myrmckitic intergrowth. of quartz and feldspar; the quartz is in yermiculate blobs and drops in the feldspar.
Xenolith (7887) is a grey compact, fine-grained, equigranular rock composed mainly of quartz, feldspar and biotite. In microscope slide the quartz shows strain phenomena and bears abundant inclusions of iron ore, apatite and biotite. The feldspars are microcline-microperthite and andesine. LBiotite, showing some alteration to chlorite; sphene is fairly abundant. Fluorite is present in large, clear colourless individuals with high negative relief; these grains are associated with biotite, some are ptirple,
9882
1-24
0-25 100-31
127
Rocks or THe INNER Micmatitic Bett MARGINING THE Murray Brivncr Granite
Schists, gneisses and pegmatites of the inner, severely metamorphosed belt margining the Murray Bridge granite mass on its west side are well exposed along Rocky Gully Creel: and north-north-west thereof, Hornblende gneiss and biotite gneiss were described from this locality by Woolnough. Herein the petrographic characters of selected rocks from this area are given.
Actinolite-Cordierite Schist (7862). This is of a yellowish-green overall colour. Long needles of green actinolite in sheaves and bitndles stand out in relief on the weathered surface. The rock cleaves readily along foliation planes.
Actinolite is abundant in idioblastic needles, present to the extent of 41% by volume ; its extinction angle is very small.
Cordierite is present to the extent of 49% as xenoblasts forming a ground- trass mosaic. Pleochroic haloes are absent although inclusions of apatite are common, Biaxial negative with large optic axial angle, Rt. on cleavage flakes lies between 1°543 and 1-533. Occasional strings of granular quartz are seen on the face of the rock but practically absent in the micro-slide.
Apatite as long needles is present as inclusions in the cordierite. Magnetite is common and zircon prescht in small amounts,
Aclinolite-Albite-Quarte-Schist (J. K. 38). A very dark-coloured rock with schistosity developed by great abundance of oriented long needles of amphibole. Besides amphibole there is present some fresh albite (Ab,,An,), and a consider- able amount of granular quartz. Apatite 1s scarce.
Aclinolite-Oligoclase-Quarts-Biotite-Schist (7865). In hand-specimen the rock is seen to consist of long needles of black amphibole, with well-marked pre- ferred orientation, set is a matrix of white feldspar and quartz.
The mineral assemblage is controlled by the parallel alignment of the green actinolite. The interstitial feldspar matrix is crawded with fine rods and needles of apatite. It is fairly fresh and free from alteration.
Actinolite with typical amphibole cleavage and extinction angle Z A c= 15°, Pleochroism strong; X—pale yellow, Y = greenish-yellow, Z—dark green. Gramular, interstitial oligoclase (Ab,, Angy) is abundant.
Quartz occurs as xenoblasts in the matrix with feldspar. Biotite 1s sparsely represented; pleochroism strong; XM==light yellow, Y—=Z—=dark brown; included are small rounded crystals of zircon. Apatite occurs as small masses and as teds and needles throughout the slide, and as abundant minute melusions in the feldspar.
Ouartz-Andesine-4 ctinolite-Epidole-Schist (7854). This isa dark grey, fine~ grained, schistase reck, on the face of which black needles of actinolite are apparent, The actinolite is similar to that in (7862), Quartz is fairly abundant as clear xenoblasts, Andesine (Ab, An,,), is abundant in association with the quartz; it exhibits good cleavage and albite twinning.
Epidote is present only in small amounts in xenoblastie masses of high posi- tive relief: it is pleochroic from colourless to lemon yellow; biaxial negative, with large 2V. Apatite, zircon, iron ore and sphene are present in small amounts a5 accessories,
Acsinofite-Andesine-Biotite-Schist (7872), This is a dense, black compact rock of fine grain and displays a poor schistose structure,
128
The plagioclase which is abundant is ah acid andesine (Ab,,An,,), Occa- sional grains of quartz may be present but were not distinguished with certainty. Biotite is well represented, Apatite and magnetite also present as minor accessories.
Aibite-Actinohte-Quarts-Cordierile-Biotita-Schist (J, K, 87). This is a light-coloured rock composed of grey saccharoidal albite and quartz through which are greenish-black needles of actinolite which imparts schistosity to the rock. The actinolite is in sheaf-like bundles with individuals to 1 cm. in length.
In section this rock displays a granoblastic texture, the result of the associa- tion of xenoblasts of cordierite, quartz and plagioclase; this being modified by the directional structure imparted by the pale green-brown amphibole and biotite. ‘The grain is fairly fine but oecasional porphyroblasts of plagioclase are present.
Albite (Ab,,An,) is very abundant. The actinolite is strongly pleochroic, Quartz is not abundant but forms a mosaic with the albite, Cordierite in present in small amounts as xenoblasts bearing abundatit minute inclusions; it displays poor multiple twinning, has a biaxial character, and it is undergoing decomposition to give rise to chlorophyllite. Weakly pleochroic, yellow haloes surround crystals of zircon included in the cordierite, Riotite occurs as small highly pleochroic idioblasts, Zircon 1s a sparse accessory.
Actinolite-Oligoclose-Schist (J. K. 85). A dark-coloured, friable, pro- nouncedly schistose rock. In section it is seen to be composed almost entirely of green amphilbole (50%) and turbid oligoclase (Ab,;,An.,) to the extent of 45%.
As accessories, apatite is abundant; zircon, magnetite and haematite are in less arsount, the latter occurring as minute crystals in association with the amphibole.
Biotite-Actinolite-Oligoclase-Quarts-Schist (7875). A fine-grained schistose rock of greenish-grey colour seen in the hand specimen to consist chiefly of grey salic mineral, shiny flakes of black biotite and needles (in bundles) of greenish- black amphibole.
In order of abundatice, the minerals present are as follows. Biotite (some- what bronzy in the hand specimen) is a highly pleochroic variety; X = light golden yellow, Y—Z—=dark brown to opaque. Actinolite is abundant, present in long needles, Albite-Oligaclase (Ab,,An,,) is plentiful, Qtiartz is less abundant. Accessories are apatite, zircon and magnetite.
Quarts-Feldspar-Anthophyllite-Schist (7866). A fawn-coloured rock cleav- ing readily in the direction of schistosity. Yellow needles of at almost colourless amphibole are set in a matrix of fine-grained quartz. The needles are in bundles and have a common orientation.
In section, the granoblastic texture of the rock is seen to be modified by the strong directiotial structure of the colourless amphibole. Quartz is abundant, amounting to 50% by volume, Feldspar is in less amount, namely 25%,
Anthophyllite is abundant to the extent of 24%, as long needles with a more or Tess common orientation; longitudinal sections show transverse fractures but transverse sections show poorly defined cleavage traces at 120°; extinction is straight in longitudinal sections; D.R. fairly high; RI. high; very weakly pleochroic ; the crystals are length slow; indistinct biaxial positive fgure displayed in transverse sections.
Rutile is an abundant accessory, that shows true crystal cutlines; geniculate twins are fairly common; however, in most crystals the outlines are modified by a chatge to opaque ilmenite. Zircon and apatite are present in far less amount.
129
Tremalite-Actinolite-Oligoclase-Schist (7877), This is a striking rock show- ing a gradational transition from a white tremolite-oligoclase-quartz-granulite to a dark green, actinolite-rich schist in which there is little quartz or feldspar,
In section, the rock is seen to possess a well-defined schistosity which con- trols the mineral assemblage. The colour of the treimolite becomes tinged with green until it merges into the iron-bearing member of this series—a green actinolite.
Tremolite occurs as long colourless prismatic needles with positive clonga- tion; maximum extinction angle (Z Ac) is 12°, Oligoclase (Ab,, Any) is not abundant; it is more common in association with tremolite but dwindles when actinolite makes its appearance. Quartz is present as small xenoblasis im the tremolite phase but dwindles in the actinolite-rich variety. Acecssories are zircon and idioblasts of iron ore.
Granulitic Cordiertte-Quarts-Qligoclase-Biottte-Schist (7858). This is a dense greyish-grecn, fine-grained, saccharoidal rock breaking with s conchoidal fracture, On the weathered surface are to be secn shining brown and black flakes of biotite with preferred alignment.
In section the rock displays a granoblastic texture in which grains of quartz, cordierite and feldspar average about 0°25 mm. in diameter. Due to the align- ment of bintite fakes the rock has a rough schistosity.
Cordierite, which is the most abundant mineral, occurs as clear, colourless xenoblasts that exhibit poor twinning in some sections. It is thus very similar to the quartz and plagioclase, fromi which it is distinguished by its yellow pleachroic haloes and biaxtal character. It has a high optic axial angle value,
The quartz is clear and colouriess. Oligoclase (Ab,.An,,) exhibits. albite twin lamellae. Buiotite altering to chlorite ig in minor amount, Zircon crystals and also idioblasts of magnetite and pyrites are abundant as accessories,
Bumica-Quariz-Albite-Schist (J. K. 50), A light grey, compact rack of granular quartz and albite, with both white and black mica whose preferred align- ment has developed schistosity.
Albite (Ab,,An,,) exhibiting albite twinning is abundant. Quartz is present in approximately equal amounts to the feldspar. Muscovite is present in approximately equal amounts to the feldspar, Muscovite is present as clear colourless laths. The biotite is a strongly pleochroic variety; often it is associated with muscoyite and green chloritic material which encloses spindies and radiating needles of iron ore. Accessories in small amount are zircon, sphene, ilmenite and rutile.
Quarts-Albite-Cordivrite-Schist (7860), A dense, compact, off-white coloured rock, it which black plates of oriented biotite impart a marked directional structure.
Microscopically the rock displays a pronotinced schistosity which modified the otherwise granoblastic texture formed by the almost equi-granular aggregate of quartz and feldspar, and the alteration products of cordierite.
Albite (Ab,, An,) is abundant. Clear quartz with fluidal inclusions is tn less amount, Biotite is abundant; a strongly pleochroic, pale yellow to brown Variety showing a little incipient alteration to green chlorite. The cordierite has suffered alteration and is now represented by change products amongst which is chloro- phyllite (pleochroic in greens), Zircon and iron ore are present as accessories.
Quarts-Albite-Cordierite-Biotite-Granulite (7861). A light-coloured sacchar- oidal rock with narrow bands of black shining flakes of biotite with a marked directional trend; these bands are too few and tuo widely separated to impart a well-defined cleayage to the rock.
t
130
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z 34 aniivevnin FER] eH arene EZ asimas snosikany E77] Q—) Noitoas
= 2001NT AVEUNA OL
WWAQ 34193700
nt
In micro-section the rock is seen to be maitily a granoblastic, very fine, even- grained aggregate af cordierite, albite and quartz.
Cordierite with yellow pleochroic haloes and the yellow-green change product chlorophyllite is fairly abundant, Quartz, in clear colourless grains, is the pre- dominant mineral, Albite (Ab,, An,) granules, some clear and others exhibiting lamellar twinning are plentiful. Buiotite with preferred orientation, in weakly pleochroic and partly corroded laths, ts sparsely distributed, restricted to certain bands in the rock. Accessories are magnetite, in fairly abundant, black, opaque idioblasts and sparse zircon,
Quarts-Tourmaline-Migmatite (J. K. 100), A dark-grey, fine-grained rock composed of white granular quartz in which are sct “clots” of segregated granular tourmaline. These latter are slightly elongated and about 0°5 cm, in diameter.
In section the rock is ohserved to consist essetitially of browh tourmaline and quartz. The “clots” which were visible in the hand specimen are seen to consist almost wholly of tourmaline with a little interstitial quartz, The tourma- line is strongly pleochroic, trom yellow to dark brown,
Potkiloblasiic Andesine-H ornblende-Scapolite-Clinasorsite-Schist (7883). In the hand specimen this is dark, greenish-grey tock in which porphyroblasts of feldspar as much as 5 mm., but averaging 3 mm.,, are set in a finer grecnish-grey hase. Evidently this was originally a phaneric basalt subsequently scapolitized and zoizitized.
In microscope section the feldspar ist most individuals is observed to be rimmed, and at times completely replaced, by colourless scapolite. The replace- ment has taken place along small veins through and along the margins of the plagioclase, Elsewhere clinozoizile is developing.
The minerals present are Andesine (Ab,,An,,) considerably changed over to scapolite and clinozoizite. Pleochroic from light to dark green and exhibiting typical amphibole cleavage, Scapolite, colourless, uniaxial negative, straight extinction on longitudinal sections which lalter also yield flash figures. Clino- zolzite, slightly turbid; interference colours are anomalous (deep blue); biaxial positive, It displays one poor cleayage and extinction with reference to. this is inclined, Sphene isa very abundant accessory as brown xenoblasts,
Another related metamorphosed basic igneous rock (J. K. 102) of somewhat coarser otiginul texture than (7883) was collected in the same locality. Thts can be described as a poeciloblastic albite-harnhlende-clinozoizite schist with accessory Inotite, notably sphene and sparse apatite and zircon, In this rock the albite is practically 100%. Ab.
Porphyroblastic Andesine-Ilorablende-Schist (7884), This also represents a metamorphosed basic igneous rock, The feldspar is white, and occurs as porphyroblasts up to 2°5 cm. diameter set in a mass of green hornblende,
In section it is seen to consist of colourless feldspar and green hornblende in approximately equal amount. The plagioclase, which is little altered, is andesine (Abg, Ang,).
The amphibole is a strongly pleochraic hornblende; X— yellow green, Y = olive green, Z = dark green, A little brown biotite is in intimate association with the hornblende. Sphene is an accessory.
PeomM ative INTRUSIVES OF THE. MiGmatriic Betr Tourmaline-bearing pegmatites were observed in Sections 508, 533, 535, and 175. These vary in width from Jess than one inch to many feet. They are intru- sive mto the schists. The vein fillings vary greatly in grain-size and composition but most contain black tourmaline, pink feldspar, milky quartz and muscovite.
132
Dr. Woolnough described several pegmatites from Rocky Gully. He states that the feldspars of the pegmatites are remarkable for their variety, including orthoclase, microcline, anorthoclase, albite and oligoclase, Woolnough mentions that in one of the pegmatites two small crystals of beryl were observed. This occurrence is interesting, for beryl is a feature of granite pegmatites occurring at Mount Crawford and also in the suite of the Boolcoomatta granite bathylith.
Bastc Dyxes or THE Micmatitic BEeLt
As already mentioned two clearly defined dykes outcrop in the bed of Rocky Gully, Section 514, Hundred of Mobilong. In the fresh unweathered state these are dark grey rocks; both discordantly intrude the schists, They possibly post- date the granitic intrusion.
Meta-Dolerite (7859). The doleritic intersertal structure is still well pre- served. Minerals present are labradorite in interlaced laths, chlorite and mag- netite resulting from the breakdown of original pyroxene. A little biotite and sphene, apatite and pyrite as accessories,
Meta-Lamprophyre? (7858). This is more basic, there being very little in the nature of feldspars or their change products. The principal minerals observable are chlorite and black iron ores. It is possible that the rock was originally a basic lamprophyre,
Monarto GRANITES Adamellite (7867) is an even, medium-grained, light grey, granitic rock. The obvious minerals are quartz, greyish-white feldspar, small black flakes of biotite and some silvery flakes of muscovite.
A chemical analysis and the norm are tabulated herewith:
I If Ill IV SiOs - = 73+20 72-40 84°25 90°73 Norm or I, Rock 7867 TiO, - - 0-23 0+22 0-18 0-13 Quartz - - - ~ 33:30 ALO. - - 15-46 15-49 8-64 4-01 Orthoclase - - = 19546 Fes, - ~ 0-64 0-44 0-18 0-68 Plagioclase: Ab 33-01 \ 41-38 FeQ_ - - 0-80 1-03 1-10 0:26 An 834 MnO - - tr 0-02 tr. tr. Corundum - - - 245 MeO - - 0°48 0-20 0:23 0-05 Hypersthene: Fs 1-20 | _ 4.93 caQ_ se ~ 1°73 1:44 0-19 0-18 En 0-53 if NaO- - - 3-90 4+30 4-06 3-66 Magnetite - - - 093 KO - - $34 3°78 0-84 0-31 Ilmenite - - - ~ 0°46 HsO+ - - 0°22 0°12 0+36 0-03 Apatite - - - - 0-13 H.O- - - 008 018 0-02 0-05 Zircon - - - - O18 P.O; - - 0-08 0-19 0-04 0-04 Water - - - - 0:30 ZrO. - - O11 — 0:04 0-05 — BaO - - 0:06 — tr, tr. 99-99 S - - - 0-02 — 0-12 +13 FeS, - - —_— O-1L — —
100-35 99°98 100-35 100-29 T. Adamellite from Monarto (7867), Anal; R, K. Johns. II. Monarto “granite”. Anal.: W.S. Chapman. See R. LL. Jack (1923). III, The more basified part of rock (7871). Anal: J. M, Kruger. 1V. The less basified part of rock (7871). Anal.; R. J. Johns.
133
Jn the micro-seclion, potash Jeldspar as microcline appears to be a little less abundant than plagioclase; these with qnariz constitute the bulk of the rock, The feldspars are somewhat turbid and show the effects of strain, Quartz, next in abundance, is clear and free from cracks but shows strain shadows, There are present a few stall myrmekitic intergrowths—these are of quartz and plagioclase, such developments taking place on the borders of microcline crystals, due to the replacement of that mineral by plagioclase. Buiotite is Fresh; it is the essential ferromagnesian mineral but often associated with clear plates of muscovite. The disposition of the micas defines a rough directional structure, The average grain- size of constituent minerals as seen in the slide is about 0-6 mm.
The plagioclase is faintly zoned; individuals are twinned on the albite and combined albite—Carlsbad laws. Maximum extinction angle measured in the zone 1010 is 5° corresponding tw oligoclase on composition Ab,,An,,. Biotite is a normal variety, strongly pleochroic; X—=—light yellow, Y = Z= almost opaque; it hears pleochroic haloes surrounding small crystals of zircon. Muscovite eceurs as broad tabular flakes, Zircon, as an accessory, is abundant in smull rounded grains. Apatite in rod-like forms is a sparse constituent.
The mode of (7867) was obtained by a Rosiwal measurement on a single small slide is as follows: qiartz, 42°49; microcline, 21°5% plagioclase, 26°5% ; muscovite, 2'2% ; biotite, 7*3%; accessories, O'1%. By the relation of the feid- spars, the rock js thus to be defined as an adameliite.
Granite (7856), This is the most typical and widely developed of the plagioclase than does (7867). It exhibits an obvious directional arrangement of minerals. Average size of constituent grains as measured in the slide is about 0-2 to O3 mm., although they attain to 1 mm. in diameter. .A micrometric determination of the mode in a single slide gave the composition as! quartz, 50°19; microcline, 33°3% ; plagioclase, 6°79; biotite, 7:7% ; muscovite, 2-0% ; accessories, 02%,
Microcline is abundant, ay also is quartz {which bears abundant rods of apatite as inclusions), Plagioclase, which is an oligoclase (Ab,,An,,) is sparse. Biotite and muscovite are present im association, Accessories are apatite, mag- netite, zircon; the latter relatively abundant.
Adamellite (7878). Another of this granitic suite with marked directional features. It is somewhat coarser grained than (7867). In this the oligoclase is predominant over nticrocline: it is also irregularly zoned.
Granite (7856). This is the most typical and widely developed of the Monarto granites. It is coarser grained than the preceding types and exhibits a well-defined gneissic structure in which the bands of biotite are more widely separated. It is of an even graim-size, the latter averaging 0-80 mm. as viewed in the micro-section.
Quartz and microcline are both abundant constituents, the former as atihedtal individuals bearing fluid inclusions and also small apatite crpstals. The plagio- clase is an Olignclase {Ab,, An,,); Biotite is strongly pleochroic from yellow to almost opaque; it shows slight alteration to green chlorite; ratio of elongation of flakes 2:1. Muscovite is not abundant. Apatite, zircon and magnetite are accessory mincrals in stall amount.
The mode obtained by micrometric measurement gave: quartz, 42°9%; microcline, 359% ; plagioclase, 16°7% hiotite, 4°0%; muscovite, 0-49; acces- sories, 11%,
Adamellite (7876), This rock was observed in the ficld to grade out into a coarse biotite-quartz schist, in which biotite is predominent as coarse flakes impart- ing a pronounced schistosity.
134
In microscope slide it is scen to have an allotriomorphic granular lexture, with average size of grain about 1 mm. but with a few individuals as much as 2-2 mm. in diameter.
Feldspar is represented by approximately equal amotints of microcline and oligoclase (Ab,,An,,). Other notable minerals are quartz, biotite and mus- covite itt small amounts and accessory zircon.
Scuists, GRANULITES AND Basirtep ARENITE ASSOCIATED WITIT THE Monarto GRANITES
The belt of rocks bounding the Monarto Granite on the north, west and south 15 constituted of a range of fine-grained quartz-plagioclase-biotite schists. In this area fresh exposures ate scarce: those showing least weathering were obtained from dam excavatiotis and water-main tretiches.
Outcrops of such rocks were met with in sections 213, 214, 524, 528, 529, 330 of the Hundred of Mobilong, and in sections 43, 45, 219, 220, 222, 228, 229, 430, 231, 232, 233, 249, 250, 257, 260, 461, 462 and 464 of the Hundred of Monarto,
In these schists the original bedding and stratification planes. have been almost obliterated, Regional foliation of these schists is 347° with dip 65° west.
Basified Arenite (7871). This is a white, compact, fine-grained, granular feldspar-quartz rock without obvious schistose features. It is suggested that it originated from an arenite by feldspathization. An irregular schlier in the hand specimen is somewhat darker coloured and contains obvious tiny flakes of biotite feebly oriented towards a parallel arrangement. This schlier appears io be an area which has suffered a more advanced degree of basification, Specimen (7870) appears to be intermediate in composition between the two phases exhibited in (7871).
The rock slide exhibits a granoblastic texture with prainsize averaging 0-20 mm.; xenoblasts of quartz and feldspar constitute the bulk of the slide. The quartz displays undulose extinction. The plagioclase is albite (Aby, Any). Microciine-perthite is present in small amount. Hiotite is sparse but more abundant im the more highly basified patch, Accessories are muscovite, zircon and magnetite,
Chemical analyses of both the less basified and the more basified portions of (7871) are given in the table on page 132, Comparison of these analyses with each other and with that of the Monarto granite (7867) reveals progressive loss of SiO, and S but demonstrates additions to the content of Al,O,, MgO, CaO, Na,O, K,O, Ti0,, P,Q, and ZrQ, in the passage from original (?) arenite to granite. This strengthens the view that the Monarto granite has in fact developed as 8 migma (see page 136)-
Quarts-Biolite-Plagioclase-Schist (J. K. 62). A dark-grey, fine-grained rock. In section it is seen to be a granoblastic aggregate of quartz and feldspar, shot through with a bundant biotite fakes im parallel alignment.
Quartz is present to the extent of 59°4%, The larger individuals exhibit undulose extinction, Biotite to the extent of 30°5% is the next most abundant constituent: pleochroic from yellow to brownish-red. Pleochroic haloes are com- mon. Muscovite is present only in very small amounts, about 0-4%. Plagioclase to the extent of 9°7% is distributed throughout the slide as slightly clouded xeno- blasts, It corresponds to oligoclase (Ab,,An,,). Zircon is abundant as rounded individuals, Apatite is sparse. Magnetite as black opaque octahedra js also sparse,
135
Rock (7869) is a dark grey, fine-grained, schlieric rock consisting essentially of quartz and biotite—closely similar to (J. K. 62), Tourmaline in small crystals is present in appreciahle amount.
Rock (7881) is similar to (J, K. 62) and (7869) except that plates of white mica are visible in ihe hand specimen. Contains a little tourmaline as one of the uccessories,
Quarts-Biolite-Plagioclase-Schist (7880). A fine-grained, grey schistose rock, Microscopically it displays a fine, even, granvblastic texture somewhat modified by the more or less parallel alignment of the micas. Mineralogically it is very similar to (J. K. 62). Rock (J. K. 97) is also very similar but here the plagioclase is an albite (Ab), Any).
Bimica-Quarta-Plagioclase-Schist (7879) is another rock of this group in which muscovite appears in larger amounts. Ilere the plagioclase comes into the range of the oligoclase (Ab,. An,,).
Rock No. (J. K, 92) is an even-grained, grey schistose variety that grades from a biotite-quartz schist (rich in biotite) into a rock that has the appearance of a schistose granite of the Monarto type. The average grain-size is 0°20 mm. The plagioclase is an Albite (Ab,,An,),
Quarts-Plagioclase-Bietite-Gneiss (7873), This is a fine-grained foliated rock in hand specimen. It consists of greyish leucocrats and oriented biotite flakes.
Jn section it is seen ta be composed of a granoblastic association mainly of quartz, with abundant olioglase (Ab,, An,,) and little orthoclase, with consider- able biotite, a very little muscovite, abundant black iron ore and small rounded zircons,
Quartz-Playioclase-Biotite-Schist (7864). A light grey rock with pro- nounced schistose structure due to the parallel alignment of biotite flakes. The majority of the slide is constituted of a granoblastic aggregate of quartz (grain- size 1o O-4 mm.) and turbid albite (Ab,,,). The latter is clouded with minute flakes. of scticitic mica, There is present just a little granular orthoclase, a very small amount of muscovite and occasional zircon grains.
Playioclase-Quarts-Biatite-Schist (7855). A rock similar to but not so coarse as (7864). In hand specimen it has the appearance of a fine-grained schistose granite, The section displays a granoblastic texture modified by oriented mica flakes.
Quartz with undulose extinction is next in abundance to oligoclase. Micro- cline is present in lesser amount in xeoblasts displaying poor polysynthetic twin ting. Biotite is plentiful. Muscovite, apatite, zircon and black iron ore are accessories.
SUMMARY The broader geological features of the older rocks of this region as delined in the foregoing are as follows:—
(1) The existence on the eastern side of the area, at Murray Bridge, of a large scale granite intrusion, part of a batholythic mass which has been traced as extending towards the Victorian border in the south-eastern corner uf South Australia. ‘The granite of this batholyth has all the characters indicating it to have heen originally a mobile magma.
(2) The schists and gneisses bordering it on the west, well exposed in Rocky
Gully and neighbourhood, are of a high grade of metamorphism and in part mnigmatitic. They include types common in the inner zones of granite aureolts.
136
(3) Further west, in the Monarto area, away from the Murray Bridge granite mass are schists of a lower grade of metamorphism, much of which it would appear could have originated from the basification of original arenites, The field mapping indicates that rocks of a large part of this latter area were originally quartzites of a synclinal basin, since metamorphosed to a greater or less degree. In this locality the Monarto granite is met with, The nature of this granite, patticularly in its physical characters, varies greatly in the different outcrops. In some small areas it is without directional features but elsewhere its minerals exhibit preferred orientation which appears to be a relic of an earlier schist stage. Two examples are given with chemical analyses illustrating intermediate stages in the basification of arenite in the development of a granitic migma of the general character of certain of the varieties of Monarto granite. It thus seems apparent that part at least of the Monarto granite has developed as a migma.
The variable chemical composition of the Monarto granite outcrops and variability in size of grain and structure, have been demonstrated in this con- tribution. In some areas it is within the range of the alkali-granites, elsewhere it is an adamellite. It is mostly fine-grained, but locally may be coarser. All graduations may be traced from a feldspathic, somewhat basified quartzite through schist, to a mineral assemblage and structure typical of “granite”. As may be expected of a granite that has been derived from the feldspathization in situ of arenite, xenoliths are absent in the Monarto outcrops Furthermore, the Monarto granite is concordant with the surrounding schists.
REFERENCES
Jack, R. L, 1923 The Building Stones of South Australia. Geol, Survey of S. Aust., Bull. 10
Kireman, A, W. 1934 The Murray Bridge Granite. Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 58
Mawson, D., and Seenit, E, R. 1945 Granites of the Tintinara District, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69
Reap, H. H. 1943 Meditations on Granite, Proc. Geol. Ass., 54
Reap, H, H. 1944 Meditations on Granite, Proc, Geol. Ass., 55
Wootnoucn, W. G, 1908 Notes on the Geology of the Mount Lofty Ranges, chiefly the portion east of the Onkaparinga River. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 32
VOL. 73 PART 2 DECEMBER 1950
TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
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ADELAIDE
PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE
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THE MARINE ALGAE OF KANGAROO ISLAND
HI. LIST OF SPECIES
BY H.. B. S. WOMERSLEY
Summary
Four hundred and one species of marine algae are recorded from Kangaroo Island, South Australia, together with comprehensive references, and notes on many species.
137 THE MARINE ALGAE OF KANGAROO ISLAND Til, LIST OF SPECIES 1
By H, B. S. Woxwersiry*
SUMMARY
Four hundred and one species of marine algae are recorded from Kangaroo Island, South Australia, together with comprehensive references, and notes oan
many species. INTRODUCTION
This paper records 40L species of anarine algae (Cyanophyta 26, Chlorophyta 46, Phaeophyta 96, Rhodophyta 233) from Kangaroo Island. Records derived from a small collection from the “south coast,” made by J. Cork in the winter of 1939, and also records given by Cleland and Black from Sou’ West River mouth, December 1934 (determined by A, TI. S. Lucas) have been incorporated.
Turther species will be recorded in a second list, as over 100 remain undetermined, some of which are as yet undescribed. Kangaroo Island is a very rich region tor marine algac, and although extensive collections bave becn made during the last five years, doubtless inore species remain to be discovered in localities which haye not been thoroughly investigated.
Over 100 species comprise new records for the State of South Australia, but as Southern Australia forms a distinct geographic region (with probably 35-40% of species occurring from ‘Tasmania to Western Australia), and so few localities have been thoroughly examined, such new records have little signif- cance for the present and have not beet indicated.
The specimens on which this list is based are deposited in the Algal Her- barium of the Rotany Department, University of Adelaide.
Visits were made ta Kangaroo Island at the following times: 1944, January: 1945, January, May; 1946, January, August; 1947, January, April, May, June, July, October, Novernber; 1948, January, September, December; 1949, January.
In determining the species in this list recourse has been made wherever possible to original literature, and to authentic specimens in Australian Herbaria, especially the Melbourne National Herbarium. Unfortunately, few type speci- mens of Australian algae exist in Australia, making sure determinations very difficult in many cases; and many other specimens in herbaria are incorrectly named, so that comparisons with specimens other than the type have to be done with caution. Melbourne National Herbarium fortunately possesses O, W. Sonder’s Australian collection, including his type specimens, and also a set of W. H. Harvey’s Australian algae, J, G. Agardh’s “Algae Muellerianae’’ and duplicates of J. B. Wilson’s collections. The Adelaide University Herbarium possesses a few of T. Reinbold’s cotypes from Investigator Strait. It is evident, however, that extefisive series of nearly all Auistralian species should be checked with the type specitmens, and also with related species to define limits of variability. Maty other species, such as those of Zanardini, are very poorly known, and require re-examination of the original specimens. Until this can be done some determinations must necessarily be provisional, and description of new species must await comparison with authentic material of closely related species.
In this list notes on the habitat of each species are piven where possible. The ecological terms used haye been defined in Pt. I of this series ( Wommersley 1947), and references to Pt. I and Ft. I apply to this and the second paper (Womersley 1948). Where a species is hsted as. from the drift (ie., found cast up or floating), it almost certainly grows in the sublittoral, as the littoral and
* Department of Botany, University of Adelaide, ‘Trans. Roy. Soc, 5. Aust, 73, (2), Dee, 1950
138
upper sublittoral have been extensively collected in most localities and are listed as such, The month (abbreviated) and year of most collections are given, as this gives positive evidence of the seasonal occurrence of many species (and also facilitates future reference to the specimens in the herbarium), In many cases, especially at Pennington Bay and American River inlet where the seasonal occurrence of many species is comparatively well known it has bee possible to generalise and give the period of their occurrence. Ilowever, probably the majority of species known from a few records.are present during all seasons,
Although positive records only ate given, generalisations about the distribu- tions. ai many species atotnd the island can be made. Thus species found at Pennington Kay or Vivonne Bay probably occur in similar habitats anywhere along the south and west coasts. In fact, the formations and subformations described in Pt. J are usually broad habitat regions,
No attempt has been made to give a complete list of references to the species, nor in some cases is the reference to the original description given, A selection has been made of the more important and useful references, especially those available to the author, and De Toni in most cases gives fairly complete lists,
Throughout this series of papers Recommendation XLII of the 1935 Eotanical Rules referring to the use of capital letters for patronymic and certain other specific names has not been followed. I am in full agreement with the reasons expressed for this in the Journal of Ecology, 31, (1943), p. 93-
The following authors have been followed in the classification adopted: Cyanophyta (Fritsch 1942), Chlorophyta and Phaeophyta (Smith 1938, Papen- fuss 19472), Rhodophyta (Kylin 1924, 1931, 1932, Falkenberg 1901, and Fritsch 1945).
The localities have been abbreviated to the first letters of the names, as in the list below. The order of localities is from American River mlet along the north, west, south and east coasts and back to American River inlet (see fig. 1, Pt, I). Briel notes on the areas examined are also given below, and reference should be ntude to Pt. I and IT for further details.
Norra Coast— 4K, American River inlet: an extensive tidal inlet (mot a river) with small islands (Shag Rock, Pig, Wallaby Islands) in Pelican Lagoon. BH. Ballasr Head; a rocky headland immediately north of American River inlet. The east side only has been examined, K. Kingscote. BS. Bay of Shoals: a shallow sandy bay with ealm conditions. HA. Emit Bay: the rocky coast near the old jetty was examined. SB, Stokes Ray, J7R, Middle River: the mouth is normally closed by a sand bar and rocky coast occurs at both ends ofa sattdy beach. WF, Western River: the river mouth is also usually closed by a sandy bar. AR, Harvey's Return: about four miles east of Cape Borda.
West Coast— WB. West Bay.
SourH CoastT— CC_ Cape Condie. VB, Vivotme Bay: rock platforms occur within the bay while the western extremity—Ellen Point—is of stceply sloping rock. Pools i and 2 are referred to in Pt, 1, p. 245. DB. D’Estrees Bay: reefs briefly examined are at the eastern end of the bay. P&B, Pennington Bay: see Pt, I] Ci’, Cape Willoughby,
East CoastT— A&B, Antechamber Bay: The rocky area at the north end of the bay was examined. HB_Hog Bay.
139
Nortu Coast— RP. Rocky Point: “drift” specimens from here were mostly collected between Rocky Point and American River inlet-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In addition to the acknowledgments made in Pt. I, I would like to thank further Mr. A. W. Jessup. of the Melbourne National Herbarium, for the loan of specimens and literature. Dr. G. F. Papenfuss, of the Department of Botany, University of California, has also kindly made information available and giyen opinions on certain species. Both Dr. C Bliding, of Sweden, and Dr. V. Je Chapman have given opinions on the species of Enteromorpha.
CYANOPHYTA CHROOCOCCALES — CHrancoccacEAE COCCOCHLORIS Sprengel Coccocutoris CasTAGNEr (Kiilzing) Drouet and Daily 1948, 77. Pulmella castagnei Kiitzing 1846, t. 9. Aphanothece castagnei, Rabenhorst 1932, 171. Tilden 1910, 31, pl. 2, f. 13. — AR, Sublittoral, near Muston, Jan. 1948.
ENTOPHYSALIS Buitzing
Entoruysatis peusta (Meneghini) Drovet and Daily 1948, 79, Glovocapsa deusta, Kiitzing 1949, 224. Rabenhurst 1932, 190. — AR. Amongst other algae in a mat on buoys near American River jetty, Jan. 1946,
PLEUROCAPSALES — PLEUROCAPSACEAE DERMOCARPA Crouan DERMOcARPA scHOUsEOET (Thuret) Bornet. Xenacoccus schousboet Thuret in Bornet and Thuret 1880, 74, pl. 26, f. 1, 2, Tilden 1910, 50, pl. 3, £. 7, Rabenhorst 1932, 335, f. 170 — EB. In littoral rock scrapings, Jan. 1946.
NOSTOCALES — OsciLLaTORIACEAR HYDROCOLEUM Kitzing Hyprocoteum canTHariosmum (Montagne) Gomont 1892, (Pt. 1), 336, pl. £2, f. 647. Tilden 1910, 135, pl. 5, £57. Rabenhorst 1932, 1,148, £. 755, Calothrix limbata Ularvey 1863, syn. n. 792, Alg, Aus. exs. n. 596. — PB, Lower littoral, on well washed rock, Dec. 1948,
Hyproconeum comomes (Ilarvey) Gomont 1892, (Pt. 1), 335, pl. 12, £. 3-5, Tilden 1910, 134, pl. 5, £. 56, Rabenhorst 1932, 1,148, {. 756. Calothrix comoides Harvey 1863, syn. n. 793, Alg. Aus. exs. n. 597, 598. — FB, Edge of rock pool, south side of Ellen Pt., May 1945,
TlyprocoLeuM cLuTixosum (Agardh) Gomont 1892 (Pt. 1), 330. Tilden 1910, 136, pl. 5, £.59. Newton 1931, 29. Rabenhorst 1932, 1,149. — LR. As irregu- lar masses on Hormosira (Aug. 1948) and Zostera (Sept. 1946) on the tidal fats. MR. On Cystophyllum muricatum and Cladostephus verticllaius, upper sublittoral, Jan. 1947. VB, On rocks near jetty, mid littoral, and on reef in bay, Jan. 1947, PB, On Jedge, main reef, all seasons, and on Coral- lina cuvieri in sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1946. CW. On rocks and on H armosira, lower littoral, Jan., Aug. 1948.
Hyproco.eum Ly¥Nonyaceum Kutzing 1849, 259. Gomont 1892 (Pt. 1), 337; pl. 12, f, 8-10. Tilden 1910, 135, pl. 5, f. 58. Setchell and Gardner 1914, 85, pl. 1, £. 10, Newton 1931, 29, f. 20, Rabenhorst 1932, 1,150, f, 757. — PB. Forming tufts at the constrictions of Hormusira, lower littural, Jan. 1946. AB, On Cystophora subfarcinati, lower littoral, Jan. 1947.
140
LYNGBYA Agardh
Lywenya CONFERVOrDES Agardh. Gomont 1892 (Pt. IL), 136, pl, 3, £.5,6, Tilden 1910; 119, pl. 5, f. 39. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 77. Rabenhorst 1932, 1,061, £. 672b. — AR. In a mat on buoys near American River jetty, Jan, 1946. ZB. Littoral rock scrapings, Jan. 1946.
Lyngaya Lures (Agardh) Gomont 1892 (Pt. IL), 141, pl. 3, f. 12, 13, Tilden 1910, 114, pl. 5, f. 30, 31. Rabenharst 1932, 1,057, f. 670 a.b, — MR, Littoral rock scrapings, Jan. 1946.
LYNGBYA MAJUSCULA (Dillwyn) Haryey. Gomont 1892 (Pt. IT), 132, pl. 3, f. 3,4, Tilden 1910, 123, pl. 5, f. 42. Rabenhorst 1932, 1,060, f, 672 c,d. — FB, In shaded part of pool 1, south side of Ellen Pt, Dec, 1945,
Lynonya semircena (Agardh) J. Agardh. Gomont 1892, (Pt. IL), 138, pl. 3, f. 7-11. Tilden 1910, 118, pl, 5, £. 38. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 78, Rabetuhorst 1932, 1,061, {. 672a. — ATR. In scrapings from a shallow pool, Jan, 1946,
Lyncpya sornipa (Zanardini) Gomont 1892, (Pt. IL), 126, pl. 2, f. 21. Tilden 1910, 118, pl. 5, £. 37. Rabenhorst 1932, 1,039, £. 657 b. — PB. In a shaded pool, rear littoral of main reef, Jan, 1948,
PLECTONEMA Thuret
PLECTONEMA BATTERSIt Gomont 1899, 36. Tilden 1910, 211. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 79, pl. 1, f. 1. Newton 1931, 25, f. 18. Rabenhorst 1932, 684. — AR, Amongst other algae in a mat on buoys near American River jetty, Jan. 1946,
PiEctoNEMA NoRVEGICUM Gomont 1899, 34. Newton 1931, 26. Rabenhorst 1932, 684, — AR. Amongst other algae in a mat on buoys near American River jetty, Jan. 1946,
SYMPLOCA Kiitzing
SYMPLOCA HYDNOIDES Kiitzing 1849, 272. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 81, pl. 1. f. 12, 13, Newton 1931, 21, f, 16. Rabenhorst 1932, 1, 1,119, £. 724. — AR. On tidal flats, May 1945. PR, In littoral rock scrapings, Jan. 1946. VB. In pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1949. PB. On sloping and vertical tock in the rear littoral, all seasons. CW. Littoral, Jan. 1946.
RIVULARIACRAE CALOTHRIX Agardh
CaLOTHRIX AERUGINEA (Kutzing) Thuret 1875, 10. Tilden 1910, 261, pl. 17, fF, 1. Rabenhorst 1932, 599, £. 3754. — MR. On Lnteromerpha and Clado- phora in littoral pools, Jan, 1948. PB. On Polysiphonia on littoral sloping rock, Dec. 1948, CH’, On Chuetomarpha acerca in littoral pools, south side Jan. 1948,
CALOTHRIx CoNFERVICOLA (Roth) Agardh. Tilden 1910, 256, pl. 16, f. 6-8. ‘Raben- horst 1932, 601, f. 376, Epiphytic on other algae in the littoral zone in most localities, all seasons. Often dense on Junia fustigiata (VB, PB, AB), Centrocerus clavulatum (VB, Jan, 1946), Ilyvimenocladia polymorpha (DB, sublittoral Iringe, Jan. 1947) and Chaetomorpha aerea (CW’, littoral pool, Aug. 1948).
CaLoTurix crusracks Thuret, Tilden 1910, 264, pl. 17, i, 2-6. Rabenhorst 1932, 601. — EB, MR, WR, WB, On littoral rock, sometimes forming extensive slippery patches, all Jan. 1946, 28. Upper littoral, Jan, 1945.
141
CaLoTuRIx scoptLorum (Weber and Mohr) Agardh. Bornet and Thuret 1880, 159, t. 38. Tilden 1910, 258, pl. 16, f. 11, 12. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 96. Rabenhorst 1932, 600, f. 374, f, ¢ — AR, Amongst other algae in a mat on‘buoys near American River jetty, Jan, 1946,
ISACTIS Thuret
Isactis PLANA (Ilarvey) Thuret, Hornet and Flahault 1886, (Pt. IT), 343, Setchell and Gardner 1919, 104, pl. 1, f. 8,9. Womersley 1946a, 128, f. 1A. — VB. Edge of rock pools and om the mollusc Cellana tramoserica, south side of Ellen Pt., Jan. 1946. PB. littoral, main reef, all seasons. HB. Lower littoral, Jan. 1944,
RIVULARIA. Agardh
Rivunarra atka Roth. Bornet and Flahault 1886, (Pt. IT), 353. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 107, pl. 8, £. 1, 2, Womersley 19462, 132, f. 1B. — AR. On dead Posidonia and shells, Jan. 1946. SB. Upper littoral, Jan. 1946. VB. Edges of rock pools and on molluscs, south side of Ellen Point, May 1945. PB. Littoral, main reef, Jan. 1948.
Rivurarra AusTRALIS Harvey 1854, 566. Bornet and Flahault, 1886, (Pt. 11), 362. Womersley 1946a, 133. — IR. Upper littoral, west side, Jan. 1948.
Rivucarra FIRMA Womersley 19462, 130, f, 2A, B. — Fast, south west aud rougher parts of the north coasi, in middle and upper littoral, all seasoits, but variable in occurrence and amount,
RIVULARIA NiTIpA Agardh, Bornet and Flahault 1886, (Pt. I1), 357. Womersley 1946a, 133, £.1C. — AR. On rock in mid littoral, Pelican Lagoon, Jan. 1946,
Rivucarta potyoris (Agardh) Bornet and Flahauli 1886, (Pt. II), 360. Womersley 19462, 134, f. 2C. — AR, On Posidonia, Zostera and larger algae on the tidal Hats and floating, mainly summer. BS. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1947.
STIGONEMATACEAE BRACHYTRICHIA Zanardini
BracuyrricuiaA ouoyr (Agardh) Bornet and Flahault 1886, (Pt. IT), 373. De Toni 1907, 680. Tildeit 1910, 294, pl, 20, f. 18. — SB and MR, Upper and mid littoral, Jan. 1947 and 1948. IB. Edge of pool, south side of Ellen Point, May 1945.
CHLOROPHYTA ULOTRICHALES — UlLorricnacrar ULOTHRIX Kutzing Unormeix impnexa Kiitzing 1849, 349. Sctchell and Gardner 1920, 283. Smith 1944, 34. — AR. As a green band along the waterline on boats anchored fear Atnerican Rivér jetty, Aug. 1948. Seasonal occurrence (from local information), March to Nov. These specimens agree well with the ahove descriptions, but | have not seen authcntic material, There seems to be some difference of opinion as to whether the marine species should be known as U, implexa or U. subflaccida Wille. Setchell and Gardner are followed in referring it to U, wnplexa.
ULVALES — ULvackar ULVA Linnaeus Unva tactuca Linnaeus. Setchell and Gardner 1920, 265. Smith 1944, 45. Taylor 1937, 75 — AR. On tidal flats (low littoral and upper sublittoral),
142
common, all seasons. Souw'-West River mouth, Dec. 1934 (Cleland and Black). PB. Less rough parts of the reefs and rear littoral, all seasons. Also found in almost any suitable habitat elsewhere around the island. In AR specimens the thallus is 35-70 thick, with the cells in transverse section 1-15 times as high as broad. In PB specimens the thallus is 40-60. (-70,) thick, cells as high (-14 times) as broad. In size and form the AR speci- mens often approach var. /etissima De Candolle, while the PB specimens are similar to var. vigide (C.Ag.) Le Jol. Mowever, the great variation in size and form between specimens in the same and different localities (from expanded plates to elongate undulate ribbons), prevents any valid separation of varieties. ENTEROMORPHA Link This genus ig notoriously difficult, and oly some of the more distinct forms from Kangaroo Island are listed here. I haye receiyed opinions on the species from Dr. V. J. Chapman and also from Dr. C. Bliding whose culture experiments in Sweden have shown that some species include a number of forms. Until it is possible to carry out similar culture and copulation experiments with Kangaruo Island Ateromorpha’s, the limits of some specics must remain tncertsin,
ENTEROMORPHA ACANTHOPHORA Kiitzing 1856, t. 34, £. 1. J. Agardh 1883, 158, De Toni 1889, 135. — PB. Rear littoral on reefs, all seasons but best developed in winter. These forms are only 1-4 em, high, but resemble Kiitzing’s figure and New Zealand specimetis in form and structure,
ENTEROMORPHA CLATHRATA (Roth) J, Agardh, Bliding 1944, 331. Doty 1947, l6. Kylin 1949, 28. — AR, Lower littoral and upper sublittoral through- nut the inlet, all seasons, AZ. Lower littoral pools, Jan. 1946, 1948. CC. Rock pools, Jan. 1948. FB. On a punt in mouth of Tiarriet River, Jan. 1946, AB. Rock pool, fan. 1947. JP. Mid littoral, Jan, 1945.
The material from American River inlet is very yariable and is referred hy Dr. Chapman to a number of forms. The variations seem, however, to be ecological in nature, depending on degree of exposyre and water moye- ments, and probably nearly all the American River forms are best placed under one species, as Dr. Bliding would do, Culture experiments with these forms are necessary for a full understanding of the problem. The form af Bliding’s Types I, It, and II] are represented at American River inlet.
ENTeERoMorritA comrressa (1...) Greville. De Toni 1889, 126. Doty 1947, 14. Bliding 1948, 128, Kylin 1949, 22, {, 14, 15. — AAR, On buoys near Ameti- can River jetty, Jan, 1946. BH, Lower littoral, Oct. 1947.
ENTEROMORPHA INTESTINALIS (L..) Link. Doty 1947, 14. Bliding 1948, 123. Kylin 1949, 22, — MR, In lower littoral pools, Jan, 1946.
BLIDINGIA Kylin BLIDINGIA MINIMA (Kiitzing) Kylin 1949, 30. Enteromorpha minima Kitzing 1856, t, 43, ITT, Bliding 1938, 84. — AR. On jetty steps, mid littoral, Sept. 1946, Aug, 1948, AP. Mid littoral, amongst Zuteromorpha clathrate, Jan. 1945. Original det., C. Bliding.
CLADOPHORAT.ES — CranorHoracuat CLADOPHORA Katzine CLADUPHORA CERATINA Kiitzing 1849, 401; 3854, 5, t. 21, f. 1. — AR. Epiphytic on Zostera muelleri and in tangled masses on the tidal dats near the mouth of the inlet, Feb. 1946, Jan. 1948. 7B. On punt and stakes at mouth of Harriet River (braclsish). Jan. 1946.
Ma
CLADOPHORA DELICATULA Montagne. Setchell and Gardner 1920, 220, Smith 1944, 6L. De Toni 1889, 326. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1947.
CLADOPIIORA FASCICULARIS (Mertens) Kiitzing 1843, 268, 1849, 393. De Toni 1889, 316. Borgesen 1946, 21. — AR. Widely, but often sparsely, dis- tributed in the upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, and on the buoys near American River jetty, all seasons. Bid. Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947. PB, In mid littoral rock pool on western terraced reef, Jan. 1946. The branching of AR specimens is very much looser, and they appear more slender than those from. BH and PR. Filament widths, however, are similar in all specimens, and the fasciculate branching is well developed in all.
CLADOPHORA FRREDAYAE Harvey 1858, pl. 47; 1860b, 339. De Toni 1889, 323. — CH’, Rock pool, south side, Aug. 1948,
Crapopuoea REvENS (J. Agardh) Harvey 1871, pl. 236. Kaiitzing 1854, t, 70, i, 2. De Toni 1889, 345. — }'B. Edge of reef (sublittotal fringe), north side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948. PR. Drift, April 1947.
CLADOPTIORA VALONTOIDES Sonder 1846, 149. Harvey 1859, pl. 78. De Tomi 1889, 308. — HB. Driit, Jan. 1946. CC, Rock pool, Jan. 1944, drift, Jan. 1947, WB, Drift, and on reefs in bay, Jan. 1949. PB. On reefs, littoral, all seasons. Specimens cast up from the sublittoral are much looser and larger than those growing in rough conditions on the reefs,
CHAETOMORPHA, Kittzing
CHarromorrita AcREA (Dillwyn) Kitzing 1849, 379; 1853, t. 59. De Toni 1889, 272. Smith 1944, 56, Taylor 1937, 80. — SA, Lower littoral, as a mat on boulders, Jan. 1948. He, In rock pools, Jan. 1949. 4’R, Lower littoral on a Jan, 1946. PB. In rock pools, Jan. 1944. CH’. In rock pools, Jan.
CHAETOMORPHA DARWINT (Hooker) Kiitzing 1849, 380. De Toni 1889, 271. Conferva clavata vat, darwiniti Hooker 1847, 187, pl. 192, £. 1. — FB. Sub- littoral fringe on reefs in bay. PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs, CH’, Lower littoral, south side, All seasons. At PA, commonly epiphytic on Zonaria spiralis, Halopteris pseudospicula, Cystophora paniculata and Ballia scoparia.
CHAETOMORPHA LINuM (Mueller) Kitzing, De Toni 1889, 269, Taylor 1937, 80, — BS. Upper sublittoral, June 1947.
CHAETOMORPHA VALIDA (Ilooker and Harvey) Kiitzing 1849, 379. De Toni 1889, 274. Conferva valida Hooker and Harvey 1847, 416 — AR. Upper sublittaral on Rabbit Island and elsewhere in Pelican Lagoon and near Muston, not common, May 1947, Aug. 1948.
This agrees well with a specimen from Tasmania of Conferva calida H, & H..in Melbourne National Herbaritim. The platit is dark green, forin- ing rather coarse tangled masses, not readily collapsing our of water; fila- ments 350-450» thick, cells mostly 14-24 times as Jong as wide, slightly inflated. It is a distinctly more robust plant than C. linum, readily dis- linguished in the field.
STPHONOCLADALES — YVaroniacrean DICTYOSPHAERTA Decaisne DicTYeSPHAERIA SERTCEA Harvey 1860 b, 339, pl. 196 A. J. Agardh 1887, 118; 1896, 61. De Toni 1889, 371. — MR, Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. FB. Pools of sublittoral fringe on reefs in bay, Jan, 1947, PB, Pools in sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons,
144
SIPHONOCLADIACKAE APJOHNIA Harvey
APJOHNIA LAETEVIRENS Tarvyey 1858, pl. 5. J. Agardh 1887, 108. De Tomi 1889, 382. — MR. Dnit, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949 and in pools of sublittorat fringe on reefs in bay, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, and in pools of sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1944, 1947, 1948. Speci- mens growitig in pools in the sublittoral fringe are usually stunted, often with only the basal part developed.
STRUVEA Sonder STRUVEA PLUMOSA Sonder 1846, 151. Harvey 1858, pl. 32. De Toni 1889, 364- A single specimen [rom “North of Kangaroo Island, 1893.” Collector and further details are unknown,
BoOoDLEACEAE MICRODICTYON Decaisne
Micronictyon uMBILIcatum (Velley) Zanardini. Setchell 1929, 503. Micro- dictyon agardhianum, Harvey 1858, pl. 50, — AR, In Pesidonia beds near Strawbridge Point, May 1945; drift, Dec. 1948. Apparently rare.
DASYCLADACEAE ACETABULARIA Lamouroux ACETABULARIA PENICULUS (R. Brown) Solms-Laubach 1895, 27. Puolyplvsa peniculus (R. Br.) Agardh. Harvey 1858, pl. 11. De Toni 1889, 421. — AR. Low littoral and upper sublittoral at head of the lagoons (dense iti patches) and in Pelican Lagoon, all seasons, BS, Lower littoral, June 1947,
SIPHONALES — Bryorsmacrkae BRYOPSIS J atnouroux Brvopsis BACULIFERA J. Agardh 1887, 21. De Toni 1889, 428. — PR, Shaded
end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, May 1945, Jan. 1949. PB. Shaded pool, rear littoral, tiain reef, Jan, 1948. Rare;
The few specimens collected have been sterile. They agree well in form and structure with cotype specimens of J. B. Wilson's in Melbourne National Herbarium except that the thallus of Wilson’s specimens are nearly twice as wide (340-510 against 120-350,).
Bryopsis cupressomes Lamouroux. Kitzing 1856, t. 79, f. 1. J. Agardh 18387, 20, TDe Toni 1889, 435 — AR. On bnoys, Jan., Sept. 1946; upper sub- littoral near American River jetty, July 1946. Best developed in winter. Dr. V. J. Chapman considers these plants are referable to B. cupressoides, though they seem to be softer plants with longer pinnules than those figured by Kitzing.
Bryorsts pLumosa (Hudsworth) Agardh. J. Agardh 1887, 24. De Toni 1889. 431. Setchell and Gardner 1920, 161, pl. 14, £.1, 2. — WB. In rock pools. south side of Ellen Point, May 1945, Jan. 1947, 1948.
DERBESTACEAE DERBESIJA Solier Dernesta CLAVAEFoRMIS (J. Agardh) De Toni 1889, 425. Bryopsis clavacfornits J. Agardh 1887, 20. — WB, Drift, Jan, 1946, PB. Shaded pool, rear littoral, main reef, Jan. 1948. Rare. These spectmens agree well with those of J, B, Wilson’s in Melbourne National Herbarium. The WR specimen is rather thicker, but identical in form and position and size of zoosporangia.
145
CopIACEAE CODIUM Stackhouse
Coprum careatum J. Agardh 1887, 42, t. 1, f. 1. De Toni 1889, 494, Lucas
1936, 54. — AR. Upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, occasional, all scasons. HB, Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, 1949. DB. Sub- littoral fringe on reef, Jan. 1947, PB, Drift, and in sublittoral Fringe, all seasons. RP. Drift, and pools of lower littoral, all seasons. Most of the speci- mens placed under (, galeatum show a distinctly but moderately thickened top to the utricles, Some, such as those from American River, are very slightly thickened. Some specimens from Victor Harbour and other parts of the South Australian coast have extremely heavily thickened tops to the utricles, which tend to be narrower and contracted a short distance below the apex, All these specimens are identical in external form (stout plants, thallus 4-6 mm, wide), and the variation in utricle thickness between young and old parts of one specimen, and between different specimens, is very con- siderable, Even when most utricles are scarcely thickened at all, an occa- sional natrower one occurs with heavy apical thickening,
Although the extremes in utricle thickness are very distinct, and such characters have been largely sed in segregation of species within the genus, it seems impossible to delimit the extremes as species ar even varieties, On the othet hand this may be an ecological variation, as plants with heavily thickened utricles seem io occur mainly in deep water on exposed coasts.
A slender dichotomous Codiwm, 2-3. mm. in thickness, and with very slight utricle thickening has been found in ihe drift at Pennington and Vivonne Bays. This may be another form of C. galeatinm, or Indy prove to be a distinct species.
Copium Lucasm Setchell ia Lucas 1935, 200. Lucas 1936, 50, — PB, Rear
littoral on an eastern recf, 1944, Rare.
Coprum MAmiLtosum Harvey 1854, 505; 1858, pl. 41. J. Apardh 1887, 39.
De Toni 1889, 491. Lucas 1936, 52. — RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug. 1948, EB, Mk, and PB, all drift, Jan. 1946. Apparently this species occurs only in the deeper sublittoral, sometimes very commonly in slieliered bays. Near Rocky Point enorniots numbers of this species, (. pomoides and (. Sposniv- sn, were cast up after a storm in June 1947,
Coprum MUELLERTI Kiitzing 1856, 34, t. 95, #. 2. J. Agardh 1887, 42. De Toni
1889, 493. Codium schnudti Vouk 1935, 9, pl. 1. — RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug, 1948, XK. Drift, Jan, 1948. This species is distinguished by the presence of hemispherical thickenings on the internal side of the apical membrane of the utricles. This was first recorded in Vouk’s Codinm schmidti (from Bussleton, Western Australia, and Lefevre Peninsula near Adelaide, South Australia, not New Caledonia as given by Vouk), but Setchell (1940, 444) pointed out the type specimen of C. amuelleri Kittzing Shows the same feature although Kutzing does not figure it. Cotype speci- mens of C. muelleri in Melbourne National Ilerbarium show the thickenings distinctly. The plants are slender (2-3 mm. wide) and soft, becoming flat and membranous on drying out.
Most specimens in Australian Herbaria named as C. mwelleri do not show the! internal thickening, and are not this species; some are probably forms af C. galeatwar.
Copium PERRINAR Tatcrs 1935, 203, f 4. — DB. Outer teet pools, Jan, 1950.
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Copium Pomorpes J. Agardh 1894a, 100. Lucas 1936, 53. — RP. Drift, Jan. 1944, June 1947. EB. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. Upper sublittoral at end of Ellen Point, Jan, 1946. PB. In rock crevices of sublittoral fringe on reefs, occasional, all seasons.
Conium sponciosum Harvey 1854, 565; 1858, pl. 55, J. Agardh 1887, 38; 1894a, 99. De Toni 1889, 489. Lucas 1936, 51. — AP. Drift, June 1947, Aug. 1948. AR. Upper sublittoral in Pelican Lagoon, all seasons, tare. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 4B. Drift, Aug. 1948. Common in drift, near RP after storms.
RHIPILIOPSIS A, and E. S. Gepp
Rutpriiopsts PELTATA (J. Agardh) A. and E, S. Gepp 1911, 45, f. 118-J22. Udatea peltatu J. Agardh 1882, 74. De Toni 1889, 509. — PB, In shaded pools, rear littoral, Jan. 1947, 1948, 1949, also in deeper pools of sublittoral fringe, Jan, 1948, 1949, Not common,
CAULERPACEAE CAULERPA Lamotroux
CAULERPA pRownir Endlicher. J. Agardh 1872, 28. De Toni 1889, 468, W. v. Bosse 1898, 306. Lucas 1936, 42. — General in the lower littoral and sublittoral fringe within the exposed rocky coast formation (ATR, west and south coasts to 4B). Also drift from deeper water. All seasons, but often not common.
CaAuLerra cactorpes (Turner) Agardh, Harvey 1858, pl. 26. De Toni 1889, 485. W. y. Bosse 1898, 390. Lucas 1936, 48. — AP. Drift, June 1947. VB. Drift, Jan, 1948. PB. Drift, Jan, 1944. Rare,
CAULERPA ETHELAE. W. v. Bosse 1898, 384. Caulerpa siimplictuscula yar. vest- culifera, Harvey 1859, pl. 65, f. 3, 4. Caulerpa vesiculifera Harvey, Lucas 1936, 47. — MAR. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948; drift, Jan. 1946, WB. Drift, Jan. 1945, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945
This species has been commonly known as C. vesiewlifera. W, v. Boose showed that Harvey included two algae in his var. vesiculifera of C. simpliciuscula, one of which is a loose form of that species, while the other has very much larger vesicles; this she renamed C. ethelae.
CAULERPA KEDLEVI W. v. Bosse 1910, 1-2. Lucas 1927b, 559; 1936, 43. — This species was “dredged in 8 fathoms off Kangaroo Island hy the fisheries’ trawler Endeavour in 1909." [I have not collected it, The pinnate fronds. are densely covered with minute, several times dichotomous, ramenta which are similur but slenderer on the surctilus.
CauLerpa HypNompts (R. Br.) Agardh. Harvey 1859, pl. 84. De Toni 1889, 470, W. y. Bosse 1898, 342. Lucas 1936, 44, — AR. Sublittoral near Muston, July 1947, WH, Drift, Jan, 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. Sou’-West Riyer mouth, Dee, 1934 (Cleland and Black). WB. Drift, Jan. 1949. PR. Pools on reefs, all seasons. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. RP. Driit, June 1947, Aug. 1948.
var. MUELLERI (Sonder) W. v. Bosse 1898, 342. Caulerpa muelleri Sonder. Harvey 1858, pL 2, — MR, Drift, Jan. 1946. WE. Drift, Jan. 1946, FB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Pools of sublittoral fringe, all seasons, but not common, AB, Drift, Jan. 1948.
CAULERPA LoNnciroLia Agardh, J. Agardh 1872, 16. De Toni 1889, 455,
C. harveyi F. v, Mueller in Harvey 1859, pl. 95. De Toni 1889, 455. Lucas
157
1936, 41. W. v. Bosse 1898, 209, — HW’B, Drift, Jan 1946. CC_ Drift, Jan, 1948. VB. Wrift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, Only found in the sublittoral,
var, cRISPATA (Harvey) comb, nov.
C. harveyi var. crispata Harvey 1859, pl. 95. W. + Bosse 1898, 300. C. longifolia Agardh in Lucas 1936, 38. C. curvifalia J. Agardh in Wilson 1892, 188 (nomen nudum). — 1B, Under ledge in sublittoral fringe of reef in bay, Jan. 1947; drift, Jan. 1948. PB, In pools of sublittoral fringe on reels, probably all seasons. Usnally found in lower littoral or sublittoral fringe rock pools.
Considerable confusion has existed in the position of C. longifolia and C. harveyi, In Australian herbaria they have usually been regarded as dis- tinct species, as did Lucas (1936). W. v. Bosse (1898, 299) examined the authentic (probably type) specimens of C. longifolia of C, Agardh, in the Paris Museum, and found it to be identical with C. harveyi F. v. M, W. v. Bosse conserved the name C, harveyi as Agardh's original diagnosis was slightly erromeous, There is, however, no provision for this in the Botanical Rules (1935), and the name must therefore revert to the earlier C. longifolia C. Agardh.
The var, crispata Harvey of C. harveyi F. v. M. has been conimonly known in Australia as C. longifolia Ag, Most specimens are very distinct from typical C. harveyi; they are smaller, tmich less robust, and have the ramenta recurved inwards ahove atid irregularly placed on the stem. Var. crispata is an inhabitant of rock pools, while C. harveyi (now C. longifolia) inhabits deeper water. Frou W. y. Bosse’s description it appears that speci- mens of both C. longifolia and var- crispata are present on the type shect.
Most specimens of var, crispata are very distinct from the species, but intermediate forms do oveur, and Harvey claimed to have seen connecting stages between the deep water and rock poo) forms. Several intermediate specimens occur in the algal collection of the Melbourne National Harbarium,
C. curvifolia J, Agardh from Port Philip (Wilson 1892, 188) is identical with var crispata, but is a nomen ntidum as no description has ever heen published. Several specimens of Wilson’s are m the Melbourne National Herbarium.
CAULFRPA onscurA Sonder 1846, 550, Harvey 1860b, 337. Kutzing 1857, t. 17. W.. v. Bosse 1898, 301. C. sondert HF. v. M. in Sonder 1852, 661, Harvey 1860a, pl. 167. De Toni 1889, 456, — AR. Sublittoral, near Muston, Jan, 1948, WP. Drift, June 1947. HB, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC, Drift, Jan, 1947, 1948. VB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Drift, Jan. 1946, Only found in the
sublittoral, CAULERPA REMOTLEOLIA Sonder 1852, 660. Harvey 1859, pl. 107. W_-v. Busse 1898, 286. De Toni 1889, 448. — AR. Upper sublittoral throughout
lagoons, especially at edge of channel and in deeper holes, all seasons. XK. Drift, Jan. 1945. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. This species shows great seasonal variation in density of the lateral pinnae along the branches. In summer (Dec.-April) the pinnae are few, sometimes completely absent. In winter more pinnae develop, until in late winter (Avg.-Oct.) they are sufhciéatly close to just overlap. Harvey’s figure shows an intermediate stage. The alga occurs as dense intertwined masses, often 1-2 ft, across.
CAULERPA SCALPELLIFoRMIS (R. Erown) C. Agardh. Harvey 1858, pl. 17. De Toni 1889, 449, W-.v. Bosse 1898, 286. Lucas 1936, 34. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. 1B. Sublittoral fringe of reef in bay, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Pools of sublittoral fringe, Jan, 1944, 1948,
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CauLkepa skpomes (R. Brown) C. Agardh. Harvey 1859, pl, 72. De Toni 1889, 480. W. v. Bosse 1898, 387. Lucas 1936, 47. — AR. In Posidonia beds near Strawbridge Point, May 1945. MR. and WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. V8, Sublittoral fringe of reef in bay, Jan, 1947, PB. Pools of subfittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1944, 1947, 1948,
CAULERPA SIMPLICIUSCULA (Turner) C. Agardh. Harvey 1859, pl. 65, f, 1, 2. De Toni 1889, 482, W. v, Bosse 1898, 377, Lucas 1936,47. AS. (no data), PB. In pools of sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons.
var, VESICULIFERA Harvey 1859, descr. of pl. 65. W. v. Bosse 1898, 377. —~ AR. Upper sublittoral in lagoons, especially on edge of chammet, all seasons.
Under C, ethelae I have commented that Harvey confused two plants under his var. vestcuhfera, W. y. Bosse renamed one C_ ethelae and kept a form with more loosely placed vesicles (but of similar size ta thase of the species) as var. vestcultfera,
CAULERPA TRIPARTA Harvey 1863, pl. 261. J. Agardh 1872, 16. De Toni 1889. 454. W. v. Bosse 1898, 299. Lucas 1936, 39. — South coast, cvilected by | Cork, winter 1939 (probably drift), PB. Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1948 (No. A9469). PB. Shaded pools, rear littoral, main reel, Jan. 1948 (No, A7019), The specimens under A9469 and A7019 are 1-2" high and show two regular rows of ramenta, never three. They are morphologically identical with C, sertularioides (Gm.) lowe. (C. phunaris Forsk). However, specimens of C. trifaria sometimes have only two rows of ramenta in parts, and this may be a feature of juvenile plants (as the VB and PB specimens prohably are). C. trifaria also differs from C. sertularioides in having spines on the sureulus. These are absent in these specimens, but this again may be » feature of young C. trifaria, Tor the present I prefer io leave these specimens under C. trifaria, though the possibility of their being C. sertuarioides cannot be excluded.
In the Herbarium of the University of Adelaide is a specimen (A96) collected by Dr. Englehart at Lacepede Bay in 1897, identified as Cawlenpa Plumaris var. elegans (see Rembold 1897, 44). This is also recorded by Lucas 1936, 35. Underneath the specimen is written: “Examined and identi- fied by Madame Weber van Bosse,” probably in Reinbold's writing, as he dealt with Engelhart’s collection generally. W. v. Bosse (294) states in a footnote that she made the determination and adds: ‘“‘Cect repose sur une erreur, car l’alzue de M. Reinbeld est le C. plumaris, mais un échantillon tres ramifie.” he specimen, however, is a typical C. trifaria, with three rows of ramente in most parts,
C. sertulariuides is characteristic of tropical waters, and on geographical grounds it would he unlikely to occur along Southern Australia.
PHAEOPHYTA ISOGENERATAE — ECTOCARPALES — Eerocarpacrar ECTOCARPUS Lynehye Ectocarreus conrervorpes. (Roth) Le Jolis. Seichell and Gardner 1925, 412. Taylor 1937, 109. May 1939, 537-554. — AR. Common throughout the inlet, growing epiphytically on other algae (especially Hormosira) in winter { June-October), €C. In a rock pool, Jan. 1944. PB, Common in the rear littoral, winter (May-Nov.). PYLAIELLA Eory PYLAELLA FULVESCENS (Schousboe) Bornet 1889, 8, pl. 1, @. 1. De Toni £895, 536, Borgesen 1920, 431, f. 408, 409. -—- BH. Mid littoral, east side, Jan,
149
1948. PB. Rear littoral, summer {Nov.-April). CH’. In a rock pool, south side, August 1948. HZ. In rock pools, Jan. 1944. RP. Low littoral, Jan, 1948.
SPHACELARIALES — SPHACELARIACEAE SPHACELARIA Reinke
SPHACELARIA BIRADIATA Askenasy 1894, 15, pl. 2, £. 12. De Toni 1895, 507, Sauvageau 1914, 163-166, — SB. Drift, Jan. 1946, MR. Epiphytic on Sar- gassum, drift, Jan, 1946, VB. On Cyslophora subfarcinata and Cystophyllum muricatum in littoral pools, south side of Elen Point, Dec. 1945, Jan. 1946, PB. On stems of Cystophora weifera and Cystophyllum muricatum, littoral on reefs, Nov, to Feb. (? all seasons).
SPHACELARIA FURCIGERA Kiitzing 1855, 27, t. 90, De Toni 1895, 506. Sauya- geau 1914, 145-156, Taylor 1937, 129. — PB. On Cystophora uvifera and Cystophyllum muricatum, littoral, on reefs, all seasons,
SPHACELARIA PYGMAEA Lenermund in Sauvageau 1914, 29-31. — CC. On Carpo- glossum. confluens, driit, Jan. 1948.
SPIACELARIA TRIBULOTDES Meneghini. Kiitzing 1855, t. 89, £. 2, De Toni 1895, 502. Sauvageau 1914, 123-130. — PB. On Myriodesma latifolia var. duriuscula in littoral pools, south side of Ellen Point, Dec, 1945, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948. Also in shaded part of pool 1, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948. PB. In mid httoral pools of western terraced reef, Jan, 1946.
STYPACAULACEAE HALOPTERIS Kiitzing
HALOPTERIS. FUNICULARIS Sauvageau 1914, 402-403. Dickinson 1933, 255, £. 2
(for ball forms). Sphacelaria muelleri Sonder 1853, 507. — WB. Drift, Jan, 1946, IB, Drift, Jan. 1949, MALOPTERIS PSEUDOSPICATA Sauvageau 1914, 411. — BH. Upper sublittoral,
east side, Oct. 1947, Dec. 1948. SB, Drift, Jan. 1948. MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947. VB. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. PB. In pools on reefs, upper sublittoral, all seasons, CH’, Drift, Jan. 1946, AR. Upper sublittoral, Jan, 1947,
HALOPTERIS HORDACEA (Harvey) Sauvageau 1914, 416-433. — CH’. Driit. Jan. 1946. A single sexual plant_
IlaLovreris spicicera (Areschoug) Moore in Reports of the 7th Pacific Science Congress, 1950, Sphacelaria spicigera Areschoug 1854, 365, Sauvagean 1914, 418-420. — BH. Upper sublittoral, cast side, Oct. 1947, PR. In a low littoral pool, just west of main reef, Dec: 1948, Jan. 1949 (fertile). CH’. Drift, Jan. 1946,
PHLOEOCAULON Geyler PHLOECAULON SPECTABILE Reinke 1890, 213. De oni 1895, 520. Sauvageau 1914, 457-463, — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946.
W’B. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan, 1947, 1948. Also in pools of sublittoral fringe, main reef, Nov. 1947, Jan. 1948.
CLANOSTEPHACEAE CLADOSTEPHUS Agardh
CLADOSTEPHUS VERTICILLATUS (Lightfoot) Agardh. De Toni 1895, 513, Lucas
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1936, 105. Taylor 1937, 135, pl. 17, £. 9-11. — In the upper sublittoral zone within the Rocky Coast Formation, in well washed bit not extremely rough places (often saridy), all seasons. Common at KP, K, EB, MR, PB, CW, HB.
CUTLERIALES — Cwurreériacean CUTLERTA Greville
CuTLeria MuLtirma Greville. Kiitzing 1859, t. 45, £. 1. De Toni 1895, 302. Newton 1931, 197, f. 125. — AR, Sublittoral, on edge of channel, especially near Muston, Nov, 1947, Aug, 1948. On cockle hank near Strawbridge Point, Jan. 1949, RP. Drift on beach, Aug. 1948. This is mainly a late winter form, rarely seen in January. The thallus is mostly 2-3 mim, wide,
DICTYOTALES — Diucrvoracear DicTYOTEAE DICTYOTA Lamouronx
DicryoTa APIcULATA J. Agardh 1894a, 67, De Toni 1895, 262. D. dichotoime Harvey, Alg. Aus. exs., 1, 70 in part, — BH, Very low littoral, Dec. 1948. VB. Shaded part of the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Poimt, Jan. 1949,
The terminal segments of 72), apiculata are acute, not obtuse as in D. dichatoma, The VB specimens agree well with specimens of D. apiculata in Melbourne National Herbarium; the BH specimens are very similar but show a slight tendency for the tetrasporangia to become aggregated into sori.
DictyoTa Birurca J. Agardh 1894a, 79, De Toni 1895, 279. — KP. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1947, 1948, HH, Upper sublittoral, east side, Jan. 1947. These specimens agree well with Wilson’s (catypes?). in Melbourne National Herbarium.
Dictyors vicnotomA (Huds.) Lamouroux, Harvey 1871, pl. 103, f. 1. J, Agaaah 1 1882, 92; 1894a, 67, Newlon 1931, 212, f. 134° Lucas 1936, 91, f. 31 BE, Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947, CC, Sublittoral fringe and lower littoral in the sheltered inlet. Jan. 1948. CH’. Lower littoral, south side, Jan, 1946,
var. intricata (Agardh) Greville. Harvey 1871, pl. 103, 1.2. Papenfuss 1944, 338, — AR. Widely distributed in the upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, ali seasons. PB. In sandy pool, main reef, fan, 1945. Although this is a common alga in American River inlet, no fertile plants have yet been collected, It agrees very well, however, with Harvey’s figure and specimens from Europe,
Dictryora pirmENnsiIs Sonder in Kutzing 1859, 14, t. 34. De Toni 1895, 266, J. Agardh 1882, 97; 1894a, 69. D. naevose, Harvey 1862, pl. 186. — BH, Drift, Dec, 1948. WR, Drift, Jan. 1946. WB, In shaded part of the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, and drift, Jan. 1949. PB. Driit, Jan. 1948.
These specimens agree well with the figures of Kutzing and Harvey, although the fronds ate narrower. A few specimens have ill-defined sori,
DicryvotTa PURCELLATA Apardh. J. Agardh 1848, 90; 1&94a, 80. De Toni 1895, 280. Not D, furcellata Harvey, — KP. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948. BH, Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948. This species is regularly dichotomous, in contrast to the more lateral branching of Pachydictyon furcellatum
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(D. furcellata. of Harvey). Older parts of the thallus are typically Dict'eta in section, Our specimens agree well with some in Melbourne National Herbarium.
Dicryora Latiravsa J. Agardh [8%4a, 65. De Toni 1895, 261. Lucas 1936, 90. — WR, Drift, Jan, 1946, CC. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1B. Drift, Jan. 146, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948,
An extensive range of specimens, undoubtedly belonging to the one species, has been examined, and they shaw considerable variation in charac- ters which are accepted as being of getieric significance in the Dictyotaceae.
The thallus width ranges from 1 to 5 cm., the number of dichotomies. from L io 4 or 5. The small surface proliferations densely cover well developed fronds, but the upper parts and older fronds are often largely or almost completely denuded. The transverse section of the thallus in most specunens js that of Dictyota, Old parts of A3299{, however, show two rows of internal cells, though only one in younger parts (c.f., Dilophus). The tetrasporangia and sexual sori in most specimens are scattered over the thallus but not on the proliferations. Some specimens (¢.g., A3299d) show spofangia on both thallus and proliferations, while in others (A3299q and [) they are only on the proliferations (c.f. Glossophora). Similar varia- tions have been observed in specimens of this species in Melbourne National Herbarium. Kutzing (1859, 6, t. 12, f. 1) described a Dictyota latifolia from the Atlantic which has been relegated to a synonym of D. dichotome (see De Toni). As J. Agardh’s D. latifolia was described in 189+, his name is invalid, and if the species is to be maintained it must be renamed,
J. Agardh 1882, 94, described D. nfgricans, which differs from J. loti- folia J. Ag. mainly in degree of branching, Specimens of these two species in Melbourne National Ierbarium (some were probably named by J. Agardh) are very doubtiully distinct. he degree of branching is variable, and specimens under both names show the variation in cellular structure described above. If the two species are to be combined, D. niyricans has priority and appears to be a valid name. In showing very few dichotamies, the Kangaroo Island specimens are of the D. latifolia form,
Until the type specinyens of D, latifulia J. Ag. and D_ nigricans J, Ag. can be re-examined, in light of the above remarks, it seems best to leave the position as it is, rather than renaming PD. latifolia J, Age. and adding a name to the literature which may have to be relegated to the synonym of D, nigricaas later,
Dicryora kapicans Harvey 1854, 536; 1859, pl. 110. [Kutzing 1859, t. 36, 1, 2. J. Agardh 1882, 92; 1894a, 74. De Tom 1895, 273. Lucas 1936, 91. — WB. Drift, Jan, 1946. FB, Drift, Jan, 1949, PAR, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1948.
PACHYDICTYON J. Agardh
Pacnyuictyon rurcenLAtuM (Harvey) J. Agardh 1894a, 83. De Toni 1895, 282. Dictyota furcellata, Warvey 1858, pl. 38 (not D, furcellata Ay.). — EB. Upper sublittoral, on Posidonia, Jan. 1945, 1946, AB. Drift, Jan, 1945, Harvey, in describing OD. furcellata, recognised that some specimens show characters intermediate between this species and P. pavticululuin, The main distinction lies in the wider and more robust frond of P. paniculutwon, Most specimens are quite distinct, but some intermediate forms are very difficult to place. Ilarvey doubted whether his plant was distinct from Dictyota minus Sender, but from specimens of Sounder’s in Melbourne National [erbarine PD, minus js probably identical wilh PL pantexlalinan,
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In his description Harvey referred to, and figured, “spores” which he thought might be antheridia. A specimen of Harvey’s No. 67B in Melbourne National Herbarium shows the structures figured by Harvey. They are not reproductive organs but intracellular thickenings. Fig. 1 shows their charac- teristic form. I have observed similar thickenings m occasional specimens of Dictyota dichotoma and Dilophus fastigiatus also.
PAcHYDICTON PANICULATUM J. Agardh 18944, 84. De Toni 1895, 283. De Toni and Forti, 1923, 73, pl. 8, f. 8. Levring 1946, 218, f. 3. — BH. Upper sublittoral, Jan, 1948, 1949. AB. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1945. WR, Drift, Jan, 1946, HB. Drift, Jan. 1945, 1946. CC, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1947, 1948, VB. In the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, and drift, probably all year. PB. Poois of sublittoral fringe, all seasons. CH’. In rock pools, Aug. 1948, and drift, Jan. 1946, 1947, AB. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1947. RP. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948. Probably present in all seasons in the upper sublittoral and low rock pools within the Rocky Shore Formation.
DILOPHUS J, Agardh
Dinroruus Fastictatus (Sonder) J. Agardh 1882, 107; 18944, 92. De Toni 1895, 288. Dictyota fastigiate Sonder 1846, 155. Harvey 1859, pl. 82. — MR, WR, and WB, all drift, Jan, 1946, CH’. In a rock pool, south side, Jan, 1948,
DitopHus Fotiosus J. Agardh 1894a, 94. De Toni 1895, 290, — BH. Driit, Dec, 1948. MR. Driit, Jan. 1946. — J. Agardh placed D. faliosus in the section Marginatae, with two ruws of internal cells in the median part and four at the edges, The BH specimens show one row of internal cells and two at the edges in ihe youngest parts, with the number of rows increasing in older parts to four rows all through, the margin being very slightly if at all thicker, In the presence of small proliferations, general form and posi- tion of sori they closely resemble some af Wilson's specimens of D. foltosys in Melbourne National Herbarium, Wilson’s specimens also vary in number of rows of internal cells.
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DICTYOPTERIS Lamovroux
DicTYOPTERTS NIGRICANS Womersley 1949, 115, f. 8, pl. 22, £. 2. — WB. Driit, Jan 1946, 1B. In pools on reefs in the bay, Jan. 1948, drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. PB, In pools of the sublittoral fringe and calmer parts of the reefs, all seasons. (Previously reported in Pt. II as D. aerostichoides?)
Dicryvorrerig “MUELLERr (Sonder) Schmidt 1938, 218. Haliseris muelleri Sonder 1852, 665. Harvey 1860a, pl. 180. De Toni 1895, 255. Lucas 1936, 89, f. 49a, — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, VA. In shaded parts. of large littoral pool south side of Ellen Point, jan. 1949. PB, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948, AB, Drift, Aug. 1948,
LOBOSPIRA. Areschoug
Lopospira BicusrpipaTa Areschoug 1854, 364, Harvey 1858, pl. 34. De Tom 1895, 292. J. Agardh 1894a, 98. Lucas 1936, 93, — BH. Upper sub- littoral, Dec, 1948. MR, Drift, Jan, 1946. WR, Drilt, Jan, 1946. HR. In a low rock pool, Jan. 1949. IB. Drift, Jan. 1945, 1946. WB. In large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1947, 1949; drift, Jan, 1949. PB. Pools of sublittoral fringe and drift, all seasons. CH’. Drift, Jan. 1946.
ZONARIEAE CHLANIDOPHORA J. Agardh
CHLANIDOPHORA MICROPHYLLA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1894a, 18, t. 1, f. 3-5. De Tom 1895, 238. Lucas 1936, 87. Levring 1940, 2. Zanaria microphylla Harvey 1862, pl. 195, — WB. Drift, Jan, 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1949, PB, Drift, Jan. 1949.
POCOCKIELLA Papenfuss
PecocKIELLa VARIEGATA (Lamouroux) Papenfuss 1943, 467, f. 1-14. Gyinno- sorus variegatus (Lamour). J. Agardh 18944, 11, pl. 1, f. 1-2. De Toni 1895, 227, — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, VB, Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1947. PAR, In pools of sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1947, 1948 (as Gymnosorus in Pr. IL). RP. Drift, Jan, 1944, June 1947.
TAONIA J. Agardh
TAONIA AUSTRALASICA J. Agatdh 1894a, 30, De Toni 1895, 242, Lucas 1936, 87, — BH. Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947, and drift, Dec. 1948. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. These specimens agree very well with Agardh's description, and certainly belong to Taonia, In Melbourne National Herbarium there are no specimens of Wilson’s under this name, but some labelled Vaonle atomaria which are identical with the Kangaroo Tslaiid specimens. These are probably atithentic specimens of T. australasica, and had been originally referred to by Agardh to T. atomaria, T. anstralasica resembles T, atomaria in form, but is a mucli smaller plant (4-8 cm. high).
Spatoglossiim australasicum Kitzme 1859, t, 48, which J. Agardh doubt- fully refers to his T. avstralasica, is a quite distinct plant. Cotype (and probably type) specimens are in the Melbourne National Herbarium.
ZONARIA Agardh ZONAWA CRENATA J. Agardh 1872, 48; 1894a, 13. De Toni 1895, 230. Lucas 1936, 86. — MR. Drift. Jan. 1948. YB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1947, 1948, CH’. Drift, Jan. 1947. 4B, Drift, Aug. 1948.
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ZONARIA DIESINGIANA J, Agardh 1848, 109; 1872, 46; 1894a, 13. De Toni 1895, 229, Lucas 1936, 86. Levring 1946, 216, f. 1. — SB, In littoral pools, Jan. 1948. PB. In pools of sublittoral fringe, main reef, Dec. 1948, The SB specimens show concentric zones of long hairs on one suriace. Germinat- ing spores had apparently become entangled in the hairs, forming numerous young plants which appeared like proliferations.
ZONARIA SPIRALIS (J, Agardh) Papeniuss 1944, 341. Homoeostrichus spiralis J. Agardh 1894b, 89. De Toni 1895, 237, Lucas 1936, 86. — MM, Drilt, Jan. 1948. Rock pools, Jan. 1946. HAR. In rock pools, Jan. 1949. V8. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949; sublittoral fringe in bay, Jan. 1947. PB, In pools of sub- littoral fringe on reefs, and drift, all seasons, CH’. J.ower littoral, east side, Jan, 1946,
I am in full agreement with Papenfuss im not recognising Hoimoeo- strichus as distinct from Zonaria, The “twinning” of cortical cells in both Z spiralis and Z. stuposa is very variable, Most specimens of Z. spiralis are readily distinguished from 2. subarticulata, but intermediate specimens with only slight spirality of the upper parts of the thallus occur, and are difficult to place,
Zonaria sturosa R, Brown in Kiitzing 1849, 564. J. Agardh 1872, 50. Homovo- strichus stuposus (R. Br.) J. Agardh 1894a, 15. De Toni 1895, 236. Lucas 1936, 86, — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948 (as Homeocosirichus m Pt. UU, 161).
ZONARIA SUBARTICULATA (Lamiouroux) Papenfuss 1944, 339. Z. turneriana J. Agardh 1872, 48; 1894a, 14. De Toni 1895, 232. Lucas 1936, 86. Z. itervrupla, Harvey 1862, pl, 190. — MR, Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948; lower rock pools, Jan. 1946. 1B, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949; sublittoral fringe on reefs in bay, Jan. 1947. PB. Drift, May 1945, and sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons, AB, Drift,Jan. 1948, Aug. 1948; low littoral, Jan, 1945, 1947, 1948. Very variable in size, and usually stunted when in the sublittoral fringe. This was reported in Pt. I as Z. turneriana,
HETEROGENERATE — CHORDARIALES — MvyrronemataceAr MYRIONEMA Greville
MyxItONEMA STRANGULANS Greville. Kiitzing 1857, t, 93, f. 1. De Toni 1895, 399, De Toni and Forti 1923, 78. Setchell and Gardner 1925, 471, pl. 40, f, 51. Smith 1944, 106, pl. 15, f. 5. MM. leclancheri, Harvey 1863, Syn, No, 134, — AR. Epiphytic on Ulva lactuea, upper sublittoral on Shag Rock in Pelican Lagoon, July 1947. Harvey recorded this species as M, leclancher) from Georgetown, Tasmania, De Toni and Forti also refer Haryey’s speci- mens to M, strangulans,
CorYNOPHLAEACRAE CORYNOPHLAEA kiitzing
CoRYNOPHLAEA CYSTOPHORAE J, Agardh 1882, 22, +. 1, f. 1. De Toni 1895, 421. Lucas 1936, 102. — WR. On Cystophora spartioides in the upper sublittoral, Jan, 1946. CC. On Cystophera intermedia in sublittoral fringe, Jan, 1945, PB. On Cystophora intermedia Jan. 1945, 1947, 1948 and Cyst, siliquosa, Noy, 1947, in sublittoral fringe. Often very dense on these species ot Cystophora where aeration is mgh. Kuckuck (1929, 40) refers this species to Myriactis as M. eystophorae (J, Ag.) Kuckuck,
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CHORDARIACEAE CLADOSIPHON Kiutzing CiaposiptHon FiLum (Harvey) Kylin 1940, 29. Mesogloia filwm Harvey 1854, 536. Bactrophora filum (Harv.) J. Agardh 1882, 24, t. 1, f.4. De Toni 1895, 409. — MR. Low littoral, west side, Jan. 1947. VB, Littoral on reefs in bay, Jan. 1947. PB, Littoral on reefs, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948, Nov. 1947. AB. Littoral pools, Jan. 1945, The thallus is usually simple or sub-simple, with a few branches from a common base. Some MR specimens show numerous lateral “prolifera- tions”, but all grades to the simple forms occur in the same area. CLAposIPHON yERMICULARIS (J. Agardh) Kylin 1940, 30, t. 5, £.12, Bactrophora vermicularis J, Agatdh 1882, 25. De Yoni 1895, 409. — MR. Driit, Jan. 1946. CC. Mid littoral, Jan. 1948. PB. Pools on main reef, Jan., Dec. 1947,
MYRIOGLOIA Kuckuck Myxrociora scturus (Harvey) Kuckuck 1929, 63, £. 81. Kylin 1940, 12, f. 8A. Myriocladia -sciurus Harvey 1858, pl. 58. J, Agardh 1882, 19, — WB. Littoral on a small reef near beach, Jan, 1946,
POLYCEREA J. Agardh
PoLYCEREA NIGRESCENS (Harvey) Kylin 1940, 36, f. 20 A-B, t. 7, f£. 16, Clado- siphon nigrescens Harvey, Aig. Aus, exs. n, 94, Kiitzing 1859, t. 1. Kucktick 1929, 58, {. 73, 74. Cladosiphon nigricans Harvey 1860b, 292. Polycerea ramulosa J. Agardh 1882, 48, t. 3, f. 3. — AR, Upper sublittoral on cockle bank, Jan. 1946, BH. Drift, Jan. 1948. ZEB. Drift, Jan, 1946. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946, WB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, and upper sublittoral in the bay, Jan, 1946. PB, Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948.
PonycerEa zosTeRIcoLaA (Harvey) Kylin 1940, 37, t. 7, f. 17. Cladosiphon gostericola. Harvey 1863, Syn No. 130. Kiitzing 1859, t. 1. J. Agardh 1882, 43. Kuckuck 1929, 58, f. 75, —- MR, Drift, Jan. 1946. WB, Drift, Jan. 1949. AB. Drift, Jan. 1948,
These two species of Polycerea are yery similar in habit, and both grow on Posidonia in similar localities. The figures of Kuckuck illustrate well the differences hetween them, P. nig’escens having large inflated terminal cells on the assimilatory filaments, while P. sostericola has not. J. Agardh’s figure (1882, t. IL, f. 3a) of P. zostericola is incorrect in this respect.
TINOCLADIA Kylin TinocLabDIA austratis (Harvey) Kylin 1940, 34, t. 6, £. 14. Liebmannia australis Harvey 1860b, 291. Alg. Aus. exs., Nr. 88. Eudesme australis J. Agardh 1882, 32. — V'B, Dritt, Jan. 1948.
SPERMATOCH NACEAE STILOPSIS Kuckuck Stitopsis HARVEYANA Kylin 1940, 50, t. 8, f. 22. Stiluphora lyngbyei Harvey Alg. Aus. exs. Nr. 65; 1863, Syn n. 118 — AR, Upper sublittoral in Pelican Lagoon, May 1945, Nov, 1947.
SPLACH NIDIACEAF SPLACHNIDIUM Greville
SPLACHNIDIUM RUGOSUM (Linn.) Greville, Harvey 1858, pl. 14. Kiitzing 1860, t. 8 Lucas 1936, 83. Kylin 1940, 55. — CC Mid littoral, Jan, 1945,
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VB. Upper littoral, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. PB. Upper littoral, Jan, 1944 (very rare). CH. Upper littoral, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948 (common, on granite rack).
SPOROCHNALES — SprorocHnackar SPOROCHNUS Agardh :
SPoROCcHNUS HARVEyANUS J. Agardh 1896, 32. Sporochnus comosus, Harvey 1859, pl. 104 (not C. Agardh), — MR. Drift. Jan, 1946. WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, PB. Drift, Jan, 1947, Aug. 1948 (as Sp. comosus in Pt. I, 161). Examination of a range of specimens may show Sp. harveyanus is not distinct from Sp. comosus C, Agardh,
SPOROCHNUS RavicirorMis (R. Brown) Agardh, Harvey 1862, pl. 225. De Toni 1895, 382. Lucas 1936, 100. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1948, FB. Shaded part of large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1949.
SPOROCHNUS ScopaRIUsS Harvey 1854, 535; 1862, pl. 226. De Toni 1895, 383. Lucas 1936, 100. — HB. Drift, Jan. 1946. FB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947. CW. Drift, Jan. 1946.
Sporachnus radiciformis and Sp. scoparius may well be forms of one species, Sp. scoparius is a more robust plant, usually with a prominent main stem; Sp. radictformis is less robust, usually with several slender stems from near the base. Harvey separated them on robustness, angle of branching (wider in Sp. radiciformis) and form of receptacles. The slight differences in these features are of doubtful specific distinction, depending on the age of the plant, state of development of receptacles, and habitat,
Kuitzing’s species Sp. sphaerocephalus, Sp. abovatus and Sp. crypto~ cephalus belong to the radiciformis-scoparius complex, and are doubttiuily distinct species.
ENCYOTHALIA Harvey ENcYOTHALIA cLirtont Harvey 1859, pi. 62. De Toni 1895, 379, Lucas 1936, 99, #.55. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1947,
BELLOTIA Harvey BELLOTIA ERIOFHORUM Harvey 1859, pl. 69; 1860b, 288, t. 187, f. 1-3. De Toni 1895, 377. Lucas 1936, 97, £. 54. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan, 1947, 1948, 1949, PR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, 1949,
PERITHALIA J. Agardh PERITHALIA INERMIS (R, Brown) J. Agardh 1890, 4. De Toni 1895, 378. Lucas 1936, 100, Carpomitra tnermis, Harvey 1862, pl. 238. — MR. Drift, Jan- 1946. WB, Drift, Jan. 1946, CC, Drift, Jan. 1947, VB. Drift, May 1945, Jan, 1946, 1949, PRB. Two to three feet over edge of main reef (and pro- bably deeper), all seasons.
NEREIA Zanardini NEREIA AUSTRALIS Harvey 1860b, 289, pl. 187. Stilophora ? australis Harvey 1844, 453; Alg. Aus. exs., n. 66. J. Agardh 1848, 86. — IB. Drift, Jan, 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948,
CARPOMITRA Kiitzing
CARPOMITRA COSTATA Batters. Newton 1931, 137, £. 84. C. cabrerae Kiutzing 1849, 569; 1859, t. 89, f. 1. Harvey 1871, pl. 14. — CW’. Drift, Jan. 1946.
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DICTYOSIPHONALES — PuNCTARIACEAE ASPEROCOCCUS, Lamouroux
ASPEROCOCCUS. BULLoSuS Lamouroux. De Toni 1895, 493. Newton 1931, 172, f. 107. Lucas 1936, 104. Kylin 1947, 75, t. 11, £. 38. A. turnert, Harvey 1871, pl. 11; 1863, Syn. n. 119. — .AR, In the upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, usually epiphytic on Posidonia, all seasons. In summer the plants are 2-5 em. high, increasing in size in late winter (Aug-Nov.) to up ta 60 cm. high and 10 cm. wide, and then becoming very common in the Posidonia beds. MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. -4B, Drift, Jan. 1948.
COLPOMENIA Derbes and Soher
Cotromenta stnuosa (Roth) Derbes and Solier. De Toni 1895, 489, Setchell and Gardner 1925, 539, pl, 45, f. 82-86. Lucas 1936, 103, Smith 1944, 128, pl. 20, f. 1. A. sinuasus, Harvey 1863, Syn. N. 120. — AR, Upper sub- littoral in the lagoons, mainly winter (Aug.-Nov.), with small plants on the buoys most of the year. EB, Lower littoral on rocks, Jan. 1945. MR, Lower littoral, Jan. 1947, WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. In the sublittoral fringe and littoral on reefs, Jan,, Aug. 1948,
HYDROCLATHRUS Bory
HyprocLaTHkus CLATHRATUS Bory. Setchell and Gardner 1925, 543, HW. can- cellatus, Harvey 1859, pl. 98, De Toni 1895, 490. Lucas 1936, 103, — AR. On red buoy, Dec. 1948. EB. Drift, Jan. 1946, MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, AB, Drift, Jan. 1948.
SCYTOSIPHON Agardh
ScyTOsSIFHON LOMENTARIA (Lyngbye) J. Agardh. De Tonj 1895, 485, Setchell and Gardner 1925, 531, pl. 44, f. 72, 74. Newton 1931, 178, f. 111. Tucas 1936, 103. Smith 1944, 129, pl. 19, f.1. — AR. On Posidonia, upper sub- littoral, and on the buwys, winter (July-Nov.). M2. In rock pools, Jan. 1946. PB, In pools and on rock in rear littoral, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Sept. 1946, Nov, 1947.
LAMINARIALES — LrssonrAcEAk MACROCYSTIS Agardh
Macrocyst1s pyrirera (Linn.) Agardh. De Tom 1895, 372. ‘Setchell and Gardner 1925, 627, pl. 64, 65, Lucas 1936, 95, f, 53. Smith 1944, 144, pl. 31, f. 3-4. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1944. Several fragments which may have drifted from sonie distance away. No beds exist along the coast as far as is known,
ALARTACEAE ECKLONITA Eorneman
Ecxionra xramiata (Agardh) J. Agardh, De Toni 1895, 354. Lucas 1936, 95, f, 52. Papenfuss 1944, 341. — MR. Upper sublittoral. CC. Sublittoral fringe in sheltered inlet and more exposed parts. Sou'-West River mouth, Dec, 1934 (Cleland and Black). VB. Drift. PB. In the sublittoral fringe on reefs, occasional. CH’, Upper sublittoral, east side, occasional. RP. Upper sublittoral, common, Present in all scasoms in all localities.
Papenfuss (1940, 210) considers that £. biruncinala (Bory) Pap, (E. exasperata (Turner) J. Agardh) and £, richardiana J, Ag. are specifically distinct from E, radiata, being separated on form and presence of marginal and surface spines. Degree of spininess and furm are, however, both very variable features, depending on habitat, and in South Australia all the ahove species must be combined. At Cape Coudie, in a small inlet (50 metres long
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by 5-10 metres wide), relatively sheltered at the inner end and exposed at the outside, gradations in spininess and form are found, Sheltered plants are simple, consisting of a main elongate lamina with small marginal out- growths, but no spines. In tougher parts a few marginal spines appear, and in the rough condtiions at the end of the channel spines densely cover the surface and edges, the plants being dense and stout,
These variations can only be regarded as ecological formis of the one species, and in view of the gradations between them it seems useless to give them even varietal names, Stephenson (1948, 284) has come to a similar belief concerning the South African forms of this species. I suspect that E, lanctloba. Sonder is only another form of E, radiata.
CYCLOSPORAE — FUCALES — Nors#eracrar HORMOSIRA Endlicher
Hormosira BANKS (Turner) Decaisne. Harvey 1860a, pl, 135. De Toni 1895, 187. Lucas 1936, 80. Osborn 1948, 47-71. — AR. Lower littoral through- out the inlet. BH. Lower littoral MR and WR. Low rock pools. VB. Lower littoral on reefs in bay. PB. Lower littoral on reefs. RP. Lower littoral. Present in all seasons and likely to be found anywhere around the island except in very rough places on steep rock. H. banksii shows a variety of ecological forms. On the whole each form is characteristic of a particular habitat, but gradations between them occur in intermediate habitats. The following forms occur around Kangaroo Island.
f. Jabillardieri (Bory) Harvey. American River Inlet,
f. sieberi (Bory) Harvey, Pools and reefs on north-west and south coasts.
f. pumila Sonder (in Kitzing 1860, t. 4, f. 2). Rocky Point and Ballast Head,
NOTHEIA Bailey and Harvey
NOTHEIA ANOMALA Bailey and Harvey. Harvey 1862, pl. 213. De Toni 1895, 224, Lucas 1936, 82, f. 48. — FB.On Hormosira banksii on reefs in bay. PB. On H_ banksti on reefs. All seasons. Notheia is usually parasitic on Hormosira banksii, but has only been found on f. sieberi on reefs on the south coast, where wave action is strong.
IUCACEAE MYRIODESMA Decaisne
MyRIopesMA INTEGRIPOLIA Harvey 1860b, 286, pl. 186. J. Agardh 1890, 6; 1894b, 92, De Toni 1895, 191. Lucas 1936, 79, f. 47. — IB, Drift, Jan 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948,
MyriopesMA LATIFoLIA Harvey var. purruscuta J. Agardh. Tlarvey 1858, pl. 24 (for species). J, Agardh 1894b, 92, De Toni 1895, 192. — CC. Drift, Jan, 1948. VB. In shaded parts of large rock pools, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1945, 1949,
Myriopesma QuERcIFOLIUM (Bory) J. Agardh 1848, 192; 1890, 7; 1894b, 93. De Toni 1895, 193. — South'-West River mouth. Drift, Jan, 1945. VB, Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. PB, Drift, 1944, 1946, 1947, Dec. 1948 (as M, calophylhim in Pt. I, 161). J. Agardh (1894b, 94) described M. calo- bhyllum from Port Phillip (J. B. Wilson), differing from guercifolium. in
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having ah entire (not spinous) margin. The Kangaroo Island specimens are mostly entire, sometimes with one or two small marginal spines, Most of the specimens in Melbourne National Herbarium under M, quercifalinm and M. calophyllum are entire, some with a few marginal spines. Without examining the type material, together with a range of specimens, it is difficult to judge whether these two species are distinct or not, but I suspect they are not. M. quercifolium has been recorded generally in the Southern Anstra- lian region, and the type locality is somewhere in this region. Should M. calophyllum ptove to be distinct from M, quercifolium, the Kangaroo Island specimens will probably belong to the former.
SCYTOTHALIA Greville
ScCYTOTHALIA porycarea (Turner) Greville. Harvey 1858, pl. 9. De Toni 1895, 132. Litcas 1936, 69, f. 42, — WR. Drift, Jan, 1946. Sou’-West River mouth. Drift, Jan, 1945. UB. In shaded part of the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Dec. 1945, fan. 1948, and drift, May 1945, Jan. 1949. PB. Sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons,
SEIROCOCCUS Greville
Serrococcus AXILLARIS (Turner) Greville. Harvey 1858, pl. 4. De Toni 1895, 131. Lucas 1936, 68, f. 41. — MR. Drift, Jan, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, June 1947. CH’, Drift, Jan. 1946,
XIPHOPHORA Montagne
XIPHOPHORA CHONDROPHYLLA (R, Brown) Montagne var. mixus J, Agardh. De Toni 1895, 213. Heine 1932, 558, pl. 17, f. 2, 3. Lucas 1936, 81. — MR, WR, CW and AB. Growing in patches in the upper sublittoral, pro- bably all seasons. PB, Small patches in the Cystophora-coralline association on the main reef, all seasons.
This species was at first confused with Acretylus qustralis (see correction in Pt. IL). It grows to 8 or 12 em, high, and has rarely been found fertile, Kangaroo Island is probably the extreme west of the geographic range of var. mins,
CYSTOSEIRACEAE CARPOGLOSSUM RButzing
CakpoctossumM coNFLUENS (R. Brown) Kiitzing. Harvey 1860a, pl. 159, De Toni 1895, 182. Lucas 1936, 78, £. 46. — MR. Drift, Jan, 1946. WB. Drift, fan, 1946. VB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB, Drift, Jan, 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1948. Only found in the sublittoral.
CYSTOPHORA J, Agardh Some authors have used the generic natne Blossevillea Decaisne, Cystophora J. Agardh appears in the “Nomina Generica conservanda proposita’” of the 1935 edition of the International Rules, and it is to be hoped this well-known name will be adopted at the next Botanical Congress.
Cystopiora Borryocystis Sonder 1852, 670, Harvey 1858, pl. 56. De Toni 1895, 144. Lucas 1936, 72. — RP. Drift on beach near AR inlet, Jan. 1944, May 1945, June 1947, Aug. 1948 (probably growing in several meters in Eastern Cove). £8. Drift, Jan, 1946.
CysropHorA BRowNu (Turner) J. Agardh. Tlarvey 18604, pl. 169. De Toni 1895, 146, Lucas 1936, 73. — MR. In littoral pools and upper sublittoral, Jan. 1946, 1948. IB. In large littoral pool, south side of Ellen
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Point, all seasons, PB. In littoral pools on a reef, Jan. 1947, and drift, June 1947
CYSTOPHORA CEPHALORNITHOS (Labilladiere) J. Agardh, Harvey 1859, pl. 116, De Toni 1895, 138. Lucas 1936, 70. — AR. Upper sublittoral at head of lagoons, Jan. 1948 (probably all seasons), and drift near American River Jetty, June 1947. Not common, K.. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1945.
CystopHora pumosa (Greville) J. Agardh 1870, 444. De Toni 1895, 142. Blossevillea dumosa, Kiitzing 1860, t. 73, f£. 1, — WB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, all seasons.
CYSTOPHORA GREVILLEr (Agardh) J. Agardh. Harvey 1862, pi. 183. De Toni 1895, 144. Lucas 1936, 73. — MR, Drift, Jan. 1946, VB. Drift, May 1945, Jan, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, April 1947, Dec. 1948. RP. Drift, June 1947,
CYSTOPHOKA INTERMEDIA J. Agardh 1897, 102, — Im the sublittoral fringe throughout the Exposed Rocky Coast Formation, all seasons (see Pt, 1),
CysSTOPHORA MONILIFERA J. Agardh 1848, 241. Harvey 1863, pl. 245. De Tont 1895, 146. Lucas 1936, 73. — EB, MR, WR, WB, CC, VB, PB, CW, AB, all drift from sublittoral, all seasons. Widely distributed in the sublttoral around the island, Rarely on rock in the channel at AF inlet.
CYsTOrmoRA PANICULATA (Turner) J. Agardh, Harvey 1863, pl. 247. De Toni 1295, 149. Lucas 1936, 74. —- WR, MR, and CC. Drift. FB. Drift and in the large littoral pool, south side of Elen Point. PB. In the Cystophora- coralline and sublittoral fringe associations on reefs, and sublittoral. CH’. Drift. All seasons in all localities,
CYSTOPHORA PECTINATA (Greville and Agardh) J}. Agardh. De Toni 1895, 139. Lucas 1936, 71. Blosseviliea pectinata, Kiitzing 1860, t. 74, £, 2, — WR, Drift, Jan. 1946, CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB, Drift, May 1945, Jan, 19-46, 1948, Restricted to the sublittoral,
CystorHorA PLATYLoBIUM (Mertens) J. Agardh. De Toni 1895, 138. Lucas 1936, 71. Cystophora lyallit Harvey 1855, 214, pl, 108. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. CC, Drift, Jan, 1948. Sou’-West River mouth, Dec. 1934 (Cleland and Black). VB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948, 1949. PR. Drift, Jan, 1944, May 1945, April 1947, Jan. 1948. Cl. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. Restricted to sublittoral.
CYsTOPHORA POLYCYSTIDEA Areschoug in J. Agardh 1848, 240. De Toni 1893, 148. Lucas 1936, 74. Widely distributed in the upper sublittoral within the Sheltered Rocky Coast Subformation, all seasons, Also in very sheltercil pools at PB and CH’, all seasons,
CysToPHORA RAceMOsA Harvey. Alg. Aus. Exs, n. 5. J. Agardh 1870, 441. Le Toni 1895, 140. Lucas 1936, 71. Blossevillea racemosa, Kutzing 1860, t. 85, f, 1. — PB, Drift, Sept. 1946, June 1947.
CYSTOPHORA RETORTA (Mertens) J. Agardh 1848, 243; 1870, 443, De Toni 1895, 141, Lucas 1936, 72. — VB. Drift, Jan, 1948. P#. Drift, May 1945, July 1947, Jan. 1948.
Cystoruora sitrovosa J, Agardh 1870, 445. De Toni 1895, 143. Lucas 1936, 72 — In the upper sublittoral and in low, large littoral pools throughout the Rocky Shere Formation. Common on reefs on the south coast. All seasons.
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Cysroprora spArTiomes (Turner) J. Agardh. Harvey 1859, pl, 76, De Toni 1895, 145. Lucas 1936, 73. — EB and MR. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1946, VB. In the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, and sublittoral im bay, Jan, 1946, 1947. PB. In pools on the sublittoral fringe, all seasons. CW. Upper sublittoral, east side, Jan. 1946, 1947, AB, Upper sublittoral, Jan, 1947,
CyYSTOPHORA SUBFARCINATA (Mertens) J. Agardh 1848, 240. De Toni 1895, 147, Lucas 1936, 74. — Widely distributed in the upper sublittoral and low littoral pools within the Rocky Coast Formation. Very common on south coast reefs, All seasons. The north coast form (MR to AB) bears
vesicles. CystorHorA uvirera (Agardh) J. Agardh. Harvey 1860a, pl. 175, De Toni 1895, 137. Lucas 1936, 70. — South-West River mouth, Dec, 1934
(Cleland and Black), VB, Littoral on reefs in bay, all seasons, PB. Littoral on reefs and occasionally drift from deeper water, all seasons. The seasonal variation in vesicle formation at PB has been described previously (Pt. U, 154). AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. This species probably occurs on all the reefs along the south coast.
CYSTOPHYLLUM J. Agardh CysropuyLLuM mukICATUM (Turner) J, Agardh 1848, 231. De Toni 1895, 154. Lucas 1936, 74. — AR. Occasional in the upper stiblittoral, mainly near the channel edge. K, Drift. EB, WR and MR. Upper sublittoral. PB. Littoral pool association on reefs. RP. Low littoral, All seasons in all localities, Widely distributed in the Sheltered Rocky Coast Formation.
SARGASSUM
SARGASSUM BIFORME Sonder. J. Agardh 1889, 75, pl. 23, £. 3. De Toni 1895, 34. Lucas, 1936, 67. — AX, Sublittoral and upper sublittoral on rock along chan- nel, occasional, all seasons. Also cast up (from Eastern Cove), May 1945, Sept 1946,
SARGASSUM BRACTEOLOsuUM J. Agardh 1889, 67, pl. 4, pl. 19, £. 2. De Toni 1895, 28. Lucas 1936, 66. — WR. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1946. Sou’-West River mouth, Dec. 1934 (Cleland and Black) and drift, Jan. 1945. WB. Upper sublittoral at the end of Ellen Point and in the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. DB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1947. PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs and sublittoral, all seasons.
SARGASSUM CRrIsTaTUM J, Agardh 1889, 84, t. 25, f. 5, De Toni 1895, 44. Jucas 1936, ra — EB, Driit, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1945, April 1947, Dec. 1948.
SARGASSUM LACERIFOLIUM (Turner) Agardh. Harvey 1862, pl, 208 J. Agardh 1889, 74, t. 23, =. 2. De Toni 1895, 34. Lucas 1936, 66. — PB. Drift, April 1947, July 1947, Dec. 1948,
SARGASSUM MERRIFIELDIt J. Agardh 1889, 115, pl. 30, f. 4. De Toni 1895, 96. Lucas 1936, 68. — BH. Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947, Dec. 1948. The species is somewhat variable in form but agrees well with J. Agardh’s description and figures,
SARGASSUM MuURICULATUM J. Agardh 1872, 58; 1889, 44, pl. 14, f. 2. De Toni
1895, 10. Lucas 1936, 63. — MR. Drift, Jan, 1946, FB. 1n the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Dec. 1945, Jan, 1949_ PB. Littoral on reefs,
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all seasons, (Seasonal variation described in Pt. II, 155.) CH’, In rock pools, south side, Aug. 1948. RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug. 1948,
SaRGassuM SONDERI J. Agardh 1889, 44, pl. 14, f. 1-2. De Toni 1895, 10. Lucas 1936, 63. Cystophora sonderi, Harvey 1863, pl, 243. — PB. Drift, May 1945.
SARGASSUM TRICHOPHYLLUM J. Agardh 1889, 52, pl. 17. De Toni 1895, 16. Lucas 1936, 64, — Ak. Drift (probably from Eastern Cove), June 1947- PB. Driit, all seasons.
SARGASSUM VARIANS Sonder. J. Agardh 1889, 49, pl. 16, f. 1-8. De Toni 1895, 14. Lucas 1936, 64, — J¢R. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1946. PB, Drift May 1945, Sept. 1946, April, July 1947.
SCABERIA Greville
ScABERIA AGARDHII Greville. Harvey 1860a, pl. 164. De Toni 1895, pl. 179. Lucas 1936, 76. -—— FEB, Upper sublittoral. VB and PB. Drift. ARP. Upper sublittoral, Common, all seasons. Scaberia rugulosa J. Agardh is only a slenderer form of this species:
RHODOPHYTA
BANGIOIDEAE — BANGIALES — Banciaceag BANGIA Lyngbye Bancia FuscopuRPUREA (Dillwyn) Lyngbye. De Toni 1897, 11, Newton 1931, 238, £.145. Taylor 1937, 218, pl. 28, f. 10-12. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 125. f_ 4. — AR, On black buoy, Sept. 1946, Jan. 1947. CH’. At the edge of exposed rock pools, south side, Aug, 1948. This scems to be mainly a winter form, and has usually disappeated at American River by January.
PORPHYRA C. Agardh
PorPavrA umapriicatis (Iinnaeus) J, Agardh, Newton 1931, 240, £, E46. Taylor 1937, 221, pl, 30, f. 1-3. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 125, £. 5, 6. Wilde- mania wubilicalis (L.) De Toni 1897, 20. — AR. Upper littoral on Shag Rock and Pig Island (probably elsewhere in the lagoons), Sept. 1946, July and Nov. 1947. — CW. Upper littoral, south side, Aug 1948. This 1s a winter form, occurring in American River inlet from, June to early Novernber.
FLORIDEAE — NEMALIONALES — AcrocHAETIACEAE ACROCHAETIUM Naegel: ACROCHAETIUM BOTRYOCARPUM (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 10. Papenfuss 1945, 313. Callithamnion botryocarpum Ilaryey 1854, 563. — PB. Drift, on Polyceria nigrescens, Jan. 1948.
BonNEMAISONIACEAE ASPARAGOPSIS Montagne
ASPARAGOPSIS ARMATA Harvey 1854, 544; 1862, pl, 192. De Toni 1900, 772. Feldmann 1942, 82, 102, 109, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 244. — BH. Upper sublittoral, Oct, 1947, WB. Drift, Jan, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan, 1948.
Feldmann has presented evidence, based on culture experiments and morphology, that Falkenbergia (Rhodomelaceae) is the terasporic phase of Asparagopsis armata, Falkenbergia has not yet been found around Kangaroo Island.
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ASPARAGOPSIS TAXIFORMIS (Delile) Collins and Hervey. Feldmann 1942, 81, Asparagopsis sanfordiana Harvey 1858, pl, 6. De Toni 1900, 771. — North coast (no details). This single specimen in the Adelaide University Her- barium agrees with others from Port Willunga, in Gulf St. Vincent, which are referable to 4, sanfordiana Harvey, Veldman and others consider this species identical with A, tariformis, any differences being due to the habitat,
BONNEMAISONIA C. Agardh
GONNEMAISONIA ASPARAGOIDES (Woodward) Agardh var, HyPNomnes Reinbold. De Toni 1900, 768. Newton 1931, 269, fig. 164. Reinbold 1899, 47 (for variety). Lautcas and Perrin 1947, 243, — PB. Drift, Aug. 1948. A single specimen, identical with a colype of Reinbold’s var. hypzoides in Adelaide University Iferbarium, and which seems to agree closely with figures ol ‘B. asparagoides.
DELISEA Lamotiroux
DeLisea wypNeowes Harvey 1860a, pl. 134. De Toni 1900, 761, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 241, — SB. Drift, Jan. 1948. IWR, MR and HB, all drift, Jan, 1946, CC, Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948. WB. Drift, Jan, 1944, 1946, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan, 1944, 1946, 1947. ‘These specimens are rather denser than Harvey’s figure, and were reported as 1), elegans in Pt. I, 244,
DELISEA PuLCHRA (Greville) Montagne. Harvey 1858, pl. 16. De Tom 1900, 763. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 241. — WR, Drift, Jan, 1946, WB, Drift Jan. 1945, 1946. PB, Drift, Jan. 1947.
HELMINTHOCLADIACEAE LIAGORA Lamotroux
LIAGORA HARVEVYANA Zeh 1913, 270, De Toni 1924, 92. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 134, Liagora viscida, Harvey Alg. Aus. exs. n. 348B; 1863, Syn n,, 477, — PB, Littoral and sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons but variable in occurrence. CH’. In a rock pool, south side, Jan. 1948.
LIAGORA WILSONIANA Zeh 1913, 269. De Toni 1924, 94, Laicas and Perrin 1947, 134. — PB. Littoral, on sloping rock, Jan, 1948. No authentic specimens are ayailable for comparison, but the specimens agree very well with Zeh’s description.
NEMALION Targioni-Tozzetti NEMALION UukLMiNTHOIDES (Velley) Batters. Cotton 1912, 133. Newton 1931, 256. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 131, f, 7. N. lubricum Duby. Smith 1944, 186, pl. 41, £. 5. — AR. Mid littoral on a post on Strawbridge Point, Jan. 1949. BH. Mid and lower littoral, Jan., Dec. 1948. ZR. Mid littoral, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948. PR. Sublittoral fringe, main reef, rare, Jan. 1947. In form this species ranges from plants with a few simple branches from a common base to ones dichotomously or even proliferously branched many times. (see fig. 2). These latter dichotomous forms are included by most authors under N. multifidum (Weber and Mohr) J. Agardh, but such a great variation in degree of branching is found, even in the same situation, that only one species can be maintained around Kangaroo Island, Some of the forms found in ane colony at Ballast Head are shown in fig, 2, The Middle River specimens are usually rather simple, those at Pennington Bay with numerots branches. Cotton also found difficulty in separating N. Aclininthoides and N. multi-
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fidium at Clare Island, Ireland, and suggested they may be forms of the one species. N. helminthoides has priority as a specific name over N. multifidum if they are to be united.
May 1945, 122, recorded N. multifidum from New South Wales, noting that there were few branches in her specimens, I have seen plants of Nemalion at Harbord, N.S.W., which show very simple thalli, which are best referred to N. helminthoides,
Fig 2
The range of form in Nemalion helminthoides on Kangaroo Island. A. A typical
specimen from the coast at Middle River. B, C, D, F. Specimens from Ballast
Head. The form shown in A also occurs here. E. A specimen from Pennington Bay. Approx. } natural size.
16S
CHAETANGIACEAE GLOTOPHLOEA J, Agardh GLoToPiLora scixarorpes J. Agardh. De Tomi 1897, 107. Setchell 1914a, 112. Scinaig. furcellata, Warvey 1863, Syn. n. 458; Alg, Aus, Exs. n. 348. — MR. Drift, Jan, 1946, VB. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Dec, 1948.
GALAXAURA Lamotiroux
GALAXAURA SPATHULATA Kjellman 1900, 74, t, 12, #. 5-12; t. 20, £. 35. De Toni 1924, 132. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, These specimens agree well with Kjell- man’s description ahd figures of G. spathulata. The Australian species which Kjellman described need re-examining with abundant material, as Howe (1918, 191) has shown that tetrasporic and sexttal individuals of the same species may differ considerably in their anatomy and have been placed in different groups as distinct species by Kjellman, The Kangaroo Island specimens are sterile. In Pt. II, 161, they were reported as Brachycladia mar ginata,
GELIDIALES — GrLiprackar GELIDIUM Lainouroux
GELIDIUM AUSTRALE J, Agardh 1876, 550. De Toni 1897, 153, Lucas and Perrm 1947, 143. — MA, Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. 1n shaded parts of the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948, 1949 and drift, Jan, 1948, PB, In the sublittoral fringe and to half a meter over edge of the reef, all seasons.
Gruinium pusttium (Stackhouse) Le Jolis, De Toni 1897, 147. Dawson 1944, 258. Acrorarpus pusillus, Kittzing 1868, t. 37. — AR. Upper littoral in shaded patts of low cliffs, occasionally in the lower littoral, throughout the inlet, all seasons. EB. Lower littoral, in a dense mat, all seasons, MR. In Hormosiva-Cystophora pools (sometimes heavily epiphytic on the mollusc Neothais textiliosa), Jan. 1946. WB. Littoral on reef near beach, Jan. 1945, 1946. WB. Lower littoral, north side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948, and in pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. P#. Rear littoral, on sloping and vertical rock, all seasons, CH’, Mid littoral, south side, Jan, 1946. RP- Lower littoral, all seasons.
Original determination by Miss V. May. This plant shows considerable ecological variation, At AR and RP it forms dense entangled mats, to lcm. thick; at PB it forms a thin mat on shaded rock, but when growing in pools may reach a height of 2 cm., with less branched, rather tufted [ronds.
PTEROCLADIA J. Agardh
Preroctapia caPrtLacea (Gmelin) Bornet and Thuret. De Toni 1897, 162. Moore 1945, 336, pl. 45, £. 1-4, pl. 46. — BH. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948. CC. Lower littoral in sheltered inlet, Jan, 1948, CH’. In a rock pool, south side, Oct. 1948, RP. Upper subiittural, Jan. 1947,
PrerocLapiA Lucia (R. Brown) J. Agatdh, De Toni 1897, 162. Moore 1945, 338, pl. 45, f. 5-10; pl. 47, 48, 49, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 144, £. 19. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1949. PB. Sublittoral fringe, main reef, rare, Jan, 1948. CH’, Drift, Jan. 1946. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948.
CRYPTONEMIALES — DumMowtTIAcEAr DASYPHLOEA Montagne DAsvypHLoEA TASMANTCA Harvey 1859, pl. 115. De Toni 1905, 1,629. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 384, f, 193. Nizsophloeca tasmanica (Uartvey) J. Agardh 1876, 256. — FPR, Drift, Jan. 1948.
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RHIZOPHYLLIDACEAE RHODOPELTIS Harvey RHODOPELTIS AUSTRALIS (Sonder) Schmitz, Harvey 1863, pl. 264, De Toni 1905, 1,671. Amphiroa australis Sonder 1846, 188. Harvey 1859, pl. 77. — CC, Drift, Jan, 1947,
The position of this algae is uncertamm. Sonder first described it as Amphiroa australis, and later Harvey (1863, pl. 264) figured the fertile areas as an epiphyte which he called Rhodopeltis australis. W. van Bosse (1904, 104) fater renamed it Litharthron australis on vegetative features, Yamada (1931b, 75) has described a second species of Rhodapeltis, with similar fertile areas (nemathecia) on the thallus segments,
SQUAMARIACEAE ETHELIA W, v. Bosse ETHELIA AUSTRALIS (Sonder) W.-v. Bosse. W. v. Bosse 1921, 300. De Toni 1924, 594. Peyssonnelia australis Sonder, Harvey 1859, pl. 81. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 388, f. 196, — WH. Drift, Jan. 1946. Reported in Pt. If, p. 161, as Peyssonnelia australis.
PEYSSONNELIA Decaisne PEYSSONNELIA GUNNIANA J, Agardh 1876, 387. De Toni 1905, 1,698. W. v. Bosse 1921, 272. P, rubra, Harvey, Alg. Aus. exs, n. 327, — AR, Upper sublittoral near Muston, Jan. 1946, July 1947, Jan, 1948. BH, Upper sub- littoral, Oct. 1947, PB. In a shaded pool, rear littoral, Jan. 1947.
CORALLINACEAE — CORALLINEAE AMPHIROA Lamouroux AMPHIROA ANCEPS (Laimarck) Decaisne. Harvey 1847, 98, pl. 37. De Toni 1905, 1,815. W-. v. Bosse 1904, 93, pl. 16, £. 6-8. — CC. Sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1948. South Coast. Winter 1939, coll. J, Cork.
CORALLINA Linnaeus CoRALLINA cUvierr Lamouroux. Harvey 1847, 106, De Toni 1905, 1,848. Manza 1940, 279. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 399. — AVR, WR, CC and IB. Lower littoral and drift. PAR, Cystophora-coralline association, sublittoral fringe and deeper pools. CW and AB, Lower littoral and drift. Present im all seasons, and common, though often stunted in the lower littoral throtigh- out the Rocky Shore Formation,
This is a very variable species, especially in the development of slender lateral ramelli which arise from the main stems. The articulations of the main stemi are relatively constant in shape and size and provide a good specific character.
The following forms are included under C. cuvieri by De Toni: Janta granifera Sonder, Cor. crispata Lamx., Cor, gracilis Lamx.?, J. subulata Sonder. In addition the following are probably only forms of C. cuvieri: Jania rosea Dene (Haryey 1847, 105, pl. 40), Cor. calliptera Kiitz, (1838, t. 72a-b), Cor. plumifera Kiitz (1858, t, 71 ed) and probably Cor. clavigera Kutz. (1858, t. 75) and Cor. frichocarpa Kiitz. (1858, t. 74) (although Lev- ring 1946, 221 considers it distinct). Possibly Cor. denudala Sonder in Kiitz, 1858, t. 72, is only another denuded form,
Most Kangaroo Island specimens belong to var. crispata (Lamx.) Areschoug. ‘This is a short stunted form, due to strong wave action, atid grades into olher forms im different habitats,
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CoRALLINA LENORMANDIANA Grunow. De Toni 1905, 1,851. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 400. Corallina ? nana Lenormand, Harvey 1863, Syn. n. 346; Alg. Aus. exs, n, 452. — VB. On Cystophora subfarcinata in the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946, 1949. PB. On Cystophora dumosa, drift, Dec, 1948. These specimens ate identical with Harvey’s No. 452 in Melbourne National Herbarium.
CoRALLINA OFFICINALIS Linnaeus. De Toni 1905, 1,840, Newton 1931, 313. Taylor 1937, 271, pl. 36, £, 1-5. Manza 1940, 275, — CW’, Ina shaded rock pool, south side, Aug, 1948,
Corattrna pruirera Lamouroux. Kiitzing 1858, t. 74e-d. De Toni 1905, 1,848. Manza 1940, 280. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 400. — PB. Drift, Jan, 1948. South Coast. Winter 1939, coll, J. Corl.
JANIA Lamouroux
JANTA FASTIGIATA Harvey 1863, pl. 251. De Toni 1905, 1,854, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 397, f. 201. — WR. Lower littoral, Jan. 1946. /B. Epiphytic on Cystophora subfarcinata, C, paniculata, occasionally on C. siliguosa and on rock in the sublittoral fringe and especially in the Cystophora-coralline asso- ciation, all seasons, CW’. On Cystophora subfarcinata and Cladostephus werticillatus, upper sublittoral, Jan. 1946, 1947, AB. Low littoral, on Cysto- phora subfarcinata, Jan. 1947.
JANIA MIcRARTHRODIA Lamouroux, De Toni 1905, 1,855. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 397. J. tenuissima Sonder and J, antennind Kiitzing in Sonder 1846, 186. — AR. Upper sublittoral, on Posidonia, especially near and just out- side mouth of the inlet, Aug, 1948. &. Drift, Jan. 1948.
Janta NATALENSIS Harvey 1847, 107. Kiitzing 1858, t. 79, LI, De Toni 1905, 1,856. — #P. Lower littoral, Jan. 1948, AR. Upper sublittoral on Pig Island, occasional, Jan. 1947, Dec. 1948. These specimens agree very well with Kiitzing’s figures and Harvey’s description.
METAGONIOLITHON W. v. Bosse
METAGONLOLITHON CHAROTDES (Lamoyroux) W. v. Bosse 1904, 102. Manza 1940, 310. Amphirow charoides, Harvey 1847, 96, pl. 39. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 394. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. CC. Drift, Jan, 1947, and lower littoral, Jan. 1948. PB. Sublittoral fringe and deeper pools on reefs, all seasons. CW’, Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1947. .4B. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1945, 1947, Aug. 1948,
MeraconiorarH0N GRAcILE (Harvey) Yendo. Manza 1940, 311. Amplirod gracilis Harvey 1862, pl. 231. De Toni 1905, 1809. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 394, — K. Drift, Jan. 1948.
METAGONIOLITHON STELLIGERA (Lamarck) W. v. Bosse 1904, 103, pl. 15, £, 9, 13. Manza 1940, 311. Amphiroa stelligera, Harvey 1862, pl, 230. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 394, £. 199. — MR, Drift, Jan. 1946, VB. Drift, Jan, 1947, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1948.
‘MASTOPILOREAE METAMASTOPHORA Setchell METAMASTOPHORA FLABELLATA (Sonder) Setchell 1943, 131, Mastaphora flabellata, Harvey 1847, 108. Mastophora lamourouxt, Harvey 1863, Syn. n. 367. Lueas and Perrin 1947, 391, — HB, Drift, Jan. 1946. South Coast. Winter 1939, coll. J. Cork,
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LITHOTHAMNIEAE A number of species of crustaceous corallines have been collected from Kan- garoo Island, but as no authentic material of this group is available in Australian Herbaria for comparison, identification of most has not been possible,
LITHOTHAMNION Philippi
LiITHOTHAMNION PATENA (Hooker and Harvey) Heydrich, De Toni 1924, 622. Melobesia patena, Harvey 1847, 111, pl, 40. — WB. On Bollia callityicha, drift, Jan. 1946. South Coast. On Ballia callitricha, winter 1939, coll. J. Cork.
GRATELOUPIACEAE HALYMENIA C. Agardh
HalyMENIA HARvVEYANA J, Agardh 1892, 55, De Toni 1905, 1,539. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 375, 1, 188. Halymenia floresia, Harvey 1862, pl. 214. — PB, Drift, Jan, 1948,
THAMNOCLONIUM Kiitzing
THAMNOCLONIUM CLAVIFERUM J, Agardh 1876, 168. De Toni 1905, 1,614. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 381, £, 192, Thamnocloniaim hirsutum Harvey 1863, pl. 293. — WB, Drift, Jan, 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946,
(CCALLYMENTACEAE CALLOPHYLLIS Kiitzing CALLOPHYLLIS CERVICORNIS Sonder 1852, 678. De Toni 1897, 276, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 158. — PB. Drift, Jan, 1948, These specimens agree well with some of Sonder’s in Melbourne National Herbarium,
CALLOPNyYLLis coccINEA Harvey. Hooker and Harvey 1847, 404. Kiitzing 1867, t. 92. J. Agardh 1876, 234. De Toni 1897, 282. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 159, f. 31.
var. cARNEA J, Agardh. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948. VB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB, Sublittoral fringe on main reef, Jan. 1947, 1948.
vat. CORYMBOSA J. Agardh. — W8. Driit, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1948.
These specimens seem to agtee well with J. Agardh’s descriptions of the above two varieties.
CALLOPHYLLIS HARVEYANA J. Agardh 1876, 230. De Toni 1897, 277. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 158. Callophyllis obtusifoia, Harvey 1862, pl. 193 (not J. Agardh), — AB. Drift, Jan. 1946, FB. Drift, Jan, 1947.
CALLOPHYLLIS LAMBERTIT (Turner) Greville. J. Agardh 1876, 233, De Toni 1897, 282. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 159, f. 30. — CC, Driit, Jan. 1948. Sou’-West River mouth, Drift, Jan. 1945. PB, Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. PB, Driit, Jan. 1946, 1948,
CALLYMENIA J. Agardh
CALLYMENTA CrTBROSA Harvey 1859, pl. 73. J. Agardh 1876, 219. De Toni 1897, 295. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 161, f, 33, 35. — Eastern Cove. On underside of buoys, rare, Jan. 1946, 1948. North Coast (no details), IB. Drift, Jan. 1948.
GELINARTA Sonder
GELINARIA ULvomEA Sonder 1846, 172. Harvey 1859, pl. 85. De Toni 1897, $11. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 163, f. 36, — WB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Driit, Jan, 1944,
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POLYCOELIA J. Agardh
PoLycurLia LacinuaTA J. Agatdh 1851, 306; 1876, 228, De Toni 1897, 293. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 161, f. 32. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948. These speci- mens agree well with Agardh’s description, but I have seen no anthentic specimens. It is closely related to P. fastigiata Harvey from Tasmania and may be conspecific,
GIGARTINALES — Nemastromacpak NEMASTOMA J. Agardh
NEMASTOMA FRREDAVAR Harvey 1860b, 327, pl. 195A. J. Agardh 1876, 126. De Toni 1905, 1,663. Lucas and Pertin 1947, 386, f. 195. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. VB, Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948, Dec, 1948. The Pennington Bay specimens growing in the sublittoral fringe are 5 to 10 cm. high and greenish-purple in colour; those cast up from deeper water at Vivonne Bay are up to 20 cm, high and dark red in colour,
GRACILARIACEAE CURDIEA Harvey
Curpiga LAciNiata Harvey 1858, pl. 39. Kiitzing 1869, t. 33ed. De Toni 1900, 424. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 184, £. 54, — VB. Drift, Jan. 1949.
Curpiza opesA (Harvey) Kylin 1932, 61. Sarcoctadia. obesa Haryey 1862, pl. 217. De Toni 1900, 426, —- PB. Drift, Jan. 1949,
GRACILARIA Greville
GRACILARA cONFERVOIDES (Linn.) Greville. De Toni 1900, 431. Newton 1931, 429, {, 258. Taylor 1937, 293, pl. 38, f. 1. May 1948, 18, f. 1, 2, pl, 1, — AR, On the tidal flats throughout the lagoons, scattered hut common in some areas between American River jetty and Muston, all seasons.
GRACILARIA FURCELLATA Harvey 1863, pl. 286 (excl, syn.). De Toni 1900, 441. May 1948, 53, f. 9. — BH. Lower littoral, Oct, 1947, H’B, Littoral, Jan. 1945. VB. Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948, and drift, Jan. 1949. DB. Littoral, Jan. 1947. PB. Littoral on well washed rock, Jan, 1948, 1949 and drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1947,
May refers this form to f. furcellata (Harvey) May, The thickening towards the base which is characteristic of this form is dependent to some extent on habitat.
MELANTHALIA Montagne MELANTHALIA cancINNA (R. Brown) J. Agardh 1876, 404, De Toni 1900, 421. Kylin 1932, 58. Lacas and Perrin 1947, 184, £. 52. — VFB, Drift, Jan, 1949. South Coast. Winter 1939, coll, J, Cork,
MELANTHALIA OsrusarA (Labillardiere) J, Agardh. Harvey 1858, pl, 25. De Toni 1900, 422. Kylin 1932, 58. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 183, £. 51, — PB, Upper sublittoral under cast edge of main reef, Jan. 1948.
TYLOTUS J. Agardh TyLotus optusatus (Sonder) J. Agardh 1876, 429. De Toni 1900, 463. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 189, Curdicu oblusata Sonder, Watyey 1962, pl. 210. — WB, Drift, Jan, 1945, MB, Drift, Jan, 1949,
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PLOCAMIACEAR PLOCAMIUM Lamouroux
Procamiom costatum (J. Agardh) Hooker and Harvey. Kautzing 1866, t, 52d-e. J, Agatdh 1876, 344. De Tont 1900, 597. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 212, §. 77. — WB, Drift, Jan. 1945. VB, Drift, Jan, 1949, PB. Sublittoral fringe, on rocks off east edge of main reef, Dec. 1948, and drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. The laciniae are usually strongly serrate, but this is a very variable character.
Procamium cract.e J. Agardh 1876, 345. De Toni 1900, 598. Liicas and Perrin 1947, 213, f. 78. Plocamium augustatum Kitzing 1866, t. 48 c-e, — BH. Upper sublittoral, Dec, 1948, A7R, WR and WB. All drift, Jan, 1946, C€. Drift, Jan. 1948. FH. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948, Dec. 1948.
These specimens, although all sterile, agree well on vegetative features with a specimen of J. Agardh’s of P. gracile from Tasmania (‘Algae Muel- lerianae’’), in Melbourne National Herbarium. FP, gracile is closely related to P. augustum (J. Ag.) H. and H., the Australian specimens of which are included by Yendo (1915, 111) under P. felfairiae Harvey, These may all prove to be the same species when a large range of specimens is examined. The PB specimens were recorded in Pt. 1I as P. angustum.
PLOCAMIUM LEPTOPHYLLUM Kitzing 1866, t. 45a-c. J, Agardh 1876, 338, De Toni 1900, 589. Yendo 1915, 113. Lueas and Perrin 1947, 210, {. 74. — BH, Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947, VA. Drift, Jan, 1949, PB, Drift, May 1945, AB. Drift, Aug, 1948.
PLocAMIUM MERTENSIID (Greville) Harvey 1847, 122; 1863 syn. n. 491a._ J.- Agardh 1876, 346, De Toni 1900, 599. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 215, £. 8D. — PB. Drift, May 1945.
P. mertensii differs from P, procerum (J. Agardh) Harvey in having serrate laciniae; otherwise the two species are identical. A range of speci- mens, however, shows considerable variation in degree of serration of the Jaciniae, even on the one plant, und these rwo species cannot be separated satisfactorily. P, costafum also varies greatly in serrations on the laciniae. Although this has been used as a specific character in these species, it is of little use when large numbers of specimens are examined. P. nidificum has heen kept separate here, but may well be only a form of P, mertensit, It differs in forming clusters of multifid dichotomous ramelli im the branch axils, but these are often developed only to a slight extent at the base of the plant, and would not appear on juvenile specimens. Harvey (1863 syn, n. 491) included P. midificum and P, merfensii as forms of P. procernim, but P. mertensii is the earliest name.
PLocaMium nipiricum (Harvey) J, Agardh 1876, 346, De Toni 1900, 599. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 213. P. procerum var, nidificum Marvey 18653, syn. n. 491b, Thamnophora mertensit, Kittzing 1866, t. 55 d-h. — WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Driit, Jan. 1947, 1948. WB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949 and upper sublittoral at the end of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. PB, Drift, all seasons, See notes under P. imertenstt,
PLOCAMIUM PREISSIANUM Sonder 1846, 192. Harvey 1859, pl. 63. J. Agardh 1876, 342. De Toni 1900, 594. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 211, £. 75. — MR. Drift, Jan, 1946, HB. Drift, jan 1946, Sou'-West River mouth, Dec. 1934 (Cleland and Black). FE, Drift, Jan. 1948. PB_ Drift, all seasons
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PHACELOCARPUS Endlicher and Diesing
PHACELOCARPUS LARILLARDIERY (Mertens) J. Agardh. Harvey 1860.a, pl. 163 De Toni 1900, 391, Kylin 1932, 52, £. 14D, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 181, £49. — WEB. Drift, Jan, 1946. CC Drift, Jan, 1947, 1948. Son’-West River mouth. Drift, Jam. 1945, PB. Dritt, May 1945, Jan, 1948, 1949, PB, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948; in a shaded pool, Jan. 1944; about 2-3 feet below east ledge of main reef, Jan. 1947, 1948, CW’, Drift, Jan. 1946.
Rather variable in stoutness, depending on habitat. P. apodus J. Agardh (1876, 400) is probably only a form of P. labillardiert. Kylin (1932, 52) states it is very close to P. labdillardicri, and specimens of J. Agardh’s in Melbourne National Herbarium are not distinct.
PHACELOCAUPUS sEssiLis Harvey in J. Agardh 1876, 400. De Toni 1900, 392. Kylin 1932, 52, t. 19, £. 46. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 181. — CC. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1B. Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948.
STENOCLADIA J. Agardh
SrenocLapra conserTa (Harvey) J. Agardh. Kylin 1932, 50, f. 13. Areschougia conferta Harvey 1860.4, pl. 166,-— VB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948, 1949, PB. Drift, Jan. 1944. South Coast, Winter 1939, coll, J. Cork.
J. Agardh (1876, 440-441) described four species of Stenocladia (St. corymbosa, St. cliflont, St. harveyana, St. sonderiana) on specimens pre- viously placed under St, conferta, but dropped St. conferte as a specics name. Kyin (1932, 50), however, considers these are only forms, and places them all under St. conferta, The Kangaroo Island specimens are of the same form as shown in Harvey’s plate.
SARCODIACEAE NIZYMENIA Sonder NizyMewta AvsTRALIs Sonder. Harvey 1860a, pl, 165. De Toni 1900, 408. Kylin 1932, 57. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 182, f. 50 — Sou’-West River mouth, Dec. 1934. Recorded by Cleland and Black (1941, 248).
SOLIERLACEAE SOLIERIA J. Agardh Sorrerra RonUsTA (Greville) Kylin 1932, 18. [cas and Perrin 1947, 174, f. 44. Solieria australis Harvey 1860 a, pl. 149, Rhabdonta robusta J. Agardh 1852, 355. Ff FLAGELLIFORMIs J. Agardh 1876, 592, Kylin 1932, 18, t. 5, £. 9. — AR. Sublittoral, Nov. 1947, Jan, 1948, 1949. K. Drift, Jan. 1948. MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, PB. Drift, Jan. 1947.
THYSANOCLADIA Endlicher THYSANOCLADIA LAXA Sonder 1852, 689. Kiitzing 1869, 1. 30. De Toni 1897, 383. (Not Harvey 1862, pl. 211.) — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Upper sub- littoral east side of main reef, Jan. 1948 and drift, Jan, 1946, THYSANOCLADIA opposiTrFoLIa (Agatdh) J, Agardh 1851, 617, Tlarvey 1862, pl. 187. De Toni 1897, 383. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 176, f. 46. — FB. Drift, Jan. 1949, RHABDONTACEAE ARESCHOUGIA Harvey Kylin 1947, 49, has resurrected Areschougia Meneghini 1844 for a brown algal species previously well known as Elachista stellaris Areschoug, This
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gerlus antedates Areschougia Harvey 1855, and if Areschougia Menegh. is to be retained, the red algal genus must be renamed, However, the Austra- lian Areschougia Harvey is a well-known genus of about five species, and to change this name would cause needless confusion, It would seem far better to retain 4reschougia Harvey as a nomen conservandum, rejecting 4Areschou- gia Menegh,, and it is proposed this should be done.
ARESCHOUGIA AUSTRALIS Harvey 1854, 554: 1858, pl. 13. Kylin 1932, 37, Areschougia ligulata J. Agatdh 1876, 282. De Toni 1897, 377. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 174, £. 45. — WB. Dritt, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947, VB. Drift, Jan. 1949.
ARESCHOUGIA LAURENCIA (Hooker and Harvey) Harvey 1854, 554; 1860 b, 321. De Toni 1897, 376. Kylin 1932, 37. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 174, — VB, Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948,
ERYTHROCLONIUM Sonder
ERYTHROCLONIUM ANGUSTATUM Sonder 1852, 692. Kiitzing 1869, t. 37. De Toni 1897, 354, Kylin 1932, 36. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 169. — FB. Driit, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drifi, Jan, 1948.
ERYTHROCLONIUM MUELLERY Sonder 1852, 692. Harvey 1863, pl. 298. De Toni 1897, 355. Kylin 1932, 36, f, 8 A-B. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 170, §..41, — AR. Upper sublittoral on Pig Island, December 1948 (rare). MR, Drift, Jan, 1946. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949, PB. Duft, occasional, all seasons, and in pool of sublittoral fringe, Nov. 1947, AB. Drift, Jan. 1948.
ERYTHROCLONIUM soNDERI Haryey 1859, pl. 86. De Toni 1897, 354. Kylin 1932, 36. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 169. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948,
RHABDONIA Harvey
RHABDONIA coccInEA Harvey 1858, pl. 54. De Toni 1897, 358. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 171, £. 42. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946,
RHARDONIA CLAYIGERA J, Agardh 1876, 594. Kylin 1932, 36, t. 14, £. 45. — 7B. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1950,
RHABDONIA VERTICILLATA Harvey 1863, pl. 299. De Toni 1897, 359, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 172, £. 43. — PB, Driit, Jan. 1944, May 1945.
RHODOPHYLLIDACEAE GRUNOWIELLA Schmitz
GRUNOWIELLA BARKERIAE (Harvey) Schmitz, Engler and Prantl 1897, 375. Kylin 1932, 43. Rhodophyllis ‘barkeriae Harvey 1863, pl. 276. Gloiophyllis barkeriae J. Agardh, 1890, 29. De Toni 1897, 338. Lucas and Perrin 1947. 164. — FB, Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948. The habit
of these specimens is rather variable, but close to Harvey’s figure,
RHODOPHYLLIS Kiitzing RUGDOPHYLLIS MULTIPARTITA Harvey 1860 b, 318. De Toni 1897, 346, Kylin 1932, 42, t. 16, =. 39, — FB. Drift, Jan. 1949. RHODOPHYLLIS TENUIFOLLA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 367. De Toni 1897, 347, Kylin 1932, 43, t. 17, £.42. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 167, Callophyllis tenyi- folia Harvey 1863, syn, n. 549. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948,
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HYPNEACEAE HYPNEA Lamouroux
Hypnea EptscoPaLis Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1858, pl. 23. De Toni 1900, 473. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 191, f. 58. — HB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1944. J7B, Drift, Jan. 1949. PA. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948.
Hiyvpngea Muscirormis (Wulfen) Lamouroux. Kiitzing 1868, t. 19. De Toni 1900, 472. Taylor 1937, 291, pl. 37, £. 2. — AR. In the upper sublittoral throughout the lagoons, often common, all seasons.
A variety of forms of Aypnea occur in American River inlet, most of which are probably referable to H. musciformis, The crozier tips to the branches are not developed in these forms.
RHODODACTYLIS J. Agardh
Ruonopactyiis RuBRA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 568. De Toni 1900, 486. Chondria rubra Harvey 1863, pl. 280. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1946. A single specimen which agrees well with Harvey’s figure. Kylin (1932, 48) suggests Rhododactylis is doubtfully distinct from Hyfrea,
MYCHODEACEAE MYCHODEA Harvey
Mycnopea carnosa Harvey 1860a, pl. 142. De Toni 1897, 263. Kylin 1932, 64. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 156, f. 27. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948,
MycHopea compressa Harvey 1862, pl. 201. De Toni 1897, 265. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, 1949. PR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948 and sublittoral fringe, main reef, Jan. 1946, 1948 (these reef specimens ate very stunted).
Mycwoora rasticiata (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 570. De Toni 1897, 264. Kylin 1932, 64, t. 26, £.65. Hypneu fastigiata Harvey 1863, syn. no, 457. — VB. Dritt, Jan, 1948, 1949. These are small and rather compact specimens which apptoach M, pusilla (Harvey) J. Agardh, The branches are slenderer and mnre densely covered with lateral spinous branchlets than in M. pusilla.
MycuopEA roniosA (Harvey) J, Agardh 1876, 573. De Toni 1897, 266 Gymnogongrus foliasus Harvey 1862, pl, 194. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948 PB. Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1945, 1946, 1947, 1948 (often epiphytic on the stems of Cystophora paniculata),
MycHonga HAMATA Harvey 1860h, 323. De Tomi 1897, 264. Kylin 1952, 64, Acanthacoccus ewingit Harvey 1860.a, pl. 141. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1949.
Mycuovesa Terminatis Harvey 1860 b, 323; 1862, pl. 200. De Toni 1897, 262, — FB. Drift, Jan. 1948.
DICRANEMACEAE DICRANEMA Sonder DICRANEMA GREVILLEi Sonder 1846, 173. Harvey 1859, pl. 120. De Toni 1897, 269, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 157, §, 29. — IB, Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948, 1949
DickRaNEMA REVoLUTUM (Agardh) J. Agardh 1876, 435. Harvey 1859, pl. 74, De Toni 1897, 269. — PB. On Cymodocea, upper sublitloral near jetty in bay, Jan. 1947.
i74
ACROTYLACEAE ACROTYLUS J. Agardh Acrotytus austrants J. Agardh, Harvey 1859, pl. 99. De Toni 1897, 170. Kylin 1932, 68, fig. 20. A, B, 21B, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 147, f. 20. — WB, Drift, Jan. 1946. [B. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB, Drift, Jan, 1944, 1946, 1948, GIGARTINACEAE GIGARTINA Stackhouse GIGARTINA BRACHIATA Harvey 1860hb, 325. J. Agardh 1876, 191. De Toni 1897, 200. — AR, Upper sublittoral on Pig Island, Dec. 1948. BH. Lower littoral, Oct. 1947. The specimens are stertle, but agree well with Harvey’s specimen from Georgetown, Tasmania, and other specimens from there.
GIGARTINA DIstIcHA Sonder 1846, 175. Harvey 1863, pl. 297. De Toni 1897, 208. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 150, f. 22. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1948 PB. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan, 1946.
RHODOGLOSSUM J. Agardh
RHODOGLOSSUM PROLIFERUM J, Agardh 1884, 27, Iniduea prolifera (J. Agardh) De Toni 1897, 190. Levring 1946, 222, f. 5. — WB, Low littoral, north side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1946, 1948. PR. Pools in the sublittoral fringe, rare, Jan. 1944, 1948, 1949. (as J/ridaea prolifera in Pt. M1).
RHODYMENIALES — RuHopyMENIACEAE — FAUCHEAE BINDERA Harvey BINDERA KALIFoRMIs J, Agatdh 1896, 75. De Toni 1900, 549. Kylin 1931, 7, t. 1, f. 1. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 204. — WR, Drift, Jan. 1946, VB, Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949,
GLOIODERMA J. Agardh GLOIODERMA AusTRALTS J. Agardh 1851, 244. De Toni 1900, 496. Horea puly- carpa Harvey 1860 b, 329, pl. 1948. — PB, Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949,
GLOMERMA FALYMENIoInES (Harvey) De Toni 1900, 497. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 194, £. 61. Horea halymenioides Harvey 1854, 555; 1859, pl. 67. — AR, On red and outer buoys, Jan. 1946, 1948, and on anchor of red buoy, Jan. 1948.
GioroperMa sreciosa (Ilarvey) nov, comb.
Horead speciosa Haryey 1860b, 328, pl. 194A. J. Agardh 1876, 292. Gloiaderma tdsmanica Zanardini 1874, 503. De Toni 1900, 497, Kylin 1931, 7. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 194, f, 62. — VB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948. This species has usually been called G, tasmanicum, and was reported as such in Pt. II, 162, of this series. G. spectosa, however, has priority,
GLoroperMA wiLsonis (J. Agardh) De Toni 1900, 496. Kylin 1931, 7, & 1, f. 2. Horea wilsonis J. Agardh 1884, 38. — PB, Drift, Jan. 1946, A single tetrasparic specimen which agrees well with Kylin’s figure of the type, and with Wilson’s specimens in Melbourne National Herbarium.
Rony MENIEAE BOTRYOCLADIA Kylin BoTryocLapIa oBovaTaA (Sonder) Kylin 1931 18. Chrysymenia obovata Sonder 1846, 176. Harvey 1858, pl. 10. De Toni 1900, 544. Lucas and Perrin
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1947, 203, f. 67. — AR. Drift, near American River jetty, Sept. 1946, Aug. 1947, K. Drift, Jan. 1948, MR, Drift, Jan. 1946, 1B. Upper Sublittoral on reef in the bay, Jan. 1947, and drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, AB, Drift, Aug. 1948. RP. Drift, Aug. 1948.
COELARTHRUM Eorgesen
COELARTURUM MUELLERT (Sonder) Borgesen 1931, 9, Kylin 1931, 15, Chylo- cladia muelleri Harvey 1860a, pl. 138. Erythrocolon muelleri, J. Agardh 1896, 91. De Toni 1900, 585. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 208, {. 73, — K. Drift, Jan. 1948, PB. Drift, Jan. 1948.
ERYTHRYMENIA Schmitz
ErvTuryMEnia mInvTA Kylin 1931, 13, t. 4, £. 10, — PB, Sublittoral fringe of main reef, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948 and drift, Jan. 1946. In Pt. I, 159, this species was recorded as the juvenile state of Hymena- cladia conspersa (Harvey) J. Agardh (c.£., Harvey 1862, pl. 237, juvenile plant). The specimens, however, agree very well with Kylin’s description and figure of Erythrymenia minwta. In Melbourne National Herbarium are specimens of Chrysyutenia meridithiana J. Agardh (= Erythrymenia meridi- thiana (J. Ag.) Kylin) which appear identical with the Pennington Bay specimens. They were collected by Wilson at Port Phillip, and on the sheet the name has heen changed to Hymenocladia conspersa by Wilson. The adult of H. cunspersa is very different in forny (see Harvey 1862, pl. 237) ta £. minuta, Kylin described E. minuta fram specimens recorded by j. Agardh as juveniles of FE, weridithiana. Tetrasporangia are not known, and these species clearly need a thorough investigation,
GLOIOSACCION Harvey
GLorosaccion srowntt Harvey 1859, pl. 83. Kylin 1931, 19. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 202, £, 66, Chrysymenia brownti, De Toni 1900, 545, — AR, Sub- littoral neat Muston, Jan. 1948 and on buoys, Jan, 1946, 1948. MR, WR and H’B, All drift, Jan. 1946. WB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947.
The. American River specimens are smaller, with thinner and softer membranes than those from rough coasts. The former were referred to var, a membranaceum by Harvey, the latter to var. B firminn, These are ory ecological variations.
RHODYMENIA Greville
RHOpYMENIA FOLILPERA Harvey 1863, syn. n. 508. J. Agardh 1876, 331. De Toni 1900, 517. Kylin 1931, 21, t, 7, f. 17. — AR. Upper sublittoral near Muston, Nov, 1947. BH. Dredged in 2-3 fathoms, Jan. 1946. )’B. Drift, Jan. 1949, PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, Dec, 1948. RP. Drift, June 1947.
This is a variable species, closely related to Rhodymenia australis Sonder. In the type and other authentic specimens of FR. australis in Melbourne National Herbarium, the segments taper from about the centre to the tips. In #. foliifera the terminal parts of the thallus are usually as wide or even wider than the lower parts, and spread at a wide angle. Many variations occur, however, and tips of specimens from the Pennington Bay reefs which I have referred to R. foliifera are sometimes narrow and almost laciniate. A range of specimens from different habitats may show that these species are not distinct.
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HYMENOCLADIA J. Agardh
HIYMENOCLADIA POLYMORPHA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 315. De Toni 1900, 504, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 198, f, 64. Rhodymenia polymorpha Harvey 1860 a, pl. 157. — WB. On Codium galeatum, drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947. VB, Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948, 1949, and on the base of Myriodesma latifolia yar. duriuscila in a low littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947 and in sublittoral fringe (stunted }, all seasons.
AYMENOCLADIA USNEA (R. Brown) J. Agardh 1863, 772. Harvey 1859, pl. 118. De Toni 1900, 502. Kylin 1931, 24. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 197, f. 63. — VB. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946,
CHAMPIACEAE — LOMENTARIEAE LOMENTARIA Lyngbye LOMENTARIA AUSTRALIS (Kiitzing) Levring 1946, 223. Chondrothamnion australis Kitzing 1865, 29, pl. 82. — AR. On buoys near American River jetty, Jan. 1948, and in upper sublittoral on Zostera on the cockle bank and near Muston, Jan. 1948. These specimens agree very well with Kiitzing’s figures. Levring con- siders it distinct from L, clavellosa, to which De Toni referred it.
CIAMPIEAB CHAMPIA Desveau
CHaMPIA aAFFINIS (Hooker and Harvey) J, Agurdh 1876, 304. De Toni 1900, 559, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 206, f. 71. Chylocladia affinis, Harvey 1847, 79, pl. 29. — AR. Upper sublittoral on flats near mouth, Noy. 1947, Aug. 1948, WR, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948. CW. Drift, Jan. 1946. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug. 1948,
CnamPra opsoLeTa ITarvey 1860b, 307. J. Agardh 1876, 304. De Toni 1900, 559, Kylin 1931, 28, t, 15, f. 35. Lneas and Perrin 1947, 206, — AR. On the buoys, Jan. 1946, Sept. 1946, Jan. 1948, and upper sublittoral on cockle bank and near Muston, Jan. and Aug. 1948, and drift, May 1945. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948, PB, Littoral and sublittoral Fringe on reefs, all seasons, but variable. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. RP. Drift, Aug. 1948.
Kylin doubts whether this species is distinct fram C. affinis, Most specimens can be separated readily on the much heavier and more extensive thickening of the stem and branches in C. obsoleta, thus obscuring the dia- phragms. A few specimens, however, show intermediate characters.
CHAMPIA TASMANICA Ilarvey 1844, 407, pl. 19, De Toni 1900, 563. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 207, £. 72, — MR, Drift, Jan, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948.
CERAMIALES — CerAmrAceaE — GRIFFITHSIAE GRIFFITHSIA C. Agardh
GRiFFITHSIA ANTARCTICA Hooker and Harvey, J. Agardh 1851, 87; 1876, 68. Kiitzing 1862, t. 23.a-b. Laing 1905, 390, pl. 25, f. 2. Bornetia antarctica, De Toni 1903, 1,297. — AR, Sublittoral near Muston, Nov. 1847, Jan. 1948. K, Drift, Jan 1948. WB. Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948 (as Bornetia sp, in Pt. 1). PB. Sublittoral fringe on main reef, Jan, 1947, 1948, Dec. 1948 and drift, Jan. 1944, 1948, RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug, 1948, Jan. 1949.
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GRIFFITHSIA FLABELLIFORMIS Harvey 1844, 450. J. Agardh 1876, 61. De Toni 1903, 1,278. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 326. — AR. Upper sublittoral between Muston and the mouth of the inlet, May 1945, June, Oct., Noy. 1947, Jan. and Aug, 1948. KP. Drift, Aug. 1948, This is chiefly a winter form and is rarely found in January,
GRIFFITHSIA MONILIS Harvey 1854, 559; 1860b, 332, pl. 195 B. De Toni 1903, 1,283. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 326. — PR. In the sublittoral fringe and Cystophora-coralline association, May 1945, Jan, 1947, Aug, and Dec. 1948.
GRIFFITHSIA OVALTS Harvey 1854, 559; 1862, pl. 203. De Toni 1903, 1,277. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 325, f. 156. — A. Sublittoral near Muston, Nov. 1947,
MoNOSPOREAE NEGMONOSPORA Setchell and Gardner Setchell and Gardner (1937, 86) have pointed out that Monospora Solier is antedated by Monospora Hoclistetter, a genus of Angiosperms, and have te- named the algal genus Neomouospora. The following species were reported as Monospora in Pt. I and IL, and they are now transferred to Neomono- Spora,
NEOMONOSPORA ELONGATA (Harvey) nov. comb.
Callithamnion elongatum Harvey 1860b, 336. Monospara elongata, De Toni 1903, 1,302. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 331. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC- Drift, Jan. 1947. VB. Drift, May 1945, PB. Sublittoral fringe and Cysto- phora-coralline associations (often epiphytic on larger algae), May 1945, jan., Nov. 1947, Dec, 1948, and drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948. The sub- littoral fringe plants are stunted and more compact than those cast up from deeper water.
NEQMONOSPORA GRIFFITHSIOIDES (Sonder) nov. comb. Calithamnion griffithsioides Harvey 1860a, pl. 160. Monospora griffiths- wides, De Toni 1903, 1,302, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 331. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, CW. Drift, Jan. 1946,
NEomonospora LicMorHorA (Harvey) noy. comb. Callithamnion licmophara Harvey 1859, pl. 90. Monospora licmophora De Toni 1903, 1,301. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 329, f. 160. — WB. Drift, Jan, 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947.
CALLITHAMNIEAE CALLITHAMNION Lynebye
CALLITHAMNION LarIcINUM Haryey 1854, 562; 1862, pl. 218. De Toni 1903, 1,330, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 332, f. 161. — WB, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC, Drift, Jan. 1948. VB, On Perithalia inermis and Laurencia elata, drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. On Laurencta elata and other algae in the sublittoral fringe, all seasons. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948,
SPONGOCLOWIEAE HALOPLEGMA Montagne
HALOPLEGMA PREIssit Sonder 1846, 171. Harvey 1859, pl. 79. De Toni 1903, 1,366. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 336, £, 163. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949 and sublittoral fringe on a reef in the bay, Jan. 1947, PB. Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948, in a shaded littoral pool, Jan. 1944, and drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948,
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SPONGOCLONIUM Sonder
SponGocLONIUM BROUNIANUM (Hatvey) J. Agardh 1892, 41. De Toni 1903, 1,358. Lucas 1927 a, 464, pl. 28, 29. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 334. Calli- thamnion braunianum Harvey 1854, 561. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1948.
SponcocLonium FascicuLatum J, Agardh 1894a, 118. De Toni 1903, 1,358. Lucas 1927 a, 464, pl. 27, — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB, Drift, Jan, 1946. VB. Drift, Jan, 1948, PB. Drift, Jan, 1947, 1948.
These specimens agree well with J. B. Wilson’s specimen in Melbourne National Herbarium (Licas, pl. 27). The type species of the genus, S. conspicuwm Sonder is poorly known, and the differences between it and S. fasciculatum need careful study,
PTILOTEAE EUPTILOTA Kitzing Eupriwora AxticutaTa (J, Agardh) Schmitz. De Toni 1903, 1,370. Levring 1946, 224, £. 6. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 338, {. 164. Philota articulate J. Agardh 1876, 78. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948, 1949. PB_ Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948. Euptinota coracLomwes (J. Agardh) Kiitzing 1849, 672, De Toni 1903, 1,371. Lucas atid Perrin 1947, 338, Ptilota coralloidea J, Agardh 1876, 78. — South coast. Winter 1939, coll. J. Cork.
PERISCHELIA J. Agardh
PERISCHELIA GLOMERULIFERA J. Agardh 1897, 34. De Toni 1924, 530. Thantno- carpus ? glomeruliferus J. Agardh 1885, 6. [.ucas and Perrin 1947, 372, — FB. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949.
DASsYPHILEAE DASYPHILA Sonder DasvPHILA PReIsst1 Sonder 1846, 169. Harvey 1859, pl, 66. De Toni 1903, 1,387. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 342, f. 169. — MR, Drift, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. MUELLERENA Schmitz
Mvurcterena rnstents (Harvey) De Toni 1903, 1,389. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 346, £.171. Crouania insignis Harvey 1860 b, 331, t. 193 B. J. Agardh 1876, 87, — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan, 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948 and in the sublittoral fringe, main reef (often on Phacelocarpus labillardieri), Jan. 1946, Jan., Nov, 1947, Jan., Dec. 1948. Specimens growing on the reefs are much more compact and stouter than those from deeper water.
GULSONIA Harvey GULSONTA ANNULATA Harvey 1860-b, 320, pl. 193 A. J. Agardh 1894 a, 122, t. 2, £. 13; 1897, 56. De Toni 1897, 66. — VB. Drift, Jan, 1949, PB, Drift, Jan. 1948. The position of this genus is uncertain and needs thorough investigation.
CROUANIEAE ANTITHAMNION Nacgeli ANTITHAMNION DISPAR (Harvey) J. Agardh 1892, 20, De Toni 1903, 1,405. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 353, £. 176. Callithamnion dispar Harvey 1862, pl. 227. — PB. Drift, May, 1945.
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ANTITHAMNION HaNowsores (Sonder) De Toni 1903, 1,398. L.scas and Perrin 1947, 352, Callithamnion hanowioides Sonder 1852, 674. J. Agardh 1876, 55. — MR, Drift, Jan, 1946. WB. On Lauwrencia elata, drift, Jan, 1946, PB. On Laurencia heteroclada, L. elata, Gelidium australe, Rhodymenta, Caulerpa brownii and other species in the sublittoral fringe, all seasons.
ANTITHAMNION MuCRONAaTUM (J. Agardh) Naegeli. De Toni 1903, 1,410. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 355, Callithamnion mucronatum J. Agardh 1851, 29; 1876, 19. Harvey 1863, syn. nu. 688. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, CC. Drift, Jan. 1948, 7B. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB, Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948,
ANTITHAMNION NODIFERUM J. Agardh 1892, 20, De Toni 1903, 1,404. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 353. Callithamnion nodiferum J. Agardh 1876, 25, Calli- thamnion simile Harvey 1862, pl. 207 (excl. syn.). — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB, Driil, Jan. 1948.
BALLIA Harvey
BALLIA cCALLITRICHA (Agardh) Montagne. J, Agardh 1851, 75. Kiitzing 1862, t. 37, Harvey 1863, syn. n, 656. De Toni 1903, 1,393. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 350, f. 174. — WR, Drift, Jan. 1946. WR, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan, 1948, Sou’-West River mouth, Dec, 1934 (Cleland and Black) and atte Janu. 1945. FB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Drift Jan, 1944, 1946, 1948.
BALLIA ROBERTIANA Harvey 1858, pl. 36. J. Agardh 1876, 588, De Toni 1903, 1,394. Litcas and Perrin 1947, 349, f. 173. — CC, Drift, Jan. 1945.
BALLIA SCOPARTA Harvey 18604, pl. 168. De Toni 1903, 1,395. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 351, f. 175. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. 7B. Drift, Jan. 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, Jan., Aug. 1948 and in the sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons (stunted).
CROUANIA J. Agardh
CRoUANIA AusTRALIS (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 85. De Toni 1903, 1,418. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 355. Crouania attenuata var. ausiralis Harvey 1863 syn. n. 635, — AR. No details, This specimen agrecs well with Harvey's 485 B in Melbourne National Herbarium, Specimens from the upper sub- littoral near the mouth of the inlet, Aug. 1948, are probably a form of this species.
CROUANIA MUELLERT Harvey 1863, syn. n. 638. J. Agardh 1876, 85, De Toni 1903, 1,419 Lucas and Perrin 1947, 356. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, PB. On Cystophora intermedia, C. siliquosa and C, spartioides in the sublittoral fringe, Jan, anid Nov, 1947, Jan. and Dec. 1948,
Crovania vestita Harvey 1860a, pl. 140. J. Agardh 1876, 86, De Toni 1903, 1,419, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 35, £. 177. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1946. AB, Drift, Aug. 1948.
LASIOTHALIA Harvey
LasroriAt.ta FoRMOsA (Harvey) De Toni 1903, 1,421. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 357. Callithamnion formosum Harvey 1863, pl. 281, — VB. Driit, Jan. 1948, PB, Drift Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948.
PTILOCLADIA Sonder Prinoc.apta PULCHRA Sonder 1846, 170. Tlarvey 1862, pl. 209. De Toni 1903, 1,424. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 360, f. 180. — WB. Drilt Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948,
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SPYRIDIEAE SPYRIDIA Harvey
SPYRIDIA BIANNULATA J. Agardh 1876, 267; 1897, 13. De Toni 1903, 1,426. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 363. — AR. Upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, all seasons. K, Drift, Jan. 1944. BS. Upper sublittoral, June 1947, WB. Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946, 1947, RP. Low littoral pools, Jan. 1944, 1945, 1948, and drift, Jan. 1944, 1948,
Spyripia opposita Harvey 1860 a, pl. 158. J. Agardh 1876, 270. De Toni 1903, 1,431, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 363, £, 182. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. DB. Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1947. PB. in pools of the sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948, Dec. 1948, CW’. Drift, Jan. 1946,
CERAMIEAE CENTROCERAS Kiitzing
CENTROCERAS CLAVULATUM (Agardh) Montagne. J. Agardh 1876, 108. Smith 1944, 328, pl. 84, f. 5-6. Ceramium clavulatum, De Toni 1903, 1,491. — AR, Upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, often epiphytic on larger algae, all seasons; in late winter (July-Nov.) forming dense red-brown tufts to 12 cm. high on pebbles along the shore (mid-littoral) near American River jetty. CC. In rock pools, Jan. 1944 and lower littoral, Jan. 1948. PB. Mid littoral at the end of Ellen Point, Jan, 1946, and in rock pools, Jan, 1946. PRB. Rear littoral, May 1945, Also found amongst other algae almost any- where around the island,
CERAMIUM Wiggers
CERAMIUM I8socoNUM Harvey 1854, 55; 1862, pl, 206 B. J. Agardh 1876, 96. De ee, 1903, 1,469. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 369, f, 186. — PB. Drift, May 1945,
CERAMIUM MINIATUM Suhr. Harvey 1862, pl. 206A. De Toni 1903, 1,454. Lucas and Petrin 1947, 367, f. 185. — AR. On black buoy, Jan., Sept. 1946, Jan. 1947, 1948. Mk. On Corallina, lower littoral, Jan. 1947. B, On Laurencia heteroclada in tock pools, sauth side of Ellen Point, May 1945. PB, On Laurencia heteroclada in the littoral and drift, May 1945. AB, On molluscs in the mid littoral, Jan. 1947, The Australian species which passes under this name needs careful checking with authentic material from Peru, the type locality.
CERAMIUM NoBILE J. Agardh 1894b,41. De Toni 1903, 1,480, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 369. — FB. Driit, Jan. 1948. PR. On Spyridia opposite, Lawrencia heteroclada and other algae in the sublittoral [ringe, all seasons.
CERAMIUM PUBERULUM Sonder 1946, 167. J. Agardh 1876, 102. De Toni 1903, 1452. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 367. — AR. On Posidonia, upper sub- littoral, all seasons. EB, Drift, Jan. 1946. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. On Posidonia, drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948. RP, On Posidonia, drift, June 1947, Aug. 1948
WRANGELIEAE WRANGELIA Agardh WRANGELIA CLAVIGERA Harvey 1863, pl. 287. J. Agardh 1876, 621. De Toni 1897, 132. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 140, £. 13. — PB. Sublittoral fringe {mainly i-2 ft. down side of main reef), all seasons.
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WRANGELIA CRASSA Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1860b, 308. J. Agardh 1876, 620. De Toni 1897, 131. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 138. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1947. FRB. Drift, Jan, 1949. PR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, and in a shaded pool, Jan. 1944. Orig. Det, V. May.
WRANGELIA HALURUS Harvey 1859, pl. 170. J. Agardh, 1876, 619. De Toni 1897, 130. Lucas and Perrm 1947, 138. — WA. Drift, Jan, 1946, VB, Drift. Jan. 1948.
WRANGELIA MYRIOPHYLLOIDRS Harvey 1854, 564; 1862, pl. 224. J. Agardh 1876, 617. De Toni 1897, 128. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 136. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drifi, Jan. 1944; Jan., Aug. 1948.
WRANGELIA PLUMOSA Harvey 1844, 450. J. Agardh 1876, 624. De Toni 1897, 136. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 143, f. 16. — /LR. On black buoy, Sept. 1946, and upper sublittoral along channel near buoys, Nov. 1947. — MR. Lower littoral, Jan. 1947. HR. lower littoral, Jan. 1946. Hi. In a low rock pool, Jan, 1948. PB. Sublittoral fringe and littoral pools on reefs, all seasons, but variable, AB. Lowet littoral, Jan. 1947.
WRANGELIA PRINCEPS Harvey 1862, pl. 234; J, Agardh 1876, 624. De Toni 1897, 136. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 143. — PR. Drift, Jan. 1946 (on Codium galeatum) and Jan. 1949.
WRANGELIA PROTENSA Harvey 1860 b, 308, J, Agardh 1876, 619, De Toni 1897, 130. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 137, £. 10. — AR. Upper sublittoral along channel from Muston to American River, Nov. 1947, Aug. 1948.
WRANGELIA VELUTINA Harvey 1854, 546; 1858, pl. 46. J. Agardh 1876, 617. De Toni 1897, 128 Lucas and Perrin 1947, 136, f. 9. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. FB. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948 and im a shaded pool, Jan. 1944,
WRANGELIA VERTICILLATA Harvey 1863, syn. n. 332. J. Agardh 1876, 619. De Toni 1897, 130. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 138, f. 11. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, PR. In a littoral pool, Jan. 1944.
WRANGELIA WATTSIT Harvey 1862, pl. 233. J. Agardh 1876, 620. De Toni 1897, 131, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 138, f. 12. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946.
DASYACEAE DASYA C. Agardh DASYA CAPILLARIS Hooker and Harvey, Harvey 1847, 60, pl. 19; 1860hb, 302. Kiitzing 1865, t. 73. De Toni 1903, 1,200. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 313. — AR. Sublittoral near Muston, Nov. 1947.
DASVA FEREDAYAE Harvey 1860 a, pl. 173, £.1, 3. De Toni 1903, 1,211. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946,
DasyA HAFFIAE Harvey 1860b, 303; 1860a, pl. 143. De Toni 1903, 1,193. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 311. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948.
DAsya NAccARTOIDES Harvey 1844, 432; 1847, 63, pl, 22. J. Agardh 1863, 1,217. De Toni 1903, 1,198. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 313. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan, 1946 and in a deep pool on main reef, Nov. 1947,
DAaS¥YA SCOPULIFERA Harvey 1863, pl. 271. De Toni 1903, 1,185. — PB. Drit, Jan, 1946. A single specimen which agrees well with Harvey’s figure,
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Dasya urcronata Harvey, Alg. Aus. exs, n, 217. J. Agardh 1863, 1,208. De Toni 1903, 1,209. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 314 — PB. On C ystophora intermedia and occasionally on C. subfarcinate im sublittoral fringe on main reef, May 1945, Noy, 1947, Aug., Dec. 1948. Checked with one of Harvey's specimens from Point Fairy.
Dasyva vintosa Harvey 1847, 61, pl. 20. J. Agardh 1863, 1,215. De Toni 1903, 1,203. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 314, — AR. 5-6 feet below low water near Picnic Point, fan. 1948. MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, WB. Drift, Jan, 1946, VB, Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948.
DASYOPSIS Zanardini
DASYoPsis CLAVIGERA Womersley 1946 b, 137, f, 1, 2, pl. 27. — WB, Drift, Jan 1946, CC. Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948, IB. Lower littoral, south side af Ellen Point, May 1945, Dec. 1945. PB. Sub-littoral fringe on reefs, all seasons.
HALODICTYON Zanardini Hatopictyon aRAcwNoipeuM Harvey 1858, pl, 37 A. De Toni 1903, 1,246. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 322. — AK. Sublittoral near Muston, Nov, 1947, Jan. 1948. RP. Drift, Aug. 1948,
Hatovicryon ropustum Harvey 1858, pl. 37B. De Toni 1903, 1,245. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 322. — PB. Drift, Jan, 1948.
HETEROSIPHONIA Montagne Hererosrpnonra curpirana (Harvey) Falkenberg 1901, 716. De Tom 1903, 1,236. Laicas and Perrin 1947, 318. Ddsya curdigana Harvey in J. Agardh 1863, 1,189; 1890, 87, — FB, Drift, Jan. 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948,
HETEROSIPHONIA GUNNIANA (Haryey) Falkenberg 1901, 651. De Toni 1903, 1,231. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 316, f, 153, Das ya gunniana Harvey 1847, 59, pl. 17; 1860 b, 301. — AR. Upper sublittoral, Jan, 1949, MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, CC, Drift, Jan, 1947, PE, Sublittoral fringe and outer pools on reefs, all seasons.
HerexosrPHoNta MicRocLAvioipEs (J. Agatdh) Falkenberg 1901, 637, t. 19, f. 3. De Tom 1903, 1,224. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 316. Dasya microcladioides J. Agardh 1890, 83. Dasya pellucida Harvey 1854, 543. — VB. Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1947. A few specimens which agree well with Tlarvey’s D. pellucida from King George’s Sound {in Mel- bourne National Herbarium,
HETEROSIPUONIA MUELLERL (Sonder) De Toni 1903, 1,237. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 319, 1. 154, Dasya muelleri Sonder in Harvey 1858, pl. 31 (partim)- J. Agardh 1890, 84, t. II], f. 1. —- PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs in the bay, Jan, 1949. DR. Sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1947. PB. “Sublittoral fringe on mam reef, Jan, 1947, and drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. AB, Drift, Aug. 1948. Eastern Cove, On sinker of buoy (12-15 feet below low water), Jan. 1948. None of these specimens is cystocarpic, so it is possible some may be H, struthiopenna (J. Agardh) De Toni, which has terminal cystocarps instead of the lateral, sessile ones of H. muelleri,
THURETIA Decaisne
THURETIA QUERCIFOLTA Decaisne, Harvey 1858, pl. 40, Falkenberg 1901, 668, t. 17, £. 1-9. De Toni 1903, 1,175. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 308, £. 147. — M°B, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB, Driit, Jan, 1948, 1949. PR, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1945, 1946, 1947, 1948, CH. Drift. Jan. 1946,
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Tuuretia TERES Harvey 1862, pl, 191. Falkenberg 1901, 674. De Toni 1903, 1,176. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 309. — CC. Drift, Jan, 1948, PB. In Cystophora-coralline and sublittoral fringe associations (on Cystophora sub- forcinata and C. paniculata), all seasons but rare.
DELESSERIACEAE —- DELESSERIEAE 1 APOGLOSSUM J. Agardh
APOGLOSSUM TASMANICUM (F. y. Mueller) J, Agardh. De Toni 1900, 702, Kylin 1924, 23. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 231, £. 94, Delessersa tasmanica F. v. Mueller in Harvey 18606, 311, t. 190B. J. Agardh 1876, 494. — V8. shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948. A few small sterile plants only,
CHAUVINIA
CHAUVINIA coRUFOLIA Harvey 1863, syn. n. 376. Kylin 1924, 13. Tucas and Perrin 1947, 230, f. 93. Delesseria corwfolia Harvey 1860a, pl. 150, — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949,
CLAUDEA Lamouroux
CLAUDEA ELEGANS Lamouroux. Harvey 1858, pl. 1. De Toni 1900, 748. Lucas anid Perrin 1947, 237, §. 101. — PB, Drift, Jan. 1948 (rare).
HEMINEURA Harvey Hemineura rronposa (Hooker and Harvey) Harvey 1847, 116, pl. 45. Kylin 1924, 6. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 232, f, 95. Delesseria frondosu, Harvey 1860, pl. 179. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948,
HYPOGLOSSUM Kiittzing
Hyrocrossum revoLurum (Harvey) J. Agardh. De Toni 1900, 692. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 228, £. 91. Delesseria revoluta Harvey 1860a, pl. 170. — AR. Sublittoral near Muston, Nov. 1947, and near mouth of inlet, Aug. 1948, Jan. 1949.
HyrociossuM spATHULATUM (Kiitzing) J. Agardh, De Toni 1900, 689. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 227, Delesseria spathwlaia Kiitzing 1869, t. 12c-e. Deles- seria hypoglossoides Marvey 1859, pl, 87. — AR. Sublittoral near Muston, Noy, 1947, and near mouth of inlet, Aug, 1948,
PHITYMOPHORA J. Agardh PuitymMornora mprtcata (Arcschoug) J, Agardh. Kylin 1924, 13. Kuehne 1946, 35, pl. 2, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 230. Chauwinea imbricata Harvey 1862, pl, 240. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, CC, Drift, Jan, 1948. VR. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB. Sublittoral fringe, main reef, Jan, 1947, 1948.
SARCOMENTA Sonder
SARCOMENIA DASYorDES Ilarvey. J. Agardh 1863, 1,263; 1896, 134. De Ton 1900, 738. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 234, f. 96. — WB. Driit, Jan, 1946. VB. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948, PB. In pools of the sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1946, 1947, Jan., Dec. 1948, Jan, 1949,
SARCOMENIA DELESsERTOIDES Sonder. Ilarvey 1860, pl, 121. J. Agardh 1896, 137. De Toni 1900, 742. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 236, f. 100. — CC, Drift, Jan. 1948. VB. Drift, Jan, 1949. PB. Drili, May 1945, Jan, 1946,
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SARCOMENIA MUTABILIS (Harvey) J. Agardh 1896, 134. De Toni 1900, 736. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 234, — AR. Upper sublittoral along channel, July, Nov. 1947, Aug. 1948 (probably a winter form),
SARCOMENIA TENERA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1896, 136. De Toni 1900, 740. Poly- siphonia tenera Harvey 1863, pl. 257. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 234, pl. 99. — aR. Upper sublittoral near the mouth, May 1945, July, Nov. 1947, Aug, 1948 (probably a winter form).
NITOPHYLLEAE CRYPTOPLEURA Kiitzing
CRYPTOPLEURA ENDSVIAEFOLIA (Hooker and Harvey) Kylin 1924, 91. Delesseria endividefolia Hooker and Harvey 1847, 403. Kittzing 1869, t. 11. Nito- phyllum endiviaefolinm J. Agardh 1876, 461. De Toni 1900, 637. — HB. Drift, Jan. 1945, 1946, CC. Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948,
HYMENEMA Greville TIYMENEMA CURBDIEANA (Harvey) Kylin 1924, 79. Nitophyllum curdieanum Harvey 1860 a, pl. 151. J. Agardh 1876, 458. De Toni 1900, 658. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 223, f. 89, 90. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1948, WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1949.
MYRIOGRAMME Kylin
MyriocRAMME eRosA (Ilarvey) Kylin 1924, 61. Nitophyllwm erosum Harvey 1859, pl. 94. J. Agardh 1876, 460. De Toni 1900, 639. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947. VB. Drift, Jan. 1949.
MYRIOCGRAMME PRISTOIDEA (Harvey) Kylin 1924, 61. Nitophyllum pristoideum Harvey 1862, pl. 229. Jj. Agardh 1876, 460. De Toni 1900, 640, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 222, {. 86. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947. VB. Driit, Jan. 1949,
RHODOMELACEAE — POLYSIPHONIEAE CHIRACANTHIA Falkenberg CHIRACANTIIIA ARBOREA (Harvey) Falkenberg 1901, 179, t. 19, f. 18-23. De Toni 1903, 971. Acanthophora arborea Harvey 1860 b, 296; 1860a, pl, 132. — AR, Sublitioral near and outside the mouth of the inlet, all seasons.
LOPHURELLA, Schmitz LopruRELLA PERICLADOS (Sonder) Schmitz, Falkenberg 1901, 154, t, 19, £. 24- 26. De Toni 1903, 855. Rhodomela periclados, Harvey 1858, pl. 28. — PB, Sublittoral fringe, main reef, Jan. 1947 (rare),
POLYSIPHONIA Greville PonysipHonta AnscissA Hooker and Harvey, Hooker 1847, 480, pl. 183, f. 2. De Toni 1903, 879, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 267. — PB. In rear littoral pools, all seasons, CH’, In low rock pools, Jan. 1948, POLYSIPHONIA CANCELLATA Harvey 1847, 51, pl. 15, De Toni 1903, 928. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 273. — AR. Sublittoral along channel, often on Postdonia, all seasons. 1B. (no details).
POLYSIPIIONIA DAsyoIpES Zanardini 1874, 489. De Toni 1903, 954. Lucas and Perrin 1947; 266. — CC. In rock pools, Jan, 1944, VB. Upper littoral (splash area), south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. PB. In littoral pools,
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Jan. 1944, Nov. 1947, and sublittoral fringe, May 1945, Jan, 1946, April 1947, (often epiphytic on larger algae),
No authentic specimens of this species are available in Australia, but agreement with Zanardini’s description is very good.
PotystPHoONIA DAVYAE Reinhold 1899, 49. De Toni 1903, 913. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 265, — AR. On Posidonia in upper sublittoral, all seasons but not common, PB. Drift, Jan, 1946. RP. Drift, Aug, 1948,
POLYSIPHONIA FRUTEX Ilarvey 1847, 52; 1860b. 301. Kittzing 1863, t. 66 d-e. De Toni 1903, 925. Lucas and Pertin 1947, 273, £. 122. — IRB. Mid littoral on reef in bay, Jan, 1946, DB. Lower littoral on reefs, Jan. 1947. PB. Littoral, and in pools, all seasons. 8. Lower littoral, Jan, 1947,
Poiysivnonta Fuscescens Harvey 1847, 52; 1860b, 301. Kiitzing 1863, £, 67 a-d. De Toni 1903, 925. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 273, — AR. Sublittoral and upper sublittoral along channel and throughout lagoons, all seasons, RP. Drift, Aug. 1948. This species is very closely related to P_ frutex, and pos- sibly only an extreme ecological form. P. fuscescens 1s more loosely and distantly bratiched, and a slenderer plant than P, frutex, and grows in much calmer conditions around Kangaroo Island.
PoLYsIPHONTA ttooKeRT Ilarvey 1847, 40, pl. 12; 1860b, 299. Kiizing 1864, t. 17. De Toni 1903,905. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 263, fF. 119, — Ai, Sub- littoral near Muston, Noy, 1947, PB, Drift, Jan, 1947.
POLYStPHONIA HystrIx Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1847, 41, pl. 14; 1860h, 299. Kiitzing 1864, t. 18a-c. De Tont 1903, 906. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 265, f. 120. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946,
POLYSIPHONTA MALLARDIAE Tarvey 1847, 40, pl. 13; L860b, 299. Kiitzing 1864, t. 22c-e. De Toni 1903, 908. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 265, f, 121. — AR. Sublittoral near Muston, Nov. 1947, Jan. 1948. MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1948. FB. Drift, Jan. 1948, and in a shaded pool, Jan, 1944.
POLYSIPHONIA Nicrita Sonder 1846, 181. Harvey 1847, 51. Kiitzing 1863, t. 67 e-h. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 274. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, CC. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1947, 1948. PR, Sublittoral fringe, all seasons (epiphytic on other alyae), CW, Lower littoral, Jan, 1946.
P. nigrita differs trom PF. cancellata in not having the pericentral cells arranged in distinct rows, as seen in face view.
POLYSIPHONIA PATERSONTS Sonder, Kiitzing 1864, t. 18 d-f. Polystphenia spine- sissima Harvey 1860a, pl. 155. Brongniartella spinasissima, Falkenberg 1901, 548, t. 19, f. 11-12. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 283, — AR. Lower littoral on the tidal flats, all seasans. The trichoblasts in this species are con- fined to the ends of the branches as in Polysiphonia.
POLYSIPHONIA SUCCULENTA Harvey 1860b, 300. J. Agardh 1863,969. De Toni 1903, 879, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 267, — AR, On Posidenia in the tipper
sublittoral throughout the lagoons, all seasons, common. RP. Drift, Aug. 1948,
LOFHOTHALIEAE RRONGNIARTELL.A Bory BRONGNIARTELLA austratis (Agardh’) Schmitz. Falkenberg 1901, 546, t. 19, f. 6-7. De Toni 1903, 1,010. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 283, f. 130. Poly- stphonia cladostephus Warvey 18604, pl. 154. — AR. Sublittoral along
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channel, all seasons but commonest in winter. VB. Mid littoral on well- washed rock in bay, Jat. 1946, 1948. DB. Drift, Jan. 1947. PB. Drift, all seasons. AP, Drift, Aug. 1948. The American River form is a larger, looser and softer plant than those from the south coast,
BRONGNIARTELLA FEREDAYAK (J. Agardh) Schmitz, De Toni 1903, 1,014, Dasya feredayae J. Agardh 1863, 1,235, Harvey 1860 b, 303, — VB. Lower littoral, north side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948, and drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Sublittoral fringe on a western reef, Dec. 1948, and drift, Jan. 1946, 1948.
BRONGNIARTELLA SARCOCAULON (Harvey) Schmitz, De Toni 1903, 1,013. ILucas and Perrin 1947, 285. Dasya sarcocdulon Harvey 1863, pl. 278. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CH’, In an exposed pool, south side, Aug 1948.
DOXODASYA Schmitz
Doxopasva putgocuarte (Harvey) Falkenberg 1901, 538, t, 13, £. 21-22. De Toni 1903, 1,021. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 286, f, 131, Dasya bulbochaete Harvey 1847, 65, pl. 25. — VB, Drift, Jan. 1948. PB, Dnit, Jan, 1944, 1946.
LOPHOCLADIA Schmitz
LopHocLapia HaRvevr (Kiitzing) Schmitz, Falkenberg 1901, 553. De Toni 1905, 1,016. Dasya harveyi Kiitzing 1864, 26, t. 71 e-f. Dasya lallemandi, Harvey 1854, 543. — AR. Upper sublittoral on Pig Island, April 1947, and on the cockle bank near the mouth, Jan, 1948, and drift, May 1945,
BosTRYCHTEAE ROSTRYCHIA Montagne
BostrycHia mixta [looker and Harvey, Harvey 1860, pl. 176A. De Tomi 1903 1,150. — AR. Upper littoral on shaded rock throughout the inlet, mixed in small amourit with B. simpliciuscula, all seasons. PB. On shaded rock in rear littoral, main reef, Aug. 1948, Jan, 1949. RP. Upper littoral, all seasons.
Bosrrycura stMPuiciuscuLa Harvey. J. Agardh 1863, 854. Falkenberg 1901, 152. De Toni 1903, 1,155, Liicas and Perrin 1947, 306. Bostrychia rivu- laris, Harvey 1860a, pl. 176R. — AR. Upper littoral on shaded rock throughout the inlet, all seasons. PB. On shaded rock, rear littoral maiti reef, May 1945 (rare), AB. Upper littoral, Jan. 1945. RP. Upper littoral, all seasons.
CHONDRIEAE CHONDRIA C. Agardh
Cronpeia DASYPHYLLA (Woodward) C Agardh. De Toni 1903, 842. Newton 1931, 342, #.211, Taylor 1937, 359. — AR. Upper sublittoral on tidal flats, Feb. 1946, April 1947,
J, Agardh (1892, 148-160) described a number of species of Chondria from. southern Australia, some of which had previously been placed under Ch. dasyphylla. At least three species of Chondria occur at American Riyer, and oné species in the sublittoral fringe at Pennington Bay; but without examining authentic specimens of J. Agardh’s it is difficult to place these. The specimens determined as Ch. dasyphylla agree well with Newton’s figure.
CLADURUS Falkenberg Cuapurus evatus. (Sonder) Falkenberg 1901, 223, pl. 22, i. 1. De Toni 1903, 814. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 251, f. 111. Rytiphloea elata, Harvey 1862, pl. 236. — MR-. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Drift, Jan. 1946.
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COELOCLONIUM J. Agardh
CorLoctonrum oruntiomes (Ilarvey) J. Agardh 1876, 640. Falkenberg 1901, 211, t. 22, f. 32-34, De Toni 1903, 825, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 256. Chondria opuntivides Hatvey 1860 b, 297, pl. 189, — AR. Upper sublittoral along channel, especially uear the mouth, May to Nov. (a winter [otm). VB. Drift, Jan. 1946, PB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1947, 4B, Drift, Aug. 1948. KP, Drift, Aug, 1948.
LAURENCIEAE JANCZEWSKIA Solms
JANCZEWSKIA TASMANICA Falkenberg. Engler and Prantl 1897, 432, t. 243. Falkenberg 1901, 257, t. 24, £. 18-19. De Toni 1903, 812. Setchell 1914b, 16. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 250. — PB. On Laurencia elata in the sub- littoral fringe, Jan. 1948, Dec. 1948, and on Lonrencia heteroclada in the rear littoral, Sept. 1946. CW’. On L. heteroclada, lower littoral, Jan, 1946. Rein- bold (1899, 47) lists a J, australis Falkenberg from Investigator Strait. De Toni lists this nomen nudum with a query under J. fasmanica, and Setchell (p, 18) comments that it may be distinct from J. tasmanica, The Kan- garoo Island specimens seem to agree well with J, tasmanica, and J, australis is probably the same species.
LAURENCIA Lamouroux
LAURENCIA Borrvopes (Turner) Gaillon. Harvey 1862, pl. 182. De Toni 1903, 802. Yamada 1931 a, 230. — BH. Very low littoral, Oct, 1947. CC. Lower littoral, Jan, 1948. PB, Sublittoral fringe and Cystophora-coralline associa- tions on reefs, all seasons. CW’. Rock pools, south side, Aug, 1948.
L. botryoides is very variable in size and stoutness, but fertile specimens are distinctive in the peculiar wart-like, crowded, tetrasporie receptacles. The PR specimens were teported in Pt. IT, 159, under the ms. name of L. robusta; fertile specimens show that they are only a stunted form (2-5 cm. high) of L. botryoides. The BS specimens are robust plants, to 20 cm. hizh, with the tetrasporic receptacles almost completely covering the branches.
‘LAURENCIA cLAvaTA Sonder 1852, 694, Yamada 1931a, 228. Chondria clavate Harvey 1860a, pl. 189. Corynecladia clavata, De Toni 1903, 810, — AR. Stiblittoral near Muston, Jan. 1948, K. Drift, Jan. 1945. RP. Drift, June 1947.
Laurencta evata (Agardh) Harvey 1847, 81, pl. 33, De Toni 1903, 803. Vamada 19314, 241, pl. 26a, b. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 249, #. 110. — HR. Low pools, Jan, 1949, PR. Sublittoral fringe and to 3 fect down the sides of reefs, all seasons.
LAvRENCcIA GRAcItis Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1847, 84, De Toni 1903, 780. Yamada 193la, 212, pl, 12b. — AR. Low littoral on Pig Island, Dec, 1948; upper sublittoral on Wallaby Island, July 1947, and on cockle bank, Jan. 1948. BS. Sublittoral on Posidonia, June 1947. EB. Upper sub- littoral on Posidonia, Tan. 1945.
LAURENCIA TIETEROCLADA Harvey 1860a, pl. 148. De Toni 1903, 782. Yamada 1931 a, 238. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 247. — WR. Lower littoral and pools, Jan. 1946. CC. Rock pools, Jan, 1944. WR, Rock pools, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1948. PB. Littoral on reefs, all seasons. CW and AB. Lower littoral, Jan. 1947. L. heteroclada probably occurs throughout the
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Exposed Rocky Coast Subformation, in the littoral and low rock pools. It is a variable species, and the relations between it and L. filiformis and L, forsteri need careful examination,
LAURENCIA Majyuscus.a (Harvey) Lucas 1935, 223. Laurencia obtusa var. majuscula Harvey 1863, syn. n. 309b. Yamada 1931 a, 223, pl. 16C, — AR. Upper sublittoral on Pig Island, Jan. 1947, Dec. 1948.
LAURENCIA TASMANICA Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1847, 84. J. Agardh 1876, 654. De Toni 1903, 795. Yamada 1931a, 234, pl. 21. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 249. — AR. Upper sublittoral behind Wallaby Island, Aug. 1948. BH, Lowest littoral, Oct. 1947. These specimens agree well with Yamada’s plate of an authentic specimen, and with Harvey's from Tasmania.
PTEROSIFHONIEAE DICTYMENIA Greville
DictTVMENIA HARVEYANA Sonder 1852, 698. Harvey 1860 b, 296, Kiitzing 1864, t. 95a-b, Falkenberg 1901, 283, t. 19, £. 17.” De Toni 1903, 983, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 282, 1. 129. Dictymenia tridens Harvey 1847, 28, t. 7, — AR. Upper sublittoral between Muston and the mouth, May 1945, Nov. 1947, Jan. and Aug. 1948, VB. Drift, Jan. 1949. RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug, 1948,
DictyMEeNIA TRIDENS (Mertens) Greville, Kiitzing 1864, t. 94f-g. Falkenberg 1901, 287. De Toni 1903, 985. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 281, f. 128. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949,
JEANNERETTIA Hooker and Harvey
JEANNERETTIA LOBATA Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1847, 20, pl. 4; 1858, pl. 33. Papenfuss 1942, 448. Pollexfenia lobata, Falkenberg 1901, 295. De Toni 1903, 979. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 278. — IB. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB, Drift Jan. 1946, 1948, and in the sublittoral fringe, main reef, Jan, 1948.
JEANNERETTIA PEDICELLATA (Harvey) Papenfuss 1942, 448, Pollexfenia pedi- cellata Harvey 1847, 22, pl. 5. Falkenberg 1901, 291, t. 4, £. 14-19. De Toni 1903, 979, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 278, — AR. Upper sublittoral through- out the inlet, June to Novy, AB, Drift, Aug. 1948. RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug. 1948. This seems to be mainly a winter form, and is extremely variable in thallus width (from 4 to 15 mm.).
LOPHOSIPHONIEAE LOPHOSIPHONIA Falkenberg LoryosiPHONIA scopuLORUM (Harvey) comb. nov. Polysiphonia scopulorum Harvey 1854, 540; Alz Aus. Exs. n. 186. J. Agardh 1863, 940. Kiitzing 1864, t. 37 a-c. De Toni 1903, 1,065, — PB. Forming brownish red patches on rock in the rear littoral on recfs, all seasons, This material is identical with Harvey’s 186a from Fremantle of P, scoputorum (in Melbourne National Herbarium), but the species is clearly a Lophosiphonia, PoLYZONIEAE CLIFTONAEA Harvey CLIFTONAFA PECTINATA Harvey 1859, pl. 100. Falkenberg 1901, 375, t. 5, £. 17-25; t. 10, £. 14; t. 24, f, 3. De Toni 1903, 1,039. Lucas and Perriy 1947, 289, f. 135. — WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB, Drift, Jan. 1948. CH’, Drift Jan, 1948.
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EUZONIELLA Falkenberg
FEUZONIELLA FLACCIDA (Ilarvey) Falkenberg 1901, 365, t. 5, £. 10. De Toni 1903, 1,029. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 288, f. 134. Polyzonta flaccida Harvey 1858, pl. 42B. — PB. Drilt, Dec. 1948, A single cystocarpic specimen which agrees well with Harvey's figure.
EuzonteLta twersa (J. Agardh) Falkenberg 1901, 361, t. 5, f. 2-8, 11; t. 14, f, 28-32, De Toni 1903, 1,028. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 287, £. 133. Poly- eonia imcisa, Harvey 1858, pl. 42 A. — WB, Drift, Jan, 1946,
AMANSIFAE AMANSTA Lamourcux
AMANSIA KUETZINGIOIDES Harvey 1858, pl. 51. Falkenberg 1901, 420, t. 7, . 5. De Toni 1903, 1,085. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 296, £. 140, — PB, Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948.
AMANSIA PINNATIFIDA Harvey 1862, pl. 222. Falkenberg 1901, 419. De Toni 1903, 1,090. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 296. — PB, Drift, Jan. 1949. PB, Drift, Jan, 1944, May 1945, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948. CH’. Drift, Jan, 1946.
ANEURIA (J. Agardh) W. v. Bosse
ANEURIA LATIFOLIA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1892, 169. De Toni 1924, 429. Lenormandia latifolia Harvey 1847, 19. — IB. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949, PB. Drift, all seasons.
Previously (Pt, I, 244) this species was recorded as Lenormandia spectabilis, Harvey considered this and 1, lattfolia to be forms of one species, but they appear to be quite distinct,
LENORMANDIA Sonder
LENORMANDIA MURBLLERI Sonder. Harvey 1858, pl. 45. Falkenberg 1901, 467, t, &, f. 13-16. De Toni 1903, 1,116. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 300, f. 142. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. B. Drift, Jan 1948. PB, Driit, Jan. 1946, 1948.
LENORMANDIA SMITHIAE (Hooker and Harvey) Falkenberg 1901, 464, t. 8, f, 18-21. De Tom 1903, 1,120. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 303, £. 143. Poly- phacum smithiae, Harvey 1847, 17, pl. 3. — VB, Drift, Jan. 1949, PB, Drift, Jan, 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948.
LENORMANDIA SPECTARILIS Sonder, Harvey 1862, pl. 181. De Toni 1903, 1,117, — VB, Dritt, Jan, 1946, 1949. A Jarge range of specimens may show that this species is not distinct from L. muvellert.
OSMUNDARIA Lamouroux
OSMUNDARTA PROLIFERA Lamoutoux. Falkenberg 1901, 469, t. 8, £. 24-26, De Toni 1903, 1,109. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 299, f. 141. Polyphacum pro- liferwm, Harvey 1862, pl. 188. — P&. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948,
PROTOKUETZINGIA Falkenberg
PROTOKUETZINGIA AUSTRALASICA (Montagne) Falkenberg 1901, 475, t. 9, £. 6 and f. 8B. De Toni 1903, 1,076, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 295. Rytiphloea australasica, Harvey 1858, pi. 27; — VB, Drift, Jan, 1949. DB. Sublittoral fringe of western terraced reef, Dec, 1948, and drift, Jan. 1948. RP. Drift June 1947.
190
VIDALIA Lamouroux VIpaALIA SPIRALIS Lamouroux. Falkenberg 1901, 428. De Toni 1903, 1,106. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 298. Epineuron spirale, Harvey 1847, 25, el 9,— VB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949.
HETEROCLADIEAE TRIGENIA Sonder TRIGENIA UMBELLATA J. Agardh 1890, 116; 1899, 122, t. 2, f. 1-6. Falkenberg 1901, 583, t. 12, f. 14-15. De Toni 1903, 1,125. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 305, £. 145. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946.
Acetabularia - Acrochaetium Acrotylus - Amansia - Amphiroa = - Aneuria - - Antithamnion Apjohnia - Apoglossum - Areschougia - Asparagopsis Asperocaccus
Ballia- - Bangia - - Bellotia - - Bindera - “ Blidingia - Bonnemaisonia Bostrychia = - Botryocladia - Brachytrichia
Bronguiartella Bryopsis -
Callithamnion Callophyllis - Callymenia - Calothrix « Carpoglossum Carpomitra - Caulerpa - Centroceras. - Ceramium— - Chaetomorpha Champia - Chauvinia - Chiracanthia Ciilanidophora Chondria - Cladophora - Cladasiphon - Cladostephus Cladurus - Claudea ~ Cliftonaea = - Coccochloris Codium - Coelarthrum Coeloclonium Colpomenia -
191
INDEX TO GENERA Page Page - 144 Corallina - - 166 - 162 Corynophlaea - 154 - 174 Crouania - -179 ~ 189 Cryptopleura - 184 - 166 Curdiea - = 169 + 189 Cutleria - = 150 -~178 Cystophora - - 159 - 144 Cystophyllum - 161 ~ 183 ar Dasya - - = 18l _ 157 Dasyopsis - = 182 > Dasyphila - = 178 Dasyphloea - = 165 Delisea - ~~ 163 ; pi Derbesia = - 144 x ¢ - 186 Dermocarpa - ~ 139 174 Dicranema - 178 - 142 Dictymenia - - 158 - 163 Dictyopteris - - 153 _ 186 Dictyosphaeria - 143 - 174 Dictyota - - 150 al Dilophus ~ - 152 - 185 Doxodasya - - 186 - 144 Ecklonia - - 157 - 177 Ectocarpus - ~- 148 ~ 168 Encyothalia - —- 156 ~ 168 Enteromorpha ~- 142 - 140 Entophysalis - 139 ~ 159 Erythroclonium - 172 - 156 Erythrymenia - 175 - 146 Ethelia - - 166 - 180 Euptilota - -~178 - 180 Euzoniella - - 189 - 143 - 176 - 183 Galaxaura - - 165 -~ 184 Gelidium - - 165 ~ 153 Gelinaria - - 168 = 186 Gigartina - - 174 = 142 Gloioderma - - 174 - 155 Gloiophloea - - 165 - 149 Gloiosaccion - 175 ~ 186 Gracilaria - - 169 - 183 Grifithsia - - 176 - 188 Grunowiella - - 172 ~ 139 Gulsonia - +178 - 145 - 175 Halodictyon - - 182 - 187 Haloplegma - - 177 - 157 Halopteris - - 149
Halymenia - Hemineura - Heterosiphonia Hormosira- Hydroclathrus Hydrocoleum Hymenocladia Hymenema - Hypnea - Hypoglossum
Isactis - 7
Janezewskia - Jania- - Jeannerettia -
Lasiothalia = - Laurencia - Lenormandia
Liagora - Lithothamnion Lobospira ss - Lomentaria - Lophocladia - Lophurella - Lophosiphonia Lyngbya -
Macrocystis - Melanthalia - Metagoniolithon Metamastophora Micradictyon
Muellerena - Mychodea - Myriodesma - Myriogloia - Myriogramme
Myrionema -
Nemation - Nemastoma - Neomonospora Nereia - - Nizymenia = - Notheia -
Page 168 183 182 158 157 139 176 184 173 183
141
187 167 188
179 187 189 153 168 153 176 186 184 188 140
157 169 167 167
144
178 173 158 155 184 154
163 169 177 156 171 158
192
Page Page Page
Osmundaria - - 189 Rhipiliopsis - - 146 Symploca ~ - 140 Rhododactylis - 173 Rhodoglossum = - 174
Pachydictyon - 151 Rhodopeltis - - 166 Taonia - - + 153 Perischelia - - 178 Rhodophyllis - 172 Thamnoclonium - 168 Perithalia - - 156 Rhodymenia - - 175 Thuretia - - 182 Peyssonnelia - 166 Rivularia - - 141 Thysanocladia - 171 Phacelocarpus - 171 Tinocladia = - - 155 Phitymophora - 183 Trigenia - - 190 Phloeocaulon - 149 Sarcomenia - - 183 Tylotus - - - 169 Plectonema - ~- 140 Sargassum - ~- 161 Plocamium - - 170 Scaberia - - 162 . Pocockiella - - 153 Scytosiphon - - 157 Ulothrix 5. =I Polycerea - ~- 155 Scytothalia - - 159 UWA; = Hal Polycoelia = - - 169 Seirococcus - - 159 Polysiphonia - - 184 Solieria - +171 Vidalia - -~ . 190 Porphyra - - 162 Sphacelaria - - 149 Protokuetzingia - 189 Splachnidium - 155 Pterocladia - - 165 Spongoclonium - 178 Wrangelia - - 180 Ptilocladia - - 179 Sporochnus - ~- 156 Pylaiella - - 148 Spyridia ade 180 Xiphophora - - 159 Stenocladia - - 171 Stilopsis - - 155
Rhabdonia - + 172 Struvea - - 144 Zonaria - - 153
193
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EVAPORATION STUDIES USING SOME SOUTH AUSTRALIAN DATA BY C. W. BONYTHON
Summary
The most common instrument for measuring evaporation — the tank evaporimeter — may give erroneous readings as the effect of several different causes. The feasibility of such readings being supplanted by calculated evaporation data based on the readings of several more-readily standardized instruments presents itself, whereupon an equation of calculating evaporation is quoted, and its derivation is given.
198
EVAPORATION STUDIES USING SOME SOUTH AUSTRALIAN DATA By C, W. Bowyruon * [Read 13 April 1950] SUMMARY
The most common instrument for measuring evaporation—ihe tank evapurimeter—imay give ertoneous readings as the effect of several different causes, The feasibility of such readings being supplanted by calculated evaporation data based on the readings of several more-readily standardized instruments presents itself, whereupon an equation for calcylating evapora- tion is quoted, and its derivation is given.
This equation is tested experimentally, using some South Australian data, first against two eyaporimeters at Dry Creek for a period of six months, and next for shorter petiods in comparing evapodrimeters at three different sites near Adelaide. Goad correlation between the curves for measured and calculated evaporation is shown, bit there are differences between the re- spective absolute values. It is suspected that there are irregularities duc to differences in exposute, etc., of the evaporimeters, and it is concluded that comparisons of the evaporation characteristics of different localities can pos- sibly be more reliably made by using the equation and its relevant data rather than evaporimeters,
Camments are made on how the mean values of the basic data should be used in the eyaporation equation, and on the apparent lag in phase in one instance of meastited behind calculated evaporation.
Finally there is a discussion upon whether there is a likelihood of varia- tion in the asstimed fixed relationship between the coefficients of heat and mass transfer in the air film above the evaporating surface—the basis of the evaporation équation—and how such a variation will affect the accuracy at evaporation calculated by means of the equation.
INTRODUCTION
The tank evaporimeter is still the most widely-used instrument for the
measurement of the potential evaporation of a locality, although it is recely— ing increasing criticism, The definition of evaporation varies according to the field in which the evaporation data are to be used. Prom the point of view of the physical meteorologist it is the mean rate at which water vapour is actually being carried into the atmosphere from what may be a wide and heterogeneous area of country. To him this will be the only definition, The bio-climatologist, however, may recognize more than one definition, terming the foregoing the water loss dtic to ‘evapo-transpiration.” From another viewpaint evaporation is the rate at which water would he lost from the sur- face of a hypothetical—and perhaps large—sheet of water centred upon the site of an evaporimeter to the reading of which it is supposed to bear some relation. The bio-climatologist would term this “evaporation from a free water surface.” Sheppard has stated (18) the requirements of an ideal evaporimeter, viz. ., the necessary condition to be satisfied by the surface of the evapori- meter is that it shall be flush with the surrounding land (or water) surface, that its roughness parameter should be identical with that of the surround- ings, and that the vapour pressure at the surface shall be maintained the same as at the surrounding surface,” He adds, “Such requirements are ex- cessively diffictilt to meet.”
* 1.C.L Alkali (Australia) Pty. Lu, Trans. Roy. Soc, S, Aust., 73, (2), Dec. 1950
199
Priestley (14) has cited some figures to show that the total natural evaporation of the Australian continent cannot be greater than one-fifth of that indicated by Foley’s (9) map of evaporation based on tank imeasure- ments.
Sutton (21) has shown theoretically that the rate of evaporation [ram ani exposed water surface should vary with the dimensions of the surface,
The experimental work of Sleight (20) and Rohwer (17) has shawn con- siderable apparent change in evaporation rate with the size of the evapori- meter in which it is measured. (However, this statement will be qualified further on). Other work, including that of Field and Symons (7) at as early 3 date as 1869, has shown that exposure matkedly influences evaporimeter readings.
It can be seen from the foregoing that since there may be different definitions of evaporation an evaporimeter will not (except in very special cases) yield a measure of it appropriate to all the definitions. All that can be expected of an evaporimeter is generally a rough indication of one of these evaporation fates, and specifically a precise measurement of the evapo- ration rate for an identical vessel of water identically exposed. Even the second expectation may be difficult to realise in practice: part of the purpose this paper is to show up difficulties in the reproducing of evaporation con- tlitions.
STANDARDIZING EVAPORIMETERS
The shortcomings of evaporimeter measurements for predicting large scale natural evaporation have beem enlarged upon by Sutton (22), Shep- pard (18) and others, and these are admitted by the author. However, the tank evaporimeter has yet to be supplanted in practice for the purpose of comparing the evaporation of different localities, countries, ete., so no fur- ther excuse is offered for it in this paper which deals with obtaining improved practical data based on evaporation losses from small, specified areas of exposed water surface.
It is undesirable to add to the existing mass of empirical data on the effect of variables like dimensions, radiation absorbing power and exposure upon the rate of evaporation from evaporimeters, when these data are to be used to convert such evaporation rates fnto so-called “true evaporation.” Many of the early investigations were concerned with this aspect. The empirical data presented in this paper are here only for the purpose of re- vealing the failings of evaporimeters.
Evaporimeters are usually small tanks of water set in, on or above the ground and exposed ta sun and air, There are many designs, but the simp- lest and most common one is a stnall, circular metal tank, with depth roughly equal to diameter, buried in the ground almost to the rim. Different designs often yield different results when similarly exposed. Consequently, standardization is important. In choosing a suitable design, the following points should be borne in mind :—
(a) There should be the minimum interference with the nornial hori- zontal wind movement over the surface, and the wind directivn should not affect the rate of evaporation. Hence a tank set more or less Aush with the ground and of circular shape would appear sutt- able.
(b) The size should not be so great that difficulty in supplying sufficient miuke-wp water is met in dry localities, nor so small that accidental depletion of water by animals and birds can amount to an appre- ciable part of the normal evaporation loss.
200
(c) The supply of radiant heat has a controlling influence on tank evaporimeters exposed in the open. Therefore a design minimizing variations in radiation absorption should be sought. A surface of low reflecting power is desirable, and since the characteristics of such an absorbing surface are hard to standardize, an evaporimeter holding a reasonable depth of water and of such shape that it at least approximates to a cayity absorber should be chosen. A black evaporimeter with depth equal to width would meet these require- ments. (There ts, however, evidence against the use of a surface of low reflecting power on parts of the tank, since the projecting tim may absorb an unduly large amount of radiation relative to that entering through the water surface).
{d) Gain or loss of sensible heat through the sides and bottom should be minimized. While insulation may be impracticable, a buried tank of dimensions giving minimum outside area relative to holding capacity should be chosen.
(e) An evaporimeter must function also as a rain gauge, since total (or “gross'") evaporation must be derived in practice from changes in water level and from gaugings in a nearhy rain gauge. Evidence has been produced (2) showing that an evaporimeter may not be a reliable rain gauge. The statement “more water splashes out than splashes in” briefly explains haw an evaporimeter may behave in rain. The larger the evaporimeter is the better is the likely approxi- mation to a perfect rain pauge.
The Australian Standard evaporimeter (1) consists of a cylindrical, sheet-metal tank, 3 ft. in diameter and 3 ft. deep, set inside a similar tank 4 ft. in diameter sunk in the ground with its rim level with the surface. The rim of the inner tank is 2 in, above that of the outer one. The inner tank is filled with water to within 3 in, of the top, and the outer annular space is filled to the top. It would appear to mect most of the requirements set out. The outer jacket is thought to act as a “guard ring’ to the inner vessel in which evaporation is measured, producing uniform canditions over the sur- face of the latter, and tending to bear the brunt of water depletion caused by animals and birds.
While most Australian Standard evaporimeters are made of galvanized jtun sheet, normaily left unpainted, the addition of a coat of black paint might be considered an improvement under headitig (c), although there is also the disadvantage referred to, and while it might seem that this latter objection could be met by painting the tank black below water level and the rim above it white, this would introduce the uncertainty of the destination of radiation reflected from the white part. In general it is easier to prepare and main- tain a suriace reasonably good as an absorber than as a reflector. Perhaps, then, weathered galvanized iron, having a short-wave radiation absorption coefficient of the order of 0.9 (4), will be as satisfactory in practice as any other material for evaporimeters.
An example of a design permitting a wide variation in total energy-ab- surbing power is the U.S. Weather Bureau Class A Land Plan. This is cir- cular, 4 ft. in diameter and 10 in. deep, and set on wooden supports a little above the ground. The author has experimented with one of these at Dry Creek, South Australia, and he has found the following variations in evapora- tron rate with different surface treatinents of the metal —
(4) Evaporation in this paper is defined as measured fall in water level plus rain gauged during the same pericd. This is sometimes termed “gross” evaporation.
201
Taste I Stirface Treatment Relative Eyaporation Rate Plain galvanized iron 100 Painted “flat white” 85 Painted “lead grey” 104 Painted black 109 The comparisons were carried out in simmer over periods ranging from
9 to 90 days.
Young (24) in the U.S.A. has reported similar results from not-dissimi- lar tanks painted several colours.
The author has experimented with evaporimeters of the Anstralian Standard pattern to obain these results:
Taste II Construction and Finish Relstive Evaporation Rate Plain galvanized iron sheet (16 g.) 100 Black-painted steel plate (7 in.) 103-104
Such results are likely to vaty with season and expostite, but the above should hold for the neighbourhood of Adelaide in summer,
lt is felt that the radiation absorptive power of the projecting metal rims of the Australian Standard evaporimeter may influence its readings, Refer- ence will be made to this further on.
An important factor not so far dealt with is the working level of the water surface. The distance that this is below the tim has an appreciable effect pon evaporation rate, The author experimented at Dry Creek, South Australia, during the 1948-9 and 1949-50 summers with two identical Aus- tralian Standard evaporimeters (of plain galvanized iron), employing dif- ferent working levels in the one relative to the other. (The roles of reference and subject tank wete reversed regularly to eliminate any effects of unequal exposure or construction). The following results were obtained :—
TasLe III Mean working level below rim Evaporation rate of subject, Reference Subject taking reference = LOD, 1.5 in. 2.5 tn. % 1.5 in. 3.5 in, &5
Another interesting fact is that the use on the Dry Creek evaporimeter of a bird screen made of l-inch mesh wire netting caused a reduction in evaporation of approximately 64%.
These restilts are quite empirical, but they can probably be related to the respective coefficients for diffusion of water vapour to the air.
Impurities on the water surface may affect evaporimeter performance. Dust, and other forcign matter often oily in nature, ysually accumulates in quite a short time. Heymann and his associates (10), (11) have shown that, while theoretically (and also in practice in the laboratory) the presence of a | thin oil film on the strface can cause a greatly increased resistance to evaporation, such a film is probably unstable under conditions lke thuse of outdoor exposure. The present author experimented by adding a drop or two per day of one of Heymann’s oil compositions to the surface of an evaporimeter, keeping an oil-free evaporimeter for reference. ‘The results were erratic and inconclusive, the relative windiness possibly having some influence. On some days a reduction in evaporation of up to 10% was found,
Foley (9) lists some other factors affecting evaporation from evapori- meters,
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Many sources of variation in results from evaporimeters have thus been made apparent.
THE CALCULATION OF EVAPORATION
Sitice evaporimeters are hard to standardize, it appears possible that cal- culated evaporation, based on readings of meteorological variables taken from several more-readily standardized instruments, could be used for the same purpose with better effect. If these variables are ones already measured in normal meteorological practice, it will be possible to calculate evaporation fer localities where such observations are or have been taken but where no evaporimeter exists.
The calculation of evaporation from open water surfaces has been at- tempted by Cummings and Richardson (6) on the basis of energy balance,
. Other approaches have followed the Imes of “sink strength’—the diffusion of water vapour considered as a driving force versus a resistance—a com- bination of sink strength and energy balance, and aerodynamical treat- ment. (These have been summarized by Penman (13) ).
A yersion of the combined sink strength and energy balance method will be considered here, Four meteorological variables are used :-—
(i) Net gain of radiant energy. (ii) Air temperature. (iii) Humidity. (iv) Wind speed tear the ground.
Penman (13) gives the general form of such an equation, but the one used here is that developed theoretically in England in 1945 by Ferguson'?), hased partly on the chemical engineering concept of the imter-relation be- tween heat and mass transfer through a common gas film. The equation has not previously been published“, so its derivation will be described briefly.
Nett gain of radiant energy is defined as the total short wave solar radia- tion, both direct and diffuse, penetrating the water surface (which may be regarded as being in an evaporimeter), less the nett loss of long wave radia- tion by the water, The first can be measured by solarimeter, and allowance made for reflection from the water surface. The second can be calculated with sufficient accuracy from air temperature, humidity and relative hours of bright sunshine. (As a first approximation it is assumed that the tempera- ture of the radiating water surtace is the same as that of the air).
Air temperature is dry bulb temperature “near” the evaporating surface.
Humidity is the partial pressure of water yapour in the air “near” the surface.
Wind speed is the horizontal speed “near” the surface. It can be measured by anemometer,
Now in the conditions considered there is a nett inward flow of radiant energy to the water and an outward flow of water vapour (taking away energy as latent heat of vaporization), while there may be a flow of sensible heat from water to air or vice versa.
@) Dr. J. Ferguson, then Director of Research, I-C.I. Ltd., Alkali Division, Narth- wich, Cheshire. ©) It is now probable that Ferguson will publish this work during 1950.
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The sink strength basis is the Dalton equation, which, in appropriate
terms, is w =k (pw —Pa) () where w == wt. water evaporated per unit time from unit area of surface k = diffusion coefficient of water vapour to air Pw = vapour pressure of water at the evaporating surface Pa == partial pressure of water vapour in the air “neat” the surface
Next, from the energy balance aspect, the latent heat used in evaporat- ing water of weight, w, is L k (pw — Pa) where L == latent heat of vaporization. Sensible heat exchange in unit time between unit atea of water surface and air is
h (Oy — 4)
where h = heat transfer coefficient Ow = water surface temperature 6. = air temperature
It is further assumed that no rise or fall in water temperature is taking place — that @y is constant —, and that there is no flow of heat between the water and its surroundings (other than through the air-water interface).
Hence the nett gain in radiant energy (Q) should equal the sum of these two heat flows, viz: Qe= Lk (pw — pa) +h (Ow — a) (2) This may be simplified by introducing the relationship between mass and heat transfer taking place through the same air film. Such a relationship is treated in the theory of the wet bulb thermometer: regardless of changes in the film resistance the coefficients k and h remain in a fixed relation to one another. Walker, Lewis and McAdams (23) give the relation for water as being h — | «- =_~—_—-.00 (3) Lk where temperatures are in deg. C., vapour pressures are in mm, of mercury, and the tinits of mass aud energy are gm. and cal. respectively. Using (3) to eliminate k in (2) converts the latter to
Q = 2h (pw —Pa) + bh (Ow —fa) (4) where the variables may now be defined specifically as Q = cal./em*/hr. h = cal./em?/hr./deg. C. k = gm./em?/hr./mm. of Hg, Pw:Pa = mm. of Hg. Oy0a = deg. C. Since py, the vapour pressure of water, is a known function of Oy, the temperature, the equation can be solved for Oy. Re-arranging (4) gives
Q Spe Ep ice Fibs tha (5)
For water the values of (2 pw -+ 4w) for different values of 6y (or of py), can be obtained from vapour pressure vs. temperature tables.
204
Since pw is fixed for a given value of (2 py + 6y) we may write Pw = f (2 py 4- @w) (6a)
Q =f (42 pa + 6) (6b)
where f is a functional sign.
Evaporation per unit area per unit time is given by w in (1). When w is in gm./em?/hr, it is numerically equal to E, where E is em,/hr. water evaporated. Hence
E =k (py — pa) (7a) 2h
= — (Pw — pa) (7b) L
when relation (3) is brought in.
Finally, combining (6b) and (7b) we obtain 2h Q Earle +2 tm | (8) L h From (8) evaporation may be calculated without 6y being known in ad- vance. It is, however, necessary to know h. Published data on heat transfer between moving air and flat planes are available, and k (which is, of course, interchangeable with h) can be measured over, for instance, an ¢yaporimeter. Penman (13) gives figures showing the relationship between k and horizontal wind specd, V, and Raman (16) has measured the h — V relationship for certain conditions,
After deriving (8) Ferguson points out that it is based on steady state conditions, and that it cannot necessarily be used with average values of the variables when the latter do not remain constant. QO, #4 and h at least are continually changing with time, some in a periodic manner, However, after a study involving the solution of differential equations in the Manchester University differential analyser, Ferguson concludes that, provided the water is of reasonable depth—say 6 in. or more—and provided moderate periods of time are taken—say at least 2 or 3 days—equation (8) can be used with the average values of variables,
Ferguson later introduces a minor modification to correct for the fact that the return long wave radiation from the water to the air is controlled by the tnknown temperature, @, and not, as assumed for simplicity, by the known temperature, @a. He shows mathematically that the correction can be introduced into the sensible heat change quantity in (4) by substituting for the coefficient of heat transfer, h, a fictitious one, h’, (4) now becomes
Q = 20 (py — pa) — hl (ye — &) (2)
where h’ is the value substituted for h, so making allowance in the calcu- lated sensible heat change for an error in the calculated return long-wave radiation.
He then re-writes (5) as
r Q r 2 pw + Ow (1 + —) = — + 2pa + @ (1 + —) h h h
(10)
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where h’ = h +r, {11} in which r = 4 & 3600 0 T (12) where in turn « = Stefan-Boltzmann Constant,
and Ta = ait temperature, deg. K.
{The mathematical derivation and proof of (12) will not be given here)-
In solving the modified evaporation equation, py is found graphically by plotting the straight line connecting py and @y in (10) and reading off its intersection with the known curve for water of py vs. O, The derived tw is used in (7b) to determine evaporation,
It is to be noted that only that value of h related to sensible heat ex- change is altered to h’. The h used as the denominator for Q in (10), and that used in (7b) finally to calculate evaporation is not so altered,
This correction somewhat complicates the simple method of equation (8) for calculating evaporation, and in many cases it is negligible, However, the correction involving r has been used in the caleuwlations given subse- quently in this paper.
PRACTICAL TESTING OF THE THEORY
The Ferguson equation has been checked experimentally by the author at Dry Creek, South Australia, where there is a meteorological station at- tached to the solar saltfields of ICI, Alkali (Australia) Ply, Ltd.
The first check was carried out in 1947, and while a brief reference tu it has been made (3) details were not published. The details differed slightly from those now to he given, mainly concerning the derivation of h. The results were, however, very similar to those found in 1949,
In the latter check solar radiation was measured by a Kipp & Zonen solarimetric thermopile with recorder, and hours of bright sunshine by a Camphell-Stokes recorder. These records, together with those of tempera- tare and humidity, enabled nett loss of long wave radiation to be calculated. (This involved a-modified form of the Baur & Phillips [ormula (5) together with a relationship like that given by Penman (13) connecting relative hours ef bright sunshine with radiation loss from skies of different cloudiness). A loss of short-wave radiation by reflection at the air-water interface of 4% was allowed. From the above the nett gain of radiant energy was found.
Air temperature and humidity (expressed as partial pressure of water vapour) were measured at normal Stevenson screen height by an aspirated wet and dry bulb thermograph.
Horizontal wind speed was measured at 3 ft. above the ground hy cup anemometer. From wind it was necessary to derive h, the heat transfer coefficient. The simplest and most appropriate way seemed to be via the measured diffusion coefficient, k, for the evaporimeter concerned.
Three feet seems a suitable height for wind measiirement, although | or 1.25 m. would comply with international standards. It is sufficiently near to the ground (or evaporimeter) level to avoid large errors due to failute of the 1/7 power law of variation of wind with height when extrapolating down wind speeds measured at a meteorological station height like 10 m,, but yet not closer ta the ground than the characteristics of the anemometer justify. tt would seein that an anemometer should be set at a height of at least several cup diameters, The procedure adopted by Rohwer (17) of mounting an anemometer ina small pit with its cup bottoms close to ground level in order to measure “ground wind” is misleading, since the cups are rigid while the air layer at this level is undergoing considerable shear.
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In measuring diffusion coefficients for evaporimeters, pa at screen height provided one of the two partial pressures whose difference constitutes the driving force of the process. The other pressure, py, was that at the water surface, and it was found from the surface mean temperature assumed to be the same as the mean temperatute measured at 3 in. below the surface, The assumption must have been approximately true, as a number of measure- ments at different depths using a thermometer with a fine bulb failed to show differences between the surface and the 3 in. level of more than 0.5°C, at the most. Diffusion coefficients were determined from py, pa and measured E, using (7a), Periods of single day’s and single month’s duration were con- sidered, using the figures from two evaporimeters.
The plots of k vs. mean wind speed showed considerable scatter, even though results for rainy days were excluded since these were known to be erratic. Penman (13) reports a similar scatter. The best straight lines were drawn through the plotted points. The scatter of k yalues and the limited range of wind speeds covered were such that no curvature—such as would occur if k varied with V°7® (see Sutton (21) ) was delectable,
The best lines for two eyaporimeters are shown in fig. 1.
The two evaporimeters will now be described. The first was the “standard” eyaporimeter of this site, which, while having the dimensions— the only clearly defined details—of the Australian Standard, was made of 4 in. mild steel plate and painted black. The outer jacket stood a little over 2 in. above ground level, and was encircled by a shaped annulus of concrete a few inches wide. The surrounding earth was covered with coarse stone screenings. The inner tank stood 2 in. higher than the outer one, The second was a circular, black-painted mild steel tank 10 ft. in diameter by 3 ft. deep, buried in the ground with its rim projecting 4 in. above the surface. They are shown in plate | fig. 1.
Measurements of evaporation from these two eyaporimeters and of the four basic variables were taken for the calendar months of January to June, eet and used to check the Ferguson equation. The Jaiter was used in the orm
EB, = 2.30h (pw — pa) (13) where E, = cm./28 days. tw calculate evaporation, after having found py using (10). (Values of h appropriate to each evaporimeter were tead from fig. 1).
207 Taste IV
Measurep AND CaLcuLaTEn EvaporaATION Fork Dry CREEK (a) Standard Evaporimeter
h Deriy, Cale, Meas. Period cal./ 6 Py Vv cal, / p Deriy. yap. Evap Meas ero cm?/ a a n./ cm? / min. Oxy cm,/ cu./ Our hi oc sf Bec hr./ of 28 28 oc rr. Be oc He. days days Jan,, 1949 - 21,8 20,9 9.2 2.85 1.16 18.6 20.0 25.0 30.4 21,7 Feb, 5 . 15.8 19.0 9.4 3,95 1,19 16,2 18.7 18.6 21.75 20.4 Mar 4; : 14.5 17.9 B.f 2.45 1.04 15.5 18.0 16.5 21.15 20.0 Apt. oy : 84 15.4 7.5 2.25 0.98 12.5 14.6 11,3 14.4 16.5 May . - 4.3 12.9 8.1 1,75 0.83 11.0 12.4 5.5 7.1 13.7 June 4, - 3.5 5.0 6.7 17 O81 8.7 9.3 3.7 5.65 10.8 (b) 10-ft. Diameter Evaporimeter n ¥ 7 , Deriv. Deriv wale seat Mi, i a . . vap. 7 tas. Period pauls 83 am mt./ cat / Par Oy em / cai Boo: r oi sec, oc 2k. hr. cc OHg. te He days days ec Jau., 1949 - 21.8 20.9 92 2.85 0.93 20.0 22.1 23,1 22.8 21,5 Feb, 5, - 15.8 19.0 9.4 2.95 0.95 17.2 19.7 17.1 17.65 20.2 Mar, wv - 14.5 \7.9 8.6 2.45 0.84 16.4 18.9 15.1 17.25 20.2 Ayre te . 8.5 154 7.5 2.25 0.79 13.0 15,3 10.6 11,2 14.3 May - 4,3 12.9 $.1 175 0.68 11.2 13.0 4.9 5,85 13.4 June, - 35 3.0 6.7 1.7 0.67 3.9 9.5 3.4 4.1 10.3
The measured and calculated evaporation rates are given in Table 1V and plotted in fig. 2. While the two rates do not agree closely for the standard evaporimeter, they agree better for the 10 ft. tank, and in both cases the correlation between the curves over the six-month period is very good. That there is such good correlation over a wide range of meteorological con- ditions is distinctly encouraging.
The calculated values are low by 20% and 65% for the standard and 10 ft. evaporimeter respectively, but it cannot be concluded that it is the cal- ctilated figures that are wrong. It could well be that the calculated figures are on a sounder basis than the measured ones. Now according to Fergtu- son's treatment, it is possible to calculate the mean water temperalure, 4y, as this is directly related to the vapour pressure, py, Values of #y correspond- ing to pw have been shown with the other January to June, 1949, figures in Table IV, as also have measured values of @y for 3 in, helow the surface. (Suspended maximum and minimum meteorological thermometers fitted with
max. + min.
radiation shields were used. = means were reduced to the
basis of true means using a smali correction determined practically),
Tf measured and calculated @y are not the same, it is fair to assume that either the equation is wtong or the data used in it are wrong. Of the latter, h and Q are those tiost likely to contain errors. In the case of the standard
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evaporimeter, if a value of h is taken to make calculated E, the same as measured E,—this calls for an increase of h—then derived @y will be lower, increasing the discrepancy between derived and measured 6,. If h is taken to make measured and calculated 6, the same—this calls for a decrease in h—then the disparity between measured and calculated E, is increased. (An all round increase in the values of h by 0.6 cals./em?/hr./°C. will bring cal-
30 —e— AUST. STAND. TANK — MEAS. -O-- a « " - CALC. —h— {0 FT. DIA. TANK — WEAS. -v7-- * “ « ~ CALC.
culated E, for the standard tank up to the corresponding measured E,, with good correlation over the whole range. It is hard to believe, however, that h can be this much in error),
It would seem that correction of h alone cannot bring about a simul- taneous agreement between the measured and calculated values of E, and @y respectively.
Errors in Q can quite well account for the discrepancies in E,. There is a distinct likelihood of errors here, for interchange of heat between evapori- meter and soil is possibly quite significant, and the presence of the project-
209
ing tank rim may render the calculated absorption of radiation uncertain. The Dry Creek data for January-June, 1949, have been, used to back-calculate
# and pa have been taken as correct, but fictitious values of h have been used so as to bring about the sitnultaneotis mutual equality of measured and calculated E, and measured and calculated 0,. This has involved first the use of equation (13) to calculate h, and then (10) to find Q from h and the other variables. Results for both evaporimeters are shown in Table V with certain former results :-—
Tatty V Stancard 10-ft. diameter
Period heal. /om/hr./OC, Q— cal. fem hr, bh cel. /eni?/hr./OC, Q - cal./em*/hr. Orig. Recale. Orig, Reoasle. Orig. Recale, Greig. Recale,
Jan, 1949 - 1-16 1-28 21°8 277 0°93 0-98 21°8 20-6 Feb,, 1949 ~ 1-19 1-10 15-8 21-2 O-95 0-92 15-8 17-0 Mar., 1949 - 1-04 1:03 1445 21-5 0-34 0-82 1465 18-1 April, 1949 - 0-98 O95 85 14-1 0°79 0-76 8:5 16-9 May, 1949 - 0-83 08S 4-3 7+1 0-68 0°72 4-3 5-6
June, 1949 - 0-81 0+82 3-5 7-2 0-67 0-66 3°5 5-0
Re-calculated and original h are seen to be in tolerable agreement, as must be expected from the mode of derivation of original h, Hence the E, and Oy discrepancies may be explained by assuming Q alone {o be in error. No practical tests have been made? of possible sources of error in Q, but it is significant that evaporimeter-soil heat exchange is likely to be preater for the smaller evaporimeter which is the one showing the greater discrepancies between original and re-calculated Q. The effect of rim absorption must also be considered. These facts are relevant —
Taste VI Standard 10-ft, diameter Evapormecer. Evaporimeter. Area m contact with soil/area of water surface ~- - 38/1 2-1/1 Area of vertical cross-section of rim/area of water surface 006/19 0-04/1
@ only outer rim considered.
The difference between original and re-calculated Q is more or less steady in each case throughout the six months, being very approximately 5 cal./em?/hr, and 1.5 cal./em?/hr. for the standard and 10 ft. diameter evaporimeters respectively. No soil temperattires were taken, so there is na evidence with which to seek correlation with evaporimeter-soil heat exchange, but rim absorption of radiation might correlate with Q discrepancy, and this possibility will now be explored. UH it is assumed that the rim has the same absorption coefficient as the water, and that it is in full thermal commuinica- tion with the water and is hence at the same temperature, then the problem is to find the extra absorbing surface, over and above that of the horizontal water surface; presented to sun and sky by the rim. Taking clear days with the sun between the limiting altitudes of the absolute zenith and, say, 5°-10°, the semi-circumference of the rim nearer the sun will merely shade part of the water surface, and will not pick up extra radiation but only that which the water would have received in the absence of the rim. The semi-circum- ference further from the sun will, however, intercept radiation that the watet surface would not normally have absorbed. This part of the rim will behave
_ _© Experiments with a thermally insulated evaporimeter are to be started at Dry Creek early in 1950.
210
approximately as a vertical plane normal to the sun’s compass direction, of length equal to the tank diameter and of height equal to the rim height, i.e. the vertical cross-section of the rim, The surface presented notmal to the sun's beam will be proportional to the cosine of the sun’s altitude. Caleula- tions based on cloudless days reveal the interesting fact that daily mean tim absorption is nearly constant from mid-summer to mid-winter at 30. - 27 cal./hr./cm® of vertical rim cross-section as against the absorption of 34 - 11 eal./hr./cem? of horizontal water surface. Application of these results to the Dry Creek evaporimeters is now possible. According to the above treatment the inner rim of the standard tank merely picks up radiation that would m its absence be absorbed by the water with the sun at all but low altitudes, sa that the projecting rim of the jacket—which should not project, however, according to the specification (1)—presents the only effective absorbing sur- face. The increase in Q caused by rim absorption for the range mid-summer to mid-winter is of the order of 1 cal./hr./mean cm* surface area for both standatd and 10 ft. diameter evaporimeters for cloudless skies. It will be less for cloudy skies.
It is apparent that rim absorption of radiation cannot, on these theareti- cal grounds, explain all of the Q discrepancy for the standard tank, nar is it likely to for the 10 ft, diameter tank when the prevalence of cloudy skies in winter months is taken into consideration,
Errors in the variables a and pa can conceivably be connected with the disparity in measured and calculated evaporation, but no discussion on such possibilities will be entered into,
While no solution can be offered here for the problem of possible Q dis- crepancy, note should be taken of the related problem of whether the ap- parently steep change of evaporation rate with evaporimeter dimensions 1s real. The observations of Sleight (20) and Rohwer (17), and also those at Dry Creek, show rough agreement with Sutton’s (21) predictions in this inatter. Sutton shows that there should be a decrease in evaporation with increase in extent of evaporating surface, but he bases his theory on change in what is virtually the diffusion coefficient, Now the sink strength—energy balance theory holds that any change in the diffusion coefficient brings about an adjustment in water temperature which largely, but not wholly, compen- cates for the coefficient change as far as. overall evaporation rate is concerned, so that the decrease in the latter is much less than one of direct proportion to the decrease in the diffusion coefficient, Hence there should not be sich a steep change of evaporation rate with evyaporimeter dimensions as available observations tend to show. It is now suggested that though there should be such a gradient, the observed one is not real, and that some factor at present unidentified is exaggerating it.
EVAPORATION COMPARISONS OF THREE DIFFERENT SIES
There ate several evaporimeter stations on the Adelaide plains, and those of the Adelaide Weather Bureau, the Waite Agricultural Research Institute and Dry Creek, having a maximum separation of about 10 miles, record widely differing evaporation rates. The 1948 totals were :—
Taste VII Adelaide 64.3 in, (163-2 em.) Waite Institute 54.7 in, (138.9 cm.)
Dry Creek 82.9 in. (210.7 cm.)
211
It was thought that the Ferguson equation might explain these differ- ences, SO comparisons were made between Adelaide and Dry Creek during November and December, 1948, and between the Waite Institute and Dry Creek during January and February, 1949. During these periods a solari- meter and an anemometer (at 3 ft. height) were set up alongside the appro- priate evaporimeter, which, at Adelaide was an Australian Standard one of galvanized iron set in a small area of lawn, and at the Waite Institute was
DRY GREEK ADELAIDE WAITE INSTITUTE —S— MEASURED [stanoAaol te MEASURED —M@- MEASURED —o— CALCULATED =z CALCULATED —f CALCULATED
7
0-2 : STRADDLING bre 13 20 27 4 fi 18 oh { B NOVEMBER, 1948 DECEMBER1948 JANUARY, 1945 FEBRUARY, (949
Fig. 3 Measured and calculated evaporation rates for Dry Creek, Adelaide and the Waite Institute.
an Australian Standard one of sheet copper also set in a lawn (see pl. I. fig 2 and pl. II.). Temperature and humidity measurements were available, being normally taken at these places. Simultancous observations were made at Dry Creek using the standard evaporimeter. The observations were reduced and used to calculate evaporation by the Ferguson equation for comparison with that actually measured. h for all stations was read from fig. 1. Air tempera- tures were available as truc daily means for Adelaide and Dry Creek, while max. -- min. those for the Waite Institute, available as-————_________—- means, were 2 corrected empirically to the same basis by a factor given by Foley (8) as applying to Adelaide.
Table VIII shows the summarized obseryations and calculated results. Means for overlapping periods of 7 days’ duration have heen used to give both the necessary length of time and -at the same time a sufficient number of results for comparing. Evaporation was calculated from
E, = 0.082 h (py — pa) (14) where H, = cm./day.
Measured and calculated values of E,, are plotted in fig. 3.
(a) Dry Creek and Adelaide
212 Taste VIII—Merasurep anp Catcu.atep Evaporation rok THRree Locacirties
DRY CREEK ADELAIDE Pp. Vv a Calc, Meas.|| Q p Vv h Calc. Meas. Staddted o; 6 smi m./ cal.’ Evap. Evap.|) cal,/ @. mm, m/ cal/ Evap. Evap- by period «= em of, of Hg- sec. cm!/ ©%/ om,/ || cm*/ oe, of He. sec, cmi/ cm tml hr. hr./ day day hr, hr./ day day oc, 9G, 13/11/48. ~ 19.8 19.6 8.0 3.95 1.37 0.90 0.955)) 17.9 19,0 77 1,9 0.87 0.69 0,66 14/11/48 - 18:9 18.7 ud 4.8 1.44 0.84 0.95 17.9 19.1 79 3.0 0.40 0.69 0.66 15/11/48 19.2 18.7 8.3 3.55 1.37 0.382 0.9395}! 18.5 18.9 7.9 1.95 0,88 0.49 0.655 io/il/43 - 19,4 19,1 8.5 3.35 1.51 6.83 0.915|) 18,5 18,9 g2 1.75 OBS 0,49 0,63 W/LL/48 20.0 18.4 a7 3.2 1.26 G79 0,88 19.4 18,3 a7 17 0,82 0.66 0,635 IW/LL/48 + 19.6 13.3 8.7 3.1 1,24 0.76 0,875|| 19.0 18,1 8,8 17 0.82 0.64 665 19/11/as ~ 19.5 17.6 8.6 29 1.18 0.73 0.89 19.2 17.3 B.5 1,55 0,07 0,62 O.63$ 20/14/48 « 20.9 13.1 8.6 2,65 1,09 0.76 0,84 19,8 17.5 8.5 14 O71 0.62 0.63 21/11/48 - 21.5 19,3 "BB 2.45 1,03 0.80 0.90 20.2 IB.7 B.4 1.25 0,67 0,65 0.65 ga/lisae - Zz? 19.5 6.9 3.75 113 0.83 0.965} 19.4 16.8 8.5 1.3 0.69 0.65 0,68 BU/W1/4B 22.1 19,2 8,7 28 a.d4 0.84 0.975}| 20.0 18,5 Rs 1,8 0,69 0.65 0.685 24/11/48 - 22.1 19.2 87 29 14% 0.85 1.00 20.0 18.4 7.9 L5 0,70 0,06 0.71 25/11/48 — 22.1 18.7 8.7 3 1,44 0.84 1.015]] 19.0 17.8 7.9 14 O71 0.63 0.695 26/11/48 ~ 23.3 16.2 8.8 BO 3,21 0.k2 O.975}) 19.2 17.6 7.9 1.4 0.71 0,62 0.675 27/48 22.1 18,3 9.1 5.0 1.21 0.81 0.95 |) 179 175 a! 14s 0.73 0,59 0.665 28/11/48 - Bug 18,8 9.2 3.2 1.26 0.83 U,98 |} 17.9 18,1 Riz 1.5 0.75 0.6! 0.675 2O/11/4B - 31.5 18.6 91 %1 1,24 0.81 0.95 17.3 18,5 4.4 1.5 0,75 0,60 0,665 BO/11/47— 21.2 18.5 9.1 3.0 1,21 0,79 0,945}| 17.3 18.3 45 1.55 O77 0,60 0.67 1/12/48 - 2.5 19.0 8.9 3.15 14.25 0.84 O98 }] 17.9 18.8 2.5 1,55 0.77 0.63 0.68 2/12/48 - 22,1 19.0 8.7 3.2 1.26 0.87 1.07 }} 19,0 19,1 8.6 7,45 0,80 0.67 0.71 3/12/48 - 21,6 19.2 8.6 3,85 1,31 0.88 1.03 |} 18.7 191 Bo 7? 0,82 67 0.725 4/12/48 - ‘21.6 13.4 8.1 3.3 1,29 DBS 1.02 |} 20.0 18.5 8.4 165 0.80 0.09 0,72 5/12/48 - 22.5 17.7 7.5 31 1,24 0,86 4.00 }) 20.0 Ws as u7 0.83 0.07 0,74 6/12/48 + 22.7 19.0 7,7 a3 1,29 0.93 1.07 20.6 18.9 4.0 1.75 O83 0.73 OTR 7/12/48 «22.70 19.7 1320.94) = 4,09 [1 20.9 «= 19. B73 BSE LFS af12/48 - 227 185 77 31S 125 090 1.04 || 202 i186 80 7 0.82 072 0.775 b) Dry Creek and Waite Institute DRY CREEK WAITE INSTITUTE Q : Vv ig Calc. Meas. Vv h Calc. Meas. Steaddied cal./ 6, mm. ™f gal) Evan, Evap, en) a ny, m/ cal.é Evyap. = Evap. by period = cm?/ ot, of He: sen. ocm/ ocm./ ocm./ jiom®/ OC. Sof Hg. sec. 9=ocm®/ cme/ em. / br, hr. day day hr. hr,/ day day eC. oc, n/rjas - 20.5 Z1,1 8.8 2.6 1,08 0.87 §.975)) 18.1 20.4 10.0 1,6 0.79 0.65 0.625 13/1/49 - i340 210 Yl 2.95 1.19 0.85 0.955|| 16.9 24.0 10.3 1.5 0,76 0.63 0.985 13/1/49 - 179 207 81 3.0 1.20 0.80 oO.92 |lis6 202 167 15 0.76 O55 0.565 w4/1/4s - 306-2000 BY. 122 0.79 0895/4156 19.0 104 455 0.77 O53 0.555 I5/1fao - 18,3 18.8 8.9 3.05 1.22 0.74 0.875]| 15.4 17.7 10.0 1.55 0,77 0.50 0.54 16/1/49 = 392 184 89 285 1.16 073 O.865|/ 163 178 99 4.55 0.77 O52 0.935 47/1/49 « 21,0 19.6 8.6 315 1,25 0.86 0.995]! 79,9) 13.9 3.1 1,7 O.R2 0.66 0,66 18/1/49 - 202 19.1 B11 3.05 122 O08 «60,9751 19.0 3S Sb OZ O82 0.66 0.66: 19/1/49. 20,9 iggy 7.7 2.6 1.08 0.81 0.985]! 2050 3B 06 O83) 076 ©0659 ~—-0.67 20/1/49 22.1 19.7 7.8 2.6 1,08 0.88 1.03 || 21,7 8 7.9 1.5: 0.76 0,76 0.72 21/1/49 « 319 20.7 81 2.7 111 0.91 1.07 21,5 21.0 8.0 1,65 0,80 0.81 0.755 22/1/4@ - 21,7 24 B82 2.75 wis 6093) 05|] 218 «BLS «8285 ORS OBE 0795 as/i/ag « 21,7 22.3 8.8 2.85 1.34 0.97 1.12 217 21.6 8.2 1.9 0.87 0.86 0.785 24/4/49 « 21.2 25.1 9.2 2.7 TL 0.96 1.69 || 21,3 22.7 91 1.75 0.83 0,84 0.755 25/1/49 « 21,4 25.3 99 2.7 11 1.04 1.155]| 21,9 24,9 a4 1.75 Al 1.92 0.87 26/1/49 - 21.9 26.8 10,8 2.75 ys 1.08 1,22 21,9 24,3 5,9 1.85 0.85 0.97 G.8+5 a7A1/49 - 21,0 26.7 143 2.95 1.19 1.06 1.215|| 21,5 26.3 10.9 1.85 0.85 0.93 0.835 28/1/49 - 0 0625.8 «611,20 2D 4170 4,02) 1,205]/ 21,3 25.6 td 17 O82 0.89 0.81 29/1/49 « 20,0 25.4 11,3 2.85. 1.16 0.97 1,145]| 20.5 35.0 11.3 15 0.76 0.82 0.755 36/1/49 - 20.2 24.0 11.0 2.75 1.13 0.91 1,115]| 20.2 33.8 1) 1.45 0.74 O76 O75 31/1/49 - 20.0 22.2 10.6 3.7 Lil 0.84 1.05 20.0 21.9 I10 1.45 G74 0.70 0.69 1/2/49 - 202 207 103 2.6 LOR 0.79 0.985/1 19,6 9202 Ta 45 0.76 0.65 0.63 a/2/49 « 18.5 19.3 9,9 2.6 1.08 0.73 0.88 17.5 3.7 0 (tha 1.5 0.76 0.54 0.56 VW3/49 - 13,5 19.9 9.7 3.45 1.04 0,73 0.845|| 16.5 132 «104 1,5 0.76 0.52 0.525 4/2/49 + 14,3 20.5 10.0 24 4.02 0,73 0.825|| 16.1 8.6 610.6 1A O72 0.52 0.48 u/3/49 - IF = 20.2 10300 4 1.02 0.69 0,815! 15.8 182 11445 OMS AS
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Both the Dry Creek sets of values are higher than those for Adelaide and the Waite Institute. Measured exceeds calculated evaporation consider- ably at Dry Creek and only slightly in the mean at Adelaide, while calcu- lated exceeds measured evaporation in the mean at the Waite Institute. Cor- yelation between fluctuations in the pairs of curyes is generally good,
There is little difference between the respective values of Q, @. and pa for the pairs of stations, but there is disparity in V, the mean wind speed. V for Dry Creek is higher than for Adelaide and the Waite Institute, while it is roughly the same for the latter pair of stations, While it is conceivable that the Dry Creek h ys. V relationship might not be correct whet extra- polated to the lower wind speeds of Adelaide and the Waite Institute—and the closer approximation to one another of the respective measured and cal- culated evaporation values might be so explained—this argument cannot explain why on the one hand measured exceeds calculated evaporation at Adelaide and on the other calculated exceeds measured evaporation at the Waite Institute, This effect may be related to evaporimeter construction. On the basis of material and surface finish, the Dry Creek evaporimeter could be expected to give an evaporation some 3-4% higher than that at Adelaide. The copper Waite Institute evaporimeter could be expected—on the basis of some data given by Young (24)—to give an evaporation compatable with that at Dry Creek. This argument would make the apparent discrepancy between Adelaide and the Waite Institute even greater.
The effect may be related to operating conditions: the working levels in the evaporimeters are here set out:
TABLE IX Distance below tank rin Evaporimeter Wormal Range Mean Level Dry Creek (Standard) = - 1-4-2-4i5n, Zin, Adelaide - - - - ~ 1O-2-5in. 1-73 in Waite Institute - - - - 25+4-5in. $-$in
The data of Table III. show there to be a potential source of large error in these level differences.
Subsequently, in December, 1949; a check was made upon the actual h vs. V relationship for the Waite Institute and also for a pair of Australian Standard evaporimcters for Dry Creck using different working levels as in Table II]. At the Waite Institute h for V of 1-2 m./sec. was about 25% lower than fig. 1 would show, and simultaneously at Dry Creek h for V of 2-4 m./sec. for the evaporimeter with working leyel 3.5 in. below the rim showed a similar depressian.
No comparative evidence on possible evaporimeter-soil heat exchange is available except that the effect of insolation on the stone-covered ground at Dry Creek would have been greater than that on the lawn-covered surfaces at Adelaide and the Waite Institute.
The conclusion to be drawn from the data for these three stations is that the calculated evaporation rates are quite possibly more reliable that those meastuted in the evaporimeters, and that a comparison on the former basis should give the truer picture.
MEANS OF VARIABLES FOR USE IN THE EQUATION Priestley (14) points out that the mean temperature to be used in, cal- culating evaporation should not be the simple mean of tetuperature taken at regular intervals, but one which should be weighted according to the cycle
214
of values assumed by the diffusion coefficient, k. Such an argument has more force for localities with a pronounced diurnal wind cycie, like Dry Creek,
Some data from 7 days’ continuous observations made at Dry Creek in fine weather in January, 1947, will be used to illustrate this, Fig. 4 shows averages of the 7 days’ readings for each hour of day for dry bulb air tem- perature (@,), wind speed at 3 it. (V), and water temperature (6,,) measured at 3 in, below the surface of the standard evaporimeter.
28
24
22
20
08-00 12-00 16°00 20:00 2400 0400 08-00 Fig. 4 Means of variables at Dry Creek for 7-day period in January, 1947
The simple means of 63 and #y for the whole period were first worked out. Irom the simple mean of #, 22.9°C., and that of #,, 22,7°C., it was possible to calculate the sensible heat gained by the water from the air, sing h, 1.15 cal./em?/hr./°C. It worked out at 5 cal./em2/day. Inspection of fig. 4 will show, however, that there is apparently a relatively large G3, — Oy difference at times of day when V (and hence h) is itself large. The use of weighted means of 4, and @y might therefore be expected to yield a truer value for sensible heat exchange. Means were then worked out for #, and @, weighted according to the magnitude of the heat transfer co- efficient (h) which had been derived from V, when they became 24,1°C, and 29.5°C. respectively. The temperature difference, 0; — @y, which was 0.2°C. for the simple means, now became 0.6°C., and corresponded to a calculated sensible heat gain by the water of 17 cal./om*/day, The difference between the two calculated heat exchange quantitics of 12 cal./em?/day amounts to
215
only approximately 2% of the corresponding value of calculated QO. The substitution of weighted mean @, for the simple mean in equation (14) to caleulate the respective evaporation rates for the 7 days in January, 1947, will not necessarily show the same per cent. ditterence in E, for calculated Q and the probable real O (which determines the real Oy used in the preced- ing discussion) are stispected to differ considérahly for the standard tank, In fact, using for the yatiables Q = 21.9 cal./em?/hr, (for #, = 22,9°C.) and 21.8 cal./em2/hr. (for #2 = 24,1°C.), pa = 84 mm. of He, h = 1.15 cal,/em?/hr./°C., and @4 = 24.1°C. for the one case and 22.9°C, for the other, and calculating E, (em./day) for the two cases gives respectively 1,05 cm./day and 1,01 cm./day for weighted and unweighted mean #3. This is a difference of 4%.
The size of the difference in E shown by the two tmiethods of approach is enough to justify using for Incalities like Dry Creek a mean 44 weighted according to h or V. Aw interesting point here is that the more-teadily available form of mean air temperature in most Icealilies is that of
max. -+ min. rather than the integrated mean. The sormer is biased 2 slightly towards the maximum temperature—by 09°C. for Adelaide for January as shown by Foley (8)—so that, as a result of this convenient coin- max, -+ mit.
2 may enable a truer evaporation rate to be culculated, while simplifying the ‘lerivation of mean 43.
cidence, the use of mean @, in the Ferguson equation
PHASE LAG
It will be noted that from Table VIII. and fig. 3 that during the Dry Creek-Waite Institute evaporation comparison, evaporation and the related variables rose and then [ell in some sort of natural cycle: There seems to be a phase lage between measured and calculated F for both stations, and this is more apparent when one of each pair of curves is moved close to the other by scaling each individual value of E using a suitable fixed factor. This has been done for the Dry Creek curves in fig. 5 where changes in measured E are seen to lag behind those in calculated Z. The effect can, however, he largely explained by changes in sensible heat sturage in the practical case, for these are neglected in calculating E,
All values of © for Dry Creek have now been corrected for heat storage changes determined from changes in measured #,, and E valies re-calculated on this basis have been scaled as before and plotted in fig. 5. This shows the effect of the Jag to have been much reduced (although there is an anomaly in the parts of the curves covering the first few days).
The effect of neglecting heat storage changes over 7-day periods is noliceable, though small, but if it is desired further to minimize this effect, then periods of longer than 7 days should be taken when appreciable changes in 6y, level are taking place.
DISCUSSION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN h AND k
Some doubt hag been cast recently on the validity of the fixed relation- ship between mass and heat transfer in the lower almosphere against a com- mon resistance, which is the basis of the Ferguson and similar equations. ¥
216
Priestley and Swinbank (15) have discussed this matter at length, while Pasquill (12) has demonstrated practically that the relationship between k and h in the turbulent boundary layer undergoes a change with atmospheric stability. Here h is shown to increase relatively to k as the atmosphere be- comes more unstable, or, more precisely, as the Richardson number becomes negative and numerically larger.
—— MEASURED —--— CALCULATED x SCALED.
Fig. 5 Phase lag effect with Dry Creek evaporation rates in January and February, 1949 h Consider the effect of this in equations (3) and (8). In (3) will no longer be fixed at 0,50, but may obey the relationship h = 0.50x (15) Lk
where x varies with Richardson numbet.
A modified equation, (8) of this form would now hold :—
Zh Q 2 (16) E= | + — pa +) pel
x h x
217
The variable relation between h and k in the turbulent boundary layer need not necessarily render E calculated fram equation (&) very erroncous. The resistance against which the driving force (pw — pa) acts is not only that of the turbulent boundary layer, where matter and heat are propagated hy eddy diffusion, but also that of the laminar sub layer in contact with the water surface, where molecular diffusion prevails. [It is a well known prin- ciple that if in a series of resistances one is considerably greater than the other or others then this resistance “controls” the rate of the process. If it is the laminar layer that controls in the evaporation process considered, then the effect on evaporation of changes in h relative to k in the turbulent layer may be negligible.
It is a distinct possibilitiy—for small evaporating surfaces at least—that the resistance of the laminar layer forms a substantial proportion of the total resistance. It can, be observed that the value of pa in the air an inch or so above the surface of water in an evaporimeter is little different from that measured in the free air at screen height, showing that by far the greater patt of the total pressure difference, and hence resistance, is confined to this shal- low layer, While this observation as it stands does not prove that most of the resistance is in the laminar layer, it at least shows that what eddy diffu- sion resistance there is over small evaporating surfaces is limited to a very challow layer of the atmosphere.
Sherwood and Woertz (19) studying the diffusion of water vapour across a turbulent air stream between the two parallel walls of a duct 5.3 em. apart found 43-72% of the overall resistance to be in the two laminar layers at the surfaces of the side walls when Reynolds’ number ranged from 6,000-70,000,
Diffusion of water vapour through an air layer is controlled by the driv- ing force or water vapour partial pressure difference across the layer and the resistance to diffusion in the layer. I{ different parts of the thickness of the layer are considered the fraction of the pressure difference across each part of the layer will in all cases he propurtional to its resistance.
Above an evaporating surface the lower of the partial pressures, pa, will deerease with increase in height, the pa decrease being proportional to the re- sistance of that part of the air layer over which the decrease has occurred, The decrease of px with height is known as the “Hydrolapse.”
When a certain height, z, over the evaporating surface is reached the hydrolapse will become negligible—a state to be arbitrarily assessed aceord- ing to the particular conditions concerned. Only while diffusion is actively taking place across the whole of the layer thickness considered will pressure difference be proportional to the resistance of the air layer, and since at heights preater than x the air layer still has a theoretical resistance to diffu sion, total pressure differcnee and total theoretical resistance aver the total wit layer reaching the heights greater than z will cease to bear the previous steady relationship, It is apparent, then, that the resistance to diffusion of the atmosphere over an evaporating surface is confined to that layer of air whose upper boundary is the level z where the hydtolapse first becomes negli- gible, z will be small for a small evaporating surface, and will increase as the strface is extended. « will always he above the boundary of the laminar layer and somewhere in the turbulent layer where resistance to diffusion has been shown to vary with the logarithm of the height above the effective sur- face. Therefore as z increases. so will that part of the total resistance con- fined ta the turbulent layer increase. The resistance nf (he laminar layer will, however, remain constant, so that qualitatively it may be concluded that as the evaporating surface is extended so will the total resistance iucrease, and
218
so will the resistance of the turbulent layer increase relative to that of the laminar layer. It seems that the lantinar layer resistance is much more likely to control the evaporation rate from smal! evaporating surfaces than [rain jarge ones. The practical work of Sheppard and Pasquill cited by Sutton (22) as showing the lack of correlation between evaporation from a small surface and the conditions in the turbulent boundary layer—notably the temperature gradient itt the latter—lends support to the belief that the resistance of the laminar layer controls evaporation from small surfaces like those of evapori- meters.
Priestley‘*) points out that h/k probably becomes more constant as the gtound sutiace is approached—provided that this 1s not too rough—since eddies will become steadily smaller and will have less chance to realize the “buoyancy” effect that he has deseribed (15). ‘This argument does not in- voke the laminar layer.
From the foregoing discussion it seems that the Ferguson equation in the form of (8) is more likely to be true for smal! evaporating surfaces. It is possible that ideal evaporimeters belaw a certain size will give results complying with the equation, while above it there will be an increasing dis- crepancy. The hypothetical and indeterminate limiting size will itself vary with the particular evaporation conditions, since z will vary somrewhut with the latter.
It is probable in the case of both the Australian Standard evaporimeter and one 10 it. in diameter that z will be below the level at which normal meteorological measurements of pa are made. z must be the greater for the 10 ft. diameter evaporimeter, meaning that the total diffusion resistance for this evaporimeter must also be greater. The practically-cetermined diffusion coefficients for the two Dry Creek evaporimeters dealt with are different, but from the evidence at present ayailable it cannot be determined whether the difference is due to differences in the level of z. to ditferences tn exposure (re- sulting from height of rim upstand, diameter, etc.j, or to a combination of the two.
CONCLUSION
If the Ferguson equation can. be shown to give accurate results in pre- dicting evaporation on the evaporimeter scale over a wide range of meteoro- logical conditions, figures so determined would supersede those now obtained from evaporimeters, [t is rather desirable ta eliminate the effects of variations in exposure to which evaportmeters are now subject. Evaporation values for thé whole country could be calculated on the basis of a fixed average wind speed, or at least on wind specds extrapolated down from those measured at a level well clear of the ground, such as at the 10 m. level, so avoiding the micro-climatelogical differences in wind near the pround that now so aifeci the characteristics of individual evaporimeter sites. An evaporation map based on the Ferguson Equation and covering the whale of Australia, say, would possibly be more representative than one based vn the readings of tank evaporimeters,
Thanks ate due to Prof. J. A. Prescott and Mr. C. H. B, Priestley for reading the manuscript and for helpiul suggestions, to the Adelaide Weather Rureau and the Waite Agricultural Research Institute for co-operation in abtaining some of the data used, to Prof. Sir Kerr Grant for help in dealing with a radiation problem, to Dr. ). Ferguson for permission to quote his equation, and finally ta 1.C.l Alkali (Australia} Pty. Ltd. ior permission tu publish this paper.
) Personal communication.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1950 Vol. 73, (2), Plaie XXIIT
Fig. 1
The evaporimeters at Dry Creek.
The evyaporimeter site at Adelaide during November aud December, 1948,
I
x
Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 1950 Vol, 73, (2), Plate XXIV
219
Novtation evaporation, cm./hr. ditto, em./28 days. ditto, cm./day, heat transfer coefficient, specifically cal./em?/hr./°C. modified heat transfer coefficient in equation (11), cal./em?/hr.°C. diffusion coefficient fur water vapour, specifically gm, fem? /hr,/mm. of Hg, latent heat of eaporeation for water, specifically cal./gm,. partial pressure of water vapour in air, specifically mm. of Hg. vapour pressure of water, specifically mm. of Hg. nett tadiant energy penetrating water surface. specifically cal./. em?2/ht. variable defined by equation (12), meat air temperature, °K. mean horizontal air speed at 3 ft, height, specifically m/sec. weight of water evaporated, specilically gm./em?/hr. variable relating h/k relationship to Richardson number. height where hydrolapse first becomes negligible, mean air temperature, specifically °C. mean water temperature, specifically °C, Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
REFERENCES
Australian Meteorological Obseryer’s Handbook 1925, 96
Brruam, E.G. 1931 British Rainfall, M.O, 345 (1V), 268
Bonytuon, C, W. 1948 Aust. Jour, Instr. Tech., 4, (5), 209
Brooks, F. A. 1936 Univ. of Calif, Agric. Exp. Stn., Bull. 602
Brunt, D. 1944 Physical and Dynamical Meteorology, 2nd Edn., Cam- bridge Univ, Press, 137
Cummines, N. W. and Ricarpson, B. 1927 Phys. Rev., 30, 527
Fienp, R. and Symons, G. J. 1869 Brit. Assoc. Ady. Sci., 39th Meet- ing, 25
Fotey, J. C. 1945 C'wealth of Aust, Bur. of Met., Bull. No, 35
Fotry, J. C. 1947 Proc, Aust. N.Z. Adv, Sei. (Perth)
Giuny, A. R.,.and Heymann, FE, 1948 Aust. J. Sci. Res., 1, (2), 197
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Pasouin, F. 1949 Proc. Roy Soc., A., 198, (1052), 116
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Priestiey, C. H. B. 1949 Specialist Conference in Agriculture—Aus- tralia
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Suepparp, P. A, 1947 Q. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 73, 277 ( Discussion)
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Wu
| a Al
Wo We
Younc, A. A. 1947 Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 28, (2), 279
STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM A MANGROVE SWAMP AT SOUTH GLENELG
BY H. M. COOPER
Summary
This paper briefly describes stone implements discovered on the surface of an estuarine mangrove mud swamp at South Glenelg, laid bare after the removal of the overlying sandy beach by scour, following a heavy south-westerly gale experienced during April, 1948. It is suggested that the implements and camp debris were associated with a temporary camp site. Established by natives upon the advancing sand which encroached on and later overwhelmed the former living mangrove swamp.
220
STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM A MANGROVE SWAMP AT SOUTH GLENELG By H. M. Cooper * [Read 11 May 1950)
SUMMARY
This paper briefly describes stone implements discovered on the sur- face of an estuarine mangrove mud swamp at South Glenelg, laid bare after the removal of the overlying sandy beach by scour, following a heavy south- westerly gale experienced during April, 1948, It is suggested that the ir- plements and camp debris were associated with a temporary camp site estab- lished by natives upon the advancing sand which encroached on and later overwhelmed the former living mangrove swamp.
CAMP SITE AND MATERIAL
Stone implements, and certain other relics of aboriginal occupation, were found on the re-exposed mangrove muid-flat described by Cotton (1949), The implements exhibit somewhat crude workmanship, but they are nevertheless of interest because of their existence, for a considerable period of time, upon a site which is now situated below the level af high water mark on an open coast exposed to gales.
The implements are identical with types obtained on camp sites which existed on the Adelaide Plains and the coast southwards ta Cape Jervis, formerly occupied by the now extinct Kaurna tribe and associated groups.
No specimens of smaller and more finely executed impleiments were found, but their absence may be due either to the action of the sea which swept theni away after the removal of the overlying sandy beach by scour and subsequent exposure of the Swamp, or because the camp was of a temporary nature and thus merely utilised by the aborigines as 4 cofivenient spot when searching for fish or shellfish and other food. An examination of similar material which occtirs plentilully on temporary sites amongst the recent coastal sand dunes tends to confirin the latter view,
Since the surface of a mud swamp, even if uncovered at law tide, is totally unsuited for such a purpose, a camping place, eyen a temporary one, would not have been established thereon until the encroaching sand had he- Run to accumulate, thus providing over it a dry surface suitable for the needs of the native inhabitants. With subsequent erosion the implements would he deposited upon the surface of the mud stratum beneath, or if the accumu- lating layer of sand were still thin during the aceupation of the site, they may have worked down and thus become embedded in the swamp.
The presence of a fragment of somewhat heayy wood—portion of a small limb or branch—partly burnt, and embedded in the mud surface, together with several small heaps of embers, apparently derived from the same type of timber, possibly Eucalyptus sp., suggests the existence of a former camp fire. Nearby was discovered a piece of sheoak tree (Casuarine stricta}, in an excelient state of preservation, clearly exhibiting the distinctive grain of that timber, together with its characteristic ribbed outer bark.
* Assislant in Ethnology, South Australian Musenm. Trans. Roy, Soe. §. Aust., 73, (2), Dee. 1950
221
A successful attempt was made to burn the stump of a mangrove tree (Avicennia officinalis), extracted in situ from the swamp, aiter it had been thoroughly washed and then exposed to atmospheric action for several months. With the addition of a small quantity of spirits to commence com- bustion, the wood was completely consumed, leaving the typical white ash derived from this timber.
Description of implements shown in the accompanying drawings :—
Figs. 1-4: Fabricator or hammerstone, showing end flakes broken off during usage, Fabricators were utilised in shaping and trimming large implements similar to those shown in Figs. 9-11.
Figs. 5-8: Small trimmed adze-stone of conventional type. These implements were mounted at the extremity of a wooden handle by means of gum.
222
Figs.9-11: Large chopping implement (held in the hand during use) ; trimmed from a water-worn pebble.
The rock in these three specimens is a fine-grained bluish quartzite.
Other material recovered :—Two pebble chopping implements, somewhat similar to Figs. 9-11; Large core derived from an angular block; Three large flakes struck from pebbles; One piece of yellow ochre; Two pebble cores.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Appreciation is extended to Mr. R. W. Searles, master boat-builder, of Birkenhead, for his assistance in determining the character of the various species of trees to which reference is made, and to Miss M. Boyce, South Australian Museum artist, for the excellent drawings accompanying this
paper.
REFERENCE
Corton, B. C. 1949 An old Mangrove Mud-flat exposed by Wave Scouring at Glenelg, South Australia. Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, (1)
BALSATIC LAVAS OF THE BALLENY ISLANDS A.N.A.R.E. REPORT
BY D. MAWSON
Summary
Rocks collected on the Balleny Islands by the Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition in 1948 and by the French Antarctic Expedition in 1949, are all of a basic volcanic nature. It now seems certain that the entire group is a balsatic volcanic chain of islands, of late Cainozoic to Recent age. The rock types represented are lavas, agglomerates and tuffs. These range in composition from olivine-basalts to trachybasalts in the groundmass of some of which a minute development of nepheline is suspected.
223
BASALTIC LAVAS OF THE BALLENY ISLANDS A.N,A.R.E, REPORT
By D. Mawson * [Read 1! May 1950]
SUMMARY
Rocks collected on the Balleny Islands hy the Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition in 1948 and by the French Antarctic Expedition in 1949, are all of a basic yolcanic nature, It now seems certain that the entire group is a basaltic voleanic chain of islands, of late Cainozoic tu Recent age, The tock types represented are lavas, agglomerates and tuffs. These range in coniposition from olivinc-basalts to trachybasalts in the groundmass of some of which a minute development of nepheline is suspected.
THE RALLENY ISLANDS — HISTORICAL
In 1838 the Enderbys in association with other Londow merchants fitted out the schooner Eliza Scott, 154 tons, with John Balleny in charge, and the cutter Sabrina, 54 tons, under H, Freeman, for the purpose of sealing and exploration in the southern seas. Early in 1839, after sealing operations on the coast of southern New Zealand and Campbell Island, they proceeded south on a voyage of discovery. When in latitude 69° further progress south was prevented by drift ice. They then proceeded westward, working along the margin of the heavier pack-ice. On February 9th (1839) a group of five islands were sighted which Balleny distinguished, each by the name of one of the partners of the firm of Enderby Brothers. Steam and smoke were reported as rising from one of the islands, and they were all regarded as of a volcanic nature. Efforts made to reach the land were impeded by drift ice.
Eventually a passage was worked in te one of the islands and both cap- tains proceeded to attempt to land in the Subrtna’s boat. On reaching what Balleny deseribed as the only accessible place along the ice-ridden, cliff- bound coast, Captain Freeman jumped from the boat on to a heach of a few yards wide, uncovered only momentarily as the ocean waves withdrew; in that time, however, he secured a few beach pebbles as evidence of land, They did not linger longer, but pursued their voyage to the west in search of mare hospitable shores.
Sad to relate, on March 24th when riding ont a gale, some hundreds of miles further to the west, the Sabrina was lost with all hands. The Eliza Scott alone returned to tell the tale. With Capiain Freeman were lost also his specimens. Only recently with the visit of the Australian National Ant- arctic Research Expedition, has a second landing been made and rock speci- mens secured for examination.
In the years that have elapsed since Balleny’s visit, these islands have been sighted by very few expeditions operating in ncighbouring Antarctic waters, They are comparatively inaccessible, for they are located in the pack- ice belt encircling the Antarctic Continent and their presence there obstructs the free movement of the pack-ice in its orderly drift from East to West in the off-shore waters around the Continent. As a consequence, these islands are usually embedded within an impenctrable icce-jam; thus only rarely have ships an opportunity of penetrating to their shores. Actually, the whole of the sea-ice which forms each winter in the Ross Sea to break up and driit
* University of Adelaide. Traus Rey. Sac. 5. Aust., 73, (2), Dec, 1950
wofeet
Conspic Bluff gp Conspic. Blut
& ROW ISLAND
BORRADAILE ISLAND
“Beale Pintacle
landing
Oat. 66° at's . at LONG. 162° 57-2'E ‘ Remar precipitous jul
YOUNG ISLAND
‘ * ROW ISLAND “BORRADAILE ISLAND
BUCKLE ISLAND
1 SABRINA ISLAND
STURGE ISLAND
Eliza Cove &
Macnab Adalin Penguin Rooksty SABRINA Micah 1D)
brexks 3)
SCALE 4 23. a SaaS Z $MILES{steruTe} \
* 62" 50'E Saioce ez
iFekd
The Balleny Islands and their Geographic Location.
225
away to the north-westward in the ensuing simmer has to neyotiate this ice- jam. Only in favourable years is this ice congestion relieved and then only in the late summer.
Sir James Clarke Ross, in 1941, engaged on the memorable expedition which discovered the Ross Sea, sighted the Balleny Islands across the pack- ice but only at a great distance from them. Actually he believed this land- fall to be the discovery of new islands south of Balleny’s find and gave to them the name of Russell Islands.
Much later, on the return voyage of the Discovery during the operations of the British National Antarctic Expedition of 1901-04, Scott set a course ta reach and check Balleny’s discovery. That was a favourable year and they sighted and fixed more accurately the position of four of the islands. They tid not, however, effect any landings,
On. several occasions in subsequent years, whaling vessels operating in the neighbourhood of the Ross Sea have, late in the summer season, come within sight of one or more of the islands.
Tn the summer of 1934 when returning from the Ross Sea in foggy weather, the exploring yessel Discovery 1/, obtaimed a glimpse of one or more of the islands, but was unable to land. Later, during her 1936-38 cruise, Discovery {1, under coommand of Lieut. L, C. Ill, R.N-R,, retutned to the region and under better weather conditions charted the four more northerly islands, fixing their position accurately.
More recently, in February 1948, the Hyatt Earp of the Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition found most of the islands of the Group to be sufficiently accessible to allow Commander K. Oom, R.A.N,, ta effect mare detailed charting and to permit Wing Commander Stuart Camp- bell, Expedition Leader, ta make a couple of landings for the purpose of securing tock specimens, The ice conditions did not permit access to Sturge Island, the most southerly of the Group.
More recently still, in the summer of 1949, the French exploring vessel Cemmandant Charcot, in command of Captain Max Douget, made a landing on Sabrina Island. This expedition succeeded in reaching Sturge Island.
GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES,
The Balleny Islands form a chain directed from the south-east towards the north-west, extending over a length of about 140 statute miles.
These islands Jie about 165 statute miles to the north of the Antarctic Continent at its nearest approach. Deep water, about 1500 fathoms, separates them from the mainland. Equally deep water exists at only a few miles to the north of the island chain.
The Group consists of three large islands (Young, Buckle and Sturge Islands), three smaller islands (Borradaile, Rowe and Sabrina) and some isolated reefs and rock pinnacles. Sturge Island, the most southerly, is some Z9 statute miles long. Buckle Island has a length of about 14 miles and Young Island 21 miles. Borradaile Island is m the vicinity of two and a half flrs in length, while Rowe Island and Sabrina Island are but a fraction of # tttile.
With rare exceptions, the islands are cliff bound, thus limiting the pns- sibilities of landing; hence rock collections thus far secured are but meagre. The height of Sturge Island is now taken to be about 5600 fect. Young Island, once reported ic be extremely high, has lately been found to be very
226
little over 3000 feet. The other islands are considerably lower. They are all capped with ice, and rock appears only on the cliff faces or in rare and very limited exposures as pebble banks at sea-level. The active volcanic pheno- mena reported hy Enderby have not been observed by recent visitors. Haw-
ever, the rack collections hereinafter described indicate a Jate Cainozoic to recent volcanic origin for the entire Group.
ROCK TYPES COLLECTED
A description af the rocks collected in 1948 by the Australian Expedi- {ion is the special subject of this contribution. As an addendum thereto, reference is also made to:a small collection of rocks obtained during the 1949 cruise of the Commandant Charcot. These latter were secured through Mr. N. Lutthowitz of Melbourne University, whom Commander Liotard kindly gave permission to accompany the French Expedition on that voyage.
The A.N.A.R.E. collection consists of some 14 specimens from two localities; the first, Borradaile Island, the second Buckle Island. These sange from a boulder of about 15 lbs. weight to quite small pebbles.
Additional specimens obtained through the kindness of the Commandant Charcot Expedition are also 14 in number and were secured from two other islands, namely Sabrina Island and Sturge Island.
All these, with the exception of one only, are basic volcanic rocks. The one exception is specimen No, 12, composed of coarsely crystalline epidote in- timately associated with grains of quartz. As this was not found ia sito, at may be assumed that it is a transported erratic or is of the nature of a xenolith derived from an underlying formation brought up from below in the volcanic uprush,
The rock types obtained from each of the localities where collections were made are listed herewith,
Rorradaile Island. A landing from the HW*yalt Karp was made on a spit at the north-east end of the Island and two Jarge specintens (Nos. 2 and 3) of the prevailing rocks were sccured. These are both olivine trachybasalt, and represent lavas which congealed at or near the surface.
Buckle (sland, The remaining 12 specimens (Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14) collected by the Wyatt Earp party, were obtained from the surface of old sea-ice, some 50 yards from the shore cliffs, at a point abant half-way down the east coast. All these boulders are taken to have been derived from Buckle Island, avalanched down from the overtowering rock cliffs. Most of these specimens while they exhibit some faceting show very little other evidence of glaciation. Some of the pebbles suggest initial shap- ing by ice with subsequent water wear.
They are divisible into three groups. Firstly, fresh, grey olivine trachy- busalts and basalts, most being slightly vesicular (Nos. 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10), Secondly, scoriaceous plagioclase basalts reddened by the penecantem- poraneous attack of escaping volcanic steam and other gases (Nos. 4, 11, and 13). Finally, a coarsely crystalline epidotic rock, already metitioned, not obviously of the volcanic suite and apparently of foreign origin (No. 14),
Sabrina Tslund, The French Expedition landed at the Adelie penguin rookery neat the north-east corner of the Island and secured specimens irom that location and from the Monolith. Of the material brought back by Lotthowitz and added to our set of rocks illustrative of the Balleny Islands, Nos {5 and 16 tecorded as common sea-shore stones of Sabrina Island, are
227
ulivine-angite-plagioclase-basalt that has been subjected to slight reddening by solfataric attack, Nos. 22 and 23, secured in sil, are almost identical grey olivine-plagioclase-basalts. Nos. 18 and 26, referred to as characteristic red stones of the Island, are reddened scoriaceous basalt, No, 17, a beach stone, 1s a black pumiceoits basalt with micro-phenocrysts of olivine and abundant labradorite needles in a dusty glass base. No, 25 is a tiffaccotis hasaltic agglomerate. No. 24, from the Monolith, 1s a grey vesicular olivine- plagioclase-basalt. No, 27 represents the finer gravel from the shores; it con- sists of water-worn basalt particles of a dominantly grey colour,
Sturge Island, The French Expedition collected specimens fram the surface of free floating sea-ice near the north end af the west coast. Though doubtful these pebbles may represent sheddings from the lofty cliffs nearby. With them is some gritty morainic sludge.
No. 19 is a basic volcanic breccia, No. 20 is a propylitized, highly scoriaceous basalt. No, 21 is a glaciated pebble of vesicular feldspathic basalt which has undergone paulopost changes with development of chlorite, cal- cite, etc. No. 28 is a uniform grey morainic mud originating from the glacia- tion of basaltic rocks.
PETROLOGY
The following petrological descriptions of rocks of the Balleny Island collection deal only with the morc important types. As there is a close simi- larity in composition and type among the unaltered rocks, it will suffice to describe in detail only two of them, namely No. 1 from Buckle Island and No. 2 from Barradaile Island. Briet reference will be made to others.
OLIVINE TRACHYBASALYT FROM Buckie IsLanp
This specimen, No. 1, is a large plaly block of a dark ash-grey voleante rock. It is perfectly fresh, with the appearance of heing, in all probability, of Reeent or near-Recent age. This was collected on the adjacent sea-ice within 50 yards of the shore cliffs at about the middle of the east ¢enast of Buckle Island.
In the hand-specimen, it is somewhat rough to the feel, and with the aid ef a pocket lens, same minute irregular steam-hole cavities can be detected. Ti is almost entitcly of a very fine, even-grained nature in which the mineral constitients cannut be distinguished with the naked eye: embedded therein, however, are occasional very small olive-coloured phenocrysts of olivine, the maxinuim size of which is 4mm.
In the rock slide, microphenucrysts of olivine and to a less extent augite, are observed to be embedded in a microcrystalline groundmass. The latter features. a striking development of plagioclase in fresh clear laths, markedly oriented in flow lines distributed through a dark base in which mintite grains ol augite and magnetite are discernible.
The olivine phenocrysts which, in the slide, do not exceed 3rmm- are quite fresh and unaltered: the interference figure is that characterising olivines of high magnesia content. Augite micro-phenocrysts do not exceed Imm. in diameter and are clear and fresh: zoning is abseryable in some, and in these an outer zone is notably pleochroic. The non-pleochroic central area has the higher extinction angle, 44°, and an optic axtal angle of about 60°, thus indi- cating rather normal augite: the pleachroic zone has a 2V of abunt 40° characteristic of a sub-calcic augite.
228
The most obvious mineral of the groundmass is plagioclase in tiny laths and sieedles up to 1 mm. in length, but averaging only about 0-6 mm, Some are without twitinitig, the remainder rarely exhibit more than a single albite twin. The optical characters of the laths indicate a range from andesine to medium labradorite, Other components of the groundmass are much fine granular augite of a similar composition as the outer zone of the phenocrysts, tiny grains of olivine and minute particles often perfcct cubes of magnetite or ilneno-magnetite- Minute glassike residuals are discernible but only to a_very limited extent; these are of low R.I. and exhibit faint, anomalous D.R. These may be analcile- Tiny euhedral apatites are not uttcommon.
The analysis of this rock illustrates a lower magnesian and higher alkali content than is normal with basalts, Mineralogically the feldspar content is greater and the ferromagnesian minerals fewer than is the casé in normal basalt, In view of the plagioclases having a higher albite content than is normal for basalts this rock may be classed as olivine-trachybasalt.
A chemical analysis and the norm derived therefrom are given on page 229. The general character of the rock is illustrated in the thin-slide microphotograph (fig. 3) appearing in the accompanying plate.
Otwine TracuypasaLt (No, 2) rrom BorrapaiLe Iscanp
This is a fresh medium to darkish grey microcrystalline, yoleanic tock in which are observable a few small phenocrysts, the largest bemg 4mm. in diameter, of alive-green olivine. It is a watet-worn boulder collected on a spit at the north-east end of Borradaile Island, Occasional tiny vesicles are observable on the fracture face.
The microscape slide reveals a microcrystalline base dominated by plagioclase laths exhibiting marked flow structure: embedded in this hase are simalf phenocrysts of olivine and augite.
The larger plagioclases have the characters of acid labradorite with 2V of about 80°, Small porphyritic olivines are abundant as well formed crys- tals, occasionally reaching 4mm. diameter; much of the olivine is fragmented. It is biaxial negative with 2Y about 35°, thus a sub-calcic augite approaching pigeonite.
As regards the groundmass the streaming structure of the plagioclase laths and needles is the most notable feature: of these the larger of them average 04mm. in length. There are occasional abnormally large individuals and these exhibit well developed twinning. Albite twin extinetion angles in- dicate labradorite (Ab,,An,,). Microlites and some untwinned laths with lower RL are apparently andesine or even more albitic. Other minerals of the ground- mass are well formed olivines and augites averaging 0°3 mm, diameter as well as tiny irregular grains of augite associated with plagioclase needles and abundant tiny cubes and specks of magnetite and ilmenite; also a very little brown glass.
From the above description and the chemical composition stated in the table of analyses, this rock also may be classed as an olivine-bearing trachy- basalt.
Included in the table of analyses is the chemical composition of the Bal- jeny Island rocks numbers 1 and 2, As both of these are very similar types the mean of their chemical analyses is also given in column III, Also For comparison is included the analyses of each of two trachybasalts from Pos- session Island (Crozet Group) referred to by Tyrrell*. The norms are also stated below.
*BAN.Z. Antarctic Research Expedition Reports, Series A, vol. Ii, pt. 4
229
I. II. IIL. IV.
SiO, - - 47.73 45.06 46.395 44.255 TiOs - - 2,39 2.69 2.540 2.400 AlsOs - - 16.87 18.76 17.815 17.705 Fe:On - = 2.52 0.23 1 375 4.665 FeO - - 878 9.94 9.360 7.005 MnO - - 018 0.19 0.185 0.125 MgO - - 5,80 7,33 6.565 5.935 CaO - - 8.64 9.72 9.180 10.735 Na:O - - 4,90 4,19 4.545 2.990 K:0 - - 1,99 1.57 1.780 1.295 H:O+ - - 6.14 0.12 0.130 2.420 HO- - - 0.02 0.02 0.020 } ‘ PrOs - - 0.65 0.65 0.650 0.395 5 - - -~ 0.09 0.05 0.070 _ BaO - - 0.06 0.06 0.060 —
100.76 100.58 100.660 99.825 less O for S - 0.02 0.01 0.015 —_ Total - - 100.74 100.57 100.645 99.825
. Analysis of olivine-trachybasalt from Buckle Island (Balleny Group), by A. P. Wymond (University, Adelaide),
. Analysis of olivine-trachybasalt from Borradaile Island (Balleny Group) by R. B. Wilson (University, Adelaide).
. Mean of analyses I, and II.
- Mean of analyses of (a) olivine-trachybasalt from American Bay, Crozet Island, (analyst, Herdsmen) and (b) the olivine-trachybasalt from Christmas Bay, Crozct Isiand (analyst, Reinish), both quoted by Tyrrell (1937).
Norms or BALLENy Istanp Rocxs
Rock No.1 No.2 Orthoclase - - 11°68 9-45 Albite - - 21-48 10°48 Anorthite - - 18-07 62°02 27°52 61-11 Nepheline ~ - 10°79 13-63 Diopside - - 16-35 13°66 Olivine - - 11-96 18°72 Magnetite - - 3°71 (+23 Ilmenite = - 4°56 3842 5-17 39-41 Apatite - - 1-68 154 Pyrite - - 0-16 0-09 Water - - 0-16 0-14 100-60 100-63 C.LP.W. Classification - Tl & 3 Ti, 5. 3-4. 4.
230
Specimens 3, 5, 6, 8, 9 and 14 bear a general similarity im the hand speci- men, though some are vesitular and others not. The greatest difference in texture is to be noted only in the microscope section. here it becomes vb- vious that certain of them are more highly feldspathic than others and some have been more quickly chilled than others, Also some exhibit flow struc- ture highly developed while in others evidence of flow is negligible,
In the case of several, at least, chemical analysis would undoubtedly re» veal them to contain less alumina and alkalies with corresponding increase in magnesium and calcium: thus a more normal type of basalt. In the fol- Iowing notes reference is made to only the more prominent characteristics of each of these.
No, 3 is a very large boulder of medium-grey rock which, in part, is ob- viously vesicular, the vesicles being small, irregular and flattened. There is a paucity of olivine and augite micro-phenocrysts. Occasional white glassy inclusions as recorded in No, 8 are observabie in the hand-specimen, Micre- scopically there is a great similarity to specimen No, 1, there being a great development of labradorite laths usually markedly oriented by flowage of the unsolidified lava.
No, 5 is another grey, water-worn boulder similar in appearance ta Nos, 3 and 14. Occasional tiny olivines are observable in the hand-specimen,
No. 6 in the hand-specimen, is somewhat darker prey than No. 8, but otherwise petrologically very similar, It differs from the type represented by No. | in that plagioclase laths ure much less abundant and there is less flow orientation. Microporphyritic olivines and augites, the latter more abundant, are a feature.
The plagioclase has the optical characters of an acid labradorite. ‘The alivyine answers to the magnesian-rich variety. The pyroxene lacks colour, is biaxial positive, and has an extinction angle ¢ A Z of about 40°; it thus appears to be a pigeomitic augite.
No. 8 in the hand-specimen is a grey rock which, like certain others (No 9 for instance) has shadowy, quick chilled areas within it. An unusual fea- ture is that-of clear colourless glassy inclusions up to lcm, diameter. These blebs are remnants of partly resorbed crystals whose optical characters appear to indicate a plagioclase of the cliguclasc-andesine range, Ti addition, small phenocrysts of olivine and augite up to 0°5 ci. diameter are in evidence,
The general character of this rock is very similur to that of No, 9 im that plagioclase Jaths and needles are suppressed and no outstanding orientation evidenced. The base also js quite like that ot No. 9.
No. 9 is externally of very similar appearance ta No. 14, except that it ts traversed irregularly by streaks and patches of a quicker chilled darker phase, An absence of strongly deyeloped and oriented plagioclase laths is notable in the microscopic slide. Obvious clivines are rare in the hand-spceei- men and their place is taken by microporphyritic augites. The slide under low pawer exhibits a dark and speckled base which, when more highly mag- nified, ts Seen to be a dense assemblage of microcrystals of pyroxene and magiietite embedded in a clear glassy base.
No. 14 is another medium to dark grey, microcrystaline rock in whoch are occasional small porphyritic greenish-yellow olivines up to 3nim. m dia- meter.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. ast, 1950 Vol. 73, (2), Plate NXYV
231
Under the microscope the fine-grained base is dominated by a (rachytoid arrangement of plagioclase in laths to 0.75imm long and in needles; there are occasional microporphyritic olivines. The general groundmass is constituted of small augites and to a Jess extent olivines with much irresulvable dark base in which euhedral magnetites and magnetile dust are abyious.
Titanatigite microphenoctysts, in part slightly pleochroic, is biaxial posi- tive with 2V about 60°, The olivine is generally quite fresh and has a high optic-axial angle. The larger plagioclases show some zoning and have the characters of an acid to medium labradorite,
Specimens 4 and 11 are basaltic lavas that have undergone fumaroli¢c gas attack.
No. 4 is a coarsely vesicular, reddish-brown lava. Ln microscope section it is seen to be basalt which has undergone chvmical changes from the aitack nf volcanic gases. It has been subjected to considerable changes with the development of secondary miuerals including some haematite, hence the colour. Originally it was a basalt with well developed laths of labradorite and microphenocrysts of olivine and augite, evidently quite similar to others of the specimens already described. Mainly as a tesull of late-valeanic ac+ tivity subsequent to solidification, a considerable proportion of the steam holes have been filled by secondary minerals, mainly calcite and analcite-
No, 11 is another vesicular lava that has suffered penecontemporaneous gas attack resulting in partial breakdown of original minerals and reddening of the rock.
A feature as seen in microscope slide is the abundance of well developed stocky plagioclase laths in flow arrangement which, with some micropor- phyritic olivine and angite, are embedded in a yellowish glassy base charged with feldspar needles, The plagioclase ranges from imedium andesine to labradorite (Ab,An,). Prisms of apatite are to be noted.’ The glassy base appears to be palagonitized,
DESCRIPTION OF MICROPHOTOGRAPHS Fig. 1 Microphotograph of a thin section of rock No. 6, magnified 40 diameters, The larger individuals. especially a group on the left centre are oliyities. Aagite is in smaller andividuals, nat conspicuous. Narrow laths and needles of plagioclase are obvious but not very noticeahly developed. The bulk of the section is a base of minute granules of augite and dusty glass, Among the latter are minute patches and cavity fillings of what appears to be analcite.
Fig, 2 Microphotograph of a section of rock Ne. 11, magnified 40 diameters. The field is dominated by comparatively large and well formed plagioclase laths exhibiting fow orientation. A later more albitic generation of plagioclase appears us minute needles in the groundmass, which otherwise is mainly hrownish dusty glass. Studded through this base are small olivines, grains of black iromote and occasional well-fomed apatite, crystals.
Fie. 3 Microphotograph of a section of rack No. I, magnified 40 diameters. A large part of the rack is observed to be composed of plagioclase laths in streaming atrangement Olivine and augite in more granular form are both in evidence, the former in larger clearer crystals. The aigite is in smaller graniiles and less conspicuous, Though im very tiny particles, there is much magnetite studded throughout the base in ecuhoidal and ocirahedral formis, These recognisable constituents are embedded ju a clear to dusty Mescstasis, most of which is glass Wit in which theve are ncedles of andesine anel suggestions of mepheline.
G
THE LATE CAINOZOIC HISTORY OF THE SOUTH-EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
BY PAUL S. HOSSFELD
Summary
The late Cainozoic history of the South-East of South Australia is largely one of repeated recessions and advances of the ocean, and the preservation, wholly or in part, of the resulting stranded coastal dunes. Investigations support the view that the shorelines were unstable and the dunes were not formed in the sequence in which they exist today.
232
THE LATE CAINOZOIC HISTORY OF THE SOUTH-EAST OF
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
By Paut S. HossFeip*
[Read 8 June 1950]
CoNTENTS SUMMARY a. . J as INTRODUCTION ee 4 ToroGraPHy T General... és * vst ana 196 _ Il The calcareous dunes . aus aut eat fee sad ue IIf The siliceous sands... shge vest enn fine «live JV Lutnettes ,... as “ee “ass ants As hs ine V_ Volcanic hills f.29 tf wt ix. ni VI Marine escarpments VIL Drainage VITL The coast GEOLOGY General .... oe Il Pre-Murrayian Ill Murravian IV Post-Murravian a. Caleareous dunes iat eae sts b. Siliceous sands .... am oanss ante c. Waterworn quartz gilt ‘and pebbles vers mn d. Waterworn flints sie ne, eats nee ae c. Fossil shells " f. Lacustrine limestone .... g. Swamp deposits— Blacksoils, peat, shells, coorongite, lime biscuits h. Volcanic accumulations mer an rat 1. Lunettes ny j. Kunkar travertine k. Laterite Discussiox eute ae wats sats aid The basement ith sat Glacial custatic oscillations of, ea level Vulcunism mac Chronology eats Diastrophism nied ata ett pate aH Tsostasy ...- seca bass anes Sips sees pees Extinet rivers . Sits ier dees eed Human occupation ate bans a =P CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Tah
BIBuiocRArFHY
The late Catnozoic history of the South-East of South Australia is largely one of repeated recessions and advances of the ocean, and the preservation, wholly or in part, of the resulting stranded coastal dunes. view that the shore ines were unstable and the dunes were not formed in the
vee tee weer ote wees eee ste
SUMMARY
sequence in which they exist today.
A provisional chronology has been compiled in which the various shorelines are corrclated tentatively with the positive and negative movements of sea-level
during the Pleistocene Ice Age.
The vulcanism and other phenomena have been assigned places in the
chronology.
* School of Geology, University of Adelaide. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, (2), Dec. 1950
Page
232 233
234 235 237 238 238 238 238 240
241 242 243 245 245 249 250 251 251 252
252 252 253 253 254 254 255
275 276
Investigations support the
233
It is emphasised that the instability of the region during the period under review makes definite correlation with other areas in Austral'a cir other countries impracticable at present.
The investigations carried out show that here is an area which, owing to the very low gradients of its basemen’, has been a sensitive indicator of changes in sea-level and on which is preserved a large part of the geological record from the Upper Pliocene to the present day. Not only will a study af this region provide a detailed picture of that time, but the results obtained by such an investi- gation will assist matcrially in the development of a clearer Understanding of older epochs and periods of which a smal! proportion only of teie original record has been preserved,
INTRODUCTION
The area to be described includes the greater part of the region usually referred to as the South-East of South Australia and more specifically as the Upper and Lower South-East. The region is the most southerly province of Sonth Australia and comprises roughly that part of the State situated be- tween the coast south and east of the Murray Mouth and the Victorian harder. Fenner (1930) gave the names Ninety Mile Plains and South-East Plains to his regions 14 and 15, which correspond approximately to the generally accepted though ill-defined concept of the Upper and Lower South- Easi respectively. Recent official division of South Australia has resulted in the establishment of wo regions, the Tatiara and Gambier Regions, which depart considerably, however, from the former sub-divisions. ‘The terrain described in this paper includes the greater part of the Gambier and the western part of the Tatiara Division. The area dealt with comprises approxi- mately 6500 square miles and includes the greater part of the Counties of Grey, Rohe, Macdonnell and Cardwell and the south-western part of Buck- ingham. Owing to their use by previous authors, the terms Upper and Lower Sauth-East are being retained in the present paper.
The varied and interesting problems presented in this region have not atiracted in the past the attention which they merit. It is true that previous investigations inctude geological, geographical, soil survey, land utihzalion, butanical, palacontological, economic and anthropological research of se- lected and limited areas; but such of the work as deals with the region as a whole is highly generalized and any detailed surveys that haye been made cover «mall sectors only, The more impurtant contributions include those of Tenison-Woods, Fenner, Ward, Campbell, Wade, Mawson, Tindale, Tay- lor, Stephens, Crocker, Cotton and various State Government Departments, Others are listed in the bibliography.
The present paper has been written as the restilt of fieldwork by the aiiihor, commenced in 1931 and continued at intervals:as opportunity offered, until November, 1949. Recent intensive work has been made possible by facilities eranted by the University of Adelaide.
The investigation embraces the study of all available bore and well re- cords; the detailed mapping on a seale of 40 chains per mile of some areas using the published maps of the Department of Lands and Survey; the close stercoscopic examination of thousands of aerial photographs lent by the De- ferice Department, and wf others made available by the C.S.L.R.O, and mapping on the scale of these photographs, the largest scale being 20 chains per inch.
Since the above was written, advice has been received of a paper by R, C. Sprigy on Stranded Sea Beaches of the Sonth-Mast of South Australia, ta be published in Vraus. (Sih Geol. Congr., London, 1948.
234
The use of thousands of Jeyels made available by the South-Eastern Drainage Board, and the detailed contoured maps of special areas surveyed by the above as well as by the Woods and Forests Department, made it possible to construct a provisional contoured map of the basement of the greater part of the region.
The aerial photographs now available and the increasing wealth of sur- vey data becoming available in recent years, have made it possible to exainine and map the area in much greater detail than could be done pre- viously, and has resulted in the modification or rejection of some of the hypotheses formulated hy previous investigators. lt will be shown that the writer gecepts in principle the glacial eustatic origin of the calcareous dune ranges (Tindale, 1933, 1947) as against crustal warping (Ward, 1941), Never- theless it is evident that crustal deformation has played an important rile ii the development of the region. The writer cannot accept the greater part cf Tindale’s reconstruction of the Pleistocene history of the region and con- siders that in the present state of our knowledge, correlation of glacial eus- tatic terraces of the South-East of South Australia with thoae of the Atlantic Coast of the U.S.A. or of the Mediterranean is impossible.
An attempt has been made by the use of such evidence as could be ob- tained to compile the chronological sequence for each of the calcareous dune ranges, Jlowever, this rests so largely on inference that it must be regarded as tentative only. h
Reference could be made in the text to but a small proportion of the publications consulted. Those which have a direct bearing on some of the problems discussed in this paper and which are not specifically mentioned in the text are ineluded in the Bibliography. In addition the writer was able to examine unpublished maps and reports made available through the gene- rosity and co-operation of the Directors of Oil Search Ltd,
The assistance is gratefully acknowledged of Professor Sir Danglas Maw- son of the School of Geology, and of Dr. T. D. Campbell, University of Ade- laide; Mr. D, Schulz, of Rendelsham; Mr. A. J. S. Adams, Chief Forester at Mount Burr Forest; Messrs. R. N. Campbell and H. F. Kessall, of Mount Gambier; Mr. C. Willshire, of Millicent: Mc. Jackway, of Blackfellows Caves, and the officials of the Commonwealth Department of Defence at Keswick and of the State Departments of Woods and Farests, Mines, Lands and Sur- vey, the South-Eastern Drainage Board and the South Australian Harbours Board.
TOPOGRAPHY I Generar.
The region is a low level terrain which slopes very gently seaward. Owing to regional warping, the inclination of this terrain varies in different sectors both in amount and direction. In the most northerly area the slope is south-westerly, in the central portion it is westerly, changing gradually further south until southerly near the Victorian border. Although this re- gion possesses very low and uniform gradients over a very large proportion of its surface, there are many areas of diversified relief both above and below the general level. Features above the general level are inliers of ancient rocks, xeolian deposits and voleanic accumulations, as well as escarpments produced by former marine erosion. Features below the general level include lakes, swamps and claypans, creeks, sinkholes and closed depressions (tvalas).
The inhiers of ancient rocks occur north of the Kingston-Naraccorte Rail- way. Most of them are Jow and only a few of them reach heights of over 100 feet (Mawson 1943, 1944, 19453, LO45b),
235
The aeolian deposits ate of three types|—the ealcarcous dunes, the sili- ceaus sands, and lunettes.
Tl Tur Carcareaus DUNES
These are the predominant type of surface relief, Their peenliar arrange- ment, location and origin, as well as their economic significance attracted attention from the beginning of exploration and settlement of the region (Woods, 1862). This interest hag became more pronounced in tecent years, both from scientific and econamic aspects. Their adverse influence, both direct and indirect, on the cconomic development of the region has becn far reaching.
Their general direction, though variable, has a north-westerly trend, andl is approximately parallel to the present coastline and at igh angles but not at right angles to the general slope of the region. T heir fronts or seaward edges exhibit a small but consistent drop in height both north and south of the Mount Burr area. Failure by some previous investigators fo observe these progressive variations in altitade has led to serious errors in the inter- pretation of the history of the region.
A traverse normal to the present coastline crosses the dune ranges at high angles and at progressively increasing heights above sea-level. Although exhibiting great variations in shape and size, they have a roughly sub- parallel arrangement with north-westerly trends, As they ate followed in a rorth-westerly direction from {he Mount Burr area, all hut a few of the mnter- dune flats decrease steadily in width until many of the ranges coulesce sa that it is no longer possible to distinguish them individually. Rarely do they rise to heights as much as one hundred feet above the adjacent plains, anc as a rule their summits are considerably short of thal figure. Tlowever, be- cause of the low relict of the intervening areas, these dunes are known aa “sanges” and owing to their separation in the central part ot the region by wide, extensive plains, bear distinctive names. Those for which no local games could be discovered have been named by the writer the Canunda (Campbell, 1946), Woolumbool, Peacock, Lucindale anc Neville Ranges,
The furthest inland tange is known as the Naracoorte Range, This has been divided by the writer into the Fast and West Naracoorte Ranges.
In the central portion of the South-East the East Naracuorle Range is the more inland and rises from a higher part of the basement than docs the West Naracoorte Range. To the north and north-west of the town al Nata- coorte these two ranges coalesce and at some distance beyond this conver- gelice the range divides again. One branch turns to the north-west and farms the Black Range whicli apparently trends more anid more westerly towards the southern margin of the Mount Boothby inliers of ancient igneous rocks. This branch is being identified by the writer with the East Naracoorte Range. The other branch, the more easterly, consists iu its southern sector where it diverges fram the combined range, of a series of ifregular discton- nectedl dunes, but further to the north exists as a well+leyeloped continuous dune system. The further continuations of this system are being investigated by other workers. This branch is being identified here as the continualion cl the West Naracoorte Range, Such identification implies that in the northern sector of the region the West Naracoorte Range is the furthest in- land and at the highest level, whereas in the central sector this position 1s: occupied by the East Naracoorte Range. The continuation further ta the south-east extends into Victoria and does not exist im the southern sector of the South-East Region of South Australia.
235
Just to the south of the town of Naracoorte, the western edge of the East Naracoorte Range is 54 miles ffom the coast, but altitude and distance de- crease continuously to the north-west, until near Chifaman Wells the cor- responding part of the range is only 26 miles from the coast and at a very much lower level.
This range, known in the Hundred of Laffer as the Black Range, has been mapped over a length of 96 miles and continues to an unknown distance to the north-west and south-east. The greatest Jengths recorded are those of the Reedy Creek and West Avenue Ranges which have been traced over a distance of 166 miles without their north-western or south-eastern limits having been reached. Other ranges, however, are nol as persistent and their total lengths vary considerably. Some terminate abruptly; others lose height gradually towards their extremities; others consist of a series of disconnected ridges; others decrease almost to nothing then increase again in height and width; still others, particularly in the Upper South-East, are partly or com- pletely covered by drift sand so that their location is difficult to determine. Although a rake pattern is exhibited by some, most of the ranges possess straight or smoothly curved western or seaward edges for considerable pro- portions of their extent, but have deeply indented or embhayed eastern or in- land margins. In some areas no defined ranges are discernible, and the pat- tern displayed by the dune limestone outcrops is extremely irregular, though exhibitmg in most instances a subordinate but nevertheless definite trend, (See General Map). Because of these factors, the complete succession is not encountered in any traverse normal to the ranges. Detailed investiga- tions by the writer have shown that the general belief expressed by previous authors, of the existence of seven to eight or even fewer ranges iS erroneous. It has been possible to distinguish and map eighteen distinct ranges, each of which either already bears a local name or has beet named herein.
For reasons giyen above and others which will be discussed later, it was found necessary to begin the critical examination of the regiou and deter. mine the initial classilication of the stranded dune ranges in the central sec- tor, In this sector, commencing with the dune range at the greatest distance from the coastline and therefore rising relatively from the highest parts of the jundamental plain, the complete list in a seaward direction as now deter- mined ig ;—
1. East Naracourte 1) East Avenue
2. West Naracoorte 11 West Avenne
3. Harpers 12. Reedy Creek
4. Stewarts or Cave 13. Neville
5. Waolumbool 14+. East Dairy
6. Peacack 15, West Dairy
7, Bakers 16. East Woakwine 8, Liucindale 17, West Woakwine 9 Ardune 18. Canunda
The recent naming of dune limestone ridges in the extreme Lower Sunth- East (Crocker 1946a) appears to have been unnecessary. It is true thar Crocker was correct in abolishing the term Kongorong Range used locally for the southern part of the Woakwine Range, and that giving ihe name MacDonnell Range to the double limestone range near Allendale can be jus- tified. His Burleigh and Caveton Ranges howeyer, are identical with and are continuations of the Reedy Creek and West Avenue Ranges respectively, and his Mount Gambier Range is almost certainly a continuation of the East Avenue Range.
27
Unless specifically mentioned, the present coastal dines are not included in the description and general discussion of the calcareous dunes.
Despite their low altitudes, the rocky outcrops, dense scrub, and deep drift sands of many seclors have made of these ranges a series of barriers to trafic between the coast and the interior, The obstructions they placed across the natural fow of surface waters, impounded these against the eastern or inland flanks of the ranges. Ag a result, white sandy beaches were formed in many sectors of the inland margins of the ranges wherever permanent or semi-permanent lagoons still exist, or existed before the present artificial drainage schemes came intu operation. Much of the impounded flood water moved in a north-westerly direction, As the resultant gradient in that direc- tion is less than one foot per mile in must sectors, movement was sluggish and ill-defined except when floodwaters had raised the level of the water sificiently to produce a temporary and adequate stecpening of the Jocal gra- djent. Considerable amounts of water but varying greatly in different locali- ties, sceped through and beneath the ranges, emerging as springs, permatient or intermittent, on the next series of interdume flats, As a result, roads and (racks over most of the region were confined, unless specially constructed, for the greater part of each year almost entirely to the ranges and chiefly to their flanks or to the very natrow zone, not present everywhere, which marked the transition from range to flat, Even today when artificial dramage has improved the surface run-off in many areas, trouble is experienced in wet years, and roads and embankments are heing vaised in a number of localities.
Despite the poverty and general lack of depth of soil in many parts of the ranges, their relative dryness as compared with the inter-range flats, de- termined their use as winter quarters for stock. Observations show that many areas now exhibiting bare stony hillsides completely devoid al vegeta- tion, that have brought to that condition by wind erosion after removal oi the vegetation by overgrazing or rabbits.
Costly drainage schemes have been carried out and more are proposed to remove Stitface waters from such swampy inter-range areas as are considered suitable for development. As the highest surface gradient is nearly at right angles to the average trend of the ranges and natural gaps are few, excava- tions of considerable magnitude wete necessary in seme instances, The longest aad deepest excavations are those of Drain L which terminates near Robe and which bas a maximum depth of 54 fect through the Woakwine Range,
MII Tor Suaceous Sanps
Enormous accumulations of this material exist in the region and their fixation by veetation ensures their stability while the plant cover remains, Although isolated deposits exist in the Belt Range near Hatherleigh anid in other localities to the west of the Reedy Creek Range, in general they ocenr further east. These sands cover completely or in part, many sectors of the calcareous dune ranges, but do not of themselves form large dunes af great linear extent. The greatest accumilations arc low, gently undulating or level expanses which in many instances were former interdune flats and swamps. They occur piled up against and on top of pre-existing hills and ridges and in general have the appearance of windsorted material distributed over an irregular landscape. In the Lawer South-East they have been utilized largely for pine plantations, The resulting forest cover adds to the diffeulties. not only of determining their limits but also of mapping any outcrops of pire- existing formations. A study of the planning of the plantations and of the growth of the pines give in many instances chies to the subjaceit rocks, but do not enable accurate geological boundaries to he drawn,
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IV JuNettes
In numerous localities, but especially in the areas east of Kingston and cf Robe, and in the wide interdune Hats between the Caye and Ilarper's Ranges and the Naracoorte Range, both to the north and squth af the town of Naracoorte, the flats contain very large numbers of small, shallow depres- sions which are filled with water during and for considerable periods after the wet season. A notable feature of very many of these is the existence on their eastern margins of crescent-shaped dunes generally varying in height and size with the adjacent lagoon. These dunes are known as luncttes and have been described elsewhere (Hills 1939, 1940), (Stephens 1946).
V Vorcaste Hits
In the southern part of the region accumulations of volcanic material, chiefly of tuff with some basalt flows, form a number of elevations, the largest and most extensive area being the Mount Burr Range, culminating in Mount Burr, 802 feet above sea level and approximately 700 feet aboye the plains to the west. ‘The Mount Burr Range contains within it or is adjacent te Mounts Muirhead, Graham, Muir, MacIntyre, Sinclair, William and Ed- ward, Day's and Campbell’s Hills, The Lookout, Frill, Wateh and Bluff. Further to the south the isolated cones of the smal extinct volcanoes of Mounts Gambier and Schank form conspicuous landmarks on the low level plateau.
VI Marre EscarpmMents
In several localities cliffs and escarpments praduced by former wave- action occur inland at various levels, Somte of the more conspicuous are the Up-And-Down Rocks near Tantanoola, a scarp between Mount Sehank and Port Macdonnell, the north-eastern flank of Mount Graham, the vicinity of
tackfellow’s Caves, Robe, and Nora Creina Bay.
VIT Dratnace
Within this region surface drainage is immature and crecks and natural drainage channels are few in number. In the eastern sector the chief streams are the Mosquito, Naracoorte and Morambro Creeks which dse in Vittoria and flow westwards into South Australia but spread out om the flats west of the Naracoorte Range. In the western sector the chief crecks are the Reedy, Avenue, Salt, Cattle and Maria Creeks, and in the southern sector the Stony, Benara and Eight Mile Creeks. None of these were important drain- age channels and even Reedy Creek, by far the largest, was merely a chain of swarups and small lagoons which drained slowly to the north-west during and after heavy rains. The location of the successive dune ranges, being icatly at right angles to the average slope of the region, together with ihe porosity of the subjacent rocks, prevented the development of a defined drainage pattern and resulted in the banking up of foadwaters on the eastern flanks of the ranges. To some extent sub-surface drainage effected the re- moval of surplus waters, but a very large proportion travelled slowly it a rorth-westerly direction to Alfred Flat and beyond, supplying some water to the Cattle, Maria and Salt Creeks; evaporation accounted for the re- mainder, The Sonth Australian Government, through the South-Eastern Drainage Board, has done and is doing much to drain the more fertile ateas by providing artificial channels through the blockading ranges.
Lakes, lagoons, swamps and claypans ate very plentiful in some sectors, notably im the areas adjacent to the coast, ay well as in the areas east of Kingston and of Robe and in the wide inter-dune flat west of the West Nara-
239
coorte Range. While some are salt the overwhelming majority of the inland basins contain fresh water, The largest basins are those adjacent to the coast and include the Coorong, appreximately 90 miles long, Lakes Eliza, St, Clair and George, all of which are salt, and Lake Bonney approximately 22 miles long which contains freste water and, as is to be expected, has an outlet to the ocean, Other lakes and swamps will be referred io in a later section, hut brief mention must be made here of the Dismal Swamp, a collection of partly connected and irregular swamps which extends to the Victorian border and from the eastern portions of which surplus waters are staied ip drain slowly into the Glenelg River, a stream which at present flaws almost entircly with- in the boundaries of Victoria.
The underlying porous limestanes, as well as the porous limestones of the dune ranges, in preventing the development of a Uelinite sutface drainage, produced a region of largely “cryptoreic™ drainage (Penner 1930), As a re- sult, caves, sink-holes, and closed depressions (uyalas) indicative of the col- lapse of former solution chambers, are plentiful in the southern part of the regiot, a arca of relatively high rainfall.
In order to obtain a true picture of the configuration of the basement on which the aeolian and volcanic deposits rest, a contoured map is essential. Since none was available, the writer has attempted to remedy this defect. With the nid of all available levels and contoured plans of such areas as had been surveyed by the South-Eastern Drainage Board and the Woods and Forests Department, a map of the major part of the South-east has been pre- pared. Insufficient levels are available for the extreme north and south af the region, but a large enough area has been contoured ta supply much needed information of the morphology and history of the South-East, As the acolian and yoleanic deposits have no structural connection with the basement it- self, and since the contour mapping of these highly irregular and in places convoluted areas would have served no useful purpose, they have been dis; regarded and the contoured map purposes to show the actual floor of the basement plain.
This floor coincides in many areas, notably in the Lower South-East, with the upper surface of {he Miocene limestones and in the northern sector of the Upper South-East with the Precanshrian and Miocene pavement, the surfaces in both areas being the results of marine planation, There are, haw- ever, large ateas in which the marine plane is covered by later deposits of matine, lacustrine, aeolian or volcanic origin, Although this cover is thin except in the Mount Burr Range, its presence must be allawed for in the determination of the contours which are intended as neatly as possible to represent the planed-off surface of the basement rocks. It has not been pos- sible to determine the necessary values in all localities, and to that extent the final figures used must be approximations only, In order that such cover, which is irregular in occurrence both as to area and thickness, should pro- duce the minimum amount of distortion the scale of the final may was re- duced considerably, The original one font intervals were rediiced to ten- foot contours, and the horizontal seale of 2 miles per inch was reduced to 8 miles per itich.
It will be noted that, except for a few areas in the north-eastern sector ajjacent to Victoria, the haserment is ai higher levels beteath the Mount Burr Range and in the Dismal Swamp area than in any other part of the region,
A map has been prepared af the Mount Rurr area, showing the actual sufface contours. The greater part of this map is based on detailed contour plans surveyed and drawn by the Woods and Forests Department, These
240
were extended where possible by the use of other survey data, and where
these were not available, by sketch contours especially in the vicinity of The Bluff.
MUNDRED
HUNDREG oF <
+ ~N Bipoocn MDUNT MU/RHEAD } \ ‘
ase _
- 40, agile 4) soe pee) 1 +s. t a gr irow GBB a A » 2 WUNDRED OF nINDMARSH Pepe Jeoe Ry f am ec? ' oi . HUNDNED
oF
5, MAYURRA, a ‘ or ‘Bei
\
t
Sh CAVES acs s s , x %: Mount _Gamnrga | % ‘ x : . : Ate
4
aN aS % N
FGWNG.
GENERALIZED CONTOURS at the MOUNT BURR RANGE and adjacent Areas
basad largely. on {Off contour intervals surveyed by Woods & Forests Dept
Cantours shown thus —— |O0/t or multiples A ; gocw SOU, mlermediate contours a kneel F——= sketch contours
Boundaries of Hundreds —.— — —.—--—
SCALE 2 4 zener
Fig, 1
VITI Tre Coast
North of Kingston the present shoreline is apparently prograding with the development of coastal dunes, probably an offshore bar initially, and im- pounding the long narrow lake known as the Coorong. To the south of Kingston the coast appears to be one of submergence with an advancing shoreline. The history and development of these features will be dealt with in a subsequent section of this paper.
241
GEOLOGY T GENERAL.
The region is a sector of the former Murrayian Gulf which in South Australia extended far to the north, included the greater part of the present Mount Lofty Ranges and covered extensive areas in New South Wales and Victoria. This gulf was formed by the advance of the sea during the Miocene Epoch wr perhaps even earlier, The sea finally retreated from the greater part of this Gulf at or near the close of the Lawer Pliocene, and formed a new shoreline which is believed to have coincided approximately with the present East Naracoorte Range. Further palacontological work is expected to result in definite age determinations both of the submergence and eter- gence of the Murravian Gulf.
Betore its submergence, the greater part of this area appears to have been continuous with and a part of the Great Australian Peneplain which in South Australia appears to have reached its final stages and greatest development towards the close of the Mesozuic Era.
Within the region described in this paper, the rocks immediately under- lying the surface of the peneplain belonged to two granps. North of the vicinity of Kingston they appear to have consisted of Precambrian and pos- sibly Palaeozoic sediments and tgneous intrusions (Mawson 1943 and 1944). To the south of Kingston they consisted as far as is known, of Mesozoic sediments apparently lacustrine in origin.
As stated in another paper, not yet published, the writer considers that the available evidence indicates titat the dismemberment of the peneplain in ihe region now known as the Mount Lufty Ranges commenced during the Cretaceous or very early in the Tertiary Period. In sore sectors warping and faulting ended the peneplanation cycle, and as a result, terrestrial de- posits such as grayels, sands and Jignitic clays were formed in yarious paris of the region,
li the age determination of the lacustrine Sediments penetrated in the lower section of the Robe bore as Jurassic (Ward 1941), is upheld by subse- (juehl research, it is possible that the diastrophisin which affected parts of Southern Australia during the later siages of the Cretaceous Period and in the Cainozoic Era was active also in the Lower Sotith-East, an area in which diastrophism appears however, to have begun earlier, It lollows that deposi- tion, largely and probably entirely of terrestrial material, may have con- tinued through the Cretaceots and into the Tower Tertiary Period until during the Oligocene or Miocene Epochs the sea advanced aver the region end formed the Murravian Gulf. There would in that case be little or na hrealc in deposition in the area to the south of Kingston. In the terrain north of Kingston the terrestrial deposits formed immediately above the Precam- brian-Palacozoic floor will date from the beginning of diastrophism in any given locality and will vary probably from Upper Cretaceous to Lower Ter- tiary in different places,
While it is true that no definite break in deposition is expected in the area tu the south of Kingston, this is alter all only a smal! fraction of the total area of the former Gulf, The great expanse of this gulf in South Australia north of Kingston, and also in New South Wales and Victcria, exhibits a sharp time and crosion break between the Cretaceous to Lower Pliocene sedi- ments and the floor of Precambrian and Palaeozoic rocks on which they were deposited. Although the greater part of the South-Fast remained submerged probably to the close of the Pliocerie Epoch, and lence deposits of Upper Pliocence Time were formed and probably still exist in protected areas, the
242
emergence of the Murravian Gulf as such is considered by the writer to have been completed when the sea finally retreated to the East Naracoorte shore- line at the close of or during the Lower Pliocene Age. The writer therefore has divided the rocks and formations of the South-East into three groups which will be referred to as:—
PRE-MURRAVIAN, MURRAVIAN, and POST-MURRAVIAN II) Pre-Murkavian
The Pre-Murravian rocks are those which formed the peneplain and which over the greater part of the South Australian portion of the Murravian Gulf are of Precambrian and early Palaeozoic age. Ax stated above, to the south of Kingston the basement rocks are believed to be of Mesozoic age, but as they do not outcrop, httle is known of them.
In the region north of Kingsten large numbers of inliers of the ancient rocks otttcrop. Many, including the more important ones, have been mapped and described in recent years (Mawson 1943, 1944, 1945a and b). As most af them do not make conspicuous outcrops, and in fact many are close to or Jevel with the general surface, and since much of the terrain is sparsely settled and difficult of access, it is possible that some outcrops still await
ALPAED a
ehit
FueeraTtTacen
ry
q tava Pine Liar 3 f morpmpeay nv tambe rsbety VOID
elon Scag Smet HEE OER T, SCALE Sable FEET
Fiz. 2 Sketch Section from Mount Boothby to Taratap Quarry, north of Kingston,
discovery. An examination of the general map accompanying this paper, and ou which are shown all known outcrops, suggests, however, that these inliers of aticient rocks are restricted to two separate areas. In an area bounded approximately by a line drawn from a little south of Keith and a little north of Tintinara respectively in a south-westerly direction, no outcrops of these rocks have been recorded, The evidence of the Alfred Flat and Tintinara bores (Howchin 1929) as well as of a number of bores in the vicinity of Salt Creck (Ward, 1944) supports the view that this area is underlain by a hasin cr valley excavated in the Precambrian rocks. The depth of this feature ts shown to be about 350 and 250 feet respectively in the Alfred Flat and ‘Tin- tinara bores (Fig. 2). In the other bores of the district, those near Salt Creek and adjacent areas, the Precambrian rocks were reached apparently at depths of 190, 400, 518, two of over 600 feet and one of 924 feet. (Ward op, cit), In the latter bore, the drill entered tillite at 503 feet and continued in that for- mation to a depth of 924 feet.
This tillite was encountered in one bore only and that one which reached the greatest depth before penetrating the Precambrian floor. Such a valley could have been an erosion feature or be of tectonic origin. In view of the stage to which peneplanation appears to have progressed in this part of Aus- tralia before the formation of the Murravian Gulf, its origin as a river valley cannot be supported, nor could it be supposed that marine erosion after sub-
243
mergence would have excavated it in the resistant ancicnt racks, The sug- gestion (Ward 1944) that the tillite probably is of Permo-Carboniferous age indicates that this valley, like the Inman Valley further to the west, may be the result, in part at least, of Late Palaeozoic glacial erosion. On the other hand, this glacially filled valley could have been tectonic, originating in Early Tertiary times, but the available evidence does not support this.
On the whole, the evidence appears to favour the existence of an old glacial valley, probably Permo-Carboniferous, in which the soft glacial de- posits were preserved at the level which subsequent peneplanation of the adjoining areas achieved. If that is the correct explanution, then the ad- vance of the sea in Tertiary times to form the Mtirravian Gulf would have resulted in the removal, partial or complete, of the boulder elay from the greater part of the valley; then would follow the gradual deposition, on the tillite where such remained and on the Precambrian rocks where these had been exposed, of the sediments of Miocene age encountered in the various bores, The subsequent retreat of the sea during the later part of the Pliocene Epoch to the East Naracoorte shoreline would expose the Lower Pliocene deposits to erosion in the shallowed seas and effect their complete removal and partial removal of the Miocene sediments.
It is highly probable that during Upper Pliocene times when the sea still covered the region to the south-west of the East Naracoorte Range, a deptes- sion persisted in this area and was filled with, and still contains Upper Plio- cene deposits protected from erosion during the Pleistocene Epoch.
This supposed deposttion of Upper Pliocene and some Pleistocene sedi- nients would thus account for the sharp break between the Miocene and the Upper Pliocene or Pleistocene sediments as recorded tn some of the bores,
Ik] Murravian
The Murravian deposits are defined here as those which were laid down on the surface of the former peneplain from the time that diastrophism began to dismember it; deposition continued during the period of submergence by the sea and until the sea retreated finally to the East Naracoorte shoreline, 4a total time range, as stated earher, of probably from the Upper Cretaceous tu the close of the Lower Pliocene. As stated above, the older stages appear to have been terrestrial and were succeeded during ihe Miocene and Lower Pliocene by marine sedimentation. No marine deposits of Lower Pliocene age have been recorded to the south-west of the East Naraeoorte Range but as will be shown later, are believed to have existed and to have been removed from this sector by subsequent marine erosion. Deposits of marine origin of Miocene age occur throughout the region, at the surface in the southern
art of the area and at variable shallow depths in all except a few limited localities in the northern part of the area.
Detailed descriptions of these rocks are available in the literature, and investigations being carried out by the Geological Survey of South Australia will add considerably tu our knowledge of these sediments. They consist predominantly of limestones, some af which have heen dolomitized. This dolomitization appears to haye affected some beds over considerable arcas and it may be found that some horizons have been changed completely. One of the most spectacular can be seen at the Up-and-Down Rocks near Tanta- noola. Here the resistance to weathering and erosion of the locally dalomi- tized limestones has produced a cliff formed by wave action during a former higher sea level, and has enabled this cliff, described by some writers as a fault scarp, to withstand erosion sufficiently to remain a prominent feature.
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In many places the soft Polyzoal Miocene limestones contain vast num- bers of flints. Exposures are particularly good along the coastal cliffs be- tween Capes Banks and Northumberland, but outcrops showing these flints can be seen at a number of localities inland, especially in quarries, sinkholes and eaves. Whether these flints occur on definite stratigraphical horizons was not determined, but they do occur at intervals in ihe sequenee. ‘They vary considerably in size, colour, shape and texture, ranging from large tabu- lar masses to small nodules, and exhibiting a wide range of colour with dark- grey to bluish-black predominating. While it was found that under certain conditions these fiints weather and disintegrate rapidly, their relatively greater resistance to erosion has resulted in the accumulation, during former stillstands of the ocean, of numerous deposits which testify to former marine action. Their occurrence in many localities and in large numbers as residual beach pebbles, as well as in immense banks on parts of the shore, made them the natural and predominant material in the manufacture of artefacis by the aborigines, who have left enormous numbers of these stone tools on their former camping grounds. In some areas weathering of these flint artefacts has affected the whale of the object and although it still bears the shape given to it by the native, ir is naw a white porous material and in some instances ermubles when struck. There are many artefacts, however, in which weather- ing is incomplete and which on being broken show a zone of weathered material surrounding a core of unweathered flint, the core mheriting approxi- mately the shape and faces given io the original fragment by the maker (Mitchell, 1943; Campbell, 1946),
The Miocene sediments have undergone slight folding movements. Evi- dence of this folding can be seen in the gorge of the Glenelg River, on the surface near Mount Salt station and near Burnda Railway Station, and may, although other explanations are possible, account for the dune paitern near Cape Banks and Narrow Neck.
The Miocene limestones as secn on the coastal cliffs between Cape Nor- thumberland and Cape Banks appear to have a very slight dip northwards. There is also, as stated earlier, the regional warping which has produced a general west-north-westerly tilt of the surface in the terrain north of Mount Burr and a south-south-westerly slope in the area to the south. Whether the folding and warping occurred at subsequent times or whether they were con- temporaneous is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss, Reference must be made, however, to two major faults which have been referred to repeatedly im) the literature. These are the Naracoorte and Tartwaup Faults, The Naracoorte Fault is stated (Fenner, 1930) to coincide approximately with the Naracoorte Range. This fatilt may exist, but the present writer has seen no evidence which would support this contention and considers that all the fuatures observed by him can be explained more satisfactorily as haying been produced by marine crosion.
‘The Tartwaup Fault (Ward, Crocker, Tindale, Fenner, Stephens) which jg stated to pursue an arcuale course to the south and west of the Mount Burr Range, is another instance for the acceptance of which the writer te- quires additional evidence. It is true that the evidence cited by Ward (1846) cf change in hydraulic jevel is strong, but it is not conclusive. The other features considered Ly Ward and others as evidence in support, namely the steep front of the Up-and-Down Rocks and the springs to the west of the Mount Burr Range are, it is believed, due to other factors. The Up-and- Down Rocks appear to be a wave-cut cliff im relatively resistant rocks. The existence of a sea-caye (Tindale, 1933) and the discovery by the writer on
245
top of the cliff of calcareous dune limestone similar to that forming the other stranded dunes of the region, support this view. The springs to the west of the Mount Burr Range do not exhibit a linear arrangement except for short distances and many other springs occur elsewhere. These springs appear to Le part of the natural drainage through and beneath the dune ranges as described earlier, If the Naracoorte or Tartwaup Faults do exist, and this has to be proved, then it seems probable that they are at least of Tertiary age and pre-dale the oscillating retreat of the sea from the East Naracoorte shoreline.
TV Post-Mugravian These ate grouped as follows >—
a, Calcnreous dunes g. Swamp deposits
h. Siticeous sands h. Voleame accumulations c. Waterworn quartz grit arid pebbles i. Lunettes
d. Waterworn fits j. Kunkar travertine
e. Possil shells k. Laterite
f. Lacustrine hmestones
a. The Calcareous Dunes
These, the dominant form of surface relief of the region, have been described and their origin discussed by several observers. The impression gained from the literature is that of a region consisting of a pla sloping gently seaward in a south-westerly direction, and bearing upon it a series of dune ranges parallel or approximately so to the coastline, each dune rising from progressively lower parts of the plain as one travels towards the coast, This over-simplification of what is actually a complex pattern has led io serious misconceptions and errors itt altempls to reconstruct the geological development of the region. The. tendency to group together a number of individual dune ranges without determining whether they have had situilar or different histories, the failure to realise the importance of those areas in which the dune ranges so far from being parallel to the coastline intersect it, the neglect of the variations in direction, horizontal and vertical spacing of the ranges, and of lhe great diflerences in amount both of erosion and chemical processes, have prevented hitherto a proper consideration and detai‘cd study of the problems itrvolved.
It is generally agreed that these ranges were [ormed as the result of still- stands of the sea and correspond approximately to the shorelines thus produced, The ranges possess in gencral a north-westerly trend and approximately at right angles to the prevailing wind. Although acctimulation and modification by wave action was an important and probably the only factor in the carly stages of development of most if vot all of the dunes, wind sorting and piling became the dominant process once these accumulations projected above sea-level. As ts to be expected in acolian deposits of this type, they exhibit to leeward, that is on the inland and nottheastern flanks, the usual intricate pattern. On the wind- ward or seaward and south-western side they have, over considerable distances, straight or smoothly curved edges. In other sectors the elges vary Jrom a regular sawtooth or rake pattern to highly irregu'ar meanderings and conyolutions. Further, the ranges from the East Naracoorte seawards 4s tar as and meluding the East Avenue Range, exhibit im general an arcuate trend concave towards the south-west. Irom and including the West Avenue Range, the arcuate trend persists but is cuncave towards the north-east. This latter tendency becomes less marked as the coast is approached and in the Woakwine and Canunda Ranges it appears to be a minor [eatire only..
During the present investigation it was found that the region could be divided rouglily into three sectors, The north-western sector in which inhers
246
oi igneous rocks are numerous but separated into two groups by a filled valley probably of glacial origin, contains a large number of relatively closely spaced dune limestone outcrops, Many of these are very irregular in form and obscured considerably by more recent drift sand, so much so [hat their delimitation must be regarded as approximate only in many instances and others probably exist ef which no indications were observed. Erosion, considered to be partly marine and partly lacustrine, has played a large part in the removal of evidence of former continuity of individual dunes and hence makes it difticult to identify and trace some of them, The increasing effects in a north-westerly direction of downwarp and probable isostatic movements, and the almost complete absence of surveyed levels, indicate that this sectur was unsuitable for the initial study of the develop- ment of the dune ranges,
In the south-eastern sector the presence oi volcanic accumulations, the large amount of marine erosion in the southern and western portions, the effect of downwarping as shown by the relatively much steeper gradients of the basement as compared with the areas to the north-west, and the scarcity of available sur- veyed levels were factors which made this sector unsuitable for the intitial study of the dune limestones.
The central sector, where the basement gradients are very low, the dune ranges relatively widely spaced, comparatively regular and continuous, and no igneous outcrops are known, is also the sector in which surveyed levels are sufficiently numerous for the construction of a provisional contour map of the basement on which the dines wete deposited, It is in this Sector therefore that the various dune ranges and their development were studied initially, and from which the mapping and investigation were extended to the north-west and south-east. The north-western and south-eastern sectors yielded much additional evidence relevant to the problems investigated, but it is the central sector, in which the general evidence is much clearer and less confused by other features, which was used primarily in the grouping and classification of the dune ranges,
The grouping of these ranges by various observers has resulted generaily in the recognition of seven stages, the Naracoorte. Cave or Stewart's, Baker’s, East Aventie, West Avenue, Reedy Creek and Woakwine Ranges,
Although recognising the existence of the above seven ranges as well as of the Dairy Kange, Tindale has related all of them to five terraces, the Naracoorte, Cave, East Avetite, Reedy and Woakwine Terraces, This grouping of numbers of ranges may have been influenced by the remarkable tendency of most of the ranges as they continue to the north-west tu approach each other and in many instances. to merge so completely as ta he mseparable, The presenr examination and mapping of the region and study of thousands of survey levels milicate that such simplified grouping is not in accordance with the individual histories of the varjous ranges.
The writer has been compelled, in listing the various ranges, to name some for which no names could be discovered, namely the Canunda, Neville, Lucindale, Peacock and Woolumbool, and also io separate others into their components. These are the East and West Naracoorte, the East and West Dairy and the East aud West Woakwine Ranges, which are believed to have succeeded each other and formed partly on the eroded remnants of their predecessors, Thus the number of existing ranges mapped 1s eighteen, which with the two carlier Woakwine Ranges now eroded gives a total of twenty separate ranges to be accounted for (see fig. 3. The evidence, which is particularly noticeable cn the acrial photo- graphs, of remmants of beach and dune ridges in several arcas where no dtines exist today or where they do exist but possess trends at variance with those of the remnants, as well as the oceuryetce of isolated dune remnants in the wide flats separating the dune ranges, can be regarded as evidenve thar other ranges
247
have existed which have been eroded and removed almost completely. By follow- ing the beach ridge remmants along the strike some are found to disappear gradually, some terminate abruptly and others such as those north of Kingston can be traced to gradually rising ridges until they form the Neville Range. Other examples can be seen in the Reedy Creck and West Avenue Ranges and else- where, It is reasonable to suppose therefore that some at least of those low dune limestone outcrops and ridges which cannot be followed to \an existing range,
EWE NARACOORTE
‘WOOLUMBDOL
Va] HARPERS REEDY CR. EAST AVENUE A FEACOC
WEVILLE | WEST AYEMUE
BA
RORIZ SCALE £2 sh re Fig. 3 Diagrammatic Section from Cape Rabelais to Naracoorte,
may be the last remnants of former dune ranges which have been denuded. This raises the question of how many ranges may have existed, of the location of which not even traces remain. If transgression of the sea took place very slowly, of sea-level remained stationary for a long period at a level at which erosion of a former dune could occur, or if such advance of the sea took place before the cementation had time to produce a resistant shell, thet erosion could remove rapidly the whole or ihe greater portion of the dune and leave only a shoal or eras¢ it completely, That such has occurred in the past is showz by the numerous remnants scattered throughout the region and supported by the number of eroded surfaces exposed by two drain cuttings of the Mount Tope and L drains, in which it can be seen that several successive dunes were formed and partly removed by marine crosion on the present site of the Woakwine Range, leaving fossil shells and rounded pebbles on the erosion surfaces (fig. 4).
SURFACE OF CALCAREOUS DUM ay POINT OF SECTION seria sa fier AMOVE SEA LEVER
— nS Loe 2S
WOE ERNIE LEE aa LEQ LL. EE
LEW PP NGS wt hy SANS LEE NN E ay REN CAE Qk: Le ee. OSE ae XN cn IIIS ESS LO
. a HORIZON” 5 ape LEN o Se _— : eS to = -f ove . _ — aww = 2
SSS ~~ —_ ary 2 ee a
; NADA CS oS HORIZON B. — Se = Se Se) SS ee eae -- ae OS eee rae See —— s hi WOR ee Cis LLL Lf Yj tee ae LILI ODL OLE Ss aS Z oe ———— =" AQUEOUS EROSION SURFACE 5. OL EE WOARWINE Re SSNS = GF DRlIN pretax joon aanve seb ivan A < scale VERT, & a Fie. 4
Section of purt of Deain L through the West Woakwine Range (Current bedding diagrammatic.)
248
Tt niust be noted alsa that formation of these dunes did nut cease at the present shoreline which is at a much higher level than during past glaciations, during some of which world sea-level is believed to have been lowered by several hundred feet. When this occurred many dunes probably formed at the variuus shillstands. Close bathymetric survey of the continental shelf adjacent to the region may supply some evidence which, if it could prove the existence of sub- merged dunes or their remnants, would support the belief that in this region the dune ranges were formed as a result of eustatic variations of sea-level due to glaciation and deglaciation.
The succession of ranges [rom the East Naracoorte seawards exhibit great differences in degree and ameunt ef erosion, Some appear to have suffered little, others show planed-off summits or wave-cut platfarnis, sea caves, blowholes and eroded channels, and others are merely ciscontintious remnants of former long camtinuous ranges, such showing in many places low level platforms of dune liine- stone between their still existing higher segments, Keighr and width vary greatly in some, while others presetve relatively even summuts for long distances. In the southern part of the region the ranges can be classtiied as little eroded, con- stlerably croded, very much eroded and remnants, In the northern part of the tegiou north of Kingston. erosion appears to have heen general and intensive.
Chemical processes affecting ihe dune ranges have been chiefly those of solu- tion and redeposition,of calcium carbonate. The solution within the surface zone and deposition of the calciunt carbonate, the chief constituent of the dunes, had the twofold effect of producing an upper terra rossa and a lower cemented zone, the latter resulting in solid limestone of variable degrees of perfection and thick- ness. In some localities such as near Kongorong, some of the limestone hag the appearance of coursely crystalline marble, whereas in the Canunda Range, the youngest of the existing ranges, the result is a loosely compacted material, just ceherent enough to withstand wave action sufficiently to produce cliffs and seastaclts.
The depth and degree to which such cementation has developed will depend on a munber of factors, The original material which consists of shell debris, commurnulted Miocene limestone and other minor constituents, is generally similar throughout. Rainfall must have varied considerably from time to time during the existence of the ranges, so that probably all gradations from light to heavy aunual precipitation have been experienced by them. The chief variable factors therefore appear to have been the Iength of tine over which these chemical pro- cesses have operated and the freedom from or alternatively the sttbjection to erosion, chiefly marine, which the dune ranges have experienced. Any lengthy perod wf marine erosion weuld remove all or at least considerable portions of ally cetiented crust that may have been formed, and therefore atiy such removal would result in not only a thinner erust today in the dune remnants, but because of djfferential erosion would add another factor to those responsible for local yaridlions in the penetration and consequent depth of the cemented layer. The absence of deep cementation aud its irregular variaiions in depth can be observed or inferred in the cuttings for drains passing through the ranges, The necessity to face with stone large portions, especially the deeper sections, as well as the incoherent material visible in some sections that have not been faced, shaw clearly the superficial nature of the cementation in many scctors,
lt Follows from the above that those ranges which ate the oldest and have in addition not been exposed to marine erosion, will exhibit the greatest depth and extent of cementation, It is important therefore ta note that of all the ranges only the East ati) West Naracoorte and the Cave Ranges appear to have developed cementatiun to depths sufficient for the subsequent formation of extensive solu-
249
tion chambers and caves whenever the water table, which no doubt experienced considerable fluctuations in level, was favourable for stich a development.
In addition to the dune ranges and remnants af these which have been described at length, there are other dune limestones which have not formed, nor do they form ranges, but are deposits on other hills and elevations. They occur on nearly every voleanic hill examined, and the localities itclude Mounts Muirhead, Graham, Muir, Maclutyre, and Burr, The Lookout, Bluff and Campbell's Hull, some unnamed hills in the Mount Burr Range, and the Up-And-Down Rocks. On the western face of Mount Burr they occur up to a height of over 650 Leet above sea-level, and despite the cover of pines can be traced almost continuously down to the foot of the hill to-a height of approximately 200 feet above sea-level. This occurrence of dune limestone is helieved to have formed a continuous dune, piled up in sheet form against the seaward face of Mount Burr. It may and probably does represent the net accumulation during several pauses in the retreat of the sea during the development of several glactations. Subsequetit erosion, chiefly marine, appears to have rermoyed the dune limestone along the frant oi the hill, leaving a “window” of volcanic material partly framed by the remaining dune limestone (fiz. 5).
t SUHWIT. &. SM. oF Mr OUIm
Our LIMESTONE
tite
ouine LIMESTONE
Dn VOLCANIC “ASH (2 2 SSE tae Oe SS eee —
MIOCENE LIMESTONES
SCALE g=) 2 Fig. 5
The dune limestone on the vatious volcanic hls and on top of the Up-and« Down Rocks occurs at such widely different elevations as to precluile elevation by Liock fanlting, but suggests rather aeolian accumulations against convenient resting points on former shorelines,
Some work had been done on the beach ridge systems fringing Guichen and Rivoli Bays, when ihe author was iiformed that these were being examined in detail hy other workers, The present paper therefore records merely the existence of these relatively recent deposits.
bh. Siliceous sands
The residual terra rossa would, no doubl, as pointed out by Crocker (1941, 1946a), give rise, especially during an atid period, to deposits of siliceous sand winnowed from the residue left after the removal by solution of the calcium carbonate. The subsequent distribution of the sands inland over the region is held to have been responsible (Crocker op. cit) ior the vast accumulations of these siliceuuz sands throughout the region, These deposits, except for small isolated arcas stich as the Belt Range north of Hatherleigh, occur on and [o the east of the Reedy Creel Range, as is to be expected if that is their origin, atid if the prevating winds which are [rom the west-south-west at the preset Ume had a simiar ortentation during mos{, if mot the whole of the Pleistocene Epoch. However, to attribute the enormous amounts of these sands existing in the region to the winnowing, during one arid period, of the siliceous fraction From the terra rossa developed on the dune ranges, appears to the writer incredible. When the total area covered by these sands is considered and compared with that of the dunes from the former surface soils of which it is said to be derived ( and that implies only those dunes to windward, that is, west-south-west), it would appear that other factors must be considered as well.
It seems that several other processes acting titlier separately or cumulatively may have contributed materially to these deposits. Keble (1947) has postulated repeated periods of atidity or of low rainfall during corresponding phases of
250
glaciation in the Pleistocene Epoch. During each period of aridity the terra rossa produced during the intervening period would be winnowed and supply its quota of siliceous sand, probably greatest after the initial cementation of the dune limestone, but varying as well with the duration of each period during which downward transference of calcium carbonate took place. Several such fierinds of aridity, if their occurrence is confirmed, could supply a more satisfactory explanation for the Jarge accumulations of siliceous sands than does the one period generaliy postulated.
The discovery by the writer of specimens of Anadara trapesia ( Arca) on a fossil beach (fig. 4), which is overlain by the present Woakwine Rance of dune limestone, indicates a warmer climate than that of today (Crucker, 1946a). The statement hy Crocker (op. cit) that the Woakwine Range is pre-Arid, and the suggestion (Crocker, 1946c) that these warmer seas may have heen co-incident with the last great period of aridity, indicates that there could have been more than one such period.
The rises in sea-level, indicated by the fossil beaches and erosion surfates shown im fig. 4, and produced, tt is believed, by reduction of the ice-caps during warner intervals, suggest the possibility that arid climatic conditions may have recurred during the Pleistocene Epoch.
The possibility must be admitted that winnowing of the surface soils of other dunes on terrain new submerged by a subsequent rise of sea-level could have con- tributed to the supply of acolian sands, but this must be regarded at present as a possibility only, Consideration of the problems involved indicates that detailed bathymetric and palacoclimatological research is necessary for a discussion of this aspect.
Further, the erosion by marine action of former dune ranges, and the pro- bability that accumulations of siliceotis sands could result, must be considered. Finally, the occurrence of large deposits of quartz grit and pebbles, as in the Mount Muirhead area, which appear to have been transported to this district by river action probably from Victoria, suggests another source which could, and no donbt did, supply large quantities of siliceous sands. The above detract in no way from Crocker’s recognition of the responsibility of an arid period for the distribution of the sands, but it appears probable that there were several arid periods during which the winnowme action occurred and that other factors assisted greatly in supplying the material for such distribution.
In many areas the siliceous sands mask the subjacent dune limestones so completely that their existence is observable only in a few small isolated outcrops emerging fram the sand eover. Mapping in those sectors must be approximate only. The sands also cover very large parts of the Maunt Burr Range and adjacent arcas and obscure both volcanic and calcareous dune accumulations,
c. Waterwvoarn quarts arit and pebbles
Althougit deposits of waterworn quattz grit and pebbles have been found ou the surface ina tew places only, chiefy on the eastern flank of the Mount Burr Range atid to the south of Maynt Muirhead, the discovery of iuimerous perfectly rounded quartz pebbles from a bore to the west of Mount Muirhead suggests the passibility of the existence of other deposits of this type now obscured by more recent accumulations, This material could not have been derived from the local limestones, basalts or tuffs, but could in part at least have been derived irom the subjacent sunds.and grits. Much of it appears to have been of fuviatile origin and probably from Victoria, brought to this area by streams which later were captured and formed the present Glenelg River. The presence just over ihe border in Victoria of rocks from which this detrita] ywartz could have beer derived, Jends support to this view, which will be discussed later,
251
d. Waterworn Flints
Waterworm flint pebbles are abundant i many localities and are so numerous {hat individual reference to all occurrences is impracticable here. As these flints were released in large quantities by marine erosion of the Miocene limestones, their presence as waterworn boulders, especially if in large numbers, 1s of great assistance in determining the location of former shorelines and also the presence, generally in close proximity, of the parent rocks. For instance, the separation af the Reedy Creek and West Avenue Ranges on the western flanks of the Mount Burr Range was difficult because the relatively high gradient of the basement in this sector when these ranges were formed, resulted in their close proximity, and the absence of the wide interdune flat which divides them further to the forth where the basement had and still has a gentler slope. The two ranges, consisting as they do of a number of parallel ridges, could not be separated on morphological evidence, The existence, however, of a relatively long swale, :n appearance little different from the intradune swales, which is Hoored wiih water-worn flints and contains a few boulders of polyzoal limestone (Miocene), was reparded as sufficient evidence for placing the dividing line along this valley. Crocker (1946a) expresses the view that his Site 9, apparently the same as the one just described, “is probably clasely correlated with the Joyce Flat between East Avenue and Baker’s Ranges.” The present writer considers that the available evidence does nat support Crocker’s view, Similarly, Crocker's Site 5 marks an old shoreline which continues along the corridor between two dunes referred to by him and divides the dunes into two distinct zroups, the Reedy Creek and the West Avenue Ranges.
The occurrence of flirts on the flats immediately to the east of Mount Graham (Stephens, 1941) led the writer to search for and locate the Miocene limestones on the hillside above, Flints occur on the planed-off stummils. and in the swales of the Reedy Creek Range near Butrtingule, indicating its. former submergence. They occur plentifully on the flats between Burrungule and The Bluff where Miocene litnestones outerop or lie just beneath the surface. Similar examples could be cited for numerous localities, Many of the older flint accumulations have been buried by drift sand, as can be seen in a number of places where they can be followed from areas clear of cover, towards areas in which they become obscured more and more, until no. stirface evidence of their existence cat) be seen. There must therefore he many more areas than are known at present where deposits of this type occur, The ocenrrenice of flints along the present shoreline and also at slightly higher levels. inland, in enormous quantities at intervals between Cape Banks and the Victorian border, has heen utilized extensively for industrial purposes.
ce, Fossil Shells
Deposits of shells marking the locations of former beaches occur both on the surface and buried by more recent deposits. A nuimber have been described (Crocker, 1946a). As is to be expected in 4 vegion which has experienced suc- cessive advances and recessions of the sta, deposits of fossil shells are very numerous, In view of the large number of these depusits ocevrring at the surlace, the Jarge areas covered hy more recent matesial and the number discovered beneath the surface by pits and wells put down for other purposes, il ig veason- able to assume that very many more exist than have been discovered. The oecurrenre of these shells at widely different levels has been interpreted variously in the past, both uplift of the land or rise and fall of séa-level having teen held responsible,
The freshness <u retention af coloyrs of shells in some localities ( Crocker; 1946.4), including some at high levels, has produced some discussion, Little
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appears to be known of the conditions necessaty to preserve the colour and nacre of various types of shells except that some are more resistant to weathering than others. It seems to the writer that any set of conditions favourable to lengthy pre- servation (Crocker, op, cit, has shown that such conditions have existed and apparently still exist) could maintain such features. of the Fossil shells for very long periods, and at least as long as the time since the onset of quaternary glacia- tion. One would not expect, of course, the perfection of preservation either of colour ar nacre exhibited at the Mount Graham sile, but if conditions were siit- able for their preservation for say 10,000 years, the processes of weathering and disintegration appear to have been acting so slowly that even after 100,000 years appreciable remains of the original colour and orhatnentation should he retained. There is thus no reason why the Mount Graham site itself may not be of con- siderable age.
fF, Lacustrine Limestones
In addition te the dune limestones which are predominantly of acolian origin and Were formed along the then existing coastline, there are in many places accumulations of shells and their debris of fresh-water origin. They contain com- mon freshwater fossils of recent types and in matty places they have been cemented to form tough limestones, They may form low ridges,, probably wave-piled, or may Ocriir as low flat outcrops. The ridge type is illustrated by the rises at the southera end of Wyrie Swamp south of Millicent, Typical low-lying flat out- crops occur to the north-east of Furner in the flats between the West and East Avenue Ranges. Many others were noted, as is to be expected in a region which contained and still has so many permanent and semi-permanent lagoons and swarups,
g. Swamp Deposits
Other deposits developed in the depressions were the typical black soils and, in Many instances, peat formations. ‘These are important agriculturally where the swarips and lakes have been drained, but are of importance alsa, as pointed out by Tindale (1947) in determining the history of some areas, especially where they haye been truncated by art encroaching shoreline.
The presence of Coorongite, which is fornred periodically in shallow lagoons trom the lower forms of plant life such as algae (Mawson, 1938), has in the past led to misguided and unsuccessful attempts to obtain petroleum by drilling. Lime biscuits of algal origin (Mawson 1929) occur plentifully in some areas such ax near Rabe and Beachport, which are subject to ternpurary but at times prolonged flooding and are the reason for the nanie “Biscuit Flat” which is applied to several localities,
h. Feleani¢ Acrumulations
These occur only in the Lower South-East and are restricted t6 one area, the Mount Purr Range and adjacent terrain Plus two isolated yoleanie foci, those uf Mounts Gambier and Schank. Several authors haye described the Mount Gambier aurea (Teter, 1921) (Crocker 1941). etc., and numerous references to the Mouul Burr Range are found in the literature of the South-Fast,
The petrology, chronology and correlation of this yulcanism with other areas remains to be written. The present writer had not the Opportunity to study these former volcanic centres in detail and was restricted to such examination and observations as could be combined with the general plan of the research under- taken,
As is well known, the Mount Burr Range and the adjacent areas near Lakes Leake and Edward includes by far the greater part nf present volcanic accumula-
253
tions. This range, culminating in Mount Burr, 802 feet above sea-level, contains numerous hills consisting of voleanic material. No definite volcanic necks or foci have been discovered to date, and therefore not one of these hills can be regarded as a volcano, Tow many voleanic foci there were is unknown, The long duration and tremendous amount of subaerial and marine denudation have Jeft only eroded remnants,
The Mount Burr Range owes its relative prominence to several factors, The basement of Miocene limestone, which is less than 50 feet above sea-level at Millicent, rises to 90 icet at the foot of the range, to 112 feer near the Forest headquarters and 1o over 200 feet at the castern edge, from which it draps. rela- tively sharply to the eastward. From the scattered levels available, i is inferred that the basement forms a platform sloping upwards to the east (fig. 6). From this platform rise a number of hills of volcanic material, chiefly tuff but with some basalt. The Aanks of these hills are decorated here aud there with variahle amounts of dune limestones. la front of the range, that is on its western flanks and in some instances on or adjacent to the voleanie material, (here hes a series of dune limestone ridges which it is reasonably certain are the continuations of the Reedy Creek, West Avenue and other Ranges. Within the main mass of the Range there are other dune limestone outcrops which owing to their partial burial beneath drift sands cannot be connected with any known dune ranges, although some at least ate believed to be part of the East Avenue Stage.
Over the whole area but distributed somewhat irregularly, there are immense accumulations of siliceous sands which have filled many of the former hollows and swales and have covered a very large proportion of the dune limestone and volcanic material, As a result, the latter is buried so largely that the relationship of those accumulations which project alove the sand cover is in most instances a matter of conjecture. All these deposits combined with the extensive pine plantations and dense natural vegetation, make detailed geological suriace mapping difficult anc tiecessarily incomplete. A number of shallow holes and bores (Stephens, 1941, Crocker, 19464) supply a. little information, bit a comprehen- sive plan of sttbsurface testing is necessary before the full story can be told. .n the area adjacent o Lakes Leake and Edward the chief contribt:tors to the present topography are the volcanic material and the siliceous drift sands. The small centres. of Mounts Gambier and Schank are of interest in this connection chiefly fur any light they may thtow on the relative ages of the voleanic eruptions and the adjacent dune ranges (Crocker, 1941).
Reference will be made in subsquent pages to the possibility that other vol- canic faci and accumulations existed to the westward of those known today. li any existed in the region between the known deposits and the present coastline they were remoyed completely or the low remnants buried by recent marine or terrestrial deposits. Exploration of the floor of the adjacent continental shelf may reveal evidence of stich former volcahic activity,
t Luacites
These have been referred to in the section on topography and are included here merely for the sake of completeness. Their development [Lills 1940b, Stephens 1546) is to be ascribed probably to several perinds and is not considered of importance to the problems being discussed in this paper.
j. Kunkar Travertine
Sutface accumulations of this limestone have been observed not mly on the Miocene limestones, calcareous chije and freshwater limestones, but also on the hasic bulls, Some kunkat travertine and fossil soils have been noted below the
254
present surfaces in the interior of dune limestones, where these have been dis- sected by warine erosion, such as the cliffs at Cape Northumberland. These occurrences are significant in the history of such dunes, indicating renewal of deposition of aeolian material after relatively long stability,
k. Liitertte
In the vicinity of Tantannola, and possibly elsewhere, pebbles of ferruginous laterite occur at or near the surface immediately overlying Miocene limestones. The developments noted are not extensive, but the occurrences support the opinion which is strongly held by the writer, that the existence of laterite, whether on the surface or in a subsurface section, is not proof of the former petieplanation nf an area and proves merely that the area, whether large or small, ig one in which surface run-off was negligible and climatic conditions were suitable,
DISCUSSION
The present paper deals mainly with the development and history of the region since the termination of the Murravian transgression, As stated earlier, this termination is defined by the writer as the time when the sea in its south- westerly retreat reached the shoreline now indicated approximately hy the western edge of the East Naracoorte Range, At present the general opinion of palaeon- tologists is that this took place during the Lower Pliocene and probably towards its close.
To the north and east of the East Naracoorte shorelines, Lower Pliocene marine sediments occur over wide ureas, oyerlying marine deposits of Miocene age. As will be shown Jater in the discussion, the East Naracoorte Range imarks approximately the western limits of the Lower Pliocene marine sediments in the Lower South-East, but in the Upper South-East the Lower Pliocene southern and western limits are marked roughly by the dune range system which is described herein as the continuation of the West Naracoorte Range after its intersection with the East Naracoorte Range. Although sediments of Miocene age occur either on the surface or at shallow depths throughout the region ta the south-west of the East Naracoorte Range, no marine sediments of Lower Pliocene age haye been identified there, It is illogical to suppose that these sediments never existed in the region, in fact it ts certain that, just as they were deposited in the areas to the east and north, they were formed also in the relatively deeper waters further west and south, during the later stages of the Murravian submergence, The reason for their absence is not far to seek, The retreat of the sea at the close of the Murravian transgression exposed an emergent marine coastal plain, and resulted also in a considerable lessening of the depth of the ocean over the con tinuation seawards of the emerged plain, thus forming a submarine plain covered by shallow water, for a considerable distance from the shoreline. Marine sedi- ments deposited during Lower Pliocene times, prior ta the retreat of the sea and therefore in relatively deep water, were now subjected to wave erosion and removal, This marine erosion is considered to have continued tintil the whole of the Lower Pliocene sediments had been removed to distances from the shoreline corresponding to effective wave action. Marine erosion continiyed when the Miocene sediments were laid bare, and, as will be shown later, appreciable thick- nesses of these deposits were thus affected, The distance from the East Nara- coorte shoreline, while this was the shoreline, to which this erosion was effective ig immaterial, as the sticcessive retreats of the sea during the succeeding glacia- tions to far beyond the present coastline and to a possible level of [tom several hundred [eet lower than today would have provided conditions of maximum erosion Tor the whole region at various tues.
255
The effects produced would be the lowering, by subaeria] denudation only, of the areas to the cast and north of the East Naracoorte coastline and extensive matine erosion and deepening of the foreshore to the west and south of that datum. The relatively long period of stability postulated, namely from the retreat of the Murravian Seca to the close of the Pliocene Epoch and the slight resistance to erosion expected of such little consulidated marine sediments, would, result in a very marked difference in elevation of the surface as between the wave-cut platform and the adjacent dry land. Such differences in elevation, although not so marked because they were of shorter duration, would mark other stages of siillstand of the ocean during the subsequent glaciations. The lack of marked resistance to erosion of the mirine sediments, hoth of the Lower Pliocene and of the Miocene, which would enable rapid lowering of the surface of the submarine plain, would tend also to prevent the formation of extensive cliffs and steep slopes along the coast- line, and have the effect of softening rapidly the severily of any lemporaty features produced, Exceptions would occur, of course, such ag the well-known Up-And- Down Rocks where hardening of the rock hy local dolomitization has mave cliff formation and the retention of this feature possible, The postulation of a fault (Fenner, 1930) te account for the difference in elevation on the cast and west of the East Naracoorte Range appears to the writer unnecessary. Similarly, the existence of a fault, the Tartwaup Fault (Ward, 1941, 1944), along or near the front of the Up-and-Down Rocks is not necessary ta explain this feature, As stated earlier, both of these postulated faults may exist. but the topographical [features ascribed to them could have been, and probably were, produced by marine erosion.
Within the arca which appears to have remained submerged during the latter part of the Pliocene Epoch, marine erosion should have proceeded relatively evenly except where more resistant formations such as. the Precambriaty rocks of the Upper South-East, and isolated dolomite bers, were present. There are two areas, however, in which although on present evidence the Miocene limestones are no more resistant than those of the adjoinmg terrain, they were not eroded to the same depths and today stand at much higher levels. These two areas are the Mount Burr Range and the Dismal Swamp, The former has heen referred to earlier, and, although evidence is scanty, sufficient is known to indicate that the eroded surface ot the Miocene limestone underlying the Mount Burr Range is a platform which slopes upwards from south-west to north-east from a height of &0-90 feet to over 200 feet above sea-level respectively (fig. 6)-
Fiz. 6
Dismal Swamp is not one continuous swamp but consists of a large number of connected and partly connected swamps with numerous low ridges, many of which are dune limestones. This aggregate of swamps has therefore no well- defined boundary, but as the general swamp level appears to be approximately at 230 feet above sea-level, that height is being used here to delimit the area. The Miocene limestone floor is fotind at shallow depths and apparently at heights averaging a little over 200 feet above sea-level. It appears therefore that while marine erosion was effective in removing considerable thicknesses of marine Murravian deposits in the region, the two areas referred lo ahoye were proiected wholly or in part from further erosion alter a certain time interval during which
256
all deposits of Lower Pliocene age and some of Miocene age had heen removed (fg. 7). That protection could have been and probably was supplied by the formation oi volcanic cones in the shallow seas west of the East Naracoorte Range. The formation of these volcanoes and their emergence as islands on a gently sloping submarine platform, would have supplied increasing protection from further marine erosion to the areas eastward of the most westerly islands, and account for the gradual upward slope to the east of the Hoor of Miocene limestone beneath the Mount Burr Range and the relatively steep drop in level on the east and north of Mount Graham, the most northerly volcanic hill existing today. The various islands probably developed a series of complex tombolos, and if not tied to the coast were responsible at least for the protection from further erosion of the area how known as the Dismal Swamp. This area pro- bably developed initially as a series of shoals and low islands, due to the accumu- lation of sediment derived from the volcanoes and Miocene limestones to the west. The writer, believing that some of the streams which now form the River Glenelg flowed at that time into the sea to the east of Kalangadoo, credits that stream system with transporting large quantities of detrital material, which would assist the tendency for shoal formation west of the Mount Burr Islands, atid account probably for a large proportion of the deposits of waterworn quartz found near Mount Muirhead and in other areas, ® MOUNT,
SWents een Stns an SwAMre r. o
wna"
HORM SCALE. Geeaead HITE Fig, 7
Should the above reconstruction be upheld, then the commencement of volcanic activity in the South-East must haye taken place during the Upper Plio- cene and probably during the earlier stages of the Lipper Pliccene, in order that the large amount of erosion which undoubtedly occurred in the adjacent areas, could have sufficient time for its accomplishment after the Mount Burr and Dismal Swamp areas received protection. Such age determination would correlate the older vulcanism of the Mount Burr Range with the older vulcanism of western Victoria, which is regarded as Middle ta Upper Pliocene in age (Hills, 1939 a),
No definite volcanic vent has been discovered in the Mount Hurr Range, In view of the time that appears ta have elapsed since the eruptions took place and the vast amount of erosion both subaerial and marine but predominantly marine, the absetice of obvious surface evidence of the existence of volcanic necks and vents is not surprising. Relatively small fragments of the original accumu- Jations appear to have been left and even Mount Muirhead, belicved to have been of more recent origin but owing to its location exposed to rapid erosion during at least one high sea-level period, appears to be only the castern segment of a former much more extensive cone, It is possible therefore that other yolcanoes existed in the past to the north, sotith or west of the present remnants, but have been removed completely by subsequent erosion or exist as residuals only in the adjacent areas now covered by the sea.
Owing to their burial by more recent deposits and also becanse of sub- sequent denudation, the known deposits cf marine or probable marine origin in the Mount Burr Range are few in number. Waterworn volcanic material is recorded from a pit (Stephens 1941), Crocker (19464) records two sites, one at thr surface and one from a pit, of deposits of shells overlying volcanic material.
257
There is, however, much additional evidence supporting the view that the Mount Burr Range has been subjected to marine erosion at various levels and therefore presumably at different times. The continuous series of dune limestones along the seaward slopes of the Mount Burr Range and the wide variations in elevation ef the floor on which these dunes rest, the occurrence at several levels of flint boulders derived from the adjacent Miocene limestone in which they can be seen in sity in some outcrops, and the shelves or platforms, relics apparently of marine action, on some of the hills; all oi lhese lestify to former submergence of the lower portions of the Mount Burr Range. On the eastern flank of Mount Graham, the northern extremity of the range, a notable feature is a wide shelf at an estimated height of approximately 200 feet above present sea-level (fig, 8). This shelé could be ascribed to-a basalt flow, but the continuity of this shelf with the high level fossil beach (Crocker’s site 11) to the west and the occurrence on the
shelf of a small remnant of dune iimestone, are strong reasons jor regarding this feature as a wave-cut shelf or platform. As they are the most elevated evidence of marine action on Mount Graham, this shelf and fossil beach are assigned to the West Naracoorte shoreline. A similar shelf on The Bluff and the occurrence on that hill also of dune limestone, and the existence at many localities in the Mount Burr Range of small areas of dune limestonc, some fringing, some cover- ing hills of volcanic material, all contribute materially to the formidable list of relics of former marine activity. The occurrence of dune limestone, correlated by the writer with the East Avene Range on top of volcanic tw as exposed in a well near the Forest Headquarters, together with the widespread ocetirrence at many levels of the numerous outcrops of dine limestone referred to above, prove that this volcanic activity is alder than the period during which the dune lime- stones wete deposited at the various levels.
Some observers may be inclined to postulate faulting and warping in order to explain at least some of the yariations in level. In all his investigations the writer has not fotnd any evidence to suggest that any other than oscillations of sea-level are necessary to account for the wide range in height and irregular dis- tribtttion of these relics of former marine activity.
Not all of the volcanic accumulations of the Mount Burr Range are assigned to the Early Upper Pliocene,
First, the Miocene basement has an upward slope to the eastward, a slope dre, it is believed, ta the protection afforded by the formation of volcanic islands during the earliest eruption. The occurrence immediately on this basement of basalt and volcanic ash and tuff suggest that the initial activity was continuous for a long time or revived episodicaily, but before the development of the dune ranges, that is, belore the Pleistocene Epoch began.
Secondly, Mount Muirhead is, strictly regarded, not 2 pavt of the Mount Burr Range, but abuts on its north-western extremity, ‘['wo parallel dune ridges to the south which have been correlated with the Reedy Creek and West Avenue Ranges, can be followed northwards beyond Mount Muirhead and are found to occur, one on the seaward and the other along the inland flank of that hill, The latter ridge which is correlated with the West Avenue Range could not have been formed ia that position had Mount Muirhead been in existence and the West
258
Avene Range therefore predates this volcanic activity. As the East Avenue Range nearty is found to overlie voleatic ash (near the Forest Tleadquarters) and this range is believed to be considerably younger than the West Avenue Range, such reversal of superposition of dune limestones and volcanic ash would not in itself be an indication of more than one period of volcanic activity. How- ever, the Reedy Creek Range which skirts the seaward flank of Mount Muirhead appears to have heen buried in part by the volcanic material and this suggests that the activity post-dates the formation of that dune range.
Farther, the age assigned to the earliest phase of eruptive activity in the Mount Burr area, namely, Early Upper Pliocene and therefore before the com- mencement of Pleistacene Glaciation and the consequent. formation of dune ranges on the eustatic shorelines, indicates that any volcanic material deposited after such June ranges were formed must be of much later date than the earlier activity.
It is not possible, however, to say more than that the eruption of Mount Muirhead occurred during the Pleistocene Epoch and after the formation of the West Avenue and probably after that of the Reedy Creek Range.
The Mount MacIntyre - Campbell’s Hill sector may represent a period of activity Jater than that of the Mount Burr Range, but such a suggestion must await much detaifed petrolugical and field work before it can be considered further. The Lakes Leake and Edward sector, too, may represent a relatively later period of activity but again this is merely an opinion, The evidence of other observers {Fenner 1921, Cracker 1941) assigns the eruptions of Mounts Gambier and Schanik to relatively recent times, largely based on the preservation of the cones and the relative positions of their ash to the calcareous dunes and siliceous drift sand in their vicinity, However, the collection by the writer and identification by courtesy of the National Muscum. Melbourne, of particles of volcanic ash in the lower portion of a calcareous dune inland of and near Mount Schank, is proof of the existence of volcanic material prior to. the time of formation of the dune and raises the possihility of the present cone of Mount Schank being a relatively recent formation above a former older period of activity, or of the existence to the westward, of a former volcanic vent, the accumulations from which have been denuded completely or are now covered by the sea.
While not admissible as scientific evidence, the remarks contained in loeal native legends (Smith, 1880) that Mounts Muirhead, Schank and Gambier, iu that arder. were “overis,”’ and the statement that it had “thundered and lightened” and “thundered in the ground” may be regarded at Icast as interesting suggestions of voleanie activity at those three foci during human occupation of the region,
The marite crosion of the marine Murtravian deposits continued apparently until the close of the Pliocene Epoch and the beginning of Pleistocene glaciation, The result of the removal not only of the great mass of water formerly covering the Murravian Gulf and the great decrease in depth of water over the still sub- merged area west of the East Naracoorte Range, but also the removal of a con- siderable thickness of Murravian sediments by marine erosion may well have produced uplift of the region due to isostatic adjustment. Such uplift, if it occsrred, would probably have been slow and gradual, and have brought withio the reach of maximum wave action deeper and deeper zones of the Murrayian sediments, Such a long-continued process could account satisfactorily for the considerable differences in elevatiun between the marine plane at the seaward [oot of the East Naracoorte Range and the hinterland which was not subjected (0 this erosion,
The evidence obtained not only of former shorelines along the Mount Burr Range, 2s much as 200 [eet or more above present sea-level, but also the wide- spread evidence of retreats and advances of the coastline and the cyidence of
*
fossils that these events occurred during the Pleistocene Epnch, suggest imme-
259
diately the probability of eustatic control duc to successive glaciations and degla- cjations during that epoch,
That such increases and decreases in the severity of glaciation did praduce corresponding changes of world sea-level ts now generally accepted. As regards the South-East, sufficient evidence hag been obtained to show that such changes of sea-level took place after the main volcanic activity of the Mount Burr Range which, as stated above, has been assigned to the Upper Pliocene and probably ta an early division. The writer therefore agtecs with Tindale (1933) that changes of sealevel due to glaciation were responsible for the formation of successive shorclines and the resultant calcareous dunes, The writer goes further, however, and believes that other processses were operative at the same time, complicating the over-simplified history as presented hy Tindale (1947).
Further, it has not been recognised generally, nor has it been emphasised sufficiently, that many of the dune ranges show subsequent submergences and accompanying marine erosion, and that such in many instances. took place after sufficient time had elapsed for an apprectable amount of cementation of the upper parts of these dines,
Attempts to determine their relative ages by palacontological methods do not offer mach success in the present state of our knowledge, Studies of the swamp and peat deposits and their entombed flora, or of pollen grains may perhaps be of assistance in the future, but at present no such aids are practicable.
A detailed examination of the progressive heights above sea-level uf the sea ward or western margins of the dune ranges shows that the differences in elevation between them decrease to the north-westward in many instances. Horizontal spacing varies considerably, as is to he expected on such a gently sloping basement, Very small differences tn elevation at the time of formaiion, would have been recorded by relatively large irregularities of the shoreline, The close horizontal spacing, and in some places the overlap of dunes on the seaward slopes of the Mount Burr Range, is an obvious result of the relatively steep gradients of that area,
The variations in vertical spacing, however, and especially its progressive yatiation in one direction shown by many of the dune ranges, indicate warping of the basement between the times of formation of the shorelines concerned. It would appear therefore that all that would be necessary to determine the relative ages of the dunes marking the former shorelines would be a letermination and study of the progressive differences, positive or negative, between their seawacd margins in a sorth-westerly direction, and their approaches to or departures Erom a level conimon to both,
The solution of the problem is, however, not as simple as that. It was found that some dune ranges approach each other and then diverge, scme are reasonably parallel for a distance and, [urther on, diverge or converge vertically, As will be showw later, the progressive dowrward tilting of the greater part of the region in a west-north-westerly direction to the north-west of the postulated Cape Banks axis, and a downward tilt in a south-easterly dircction to the south of that axts, the probable transverse warping with north-easterly trends, the prohahility of positive and negative isostatic movements of the region, and the possibility of some uplift in the Mount Burr Range area and vicinity, all add to the difficulties of determining, not only the height of sea-level at which the successive shorelines existed, but also their chronological sequence. Other factors and observations indicate that a seqtience compiled by the use of progressive differences in cleva- tion, whether positive or negative, is nat necessatily the order in which the dune ranges were formed, The writer was compelled therefore lo examine the possihility of using other evidence in the chronological classification and to use the evidence of relative heigtls as an auxiliary factor in such a determination.
260
As stated earlier, there are indications that other ditne ranges existed, which have been removed completely or almost sv, and it is suggested therefore that the diagrams and tables showing the pustitlated succession are incomplete in so far as they do not include these former ranges. Such removal by marine erosion would apply particularly to those formed during the Gting and Mindel retreats of the ocean, because dune ranges formed thet: would have experienced submer- getice during the subsequent Interglacials,
The importance of determining their ages needs no elaboration. By using such other evidence as is available, the wnler has attempted, though with some reservation, to produce a chronological sequence of the dune ranges and therefore of the successive shorelines. Naturally, in such a scheme there must be many assumptions and inferences and it is not cuntended that the list as compiled is final. It is submitted as a provisional classification, subject to any alterations or madificutions required as the result of future research,
lf it be granted that the dune ranges mark approximately the shorelines at various sealevels and if, as stems reasonably certain, stich fluctuations in sea- level were related directly to Lie total quantities of water removed from the ocean as ice, then if it were possible to determine, or at least to suggest, which dune ranges marked the maximum advances of the sea during the First, Second and Third Interglacials, reasonable starting points would be obtained for aligning the remaining dune ranges.
{t is logical to assume that the relatively long stillstand generally ac- cepted for the height of cach interglacial advance of the sea would leave its record in the crosion of the basement and a steepening of the gradient be- tween the landward termination of the marine plane and the hinterland,
An examination of the profile of the basement at right angles to the average trend of the ranges and along a zone which reaches the cvast at Rohe, shows first the yery marked ascent from the former East Naracoorte [ore- shore, a Similar but less marked rise from the Western Naracoorte Range, a smaller but none the less definite rise at the former Cave Mange foreshore and a very marked rise in gradient in the vicinity of the West Avenue Range, Further, the marked change in trend, that is concave to the cast us opposed do the concavity to the west, which hegins at the West Avenue Kange, may indicate that long continued erosion at or near a long maintained sliureline, may have modified considerably the shoreline inherited by the West Avenue foreshore as the result of previous erosion. The chanye in trend on the ather hand may he due to diastrophism, warping or tilling, and the problem is left unsolved at present. The somewhat anomalous trends of the Neville Kange between Kingston and Reedy Creek Station, and of the Last Dairy Range atid to a less extent of the West Dairy Range south of Kingston, could be explained by local warping or collapse, but are duc most probably to the existence of mure resistant rocks, probably inhery of Precambrian age, form- ing a ptotruditig platform or a rounded cape.
Other things being equal, those ranges which were never submerged after their formation, and which (therefore would not have expericnceil the removal by marine erosion af the whole or part of their cemented crust, would develop the greatest depth of cemented limestone. Subeequen ly if subsurface hydratilic conditions were favourab’e, as they must have heen in all af the ranges at one or mere of the many variations of sea—evel, which would affect so markedly an area of flat or gently dipping porons Limestanes possessing generally a cryptoteic drainage, solution chambers would develop jn the cemented crust of the dunes. The cave formations therefore would be more extensive and secur mainly in those ranges which have developed, or have been permitted to retain, a deep zone of calcareous cementation, "The
261
three ranges in which numerous and extensive solution chambers have de- veloped are the East and West Naracoorte and the Cave or Stewart's Range. If, as 18 géneétally helieyed, the Easi Naracoorte Range marks the oldest, and in the Tower South-East the most inland of those ranges which are due to small yariations of sea-Ievel or of the land, then according to the writer's. in- terpretation this range indicates the approximate positiom of the pre-glacial shoreline, Durther, il, as is generally believed (Zeuner, 1946, per conlra vide), sea-level during the height of the Second or Great Interglacial reached or approached closely the pre-glacial sea-level, then the West Naracoorte Range which marks a notable notch in the basement plateau, is the logical represen- ative of that Interglacial.
The assumption, on the evidence given above, hal the Cave or Stewart Range (referred to hereafter as the Cave Range) was not submerged after its foriiation, and the existence of a notch in is vicinity, suggests that the Cave
tange is situated approximately alone the coastline formed by the sea during the Third Interglacial.
One position remains to be filled, the maximum advance of the sea during ihe First Imterzlacial, Dor the reasons referred to eurlier, the marked steep- ening of the gradient referable to a smoothed notch, in the vicinity of the range, with the tentative support of the marked change uf direction of the ccastline, suggests that the West Avenue Range is the only range with any evidence for its selection. This view is supported by the observation that the Recdy Creck Range. which in the central part of the region is located to seaward of and at a lower level than the West Avenue Range, gradually approaches the latter as it is traced to the north-west, and finally intersects it. This indicates a downward tilt to the north-west between the times of formation of the two ranges, and suggests that the Reedy Creek Range marks 2 shoreline during the development of a glaciation subsequent to that in which the West Avenue Range was formed. The recorded submergence in the Lower South last of the Reedy Creek Range by a rise of sea-level equiva- cit in that locality te a depth of at least 140 fect above present sea-level and the inference that the planed off summits owe their formation to the exisenee of a cemented crust, suggests that the Reedy Creek Range was formed dur- ing the development of the Penultimate Glaciation, This places the West Avenue in the time of development of the First or Second Glaciation, As stated above, it is placed at the commencement of the latter, that is at the height of the First Interglacial lor other reasons.
The fuur sea-levels, nainely the Pre-Glacial, First, Second and Third Interglacial having been postulated. it is nuw possible tu consider tlre re- maining tanges one by one, examining them in order froin the Furthest in- land range to the presen, coastline. Any evidence or inferences applicable will be discussed and the reasons given for the ages that are heing as?igned te them,
In diseugsing the order of formation of the various shorelines as repre- sented by the dune ranges, the above four sea-levels will be used as defhnite horizons fram which the relative ages of the other sea-leyels will be inferred, but such use does not imply that the times assigned for the existence of the fonir major shorelines are regarded as prayed beyond doubt. The tentative nature of their classification has been made quite clear. It is obvious that the chronology as determined on the above basis, would he modified or altered considerably should the dating of one or more of the four major shorelines he changed. $
262
Harper's Range—This range is eroded considerably and remnants only exist. It is assumed therefore that it has been submerged since its formation, but its preservation, even though partial, must have been due to an effective amount of cementation, which would indicate the passage of a considerable period of time between its formation and subsequent submergence. The only two sea-levels high enough to have achieved this submergence were the Preglacial and Great Interglacial sca-levels. 1t must haye been formed there- fore during the retreat of the sea marking the beginning of the Giinz or First Glaciation,
URING Ves TENGL APIAL
9: NARACOORTE WEST pei
14: Pye WEST DAIRY REY CREEK DA —_——
“4 WOAKWINE C.
m= pfaLapiapagyaypsoyerener tended vores
2 4 bow i SMES Vertical) Lee! i
PROFILE SCALES Horizontal : Verti¢alenot ta scale
aie RUNES - Horizontal Scale- as above
Matin Sia
Woolumbool and Peacock Ranges—Becuuse of their proximity the writer suggests that they represent stillstands during separaie glaciations rather than two stillstands close together during the retreat of the sea during the development ol a single glaciation. Further, the more inland of the two must be older since the formation of a dune immediately behind an existing one is improbable except as a purely lucal phenomenon. Their marked erosion
Bid
indicates that both have been submerged and since, according to the writer's deductions, sea-level was not high enough (fig. 9) to cause their submergence dring the First Interglacial, the only glaciations during which they cauld linve been formed are the First of Giinz and Third or Riss respectively.
Baker's and Lucindale Ranges—Their close proximity against suggests twa different ages, and being more landward, the Baker's Range would he older. Baker’s Range is eraded but not excessively and the Lucindale Range ap- pears to have suffered liltle or no marine erision. These two are placed therefore in the Third and Fourth Glaciations respectively.
The probability that the Lucindale Range as il is followed ina northerly direction intersects, and eventually continues to the east of Baker's Range, and the possibility that it joins. part of the Peacnck Range, make the deter- ininations of the time of formation of the latter difficult, The scarcity of available surveyed levels in that sector, and the sand-obscured outcrops add to the difficulties. The position of the Peacock Range in the chronological table therefore is one of considerable uncertainty.
Ardune and East Avenue Ranges—Observations similar to Baker's and Lucindale Ranges apply. They are placed therefore in the Third aud Fourth Glaciation’ respectively.
Reedy Creek Ronge—This nmst have been formed later than the West Avenue Range. This view is supported by the observations referred to ear- lier that the Reedy Creek Range intersects, in the northern. part of the re- gion, the West Avenue Range which has been selected as marking the shore- line at the beginning of the Second Glaciation. The evidence for placing it in the time of development of the Third Glaciation has been given aboye,
Newville Range—The much eroded remnants of this range, consisting of stumps only of dune mdges and some extensive segments, and the complete removal of the range from other areas suggest that its submergence has been effected during several periods. It appears to emerge fram beneath the Reedy Creek Range in the Lower South-East and to diverge progressively in a general north-westerly direction. It probably belongs to the First Glaciation,
East and West Dairy Ranges—Their eroded condition and their existence today as remnants indicate their former submergence, As with other ranges, their close proximity is the reason for assigning them to two separate glacia- tions. They could therefore he placed in the First, Second or Third, but their preservation, though partial only, has led the writer to place them in the Second and Third Glaciation respectively.
Woakwine A -D—One stage has heen assigned to each glaciation, It is true that the first two ranges have been eroded almost completely and that the two later ranges exist loday, one as the East Woakwine, partly eroded, and the other as the West Woakwine, litttle eroded. The East and West Woak- wine Ranges, that is stages C and D belong probably tu lwo separate glacia- tions, the Third and Fourth respectively. Woakwine A and Bb may belong to two intéerstadial oscillations of one glaciation, that is the First or Second, hut the evidence for submergence and erosion of Woakwine A before B was deposited suggests the advisability of placing them in, separate and there- fore in the First and Second Glacialions respectively.
The writer was fortunately able io examine two deep sections through the West Woakwine Range, one in the entting of Drain L near Robe ans the
I
264
other in the Mount Hope Dram. Although both sections were instructive the one in Drain [. yielded more information aud the chief purpose of the examination ot the Mt. Hope Drain was the search for confirmatory evidence of observations made in the former, Ag will beseen from the section ( Fig. 4), three erosion surfaces were observed, two of them covered with shells and detrital material. This indicates the formation of a dune at this location at least four times. It is probable that the four stages noted in the section may carrespond to the four Woakwine dunes or their remnants referred to earlier, but no evidence for such correlation is possible at present.
A notable feature of Horizon A was the discovery of specimens of Anadara trapesis (Arce) on this fossil beach, at approximately 25 feet below the present surface of the overlyig cemented dunt. ‘This occurrence will lead, it is hoped, to the further search for this interesting sub-fossil, (Crocker, 1946a}. The suggestion that the presence of Anadaya, now extinct in the South-East, indicates a climate warmer than today, would agree with the conclusion that a shghtly warmer climate was necessary to produce eustatie rise of sea-level to at least the height at which this fossil was fouud im the cntting. Although explsures are poor, the Mount Hope Drain Cutting, approximately 28 miles te the south-east of Drain L, shows the existence of two fossil beaches, simi- lar apparently in their general fossil content to those of Horizons A and B. Alihough Amadara has not been found in the Mount Hope Drain Cutting, Hori- zon A in both shows a mixture of reef and mudfiat Fauna.
The Canunda Range—The slight degree of cementation, sa much less than that of any of the other dune ranges. suggests a short period uf time since its formation and it is placed accordingly in an interstadial oscillation of the resent or Fourth Interglacial or as some prefer, the Fourth Glaciation. The Canunda Range marks, in the writer's opiuion, a stillstand during the retreat of the sea from an adyance within relatively recent times to a height which enabled it to produce erosion features now ahiul 30 feet above sea-level in the aleas where these were examined.
Subsquently to the Canunda Stillstand, the sea is believed to have re- trealecd| to some distance below present sea-level, at a later stage to have risen again to 12-15 feet above its present level. and finally retreated io its present position, To what extent any of the figures given above may inclide mu*difications by contemporaneaus or subsequent isastatic adjustment of the fegion or further downward moveiment at the northern end of the tilted block, cannot he determined at present. The possibility must be considered that the heights piven here do not necessarily represent the true values of corres- pending changes in world scu-level.
As # result of the deductions outlined but with the stated reservations, a list has been compiled in tabular form which purposes to show the postu- lated succession and the glacial and interglacial phases during which the dune limestones are believed to have been formed along the successive shorelines. A diagram (Fig. 9) is intended to show graphically the postulated order and development of the various dune limesione ranges.
An attempt has been made (Tindale, 1947) to correlate a simplified grouping of the dune ranges of the South-East with the interglacial tereaces of Europe, and the Pleistocene marine intergiacial terraces of the Atlantic coast of North America, In order to make this possible, levels were assigned by Tindale to the terraces formed at the times of formation of the dunes. However, 1b is abyious even from a cursory examination of the relief map prepared many years ago by the South-Eastern Draining Board, or from a study of the numerous available levels, or from the contoured map prepared
205
by the writer, that the range of levels at the edges of the ranges and there- fore of any terraces if present, is so wide that it is easy *o select whalever values ate required, It is not difficult therefore to select a section across the ranges which will supply levels compatable with those of interglacial sea- levels outside Australia. The real difficulty is to determine the true heights aliove present sea-level at which these ranges were formed, If i were pos- sible to da this and it could be established with certainty that in the Euro- pean and North American areas the Jand remained immovable, and only the sea rose and fell during the epoch in question, namely (hat of Pleistocene gla- ciation, then and only then could an attempt be made to correlate these widely separated areas with the South-Eastern features. The writer has in- yestigated the possibilities of determining the true heights of formation above present sea-level of the successive shorelines of the Sonth-Hast and has reached the following conclusions :—
fa) lt is reasonable to assume that the successive retreats and advances of the sea due to changes in world sea-level ahuiring the Pleistocene Epoch did not proceed smoothly and evénly from maximum to minimum and yice versa but experienced periods of stillstand at irregular intervals, The re- treating ocean would leave on the emerging land a series af dunes marking the approximate positions of successive coast lines, T.ikewise, when the sea advanced over this region, the gentle gradients of the basement would ensure that any shorelines formed and deposits laid down, were mdistinguishable from those of an emerging land suriace, except where dunes were cncoun- tered by the rising sea, dunes left behind during a previous retreat. It is. to be expected therefore that a series of coastal dunes would be produced at each stillstand of the rising ocean. But such dunes would disappear rapidly and leaye litle ar no trace after their stibmergence by a Iurther rise of sea level. No dune formed during such a progressive rise could remain, and only emie, the one marking the furthest advance of the sea, would he left when sea-level hegan once more to drop. On the other hand dunes formed during a previous retreat of the sea, especially if they were predominantly calcareous as were those of the Sonth-Last, would develop a cemented crtist before the next inundalian and when this arrived would offer considerable but vari- alle resistance to erosion, Some at least would probably survive a sulmer- gence, ever though they were reduced to remnants only, All stages and de- grees of erosion of dunes can be noted in the South-East and have been de- seribed earlier.
The development of such coastal dunes on an emerging Jandmass is described by Johnson (1938). ‘Their initial development as offshore bars in a shallow sea and their enclosure, partial or complete, of the intervenmg waters would develop long lagoons running parallel to the shore, such as is shown today by the Coorong and its seaward dunes. The gradual moyement fandwards of this off-shore bar would result in nacrowing the lagnon and eventually im its extinction and the deposition of the dunes on the unsub- merged land. The retreat of this offshore bar must of necessity have heen irregular in some localities and hence the otiginal offshore bar could remain as such for part of its original length but exhibit all intermediate stages of advance to its final resting place on the non-submerged land in the remain- ing segments. Although the gentle gradients of the basement would have been favourable to the development of off-shore bars, it is by to means cer- tain that all of the dunes originated as such jeatures. Some indeed may re- present purely aeolian deposits above high tide level. Even if this can be demonstrated hawever, such deposits may be the result of the shoreward travel of an off-shore bar until it became a dime above high water level-
266
Further, the inland or leeward, that is the north-eastern edges of a dune would, like all aeolian deposits of this type, be exceedingly irregular and ex- tend for variable and in places cotisiderable distances inland, In order to obtain comparable figures the same features or as near to these as possible must be measured for each dune. It is obvious that the seaward edge is much more reliable as a guide ta the height of sea-level than the irregular land- ward edge. Where the seaward edges of the dunes are long and straight or evenly curved, it can he assumed that they represent an even advance to- wards the land of the original off-shure bar, and where these edges are irresu- lar, either differential advance or acolian deposition on an irregular coastline is indicated. Further, it must be tealized that the foot of an off-shore bar is vat necessarily at sea-level and in many instances is at some distance below this line, In taking measurements designed to determine the relative heights of sea-level when these dunes were formd, the levels of the plain immediately adjacent to the seaward edges of the dunes were taken and where possible ouly at such places where the dunes presented a regtilar and even front. Even so this elevation does not represent, except in the southern sector of the region where the basement limestones outcrop at the surface, the real level of the platform on which the dunes were laid down. The variable depths af subsequent deposits which include shell deposits of marine origin, swamp deposits and drift sands, make it nceessary to allaw for errors which may teach 20 feet or more. Tlowever, the selection of a number of levels for each range and the knowledge that similar conditions exist at the front of each range north of the Mount Burr Range may deercase the relative errors to a degree where they cance! out partially, and while not entirely negligible, are of minor importance..
(b) A second factor of great significance is the steady decrease narth- westwards of differences in elevation between the fronts of many of the dunes. Thus whereas on a line approximately normal to the ranges and pass- ing through the town of Naracoorte. the difference in height between the fronis af the Hast Naracoorte and Reedy Creck Ranges is approximately 110 feet, it is less than 50 feet near Salt Creek. Corresponding decreases are noted fur the intermediate ranges. It is necessary therefore, when taking levels near the fronts of the ranges, to multiply the readings by an appro- priate factor for each range in order to make the figures comparable with those taken at the extreme southern limit where such readings could be taken, namely the line inland from Cape Buffon at right angles to the average trend cf the Ranges. VYhe determination of this factor presents Jifficulties which have been discussed in (a),
(c} Another and important fact is the dowfwatd tilting of the greater part of the region in a weést-north-westerly direction. This process, which appears to have continued for a yery long time, and which will be dealt with more fully under Diastrophism, probably was episodic and may even have been reversed at times. If the latter did occur, then despite the use of cor recting facturs, figures even approximately accurate cannot be obtained,
{d) The possibility of isostatic adjustments to the alternating decreases and increases of load on the region must be considered. It is probable that stich adjustments in the form of a rise of the tegion and to a decreasing ex- tent of the adjacent submarine plain, occurred aftér the retreat of the sea fsom the Murravian Gulf. Whether snch adjustments continyed inte the Tleistocene cannot be determined at present, ‘Chere is, however, the effect af the removal by marine erosion of considerable thicknesses, increasing sea-
247
ward, of the Tertiary sediments west of the East Naracvorte Range, first during the postulated Upper Pliocence stillstand and later during the re- {rests of the sea during the successive glaciations, to depths of several hundred dred feet below present sea-level, Responses to the lessening of the load over this part of. the continental shelf by ihe yemoval of enormous masses of water. and later the increase of weight due to advances of the sea during interglacial periads, must be regarded as possibilities. As a result it is clear that the levels, even ifan accurate determination were possible, would represent merely the differences in height between the bases of the dunes and not necessarily the differences in height of sea-level at the times of their formation. The latter would be greater or less than the recorded differences in elevation according lo whether the land had sunk or risen ditring the interval.
Should the isostatic rise or fall of the land have corresponded even approximately in amount at any time with the rate of rise or fall of world sea-level, an apparent stillstand would have resulted and if tts duration had heen of sullicient lengih, an off-shore bar and possibly a dune would have been produced. Many variations of these factors are possible and the prob- ability that such complications eccurred, make the value of any levels ob- tained somewhat doubtful. Such isostatic responses to decrease anil increase of load have still to be proved in this region. A study of the spacing and trends of the fronts and seaward edges of the dunes, suggests the possibility that upward movements may have taken place.
The opinion is held by the writer, as will be shown below, that in those localities which are in the viemity of the postulated axis of tilting, the height of the preglacial shoreline is now approximately 240 Jeet above present sea- level, The estimated height of potential sea-level, that is aca-level on an ice- free earth, of approximately 160 fect, would suggest that this part of the South-East has risen approximately 80 feet sitice the beginning of Pleisto= cene Glaciation. In any event, whatever be the height of potential sea-level inday, the difference between that hgure and 240 feet would represent the net gain in elevation of the land relative to the sea, whether by elevation of the region as a whole, or by local uplift of the Mount Burr Range and adja- cent terrain.
It could be argued that this difference, whatever it he, might represent a world-wide drop in potential sea-level, a supposition which would be an approach to Zeunet"s contention that world sea-level has dropped continu- ously throughout the Pleistocene Age. The problem must be left unsolyed at present.
In view of the above variable factors the determination, first of the dif- ferences in elevation of the foreshores of the duncs, and secondly of the ac- tual heights above sea-level at which they were formed, seems impracticable. The wriler has attempted it, however, and bearing in mind the possible sources of error has tried to minimize them, or where this could not be done to average them and apply corrections. The figures finally produced (Fig. 9 and Table) are intended to show the differences between the estimated height at which these fareshores were formed and the present heights abeve sea-level in those areas which haye not been affected, as far as can he deter- mined, by tilting, No allowance was made nor can be made for isostatic ad- justments. With all their limitations, the figures supplied do give a general picture of the relative vertical positions of the fronts of the dune ranges and therefore of the basement on which they were formed,
The contention by Zeuner (1946) that there has been a world-wide and steady deup in sea-level since the commencernent of glaciation and that the
268
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maximum heights of sea-level reached during each interglacial were progres- sively lower as a result, reqttires further proof and explanation of the causes underlying this gradual decrease and is opposed to the views widely held, that at least during the Second or Great Interglacial world sea-level reached or approached closely that exisling at the beginning of glaciation.
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270
‘This latter opinion is shared by the writer and has been used in the ten- tative determination of the dune ranges representing the height of the Second Interglacial, If the table and assoviated diagrams (Figs. 3, 9, 10) have any validity (the reasons for their construction have been given hereim), then it would appear that the climate of the First Interglacial was somewhat milder than today and that it was considerably warmer during the height of the Third Interglacial. It would follow also that during the present Interglacial wr as some would have it during the Fourth Glaciation, oscillations of tem- perature have occurred resulting in a relatively warm period in Sub-Recent times followed by more refrigeration, another period a litle warmer than today in Recent and possibly Historic time, and nally sufficient refrigeration jo reduce sea-level to its present limits, On the other hand some of these later movements of sea-level may have had other causes than those of in- creases and decreases of glaciation, The larger and earlier of the above oscillations is believed to have been responsible for the advance of the sea to a height sufficient to form wave-cut terraces and marine shell deposits on the inland side of the Woakwine Range, sea-caves ind blowholes en its western slopes and several gaps such as Narrow Neck. IL is believed also to have augmented the widespread erosion, much of which probably had been produced earlier, of the dune ranges north of Kingston. The rise in sea-level is estimated by the writer to have affected those parts nf the region which are at present between 50 and 60 feet above sea-level.
The retreat of the sea from that position was responsible fur the forma- tion vf the Cantinda Range which was partly eroded during the subsequent rise to the 12-15 feet level, and although sea-level has retreated since then to its present level, the former northern and southern extensions of this ratge remain submerged and the existing portions are being actively croded by the sea,
The features of marine erosion testifying ta the most recent retreat of the sez include wave-cut cliffs and platforms, sea-caves and shell deposits, and are widespread not only in South Australia but also in other parts of the continent.
One notable feature not discussed hitherto is the absence of all but minor occurrences of dune limestone in a broad area from Mount Grahain, the most northerly part of the Mount Burr Range, eastwards of Kalangadoo and beyond. This absence is understandable it the prevailing wind which today is from a west-south-westerly direction was similarly oriented in the past during the Pleistocene Epoch, That this probably was the case is shown by the general trend and morphology of the ranges. Given a pre- vailing wind from the west-south-west, the protection afforded io the arezs to the east by the Mount Burr Islands and Tombolos would prevent the for- mation of all except minor aceumulations along the northern Gmits uf the farmer shoal now known as the Dismal Swamp. This is being termed the Mingboo! Shoal. This shwal is believed also to mark the southern limits of an estuary into which flowed several streams now forming part of the Glenely River to the east in Victoria. The extensions of this estuary would have varied from time to time according to advances or retreats of the sea, and during periods of low sea-level are believed to have continued at jeast as far as the northern extremity of the present Mount Burr Range. The streams no dowbt provided appreciable quantities of detrital material which assisted not only in the byilding up of the shoal and the tombolos of the Mount Burr area but stipplied the material for the detrital quartz deposits on the slopes of the Mount Burr Range, The pronounced curvature of the dune ranges as they approach the position of this postulated estuary, is in accordance with the developments expected under such conditions.
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An attempt has been made to reconstruct the shorelines as indicated by the various dune ranges (Fig. 10). Such a reconstruction is subject to the limitations discussed earlier and must be regarded as an approximation only. It is also recognized that there is some uncertainty in the region between Mount Gambier and the southern limits of the Dismal Swamp, and the re- construction in that sector is based chiefly on the basement levels and such allowance as could be made for subsequent planation during periods of marine transgression.
The shorelines finally produced suggest an estuary or at least a bay with ils head near the Victorian border. The very gentle slopes and numerous swamps from there to the Glenelg River support the view that the present river has captured the streams formerly discharging into the estuary in South Australia. At what period these captures occurred cannot be determined at present. The writer believes however, that the history of this river as con- structed by Fenner (1918) must be modified considerably and that there is a possibility that much of the capture of the headwaters of the present river, if it took place, was accomplished by the streams which have been named the River Mundi and Nangwarry Creek, which discharged into the estuary in South Australia.
DIASTROPHISM
Despite the high probability that all or nearly all of the dune ranges represent eustatic shorelines due to successive glaciations and deglaciations during the Pleistocene Epoch, and were not in general produced by a “hesi- tating advance of the land” (Ward 1941), there is definite evidence that ex- tensive movements of the land have taken place and adjustments apparently are still continuing. The earthquake off the coast of the region in 1897, and a similar disturbance in 1948, indicate that stability has not been reached. The formation is recorded, by an officer of the South-Eastern Drainage Board, of the Earthquake Springs in the Hundred of Conmurra, apparently as a re- sult of the 1897 earthquake. The additional supply of water furnished by these newly-developed springs required the excavation of a special drain which was named the Earthquake Springs Drain. The chief evidence sub- mitted by the writer is the steady and persistent north-westerly drop in ele- vation of the seaward edges of the dune ranges from the vicinity of a zone which bears inland from Cape Banks in a direction approximately normal to the present coastline. The various possibilities of error notwithstanding, it must be conceded that in following the seaward edge of a dune range mark- ing approximately a former shoreline, though there may be upward and downward variations in level of quite appreciable magnitude, there will not be a steady and persistent decrease in the one direction as exhibited by every range, reaching in the case of the East Naracoorte a maximum of more than 150 feet within the area examined. It is obvious that depression at the northern end or elevation in the south with a resultant downward tilt to the north-west, must have been responsible.
The closer spacing of many of the ranges together with the progressive decrease in difference of elevation of their seaward edges as they are traced north-westwards, is further proof of such tilting. An examination of the con- tours of the zone to the north-east of Cape Banks suggests that this was relatively stable, and it is assumed therefore that depression of the north- western end is the probable explanation. Such movements would link up with the known warping and faulting of the Mount Lofty Ranges and adja- cent areas during the Pleistocene Epoch. It is the writer’s opinion that the
272
region adjacent to Mount Bust, possibly because of reinforcement hy basaltic intrusions, probably remained unmoved while the whole area from there to the north-west was tilted downwards. This view dots not, however, deny the possibility of small vertical uplift of the Mount Burr terrain indepen- dently of the regional warping. A similar but steeper downward movement jn a southerly direction of the area hetween Mount Burr and Port Macdan- nell is suggested by the gradual drop in elevation in that direction of the fronts of the dune ranges. It has not been possible to investigate this feature in the southern part of the region in detail because survey levels are toa few and because the time available for such research was insufficient.
The downward tilting to the west-north-west obviously affected not only the differences in elevation of the successive foreshores, but also their hari- zontal “distances from ¢ach other. It must be emphasized here that the pos- tulated isostatic movements, both positive and negative, were relatively small and the total west-north-westerly downwarp was effective in producing only a very low gradient, the resultants being less than one foot per mile to the north-north-west, and frum 2-3 feet per mile to the westwward, ‘lhe postu- lated transverse buckling with north-casterly axes is believed ta have been emaller still, and even some of the custatic variations of sea-level were small, Nevertheless, a comparatively uniformly sloping plain as measurements indi- cate it is even today, will provide accurate and delicate evidence of any changes in level of the land relative to the sea, or of distortions experiences between the times of formation of two successive shorelines.
In sectors where the slope is uniforin, downward tilting towards the west-north-west would cause the new shoreline to approach the older shore- line progressively to the north-west and eventually to intersect it as some of the dine ranges appear to do. In the area adjacent to the axis, where little or no movement had taken place, the true spacing and differences in height would be preserved. These converging dunes are a feature of the region. Beyond their junction the two dune ranges would appear as one and on the surface could not be separated. Cuttings at selected lacalittes could, if they were made, enable such a separation. Stich cuttings may become more plentiful, it is to be hoped, in places where the information ts needed.
Still further te the north-west, the new shoreline would continue ta fringe the older dune until a point was reached whiere the sea could breale throngh the barrier or submerge it. Ags a result the sea would occupy a shallow bay with a long narrow peninsula, the old dune forming a protecting ridge for the southern part of the bay. The southernmost part of the new shoreline would not be likely to develop a dune, or if dune building oceurred it would be of small, irregular accumulations only for some distance to the northward, until a point was reached where wave and wind action were sufficiently imfe- stricted to enable regular dune-building to begin. An exanination nf the région shaws that such irregularities aud eventual regularity of dunes on the eastern side of a compound dune produced by convergence, oceur in several instances. They are believed therefore to have been formed as de- scribed above,
Should tilting movements cease after the formatian of a shoreline, then the following shorelines would preserve, on a uniformly sloping plain, ap- proximately constant distances, both horizontal and vertical. An examina- tion of the region, however, shows that nearly all of the ranges record changes in horizontal or vertical spacing or bath, A few ranges diverge as they are traced, towards the north-west and this could indicate a temporary reversal of the downward tilting movement, The convergence of some and diver- gence of other ranges as they are teaced towards the north-west, suggests
273
the intervention of warping movemeuts. These are believed, as stated earlier, to have consisted not only of the downward tilt of the northern and sauthern sectors, but also of transverse warping and yariations in Jocal isostatic ad- justment. The last two could have nullified or reversed locally the eflects uf progressive downward tilting.
In the northern sector, reliable levels are too few in number for any de- terminations to be made of such movements or their effects.
While it could be argued that the duwmward tilting movement, which apparently commenced during Upper Pliocene times and continued thraugh- cut the Pleistocene Epoch but probably episodically, may have hecn reversed at times, there are, us stated above, other factors to be considered. The pro. gressive tilting of the region towards the west-north-west would result in in- creasingly large areas being inundated by rises of sea-level even if of minor amounts. Such increased tendency to drowning of the north-western sector would increase the load borne by the block during intndations by the sea, and might result in isostatic adjustment by depressing the area, and corres- ponding elevation after the sea retreated. Such isostatic adjustments could in that event be more intense than in the areas further south in which rises or falls of sea-level would not affect such wide areas nor inundate them to the same relative depths, Further, it is by no means certain that the axis of tilting was located always in the zone to the north-east of Cape Banks. Though no doubt predominantly in this zone, there are indications that an axle or transverse warp may have been located in a zone from Rendelsham to the north-east and similar features may haye existed even further to the north,
As feferred to earlier and summarized here, it is possible that isostatic response ta release of the load when the Mutrtravian Gulf was drained, oc- curted during the Upper Pliocene and possibly Jater, The Naracoorte Fault, if its existence is confirmed, may have been formed during and as the result of such uplift. Further, the reduction by marine planation of the level of the area still submerged, such planation extending at the height of the glaciations far beyond the present coastline, could have resulted in elevation of the re- gion. It would appear that the East Naracoorte foreshore, which is esti- mated to have been formed at approximately 240 feet above present sea-level. kes been elevated since its formation hy the amount represented by the dif- ference between 240 tect and potential sea-leve] at the time, However, such elevation, if proved, tay have been produced by other causes.
As stated in an earlier section, there is evidence that the Miocene sedi- ments, of the southern part of the region have been folded to a small! extent. Whether such folding movements did produce, over a long distance, eleva- tions of the order referred to earlier is heyond the scope of the present inves- tigation. The age of the folding was not studied by the writer but it is hoped that the work being done in the region by the State Geological Survey will furnish the desired information,
HUMAN OCCUPATION
The legends quoted catlier which refer to Mounts Muirhead, Gambier, and Schank miay or may not indicate that these eruptions were witnessed by human beings. Another legend stating that the land formerly extended to the south far beyond the present southert: coastline at Port MacDonnell and referring to an advance of the sea over this area, an event which is believed to have occurred during the partial deglaciation since the height of Wirni Glaciation, may be merely a legend and have no foundation in actual knowledge of this everit by the earlier natives, There is, however, another feature which may point to the existence of
274
the natives for a considerable period. At numerous localities, chiefly in the Woak- wine Ranges, but also in the Reedy Creek Range, weathering of the cemented dune limestones has etched in sharp relief the existence of numerous stones and boulders of cemented dune limestone embedded in the aeolian material uf the dune, which is also a cemented dune limestone. Only the sensitive effects of slow gubaerial weathering could have emphasised the slight difference in cementation of the boulders and the latter cemented matrix sufficiently ta permut of their visual recognition. The occurrence of boulders on a dune 1s itself an anomaly and suggests transportation by living heings. Their concentration in limited areas is further evidence of such planned accumulation. Of special interest, however, is the occurrence at intervals amongst these former hawlders of stones which are blackened by smoke or fire (Campbell 1946). The presence of Tree carbon was established in those examined, Similar material is recorded from The Bluff south-east of Geelong (Coulson, 1935), These blackened stunes occur in diverse methods of aggregation. In some places they lie clase together forming roughly circular areas, in others they occur as if scattered [rom a common centre, the latter occurrence showing a dectease in size and increase in number of stones away from the apparent centre. These accumulations of blackened stones are in appearance and in plan inflistinguishable from similar aggregates which are known to have been used as hearths by the natives oti recent camp sites. These, too. occur both as close aggregates and widely scattered fragments, the aniount of scattering being apparently a function both of time and insolation, While not regarded as absolute proof, these blackened stones, as well as those which have not been charred, are at least an indication that natives lived on these dune ranges while they were 7a process of formation, especially as all the known occurrences are not at the sur- fave, but some occur beneath the present surface within the dune itself. Tf the natives were responsible for the collection and use of these stanes, and if the date of formation of the Reedy Creek Range is upheld by further investigation, then the natives lived in this region at feast as early as the initial stages of the Riss Glaciation.
THE PRESENT COASTLINE
As indicated earlier, the coastline presents varied features, heing apparently one of submergence between Capes Jalfa and Northumberland, and one of etnergence north of Cape Jaffa and east of Cape Northumberland, Further, the sea has broken through into the Canunda- West Woakwine interdune flat at Guichen and Rivoli Bays and tu the south of Cape Banks. This interdune flat which probably represents an ancient Coorong, now contains Lakes Eliza and St. Clair which are salt and below sea-level, Lakes George, Canunda and Frome all salt originally but the rwo latter drained almost completely by artificial means, Lake Bonney which is fresh and the above two bays which represent no doubt the sites of former lakes,
Beyond Cape Jaffa and Cape Northumberland the sea has entered the wide flats separating the Dairy and Woakwine from the Neville and Reedy Creck Ranges.
Tt is in the last two sections from Cape Jaffa northwards and from Cape Northamberland eastwards that the coastline appears to be one of emergence. The writer’s views are that the present coastline in addition to the recent rises afd falls of the sea-level, owes its configtiralion lo the continued tilting both to the north-west arid south-east along an axis which extended inland from Cape Banks in a direclion approximately normal to the present coastline, It is obvious that this would submerge in a north-westerly direction a succession of interdune flats and in a south-casterly direction the easterly sector of the south coast. The advance of the sea over the wide interdune flat north of Cape Jaffa and its yery gentle slopes would produce the same effect as would an emerging coastline with
275
its gently sloping marine plain and would in fact be indistinguishable. The Sub- Recent submergence due to world rise in sea-level is therefore the dominant feature of the section from Cape Bufton to Cape Banks, but loses this dominance and becomes more and more subordinate to the tilting effects as the coastline is followed north and southwards away from this section.
It is this tilting which is believed to have been responsible for the depressed area in which Lakes Alexandrina, Albert and associated lakes and swamps occur, and the prime factor which produced the sudden turn to the west of the River Murray towards Mannum and the Mount Lofty Horst, and its subsequent course southwards in close proximity to that elevated region.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
Lower PLIOCENE Draining of Murravian Gulf as far as the East Naracoorte shoreline.
Lower PLioceNE TO Earty Upeer Puiocenr Erosion of Lower Pliocene and upper members of Miocene sediments by marine planation, Possible rise of land and adjacent sea floor due to isostatic adjustment.
Earty Upper PLiIocENE
Voleanic eruptions in Mount Burr area. Formation of tied islands and tornbolos,
Upper PLIOCENE Protection from further marked marine erosion of Dismal Swamp area. Formation of Mingbool Shoal. Discharge of streams from Victoria and formation of estuary north uf Mingbool Shoal. Partial protection from marine erosion of Miocene sediments in the Mount Burr area. Further erosion of Miocene sediments in remainder of region assisted probably by further elevation of sea floor. Downward tilting probably commenced.
PLEISTOCENE Beginning of Glaciation, Gradual lowering of sea-level and formation of stranded dunes—Hatper’s, Woolumbool, Neville and probably Woawine A. Probably other dunes, since removed completely by erosion.
Gunz GLACIATION Tilting downwards to the west-north-west and to the souts-east continued. Probable uplift of land due to lowering by crosion of basement by retreating Shallowing sea and removal of sea itself, [xtension of river estuary to the west of Mount Graham over the emerging coastal plain.
Frest INTERGLACTAL Rise of sea-level to West Avenue shorcline, cutting of notch in the basement at approximately 130 feet below pre-glacial level, Climate milder than today. Isostatic adjustments probably small.
Minor, GLaciatTion Gradual lowering of sea-level and formation of stranded dunes, West Avenue, East Dairy and Woakwine B. Probably slight rises of land,
SECOND on GREAT INTERGLACTAL
Rise of sea-level to West Naracoorte shoreline. Cutting of notch in the basement at approximately 40 feet below pre-glacial level, Climate much warmer than today. Intersection ta the north of Naracoorte of the East and West Naracoorte shorelines and establishment further north of the West
276
Naracoorte as a new shoreline to the east of the older, preglacial, East Nara- courte shoreline, Isostatic: depression of land probably appreciable. Forty fect may represent net gain in elevation of land due to removal of Murravian sediments and resulting isostatic adjustment,
Riss GLACIATION Gradual lowering of seatevel and formation of stranded dunes, West Nara- coorte, Peacock, Baker’s, Ardune, Reedy Creek, West Dairy and Woak- wine C, Probably appreciable rise of land. Further tilting down to west- north-west and south-east. Mount Muirhead may have erupted during the later stages. Human occupation of the region may have begun.
Turrp INTERGLACIAL Rise of sea-level to Cave shoreline. Cutting of notch in the basement at approximately 70 feet below pre-glacial level. Climate warmer than today. Probable depression of land appreciable, Owme to continued tilt down to the west-north-west, greater inundation of that area, and possibly greater local depression of land in that sector.
Witram GLACIATION Gradual lowering of sea-level and forrnation of stranded dunes, Cave, Lucin- dale, East Avenue:and Woakwine D, Mounts Gambier and Schank probably erupted after the climate became warmer.
Foueri [nTrerc LaceaL or OSCILLATIONS IN Witrm GLACIATION
Rise of sea-level to reach features about 50 feet above present sca-level. Climate milder than today. Sea retreated and left Canunda Range as a stranded dine. Sea retreated further for an unknown distance. Sea-level rose again to 12-15 feet above present sea-level, Climate a little milder than today. Sea-level fell to present position. Tilting down to west-north-west and south-east continued and resulted in encroachment by the sea on the flats between the Dairy and Neyille and Reedy Creek Ranges north of Cape Jaffa and east of Cape Northumberland. Formation of Rivoli and Guichen Rays, Buildmg of offshore bar and formation of present Coorong. Erosion of non-submerged parts of Canunda Range along present coastline between Capes Jaffa and Northumberland. [Erosion of Miocene limestones between Cape Banks and the Victorian border, setting free numbers of flints and forming the extensive beach deposits of this mineral today.
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FENNER, io el ae a Craters and Lakes of Mt. Gambior, South Atstralia. Trams, Roy, Sac, ist
Fenner, C. 1930, The Tajor Structural and Phystographic Features of Soutlt Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust, 34, 1
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65
Hints, E. S. 1934 Some Fund: a es Concepts in Victorian Physiozraphy. LProc. Roy. Soc. Viet. 47 (N.S.) Pt.
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278
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53
Howosim, W. 1930, The Building of Australia and the Succession of Life, with Special Reference to South Australia. Gavt. Printer, Adelaide, Brit. Sei, Guild, S, Aust, Handbook . ;
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Mines. Dept. S.. Anst,. Bull, 19
62 TINTINARA
4 THE ourcrors SOUTH-EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
WEST OF THE EAST NARACOORTE RANGE
LIMESTONE
ot KEITH
SCALE
1) a 8 12 MILES
61
MT. MONSTER +
264i BORDERTOWN
Ey o
i"
rf
353
341
CREEK
331
KINGSTON
C. JAFFA
LS
\
Z WN
w
GUICHEN BAY
ww nw sw nw ws Fw 8 8 8 ee ee
: —osi—— ——
C. RABELAISE NORA CREINA BAY
1) af SPRINGS
341 _~ CONTOURS & HEIGHTS IN FEET
ea ABOVE SEA LEVEL
RIVOLI BAY
Cc. BUFFON
ig: este LUNETTES bet kb
“Y Ys
-L. EDWARD or
DISMAL SWAMP
StL 23,
DUNE LIMESTONE (INFERRED) ) LY: 29 Ke LOCATION OBSCURED BY RECENT AEOLIAN SANDS SNNEN eg -——\——~__
LOW EROSION PLATFORMS OR ISOLATED REMNANTS OF DUNE LIMESTONE
sis] MIOCENE LIMESTONES AT OR NEAR THE SURFACE 5] (IN THE SOUTHERN SECTOR)
CAINOZOIC BASALT AND TUFF
: f 1950 C. NORTHUMBERLAND Note—Contours are of Basement only and not of Aeolian or Volcanic Accumulations.
279
Warp, L. K. 1944. The Search for Oil in South Australia. Mines Dept. S. Aust., Bull. 22
Warp, L. K. 1946. The Occurrence, Composition, Testing and Utilisation of Underground Water in South Australia, and the Search for further supplies. Mines Dept. S. Aust., Bull. 23
Woops, Rev, J. F. 1862. Geological observations in South Australia: principally in the district South-East of Adelaide. Longman & Co., London
ZEUNER, F. E, 1945. The Pleistocene Period. Its climate, chronology and faunal succession. Ray. Society, London
ZEUNER, # z 1946. Dating the Past. An Introduction to Geochronology. Methuen & Co.,
ondon
WORORA KINSHIPS
BY J. R. B. LOVE
Summary
I have taken Professor Elkin’s table of the Ungarinyin kinship, and have transferred it to the Worora, which tribe has the same social organisation as Ungarinyin (or Ngarinjin). I have extended the table to bring in all the terms, and also to show how the terms reappear in alternate generations.
280
WORORA KINSHIPS
By J. R. B. Love [Communicated by H. K. Fry]
Read 13th July, 1950.
T have taken Professor Elkin’s table of the Ungarinyin kinship, and have transferred it to the Worora, which tribe has the same social organisation as Ungarinyin (or Ngarinjin). I have extetided the table to bring in all the terms, and also to show how the terms reappear in alternate generations.
There are two peculiarities of Worora and Ngarinjin, namely,
(1) All the men of a wife's horde are known by the same term, Waia in Wrorora.
(2) A man may, and among the older men often has done so, marry an- other man’s sister and his daughter.
You say “children of irregular matriages take the class determined by that of the mother, not of the father.” Not in Worora, in which the mother is always of the opposite moiety from the child. No doubt all your references ta the patrilineal area of North-Western Australia refer to the tribes further South from here, as these Kimberley tribes have no sections but named moieties, Cg., marriage with sister’s son’s daughter is prohibited in Worora, she being kulanja, which is primarily sister’s husband’s sister, a forbidden wile; so all Kulanja are forbidden.
I do not know any meaning for the moiety names; they are just the names of moietics.
The horde names are territorial, At least one horde name is animal; and that again is territorial, being the name of a district around a hill which is a mythical rai’s nest, so that the district is called “rat” and the men of the horde “rat-men.”
[A kinship terminology, published Jater in the paper “Worora Kinship Gestures” cited below, was included here.]
The forbidden relationship is called rambadba.
The forbidden pairs are (reciprocally),
(1) wolbaia and kurumanja, also wolbaiinja and kurumanja, also wolbaia and kurum; but not wolbaiinja and kurtm.
i.e, man and his mother-in-law, woman and her brother’s mother-in-law,
man and his mother-in-law’s brother: but not woman and the brother of her brother's mother-in-law.
(2) buda and kadjanja, but not buda and kadjaia, nor budinja and cither kadjanja or kadjaia.
These are, man and his mothet’s brother’s wife, and, mot so strietly, all women who are kadjanja to him; but not including his own mother’s mother, who is also kadjanja.
Of these forbidden pairs the son-in-law and mother-in-law groups are strictly observed, even between those of the same sex; the other groups are not so strict,
497816 pue 19q303q sujof |_—__ ‘efuyewomet ‘ayewomell ‘efuelpurjet ‘erefpurjelt ‘efuenels ‘erenel ‘eluesireus - - pear : j Bfuyemomen Qyeuiomeu ‘efue[puryeu ‘ere[purpeu ‘efueneu ‘ereneu ‘elueSuew - - Jog : Bpuess1108 UsIPpyD pue squared suof epusssi10-) 6 = jdwos jews ayIM pue puegsny surof x % = SIVLIdV) (38 =) ‘p's (A=) “Mss (aa =) 's's Psap ‘ssa PP's3s ‘Sa'S.aS ‘pss as ‘S'S'SANS efuewel VIVINWEL a a efueduem =X aIVAOMYN efural viyal eimpnq yang ae Viv 104 I ree ee, aE Le | rm (w= “8,38 ‘H’Sala’s.as ea ars Ae ‘aA'S'S.US \ biel a ‘S'S.as8 “AS EU ‘SS'H'H ated s P ‘Ws.ud efueqr xX WIVHTOM efuneqiom VIV{GNITVN \__ efur[puyeu xX WIVdI efuefpey x VIVAVH cing x VWIVUl efuesemed =x =VIWIN [ae ee [Se Ue Mel) (aqua =) Can = aa) , ‘pq “a's'q' ‘SHH aM A YVIVOVN 4s “H'S.uS “ASS Is efueurel efue(pey =X VIVAWIL VIVM icy vk x OnF efueneu =x vivo cs tae 1 ane aS oe | . ‘cRM an Bi Wonwans bag ea . x VIVM ibeee S'S.SA orn MANE : i ‘cM'L A eee ‘an “an a AS} ‘HSS a efupna vqnd VIVIGVi eo. x VIVEVA bidair x VIVul aes x VWIVIAN 4 ¥. Cram =) itacs | = ‘IS"'Y'S,18"}'J ‘CAA urur “a ae f x tae ene bs Re a i mt a. eas euyny =x )~=vIy fave vfuelpey ee ie ee — CM “ae XX ViVINe aaa | X VIVAVIL ‘sey Ur 30 l efarurely VIV@TIOM —$—$——$—$—$— nnn y 4
HTIGVL dIHSNIM VAXOUOM
Kunmunya Mission. June 21st, 1939.
Table appended.
The above communication consists of extracts from a letter written to me by the late Rev. J. R. B. Love. The subject matter presented has not been published elsewhere by Mr. Love in his writings on the social organisa-
tions
1917,
1935,
1936, 1941.
of the Worora, namely,
Notes on the Worora Tribe of North-Western Australia, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 41 .21.
Mythology, Totemism and Religion of the Worora Tribe of North- West Australia. Report of the 22nd Meeting A.N.Z.A.A.S. 22.222,
Stone Age Bushmen of Today. London. Worora Kinship Gestures. Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust. 65. (1). 108.
This communication has been presented with the consent and co-opera- tion of Mrs. J. R. B. Love.
ABORIGINAL SOCIAL SYSTEMS
BY H.. K. FRY
Summary
Matriage and kinships which form the basis of Australian aboriginal societies have been explained in recent years in such complicated terms that an understanding of them is difficult. This paper is an attempt to simplify the problem.
282
ABORIGINAL SOCIAL SYSTEMS By H. K. Fry Read 13th July, 1950.
Marriages and kinships which form the basis of Australian aboriginal societies have been explained in recent years in such complicated terms that an understanding of them is difficult. This paper is an attempt to simplify the problem. :
The unit of all aboriginal societies is the exogamous local family group or horde, which owns a definite area of country and the sacred places, cere- monies and legends belonging to that country, Varying numbers of adja- cent hordes constitute a tribe.
With the exception of a few atypical societies, the hordes and therefore eyety man and woman of a tribe belong to one of two named exogamous moieties, Frequently these moieties are subdivided into named classes (or sections) and each individual of such a tribe is identified by one such class name This class name is used commonly as a term of address or reference. Tn all tribes without exception every man and woman is recognised as a rela- tive by every other person and is addressed or referred to by a kinship term which naturally is variable and dependent upon the recognised kinship of the speaker.
The aboriginal knows the moiety, class name if any, and kinship of every known person as a matter of common knowledge from his or her early child- hood. He therefore has a practical basis for knowing the effect of these dis- tinctions in everyday life which is denied to the student unless the latter has had a long and intimate association with the society in question. As there are only two moieties, at most eight named classes, and a limited number of kinship terms for each tribe, it follows that a great number of individuals possess equivalent status in regard to each of these social distinctions. By adopting an appropriate system of symbols, each of which will represent all those many individuals of a certain moiety, class and kinship status, the stu- dent can study these social distinctions in a considerably simplified form.
I adopted a set of such symbols in 1931 (8), and have found them useful. The form of the symbols was modified later (9, 10). My interpretation of data concerning aboriginal societies has been modified progressively, As I wish to present new material in coherent relation to my present conclusions, I trust L shall be pardoned for including some recapitulations in this paper.
The symbols which I have adopted are as follows :—
1. Moieties, The letters A and B, as is usually done, are used to repre- sent the two named moicties. Individual members of these moieties are symbolised by the same letters A and B as capitals if males, and as small casé letters a and b if females.
Marriages between members of moieties are indicated by a line, thus,
A— b a————-B
2. Classes (Sections), These named subdivisions of moieties are of two
types, which I propose to term the a and # subdivisions.
(1) The @ subdivision classifies children in a class different from that of either of the parents. The symbols adopted to represent such classes are
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obtained by prefixing the numbers 1 and 2 to the moicty svinbols A and B, the nunibers distinguishing the named classes in alternate generations. Male and female members of the four named classes are represented by the sym- bols 1A 1a, 1B Ib in one generation and 2A 2a, 2B 2b in the alternate genera- tion, Marriages between members of classes normally take place according to the following diagram =—
1A————lb 2A————2h la——_——1B Za——-——2R As diagrams become complicated as will be seen later, 1 have adopted a convenient convention by which a number prehxed to a line or group of sym- bols is considered to be a prefix to every symbol in that line or group. The above diagram represented in this simpler form 1s 1, A————-b 2, A————h a— B a B A few tribes have differently named classes for four successive genera- tions in each moiety. These are symbolised by prefixing the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 to the moiety symbols A and B to distinguish the named classes in suc- cessive generations.
(2) The 8 type of moiety subdivision classifies members of each moiety of the same generation into two subclasses. The symbols adopted to repre- sent such named subelasses are obtained by adding the numbers 1 and 2 as suffixes to the symbols for the named classes used above. Male and female memhers of the eight named subclasses are therefore 1A1 lal, LA2 laZ, 1BI 1bl, 1B2 1b2 in one genetation and 2A1 2al, 2A2 202, 2B1 2b1, 2B2 2b2 in the alternate generation, The normal martiages between members of the eight sub- class divisions are as follows —
b2 hd 1, Al BZ A2 2 Ale 2 aN —~ a wa Se bl” oO Bi Bi It is to be remembered that in this and subsequent diagrams the initial
numbers 1 and 2 are to be read as prefixing cach symbol in the group so de- signated,
3. Kinship terms. When local family groups ina closed society, in which all members are recognised as relatives, intermarry according to rigid cus- tomary rules, obviously a clearly defined pattern of kinships must be present. As the number of terms used to define these kinships is limited, numerous persons in the tribe will be distinguished as of equivalent kinship status and addressed by the same kinship term by all persons who are themselves of equivalent kinship status in {he society, Family groups on a tribe with eight named subclasses intermarry under such conditions in accordance with the diagram given above, and the persons grouped as of equivalent kinship status are found to be of the same subelass. The symbols used to represent the suh- classes in such a tribe therefore also serve to represent the kinship terms and the persons of equivalent kinship status designated by such terms,
The thesis maintained in this paper is that the customary rule of inter- marriages between family groups of a tribe with eight subclass divisions is also the customary rule of intermarriages between the family groups of the
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great majority of Australian tribes, whether named class divisions or even moieties are existent or non-existent. ‘This may be stated alternatively that the social organisation of the great majority of Australian tribes is based on a custom of marriages between family groups which can be represented by the diagram—
b2 ans 1 Al B2 SN A222 AL B2 A2 az
al ™— aa a2 YY: weer
BI Bl
This normal custom of marriages involves the exchange of women be- tween two intermarrying family groups. There are a few tribes in which this exchange of women is not customary, The simplest diagram of such mar- riages which is possible in a society with moiety divisions is as follows :—
b2 B2
un Pee
A2 2 bl Bi
I have been unable to find any described kinship system which conforms accurately to the pattern determined by this system of marriages. I pro- pose to show in this paper that described kinship systems conform to more complex marriage systems of this type involving twice the number of dis- tinguished kinship groups which will be denoted by the symbols Al al, A2 aZ, A3 a3, A4 a4, BI bl, B2 b2, B3 b3, and B4 b4. The marriage diagrams of these systems are respectively
b2 A2 b3
A B2 a2 B3 Al
23
A3 al ae Ad bo Bl a4 B4 and one in which the above system alternates with the following system in alternate generations :—
b4 A2 bl a2 Bl a3
al A3 a b3___.A4 be
These diagrams appear at first sight to be very complex. If, however, they are visualised as the customary marriages between members of eight local family groups, the complexity is simplified.
Consideration of some of the features of aboriginal societies can now be undertaken making use of the symbols described above.
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1. Moieties, Totemism undoubtedly provided the original conditions under which the moiety system took shape. All members of any one totemic group are considered to be of one blood and must not marry within that group. The practice of treating certain totems as associated no doubt led eventually to the classification of all the family tolemic groups of the tribe into two named exogamous moieties.
Children in a patrilineal society are of the motety of the father, in a matrilineal society of the moiety of the mother, A worsan on marriage usually joins the horde of her husband. Each local group or horde in a pat- rilineal society consists of males and one moiety in all generations, theit un- married sisters of the same moiety, and wives of the opposite moiety. The horde in a matrilineal society consists of males of opposite moieties in alter- nate generations, unmarried sisters of the same moiety as their brothers cor- responding to the moiety of their mothers and of the moiety opposite to that of their fathers. This can be illustrated by the following diagrams using the adopted symbols to cover five successive generations.
A b B a A b B zh A b B a B ch A b Aa Db Bb a Aa hb Bb a Aa b Bb a Rb a Aa b Aa Bb Aa Bb Diagram 1 (a). Moiety constitution Diagram 1 (b). Motety constitution of hordes in a patrilineal society. of hordes in a matrilmeal society: Two distinct types of hordes. Identical except for difference in
generation level,
The actual cu-existence of five gencrations in a horde is naturally un- usual, and in sich circumstances it would be most unlikely for unmarried sisters of the first two generations to retnain with the horde or for males. of the fifth generation to have wives.
The genealogical relationships of any individual in a tribe can be ex- pressed clearly by charting symbols for “sons” immediately helow synibols for their respective “fathers,” and symbols for “daughters” below those for their respective “mothers” in successive getierations. The diagram of mar- riages between moieties is as stated previously
A--———b a—_———_B
Using this as a key, genealogical moiety relationships can be charted to
form the following patterns :—
AaRBb Aa Bb
A b B a B a A b
AaBb AaBb
AbBa RaAb
AaBb AaBb Diagram 2 (a) Diagram 2 (b) Genealogical mioicty relation- Genealogical moiety — relation- ships in a_ patrilineal society. ships in a matrilineal society.
The great convenience of this diagrammatic form is that direct lines of male or female descent can be read vertically for as many zenerations as one wishes to include in the diagram, while symbols for “brother” and “sister” in any one horizontal line lie immediately below those for “father” and “mother” respectively in the line above, so identifying husband and wife in that penera- tion.
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The moiety divisions have two important consequences, extending tote- mic conceptions to cover the tribe as a whole. Firstly, children of all tribal brothers are of the same moiety, and children of all tribal “sisters” are of the same moiety. “Parallel cousins” being of the same moiety therefore cannot marry. The nearest kinship outside this prohibition is that of a “cross cousin,” that is the marriage of children of a “brother” with those of a “sis- ter” Secondly, the children of a “brother” being of the moiety opposite ta that of the children of a “sister” underlies the notmal custom in aboriginal society whereby a woman addresses the children and grandchildren of her “brothers” by the same kinship terms which they use, and a man addresses the children and grandchildren of his “sisters” by the same kinship terms which they use. Consequently, with the exception of special terms for “in- laws,” or for relative seniority in age, it is normal for a man, his “brothers,” and his “sisters” to use the same kinship term for each individual in the tribe,
2. The a Motety Subdivision into named Classes ( Sections). The diagram of marriages between members of the named subdivisions being
1, A————_4 2, A————-b a—_———B a——-}5 the diagrams of the genealogical relationships of the classes will be as fol- lows :—
l1AaBh 1.AaBb ZAbBa 2RaAb 1AaBbh 1AaBb 2AbBa Z2BaAb 1AaBb 1AaBb
Diagram 3 (a) Diagram 3 (hb)
Genealogical Relationships of Classes Genealogical Relationships of Classes
in a Patrilineal Society. in a Matrilineal Society.
From this diagram it will be seen that family groups will consist of male members of the Classes 1A 2A or 1B 2B in a patrilineal society, aid of the classes 1A 2B or 1B 2A in a matrilineal society.
‘The significance of this grouping of parents and children into distine- tively named classes is an emphasis on the prohibition, which is normal in aboriginal societies, whereby a man must not marry a woman of his father’s or his son's generation, If he marries a woman outside his awn generation she must be of his grandchildren's generation. The same emphasis in some tribes is also expressed by the use of a different name to distinguish all mem- bers of each alternate generation. he northern Aluridja tribes use such names even thotigh they have na named moieties or classes (7b, 16). The origin of this prohibition is not obyious. The siiggestion is made that it rep- resents the recognition of totemic restrictions inherited from both father and mother, Let us postulate that the moiety symbols Aa and Bb now represent dominant associated totems inherited from the fathers in a patrilineal seciety or from mothers in a matrilineal Society, and that x and y represent subsidiary associated totems inherited from the other parent. The following genealogical patterns could then emerge.
AaBb AaBb xxyy xxyy AbBa BaAb yxxy xyyx AaBb AaBb xxyy xxXyy
Patrilineal Pattern Matrilineal Pattern
2.
1,
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Such patterns of inheritance would permit Ax ax and By by people to intermarry, and in intermediate generations permit Ay ay and Bx bx people to intermarry, but prohibit intermarriage of Ax ax and Bx bx peoples and of Ay ay with By by peoples of alternate generations.
The inheritance in tatrilineal tribes of a subsidiary totem from the father is well-known (3), the converse not so. Howitt (lla) mentions a pos- sible instance of the latter. I disctissed the question with T. G, H, Strehlow, who referted me to two passages in his father’s book (14) which record that an Aranda man inherits from his mother a totem which is his Altra, the man knows the place where his mother was conceived as his dltjira-tmara, and when a man is buried his face is turned towards this spot. The Aranda are a typically patrilineal tribe, so this evidence gives support to the above proposal,
3. The B Moiety Subdivisions into Subclasses (Subsectons),
These named subdivisions are found only in patrilineal societies which inhabit the northern central regions of Australia.
The diagram of marriages between subclasses being
y B2 YO B2 1 Al A222, Ne Nis
VA
the diagram of genealogical relationships will be
1. Ai al Bl b1 A2 a2 B2 b2 2. Al bl B1 al A2 b2 B2 a2 1. Al a2 Bl b2 AZ al B2 bl 2. Al b2 BI a2 AZ bl B2 al 1. Al al BI bl A2 a2 B2 b2
Diagram 4. Genealogical Relationships of Subclasses. Patrilineal societies only.
It will be seen that subclasses distinguish four varieties of family groups of which the male members are of the subclasses 1A1 2A1, 1B1 2B1, 1A2 2A2, and 1B2 2B2 respectively,
The sub-class division provides that a son marries a woman of a family group whose members are of subclasses distinct from the named subclasses of the family group of his mother.
The subclasses of the Aranda tribe may be taken as an example to illus- trate the application of Diagram 4 as follows :—
Al al Bl bl Ag az Ba b2 PANANKA pananka PURULA pura KNURATA knuraia NGALA neala Al bl Bl al A2 h2 B2 az BANGATA kamara KAMARA bangata PALTARA mbitjana MRBITJANA paltara Al a2 Bl b2 AZ al B2 b1 PANANKA kouraia PURULA niygala KNURATA pananka. NGALA purwa Ad b2 Bl aZ A2 hi R2 al BANGATA nibitjana KAMARA paltara PALTARA kamara MBITJANA hangata Al al Th bl A2 az B2 bz. PANANKA pananka PURULA purtila KNURAIA knuraia NGALA nigala
Diagram §. Genealogical Relationships of Aranda Stbclasses.
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It will be seen that the subclass names “fit” the pattern of Diagram 4 with complete accuracy. The male symbol 1A1 is always associated with PANANKA, the female symbol 1b1 with purula, 2A1l with BANGATA, 2b1 with kamara and so on,
The functions of the subclasses are not only ta distinguish alternate generations among members of each local group, but alse to classify local groups into two categories in each moiety according to marriageable status. The moiety divisions, as has been mentioned previously, require that the marrying pair hayé the kinship status of “cross-cousin.” The subclass divi- sions require that this kinship status of cross-cousin should not be one which is “too close up.” For example, referring to Diagram 5, the children of a Pananka man (1A1) and his “sister” (lal) are Bangata (2al 2at) and Kamara (2Bi 2b1) respectively. These children are of the kinship status of first cousins. Martiages between them are permitted under special circum- stances, but the kinship is “toa close” to be considered “proper.” The child- ren of a Bangata man and of a Kamara man are Pananka and Purula respec- tively, and, being “second cousins,” marriages between them are “proper.” The children of a Bangata woman are Ngala (1B2 1b2) and are first cousins of Pananka people. The subclasses Purula (131 1h1) and Ngala (182 1b2) in regard to Pananka people distinguish family groups whose members of equivalent generation level are second cousins (1B1 1b1) and are marriage- able, irom family groups with members who are first cousins (1B2 1b2) and whose kinship is too close for a proper marriage. A similar distinction applics to all BL tl B2 b2, and all Al al A2 a2 groups.
4. Kinship Ternis
The pattern of the genealogical relationships of subclasses portrayed in Diagrams 4 and 5 is also the pattern of kinships developed in any patrilineal society in which (a) intermarriages are between members of hordes, or local family groups, which belong ta opposite moieties (b) the hordes exchange women in marriage (c) all known persons are kindred (d) the marrying pair must have the kinship status of “cross-consins, not tov close up,” and this kinship status is distinguished from that of “first-cousin.”
If any two of the symbols representing “brother and “sister” in une horizontal line of Diagram 4 be taken as EGO for male-speaking and female- speaking kinship terms respectively, and the Aranda kinship terms plotted on this pattern in accordance with their gencalogical significance, it will be found that the terms will “fit” the pattern accurately. One kinship term will Le found to be associated with one symhol only This is illustrated in Dia- gram 6, In this and all subsequent kinship diagrams EGO mate-speaking and ego female-speaking are 1Al and Jal respectively in the middle line of the diagram. A genealogical interpretation of each kinship term is indicated! by letters of which
i = father ad = daughter Genealogical data for terms used by & m = mother w= wiie woman are enclosed in brackets when bh == brother h = husband they involve a genealogical relationship st = sister e = elder different from that of the term used s = son y = younger by her brother for the same person.
The cluse identification of kinship terms and subclass names exhibited by Diagrams 5 and 6 is of interest. A kinship term varics in tls application in accordance with the kinship status of the speaker. Named divisions of moiety, class, and subclass can now be seen to be ingenious devices for group- ing persons with increasing accuracy under permanent tathes iidicating marnagenble status.
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When it is stated that kinship terms “Hi” a genealogical pattern, the terms must not only satisfy the genealogical interpretation given for example in Diagram 6 but also every other possible genealogical interpretation of the term, For example, Strehlow (15) gives 174 genealogical identifications of 22 kinship terms and Diagram 6 satisfies them al]. Again, for example, [b1 palla of the last generation of Diagram 6 is not only sister’s son’s daughter (a sequence through lal, 2B1 to 1b1), but also sister's daughter’s hushand’s sister's daughter (lal, 2b1, 2A2, 2a2 to tb1), and father’s mother’s brother's son’s son's son's daughter (2A1 Ibi, 1B1, 2Bl, 1Bl, 2B1 to Ibi) mother’s mother’s brother’s son’s son's daughter's daughter (2b2, la2, 1A2, 2A2, 1A2, 2a2 to 1bL), and so on for innumerable gencalogical sequences end- img in lbl. Needless to say the aboriginal does not think normally in genea- Ingical sequences of such magnitude. EGO IAI of Diagrams 5 and 6 woul! know the woman in question [bl as Puruta-palla, daughter of Kamara-amba and Paltara-murra, whose parents again are known to him by subclass name and kin- ship term, and so on, Also the woman is marriageable, and tf he marries her she becnimes Purrula-noa and her father becomes Namare-antara. Complex fenealogieal sequences relevant to a special problem are worked out by the aboriginal with laborious argument taking account of the relative kinship status of each of the factual kinsfoll involved in the problem,
lf the kinship terms of other patrilineal Australian tribes be charted on the pattern of Diagratn 4 as has been done for the Aranda tu Diagram 6, it will be found that almost alf will ‘fit’ the pattern with some degree of ac- curacy, All these tribes cotmtenance marriage with “first-cousins” under cectain conditions, When stich conditions are relaxed, the terminology be- comes less precise, separate terms normally associated with Al and AZ dis- tinctians or with Bl and B2 becoming used less discriminatingly although differentiated at times in accordance with the normal pattern, The most pre- cise differentiation is found in the sparsely populated areas of northern cen- tral Australia, where each individual is relatively most important, and where the named subclass divisions tend to keep marriages “straight.”
If the kinship terms of a matrilineal Australian society be charted an the genealogical pattern of Diagram 4, the terms do not fit the pattern. Diagram 4 is patrilineal in type and is not symmetrical in regard to male and female genealogical sequences. Ili the pattern be varied by transposing the male and {cmale symbols, the kinship terms of a matrilineal society will then be found do conform to this matrilineal pattern. The diagram of marfiages is the same for both matrilineal and patrilineal forms of the pattern. Diagram 7 illustrates the charting cf the kinship terms of the Dteri tribe on this matri- lineal form.
Professor Elkin (4, 7a) has described a number of ways in which the Dieri kinships differ from those of the Aranda. All these apparent anomalies are clearly explained by the differences in genealogical sequences in a matri- lineal and in a patrilineal form of an asymmetrical genealogical pattern. Pro- fessor Elkin has also attempted to prove by an elaborate argument that the possibility of a man marrying his mather’s mother's brother's son's son's daughter's daughter is a point in common between the Dieri and Aranda sys- tems. The Dieri like other tribes countenance occasionally a marriage with a first-cousin, a so-called use marriage Relerenee to Diagram 7 shows that the womun having the relationship status cited by Elkin is normally lb2 kamt, sister’s son's daughter, The normal wife lhl nodada in that generation has the felationship stats of daughter's daughter as recorded by Howrtt, Mother's mother’s brother’s son's son's daughter’s daughter can only be lbh
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nadada as. 2 consequence of the interpolation of a kami marriage in this genea- logical sequence. An old Dieri man in 1934 gaye me numerous kinship terms. A later check of these shawed that though most of them were correct, there were several instances of kami marriage influence, and on two occasions terms were used for persons of the wrong moiety. This is mentioned ta in- dicate the difficulty of obtaining information from last survivors of lost societies.
The constitution of the four varieties of family groups of the matrilineal pattern of Diagram 7 as regards males is as follows :—
1Al 1B1 {AZ 1B2 281 2A1 22 2A2 1A2 1B2 1A1 1R1 2B2 2A2 261 2Al 1Al IBL 1A2 1B2
It will be seen that the first and third also the second and fourth include the same terms but there is a difference of two generations in the sequence of the terms.
There are comparatively few full descriptions of kinship terms of matri- lineal societies, Such as are available it the pattern of Diagram 7 with some degree of inaccuracy, dependent upon the degree to which the kami marriages are permissible.
The great majority of Australian tribes therefore have kinship systems which conform to the pattern of Diagram 4 in its patrilineal or matrilineal Variation.
The tribal subdivisions of moiety, class and sub-class have every indica- tion al representing stages in an evolutionary sequence of classifications of individuals. according to similarity of marriageable status with increasing accuracy. Howitt (11) contrasted the kinships systems of the Urabunna (Arabana) and Dieri tribes. He interpreted the former as expressing a Tule of marriages between first cousins, the latter a rule of marriages between second cousins, He stated “The Dieri rule is evidently! a development otf that of the Urabanna, and is therefore the later one.” Elkin (6, 7) has found the Dieri and Arabana systems to be similar, the Arabana being inter- mediate between the Wailpi and the Dierz. The Wailpi also has features in common with the Dieri (personal observation). The Arabana is therefore not an example of a simpler marriage rule. Radcliffe Brown (1, 2) adopted the same idea as Howitt but sclected the Kariera system as the type of the fess evolved and the Aranda as the type of the more developed system. He described the Kariera system by charting the male-speaking and female- speaking terms separately, thus overlooking the fact that an aboriginal man and his sister normally use the same kinship term for each person in the tribe, excepting special terms for “in-laws.” If the Kariera kinship terms are charted on the normal pattern as in Diagram 8, they will be seen to conform to that pattern in great part though with divergences. The Kariera is de- finitely not a type or norm of a simple systein in the evolutionary sense, The hypothesis that there is existing evidence of am evolutionary development of kinship matriage rule from that of marriage of first-cousins to that of maz- riage of second-cousins is not proven.
There is every indication that there js one fundamental marriage rule throughout Australian societies, namely, that marriages take place between family groups of opposite moieties and between individuals of those groups who are “cross-cousins, not too close up,” this requirement bemg normally the recognition of the kinship status of “secand-cousin” as the proper one for
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martiage This rule is usually associated with the exchange of women be- tween family groups when marriages occur. By virtue of the genealogical pattern of relationships determined by such marriages certain women of a man’s grandchildren's generation incur the kinship status of second-cousin and are marriageable to him. The genealogical relationship of these women to the man in question is “sister's son’s daughter” in a patrilineal society, and “daughter’s daughter” in a matrilineal society,
The major variations from the patrilineal and matrilineal forms of the dominant kinship pattern in Australian societies ate found in those few tribes where the customary exchange of women in marriage is lacking, The hus- band then squares his obligations to his wife’s family by gifts and services. A relatively numerous population would seem to be necessary under these circumstances.
When women are not exchanged in marriage, marriages then take on a unilateral trend as “father’s sister’s daughter” is considered to be a kinship “more close up” than is “mother’s brother’s daughter.” This idea has been explained as close identification of father with father's sister. This explana- tion is, howeyer, inadeqiate, as it is obvious that when a man marries a ‘mother’s brother’s daughter” his kinship from his wife’s point of view is that of “father’s sister’s son.” A more adequate explanation is that the aboriginal recognises a closer kinship between a father and a son and between a mother and a daughter than between a father and daughter and a mother and son. This conception is manifested clearly by the existence of sex totems in some tribes, males having one totem in common and women another.
The simplest diagram of possible marriages in a tribe possessing the moiety division and whete women are not exchanged in marriage is
b2
B2 Al a2
a al AZ a bl B) The genealogical relationships of members of family groups intermarry- ing under the above customary rule in a patrilineal society would be
Al al Bl bl A2 a2 B2 b2 Al bl Bl a2 A2 b2 B2 al Al a2 Bl b2 A2 al B2 bl Al h2 Bl al A2 bl B2 a2 Al al Bl bl AZ a2 B2 b2
Diagram 9 Genealogical relatious of members of family groups in the simplest possible system of Marriages with “mother’s brother’s daughter” not “father’s sister's daughter” in a tribe with moiety divisions.
in all generations.
It will be seen that all the males in the above diagram marry a woman who is “mother’s brother's daughter” and not “father’s sister's daughter.” Apart from the absence of prefix numbers, the appearance of the pattern of the diagram 1s extraordinarily close to that of Diagram 4, being identical save for the transposition of al and a2 terms in generations two and four, These
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apparently small differences, however, change the genealogical sequences profoundly. I have been unable to find any description of an Australian kin- ship system which fits the pattern of Diagram 9 simply and accurately. The Karadjeri kinships have been cited as typical of systems based on marriages with mother's brother's daughter, not father's sister's daughter. The Karad- jeri recorded kinship terms (5, 12) are p‘otted in Diagram 10 on the pat- tern of Diagram 9 and they will be seen to conform only sketchily with the pattern.)
Lloyd Warner has described yery fully the kinship system of the Murn- gin tribe (17) which has the kinship marriage rule under discussion. War- ner’s identifications of kinship terms are formidable, ranging over us many as eight genealogical sequences, Diagrams therefore have to be extended to cover eight generations to plot the terms. If this be done with the pattern vf Diagram 9, it will be found that the kinship terms fit the pattern ac- curately, but that almost every symbol in the pattern becomes loaded with two dissimilar kinship terms. In two generations the two terms are the same fur Bl bl and B2 b2 placements, It therefore appears that the pattern of Diagram 9 must be doubled and retain its inherent form to cope with the Murngin kinships.
A seties of marriages between members of cight family groups in ac- cordance with the following diagram will provide the pattern required :—
b2 AZ bs
B2 PF B3 a” as al _“
AK Ad b4
Bt a4 B4
The genealogical pattern of such a system is given in Diagram 11. Also the Murngin kinships described by Jloyd Warner are charted upon the pat- tern and will be seen to conform accurately. The normal patterns of aborigi- nal kinships complete their cycle in four generations. The Murngin pattern takes eight generations to complete its cycle. Tribes of this group have eight named classes, one for each moiety in each generation, but with differentiated class names for four generations. The generation lines of Diagram (11) are therefore numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4, The pattern of the class names recorded by Webb (18) is appended to Diagram 11.{%
©) It is of passing interest to note that marriages conforming to the system h2 b2
and similar systems comprising a larger number of family groups would result in a genea- logical pattern representing marriages of men with their ‘Sather’s sister's, daughters,” not “mother’s brother's daughters.” No such systems exist in Australian aboriginal societies.
(2) There are no Murngin terms to fill A3 a3 placements in Diagram 11. Simi- larly Yir-Yiront kinship terms published by Sharp (1934, Oceania, 4, (4), 413) fit a pattern of the Murngin type, based on marriages between six instead of eight hordes, and there are no terms for B3 b3 placements.
Hordes at the opposite pole to that of EGO in the cycle of martiages ate un- reptesented in the terminology of both tribes.
293
The kinship rule of Murngin marriages is apparently simple hut de- finitely is not associated with a simple type of kinship terminology.
Many years ago | attempted to find a genealogical pattern which would conform with some kinship terms of the Ungatinyin tribe published by Ellcin (5). In 1939 the late J. R. B. Love sent me a detailed description of the kin- ships of the Worura tribe, neighbours of the Ungarinyin and with the same type of kinship. The Worora kinships did not fit the pattern which had been found to satisfy the relatively few Ungarinyin terms available, so this pat- tern was incorrect. Attempts to build up the Worora lerms into a genealogi- cal pattern were not successful. Finally it was discovered that if Worora terms were charted on the pattern of Diagram 9, the terms fitted the pattern but many symbols of the pattern were associated with two kinship terms. ‘These two terms were representative of kinships which a father and. son would apply respectively to one individual. ‘The kinship terms did not conform to the pattern which satisfies the Murngin kinships. The Worora and the Ungarinyin share a very anomalous marriage custom whereby a man is permitted to marry both sister and daughter of another ran, Such a cus- tom makes its desirable that the family group from which » son tales a wile should be differentiated from the family group from which his father had taken a wife. This consideration suggests that not only should the number of distinguished family groups of Diagram 9 be doubled but also that alter- nate generations should marry alternate family groups as occurs in the mar- riage customs of the great majority of Australian tribes and as is illustrated in the marriage diagram pon which Diagrams 4, 6 and 7 are based. A sys+ tem of marriages between eight family groups complying with such condi- tions is supplied by the following diagram —
2 A2 pee b3 ba A2___bl B2___ a2 83 B4____a2 Di
1 Al a 2 aes as al 3 al A} ad bie nd ed Ny b3___A4 ba
By a4 4 Bj a4 B2
The genealogical relationships of this system of marriages are given in Diagram 12. The recorded kinship terms of the Worora are also plotted on this diagram and will be seen to fit accurately. The diagram also conforms te the requirement mentioned elsewhere by Love (13) namely, “The actual relationship for legal marriage is that of second-cousin.” The vacant spaces in Diagram 12, excepting those for the terms 1A3 1a3, can be filled in by direet inference from the general pattern. The final: proof of the aceuracy of the pattern presented will lie in a confirmation of kinships and marriages so predicted,
The value of the methods adopted im this paper for charting marriages and kinships is illustrated particularly weil in the instances of the last two unusual kinship systems, The complexity of the kinships in an amorphous form is appalling, Reduced to a coherent pattern based on a set of systema- tised marriages between local family groups it is possible to visualise the structure of the society as it were asia miniature model. It can also be under- siood how problems concerning these kinships come within the scope of the intelligence of ordinary human beings such as the aborigines, who have a practical matter-of-fact knowledge of the kinships of all the family groups within the range of (heir acquaintance, With the same ker the study of the
294
minor complexities of the normal aboriginal kinship systems can hecome simple. Moreover the use of the basic patterns is useful in field work as it is extraordinarily easy to miss some important items of information concern-
ing
kinships, and such omissions are minimised if one insures that all the
placements of a standard genealogical pattern have been filled. Further, as
the
normal pattern is being filled anomalies become apparent immediately
and can be checked and followed up with greater detail,
REFERENCES
Brown, Raperrre A. R. 1913 Three Tribes of Western Attstralia. Journ. Roy. Anth, Inst., 43, 143
Brown, Rapnciirre A. R. 1930 The Social Organisation of Australian Tribes, Oceania, 1, (1), 46
Brown, Ravctirre A, R. J/bid, 1, (2), 221
Enkin, A. P. 1931 The Dieri Kinship System, Journ. Roy. Anth, Inst. 61, 495
Erin, A. P. 1932 Social Organisation in the Kimberley Division, Oceania, 2, (3), 300
Even, A. P. 1931 The Social Organisation of South Australian Tribes. Oceania, 2, (1), 56
Erxin, A, P. 1938 Kinship in South Australia. Oceania, 8, (4), 438
Evxin, A. P, 1938 Kinship in South Australia. Oceania, 9, (1), 47
Evxin, A, P, 1939 Jbid, 10, (2), 212
Fry, H. K. 1931 A Table showing the Class Relations of the Aranda. Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 55, 12
Fry, H, K. 1932 Genealogical Studies of Australian Tribal Systems, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 56, 27
Fry, H. K, 1934 Kinship and Descent among the Australian Aborigines, Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 58, 14
Howrrr, A. W. 1904 The Native Tribes of South-East Australia, London, 189
Howitt, A. W. Ibid, 229
Pippincton, R. 1932 Karadjeri Initiation, Oceania, 3, (1), 63
Love, J. R. B. 1936 Stone Age Bushmen of Today. London, 93
StTREHLOW, C. 1908, 1915 Die Aranda- und Loritja-Stamme in Zentral- Australien. Frankfurt am Main, Theil 11, 57, Theil TY, ii, 16
Streutow, C. Ibid, Theil 1V, i, 66 -
TinpaLe, N. B. 1935 Initiation among the Pitjandjara Natives of the Mann and Tomkinson Ranges in S. Aust. Oceania, 6, (2), 200
Warwer, W. Lioyp 1930 Morphology and Function of the Australian Murngin Type of Kinship. Am. Anthropologist, N.S., 32, 207
West, T. T. ge Tribal Organisation in Eastern Arnhem Land. Oceania, 3, (4), 406
ARANDA KINSHIPS ILLUSTRATING
THE DOMINANT AUSTRALIAN KINSHIP PATTERN — PATRILINEAL
1 Al al ARANGA aranga EF, f.f.sr. 2 Al bl KATA intoa B w.£f.sr. 1 Al az KALJA ebmannna ITTA f.sr.s.w. B EGO
man speaking
2 Al b2 ALIRRA namata S. S.W. [B.S.] [b.s.w.] Al al 1 ARANGA aranga 5.5, s.d, [B.S.S.] [b.s.d.]
DIAGRAM OF
MARRIAGES GENERATION BETWEEN 1 FOUR HORDES
Bl
PALLA ¥F.M.B.
W.E.F.
Bl ANTARA W.F. AMBA [HLF.1
Bl MBANA W.B. NOA [H.]
Bl
AMBA SR.S.
[S.1
Bl
PALLA SR.S.S.
(S.S.J
bi
L a
al b2
B2
bl
palla fim.
al
wonna f.sr,
b2 ankalla f,sr.d. tn.b.d.
a2
marra SY.s.W. nerra [s.w.]
bl
palla sr.s.d.
[s.d.]
a
A2 a2 EBMANNA ebmanna M.M.B, nim. A2 b2 MARRA maia W.M.B. sie A2 al ILIARRA kwaia F.SR.D.H. tig M.B.D.H. st. {ego] | [woman speaking] A2 bl MARRA amba SR.D.H. std. [D.H.J Id] A2 a2 EBMANNA ebmanna SR.D,S, sr.d.d. [D.S.] [d.d.] GENERATION
DIAGRAM 6
2
B2 b2 TJIMIA tjimia MF. m.f.sr. w.m.m. B2 az KAMUNA marra M.B. w.m. nerra, [h.m.] B2 bl ANKALLA noa F.SR.S. Wi. M.B.S. intanga [h.s.] B2 al KAMUNA alirra D.H. d. [B.D.H.] [b.d] B2 b2 TJIMIA tjimia, DS. d.d. [B.D.S.] [b.d.d.J bl
Bl
Al A2
ww az QXYx
B2
Lf
DIERI KINSHIPS
ILLUSTRATING THE DOMINANT AUSTRALIAN KINSHIP PATTERN — MATRILINEAL 1 al Al bl Bl a2 A2 b2 B2 kanini KANINI nadada NADADA yenku YENKU kami KAMI mm. M.M.B. m.f,sr. M.F. f,f.sr. FF. f.m. E.M.B. 2 al Bl bl Al a2 b2 A2 ngandri NGATAMURA ngatamura KAKA tidnara NGAPARI papa TIDNARA m, M.M.B.S. m.m.b,d. M.B. f.m.b.d. F, f.sr. F.M.B.S, PAIERA paiera taru TARU W.M.B. w.m. w.i.sr. W.F. 1 al A2 bl B2 a2 Al b2 Bl kaku YENKU noa KAMI yenku NIYI kami KADI ngatata M.M.B.S.S. w. M.B.S, m.m.b.s.d, NGATATA mbd, W.B. sr. kamari B.SR.S. B. f,sr.d. NOA [ego] {h.s.] EGO (H] [woman speaking] man speaking 2 al B2 bl A2 a2 Bl b2 Al tidnara PAIERA ngatamura TARU taru NGATAMURA kalari TIDNARA sr.d. SR.D.H. d. DH. S.w. s. ST.S.W. SR.S. ngatani (D.H.] [b.d.J [B.S.] [s.w.] NGATANI [d.] [S.J 1 al Al bl Bl a2 A2 b2 B2 kanini KANINI nadada NADADA yenku YENKU kami KAMI sr.d.d. SR.D.S. did. DS. s.d, S.S. sr.s.d. SR.S.S, [d.d.] [D.s.J Divergences from true pattern are 2Bl1,b1 and 2B2,b2 PAIERA, and 2 A2,a2 and 2a1,A1 TIDNARA. DIAGRAM GENERATION bi GENERATION bl OF 1. MBL 2. ALL wos A2 MARRIAGES ee "22
ger A2 $e al b2 Goo ian Pare! DIAGRAM 7
KARIERA KINSHIPS CHARTED UPON THE DOMINANT AUSTRALIAN KINSHIP PATTERN — PATRILINEAL
1 Al al Bl bl A2 a2 B2 b2 MAELI kandari TAMI kabali MAELI kandari TAMI kabali BF. f.£.sr. F.M.B. f.m. M.M.B. m.m, M.F, ' om.fsr. w.i.m, W.ELE. W. M. &F. w.m.m, [h.f.m.] [H.F.F.J [H.M.F.J {h.m.m.] 2 Al bl Bl al A2 b2 B2 a2 MAMA nganga KAGA toa or MAMA nganga KAGA toa or a wef, sr. W.F. yumani W.M.B. nu, M.B, yumani {h.f.sr.] (H.F,J fisr. [H.M.B.] F.SR,H. w.mn. m.b.w, yuro yuro [h.m.] [f.sr.] [m.b.w.] 1 Al F. “a2 Bl b2 A2 al B2 bl KAJA KUMBALI nuba turdu KUMBALI nuba MARGARA S.H. fisr.d. mari M.B.S. Ww. B. W.B. m,b.d. sr. F,SR.S. b.w./w.s, EGO NUBA bungali [ego] NUBA yarungu male speaking [H.1] {f.sr.d.] [female speaking] [M.B.S.1 Dew. (S,H.] [m.bd.] [E.SR.S.J bungali (H.B,] [b.w.] {h.s.] 2 Al b2 Bl a2 A2 bl B2 al MAINGA ngaraia KULING ngaraia TOA OR ngaraia KULING kundal S or bali or YARAIJA [s.w.] YUMANI or bali or YARAIJA é.— TOA or S.W. SR.S [D.H.] sr.d. D.H, ngaraia YUMANI MAINGA kundal b.d. [B.S.] [S.1 [d] TH.SR.S.] 1 Al al Bl bl ; A a2 Be Be aeli KABALI kabali <ANDARI kandari 1 anu Meet a [S,S.] {s.d.] [D.S.] [d.d.] DS. dd. kandari tami maeli kabali [s.s.w.] 5.5.W. d.svw. [d.s.w.]
Divergences from the normal pattern are: (1) in the grandparent generation. the terms MAELI and TAM I are used for males only, kandari and kabali for females only, The terms are used normally in the grandchild generation; (2) similarly, in EGO’s generation the term KUMBALI is used only for males, bungali only for females; (3) most anomalous of all, in the children’s generation the terms MAINGA, ngaraia, and kundal are applied to individuals of both moieties; (4) many terms are applied to both Al and A2, or to both BL. and B2, kinships, thereby simulating a simpler kinship pattern, but the pattern is of normal type in the grandchild generation, and kumbali, bungali are suggestive of former normality in EGO’s generation; (5) a man and his sister in the Kariera use the same term MAINGA for the son, and kundal for daughter; (6) the conflicting marriages in grandparent and grandchild generations are quite anomalous,
DIAGRAM 8
KARADJERI KINSHIPS
Charted on Pattern of Unilateral Marriages — with mother’s brother’s daughter, not father’s sister’s daughter.
Al al
Bl
A2
a2 B2 b2 KALUDJ yagu KAMI1 kami DJAMBAD djambad FE. wwmm M.M.B, mm MF, m.£sr. W.M.F. wim F,M.B, im, also VEE, kabali f.m. Al bl Bl a2 A2 b2 B2 al TABALU djalbi KAGA tabalu DALU or kurdang KAGA tabalu F w.m.b.w. F.SR.H. m.b.w MUGALI m. M.B. f.sr. dalu W.M.B. W.F. w.m. ; Al a2 Bl b2 A2 al B2 bl MAMA kabadju DJAMBAD djambad kabadj DJAMBAD i BABALA w.b.w. F.SR.S. m.b.d. 5 in My TBS. eoeeee RB. YAGU kabali YAGU st.hsr. EGO SR.H w. W.B. _ Al b2 Bl al A2 bl B2 a2 NGENI djalbi DJELANGA tabalu DALU djalbi s yee SR.S. a SR.D.H. DH. SIs. W. sr.d. Al al Bi bl A2 a2 B2 b2
Divergences from the pattern are bl, b2 djalbi; al, az tabalu; Bl, B2 KAGA; al, a2 kabadju; and most crucial Bl, bl, B2, b2 DJAMBAD, so not differentiating mother’s brother’s son and daughter from father’s sister’s son and daughter.
DIAGRAM OF MARRIAGES
BETWEEN FOUR HORDES FOR THE ABOVE GENEALOGICAL PATTERN TO DEVELOP.
b2 - Ala B2 a2 al 2 ~*~ io Bl
in all generations.
DIAGRAM [0
1 Al a3 2 Al b3 3 Al a2 4 Al b2 1 Al al MARIKMO marikmo EF. f.f.st. 2 Al bl BAPA waku F £f.sr.d. 3 Al a4 WAWA kutara YURIYUKO f.i.sr.d.d. B EGO 4 Al b4 GATU waku s f.fiisr.ddd, 1 Al a3 MARAITCHA MARRIAGE DIAGRAM DIAGRAM
Bl b3 A2 a4 B2 Bl a2 A2 b4 B2 m.m.mm.m, Bl b2 A2 ag B2 m.n.nm.m, Bl al A2 b3 B2 Li.i.sr m.mim. Bl bl A2 a2 B2 DUE due MARI mari NATI V.E.E.SR.S. ELA, sr. M.M.B. mit. MF. Bl a4 A2 b2 B2 WAKU gurrong MARELKER arnii GAWEL F.F.SR.S, {.f.£.sr.d.d. M.M.B.S, m, M.B, Bl b4 A2 al B2 DUE dumungur MARI yeppa GALLE F.SR.S. ££4f.sr.d.d.d. M.M.B.S.S. sn M.B.S. SR.
Bl a3 A2 b! B2 WAKU MARELKER waku GAWEL SR.S, M.M.B.S.5.S. sret. M.B.S.S. Bl b3 A2 a4 B2 KAMINYER momelker MARI kutara GALLE
D.S. in.t.m.b.s.s.s.s.d. M-M.B,S.8.8.S. sr.d.i. M.B.S.5.5.
2 a ene Al Poa? 12 B3____a3 GENERATIONS al A3 \ bi M4 bi Bl 4d Ba
11
MURNGIN. KINSHIPS
b4 A3
a3 A3
b3 A3
M,M.M.M.B.
a2 AS
b2 A3 momo
fm, al A3 mokul bapa fisr, bl A3 due
f,sr.d.
a4 A3 gurrong fsr.dd.
b4 A3
dumungur fisr.d.d.d.
all B3 bl A4 bl B3 a4 A4 a4 B3 b4 A4 b4 B3 a3 A4 M.M.M.B. a3 B3 b3 A4 NATCHIWALKER = momelker KUTARA M.M.M.B.S. minta.b,d. F.F.E.F,SR.D.S. b3 B3 a2 A4 arndi GAWEL mokul rumeru GURRONG m1.1n.m.b.s.d. M.M.M.B.S.S. m.m,b.d. F.F.F.SR.D.S. a2 B3 b2 A4 mari NATCHIWALKER galle KUTARA puntos & M.M.M.B.S.S.S. mb.d. F.F.SR.D.S. ‘ w. b2 B3 al A4 arndi GAWEL gatu GURRONG med. M.M.M.B.S.S.8.8. d. F.SR.D.S. al B3 bl A4 maraitcha NATCHIWALKER — kaminyer KUTARA sd, M.M.M.B.S,S.5.8.S. SR.D.S. CLASS (SUBSECTION) RELATIONSHIPS Al, 2, 3, 4 al, 2, 3, 4 Bi, 2, 3, 4 NGARIT ngaritjan BALANG Al, 2, 3, 4 bl, 2, 3, 4 Bl, 2, 3, 4 BANGARDI kumandjan KARMARUNG 3 Al, 2, 3, 4 al, 2, 3, 4 Bl, 2, 3, 4 BULAIN bulaindjan BURALANG 4 Al,2,3,4 bl, 2, 3, 4 Bl, 2, 3, 4 KAIJARK warinutjan WARMUT Al, 2, 3, 4 al, 2, 3, 4 Bl, 2, 3, 4 NGARIT ngaritjan BALANG
b2
al LAfAsr.
bl
a4 kutara Lf. f£.fisr.d.d.
b4 waku £f.ff.sr.d.d.d.
a3
b3
arndi
mi.m.m.b.s.s.s.d.
a2
mari im.m.b.s.s.s.d,
bl, 2, 3, 4 bilindjan
al, 2, 3, 4
bangaritjan
bl, 2, 3, 4 kalian
al, 2, 3, 4 kaitjan
bl, 2, 3, 4 bilindjan
B4 B4
M.M.M.M.M.B.
B4
B4
B4
DUMUNGUR F.F.E.F.F.SR.D.D.S,
B4
WAKU F.F.B.F,SR.D.D,S.
B4
DUMUNGUR F.F,F.SR.D,D.S,
B4
WAKU F.F.SR.D.D.S.
B4
DUMUNGUR F.SR.D.D.S.
b2
al f.£ff£.sr.
bl
a4
b4 dumtngur LLL srddd.
a3
b3
momelker m,m.m.b,s.s.d.
az
mokul rumeru m.m.b.s.s,d.
b2
galle m.b.s.s.d.
ABIA F.F.
IRAIA F
1 Al NAUAIA
EGO man-speaking
2 Al IRAIA S) 1 Al NAWOMALE S.S.
al abiinja f.f.sr.
bl ibanja f.f.sr.d.
a2
b2
a3
Bl
KULAIA F.F.SR.H.
Bl
IBAIA F.F.SR.S.
Bl
KULAIA SR.H.
(H.]
Bl
IBAIA SR.S.
[S.]
Bl
KULAIA SR.S.S.
bl
kulanja f.£.sr.h.sr.
a4 budinja m.m.b.d. kurumanja w.m.
[b.w.m.]
b2
manganija w.
al
pamaranja
b3 ibanja did.
Corrigenda—Vide Table in J. R. B. Love’s paper, this volume, facing page 280.
A2
KURUM F.M.B.W.B.
A2
KADJAIA M.B.W.B.
A2
A2
WOLBAIA SR.D.H.
(D.H.]
A2
BUDA SR.D.S. (D.S.]
DIAGRAM OF MARRIAGES BETWEEN EIGHT TOTEMIC HORDES
az B2 kurumanja WAIA f.m.b.w. F.M.B. W.F.F. b2 B2 WAI W.F. a3 B2 WAIA W.B. b3 B2 WAIA W.B.S a4 B2 WAIA W.B.S.S b2 A2 JS ® a2 1. Al
al
Se bl___A4 Bl 24 eee B 4
WORORA KINSHIPS
b2
manganja f.m.
al
pamaranja f.sr.
b3 ibanja f.sr.d.
a2 wolbaiinja sr.d.h.sr. kadjanja m.b.s.s.w.
b4
tjamanja m.b.s.s.d.
—)3
A3
A3 NALINDJAIA {h.m.b.]
A3
A3
NALINDJAIA SR.S.W.B.
[S.W.B.]
A3
b4 A2
B3 VA a2 lags 2. Al
A3 her
DIAGRAM
al MS b3 sd B3 ad Be
12
a3
b3
a4
kadjanja m.b.s.w.
b4
karanja S.w.
al
nawomalinja s.d.
B3
B3
KULAIA F.SR.H.
B3
IBATA F.SR.S.
B3 KULAIA D.H.
B3 IBAIA D.S.
b3
a2
kadjanja m.b.w.
b4 tjamanja m.b.d.
a3 nalindjanja sr.s.w. [s.w.]
bl
kulanja sr.s.d.
A4 a4 WOLBAIA kadjanja or m.m, KADJAIA M.M.B. A4 b4 BUDA karanja M.M.B.S. be KURUM W.M.B. A4 al nauanja sr. [ego]
{woman speaking]
A4 bl BUDA ibanja SR.H.SR.S. sr.d. [H.SR.S.] [d.] A4 a2 budinja sr.d.d. [d.d.]
B4 TJAMAIA M.F.
B4 KAKAIA M.B.
B4
TJAMAIA M.B.S.
B4
KAKAIA M.B.S.S.
B4
TJAMAIA M.B.S.S.S.
b4
tjamanja m.f.sr.
a3 nalinjanja [h.m.]
bl
kulanja sr.h.sr.
a4 budinja sr.h.sr.d.
b2
manganja S.S.W.
295
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296
AWARDS OF THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL
1929. Pror. Wattrr Howcarn, F.G.S.
1930 Jounx McC, Brack, A.LS.
1931 Pror, Str Doucras Mawson, O.B.E., D.Sc., B.E., F.R,S, 1933 Pror, J, Burton Crerann, M.D.
1935 Pror. T. Harvey Jounston, M.A., D.Sc,
1938 Pror. J. A. Prescott, D.Sc., F.A.TC.
1943 Herrerr Womerstey, A.L.S., F.R.ELS.
1944 Pror, J. G. Woon, D.Se., Ph.D.
1945 Cecrm T. Manican, M.A., B.E., D.Sc. F.G.S.
1946 Hernerr M, HALE
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1945. *Fenwner, C, A. E., D.Sc, 42 Alexandra Avenue, Rose Park, Adelaide—Fellow, 1917-45; Council, 1925-28; President, 1930-31; Vice-President, 1928-30; Secretary, 1924-25; Treastrer, 1932-33; Editor, 1934-37,
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1927, *AtorrmaAn, A. R., Ph.D., D.Sc, F.G.S. , Div. Indus. Chemistry, C.S.1.R.0., Box 4331, G.P.O., Melbourne, Victoria—Council, 1937-42,
1931, Axprew, Rev. J. R., c/o Methodist Manse, Maitland.
1935. *ANpREwARTHA, H. G, M.Agr.Sc, D.Sc, Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Council, 1950,
1935. *Annrewartna, Mrs. H. V., B.AgiSc, M.S, (nee H. V. Steele), 29 Claremont Avenue, Netherby, S,A.
1929, *Ancen, F. M,, 34 Fullarton Road, Parkside, S.A.
1939. *Awncet, Mrss L. M., M-Sc., c/o University of Adelaide,
1945. *Bartiert, H. K., L.Th., 15 Claremont Avenue, Netherby, S.A.
1950. Beastey, A. K., Harris Street, Marden, S.A.
1950, Becr, R. G., B.AgSe., R.D.A., Linewood Park, Mittel, S.A.
1932, Broc, P. R., D.D.Se., L.D.S,, Shell House, 170 North Terrace, Adelaide:
1928, Best, R. J., D.Se., FACIL, Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.
1934. Brack, E. C., M.B,. B.S.. Magill Road, Tranmere, Adelaide.
1950. Bonwin, N. 7. MR. BS. FRCS. (Eng.), F.R.A.CS., 144 Hill Street, North Adelaide, S.A.
1945. *Bonyrnon, C. W., B.Sc, A,A.C.L, Romalo House, Romalo Avenue, Magill, S.A,
1940. Bonvyruon, Sir J. Lavineton, B.A. (Camb.), 263 East Terrace, Adelaide.
1945. *Roomsma, C. D,, M.Sc., B,Sc.For., 2 Celtic Avenue, South Road Park, S.A.
1947, Bowes, D. R. Ph.D., B.Sc. 51 Eton Street, Malvern.
297
Date of
Election.
1939. Brooxman, Mrs. R, D. (nee A. Harvey), WA. Meadows, S.A,
$945, Broucuton, A. C., Farina, S.A. Ff
1948. Brownina, T. ©. B.Sc. (Syd.), Waite Institute (Privaie Mail Bag), Adelaide.
1944. *Buusince, Miss N, T., M:Se, CS.LR.O., Div. Plant Industry, P.O, Box 108, Cab- berra, A.C,T, ’ .
1923. Burvow, R, S,, D.Sc. University of Adelaide—Council, 1946. ;
1922, *Camrseu, T. D, D.DSc, D.Sc, Dental Dept, Adelaide Hospital, Adclaide— Council, 1928-32, 1935, 1942-45; Vice-President, 1932-34; Presudent, 1934-35.
1944, Casson, P. B., BiSe, For. (Adel.), 8 Benjafield Terrace, New Town, Hobart.
1929, Cimsriz, W., MB. B.S., Education Department, Social Services, 51 Pirie Street Adelaide—Treasuver, 1934-38.
1950. Coausrap, S- E., B.Sc. 6 Hampton Street, Hawthorn, S.A,
1949. Cortiver, F, S., Geology Department, University of Qucenslanc.
1930. *Congunoun, T. T., M.Sc., 10 French Street, Netherby, SA—dverelary, 1942-43,
1907. *CGooxe, W. T., D.Sc., A.A-CL, 4 South Terrace, Kensington Gardens, 5,A.—Council, 1938-41; Wice-President, 1941-42, 1943-44; President, 1942-45,
1942. *Coorer, II. M., 51 Hastings Strect, Glenelg, S.A.
1944. Counisu, Metyuie, State Bank, Pirie Street; Adctaide.
1929. *Corrox, B. C., S.A. Museum, Adelaide—Council, 1943-46, 1948-49; Vice-President, 1949-50; President, 1950-,
1924, ne Crespieny, Sia C T.C.,, D.S.0., M.D., F.R.CP., 219 North Terrace, Adelaide,
1950. Decanp, C. M., MB, B.S, D.P.H, DJ.M, 29 Gilbert Street, Goodwood, S.A,
1941. Dickiwsox, S. B. M.Sc, 52 Burnside Road, Kensington.
1930, Dux, E. V.. Hospitals Department, Rundle Street, Adelaide, S.A.
1944. Duwsrone. S. M. L, M.B., B.S., 124 Payncham Road, St. Peters, Adelaide,
1931, Dwyer, J. M.. M.B,, B.S., 105 Port Road, Hindmarsh, 5.4.
1933. *Earneey, Mrss © M., M.Sc., University of Adelaide--Cowneil, 1943-46,
1945, *Enmonos, S. J. B.A M.Sc, 56 Fisher Terrace, Mile End, '5,A,
1902, *Rnouist, A. G., 19 Farrell Street, Glenelg, 5.A—Conneil, 1949-,
1944. Ferres, Mrss H. M., M.Se., 8 Taylot's Road, Mitcham, 5.A.
1927, *Jiwtayson, H, 1., 305 Ward Street, North Adelaide—Cownecil, 1937-40,
1923, *Frv, H, K,, D.S.0. M.D, B.S., BSc, F.RA-CP., Town Hall, Adelaide—Conncil, 1933-37; Iico-President, 1937-38, 1939-40; President, 1938-39,
1932. 4Ginson, E. S, H., M.Sc., 297 Cross Roads, Clarence Gardens, Adelaide.
1927. Goorrny, F. K, Box 951H, G.P.O., Adelaide.
1935, +Gotpsack, H., Coromandel Walley. S.A.
1925, Goss, Sir JAmes H., Gilbert House, Gilbert Place, Adelaide
1910. *Grant, Prov. Sik Keex, M.Se. FDP. 56 Fourth Avene, St. boters, S.A
1930, Gray, J. T. Orroroo, S.A,
1933.. Guraves, H., 12 Edward Street, Glynde, §.A.
19044. Gxirrita, H. B., Dunrobin Read, Brighton, 5,A.
1948, Gnoss, G F, BSc, South Anstralian Museum, Adclaide—Srrretary. 1930-,
1944. Gurry, D. J, B.Sc.. Mineral Resources Survey, Canberra, A.C '
1022, *Flany, fl, M., Director S.A, Museum, Adelaide —lerco Medal, 146; Council, 1931-34, 1950-5 Fice-President, 1934-36, 1937-38; President, 1936-37; Treaswrer, 1938-1950,
1949, Harr, D, R,, Mern Mera, via Quorn, S.A,
1946. *Harpy, Mes. J. 7. (nee A. C. Beckwith), M.Se., Box 62, Smithton, Tas,
1944. Hanes, J. R., B.Se:, 94 Archev Street, North Adelaide, S.A.
1947. HeEnxpersoy, D, L. Ww. 'P.M.B,, 20 Bourke, N.S.W.
1944. Herrior, R. I, BAgr.Sc,, Soil Conservator, Dept. of Agricaiture, S.A,
1949. Hortoway, B, W., B.Sc, 33 Kyre Avene, Kingswood, S.A.
1924. *Hossrenn, P. 5, M.Se, 132 Fisher Street, Pullartou, 5.A.
1950. llowaxp, P. F., B.Sc, c/o Great Western Consolidated, Bullfinch, WA.
1944. Houmare, D, 5. W., 238 Payneham Road, Payneham, 5.A,
1947. Hurron, J. T., B.Sc, [8 Emily Avenne, Clapham.
1928. irounp, P., Kurralta, Burnside, S.A.
1942, Jenxrns, C. F, H,, Department of Agriculture, St, George’s Terrace, Perth, W-A,
1918. *Jennison, Rev. J. C, 7 Frew Street, Fullarton, 5.A.
1945. *Jessup, R, W., M.Sc, 3_Alma Road, Fullarton, S.A.
1910. *Jounson, E. A, M.D., MRCS. 1 Baker Street, Glenelg.
1950. Jouns, R. K., B.Sc, Departinent of Mines, Flinders Street, Adelaide, 5.4.
1921. *Jouxston, Prop. T. H., M.A. D.Sc. University of Adelaide—-Ierco Medal, 1935; Council, 1926-28, 1940-; Vice-President, 1928-31; President, 1931-32; Secretary, 1938-40, Rep. Fauna and Flora Board, 1932-39; Editor, 1943-45,
1039. #Keaxnar, iT, M, Ph.W, MB, F.R.G.S, Khakhar Buildings, C.P. Tank Road, Bom~
bay, India.
Date of Election.
1949, *Kine, D., M.Sc. 44 Angwin Avenue, Blair Athol, S.A.
1033, *Kieeman, A. W,, M.Sc., University of Adelaide—Secretary, 194548; Mi¢e-Presi- dent, 1948-1949, 1950-; President, 1949-50,
1922, Lennon, G. A. M.D., BS., F.R.C.Py A.M-P. Building, King Willian Street, Adelaide,
Mb, Eorutan, T, R_N., N.D.H, (N.Z.), Director, Botanic Gardens, Adeiaide.
1949, Lower, H. F., 7 Avenue Road, Highgate, S.A.
1931. *Lupproox, Mrs, W. V. (nee N. H. Woods), M.A, Elimatta Street, Reid, A.C.T.
1948. McCuniocu, R. N,, M,B.E., B.Sc. (Oxon,), BAge Sei. (Syd. ), Koseworthy Agricul- tural College, S.A.
1938, Manners, C. B., B.D-S., D.DSe., Shell House, North Terrace, Adelaide.
1932, Mann, E, A,, C/o Bank of Adelaide, Adelaide. ;
1939. Mansuars., T. J, M.Agr.Sc., Ph.D, Waite Institute (Private Mell Baz), Adelaide— Council, 1948-,
1905. “Mawson, Prov. Six Doveras, O.B.E., D.Sc. BE. P-RS, University of Adelaide Ferco Medal, 1931; President, 1924-25, 1944-45; Vice-President, 1923-24, 1925-26; Couned, 1941-43,
1930. May, T. JT, BiSe, 691 Esplanade, Grange, S.A,
1920. Maya, ‘fre Hox, Mr, Justice, LL.B, KC, Supreme Court, Adelaide.
15D, Mayo, G. M. E., B-Ag.Sc., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide, S.A.
183. McCarruy, Mrss D, F., B.A., B.Se., 70 Halton Terrace, Kensington Park,
(945. {*Mites, K. R., D.Se, F.G/S., Mines Department, Fliuders Street, Adelaide.
1939, MincHam, V. H., Hammond, S.A.
1925. +MircHert, Pror, Str W., K.C.M.G,, M.A., DSc. Fitzroy Ter., Prospect, SA,
i93d. Murcuenr, Pror, M_L., M.Sc, University, Adelaide,
1938. Mooxuouss, F. W., M.Sc, Cliief Inspector of Fisheries, Flinders Street, Adelaide,
1936, *Mountroxp, C. P., 25 First Avene, St, Peters, Adelaide,
1944, Murrerr, J, W., Engineer ng and Water Supply Dept., Port Road, Thebarton, 5.4,
1944, Neat-Smivy, C. A,, B.Agr.Sci., 16 Gooreen Street, Reid, Canberra, A.Cl,
1944, Ninnes, A. R., B.A. 62 Sheffield Street, Malvern, S.A.
1945, *Nortacore, K. H., B.Agr.Se, A.LA.S., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.
1930, Ocxennen, G, P,, B.A, c/o Flinders Street Practising School, Flinders St, Adelaide.
1947, *Opuer, I. L., 65 Fifth Avenue, St. Peters, S.A.
1913, *Osnory, Prov, T. G, B, D,Sc,, Department af Botany, Oxford, England—Conncl 1913-20, 1922-24; President, 1925-24; Vice-President, 1924-25, 1926-27,
i937, *Parxtn, L, W., MiSc., c/o North Broken Hill Mining Co, Melbourne, Victoria,
1949, Parxinson, K. J., B.Sc, 8 Moorelund Avenue, Beverley, S.A,
1945. Parttson, G,, 68 Partridge Street, Glenelg, S.A.
1929, Pauit, A. G., M.A, B.Sc, 10 Milton Avenue, Pullarton, S.A.
1926, “Piver, C. S., D.Se., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Couneil, 1941-43; Pice-President, 1943-45, 1946-475 President, 1945-46,
1948. Poewrut, J. K., B.Sc. C.S.LR.O,, Division of Biochemistry, University, Adelatde,
1947. Poynton, J. O., M.D, M.A, ChB. M.R.C.S,, LBC.P,, Institute Medicine, Vet, Science, Frome Road, Adelaide,
1949. Terarre, R. G, 81 Park Terrace, North Unley, 5.4,
1925. *Prescorr, Puor. J. A, CBE, D.S¢., AC, Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Verco Medal, 1938; Council, 1927-30, 1935-39; Mice-President, 1930-32; President, 1932-33,
1926. Price, A. G., CM.G,, M.A., Litt.D,, F/R.G.S,, 46 Pennington ‘Terrace, Narth Adelaide
1945. Payor, L. D., M.Sc, Dip.For., 32 La Perowwe Street, Griffith, N.S.W,
1950, “RAITIAR, J. H., B.Sc, Burean of Mineral Resources, Melbourne Building, Canberra, ACT.
iM4. Riceman, D. S. M.Sc, B.Agr.Se. C.S.1R:0,, Division of Nutrition, Adelaide,
1947. Rikper, W. R,, B.Se., Occanographic Institute, Gottenburg, Sweden.
1048. *RKimes, G. D., B.Sc. 24 Winston Avenue, Clarence Gardens, S.A.
1947, Rix, C. E., 42 Wayntouth Avenne, Glandore, S_A.
1946, *Ronixson, E.G. M.Sc. 42 Riverside Drive, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada,
1950. Ruvv, Pros. E. A, B.Sc, AM. University, Adelaide, S.A.
1945. Ryaawt, J. R,, Old Penola Estate, Penola, S.A.
1944. *Sannars, Miss D, F., M.Sc. University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland.
1930. Saunvers, F. L., 79 Winchester Street, Malvern, S.A,
1933, Scuxetore, M., M.B., B.S., 175 North Ter,, Adelaide
IMG, *Seonit, E.R, M.Se, CS.LR.O., Division of Tndustrial Chemistry, Box 4331, G.P.O, Melbourne, Victoria.
ao
Date of
Election.
1924, *Szenit, R, W., M.A,, B.Sc., Engineering and Water Supply Department, Victoria Square, Adelaide—Secretary, 1930-35; Council, 937-38; VicusPresideni, 1938-39, 1940-41; President, 1939-40,
1925. *SHeEARp, H, Port Elliot, S.A,
1946. *SHEaRD, K, Fisheries Research Div. CS LBRO, University of W.A,, Nedlands, W.A,
1945. SHEPHERD, y. H., M.Sc, BA. c/o Anglo-Westralian Minny Pty. Led
1934. Sunn xrrecp, #10 C,, Salisbury, S.A.
1924. Simpson, F, N., Pirie Surect, Adelaide.
2949. Simpson, D. A. M.B., B.S, 42 Lockwood Road, Burnside, ‘S.A.
1941. “Swann, T. Laxcrorp-, .Sc., Department of Post-War Reconstruction, Canberra.
1941. Soutsucotr, R, V, M.B., B,S,, 12 Avenue Road, Unley Park, 5.4.
1936. Soutawoop, A. R., M.D, M.S. (Adel.); M.R,C.P., Wootoona Ter., len Osmond, S.A.
1947. *Specmt, R. L., M.Se., 15 Main Road, Richmond, S.A,
1936. *Spricc,’R. C... M.Sc... Mines Department, Flinders Street, Adelaide,
1947, Spurtinc, MB. BAg.Sc, Agricultural College, Roseworthy, S.A.
1949. *5ery, A. I1., B. Sc., 63 LeFevre Terr ace, North Adelaide, SA,
1938. *STEPHENS, C C. G,, D.Sc. Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide,
1935. ie A, G, M.Agr.Se., 11 Wootoona. Terrace, Glen Osriond, S.A —Catnetl, I
1932. Swan, D. M.Sc, Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Secretary, 4940-42 ; Vite Previden? 1946-47, 1948-49; President, 1947-48.
1948. Swany, _F. J. W., 38 Angas Road, “Lawer Mitcham, SA,
1934. Symons, I. 'G., 38 Murray Street, Lower Mitcham, S.A.—Editoy. 1947-.
1929. *Yavuor, J. K., B.A. M.Sc. Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Comneil, 1940-43, 1947-,
$950. Tayior, G H., BSc, Department of Mines, Old Legislative Council Building, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA
1948, Bie ie tr. M, M. Se. (Wales), University, Adelaide—Secretury, 1948-50; Cormcil, 19}
1938. *Tmomas, Mrs. I. M. (nce P. M. Mawson), M.Se, 36 King Street, Bregliton,
1940. ‘THomson, Capt, J, M,, 135 Military Road, Semaphore South, S.A,
1923, *Tinparz, N, B,, B.Sc, South Australian Museum, Adelaide—Secretary, 1935-36; Council, 1946-47 ; Mice-Presidemt, 1947-48, 1949-50; President, 1948-49.
1945. Tiver, N.S, M.Sc, B.AgrSc., Waite: Institute (Private Mail Gas), Adelaide.
1937, *TauMELe, Pror, H, CG, D.Sc, M.Agr.Sc., Wiite Institite (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Counctl, 1942-1945; Vice-President, 1945-46, 1947-48; President, 1946-47,
1925. ‘Turner, Di +e Brookman Buildings, Grenfell Street, Adelaide.
1950. Vuietcr, 5. Port Lincoln, S.A.
1912. *Warn, L. a LS. O., BA, BE, D. 5c, 22 Northumberland Avenue, Tustnure—Conncil, 1924-27, 1933- 355 ’ Vice-President, 1927-28 ; President, 1928-30,
1941, *Warxk, D.C, M.Agr,Se.. Div. Plant Industry, CS.LR.O., Canberra, A.CT,
1936. Wareanouse, Miss L. M., 35 King Strect, Brighton, $.A,
1939. *Weenine, Rev. B. J. 5 Vork Street, Henley Beach,
1949, *\Wrecener, C. F,, B. Se, Department ‘Mines, Hlinders Street, Adelaide, S.A,
1946, Whorrttr, A.. W. G,, B.Sc., Mines Department, Flinders Street, Adelaide.
1950, Wittiams, L b., “Dumosa,” Meningie, S.A.
1946, *Wrison, A. % a ste University of W, A., Nedlands, W.A.
1938. *Wisson, J, 0 R,O., Division of Nutrition, Ade'side,
1930. *WosrEkstey, we Se ALS. (Aan. cause), S.A, Museym, Adelaide—Perca Medal, 1943; Secretary, 1936- 37; Editor, 1937-43, 1945-47; President, 1943-44, Fice- President, 1944-48 Rep, Fauna and T ‘hora. Protection Commitls ve, 1945,
1944. #Womtrsney, H, B.S, M.Se., University of Adelaide,
1944, Womensrey, J. 'S., B.Sc, Lae, New Guinea,
1923. *Woon, Pror. J. G., D, 'Sc., ‘PRD, University of Adelade—Ferco Medal, 1944; Council, 1938-40; f° ice-President, 1940-41, 1942-43; Rep. Fauna and Flora Board, 1940-; President, 1941-42; Council, 1944-48,
1950. Woop arn, G. D., 20 Kensington Road, Leabrook, S.A,
1943, WoopLanns, Haroun, Box 989 H, G.P.O., Adeiaide.
1945, Worrntty, B. W., B.A., M.Sc. ‘A. Inst. P., University, Adc'aiide.
1948, *Wymonn, A. P., BS ‘4 Woodley Road, Glen Osmond, S.A.
1999. Yeates, J: N, L.S, ‘A.MLLE, AMI. M.E, Richards Buildings, 99 Currie Street, Adelaide, S.A.
1944. Zimuerr, W. J., Dip.For, PALS. (Lon.), 7 Ruperi Street, Footscray West, W.12, Vic,
300
AUTHOR AND SUBJECT INDEX
VOLUME 73
[Names in italics denote that the forms described are new to science]
Abongial social systems: H. K. Fry, 282- 294
Acactn, quornensis, 6
Algae, marine, of Kangaroo Island: H, B. §. Womersiley, 137-197
Angel, L. M., T. H. Johnston and: Larval trematodes from Australian fresh-water moluses, 22-28
Australites, part V: Tektites in the South Australian Museum; Charles Fenner, 7-21
Austrostrongylus potoroo, 64
Balleny Islands, basaltic lavas of: D. Maw- son, 223-231
Basaltic lavas of the Balleny Islands: D, Mawson, 223-231
Beltanelia gilesi, 82
Black, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia, No. 45, 4
Bonython, C, W,; Evaporation studies using some South Australian data, 198-219
Boolcoomatta Hills; A soda-rich intrusive stock located im: E. R. Segnit, 109-112
Cercaria beckwitkae; C. lethargica, 22, 27, 106
Conostephium halinaturinion, 6
Contracuecum podocipitis, 67
Cooper, H. M.: Stane Implements from a maiigrove swatnp, 220-222
Cotton, B. C.: An old mangrove mud-Hat exposed by wave scouring, 59-61
——: Fossil oysters used for road metal, 62
Calor tien davidi, C, radiata, C. gigantea,
'
tetradenoidea; C.
Dickinsonia costata, D. minima, 95, 97 Dictvonterss Notes on: H. B. S. Womersley,
Dictyopteris nigricans, 115
Ediacaria flindersi, 83 Evaporation studies usmg some South Aus- trahan data: €. W, Bonython, 198-219
Fenner, Charles: Australites, part V; Tek- tites in the South Australian Museum,
Fossil oysters used for road metal: B. C, Cotton, 62
EF ra K.: Aboriginal social systems, 282- f
Gesture language of the Walpari tribe, Cen- tral Australia: C, P. Mountford, 100-101 Glaciation, The Elatina; D. Mawson, 117-120 Granites, of Murray Bridge and Monarto: R. K. Johns and J, M. Kruger, 122-136
Hossfeld, P. S.; The late Cainozoic history ef the South-East of South Australia, 232-279
Jellyfishes, Early Cambrian: R. C. Spriggs, 72-99.
Johns, R. K., and J. M. Kruger; The Murray Bridge and Monarto granites, 122-136 Johnston, T, EL, and L, M. Angel; Larval
trematodes from Australian freshwater molluses, part XIII, 22-28 and P, M. Mawson; Some nematodes from Australian hosts, 63-71 and N. G. Muirhead: Larval trematodes from Austrahan freshwater molluscs, part XIV, 102-108
Kangaroo Island, Marine algae of: H. B. 5. Womersley, 137-197
King, D., J. M. Thomson and: The Nullar- bur vaves sysiem, 48-58
Kruger, J. M. R. K. Johns and: The Mur- ray Bridge and Monarto granites,, 122-136
Love, J. R, B,; Worora lanships, 280-281
Maediganiu annulata, 93
Mangroye mud-Hat, exposed by wave scour- ing; B. C, Cotton, 59-61
Mawson, D,: The Elatina glaciation, 117-12}
: Basaltic lavas of the Balleny Islands, 223-231
Mawson, P. M., T. H, Jolinston and: Some nematodes from Australian hosts, 63-71
Mediorhynchus corcoracis, 295
Medusina manson, M. asteroides, M. fila- mentus, 89, 90, 91
Mountford, C. F.: Gesture language of the Walpari tribe, Central Australia, 100-101
Nematodes from Australian hosts: T. H. Johnston and P. M. Mawson, 63-71
Nullarbor caves system: J. M. Thomson and D. King, 48-58
Protodipleurosoma wardi, 79 Pseudorhizostomites howchint, 87 Pseudorhopilema chapmani, 88
Rhabditis allgeni Johnston, A note on, 70
Robinson, E. G.: The petrological nature of some rocks from the Mann, Tompkinson aod fe Ranges of Central Australia,
301
Segnit, E. R.: A soda-rich composite intru- sive stock located in the Boolcoomatta Hills, South Australia, 109-112
Simpson, D. A.: The epiphyseal complex in Trachysaurus rugosus, 1-
South-East of South Australia, late Caino- zoie history of: P. S. Hossfeld, 232-279
Sprigg, R. C.: Thrust structures of the Witchelina area, South Australia, 40-47
: Early Cambrian Jellyfishes of Edia- cara, South Australia, 72-99
Stone implements from a mangrove swamp:
H. M. Cooper, 220-222
Tateana inflata, 86
Tektites in the South Australian Museum, 6
Thomson, J. M., and D. King: The Nullar- bor caves system, 48-58
Thrust structures of the Witchelina area, South Australia: R. C. Sprigg, 40-49 Trachysaurus rugosus, the epiphyseal com- plex in: D, A. Simpson, 1-5
Trematodes from Australian freshwater mol- luscs, part XIII: T. H. Johnston and L. M. Angel, 22-28
——, part XIV: T. H. Johnston and N.G. Muirhead, 102-108
Witchelina area, Thrust structures of : R. C. Sprigg, 40-47
Worora kinships: J. R. B. Love, 280-281
Womersley, H. B, S.: Notes on Dictyopteris, 113-116
——-: The marine algae of Kangaroo Island III. List of Species I, 137-197. Index to genera, 191-192
= yy The: Epi seal eae in Trachssourns sla es = Brace T ML: Additions to” thee lora of South Australia. ‘No. : ais ;
~~ gene a
ee Ce Australites, Part 529 eletitos 47 the South: Australian Musi, wi
~~ Notes: on Theories of Origin her Shs ao Tey, a
“© Jonnston, T. Ay, and ANGEL, i M.: Larval: Trematodes from Austrian Freshwater : ~-Molluses. Part XII sere Hae oe py <r re ote ax
~-Rownysox, Tt. G.: The Peevelosien: N ature. of 4 same Rocks ae ‘the Nanin, “owininson and. Apres. Ranges: of Gentral | Australia os zs Me Te eae Spree ints
te
an et ar
Se SSrRIGS, R. G “Thrast. Sir pelniesof es Witel
ae. Mere
Cato B. C.: An old Mango Maat exposed be) Wave Sc eke = Sant. Abstratia”” S ieee, Sak we
Nev NS Aeouceates from Acastfaliait ‘Hoss, ws ~ together vans 8 Note so Ra eee ; es = — :
-geaees T. a tasty ‘water Molluscs; pe Part
s ai , sh id © Suoxt, E, Rei A Seda-rieti Composite Intrusive Rock Toxtied in the > Booleooraria Hills, South Australia. ; (
Maws0y, Dew The Piatind Glaciation, nok Third Recurrence. of + Glaciation evidenced in. Sethe. Adelaide “System, | ates og WPS Sa Tike Pwr A are age
m seee ates
“Jor, R.K.,-and KRUGER, FM: he nineee Bates anid: Monarto- foassstes aris s = Associated: Rocks of the. Msancrniy porehter: pind ties ee
Stee sere -
- +
‘ er + - PART 1 zi = 53
“-Bonvitnox: 6. Wee Evaporation: Stasis ne some South Australia Data par: _Coores, HM: Stone Implements Troi a Mangrove Meine ‘at South. Glenelg Mawson, D Wer Basaltic Lavas ofthe Balleny lands. A.NA.R.ED Report 1. Seer Pawn! S.: The Late Cainozoic History. of the South-East ab South, Australia “Love, “hs R. aa a Teriahtns +S aoe