VOL. 75 NOVEMBER 1952

TRANSACTIONS OF
THE ROYAL SOCIETY
OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA |

INCORPORATED

ADELAIDE

PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS
KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE

Registered at the General Post Office, Adelaide,
for transmission by post as a periodical

VOL. 75 NOVEMBER 1952

TRANSACTIONS OF
THE ROYAL SOCIETY
OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

INCORPORATED

ADELAIDE

PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS
KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE

Registered at the General Post Office, Adelaide,
for transmission by post as a periodical

ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA >
(INCORPORATED)

OFFICERS FOR 1952

Patron

HIS EXCELLENCY LIEUTENANT-GENERAL SIR WILLOUGHBY NORRIE,
K.C.M.G,, C.B., D.S.O., M.C.

President
H. G. ANDREWARTHA, D.Sc., M.Ag.Sc.

Vice-Presidents

S. B. DICKINSON, M.Sc. B. C. COTTON
Hon. Secretary Hon. Treasurer
G. F. GROSS, B.Sc. R. V. SOUTHCOTT, M.B., B.S.
Hon. Editor

I. G. SYMONS

Hon. Librarian

J. K. TAYLOR, B.A., M.Sc., B.Sc. (Agr.)

Members of Council
A. G. EDQUIST
C. M. DELAND, M.B., B.S.
H. M. HALE
T. J. MARSHALL, M.Ag.Sc., Ph.D.
R. L. SPECHT, M.Sc.
I. M. THOMAS, M.Sc.

Hon. Auditors
F. M. ANGEL N. S. ANGEL

Proressor THomas Harvey JOHNSTON

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY
OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA INCORPORATED

PROFESSOR THOMAS HARVEY JOHNSTON

Professor T, H. Johnston, M.A., D.Sc., while still actively engaged as head
of the Department of Zoology at Adelaide University, passed away suddenly on
30th August, 1951, when in his seventieth year. His death is a loss that will be
greatly felt, more especially i in the field of parasitology.

In his youth he had studied under the world-famous zoologist, Professor
W. Haswell, and then continued throughout a long and active life to successfully
devote his energies to research, resulting in many outstanding contributions to
Australian science. He published some 299 papers,* mainly dealing with para-
sitology and, to a lesser extent, entomology.

Thomas Harvey Johnston, son of Thomas Johnston, was born in Sydney on
9 December 1881. He graduated at Sydney University Bachelor of Arts (1904)
and Bachelor of Science (1906); later Master of Arts (1907) and Doctor of
Science (1911), He was lecturer in Zoology and Physiology at the Sydney Tech-
nical College (1907-1909), and later was Assistant Microbiologist in the Bureau
of Microbiology, New South Wales Health Department, Sydney (1909-1911).

When the University of Queensland was initiated he was appointed lecturer
in Biology (1911), and later became Professor when provision was made for the
Chair of Zoology (1919). As a member of the Prickly Pear Travelling Com-
mission, he undertook investigations into the control of that menace which was
taking toll of vast areas of Queensland, The conduct of this work took him
around the world twice, in the period 1912-1914, in search of parasites to check
the spread of the pest. From this investigation followed the introduction of the
cochineal insect which ultimately led to the control of prickly pear and so to
the lasting benefit of Queensland. For this achievement he obtained the Walter
and Eliza Hall fellowship in Economic Biology. He was appointed Controller
of the Commonwealth Prickly Pear Laboratories (1920-1923).

In 1922 he was appointed to the newly created Chair of Zoology in the
University of Adelaide, and continued to occupy it with distinction until the time
of his death,

In the years that ensued, Professor Johnston made the best use of the very
limited resources available to build up an active Department of Zoology at
Adelaide in which, in addition to maintaining the teaching programme, he had
to cope with the demands of the rapidly growing numbers of medical and science
students. He and his limited staff of assistants succeeded in maintaining a steady
flow of research publications.

Though helminthology, in which he became a world authority, did occupy
first place in Harvey Johnston’s research, he inherited from Haswell a great
interest in marine life, and was easily persuaded to join, as Chief Zoologist, the
staff of the British, Australian, New Zealand, Antarctic Research Expedition.
He was thus engaged on the two Antarctic cruises of “Discovery I” during the
period 1929-1931. Throughout the duration of these operations, both in the
Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic, Johnston worked assiduously and unsparingly. The
scientific reports of the Expedition owe a great deal to his labour in connection
with the preparation and editing of the biological reports. He himself, and
jointly with certain of his graduates, contributed a number of papers to the
zoological reports; the last, dealing with Cephalodiscus, appeared only about one
week prior to his death.

*A complete list of titles of these is available for reference at the Barr Smith
Library of the University of Adelaide.

Professor Johnston also contributed to the successful publication of the
biological reports of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition of 1911-1914, for
in the case of the later volumes he undertook the editing earlier begun by Pro-
fessor Haswell.

He was an active member of the Anthropological Society of South Aus-
tralia and between the years 1929 and 1937 participated in several of the Univer-
sity field investigations among the natives of Central Australia,

During recent years he was a member of the Advisory Committee on water
supply to the Minister of Public Works; advising on matters relating to the
maintaining of purity in the city water supply.

His long association with the South Australian Museum deserves special
mention. Soon after appointment on the staff of the Adelaide University he
became actively interested in the work of the South Australian Museum in the
capacity of Honorary Associate. He was elected by the Royal Society of South
Australia as a member of the Board of Governors of the Public Library, Museum
and Art Gallery of South Australia, and as the Society’s representative sat on
that Board from May 1927 until September 1929. On the death of Mr. Edgar
R. Waite in 1928 he became Hon, Director of the Museum and worked in that
capacity for about three years.

Tn 1931 he was elected to the Board of Governors by the University of
Adelaide, and continued as a University representative until the composite Board
was disbanded in January 1940 and the three institutions became separate Govern-
ment departments, each with its own Board,

During the final five years of joint control Professor Harvey Johnston was
Chairman of the Museum Committee. He had urged for a long time the
desirability of separate control for the respective institutions, and when the care
and control of the Museum were delegated to an independent Board in 1940 he
was appointed Chairman by the South Australian Government and retained this
office until the time of his death.

His activity in the work of Scientific Societies was widely recognised: as
President of the Queensland Royal Society (1915-16), Biological Section of
A.N.Z.A.A.S. (1923), S.A. Royal Society (1931-32), S.A. Entomological
Society (1935-37), S.A. Anthropological Society (1937-38), Also corresponding
Member of the Zoology Society (London), the N.S.W, Royal Society, the
Washington Helminthological Society, and the American Association of Economic
Entomology (as foreign member). He was member of the board of editors of
the Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and Medical Science,

For his contribution to science he was awarded the David Syme Memorial
Medal (1913), the King’s Polar Medal (1934), the Sir Joseph Verco Medal of
the Royal Society of South Australia (1935), and the Mueller Memorial Medal
of the A.N.Z,A.A.S. (1939).

So has passed an indefatigable and remarkably thorough scientific worker,
who pioneered in many fields of observation in these southern lands. He will be
remembered for his quiet mien and sterling character: considerate and helpful
to the many students who have passed through his hands,

He is survived by Mrs. Johnston (nee Alice Pearce) and one daughter,
Mrs. W. W. Jolly (medical practitioner). His only son, J. H. Johnston (medical
practitioner), predeceased him by several years.

An account of his association with the medical profession will appear in
The Medical Journal of Australia, and his natural history activities in the South
Australian Naturalist; both contributed by Professor J. B. Cleland.

Dovuctas Mawson

—

Sean 1e & N

m _ ee eee ee
A 2 FS

a
~

LIST OF TITLES OF THE PUBLISHED WORKS OF
THOMAS HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc.

(late Professor of Zoology at the University of Adelaide)

The following abbreviations are used in this list:

MRS, SA, = Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.
P.R.S., N.'S.W. = _ Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W.
P.L.S., N.S.W. = Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W,
P.RS., Qld. = =Proc, “Royo, Old

Notes on some Australian parasites. Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 20, 1909, 581-584. Re-
printed in Jour. Trop. Vet. Sci., 5, 1910, 349-353.

Descriptions of new Haemoprotozoa from Australian birds, etc. P.R.S., N.S.W., 43,
1909, 75-96 (with Cleland).

On a new melanin-producing Haematozoon from an Australian tortoise. P.R.S.,
N.S.W., 43, 1909, 97-103 (with Cleland).

On a new reptilian cestode. P.R.S., N.S.W., 43, 1909, 103-116.

On Abas Haemogregarines from Australian reptiles. P.L.S., N.S.W., 34, 1909,
400-410.

On Australian Chaetognatha. Rec. Aust. Mus., 7, 1909, 251-256,

On a new Haemoprotozoon. Rec. Aust. Mus., 7, 1909, 257-259.

On a cestode from Dacelo gigas. Rec. Aust. Mus., 7, 1909, 246 250.

On a new species of Aphrodita, Rec. Aust. Mus., 7, 1909, 241-245.

Notes on Australian Entozoa, I. Rec. Aust. Mus., 7, 1909, 329-344. (Part reprinted
in Jour. Trop. Vet. Sci., 5, 1910, 353-357.)

. The Entozoa of Australian Monotremata and Marsupialia, I. P.L.S., N.S.W., 34,

1909, 514-523.
Notes on some parasitic Protozoa. P.L.S., N.S.W., 34, 1909, 501-513 (with Cleland.)
On a new genus of bird cestodes. P.R.S., N.S.W., 43, 1909, 139-147,

. The potato blight (with Tidswell). Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 20, 1909, 809-810; and

Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 27, N.S.W. Dept. Agr., 1909.

. On the réle of water in the spread of human Helminthiasis. Aust. Med. Gaz,

1909, 479-481.
Certain fungoid diseases of the potato. Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 20, 1909, 998-1012
(with Tidswell); and Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 31, 1909.

. Notes and exhibits (of Entozoa, etc.), P.L.S., N.S.W., 34, 1909, 117-118, 217-219,
18.

412-413, 417-418, 590-591, 70-711.
Notes and exhibits (of Entozoa, etc.). P.R.S., N.S.W., 43, 1909. Abstracts pp. xv-

xvi, XX, XxXVIli, xxix.

. On the anatomy of Monopylidium passerinum. P.R.S,, N.S.W., 43, 1909, 405-411.
. Diseases of banana plants. Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 20, 1909, 845-746 (with Tidswell).

Maize smut. Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 21, 1910, 43-44.

Worm nests in cattle due to Filaria gibsoni, Preliminary report. Agr. Gaz.,
N.S.W., 21, 1910, 173-174 (with Cleland); also in Jour. Trop. Vet. Sci., 5, 1910
§20-521; and also in Jour. Meat and Milk Hygiene, 1, (1), 1911, 21-23.

. Brown rot of fruit. Agr. Gaz., N.S,W., 21, 1910, 194-195,
. Worm nests in Australian cattle due to Filaria gibsoni, with a note on similar

structures in camels. P.R.S., N.S.W., 44, 1910, 156-171 (with Cleland).

. On the anatomy and possible mode of transmission of Filaria (Onchocerca) gibsoni.

P.R.S., N.S.W., 44, 1910, 171-189 (with Cleland).

. Worm nests in cattle due to Filaria gibsoni. Jour. Comp. Path, Therap., 23, 1910,

335-353. (with Cleland).

. On Australian avian Entozoa. P.R.S., N.S.W., 44, 1910, 84-122.

. Notes on some plant diseases. Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 20, 1910, 563-566.

. Notes on a fungus found destroying potatoes. Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 20, 1910, 699-701.
. Some further notes on Maize smuts. Agr, Gaz., N.S.W., 20, 1910, 669-670.

. The Haematozoa of Australian Batrachia, I. P.R.S., N.S.W., 44, 1910, 252-261

(with Cleland).

. The Haematozoa of Australian Reptilia, I. P.L.S., N.S.W., 35, 1910, 677-685 (with

Cleland).

Note on the occurrence of Pentastomes in Australian cattle. P.R.S., N.S.W., 44,
1910, 315-318 (with Cleland).
The fungous disease of lucerne. In Farmers’ Bull, No. 37, Oct. 1910, 102-104.

35.
36.
of,
38.
39.

ii

Ecto-parasites collected from rodents. Rep. Govt. Bur. Microbiol., N.S.W., for
1909 (1910), 20-21.

List of Entozoa recorded as occurring in man and domesticated animals and birds
in Australia. Rep, Govt. Bur. Microbiol., N.S.W., for 1909 (1910), 74-81.

Worm nests in cattle and camels. Rep. Govt. Bur. Microbiol, N.S.W., for 1909
(1910), 91-99 (with Cleland).

Plant diseases met with during the year. Rep. Govt. Bur. Microbiol. N.S.W., for
1909 (1910), 54-57.

Various papers, officially reprinted, in Rep. Govt. Bur, Microbiol., N.S.W., for
1909 (1910) :—
(a) (Articles on Australian parasitic) protozoa, 35-46 (with Cleland).
(b) Potato diseases, 57-63 (with Tidswell).
(c) Maize diseases, 70.
(d) Diseases of banana plants, 71-73 (with Tidswell).
(e) (Articles on Australian) Cestoda, 82-89.

The Haematozoa of Australian birds, I. T.R.S., S.A., 1910, 100-114 (with Cleland),

. The Haematozoa of Australian fish, I. P.R.S,, N.S.W,, 44, 1910, 406-415 (with

Cleland),

Notes and exhibits. P.L.S., N.S.W., 35, 1910, 28, 48, 136, 309-310, 522-523, 659-660,
804,

Notes and exhibits. P.R.S., N.S.W., 44, 1910. Abstr. xi-xiv, xvii.

Notes on worm nests in Australian cattle and in camels. Bull. Dept. Trade and
Customs, Commonw. Govt., 1911, 35-58 (with Cleland).

. American maize smut. Agr, Gaz., N.S.W., 22, 1911, 319-320.
. The Entozoa of Australian Marsupialia and Monotremata, II, P.L.S., N.S.W.,

36, 1911, 47-57,

New species of avian cestodes, P.L.S., N.S.W., 36, 1911, 58-80,

Notes on some Mallophagan generic names. P.L.S., N.S.W., 36, 1911, 321-328
(with Harrison).

Echinorhynchus pomatostomi, a subcutaneous parasite of Australian birds, P.R.S.,
N.S.W., 1911, 111-115 (with Cleland).

. A case of injury and repair in the cuticle of a nematode. Rep. Aust. Assoc. Adv.

Sci., 13, 1911 (1912), 299-300 (with Cleland),

. The Helminth parasites of man in Australia. Rep. Aust. Assoc. Adv, Sci,, 13, 1911

(1912), 301-314 (with Cleland).

The Haematozoa of Australian Reptilia, IT. P.L.S., N.S.W., 36, 1911, 479-491
(with Cleland).

Te Speers of Australian birds, IIT, P.R.S., N.S.W., 45, 1911, 415-443 (with

leland).

Proteocephalus gallardi, a new cestode from the black snake. Ann. Qld. Mus., 10,
1911, 175-182.

On the occurrence of worm nodules in catthe—a summary. P-.R.S., Qld., 23, 1911,
207-231.

. A census of Australian reptilian Entozoa. P.R.S., Old., 23, 1911, 233-249,
. A brief account of the worm nodules occurring in cattle, Qld. Agr. Jour., Dec.

1911, 309-311.
Notes and exhibits. P.L.S., N.S.W., 36, 1911, 93, 157-158.
Exhibits. Aust. Med. Gaz., 1911, 336.

. A Collection of Mallophaga from the Kermadecs. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 44, 1911,

363-373 (with Harrison),
On a re-examination of Krefft’s types of Entozoa, etc. Rec. Aus. Mus., 9, 1912,
1-36,

. The relative dimensions of the red blood cells of vertebrates, especially of birds.

Emu, 12, 1912, 188-197 (with Cleland).

. A census of Australian Mallophaga. P.R.S., Old., 1912, 1-15 (with Harrison),

A list of Mallophaga found on introduced and domesticated animals in Australia.
P.R.S., Qld., 24, 1912, 17-22 (with Harrison).

Notes on some Entozoa. P.R.S., Qld., 24, 1912, 63-91,

Internal parasites recorded from Australian birds, Emu, 12, 1912, 105-112.

New species of cestodes from Australian birds, Mem, Qld. Mus., 1, 1912, 211-214,

Notes on Australian Pediculids. P.R.S., Qld., 24, 1912, 105-109 (with Harrison).

Species of Haemoprotozoa met with during 1910-1911. Rept. Govt. Bur. Microbiol,,
N.S.W,, for 1910 and 1911 (1912), 74-83 (with Cleland).

. Tabular statements of Haematozoa occurring in wild and domestic animals in

Australia, Ibid., 83-88 (with Cleland).
Memorandum on Surra. Ibid., 72 (with Cleland),

72.
73.

iii

Introductory remarks concerning some modes of dispersal of Helminth parasites
(with Tidswell), ibid, 112-113.
Official reprint of various papers published elsewhere. Rep. Govt. Bur. Microbiol.,
N.S.W., for 1910 and 1911 (1912) :—
(a) The Helminth parasites of man in Australia, 113-119 (with Cleland),
(b) A note on the occurrence of Pentastomes in Australian cattle, 119-120
(with Cleland).

(c) On Australian avian Entozoa, 122-136,
(d) Microfilaria in the blood of Australian birds, 136-137 (with Cleland).

(e) On some fungi found in potatoes, with special reference to Armillaria
mellea, 177-179.
(f) Irish blight in tomatoes, 179-180,
(g) American maize smut, 181.
(h) On some fungi found on fruit, 182-184.
(k) Fungous diseases of lucerne, 184-185.
Seeds. and Acanthocephala. Rep. Townsville Tropical Institute, 1911 (1913),
9
Second report on the Cestoda and Acanthocephala collected in Queensland. Ann,
Trop. Med. Parasit., 8, 1914, 105-112.
Notes and exhibits, Endoparasites (Trematoda). P.R.S., Qld., 26, 1914, 69.
On some new Queensland Endoparasites, P.R.S., Qld., 26, 1914, 76-84.

. Report of the Prickly Pear Travelling Commission, Nov. 1912—April 1914. Qld.

Parl, Rep. (1914), 1-20 and 131, 66 figs. (with Tryon).

. Notes on an exhibit of specimens of Ceratodus. P.R.S., Qld., 27, 1915, 58-59 (with

Bancroft).

Helminthological notes. Mem. Qld. Mus., 5, 1916, 186-196.

Mallophaga from Marsupialia, I. Parasitology, 8, 1916, 338-359, 14 text figs. (with
Harrison).

Presidential Address. P.R.S., Old., 28, 1916, 1-30.

Obituary of Frederick Manson Bailey, 3-10,

Obituary of C. W. Devis, 10-17.

The eradication of prickly pear, 22-26,

Worm nests in cattle, 26-30.

. Census of Endoparasites recorded as occurring in Queensland, arranged under

their hosts, P.R.S., Qld., 28, 1916, 31-79.

. The Endoparasites of the dingo. P.R.S., Qld., 28, 1916, 96-100.
. Ecological notes on the littoral fauna and flora of Caloundra, Old. Qld. Naturalist,

2, 1917, 53-63.

On a new species of Pedicellina from Sydney Harbour. P.R.S., Qld., 29, 1917,
60-63 (with Walker).

The cattle tick in Australia. Bull. 1 Advisory Council Sci. & Industry, Melbourne,
1917 (with Stewart and others).

. Worm nodules in cattle. Bull. 2 Advisory Council Sci. & Industry, Melbourne,

1917 (with Dodd and others).

. Notes on a Saproleugnia epidemic amongst Queensland fish. P.R.S., Qld., 29,

1917, 125-131.

. Tick resistance of cattle. Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 29, 1918, 319-320 (with Bancroft).
. Tick resistant cattle. Qld. Agric. Jour., 9, 1918, 171-172 (with Bancroft).
. Notes on certain Entozoa of rats and mice, together with a catalogue of the

internal parasites recorded as occurring in rodents in Australia. P.R.S., Qld.,
30, 1918, 53-78.

. The Endoparasites of the domestic pigeon in Queensland. Mem. Old. Mus., 6,

1918, 168-174.

. A tick resistant condition in cattle. P.R.S., QOld., 6, 1918, 219-317 (with Bancroft).
. A note on the occurrence of Mullerian ducts in the male of Hyla caerulea.

P.R.S., N.S.W., 1918, 461-462 (with Gillies).

. Notes on records of Tree Kangaroos in Queensland. Aust. Zoologist, 1, (6), 1918,

153-156 (with Gillies).

. Myobolus hylae, a parasite of the reproductive organs of the Golden Frog, Hyla

aurea, Aust. Zoologist, 1, (6), 1918, 171-175 (with Bancroft).
Notes on miscellaneous Endoparasites, P.R.S., Qld., 30, 1918, 209-218.

. Some new Sporozoon parasites of Queensland freshwater fish, P.R.S., N.S.W.,

1918, 520-528 (with Bancroft).

. Report on Mr. Munro Hull's claims re resistant cattle. Qld. Agr. Jour., Jan, 1919,

31-35; also in Science and Industry, 1 (1), 1919, 57-62; also in Rev. Appl.
Entomol. B., 7, 1919, 112-114 (with Bancroft).

101.

102.
103.

104,
105.

106.
107.
108.

109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.

116.
117,

118,

119.
120.

121.
122.

123,
124,
125.

126.
127.

128.
129.

130.
131.
132,

133.
134,

iv

Pseudobonellia, a new Echinoid genus from the Great Barrier Reef. P.L.S.,
N.S.W., 44, 1919, 213-230 (with Tiegs).

Notes on Australian Chaetognatha. P.R.S., Old., 31, 1919, 28-41 (with Taylor).

a rea of the Queensland coast. P.R.S., Qld., 31, 1919, 46-82 (with Hirsch-
eld),

Tick resistance in cattle; a reply to criticism. P.R.S., Qld., 31, 1919, 173-180
(with Bancroft),

Sa the cattle tick; life history investigated. Science and Industry, 1, 1919,
419-425.

The life histories of Musca australis and Musca yetustissima. P.R.S., Qld, 31,
1919, 181-203 (with Bancroft).

Notes on the Chaloid parasites of Muscoid flies in Australia. P.R.S., Old., 32,
1920, 19-30 (with Bancroft).

Experiments with certain Diptera as possible transmitters of bovine Onchocerciasis.
P.R.S., Qld., 32, 1920, 31-57. (with Bancroft).

The life history of Habronema in relation to Musca domestica and native flies in
Queensland. J. Roy. Soc., Qld., 32, 1920, 61-88 (with Bancroft).

The Chalcid parasites of Muscoid flies in Australia. Science and Industry, Mel-
bourne, 2, 1920, 308-312.

The cattle worm-nodule parasite; some experiments wilh flies as possible trans-
mitters. Science and Industry, 2, 1920, 315-316 (with Bancroft).

Flies as transmitters of certain worm parasites of horses, Science and Industry,
Melbourne, 2, 1920, 369-372.

Notes on the biology of some Queensland flies. Mem. Qld. Mus., 7, 1920, 31-43
(with Bancroft).

A new species of Bonellia from Port Jackson. Rec. Aust. Mus., 13, 1920, 73-76
(with Tiegs).

Notes on the life history of certain Queensland Tabanid flies. P.R.S., QOld., 32,
1920, 125-131. (with Bancroft),

The cattle tick. Science and Industry, Melbourne., 2, 1920, 347-351.

Report on the Chaetognatha collected by the Australian Antarctic Expedition,
Rep. Aust., Antarctic Exp., 1911-1914, Series C, 6, (2), 1921, 16 pp. (with
Taylor).

Lectures on some Queensland pests. Brisbane Chamber of Commerce, 1920, 9-20.
(Prickly Pear, 9-14, Cattle Tick, 15-20).

The sheep maggot fly in Queensland. Qld. Agr. Jour., 15, 1921, 244-248.

New and little known Sarcophagid flies from South-eastern Queensland. P.R.S.,
Qld., 33, 1921, 46-90. (with Tiegs).

Biological control of prickly pear. Qld. Agr. Jour., 16 August, 1921, 65-68.

On the biology and economic significance of the Chalcid parasites of Australian
sheep maggot flies. P.R.S., Qld., 33, 1921, 99-128 (with Tiegs).

The nodule parasite and allied worms from Queensland cattle. Qld. Agr. Jour.,
16 Sept., 1921, 172-174.

The freshwater fish epidemics in Queensland rivers. P.R.S., Qld., 33, 1921, 174-210
(with Bancroft).

Onchocerciasis in Queensland cattle. T.R.S., S. Aust., 45, 1921, 231-247.

Notes on certain Queensland and bush flies. Trans. Intercol. Med. Congr., 11
(Brisbane), 1920 (1921), 265-272.

Sarcophagid flies in the Australian Museum collection. Rec. Aust. Mus., 13, 1922,
175-188 (with Tiegs).

What part can Chalcid wasps play in controlling Australian sheep maggot flies?
Qld. Agr. Jour., 17, 1922, 128-131 (with Tiegs).

New Gyrodactyloid Trematodes from Australian fish, together with a reclassifica-
tion of the superfamily Gyrodactyloidea. P.L.S., N.S.W., 47, 1922, 83-131
(with Tiegs).

Report on investigations regarding prickly pear control by biological means.
Qld. Agr. Jour., 17, 1922, 136-140.

Notes on the biology of some of the more common Queensland Muscoid flies.
P.R.S., Qld., 34, 1922, 77-104 (with Tiegs).

Some facts regarding the biology of the house fly. Med. Jour. Aust., Oct. 1922,
494-499,

Some facts of importance relating to sheep maggot flies. Qld. Agr. Jour., 18,
1922, 272-275.

New and known Australian Sarcophagid flies. P.R.S., Qld, 34, 1922, 56-61 (with
Tiegs).

135.

136.
137.

138.
139,

140.

141.

142,
143,

144,
145.

146.
147,
148,
149.
150.
151.
152.
hee

154.
155.

156,
157.
158.

159.
160,

161.
162.
163.

164.
165,
166,
167.
168.
169.
170.
171.

172,
173,

Vv

A synonymic list of some described Australian Calliphorine flies. P.R.|S., Qld.,
34, 1922, 66-69 (with Hardy).

Across the Andes. Qld. Geog. Jour., 37, 1922, 55-67.

Some Sarcophagid flies from Lord Howe Island. Rec. Aust. Mus., 14, (1), 1923,
62-71 (with Hardy).

A revision of the Australian Diptera belonging to the genus Sarcophaga, P.L.S.,
N.S.W., 48, 1923, 94-129 (with Hardy).

Observations regarding the life cycle of certain Australian blowflies. P.L.S., Qld.,
35, 1923, 21-42 (with Hardy).

A bacterial disease destructive to fish in Queensland, rivers. T.R.S., S. Aust., 47,
1923, 157-161 (with Hitchcock),

A bacteriosis of prickly pears (Opuntia sp.). T.R.S,, S. Aust., 47, 1923, 162-164
(with Hitchcock).

A Be of the Australian sheep maggot fly problem. T.R.S., S, Aust., 47, 1923,

-211.

The Australian prickly pear problem. (Presid. Address, Sect. D.) Rep. Aust.
Assoc. Ady. Sci. (New Zealand), 16, 1923 (1924), 347-401.

An Australian Caryophyllaeid Cestode. P.L.S., N.S.W., 49, 1924, 339-347.

sete of climate to the spread of prickly pear. T.R.S., S. Aust., 48, 1924,

Remarks on the commoner “bush-flies” of Australia, Health, Melb., 3, (4), 1925,
110-113.

Australian bloodflukes. Illust. Aust, Encyclopaedia, Sydney, 1, 1925, 174-175.

The sheep maggot-fly problem, Jour. Dept. Agr., S, Aust., 29, 1925, 216-222.

Observations regarding the non-parasitic stage of the Queensland cattle tick
(abstract). Proc. Pan Pacific Sci. Congr., Sydney, 1923 (1926), 2, 1,546.

Note on the occurrence of Coccidiosis in South Australian sheep, Rep. Aust. Assoc.
Adv. Sci., 1924 (1926), 712-714.

Prickly pear. Illust. Aust. Encyclop., Sydney, 2, 1926, 334-336.

Nemathelminthes. Illust. Aust. Encyclop., Sydney, 2, 1926, 188-189.

Remarks on the propriety of introducing insects to control prickly pear in Aus-
tralia. T.R.S., S.A., 50, 1926, 235-240.

New trematodes from an Australian Siluroid. T.R.S., S. Aust., 51, 1927, 129-136,

Remarks on the biological control of pests, Rep. Aust. Assoc, Adv. Sci., 18, 1926
(1928), 841-862.

New Trematodes from the Australian water hen, Gallinula tenebrosa. Rec. S. Aust.
Museum, 4, (1), 1928, 135-142.

Remarks on the synonymy of certain Tristomatid Trematode genera, T.R.S.,
S.A., 53, 1929, 71-78,

Australian Acanthocephala, I, Census, etc. T,R.S., S.A., 53, 1929, 146-154. (with
Deland).

Australian Acanthocephala, II. T.R.S., S.A., 53, 1929, 155-166 (with Deland).

The anatomy of the trematode, Macrophyllida antarctica. Aust. Jour. Exp. Biol.
and Med, Sci., 7, (3), 1930, 101-107,

A new species of trematode of the genus Anoplodiscus. Austr. Jour. Exp. Biol.
and Med. Sci., 7, (3), 1930, 108-112.

An Amphilinid cestode from an Australian tortoise. Austr. Jour. Exp. Biol. and
Med. Sci., 8, 1931, 1-7.

New trematodes from the Subantarctic and Antarctic. Austr. Jour. Exp. Biol.
and Med. Sci., 8, 1931, 91-98.

The parasites of the stumpy-tailed lizard, Trachysaurus rugosus. T.R.S., S.A,
56, 1932, 62-70.

The ecology of the aborigines of Central Australia: botanical notes. T.R.S., S.A.,
57, 1933, 113-124 (with Cleland).

History of the aboriginal narcotic, pituri. Oceania, 4, (2), 1933, 201-223; 4, (3),
1934, 268-289 (with Cleland).

History of the aboriginal narcotic, pituri, Oceania, 4, (3), 1931, pp. 268, 289
(with Cleland),

New trematodes from Australian Elasmobranchs. Austr. Jour. Exp, Biol. and
Med. Sci., 12, 1934, 25-32.

Notes on some Monocotylid trematodes. P.L.S., N.S.W., 49, 1934, 62-65.

Remarks on some Australian Cestodaria. P.L.S., N.S.W., 49, 1934, 66-70.

Report on proposals for the discharge of effluent from the Glenelg Sewage Treat-
ment Works. Govt. Printer, Adelaide, 1934, 20 pp.

Some Australian Anaporrhutine trematodes. T.R.S., S.A., 58, 1934, 139-148.

Report on the Trematoda. Rep. Austr. Antarctic Exp., 1911-1914, Ser. C.

vi

Report of the Acanthocephala. Rep. Austr. Antarctic Exp., 1911-1914, Ser. C.
Report on the Ixodoidea. Rep. Austr. Antarctic Exp., 1911-1914, Ser. C.
Remarks on the cestode genus Porotenia. T.R.S., S.A., 59, 1935, 164-167.

. Blood grouping of aborigines of the Musgrave Ranges in the north-west of South

Australia. Jour. Trop. Med. Hyg., 39, (3), Feb. 1936, 25-28 (with J. B. Cleland
and C. J. Hackett).

. A note on the occurrence of the nematode, Gongylonema pulchrum, in man in New

Zealand. New Zealand Med. Jour., 38, June 1936, 172-176.
“Zoology of South Australia.” In “Centenary History of South Australia”, 1936,
pp. 336-338. Published by Roy. Geogr. Soc., South Austr., 1936.

. Blood grouping of aborigines of the Diamantina district in the north-east of South

Australia (1934), Jour. Trop. Med. Hyg., 39, (9), May 1936, 104-105 (with
J. B. Cleland).
Remarks on the nematode, Gongylonema pulchrum. T.R.S., S.A., 60, 1936, 76-87.
One hundred years of Zoology in South Australia, T.R.S., S.A., 60, 1936, xli-lv.

. Entozoa from the Australian hair seal. P.L.S.. N.SW., 62, 1937, 9-16,

Biological organization and Station List. Brit. Aust. N.Z., Antarctic Research
Exped. (1929-1931), Reports, Ser. B.1, (1), 1937, 1-48.

Report on the Trematoda. Rep. Aust. Antarctic Exp, (1911-1914), Ser. C, 10, (1),
1937, 1-29.

Report on the Acanthocephala, Rep, Aust, Antarctic Exp. (1911-1914), Ser. C,
10, (2), 1937, 1-20 (with Best).

. A note on the occurrence of Rhabdoplenra annulata in South Australian Waters.

Rec. South Aust. Mus., 6, (1), 1937, 105-107.

. Larval trematodes from Australian terrestrial and freshwater molluscs, Part I.

Survey of literature, T.R.S., S.A., 61, 1937, 191-201 Gwith E, R. Cleland).
Larval trematodes from Australian terrestrial and freshwater molluscs. Part II.
Cercaria (Furcocerearia) jaenschi. T.R.S,, S.A., 61, 1937, 202-206 (with E. R.
Cleland).
Rhabdopleura. Rep. Aust, Antarctic Exp. (1911-1914), Ser. C, 3, (4), 1937, 1-8.

. The Cestoda of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition. Rep. Austr. Antarctic

Exp. (1911-1914), Ser. C, 10, (4), 1937, 1-74.
Report on the Ticks (Ixodoidea) of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition. Rep.
Austr. Antarctic Exp. (1911-1914), Ser. C, 2, (3), 1937, 1-19.

. A survey of the literature relating to the occurrence in Australia of helminth

parasites of man. T.R.S., S.A., 61, 1937, 250-277 (with J. B. Cleland).

. Notes on native names and uses of plants in the Musgrave Ranges region. Oceania,

8, (2), 1937, 208-215 (with J. BR. Cleland).

Blood grouping of aborigines in the north-west portion of Central Australia
(1936), Jour. Trop. Med. Hyg., 41, Jan. 1938, 10-12 (with J. B. Cleland).

Report on the parasitic nematodes of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition. Rep.
Austr. Antarctic Exp, (1911-1914), Ser. C, 10, (5), 1938, 1-31.

Blood grouping of aborigines of the Northern Flinders Ranges in South Australia.
Jour. Trop. Med. Hyg., Jan. 1938, 26-27 (with J. B. Cleland).

Notes on native names and uses of plants in the Musgrave Ranges region (con-
tinuation). Oceania, 8, (3), 1938, 328-342 (with J. B. Cleland).

. Larval trematodes from Australian terrestrial and freshwater mollusca. Part ITI.

Leucochloridium australiense. T.R.S., S.A, 62, (1), 1938, 25-33 (with E. R.
Cleland).

. An account of some filarial parasites of Australian marsupials. T.R.S., S.A,

62, (1), 1938, 107-121 (with P. M. Mawson).
Larval trematodes from Australian terrestrial and freshwater molluscs. Part IV.
Cercaria murrayensis. T.R.S., S.A., 62 (1), 1938, 127-131 (with E. R. Cleland).

2. A census of the free-living and plant-parasitic nematodes recorded as occurring

in Australia, T.R,S., S.A., 62, (1), 1938, 149-167,

Strongyle nematodes from Central Australian kangaroos and wallabies, T.R,S.,
S.A., 62, (2), 1938, 263-286 (with P. M, Mawson).

Parasitic Infusoria from Macquarie Island. Rep, Austr. Antarctic Exp. (1911-
1914), Ser. C, 1, (3), 1938, 1-13.

. Report on the Echinoderida. Rep. Austr. Antarctic Exp, (1911-1914), Ser. C, 10

(7), 1938, 1-13.

. Some nematodes from Australian marsupials. Rec. South Austr. Mus., 6, (2), 1938,

187-198 (with P. M. Mawson).
Aboriginal names and uses of plants at the Granites, Central Australia. T.R.S.,
S.A., 63, (1), 1939, 22-26 (with J. B. Cleland).

208.
209,

210.
211.

212,
213.
214.
215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222,
223.
224.
BOR
226.
227.
228.
229.
230.
231.
232,
233.
234.
235,
236,
237.

238.
239.
240.

Vil

Larval trematodes from Australian freshwater molluscs. Part V. T.R.S., S.A,,
63, (1), 1939, 63-68 (with E. R. Simpson).

Strongylate nematodes from Queensland marsupials. T.R.S., S.A., 63, (1), 1939,
121-149 (with P. M. Mawson).

Pituri (summary of Presidential address). Mankind, 2, (7), 1939, 224-225,

Strongylate nematodes from marsupials in New South Wales. P.L.S., N.S.W., 64,
1939, 513-536 (with P. M. Mawson).

Internal parasites of the pigmy sperm whale. Rec. South Austr. Mus., 6, (3),
1939, 263-274 (with P. M. Mawson).

Aboriginal names and uses of plants in the Northern Flinders Ranges. T.RS.,
S.A., 63, (2), 1939, 172-179 (with J. B. Cleland).

Larval trematodes from Australian freshwater molluscs. Part VI. T-.R.S., S.A,
63, (2), 1939, 200-203 (with L. M. Angel).

Sundry nematodes from Eastern Australian marsupials. T.R.S., S.A., 63, (2), 1939,
204-209 (with P. M. Mawson).

The Diplostomulum stage of Cercaria murrayensis. T.R.S., S.A., 63, (2), 1939,
230-237 (with E. R. Simpson).

Some nematodes from Victoria and Western Australian marsupials. T.R.S., S.A,,
63, (2), 1939, 307-310 (with P. M. Mawson).

On a collection of nematodes from Australian marsupials. Rec. Austr, Mus., 20,
(5), 1940, 36-366 (with P. M. Mawson).

Handbooks of the Fauna and Flora of South Australia. Austr, Jour. Sci. June
1940, 175-176,

Nematodes from South Australian marsupials. T.R.S., S.A., 64, (1), 1940, 95-100
(with P, M. Mawson),

The adult stage of the trematode, Leucochloridium australiense. T.R.S., S.A., 64,
(1), 1940, 119-124 (with E, R, Simpson),

New and known nematodes from Australian marsupials. P.L.S., N.S.W., 65, 1940,
468-476 (with P. M. Mawson).

Endoprocta. Brit. Austr. N. Z. Antarctic Research Exp. Rep., Ser B, 4, (7), 1940,
213-231 (with L. M. Angel).

The Anatomy and life history of the trematode, Cyclocoelum jaenschi n.sp,
T.R.S., S.A., 63, (2), 1940, 273-278 (with E. R. Simpson).

Larval trematodes from Australian freshwater molluscs. Part VII. T.R.S., S.A,
64, (2), 1940, 331-339 (with L. M. Angel).

Some nematodes from Australian freshwater fish. T.R.S., S.A., 64, (2), 1940,
340-352 (with P. M. Mawson).

Some filarial parasites of Australian birds. T.R.S., S.A., 64, (2), 1940, 355-361
(with P. M. Mawson).

A key to the nematode parasites of Australian marsupials and monotremes.
T.R.S., S.A., 64, (2), 363-370 (with P. M. Mawson).

The morphology and life history of the trematode, Dolichopera mocalpini Nicoll.
T.R.S., S.A., 64, (2), 1940, 376-387 (with L. M. Angel).

Nematodes from Australian marine mammals, Rec. South Austr. Mus., 6, (4),
1941, 429-434 (with P. M. Mawson).

Blood grouping of Australian aborigines at Ooldea, South Australia (1939 Series),
Jour. Trop. Med. Hyg., 44, (12), June 1941, 76-78 (with J. B. Cleland).

Some parasitic nematodes in the collection of the Australian Museum. Rec. Austr.
Mus., 21, (1), 1941, 9-16 (with P. M. Mawson).

Some nematodes from Australian birds of prey. T.R.S., S.A., 65, (1), 1941, 30-35
(with P. M. Mawson),

Ascaroid nematodes from Australian birds. T.R.S., S.Austr. 65, (1), 110-115 (with
P. M. Mawson).

Life cycle of the trematode, Diplostomum murrayense. T.R.S,, S.A., 65, (1), 140-
144 (with L. M, Angel).

Plankton of the coast of New South Wales (a review). Austr. Jour. Science,
4, (1), 1941, 19-21.

The aboriginal as a human being. Aborigines Friends’ Assoc. Quarterly Review,
Adelaide, Aug. 1941, 7-9,

Some nematode parasites of Australian birds. P.L.S., N.S.W., 66, 1941, 250-256
(with P. M. Mawson).

Some nematodes from Kangaroo Island, South Australia. Rec. South Austr. Mus.,
7, (1), 1941, 145-148 (with P. M. Mawson).

Additional nematodes from Australian birds. T.R.S., S.A., 65, (2), 1941, 254-262
(with P. M. Mawson).

241.
242.
243.
244,
245,

246,
247,
248.
249,
250.
251.
252.
253.
254.
255.
256.
257.
258,
259,
260.
261.
262.
263.

264.
265.
266.
267.
268.
269.
270.
71.
272.
273.

viii

Bather’s itch (schistosome dermatitis) in the Murray swamps, South Australia.
T.RS., S.A., 65, (2), 1941, 276-284.

Life cycle of the trematode, Petasiger australis ns. T.R.S., S.A., 65, (2), 1941,
285-291 (with L. M. Angel).

The life history of Echinostoma revolutum in South Australia. T.R.S., S.A,
65, (2), 1941, 317-322 (with L. M. Angel).

Some aboriginal routes in the western portion of South Australia. Proc. Roy.
Geogr. Soc. S. Austr., 42, 1941, 33-65.

Death, burial and associated ritual at Ooldea, South Australia. Oceania, 12, (3),
1942, 189-208 (with R. M. Berndt).

Some new and known Australian parasitic nematodes. P.L.S., N.S.W., 67, 1942,
90-94 (with P. M. Mawson).

The Gallard collection of parasitic nematodes in the Australian Museum. Rec.
Austr. Mus., 21, (2), 1942, 110-115 (with P. M. Mawson).

Larval trematodes from Australian freshwater molluscs. Part VIII. T.R.S., S.A,
66, (1), 1942, 50-59 (with L. M. Angel).

Nematodes from Australian albatrosses and petrels. T.R.S., S.A., 66, (1), 1942,
66-70 (with P. M. Mawson).

Avian nematodes from Tailem Bend, South Australia. T.R.S., 5.A., 66, (1), 1942,
71-73 (with P. M. Mawson),

Aboriginal names and uses of plants at Ooldea, South Australia. T.R.S,, S.A,
66, (1), 1942, 93-103 (with J. B. Cleland).

The life history of the trematode, Paryphostomum tenuicollis (S. J. Johnston).
T.R.S., S.A., 66, (2), 119-123 (with L. M. Angel).

Some nematodes from Australian frogs. T.R.S., S.A., 66, (2), 172-179 (with
E. R. Simpson).

Remarks on some parasitic nematodes. Rec. South Austr. Mus., 7, (2), 1942, 183-
186 (with P. M. Mawson),

The metacercaria stage of Australian species of Clinostomum. Rec, South Austr.
Mus., 7, (2), 1942, 187-191.

Trematodes from Australian Birds. JI. Cormorants and darters. T.R.S., S.A,
66, (2), 226-242.

Australian Acanthocephala. No. ITI. T.R.S., S.A., 66, (2), 250-254 (with E. W,
Best).

Endoparasites from the Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand. Rec, South Austr.,
Mus., 7, (3), 1943, 237 (with P. M. Mawson).

Some ascarid nematodes from Australian marine fish. T.R.S., S.A., 67, (1), 1943,
20-35. (with P. M. Mawson).

Native names and uses of plants in the north-eastern corner of South Australia.
T.R.S., S.A., 67, (1), 1943, 149-173 (with J. B. Cleland).

Remarks on some nematodes from Australian reptiles. T.R.S., S.A., 67, (2),
183-186 (with P. M. Mawson).

Nematodes from Australian elasmobranchs. T.R.S., S.A., 67, (2), 187-190 (with
P.M. Mawson),

Australian Acanthocephala, No. IV. T.R.S., S.A., 67, (2), 226-230 (with E. W.
Best).

Aboriginal names and utilization of the fauna in the Eyrean region. T.R.S., S.A.,
67, (2), 244-311.

Remarks on some parasitic nematodes from Australia and New Zealand. T.R.S.,
S.A., 68 (1), 60-66. (with P. M. Mawson).

Life history of the trematode, Echinochasmus pelecani, n.sp. T.R.S., 5.A., 61,
(1), 113-119 (with E. R. Simpson).

Larval trematodes from Australian freshwater molluscs, Part IX. T-_R.S., S.A.,
68, (1), 125-132 (with E. R. Simpson).

Some parasitic nematodes from South Australian marine fish. T.R.S., S.A., 69,
(1), 114-117 (with P, M. Mawson).

Parasitic nematodes. Brit. Austr. N.Z. Antarctic Research Exp. Rep., Ser. B,
5, (2), 73-160 (with P. M. Mawson).

Larval trematodes from Australian freshwater mollusca, Part X. T.R.S., S.A.,
69, (2), 229-242 (with A. C. Beckwith).

Some capillariid nematodes from South Australian fish and birds. T.R.S., S.A.,
69, (2), 243-248 (with P. M. Mawson).

The life cycle of the sheep liver fluke in South Australia. T.R.S., S.A., 70, (1),
1946, 121-126 (with A. C. Beckwith).

A zoological survey of Adelaide beaches. Handbook Austr. New Zealand Assoc.
Adv. Sci. (Adelaide), Aug. 1946, 42-47 (with P. M. Mawson).

274.
275.
276.
277.
278.
279,
280.
281.
282.
283.
284.
285.

286.

287.

288.
289,

290.
291.

292,
293.

294,
295.
296.
297.

298.
299,

ix

The transmitting agent of the sheep liver fluke in South Australia. Jour. Dept.
Agric., South Austr., Nov. 1946, 194-197,

Some nematodes from Australian lizards. T.R.S., S.A., 71, (1), 1947, 22-27 (with
P. M. Mawson).

Australian Acanthocephala, No. 5. T.R.S., S.A., 71, (1), 1947, 13-19 (with S. J.
Edmonds).

Some avian and fish nematodes, chiefly from Tailem Bend, South Australia. Rec.
South Austr. Mus., 8 (4), 1947, 547-553 (with P. M. Mawson).

Australian Acanthocephala, No. 6. Rec. South Austr., Mus., 8, (4), 1947, 555-562
(with S. J. Edmonds).

Larval trematodes from Australian freshwater molluscs. Part XI. Rec. South
Austr. Mus., 8 (4), 1947, 563-584 (with A. C. Beckwith).

Larval trematodes from Australian freshwater molluscs. Part XII. T.R.S., S.A,
72, (2), 1948, 324-333 (with A. C, Beckwith).

A new cestode Raillietina (R.) leipoac from the mallee hen. Rec. South Austr.
Mus., 9, (1), 1948, 89-93 (with H. G. Clark).

Microphallus minutus, a new trematode from the Australian water rat. Rec.
South Austr. Mus., 9, (1), 1948, 95-102.

Some new records of nematodes from Australian snakes. Rec. South Aust.
Mus., 9, (1), 1948, 103-108 (with P. M. Mawson).

Australian Acanthocephala, No. 7. T.R.S., S.A. 72, 1948, 69-76 (with S. J.
Edmonds),

Cestodes from Australian birds, I, pelicans. T.R.S., S.A., 72, 1948, 77-82 (with
H. G. Clark).

A brief survey of the parasitological and Anthropological work of Professor J. B.
Cleland. Med. Students’ Society Review (Adelaide University), 30, (1), Oct.
1948. (The M.S.S. Review.)

The life cycle of the trematode Echinoparyphium ellisi from the black swan. Rec.
South Austr. Mus., 9, (2), 1949, 247-254.

Larval trematodes from Australian freshwater molluscs. Part XIII. T.R.S., S.A.,
73, 1949, 1950, 23-28 (with L. M. Angel).

Some nematodes from Australian hosts, together with a note on Rhabditis allgeni.
T.R.S., S.A., 73; 1949, 63-71 (with P .M. Mawson).

Larval trematodes from Australian freshwater molluscs, Part XIV. T.R.S., S.A.,
73, 1949, 102-108 (with N. G, Muirhead).

Some Australian Caryophyllaecid cestodes, Rec. South Austr. Mus., 9, (3), 1950,
339-348 (with N, G. Muirhead).

Australian Acanthocephala, No. 8. T.R.S., S.A., 74, 1950 (with S. J. Edmonds).

Additional nematodes from Australian fish. T.R.S., S.A., 74, 1950 (with P. M.
Mawson).

Plagiorchis, T.R.S., S.A., 74, 1950 (with L. M. Angel),

Apatemon. T,R.S., S.A., 74, 1950 (with L. M. Angel).

Report on some parasitic nematodes from the Australian Museum, Rec, Austr.
Mus., 22, (4), 1951, 289-297 (with P. M. Mawson).

Cephalodiscus, Brit. Aust. New Zealand Antarctic Research Exp., Ser. B, 1, (3),
1951, 89-120 (with N. G. Muirhead).

Australian Acanthocephala, No: 9. T.R.S., S.A., 75, 1951 (with S. J. Edmonds).

Some nematodes from Australian birds and mammals. T.R.S., S.A., 75, 1951 (with
P.M. Mawson).

INDIVIDUAL ASPECTS IN THE CULTURE OF THE AUSTRALIAN
ABORIGINES

BY H. V. NOONE (COMMUNICATED BY N. B. TINDALE)

Summary

The remarkable variety in form, size and function of the stone implements used by the Australian
aborigines, and the employment of several different stone-working techniques in producing them,
prompts speculation as to whether it is likely that this well-developed industry is the outcome of the
Australian aborigine’s own natural inventiveness and dexterity, and if so to what extent this is true.

INDIVIDUAL ASPECTS IN THE CULTURE OF THE
AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES

By H. V. V. Nooxe

(Communicated by N. B. Tindale}
{Read 12 April 1951]

The remarkable variety in form, size and Function of the stone imple-
ments used by the Australian aborigines, and the employment of several
different stone-working techniques in producing them, prompts speculation
as to whether it is likely that this well-developed industry is the outcome of
the Australian aborigine's own natural inyentiveness and dexterity, and if
so to what extent this is true.

Most unfortunately stratigraphic evidence has not yet been established
to reveal a chronological sequence of the various implement-types that have
been found. Furthermore, the question of whether or not it can be said
that the Australian aborigine’s occupation of Australia, as to duration and
outside interference, was such as to permit independent evolution, has not
yet been satisfactorily answered. That he enjoyed a prolonged period af
isolation and freedom [rom contact of any consequence with more highly
evolved physical stocks is believed to be evidenced by the primitive physical
characteristics he still exhibits amongst the tribes found in all areas except
the extreme north. D. J. Mahony (4) claimed on the basis of the geolo-
gical evidence of a skull found at Keilor, near Melbourne, that Australoid-
Tasmanoid types of men were living in Australia some 140,000 years ago,
which early date, however, has not yet received general acceptance. After
careful study of the question of influence on North-western Australia from
the East Indies, Dr, D, 5. Davidson (2, p. 78) says “at least we have no
eviderice to indicate any perceptible foreign influence on the Australian race
or culture prior to the latter half of the 18th century.” Melanesian contacts,
via Cape York and adjacent territory, sufficient to have any notable result,
seem to be of comparatively recent date and also of limited effect.

Going on to an examination of the many stone implements used in Ats-
tralia, one finds (compare 5, 7 and &) that they range from crude, archaic-
type specimens of an almost “eolithic” aspect. through what may be con-
dered transitional stages, to more speciaiized and developed examples of
excellent workmanship, in fact such a series as one might expect to find
in a more-or-less self-contained industry. Tools occur in this Australian
aboriginal ensemble which are merely suitably-shaped blocks used along their
natural edges, with perhaps some rudimentary trimming, together with
roughly-flaked core implements, such as the “horse-hvof,” “karta,” and pebble
choppers, As a possible result of improved craftsmanship, flaked hifacial
tools are found of elliptical and cordiform shapes. A further step may be
the presence of flake tools culminating in the semi-discoidal “tula” adze-flake,
and a somewhat larger form known as the “arapia”. Related tu this advance
in technique, which required the preparation of the nucleus, may be certain
blade tools, such as the women’s knife and the excellent long quartzite knives
and points used by the men. Improvements in secondary working by the
employment of trimming by pressure produced the South Australian uniface
spearhead, called the “pirri,” which was apparently developed into a bifacial
form, examples of which have been manufactured during recent times of
bottle glass.

Trans, Roy. Soc. 5, Aust, 75, September 1952

2

A microlithic industry, comprising most of the established geometric
farms, but lacking the micro-burin, completes the Australian aboriginal’s
range in rough outline, A standardized hurin outfit is absent, but most
of the other tools and weapons of European Stone Age man from Palaeo-
lithic and Mesolithic horizons are represented, as recently pointed out by
the writer (9), and with these the Australian aboriginal examples comm-
pare favourably, Thus there would seem to be a fair indication that we have
in Australia a people who have employed the various stone-working tech-
niques to produce the many forms of implements used in Europe during a
period of roughly half a million years duration. Unless we assume (in spite
of the Jack of archaeological evidence of the necessary intervening routes of
diffusion) that the Australian aborigine acquired his methods of manufacture
and stone implement types from each one of the European Stune Age cul-
tures, by not one only, but by repeated culture contacts extending over many
thousands of years, the probability must be admitted that much of his stone-
craft has been independently developed. It may well be that being free to
fallow hig own bent in the practice of the crude stone-working technique,
with which he was apparently endowed when he entered Australia, he insti-
tated by his natural genius new methods of manufacture and improved forms
of implements to meet his changing reytiirements, and in this manner carry-
ing out the usual evolution of the stone industry: core and fake ——>
blade —— microlith.

Uutil recently edge-ground stotie axes were in use over part of the
eastern area of the Australian continent, but this technique, together with
the method of shaping by pecking, appears to be of a recent and limited
foreigu intreduction,

Turning to other items of the Australian aborigine'’s material culture,
as well as his social organization, certain traits, just as in the case of the
stone implements, will be fotind which reveal the presence of simple, possibly
proto-type, forms together with transitional varietics alongside the more
complex or developed aspects of the culture. For instance, the several types
of spear-thrower, spear-shafts, spear-heads, the simple thrawing-sticks, as
well as the vatious boomerang forms, different burial customs, initiation
ceremonies, body decoration, the various classificatory and marriage systems,
and the conception beliefs.

From another point of view there are certain items of Australian abor-
ginal culiure which appear to be exclusive {o it, as they are unknown as
standard farms in the rest of the world, such as the Aake-pick and hatchet
(kodj), and the fake-adze cum: spear-thrower, and stone tjuringas, In
addition, there are jeatures which are not found among any vf the tribes
inhabiting either the Adjacent islands or the mainland, These juclude
(a) a developed geometric microlith industry, (b) a knapping technique that
produced superb blades, (c) pressure-trimmed spear-heads, (d) mastic gum
hafting, (e) stone barbed spear-heads, (£) composite chipped saw-kniyes
(taap), (2) rock-engravings, and (h) subincision. These ail imply the definite
cultural independence of the Australian aboriginal. Furthermore, as Porteus
(10, pp. 245-246) has stated, certain aspects of Australian aboriginal culture
show a unity of pattern and form only appropriate to an inhospitable
environment, such as exists om the Australian continent. They seem quite
tinsuitable to the living conditians of people occupying islands of tromcal
luxuriance and extended seahnards, and hence are unlikely to have originated
among them. These traits include (a) the boomerang and the (b) spear-
thrower cum Aake-adze (Suited only for open country), (c) infanticide,
‘(d) totemie food taboos, (¢) advanced tracking technique, (f) severe jnitia-
tory rites, (g) certain marriage regulations (such as infan( betrothal), and

(h) absence of hereditary chieftainship. All these are peculiarly adapted to
the harsh living conditions, which have no counterpart on the islands imme-
diately adjacent to his homeland.

The absence from Australian aboriginal culture of garden cultivation
and domestication of animals (except the dingo), the lack of pottery, and
non-tise of the bow and arrow, which are all so characteristic of the cultures
of adjacent areas, including New Caledonia, may well he due to environ-
mental unsuitability, or on the other hand, to prolonged cultural isolation,
which the writer believes is inuch more probable.

This contention that much of his material culture is probably due to the
Australian aboriginal's own independent development receives sume support
from an analysis of Tasmatian culture traits. A comparison of these with
those found in Australia has shown many similarities. Dr. D. S$. Davidson
(1) has stated in his paper on “The Relationship of Tasmanian and Aus-
tralian Cultures” that “Tasmanian and Australian cultures not only are
characterised by a general similarity of pattern but fairly comparable traits
are most like old Australian traits,” and also “secondly cognizance should
be taken of the fact that there are no Tasmianiat traits of any importance
which do not also appear in Australia with one major exception, which has
puzzled so many writers—Tasmanian stone work.”

Shortly before the publication of Dr, Davidson's paper, Mr, N. B. Tindale
(11) had identified among a series of Tasmanian implements some examples
of the “horse-hoof,” “karta,’ and pebble-choppers typical of the non-flake
stone industry of Kangaroo Island (South Australia), and he further points
aut that the dingo is absent from both islands. Now this pebble industry has
been shown by Prof, H. L. Movius, Jr. (6) to date ultimately from Middle
Pleistocene times on the basis of evidence from yarious localities in South-
eastern Asia. Its oceurence in Australia and Tasmania implies not only a
considerable antiquity for the original immigrant Tasmanians, hut also a
northern origin.

ln 1943 Dr. T, D. Campbell and the writer (3) reported on the finding
of old camp-sites south-east of Adelaide, South Australia, which yielded
quantities of nosed scrapers (the most typical of Tasmanian implements),
as well as concave and squat end-scrapers of the same type as those produced
by the Tasmanians, In addition, the majority of these tools were mantiiac-
tured by a technique similar to that found in Tasmania, The major excep-
tion quoted by Dr, Davidson, therefore, no longer holds good, for we now
know that the stone-making industries of Australia and Tasmania have a
close analogy lo a certain extent, and furthermore that the apparent relation-
ship does not extend beyond a comparatively early developmental stage. It
is precisely this arrested development, or “lagging-behind” feature, which
Dr, Davidsan found to be frue in the case of his comparison of other culture
traits. Whereas the Australian aborigine further developed his lithic art
until he could produce fine blades and spear-heads trimmed by advanced
pressure-flaking technique. as well as delicate geometric microliths and
abrupt trimmed points, together with a wide variety of stone implement
types, the Tasmanians secm to have stagnated and not progressed beyond a
mediocre flake implement stage and a few standardized types. lt may be
said that the Tasmanians used one or two forms of implements which
resemble those of the Mausterian and Aurignacian cultures, but the Austra-
lian aborigine evolved types likc some in use during the Perigordian, Solu-
trean and Mesolithic times in Europe (compare Noone, 9). At most the
Tasmanians achieved what is little more than at elementary tool outfit
mainly comprising core, carinate and concave scrapers, a few chopping-toals,

4

some squat end-scrapers and borers, but their main standby—in fact their
dominant implement—was the nosed scraper.

In view of the above it seems highly probable that at some time in the
distant past, before contact with Tasmania was broken off, the Australian
shorigine had reached a stage of development in stone working which is
represented, more or less, by what we now regard as “Tasmanian”. If that
is so, then all the further advances which we find that the Australian abori-
gine has made in his lithic art beyond that stage are either due to subsequent
contacts with higher cultutes, or to his own independent efforts, It has been
shown above that several important items found in the Australian stone-
working industry are either exclusive or not found, as far as is now known,
among the peoples of the nearby islands. To this extent an independent
development seems to be definitely indicated.

Generalizing, the view may be advanced that there are fair grounds for
considering that whatever and whenever his early origin, the Australian
aborigine, as a result of his geographical isolation, and largely by his own
efforts, has differentiated himself [rom the outside world by successfully
accommodating his life to his own particularly harsh environment, and in
so doting has evolved a varied and efficient culture which includes many
traits {especially marked when the techniques employed in the manufacture
of stone tools is considered) that show parallel development with other
primitive Stone Age cultures of the world. Alternatively (and this docs not
seem at all likely) we are faced with the explanation that Australia is an
unique emporium and custodian of various primitive arts and customs
acquired, down through many ages, from all quarters of the globe.

REFERENCES

(1) Daymsox, D. S. 1937 The Relationship of Tasmanian and Australian Cultures. Publ.
Philadelphia Anth. Soe, 25th Anniv. Studies, 1, pp, 47-62

(2) Davison, D, S. 1938 North-Western Australia and the Question of Iniluence from
the East Indies. Jour. Amer. Orient, Soc., 58, No. 1, pp. 61-80

{3} Camruett, T. D., and Noons, H. V. V. 1943 Some Aboriginal Camp-sites in the
Woakwine Range Region of the South-East of South Australia. Rec. 5. Aust.
Mus., 7, No. 4, pp. 371-395

(4) Matony, D. J. 1943 The Problem of the Antiquity of Man in Australia. Mem. Nat.
Mus., Melbourne, No. 13, pp. 7-56

(5) McCarruy F. D., Brametr, E, und Noone, H. V. V. 1946 The Stone Implements of
Australia. Mem. Aust. Mus, Sydney, 9, pp. 1-94

(6) Movius H. L., Ir. 1944 Early Man and Pleistocene Stratigraphy in Southern and
Eastern Asia, Papers Peab, Mus, Harvard Univ,, 19, iti, pp. 1-125 (out of print).
See ralso: ficd, 1949 The Lower Palaeolithic Cultures of Southern and Hastertt
Asia. Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., 38 iv, pp. 329-420

(7) Noose, HV. V. 1943 Some Aboriginal Stone Lmplements of Western Australia,
Rec. 5S. Aust. Mus., 7, No. 3, pp. 271-280

(8) Noowe, H, V. V, 1943 Some Aspects of Aboriginal Stone Cultures, Mankind, 3,
No. 5, pp. 136-139

(9) Noone, H. V. V. 1949 Some Implements of the Australian Aborigines with European
Parallels. Man, 49, art. 146, pp, 111-114

(10) Porreus, S. D, 1931 The Psychology of a Primitive People—a Study of the Aus-
tralian Aborigine. New York and London, 438 pp.

(11) Trspace, N. B, 1937 Relationship of the Extinct Kangaroo Island Culture with
Cultures of Australia, ‘Tasmania and Malaya, Rec. S. Aust. Mus, 6, No. 1,
pp. 39-60

LAKE EYRE IN FLOOD, 1950 —- MUDS, SALTS, ETC

BY CHARLES FENNER

Summary

Lake Eyre lies in a great tectonic (probably Plesitocene) sag or downwarp in northern South
Australia. It has a vast catchment area of about 400,000 square miles, mostly arid to semi-arid. Now
and then, in the history of white occupation, there have been shallow pools of water brought down
by the endoreic streams from Queensland, South Australia, and Northern Territory. The shore line
is about 40 feet below sea level, and the depth of the lake, when full, appears to be something about
20 feet, making the bottom approximately 60 feet below sea level. But, with an evaporation of
nearly ten feet per year, these pools soon dry up, and for the most part “Lake” Eyre has been no
more than a vast playa or salt-pan, nearly 4, 000 square miles in extent.

5
LAKE EYRE IN FLOOD, 1950 — MUDS, SALTS, ETC
By Chances FENNER*
[Read 12 April 1951]

Lake Eyre lies in a great tectonic (probably Pleistocene) sag or down-
warp in northern South Australia. It has a vast catchment area of about
400,000 square miles, mostly arid to semi-arid. Now and then, in the history
of white occupation, there have been shallow pools of water brought down
by the endoreic streams from Queensland, South Australia, and Northern
Territory. The shore line is about 40 fect below sea level, and the depth of
the lake, when full, appears to be something about 20 feet, making the
bottom approximately 60 feet below sea level. But, with an evaporation of
nearly ten feet per year, these pools soon dry up, and for the most part
“Lake” Eyre has been no more than a vast playa or salt-pan, nearly 4,000
square miles in extent,

It naturally attracted little interest. Rut in 1949 and im the early winter
of 1950, as well as in later months of the same year, exceptional floods
occurred in the Cooper, Diamentina, Finke, Warburton, Macumba, Frome,
and other contributing streams, and the Lake became full of water for the
first time in recorded history, (over 100 years). This aroused the interest
of various enthusiastic young men, mostly of the HKrooks and Bonyihon
families, The area was visited by car, flown over by aeroplane, and boats
were launched for exploratory purposes.

In 1923 G. II. Halligan, of Sydney, flew over Lake Eyre, and noted well-
defined deltas at the mouths of the principal streams, tree-lile deltas as
pictured by Holmes (Walkabout, November 1950), A few months. luter
Halligan made an effort to effect a boat landing at the mouth of the Frome
River, but found the lake “dry as far as he could see.” In 1929, Dr. C. T.
Madigan flew over the “Jake,” but could detect no water, and put forward
his belief that the lake would never fill again.

Howchin mentions that despite its enormous evaporation each year of
almost 120 inches, Lake Eyre is not excessively salt as compared with other
internal basins stich as the Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea, but its exact
salinity was not then known. This fact, taken with the recent period of
fertility (plant and atiimal life of the later Diprotodon Age, Pleistocene to
Recent) suggests that Lake Eyre has been formed within comparatively
late geological times,

Warren Bonython and party have also visited the lake seyeral times. to make
records of evaporation, salinity, ete.

The purpose of this note is to describe four interesting specimens handed
to Mr, H. M. Hale (Director South Australian Museum) by Mr. H. G. Brooks
in July, 1930, as well as my own impressiotis of a flight over the lake in
October, 1950.

No. 1 was a sample of water irom 15 miles inside the lake. It was clear,
with a small amount of clay that settled as sediment. It is fresh to the taste
and is apparently characteristic Cooper Creek flood water. From the air
the salt-water parts of the lake appear as a beautiful green-blue colour; the
fresh-water portions are brown with mud. The whole outlook upon this rare
inJand sea was beautiful and impressive,

* South Australian Museum,
Trans. Roy- Suc. S. Aust., 74, September 1952

6

No, Z2 specimen was of some shore sands. These have been examined
under the lens and tested with acid, ete.; they are wholly of translucent
quartz, with an occasional fragment of black material, possibly ironstone,
(Plate i, fig. 2). All the grains were of fairly even size and equally waterworn
flattish and irregular in outline, The largest pieces are about 3 mm, in their
longest diameter, and the smallest range down to 1 mm. They closely
resemble in shape the material of a shingle beach, except that their size is
so small and their composition so regular, They suggest a fairly long historic
period of shore-line erosion.

No, 3 is the most interesting of the specimens, consisting af a handful
of wet plastic mud from the bottom vf the lake, which had stuck to the oars
of the boats used. When handed to the writer by Mr. [ale it had the can-
sistency of plasticene, but black and sticky. It was placed on a table in the
Museum, In a few weeks it had dried, and had developed an extraordinary
covering of long, transparent, twining hair-like crystals. These were photu-
graphed on 15/8/50.

In, order to obtain a better and unbroken specimen, the mud and erystals
were wetted and worked up to their original muddy appearance; this mud
was placed in a ring-like form in a glass dish on 17/8/50. In five days the
ficst signs appeared of short upright crystals growing from the crystalline
content that had been sealed up in the mud, In three weeks a rich crap of
shining transparent crystals had again appeared, These did not resemble
any known muneral, least of all the cubic crystals of sodium chloride, which
mineral was, of course, the one most to be expected,

Dr. 5. W. Pennycuick, of the University of Adelaide, kindly analyzed
a specimen, and proved it to consist of over 90% common salt, with a small
amount of sulphates.

Because of the extraordinary hair-like and twining habit of the crystals,
it was considered worth while having a second photograph taken and
recorded, which was done on 20/10/50, after about eight weeks drying.
During the period of growth the specimen was covered by a glass basin, and
was nut subjected to any air movement whatever, (Plate i, fig. 1). Current min-
eralogical text books describe salt (NaCl) as occurring in various forms:
cubic, granular, massive, columnar, éte., but not as twisting hair-like crystals.

Prof. Sir Edgeworth David had suggested that in the Pleistocene Ice
Age, when Tasmania and the Kosciusko areas were glaciated, “Lake Eyre
was probably about ten times as large as it is at present, and over 200 feet
deep, extending to beyond Lake Frome in the south-east and nearly to
Cordillo Downs on the north-easi.’ (Explanatory notes to a new geological
map of Australia: David, 1932).

During what may become an historic flood period, in October, 1950, when
north Lake Eyre was brimming full, and the Cooper, Diamentina, Alberga,
Mucumba, Finka, and cther endoreic rivers were Hooded, the writer was in
a plane which fiew at a low level over the lake and river mouths, thence
eastward till the eastern shores of Lake Frome were visible. A careful look-
eut was kept for possible lake terraces or structures of the ancient larger
Lake Eyre (“Lake Dicri"), but apart irom some suggestive “cliffs” nothing
definite was te be seen, A land search for these ancient terraces is desirable.

It is clear that there is great scientific interest in Lake Eyre, and it is
hoped that further information will steadily be collected, as is at present
being done by Messrs. H. G, Brooks, Elliott Price, Eric Bonython, and sthers
already mentioned, Lake Callabonna is adjacent to the Lake Eyre system,
and here, many years ago were found the remains of the giant marsupial

7

(Diprotodon), the giant flightless birds (Genyornis), turtles, crocodiles, lung-
fish, kangaroos, molluscs and other animals and plants that must but recently
have become extinct, It is hoped that further excursions, surface excavations,
and collections may soon be made from this mysterious and fascinating
region. It was to the generosity of the late Sir ‘Thomas Elder and the
scientific skill and persistence of Sir Edward Stirling and Mr. A. Zietz that
we owe the wonderful discoveries of over 50 years ago.

Before the period of post-glacial desiccation set in, forests with figs and
tree-ferns flourished at Fossil Creek, near Oodnadatta, and this was probably
the case elsewhere in that great depression. More remains of the giant
flightless bird, Genyornis newtoni, are much needed, for the specimens obtain-
ed have been few and much broken. They were collected over 50 years ago.
It is true also that we need more knowledge of the Liprotodan australis, sa
that we may be better able to picture the animal as it lived and moved;
at least four scientific efforts to reconstruct this animal have been made, and
each is very unlike the other; of all of them the reconstruction pictured by
C, H. Angas seems to be the most unlikely for an animal which, in a
relatively brief period, extended its domain over all Australia.

The salinity of the waters (sample 4) is alsa of interest. Mr. H. Brooks
brought in some salty water from far out in the lake, this was handed to me
on 26/10/30. A sample was sent to the Department of Mines for azalysis,
and this was done by Mr. T. W. Dalwood. I have compared it with the
salinity of the oceans,

The salinity of the oceans is remarkably constant, though there are
minor differences in the oceans and larger seas, The salinity is about 3°3%
to 3°7%. This diminishes towards the Poles; also it diminishes to a depth
of &800-1,000 fathoms, and thence increases towards the bottom of the ocean
beds; 2,311 to 2,616 grains per gallon.

The salts of Lake Eyre, as determined by Mr. Dalwood are:

Grains per gallon

Sodium chloride eh pel bake wy 2647°8
Calcium sulphate iad ae pr) Re 85°43
Magnesium sulphate 2.000... ee sees 28°86
Magnesium chloride .... peed wast wer, 19-34
Calcium carbonate x... cM mt oe 6°67

2788-10

Stated in another way, the figures are:
Grains per gallon

Chlorine ny weg (gaty aes wis 1620°5
Sodium = Qang — wie ne 1041-7
SO, radicle vive vas ang’ svad sen5 83°31
Calcium sess dele evi west nis 27-82
Magnesium Lins inp <A a whee 10°77
CO, radicle sa? eat Ge eas ea 4-00
2788-10

This gives us a salinity for Lake Fyre of 3-983% when in full flood,
which occurs at most once in 100 years. As the waters evaporate this will,
of course, rise towards 100% salinity, The salinity of the mtds is extra-
ordinarily high, as shown in earlier paragraphs, but thesé muds have not
been analysed.

8

Thus the salinity of the Lake Eyre samples, when in full flood, is
definitely greater than that of the oceans. This appears to be a matter of
extreme interest, and worthy of placing on record along with the account
of the muds, sands, etc. From the air the tree-like shapes of the deltaic
muds are noticeable, as recorded by Halligan. It may be a century before
further observations can be made of Lake Eyre in flood, so that these notes
appear worthy of record in scientific literature,

REFERENCES

(1) Davin, Sir T. W. Epceworta 1932 Explanatory Notes to a new Geological Map of the
Commonwealth of Australia. Sydney

(2) Mawson, Str Douctras 1950 Occurrence of Water in Lake Eyre, South Australia.
Nature, 166

(3) Hotmes, Coartes H. 1950 A Lake like an Inland Sea. “Walkabout,” Melbourne
(4) BonyrHon, Ertc 1950 By Boat down the Lower Cooper. “Walkabout,” Melbourne

Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Aust, 1952 Vol. 75, Plate

Fig. 1
The mass of hair-like salt crystals that developed
from a sample of Lake Eyre mud.

?

Fig. 2

The small shingle-like abraded quartz crystals
found along the shores of the lake,

THE DACETINE ANT GENUS MESOSTRUMA BROWN

BY WILLIAM L. BROWN, JR. (COMMUNICATED BY G. F’. GROSS)

Summary

The author described the characteristics of the genus Mesostruma and of M. laevigata n. sp. (from
the Victorian Mallee), and M. turneri (from the vicinity of Mackay, Queensland). The validity of
the species M. monstrosa Viehmeyer is also discussed.

THE DACETINE ANT GENUS MESOSTRUMA BROWN

By Witiram L. Brown, Jr.*
(Communicated by G, F, Gross)

[Read 12 April 1951]
Text Fig. 1, a-c

SUMMARY

The atithor describes the characteristics of the genus Mesostruma and of
M. laevigata n. sp (from the Victorian Mallee), and M, t#trnert (from the vicinity
of Mackay, Queensland), The validity of the species M. monstrosa Viehmeyer is
also discussed.

Mesostruma was erected in my preliminary revision (1948) to include
Epopostruma turneri Forel and an undescribed species sent by Mr. John Clark.
It is the purpose of the present paper to describe the essential features of Meso-
struma and of both included species.

\ ) YS
vas
AV ;

a. Mesostruma laevigata n.sp., small worker paratype, head, dorsal view,
b. same, lateral view of propodeal lamella and pediccl, c. M, turneri Forel,
worker cotype, lateral view of propodeal lamella and pedicel.

MesostrumMA Brown 1948

Mesostruma Brown 1948 Trans, Amer. Ent. Soc., 74, 118-119.

Epopostruma Forel 1895 Ann, Soc. Ent. Belg., 39, 424, as sub-genus of
Strumigenys, part. Emery 1897 Term. Fiizetek, 20, 573, part; idem
1922 Gen. Ins., Fasc. 174, 330, part.

Worker and female—With the general characteristics of the Epopostruma
complex, i.e. with large, dorsqlaterally placed compound eyes; broad tongue-
shaped labrum covering entirely the lesser mouthparts and biiccal aperture; palpal
segmentation, maxillary five, labial three. Antennal funiculus with five segments,
proportioned as in Epopostruma.

In generic characters intermediate between Epopostruma and Alistruma
Brown, especially the following: head shape, mandibular form, appendages of
petiole and postpetiole. Head with posterior excision less deep and lateral
occipital lobes less broadly expanded than in Epopostruma, but in both respects
less highly modified than in Altstruma, Mandibles not so elongate as in Epo-
postruma, with feebly concave external borders, the space between the shafts
proper and the middle (line of closure) filled in entirely with a semi-transparent

* Harvard University.
Trans, Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 75, September 1952

ib

lamina, this lamina with straight, culirate mesial (apical) margin and straizht
horizontal basal margin, these two margins meeting at the apex of the oblique,
spiniform basal tooth, The basal tooth is similar to that of Epopastrima ii Form
and position, but is entirely enclosed in the aforementioned lamina, through which
it is clearly visible. The dentition of the apical border restricted to the stout acute
apical tooth and a smaller subapical tooth dorsal to the apical and apparently
tepresenting the reduced dorsal tooth of the apical fork as seen in Epopostruma.
Alitrunk much as in 4listruma, with or without subdentiform humeri; propodeal
lamellae well developed, upper part without well defined internal tooth, Petinle
with weakly defined peduncle, well developer node, and without lateral teath or
processes of any kind, Postpetiole transverse, with broad, flat, winglike lateral
lamellate expansions resembling those of Microdaceton Santschi from the Ethio-
pian region,

Sculpture much like that of Epopostruma, the dorsum of the head and often
other parts of the body with spaced circular foveolae or fossettes, each tubercilate
and bearing a much reduced, scarcely detectable hair. These foveolae are smaller
and more numerous than in Efopostruma, Pilosity appressed or subappressed,
resembling a very dilute pubescence. Colour varying shades and combinations af
ferrugineous, but much darker colouration, may easily exist in members of this
genus as yet unknown.

Male unknown.

diate te Sirumigenys (Epopostrumd) turnert Forel, designated by Brown,
1948.

Mesostruma turneri and M, laevigata spp, nov. are quite distinct from each
other, bul preserve the essential generic characters in unequivocal form. The
genus 3s uf great interest in its clearcut intermediate phylogentic position, connect-
ing Epopostrume, with strumigeniform head and mandibles, to Alistrima, which
has the head and mandible form, as well as other striking characters of a con-
vefgent mature, similar to those of Smithistruma. It now seems clear that
Epopostruma, Hexadaceten Brown and the Ethiopian Micredaceton are the
primitive members of the Epopostruma complex, since the general head form and
gnathal apparatus which I call “'strumigeniform” occurs in all four recent dacetine
lines (subtribes} or complexes; it is the only one known in the Orectagnathus
complex (Arestognathiti?) and the Daceton complex (Dacetiti), of which the
latter group is to be regarded as the most primitive surviving dacetine line on the
basis of obvious characters.

Amony the Epopostrumiti, the genus Alstruma occupies a central position in
the derived half of the subtribe haying triangular mandibles with serially denticu-
late apical margins and alifort expansions of both petiole and postpetiole.
Colobestruma Wheeler and Clarkistruma Brown are aberrant derivatives of
Alistrwma, as ig evident From their structure, Mesostruma therefore appears to
link the “higher” and “lower” halves of the subtribe. Disregarding the extra-
Australasian Micredaceton, we see a truly remarkable series of “step genera”
among the living epopostrumites, All of these steps are existing today in Aus-
tralia and New Guinea (the latter region supports one species of Altstruma as

©) The four recett and one fossil complexes within the tribe Dacetini may be
treated as subtribes. I prefer to use the suffix “ati* rather than “-jna’ because the latter ts
foo much like a great mary (nominative singular) generic name endings, The suffix here
used is extremely rare aS a termination for generic names, and has the further advantage of
differing from the vernacular expressions used for taxonomic groups in all common languages
employed in the modern literahire. The subtribal names m the Dacetini, with their type genera
in parentheses, are as follows: Dacetiti (Daceton); Orectognathiti (Orectognathus) ; Epo-
postrumiti (Epopostruma) ; Strnmigenitt (Strumgenys) ; Hypopomyrmiciti (A ypopomyrmer).
All of these subtribal names are here proposed for the first time.

il

so far known), and there is no reason to accept them as other than the actual
surviving stages in the evolution of the group. This evolution is al] the more
remarkable when one considers its trend. The most derivative of the genera,
Clarkistruma, is remarkably convergent in structure, habits and habitat to Smfhr-
struma Brown, a genus derived from Strwemigenys-like ancestors which is par-
ticularly well developed in the warmer parts af the North Temperate Zone.
Smithistruma is absent from Australia so far as is known; it has reached certain
mountainous regions of western New Guinea, but has not yet been found on the
eastern half of that island, in spite of some very thorough dacetine collecting by
Biré and others, One is tempted iu draw the conclusion that the elongation of
the head, shortening of the mandibles, and development of the extraordinary
aliform structures of the pedicel, which are in many respects similar to the
spongiform appendages su well developed m Smithistruma of cooler regions, are
all modifications which have developed in response to the stimulation of an unfilled
ecological niche, That the short-mandibulate forms are best developed and most
numerous in species and individuals in the cooler parts of Australia and Tasmania
certainly is a fact, and one strengthening the belief that these species were
developed to meet the challenge of the same sort of opportunity which led to the
evolution of SmtlAtstruma.

Several stocks of the apparently more efficiently competing Strumigeniti have
reached Australia from the direction of New Guinea, but it is evident that these
migrants have come into the continent relatively recently, for they have failed
in all cases to produce forms sufficiently different to merit recognition of even
separate species-groups from those known in the Indo-Papuan region, and the
total number of species is few. Strumigenys perplexa (Fred. Smith) is the only
strumigenite known to have reached Victoria and Tasmania, and this species
is an cficient tramp through commerce. Had S!rumigenys artived earlier in
Australia, the evolution of the epopostrumites would probably have taken a very
different course. As it is, the Epopastrumiti present one of the most perfect
living evolutionary series imaginable, with Hexedecton near the base and
Clorkistruma at the apex. The latter genus has strongly fused second, third
and fourth funiculat segments, a condition also found in some strumigenite
genera, particularly the probably recently evolved Miccosiruma of the Ethiopian
region.

Mesostruma, to teturn to the original subject of this paper, is a rare atid
little-known group. Both laevigata and turnert are known only from the type
callections, and neither collection was accompanied by ecological data. Laegate
cettainly, and ¢urneri probably, were taken in yather dry, warm areas, where
probably they were found under stones or logs, Since both Epopostruma and
Alistruma are predatory upon Collembola (Brown, unpublished notes), it seems
prciaile that Mesostruma also follows this very deep-seated dacetine mode of
iving.

MrsostrumMa TURNER? (Forel)
(Text fig. 1, c)
Strumigenys (Eeepneirama) turneri Forel, 1895, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., 39, 424,
worker.
Epopastruma turneri Emery 1922, Gen. Ins., Fase, 174, 330,
Mesostruma turnaeri Brown, 1948, Trans, Amer. Ent. Soc., 74, 119,

Worker—A cotype sent by Mr. Clark measured 3-0 mm. in synthetic aggre-

gate length (TL-). Head length (HT) 0°76 mmm.; mandibular extension (ML)

() Measurements. and ifidices used here are essentially as in my other papers on
the dacetine ants. For explanations, see Mushi, xx, 2 (1949), A much more thorough
explanation will appear in a forthcoming article soan to be published im the Atnerican
Midland Naturalist;

12

0-34 mm.; maximum measurable length of alitrunk (WL) 0-84 mm: cephalic
index (CI) 100; mandibulo-cephalic index (MI) 45. A second cotype sent by
Mr. I. Donisthorpe from the British Museum had an IIL of 0°80 mm.; MI 43,
CI 98. Two or three other cotypes seen in Australian museums were close to
these in size and proportions, but were not actually meastired. Sufficient material
is nut available for me to say much about the degree of polymorphism it the
worker caste of this species,

Distinguished by the broad, convex head, with very convex, protruding eyes,
Humeri broadly and evenly rounded, without traces of angulation or dentation.
Propodeal lamellae and petiole as in fig. 1c. Body in general rather opaqvely
sculptured, with spaces between foveolae mostly minutely teticulate, coriaceous
or subgranulose; segment I of gaster with dorsum finely striate longitudinally
and suhopaque for more than the basal half of its length, Head ferrugineons in
colour, darker than the rest of the body, which is ferrugineous yellow, gastric
segment I dorsally lighter yellow.

Female and male unknown to me.

Type locahty—Mackay, Queensland (Gilbert Turner, May 1894). Catypes
in the Fore] Collection, British Museum (Natural History), J. Clark collection,
and in several of the larger Australian museums, The locality near Mackay,
Where Turner probably collected this ant, is now apparently under cultivation,
Originally, it was more than likely dry, low woodland like that covering most
of the coastal strap of Queensland.

Mesestruma laevigata, n. sp_
(Text fig. 1,a,b}

Worker—Holotype and 14 paratypes. Weakly polymorphic, TL 2-9 to
42 mm.; HL 0°66 to 0°89 mm.; WL 0:72 to 1-12 mm.; Cl 85 (smaller indi-
viduals) to 93 (larger individuals); MI 37 to 44 (70% of individuals 39 to 41,
mean 40, no correlation between MI and HL or €1). Present series, irom a single
nest, too small and so not suitable for statistical analysis, but shows slight ten-
dency loward division into large, broad-headed and small, narrow-headed castes.

Head shape as in fig, la; narrower than in turneri, with larger but only
weakly convex eyes. Humeral angles acutely subdentate. Propodeal lamellae
as in figure, the upper and lower angles varying slightly in prominence; trans~
lucent, without distinct trace of solid tooth in upper angle. Petiole narrower and
relatively less massive than that of turner’; posterior descending face of node
weakly or not at all convex seen in profile,

Body over-all much more smooth and shining than in furneri, with the
spaces between the foveolae, especially on the thorax, petiole and postpetiole wider
ant smooth and polished for the most part. Gastric dorsum smooth and shining,
with a few minute, indistinct vestiges of Jongitudinal costulae or striae in the
articular groove between postpetiole and gaster. Colour medium ferrugineous
yellow, gaster lighter, clear honey-yellow.

Female—Gynetype and one paragynetype, TL 4:7, 5-4 mm; IIL 0-92,
0-93 mm.; WL 1:36, 1;40 mm.; CI 91, 93; MI 37, 39. Dealate. Differing only
in the usual features of full sexuality from the workers.

Type locality—Sea Lake, Victoria (J. C. Goudie). Sea Lake is in north-
western Victoria, in the dry Mallee District. Dominant vegetation in this region
is the shrubby mallee (£ucalyptus dumosa and related forms), but I have no
information as to the precise type of nest site.

The holotype and gynetype, pith paratypes, returned to Mr. John Clark, jor
eventual placement in the Comunonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research

13

Organization collection at Canberra; paratypes also in the collections of the
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, the U.S. National
Museum, the South Australian Museum, and elsewhere,

? MEsOSTRUMA MONSTROSA

Mesostruma monsirosa Viehmeyer wicertae sedis Epopostruma monstrasa
Viehmeyer, 1925, Ent. Mitt. 14, 30-31, female?

? Mesostruma monstrosau Brown, 1948, Trans, Amer. Ent. Soc, 74, 119.
gynandromorph?

This species was described from a speciinen showing right-left asymmetry
of the mandibles; from the somewhat vague details given, one would assume it
to be a gynandromorph. Viehmeyer conrpared it with furnert and with Epo-
postruma quadvispinosa Forel. Adapted extracts from the original description:

“Length 4°5 mm. Reddish-brown, gaster dark brown, Mandibles basically
as in furneri, with the same basal tooth. Right shorter, a bit broader than the
left, and with a more convex (mehr gebogen) outer border. The left with two
quite similar acute teeth at least three times as long as broad. The right has only
the under one similarly formed; the upper one is only a short, truncate piece (as
in Odentomachus) in appeafance.”

“Head longer and more slender than in twrmeri, more deeply excised behind.”

Viehmeyer mentioned that the closest form is E. quadrispinosa, and the de-
scription of the left mandible, especially the (apical?) teeth, seems to bear this out.
However, the description as a whole is confused and vague and seems to show
that the author had no clear idea of either of the two species against which com-
parison was made, This form can only be considered hopelessly uncertainly
placed until it is critically re-examined by a competent worker. The locality
given is Trial Bay, but Mr. Clark (im litt.) questions the accuracy of this and
other Australian locality citations of Viehmeyer, After having dealt with this
and other examples of Viehmeyer’s systematic publication, { am inclined to the
opinion that not only the genus and type locality are to be questioned, but perhaps
even the tribal placement in the Dacctini. It is unfortiinate that this apparently
abnormal specimen was ever fotmally named.

Key for the separation of the two adequately known Mesostruma species,
based on the workers.

Humeri acutely stbdentate; gaster largely smooth and shining (Vic- ,
torian Mallee) .... ree Ne ale ith wis ease an ... laevigata 1. sp.
Humeri gently rounded; gaster finely longitudinally striate over the basal
half or more of the dorsum of segment I (vicinity of Mackay,
Queensland) =... Gon ey “hi bees ata iia aid wa. turneri (Forel)

REFERENCES CITED
Brown, W. L. 1948 A preliminary generic revision of the higher Dacetini
(Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 74, 101-129, figs.

TWO UNDESCRIBED AUSTRALIAN GASTEROMYCETES
BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM (COMMUNICATED BY J. B. CLELAND)

Summary

Hymenogaster effodiendus n. sp. Peridium pyriforme, basi brevibus radicibus ad. Substratum
adjunctum, nodoso-areolatum, viriditate flavum, siccitate brunneo-rubrum, a 600 p crassum, duobus
Stratis, interiore parte pseudoparenchymatosa, 30-70 u crassa, brunnea, exteriore hyphis in radiis
laxo ordinatis et in matrice crassa et glutinosa sitis. Gleba pallide ferruginea, cellulis ellipticis, ad
0.5 mm. longis, a latere compressis, vacuis, lamellis tramae 90-150 u crassis, hyphis hyalinis
intextis, basidiis 2-4 sporis. Sporae globosae aliquot subglobosae, 9-12 u diam, endospora fusca, | p
crassa, epispora fusca, glutinosa, 1.5 u crassa, fortiter areolata et opaca, tecta.

14
TWO UNDESCRIBED AUSTRALIAN GASTEROMYCETES

G. H, Cunninouam*
(Communicated by J. B. Cleland)

[Read 10 May 1951]

Hymenogaster effodiendus n. sp.

*Peridium pyriforme, basi brevibus radicibus ad substratum adjunctum,
nodoso-areolatum, viriditate flavum, siccitate brunneo-rubrum, a 600 crasstum,
duobus stratis, interiore parte pseudoparenchymatosa, 30-70 crassa, bruntiea,
exteriore hyphis in radiis laxo ordinatis et in matrice crassa et glutinosa sitis,
Gleba pallide ferruginea, cellulis ellipticis, ad 05 mm. longis, a latere compressis,
yacuis, lamellis tramae 90-150 » crassis, hyphis hyalinis intextis, basidiis 2-4 sporis.
Sporae globosae aliquot subglobosae, 9-12 diam., endospora fusea, 1 u. crassa,
epispora fusca, glutinosa, 1-5 » crassa, fortiter areolata et opaca, tecta.

Plants pyriform, 5-7 mm. tall, 4-5 mm. diameter, attached by a short rooting
base 1-2 mm. long. Peridium nodose-areolate, when fresh bright yellow, drying
reddish-brown, to 600 @ thick, probably viscid when fresh; of two layers, att inner
natrow zone of pseudoparenchyma, 30-70, thick, with hyphal cells coloured
brown, the outer of loose hyphae radially arranged and embedded in a thick
gelatinous matrix. Gleba pallid ferruginots, with a large sterile basal part, fitm,
cells elliptical, laterally compressed, to 0-5 mm. long, empty ; tramal plates 90-150
thick, of woven partly gelatinized hyphae, hyaline, slightly scissile; basidia
2-4 spored. Spores globose, a few subglobose, 9-12 » diameter, or 10-12 x 9-11 ,,
shortly pedicelled, epispore fuscus, 1 thick, covered with a gelatinous fuscus
epispore 15 » thick and strongly ateolate, opaque.

Aabitat—Buried 35-50 mm. in peaty soil.

Distribution—Victoria. Glenelg River, June 1950, H. H. Finlayson,

Plants were collected upon the surface of the ground, being dug up from
their place of origin 1-5-2 in. beneath the surface by small marsupials. In its
double peridium, particularly the structure of the exterior layer, the species
resembles. Hymenogaster visctdus (Mass. and Rodw.) Dodge and Zell, It differs
in the small size and different shape of the peridium, and globose almost opaque
smaller pores.

Secotium fragariosum n. sp.

‘ Peridium pyriforme, 8-12 x 6-12 mm., colore fragorum, tenuiter tubercu-
losum, obscuratum, hyphis intextis, siccitate brunneo-rubrum, 466-600 » crassum,
Stipes pallide luteus, 5-10x 0-5-1 mm.,, aequalis, fibrillosus, cavus. Gleba cellu-
losa, pallide ferruiginea, Jamellis tramae 25-75 » crassis. Sporae ellipticae, rotundis
capitibus, 15-19 x 10-13 p», epispora hyalina, levi, 1-5» erassa-

Peridium pyriform, 8-12 mm. tall, 6-12 mm. diameter, apex rounded, base
truncate, excavated, or decurrent, exteriorly strawberry-colour, finely tuberculose,
dull, drying reddish-brown, 400-600 % thick when dry, warts to 150, tall and
broad, of densely woven mainly parallel partly gelatinized hyphae, in section bay-
brown, shining and appearing cartilaginous, with pigment granules on walls of
the outer hyphae. Stem light yellow, 5-10x 0-5-1 mm., fibrillose, equal, hollow;

* Plant Diseases Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
Auckland, New Zealand,

©) IT am grateful ta Miss B. Hooton, Librarian of this Division, for preparing
Latin diagnoses,
Trans, Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 75, September 1952

15

columella free from the gleba save at the apex. Gleba cellular, pallid ferruginous
cells elongate-elliptical, laterally compressed, numerous, to 2 mm. long; tramal
plates 27-75 » thick, of woven mainly parallel hyphae, not scissile. Spores elliptical
with rounded ends, with or without a brief pedicel, 15-19 x 10-13, epispore
hyaline, smooth, 1:5 p thick.

Habitat—Growing solitary on the ground amongst grass.

Distribution—Norfolk Island. Cascade Bay, September 1947, W. Cottier.

Specimens were collected growing amongst grass under forest trees and in
appearance when fresh closely resembled in colour and shape fruits of wild
strawberry. The species shows a general resemblance to small specimens of
S. erythrocephalum Tul., differing in the roughened peridium, colour, and thick-
walled spores,

AUSTRALIAN ACANTHOCEPHALA, NO. 9

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND S. J. EDMONDS

Summary

. An account is given of the larval stage of Corynosoma clavatum Goss from the mesentery of
a fish, Platycephalus fuscus, South Australia.

. Micracanthocephalus hemirhamphi Baylis is recorded from a South Australian garfish,
Hemirhamphus intermedius.

. Moniliformis semoni (Linstow) is described from eastern Australian bandicoots, Isoodon
torosus, I. obesulus and Perameles nasuta.

. The large acanthocephalan recorded from introduced species of Rattus in Australia is
regarded as Moniliformis dubius Meyer.

16
AUSTRALIAN ACANTHOCEPHALA, No. 9

By T. Harvey Jonnston and S. J. Enmonps *
[Read 10 May 1951]

SUMMARY

1. An account is given of the larval stage of Corynasoma clavatum Goss from
the mesentery of a fish, Platycephalus fuscus, South Australia.

2, Micracanthocephalus hemirhamphi Baylis is recorded from a South Australian
garfish, Hemirhamphus intermedius.

3, Moniliformis semoni (Linstow) is described from eastern Australian bandi-
coots, [soodam torosus, I, obesulus and Perameles nasuta.

4. The large acanthocephalan recorded from introduced species of Raftus in

Australia is regarded as Moniliformis dubtus Meyer.

We are indebted to Dr. E. A. Derrick, Institute of Medical Research, Bris-
bane, for material from bandiconts, Jsooden foresus, and from rats from south-
eastern Queensland. The remainder was collected by the senior author. Mr.
W. A. Rainbow, Australian Museum, Sydney, kindly sent us a photograph of
Linstow’s figures of Moniliformis semoni. Al measurements given in this paper,
unless otherwise stated, ate for worms cleared in methyl salicylate. Specimens
of the parasites have been deposited in the South Australian Museum.

CoryNosoma cLAVATUM Goss (encysted), Platycephalus fuscus, St. Vincent
Gulf, S. Aust.

MICRACANTHOCEPHALUS HuMIRUAMPHI Baylis. Hetmiriiumphus intermedius,
Port Willunga, S. Aust.,

MoniLirorMis semMont (Linstow), Jseodon obesulus, Sydney, N.S.W.; Lsoedon
torosus, S.E. Old; Perameles nusuta, Gostord, N.S.W..

Mowtuirormtis nuprus Meyer. Rattus vatius, Brisbane, Sydney; Rattus norvegi-
cus, Brisbane, Sydney.

CorYNOSOMA CLAVATUM Goss. Fig. 1-3

About twelve larval specimens of Corynosoma clavatiusm Goss (1940) were
found attached to the mesentery of a flathead, Plalycephalus fuscus, caught in
St. Vincent Gulf, South Australia, in November 1933. The worms were removed
in the encysted form from the fish and the proboscis of all became wholly or
partly everted when the organisms were placed in fresh water. Some of the
parasites came completely out of their cyst walls. We have had to rely on the
size and spination of the proboscis for our identification of the specimens.

The length of the proboscis is 0°69-0°75 mm. and its maximum width is
0:30-0'32 mm. It is armed with 16 rows, each of 10 hooks. The anterior six
hooks of each row are larger and bear rooting processes. The size and shape
of some of them is shown in fig. 3. ‘The proboscis sheath is double-walled and
about 1:0 mm. long.

Thete is a neck, 0:59-0°70 mm, long and 0-22-0°51 mm. wide at its base.
The length of the body of the parasites (measured from the base of the neck)
is 2°1-2°6 mm.; and the maximum width is 1-0-I1-5 mm, The anterior portion
of the body bears numerous sinall spines. The genital aperture of the completely
freed worms is surrounded by a few very small spines.

* University of Adelaide.
‘Trans, Roy, Soc, S, Aust., 75, September 1952

1?

C. clavatum has now been reported from a number of hosts in Australia.
The adult form was described by Goss (1940) from shags, Phalacrocorax varius,
P. melanoleucus and P. ater from Western Australia. In South Australia the
adult has been reported by Johnston and Best (1942) from P, varius and from a
seal, Gypsophoca dorifera,

Fig. 1-3—Corynosoma clavatum: 1, proboscis of larva; 2, larva; 3, some proboscis

hooks. Fig. 4-7—Micracanthocephalus hemirhamphi: 4, body of male; 5, proboscis

6, posterior region of female; 7, eggs. Fig. 8-9—Moniliformis dubius: 8, proboscis;
; 9, eggs.

MICRACANTHOCEPHALUS HEMIRHAMPHI Baylis. Fig. 47
One male and two female specimens of this parasite were found in the
intestine of a garfish, Hemirhamphus intermedius, caught at Port Willunga, South
Australia, in March 1934, The proboscis of only one specimen, a female, was
in a sufficiently satisfactory condition for measuring.
The male specimen is slightly flattened. The length of the body is 2'8 mm.
and its maximum width 0°35 mm. The proboscis sac is 0°7 mm. long. Two

18

testes, arranged in tandem, may overlap each other but not the proboscis sac.
The cement glands are pressed closely together and we have been unable to deter-
mune their number. The genital aperture is subterminal. There are (wo lemnisct,
each a little larger than the proboscis sac. The anterior region of the body bear
about 14 or 15 transverse rows of spines

The body length of the females is 4-04-9 mm. and the maximum width
0-44-0°70 mm, The proboscis, 0°57 mm, long and 0°20 mm. wide, is bent almost
at right angles to the body. It is armed with 12 rows of 11 hooks per row
(fig. 5), The proboscis sac is 0°70 mm. long and its width is 0-11 mm. In both
female specimens there is a finger-like appendage near the genital aperture, The
posterior region of the body of our specimen is not sharply bent so as to form
a hook as reported by Baylis. The genital aperture is lateral rather than sub-
terminal, Ellipsoidal eggs are 58-60 » long and 18-20» wide.

Macracanthocsphalus hemirhamphi was described by Baylis (1944) from
the same host species, Hemirhamphus intermedius, from Otago, New Zealand.

Monitirormis semMon! (Linstow). Fig. 10-17
Matiy specimens of this species. from bartidicoots, Iscodon torosus, from
Woombye, Nambour and Cowan Cowan, south-eastern Queensland, were sent
to us for identification by Dr. E. H. Derrick,

The parasites are long and either cylindrical or somewhat flattened, The
body shows external pseudo-segmentation and at first sight looks like that of a
cestode. The width of the worm gradually increases tewards the posterior region
and in the male is greatest in the region of the testes. The length of the male is
46-48 em.; that of the female 10°4-14-0 em, The maximum width of the ‘male
is 2°0 tm., and of the female 1-9 cm.

The small flask-shaped proboscis cofisists of an armed portion, 0-46-0-56 mm.
long, and a short unarmed portion, 0:15-0:17 mm. long. The width of the pro-
boscis anteriorly is 0-26-0°30 mm., and posteriorly G-17-0-22 mm. It seems most
likely therefore that the length of the organ given by Linstow, wiz., O°7 mm., is
that of the combined Jength of the armed and warmed portions, How to describe
the arrungement of the proboscis hooks has proved difficult. There are 12 rows
of hooks, each row consisting of three larger anterior hooks arranged longi-
tudinally and provided with strong rooting processes, followed by 10-12 smaller
and more slender hooks arranged spirally, 1e., there ate 12 rows of ahout 13-15
hooks per row. In some rows the posterior hooks are arranged somewhat irregu-
larly, Janstow described the species as possessing 21 transverse rows each of
6 hooks, and Meyer has suggested 12 rows of 10-11 hooks, Neither of these
descriptions secms to us to be satisfactory. The number of hooks is greater than
that given by these two workers.

The maximum length of the double-walled proboscis sheath ts 1:2 mm, and
its maximum width 0-4 mm. An elliptical ganglion is siluated at its base. There
are two long coiled lemnisci, The body wall is thick and appears to contain only
one collecting vessel in the lacunar system,

Two elliptical testes of approximately equal size are situated in the posterior
region of the male, Their maximum length ts 3-8 mm. and width 14mm. The
cement glands are elliptical or flask-shaped and are closely packed together. In
two specimens they ovetlap the posteriar testis, but this may have occurred during
fixation, The glands in our specimens are so tightly pressed together that we
were unable io determine directly their number. The ducts from the cement
glands, however, do not fuse but run separately to the bursa. In some males the

19

posterior region is flexed and flattened at about the level of the cement glands.
Saefftigen’s pouch is about 1-7 mm. long, There are well-developed penis and
bursa, The genital aperture is terminal.

The female genitalia, consisting of uterus and vagina, are about 1:0 mm.
long in the adult. The vagina is a short, stout structure. Eggs mounted in Canada
balsaim are 70-80 » long and 32-36 » wide.

WKS

1

“mk $+

ihe eee

“uw TO

MN if
GF
Fig, 10-17—Moniliformis semoniz 10, anterior region; 11 some proboscis hooks;
12, adult male; 13, adult female; 14, proboscis; 15, posterior region of male; 16, T.S,
through cement ducts; 17, T_S. through proboscis sac. Fig. 12 and 13 are drawn
to same scale.

Osun

Systematic position

This species was described as Echinorhynchus (Gigantorhynchus) semoni
by Linstow (1898, 469-471), from Perameles obesulus from the Upper Burnett
River region in south-eastern Queensland. Porta (1908) and Johnston (1909,
521) transferred it to Gigantorhynchus, the latter recording the parasite from

20

the samme host species, Isoodon obesulius, from Sydney. Juhnston (1911, 50;
1910, xvii) also reported the presence of Gigantorhynchus sp. (?G. semont) in
Perameles nasiuta from Gosford, New South Wales; and Gigantorhynchus sp. in
Phascogale penicillata in New South Wales (1910, xvii; 1911, 50), The material
from #. nasuta belongs to M. semoni and that from Phascogale probably belonged
to the same species. Travassos (1917, 25) transferred the species to Prosthe-
worchis, Johnston and Deland (1929, 146) left it under Gigantorhynchus, Meyer
(1932) placed it in an appendix ta the Moniliformidae. We consider that the
species belongs to Moniliformis.

Montuirormis punivs Meyer. Fig, 8-9

About 25 specimens of an echinarhynch identified hy us as Moniliformuis
dubius Meyer 1932 were examined. The material was collected [rom Rattus
rettus and Jt, norvegtens by Dr. Derrick from Brisbane and by the senior author
from vats at Brisbane and Syduey. We were unable to notice any significant
difference between the material {rom the different hosts,

The worms are long and usually moniliform. The length of the males is
2-8-4-2 cm., and of the females 2-0-16°4 em, The maximum width of the male
is about 1:3 mm., and of the female 2°3 mm., excluding the flattened specimens,
The proboscis of most specimens is almost cylindrical, but in a few specimens it
is rather club-shaped. Jt varies rather considerably in length, being O°42-0:53 mm.
long, and consisting of an armed portion 0-36-@:48 mm, in length and a small
unarmed portion 0°03-0-07 mm. long. Its maximum width is 0°17-0-19 mm.
The proboscis is armed with 12 longitudinal rows of hooks, 10-11 hooks per raw.
The size, shape and atrangement of these hooks is shown in fig. 8,

The proboscis sheath is sac-like, about 0-7 mm. long and bears spiral stria-
tions. The lemnisci may be 3°5 mim, in Jength. Two testes, 1-7-2°5 mm. long
aiid 0-40-0-65 mm. wide, lie in the posterior region of the male. ‘The cement
glands are pressed closely together and the male genital aperture is terminal. Van
Cleave (1924), when describing the eggs of his @, moniliformis, which according
to Meyer (1932) and Chandler (1941) is synonymous with M. dubiws, says:
“The outer embryonic membrance is not a firm, highly resistant shell, such as. is
found in mast species of Acanthocephala, On the contrary, it is rather delicate
and subject to much distortion." This describes exactly the condition noticed
in the eggs of most of our specimens. The outer membrane is 109-]18 p long
and 46-57 » wide. Within this membrane lies a thicker elliptical shell, 76-84 4
Jong and H-MGS py, wide,

After studying a large number of moniliform Acanthocephala collected From
rats in different parts of the world, Van Cleave (1924) came to the conclusion
that ihe material which he had examined was identical with that of M_ mwuails-
formis (Bremser 1811), He redescribed the species and extended the range of
measurements of some organs.

Meyer (1932) tecognised three closely-related species of moniliform
Acanthocephala from rodents: —(1) M. moniliformis (Bremser 1811); (2)
M, dubius (syn. Monilifarmis sp. Chandler 1921; and M. moniliformis Van
Cleave 1924); and (3) M. travassasi (syn. M. moniltifornis Travassos 1917), In
addition he admitted three geographical variations within the species MZ. monili-
formis (Bremser),

Chandler (1941) considered that his Mouiliformis sp, {rom the Texas rat
was sylionymous with M_ dubins Meyer 1932, i.¢., that the name dufins was valid.
He went on to say thnt in bis opinion M, trovossosi Meyer 1932 was synonymous
with M, dubites.

21

Our study of a limited number of specimens, unfortunately, docs not help
much towards solving the problem of the number of valid species. The dimen-
sions of the proboscis of our specimens lie between those of M. moniliformis
(Bremser) and M. dubius Meyer. As the number and arrangement of the pro-
boscis hooks and the size and shape of the eggs of our specimens are similar to
those of M, dubius, we have placed our parasites under M, dubius. The parasite
recorded as Hormorhynchus moniliformis by one of us from rats in Sydney, Bris-
bane and North Queensland (Johnston 1909; 1912; 1913; 1918) is also M. dubins.

REFERENCES

Bayuts, H. A. 1944 Three new Acanthocephala from marine fishes of Australasia, Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 11, 11, 462-472

Cuanpier, A, C, 1921 Notes on the occurrence of Moniliformis sp. in rats in Texas.
Jour. Parasit.,-7, 179-183

EAM in 1941 Specific Siatus of Moniliformis of Texas Rats. Jour, Parasit, 27,

Goss, O, 1940 Platyhelminth and Acanthocephalan parasites of local shags. Jour, Roy Soe.
W. Aust. 26, 1-13

Jonnston, T. H. 1910 Exhibits (of entozoa), Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 44, Abstr, p. xvii
N.S.W., 34, 514-523

Jounstox, T. H. 1910 Exhibits (of enozoa). Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 44, Abstr. p. xvii

Jounston, T. H. 1911 The entozoa of Monotremata and Australian Marsupialia, II. P.L.S,,
N.S.W., 36, 47-57

Jounston, T. H. 1912 Notes on some entozoa. Proc. Roy. Soc, Old., 24, 17-22

Jounston, T. H. 1918 Notes of certain entozoa of rats and mice, ete. Proc. Roy. Soc.
Qld., 30, 53-78

Jounston, T, H., and Drrann, E. W. 1929 Australian Acanthocephala, No. 1, Trans.
Roy, Soc. S. Atist., 53, 146-154 :

Jounston, T, H, and Best, E. W. 1942 Australian Acanthocephala, No. 3. Trans. Roy,
Soc. S. Awst., 66, 250-254

Linstow, QO. vow 1898 Nemathelminthen, ete. In Semon’s Zoologische Forschungsreisen in
Australien, Bd. 5, 469-471

Meyer, A. 1932 Acanthocephala. Bronn'’s Klassen and Ordmimgen des Tierreichs, Bd. 4,
2 Abt., 2 Buch, 221-233

Travassos, L. 1917 Contribuicoes, etc. Revisao dos acantocefalos brasilieros, TI. Mem. Inst;
Osw. Cruz, 9, 5-62

Vaw Curave, 11. J. 1924 Critical Study of the Acanthocephala described and identified by
Joseph Leidy. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci, Philadelphia, 76, 279-344

AN ENUMERATION OF THE VASCULAR PLANTS OF KANGAROO
ISLAND : SECOND LIST OF ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS

BY J. B. CLELAND AND J. M. BLACK

Summary

In the “Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia,” 65, (2) 1941, we gave a list of
Additions and Corrections to our Enumeration of the Plants of Kangaroo Island. Various
additions have been made since that date and the appearance of the second edition of Parts I and
II of Black’s Flora of South Australia has led to various alterations in nomenclature.

22

AN ENUMERATION OF THE VASCULAR PLANTS OF KANGAROO ISLAND
Second List of Additions and Corrections

By J. B. CLecawo and J. M. Brack
[Read 14 June 195)]

In the “Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia,” 65, (2) 1941,
we gave a list of Additions and Corrections to our Enumeration of the Plants of
Kangaroo Island. Various additions have been made since that date and the
appearance of the second edition of Parts I and II of Black’s Flora of South
Australia has led to various alterations in nomenclature,

The total number of vascular plants recorded from Kangaroo Island now
comes to 856 with 29 yarieties in addition, of which 725 and 27 yarietics in addi-
tion are natives and 131 and 2 varieties are introduced.

Attention has been called by others to the abserice of kangaroo grass
(Themeda australis) from Kangaroo Island. It is also remarkable that no species
of Lomandra has been recorded.

It is of interest to compare the number of plants now known from Kan-
gayvoo Island with those of an area on the adjacent mainland, namely the Encounter
Bay district. In the “South Australian Naturalist” from time to time we have
recorded the species found there; the Sixth List of Additional Records has been
prepared and will, we hope, be soon published in that periodical. The area extends
from the Tunkalilla Road in the west to Currency Creek in the east and embraces
the catchment areas of the Inman and Ilindmarsh Rivers. The Surveyor-General,
Mr. A. D. Smith, has kindly had estimated for us the size of this area which is
233 square miles. The area of Kangaroo Island is 1,680 square miles, For the
Encounter Bay District 948 species and 21 varieties have been noted, of which
705 species and 18 varieties are natives and 243 species and 3 varieties introduced.
Thus, though the area of the Encouriter Bay District 1s less than one-seventh of
that of Kangaroo Island, 705 species of native Australian plants are now recorded,
nearly the same as on Kangaroo Island (725), As might be expected, the intro-
duced plants are nearly double those of the Island.

In the following list, an asterisk (*) indicates an introduced species,

FILICALES
Hypolepis rugulasa, Ravine des Casoars at the Cape Borda road, Feb. 1950,

GRAMINEAE

+Stenotaphrum secumdatuon (buffalo grass), C. de Couedic. *£Arharta longi-
flora. *Phalaris tuberosa (Toowoomba canary grass), Stipa semiburbata var.
gracilis in Black's Flora, Eehinopogon ovatus, already recorded, also Rocky River.
Agrostis Billaydieri replaces Calamagrostis filiformis var. Billardieri, and 4.
avenacea replaces C. filiformis, A. aemula, Rocky River. Deyewria quadriseta
replaces C. guadriseta, and D. minor replaces C. manor, *dvena barbata (bearded
oat), Amphibromus Neesii replaces A. nervosa, Distichlis distichophylla replaces
D, spicata, Poa poaeformis replaces P, cacspitosa var, Billardiert, Poa tenera?
Stunsail Boom and Rocky Rivers. *Bromus mollis, as well as *B.hordeaceus.
*Vulpia bromoides replaces Festuca bromoides, *Scleropoa rigida. replaces F.
rigida, *Lolium subulatum, Kingscote. *Leptaurus cylindricus, Kingscote. *Pho-
liurus incurvus, Kingscote, Viyonne Bay.

Trans. Roy, Soc. S, Aust., 75, September 1982

23

CYPERACEAE
Schoenus nitens, already recotded, Rocky River, identified by S. T. Blake
as “forma”. Scirpus validus, S,W. River, Carex breviculmis, Rocky River
24 Nov. 1945, identified by S. T Blake.

RESTIONACEAR
Lepyrodia valliculae, perhaps the “Lepyrodia sp.” of Tepper,

LILIACEAE
*Asparagus medeolvides, White’s Lagoon. Reya umbellata replaces Burchar-
dia umbellata, flowers unusually small at Seddon, *Allium Ampeloprasum.
*A. sp., roadside near Kingscote,
TRIDACEAE
*Watsoma Meriana, densely established around the cemetery at Iarvey’s
Return, probably also at Vivonne Bay, *Romulea sp. *Moraea xeerospatha var.
monophylla.
CASUARINACEAE
Casuarina quadrivalvis. Large groves of shcoaks, often in pure sand, clothe
the upper parts of the sides of watercourses such as Breakneck, Sandy, West Bay
and the Ravine. The trunks may be one to three or four; the trees spread stightly
fanwise. The habit is unlike that of trees on the mainland which are usually
widely separated from cach other,

PROTEACEAE

Hakea Muelleriona replaces H. ulicina var. flevilis, Grevillea muricata is a
synonym of G. Rogersi. G. aspera requires confirmation,

SANTALACEAE
Eucarya replaces Fusanus.
POLYGONACEAE
*Emex australis.
CHENOPODIACEAE

Chenopodium pumilio replaces Ch, carinatum. *Ch, album, Rocky River,
Ch. ambiguwm replaces Ch. glaucum, Threlkeldia diffusa, already recorded, also
at mouths of Stunsail Boom River and Ravine des Casoars, S' alicornia: Blackiana,
coast of Flinders Chase, previously recorded as doubtful.

AMARANTHACEAE

*Amaranthus albus, Cape Borda.

AIZOACEAE
Tetragonia expansa, Cape Borda, probably a garden escape.

PoRTULACACEAE
Portulaca oleracea (purslane).
CARYOPHYLLACEAE
Polycarpon tetraphyllum.
CRUCIFERAE

*Diplotaxis tenuifolia, already recorded, also Kingscote. Lepidium hyssopt-
folium, Lepidium pseudo-ruderale is given by Black orly for our North; perhaps
this should be L. halmaturinum, Stenopetalum sp., near Rocky River. Cakile
edentula is given by Black for Kangaroo Island, not C. maritima; plants at. Kings-
cote have pinnatipartite leaves and fruits with or without horns—the two species
seem to intergrade,

24

LEGUMINOSAE
Acacia euthycarpa in Black’s Flora, A, Sophorae replaces A. longifolia.
Daviesia pectinata requires confirmation. Pultenaea largiflorens var. latifolia in
Black’s Flora. *Trifolium subterrancum. *Medicago truncatula, Kingscote, Rocky
River. Hardenbergia wiolacea replaces H. monophylla.

GERANTACEAE
*Erodium moschatum, Cape Borda. Pelargonium inodorum replaces P, aus-
trale var. eradioides,
RUTACEAE
Correa rubra var. orbicularis and var, puchella, both in Black’s Flora.
C. minor replaces C. rubra yar. glabra.

EUPHORBIACEAE
Beyeria Leschenaultit var. latifolia in Black’s Flora,

RHAMNACEAE
Cryptandra tomentosa in Black’s Flora. C. amera in Black’s Flora.

MYRTACEAE
Eucalyptus viminalis var. Huberiana seems to be the form of E. viminalis
at least at Rocky River. E. rugosa (R, Br.) Blakely, E. Lansdowneana (== E
odorata yar, erythandra),
UMBELLIFERAE
Trachymene heterophylla var. Tepperiin Black’s Flora. Eryngium
vesiculosum, already recorded. On Febuary 1 1950 in a drying swamp near the
mouth of S.W. River, a number of young plants were coming up which had nar-
row “jointed” leaves (like those of Lilaeopsis, which they were at first thought
to be). They had a parsley-like taste and were not rigid like the older leaves. In
“The Victorian Naturalist,” 66, (10), p. 197, February 1950, T, S. Hatt has an
article entitled “Heterophylly in the Prickfoot (Eryngium vesiculosum) in which
he notes that the young leaves are hollow and subulate and several inches long.
Black, in his description of E, Plantagineum, recorded from near Cooper’s Creek,
notes that the leaves may be “linear, flaccid and grasslike , . . , compressed-hollow
and marked with distant transverse partitions.”

ISPACRIDACEAE

Conoslephium halmaturinum—a new species (and a new genus for the State)
described by J. M. Black, Seddon, February 6 1948.

OLEACEAE
*Olea europaea (olive), Kingscote.

APOCYNACEAE
*Vinca major.
CONVOLVULACEAE
*Convolvulus arvensis, Kingscote.

LABIATAE
*Stachys arvensis,
COMPOSITAE
Helichrysum apiculatum var. minys Benth., identified by J. M. Black, road
to Cape de Couedie, February 3 1948. Picris hieracioides var. squarrosa, Kings-
vote, along the cliffs near the sea; this is evidently R, Tate’s record of P. hiera-
cioides, and as it is a native variety the * should be deleted.

ON A NEW FORM OF HETERONYMPHA PENELOPE WATERHOUSE
(LEPIDOPTERA RHOPALOCERA, FAMILY SATYRIDAE)

BY NORMAN B. TINDALE

Summary

A description is given of a new race, Heteronympha penelope maraia from the Grampian
Mountains, western Victoria. H. p. panope is recorded from altitudes of 2,400-3,800 feet on
Mount Barrow in the north-eastern highlands of Tasmania. There is a discussion on the possible
climatic significance of the development in isolation of six different races of this butterfly in
south-eastern Australia and Tasmania.

25

ON A NEW FORM OF HETERONYMPHA PENELOPE WATERHOUSE
(LEPIDOPTERA RHOPALOCERA, FAMILY SATYRIDAE)

By Norman B, TINDATE *
[Read 14 June 1951]

SUMMARY

A description is given af a new race, Heteronympha penelope maraia trom
the Grampian Mountains, western Victoria, H, p. panope is recorded from alti-
tudes of 2400- 3,800 feet on Mount Barrow in the north-eastern highlands of
Tasmania, There is a discussion on the possible climatic significance of the de-
velopment in isolation of six different races of this butterfly in south-eastern
Australia and Tasmania,

HETERONYMPHA PENELOPE Waterhouse

Visitmg Tasmania in January and February 1948 1 took a long series of
Heteronympha penelope panope Waterhouse, of both sexes, on Mount Barrow
in north-eastern Tasmania, at elevations of 2,400- 3,800 feet, on 9 February.
They were flying in natural grassy meadows just below a belt of Antarctic beech
forest on the north-castern slope of the mountain, also above it; all were freshly-
emerged specimens, In November 1950 some H. penelope larvae were taken,
feeding at night on soft native grasses, Pou caespttosa and Danthonia pilosa, on
the banks of Fyans Creek, Grampians, western Victoria. When reared they
proved to be a new form of this butterfly.

These fiids drew my renewed attention to the species, which, as Waterhotse
(1937) had already realised, shows considerable variation in form and markings,
in the several isolated arcas in which tt occurs.

The following races previously have heen described, all by G. A, Water-
house -—

(1) Heteronympha penclope penelope Waterhouse 1937. From New South

‘Wales at Battingion Tops, in January and February, also from Stonehenge,
Ebor (4,800 fect), the Blue Mountains, Moss Vale, and on Motint
Kosciusko at 5,000 feet, in February. The type locality is at Barrington
Tops.

(2) Heteronympha penelope sterope Waterhouse 1937, From Gisborne and

Fern Tree Gully, eastern Victoria, flying from January to March.

(3) Heteronympha penelope alope Waterhouse 1937. Lorne, Victoria, in Feb-

ruary and March.

(4) Heteronympha penelope diemeni Waterhouse 1937, The holotype is from
New Norfolk near Hobart in Februaty; it is knowti also from above
Flobart, on the slopes of Mount Wellington (at clevations up to 1,000 feet),
at Dunally, and on Maria Island. Waterhouse alsu placed here a female
from Launceston (February) and a worn pair taken at Burnie. There are
in the South Australian Museum collection several specimens, labelled
(Launceston, F. M. Littler), including one taken in March.
Heteronympha penelope panepe Waterhouse 1937. Cradle Mountain,
western Tasmania (2,000 feet), at Derwent Bridge near Lake St. Clair
and Mount Magnet (in January). Only the male is so far described;
Mr. L. Couchman has in preparation a detailed study of dates of capture
and localities in Tasmania,

(5

—

* South Australian Museum.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust, 74, September 1952

26

Heteronympha penelope maraia subsp. nov.
Plate I]

Male—Porewings black, with rich orange-brown marlings; a large ocellus
below apex partly surrounded abeve by orange-brown, and with an orange-brown
spot below it; a large similarly coloured patch in upper half of cell, broadly con-
nected to another orange-brown patch extending nearly to inner margin and to
base of wing; the latter is partly divided by a thin black band at about one-half;
sex scales in cell grey, with a prominent black spot defining their distal limit.
Hindwing broadly orange-brown, with a large ocellus near inter angle and a small
black spot below costa. representing a vestige of a subapical one, without defined
centre; a very limited black atea in cetitre of wing. Forewings beneath with
pattern of markings as above, but with apical fifth of wing chocolate-brown,
ocellus with a double ring and light areas pale orange, lighter towards costa; cell
orange, with a conspicuous black circular patch at one-half, and an angled black
patch partly margining apex of ¢ell. Hindwings pale chocolate-brawn with a broad
outer chocolate margined area possessing a purple sheen and connecting the two
eye-spots: the subapical eye-spot small, one at inner angle relatively large.
Expanse 60 mm.

Female—Similar to male, but with outer margin straighter and inner angle
of hindwing more acute; base of wings infuscated with patches of dark scales,
obscured hy long hairs, so as to appear grey; brown area above subapical ocellus
of forewing conspicuously «ark: subapical ocellus of hindwing with traces of a
white centre; wings below slightly paler than in male and patch below subapical
ocellus of forewing almost white. Expanse 67 mm.

Why

révy

F le oe
aieet ee | ree

Ne ?,
She .
Acer ae

ce

Loculity—Western Victoria; Fyans Creek, Grampian Mountains (800 ft.),
Holotype a male, emerged 26 January 1951, and allotype female, emerged
30 January 1951 (I. 19088 in S.A.M.), collected and presented by N. B. ‘Tindale,
also 2 paratype male, emerged 25 January 1931, and 5 males and 4 fernales from
there and from Mount Rosea, January-Febriiary 1952. The name suggested for the
race ig based on the aboriginal word “Maraia,’ a Marditjali tribe name for the
Grampian Mountains. :

This race differs from the others of the species in the great extent of the
rich brown colour of the wings, in both sexes, and the relative absence of dark
infuscations on the hindwings aboye. In its wing markings it is nearest to
H_ >}. sterope, sharing with most examples of that form the interconnected orange-
brown areas of upper cell and tornal regions. Jt diffets in detail of markings.
The tips to forewings beneath, and hindwings, instead of the relatively pale
ochreous colour characteristic of the Eastern Victorian race, are rich brown.

In HA. £. marcia the brown of the ground colour in the female is. almost as
dark 4s in the male, whereas in H. , sterope, as also in H. p. diement, the female
ig by far the paler of the two.

From #8. p. alope and H. pf. fanape it differs in its relatively larger size,
and in having the spot immediately below the subapical ocellus of the forewing

7

above, decp orange-brown in both sexes, instead of pale brown in the male, and
white in the female as in these often smaller forms, It also differs in having a
single small subapical eyc-spot on the hindwing, almost devoid of white centre,
instead of the biocellate subapical condition usual in the Tasmanian form, In this
character it resembles H. p. alope.

Life-history—Eggs and larvae have been examined and agree with Water-
house’s description of those of the eastern races. The pupa (fig 1) is 17 mm. in
length, robust, pale brown in colour, Some pupae have dark spots and. blotches.
Pupation takes place among a few strands of loose silk, embracing leaves, The
pupa figured, that of the allotype female, emerged after an interval of 41 days.

Key ror THE SeraraTION Or RaAcres of HETERONYMPHA PRNELOPE

I Size large (60 mm. or over) vn ee ae ead eet ae ane v4
Size small (below 55 mitt) eye see rte seek ene tee ates 5
2 Oratige spot in cell of forewing commected with that of dorsum oh 3
Orange spot in cell of forewing not connected with that of dorsum «x 4
3. Tip of forewing beneath brown ae a siege ae RKO
Tip of forewilig beneath pale achreou Sites lume wre na SERV OPS
4 Wings strongly angulate ort alMetto © gprume Jus fut oe ... penelope
Wings somewhit rounded PTT 20277127)
5 Hindwings uniacellate ... oss sein ieee Seite te a a. dlope (male)
Hindwings bioceltate ite jue we py" jute me . i
Hindwings trideellate .. aii eT vw = bas wee panofe (most)

& Wings with dark markings dominant
Wings with ochreous markings dominant oes ee, OPO CEetmale)
Note—The above key is intended to separate all but an occasional variant.

Some AH. p. sterope have the discoidal spot partly divided from that of dorsum

by a few dark scales. Mr, L. Couchman tells me he has specimens of H. p. alope

much larger than here indicated, and that, in a long series, H. p, alape appears to
intergrade with H, p. sterope. Such large H, p. alape specimens will, in this key,
fall out with A. p. sterope,

nine veer ones one wee punope

Discusston ow THK Forms or HETERONYMPHA PENELOPE

It seems possible that H. p. panope and H. », alope form a natural group of
slightly smaller races with well-rounded wings in both sexes, while the H. penelope
series, Penelape, sterope, diemeni and muraia comprise generally larger forms
with more angular wings; the last-named character 1s especially noticeable in the
females, and least evident in the males of diementi.

At first it was thought that the panope and penelope series might be bwo
separate species, but this appears not to be the case.

H. p. panope, in gerieral, tends to be a mountain form in northern Tasmania,
appearing for a brief season in January and early February at rather high eleva-
tions. Gn Mount Barrow it appears abundantly just below an Antarctic beech
forest zone; and also up beyond it to the bare rock slopes at 3,800 feet. It also
occurs in the uplands of western Tasmania, where it breeds at elevations of over
2,000 feet.

On the broad lowland belt between these two highland areas and extending
across the somewhat drier and relatively low midland region of Tasmania from
Launceston to Hobart, as well as on islands such as Maria Island, occurs the
larger, more angular-winged H, p. diemeni which emerges in late January, Feb-
rtiary and early March; this form is rather closely related to H. p. sterope of the
foothills of Eastern Victoria.

H. p. alope of the Lorne area seems to be the mainland representative of
the panopeé series, but this tentative conclusion may be modified when more
material is available from the Lorne district.

23

The presence in Tasmania of a mountain form, panope, occupying two
separate aureus, formerly completely glaciated, with a different race, diemeni, in
the always unglaciated country of the broad, generally lowland belt, in between,
opens up interesting avenues for speculation on the possible late Pleistocene and
Rerent history of the species in south-eastern Australia.

Jiidging from present-day capacities of panope larvae to resist cold it is
possible that the late Pleistocene ancestor of the panope fornt was abie, during
the Wurm (Last) Glaciation to maintain its footing either in the area af the
present northern Tasmanian lowlands, er at least in the Iowlands now under the
ocean, of which King Island is a relic. Perhaps the capacity of this ancestral
form to resist cold may have been brought abaut by gene selection during the
onset of that or earlier glacial episodes,

As climate began to ameliorate in Recent time the ancestral panope began
slowly to recolomise the Eastern and Western Highlands, and, except in the south,
eventually perhaps abandoned the warmer lowlands in between as these became
too mild or otherwise unsuitahle, Thereafter eastern and western population of
H. p. panope perhaps developed in isolation from each other. If so, the interval
of time since they became separated has not been great enough to cause them
to become greatly differentiated, It has not been possible to fad consistent charac-
ters to separate them.

Perhaps later than the postulated separation of the two panope populations,
the large and rather different Victorian ancestor of sterope found its way south
to Tasmania, following the extension southwards of the warmer climatic helt.
Since this form may have become, or remained adjusted to a warmer climatic
range than ancestral punope it came to breed in, and occupy, the lowlands of
Tasinania.

As Tasmania became cut off by the Post-Glacial rise in sea-level jt has been
differentiated a little from the Victorian sterape, and today appears as the large
form dtemeni,

Only in some such way does it scem possible to account for the presence of
two separate races of FH, penelope in Tasmania,

The presumptively lowland and highland breeding forms seem to have
remained isolated from each other and to have been safficiently free of recent
gene exchange to have maintained characteristic appearances.

There is a posstbility that panope may appear a little earlier than diemeni.
The insects fly at a period of the year of maximum. warmth and drysiess, con-
sidering the relatively wet environment of Tasmania. They are not far-ranging
forms and probably do not fly far from the natural banks and meadows in which
they breed.

When more intensive collecting is done, however, it may be found that at a
jew places there have arisen natural hybrid populations, panope x dierent after
the manner of the natural hybrid Tisiphone abeona joanna reported by Water-
house (1928) in northern New South Wales. In such a case it would not be
surprising to find a very variable local population, similar to that which was estab-
lished to be of hybrid origin by the breeding experiments made by Waterhouse
on neighbouring races of Tisiphone abeona.

Tt was at first thought that the eastern and western panop? populations might
be distinguishable, but examination of the very long series taken on Mount Barrow
and of the majority of the known specimens from the western highlands con-
yvinced me they cannot be separated, for, unlike most of the other established
races, it cloes not seem possible to find any character sufficiently different and
stable to enable them to be keyed apart.

Either the rigid selection which enabled panope to survive in its cold environ-
iment has restricted its genetic plasticity, as compared with mainland races, or the

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1952 Vol. 7

win da te Woo

Fig. 1-16

ont

. Plate

(leteronynipha penelope Waterhouse (x § nat. size)

Hf. p. marata Tindale, male, upper surface, Fyans Creek, Victoria

Hf

”

” ”

”

. Pp. sterope Wat

” ”

i. p. dtement

” uy

” ”

wp, fonope

” ”
, ,
’ ”

"

”

”

”

erhouse, male, upper surface, Fern Tree Gully, Victoria

female, upper surface, Fyans Creek, Victoria
male, lower surface, Fyans Creek, Victoria
female, lower surface, Fyans Creek, Victoria

female, upper surface, Gisborne istrict, Victoria
male, lower surface, Fern Tree Gully, Victoria
female, lower surface, Gisborne District, Victoria
male, upper surface, Launceston, Tasmania

female, upper surface, Launceston, Tasmania

male, lower surface, Launceston, Tasmania

female, lower surface, Launceston, Tasmania

male, upper surface, Mt. Barrow (3,800 ft.), Tas.
female, upper surface, Mt. Barrow (2,475 ft.), Tas.
male, lower surface, Mt. Barrow (3,800 ft.), Tas.
female, lower surface, Mt. Barrow (2,475 ft.), Tas.

II

29

interval of time of separation of the two populations has been too small to allow
the appearance of recognisable differences of the type considered by present-day
Lepidopterists to be of subspecific value.

What may be a similar or slightly greater interval of time, however, has
permitted sterope and diement to develop small though appreciable differences.
Did the “mainland” forms retain greater genetic plasticity? Another possibility is
that diemeni is a natural hybrid, compounded of early crosses of ancestral panope
and sterope.

H. p. méraia of the Grampians is probably the western geographical isolate
of the ancestral sierope form. The same climatic factors which are postulated by
Tindale (1947, 1949) as responsible for the development in the Grampians area of
the geographical races Oveixenica kershawi kanunda, Tisiphone abeona antont
and several other moisture-loving butterflies, seem to have been responsible for
the development of this striking race.

The nymotypical race H. p. penelupe happens to be the larger and rather
isolated form found on Barrington Tops in northern New South Wales, When
the penelope faunas of areas between there and southern Victoria are better
known, other forms may be found connecting penelope and slerope.

There is at present no foundation for garbled early reports that H. penelope
had been taken in Western Australia and South Australia. Naturalists should
make careful collections in favourable localities between January and March to
ensure that it is not somewhere being passed over as the common Heteronympha
merape,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to Messrs. J. C. Le Soeuf and B. Given, my companions on
the visit to the Grampians, and to Messrs, L. Couchman and F. E. Wilson for
reading through my paper and offering most useful criticism.

REFERENCES CITED
WarterHousE, G. A. 1937 Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Sydney, 62, 253-258
Warternouse, G. A, 1928 Australian Zoologist, Sydney, 5, 217-240, and biblio-
graphy
Tinpvare, N, B. 1947 Rec. S. Aust. Mus., Adelaide, 8, 613-618
Tinpatr, N. B. 1949 Rec. S. Aust. Mus., Adelaide, 9, 143-155

SOME NEMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN BIRDS AND MAMMALS

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND PATRICIA M. MAWSON

Summary

Austrofilaria rhipidurae n. sp., is described from Rhipidura leucophrys, Adelaide, differing
in the form of the vestibule and length of spicules from the only other known species in the
genus, A. vestibulata.

Diomedenema diomedeae n.g., n.sp., Filariidae, from the body cavity of Diomeda
chrysostoma, South Australia. The new genus appears to be related to Litomosa,
Litomosoides and Austrofilaria, differing from the first two in the presence of cephalic
papillae and buccal teeth, and from the third in having an undivided oesophagus, and in the
position of the vagina.

An amplified description of Tetrameres australis from the black swan, and an account of
some of its growth stages are given.

Cosmocephalus australiensis n. sp., is described from water rats, Hydromys chrysogaster.
Occurences of various Ascaridate, Spirurate, Filariate and Strongylate worms are recorded
from Australian hosts.

30

BOME NEMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN BIRDS AND MAMMALS

By T. Harvey Jounston and Parricta M. Mawson *
(Read 14 June 1951)

SUMMARY

1, Austrofilaria rhipidurag n.sp., is described from Rhipidura leucophrys, Ade-
laide, differing in the form of the vestibule and length of spicules from the
only other known species in the genus, 4. wvestibulata,

2, Diomedenema diomedeae n.g., n.sp., Filariidae, from the body cavity of
Diomedea chrysastoma, South Australia. The new genus appears to be related
to Litomosa, Litomosoides and Austrofilaria, differing from the first two in
the presence of cephalic papillae and buccal teeth, and from the third in
having an undivided oesophagus, and in the position of the vagina.

3. An amplified description of Tetrameres australis from the black swan, and
an account of some of its growth stages are given,

4. Cosmocephalus australiensis n,sp., is described from water rats, Hydromys
chrysogaster.

5. Occurrences of various Ascaridate, Spirurate, Filariate and Strongylate worms
are recorded from Australian hosts.

HOST-PARASITE LIST

MAMMALS

Gypsophoca tasmaniensis Scott and Lord :—Contracaecum osculatum (Rud.);
Stomachus sp. immature. Lady Julia Percy Island, Victoria.

Pulpes vulpes L.:—Uncinaria stenocephala Rall, Adelaide.

Hydromys chrysagaster Geoff,:—Cosmocephalus australiensis n.sp.; Spirura
(s.) sp. South Australia.

Macropus major Shaw :—Hypodontus macropodis Monnig, N.S.W.; Pharyngo-
strongylus alpha, Narandera, N.S.W.

Macropus rufus Desm, (albino) :—Pharyngostrongylus alpha J. and M. Adelaide
Koala Park, but originally from Mount Pleasant, S, Aust.

Isoodon torosus Ramsay :—Echinonema cinctum Linstow; Subulura peramelis
Baylis. South-east Queensl.

Birps

Diomedea (Thalassarche) chrysostoma Fotster-—Seuratia shipleyi (Stoss.);
Stegophorus diomedeae (J. and M.); Diomedenema diomedeae t.g., n, sp.
Brighton, S. Aust.

Falso peregrinus Tunstall:—Serratospiculum. guttatum (Schn.). Kangaroo Island,
5. Aust.

Chenopis atrata Lath. :—Tetrameres australis J. and M. Tailem Bend, S. Aust.

Rhipidura leucophrys Lath.:— Austrofilaria rhipidurae n.sp, Adelaide, S, Aust.

We acknowledge assistance in regard to material from Dr. H, Derrick,
Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane; Messrs. A. Rau, South Aus-
tralian Museum; G. G. and Bryce Jaensch, Tailem Bend, South Australia; H, M.
Gordon, McMaster Laboratory, Sydney; and J. McNally, Fisheries and Game
Department, Victoria. The material iram an albatross was obtained by one of
us from a bird washed ashore at Brighton, South Australia, after a storm. The
work has been assisted by a State Research Grant to the University of Adelaide.
Types of new species are being deposited in the South Australian Museum.

* University of Adelaide.

Trans, Roy. Soc, §. Aust., 75, September 1952

31

Austrofilaria rhipidurae n. sp.
(Fig. 1-3)

Several filarial worms were taken by Mr, A. Rau from behind the eye of a
willy-wagtail, Rhipidura leucophrys, Adelaide, Males up to 14:7 mm. long;
females to 28 mm. Anterior end rounded, with four large oral papillae. Oral
aperture sometimes on small projection (fig. 2). Vestibule present, with strongly
chitinized walls and narrow lumen.

=
€
6
; Fig. 13
Austrofilaria rhipidurae—1, head of female; 2 oesophageal region; 3, male tail.
Fig. 4-7

Diomedenema diomedeae—4, 5, 6, head in lateral, dorsal and in face views respectively ;
7, mate tail.

Fig. 8-11
Cosmocephalus austvaliensis—8, head of adult; 9, male tail; 9a, fip of longer spicule;
10, 11, heads of worms 3-4 and 6-3 mm, long respectively. Fig. 4, 5, 6 to same scale;
i, 10, 11 to same scale; 8 9 to same scale. b, buccal capsule; 1, intestine; ic, inflated

4

cuticle; oa, op, anterior and posterior regions of oesophagus; v, vulva.

32

Walls consisting of anterior region 19% long, and posterior part 53, long.
Oesophagus -7 mm. long, narrower anterior part “L6 mm. long with sttongly
cuticularized lining which appears to be continuous with the vestibule ; posterior
pare *55 mm. long. Vulva in oesophageal region, -6 tim. from. head end, Eggs
504 by 26, with embryos 65, long; anus close to rounded tip of tail. Male tail
cviled into short spiral; spicules equal, -5 mm. long; no gubernaculum, caudal
papillae absent.

The gents, originally erected for A. vestibulata trom Apheloeephala nieri-
cincit, appears to be near Litomasoides Chandler, resembling it in Uhe presence
vf a subdivided vestibule whose posterior part scems to be encircled hy the
anterior portion of the oesophagus ; but it is distinguished by the form of the
apicules, the presence of oral papillae, and the position of the vulva. We have
placed our species in Ars/rofilaria because of the presence of a marked chitinous
vestibule, « bipartite oesophagus, small equal spicules, atid the oesophageal posi-
tion of the vulva, It differs fram 4. vestibulata in the form of the vestibule and
in the length of the spicules.

Diomedenema diomedeae n. g., n. Sp.
(Pig. 4-7)

A large number of these worms was found in the body cavity of a yellow-
nosed albatross, Diomedea chrysostoma, washed ashore at Brighton, South Aus-
tralia. Males up to 12 mm. long; females 10 17 mm. Cuticle with minute puncta-
tions arranged in anuuli and more obvious on some regions, e.g., submedian line,
but absent from end of tail, Anterior end compressed laterally ; small rectangu ar
mouth, dorso-ventrally elongate. Hight large papillae in two rings in submediais
positions on head. Small amphids present. Vestibule 30p long, Sa wide from side
vo side, about 8-10, dorso-ventrally; at its entrance, on cach lateral wall, a. strongly
chitinized tricuspid tooth, Oesophageal lining strongly chitinized. Ocsophagus
‘6 mm. long in both sexes, part posterior ta nerve ring wider. Exeretary pore
-24 mm. from head end (in female ) } herve ring at -21 mm. in male.

Posterior end of male curyed ventrally; anus +1 mn, from tip of rounded
tail; spicules acicular, unequal, -21 and «16 mm, lufig; one pair postanal papillae,
one pair adanal, three pairs preanal,

Vulva anterior, 4:7 mm. from head end in wotm 14-7 nim, long. Eggs 23.
by 58s.

Generic diagnosis Relatively short filarial worms with anterior end com-
pressed Jaterally; eight cephalic papillae in two rings, Mouth elongated durso-
ventrally, entrance ta buccal cavity with two lateral tricuspid teeth; Gesophapus
not differentiated externally into two regions. Male iail short, rounded, without
alae; spicules unequal, Vulva anterior, post-cesuphageal, Parasites af biris,
Type Liomedenema diomedeae n.sp.

This genus falls close to Desmidacereelia Yorke and Maplestone, It differs in
the shortness of the oesophagus, the presence of teeth in the buccal capsule, and
im the absence of any spinose area on the tail.

It differs from 4ustrofilaria in the presence of buceal teeth and the positinn
of the vulva. It shows some similarity to Buckleyfilaria Singh 1949, from
passerine birds, in ils cuticular ornamentation atid in the presence of a buccal
cavity; but it differs in the position of the vulva, the number of cephalic papjjlae
and the dissimilarity of the spicules,

SERRATOSPICULUM GUTTATUM (Sch.)

This filariid is now recorded tram Falco peregrinus, collected by A. Rau on
Kangaroo Island. We had reported it previously from Moorook, South Australia

33

EcHINONEMA CINCTRUN Linstow
Several specimens. were found amongst material collected by Dr. H. Derrick
localities in south-eastern Queensland.

from bandicoots, Tseedon torosus, from

SEURATIA SHIPLEYI (Stoss.)
Diomedea chrysosioma, washed ashore

This species is now recorded from
at Brighton, South Australia, We have already recorded the parasite from other
Australian albatrosses (1942, 69).

SrecOPHORUS DIOMEDEAE (J. and M.)

us under Paryseria (1942, 69) from three
species of Australian albatrosses including Diomedeu chrysosioma, the latter from
Sellicks Beach, South Australia. We now record finding the same species of
nematode in another yellow-nosed ‘albatross trom Brighton, South Australia, We

transferred the species to Sfegophorus (1945, 142).

This species was described by

i

20

ce

Fig, 12-16
- f lateral view; 13, 14, anterior end of male,
dorsal and lateral views respectively; 15, head of young female, sublateral view;
2, 15 to same scale. a, lateral ala;

16, head of gravid female, lateral view. Fig. 1
cp, cervical papilla; ep, excretory pore,

Tetrameres australis—l2, head of male,

TRTRAMERES AUSTRALIS J. and M.

(Fig. 12-21)
This species was originally described by us (1941) from males. The present
collection, also from the black swan, Chenopis atrata, from Tailem Bend, South
Australia, includes adult males and females,

stages of development,

Male—Up to 8:1 mm. in length, The original account of the head is now
amended, There are four lips, typical of the genus,
purely cuticular, whereas the laterals are wider and contain “pulp”. Four large
submedian papillae. The cuticular thickening of the dor
continued as a reticuliim around the head as far back as the level of the base of

as well as yotirig females in various

the dorsal and ventral being

sal and yenttal lips is

a4

the buccal capsule, and laterally forms the “spines” in the lateral alae (fig. 12).
These alae are broad and yuluminous. Each arises from a lateral lip and has
the appearance of a ribbon attached along its centre, narrowing towards the
cervical papilla, behind which it is attached along one edge. Sub-lateral rows of
spitles commence at -1-'13 mm, from the head end. Cervical papillae, each in
the form of a single curved spine, lie at the level of the third or fourth spine,
about -16 mm. from the head end. Buccal capsule 104 in diameter from side to
side, and 154 dorso-ventrally, its base 28-40», from top of lips. Nerve ring at
‘24 mm., and excretory pore at “3 mm. from head end. Oesophagus 1'6 mm.
long in 4 worm 8'] mm, in length,

Female—Young specimens up to 4°9 mim, long, length decreasing in older
worms, The most swollen females were 3*5 mm. Jong, Lips not distinct. Lateral
alae commence just behind cephalic papillae and extend to level of yulva, are
fess voluminous than in male, and are not associated with spines, Cervical papillae
715-17 mm. from head end, Buccal cavity in young specimens cylindrical, about
25-30, long, 7 internal diameter: anterior margin of buccal capsule denticulate,
with 10-12 projecting teeth, surrounding mouth opening. In gravid females
buccal capsule hecotnes barrel-shaped. Oesophagus with anterior and posterior
regions, ~3 and 1-1 mm. long respectively. Nerve ring at ‘22 mm, and cervical
papillae at -4 mm, from head end. As the body increases in volume, the swelling
of the body wall in the four submedian fields extends to include the posterior part
of the oesophageal region, and most of the tail, the tip of which in the largest
female is almost lost to sight. The tip of the tail in younger females is surrounded
by a distinct coronet of 6-7 spines. In gravid females the tail tends to be annu-
lated and the spines, though present, are shorter and less distinct. Vulva at 5 mm,
and anus at 2°3 mm. from tip of tail, in a specinien 4 mm. Tong, in which the
body swelling is just beginning to occur,

The species is characterised by the very long male spicule. The presence of
tail spines in this genus does not seem to be a purely larval condition as it is in
some Acuariids. The species does not fall into cither of the subgenera proposed
by Travassos in 1915, as it possesses features described ag distinctive of both
subgenera, wés., the excessively long spicule of Microtetrumeres, and the body
spines as in Tetrameres s, str.

Cosmocephalus australiensis, m sp,
(Fig. 8-11)

Several collections of a species of Cosmocephalus have been taken fram
water rats, Hi\dromys chrysoyaster, from the lower River Murray, at Tailem
Bend anu Bow Hill, South Australia.

Females up to 12°2 mm, long; males 10:1 mm, The cordons which botind
raised cuticular areas reach 4 point 04 mim. from the head end, but are not as
tnarkedly convoluted as in some species of the genus. Vestibule -1 mm. long, Ya
wide. Cervical papillae ~3-38 mm. from head end, tricuspid in both sexes,
except in one specimen where the smaller cusp was double. The foregajng
measurements apply to both sexes. Citucle strongly annulate from head to
cervical papillae.

Amongst the material examined were some apparently fully mature worms
in which the cuticle of the anterior end was oniy slightly annulated, In them
the position of the cetvical papillac in relation to the cordon length is quite
different, the cordons reaching to *21 mm. from the head, the cervical papillae
being ‘3 mm. from the head. It would appear that in these forms, for some
reason. possibly age or physiological differences in reaction to fixation, the cuticle
and the external cuticular structures with it have not been lyngitudinally
contracted.

RS

Vulva in the third quarter of the hady length. Eggs 40« by 29), Posterior
end of the male coiled into a spiral; four pairs of preanal and five pairs of post-
anal papillae; spicules °57 and -11 mm. long, the shorter being broad with a
blunt tip at right angle to shaft, longer acicular with a flap-like termination which
may be in line with the shaft or may be bent backwardly from it (fig. 9a).

With the adult worms are several, presymably of the same species, in
various stages of development. Since none of these has a spinous tail typical of
Actiariid larvae, these worms are presumably young adults, They show
the growth of the cuticular appendages characteristic of the genus. The smallest
is 2-5 mm. long and has a vestibule 70 in fength, iz., nearly that oi the adull,
while the cordons extend for only 302 from the head end (fig. 10). In other
specimens the cordons are longer; in a worm 6°3 mm, in length, the vestible is
904 long, and the cordons extend to 90. from the head, In the specimens with
very short cordons, each cervical papilla appears as a single projection, nut highly
chitinized ; in those with “half grown” cordons (90, long), the cervical papillae
ate bifid, The shortest worm in which the papillae were trifid was a male, 7-1 mm,

Fig. 17-21
Successive stages in growth of adult female of Tefrittieres australis, All to sante scale.
a, anus; al, ala; c, cervical papilla; e, excretory pore; i, iestine;

v, vulva.

in length. The shortest specimens whose sex was ileterminable were females. In
a worm 3:8 mn. in length, the ovaries, vagina and vulya were recognisable, the
vulva being situated 2-2 mm. from the head. The smallest specimen in which
catidal papillae were distinguishable was 4:4 mm. long, and there were indications
of incipient spicules. In all the sexually differentiated young worms the cordons
were as long as, or longer than, the vestibule, and the cervical papillae were bifid,
not simple, In connection with the growth of cordons and cervical papillae, one
may mention the work of Chabaud (1950) on the life history of Synhimantus
spinulatis,

We have nut found any record of the occurrence of adult Cosmocephalus in
a mammalian host, although Chandler (1942) reported Sywhimanlus longi-
gqulluratus trom £rocyon lotor, but inferred that it was an accidental infection.
The [ood of the Australian water rat includes the yahbie (Cherax destructor),
and various fish, either of which might harbour the larval siage of a bird parasite.
We have dissected ten water rats from the Torrens and Lower Murray, and on no
occasion were bird remains found in the digestive tract, This fact and the oecur-
tence of C. australiensis in a flourishing condition in several water rats from
different localities and at various times between 1938 and 1951 make the sugges-
tion of an accidental infection unlikely. The only known species of the gents
froin Australian birds is C. jaenschi J, and M,, from the same locality as the
present specimens, but te species differ in the propurtions of the lengths of the
cordons and of the vestibule to cach other.
p

36

Sprrura (s,1,) sp,
(Fig. 22)

In several collections made from Hydromys chrysogaster from the lower
Murray River, there occurred the posterior ends of a large species of a nema-
tode, apparently a Spirurid, Males and females were found. In no case was an
anterior end present, digestion having apparently proceeded from the head back-
wards in all cases. This deficiency obviated identification of the species. Measure-
ments and a figure of the male tail are given, so that it may be possible to recog-
nise the worm in the future.

Longest part of a female present, 23-5 mm.; of a male 7 mm., and in these
an oesophagus was not present. Two ovaries and uteti are opposed; uteri unite,
leading to a short vagina and vulva, the latter 6°2 mm, from the posterior end;
eggs in vagina measure 40 by 28y.

In the male are four pairs of prearial papillae and five pairs of postanal, the
preanal pair nearest the ants is double-headed. Caudal alae are absent. Sicules
are unequal, +9 and -18 mm. respectively.

The size of the eggs and the relative lengths of the spicules in these worms
and in the specimens of Cosmocephalus australiensis found with them, are similar;
but the latter are distinctly smaller and the male tail is coiled in several spirals.

2

Fig. 22—Spirura (s.1.) sp, from Aydromys, male tail. Fie, 23—Swbulura peramelis, male tail.
Fig. 24S/ypodontus macropodis, butsa.-

CONTRACAECUM OSCULATUM (Rud.)

This species is now recorded from the seal, Gypsophoca tasmaniensis, The
collection included adult as well as the “phocascarid type” of immature worms
described elsewhere by us (1945), and was obtained by Mr. J. McNally, from
Lady Julia Percy Island, Victoria.

STOMACHUS sp. immature
Young forms were collected by Mr. McNally from Gypsophoca tasimaniensis,
Lady Julia Percy Island, Victoria. In two specimens the lips had attained the
adult form and the ventriculus was slightly sigmoid. The material suggests
S. similis which occurs in elephant seals. The latter no longer occtir in Australian
waters, haying been exterminated from Bass Strait by the early sealers.

SUBULURA PERAMELIs Baylis

From bandicoots, [soodon forasus, collected by Dr. H. Derrick from south-
eastern Queensland. Males up to 12 mm, long; females to 17 mm. As in other
collections of this species sttidied by us, the worms are longer than those described
by Baylis, and have only three teeth in the buccal capsule,

37

PHARYNGOSTRONGYLUS ALPHA J. and M.

From a “white kangaroo” (Macropus rufus, albino), from the Koala Park,
Adelaide, but previously from Mount Pleasant, South Australia; and from
Macropus major from Narandera, New South Wales, In our original account
we mentioned “six rounded inner lips,” but since in specimens from Macropus
major and in the present material, these are not obvious, it is suggested that the
lip-like appearance was due to contraction of muscles surrounding the mouth.

Hypovontus macropopis Ménnig

From a kangaroo, presumably Macropus major, the worms having been for-
warded from the McMaster Laboratory, C.S.LR.O., Sydney. The differences
between H. macropodis and our II. thetidis depend on body length, the branching
of the dorsal ray of the bursa, and the length of the gubernaculum. In the present
material, the dorsal ray resembles that of M. thetidis,; but the lengths of the worm
and the gubernaculum agree with H. macropodis. Prebursal papillae are present,
as in the latter species; the position of the excretory pore is similar; and there is
a backwardly-directed prolongation of the stem of the lateral ray, as noted by
Monnig (1929).

UNCINARIA STENOCEPHALA Railliet
This hookworm has been identified from a fox, Vulpes vulpes, shot in the
Adelaide Botanic Gardens,

LITERATURE

CuHaAsaup, A. G. 1950 Ann. Parasitol., 25, 150-166

CHANDLER, A. C. 1942 Parasitol., 28, 255-268

JOHNSTON, ee H., and Mawson, P. M, 1940 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 64,
355-361

Jounston, T. H,, and Mawson, P. M. 1941 Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 65,
254-262

Jounnston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M. 1945 Brit., Aust. N.Z, Antarct. Res.
Exp. Rep., B, 5, (2), 73-160

AUSTRALIAN RECENT AND TERTIARY MOLLUSCA (TEREBRIDAE,
RISSONIDAE, FASCIOLARIIDAE, VOLUTIDAE) PLATES III AND IV

BY BERNARD C,. COTTON

Summary

All Australian Recent and Tertiary species of Terebridae and Rissoinidae are reviewed. Three
new species of the family Terebridae, Pervicacia subplicata, P. helenae and Nototerebra
flindersi are introduced. Keys to the genera of Rissoinidae and the subgenera of Rissoina are
given and the new species Rissoina vincentiana, R. grata, R. fiscina, R. jaffa and R. axiscalpta
are described.

38

AUSTRALIAN RECENT AND TERTIARY MOLLUSCA
{Terebridae, Rissoinidae, Rissoidae, Fasciolariidae, Volutidac)
Plates T1T and IV

By Bernarp C, Corron *

[Read 14 June 1951]

SUMMARY

All Australian Recent and Tertiary species of Terebridae and Rissoinidae
are reviewed. Three new species of the family Terebridae, Pervicacia subplicata,
P, helenae and Nototerebra flindersi are introduced, Keys to the genera of
Rissoinidae and the subgenera of Rissomma are given atid the new species Rissoina
vincentiana, R. grata, R. fiscina, R, jaffa and FR. axiscalpta are described,

A new gents and species of the Rissoidae is proposed and the Tertiary
species of that family are listed.

Two genera of the Fasciolariidae, Pleuroploca and Colus, are considered.

To the family Volutidae is added a new species, Ericusa orca.

Family TEREBRIDAE

This family, some species of which possess a poison gland similar to that
of the Conidae, is grouped with that family in the Toxoglossa.

Names which have heen incorrectly used for Australian shells and later
proved to be exotic only are;—Terebra brevicula Deshayes 1859 = T, albocincta
Carpenter, Californa. Terebya buccinuluwm Deshayes 1859=“Bullia turrita
Gray” belonging to the family Nassidae. Terebra fenestrata Hinds 1843 =
Terebra caelata Adams and Reeve 1850, China. Terebra turrita Smith 1873,
Torres Straits = T, fextilis Hinds 1843, Manila Bay. Terebra polygyrata Des-
hayes 1859 = T. subtextilis Smith 1879, Japan. Terebra flamimea Lamarck 1822
= T. incomparabilis Deshayes 1859 = Epitonium feldmanni Bolten 1798, West
Indies. Duplicaria addite Deshayes 1859= 7. spectabilis Hinds 1843, Ceylon.
The large Indo-Pacific species of typical Terebra with characteristic colour pat~
terns occur plentifully as species and individuals in the Damperian, Banksian, and
Solanderian regions of northern Australia.

TrErerra Lamarck
Terebra Lamarck 1799. Mem. Soc. Hist. Nat., Paris, 71.

Genotype—T. subulata Linne 1767. A synonym is Terebrum Montfort 1810-
Species of the genus which have been recorded principally from northern Aus-
tralia, most of them with a wide Indo-Pacific distribution, are 7, subulata Linnie
1767, T. crenulata Lanne 1758, T. dtmidiata Linne 1758 = T. guttata Bolten 1798,
T..oculaia Lamarck 1844, T. muscaria Lamatck 1822, T. affinis Gray 1834, T. can-
cellata Quoy and Gaimard 1822, T. chlorata Lamarck 1822, T. cireumcincta Des-
hayes 1857, 7. columellaris Hinds 1844, T. evigua Deshayes 1859, T, jukesi Des-
hayes 1857, T. marmorata Deshayes 1859, T. ornatum Martyn 1786, T. polygyrata
Deshayes 1859, T. straminea Gray. 1934, T. taylori Reeve 1860, T. tenera Hinds
1844, T. turrita Smith 1873, T. wndulata Gray 1934, T. hostata Gmelin 1791,
T, bathyraphe Smith 1875, T. bernardi Deshayes 1857, T. albuia Menke 1943,
T. sublata Linne 1758, W.A., T. walkert Smith 1899 — T. assimilis Angas 1867,
T. lauretenae Tenison Woods 1879, T. tabifica Iredale 1925.

* South Australian Museum.
Trans, Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 75, September 1952

39

In the South Atstralian Museum collection 7. muscarta, T, bernardi,
T. chlorata were noted from Moreton Bay, and T. circumeincta from Caloundra,

Pervicacta Iredale
Pervieacia Ivedale 1924, Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S,W., 49, 262.

Genotype—Terebra ustulaia Deshayes 1857 Tasmania. Species belonging to
this genus and their range are as follows,

P. ustulata Deshayes 1857. Tas. (type), N.S-W., Vict., S. Aust, The species
is rare in South Australia. We have it from Pondolowie Bay, Yorke Peninsula,
and some small specimens dredged in 10 fms. off Yankalilla. Pl. iii, fig; 2,

P. assecla Iredale 1924. N.S.W. (type), S. Aust,, Vict. The New South
Wales type was dredged in 10-25 ims. Sotth Australian specimens were taken
in 110 fms. off Beachport and 130 fms, off Cape Jaffa.

P. kieneri Deshayes. 1859. N. Tas. (type), Vict. 5, Aust. This is the shell
originally referred to as Terebra duplicata var. junior Wiener. Kiener gave
“Thdian Ocean and Mauritius” for its locality, The figure is an excellent one of
the South Australian species. It is the most common Terebra in southern Australia
and can be taken in numbers in certain localities on the beach or dredged down
to 22 fms. We have it from Hopetoun, King George Sound, Rottnest and Albany,
Western Australia. The name T, “sfulata Deshayes in Adcock’s. list of South
Australian shells was intended for this shell, but as mentioned above P. ustulate
ig rare in South Australia. There is great variation in comparative attenuation
and costation, Some have well-marked and subdistant ribs, others have them very
crowded and fine, while others again haye the former sculpture in early whorls
and the latter in the later volutions. Colour varieties may be pure white through-
out, or the nucleus and earlier whorls dark purple and a light purple tinge in the
rest of the shell, Some of the albino variants have the tibs rather distant and
valid and approach the Tasmanian shells once named T. jukesi later corrected to
T hicolor, The tibs of T. bicolor are more numerous than jn our shell, the groove
separating the infrasutural nodules from the lower part of the shell is much
wider and gutter-like, and there are sublenticular inter-costular spiral striae, and
the lower half of the shell is coloured too, giving a median white band. There
are three principal yariants.

a. Axial ribs more distant and valid, nodulose at the suture and spiral sulcus,
More attenuate than average.

b. White, less solid, apex purplish in some, white in others.

c. White, natrow, solid, atca beneath suture depressed, Ribs subdistant,
valid, Almost like an albino form of P. ustulata but more attenuated than
the average example of that species,

P, bicolor Angas 1867. N,S.W. (type), Vict.
Typical specimens of this do net occur in South Australia, its piace appar-
ently being taken by P. subplicata sp, nov. Odd specimens labelled T, bicolor in

the Museum Collection said to come from South Australia haye iio definite
locality.

P. fictilis Uinds 1844. N.S.W. (type), Vict.

The species, like P. bicolor, appears to be confined to the Petonian region.
Hedley 1900 refigured and described the species and noted that Terebra assimilis
Angas 1867 is a synonym, 4 differs from P- bicolor in being stonier, and im
having broad, low axial ribs.

40

Pervicacia subplicata sp. nov.
(Pl. iii, fig. 3)

Shell thin, protoconch of two smooth turns, slightly mammillate, blunt;
spite whorls sloping, slightly constricted just above the centre, suture distinct;
aperture obliquely ovate, small; outer lip thin; columella convex thin; sculpture
of adult whorls consists of obsolete irregular roundly flattened sinuous axial
riblets which in the last whorl are very faintly marked below the periphery;
whole surface yery closely but irregularly subleriticularly jaggedly spirally
incised; colour brown, light horn or layender with dark horn coloured sinous
longitudinal markings chicfly in the spaces between the axial tiblets, Height
14 mm,, width 3-5 mm.

Locality—Backstairs Passage 20 fms. (type). Beachport 40-150 fms. Rare
on the beach,

Remarks—Holotype Reg, No. D. 10177, S. Aust, Museum.

It may be a South Australian species related to P. bicoloy being similar in
protoconch features, but the adult shell of P. subplicata is thinner and less validly
sculptured,

Pervicacia helenae sp. noy,
(Pl. iti, fig. 1)

Shell clongate, subulate, rather solid, glossy, whorls dark-cream coloured
with a narrow dark brown spiral band occupying the space between the suture
and the subsutural sulcus beneath; base of ihe body whorl also dark brown.
Sculpture of thick sinuous axial ribs, the tips cut off by a weak subsutural sulcus
sittated very close to the suture. Protoconch of two smooth, white giossy whorls,
the first mammillate. Adult whorls eleven, the sculpture consistent from the first
to last whorl. Outer fip rather thick, columella smooth, concave, Height 24 mm.,
diameter 11 mm.

Locality—Eyre Peninsula, Farme Beach, Coffins Bay. Holotype Reg.
No. 1). 14436, S. Aust, Museum,

Remuarks—A series shows the shell to be consistent in characters and not
variable, The holotype and other specimens presented to the South Australian
Museum are adults. They differ from P, ustulata in being smaller, having a weak
substitural sulcus very near to the suture, convex, shorter whorls. A series of
specimens was taken by Mr. J. Veitch, a West Coast collector, and forwarded
for examination to the South Australian Museum by Mr. B. J, Weeding. They
are named after Mr. Veitch’s daughter, a keen collector,

Noroterrsra Cotton
Nototerebra Cotton 1947, Rec, S. Atist. Mus., 8, No, 4, 667,

Genotype—Terebra albida Gray 1834. Vict, WN. albida Gray 1834. Vict.
(type), S. Aust., Tas., W. Aust.

The rusty colouration is sometimes disposed as an infrasutural tow of sports
and at other times in oblique longitudinal markings. One individual has a de-
pressed infrasutural band scarcely visible in the earlier whorls, but quite distinct
in the later ones. The shell is not actually smooth, there are oblique sinuous
accremental striae minutely crenulating the suture, and in some specimens these
are gathered into groups so as to form very flat, low triangular riblets most valid
just below the suture. The protoconch is of one turn and a half, slightly inflated
whorls. Our specimens are from Middleton, Spencer Gulf, Port Phillip and
Esperance, Western Australia,

41

Nototerebra flindersi sp. nov.
(PI. iii, fig, 4)

Shell elongate, white, faintly marked with rust-like stains, protoconch of
one and a half smooth, very slightly inflated whorls; adult whorls nine, narrow,
very litle conyex, suture linear, weakly margined below by an obscure spiral
impression; sculpture of sinuous, axial, irregular aceremental striac, Height
25 mm,, width 6 mm.

Lacaliw~w—S. Aust., Beachport, 100 fms. (type) 150 tms., Cape Jaffa
130 frots,; W. Aust., Rottnest, Ellenbrook. Holotype Reg. No, 1. 14435, S. Aust.
Mnseun,

Remorks—The species is smaller and narrower than N, albida and the sub-
sutural depression is comparatively more marked.

Acuminsta Dall.
Acuminia Dall, 1908, Nautilus, 21. No, 11, 124-123.

Genotype—Terebra lanceata. Linne 1788, Indo-Pacific.

Typical species of this genus have no presutural sulcus, the shell is slender
and smooth, whorls flattened, earlier whorls plicated, white, with chestnut axials.
Columella with one fold.

A, bragieri Angas 1871, N.S.W. (type) Vict., ‘Tas. 5, Aust. The proto-
conch is elongate and consists of four and a half glossy, smooth dark purplish~
brown whorls, Adult whorls are sculptured with axial riblets which nodulate
the margin of the suture, the axials becoming comparatively weaker in the latter
part of the shell, Dredged alive in 22 fms. off Royston Head, 20 fms, off New-
land Head, also 15 fms, in Investigator Straits, Backstairs Passage and Gulf
St. Vincetit. It is also infrequently taken dead on the beach, Tate took it in
the Great Australian Bight. The whorls which are typically “obsoletely distantly
plicate” may be quite validly costellate, the costellae being broadly concavely
triangulat in section, The spire and body whorls are sublenticularly spirally
striate, the striae crossing the axial riblets. There is a rare variant sometimes
taken in South Australia which has the shape of A. brasieri but longitudinal
plications are almost as well marked as those of Pervicacia kleneri, This variant
we have from Royston Head 22 fms,, Newland Head 26 fms., Investigator Strait
14 fms., anid Kangaroo Island 13 fms.

Parviterenra Pilsbry
Parviterebra Pilsbry 1904, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., 56, 5,

Genolype—Parviterchra paucivolvis Pilsbry 1904, Japan.

The genus is distinguished by the narrow, fusiform shell, few whorls, absence
of subsutural groove, long, gradually tapering body—whor] without a differen-
tated siphonal fasciole at the base, columella straight abruptly truncated below.
The Australian species P. brasieri and P. trilineata were once placed in the genus
Euryta H, and A, Adams 1853 (not Gestel 1848), a synonym of Mazat/anta Dall
1900, belotiging to the family Pyrenidae, where Theile also places Parziterebra.

P. brasieri Angas 1875, Jackson Heads, 25 fms. N.S,W. (type), Tas. Vict.
5, Aust, W. Aust. Synonyms are Euryta angasi Tryon 1884, Rapid Head,
s, Aust., a name introduced by Tryon to replace Euryta pulchella Adams and
Angas 1863, Rapid Bay, S. Aust., “preoccupied in Terebra by Deshayes," Man-
gelia hayvisoni Tenison Woods 1878, Clarke Island, Vict., Olivella australis
‘Tenison Woods 1878, Clarks Island, Vict. Shells of the present species in the
Verco Collection were identified by Sowerby from types in the British Museum
of E, pulchella and Vereo confirmed the identification on a later visit ta London.
He writes in M.S.S.: “The type is a dead shell and very Eaintly coloured,”

42

The specimens of E. brazieri in the British Museum from off Port Jackson Heads
are, Verco continues, “exactly the same, only more highly coloured, like the best
coloured of mine.” Localities of specimens in the Museum Collection are-—
S. Aust., Investigator Strait 15 fms., 20 fms., Newland Head 20 fms., Pondo-
lowie Bay, Backstairs Passage 20 fms., Porpoise Head 12 fms., Spencer Gulf;
he Seite Hopetoun 35 ims., King George Sound 12-14 fms., Bunbury, Rottnest;
. Tas.

There is a narrow variant taken at Hopetoun 35 fms., one specimen, Beach
specimens are rare, the species apparently living in deep water.
P. iA prea Adams and Angas 1863, Port Jackson, N.S.W. (type), Vict.,

5. Aust,

This is more slender than P. brasieri and the whorls are encircled with
thread-like lines, We have it from South Australia, St, Francis Island, Port
Lincoln, Edithburg, Backstairs Passage 17 Ims., Investigator Strait.

‘TRIPHOSTREPHANUS Dall.
Triphostrephanus Dall 1908. Nautilus 22, No. 11, 124-125.

Génotype—Terebra triseriata Gray 1834, China.

Very elongate and narrow, presttural sulcus present, whorls nodulous at
both margins.

T, praelonga Deshayes 1859. Q, (type), N.S.W., NLA.

A series of this species from Port Keats, north Australia, confirms the fact
(Iredale 1931) that Australian shells taper less rapidly than the Chinese geno-
type. Our specimens suggest that 7. praelonga does not attain to the great length
of 7. triseriata, our only shell of that species from Japan measures 135 mm. and
the maximum Port Keats shell 90 mmm.

DrpLomeriza Dall
Diplameriza Dall 1919. Nawtilus, 33, No. 1, 32.

Genotype—Terebra duplicaia Vamarck 1844. Indian Ocean.

The genetic name was introduced to replace Dupliceria Dall 1908, pre-
occupied by Refinesque 1833 for a species of Chilina.

D. duplicata Lamarck 1844. N.W.A., N.A.

A series of living specimens from Broome, N.W.A., range in colour from
pure white to dark brown. We haye also a series from Darwin and Melville
Island.

D., bailina Hedley 1915. N.S.W. (type), Old.

The type came from Trial Bay, collected by C. Laseron, and Kesteven took
it at Caloundra. It is not represented in the South Australian Museutn Collection.
Hedley compared it with D. ustulata Deshayes in the original description, remark-
ing that it differed “hy being more slender, and has fewer wider-spaced ribs.’
D. vallesia Hedley 1912. N.S.W, (type).

The type was collected by C_ Laseron at Trial Bay. This species is repre-
sented in the South Australian Museum Collection by typical specimens from that
locality.

D. australis Smith 1873. S.W.A. (type), N.W.A,, N.A,

So far no authentic specimens of this species have been found iti the South
Australian Museum Collection, but numerous juvenile specimens of 1), duplicata
from Broome and Darwin approximate to this species,

45

Pertrioe Dall
Perirhoe Dall 1908, Nautilus, 22, No. 11, 125.

Genotype—Terebra circumcincta Deshayes 1857. Red Sea,

Australian species belong to the subgenus Dimidacts Iredale 1928 introduced
for Perirhoe melamans Iredale 1928 for species having the spiral lines punctate
as distinct from typical Perirhae which has the spiral lines not punctate. Iredale
1928 pointed out that Partsch 1923 proposed the subgenus Terebrina, genotype
Terebra cingulifera, a punctate type, bit this name is preoccupied by Terebrina
Rafinesque 1815,

P. cingulifera Lamarck 1822. Described from unknown locality.

Our specimens are from Mauritius and Port Douglas, Queensland. A

synonym is Terebra pallida Deshayes 1857. Marqtiesas group.
P. monile Quoy and Gaimard 1833. Mariancs or Carolines (type), Qld.
P. albomarginata Deshayes 1859, Australia (type), N.S.W. P. exulta Iredale
1931, N.S.W. (type). 2. melamans Iredale 1829. N.S.W. Sydney Harbour
(type), P. pertusa Born 1778. Qld., N.S.W., N.A. (type).

OxyMeEnris Dall
Oxymeris Dall 1903. Proc, U.S. Nat. Mus., 26, 951,

Genotype—Buccinum wiaculatym Tanne 1758. Indo-Pacific. Whorls rapidly
enlarging, presutural sulcus obsolete in the adult.

©. maculata Linne 1758. We have a typical series from Melville Island, North
Australia (Sayers), Murray Island (A, M. Lea) and the Barrier Reef, Queens«
land.

O. felinum Dillwyn 1817, Indo-Pacific; Queensland. South Australian
Museum specitnens are {rom Seychelles, Mauritius and Moreton Bay, Queensland.
Formerly named Terebra tigrina Gmeliti 1791, pre-occupied.

O. nebulosa Sowerby 1824, This species has been recorded from Queensland,
but our only series is from Zanzibar.

Trrenon.a Iredale
Terenolla Iredale 1929. Mem, Qld. Mus., 9, pt. iii, 282,
Genotype—Terebra pygmaca Hinds 1843. Straits of Malacca.
This has nut so far been seen in the South Australian Museum collection,
but it was recorded from Michaelmas Cay, Queensland, by Iredale, 1929.
Euterchra inconspicua and Gradaterebra scalariforimis of southern Australia
and Tasmania complete the list of recent Australian species of the family.

Hastuta H. and A. Adams

Hastula H. and A, Adams 1853. Gen. Rec. Moll. 1, 225.

Genotype—Buccinum strigilatum Linne 1758, Indo-Pacific.

Shells small, slender, sculpture of regular, moderately developed axial ribs,
no presutural sulcus, suture appressed.

H. strigilata Linne 1758, Queensland, North West Australia. South Aus-
tralian Musetiin specimens are from Louis Island atid Broome, West Australia,
and Moreton Bay, Queensland.

H. cerithina Lamarck 1827. Timor (type); Queensland, Six specimens from
Moreton Bay, Queensland.

H. hastatwm Gmelin 1791, Indo-Pacific (type); Queensland. Twa speci-
mens from Moreton Bay, Queensland.

44

TERTIARY SPECIES
None of the Australian Tertiary species of Terebridae appear to belong to
the typical genus Terebra, In these notes I have placed them tentatively in the
genera named. The numbers following the type locality refer to the range of the
species according to the Marine stage listed below.

1, Werrikooian - - - = Upper Pliocene
2. Kalimnan - - - - - Lower Pliocene
3. Cheltenhamian - — - - - Upper Miocene
4. Balcombian - = - - Middle Miocene
5. Janjukian - - - - Lower Miocene

Pervicacia crassa Tate 1886. Aldinga, South Australia, upper beds, 2.

P. additoides Tenison Woods 1877. Table Cape, Tasmania, 5,2.

P. mutica Tate 1889. Muddy Creek, lower beds, 4.

Acuminia leptaspira Tate 1888, Muddy Creek, lower beds, Victoria, 4.

A. profunda Chapman and Gabriel 1914. Mallee bore, Victoria, 2.
Nototerebra simplex Tenison Woods 1876, Table Cape, 5, 2.

N. platyspira Tate 1886. Muddy Creek, lower beds. 4.

N, angulosa Tate 1888, Murray Desert, well sinking, South Australia. 3, 2,
N. mitrellaeformis Tate 1886. Aldinga, upper heds, 2.

TRIPIIOSTREPHANUS PLATYSPIRA Tate
Triphostrephanus platyspira Tate 1886, Muddy Creek, Jower beds, 4.

The species is placed in this genus because it is comparatively very elongate
and has numerous (25 )whoris. The sculpture is different from that of the geno-
type, that of T, platyspira being comparatively weakly developed. The protoconch
is rather distinctive, large, bulbous, considerably broader than the first few shell
whorls, apex reverted and immersed.

GeMMATEREBRA Cotton 1952
Genotype—Terebra catenifera Tate 1886. M uddy Creek, upper beds,
Shell pyramidal, whorls flattened, slightly overlapping, two spirally and axially
Striate; protoconch mamillate of two rather large, smooth, convex whorls.
G. catenifera Tate 1886. Muddy Creek, upper beds, 2. PI. iii, fig. 5.
G. subcatenifera Tate 1889. Cunninghame and jJemmy’s Point, Gippsland. 2,

NovITEREBRA Cossman
Noditerebra Cossman 1896. Pal. Comp., 2, 51.
Genotype—Terebra geniculata Tate 1886. Muddy Creek, upper beds. 2.
N. geniculate Tate 1886, Fragments of this species were noted in Adelaidean
material [rom bores, PI. iii, fig. 7,

SPINEOTEREBRA Sacco
Spineoterebra Sacco 1891. Moll. Piemonte Figuria, 58.
Genotype—Terebra spinulosa Doderlein. Miocene, Italy.
In this genus the shell is pupoid, subsutural sulcus absent, aperture narrow,
suture appressed, columella callous, truncate anteriorly, whorls costulate.
S. subspectabilis Tate 1889, Muddy Creek, upper beds, 2, 4.
S. convexiuscula Tate 1889. Muddy Creek, upper beds. 2.

Family RISSOINIDAE
The typical Rissoina is axially costate and has the aperture produced below.
This genus and its associates are here recognised as constituting the family
Rissvinidae as distinct from the Rissoidae,

a5

Tate 1889, Trans. Roy, Soc, S. Aust., 23, 230, reviewed the recent Rissoidae
of Australia, placing the 78 species then recorded from Australian waters in the
two genera Rissoa and Risseina, “viewed in their widest acceptation.”” In his
“Rissoinae” (Rissoinidae), he used nine “subgroups” which are nowadays
regurded by conservative workers as sections or subgenera and by others as full

enera,
i In this account four genera are recognised, Scaliola, Rissoina, Rissolina and
Stiva, They may be distinguished by the following key,

KEY To GENERA
a, Operculum spiral
b. No funicular rib on base

e. Smooth, with agglutinated sand grains «.. ais we Sealiola

ce. Sculptured de wast wits Sa eeddpersef jun a Rissoinad

bb. Funicular rib on base inh ele bad melt ap wu. Rissalina
aa, QOperculum not spiral ae fe a nat os ww Shiva

Scarroca Adams 1860
Genolype—Scaliala bella Adams 1860. Japan.

Shell turriculate, umbilicate, thin, white, whorls smooth but covered with
agglutinated grains of sand. The genus ranges from Japan to Australia and the
Red Sea. It was originally described as a subgenus of Scala, Theile places it in
the family Finellidae. From apertural features it is regarded here as belonging
to the Rissoinidae.

S. bella Adams 1860. Japan (type), North Australia, Queensland.

= J. lapillifera Hedley 1899. Funafuti (type).

S. adrenosa Adams 1862. Japan (type), North Australia, Queensland.

S, ealedonica Crosse 1870. New Caledonia (type), Queensland.

S. elata Issel 1869. Red Sea (type), Queensland.

Tryon, in his Manual of Conchology, mentions two further species,
S. glareosa and S. gracilis Adams from Japan.

Rissoina Orbigny 1840

Genot\pe—Rissoina inca. Orbigny 1840, Peru.

Shell axially costate, aperture produced below, no funicular rib. The type
species is strongly axially costate throughout, the costae becoming stronger on
the body whorl, Apex mammillate, aperture similunar, lip thickened and a little
reflected, anteriorly effuse or [aintly channelled,

Operculim corneous, thick semilunar, paucispiral, with a claviform process
on the interior face, The getius is cosmopolitan in warm and temperate seas.
Australian species may be arranged in subgenera. Meerchiella, Phosinella,
Zebinella, Pyranidelloides and Schwartsiella.

Key To SUBGENERA
a. Aperture with strong basal emarpination
b. No nodulose spiral ribs

c. Avwially costated shoe bias sats ‘yas seb w. Moerchiella
tc. Reticulate
d. Sculpture coarse .. 0 neue eee ee Photinia
dd. Sculpture fine sie un am ia sine wn =Zebinelle
bb. Nodulose spiral ribs ,, 0 we wee wee Peyramidelloides
aa. Aperture with weal basal emurgination nig ay. w = Schwartsiella

MoeERcHIELLA Nevill 1880
Genotype—Rissoina gigantea Deshayes 1848. Philippines.
Shell comparatively large, thick, upper part of shells axially ribbed, lower
part smooth or spirally striate. This subgenus is preferred for the Australian

46

species, the true Rissoina being very boldly axially ribbed through, including the
body whorl.

Thiele 1925, inadvertently introduced Morchiella to replace Mérchia Adams
1860, preoccupied by Albers 1850. He later, 1931, corrected this to Mérchinella.
That genus: belongs to the Adeorbidae.

R. spirata. Sowerby 1825. Philippines (type). New Guinea, North Australia.
A synonym is A. montrousieri Souverbie 1862,

R. triangularis Watson 1886. Ascension Island (type), Queensland, North
Australia.

R. variegata Angas 1867. New South Wales, Port Jackson (type); Tas-
mania, King Island; Victoria, Port Phillip; South Australia, St. Francis Island,
Sceales Bay, Guichen Bay, Port Elliston, Macdonnell Bay; West Australia, Ellen-
brook, Yallingup, Esperance, Rotrnest and Hopetoun.

R. gertrudis Tenison Woods 1875, Tasmania, King Island (type) ; Victoria;
South Australia, Guichen Bay, Macdonnell Bay, Beachport 45 fms., 110 fms.,
Edithburg.

Rissoina vincentiana sp. nov.
(Pl. iii, fig. 9)

Shell large, thick, cream-coloured to white with a spotted brown band below
the suture; whorls seven, rather fattened, very ftely spirally striate and axially
plicate, the axials becoming weaker on the later whorls, obsolete on the body
whorl and absent towards the middle and base; suture very narrowly channelled,
aperture large, pyriform, outerlip effuse below and yery thick; protoconch of two
smooth whorls. Height 10 mm., width 3°5 mm.

Locality—South Australia; Gulf St. Vincent, Glenelg (type). In shell sand
and generally along the southern Australian coast and dredged. Investigator Strait
15-20 fms., Port Lincoln 9 fms. West Australia: Ellenbrook, Rottnest, Yallin-
gup, Victoria.

Remarks—Holotype, Reg. No, D14438 Sth. Aust. Museum, This Flindersian
species is large, thick, and has a gradually weakening axial sculpture, It has been
confused with R. spirata Sowerby 1824, Philippines, R. variegaia Angas 1862,
New South Wales, R. gertrudis Tenison Woods 1836 and FR. orbignyi Adams
1853, Philippines and other Indo-Pacific species, It is most like RF, spirata, which
is much longer and has a marked torsion of the axis, A specimen of J. spirata
from Milne Bay, New Guinea, measures 15 mm, in length, has ten whorls and
a comparatively small protoconch.

Rissoina grata sp. nov,
(Pl. iii, Ge. 6)

Shell small, narrow, solid, shining white, suture impressed, whorls round;
axial ribs stout a little sinaus equivalent in width to the interspaces, nine on the
body whorl, nodulating the suture; aperture semilunar, lips thickened, protoconcl
of two smooth whorls the second fairly large and bulbous.

Height 4 mm., width 1°25 mm.

Localifty—West Aust,: Ellenbrook (type), King George Sound 80 fms,
80 miles west of Eucla; S. Aust.; Cape Borda 55 fms.

Remarks—The shell is related to R. gertrudis Tenison Woods but it has few
and strong axials. Holotype, Reg. No, D,14439, Sth, Aust. Museum.

47

Rissoina fiscina sp, nov.
(Pl. iii, fig. 12)

Shell small, short, solid, shining white, strongly axially ribbed, ten oblique
ribs on the penultimate whorl, no spirals; whorls five, suture a little impressed,
protoconch rather small and comparatively elate, of two smooth whorls the
second considerably wider than the first, but narrower than the first adult whorl;
aperture semilunar. Height 3°5 mm.; width 2 mm.

Locality—West Aust.: King George Sound (type), Ellenbrook, Rottnest.

Remarks—Holotype, Reg. No. D14440, Sth. Aust. Museum. This shell has
less developed axials than those of It. grata,

PuHostnetta Morch 1876

Genotype—Rissoina sagraiana Orbigny. West Indies.

Shell reticulated by subequal sculpture; aperture profoundly sinuated below ;
operculum denticulate posteriorly.

R., hedleyi Tate 1899. Sth. Aust.: Fowler Bay (type), Backstairs Passage
17 ims., St. Francis Island, Eyre Peninsula, Cape Borda 55 fins,. West Aust.:
Rottnest, King George Sound beach, Ellenbrook, Victoria,

Besides the typical form there is a variant with axial costae obsolete and
niore numerous spiral lirae, eight on the penultimate whorl, twenty-four on the
body whorl inclusive of three small ones at the extremity of the pillar.

R. efficata Brazier 1877, Old. (type). A synonym is P, Semisculpta Tate
1899. ‘Tas. (type, error).

R. clathrata Adams 1853. Philippines (type). Nth. Aust.: Torres Straits.

R, exasperata Souverbie 1866. New Caledonia (type), Funafuti, Qld.,
N. Atist. A synonym is R, quasillus Melwvill.

R. horrida Garrett 1873. Viti Island, Port Curtis (type), Nth, Aust., Qld.
Synonyms are R. curtisi Smith 1881 and &, australis Sowerby 1878.

R, allanag Laseron 1950. N.S.W.: Woolgoolga (type).

ZERINELLA Morch 1876

Genotype—Rissoina decussata Montagu, West Indies.

Shell very finely longitudinally costate and spirally striate, aperture widened
and emarginate helow,

Z, lintea Hedley and May 1908, Tas.; Cape Pillar 100 fms, (type); Vict.;
S. Aust:: Beachport 40 tms., 47 fms. 110 fms., 150 fms., Cape Borda 55 fims.,
Cape Jaffa 130 fms.

All South Australian specimens have numerous distinct spiral iricisions, some
are colourless, some light straw-coloured and others have two brown spirals on
the spire-whorls and five on the body-whorl as in R. fausta. A living specimen
from Cape Borda 55 fms., has no colour bands but is of a. uniform light greyish-
brown.

R. rhyllensis Gatliff and Gabriel 1908. Vict.: Western Port (type). Verco
1908 recorded Sotith Australian Iocalities irom Gulf St. Vincent to Beachport,
25 Ims. to 150 fms., remarking that the species seems to liye in about 100 fms.
in South Australia and to be less frequent in the shallower and deeper water.
The following localities can now be added: Spencer Gulf, Cape Jaffa 300 fms.,
St. Francis Island, Beachport 40 fms. and 200 fms.; West Aust.: Esperance,
Tt is a tather variable shell. In some examples the whorls are quite flat, in others
nearly all the whorl is flat, but the lower part is sharply convex, so. that each

48

whorl is overhung by the one above it. The sutures may be linear, or slightly
impressed or slightly channelled. The surface may be quite smooth and shining,
There may be spiral hair-like lines and similar axial lines, These may be of
about equal validity, so as to produce a microscopic latticing, or either spirals
or axials may be less valid up to complete obsolescence. Colour thay be absent
or there may be spiral rows of brown or orange spots, only one ar two on the
body whorl, and one on the spire whorls, or these spots may he axial blotches
extending nearly from suture to suture. J’. lintea approximates to the channelled
suture and valid spirals and R. fawsta to the smooth and painted variety.
R. rhyllensis has a priority of one month,

R fausta Hediey and May 1908 Tas.: Cape Pillar 100 fms, (type);
Sth. Aust, Cape Borda 55 tms. and 60 fms., Beachport 110 fms., 40 [ms., rare
in South Australia, Those from Cape Borda are almost smovth except for dine
close-set spirals and have five of six orange spirals about one-third the width of
the interspaces on the body-whorl, three on the spire-whorls, Specimens from
Beachport 110 fms. have five microscopic incisions and one or two orange lines
or series of orange blotches; body whorl with one to five orange lines or a series
of curved axial blotches, Specimens from 60 ims. off Cape Borda are smooth
with a single row of orange dots or with numerous axial yermicular orange lines
on the spire and body whorl.

Rissoina jaffa sp, nov.
(Pl, iii, fig. 8)

Shell attenuate, translucent, cream to yellow, whorls eight, flatly convex,
sutures lightly impressed, apex rather blunt, protoconch of two smooth, shining
depressed whorls; sculpture of close, fine, weak regular axtal plicae crossed by
even finer striae; aperture expanded effuse; columella slightly sinuous. Height
9 mm.,. width 2-5 mm.

Lecality—Sth. Aust.: Cape Jatia 300 ims. (type), 90 and 150 f{ins., Beach-
port 150 and 206 fms. Cape Wiles 40 miles south, 100 fis, (ITedley) ; West
Aust,: Great Australian Bight 40 miles west of Eucla, 72 ancl 120 fms.

Remares—Uoulotype, Reg. No. D.14441, South Australian Museum. This
species is retuarkable for its attenuated translucent shell and weak though regular
sculpture. It is of the R. rhyllensis group, but axially and spirally costate. Accord-
ing to specimens examined from Cape Wiles, 100 fms., it is the species recorded
from that locality by Hedley 1911, as R. rhyllensis.

Rissoina axiscalpta sp. nov.
(PL iii, fig. 10)

Shell elongate-ovate, apex blunt, sutures narrowly channelled, spiral lirae
about twelve on the body whorl and a few on the base, axial litac about twelve
in the penultimate whorl; aperture oblique, semilunar, inner lip slightly arcuate,
outer lip free, thick, with an anterior channel. Ifeight 6 mm., width 3 mm,

Locahty—Sth. Aust.: Beachport 110 fms. (type), Newland Head 24 ims,
Cape Borda 62 fms., Neptunes 45 fms. Beachport 49 fms.

Remarks—Holotype, Reg. No. Di4442, South Australian Museum. FR, axi-
scalpta is quite distinct from any other Australian species but is somewhat like
R, wedalei Laseron 1950, differing in ihe greater comparative length, flatrer
whorls, weaker spaced axials.

RR. elegantula Angas 1880, Sth, Aust.: Aldinga Bay, beach (type), Beach-
port 49 1o 150 {ms., Cape Borda 62 fms., Yankalilla beach, Porpoise Head
17 tms.. Newland Head 20 tms,, Backstai?s Passage 17 tms., Wallaroo 15 fins.,

49

Neptunes 104 fms., Cape Jaffa 130 fims., St. Francis Island 35 fms. and beach,
Kingston, beach; West Atist.: Rottnest, Yallingup, King George Sound, Bun-
bury 15 fms.; Tas.; Vict. The species is not uncommon from the heach to 17 ims.,
rarer in deeper water. Although there are no longitudinal lirae of the usual type,
there are microscopic striae cutting the very fine interstaces between the spiral
lirae.

R. reticulata Sowerby 1824, West Indies (type), Philippines, Old,
Nth. Aust. A synonym is. R. princeps Mirch 1876.

R. inermis Brazier 1877. Nth. Aust. (type).

R. iredalei Laseron 1950, N.S.W., Port Jackson, 15 fms. (type).

ScHWARTZIELLA Nevill 1884

Genotype—Rissoina bryerca Montagu 1803. Cuba.

Shell with flexuous axial costae equal smooth interstaces, no spiral striae,
lip with a longitudinally striate varix, rounded below, aperture without basal
emmargination,

R, nivea Adams 1851. Sth. Aust.: Port Lincoln (type), Eyre Peninsula,
Investigator Strait 20 fms., Gulf St. Vincent, beach and dredged in shallow water,
Cape Borda 55 fms., St, Francis Island 15-20 fms., and beach, Backstairs Pas-
sage 22 fms., Kingston; W. Aust.: King George Sound, beach and 12-14 fims.,
Bunbury [5 fms., Rottnest, Yallingup, Ellenbrook, Tlopetoun; Tas.: north-west
coast; Vict,

Synonyms are R, lirata Angas 1880, Aldinga and Holdfast Bay (type).
R, toxopleura Tate 1893 new name for R. lirafa Angas, not Gould 1861.

R. fasciata Adams 1853. N.S.W.; Sydney (type); Vict.; Tas.; Sth Aust. =
American River, Kangaroo Island, Yankalilla, Pondolowie, Investigator Straits
15 to 20 fms,, Beachport 110 fms., 49 fms., Cape Borda 55 fms., 62 fms., Robe,
Kingston.

Tt is a shallow water species, good examples not being taken below 25 ims. ;
deeper water specimens are in poor condition. Synonyms ate R. flexuosa Gould
1861, N.S.W. (type). R. cicta Angas 1867, N.S.W, {type), FR. hanleyi
Schwartz 1860.

R. eretacea Tenison Woods 1878, N.S.W. (type).

R. usitdta Laseron 1950. N.S.W.: Clarence River, 15 fms. (type)-

PykAMIpDELLOInES Nevill 1884
Genotype—Rissoina insolita Deshayes 1863. Mauritius.
Shell narrowly turretted, with spiral nodulose ribs, tuberculated below the
suture, outer lip crenulately varicose, laterally compressed aperture.
R, miranda 1861. Nth. Aust.: Cape York (type).
R, nodicincta Adams 1853. Philippines (type); Qld.; Nth Aust.; New

Guinea,
Rrssotina Gould 1861

Genotvpe—Rissoina elegauntissima Orbigny 1853. West Indies.

Shell with an acttte elevated ridge and an adjacent constriction around the
anterior extremity, sculpture of predominating axial folds.

R. angasi Pease 1872. N.S.W.: Port Jackson, deeper water (type); Vict.;
‘Tas.: Sth. Aust.; Gulf St. Vincent, Spencer Gulf, Kangaroo Island, Robe,
Middleton, Beachport 49 ims., Cape Borda 52 fms., 62 Ims., Cape Jaffa 130 fms. ;
West Aust.; Yallingup, Esperance, King George Sound, Rottnest, Hopetoun,
Ellenbrook. A synonym is Rassoina turricula Angas 1867, not Pease 1860.

50

R. crassa Angas 1871. N.S.W.: Bottle and Glass Rocks, under stones,
Port Jackson (type); Vict.; Old.; Sth, Aust: Port Sinclair, St. Francis Island,
Venus Bay. Edithburg; West "Aust. 2 Ellenbrook, Rottnest, Hopetoun, Yallingup,
King George Sound 12-14 fms., and beach.

R., cardinalis Brazier 1877, Old. (type); Nth. Aust. A synonym is I. mier-
curialis Watson 1886 Wednesday Island, Cape York, north-cast Australia,
8 fms. (type).

R. teres Brazier 1877. Nth, Aust. (type).

R. tnconspicua Brazier 1877. Nth. Aust. (type),

R. pulchella Brazier 1877. Nth, Aust (type); Qld, A synonym is R. hono-
luluensis Watson 1886. Honolulu (type).

R. flicata Adams 1851, Philippines (type) ; Old.; Nth. Aust. Synonyms are
R. scalarina Adams 1853, R. turricula Pease 1860.

R. scolopax Souverbie 1877, New Caledonia (type); Nth, Aust.; Qld.

R. kesteveni Wedley 1907. Qld.: Mast Head Reef (type).

R. obeliseus Schwattz 1860, Mauritius (type); Old, A synonym is
R. schwartziana Dunker, Upota (type).

R. thawmasia Melvill and Standen 1898. Madras (type) ; Qld.; Nth. Anst.

Stiva Hedley 1904

Genotype—Stiva ferruginea Hedley 1904. N.S.W. (type); Sth. Aust.

Shell Jarge, solid, resembles a Scala in general appearance but has the typical
aperture of the Rissvinidae, The operculum is peculiar, being concentric and
having a hollow projecting articulating limb.

S. ferruginea Hedley 1904, N.S.W.; Woolongong 100 fms. (type). A stnall
specimen resembling this species rather than S$, royara was found in dredged
material at Beachport, 1550 fms,

S. royana Iredale 1924, N.S.W.: Twofold Bay 10-25 fms, (type); Vict-:
Gabo Island 10-15 fms.

S. nielsent Laseron 1950. N.S.W.: Crookhaven 30-35 fms. (type).

TERTIARY SPECIES

Rissoina Orbigny 1840. Rissoa indica Orbigny, Peru,
Subgenus Zebinella March 1876,

R. elegantula Angas 1880. Recent. Adelaidean. Pliocene.

R. varicifera Venison Woods 1877. Table Cape, Miocene, 2, 4,
Subgenus Schwartsiella Nevill 1884.

R. nivea Adams 1851. Recent. Adelaidean. Pliocene.
Subgenus Mérchiella Nevilie 1884,

R. johnstoni Tennison Woods 1877. Table Cape. Miocenc.

Rissolina Gould 1861. Rissoina elegcitissima Orbigny 1853. West Indies.

R. profunda Chapman and Gabriel. 2, 3.

Family RISSOIDAE
The Recent Australian species of this family were reviewed by the author
in the Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 68, (2), 1944, 286-314, pl. xvi, fig, 1-12. In
the Rec. Aust. Mus., 22, No. 3, 257 -287, C. F, Laseron adds a few new genera
and species from New South Wales. He comments on the gents Leevilitorina
Pfeffer here regarded as belonging to the family Littorinidae. A new species of
the genus Eusetia Cotton 1944 is now described.

51

Eusetia laterna sp. nov.
(PLili, fig. 11)

Shell thick, solid, pyramidal, white to slate-coloured; suture linear, aperture
round, expanded; sculpture of microscopic crowded axial striae; protoconch
rather depressed, of two smooth whorls. Height 3°25 mm., width 2 mm.

Locality—Beachport 200 fms. (type), also 40 fms., 150 fms., and 10 fms.;
Cape Borda 55 fms.; Cape Jaffa 130 fms.; St. Francis Island 35 fms.

Remarks—Holotye, Reg, No, D.14443. S. Aust. Museum.

R. laterna is probably most like H, colurmnaria May 1910, but it is much
smaller, has less swollen whorls and is of a different shape.

TERTIARY SPECTES
Tertiary species of this family are arranged as follows:—
Haurakia Iredale 1915.
FH. tateana Tenison Woods 1877, Table Cape, Miocene,
ra: . gabrieli Chapman and Crespin 1928. Sorrento Bore, Victoria, Balcombian.
2,4,5.
H. demessa Tate and May 1900. Recent. Recorded from the Adelaidean,
Pliocene.
H. novarensis Frauenfeld 1867. Recent. Recotded ftom the Adelaidean,
Pliocene.
Linemera Finlay. 1924,
L. suprasculpta May 1915, Recent. Recorded {rom the Adelaidean, Pliocene.
L, sculptilis May 1919. Recent, 2, 3.
Epigrus Hedley 1903,
E. chrysalidus Chapman and Gabriel 1914, Mallee bore, Victoria, Kalimnan,
Pliocene.
E. cylindraceus Tenison Woods 1878, Recent, 2, 3.
Estea Tredale 1915.
E. bicolor Petterd 1884, Recorded from the Adelaidean, Pliocene.
E. kershawi Tenison Woods 1877. Recent. 2, 3, 4.
Scrobs Watson 1886.
§. gatliffiana Chapman and Gabriel 1914. Mallee bore, Kalimnan, Pliocene.
Botelloides Strand 1928.
B, bassiana Hedley 1911. Recent. Mallee bore, Kalimnan, Pliocene,
Kauvenella Ludbrook 1941.
K. denotata Ludbrook 1941. Adelaidean, Pliocene.
Subestea Cotton 1944,
S. stevensiana Tenison Woods 1877. Table Cape, Miocene. 2, 4.
Eusetia Cotton 1944,
E. bulininvides Tate and May 1900. Recent, Kalimnan,
Lironoba Iredale 1915.
L, australis Tenison Woods 1877, Recent, Kalimnan.

Family FASCIOLARIIDAE
The two genera Pleuroploca and Colus are reviewed here. The remaining
genera, Recent and Tertiary, are being worked out. The genotype of the typical
genus is Murex tulipa Linne 1758 from North America. Related Australian
species are placed in the genus Pleuroploca Fischer.

PiLeuropioca Fischer
Pleuroploca Fischer 1884, Genotype—Murex trapezium Linne 1758, Am-
boina. Fasciolaria audouini Jonas 1846, Red Sea, is said to be a synonym.

E

3z.

P. trapezium Linne 1758, Indo-Pacific. Two South Australian Museum
specimens, 1.6923, are labelled “North Queensland” and are the only records
for the species in Australia to my knowledge.

P. filamentosa Bolten 1798, Indo-Pacific, Nth. Aust,, Old. We have speci-
mens of this coral-living species from Cape York, Townsville, and Murray Island.

P_ ferruginea Lamarck 1822. Australia (type). Broome. This species is
narrower than P. filamentosa, A synonym is Fasciolaria imermis Jonas 1846,
Red Sea.

P, altimasta Iredale 1930. Qld.: Port Curtis (type). The coastal represen-
tative of P, filamentosa,

P. fusiformis Valenciennes 1840. Sth. Aust.; Tas, The figure in Kiener,
Coquilles Vivantes, 6, 13, pl, iv, Ag. 2, published 1840, are like the shell from
the South-East, South Australia. Kiener gives the locality “Notvelle-Hollande.”
It is a small thick, narrow shell with the upper whorls somewhat axially ribbed,
the lower whorls without axials, the outer Jip well bevelled and validly spirally
lirate within.

P. australasia Perry 1811. N.S.W., Vict. Tas. West Aust. Sth. Aust.
This species described by Perry as “a native of New Holland and Van Diemen’s
Land” is one of the most common larger gastropods of South Australia and
occurs all along the coast alive {rom low tide mark down to 55 fms. Perry's
figure is unmistukable and represents a medium-sized shell with the typical large
protoconch, rounded whorls with scarcely any shoulder, rather faint rounded
axial ribs, colour olive-green, ribs tinted by brown spiral lirae, the aperture
spirally streaked within the labrum, the columella three-plaited.

P. coroenala Lamark 1822. Vict., N.S.W., Sth. Aust., Tas., West Aust-
This species was deserthed from “des tes King et des Kanguroos,’”’ It is only
a variant of P. austrélasia and with the same geographical and vertical distribu-
tion, lt may be sharply angled and coronated at the shoulder, but grades: into
the round-shouldered P. aystralasia. Both have angled and coronated early spire
whorls, the adult only showing to which variant the form belongs,

P, bakeyi Gatliff and Gabriel 1912. Vict, (type), N.S.W. A specimen in
the South Australian Musetim, D.7966, irom Gabo Island, 70 fms. is typical
but large, measuring 148 mm. in length, It has ihe strong whorls and longitudinal
plications. Two specimens, D.68396, dvedged off Eden, New South Wales, are
atypical but probably belong to this species.

Pleuroploca eucla sp. nov.
(PL iv, fg, I, 2, 3)

Shell elongate, fusiform of seven whorls excliding the protoconch of two
smooth glassy, slightly pulliform whorls; spire whorls trapezoidal, with a sharp
central keel, concave above, slightly convex below where they are embraced by
the stture; the keel has plicate tubercles from which long, basal axial costae
extend, gradually fading out at the sutures, eleven in the body and penultimate
whorl; axials crossed by spiral lirae equidistant except over the base where they
become more oblique and distant; aperture elongate oval, outer lip crenulate
throughout, numerous close spiral striae within; columella smooth, three oblique
plaits; periostracum thin, greyish; aperture and shell white.

Length 143 mm, width 55 mm.

Locality—West Aust., 60 miles west of Eucla, 72 fms, (type).

Remarks—HAHolotype, 0.14445, Sth. Aust. Museum.

A half-grown specimen 80 mm. x 35 mm. is typical but has a comparatively
larger almost bulbous protoconch, but it is undoubtedly the same species, A third

53

specimen, a juvenile, is 33 mm, in length and shows the typical features. The
species 1s readily separated from P. australasia coronata in being more elongate,
keeled, white in colour and of more delicate structure, The holotype was men-
tioned as a variant of Fesciolaria oustralasia by Verco 1912.

Corus Humphrey
Colus Humphrey 1797, Mus. Calonnianum, 34,

Genotype—Murex colus L.inne 1758, Indo-Pacific. North Austrahan species
besides the genotype are C. forceps Petty 1811, C. nicobaricus Lamarck 1822.
From New South Wales are recorded C, sinuvellus Iredale 1928, C, consetli Ire-
dale 1928, C. wariegatus Perry 1811 = C. twrrispictus Martyn 178 = C. lati-
costatus Angas 1877 — C. genticus Iredale 1936. From Queensland are tecorded
C, boardmani Iredale 1930, and from Western Australia C. philippt Jonas 1846,
C. ventricosus Menke 1843, C. multicarinatus Lamarck 1822, C. longicaudus
Lamarck 1816, N-W.A., C. exits Menke 1943.

C. australis Quoy and Gaimatd 1833, Sth, Aust. All along the coast from
low tide down to 40 {ms,, and dead at 50 fms, to 150 fms. West Aust., Bunbury,
Albany beach dredged down to 28 fms, King George Sound, 50 fms, to 120 fms,
Great Australian Bight, west of Eucla.

The species is very common in South Australia, Verco 1895 gives Pusus
crebriliratus Reeve 1847, B. marmoraius Philippi 1846, I’. rudicostatus Sowerby
1880, F. laevigatus Sowerby 1880, F, nodicinctus Adams 1855, F. aureus Reeve
1847, and F. caudatus Quoy and Gaimard 1833 as synonyms. The protoconch is
of two and a half whorls, the first two round and smooth and then half a whorl
with axial bars only, ending in a simple verticle Jip. From this point start
abruptly the spiral firae of the mature shell. The two smooth whorls may be
swoller) and in some specimens the axials cover more than a whole whorl.

Colus novaechollandiae Reeve 1848. Tas. (type), N.S.W., Vict., Sth, Aust:
Hardwicke Bay, Willunga, Glenelg, one from the beach at cach locality, dredged
Investigator Straits all small broken specimens in poor condition; West Aust.,
90 miles west of Eucla 100 fims., four young specimens rather sharply keeled in
the middle of the whorls.

Family VOLUTIDAE

The family was reviewed by the author in (he Rec. S- Aust. Mus., 9, No. 2,
181-195.

The following species may now be added:—Lyrencta laseroni Iredale 1937,
N.S.W. Lyria deliciosa hawensis Tredale 1937, Lord Howe Island. Lyria
opposite Iredale 1937, Mast Head Reef, Cymbiola punctata Swainson 1825,
N.S.W, and Qld. Ericusa sericata Thornley 1951, Broughton Island, N.S.W,,
and the new species here described.

Ericusa orca sp. noy.
(Pl. iv, fig. 4, 5, 6)

Shell fustferm, elongate, rather thin, spire and body whorl comparatively
narrow for the genus; polished, smooth except for fine accrentental striae; whorls
natrow, only slightly convex and not angled; columella with three weak plaits,
outer lip a little thickened at the edge; colour cream except for a faint pink tinge
towards the suture and obscure short axial pale-pink flames just below the suture;
jiterior of aperture dark cream. suture close and simple; proteconch papillary,
bluish, oblique, first whorl very small, second large, the third of the same diameter

54

as the second, merging into the first adult whorl, all polished and smooth except
for microscopic accremental striae; first two adult whorls microscopically striate.
Length 148 mm., width 58 mm.

Locality—West Aust: 90 miles west of Eucla, 100 fms.

Remarks—The species is somewhat like E. fulgetrum Sowerby but is nar-
rower, thinner, has less convex whorls; and the protoconch is comparatively
smaller though basically similar, Holotype, D, 13816, S. Aust. Museum.

Holotype, D. 13816, S. Aust. Musetim.

ERICUSA FULGETRUM (Sowerby)

The species occurs right along the South Australian coastline, Collectors
take it alive in shallow water on sand banks. Between Coobowie and Wool
Bay on the east coast of Yorke Peninsula the tides sometimes form a sand-bar
which is exposed at a very low tide to the heat of the sun, When the sea begins
to cover the bar, as the tide rises, these volutes and also such shells as the “Talse
Helmet” Hypocassis bicarinata and “Lyre Shells” Lyria mitraeformis emerge
from the sand. Collectors say that a dozen or more specimens have been taken in
a few hours. Of the eight varieties described by Verco 1912, the figured specimen
of one only is entered by him in the Museum Register, November 1915, as “D. 439
Ericusa fulgetrum Sby. Var. dictua Verco type shell.” I have not seen specimens
of the untcincta and bicincta varieties.

It is not found in Victoria and the only Western Australian representative
is the deeper water species described above as E, orca, Deeper water specimens
are usually of the dictua, lunisligata or connectens varieties. E. fulgetrum con-
nectens is usually quite small but a fine living specimen recently dredged by Mr. J.
Veitch at Port Lincoln measures six and a quarter inches in length.

Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 1952 Vol. 75, Plate

1 Pervicacia hefenae sp.nov... = te, zh ee:
2 Pervicacia ustulata Deshayes .... Ak ee es i kL Rd
3 Pervicacia subplicata sp.nov. .... eo rea tae say
4 Nototerebra flindersi sp.nov. .... eh hol ee Va oe
5 Gemunaterebra catentfera Tate rts pan 207 mee eel
6 Rissoina grata sp. nov. Se in a nf Se aw
7 Noditerebra geniculata Tate... a: ae. aes re eet
8 Rissoina jaffa sp. nov. .... as BM Ns. 54 OSS
YQ Rissoima vincentiana sp.nov. .... ai Ri, o wee NAS
10) Rissotna axtscalpta sp.m0v. —... ae ie ao oe Ose
11 Fusetia laterna sp. nov. rm dh FA a Ha SEES
12) Rissoma fiscina sp. nov. en ae a cae Lees:

Trans. Roy Soc. S. Aust. NIE Yooy, Teens: IKK!

Audine C.
1 Pleuroploca eucla sp. nov., ventral... me he we xO4
2 Plewuroploca eucla sp. nov., protoconch =e ie ay es
3. Pleuroploca eucla sp.nov., dorsal... ‘ : ‘ x0-4
4 fEricusa orca sp. nov., ventral ... see aA Ss ge exes
5 Ericusa orca sp,nov., protoconch — .... oh oa cet aie)
6 Ericusa orca sp. nov., dorsal... nde st 23 Exige

SOME SOUTH AUSTRALIAN DESMIDS

BY GERALD W. PRESCOTT AND ARTHUR M. SCOTT (COMMUNICATED BY H. B. S.

WOMERSLEY)

Summary

For the material on which the present study is based we are greatly indebted to Mr. Ivan L.
Ophel of St. Peters, South Australia. With one exception, as noted, the collections were made by
Mr. Ophel in 1945 and 1946, from the stations listed below:

C12.

From pool, Rocky River, Flinders Chase, Kangaroo Island. Squeezed from
Nitella sp. Collected by Miss C. M. Eardley, January 1940 (Tate Expedition)
From pool, Breakneck River, near road, Flinders Chase, Kangaroo Island.
Among Nitella sp. January 1946.

As above but slightly upstream, and squeezed from Myriophyllum sp.

Pool near road bridge, Sou’ West River, Kangaroo Island. Among Chara,
Nitella, and Utricularia. January 1946.

Pool under road bridge, Sou’ West River, Kkangaroo Island. Among Nitella,
Utricularia, etc. January 1946.

Pool in drying-up stream, Harriet River, Vivonne Bay, Kangaroo Island.
January 1946.

As C30, but slightly downstream.

Dam above American River inlet, Kangaroo Island. January 1946.

Pool at Square Waterhole, Mount Compass Swamps. October 1945.

Plankton collection from Happy Valley Reservoir, Adelaide. October 1946.

55
SOME SOUTH AUSTRALIAN DESMIDS

Geratp W. Prescott * and ArtHur M, Scott tf
(Communicated by H. B. S. Womersley)
[Read 12 July 1951]

For the material on which the present study is based we are greatly indebted
to Mr. Ivan L. Ophel, of St. Peters, South Australia. With one exception, as
noted, the collections were made by Mr, Ophel in 1945 and 1946, from the stations
listed below:
C12, From pool, Rocky River, Flinders Chase, Kangaroo Island, Squeezed
from WNitelle sp. Collected by Miss C. M. Eardley, Jatuary 1940
(Tate Expedition).

C24. From pool, Breakneck River, near road, Flinders Chase, Kangaroo
Island. Among Nitella sp. January 1946.

C24X. As above hut slightly upstream, and squeezed from Myriophylium sp.

C27, Pool near road bridge, Sou’ West River, Kangaroo Island, Among
Chara, Nitella, and Utricularia, January 1946.

C28, Pool under road bridge, Sou’ West River, Kangaroo Island. Among
Nitella, Utricularia, ete. January 1946,

C30. Pool in drying-up stream, Harriet River, Vivonne Bay, Kangaroo
Island, January 1946.

C33. As C30, but slightly downstream.

C39. Dam above American River inlet, Kangaroo Island. January 1946.

B42. Pool at Square Waterhole, Mount Compass Swamps. October 1945.

B50. Plankton collection from Happy Valley Reservoir, Adelaide. October

1946,

Kangaroo Island, from which most of the collections were obtaincd, is a
large island lying a few miles off the coast of South Australia, in Lat. 36° S.,
Long, 138°E., and therefore in the south temperate zone. The desmid-flora,
therefore, might be expected to show considerable resemblance to that of the
States of New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, which have been studied
by previous workers, and our examination shows this to be the case. It differs
considerably, however, from that of North Australia and the northern part of
Queensland, since these are in the south tropical zone, and their desmid-flora
includes many of the large and highly elaborated species that are found in the
Indo-Malayan-Indonesian region.

In the following descriptions all measurements are given in microns, and
these abbreviations are used: L.= length; W.= width; T.— thickness; L.—=
isthmus.

We wish to express our thanks to Dr, Hatinah Croasdale for providing the
Latin diagnoses, and to Mrs. Dorothy Perine, Jr., for inking the junior author's
pencil drawings.

Where possible, references have been given to general works, which ate more
easily accessible than the original descriptions. In the case of new varieties the
references are to the species, and for new forms the references are to descriptions

of the variety.
NETRIUM
Netrium digitus var. Naegelii (Bréb.) Krieg. L, 92; W. 21. Breakneck
River, C24X. West and West, 1904, p. 66, pl. VIT, fig. 4, 5.
* Michigan State College, Michigan, U.S.A.

+ New Orleatis, U.S.A.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 75, September 1952

56

CLOSTERIUM

Closterium: aciculare T. West. Pl. 1, fig. 9, A needle-like species almost
imperceptibly curved throughout the median two-thirds of the cell length, but more
strongly toward the apices which are drawn out to fine points. L. 502-550;
W. at centre; W. at poles 2. Happy Valley Reservoir, B50, West and West 1904,
p. 176,

Closterium cornu Ehrbg. L. 148; W. at centre 5; W. at poles 1°5. Break-
neck River, C24. West and West, 1904, p. 157, pl. XX, fig. 1-5.

Closterium cynthia De Not. fa punctatum fa. nov. Fig. 1, No, 3. Differing
from the typical by having punctations in the wall between the striations which
are relatively prominent, about 7 striae in 10, and also differing in having the
wall light straw-coloured rather than colourless, L. 120; W. at centre 19; W. at
poles 6. Breakneck River, C24X. West and West 1904, p, 113.

Sf } Tig. 1

1 Closteritn dianue Ehrbg.

2 Closteriwm dianae var, arcuairatnr
(Bréb.) Rab,

3 Closterium cynthia. De Not. fa. pune-
talium fa. noy-

4 Closlerium paorvilum Naezg, var. ap-
gustemn West and West.

5 Closterinm striolatum Ehrb.

6,7 Closterium gracile Bréhb,

& Clostenum Kuetsingii Bréb,

9 Closteritun aciculare T. West,

10 Triploceras gracile var. bidentate
Nordst. fa. spinoswn fa. nov.

UL Exuustrun dubtum Naeg. var. glibrum
var, nov.

12 Cosmariwn constrictum Delp, fa.
minor Fritsch and Rich,

13° Cosmurivm capitulum yar, australe
G. S. West.

t4 Cosmurium quadrifarium Lund, fa,
trifidum ta, nov.

15. Cosmurium protumphalum Skuja var.
unqulare var, nov.

16 Cosmarinm. titctin Ralfs.

17 Cosmernim psendoquadratulwm — sp,
nov.

on et . : u
Lee 18 Cesnarim subtumidum Nordst, var,
bachydermum var. nov.

Forma a planta typica differens possessione punctationum in membrana inter
striationes prominentes, circa 7 per 10», necnon membrane pallida straminea
colore potius quara sine colore. Tong. 120; lat, 19; poli 6.

Closteriwm dianae Ehrbg. Tig. 1, No. 1. Poles obliquely truncate and bearing
a granular thickening on the inner surface near the pole, L. 330; W- at centre 25;
W. at poles 7. Breakneck River, C24X. West and West 1904, p. 130.

Closterium dianae var, arcuatum (Bréb.) Rab. Fig. 1, No. 2. A form that is
more strongly curved than the typical, L, 220; W. at centre 19; W. at poles 5,
Breakneck River, C24X. West and West 1904, 1, 131.

Closterium Ehrenbergii Menegh. L. 420; W. 106. Rocky River, C12,
West and West 1904, p. 143, pl. XVII, fig. 1-4.

Closterium gractle Bréb. Fig. 1, Nos, 6, 7. The tapering of the apices and the
curvature at the poles of the Australian plants suggest Cl. Ralfsit var. novae-
angliae (Cush.) Krieg. The former are almost imperceptibly striate, or smooth-

57

walled, however, and have the proportions of Cl. gracile. L. 142-166; W. at centre
5-6; W. at poles 1-5-2, Breakneck River, C24. West and West 1904, p. 166.

Closterium Kuetzingu Bréb, Fig. 1, No, 8, Walt finely and closely striate, 22
striae visible across the cell in ours. L. 400; W. at centre 16; W. at pole 3. Break-
neck River, C24. West and West 1904, p, 186.

Closterium parvulum var. angustum West and West. Fig. 1, No. 4. A form
in which the curvature creates more of an arc than in the typical; poles strongly
tapering, L. 69; W. at centre 10; W. at poles 3. Breakneck River, C24. West
and West 1904, p, 134,

Closterium sirtolatum Ehrbg, Fig. 1, No. 5. Cells broadly convex dorsally
but nearly straight along the ventral margin; striae 5-10 in 10 (16 striae visible
in our specimens). L. 252; W, at centre 27; W, at pole 10. Mount Compass, B42.
West and West 1904, p. 122,

Closterism venus Kuetz. L. 25; W. at centre 3; W. at poles 1:5, Breakneck
River, C24. West and West 1904, p. 137, pl. XV. fig. 15-20.

Fig. 2

Tetmemorus laevis (Kuetz.) Ralfs.
Pleurotagnivm corenutum (Bréb,)

Ne

ab.
Pleurotaenium Hhrenbergit var. un-
dulatuym. Schaarschm,
Plevrotaentum trahecula var. rectum
(Delp) West and West, Fa.
Fuasirum ansatun var. dideltiforme
Ducell, fa, australianum fa. nov.
Euasirum ansatum var. dideltiforme
Duicell,

na un

PLEURATAENIUM

Pleurotaenium coronatum (Bréb.) Rab, Fig, 2, No. 2, L. 406; W, at base
33; W. at pole 24; I. 27. Sow’ West River, C27. West and West 1904, p. 199.

Pleurotaenium Ehrenbergti var. undulatum Schaarschm, Fig. 6, No. 3. L.
326; W. at base 24; W. at poles 17; I. 21. Breakneck River, C24X, West and
West 1904, p, 207.

Pleurotaenium trabéecula vat. rectum (Delp.) West and West. Fig. 6, No. 4.
L. 302; W. at base 22; W. at poles 15; I. 18. Dam on Kangaroo Island, C39.
West and West 1904, p, 209,

58

TRIPLOCERAS

Triploceras gracile var, bidentatwm Nordst. fa. spinosum fa, nov. Fig. 5,
fig. 10, A form differing in the main from the typical variety by having lateral
protuberances of the wall arranged in seven or eight irregular vertical series, each
protuberance furnished with a relatively long, sharp, mostly horizontally directed
spine, at the base of which are two shoulders which may be elarigated to form
spinescences; polar lobules trispinate as in the variety. L. 414479; W. at base
including spines about 36. Breakneck River, C24X. Krieger, W. 1937, p. 444,

Forma a planta typica differens protuberationthus lateralibus membranae
in 7 vel 8 seriebus yerticalibus, irregulariter ordinatis, quaque protuberatione spina
relative longa, acuta, plerumgue horizontaliter proiciente instructa; duohus
humeris spinae in basi ad spinescentiam efficiendam fortasse elongatis; lobuli
polares trispinati ut im yarietate. Long. 414-479; lat. in basi cemiecllulae, cum

spinis, circa 36,
TETMEMORUS
Tetimemorus Brebissoni; Menegh, L. 286; W. at base 52; W. at pole 33;
1, 30, Mount Compass, B4Z, West and West 1904, p. 216, pl. XXXII, fig. 1, 2.
Tetmemorus laews (Kuetz.) Ralfs, Fig. 2, No. 1. L. 142; W. 27; 1, 26.
Mount Compass, B42, West and West 1904, p. 222.

EUASTRUM

Ewastrom ansatum var, dideltiforme Ducell. Fig. 2, No. 6, The Australian
plants show one of the many variations of E. ansatum; in this case intermediate
between var. dideltiforme Ducell, and var. campounulatum (Playf.) Krieg. The
facial protuberances are but slightly developed as seen in front view, L. 135-158;
W. 77-79; I. 18. Mount Compass, B42, Krieger W., 1937, p, 488.

Euastrum ansotum vat, dideltiforms Ducell. fa, australianum fa, nov. Fig. 2,
No. 5. A form differing from the variety by having two mucilage pores, one
above the other, in the mid-region of the semicell, and in having the angles and
the facial protuberances deeply scrobiculate, the remainder of the cell wall finely
scrobiculate or punctate, L. 90; W. 42; 1.12. Mount Compass, B42, Krieger, W.,
1937, p. 488.

Forma a varietate typica differens possessione duorum pororum mucosorum,
uno supra alterum, media in semicellula, et angulis atque protuberationibus pro-
funde scrobiculatis, reliqua membrane subtiliter scrobiculata punctatave, Long.
90; lat. 42; crass. 27; isthm. 12.

Euastrum conicum (Playf.) Krieg var. imperforatum var. nov. Fig. 3, Nos.
1, 2. A variety differing from the typical by lacking the four mucilage pores in
the mid-region of the semicell, by a complete reduction in the facial protuberances,
and by its greater thickness; side view oblong with broadly convex lateral margins
and a slight swelling of the hasal angles. L, 118-119: W. 36; T. 28; I, 10-12.
Mount Compass, B42, Playfair, G, T., 1907, p. 174.

Varietas a planta typica differens inopia quattuor pororum mucosorum
media in semicellula, atque redictione completa protuberationum super-
ficialem, atque maiore crassitudine; semicellula a latera visa oblonga, marginibus
lateralibus late convexa, angulis basalibus subinflatis. Long. 118-119; lat. 36;
crass, 28; isthm, 10-12,

Euastrum dubium Naeg. var. glabrum var. nov, Fig. 1, No. 11. Breakneck
River, C24X. A variety differing from the typical by its almost complete smooth-
ness of the cell wall, and in the shape of the semicells as seen in lateral view ; setni-
cells rectangular in face view, the lateral margins of basal lobes prominently and
equally hilobed, the sinus narrow and closed throughout, one centra! facial tubercle

59

and a smali tooth just within each basal angle of the semicell and slightly supra-
isthmial; in lateral view semicells broadly oval, the apex rounded, with two
minute teeth showing at the base of the semicell within the margin. L. 20; W. 16;
T. 10; I. 4°5. Breakneck River, C24X, West and West 1905, p. 43.

Varietas a planta typica differens levitate fere tota membranae cellulae,
atque forma semicellularum a latere visrum; semicellulae a facie: visae rectangu-
lares, marginibus lateralibus loborum basalium prominenter aequeque bilobatis,
sinu omhino angusto inapertoque; unum tuberculum centrale facialeque et dens
parvus admodum intra quemgue anguiliin basalem semicellularum et paulum
supraisthmalis; semicellulae a latere visae late ovatac, apice rotundato, duobus
dentibus minutis intra marginem ad basim semicellulae. Long. 20; lat. 16; crass.
10; isthm, 475.

Euastrum sphyroides Nordst. Vig. 3, No. 3. L. 40; W. 30; T. 20; I. 9,
Mount Compass, B42. Krieger, W. 1937, p. 625.

Fig. 3

1,2 Euastrum conicum (Playf.) Krieg.
var. imperforatwen var. nov.

3 Euastrion sphyroides Nordst.

4 Cosmarium rectangulare var. sub-
hexagonuin Playf. fa. granulatum
fa. nay-

5 Cosmarium rectangulare var. australe

Playf. fa. multigranulaim fa. nov.

Caswiarigen. rotundum sp. nov.

Cosmarium Opheliz sp. nov.

Cosmarium contractum var. ellipsat-

deum (Eliv.) West and West.

Arthrodesmus phinus Turn. fa. con-

vexus, Ta. lov.

10 Arthrodesmus phintus var. occidentalts

West and West fa. minimissimus
fa. Noy,

Co CNH

MTCRASTERIAS

Micrasterias moahabulashwarensis var. ampullacea (Mask.) WNordst. fa,
australiensis fa. noy. Fig. 4, No. 4, A form differing from the typical by having
a reduction in the granulations of the face of the semicell (except within the
margin of the polar lobe and a tow of prominent granules across the base of the
semicell) ; lateral lobes divided into two arms, the upper of which is extended
almost horizontally but somewhat arched near the body of the cell. L. 154;
W. 130; 1. 25, Breakneck River, C24X. Krieger, W., 1939, p. 50.

Forma a varietate typica differens reductions granulationum faciei semi-
cellulae (nisi quod habet granula intra marginem lobi polaris atque ordinem granu-
lorum prominentium trans basim semicellulae) ; lobi laterales in two brachia divisi,
brachio superiore fere horizontaliter extenso, subarctiato, autem, prope corpus
celinlae. Long. 154; lat. 130; isthm, 25. ;

60

Micrasterias Thomasiana yar, notatu (Nordst.) Grinbl. Fig. 4, No. 3.
[.. 251-255; W. 218-236; I, 29-33. Breakneck River, C24X. Krieger, W., 1939,

p. 111,
COSMARIUM

Cosmarium binum Nordst L. 64; W. 45; 'T, 27; L 15. Harriet River, C30,
West and West 1908, p. 246, pl. LXXXVIIT, fig, 10-14.

Cosmarium bioculatum Bréb. fa, L. 22; W. 21; 1, 6, Breakneck River, C24.
West and West 1905, p. 165, pl. LXI, fig. 3-7.

Cosmariwn Blyttii Wille fa. L, 16; W. 14; 1. 4-5 Sou’ West River, C28.
West and West 1908, p. 225, pl, IXXXYVI, fig. 1+.

Cosmarium capitulum var, australe G, S, West. Fig. 1, No, 13, Breakneck
River, C24X, L, 20; W. 21; 1. 6. West. G. S., 1909, p. 1-88.

Cosmarium constrictum ta. miner Fritsch and Rich. Fig, 1, No. 12, L, 17-22;
Nadel ; T. 8; I. 3. Mount Compass, B42. Fritsch, F. E., and Rich, Florence.
1924,

As Fritsch and Rich suggest, this form approaches C. inane Turn., with
which it should be compared. Probably Turner’s name is synonymous,

Cosmarium controctum. var, cllipsaideum (Elfy.) West and West. Tig, 3,
No. 8, A small form of a variety of C, contractum, which is a species that has
much variation in size, aid (as interpreted by various workers) varies in shape.
Mount Compass, B42. L. 33; W, 27; T. 18; 1. 8. West and West 1905,

Cosmarium cucurbitinum (Biss.) Luetkem, Fig, 4, No. 11. Wall finely
punctate; wall at the poles «lecidedly thickened and pitted. L, 67; W, 34; 1, 33,
Dam on Kangaroo Island, C39. Luetkemiiller, J., 1902, p. 406,

Cosmorinm dentiferum Corda. Fig. 4, No, 7, L. 73; W. 71; T, 32; 1, 18.
Sou’ West River, C27. West and West 1908, p. 156,

Cosmarium. difficile var. sublaeve Laetkem, L. 31; W, 20; I, 4. Rocky River,
C12. West and West 1908, p, 97, pl, LXXIII, fig, 4, 5

Cosmarium grandtum Bréb. L. 25-27; W,, 16-18; T. 8; 1. 6 Breakneck
River, C24, C24X, Dam on Kangaroo Island, C39, West and West 1905, p. 186,
Pl. LXITI, fig. 1-3.

Cosmarium impressulum Elfy, fa, L. 15-16; W, -1213: L 4. Breakneck
River, C24X, Elfving, F., 1881, p. 13, pl. 1, fig. 9.

Cosmarium wargaritatum (Lund,) Roy and Biss, L, 82; W. 87; T. 42:
1.24, Dam on Kangaroo Island, C39. West and West 1912, p. 18.

Cosmarium margaritatum (Lund,) Roy and Biss. fa, pyramidatum fa, nov.
Fig. 4, No, 6. A form differing from the typical variety by having the semicell
elevated and narrowed at the poles rather than being flattened or broadly convex
at the apex; lateral walls of semicells pith round granules, polar tegion with cone-
shaped gramiles, all granules surrounded by a circle of deep punctations or
minute pores. L. 121; W. 90; T. 30, Mount Compass, B42.

Forma a varietate typicu differens semicellula elevata atque ad polos
angiistate potius quam complanata aut late convexa ad apicem; latera semi-
cellylarum granulis fotundatis praedita, regio polaris granulis conicis, granulis
omhibtis cireulo punctationum profundarum aut pororum minutorum circumdatis.
Long. 121; lat. 90; isthm, 30,

Cosmarium multigranulatum sp. noy, Fig. 4, No. 10. Cells of medium size,
twice as long as wide, very slightly constricted in*the mid-region to form a broad
isthmus; wall densely set with transverse rows of grantiles (about 15 rows in
each semicell) ; circulat in end view, L. 39; W. 19; I. 17, Mount Compass, B42.

Cellulae medioeres, duplo Jongiares quam latae, ovatae, semicellulis elongato~
ovatis, media in parte ad isthmum latum formandum paululum constrictis ; mem-
brana ordinibus transversis granulorum dense obsita (circa 15 ordinibus quaque
im senucellula), cellula a vertice visa circularis. Long, 39; Crass, 19; isthm. 17.

61

Cosmarium multiordinatum West and West, Fig. 4, No. 8. Semicells trans-
versely oval but with definitely truncate apices; untformly heset with concentric
rows of sharp granules; wall in the median portion of the semicell with a
large circular area in which the graniles are interspersed with pores which are
larger and more prominent in the centre of the area, wall lightly punctate between
the granules. L. 79; W. 73; T. 48; I. 23. Breakneck River, C24X, West and
West 1897, p, 121.

ee

SOCAN Aun LON

Xanthidium armatum (Bréb.) Rab. var. depressum var. nov.

Xanthiditon simplictus Nordst. var. pseudasmithit var. nov.

Micrasterias Thomastana var. notata (Nordst.) Grénbl.

Micrasterias mahabuwlashwarensis var. anpullacea (Mask,) Nordst, fa. ais-
lraliensis fa, nov,

Cosmarium porrectum Nordst.

Cosmarium marguritatum (Lund.) Roy and Biss. var. pyramtidaten var.
nov.

Cosmarium dentiferum Corda,

Cosmarium multiordinatum West and West.

Cosmarium retusiforme var, major Gutw-

Cosmarium multigranulatum sp. nov.

Cosmarium cucurbitinum (Biss.) Luetkem.

62

Cosmarium Ophelii sp. nov. Fig, 3, No. 7, Cells medium-sized, very slightly
longer than wide, nearly cirenlar in outline; semicells semicircular with flattened
truncate apex which appears slightly produced because of an invagination on
either side, the lateral margins with five pronounced undulations; sinus narrow
and closed throughout, with a slight enlargement at the apex; wall with an
irregular patch of punctations in the mid-region of the semicell where there ts
a triangular arrangement of three granules; side view of semicell approximately
circular, with a pair of granules showing at the margin on each side in the mid-
region, and a pair of granules at the base of the semicefl within the margin;
polar view narrowly oval with 2 row of three granules in the mid-region on each
side. L, 37; W. 33; T, 20; 1. 10, Breakneck River, C24X.

Cellulae mediocres, paulula longiores quam latae, quasi circulares; semi-
cellulae semicirculares, apice complanato truncatoque, aspectu ob invaginationem
marginis utroque in latere subproducto, lateribus 5 undulationes menifestas prae-
bentibus; sinus angustus, omnio inapertus, ad apicem subampliatus; membrana
maculam irregularem punctationum atque 3 granula in ordinatione triangulari
media in semicellula habens; semicellula a latere visa propemodum circulars,
pari granulorum ad marginem utrimque media in parte atque pari granulorum
ad hasim semicellulac intra marginem praedita; semicellula ab apice visa anguste
ovata, ordine trium granulorum media in parte utroque in latere. Long 37; lat, 33;
crass, 20; isthm. 10.

This species should be compared with C. sublatereuntdatum West and West,
which is without granules and has a differently shaped apex.

Cosmarisxm Portianum Arch. L. 25; W. 18; I. 7-5. Dam on Kangaroo
Island, C39. West and West 1908, p. 165, pl. LXXX, fig. 4-7.

Cosmarium porréctum Nordst. Fig. 4, No. 5. L. 97-107; W. 99-108; T, 43:
I, 29-32, Breakneck River, C24X_ Nordstedt, 0. 1870, p. 207.

This plant should be compared with C. gutdrim Lund. and C. biretwm Breb.
arid its varieties, The former comparison suggests the desirability of contbining
C. quadrum and C. porrectum. Comparison should also be made with C. dentt-
ferum var. porrectum Playf.

Cosmarium protomphalusm skuja var. angulare var nov. Fig. 1, No. 15. A
form differing from the typical by having the lower lateral margins rather sharply
diverging from the isthmus to form an angulation about midway to the apex;
upper lateral margins convex and converging to the apex which is not so nearly
truncate asin the typical; with a large tubercle just within the margin at the apex,
L, 30: W. 22; T. 16; 1. 7:5. Rocky River, C12. Skuja, H., 1937,

Varietas a planta typica differens marginibus inferioribus lateralibys ab
isthmo subabrupte divergentibus ad efficiendam angulationem quasi media in parte
lateris; marginibus superioribus lateralibus convexis et ad apicem minus trun-
ratum quam in planta typica, convergentibus; tuberculum magnum admodum
intra marginem in apice, Long, 30; lat. 22; crass, 16; isthm, 7*5.

Cosmarium pseudoprotuberans Kirchn. fa. L. 48; W. 37; T. 24; I. 12, Dam
on Kangaroo Island, C39, West and West 1908, p. 82, pl. LXTV, fig, 6-8,

Cosmayinmt pseudopyramidatum Lund. fa, L, 51; W. 30; T. 21; L. 12.
Rocky River, C12. West and West 1905, p. 201, pl. LXIV fig, 9-12.

Cosmarium pseudoquadratulum sp, nov. Fig, 5, No. 12, Cells small, 14 times
longer than wide; semicells quadrate but with the lower lateral margins diverging
from the basal angles which bear a small tubercle; upper lateral margins retuse,
forming a slightly produced apex; apical margin convex but with a slight median
notch (or retuseness) ; semicells in lateral view circular; in end view broadly
oval; isthmus narrow, sinus closed. L. 15; W. 12: T. 8; 1, 4. Rocky River, C12.

Cellulae parvae, 14 plo longiores quam latac; semicellulaé quadratae, mar-
pinitmes, autem, inferioribus laterahbus ab angulis qui tuberculum parvum ferunt,

63

divergentibys; margines superiores laterales retusi, apicem paulum productum
efficientes; margo apicalis convextis, in medio, autem, subincisi (aut retusus) ;
semicellulae a latere visae circulares; ab apice visae late ovatae 5 isthmus angustus,
sinu inaperto. Long. 15; lat. 12: crass. 8; isthm. 4. _

This species should be compared with C. quadvatulum (Gay) De Toni,
especially with its variety applanatum. Insam and Krieger; also with C. Regnelit
Wille. it is about the same size as (he latter, but does. not have a swelling in the
mid-region of the semicell. The plant has a strong resemblance to Euastriwm binale
vat, Aians W. West, especially in the front view, ‘The apex is suggestive of
Euastrum, but the facial markings and protuberance are lacking.

Cosmarium punctulatum Bréb. L. 23; W. 21; T, 12; 1 7. Rocky River,
Ci2. West and West 1908, p. 206, pl. LE XXIV, fig. 13, 14.

Cosmarium punctulatum yar. subpunctulatum (Nordst-) Boerges, Fig. 5,
Nos, 9, 10. L. 30-33; W. 27-30; .T. 21; 1. 9. Happy Valley Reservoir, B50, Break-
neck River, C 24X. West and West 1908, p. 209. Our figures show two vana-
tions in pattern of granulation.

Cosmartwn pachydermum fa. transitoria Heimerl, 1. 81-88; W. 64-70;
T. 39; I 30-32. Rocky River, C12. Breakueck River, C2X. Heimer, A,, 1891,
p. 596.

Cosmarium quadrifarium Lund, fa. trifidum ta. nov. Fig. 1, No. [4, A form
differing from the typical hy having the marginal verrucae conspicuously triden-
tate, and im haying three rows of verrucae (two within the lateral margins as
seen in face view) ; in lateral view the semicells broadly oval with a slight median
protuberance on each side hearing two vertical series of granules, and with six
vertical rows of granular verrucae extending from the base of the semicell to the
apex, L. 51; W. 39; T. 26; L. 15. Mount Compass, B42, Tundell, P. M., 18/1,
p- 32.

Forma a vartietate typica differens verrucis marginalibus perspicue tridenta-
tis, et possessione 3 ordintim verriucarum (2 intra margines latetales a facie
visorum); semicellulae a latese visae late ovatae, protuberatione media parva
quoyue in latere 2 series verticales pranulorum ferentes, et 6 ordinibus verticalibus
verrucarum grauulosarum a basi semicellulae ad apicem extensis. Long, 51;
fat. 39; crass, 26; isthm. 15,

This is probably a form of C. quadrifaritun var. gemmulatum described by
Maskell from New Zealand.

Cosmarinm rectangulare var. australe Playf, fa, multigranulatum fa, nov,
Fig. 3, No. 5, A form differing from the typical yariety in having an oval pattern
of five granules on the face of the semicell; in side view semicells subcircular,
with a pair of granules showing on the lateral margins; polar view broadly
elliptic with a row of three granules in the median part of the lateral margins.
L. 44; W..35; £. 10. Dam on Kangaroo Island, C39, Playfair, G.1., 1910, p. 480.

Torma a varietate Lypica differens possessione ordinationis ovate quinque
granulorum in facie semicellulae; semicellulae a latere visae circulares, hinis
gtanulis itv margine laterali semicellulae a polo visae cllipticac, ordine trinm
granulorum media in parte marginem lateraliam, Long. 41; lat. 35; isthm. 10,

Cosmariyin rectanyulare yar, subhexagonum Playf. fa. granulatum fa. nov.
Fig. 3, No. 4. A form differing from the typical variety by having an are of
three granules just above the mid-region of the semicell, one gramile just within
the apex and one on either side of the apex (upper lateral angles) ; apex truncate-
convex; in side view semicells citcular and showing one granule at the apex and
two on either side; vertical view broadly elliptic with a slight swelling having
three granules in the mid-region on each side, and with a cruciform arrangement
of four granules (one within each lateral margin and one within each pole) ; wall

64

at the poles of the cell and in the lower Jateral angles coarsely punctate. L. 30;
W. 26; T. 17; 1.7. Rocky River, C12. Playfair, C, I, 1910, p, 483.

Forma a varietate typica differens possessione arcus 3 granulorum admodum
supra mediam semicellulam, granulo uno admodum intra apicem atque uno
utroque in latere apicis (angulis superioribus Jateralibus); apex truncato-con-
vexus; semicellulae a latere visae circulares, unum granulum in apice, atque duo
granula utrogue in latere praebentes; semicellulae a vertice visae late ellipticae,
mediocrem inflationem, 3 granulis media in parte utrimque instructam, habentes,
et ordinationem criuciformen 4 granulorum (uno intra quemque marginem
lateralem atyue uno intra quemque polum) praebentes; membrana ad polos
eellulae atque in angulis lateralibus grosse punctate, Long, 30; lat. 26; crass, 17;
isthm, 7.

Fig. 3

1 Stanrastrum gracile Ralfs.

2 Stawrustrum gracile Ralfs, fa, mint-
mun fa. VOV.

3 Stavrastrumn crenulatum var, continen-
tale Messile. fit. onantmiferiow fa.
noy,

4 Stowrastrum — tetracerum (Kuetz.)
Ralfs.

5 Staurastrum sayittariun Nordst,

6 Staurosirum pseudosuecicwm sp, may,

7 Staurastrum. turgescens De Not, Fa.

& Stawvasirum Smithii (G. M. Smith)
Teiling,

9 Cosmarinm punctidatum var. subpure-
punctulahin. (Nordst.) Boerges.

10 Cosmariwm punctulatum. var. subpunc-
tulatwae (Nordst.) Boerges. Fa,

Vi Cosmnariun Nnactun Ralfs.

12) Casmarium pseudoquadratulium sp. nov.

13) Casmavrinn truncatelhon (Perty) Rab.

14 essalcivon Baileyi (Ralfs) Nordst.

aR.

Cosmarium retusiforme yar. major Gutw. Vig, 4, No. 9. L. 36; W. 32;
T. 18; 1.9. Breakneck River, C24X, Gutwinski, R., 1892, p, 20.

Cosmarium rotundum sp. nov. Fig. 3, No. 6, Cells relatively large, length
about 15 times the width, longitudinally broadly oval in outline, the semicells
semi-oval in outline, the lateral basal angles slightly thickened and ont-turned,
the lateral margins broadly convex to a dome-shaped apex; sinus narrow and
closed throughout, the apex only slightly enlarged; wall coarsely pitted with a
large tubercular protuberance in the mid-region of the semi-cell; in side view
semicells broadly oval in outline with a protuberance in the mid-region on either
side, 2 truncated lobe showing at the base of the semicell; in end view broadly
oval, with a protuherance in the mid-region on each side, the poles of the figure
with a truncated Jobe which extends out slightly. L. 57-60; W. 30; T. 22; L 9.
Mount Compass, B42.

Cellulae maiores, longitudina circa 14 plo latitudine, longitudinaliter late
ovatae, semicellulae semi-ovatac, angulis lateralibus basalibus subincrassatis atque
extrorsus divergentibus, lateribus late convexis, apice tholiformi terminatis, sinus

a3

angustus, omnino imapertus, apice paulum anipliato; membrana grosse lacunata,
protuberatione magna tuberculari media in semicellula; semicellulae a latere
visae Jate ovatae, protuberationem utrimque media in parte, atque lobum trun-
catum in basi semicellulae praehentes; semicellulae a vertice visae late ovatae,
protuberatione utrimque media in parte, polis figurae lobum truncatum paulum
extensum habentibus, Tong. 57-60; Jat. 30; crass, 22; isthm. 9.

Cosmurium sexangulare Lund. L. 39; W. 31; 4, 10. Rocky River, Ci2.
Sou’ West River, C27. West and West 1908, p. 81, pl. LX XII, fig, 3.

Cosmarium subtumidum Nordst. var. pachydermum yar, nov. Fig. 1, No. 18.
A variety differing from the typical by haying a more open sinus and a thickening
of the wall in the mid-region of the semicell; side view of semicell transversely
oval-pytamidate; end view broadly oval with the lateral margins showing thick
walls. L. 27; W. 22; T. 15; 1. 6. Dam on Kangaroo Island, C39. West and
West 1905, p, 192.

Varietas a planta typica differens sinu imagis aperto, et crassitudiie mem-
branae media in semicellula; semicellula a latere visa transverse ovato-pyramidata ;
a vertice visa Jate ovata, margine laterali membranas crassas praebente, Long. 27;
lat. 22; crass, 15; isthm, 6.

Cosmarinm tinctum Ralis. Fig. 1, No, 16. Fig. 5, No. 11. A small form of
the typical plant which has an open sinus and a relatively thick wal] that is
yellowish in colour. L. 12; W.9; 1. 6. Brealsneck River, C24X. West and West
1505, p. 26,

The Australian plants agree especially with a form reported by Insam and
Krieger (Hedwigia 76, pl, I. fig. 11, 12, 1936).

Cosmarium truncdiellum (Perty) Rab. Fig. 5, No. 13. 1. 9; W. 10; T- 5;
I. 4. Breakneck River, C24XK. West and West 1908, p. 72.

Cosmarium turgidum Ralfs. L. 186; W. 94; 1, 82. These measurements are
approximate, since only one crushed cell was seen. Mount Compass, B42. West
and West 1908, p. 115, pl. LAX, fig. 1-3.

ARTHRODESMUS

Arthradesmus phimus Turn. fa. convexus fa, nov, Vig. 3, No. 9. A form
differing from the typical by having a broadly convex apex, upper lateral angles
ending in a short, stout spine which is almost horizontally extended (or slightly
upward). L, 12-14; W, 14-17; T, 8; 1. 6, Breakneck River, C24. West and
West 1912, p. 104.

Forma a planta typica differens apice late convexo, angulis superioribus
lateralibusque spina brevi crassaqte, fere horjzontaliter (aut patluin sursum)
extansa termitiatis. Long. 12-14; lat. 14-17; crass. 8; isthm. 6.

Arthrodesmus phimus var. occidentalis West and West fa, minimissimus
fa, fioy, Fig, 3, No. 10. A minute form in which the semicells are slightly more
stout, and which are broadly oval in outline rather than narrowly elliptic as in
the variety. L.5; W. 5; 1 2-5, Breakneck River, C24, C24X. West and West
1912, p. 104.

Forma minuta, semicellulis panlula crassioribus et late avatis potius quam
anguste ellipticis ut in varietate. Long. 5; lat. 5; isthm. 2:5,

XANTHIDIUM
Nanthidium armahtm (Bréb.) Rab. var. depressum var. nov. Vig. 4, Na. 1.
Semicells relatively somewhat wider than in the typical, furnished with three
irregularly dentate verrucae just within each lateral margin and a stout deflected
spine near the basal angles; sinus narrow and more nearly closed than ia the

64

typical; face of semicell with a double circle of granules; in side view semicell
broadly oval, four verrucae showing at the apex and an oval pattern of eight
verrucae in the mid-region enclosing a pair of spines; lateral margin in side view
with @ prominent tubercular thickening showing a double row of granules, a pair
of iubercles showing at the base of the semicell in the mid-region. L. without
arms 104, with arms 114; W. without arms &9, with arms 97; T. 67: I about 34.
Mount Compass, B42. West and West 1912, p. 51.

>.

Semicellulae relative latiores quam in planta typica, wibus verrucis irregu-
lariter dentatis admodum intra quemque marginem lateralem, atque spina crassa
deflexa prope angulos basales praeditae; sinus angustus, magis inapertus quam in
Specie; facies semiccllulae duos circulos granulorum habens; semicellula a latere
visa late ovata, praebens 4 verrucas ad apicem, at que media in parte ordinationerm
ovatam 8 verrucarum par spinarum includentem}; margo lateralis a latere visis
habens incrassationem tubereularem prominentem duos cireulos granulorum prae-
bentem, pari tuberculorum ad basim semicellulae media in parte. Long. sine
brachiis 104, cum brachiis 114; lat. sine brachiis 89, cum brachiis 98; crass, 67;
isthm. cirea 34,

Xanthidium simplicius Nordst. var. pseudosmithii var. nov. Fig. 4, No, 2.
A variety with a prominent facial protuberance in the mid-region of the semicell ;
upper lateral angles furnished with a single stout spine; two spines at the lower
lateral angles of the semicell; sinus widely open, the apex broadly convex s in side
view semicells broadly oval to nearly circular with a decided thickening and pro-
tuberance in the mid-region on each side, the pole furnished with a long stuut
spine, with one or two smaller spines in the centre of the figure (base of semi-
cell). L, without spines 27, with spines 37; W. without spines 27, with spines 39;
T. 18; 1. 9, Mount Compass, B42. Nordstedt, O., 1888, p. 44,

Varietas protuberationem facialem prominentem media in patte semicellulae
praebens ; angulis superioribus lateralibus semicellulae spine unica crassa pracditis;
angulis inferioribus lateralibus duobus spinis praeditis; sinus late apertus, apice
late convexo; semicellulae a latere visae late ovatae ad fere circulares, incrassa-
tione at que protuberatione perspicua media in parte utrimque praeditac; spinam
longam ctassamque ad polum atque 1 vel 2 spinas minores media in figura {ad
basim semicellulae) praebentes, Long. sine spinis 27, cum spinis 37; lat. sine
spinis 27, cum spinis 39; crass. 18; isthm. 9.

This yariety should be compared with both X, simplicius and NX, Smitha.
Tt is more lke the former tham the latter, but indicates that these two species
might be combined.

STAURASTRUM

Stavrastrum connatum (Land.) Roy and Biss, fa. L. 42; W. with spines
48; I. 12. Mount Compass, B42. West and West 1923, p. 15, pl. CXXX, fig. 6-8.

Staurastrum crenulatum var, continentale Messik. fa. mammiferum Ja. nov,
Fig. 5, No. 3. A form differing from the typical variety by having a spine-tipped
marmunilla on each side at the base of the semicell, producing a slightly narrower
sinus; vertical view triangular with a triangular pattern of paired granules at the
crown and tratisverse rows of granules on the arms, J,. 23; W. 30; I. 6. Happy
Valley Reservoir, B50. Messikommer, E., 1927, p. 107,

Forma a planta typica differens possessione mammillae spina minutae utroque
in latere ad basin semicellulae, sinum paululo angustiorem efficientis; cellula a
vertice visa triangularis, ordinationem triangularem granulorum binorum ad
coronan) nechon ordines transyersos granulorum, in brachiis habens. Long. 23;
lat. 30; isthm, 6,

A?

Staurastrum gracile Ralfs. Fig. 5, No. 1. L. without processes 42-45; with
processes 51-61; W, with processes 77-80; T, 9-10. Abundant in the plankton of
Happy Valley Reservoir, B50. West and West 1923, p. 96.

This is a form of an extremely variable species (which has been confused
with other species by various authors) that is smooth at the base of the semicell
rather than bearing granules as do many of the other expressions of St, gracile.

Staurestrum gracile Ralfs fa minimum fa noy, Fig. 5, No, 2. A form
similar in shape and proportions to the typical, but with a reduction in granulation,
and smaller in size; end view showing minute granulations arranged in pairs and
forming a triangle about the crown, and with the surface of the arms bearing
mintte granules (solitary near the distal end of the arm, tranaversely in twos
or threes approaching the body of the cell), L. without processes 24, with pro-
cesses 34; W. with processes 44; 1. 9. Plentif{ul in the plankton of Happy Valley
Reservoir, BSO, together with the specific form.

Forma conformatione proportionibusque plantae typicae similis, reductionem,
autem granulationis habens et minor; semicellula a vertice visa binas granulationes
minutas, et circum coronam triangulam efficientes, praebens, nection i superficie
brachiorum granulationes minutae (singulae ad extremitatem distalem brachii,
transverse binae ternaeve ad corpus cellulae), Jong. sine processibus 24, cum
processibus 34; lat. cum processibus 44; isthm. 9.

This should be compared with St. pingue Teiling which it closely resembles,
but which is smaller and differently shaped at the base of the semicells.

Staurustrum mucronatwa Ralfs, fa, L, 21; W. with spines 24; [. 5, Rocky
River, Cl2, West and West 1923, p. 11, pl. CAXX, fig. 10-12.

Siuuustriom muhcum Bréb, L. 21; W. 21; 1, 6 Breakneck River, C24,
West and West 1912, p. 179, pl, CX VIII, fig. 16-20.

Staurasirum pseudosuecicum sp. nov. Fig. 5, No. 6, A medium-sized species,
width slightly greater than the length, slightly campanulate at the base, and
extended inlo approximately horizontally projecting arms, which are trispinate
at the tip; a circle of granules at the base of the semicell just above the isthmus
which is relatively wide; apex broadly convex bearing a marginal row of five
bidentate verrucae: vertical view fusiform, the lateral margin broadly convex in
the mid-region and showing an oval pattern of paired granules at the crown
(medianly in the figure), L, 28; W. with processes 33-50; T. 13; 1. 7. Break-
neck River, C24, C24X.

Species mediocris, latitudine paululo maiore quam longitudine; semicellulae
biradiatae, ad basim paulum campanuilatae, et in brachia fere horizontaliter pro-
jecla, ad cacumen trispinata, extensqe; circulus granulorum ad basim semiccllulae
admodum supra isthmum latiorum; apex late convexus, ordinern marginalem
5 verrticatum bidentatarum ferens; cellula a vertice visa fusiformis, margine
laterali Jate convexo media in parte et ordinationem ovalum granulorum binorum
ad coronam (figurae media in parte) fereng, Long. 28; lat, cum brachiis 35-50;
crass. 13% isthm. 7.

Our plants are questionably assigned a new naine pending the appearance of
additional material for examination. It is unlike other biradiate species.

Stawraskrum punctulatum Bréb. fa, L, 30; W. 24; 1. 8. Rocky River, ci2
West and West 1912, p. 179, pl, CKXVII, fig. 8-11.

Staurastrum sagittorium Nordst. Fig. 5, No, 5, In vertieal view ctther 8- or
S-radiate. L. 27; W. without processes 57; I. 13, Rocky River, C12, Breakneck
River. C24X. Nordstcdt, O., 1888, p 37,

Staurastrum Smithii Teiling (Syn.: St, covtortum GM, Smith). Fig. 5,
Noa. & |. without processes 12, with processes 45; W. with processes 54; I, 6,
Happy Valley Reservoir, B50, Smith, G. M., 1924, p. 98.

F

68

Staurastrum tetracerum (Kuetz.) Ralfs. Fig. 5, No. 4. L. 20; W. 24; I. 4:5.
Sow West River, C28. West and West 1923, p. 118,

Staurastrum turgescens De Not. fa. Fig. 5, No. 7. L. 22; W. 18; 1. 6. Break-
neck River, C24X,. West and West 1912, p. 167,

HYALOTHECA

Hvyalotheca dissiliens (Smith) Bréb. L. 16-17; W. 26-27. Motint Compass,
B42. West and West 1923, p, 229, pl. CLXI, fig, 16-27.

SPHAEROZOSMA

Sphaerozosima excavatum Ralfs. L. 9; W.9; 1. 4:5 Breakneck River, C24X.
West and West 1923, p. 211, pl. CLX, fig, 1-3.

DESMIDIUM

Desmidium Baileyi (Ralis) Nordst, fa, Fig. 5, No, 14, L. 16; W. max, 24.
Sou’ West River, C27, C28.

With its irregular and somewhat inflated lateral margins, the Australian plant
differs somewhat from the Eyropean and American forms.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Exurvine, F. 1881 Anteckningar om Finska Desmideer. Acta Soc. Fauna et
Flora Fenn, 5, 1-17. 1 Pl.

Fritscu, F. E.,. and Rien, Frorence 1924 Freshwater and subacrial algae from
Natal, Trans. Roy. Soc. Sth. Africa, 11, 297-398, 31 text figures

GutTwinski, R. 1892 Salvandae pnoritatis causa. Diagnoses nonnullarum
algarum novarum in Galicia orientali anno 1890 collectarum. La Nuoya
Notarisia, Ser. 2 3, 17-22

Hermert, A. 1891 Desmidiaceae alpinae. Ver, d. k. k. Zool.-Bot. Ges. in Wien,
41, 587-609. Pl. 5

Kriecer, W. 1937, 1939 Die Desmidiaceen, in Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen
Flora von Deutschland, Oesterreich und der Schweiz. Band 13, Teil 1,
Lief. 1-4, 1937; Teil 2, Lief, 1, 1939, Leipzig

LuNDELL, P. M. 1871 De Demidiaceis quae in Stiecia inventae sunt observa-
tiones criticae, Nov. Acta Reg. Soc. Sci. Upsala, 3, 8, 1-100. Pls. I-V

LuETKEMULLER, J, 1902 Die Zellmembran der Desmidiaceen, Colin’s Beitrage
z, Biol. Pflanzen, 8, 347-444, Pls. 18-20

MessrkommMeEk, E, 1927 Biologische Studien im Torfmoor von Robenhausen
unter besonderer Beriickfichtigung. Inaug. Dissert., Univ. Zurich, 1927.
(Mitt. Bot. Mus. Univ. Zurich, 122, 1-171. 6 Pls, 1 text fig.)

Norstenr, O, 1870 Symbolae ad floram Brasiliae cognoscendam. Fam. 18
Desmidiaceae. Vid. Medd. d. Naturh. Foren. i Kjébenhavn (1869),
No. 1415; 195-234. Pls. 2-4

Norpstept, O, 1888 Freshwater Algae, collected by Dr. S. Berggren in New
Zealand and Australia. K. Vet. Ak. Handl., 22, 1-18

Prayrarr, G. I. 1907 Some new or less known Desmids found in New South
Wales. Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 32, 160-201

Prayrarz, G. I. 1910 Polymorphism and Life-history in the Desmidiaceae.
Ibid, 35, 459-495

Sxuya, H. 1937 Algae, in Symbolae Sinicae, Ergebnisse der Expedition der
Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien nach Siid-west China, 1914 bis
1918. Herausgegeben von H, Handelmezzotti. Teil 1, 1-105. 12 Figs.
3 Pls.

69

Smitu, G. M. 1924 The phytoplankton of the inland lakes of Wisconsin, 2.
Wisconsin Geol, Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 57, 1-227. Pls. LII-LXXXVIII

West, W. and West, G. 5. 1907 Welwitsch’s African Freshwater Algae.
Jour. Bot., 35, 1-7; 33-42; 77-89; 113-183; 235-243; 264-272; 297-304.
Pls. CCCLXV - CCCLKX

West, W., and West, G. S. 1904-1912 Monograph of the British Desmidia-
ceac. Ray Society, London. 1, 1904; 2, 1905; 3, 1908; 4, 1912

West, W., West, G. S., and CarTEr, NELLIE, 1923 Monograph of the British
Desmidiaceae, 5. Ray Society, London

A NEW APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF HUMAN EVOLUTION

BY A. A. ABBIE

Summary

The paper presents a brief survey of some of the best known human and near-human fossils to set
out the difficulties they present in interpretation. A review of archaeological finds indicates that
cultural attainments cannot be equated with physical or menatal attainments and are no index of
evolutionary development. The morphological characters of ancient physical types, particularly
Neanderthal Man, are analyzed and shown to lie within the range of human variation. It is
considered that the only distinguishing human feature is absolute and relative brain size, and that all
the fossils considered, with the exception of Australopithecinae, are simply variants of the normal
human pattern. It is considered, further, that the present method of trying to trace human evolution
by comparison of adult forms is futile. The only common stem that can be found for the primates
lies in an early embryonic series. In this series a sufficiently generalized precursor for man could be
produced by practically any of the primates. Consequently, it is unnecessary to go very far back into
primate history to find the ancestral form.

70

A NEW APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF HUMAN EVOLUTION
By A. A. ApBrE *
[Read 11 Oct. 1951]

SUMMARY

The paper presents a brief survey of some of the best known human
and near-human fossils to set out the difficulties they present in interpreta-
tion. A review of archaeological finds indicates that cultural attainments
cannot be equated with physical or mental attainments and are no index of
evolutionary deyelopment. The morphological characters of ancient physical
types, particularly Neanderthal Man, are analyzed and shown to lie within
the normal range of human variation. It is considered that the only distin-
guishing human feature is absolute and relative brain size, and that all the
fossils considered, with the exception of the Auséralopithecinae, are simply
yatiants of the notmal htiman pattern. It is considered, further, that the
present method of trying to trace human evolution by comparison of adult
forms is futile, The only common stem that can be found for the primates
lies in an early embryonic series. In this series a sufficiently generalized
precursor for man could be produced by practically any of the primates.
Consequently, it is unnecessary to go very far back into primate history to
find the ancestral form,

INTRODUCTION

While the fact of human evolution is not in doubt there is still great
uncettainty over the course which it has followed. Most writers agree that
man’s origin is associated with the primates, but which—if any—reprcsents
the directly ancestral form and who are his nearest relations today are still
the subject of controversy. Wood Jones (1929) finds the common ancestry
in shrews, Le Gros Clark (1949) traces an evolutionary sequence which
starts with the shrews ard passes ultimately through the Miocene apes and
the Australopithecinae. Gregory (193+) postulates a common lemuroid ances-
try for all modern hiyher primates and relates man closely to the great apes.
There are many other possible schemes. The problem is to discover a primate
sufficiently like man to be acceptable ag a close relation, yet sufficiently
generalized to qualify as a possible ancestor. The only satisfactory candi-
date so far discovered is man himself,

A further major problem is man’s relatively late appearance on earth.
His one million years or so is a small fraction of the 40 million years allotted
to monkeys and apes or the 60 million for lemurs. On the traditional view
the factors which went into making these animals must be associated with
those which went into the making of man. Yet, despite considerable search,
this great interval of time is not eyen within sight of being bridged.

The purpose of this paper is to show how much our thinking on human
evolution has been constrained by a too naive conception of the Darwinian
theory. It is felt that when this restrictive outlook is replaced by a broader
biological approach many of the difficulties in the interpretation of human
fossils will diminish or vanish altogether. In particular, it is hoped to show
that a generalized human ancestor is not necessarily so remote as it some-
times seems to he.

* Department of Anatamy, University of Adelaide.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust, 75, September 1952

71

PREHISTORIC REMAINS
ANATOMICAL EVIDENCE

Here attention is directed almost entirely to a few of the mast difficult
of human or near-human fossils. Man is the only positive fact in human
evolution, and all hypotheses involving other primates must remain suspect
so long as the relationship of those primates to man is itself in doubt.
However, reference tu other primates is included in later consideration of the

roblem.
; Australapithecinace—These were first described hy Dart (1925) from the
Taungs skull. Few anthropologists endorsed Dart’s claim for human affini-
ties for this skull (see Keith, 1929) and it languished until the discovery of
similar material at Sterkfontein and Kroomdtai (Dart, 1940; Broom, 1946),
In these creatures the skull has tiany anthropoid characters, including pro-
tuberant jaws, an exposed premaxillary suture and a braitt within the anthro-
poid range (Schepers, 1946), On the other hand, the teeth are more human
(Dart, 1925; Keith, 1929; Gregory and Helltnan, 1939: Le Gros Clark,
19502) and the forward site of the foramen magnum suggests an ipright
posture. The claim for an upright posture has been sustained by the hip
bone, which is strikingly humanoid (Dart, 1949; Le Gros Clark, 1950 b).
The Taungs skull is rather doabtfully referred to the late Pliocene or lower
Pleistocene, the Kroomdrai remains to the middle Pleistocene (Dart, 1940).

Pithecenthropinae—The discovery of Pithecanthropus by Dubois in 1891-2
(see Dubois, 1896) seemed to provide the anticipated intermediate form
between ape and man, combining a simian type of calvaria with a human
type af femur. Indeed, the mixture proved too strong for same to stomach
and they postulated a more or less fortuitous association of human and ape
gemains, Later discoveries by von Koenigswald (see Weidenreich, 1945 a),
however, confirmed the original pronouncement and disclosed that the sitna-
tion of the foramen magnum is consistent with an upright posture. Sinan-
thropus, discovered much later (Black, 1934) does not differ significantly
{rom Pithecanthropus (Weidenreich, 1940a; Le Gros Clark, 1945). Roth
have been assigned to a period between lower and middle Pleistocene in age-

Neanderthal Man—Until the discovery of Pithecanthropus Neanderthal
Man provided the nearest approach to the expectations of evolutionists. His
low brow, heavy eyebrow and occipital ridges, backwardly-displaced foramen
magnum, prominent jaws and small mastoid process, together with a femur
and caleaneum which betokened a shambling gait, all fitted into the picture
so nicely, In 1864 King named the creature Homo neaderthalenusis and
Schwalbe and others assigned him to an entirely distinct human species,
Neanderthal Man proper belongs to the lower part of upper Pleistocene
horizons,

Piltdewn Man—This skull, too, presents a cutious mélange of simian and
Humian features, The most recent reconstructions (Elliot Smith, 1927; Keith,
1929, 1938) indicate a modern type of cranium with a good mastoid process
but no great development of supraorbital and occipital ridges, Ou the other
hand, the teeth posses simian characters and the mandible betrays some
evidence of a “simian shelf’. The usual controversy over whether or not
the remains all belonged to the same individual has been virtually disposed
of by the fluorine method (Oakley, 1950). Oakley puts this fossil between
middle and upper Pleistocene.

While each of these groups might be considered a step in the evoltition-
ary advance towards modern man, each presents points of difficulty. Ignoring
the possibility of chronological overlap, Australopithecus and Pithecanthropus
could conecivably represent successive stages, but Neanderthal Man—their

72

CULTURES
[Bronze ____]

IT
10,000 Rigen

25,000 yrs.

TABLE OF

QUARTERNARY

CHRONOLOGY
AS RELATED

PHYSICAL
Modern” |
t
!
t
|
|
i
|

TO CULTURES
AND PHYSICAL

REMAINS

(in part after Zeuner)

Sainjeay wispow, pue

sidoayyueuts =

1
yespwooay |

UBS, JO SaunjiW Butien yyw syinye snoiauny -— — —— — — — —

zquicosuems

sndoijuedayiig

Upper
Palaeolithic

4 Varieties |-

of
Mousterian

190,000 yrs.

400,000 Yrs.

(Bunyeg ‘Xouddy) suo}je10e19

490,000 yrs.

eZuney (2)

BNISOIW

ONY
ansoond

|

I

1

|
Boe00900 yrs. ¥

Fig. 1
Simplified outline of Quaternary chronology.

73

heir presumptive—is considered not to have had an_erect posture and so is
disqualified from inclusion in a series between erect Pithecanthropis and erect
modern man; also, he occurred too late, averlapping ancient examples of
modern man (fig. 1). DPiltdown Man, too, mixes simian and human charac-
ters, but he al&o occurred too Jate to be considered ancestral to modern man.
In fact, practically every hominoid fossil presents some physical or chrono:
logical discrepancy, and it is little wonder that many anthropologists have
despairingly assigned them all to specialized offshouts from seme common
generalized stem which has progressed undeviatingly up to modern man,

That common stem unfortunately remains purely hypothetical, for ix
hag not produced a single convincing example. Nevertheless, it seems likely
that there is a common stem and a stiggestion is presented later. But in this
conception the representatives of the stem appear altogether different from
those usually visualized by evalutianists,

ARCHAEOLOGICAL Evinence

For Europe, workers have now established a fairly clear and orderly
sequence of stone implement evolution (e.g,, Peyrony, 1927; Capitain, 1931;
and others), often referable to specific geological horizons (see Zenner’, 1950).
In many instances, however, cultures overlap, intermingle or seem displaced
from the accepted chronological order, and ihe problems posed by these non-
conformities are far from being solved.

In only a few cases have distinctive cultures been decisively associated
with human remains (fg. 1). The Swanscombe skull may now be assigned
with fair confidence to a lower Pleistacene horizon containing Acheulian
implements (Oakley, 1938, 1950), Neanderthal remains are referred to the
Mousterian cultures of the early upper Pleistocene. But from the end of
the lower Palacolithic all cultures are associated with human remains indis
tinwuisable frum those of modern man. Sinee the Swanscombe skull is alsa
indistinguishahle from that of modern man (le Gros Clark, 1938; Morant,
1938) the sole problem of physical anthropology in Europe at present centres
around Neanderthal Man, Indeed, Neanderthal Man has so hypnotized
anthropologists that—as Keith (1929) and leakey (1950) have complained—
modern-type skulls found in ancient strata are often automatically dismissed
as intrusions. In fact, European anthropology might almost he described
as “Neanderthalology,” for no findings outside the Neanderthal offer any
serious difficulty,

Despite the accumulation of much detailed information, the positive con-
tribution to our knowledge of man in Pleistocene times is very meagre. This
information relates mainly to central and western Europe, with some exten-
sions to Africa and the Near East. Even in westerty Europe the geological-
archacological association is not always conformable to the accepted plan,
while in eastern Europe the correlation begins definitely to fail (Zeuner,
1950). Consequently, as Zeuner has emphasized, there is little present justi-
fication for extending lo more distant parts ol the world—e.g., eastern Asia
or Australia—a chronology based upon the geological successiin in @ rela-
tively restricted region. Similar geological formations elsewhere are not
nécessarily cantemporaneous,

There is an unfortunate tendency to confuse geology, achacology and
physical anthropology, and to describe one in terms of the other. Thus, a
geologital horizon may be referred to as “Acheulian” or “Aurignacian”,
Much worse is the conftision of physical characters with cultural findings.
Such terms as “Chellean Man" or “Levalloisian Man" are commonly
employed, with the implicit assumption of a distinct physical (ype to be
associated with the artifacts he left behind. Even Zeuner (1950, p, 164) sins

74

here when he tries to fit cultural remains to a supposedly Neanderthal hand
found in the Crimea (see also his discussion on p. 304). Actually, the sole
claimant to physical distinction so far discovered in Europe is Neanderthal
Man, who is related, more or less legitimately in a relatively restricted region
only, to the Mousterian culture series. But there is no guarantee that Nean-
derthal Man invented the Mousterian culture or that other peoples, who did
not resemble him at all, did not use it, Further, there is no evidence that
similar cultures are (or were) everywhere contemporaneous, The “Iron
Age” culture Europeans who first explored the Pacific found modern-type
men in Melanesia and Polynesia in a Neolithic phase, others similar in Aus-
tralia in a late Mesolithic phase (Abbie, 1951), and yet others in Tasmania
in a phase so primitive as almost to defy classification, Clearly, it is as pross
an anthropological crime to equate culture with physical characters as it is
to equate language with physical characters.

European (nconetus) Chingse

Fig, 2
Sections through the orbital region of yarious skulls to Mlustrate the part played
hy the supraorbital ridge as a roof to the orbit. (F, H. = Frankfurt Horizontal.)

RE-EXAMINATION OF MORPHOLOGICAL CRITERIA

Weidenreich (19462, p. 201) has pointed out that the tendency to
minute sub-classification of fossil man complicates the problem to the point
where the leading line of evolution is lost and only singular forlorn speci-
mens remain. The best way to simplify the problem appears to be to discover -
to what extent the physical non-conformities, i.e., the ‘‘simian’’ features, in
human remains are mcompatible with the “human” features in the same
remains. In-other words, it is necessary to determine whether the normal
range of human variation is wide enough to embrace the so-called “simian”
features. 5

75

Since the outstanding event in European physical anthropology of Pleis-
tocene times was the apparently unique intrusion of Neanderthal Man no
substantial progress can be made before he is set in his proper perspective.
Most of the data for this are craniological.

CHIMpANZEE

MANDRILL

Fig. 3
Primate skulls to illustrate the inconstant relationship between jaw size and size
of supraorbital ridge, Note also the combination of facial and alveolar prognathism.

NEANDERTHAL MAN

The Brain—According to Hechst (quoted by Le Gros Clark, 1937) a
brain as small as 788 cc. has functioned in the normal human fashion, And
it would appeat that any brain from about 800 cc. to nearly three times as
much, may be compatible with human behaviour. As is well known, the
brain of Neanderthal Man falls well within these limits. Much of the length
of Neanderthal skulls is due to prominent supraorbital and occipital tori,
The endocranial index is much higher than the ectocranial index (Weiden-
reich, 1945b; Abbie, 1947) and the shape of the Neanderthal brain is well
within existing human proportions. Incidentally, most of the energy spent
upon trying to deduce cerebral characters from endocranical casts has proved

76

wasted effort. Symington (1916), Ie Gros Clark, Cooper and Zuckerman
(1930) and Packer (1949) have all shown that primate casts give little more
than maximum dimensions and general proportions. Detailed analysis such
as Schepers (1946) attempts for the Anstralupithecinoe can have very little
value in the present state of gur knowledge.

Supraorbital Ridges—The size of these ridges plays an important part in
determining whether a skull has a simian appearance or not, Lurge ridges
give a lowering appearance as well as accentuating the slope of the forehead
(Gfg.5), While large ridges are often associated with large jaws that is not
always so, nor, despite widespread belief on the subject, is the primary
purpose of such ridges to support heavy jaws and jaw muscles. Bolk (192?)
showed that in primates where the face protrudes in front of the skull the
eyes no longer lie under the cranial caviety and would be unprotected above
unless the frontal bone extended forwards to cover the orbits (fig. 2). The
first development of the ridges is, then, related to protrusion of the ntuzzle
but in many primates, 2g., Hylobetes, Papto, the ridges remain little more
than a thin roof to the orbit, which is sometimes almost funnel-shaped as in
Hapale and Tarsiys. Certainly in the gorilla the ridges are very massive and
are associated with very massive Jaws (fig, 3), but even the gorilla shows a
wide range of variation (Schultz, 1940), The chimpanzee and orang alsa
have proportionately large jaws but the ridges are much less prominent. The
rang, indeed, with mure massive—but less protuberant—jaws than the
chimpanzee, has relatively inconspicuous ridges. Yet more striking, the
mandrill has yery protuberatit, jaws and strong associated musculature but
the ridges are little more than terminal thickenings of a thin orbital roaf.
The Miocene apes of East Africa also combine prominent jaws with very
little ridge formation (Le Gros Clark and Leakey. 1951). However, the fact
that hoth the orang and the Miocene apes combine very protuberant jaws
with almost no ridge formation indicates that Bolk's views do not provide
a complete explanation for the ridges.

hi hominids a similarly mixed association can be shown, The Pilie-
conihropinge had both targe ridges and large jaws, But Broken Hill Man,
with ridges as large as the gorilla, had much smaller jaws, while Piltdown
Man, with no particular ridge development, had simian-type teeth and jaws.
Not all Australian aborigines are markedly prognathous (fig. 5), but even
in those which are the development of the ridges varies widely and the brow
ranges from an almost purely Neanderthal type to an upright sniooth iore-
head of which any European could be proud [Abbie, 1951). The aboriginal
skii]] described by Burkitt and Hunter (1922) combined a Neanderthaloid
talvaria with facial orthognathism and alveolar prognathism. Negroes are
typically prognathous but lack any marked ridge formation, Europeans and
other ethnic groups also show a wide range of ridge development associated
with an cqually mixed assortment of jaws. On the other hand, the low
retreating: forehead of Lord Darnley had little supraorbital formation (Pear-
son, 1928),

Clearly, the size of the eyebrow ridges can vary independently of jaw
size, and if is not possible with certainty to infer from any given calyaria
what the jaws were like ot from any set of jaws what the calvaria was like
(fig. 5). lt was failure to recognize this fact that led to the controversy
ever the Piltdown remains. It has been shown on statistical grounds that
there is no correlation between shape of head and size of jaw (Abbie, 1947).
Even without statistical support it seems equally clear that there is no corre-
Tation between ridge size and juw size. In other words, these features vary
independently,

77

Occipital torus—This has been considered im detail by Weidenreich
(1940 b). He points ont that the human torus is not a purely muscular
marking like the nuchal crest of the gérilla and he believes that the torus,
together with the zygomatic arches and supraorbital ridges, provides a strong
buttress round the base of the skull to withstand the thrust of massive
jaws and their musculature. His opinion cannot be accepted without some
reserve. As already noted, there ts no necessary relation between size of
jaws and stipraorbital ridges; nor does the view account for the absence of
a tores in Piltdown Man, despite the apparently simian jaws. And what
role does the nuchal crest af the gorilla play in this context?

Mastoid Pracess—A small process is considered a simian character, a
large one more human. This cannot be wholly true: in the gorilla the pro-
cess shows a wide range oi variation (Schultz, 1950) and the same applies
to other anthropoids (hg, 4A). While small processes are cammon in the
Australian aborigine there is a wide range up to us large as in any European
(fig. 4B), Moreover, a small process may be associated with cither a small
or a large occipital crest, and similarly for a large process.

Jaws and Teeth—Protuberant jaws are considered an anthropoid char-
acter, straight jaws human; but there are all intervening grades.

Facial prognathism is produced by elongation of the jaws as a whole,
alveolar prognathism depends mainly upon protrusion of the anterior teeth
and the alveolar margins. Frequently the two kinds are combined--as typi-
cally in the Neanderthaloid, Australian aborigine and negro—but this js not
always so (Hurkitt and Hunter, 1922; Parsons, 1930). In primates, at least,
true facial prognathism depends mainly upon the anteru-posterior length
of the crowns uf the lateral teeth—molars, premolars and often the canines
{figs, 4, 4C, 6}. Long teeth require long Jaws to house them,

Alveolar prognathism is rather more camplicated. In apes it depends
ta Sore extent upon the size of the canines and their associated diastemata.
That is not an important factor in the human, even though a maxillary
diastema has been described for Pitheconthrapus LV (Weidenreich, 1946 a)
and fer a modetn negress (Schultz, 1948).(? At least one contributory cause
ia the production of alveolar prognathiam uppears to be a discrepancy in
the size ol the intra- and extra-alyeolar portions of the teeth, Narrow roots
widening to broad crowns will produce a splaying out of the alveolar region,
both laterally and frontally (fig. 4€, gorilla}. This involves mainly the
canine-incisor series, with more or less acute alveolar slope according to the
degree of crown-root discrepancy. In the mandible the symphyseal slope
might well amount toa “simian shelf’, Since taoth size varies independently
of jaw size (Regg, 1939), varying grades of dental disproportion will produce
corresponding grades of alveolar prognathism, Several such grades are found
in Uwe Australian ahortgine, with reciprocal degrees of prominence of the
chin (fig. 4C).

The Heidelberg macdlible, which some consider belongs to the Neander-
thal sé€ries, can now be matched by “modern” human examples, both ancient
and recent (Keith, 1913; Weidenreich, 1943).

Taurodontism—This was cansidered a specific peculiarity of Neanderthal
Man (see Keith, 1929), occurring in al! grades from a minor enlargement of
the molar pulp cavity up to its “typical” condition. However, early degrees
of taurodontism have since been deseribed in a South African fossil as well
as in some of the Palestinian remains (Keith, 1931). According to Weiden-
reich (1943) tauredontism has alsa been found in orangs and in Esquimeux.
It appears dccasionally in mudern white man [pl v). On the other hand,

f} Also recetitly observed by the writer id a living aborizine,

78

CHIMPANZEE 3 CHIMDANZEt & GORILLA &
7, <F

ABORIGINE d ABORIGINE d ABORIGINE 3

BS xd ee ee

Phe

Goaniad Aponiane ¢ ABOQIGINE d RUROPEAN &

Bothrocraspedote Amblycraspedote Oxycraspedole
Fig. 4 '
(See bottom of facing page for description)

one of the most “typical” of Neanderthal skalls—La Ferrassie—betrays no
evidence of taurodontism (Houle, 1923).

Analysis of Campbell's (1925) observations indicates that the crown
patlern of Neanderthal molars does not differ significantly from that of the
Australian aborigine. There is no evidence that this, in turn, differs signi-
ficantly from that of the European. Consequently, there is no reason to
helieve that in any particular the molar teeth set Neanderthal Man specifi-
cally apart from the rest of humanity (see Coon, 1939, p, 25).

Norial Margin—This presents an outstanding non-conformity in Nean-
derthal Man since he is typically as. oxycraspedote as. the modern European
(Keith, 1929), irrespective of any “simian” characters the rest of the skull
may betray. The Australian aborigine presents all grades from an almost
“simian gutter” to an almost European condition (fg. 4D), again irrespec-
tive of the presence or absence of “simian” features elsewhere. A similarly
mixed association can be found in the skulls of other peoples and it seems
clear that the formation of the narial margin varies independently of the
remainder of the skull.

Foramen magnum—A relative backward displacement of the foramen
magnum described for some Neanderthal skulls was considered evidence for
a slooped, shambling gait. However, Sergi (quoted by Weidenreich, 1947)
has shown that there is no evidence that the position of the foramen in Nean-
derthaluids taken over all differs significantly from that in modern man,
In the so-called Dinaric types of modern Europe (Coon, 1939) both the ears
and the foramen magnum are placed relatively postertorly, yet the Dinaries
are as tipright as any other Europeans. The argument for a Neanderthaloid
peculiarity in posture and gait thus loses much of its force,

General—With the possible exception of Heidelberg Man, Neanderthal
Man’s predecessors were less ape-like than he. Swanscombe Man fs indis-
tinguishable from modern man, while the Stenheim and Ehringsdorf remains
ate merely “Neanderthaloid”, ‘The same applies to the Tabiin and Galilee
skulls of Palestine (McCown and Keith, 1939) and to the Solo and Wadjak
skulls of Java. Coon (1939) describes Neanderthaloid characters in upper
Palaeolithic, modern-type, skulls, Burkitt and Hunter (1922) have done the
same for a recent aboriginal skull, while the recent Enropean Gardarene
skulls (Keith, 1931) are remarkably Neanderthaloid, Further, skulls which
betray many ‘“Neanderihal” features can be seen today in any European
community, In faci, both before and since the Neanderthal series, and also
running parallel with it, are all farms intermediate between it and the
“modern” type. Under the circurnStances there seems to be no justification
for distinguishing Neanderthal Man as a separate species, or for Coon's
(1939) view that the intermediate grades, e.g., in Palestine, are the result
of interbreeding between Neanderthaloids and moderns. On the contrary,
the only conclusion jtistifable is that Neanderthal Man, even in his extreme
form, is to more than a local specialization within the normal range of human
variation. This is in harmony with Weidenreich’s (1943) view.

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURE 4.

A. YVariously sized mastoid processes in atithropoids.
The same in Australian aborigines.

Gorilla’s mandible ta ilustrate alveolar prognathism;
two extremes in the ahoriginal series; a European
for comparison.

DD. The arial margin in Australian aborigines to Ulustrate
the wide range.

Obs

80

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THE PHYSICAL MOSAIC

There is growing evidence that the skull is composed of a moasaie of
features which, within wide limits, can vary independently of one another.
That is the case with head length, head breadth and size of jaws (Abbie,
1947), The maximum head breadth, in turn, may be either [rontally as in
Basques or in the parietal region as is more common. It also appears that
head height can vary quite considerably in skulls of the same cranial index
(see Coon, 1939, p. 127). And it has been noted that tooth size and jaw
size vary independently. The present survey indicates that narial margius,
supraorbital ridges, occipital ridges and mastoid processes also vary inde-
pendently.

All this is perfectly intelligible on the particulate theory of inheritance—
each jeature being determined more or less independently by its own special
gene or genes (Dobzhansky, 1937; Huxley, 1942). The most reasonable
intetpretation seems to be that these developments depend more upon differ-
ential growth processes than upon evolutionary or functional factors. When
such featiires attain exwherant proportions it appears best to regard them
simply as examples of extreme differentiation carrying normal lines of deve-
lopment to excess, but such excess need not affect all possible points equally
or simultaneously,

What applies to the skull applies equally ta the rest of the body, That,
ton, appears to comprise a mosaic of independently variable features held
together in only loose harmony. There is plenty of evidence for such indc-
pendent general variation in the works of Davenport (1926), Krogman (1941)
and others, The association of physical characters in a wide variety of
permutations and combinations, and the fixation of more stable associations
under conditions of initial isolated inbreeding in particular environments,
account adequately for both the wide range of human variation aiid the
incidence of more or less distinctive ethnic groups.

Evidently, if these features are normal individually they are equally
normal in combination. It is, therefore, of no moment ii several such features
occur simultaneously in a single person to give a rather more ape-like appear-
ance than is considered customary for “modern” man.

An apparently incongruous assemblage of physical characters proves a
stumbling black only to those obsessed by too rigid a preconception of what
the line of human evolutiun should have been. The principle of “correlation
of parts” serves well enough when comparing animals of different orders Or
genera. hut it is only misleading when applied to minor differences of degree
within what appears to be a single species. Amy individual physical feature
may appear anomalous in some setting, but provided the feature itself falls
within the normal range of human variation there is ao reason why it should
not form a normal component of any human physical pattern.

Many of the difficulties of interpreting human fossils have arisen from
comparing an isolated extreme example with a modern mean; comparison
with a modern range of variation would have disposed of some of those diffi-
culties, This point is made by Schultz (quoted by Weidenreich, L946h)
and by Weidenreich himself. It is becoming increasingly appafent that a
so-called “ethnic type” is no more than a statistical assemblage of indepen-
dent variables of which there is rarely any single complete concrete example.
Unless a more flexible approach is adopted physical anthropology will quality
with chemistry as “the science of things that don't exist”,

Taking these considerations into account it will be seen that there is no
reason why the anthropoid lustralopithecns should not have humanaid teeth

82

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85

and limbs or why the human Piltdown skull should not have anthropoid
jaws and teeth. Equally, there is no reason why the more anthrepoid skuli
of Pithecanthropus should not be associated with a human-type femur or the
Jess anthropoid skull of Neanderthal Man with a more simiaf-type femur.
This renders rather futile such debates as to whether or not the Grimaldi
remains are negroid and Chancelade skull esquimoid. Bath can be malched
within the Australian aboriginal range—and probably within other ranges—
of human variation.

Apart from the whale and the elephant man has the largest brain kuown,
and apart from the marmoset—Hupale—he has the highest brain/boiy-
weight ratio, The combination of these twe factors appears to provide the
necessary neural substratum for the wide range of sacio-economic variability
that distiguishes man above all other animals. When, therefore, we look for
something distinctively human we look for a primate with a cerebral capacity
of 800 ec. or more. That includes ail the disputed examples of humanity
except the Australopithecinue, With that possible exeeption we have no right
to consider any recognised hominid as being anything else but human, with-
out any specific—much less generic—distinction. Within that cerebral
Tange, too, there is no warrant to regard any individual or gronp as neces-
sarily of a higher or lower order of mental ability.

A POSSIBLE COMMON STEM

At present the most we can say about early man is that he probably
appeared first in the lower Pleistocene and that every example found so far
had a cranial capacity above the required minimum, We know that some
kinds had more anthropoid characters—particularly in their skul!ls—others
less (although this fact appears to have little ethnological significance), We
know, too, that on a statistical basis man has shown a more aor less steady
increase in mean stature and decrease in mean head length. On the cultural
side we have eyidence of a fairly progressive enviranment control! which
started slowly but hus steadily accelerated up to the present day, Thal,
however, is all we know with certainty in our search for clues to the factors
behind evolution.

Two possible clues emerge. One is the progressive increase in stature
ant! in brachycephalizatinn, the other is the progressive control of the envir-
omment, There is now ample evidence for the increase in stature (see eg.,
Ie Gros Clark, 1945) and there is abundant evidence that such an environ-
mental improvement as hetter nutrition can effect such physical improve-
ment. even within a few years (see e.g,, Le Gros Clark, 1939; Abbie, 1946,
19484). The same applies (o immigrants to a more favourable environment
(Boas, 1940; Shapiro, 1939). Boas, Shapira and others have also shown that
environmental improvement produces alteration in head shape. Analysis
of this alteration indicates that the change is towards a mean cranial index
within the foetal range of 78-82 (Abbie, 1947). On the evolutionary time-
scale there is evidence that these physical changes have been most apparent
in those peoples who have made most progress in controlling their enyiron-
meut,

Progressively longer retention of the foetal form of skull is an example
of the [oeltalization first desctibed by Bolk (1926). Other human examples
are the relative lack of hair and the lack of pigment which characterizes
some himan ethnic groups (de Beer, 1940), Tnerease in statute, which con-
notes an extension of the foetal capacity for growth, is also an expression
of foetalization—-even though the outcome is further temoval from the factus
G

84

physically. The concept of foetalization makes it necessary to reverse the
usual ideas on human evolution.

A glance at the foetal skulls of most primates shows how essentially
similar they all are, with smooth round cratia and small jaws (fig. 4), Such
primates as the gorilla, which subsequently develop large jaws and teeth
and heavy supraorbital and occipital ridges, have differentiated farthest away
from the foctal standard (“gerontomorphism’'). Those, such as man, which
show a progressively stronger tendency to retain the smooth skull and small
jaws have differentiated Icast (“paedomorphism”). Anthropoid characters
are, then, not primitive but specialized: the less anthropoid the characters
the more primitive and less specialized they are (see Wood Jones, 1931),
Evolution up ta man has not been marked by a progressive reduction of
simian features as is usually assumed; it is distinguished simply by failure
to attain the simian degree of differentiation in a number of physical chat-
acters.

Not all modern human physical characters are foetalized, of course. A
highly-arched nose, large mastoid process, prominent chin and the human
foot are quite the reverse. Nevertheless, it is apparent that foetalization
underlies most of the major elements characteristic of human evolution.
Mere prolonystion of the growing period permits an increase in overall
dimensions which, up to an optimum that is still uncertain, confers a definite
advanlage in the struggle for existence, Even more important, such pro-
longation of the growing period allows the brain io acquire dimensions
considerably greater than in any other primate (Abbie, 19486). Moreover,
retention of the foetal form of skull provides the maximum cranial capacity
with the minimum expenditure of bony material (Abbie, 1947),

Pursuit of the concept of fuetalization casts an interesting light upon the
problem of human origins. If all primate foetuses are so alike, at what stage
do they become distinguishable from one another? In other words, how far
back into foetal existence mtist one go to find an indifferent common gen-
eralized form that might become any kind of primate?

If a common generalized foctal form could be discovered the problem
of man's ancestry would be much closer to solution than it is now. Purely
as a working hypothesis, such a form is visualized here as resembling a
buman embryo of about seven weeks’ gestation (fig. 7). At that stage the
total development is that of a generalized primate and, while the digits of
the hand are differentiated, those of the feet are not, so that there is na
external indication whether the great toe will become free and appasable as
in apes or remain fixed and adducted as in man, Although there is inade-
quate information on other primate embryos it seems likely that they all pass
through such a stage, While it is true that the ultimate fate of this embrya
is alteady determined at conception, it is equally true that a minor shift in
emphasis could direct differentiation into any of the lines that end up each
in its own specific kind of primate.

This is probably a gross over-simplification of the problem, but it serves
to illustrate the thesis advanced here, namely, that 2 common ancestry for
the primates is to be sought amongst primate etnbryos, not adults. And if
there are different kinds of humans—which appears unlikely—then their
common apficestry is to be sought in the same source. That is merely an
extension of von Baet’s modification of the Meckel-Scrres Jaw. If it 1s
correct man's ancestry and affinities are not to be found by comparison of
primate adult characters, and it is irrelevant to the problem whether man’s
adult physical make-up lies closer to the shrews, tarsiers, lemurs, monkeys,
apes or any other that could be thought of. Theoretically, any of these

85

could by some embryonic twist have given rise to the human stock at any
time. Conseqtiently, there is no pressing need to go really far back into
primate ancestry to discover a form sufficiently generalized to have given

rise to man,
Approximate} Adult
Ageorfull | Craniat
bitferertiation} Cacacity

CORDED RRO ROROROL

EUROPEAN
INeanDeDTHAL MAN

a

%
3
|

First Permanent Molar

common stem

Fig. 7

A scheme to illusirate the suggested common primate stem, and the manner
in which distinctive forms of various primates have been derived from it by a
combination of the processes of gerontomorphism and paedomorphism.

86

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am particularly indebted to Dr. T. D. Campbell, Director of Dental
Studies in this University, for lending me the “taurodont” tooth from the
Ramsay Smith Collection. Miss G. D. Walsh is responsible for the illustra-
tions, To them both I must express my gratitude,

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Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1952 Vol. 75, Plate V

“Taurodont” molar of recent European origin from the
Ramsay Smith Collection in the Adelaide Dental Hospital.
Skiagram by J. A. Cran, M.D.S.

TERTIARY FAULTING IN NORTH-EASTERN EYRE PENINSULA, SOUTH
AUSTRALIA

BY KEITH R. MILES

Summary

A distinctive pattern of meridional block-faulting in the country between Whyalla and Cowell,
north-eastern Eyre Peninsula, has been developed as a result of movements accompanying the
foundering of the Spencer Gulf region during the Plio-Pleistocene. The meridional trend of many of
the Tertiary fault scarps is a reflection of pre-existing foliation trends in the Pre-Cambrian bedrock.
Mapping of the scarps was greatly assisted by the use of aerial photographs. There are many
examples of dislocation and rejuvenation of senescent pre-Tertiary drainage as a result of the
faulting movements. The region provides excellent material for the study of the results of
geologically youthful faulting in soft “overmass” sediments.

89

YERTIARY FAULTING IN NORTH-EASTERN EYRE PENINSULA,
SOUTH AUSTRALIA t

By Kerto R. Mixes *

[Read 11 October 1951]

SUMMARY

A distinctive pattern of meridional block-faulting in the country between
Whyalla and Cowell, north-eastern Eyre Peninsula, has been developed as a
result of movements accompanying the foundering of the Spencer Gulf region
during the Plio-Pleistocene, The meridional trend of many of the Tertiary fault
scarps is a reflection of pre-existing foliation trends in the Pre-Cambrian bedrock.
Mapping of the scarps was greatly assisted by the use of aerial photographs.
There are many examples of dislocation and rejuvenation of senescent pre-
Tertiary drainage as a result of the faulting movements. The region provides
excellent material for the study uf the results of geologically youthful faulting in
soft “overmass” sediments.

INTRODUCTION

Early in 1948 a stmp of country approximately 28 miles wide, running
northerly from latitude 33°45’ S. near Cowell for about 104 miles to latitude
32° 15’ 5, heyond Port Augusta in the north-eastern corner of Eyre Peninsula,
was flown and photographed by units of the Royal Australian Air Force at the
request of the Department of Mines of South Australia. later in the same year
the writer, assisted by other officers of the Mines Department, commenced an
intensive geological survey of the region, which includes the economically
important iron-rich hills of Iron Knob and the Middleback Range. At the time
of writing this survey was still in progress, but regional mapping of most of the
countty lying between the Middleback Range and the coastline of Spencer Gulf
had been completed.

This mapping, cartied out on a scale of 37-40 chains to an inch, using the
aerial photographs already mentioned, has revealed a number of very interesting
features of geology and physiography, not the least of which is an extensive
pattern of block-faulting, which is the subject of the present paper, Faulting in
this area has been known for many years and was first identified and described
by R. L. Jack (1914) following a reconnaissance geological and hydrological
survey of parts of Counties Jervois, York and Buxton. Later it was recogmised
that the whole of the eastern coastline of Eyre Peninsula was bounded by block-
faulting. C. Fenner (1930) referred to this as the ‘‘Lincoin Fault” in discussion
of the major structural and physiographic features of South Australia, and later
(1939) compared some of the faults with the “dirt scarps” of the Para Fault
immediately west of the city of Adelaide.

During the course of the present survey it has heen possible, with the aid of
the air photos, to tecognise and delineate the faults in considerable detail and to
distinguish their characteristic features.

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

The greater part of the region under review is physiographically mature to
sehescent, flat and low lying or very gently undulating with only occasional

* Department of Mines, South Australia

+ Published by permission of the Ditector, Department of Mines, South Australia
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 75, September 1952

90

isolated hills or ridges. Close to the coast is a long marrow strip of salt-water
marshes and sand-dunes standing just above highwater level, often fringed on
the seaward side by mangroves, and extending along the coastline southwards
from Whyalla to Cowell and beyond.

Beyond these marshes the land gradually rises to a flat soil-and-alluvium-
covered coastal plain standing 50 to 100 feet above sea level, covered sith salt-
bush, bluebush and myall. This coastal plain ranges from two to eight miles in
width, but near Whyalla is broken by Mount Young and the Whyalla Hills. It is
interrupted to the westward hy the system of north-south fault scarps to be
described below, These have the total effect of stepping up the plain ta the west-
ward, in general block by block, to a height of about 490-450 fect.

The upper plain is a base-levelied, gently undulating tableland extending
westwards to the Middleback Range and well beyond. The general level stanils
at between 450 and 650 feet above sea level. To the westward and south-westward
of Whyalla this plain is broken by a number of rocky north-south-trending ridges
such ag the Middleback Range (900-1,400 feet) and Moonabie Range (about
850 fect), but farther southwards it is relieved only by low, smooth, rounded hills.
To the northward and north-westward of Whyalla are the dissected remnants of
an original higher level tableland which extends far to the north-westward of
Port Augusta,

Drainage channels within the area under review are well defined only in the
immediate vicinity of where they rise amongst the higher level ridges. Within
the plains, with few exceptions, they consist of broad and diminishing flood lines.
Not even the best-defined drainage channels stich as Salt Creek or Myall Creek
reach the sea. To the westward of the Middleback Range a decadent southerly
drainage is marked by a number of salt lakes flanked by gypsum dunes. Eastward
of the range a senescent drainage system trending southerly to south-easterly has
been partially dislocated by the block faulting. Short fault-searp consequent water
courses, such as Deep Creek, are in process of eroding back some of the recently
farmed scarp faces.

A very great part of the area under discussion is covered by yeologically
recent superficial deposits of soil and alluvial sands and clays, and ubiquitous
travertine ecment. These deposits mantle almest all of the coastal plain between
Whyalla and Cowell and much of the upper plain, To the southward and west-
ward of the Middleback Range sand dunes forming continuous lines of parallel
ridges trend N.W.-S.E. and cover much of the country.

At scattered localities on the flanks of the fault scarps are exposed the
remnants of what were probably extensive deposits of grit and saridatone over-
lying shell-riclt marine limestone (Pliocene) formed during an inenrsion of the
sea over much of the areas occupied by ihe coastal and upper plains. This lime-
stone fies ditectly upon Pre-Cambrian bedrock.

The basement rocks tittderlying the plains and exposed in the low rises of
the undulating country, and in the hill ridges and the upper tableland, are believed
to comprise a considerable range of rock types—from sandstones, grits and con-
glomerates of probable Cambrian age and basal grits and quartzites of the Pro-
terozoic Adelaide System, to Archaean igneous and metamorphic rocks. The
latter include stecply-folded banded iron formations and associated schists of the
Middleback Range and also a complex series of schists, gneisses and migmatites,
and toliated granitic rocks. Later igneous rocks include coarse porphyritic granite,
felspar porphyry and dolerite-amphibolite. Composite quartz veins occupy a num-
ber of extended fissutves in the older rocks.

It is apparent that the area under review has been the subject of some
extremely long periods of erosion which have continued up to geologically recent
times, This is reflected in the generally base-levelled character of much of the

91

topography, the high level plateau of the Cambrian sandstone and conglomerate
formations, and the gently undulating to flat upper plain with its pediments of
fairly deeply weathered granitic schists, gneisses and migmatites.

PART OF

NORTHEASTERN EYRE PENINSULA
SOUTH AUSTRALIA

snomuo’ TERTIARY FAULT SCARPS
Favir Scares
QuimrzQeere =}

Do
4 Zoont AUGUSTA

‘
ri
:
ant

“bon

92

THE FAULT SCARPS

The distribution and pattern of faulting has been determined in the field and
from the aerial photographs by recognising and delineating the characteristic topo-
graphic features. Their distribution is shown in fig. 1,

in the field a fault scarp can often be distinguished by the occurrence of a
rise or fall in otherwise almost perfectly peneplained country, and by the remark-
able continuity and straightness of the resulting escarpment (fig, 2). In slightly
undulating country, or where the fault displacement has been small, it may became
virtually impossible to recognise on the ground the characteristic topographic
features of faulting. From the aerial photograph, however, it is possible to identify
and delincate with ease the fault scarps of all sizes down io those in which the
total displacement has been no more than a few feet, They appear as typically
straight or gently curved light-coloured lines which usually truncate all other
features of topography, soil and vegetation distinguishable in the photograph
(pl. vi, fig. 1).

The principal fault scarps in the region lying between the Middleback Range
and Whyalla have a strong general meridional] trend with a lesser development of
cross-linking scarps trending east-west or slightly south of westerly. For con-
venience of description and identification these scarps have been given names as
shown in fig. 1.

The first scarp encountered in travelling from Whyalla to Iran Knob is the
Roopena Searp which crosses the road and railway near Roopena Siding, at about
13 miles from Whyalla, and extends northerly for about 20 miles. This is an
east-facing scarp and has an average height of about 10 fcet, but for many miles
it rises no more than five or six feet above the eastern plain (pl. vi, fig, 2).
Branching of the scarp at about 12 miles north of the Whyalla-lron Knob road
indicates a splintering of the fault line at this point.

The next main scarp, Randell Scarp, crosses the Whyalla-Iron Knob road
at about 15 miles from Whyalla and rung southerly from a point four miles north
af the road, in two broad arches, first curving towards the west and then towards
the east, crossing the Lincoln Highway at 10 miles west of Whyalla, This scarp
traverses the full length of the Hundred of Randell and enters the Hundred of
Poynton to the south, where it joins the Poynton Scarp, a bold north-easterly
trending feature which, with an east-west trending branch, overlooks the coastal
plain to the east and south.

At tts northern end Randell Scarp faces westward and attains a maximuin
height of about 30 feet; bat at about five miles south of the Iron Knob road it
rapidly loses height and dwindles into the plain, only to re-appear at a few chains
farther south, on the same line, as an east-facing scarp which gradually increases
in elevation above the coastal plain to.a maximum of ahout 75-80 feet. Approach-
ing Poynton Scarp, its elevation above the Poynton block is about 20-25 feet,
Near here a second parallel scarp stopped at 14-2 miles to the west, forms a
splinter block on the Randell fault block.

Poynton Scarp first rises at about three miles south of the Lincoln Iighway
and trends first southerly and then south-south-westerly for five miles, where it
is joined by a branching north-south scarp (maximum height 35 feet), and then
swings southerly for several miles, From here Poynton Scarp steps to the west-
ward for about four miles and breaks into a number of north-south splinter
scarps, only to swing at right angles, westerly again as a prominent 60 Ft. escarp-
ment which can be traced for about five miles, first crossing the Murninnie Scarp
and finally dying out against the Moonabie Scarp (pl, vi, fig. 4), A feature of
Poynton Scarp has been the discovery of traces of Tertiary marine limestone along

93

the foot of the scarp at a number of localities. Similar limestone occurs overlying
granite-gneiss, on the banks of Deep Creek, on the Poynton-Nonowie fault block
(pl. vii, fig. 3). Average height of the scarp is about 45-50 feet,

The next major scarp-line runs roughly parallel to the southern half of
Randell Scarp and crosses the Lincoln Highway at about 14 miles from Whyalla.
It passes at half a mile west of Nonowie Station homestead and has been named
Nonowie Scarp. It is about 14 miles long and has a number of small forks or
branching scarps, all facing easterly. Maximum height is about 80 feet near the
Lincoln Highway, the scarp reducing to about 15-20 feet as it approaches Poynton
Scarp, Here delineation becomes difficult due to undulating outcrops of gneiss
on the up-slope side. To the north the scarp extends for some distance at a
steady height of about 40 feet, but finally dics out at seven miles north of the
Lincoln Ilighway. Beyond this there are the discontinuous remnants of an
irregular west-facing scarp which may represent the northerly extension of the
Nonowic fault line, and which suggests that, as with the Randell Scarp already
described, a whole block of country in this vicinity has undergone hinged faulting
movements about an east-west axis of cross warping.

Fig, 2

Pre-existing drainage pattern dislocated
by portion of Ash Reef Scarp.

Farther west again is a well-defined topographic feature which starts at its
northern end as a west-lacing scarp trending south south-easterly. This scarp
pradually gives way to a gentle ridge covered by loose quartz rubble, and farther
south again where it enters the Hundred of Ash it becomes a long straight com-
posite quartz reef ridge which finally swings south-easterly across granitic gneiss
country near the junction of the Lincoln Highway with the Whyalla~Kimba road.
This feature has been named Ash Reef Scarp, This is the most westerly of the
fault scarps identified in the northern half of the area under reyiew. Maximum
height of Ash Reef Scarp is about 40 feet. Where the scarp merges into the
quartz ridge its height is reduced to about 15-20 feet above the surrounding plain.
The presence of the quartz tecfs along the fault line of this scarp is of consider-
able significance and will be discussed later in considering the age of the faulting.

a4

Murninnie and Moonabie Scarps are two parallel, short and very’ straight
north-south trending scarps, cach of which face easterly, dies out to the north-
ward and swings sharply to the west at its southern extremity, producing in turn
the effect of two rectangular hinged Eault blocks, tilted downwards to the south,

Murninnie Scarp, so named because the workings of old Murninnie Copper
mine [Jack (1930), p. 42] are exposed in its flank close to where it crosses
Poynton Scarp, rises about 20-30 feet above the Poynton-Nonowie fault plain,
Farther south it stands at between 75 and 80 feet above the coastal plain (pl. vi,
fig 3). Granite gneisses and migmatites are exposed along much of Murninnie
Scarp except towards its southern end, where east south-easterly trending sand
duties spill over the dwindling scarp face.

Moonabie Scarp extends southerly from where it crosses the Lincoln Iligh-
way at about two miles east of the Moonabie Range, for about 11 miles to a
point where it swings sharply to the west. At Lincoln Highway the total displace-
ment ts about 3-4 feet, but this increases steadily to the southward until at about
five niles south the maximum measured height of the scarp is about 180 feet
(pl. vi, fig. 4). Here on the flanks of the uplifted block is exposed a belt of much
felspathised, highly brecciated cherty sediments. Going farther south the scarp
face gradually diminishes in height and is transgressed by sand dunes following
the regional cast south-casterly trend.

Moonabie Scarp ends against a short straight scarp which ruts in a soyth-
westerly direction for nearly eight miles, where it fades out in sand dune country.
This scarp has an average height of 20 feet and faces south-easterly over the
coastal plain. It serves to link Moonabie Scarp with the next prominent feature,
the Charleston Scarp.

Charleston Scarp runs east and west at just south of the southern boundary
of the Hundred of Charleston. It faces south, has a length of about 12 miles
and a height ranging from 10 feet to about 30 feet. Near the scarp boundary
imuch of the uplifted Charleston-Moonabie block is covered by sand dunes. It is
tweached by Salt Creek in whose banks are exposed considerable thicknesses of
prestiwably Tertiary fluvatile grits and gravels, apparently overlying Pre-
camtbrian granite and gneiss.

The final scarp in the area under discussion, the Cowell Scarp, can be seen
irom the coastal plain as a bold scarp feature running continously in a south-
westerly direction from Charleston Scarp at four miles west of Salt Creek to
four miles west of Cowell, and weli beyond. Maximum displacement along
Cowell Scarp is not known, but it probably varies from not iess than 50 feet to
over 100 feet. Dissection of the scarp near Cowell has resulted in exposures of
Precambrian gneisses and metamorphosed sedimentary recks.

So much for the individual fault scarps—let us now consider the fault scarp
picture as a whole. It is apparent from a review of the entire general pattern of
faulting in the area surveyed that the general regional movement has been dawn-
ward to the south-east, along a broad south-west north-east axis, #.2., parallel to the
western coastline of Spencer Gulf, Individual scarps have been produced by con-
temporaneous differential movements of successive parallel blocks of country so
that, with a few notable exceptions (vtz,, the morthern portion of Ash Reef,
Nonowie and Randell Searps), in going westward, each has been stepped upward
relative to the coastal plain, and to each other, or conversely they have been
stepped downward to the eastward, Furthermore, since the scarps die put to the
northward, it appears that the fault blocks have been tilted or warped. down to the
southward along hinged fault lines, In the exception cited above the fault blocks
have apparently been warped along an east-west axis, possibly as a result of

95

secondary or later fault movements which have reversed the direction of some
scarp faces.

This general pattern of faulting is consistent with the type of irregular tear-
ing along the grain of the country which would be expected at the boundaries of
a major “graben” or similar down-faulted block which lies oblique ot transverse
to this regional grain. In this instance the major transverse down-faulting was
provided by the “foundering” of Spencer Gulf, the predominant movement being
south-east block downward relative to Eyre Peninsula. The regional grain of
the country is represented by the foliation trend lines of the Precambrian base-
ment rocks, That some minor tearing movements were along pre-existing fissures
or lines of weakness in the older Precambrian rocks is suggested by the develop-
ment of a relatively youthful fault scarp along the extension of a line of possibly
Precambrian or early Palaeozoic quartz reefs (the Ash Reef Scarp). There are,
however, other major lines of quartz reefs shown in fig. 1, which although repre-
senting ancient fissures and lines of weakness, did not yield during the period of
block-faulting movements responsible for the scarps described above.

Fig. 3

Portion. of Randell Scarp showing, early
stage dissection and development of scarp-
consequent and rejuveriated water-courses.

AGE OF FAULTING

There is atmple evidence that the fault scarps described in the preceding
section are comparatively youthful featires. Perhaps one of the most striking
examples of such evidence is the effect of the faulting upon the drainage pattern
in many portions of the upper pédiment-plain, as revealed in the air photos and by
surface mappineg..

Much of the present decadent drainage pattern on the upper plain between
Whyalla and Iron Knob and the Middleback Range has been inherited directly
from, or is unchanged from, the pre-faulting topography, in which a fairly high
degree of base-levelling or peneplanation is displayed. In places the faulting has
dislocated the drainage, either damming hack or diverting old drainage lines or
else rejuvenating old channels or promoting new ones.

96

Fig, 2 shows how development of the west-facing Ash Reef Scarp has
dammed back a number of easterly-directed drainage channels and produced
several shallow ponds or claypans, This scarp ranges in height from less than a
foot at its northern extremity up to 40 feet opposite the largest claypan flat. The
scarp line is very straight and entirely undissected by any scarp-consequent
drainage channels. It consists of a simple soil slope, or “dirt scarp” of Fenner
(1939, p. 86). Other examples of similar claypans or natural dams can be seen
along the northern portions of Roopena Scarp where the low east-facing scarp
(height 5-10 feet) has transgressed pre-faulting south-westerly drainage.

Fig. 3 illustrates how the faulting has promoted small scarp-consequent
drainage chatnels and rejuvenated senescent easterly drainage on portion of
Randell Scarp, near the Linco!n Highway (pl. vii, fig. 2). The scarp face, which
has a height of about 70-75 feet is in process of becoming irregularly dissected,
and the original soil slope is being modified in its lower levels by the development
of an outwash apron of alluvium washed from the crest of the scarp,

As to the precise geological age of the faulting, it is possible to define a lower
limit to the faulting period, as the Tertiary marine limestone which, as already
mentioned, has been found at the foot of Poynton Scarp and also on the Poynton-
Nonowie fault block, is believed to be of Lower Pliocene age similar to the so-
called ‘‘Adelaidean” (Kalimnan) of the Adelaide-Hallett Cove district, At Deep
Creek this marine limestone, which is rich in shell casts, has been cut off against
granite-gneiss by a steep-angled fault (pl. vii, fig. 4)-

It is probable that the faulting movements continued through the Pliocene
and into Pleistocene time, with various isotatic readjustments accompanying the
foundering of the Spencer Gulf and Gulf St, Vincent region and the development
of the Mount Lofty Horst block. This period coincides with the so-called
Kosciuskan Epoch of major block-faulting movements responsible for many
mountain features along the eastern coast of Australia.

REFERENCES
Jack, R.L. 1914 Geol. Surv., S.A., Bulletin 3
Fenner, C. 1930 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 54, 1-36
Fenner, C. 1939 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 63, (1), 79-87

, Plate Wi

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BASIC IGNEOUS ROCK OF THE WORUMBA REGION, SOUTH
AUSTRALIA

BY ALAN H. SPRY

Summary

A group of basic igneous rocks occurs about twenty miles east of Hawker in the Flinders Ranges.
The regional features of the locality have been discussed by the author in a previous paper. The
varieties present are described as dolerites and basalts and invariably show the effects of
uralitization, saussuritization, etc., due to deuteric and hydrothermal alteration. These basic rocks lie
almost entirely in a fault block in the centre of Worumba Anticline, where they have intruded pure
and impure dolomites, phyllites and quartzites which are stratigraphically placed almost at the base
of the Adelaide System. The intruded sediments show slight regional metamorphism but very little
contact alteration.

97

BASIC IGNEOUS ROCKS OF THE WORUMBA REGION,
SOUTH AUSTRALIA*

By Avan H, Spry
[Read 8 November 1951]

SUMMARY

A group of basic igneous rocks occurs about twenty miles east of Hawker
in the Flinders Ranges. The regional features of the locality have been discussed
by the author in a previous paper. The varieties present are described as dolerites
and basalts and invariably show the effects of uralitization, saussuritization, ¢tc.,
due to deuteric and hydrothermal alteration. These basic rocks lie almiost entirely
in a fault block in the centre of the Worumba Anticline, where they have intruded
pure and impute dolomites, phyllites and quartzites which are sttatigraphically
placed almost at the base of the Adelaide System. The intruded sediments show
slight regional metamorphism but very little contact alteration,

THE BASIC ROCKS

Two major varieties of igneous rocks are found in the area, and the division
is made according to prominent lithological characteristics. The medium to coarse
grained rocks with ophitic to intergranular texture are called dolerites, while the
fine-grained, amygdaloidal varieties are named basalts. These terms replace the
“diabase” and “melaphyre” of Benson (1909) and Howehin (1907, 1928, etc.).

There is considerable doubt whether all the basalts are truly extrusive, so
that the division is made on a lithological rather than a genetic basis for con-
vettience.

Fretp RELATIONS

The basics are restricted to the disturbed axial zone of the Worumba Anti-
cline, and while the majority intrude the phyllite-dolomite fault block there are
a few which have penetrated the Sturt Tillite in the area about Morgans Creek.
Text figure 1 shows the distribution of the igneous bodies with each occurrence
numbered. The folding and faulting within the fault block was too complex ta
resolve in the time available and consequently only structural trends are indicated
in this map.

The group numbered 5 to 15 (excluding 13 and including B.1) appear to
be very closely related. Particularly in the southern part, the area appears to be
almost completely underlain by igneous rock with only narrow strips of sediment
separating individual intrusions. The sediment may be remnants of the roof over
a large solid mass.

Number 44 is a narrow elongated mass which forms the ridge just west of
Mount Craig and is shown in more detail in text figure 2. It appears as several
stnall, disconnected outctops in the south, then as a solid, curved, dyke-like mass,
It is by far the most interesting and important of all the intrusives, as it shows
clear evidence of differentiation, differential alteration, metasomatism and mineral-
ization and warrants more attention than was allowed in the field observation.

The group numbered 49 to 53 shows a distinct meridional grouping and
strongly suggests a line of intrusions along a fracture. It is notable that the

* Section of an Adelaide University Commonwealth Research Grant Thesis,
Trans. Roy, Soc. S: Aust., 75, September 1952

2

’
A 6258) 3
o') 0% 1} 2" f
he 65 & £6) pp a

Fig, 1

Geological map illustrating

the occurrence and distribu-

Fe] ate ur tion of the dolerites, ete.

within the phyllite-dolomite
fault block,

7] GLACIAL BEDS
[* ] HAGNESITIC BEDS

PHYLLITE-DOLOMITE
FORMATION
PHYLLITES & SLATES

57% DOLERITE 8.1 ™ BASALT
© HAEMATITE % SHAFTS, PITS, ADITS
vt STRUCTURAL TRENDS 7 FAULT
+ HORIZONTAL «= VERTICAL
LITHOLOGICAL BOUNDARY

SCALE
2 3

direction of major and minor fold axes and major and minot faults in the area
around is north-south. also,

Number 61 is the only body which shows any distinct tendency to dyke
formation as it trends along the strike of the sediments, but is associated with
several plug-like masses,

99

The oecurrence of the basalts is interesting, as they all occur as apparently
intrusive, irregularly circular masses and show no evidence in the field of being
flows, either subaerial or submarine.

Number B.1 is a body which is over 400 feet across the steike of the sedi-
ments, but only about 100 feet along it. It appears right in the middle of a group
of doleriles and appears to merge into one intrusion, although this feature ts most
indefinite becayse of soil cover. The rock is amygdaloidal and moderately jointed,

_ Number B, 2 is a slightly elongated body which rung along the strike of the
sediments in the bed of Morgans Creck. It outcrops only a few feet from a
dolerite which shows obvious intrusive relations.

Number B.3 again occurs in the midst of a group of dolerite intrusions jiist
north of Willow Creek. Jt is glassy and shows very strongly developed close
jointing wich the juint planes covered with epidote.

Tue Porm or THE INTRUSIONS

The shapes of the igneous bodies are very irregular and tend towards sub-
ciceular or oval bodies with strongly elongated dykes or sills rather uncommon.
The term “sill” might be applied to some clongated bodies which appear to haye
been intruded concordantly, but very often these are dykes which have forced
the sediments immediately surrounding them into a vertical position parallel to
the elongation of the igneous mass. The terms plug or stock are the only ones
suitable to describe the vertical pipedike bodies which are so common,

The form of the amygdaloidal or glassy basaltic bodies is frequently similar
to that wf the dolerites, thus suggesting that the basalts are intrusive. ‘There 1s
no doubt that interbedded flow basalts da ocour at various places in the Flinders
Ranges, but there is no evidence to support such an origin for the rocks in this
area, Iloward (1951) has described elongated outcrops of rather flatly dipping
amygdaloidal basalt at Blinman. The author has seen these, and it is apparent
that they have all the properties of flows, similar to those at Wooltana described
by Mawson (1927), Basie pebbles have been found in beds overlying basalts by
Mawson at Wooltana (1927) and Elatina (1949), and also at Enorama by
Howard (1951), so that there is no doubt that there was at least some contem-
poraneous effusive activity in the northern Flinders Ranges. Howchin (1922)
has teferred to “volcanic necks” of basaltic material at Blinman and Wirrealpa
and it seems likely that the intrusive amvgdaloidal plugs were “feeder” pipes to
true Hows higher in the System, The close association in the field of extrusive
and intrusive forms of the same magma has been repeatedly observed in rather
mobile zones, and Marshall (1940) described an occurrence in the Catboniferous
strata of the Midlands Counties of England. Tle noted that the criteria which
normally indicate a flow may also be seen in a minor intrusion, The presence of
(a) amygaloidal texture, (b) glassy or fine-grained edges, (c) lack of alteration
of the sediments, may thus be found in both intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks
as they apparently are in the basalts at Hawker.

The close association of intrtisives and extrusives in several areas tn the
Flinders Ranges is probably due to the presence of a long-lived deep-seated weak-
ness in the crust along which the rise of basic magma took place at widely spaced
times.

THe Metcuanics or INrrusion

The basics occur singly or in small and large groups throughout the Mount
Lofty-T'linders Ranges and the groups are ysually located in an easily recngnisable
zone of tectonic activity. These zones of weakness frequently ocetir along or

H

100

near the axis of an anticline ot dome, and this feature is seen at Mount Painter,
Mount Stewart, Blinman, Enorama, Oraparinna and Worumba. Text figure 6
shows the distribution of the known basic intrusions which belong to this group
and it may be seen that the fields are distributed along the axial portion of the
geosyncline with the greater number of intrusions in the highly disturbed zones
in the north, The extreme tectonic activity is shown in all areas by the occurrence
of great masses of crush breccia as shown in pl. viii, fig. 1, and the dolerites
frequently intrude the crush zones as shown by Sprigg (1949). Occasionally
the igneous rock is itself brecciated by later movement. In the Worumba area
we have the formation of an anticline which by continued thrust from the south-
east became overturned. Large faults developed (the main one parallel to the
axis of the fold) and a fault block was moved up many thousands of feet (at
least 4,000 feet) into the axial zone, and this was followed by the intrusion of
over 60 small bodies along the central portion, during probably a relaxational
tensional phase after the folding,

c te Ed 30 CHATHS. o3 to 70 Ril ao CHAE
—— —

DOLERITE DYKE SYSTEM AT ACID OYKE SYSTEM AT
GOSNELLS WA ARMIDALE N.S.W.

asTen DAVIS 194

wicene 2

e313 i¢ 20 30 40 CHAINS. J 20 40 CWAIND

i eee
GROUP OF DOLERITE PLUGS GROUP OF DOLERITE PLUGS
EAST OF HAWKER S.A, HAWKER S.A-

Fig, 2
Some minor intrusions illustrating varying
degrees of regularity of conditions during
intrusion,

Despite Howchin’s frequent mention of dykes in the Flinders Ranges, the
majority of the bodies are irregularly shaped plugs, Groups of plugs may occur
along a line, but any regularity is usually lacking and this gives some idea of
the conditions during intrusion when comparison is made with other minor intru-
sions, A dyke system of similar material and age from Western Australia has

101

been shown by Davis (1940) to possess a marked regularity as indicated in text
figure 2. Here the dolerite was intruded into a massive granite and the [orm
of the intrusion ts due to a well-developed joint system in the country rock,

An example of varying regularity taken from Armidale in New South Wales
is shown also in text figute 2. Here a large acid dyke (80 yards wide and over
a mile long) breaks in the centre where there is a zone containing a number of
small, irregularly shaped and distributed dykes with no relation to each other
or to the main dyke. There js probably a large tensional fracture which controlled
the formation of the major dyke but in the irregular, closely jointed central por-
tion all uniformity ig lost,

Thus a regular system of intrusions depends on regularity of the orogenic
forces during intrusion and a regular response of the country rock to the forces,
The response will depend on the homogeneity of the country rock and this will be
reflected in a regular system of joints or larger fractures,

The zones of intrusion in the Flinders Ranges lie along major striuctiral
weaknesses, but the irregularity of form and distribution of the intrusions is
caused primarily by the lack of homogeneity of the sediments and the consequen-
tial varying responses of beds of differing competency to orogenic forces. ‘The
forces themselves were not at all uniform in the small, highly contorted and
crushed zones which suffered igneous intrusion.

THE PETROGRAPHY OF THE IGNEOUS ROCKS
DOLERITES

Tn general the dolerites are dark green in colour with a fine to moderately
coarse grain and textures varying between ophitic, intergranular and allotrio-
morphic. They originally consisted of augite and labradorite with accessory horn-
blende, imemite, apatite and quartz, but have typically suffered the secondary
processes of uralitization and saussuritization, Olivine does not occur in this
area but has been found as serpentine pseudomorphs in similar rocks in the
Flinders Ranges.

The pyroxene was originally a member of the augite-pigeonite series and
measurements on the universal stage gave optic axial angles from 15° to 50°.
Quite often different crystals in the sare rock gave a 2V range of 5° and in one
specimen a range of 17° was obtained, indicating a strong variation in the lime
content of the mineral, and this is a reflection of the strongly varying lime content
of different dolerites. The pyroxene is very pale green or colourless and occasion-
ally shews polysynthetic twinning. It i$ usually altered to uralitic actinolite which
may be pale green and fibroys or somewhat better ci'ystallized with colours Fro
bluc-green to greenish-hrawn.

The plagioclase was originally labradorite bit only in a few cases was the
unaltered mineral found, as saussuritization usually clouds the laths. with epidote,
zoisite or sericite with the simultaneous production of fresh albite,

A well-formed greenish-brown hornblende may be primary, Accessories are
skeletal grids of ilmenite with leucoxene, apatite and quartz. Sphene is present
in one specimen and riebeckite replaces. the pyroxene in two others,

Rock [9098] from outcrop number 16 is a typical specimen. It is mediam-
grained with an irregular texture which is ophitic in some parts and hypidio-
morphic to seriate in others, The rock consists chicHy of amphiboles with altered
plagioclase, and a little pyroxene,

102

The pyroxene ig a pale stibecalcic augite with an optic axial angle varying
between 44° and 50°. There is abundant pale fibrous actinolite which is uralitic
and forms pseudomorphs aiter the amphibole, A little hornblende, pleochyaic
fram dark-brown to blue-green occurs as well formed crystals often intimately
associated with ilmenite. The plagioclase remains as highly altered laths, some
containing reasonably large flakes of white mica and others being cloyded with a
dense aggregate of zoisite and epidote, Only a little fresh regenerated albite is
present together with a little biotite, skeletal grids of ilmenite with leucoxene
and quite an appreciable amount of interstitial granophyric quartz.

Rock [9087] from outcrop 24 ts a fine-grained greenish dolerite. It has an
irregular texture, being intergranular and ophitic in parts, There is abunrlant
amphibole and a little pyroxene with fresh labradorite and this is one of the Few
rocks fn the area which contains primary plagioclase. It is colourless with
inoderately high relicf and is twinned on combinations of the albite, Pericline and
Carlsbad Jaws, Measurements on the untyersal stage showed it to be biaxially
positive with an optic axial angle of 76° and a maximum extinction from the
01D of 30°, thus indicating an acid labradorite. The plagioclase shows all arrested
stages in the alteration to ziusite, epidote and sericite. The pyroxene is a colour-
less sub-calcic augite with an optic axial angle of 47°. It is altered to a pale
green-yellow actinolite which occurs as matted, fibrous masses. Subhedral crystals
of brown to blue-green hornblende also are present. Accessories are ilmenite and
slender needles of apatite,

Rock [908i] from outcrop 54 is an uncommon porphyritic dolerite, some-
What similar to Johannsen's (1941) “devonite”’. It has a porphyritic texture
with a few large, highly altered laths of feldspar set in a medium-grained, inter-
granular groundimass. The phenocrysts are completely altered to mica or epidote
aml show a herringhone structure which is probably residual after original
twinning, Smaller crystals are interlocking laths of labradorite (Ab,..) twinned
on cumbinations of the albite, Pericline and Carlsbad laws, and these are fresh
with a slight banding due to extremely fine inclusions. The pyroxene is colourless
although sometimes faintly pleochroic and is surrounded by an indefinite brown
amphibole. Epidote is abundant and a little imicaceous haematite (?) and yellow
chalcedony is present,

Rack [9100] from outcrop 32 is dark green and conststs chiefly of partly
uralitized sub-calcic augite (2V=47°) which bas an ophitic relation towards
the highly altered plagioclase, A yein carrying a felted mass of fibrous amphibole
cuts the rock. This amphibole 1s pleachroie with Z—= bluish-green and thus differs
from ibe uralitie variety common to the rest of the rock which is pleochroic from
ligttt to dark brown.

ia rock [559{ from outcrop number 43, the pyroxene varies in different
crystals from a pigtonite (2V = 30°) to a sub-calcic augite (2V — 47°).

Rock [429A] from outcrop 28 is mediuni-grained and of a bluish-green
colour and fs cut by veins of calcile up to 3” wide, Distinct crystals of a blue
amphibole and flakes of biotite are visible in the hand specimen. It has the
typical doleritic intergranular texture, with plagioclase laths forming an inter-
locking mesh enclosing biotite and occasional large phenocrysts of blue
amphibole with an ophitic relation, The plagioclase is albite and is compara-
tively fresh in appearance with comparatively few inclusions, Twinning Is
irregular and on the alhite law with broad twins. The amphibole is pleochroic
with X = light blue, Y== deep blue and Z— bronze to dark brown, It has a
high optie axial angle and is probably negative, Extinction angles from the fibres

103

vary up fo 7°. The mineral is a member of the crocidalite group which has a
widely variable composition and is close to rivbeckite, Biatite is very abundant
ag fresh brown flakes together with skeletal grids of rutile and a little calcite.

BASALTS

The basalts are grey to black, fine-grained rocks with an amygdaloidal struc-
ture. The amygdales are usually filled with calcite and less often with siderite,
epidote, quartz, chlorite or biotite. The groundmass may be hypidiomorphic
granular, intergranular, ataxitic or glassy (now devitrified), The minerals com-
posing the groundmass are indistinct but usually consist of albite, actinolite,,
chlorite, calcite, epidote and iron ore, Secondary alteration is invatiably well
advanced and no evidence of primary olivine, pyroxene or labradorite was found,

Rock [9091 C] from outcrop number B, J is light grey and fine-grained with
numerous small amygdales about 3 to 4 mm, in diameter filled with calcite, It ts
holocrystalline with a partly intergranular groundmass. The rock consists chiefly
of tiny interlocking albite laths (some well formed) with abundant calcite, green
chiorite and a little brown biotite. Ilmenite with leucoxene is abundant as small
ragged grains and etthedral crystals, The amygdales are rounded and filled with
well-crystallized minerals which form concentric layers. The otter zone is rich
in iron ore, followed by alternating layers of chlorite and biotite with a core of
brownish sidetite, The biotite and chlorite are frequently intergrown and merge
into each other,

Rock [9093] is dark coloured and porphyritic with greasy green felspar
phenocrysts and amygdales containing calcite and biotite set in a dense, black
groundmass, It is hypocrystalline with the phenocrysts and amygdales set
in a dense, black devitrified glassy groundmass, The plagioclase pheno-
erysts are frequently euhedral and Jath-shaped and are composed of
aliite (Ab,,), They are well twinned and have abundant inclusions of epidote.
Corrosion by the groundmass (mesostasis) is shown where the material has
entered along cleavages and twin planes. Biotite occurs as red-brown flakes which
are (reqiiently bent. Calcite and chlorite also occur as small aggregates and sheafs.
The amygdales are filled with calcite, biotite, epidote and pale-green actinolite.

The amygdaloidal appearance and high degree of mineralogical alternation
has resulted in these basalts being referred to as spilitic. However, it is seen that
there are considerable critical differences when the praperties of the spilites and
these basalts are compared. Spilites occur as sulmarine or subaerial flows of
intrusives with pillaw structure common but not universal. The vesicular parts
have been converted to amygdales cnutaining calcite, chlorite, chalcedony, qitartz,
agate, epidote and zeolites, The tocks are basic with occasional plassy material
and typically contain albite, augite, chlorite. epidote, calcite and actinolite. Thus
it may he seen that the basalts are spilitic in this sense. In addition both groups
have altered dolerite, keratophyres and sndic granites associated with them.
Llowever, the chief distinguishing features of the spilites is the chemical com-
position and it is here that considerable differences are seen. The most critical
point is the presence of large amounts of soda, and particularly a high Na,O/K,O
ratio. From the analysis given hy Mawson (1926, 1942) it is seen that the basalts
contain less than 33% of Na,O while K,O may he present up to 2:76%, giving
a soda-potash tatio much higher than the typical spilite. Also the F'cQ, CO,,;
TiO,, H,O ate not abnormally high as in most spilites and ALO, is not deficient.
A keratophyre found by Howchin (1916) at Mount Remarkable does show
definite spilitic characteristics with 6-1% of Na,O and only O4t% K,O,

Ig

Tuer ALTERATION oF THE Basic Rocxs

The most typical feature of this group of dolerites is the almost invariable
presence of secondary minerals. The rocks were composed of labradorite, augite
(usually low in lime), occasionally olivine and accessory hornblende, ilmenite,
apatite, biotite and quartz. The results of uralitization, saussuritization, chloriti-
zation, etc,, are visible and there is secondary serpentine, albite, epidote, zoisite,
actinolite, chlorite, sericite and leucoxene in practically all the dolerites atid basalts.
Some rocks are more altered than others and consequently all stages in the forma-
tion of the host of secondary minerals are seen,

The first alteration to take place is that of olivine to sctpentine and iton ore.

This was not faund in the rocks of the Hawker area but was described by
Benson (1909) at Blinman,

Fig. 3

A variation diagram showing the variation
in chemical composition of eight members
of this group.

=
=
3

Saussuritization is next to take place and in very few cases only ig the
original labradorite found. The alteration clouds the plagioclase laths with a mass
of tmy granules of colourless zcisite or clinozoisite or yellow epidote. Occasionally
secondary albite is sufficiently developed to be recognisable as fresh colourless
crystals. ‘The plagioclase breaks down into a mixture of albite and zoisite with
epidote or actinolite entering the aggregate when iron ot magtiesia are available.
The white mica which occasionally forms large flakes is rather more difficult to
explain, The mica appears to be the potash vatiety sericite rather than the soda-
patagonite and there are two possible sources of the potash. Vogt (1921) stated
that normal plagioclase may contain 1p to 12% of orthoclase in solid solution
and consequently the 2% or less of potash in these dolerites is probably present
in the plagioclase (biotite is rarely present). Consequent breakdown of ithe
plagioclase would precipitate the orthoclase as sericite with a concurrent freeing
of excess potash. In some cases the potash appears to have entered the plagioclase
from outside and altered it along cracks and cleavages, The potash concentrated
in the late stage liquor may be assisted by that liberated by sericitization of ortho-
clase in causing sericitization of the plagioclase.

The pyroxene, which is an augite usually low in lime, alters peripherally
to a pale fibrous actinolite which often entirely replaces the original mineral. The
process presumably takes place after saussuritization as it is much more often
partly arrested, although it appears to take place concurrently in many of the
tocks. The actinolite in some cases is darker and shows distinct blue-green and
blue pleochroic colours. In several cases (e.g., rock [9095]) a sodic amphibole
near riebeckite in composition appears. The bluish tint in the actinolite is pro-
bably due to small amounts of soda (at least partly liberated by. réaction with the
plagioclase), although it may be caused by the presence of a little ferric iron,

105

An idiomorphic brown hornblende is often present and has heen regarded
here as secondary by Benson (1909). Williams (1890) regarded all such amphi-
bole as secondary and Shand (1943) states (hat apparently primary hornblende
is sometimes secondary after pyroxene. There is a conflict of opition on the
matter but in this case the hornblende is regarded as primary because of the size
and perfection of the erystals and the Jack of replacement evidence, The horn-
blende is typical of cooler and mere hydrous conditions ihan the augite and
probably crystallized at a moderately advanced stage in the consolidation of

e rock,

Tlmemite is the common iron ofe in these rocks and it occurs as skeletal grid-
shaped masses. It alters commonly to Icucoxene although it is frequently fringed
with hornblende, suggesting that it contributed iron in the growth of that mineral.
In one highly altered rock [9095] there are skeletal grids of rutile, suggesting a
final stage m the breakdown of the ilmenite with loss of iron,

No attempt is made to list a serics of hypothetical chemical reactions show-
ing the processes of alteration as it seems likely that the changes were not
separate reactions. The serpentinization of olivine involves the addition
of silica and water, and takes place easily without concurtent reactions, but
gaussuritization and uralitization appear to be somewhat independent. All the
reactions Tequire additions of water and most also require silica,

The mineralogical changes of these rocks are similar to those found in a
great many other places. As early as 189), Williams attributed the alteration to
stress and this has been confirmed with many greenschists, but in this case there
is no evidence of shearing. Ophitic and intergranular textures are often perfectly
preserved in the completely altered rocks and the secondary minerals are
frequently well formed and in large crystals,

Harker (1939) indicated that uralitization and saussuritization may take
place under conditions of therinal metamorphism, but there is no evidence of later
igneous activity in this area.

Sutton and Watson (1951) and niany others have shown similar ntineralogi-
cal changes in the doleriles of the Scottish Highlands to be due to regional meta-
morphism, but there is little similarity in the regional conditions of the rocks
under discussion, The dolerites are frequently found in zones which have been
regionally metamorphosed and cften may be shown to post-date the meta-
morphism, although in some areas {he dolerites themselves are extensively altered.

Benson (1909) presumed that the changes were due to age and the over-
lying load of sediments, and Mawson (1923, 1926a, 1926b) has agreed with this.
The long time that has elapsed since these magmas consolidated and their burial
beneath a very thick series of subsequent strata would give opportunity for some
readjustment im their mineral contents. There is, however, mo evidence that
age alone has any particular effect on rocks, as many Archean dolerites are quite
fresh while some Tertiary dolerites show considerable alteration, Also, it is
widely demonstrated that not only yarious members of a group, but also different
parts of the same intrusion show differing degrees of alteration.

It has heen generally accepted hy Browne (1920, 1922), Cole and Gloe
(1939), Davis (1940), Prider (1945, ete.) and others that the retrograde
mineralogical changes are usually due io deuteric activity in a manner somewhat
resembling the “autolysis theory" proposed by a number of workers to explain
the alteration of spilites. There is much evidence to support the concept of
alteration by late stage liquors ducing consolidation, although the basic reason
why sume dolerites should be fresh and others completely altered is obscure.

106

The secondary minerals are typically stable at moderately Jow temperatures,
but are often well crystallized and fill veins across the rock, thus indicating a
ready source of magmatic heat during the period of formation. The quartz
frequently has crystallized after the uralitic actinolite, indicating that the final
stage of consolidation of the magma took place after the secondary alteration.

There is a distinct relation between the order of crystallization of the
minerals and the order of alteration, and as might be expected the earliest. high-
grade minerals to form are first to become unstable and be altered,

The order of the beginning of the formation of the primary and secondary
minerals is probably as follows :—Olivine (with apatite and ilmenite), labradorite,
augite, hornblende, serpentine, albite-epidote-zoisite-sericiteleucoxene, actinolite,
biotite and riebeckite, quartz, calcite, chlorite-tourmaline.

There appears to have been a concentration of silica, water and alkalies
during consolidation, and these attacked the anhydrous early-forming minerals
forming the assemblage stable under hydrous low-grade conditions, The varying
degrees of alteration of the dolerites then would presumably be due to the varying
amounts of volatiles remaining in the consolidating rocks, A puzzling anomaly
which becomes apparent is the lack of metamorphic effects by the dolerites. If the
magma was so fich in volatiles as to cause deuteric attack of the earlicr formed
minerals, then it would be expected that these volatiles would be an active agent
in altering the wall rock, Watistrom (1950) notes that a magma enclosed by
impervious walls may have the volatiles concentrated and this have abundant
deuteric effects while a magma with purous wall rock may loose its volatiles and
appear “dry”, However, there is no evidence of a large amount of water retained
in the consolidated dolerites which frequently show only 1% of total water, and
there is no sign of metasomatism of the wall tock which wild be expected if
the volatiles were lost. Osbourne (1929) described a dolerite which contained the
typical actinolite-epidote assemblage caused by deuteric activity but with a meta-
somatic aureole containing high-grade minerals. It seems apparent that the
residyal volatiles which cause the autometamorphism of the igneous rock are
independent of the earlier released volatiles which cause metasomatism in {he
wall ruck, and probably pass out of the dolerite in the very last stage of con-
solidation, being so cold that they do not affect the surruunding rocks, This
may be the origin of the quartz veins occasionally seen in the courltry rack and the
large white quartz “blows such as that close to dolerite outcrop number 2,

In the large mass (number 44) just west of Mount Craim there is sufficient
dolerite exposed in the hill to show a considerable vertical change in the rock,
This is due partly to a gravitational differentiation process which is discussed
later and partly duc to another factor. The lower parts of the intrusion are richer
in ferromagnesians and iron ore, while the upper part is richer in feldspar and
quartz, and is also much more altered than the rock beiow. The top of the intru-
sion is a rock rich in albite, quartz and riebeckite. It is considered that during
consolidation there was a two-way movement through the magma with the heavier,
earlier-forming minerals sinking, and the lighter, later-consolidating part of the
magma rising. This latter portion would be fich in silica and alkulies and would
hydrothermally alter the previously consolidated upper part of the intrysiort.
Thus in a few extreme cases where rocks rich in ricbeckite, albite, biotite, sphene,
apatite, tourmaline, rutile and calcite occur, there has probably been hydrothermal
as well as deutertc activity.

An examination of all ayailable chemical analyses shows no apparent relation
between the chemical composition and degree of alteration, apart from the
extreme cases mentioned above where hydrothermal actiun has taken place. The
late stage fiuids responsible for the formation of the secondary minerals wonld

107

be rich in silica, alkalies and water and the dolerites usually contain about 49%
SiO,, 3% Na,O, 2% K,O and 1% H,O. There is no significant variation in these
components between unaltered rocks and those in which no original pyroxene,
plagioclase or olivine is visible. Thus if there was an excess of these constituents
then they must have been quietly lost to the wall rock. The differing degree of
alteration of the dolerites may possibly be related to degree of differentiation and
consequently to the distance from the roof of the intrusion, so that the apparent
prices in alteration between the igneous masses may depend on the degree
of erosion,

reser

Fig. 4

A modal variation diagram showiug the minera-
logical differences between three differentiates.

E|
Fy
=
&
i
=

te Ty or)
Srecipit. Ghatite

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE Basic Rocks

A variation diagram, text figure 4, illustrates nine analyses of dolerites and
basalts from the Ilinders Ranges.

A. Dolerite from Rasetta Head (anal. Yeates), Browne (1920),
B. Dolerite from Blinman (anal, Benson), Benson (1909).

C, Dolerite from Blinman (anal, Benson), Benson (1909).

D. Dolerite from Wirrealpa (anal. Robinson), Mawson (——).
E, Dolerite from Broken Hill (anal. Stone), Mawson (1926a),
F. Basalt from Wooltana (anal. Chapman), Mawson (1926),
G. Dolerite from Wooltana (anal. Alderman), Mawson (1926),
H. Dolerite from Wooltana (anal, Alderman), Mawson (1926).
I, Dolerite from Blinman (anal. Howard), Howard (1951).

Thus it can be seen that there is a reasonably wide variation in composition,
even in rocks which are closely related in the field. The lime and potash are par-
ticularly variable. Rocks in Northern and Western Australia which are presumed
to be members of the same province usually contain about 1% less soda.

‘There appears to be a tectonic contro! of the chemical and mineralogical
composition of the rocks with normal basic types in the stable portions of the
shield in the western and northern parts of Australia and rocks approaching the
spilites in the moderately unstable Adelaide System miogeosyncline with truc
spilites in the mobile eugeosyncline to the east.

DIFFERENTIATION

Processes of differentiation appear to have taken place both on a large and
small scale during the lower Palaeozoic period of intrusion, The minor ditferen-
tiation effects appear to he intimately associated with the deuteric and hydro-
thermal activity during crystallization, The dolerite body, number 44, illustrates
this. A range of rocks from the bill which is several hundred feet high shows a
decrease in specific gravity from the base to the top and an accompanying lighten-
ing of colour as the melanocratic constituents decrease and the leucocratic pro-
portion becomes greater,

10%

A variation diagram, text figure 4, ilhistrates the mineralogical differences
with relation to the specific gravity of three specimens taken at the base, half way
up, and the top af the hill, and text figure 5 shows the differences in texture under
the microstope.

Rock specimen [9085], taken as low as possible from the intrusion is a
dark-coloured, coarse-grained dolerite with a specific gravity of 3:1. It has a
texture which is chiefly hypidiomorphic with variations to intergranular ard
ophitic and consists of 49% of amphiboles, 44% of plagioclase with abundant
(7%) iron ore. Pale fibrous uralitic actinolite forms pseudomorphs after
pyroxene and shows polysomatie structure together with some occasional herring-
bone xtructure which is probably residual after simple twinning in the pyroxene.

GATAEAELT aNTrAKD
FLARIOCLADL,,

- BUTT
i} Ineinenow re

acdinmaire

sa Tiare

File 3525

Figs. 5

Microskewles showing the mineralogical and textural variation between
three differentiates,

Idtoblastic hornblende is also present and is pleochtoie from yellow to brown
with a bluish-green colour sometimes appearing, The original feldspar has been
completely changed to zoisite of sericite. The plagioclase now present is pure
albite and is quite fresh and irregularly twinned, A small quantity of quartz ts
present as graphic and myrmekitic intergrowths with the albite. lron ore is
fairly abundant as skeletal grids and granules and appears to be partly micaceous
haemetile as well as ilmenite, It is almost invariably surrounded by a growth
ef fresh brown hornblende and in one instatice contains a little brown siderite.

A specimen [9094] from half way up the hill js a light greenish-grey rock,
medium-grained and with a specific gravity of 2-95. It is holocrystalline with an
irregular texture and grain-size. The rock appears to have originally had ani
intergranular texture which has been obscured by the subsequent mineralogical
changes. The rock contains 52% of ferromagnesians and 479% of plagioclase.
There ts both primary pyroxene and secondary amphibole present. The pyroxene
is a colourless pigeontte with an optic axial angle of 15° and occasionally displays
polysynthetic twinning, The amphibole is a very pale actinolite with brilliant
polarization colours. There is a very little brown hornblende also present. The
plagioclase has been completely altered to zoisite and the original laths have been
replaced by aggregates of tiny granules polarising in anomalous blues. Some
fresh albite is present, sometimes as intergrowths with quartz. A few scattered
skeletal grids of iron oye occur with secondary leucoxene. There is also a little
chlorite, apatite and sphene present,

109

Specimen [S43] from the top of the intrusion is a light-coloured, medium-
grained rock with a specific gravity of 2°8 and resembling a keratophyre. It
shows the characteristic intergranular texture with interlocking feldspar laths
enclosing amphibole crystals. Plagioclase is most abundant (5895) as large sub-
hedral Jaths. It is a pure albite and is comparatively fresh with abundant tiny
inclusions. Twinning in very irregular and is chiefly on the Carlsbad law with
lesser albite and Pericline twinning giving a “checker-board” appearance. Myr-
mekitic intergrowths with quartz are very common, and the quartz shaws good
replacement textures In many parts, There is arly 17% of amphibole and this
occurs as irregular, anhedral, fibrous masses which are pleochroic from X = dark
blue-black, Y and Z bronze and has a very low extinction angle, thus resembling
riebeckite. Also present are apatite 4%, sphene 6%, and a little haematite, epirlote
and calcite.

There i§ 4 concentration of minerals lighter in colour and weight in the upper
pari of the intrusion and these are also typical of the later stages of crystalliza-
tion, There is a complete lack of primary olivine, labradorite or pyroxene in the
top of ihe body and this part is more altered than the base. The dilferentiavon
appears to have been primarily due to a settling of the early-forming, heavy ferric
minerals leaving a magma of lower specific gravity and containing a higher pro-
portion of silica, alkalies and titania. The primary labradorite and augite in the
upper part were completely replaced by secondary minerals due to deuteric attack
ani] there was probably continuous enrichment in the lighter constituents rising
from below during consolidation, thus causing hydrothermal alteration of the
crystallized minerals. Consequently the closed system with its deuteric activity,
which is typical of the dolerites, becomes an open system and hydrothermal changes
resulted in the formation of the extreme alkaline rocks which are sometimes
found, These rocks. contain sodie amphibole, alhite, quartz, calcite, biotite, sphene
or rutile and are typified by specimen [S 29a]. This is probably the explanation of
the origin of a dolerite described by Wymond and Wilson associated with croci-
dolite near Robertstown (1951). That dolerite contains a sodic amphibole and
tourmaline.

The hydrothermal enrichment of the upper zone occasionally continued into
the reof rock and produced a metasomatic zone rich in soda amphibole, albite,
sphene and haematite.

Apart from the few rocks of alkaline composition and doleritic texture,
which tay be satisfactorily explained, there also occur isolated occurrences of
small rather acid bodies in sther areas. Howchin (1916) described an associa-
tion of aplitic and keratophyric types with the dolerites of Mount Remarkable,

METAMORPHISM

Within the fault block some rocks show evidence of low-grade regional
metamorphism, while practically none show any effects of thermal metamorphism.
lt would be expected that the impure dolomites and calcareous phyllites would
respond easily to temperature changes and be markedly affected by metamorphism.
A few phyllites are found which are recrystallized and reveal the production of
biotite, chlorite and talc indicative of the biotite-chlorite sub-facies of the green-
schist facies of Turner (1946). The regionally metamorphosed rocks are rather
sporadic in their occurrence and are not widely developed.

The basic intrusions occur in large numbers im various areas in the Flinders
Ranges where regional metamorphism also is evident. This is most strongly
shown about domes and anticlines at Mount Painter and Freeling Heights in
the extreme north, and progressively less to the south at Mount Stewart,
Hlinman, Enoranja, Oraparinna and Worumba. There appears to be a genéral

110

restriction of the more abundant basic rocks and the highest grade of meta-
morphism to zones of weakness associated with anticlinal axes,

Apart from the phyllites, there is a little more evidence of regional meta-
morphism in its dying stages in the area concerned. About a mile north of
Yednalue there is a large outcrop of an irregular, coarsely crystalline rock com-
posed chiefly of quartz and dolomite with microscopic tourmaline and rutile,
and it should be noted that titantum and boron metasomatism is typical of the
lower Palaeozoic regional metamorphism province, There is a distinct possibility,
however, that this rock may be the hydrothermally altered roof of a dolerite
intrusion.

As the intrusion of basic magma has frequently taken place into pure dolo-
mites, it is of interest to compare the limited contact effects here with the striking
metamorphism in other unrelated areas,

The dolerite mass, outcrop number 18, near Morgan’s well, is over a quarter
of a mile in diameter and qttite coarsely grained, but does not show any apprec?-
able contact metamorphism.

Alteration was found in one place only and even then was limited tn a few
square feet of outcrop near dolerite outcrop number 44, A small mass of iron-
rich skarn occurs in the impure dolomite, The altered rock [9067 and 543],
varies from lght-yellow to dark-brown in colour and is very irregular in grain
and texture.

The hand specimen shows aggregates of fibrous amphibole, blades and
granules of haematite, and a few apophyses filled with yellow dolomite crystals
The minerals range in size from haematite blades 2 mm. long to amphibole fibres
less than O-L mm. in length, The rock is chiefly dolanitic with haematite,
feldspar and fibrous amphibole together with a little sphene, grossular, apatite,
phlogopite, chlorite and nitile, There are segregations rich in various minerals,
particularly haematite, The feldspar occurs as xenoblastic, clouded crystals
occasionally shewing poorly-defined twinning; it is probably oligoclasc-andesine.
Amphibole is present probably in two varieties, but the fibres are too small to
permit optical properties to be determined. The fibres are pleochroic from blue
to mauve or blue to yellow with low extinction angles and modcrate birefringence
and is presumably soda-rich. The rock indicates metasomatism by fluids rich in
iron, soda, titania and silica by the dolerite.

It is seen that in the only case of appreciable alteration by the dolerite,
metasomatism was the prime factor in producing changes, and it is cunsidered
that the action of “fluids” frotm the basic rock is of far greater importance in
producing metamorphic effects than heat. Tilley and Harwood (1931) found
Jarnite, spurrite, gehlenite, ete., produced in chalk by a dolerite intrusion only
300 yards by 200 yards in size, and the effects were attributed to mctasomatisin
as well as metamorphism.

Osbourne (1929), Chapman (1950), Holmes and Harwood (1928) have
described contact effects of dolerite dykes and sills where a typical high-grade
assemblage of minerals was produced, and on each case a process involving
metasomatism was suggested, It is odd that the dolerites which are typified by
late-stage alteration products due to a concentration of active magma constituents
should show the lack of metamorphism usually attributed to a “dry” magma.

Howchin, Prider, and Mawson have noted the lack of metamorphism of the
country rock by the dolerites. The occurrence of a bi-mica gneiss and garnet
tock in the contact zone of some Blinman dolerites described by Howard (1951)
is possibly due to the combined action of régidnal and thermal metamorphism.

Li

THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE BASIC INTRUSIONS

There is additional evidence in this area to support the generally accepted
eonviction that the dolerites are genetically related to mineralization particularly
of copper and less of silver-lead. Text figure 1 shows a very close relationship
in the field of seven groups of disused workings with the basic igneous rocks.
The workings range from shallow pits to quite deep shafts and there is an adit
more than 300 feet long in towards the dolerite onterop number 44, This Jatter
intrusion has four shafts along its contact with the country rock, as shown by
text figure 2. The dump shows ore containing bornite, chalcopyrite and pyrite
with a little azurite and malachite, as replacement deposits in an impute and
brecciated dolomite. Near dolerite outcrop number 41 there is a brownish, com-
pact indurated argillite containing abtmdant limonite pseudomorphs after euhedral
crystals of pyrites. The rock shows no sign of mineralogical changes due to
metamorphism. It seems to be a general fcature that copper mineralization occurs
close to the igneous rocks and is most common in dolomites and breccialed zones.

The occtirrence of masses of haematite is also a notable feature associated
with the dolerites and the positions of five bodies in indicated in lext hgore L-
The haematite occurs in Jarge masses of solid mineral or as small veins nf highly
micaceous speeularite which are usually associated with crushing, The larger
massive bodies are pipelike replacement deposits and have usually been investi-
gated io discover whether they form “ironstone caps"? to mineral deposits, but
without any success. Small amounts of bladed and granular haemative occur in
a patch of skarn rock in contact with the dolerite of outcrop number 44.

A little blue asbestos (crocidolite) occurs in an outcrop, a highly-altered
dolerite (number 28), but does not appeat to be economically important.

There are deprisits of barytes in the area but these do not appear to be related
to the igneous rocks, although barytes has been found as a gangue mineral in
copper deposits associated with dolerite.

The relation between the igneous rocks and mineral deposits has been
repeatedly mentioned in reports from the Flinders Ranges and even further afield.

Outside of South Australia the association of copper minerals and these
Proterozoic-Palaeozoic dolerites has been reasonably established, Prider (1945),
Matheson and Tiechert (1945) and Browne (1949) in particular have pointed
out the occurrence of copper, silyer-lead and gold minerals with the dolerites of
Weslern Australis and the Northern Territory.

The deposits show the mineralogical association, textures and field occnr-
rence which are typical of mesothermal contact ore bodies formed by pucumato-
lytic action in the zone of alteration of an igneous intrusion.

RELATED ROCKS

During work on the basic rocks east of Hawker the author was struck
with the similarities, even down to minute mineralogical details, between these
and other rocks seen in the Mount Lofty and Flinders Ranges. Other occurrences
have been inspected and a further resemblance was noticed in the field relations.
An examination of the literature and of specimens and slides [rom the museum of
the Adelaide University has revealed a group of basic rocks (dolerites and
basalts) which are so distinct in their peirological nature that there sects little
donbt that they form a distinct province. The rocks occur throughout Southern,
Northern and Western Australia in the area which has been called “the shield”
and form flows and intrusions ranging from Karly Upper Proterozoic ta Midd'e
Cambrian in age and lying among Adelaide System, Nullagine, Cambrian aud

i12

Archean rocks, David (1950) has grouped this suite in his Cambrian igneous
rocks. The localities in the Mount Lofty-Flinders Ranges area, where rocks of
this group occur, are indicated on text figure 3.

Details of all these occurrences would be too extensive to include in this
contribution, but the map presented gives a good idea of their distribution. In
addition to the basic rocks in the Mount Lofty-Flinders Range area there are
many others further afield which should be included in this province. The
Western Australian geological record is replete with accounts of similar magma
types intruded and extruded in late Precambrian and early Palaeozoic time.
These could well be included with the South Australian examples in an overall
discussion on subcrustal magmas of that period. However, any such elaboration
must be reserved for a future occasion.

L a
Ne syiscvtuma ® WE REELING)
~ = V2
We PATTER
woourawa tf
yes cone t]

& uy, stewart / 7

Pe '
DLINGANTA ovIRREALeA
| Senonana’,

7 Onu7aRinna {

f Unwin “~
cs]

AIAE AME Ste

otany

AADIUH Hitt
AWT GRAINGER Fig. 6
‘ ScT, AEMARKAGLE Map showing the distribution
fosemoninee Leal? of the known occurrences of
OF DUTCROF OF THE basic rocks of this group.

ADELAIDE SYSTEH
= SPALOING /

ROWRATSTOWN S

~y\ smWYME |

aveastous® {
ry *
WT PLEASANT

isis | THe pasic
ruin / ROCKS OF THE
MT LOFTY AND |
mma,“ FLINDERS RANGES

THE AGE oF THE Bastc AcTIVITY

The actual age of the basic rocks is difficult to establish, but there seems no
doubt that vulcanism began early in Adelaidean times and culminated in the Early
Palaeozoic, Basalts are found below the Sturt Tillite at Wooltana and above at
Blinman and flows occur extensively through the Nullagine of Western Australia.
Rasalts form the base of the Cambrian in the north and north-west of Australia.
Dolerites may have been intruded before sedimentation ceased but it is presumed
that the majority were emplaced at a time related to the period of folding of the

113

Upper Proterozoic and Lower Cambrian strata in the Adelaidean Geosyncline.
This occurred in the interyal between the lossiliferous Middle Cambrian and the
Permian tillite and the exact dale is not known. The folding was probably during
David's. (1950) Tyennan orogeny, and the igneous activity associated is possibly
contemporaneous with the Heathcotian lavas of Victoria, the Cambrian spilites
of King Island and Tasmania and the Brisbane greenstones.

The dolerites were intruded both before and after the period of regional
metamorphism and acid intrusion in the Lower Palaeozoic, Dolerites which are
metamorphosed or intruded by acid rocks are found at Encounter Bay, Woad-
side and Mount Remarkable, although the majority appear to be later than both
the folding and the metamorphism.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Benson, W.N. 1909 “The Basic Rocks of Blinman, South Australia.” Trans.
Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 33
Browne, W. R, 1920 “The Igneous Rocks of Encounter Bay, South Aus-
. tralia.” ‘Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 44
Browne, W. R, 1922 “Report on the Petrology of the Broken Hill Region.”
Mem. Geol, Surv. N.S.W., No. 8, app. 1
Browne, W. R. 1949 “Metallogenic Epachs and Ore Regions in the Com-
monwealth of Australia.” Proc. Ray. Soc. N.S.W., 83
Crapman, — 1950 “Contact Metamorphic Effects of Triassic Diabase at Safe
Harbour, Penn.” Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 61
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114

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Soc. S.

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.

THE POSTORBITAL WALL - A COMPARITIVE AND ETHNOLOGICAL
STUDY

BY M. R. HONE

Summary

The paper surveys the formation of the posterior wall of the orbit on a comparative basis. The wall
is developed essentially by the extension of bony flanges from the frontal, sphenoid and zygomatic
bones. The maxilla may take part. With growth of the wall communication between the orbit and
the temporal and infratemporal regions becomes restricted to a narrow fissure. The wall is most
complete and the fissure narrowest in the Cercopithecidae, the orang and the gorilla. The gibbon
and the chimpanzee have wider fissures. The human condition resembles that of the chimpanzee.
Human skulls show a wide range of variation in shape and size of the fissure. Statistical analysis
discloses no ethnological significance in this.

115

THE POSTORBITAL WALL
A COMPARATIVE AND ETHNOLOGICAL STUDY

By M. R. Hone *
[Read 8 November 1951]

SUMMARY

The paper surveys the formation of the posterior wall of the orbit on a
comparative basis. The wall is developed essentially by the extension of
bony flanges from the frontal, sphenoid and zygomatic bones. The maxilla
may take part. With growth of the wall communication between the orbit
and the temporal and infratemporal regions becomes restricted to a narrow
fissure. The wall is most complete and the fissure narrowest in the Cerco-
pithecidae, the orang and the gorilla. The gibbon and chimpatizee have
wider fissures. The human condition resembles that of the chimpanzee.
Human skulls show a wide tange of yariation in shape and size of the fissure.
Statistical analysis discloses no ethnological significance in this.

INTRODUCTION |

The bones and general arrangement of the orbit in various orders have
been described by many authors, eg:, Duckworth (1904), Whitnall (1921),
Martin (1928), Le Gros Clark (1934), This paper presents a general survey
of the formation and closure of the postorbital wall. followed by more detailed
study of the human condition to determine whether or not the bony pattern
has any ethnological significance, The animals discussed in the first part of
this paper have been chosen less to suggest a close evolutionary pattern
than as affording a good example of each stage of development.

ONTOGENESIS
SUBMAMMALIA

In fishes, the orbit is composed af a prefontal, postfrontal, frontal, and
a yarying number of bones on the ventral border grouped as lacrimals (Owen,
1868). Medially, the base of the eye is separated from its partner by the
presphenoid.

In the frog the eyes face Jaterally and are surrounded by the parietal,
frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, nasal and maxilla. There is no bone posteriorly.

In reptiles the orbital margin is composed of the following five bones:
jugal, postorbital, frontal, lacrimal, and maxilla. An example is seen in the
skull of Trachysaurus rugosus (fig. 1), which shows a jugal bone laterally, a
postorbital and frontal above, a lacrimal and part of the maxilla in front, and
the rest of the maxilla below. Separation of the eyes is as in fishes, The eye
stil faces laterally. The medial and posterior surfaces of the eye have no
bony protection but are adequately supported by muscle.

In birds, although the eye still faces laterally, there is usually greater
bony protection. An interorbital septum, either complete or incomplete has
developed out of the prefrantals, while the lacrimals and the postorbitals
afford additional support.

* Department of Anatomy, University of Adelaide.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust, 75, September 1952
T

116

“MAMMALIA
The skulls examined were:
Rodentia
Suborder Lagomorpha
Family Leporidac u.. ane | Or gictolagus cuniculus = 1
Carnivora
Family Canidae vase Hee we = Vulpes vulpes 1
Family Felidae vee US catttees 1
Primates
Suborder Prositmii _ aa wws LOY Varin 1
Suborder Anthropoidea in sere
Superfamily Cercopithecida ww Papia babuin 1
Cynocephalus sp. 1
Cercopithecus iantalus 1
Muacacus rhesus 4
Macacus fascicularis 1
Superfamily Hominoidea 2.00
Family Pongidae ... ... o Hylobates 1
Simia 1
Gorilla L
Anthropithecus 3

Tue Rasnit (fig, 2)

The cranial wall of the orbit is formed by two upward projections of
the basi-cranium, namely, the orbito-sphenoid (anterior or lesser wing) and
the ali-sphenoid (posterior or greater wing). The remainder is formed of
membrane bone, the frontal and jugal part of the squamosal (Bensley, 1918),
The apex of the orbital cavity extends practically to the midline, Above,
the frontal bone slopes laterally and upwards; below, the sphenoids slope
laterally and downwards. The cranium bulges laterally behind so that the
eye is given adequate protection at the back by the frontal and the temporal
bones and the frontal carries a small posterior superior orbital process above.

Tue Fox (fig. 3)

The bony orbit is formed by the frontal, lacrimal, jugal, and ali- and
orbito-sphenoid, The apex of the orbital cavity does not extend as far
towards the midline as in the rabbit, but the orbit is just as deep relatively
because the jugals stand out further from the side of the skull, and they run
straight on to the sides of a much rounder cranium. Behind the orbit the
cranial wall, composed of sphenoid and frontal, is so far removed from the
eye that it gives little protection or support, Hence the posterior superior
orbital process is larger and there is a distinct inferior process on the jugal
as well, The larger post-orbital processes of the frontal and jugal, com-
bined with the upward direction of the jugal bone as it runs backwards,
almost complete the fourth side of the bony margin round the orbit.

The direction of the orbit changes with the species. In the fox the axis
points more anteriorly than in the rabbit although its general direction is
still lateral. But in short-faced dogs such as the pekingese the eyes have
moved more towards the front (Weidenreich, 1941). However, there does
not appear to be any compensatory enlargement of the posterior orbital pro-
cesses in this condition.

THE Car (fig, 4)

The bony walls of the orbit are generally similar to those in the dog but
the skull is shorter and wider and the orbit faces more anteriorly. Thus,
there is no longer a frontal wall as in preceding specimens. The greater
width of the cranium has pushed the jugal process of the temporal bone later-

7

ally and so the lateral wall of the orbit (the jugal bone) is also displaced
laterally. The cranial wall still forms the pasterior orbital wal] but, as in
the dog, because of the frontal position of the orbit, gives little protection
or support to the orbital contents. The posterior orbital processes are much
better developed than in the dog.

|
Fit. é, Jugal portion of savamoea\
REPTILE [Trochysaurus rogasus) -RABBIT, LOryctolagus cuniculus] Fig.

a sntol,__-Post. sup. prox. of orbit
= Ze Post inf proc, af orbit

Pe of Temporal = “Jugal Jugal proc. of temporal = 'Sphenoid
FOX (Vulpes vulpes) Fig, 3 CAT [Felis cots) Fig +
Fig. 1-4

Tue Lemur (fig. 5)

The suture lines were fused in the skull available but the boundaries of
most of the bones were distinguishable, The eyes are directed almost to
the front, the post-orbital bar is complete and there is just a hint of the
posterior orbital wall forming. The jugal bone runs up the posterior side of
the orbital bar and so forms the beginning of the posterior wall. The frontal
helps by providing a roof for the orbit, which extends laterally and slightly
posteriorly as well. Medially the orbit is closed behind by the cranial wall
but laterally the orbit opens freely into the temporal fossa.

Mention must be made here of a specimen of the flying “lemur” of Malaya
(Galeopithecns volans) in the Adelaide Museum. This is not a true lemur but
it shows an interesting transitional stage. The postorbital bar is not quite
complete, but the gap is filled by a bar of cartilage,

Tue Tarsier (fig. 6)

Unfortunately, no skull of the tarsier was available, but there are many
good accounts of the osteology of Tarsius spectrum.

The postorbital bar is completed hy the union af processes from the jugal
and frontal (Wood Jones, 1929), Above, the frontal sends a flange pos-
teriorly to meet the parietal; below, the jugal meets the sphenoid in a similar
manner, but leaying a gap underneath. This gap is bordered by the sphenoid,
palatine and maxilla and represents the inferior orbital fissure of other
primates.

118

Tur Macagugs

Two species were examined, one adult Macacus fascicularis, and two adult
and two young specimens of Macacus rhesus, The posterior wall is thick and
well formed, The inferior orbital fissure is small and in most cases the
sphenoid overlaps the maxilla in a curved manner so that the opening prac-
tically faces caudally,

MMT LBL

Alisphenoid Temporal
TARSIER [Tarsius spectrutt, Wood Jones 1929) Fig.6,

Notice thal inferinr-orbital fisgure snd

Plerygo-moxillary fissure are wide
MACAQUE [Mgcocus rhezus ~ young! Fig. 7, Fig. 7, teortd]
Fanetal
T
ee C ——- ay Inferior-orbitg! Fissure

eee, 3 Preryjo maxillary fissure

Fig. 9

CERCOPITHECIDAE. [ Papo babyinl ve Fig. 8.
Fig. 5-9

Macacus FAscicunaris (fig. 7, skull No. 4)

In this specimen, three bones form the boundaries of the inferior orbital
fissure: the greater wing of the sphenoid, the jugal and the maxilla, The
fissure is directed caudally; the sphenoid forms the lateral border and the
maxilla the medial border. The jugal forms the tip, being almost excltided
by the other two bones. The frontal bone forms the main part of the postor-
bital wall, with the sphenoid and jugal forming the basal and lateral portions
respectively,

119

Macacus resus (fig. 7, skulls No, 1, 2 and 3)

The arrangement of the bones round the inferior orbital fissure is the
same as in the above specimen, but the proportions of the postorbital hones
differ. The frontal takes a very small part, most of the wall being formed
by the sphenoid and the juga).

In two young macaques the inferior orbital fissure was large and the

pterygo-maxillary fissure wide, This shows a less developed form of the
postorbital wall.

OF Fae
YP SEAS K

Fildtine _ Inferior-orbital fissure
Prerygo-mavillory fissure ond Pheryp palatine foisa
GIBBON [Hijlobaes) Fig. 10.

GORILLA [Gorlis} rete; female unstie some Fig '\2, CHIMPANZEE. [Anthropithecus troglodytes} Fig. 13.
Fig. 10-13

The remaining examples of the Cercopithecidae (fig. 8) are sitnilar to the
macaqiies, except in Cynacephalus (fig. 9). Here the postcrior wall is complete
and the inferior orbital fissure is not visible from the lateral aspect. The
bones that form the bordets of the fissure are the same as in the macaques
but the temporal bone runs forward to make contact with the jugal bone,
separating the frontal from the sphenoid.

Gipson (fig. 10)

Unfortunately, in the specimen available, the suttire lines were tainly
obliterated but thé zygomatico-frontal, zygomatico-parietal, zygomatieo-
maxillary, and palato-maxillary sutures were detectable. The boundaries

120

of the inferior orbital fissure are formed by the sphenoid and jugal above and
laterally, the maxilla and palatine below and medially, and the sphenoid and
palatine behind. The inferior orbital fissure is quite wide, especially at the
posterior end. ;

The postorbital wall is formed mainly by the jugal bone, with the greater
wing of the sphenoid forming the posterior portion and the frontal the
superior portion.

Orane (fig, 11)

Once again, most of the sutures had fused, but it was possible to tell
that the walls of the inferior orbital fissure are formed by the same bones
as in the gibbon. However, the palatine plays only a small part in forming
the lower and posterior wall as compared with the condition in the gibbon.
The fissure is a narrow slit.

The postorbital wall is composed of the jugal, the greater wing of the
sphenoid and the frontal. It is doubtful whether the maxilla could be con-
sidered to take part.

THE Goritra (fig, 12)

Two specimens of gorilla were examined, a male and a female. Although
the female skull was much smaller than the male, the postorbital wall was
exactly the same.

The inferior orbital fissure is at the junction of the floor and the lateral
wall of the orbit. The boundaries are: the greater wing of the sphenoid
above and behind, the jugal in front, and the maxilla and palatine below and
medially. The greater wing of the sphenoid has well overlapped the border
of the maxilla, giving the inferior orbital fissure a downwards direction.
This condition was more marked in the gorilla than in the orang. The over-
lapping sphenoid close to the maxilla reduces the fissure to 4 narrow slit.

THE CHIMPANZEE (fig. 13)

Three chimpanzees were examined and they showed considerable differ-
ences,

In all three the postorbital wall is formed by the frontal above, the jugal
in front, and the greater wing of the sphenoid behind.

Two skulls had wide inferior orbital fissures, unobstructed by a sphen-
oidal flange, and the inferior orbital grooves were plainly visible. The
pterygo-maxillary fissure was wide and the palatine could be seen through it
in the floor of the pterygo-palatine fossa. The spheno-palatine foramen
could readily be seen from the lateral side. In the third specimen the
inferior orbital fissure was also wide but the greater wing of the sphenoid
overlapped the maxilla to produce a condition superficially resembling that
found in the gorilla. The ptetygo-maxillary fissure was the same as in the
other specimens.

It is interesting to note that in the Family Simiidae, the inferior orbital
fissure has moved downwards and occupies the infero-latera! angle of the
orbit. The maxilla forms the lower border of the fissure, This is different
from all observed specimens of the Cercopithecidae where the inferior orbital
fissure isin the middle or lower portion of the postorbital wal], hence allow-
ing the maxilla to form part of the postorbital wall,

121

Man

The development of the postorbital wall has been dealt with im the first
part of this paper. The gorilla and the orang betray more marked differ-
entiation in this part than does man whose inferior orbital and pterygo-
maxillary fissures are relatively large as in the chimpanzee, Martin (1928)
giyes the follawing aveas for comparison In size:

Anthropoids ease 7 8q. mM,
Europeans xs. = jm Be-Bley «ap

The object here is to deal with the postorbital wall in man and to deter-
mine—

(a) if there are any variations that may distinguish different ethno-
logical groups.

(b) the form of these variations and the reason, if any, for their
occurrence.

Anthors who have generalised on this part of the skull have hinted that
ethnological differences occur. Martin (1928) says that the negro has the
largest inferior orbital fissure, while in the Japanese it is mainly narrow and
looks downwards, Wood Jones (1930) lists the spheno-maxillary fissure
among the morphological features that should be taken into account when
examining a skull for “racial” distinction, Others stress the large size of
the fissure in ihe Australian aborigine. These statements seem to rest upon
simple visual observations on small numbers of skulls. It is felt that more
reliahle canclusions might emerge from statistical analysis of measurements
trade upon a larger number of skulls.

One hundred Australian aboriginal skulls, mostly of South Australian
origin, ten European, three Chinese, two Japanese, and four African skulls
were examined. To ayoid unnecessary complication only male skulls were
selected, It is unfortunate that more non-aboriginal skulls were not avail-
able for comparison,

Tue Australian AnoricinaL Sut. (fig. 15)

The postorbital wall is formed mainly by the zygomatic bone anteriorly
and the greater wing of the sphenoid posteriorly, The frontal and the maxilla
may play a part in the wall on the extreme superior and inferior borders
respectively. There is a certain amount of individual variation in the size
and shape of these bones and when the zygomatic and the sphenoid mect
the frontal at a more inferior leyel than usual the frontal forms part of the
postorbital wall. Similarly, the maxilla may have a process that runs up the
anterior border of the inferior orbital fissure, so becoming one of the bones
of the postorbital wall.

The suture lines show only small individual variations, The borders of
the inletior orbital fissure are formed by the sphenoid, zygomatic and the
niaxilla, except in 28%, where a spheno-maxillary junction excludes the
zygomatic bone,

The inferior orbital fissure at first glance appears to have no particular
shape, but on closer analysis three main types tan be distinguished, as noted
by Wood Jones (1930). The first is the “narrow” type, the second is the
“wide” type, and the third is the “wide at the anterior end” type (fig. 15).

In the hundred skulls examined, type three represented 48%, while types
one and two represented 24% and 28% respectively. With each of these
three main types there may be two additional variations, The sphenoid may
he close to the maxilla or it may be some distance laterally, Using these

122

two variations, six subtypes can be formed. The type with the sphenoid
close to the maxilla and with a narrow inferior orbital fissure has the most
complete postorbital wall, while the type with a wide fissure and well separ-
ated sphenoid has the most deficient postorbital wall.

12 months
® years
5 years
6 years
Tempora|
re 4
t Frontal Y7 — Postorbital wall ‘Spheno-max,
H Suture
Greater wing of Sphenoid Shull no.6
“Thin plate'ot Sphenoid
Inf. orbital. Fissure
‘ *
Zyrtec ‘Warrow” type
Shull na.34
NU!Thin plate'ot Zygomatic .
Pi \Nosla Wee hipg
Skull'no: 24
Wide anterior
end” type
MAN. CAborigne Skultno.2) Fig 75, Skull no. 11

Fig. 14-15

The pterygo-maxillary fissure is a part of the general spheno-maxillary
system. It continues the posterior end of the inferior orbital fissure, and
for completeness must be considered also. For each skull a record was kept
of the depth (either deep or shallow) and of the width (wide or narrow).
There seemed to be no size relationship between the two fissures. In many
cases a wide pterygo-maxillary fissure was associated with a narrow inferior
orbital fissure. The infra-temporal surface of the sphenoid plays a part in
the lateral projection of the area of the inferior orbital fissure. Although
that surface does not alter the actual size of the fissure it may, as a spine,
crest or thick bulge, hide the posterior end of the inferior orbital fissure from
the lateral view to a varying degree.

The greater wing of the sphenoid, as it forms the superior border of
the inferior orbital fissure, may be divided into two parts. The posterior
part is thick in the region of the infra-temporal crest and the pre-pterygoid
spine, but the anterior part is a. thin plate. This thin plate ts in contact with

$23

a thin plate-like extension from the zygomati¢ (fig, 15, skull No. 2). Most
variations in the inferior orbital fissure occur where these thin plates micet.

The size of the anterior end of the inferior orbital fissure depends upon
the degree of development of these plates, and on the distance the sphénoid
is lateral from the maxilla.

Reference to the foetal skull is instructive (fig. 14). The fissure is wide
and runs downwards into the pterygo-palatine fossa, connecting tits fossa
with the orbit. In the 12-month-old skull (fig. 14), the inferior orbital fissure
is still wide but the pterygo-maxillary fissure has become nartower. In the
2, 5, and 6-year-old skulls (fig. 14), the thicker part af the sphenoid has
grown down in the region of the infra-temporal crest, but the thin plates
of the sphenoid and zygomatic are undeveloped, leaving the fissure still
widely open in front. It is easy to see that, from this generalised stage,
the inferior orbital fissure could either remain wide or narrow to a slit
according to the amount of subsequent expansion of the two thin plates- In
the foetus the horizontal projection of the area of the fissure is large and the
sphenoid is well lateral to the maxilla. The area may remain large in the
adult skull or it may be decreased either by enlargement of the maxillary
sinus or by medialwards expansion of the sphenoid.

Three aboriginal skulls have been chosén which show the three most
common variations in this region.

Skull No. 24 (fig. 15) shows the tisual formation of bones in the postor-
bital wall, with zygomatic anterioriy, greater wing of the sphenoid posteri-
orly and the frontal superiorly.

The bones forming the boundary of the inferior orbital fissure are of
the common pattern, The greater wing of the sphenoid forms the posterior
border, the zygomatic, maxilla and palatine forming the anterior, inferier
and posterior borders respectively.

In this case the inferior orbital fissure is exceptionally wide and can
be classified as the “wide” type. The pterygo-maxillary fissure is also wide.

In skull No. 6 (fig. 15), the boundaries of the inferior orbital fissure
show some variation. The posterior, stipetior, and inferior borders of the
fissure are formed by the palatine, the greater wing of the sphenoid and the
maxilla respectively. The maxilla has sent a process in a postero-superior
direction to meet the sphenoid and exclude the zygomatic from the fissure-
This small maxillary tongue thus forms part of the postobital wall. “The
inferior orbital fissure is small and well covered by the pre-pterygoid spine
of the sphenoid, and is typical of the “thin” type. The pterygo-maxillary
fissure is narrow and the pterygo-palatine fossa small.

Skull No. 11 (ig. 15) shows the “wide at the anterior end” type. The
two thin plates of the sphenoid and the zygomatic are not so well developed
and have left a large opening in the anterior end of the fissure.

The following measurements were made on the right side of all the
skulls employed for this investigation. Ne female skulls were measured but
the female skulls examined were similar to the male, In two skulls of 11
and 12-year-old aborigines, the normal adult form was present. Lvidently
the final pattern is attained relatively early and this would accunt for
absence of obvious sexual distinction (sce Abbie, 1947),

1. The length of the fissure —i.e,, from the palatine to the most anterior
point of the fissure.

2. The maximum width—This was found in most cases to be at the anterior
end, tut in a few in the middle or the posterior end.

124

3. Width at the anterior end—This was in most cases the same as the
maximum width,

4. Width at the pterygo-palatine end.—This was variable, in some cases
the end was large and rounded, in others just a natrow slit.

5. Distance of the sphenoid from the maxilla—This figure was arrived at
by averaging the horizontal widths at the anterior end, the middle and
the posterior end. The mean of these figures gave a basis for comparison
between different skulls.

6. Area from lateral side-—This is the horizontal projection of the area of
the fissure.

7. Area from the base of the skull—This is the vertical projeccion of the
atea of the fissure.

_ The measurements were recorded in Tables I, IT and III (Appendix 1).
All figures were examined for their degree of variability, Those obtained
at the 5% level are as follows (all measurements in mm.).

1. Length of fissure - - + - between 35.3 and 24.6
2. Maximum width - - - - - 79 and 2.1
3, Width at anterior end = - - - 3 83 and 1.5
4. Width at pterygo-palatine end - 4g 49 and 1.5
5, Distance sphenoid from maxilla - " 41 and 0.9
6. Area from lateral side - - . - 92.5 and O

7. Area from base - = - - F 118.6 and 13.3

Take 1 as an example. There isa difference of range of 10.7 mm. This
is 38% of the mean length of the fissure (30 mm.). The other figures show
an even greater percentage variation. In the face of sich variation it is
impossible to give any definite size or shape for the inferior orbital fissure
in the South Australian skull (Appendix 2).

Similar tests were applied to the European, Chinese and African skulls.
Once again, no standard pattern could be found. Thus, so far as this com-
parative material goes, there appear to be no standard shapes of sizes of
the inferior orbital fissure in different peoples. With this variation, it would
seem unlikely that there is any ethnological significance in the size and
shape of the fissure. This conclusion is confirmed by statistical analysis of
the measurements taken (Appendix).

Combining the aboriginal skulls and the European in the “t” test for
these figures, no significance was found in any of them at the 5%, level
(Appendix), This shows that, as far as these observations go, there is no
significant difference between the South Australian aboriginal and European
inferior orbital fissures. This is contrary to what might be gathered from
inspection alone. Similar “t" tests were carried out between the Aboriginal
and the Chinese and African skulls, and once again no significant difference
was found.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to Professor A. A. Abbie for suggesting this subject for
investigation and for advice and assistance throughout, I am also indebted
to the Director of the South Australian Museum, who allowed me to use
material in the Museum collection.

RECAPITULATION

1. Separation of the orbit from the temporal fossa has been followed from
fishes up to man.

125

2. The postorbital wall, which effects this separation, is formed mainly by
flange-like extensions from the surrounding bones—frontal, sphenoid and
zygomatic. The maxilla is sometimes involved, Communication with
the temporal and infratemporal regions is gradually reduced to a spheno-
maxillary fissure which becomes partially differentiated into a plerygo-
maxillary fissure and an inferior orbital fissure.

3. The first stage of this process in primates is seen in the lemur. It reaches
an extreme, reducing the inferior orbital fissure in particular to a narrow
slit, in the Cercopithecidae and in the orang and gorilla. The condition
is less extreme, and the fissures are generally wider, in the gibbon and
chimpanzee and in man. A limited phylogenetic survey indicates that
the final form of the inferior orbital fissttre is determined largely by the
development of thin, plate-like extensions from the sphenoid and zygo-
matic. The final form is, apparently, attained relatively early in deve-
lopment.

4. In man the inferior orbital fissure shows a wide range of variation in size
and shape. Statistical comparison of the Australian ahorigine with a
limited number of skulls of different origin disclosed no signicant ethno-
logical distinction.

REFERENCES

Aspire, A. A. 1907 Headform and Human Evolution. J. Anat., Lond., 81, 233

Benstey, B. A. 1918 Practical Anatomy of the Rabbit, second ed. Toronto
University Press

Crark, W. E. te Gros 1934 Early Forerunners of Man. London

Ducxwortu, W. L. H. 1904 Morphology and Anthropology. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press

Jones, F. Woop 1929 Man’s Place among the Mammals. [ondon

Jonss, F. Woop 1930 The Non-metrical Morphological Characters of the
Skull as Criteria for Racial Diagnosis, J. Anat., Lond., 65, 179

Martin, R. 1928 Lehrbuch der Anthropologie. Jena.

Owen, R. 1868 Of the Anatomy of the Vertebrates. London

Werwenreticu, F. 1941 The Brain and its Role in the Phylogenetic Transforma-
tion of the Human Skull. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., N.S., 31, 321

Wuitnatt, S. E. 1921 The Anatomy of the Human Orbit. Oxford

No. of skull

CONAN RWH

126

- APPENDIX 1
TABLE I — ABORIGINAI SKULLS
i 2 3 4 5 6
; 438

2 gS 8 ee OO fF
a4 - 3B # g8 &
a 5 q a2 a8 4
a 5 wi

8 B 4 Se gk og
g 5 = £5 an =
2 i Zo Zs Bg Se
4 = & § 28 As a5
33 5 5 1 4 42
31 6 6 3 3 29
28 5 4 5 4 15.5
29 4 4 3.5 3 24
30 6 6 2 2.5 36.5
31 3 3 1.5 1.5 4
32 4 4 4 3 21
30 5 3.5 5 3 36
30 6 6 3.5 25 26
30 7 7 4 4 47
30 8 8 2 2 35
27 4 4 2 15 27
34 6 2 2 2.5 54
30 7 7 4 2 108
25 7 7 2 3 46
28 5 5 2 3 21
28 5 5 3 2 19
29 7 7 1 15 30
28 2.5 25 2 1 10
25 5 5 2 4 10
37 7 7 4 4 53
26 2 I 2 1 11
30 3 3 2 15 22
33 6 6 Z 2.5 58
31 5 5 5 3.5 21
28 5 5 4 2.5 34
31 4 4 3 3 21
22 4 4 2 2 15
31 5 5 3 3 25
31 7 7 2 2.5 47
28 6 6 3 3 40
34 5 5 4 25 20
33 6 5 2 25 50
33 3 3 3 2 2
28 7 7 2 2 52
27 7 7 2 3 36
27 3 1 3 15 2
34 4 4 4 3 15
32 5 5 4 3 13
33 5 5 3 3 21
23 4 4 4 2.5 10
32 7 2 4 3 49

Area from base

127

TABLE 2
ABORIGINAL SKULLS (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
oe eB = ei ae
2g
2 3 8 BE FR
5 3 3 5 ge g 2
= a 5 q ae Be & 4
s 3 s id o um 3
6 % & zs 4 aa 13 *
¢ 5 Ki zy m8 BS te g
z 4 s 58 38 AS eter} <
43. ~~ ~—-30 5 5 2 2 44 76
44 34 7 7 2 3 101 45
45 32 5 5 3 25 39 87
46 30 3 2 3 2 4 25
47 31 5 5 3 2 58 74
48 32 5.5 5.5 4 25 52 87
49 25 9.5 9.5 4 3 33 57
50 30 5 5 5 3 54 81
51 30 4 4 2 1.5 23 42
52 30 7 7 3 2 47 63
53 29 3 2 3 2 7 58
54 33 45 45 3 25 58 88
55 26 1 4 4 2 0 56
56 34 1 11 5 6 215 203
57 28 4 4 3 2 11 63
58 35 6 6 3 25 85 95
59 32 5 5 3 2.5 53 90
60 34 4 4 3 2.5 67 71
61 25 2 2 1 i 8 27
62 32 6 6 4 3 61 77
63 32 4 4 4 2.5 37 80
64 30 2 2 2 2 15 42
65 28 4 4 4 2 6 49
66 30 4 4 3 2.5 10 65
67 25 3 3 3 2 6 55
68 35 6 6 3 2.5 44 68
69 28 4 4 3 2 45 49
70 25 6 6 5 2 43 77
71 35 8 8 3 2.5 71 47
72 30 5 5 3 2 47 59
73 29 4 4 3 25 61 53
74 30 4 4 4 25 41 63
75 31 7 7 3 2 76 61
76 29 3 3 3 2 20 50
77 30 4 4 3 2.5 29 70
78 29 5 5 3 2 38 53
79 28 5 5 4 3 34 64.
80 32 7 7 3 3 75 90
81 29 4 4 4 25 20 86
82 31 2 2 1.5 15 0 35
83 29 4 2 4 2 18 51
84 30 6 6 4 3 53 g9

Sock wm
oS tn
CANA) No. of skull

wyvy
aN rR

ire)
a=

wow wos
an aA uw

i=]
oO

100

=
mw he SEAN A MN BWN

wad oe

128
TABLE 3
ABORIGINAL SKULLS (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
28
2 % 8 a ae

2 a 3 a 2 ae = A
3 g + ee “2 g g
a a a ge 2 =

3 f sé a fe
#y Be 8s 3 &

4 s 29 S8 AS C3 <
31 5 6 6 3.5 36 103
30 4 4 4 25 8 70
27 5 5 4 3 50 82
31 6 6 4 3 a7 83
32 3 3 3 2 29 47
32 5 5 3, 2 38 52
32 6 6 4 3 62 102
6 6 4 25 48 74

27 6 6 5 3 54 123
29 4 3.5 4 3 7 80
25 4 4 3 2.5 4 55
30 6 6 4 2.5 62 87
32 4 4 4 2 38 68
30 5 5 3 2.5 29 85
31 7 7 4 3.5 79 116
31 4 4 2 1.5 19 50

EUROPEAN SKULLS
28 4 4 3 2.5 35 62
28 6 6 5 2 39 75
28 3 3 3 2 9 37
29 5 5 4 2 40 65
32 3 3 3 2.5 30 91
25 5 5 3 2 21 32
27 4 4 3 25 17 61
27 7 7 3 2 34 43
27 4 3 4 2 9 50
31 5 5 3 25 31 59
AFRICAN SKULLS
30 7 7 4 25 65 64
27 8 8 4 3 64 97
27 8 8 4 25 67 82
29 3 3 2 2 34 51
CHINESE SKULLS
32 4 2 4 2 20 74
30 5 5 2 15 42 34
30 3 3 2 1.5 10 39
JAPANESE SKULLS

28 2 1 2 1.5 3 37
32 7 7 4 3 30 87

129

APPENDIX 2
LENGTH OF FISSURE MAXIMUM WIDTH
Aboriginal. Aboriginat.
Sx? = 90558 (2997-2100 = L05 Sx,? = 2776 (9-04) 100 2+0-05
S738
Sx; = 2997 with 99d.f. Sxq = 504-5 with 99 dF
Ky = 29-97 =>¥196 X, =5:0 =1'98
O74" = 90558-89820 29-97- = 45:36 O42 = 2776-2545 50-% =129
> 238 Kbelween3$3&246 = 221 cx belween7-9 &2-4
European. European.
Sx2° = 7990 5xp2 = 226
Sxq 2 282 Sxo = 46
Xo +262 Ko =46
G-p? » 7990 - 7950 Gp? = 226-211-6
3.40 = 14-4
——s —=—=—
Combined. Combined.

OR? - Ke) = TH +9?

=7:3B4A = 11:38 = (3-37)2

1-8 = -53 at stod.F
337

WIDTH AT ANTERIOR END

Aboriginal

Sxj* = 2640-5

Sxy = 484-6

Ry 74:9

Oy? = 2640-5-2342
= 298'5

(49-cX) =+3-42
, Cs belweenS-3 64:5
European.
Sx? = 219
Sxp = 45
Ro =45
O52 = 219- 202-5
= 165

Combined
2 5g 2472

OR = %Qj= Qj + Op 22-99-1-65
4 70d 40

= 4-64 =(2-154)2
Cs “AS 1857 at 110 df.
not significant(Ps -a5)

not significant (P + -6)

OR? - Ba) = Sie + See

= 2-21+4-44=35-65 = (1: 91)2
C=-4 = -209 ato df
TS —=—
not significant(P> - 83)

WIDTH AT PTERYGO-PALATINE FOSSA END
Aboriginal.
Sxj? = 1101 (3-2-cx)100 = + 1-98
Sxq = 3205
=3-2 3-2-%
1401-1027
14

Ry
042

at4:7

Chbetween4 9 &1-5

European.

Sxp2 = 120

SXo =34

XQ =34

Oa? =120-115-6
=4-4-

Combined.
2

«2 | 2
O(K, — Ag)= G4 + oo
706 10

='74+ -44

=41:18 =(4-086)2

C e. a a 84) at 110d.F
> nol significanl(Ps -85)

130

DISTANCE SPHENGID 15 LATERAL FROM AREA FROM LATERAL SIDE
Aboriginal. Samm Aboriginal, ~~~

Sxj* = 686-75 (2-5-o)100 = 11-98 Sx y*=217451 5 (38-39-0190 2 +4-95
4 “T4131
Sx, = 284-5 ad Sx1 =3785
%y 225 25-% =f1-64 4 = 37-85 38:°39-K=t54-4
Oi? =686-75-617-7 -,cxbetweena-1& -9 O42 =217431-1435300 . cx betweend2-5&0.
= 6941 = 74131
European. European.
Sxo2 =49 Sxo? =8255
Sx =22 Sxp =265
Ko =2-2 Kp =265
Gp? =A9-48-4 Oo? =8255-7021
= 26 sf234
Combined Combined.
O(x? -xo)= O72 + Gs? = -69+ 06 OfR,? -%y) = 701-S + 125-4
100. TO
=-751 = (866)? =824-7 = (28-718)2
CT a-3 =.347 also d.f. t =11-89 =-44sat sod fF.
7866 ah 26-72 Ae
nol significant (Ps 73) not significant 0+ -68)
Sxy? = 522361 G6-99- oon +#1-96
Sx, = 6699 Kea
Ky = 66-99 66 -99-&=53-67
Oj? =522561-448700 - cx betweentl8-6m15-3
= 7346)
European.
S$xo* =35919
Sxo =575
Xa =57°5
O37 =35919-33070
=2849
Combined .

OfRy - Ry)* = 734-61+284-9 =1019-5 = (51-93)

‘95
not significant (P= -77)

C =9-49 =0.297 attiod f.
3

THE ADELAIDE SYSTEM AS DEVELOPED IN THE RIVERTON-CLARE
REGION, NORTHERN MOUNT LOFTY RANGES, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY ALLAN F’. WILSON

Summary

A reconnaissance geological survey of the Riverton-Clare region has revealed a thick and extensive
development of a remarkably complete sequence of the lower formations of the Adelaide System
(Late Proterozoic). A feature is the thick ilmenitic sandstone lithologically identical with the basal
grits of Howchin’s type area in the Torrens Gorge, and at Aldgate, and also with Mawson’s “Basal
Quartzite” of the Flinders Ranges. This sandstone, however, does not pass down into an
unconformity with the Older Pre-Cambrian, but fairly gradually gives away to at least 8,000 feet of
alternating shales, sandstones, and occasional calcareous rocks. These were not bottomed, and thus
represent the oldest sediments of the Adelaide System of this area.

131

THE ADELAIDE SYSTEM AS DEVELOPED IN THE RIVERTON-CLARE
REGION, NORTHERN MOUNT LOFTY RANGES, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

Ry Attan F. Wiison*
[Read 8 November 1951]

1. SUMMARY

A reconnaissance geological survey of the Riverton-Clare region has
revealed a thick and extensive development of a remarkably complete
sequence of the lower formations of the Adelaide System (Late Proterozoic).
A feature is the thick ilmenitic sandstone lthologically identical with the
basal grits of Ilowchin’s type area in the Torrens Gorge, and at Aldgate,
and also with Mawsoti's “Basal Quartzite” of the Flinders Ranges. This
sandstone, however, does not pass down into an unconformity with the Older
Pre-Cambrian, but fairly gradually gives way to at least 8,000 feet of altern-
ating shales, sandstones, and occasional caleareous rocks. These were not
bottomed and thus represent the oldest sediments. of the Adelaide System
of this area.

Dolomites of the Torrens Gorge are represented by upwards of 1,100
feet of mainly cream dolomites: Those arenites, which are taken as compar-
able with the Stonyfell (Thick) Quartzite near Adelaide, are al least of
double its thickness, There are over 4,000 feet of dolomitic shales and inter-
bedded dense blue-grey dolomites reminiscent of the Beaumont Dolomites,
and a “Sturtian” tillite of meagre proportions. The total thickness of the
Torrensian (Lower Adelaide) Series is about 30,000 feet, which is consider-
ably more than thrice the thickness in the type area. This estimate, however,
could be somewhat reduced should more detailed mapping reveal repetition
due to faulting,

During middle Palaeozoic tiines the geosynclinal pile was thrown into
a series of meridionally trending folds of considerable magnitude, but there
is virtually no metamorphism and igneous rocks are absent in the area under
discussion,

In general, compressional forces appear to have come from the cast,
In part of the area, however, there is a major drag on the meridionally
trending structure, This indicates that in the western part of the area there
has been a major moyement “south and down” relative to a “north and up"
Movement on the east, Study of consequences of such relative movement
Satisiactorily explains the peculiar variations in trends of fold axes shown
by subsidiary folds near the nose of the major drag,

Only two major faults were recognised; these, the Alma and the Gilbert
Range faults, are more tr less meridional and have allowed renewed move
ment during the late Tertiary.

Mineralization is so meagre that various building stones appear io com-
prise the main direct interest for the economic geologist.

2. INTRODUCTION AND PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS

it was originally proposed to carry out a detailed study of the western
section of the Mount Lofty Ranges with a view to studying facies changes
from Howchin's type locality for the (late Proterozoic) Adelaide System
some 70 miles to the south. However, the author's departure from South
Australia in 1949 has necessitated publication of this unfinished work in its
present form.

SS ———— wr
* Department of Geology, University of Western Australia.
pense Roy. Soe. S. Aust., 75, September 1952

rt il

T)

Be
S i
al
=

ADTROX.

132

Hy

SCALE OF MyLes

r

Fault

inal axis
R CuPh prospecie ;—— Railways.

4
a

‘
’

2 Anticli

,
,

* Synctinal axis
; Mos, s-9 refer, to analysed Limetones

.
,

¥ berticaé Seals

so) S$ Overturned ;
section; & Trigs

ms

/2P,
Lit

-
4

“Strike, Dip

IX

Land Suryecy plans (2 inches = 1 mile) were used as base maps in the
first instance, but the map for publication has been drawn on a scale of
1 inck = I mile. Chain, compass and abney-level, or pacing compass and
aneroid methods were used. Unfortunately, aerial photographs were nut
available till almost at the end of this work. As much of the Jand is culti-
yated, many photographs only serve to aid location of one’s position which
is not difficult to fix by normal methods. The structure south of Auburn,
however, could be verified by their use and considerable help obtained in
tracing the arenaceous formations further north to link with the reconnais-
sance work done near Clare, Little stricture could be seen from photographs
taken N.E. of Auburn.

The area surveyed is bounded roughly by the Gilbert Range on the east,
the Clare-Parrel] Flat line in the north, the Alma Fault Scarp in the west,
and the Riverton-Rhynie line in the south (i.e. 25 miles N.-S. x 18 miles
E.W, is the maximum area studied), (See fig. 2.)

No previous attempt has becn made at geological mapping, indeed only
scanty references to this area can be found in the literature. Howchin (1927)
observed “‘Sturtian” tillite in the Gilbert Range between Tarlee and Kapunda.
Hossfeld (1934) named the formation beneath the tillite the Gilbert Range
Subglacial Quartzite, thus recognising the extension of this valuable marker
bed tnto the area now under discussion. Both Ilowchin (1929, p.30) and
Jack (1923, p. 28) suggest that the famous Mintaro Slates are possibly .of
fluvio-glacial origin, or are associated at least in some way with the tillite
which Jack casually mentions as occurring a few miles west of Mintaro.
Jack (1925) notes the use of slate for building stone near Auburn (p. 35)
and Clare (p, 27), and of freestones near Clare (p. 65). In various South
Australian Mining Reviews occasional mention is made of small alluvial
gold or copper deposits,

4. PHYSIOGRAPHY

The Riverton-Clare region is part of the Northern Mount Lofty Ranges
which have been limited to those highlands between the latitude of Gawler
in the south, and Crystal Brook-Jamestown line in the north. Fenner (1931,
p. 317) in his gencral description of the area states that “ihe mountains to
the north and south of this region (Flinders and Mount Lofty Ranges,
respectively) are of much higher relief and lower economic value that the
meridional ranges and ridges of the Northern Mount Lofty Ranges with
their wide alluvial-filled valleys. Over the greater part of this region the
soils are excellent; cultivatio# extends alike over the hills and the valleys.
so gentle is the relief: but there are also some steep and stony hills of
pastoral value only." The climate is typically Mediterranean with a, reliable
winter-muximum rainfall of between 18 and 30 inches.

KEY TO FIGURES I and 2

(1) River Wakefield Group of alternating sandy shales

(2) Rhynie Sandstune, ilmenitic arkosic sandstone with interbedded Dolomites

(3) Skillogalee Dolomites

(4) Woolshed Flat Shales

(5) Undalya Quartette

(6) Watervale Sandsione, argillaccons, and lensing out E.

(7) Auburn Dolomites ahd interbedded dolomitic shales, divided hy six into
upper (U.A.) and lower (1. A.) members

(8) Mintaro Shales, with Leasingham quartzite member

(9) Gilhert Range Quartzites and interbedded Fluvio-placial Sediments

(10) Glacial and Fluvioglacial Sediments and Shales

(11) Laterite

134

In the area under discussion both the gentle relief and best soils are
confined to those areas underlain by argillaceous, tillitic and dolomitic rocks.
The arenaceous rocks form resistant ridges, and invariably give rise to poor
sandy soils, The general relief falls off to the south from an average elevation
in the Clare-Farrell Flat region of about 1,300 feet to about 800 feet in the
neighbourhood of Riverton, No detailed topographic survey has yet been
undertaken in this region,

The water courses throughout the area are mostly mature-subsequent,
Elsewhere in the Mount Lofty and Flinders Ranges the drainage is mature-
subsequent in the upper courses but is juvenile-consequent along the margins
following earth movements in late Tertiary and Receni times, Study of the
maps will reveal that not only do streams rum parallel to the major forma-
tions but the wnusual deflections in the Wakeficld and Woolshed Flat Creck
appear ta be contrulled in the main by the east-west cross-fold anticlinal
axis and thickening of the arenites on the noses of the major pitching folds.

The lack of obvious superimposed streams and conseyuent slreams
(excepting those along the Alma Fault Scarp) presents an interesting
problem. The lack of superimposed streams suggests that no significant
superficial deposits have been laid down in this area on the poorly peneplaned
surface. In this connection it is interesting to observe that the only residual
laterite surface discovered had an appreciable dip of up to 5° eastward into
the old valley of the Light. The Light, and probably most of the other majar
streams, were flowing through mature river yalleys in pre-laterite times.
The area was insufficiently peneplaned for the laterite deposits to have any
appreciable effect on the drainage systems.

4. GEOLOGY

The area under discussion was part of the great Adelaide Geosyncline
of late Proterozoic-early Palaeozoic age. Its position is an interesting one in
that it is in the Northern Mount Lofty Kanges and between 60 and 9)
miles north of Howchin’s type area for the Adelaide System near Adelaide,
and about half-way between the type area and the Peterborouyxh reeien
which has been thought to have been a very deep part of the geosyncline.

The area is almost entirely made up of a varied suite of sediments
(sandstones, shales, greywackes, dolomites, and tillites) of upper Proterazaic
age. Though considerably folded and less conspicuously faulted the sediments
are virtually unmetamorphosed. For descriptuye purposes the various units
of the Adelaide System are described in ascending stratigraphic order.

A, STRATIGRAPHY
T. PROTEROZOIC
{1) ApELADE System
(a) River WAKEFIELD GrouP

An extensive group of alternating sandy phyllites, quartzites and oecas-
ional lenticular bodies of dolomite and limestone comprise the oldest rocks
outcropping in this area. The group makes good outcraps in most of the
consequent water courses dissecting the Alma Fault Scarp, but it is particu-
larly well developed in those which join the River Wakefield within 3 ur 4
miles west of the Scarp.

The sediments are all fine to medium grained, with graded hedding
well shown in certain horizons, No coarse grits or conglamerate lenses were
found and many are typical greywackes. Slump structures and occasignal
minor cross-bedding al! indicate the west-north-west as the source of detrital

135

material. Heavy mimeral concentration is tincommon. Iltnenite+rich zones,
however, have been noted several hundred stratigraphic fect below the great
ilmenitic formation, the Rhynic Sandstone, into which the River Wakefield
Group appears to pass without unconformity (eg. 2 miles E. of Hoyleton,
on the road to Leasingham). The colour of the sediment is usually a pale
dove-grey, Nd red beds are noted.

Interbedded usually with the argillacecous sections of the group ate occasional
tarbonate rocks of various types. Immediately beneath the bridge on the Wake-
field 5 miles north-west of Rhynie is a calcareous zone in sandy phyllites
ind sandstones. On atialysis a sample (Table I, No. 1, and No. 1 of map)
from a 6 fee, thick calcareous bed revealed a high ratio of CaCO,
to MgCO, (viz. 82 : 1). This is far greater than that of any other of nine
calcareous rocks analysed from the area. In handspecimen the rock 1s best
described as a white arenaceots oolitic limestone.

More commonly the caleareous members are pale cream-coloured massive
very finely-grained dolomites, similar in appearance to those of the strati-
graphically higher Skillogalee Dolomites, Examples are reported to oceur
24 miles east of Hoyleton on the Leasingham road, and near the road 3 miles
ae west of Rhynie. Unfortunately, no analyses of dolomites of this type were
made,

Another calcareous rock was noted less than } mile upstream from the
bridge over the Wakefield, five miles N.W, of Rhynie, It is a 2-3 foot lens of
thin-bedded dense blue-grey dolomite. The rock is intercalated in light-grey
sandy phyllites,

Throughout the area the River Wakefield Group has heen thrown into
a series of minor folds. In addition these beds show considerable crushing
and shattering near the large Palaeozoic fault zone (rejuvenated in the late
Tertiary to form the Alma Fault Scarp). Most Palaeozoic faults in the Mount
Lofty Ranges betray their presence by large displays of a cellular “fibrous”
quartz which appears #7 sitw in places, but is more commonly seen as
abundaiit Hoaters in the fields,

Notwithstunding the folding and faulting it seems that about 8,000
feet of sediments of this group are exposed within the type area.

(b) Ruvyir SANDSTONE

This formation comprises the backbone of a ridge extending from near
Rhynie ta beyond Clare, The formation ts essentially an ilmenite-rich icld-
spathic sandstone. There are plentiful but thin intercalated sandy shales
and shaly sandstones. In places (e.g., just tpstream from the junction of
Woolshed Flat Creek and the Wakefield) a bed of some 20 feet of coarse
conglomerate may be seen, which may be traced along the strike for a
furlong before it lenses out, On account of this feature, viz., the limited
linear outcrop of any particular horizon, the assemblage of ilmenitic sand-
stones is. best considered as one formation.

One of the most characteristic features of this formativun js the striking
development of coarse crossbedding which is clearly outlined by abundant
detrital ilmenite and haematite. In none of the several other arenaceous
formations in the area is the crossbedding thus delineated. Ilmenite has been
nated in the River Wakefield Group (q.v.) and indicates a transition between
that group and the Rhynie Sandstone. In one area (14 miles east of Wake-
field Reserve) the Undalya quartzite was found with considerable ilmenite
crossbedding, ‘These exceptions need not nullify a useful field criterion.

Slump structures are present but much rarer than in the slower-forming
sediments of the River Wakefield Group, Graded bedding and impressions

x)

made by dropped pebbles in bands of heayy minerals are well shown in
parts. Ripple marks were not neticed. This wealth of primary features
greatly facilitates the determination of sequence. The crossbedding indicates
that the source of detrital material was west-north-west, a fact borne out
by the close resemblance of certain of the Northern Yorke Peninsula granites
and the fragments of pink granite in the conglomerates.

i\n interesting feature is the lack of a coarse facies (conglomerate or
grit) at the base of this formation. Rather it is found that the River Wake-
feld Group contains in places ilmenile-bearing arenites and indicates a fairly
gradual shallowing of the sedimentary basin. The conglomerate occurs as
isolated lenses throughout the formation but particularly about two-thirds
of the stratigraphic distance up from the “base,”

Careful study of primary structural features (crossbedding, supplement-
ed by graded bedding) has shown that this massive arenaceous formation
has suttered considerable folding, thus rendering difficult an estimation of
true thickness, An instructive section is that afforded by a 14 miles walk
upstream along the Wakefield from its confluence with the Woolshed Flat
Creek, Though all the beds dip steeply eastward there are at least four
changes in sequence direction, In this particular section the steeper set of
beds (i,e., 80°-90° E.) usually “young west,” whereas the more shallowly
dipping set (1.e,, 65°-70° E.) “young easi.” This complex structure was not
expected in such a massive formation but same of the folds can he seeu
from the top of the south bank of the Wakefield when one looks north from
a paint ¢ mile due north of Mr. Bowden’s homestead which is ?/, mile up
the Woolshed Flat Creek above its confluence with the Wakefield. These
structures are large tectonic drags on the west limb of a major north-pitching
syncline,

Interbedded Dolomites

A surprising feature of this formation is the presence of a number of
dolomitic members. These are well exposed in the bed of the Wakefield
about one mile upstream from its confluence with the Woolshed Flat Creek.
En a band 150-200 feet thick the typical rock is a cream-colored dense fince-
grained calcareous magnesite. On analysis (see Table I, Nu, 3 anil No, 3 of
map) a CaCO,; MgCO, ration of 0°21 was found. The rack is homogeneous
and perfectly fresh, There are no magnesite mud-curls or “Mawsonella” in-
clusions as in some dalomites of the Upper Torrens Group. The magnesite,
though similar in appearance, differs chemically from normal Skillogalee
dolomites,

A very pale dull-blue fine-gramed dense dolomite occurs as a narrow bed
some five feet thick toward the base of the major band of cream-coloured
magnesite, On analysis this rock proves to he a narmal dolomite with
CaCO,: MgCO, ration of 1:24 (Table I, No. 2, and No, 2 of map). In
this it is similar te the cream-coloured dolomite which outcrops on the
road just west of Kemp's homestead 34 miles N.W. of Rhynie, This appears
to be interbedded in the same Rhynie Sandstone but is probably nearer
its contact with the Skillogalee Dolomites than those described above
(mapping was hurried and general in this area). It is a cream-coloured
dense fine-grained dolomite which on analysis showed a CaCO.,: MgCO,
ratio of 1-21 (Tabte I, No. 4 and No. 4 of map}. Comparison with other
analyses in Table I indicates the remarkable purity of this dolomite.

(e) SKILLOGALEE DoLcsires
The major dolomites of the area fnrm a very important stratigraphic
marker as they separate the two most impartant sandstones. They are cream-

137

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199

coloured fine- to medium-grained dense dolumites with occasional inter-
bedded dulomitic shales. Neither residual magnesite boulders nor “primary”
magnesitic mud-curls were noted in the major development of the formation
in the Skillogalee Creek and near Rhynie. However, in a road metal quarry
half a mile west of Saddleworth a considerable quantity of high grade mag-
nesite has been developed on the weathering of pale-blue dolomites which
appear tu belong to the same formation.

The formation has a variable thickness qwing to its relative incompet-
ency and position betwecn two thick sandstone formations. The map shows
moreover, that although the dolomites have “spread” themselves around the
noses of the pitching folds near Rhynie, on the west limb of the major north-
pitching syncline they are tightly squeezed and seem to disappear somewhere
in the latitude of Watervale, Their disappearance is best explained as due
to tectanic causes, for the Auburn Dolomites likewise disappear in the same
relative position, Moreover the dolomites prubably reappear in a milder
tectonic setting further north in the Wirrabarra Forest region as Mawson’s
“Magnesite Series,”

On analysis a typical specimen from this formation (Table 1, No. 5 and
No. 5 of map) revealed a dolomite remarkably comparable with the light-buff
Castambul (Lower Torrens) Dolomite“ of Howchin’s type area (see also
Table I, No. 6 and 7). It has a CaCO,: MgCO, ratio of 1-23.

Near the bridge at Undalya the dolomites are tightly folded and re-
erystallized into light-buff and cream marble. About one mile downstream
pale-blue dolomitic rocks are well developed. They occur intimutely associated
but stratigraphically above the light-buff and cream dolomites so typical
of the Skillogalee formation, In one place (+) 95 feet of blue dolomite
was found overlain by 560 feet of dark-grey sandy shale which in turn
is overlain by the Undalya Quartzite. This blue dolomite may prove to be
the equivalent of the Montacute (Upper Torrens) Dolomite of Howchin's
type area. However, none of the cherty or magnuesitic mud-curls so typical
of that dolomite was noticed. Unfortunately the author reached this import-
ant area towards the end of a day’s traverse and had no opportunity to
revisit.

In the main Skillogalee Creek area no dolomite was found which could
be correlated with the blue dolomites mentioned ahove, but the pale-blue
dolomite which is the host of the secondary magnesite near Saddleworth
may be comparable. In the Rhynie area (} N.W.) some 100 yards south of
the Woolshed Flat road between section 210 and 557 Hundred of Alma a
natrow band of cherty blue-grey dolomite occurs stratigraphically above a
little pale-blue dolomite and much of the typical Skillogalee cream and white
dolomite, It is below the Woolshed Flat Shale and Undalya Quarizite. In
appearance and on analysis it closely resembles members of the Montacute
(Upper Torrens) Dolomite (Table 1, No. 8, [No. 6 of map| and cf. Nos.
10 and 11). This dolomite which is thin-bedded and contorted is about 30
feet thick tn this locality.

Hence, although the Skillogalee dolomites are characterized by cream
dolomites, in several areas notable blue-grey members appear in the upper-
most sections of the formations, No sedimentary magnesites were noticed,

@) An article by Mawson and Sprigg (1950} appeared several months after the
script of this paper was in the hands of the Society, and certain changes in neomnenclarure
have been imade necessary. The formation names in parentheses are those appearing in
papers previous to that by Mawson and Sprigg (1950). -

740)

(d) WootsiEp Frat SHALES

Light grey well-banded shales and sandy shales outcrop on the cscarp-
ment just nerth of the Woolshed Flat road one mile W.N.W. of Rhynie.
Similar outcrops occur in most places where the Undalya Quartzite is able
to protect these friable sediments, They ate mostly too arenaceous to show
either good slaty cleavage or drag folds.

stratigraphically these shales include all the shales from the Rhynie
Sandstone to the Undalya Quartzite. In most places the Khynie Sandstune
appeers to pass almost directly into the Skillogalee Dolomite formation.
Elsewhere, however, (particularly N.E. of Undalya) the Skillogalee Dolomite
is a much narrower bed and is flanked on either side by several hundreds
of feet of Woolshed Flat Shales,

(e) Unbarya QuarTzITs

A large road-metal quarry has been cut in this formation at the bridge
over the Wakefield at Undalya. The rock is a well-bedded medium-grained
feldspathic white and cream quartzite, and occurs with niimerous minor
interbedded sandy, (?) carbonaceous and pyritic shales. In contrast ta the
Rhynie Sandstone this quartzite very rarely contains conspicuous bands of
heavy minerals. The only noteworthy concentration was seen as numerous
floaters (near in situ) near the crest of the eastern escarpment of the north
pitching incline 3 miles N.N.W. of Rhynie, Crossbedding is not rare and
slumping unknown, but graded bedding can be used to good effect as a
* sequence criterion, This quartzite was apparently laid down under more
placid conditions that the Rhynie Sandstane—indeed the black pyritic shaly
members suggest a partly stagnant environment.

The thickness of this formation is variable. A section along E-F through
the Wakefield Reserve gave a minimum thickness of 2,500 feet. West of
the Undalya the quartzites are shallow dipping and at least 2,500 fect thick.
There is possible thickening on the noses of the pitching folds and the west
limb of the regional north-pitching syncline is attenuated. In places it is
anly 500 feet thick,

Turther east a sandstone occurs which has been mapped as the equiva-
lent of the Undalya Quartzite. The Saddleworth Sandstone, as it could
be called, forms a prominent ridge on the west side of the River Gilbert
between Saddlewarth and Riverton. Certain members are gritty, but it is
characteristically a shaly sandstone, with considerable shaly intercalations,
Sketch section C-D shows the proposed interpretation of its stratigraphic
pusition, and further mention is made under the Auburn dolomites.

(f) Ausurw DoromitEs

Numerous dark-grey very fine-grained dense dolomites occur as bands
some 18 inches to two feet thick within well-bedded blue-grey dolomitic
silty shales and shaly sandstones which outcrop extensively near Auburn
and between Riverton and Saddleworth. In the west the formation is divided
by the Watervale Sandstone into upper (U_A.) and lower (L.A.) members:
that is, in the deeper waters to the east of Riverton the sandstone has “lensed
out” allowing the two dolomitic members to merge. The possibility of
repetition by faulting of the Undalya Quartzite and the Lower Auburn
Dolomites as the Watervale Sandstone and Upper Auburn dolomites
(respectively) has tiot been overlooked. In the limited time for thie recon-
naissance, however, no evidence for faulting was encountered and subsequent
study of the air photographs suggests that the succession is normal.

144

A fairly good section may be seen near the main road from Auburn to
Skillogalee. Cherty nodules with some limonitic pscydomorphs after mat-
casite are a feature of some of the dolomitic shales in the first big read-
cutting west of Auburn, Some of the shales look carbonaceous and generally
give the appearance of having been deposited in a quiescent poorly-aerated
marine enyifonment. (Similar leatures are well exposed in the first railway
cutting on the Clare railway one mile from Riverton, and also in the banks
of the Gilbert half a mile to the east.)

This road eventually passes down out of the Upper Auburn Dolomites
into the Watervale Sandstone, the variable nature of which is well shown
in the creek to the south of the road. Beneath the Watervale Sandstone
the Lower Auburn Dolomites begin as several well formed bands inter-
bedded in dark-grey dolomitic shales. An analysis (Table IT, No. 12 was made
of a two foot thick dolomite outcropping on the main road to Skillogalee
32 miles W.S.W. of Auburn (No, 7 of map).

Another analysis (No, 13, Table IT) was made of a dolomite from the
same formation where it outcrops in a small cutting on the main road 1}
miles south ef Auburn (No. 8 of map), Here the rock is a laminated and
somewhat contorted blue-grey dense fine-grained dolomite, There are con-
siderable quantities of limonitic and pyritic pseudomorphs after marcasile.

In the Riverton-Saddleworth area the Lower and Upper Auburn Dolo-
mites merge into one, Good exposures occur in road and rail cuttings in
the vicinity of {he two towns. An analysis is published (No. 14, Table 11)
of a typical dense dark-grey dolomite which outcrops near Saddleworth on
a aie road between Section 396 and 397, Hundred vf Saddleworth (No. 9
of map).

It is apparent from Table TE that the three new analyses are chetnically
very similar to typical members of the Beaumont Dolomites near Adelaide.
In hand specimen and field associations they cannot be differentiated.

In the east bank of the Gilbert 200 yards south of the railway bridge
which ig one mile north of Riverton, there occurs a bed several inches thick
of dull-white ooliti¢ limestone interbedded with typical dense blue-grey dolo-
mites and dolomitic shales.

{g} WATERVALE SANDSTONE

Tn the type locality alternating sandstones and sandy shales outcrop
in a ereek which runs parallel and south of the road to Skillogalee 34 miles
W.S.W, of Auburn, They may be seen to overlie stratigraphically the Lower
Auburn Dolomites, and about 2} miles from Auburn just south of the road
may be found grading into the Upper Auburn Dolomites, The nearest suit-
able place name for these sediments is Watervale. To the west of this town
the formation trends norihward to Clare, where certain more arenaceous
members are quarried as a freestone Most of the sandstone members in this
formation, however, contain a notable amount of clay, with plentiful detrital
muscovite in many places. This tends to give the rock a good fissility. Detrital
iron ores were not noted, but crossbedding and slumping are fairly common-

The formation becomes increasingly dolomitic both top and bottom as
is passes, respectively, into the Upper and Lower Auburn Delomites. It
lenses out towards Riverton (which is “offshore”) allowing the two dolomite
sections to merge,

(h) Mintaso Spanzs
Between the Auburn Dolomiles and the Gilbert Range Quartuites there
is a large development of light-grey, blue-grey and light-fawn shales, Their
ready disintegration into 4 rich soil has controlled the location of the best

142

wheat farms in the area. Natural outcrops are poor and considerable difficulty
was encountered in choosing a type section. Reasonable exposures exist
along the Section A-B but considerable thinning by squeezing between
Massive arenites is apparent. Another section along F-G is not so good
and strike faulting may occur beneath the plentiful soil cover.

fe
oe eh
<0 /RIVERTON

Fig. 2, See Key to Wig. i

143

The lower half of the formation consists of a pale blue-grey calcareous shale
with minor silty and arenaceous members. Sly cleavage was rarely noted. The
upper kalf is more argillaceous but is still notably calcareous in places. No lime-
sturie members, however, were discovered, Slaty cleavage is fairly well
developed in the Clare region but elsewhere is poorly shown, The shale, of
lght-fawo and light-grey colour, has a marked banding not unlike that of
the Glen Osmond Slates near Adelaide, and the slight difference in grau
size renders it distinctly varyuid.

In ihis cannection it is significafit to recall that Jack recorded that
aceasional pebbles have been taken from the Mintaro slate quarries, and
suggested that it may indicate a relation to the Sturtian cillite: Mapping
now shows that the shales at Mintaro are close ta the base of the Gilbert
Range Subglacial Quartzites. If Howchin’s correlation with Tapley's Hill
Slates were toa he correct they should otcur above the quartzites.

Occasional narrow quartzite bands occur as members within the Mintaro
Shales. The best developed has been called the Leasingham Quartzite
member. This fawn feldspathic medium-grained sandstone is hest seen on
the crest of a low rise west of Auburn in Section 288, Hundred of Upper
Wakefield. A small buff sandstone was observed in a contorted area In main
road cutting 34 miles east of Riverton (Section 467, Hundred of Gilbert).

‘Two major quarries have been opened in the Mintaro Shales, One and a
half miles N. of Auburn (Section 216, Hundred of Upper Wakefield) is a
large “slaie’ quarry which has produced a good building stone (Jack 1923,
p. 35). Stratigraphically it is about 1,000 feet above the hase of formation.
A more important grotp of quarries exists about one mile west of Mintaro
where @ laminated shallow dipping blue-grey shale yields high-grade large
“slate slabs and flagstanes (ibid, p. 28). Stratigraphically these shales are
yery high in the formation and soon give way to the Gilbert Range Quastzites
and associated glacial sediments.

(t) Gmperr Rance Quarrzires ©)

These white feldspathic quartzites (or sandstones) comprise a major
mapping unit in this area. They are resistant to weathering aiid form fair
outcrops which can be traced for tnany miles by means ot aerial photographs.
Immediately above ihe major and uppermost sandstone (there may be two
or more minor, probably lenticular, sandstone members) a tillite and associ-
aled Nuvieglacials occur, Owing to the ready erosion of the illite a careful
search for shed erratics may be necessary to confirm the identity of this
key sandstone formation,

Both Howehin (1927) and Segnit (1945) describe these sanidstanes as
occurring beneath the “Sturtian tillite”’ three miles west of Kapunda. a few
miles south of the area under discussion. Hossfeld (1934) was able to trace
this “subglacial quartizite” from the Tanunda area to the Gilbert Range.

In the time available the only section actually meastired over this forma-
tien was that to the S.E. af Clare along Section A-B. Here the Mintaro
Shales rive way suddenly to a 2 fuot-thick white feldspathic sandstone. Then
follows about 300 feet of shale and sandy shale identical with the Mintaro
Shales below. Then occurs the major arenite (about 250 feet)*, a dense
white feldspathic sandstone, Its resistant nature results in the prominent
delineation of the north-pitching syncline on the nose of which is Mount
Horrocks. No pebbles were seen in this sandstone,

() ‘This formation name seems te have been first used by Hossfeld (1934) in his
tkelcli section on p. 48.

() TInfortunately, during reméval from South Australia the author's last field qote-
book became displaced, hence only data already transterréd at that time io the mister
plan and drawn sections could be used for estimation of thicknesses along A-L,

144

(j) GvactaL AND FLUuviocLaciaL SEDIMENTS
It was only in the last stages of the reconnaissance that these were
discovered in the Clare region and the work had to be discontinued before
the group could be properly studied. The only section studied in any detail]
was that along A-B. On top of the Gilbert Range Quartzites about 400 feet

ADELAIDE REGION RIVERTON = CLARE REGION

TAPLEY HILL StATES
10,500 ft.

BELAIR GROUP

td

GLEN OSMOND STATES : a)
1550 ft a as occurs
LAr (LOVER MEMSERS)
HEACMONT DOLOMITES a ] 2,200 ft.

Fig. 3

145

of blue-grey sandy laminated shale occur. This is followed by ten feet of
Aluvioglactal grit and about 300 feet of non-bedded and poorly-bedded light-
grey tillite. Krratics of granite and gneiss are common and outnuumber those
of quartzite in this area, Occasional! glacial striac were observed, Above the
tillite ig an unknown thickness of well-laminated blue-grey sandy shales and
norma!) shales, After abaut 800 feet they pass under cultivated land reappear-
ifig on the east flank of the syncline some three miles away. It is suspected
that this large group af sediments is predominantly fluvioglacial.

(2) CoRRELATIONS

Figure 3 illustrates the main features of correspondence between the
Riverton-Clare region and the type area near Adelaide. However, a tew
features need comment,

(a) River WAKEFIELD Grove AnD RHYNIE (1LMENITIC) SANDSTONE

‘The ilmenitic sandstones of the type area are usually found unconform-
ably overlying the Older Precambrian metamorphic rocks as at Aldgate.
In the Riverton-Clare region, however, field work now indicates that a great
thickness of sediment lies comformably beneath a comparable ilmenitic sand-
stone, the Rhynie Sandstone. This reminds one of Sprigg’s 1945 record of
of a new group of alternating shales and sandstones in the Torrensian (Lower
Adelaide) series, Ile tentatively placed the new group above the “‘basal’*
fImenitic sandstone but was uncertain of the true stratigraphic position
Recent work by geologisis of the South Australian Geological Survey seems
to indicate that a large group of shales and sandy shales lies conformably
beneath an ilmenitic sandstone in several parts of the Mt, Lofty Ranges
(R. C. Sprigg, verbal communication, July, 1949.)

In addition, the author recalls that some of the feldspathic ilmemitic
sandstones of the Warren Reservoir area apparently are stratigraphically
above a considerable thickness of metasediments of a type corresponding to
the River Wakefield Group. Similarly, at the Little Gorge, Normanville, a
coarse ilmenitic feldspathic sandstone has been overturned but stratigraphi-
cally overlies phyllonitic and schistose rocks in a conformable manner. Thus
the unconformable break at the base of the late Proterozoic sediments is not
at the base of the ilmenitic sandstone in all cases as at Aldgate and West
Humbug Scrub. lt seems likely that “the original Archaeozoic floor to the
geosyncline was uneven, presenting a sedimentary environment of the Archi-
pelago type. In this manner rapid variations in sediment type and thicknesses
of basal or near basal units would be expected, As more sediments accumu-
lated on the sinking geosynclinal floor the effects of the original topographic
irregularities wuuld be neutralized,” (Sprigg 1946, p. 328.)

(b) SxkrLLoGALEe DoLomites

The cream Skillogalee Dolomites may be compared with the dolomites
of the Torrens Gorge, which comprise the cream-colored Castarnbul (Lower
Torrens) Dolomite, phyllites, and the blue-grey Montacute (Upper Torrens)
Dolomites, Of these, the Montacute (Upper Torrens) Dolomite is more im-
portant that the Castambul (Lower), In the Riverton-Clare region, however,
the bulk of the Skillogalee Dolomite formation comprises cream dolomites ;
phyllites are nearly absent and relatively meagre blue-grey dolomjtes occur
only near the top of the formation and only in some localities, Sedimentary
magnesiles were not recognised.

146

{c) The Ausurn Dotomzrras (bifurcated in the west)
follow the Undalya Quartzite which is correlated with the Stonyfell (Thick)
Quartzite. Analyses in Table II indicate the remarkable chemical similarity
of these dolomites and the Beaumont Dolomites which are not So extensively
developed in the Adelaide region, Sedimentary magnesites were not
recognised,

(d) The Minrago Suares, Giunerr Rance Quantzires

and glacial and fuvioglacial sediments are probably contemporanedaus with the
Glen Csmond Shale, the Glen Osmond Quartzite and Sturtian Tillite of the
type dred.

About 9,000 feet of sediments have been recorded in the Torrensian
(Lower Adelaide} Series in the type area (Mawson and Sprigg, 1950, p71).
The Riverton-Clare region gives an approximate measure of the order 6f
30,000 fet, This estimation wiil undoubtedly be modified on completion of
detailed mapping but it nevertheless indicates a remarkable increase in this
region.

Concerning the Flinders Ranges Sprigg (1946, p. 328) has suggested
that Mawson's Magnesite Series (Mawson, 1941) is contemporaneous with
the Torrens Dolomites. The mapping in the Riverton-Clare region appears
to confirm this view, The remarkable development of sandstone and con-
glomeraic (in part ilmenitic), so consistently found beneath the Magnesite
Series, is considered by Mawsun (1947) to be the basal formation of the
Proterozoic sequence (in the Flinders Ranges). However, in view of this
recenl mapping the author is not happy about this conclusion, The large
development of the River Wakefield Group must be taken inta account, and
need for careful investigation of the Clare-Spalding area is indicated,

Hossfeld in his extensive work on the north-eastern Mt. Lofty Ranges
(1954) has suggested fundamental changes in the Adelaide Series as first
described by Howchin. Two unconformable series are erected, viz., the Para
and the Narcoota Series. Hossfeld's Para Series appears ta correspond fairly
well with the Torrensian (Lower Adelaide) Series as now defined by
Mawson and Sprigg (1950); it outcrops in the Adelaide region and cto the
west of the Humbug Scrub Archaean block and continues north of Gawler.
Like the Para Series, the Narcoota Series has a basal ilmenitic sandstone,
but this is thought by Hossfeld to correspond to the Glen Osmond Quartzites,
The setjuence above this “basal” sandstone ig reasonalily comparable with the
Sturtian (Middle Adelaide) Series of the type area. Im the Clare region,
however, a complete sequence (without unconformity) is indicated from the
lowest parts of the Adelaide System (Hossfeld's Para Series) up through the
Gilbert Range Quartzite into a tillite and the equivalent of Tapley’s Hill
Slates. These upper formations are in Hassfeld’s Narcoota Series, and the
Gilbert Range Quartzites which were used as a marker bed in this area have
been traced south as far as Greenock which is near the centre of Hossfeld's
map. Tlis map, however, does not clearly show the relation of this important
bed to the ilmenitic “basal” Narcoota beds near by, nor has the ilmenitic
sandstone been discovered north of Greenock in proximity to the Gilbert
Range Quartzites.

Grave difficulties of this type arise when an attempt is made to integrate
Hossfeld’s broader findings “and those on the western margins of the
geosyncline,

It. TERTIARY

(2) Laterite has been observed in a few places on the eastern side of the
Gilbert Range. It has formed over sandstone and tillite on a gentle easterly-

147

dipping poorly-peneplaned landsurface. This material was probably formed
during Miocene or Pliocene times.

( b) Numerous coarse conglomerates occur as remnant aprons along the Alma
Fault Scarp, which appears to have been a prominent physiographic feature
from (al least) early Pleistocene,

B, TECTONICS

Sprigg (1946) has already outlined the broader features of the Palaeozaic
orogeny as it affected the Mt, Lofty Ranges, particularly near Adelaide, In
that region both folding and faulting Were much more intense than in the
Riverton-Clare area.

In this area the Proterozoic sediments were thrown into a series af
meridionally trending folds of considerable magnitude, The peculiar variation
in trend of fold axes, and the variation of dip of axial “planes” suggests that
pure compressional force from the east would be an insufficient cause for
the fold pattern, In the map the trend lines of the Gilbert Range Quarizites,
the Undalya Quartzite and the Rhynie Sandstone indicate that in the Clare
region there is a major drag on the normally meridional fold axes. This has
been brought about by movement of the western area (near Blyth) south-
wards and downwards relative to the castern areas (near Waterloo) which
have apparently moved northwards and upwards. This would account for
the prevatling shallow northerly pitch of the major folds. Further, the strange
basin slructure west of Rhynie and north-easterly trending 5.-W, pitching
anticline to the west of Undalya are to be expected from such relative maye-
ments near the nose of ihe major drag.

Palaeozoic faulting is less important in the Riverton-Clate region than in
the vicinity of Adelaide, The faulting does not appear to interrupi ihe section
fo any great degree. There appears ta be a normal fault on the west side of
the Gilbert Range. -Minor silver-lead-copper mineralization took place along
this zone of weakness.

A fault has been postulated between Khynie and Riverton. On strati-
graphic evidence the east black has been downthrown about 1,000 Jeet. The
most important fault zone in the area is the Alma Fault (so named from its
appearance in the Hundred of Alma), Later movement in the Kosciusko
phase (late Tertiary) has given rise to the notable fault scarp which forms
the western margin of the Ranges proper, Abundant cellular quartz floaters
occur in proximity to the fault zone and suggests that it was an original
reverse fault which has in more recent times reopened as a normal fault,
‘Time was not available to study criteria in the field, but Sprigg (1945) has
pointed out similar phetiomena in the Adelaide tegion,

C. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

No Palaeozoic granite occurs anywhere in the area, and the degree of regional
metamorphism is negligible, Small silver-lead-copper sulphide vein-fillings occur
in association with the Gilbert Range fault zone. An old copper mine is
reported in a blue-grey dolomite about six miles west of Rhynie near the
River ‘Wakefield (Section 275, Hundred of Alma),

Numerous small auriferous quartz veins occur meridionally throughout the
Rhynie Sandstone and other arenites, especially in the Clare region where
the folding has been more intense. These may well represent concentrations
im “gash veins” of detrital gold in the sandstones. In themselves none is
payable, but most of the meagre gold of the area has been won from
associated alluvial depnsits. The Mintaro area has produced most gold, and
KE

148

prospectors have found small amounts in many places along the Wakefield
and its major tributaries.

Tale is often found in small quantities in crests of tightly folded anticlines
in the Skillogalee Dolomites (¢.g. road metal quarry } mile W.N.W, of
Rhynie).

Magnesite was obtained as a valuable by-product of a dolomite road metal
quarry at Saddleworth. It occurs in the blue sections of the Skillogalee
Dolomite, and probably represents the Montacute (Upper Torrens) Dolo-
mite which is noted elsewhere for its weathering to magnesite, and (in
the Flinders Ranges) for its sedimentary magnesite members. No payable
sedimentary magnesites have been discovered in this area.

Road Metals—Quarties are found in all of the major arenaceous formations.
The Skillogalee Dolomites are a popular stone, especially in the Rhynie area.

Building Stones—R, L. Jack (1923) has described the major building
stones of the area. Freestones are plentiful—indeed must of the feldspathic
arenaceous formations have been quarried with varying success for this
purpose,

Highgrade flagstones or slates ate still quarried at Mintaro, These occur high
up in the thick Mintaro Shale formation which appears to be the equivalent
nat of the Tapley’s Hill Slate but of the Glen Osmond Shales. A large quarry
exists in the same formation north of Auburn. Other formations have had
limited use in several towns in the district.

Tn the latter stages of this reconnaissance a group of senior students
of the University of Adelaide assisted in the Rhynie area. Outstanding
among these were Messrs. Rowley, Reynolds, Dore, Lowe and Richardson.
Mr. Rk. C. Sprigg was able to arrange through the South Australian Mines
Department for nine partial analyses of dolomites to be undertaken. Some
of the drafting costs were met by Commonwealth Research Grant admin-
istered by the University of Western Australia.

6. REFERENCES

Barnes, T. A., and Kreeman, A. W. 1934 “The Blue Metal limestone and its
associated beds.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 58, 80-85

Ferner, Caartes 1931 “South Australia—a Geographical Study.” Whit-
combe and Tombs, Adelaide

Hossrermm, P. S. 1934 “The Geology of part of the Northern Mount Lofty
Ranges.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 59, 16-67

Howe, W. 1906 “The Geology of the Mount Lofty Ranges, Pt. IL”
Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., 30, 227-262

Howcutn, W. 1915 “A geological sketch map with descriptive notes on the
Upper and Lower Torrens Limestones in the type district.” Trans. Roy,
Soc. S. Aust,, 39, 1-15

Howcurn, W, 1927 “The Sturtian Tillite in the neighbourhood of Eden, and
in the Hundreds of Kapunda, Neales, English, South Australia.” Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Aust.; 51, 330-349

Howcrtn, W. 1929 “The Geology of South Australia.” Gillingham, Adelaide

Jack, R, L. 1923 “The Building Stones of South Australia.” Bull. 10, Geol.
Survey of S. Aust.

Mawson, D. 1941 “Middle Proterozoic Sediments in the neighbourhood of
Copley?! Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust,, 65, (2), 304-311

149

Mawson, D. 1947 “The Adelaide Series as developed along the western
margin of the Flinders Ranges.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, (2),
259-280

Mawson, D., and Spricc, R. C. 1950 “Subdivision of the Adelaide System.”
Aust. Journ. Science, 13, No. 3, 69-72

Seenit, R. W. 1939 “The Pre-Cambrian-Cambrian Succession.” Bull. 18,
Geol. Survey of S. Aust.

Spricc, R. C. 1945 “Reconnaissance Geological Survey of portion of the West-
ern Escarpment of the Mount Lofty Ranges.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,
70, (2), 313-347

THE MORPHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO OF
GRYLLULUS COMMODUS WALKER (ORTHOPTERA: GRYLLIDAE)

BY HELEN M. BROOKES

Summary

The embryo arises on the dorsal surface of the egg near the posterior pole. After 48 hours at 25.2°C
it is completely immersed in the yolk and becomes greatly convoluted and twisted. In the pre-
revolution stages it is separated from the yolk dorsally by a membrane. After revolution the embryo
is closed dorsally by the amnion while engulfment of yolk into the mid-gut proceeds. Definitive
dorsal closure takes place after about 94% days. A cuticle is secreted over the entire surface of the
body and is shed shortly after eclosion. The development of body form in embryos incubated for
specified periods is described and illustrated.

150

THE MORPHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO OF
GRYLLULUS COMMODUS WALKER (ORTHOPTERA: GRYLLIDAE)

By Heren M. Brookes *
[Read 8 November 1951]

SUMMARY

Vhe embryo arises on the dorsal surface of the egg near the posterior
pole. After 48 hours at 25°2°C. it is completely immersed in the yolk and
becomes greatly convoluted and twisted. In the pre-revolution stages it ts
separated from the yolk dorsally by a membrane. After revolution the em-
bryo is closed dorsally by the amnion while engulfment of yolk into the
mid-gut proceeds, Definitive dorsal closure takes place after about 94 days,
A cuticle is secreted over the entire surface of the body and is shed shortly
after eclosion, The development of body form in embryos incubated for
specified periods is described and illustrated.

During blastokinesis the embryo twice passes about the posterior pole
of the egg. Revolution of the embryo is defined and described in the living
egg. It occurs after 64 days’ incubation at 25°2°C. and is achieved without
apparent active movements of the embryo.

The eclosion of the nymph from the egg and from the emmbryotiic cuticle
is described.

INTRODUCTION

During experimental studies of the biology and ecology of Gryllulus
commodus now being made at this laboratory (Browning, 1952), the need
has arisen for some knowledge of the morphological development of the
embryo in a controlled environment. In this paper the movements of the
embryo during blastokinesis and the development of the external form of
the embryo are described for diapause-free eggs which were incubated in
damp sand at a constant temperature of 25-2°C.

MATERIAL AND METIIODS

About 200 adult crickets were collected in March, 1950, fram cracks
in soil at the Waite Institute and put into cages containing trays of clean,
damp sand. When it became apparent that the females were ovipositing
freely fresh trays of sand were introduced into the cage and at the end of
ene hour these were remuved, the eggs sieved out under water and fixed
within half an hour, Similarly, eggs not more than four and a half hours old
were abtained and fixed. These served for the study of the very early stages.

A large number of eggs not more than eight hours old were obtained
in this manner and these were placed in damp sand at 12°8°C. for 30 days
to permit the completion of diapause (Browning, 1952), At the end of this
period these eggs were transferred to a thermostat held at 25°2°C. A sample
of about 100 eges was taken from these at the time of transfer to the in-
cubation temperature and further samples were taken at intervals of 8 hours
thereafter for 3} days. After this samples were taken every 24 hours until
hatching occurred aiter 164 days. These eggs served for the study of all but
the early stages of development (0 to 8 hours old).

* Waite Agricultural Research Institute, The University of Adelaide
Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 75, September 1952

isl

There were in all twenty-three samples of eggs fixed, representing
23 different stages. It was not practicable to assess a mean stage of deyelop-
ment for a sample but it was comparatively easy to recognise a modal stage
of development for each group, i.e. the stage which had been reached by
the majority of embryos in the sample. This stage was taken as character-
istic; the twenty-three stages which were determined in this way have been
illustrated in figure 3 and numbered 1 to 23 for easy reference elsewhere in
the text. Similarly a number of stages in blastokinesis were recognised. These
have been illustrated in figure 1 and designated by the letters A to R.

In any sample of eggs the modal group was quite well defined, usually
including more than half the eggs, but there were always some embryos
lagging behind. Sometimes there were a few in advance of the stage reached
by the majority. In this the eggs resemble those of the grasshopper Melanophis
differentials (Slifer, 1932b). For example, in a sample of sixty-five eggs. in-
cubated for 44 days at 25°2°C., forty-nine had reached the same stage of
development (figure 3, stage 11), four were in stage 10, five in stage 8, two
in stage 7, while five were one day in advance (stage 12). The variability
found in each sample is shown in Table I below.

TABLE IL.

Showing the distribution of development in samples of eggs imcuhated for

specified periods at 25°C, The embryos have heen classified into three

classes: (a) those behind the modal stage of development, (b) those in the
modal stage, (c) those in advance of the modal stage.

Time Percentage eggs Time Percentage eggs
at Stages Modal Stages at Stages Modal Stages
25.2°C behind stage ahead 252°C behind stage ahead
0 hours 36 45 18 ok days 23 48 29
8, 15 81 4 7* 33 67 —
16 ,, 26 55 19 8 34 49 17
24, 18 71 il % 44 56 —
32) Cs; 60 40 _— 104 —«,, 21 79 _—
40, 42 58 _ iit , 8 92 —
4 C«, 58 42 —_— izs, 7? 93 —
56 52 48 — it, 6 a4 —
oF, 67 33 — 144, 2 98 —_
33.days 37 63 153, 3 07 —
4), 17 75 8g 16}, 7 95 —
5+, 21 79 —_

Atter dissolving the chorion from the shell in a 3 per cent. solution of
sodium hypochlorite, according to the method described by Slifer (1945)
the eggs were fixed in Bouin’s picro-formol in a water bath at 60°C. for
twenty minutes. Whole eggs were stained in bulk in aqueous borax carmine
(Grenacher’s) for from one to twenty-four hours and destained in acid alcohol
(0°5% HCl in 70% alc.) for from one to two weeks. Tt was found necessary
to slice the shell in the region of the embryo to allow penetration of the
stain, Sections were cut at 6 » and 8 ag, stained in Mayer’s acid haemalum
and in Delafield’s haematoxylin, and counterstained in aqueous eosin,

All drawings were made using a camera. lucida.

OBSERVATIONS

Tur Ecc

When first laid the ege of Grylluius commodus is about 2 mm. long,
slender, slightly convex dorsally and tapering towards the posterior pole.

152

The shell consists of a semi-opaque chorion at first, but a tough transparent
cuticle is laid down below the chorion very soon after the egg is laid and
this increases in thickness for some time. A transverse line of weakness in
the cuticle near the anterior end indicates the junction of the “cap” which
is usually pushed off during eclosion. A smaller cap occurs at the posterior
end; it is: possible that this covers the micropylar area, although the micro-
pyles were not observed. The length of the egg may increase by about fifty
per cent. by the time the embryo is ready to hatch.

The yolk is finely granular. A central longitudinal “core” is apparent
in eggs 14 hours old and persists for at least sixteen hours. It is straight
when viewed anteriorly but curves towards the venttal surface at the middle
of the egg. This resembles the “condensation cytoplasmique interne”
described by Darbois (1950) in Crsdlus campestris, G, bimaculatus and G.
bermudensis, In transverse sections of eggs up to 14 hours and 44 hours
old the “core” is seen to consist of yolk particles that are smaller than the
surrounding yolk, Later, the yolk particles become grouped into larger
polyhedral masses.

A B Cc D E F G H {
40 64

66

Stages reached by the embryo of G. commodus during blastokinesis when

incubated at 25-2" C, for varying periods.

P q

R
0%

BLASTOKINESIS

The term blastokinesis refers to all the movements of the embryo by which
it changes orientation in the egg. Two stages in blastokinesis have been
recognised—anatrepsis and katatrepsis. During anatrepsis the embryo moves
tail first towards the anterior end of the egg; during katatrepsis it moves
head frst towards and around the posterior pole and then ascends towards
the anterior pole. Revolution is the term used by Wheeler (1893) and adopted
here to describe that part of katatrepsis in which the embryo ruptures the
ammnio-serosa and reyolves around the posterior pole (fig. I, stages M-O and
plate 1).

ANATREPSIS

The embryo of G. commodus is of the immersed type. It arises on the
dorsal surface of the egg near the posterior pole. During the first 16 hours
the embryo moves tail first around the posterior pole, usually in a superficial

153

position (stages A-C). Gradually it sinks into the yolk until, by the 40th
hour, only the most posterior part remains at the surface (stages D-F).
By the 48th hour it has become immersed (stage G). Once free in the yolk
the embryo moves towards the anterjor pole; in some cases the tail may
reach about one-fifth of the length of the egg [rom the anterior pole.
Irregular convolutions along its length and a spiral twisting suggest thai
the embryo is capable of vigorous movement (stages H-I). Eventually it
straightens out except for the posterior abdominal segments and its ventral
surface comes to face the dorsal surface of the egg (stage L). Such activity
renders it difficult to determine at what point anatrepsis ends and katatrepsis
begins; certainly the embryo has begun katatrepsis by the end of 44 days
(stage K).

Fig. 2

Posterior portion of the egg of G. commodus
showing the embryo about to revolve
around the posterior pale. am, ammion;
am + se, amnio-serosay an, antenna; ¢.am,_
cephalic amnion; Ir, labrum; P.P., pos-
ferior pole: se, serosa; sh, shell; y, yolk.

as fin

Pe

KATATREPSIS

During katatrepsis the yolk contracts from the posterior pole, leaving
a clear space filled with fluid, As the embryo advances toward the posterior
pole a translucent area appears on the dorsal side of the egg where the yolk
is apparently being liquefied between the amnion and serosa, At 64 days the space
between the yolk and the posterior pole occupies about one-sixth of the
length of the egg (stage M), The amnion fuses with the serosa to form the
ammnio-serosa which is at this stage greatly distended with amniotic fluid.
The embryo is ready to revolve when the protocephalic lobes are visible
through the transparent aninio-serosa at the posterior boundary of the yolk
(fig. 2),

REVOLUTION

Reyolttion of the embryo was observed at room temperature in several
living eggs from which the chorion had been dissolved. An embryo in the
stage shown tn Fig. 2 touk ahout three hours to move itto a position where
the protocephalic lobes and labrum press against the amnio-serosa. So great
was this pressure that the labrum was forced back against the body and
the amnio-serosa stretched into a deep bulge by the protocephalic lobes.
After about thirty minutes the labrim suddenly swung downward, indicating
that the amnio-serosa had been ruptured. Revolution proceeded rapidly
in the earlier part. Within five minutes the protocephalic lobes, antennae
and mouthparts had in turn emerged from the yolk into the amniotic fluid
at the posterior pole. The yolk had contracted by about one-quarter of the
length of the egg. Revolution is completed when the yentral surface of the
embryo faces the ventral surface of the egg and the abdomen has straight
ened ont (stage O). The whole process of revolution was completed in about
twelve hours (plate tx),

154

B HOURS
16 HOURS 24 HOURS

32 HOURS

River

GO
‘5
=

6% pays 7% nays

Fig. 3

The development of body form in the embryo of G, commodus. Each stage corresponds
to the stage in Fig. 1 incubated for the same period. Stage 13 represents an embryo
in the course of revolution, from which the yolk has been dissected away, Fig. I4a is
the lateral view of stage 14, All stages drawn to scale.
ab, abdominal segment; an, antenna; ce, cercus; ddc, definitive dorsal closure; e, eye;
esp, eye-spot; Ib, labium; Ip, labial palp; Ir, labrum; md, mandibular segment; mx,
maxillary segment; mxp, maxillary palp; pc, protocephalic lobe; pde, provisional
dorsal closure; ph, protocephalic region; pl, pleuropodium; pt, protocormic region;
se, serosa; st, stomodacum; th, thoracic scgment; y, yolk.

155

95 DAYS

10% gays 13 DAYS

124% DAYS 13% pays i4% pars 16% pays

Fig. 3 (continwed)

No active movements of the body walls or appendages were observed during
revolution. In this G. commiodus differs from Melanoplus differentialts in which

revolution is accomplished by vigorous movements of the embryo (Slifer,
1932a).

In the final stages of katatrepsis the embryo continues to move towards
the anterior end of the egg while growing in length until the head reaches
the anterior pole (stages P-R). Thus, during blastokinesis, the embryo has
twice passed about the posterior pole of the egg.

156

EcLosion

The head of the embryo pushes against the anterior end of the egg
until the cap is forced off and the insect emerges. Alternatively, a split in
the shell may occur in the region of the back of the head, As the embryo
heaves the split is enlarged and the thoracic segments emerge, followed
by the head and antennae, The body bends backward and forward until the
insect is freed. The teeth on the chitinous armature of the labrum do not
appear to aid hatching (c.f. Cappe de Baillon, 1922).

Immediately after eclosion the nymph casts off the embryonic cuticle.
This is accomplished by vigorous expansion and contraction of the body,
causing a split in the cervical region. Rhythmical contractions begin in the
cerci and sweep upward so that the cervical vesicle collapses, the vertex
and labrum expand, and the vesicle expands. The tear increases in length.
Gradually the thorax and head are withdrawn and the appendages tn
sheathed, Finally the embryonic cuticle is kicked off by the hind legs and
the nymph is free.

DEVELOPMENT or Bopy Form

Embryos taken from the sample of eggs which have heen stored at
12°8°C. for 30 days are about 0°05 mm. long, roughly pear-shaped with an
anterior median notch, and slightly convex (fig. 3, stage 1).

After incubation for 16 hours a constriction forms which divides the
embry into a protecephalic and a protocormic region. Soon protocephalic
lobes appear; they expand laterally and begin to curve backward (stage +),
‘The protocormic region, or “tail” lengthens until the embryo ig about half
to two-thirds as long as the egg (stage 5).

Primary segmentation of the embryo begins after 32 hours’ incubation
and proceeds gradually from the anterior to the posterior end (stage 6).
By the time the embryo has become immersed in the yolk (48 hours) primary
segmentation is complete, The labrum has developed into a globular swelling
between the protocephalic lobes, leaving the stomodaeum exposed; the
antennal, mandibular, two maxillary, three thoracic and elevén abdominal
segments have hecome demarcated. The embryo apparently decreases in
length due to convolution and ventral flexure of the posterior abdominal
segments, but it begins to widen as secondary segmentation takes place
(stage 9},

The appendages of the first and eleventh abdominal segments persist as
pleurspodia and cerci respectively. The pleuropodia are of the evaginate
type; they develop as long, slender, glandular structures arising laterally from
the pleural membrane of the first abdominal segment by means of a narrow
stalk (plate x, fig. C). The cerci develop into slender conical structures
lying close to the ventral wall of the body,

After incubation for 54 days, when the embryo is approaching reyolu-
tion, the appendages have assumed their characteristic form. The labrum,
which has grown downward to conceal the stomodaeum, shows a transverse
groove in the middle and a median notch on the posterior margin. The
posterior abdominal segments remain flexed forward, The embryo at this
stage occupies about half of the length of the egg (fig. 1, M).

After reyolution is completed the embryo has increased greatly in thick-
ness due to partial engulfment of the yolk; about half of the yoik is enclosed
after incubation for 6 days (fig, 1, O and fig. 3, stage 14). At this stage
the free margins of the body wall begin ta fuse in the mid-dorsal line.

157

beginning at the posterior end. The first traces of eye-pigment appear as
an orange streak, The abdomen straightens out, with the cerci lenthening
and tying along the ventral surface of the body. The yolk is completely
engulfed after 94 days, when the embryo has grown to occupy about seven-
eighths of the length of the egg. A cuticle is secreted by the embryo over
the entire surface of the body at this stage so that the appendages are
enveloped individually, The eyes are pigmented light brown with their
tnargins clearly defined, A pair of fine black lines marks the chitinous thick-
ening in the embryonic cuticle at the lateral margins of the labrum. The
pleuropodia have grown to about one-quarter of the length of the embryo
(plate x, fig. d). The embryo has attained its full length after about 104
ays’ incubation.

Changes occurring during the next six days consist mainly of increasing differ-
entiation and pigmentation of the body parts. Am embryo incubated for 114
days (stage 19) shows light brown pigmentation of the labrum. A transverse
reddish-brown band appears on the cerci, By the end of 143 days’ incubation
pigmentation tn the head region is extensive. The chitinous armature of
the labrum bears numerous forwardly-projecting teeth and is equally
developed on cach lateral margin. In this G, commodus resembles Gryllus
campestris and Gryllomorpha dalmatina but differs From Nesmobius sylvestris in
which the armature is fully developed only on the right side (Cappe de
Baillon, 1922), An embryo incubated for 164 days is ready to hatch. The
head and face are mottled light brown, the eyes black, the mandibular teeth
reddish-brawn and the lateral margins of the labrum black. All the spines
and bristles that inyest the embryo may be seen adpressed flat beneath the
transparent embryunic cuticle. Fine black bristles encircle the antennal
segments, giving them a uniformly dark appearance, and strong black spines
outline the legs. The posterior abdominal segments are pale reddish-brown
with a brown band across the cerci, Rows of black bristles occur dorsally
on the anterior and posterior margins of the thoracic segments. A row of
brawn hristles marks the posterior margin of each abdominal segment.

DorsaL CLOSURE

The embrys in the pre-revulution stage is separated from the yolk
dorsally. When a living embryo was dissected from the egg in Ringer's
solution a delicate membrane was observed extending over the dorsal surface
im a manner resembling the ventral amnion. It appears to extend from the
blind end of the stomodaeum to the proctodaeum, but was not seen posterior
to this. In section the menibrane is seen enclosing non-cellular material
abutting on the inner side of the embryo and forming an intact harrier to
the yolk (plate x, fg. a), This structure resembles the “ental membrane”
described by Miller (1940) in the embryo of the stonefly Pteronarcys proteus
and that described by Roonwal (1937) as the “first provisional dorsal
closure” in Locusta migratoria, lt is not known at which stage in G, commodus
the membrane is laid down.

At the time when revolution has just been completed the body walls
have met in the mid-dorsal line and “closed” the embryo in the posterior fifth
of the body. For the remainder of its length it is still trough-like (fig. 3,
stage 14a). The inside surface of the embryo is cayered by the membrane
described in the preceding paragraph, The amnion, haying turned inside out,
now forms a temporary dorsal wall of the embryo (“second provisional
dorsal closure’* of other authors). The space between these two membranes
is the incipient mid-gut and it now contains about half of the yolk (plate x,
fig. bj), The true body walls continue to grow around the incipient mid-gut

158

beginning at the posterior end and meeting in the mid-dorsal line to com-
plete the definitive dorsal closure of the embryo. The final stage in this
process is illustrated in fig. 4. It occurs after about 94 days’ incubation at
25°2°C,

Actiye movement within the embryo ts seen for the first time at stage
14. Waves of contraction which seem to be initiated at the posterior end
surge upward along the free lateral margins of the body wall! to the head.
The abdominal segments expand and contract rhythmically. The appendages
do not exhibit independent movement.

Fig. 4

Anterior portion of the egg of G. commodus

showing the final stage in engulfment of

yolk and contraction of the serosa. A.P.,

anterior pole: ec, embryonic ciiticle; se,
serosa; sh, shell; y, yolk,

OS (7/71.

CONTRACTION OF THE SEROSA

The serosa, which lines the shell and encloses the yolk gradually con-
tracts from the posterior pole as the yolk presumably becomes assimilated by
the growing embryo (fig. 1, K-M). By the time the embryo is ready to
revolve the serosa has contracted by about one-sixth of the length of the
egg. After rupture of the amnio-serosa in front of the labrum the serosa
remains attached to the ammfion at the top of the protocephalic lobes
(cephalic amnion, fig. 2), The serosa, now open at the posterior end, shrinks
towards the anterior end of the egg. After revolution, the open rim of the
serosa adheres to the embryo ventrally by means of cephalic amnion and
dorsally by the remainder of the everted amnion, which temporarily forms
a dorsa! closure. Here the serosa thickens and makes a horizontal con-
striction about the yolk (fg. 1, O and fig. 3, stage 14). As the head of the
embryo approaches the anterior pole the serosa becomes thickened and
reduced in area until it forms a cap-like structure over the un-enclosed yolk
at the head of the embryo, In a stained preparation the nuclei of the serosal
cells are seen tightly packed together as the last of the yolk is being enclosed
in the mid-gut (fig. 4). Finally the serosa is withdrawn into the head at the
junction of the coronal and occipital sutures.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author gratefully acknowledges her indebtedness to Dr. T. QO,
Browning for his guidance, advice and criticism throughout the work. Mr.
K. P. Phillips made the photographs in text figures and plates.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1952 Vol. 75, Plate

oi age

poate:

The embryo in a living egg of Gryllulus commodus photographed at
various intervals during revolution.

The protocephalic lobes and labrum emerging from the yolk and projecting
freely into the fluid at the posterior end of the egg.

After 20 minutes at about 18° C. the antennae hang freely in the fluid. The
ege has accidentally rolled slightly so that the mouthparts are seen ventrally.
After 50 minutes the maxillary palps have emerged from the yolk, followed
by the labial palps.

After 75 minutes the mouthparts are free and the first pair of legs are emerg-
ing from the yolk.

After 170 minutes the head has reached half-way up the ventral side of the
egg; the mouthparts, legs and pleuropodia are free; the remainder of the
abdomen is being withdrawn from the yolk.

After 280 minutes the embryo is in the final stages of revolution. The
abdomen is beginning to straighten out as the head moves towards the anterior
pole. The everted amnion encloses portion of the yolk dorsally.

‘Trans. Roy, Soe. S. Aust., 1952 Vol. 75, Plate X

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Provisional dorsal closure and pleuropodia in Gryllulus commeodus.

a Transverse section of an egg (stage 11) through the embryo in the region of

r¢

the first leg, showing the inner side of the embryo separated from the yolk
dorsally by a membrance. X110.

Transverse section of an egg (stage 14) through the embryo in the region of
the labrum and maxillary palps. The yolk is enclosed in the incipient mid-gut,
which is bounded dorsally by the amnion, forming a provisional dorsal closure.
110.

Transverse section of an egg (stage 14) through the embryo to show the way
the pleuropodia arise. Note the slender stalk and the large, widely-spaced
nuclei in the wall of the pleuropodium. X110.

A fully-developed pleuropodium adhering to the transparent shell of an egg
incubated for 123 days, showing the point of attachment of the stalk.

an, antenna; dde, definitive dorsal closure; Ir, labrum; m, membrane covering the
dorsal side of the embryo; mxp, maxillary palp; pde, provisional dorsal closure; pl,

pleurepodium; se, serosa; stk, stalk of pleuropodium; y, yolk.

139

REFERENCES

Browninc, T. O. 1952 The influence of temperature on the completion of
diapause in the eggs of Gryllulus commodus Walker. Aust. J. Sci Res.,
B., 5, 112-127

Capps bE Baitton, P, 1922 Contribution anatomique et physiologique a Pétude
de la reproduction chez les locustiens et les grilloniens. IJ. La ponte et
l'éclosion chez les grilloniens—conclusions générales. La Cellule, 32, 7-
193

Darpors, M. 1950 Comparaison des oeufs de trois especes de Gryllus et de
leurs hybrides. Bull. biol. France et Belgique, 84, 76-100

Mutter, A. 1940 Embryonic membranes, yolk cells and morphogenesis of the
stonefly Pteronarcys proteus Newman. Ann, ent. Soc. Amer., 33, 437-
476

RoonwaL, M, L. 1937 Studies in the embryology of the African migratory
locust, Locusta migratoria miyratorioides Reiche and Frm. II, Organo-
geny. Roy. Soc. Lond., Phil. Trans. (B), 227, 175-244

Suiuver, E. H. 1932a Insect development. ITI. Blastokinesis in the living grass-
hopper egg. Biol. Zbl., 52, 223-229

Suirer, E. H. 1932b Insect development. 1V. External morphology of grass-
hopper embryos of known age and with a known temperature history.
J. Morph., 53, 1-9

Suirer, E. H, 1945 Removing the shell from living grasshopper eggs. Science,
102, 282

Wueever, W. M. 1893 Contribution to insect embryology. J. Morph., 8, 1-160

PRECAMBRIAN TILLITES OF THE EVERARD RANGES, NORTH-
WESTERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY ALLAN F. WILSON

Summary

An unmetamorphosed Late Proterozoic succession begins with the Moorilyanna conglomerate. This
fluvioglacial formation may be correlated with Ayers Rock and Mt. Olga on the northern flank of
the Musgrave-Warburton Block, and the Sturt tillite near Adelaide. The reddish Chambers Bluff
tillite occurs several thousands of feet above these basal beds, and may be correlated with the
Elatina tillite in the Flinders Ranges. As the Mt. Chandler quartites are sub-horizontal, and overlie
unconformably the Chambers Bluff tillite, they are not Nullagine, but most likely Ordovician.

160

PRECAMBRIAN TILLITES EAST OF THE EVERARD RANGES,
NORTH-WESTERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

[Read 8 November 1951]
By Attan F, Witson*

SUMMARY

An unmetamorphosed Late Proterozoic succession begins with the
Moorilyanna conglomerate. This fluvioglacial formation may be correlated
with Ayers Rock and Mt. Olga on the northern flank of the Musgrave—
Warburton Block, and the Sturt tillite near Adelaide. The reddish Chambers
Bluff tillite occurs several thousands of feet above these basal beds, and may
be correlated with the Elatina tillite in the Flinders Ranges. As the Mt.
Chandler quartites are sub-horizontal, and overlie unconformably the
Chambers Bluff tillite, they are not Nullagine, but most likely Ordovician.

ms w WELL, "

SENG 08 5 oth, ¢ GRANITE BD

EVERARD ' WEVERARD PARK"
RANGES

Fig. 1
Sketch map to illustrate approximate distribution cast of the Everard Ranges
of (?) Upper Cretaceous (crossed rtiling), (?) Ordovician (vertical ruling),
Proterozoic (oblique ruling), and -Archaeozoic Systems (unruled, but also
includes some sandplain),

INTRODUCTION

Lockhart Jack in 1915 was the first to recognise a tillite near the Everard
Ranges, Central Australia. He correlated it with the Sturt tillite near
Adelaide, and as such this would be the most hortherly occurrence of Pre-
cambrian tillite known in Australia. (At the time of his feport the Sturt
tilliile was considered to be Lower Cambrian in age,)

It was to investigate his tillite claim that a hurried trip was made to
the locality in February 1949 while the author was on field work elsewhere
in Central Australia. From what was seen in the time available, Lockhart
Jack’s interpretation of the area is valid, but another important tillite was
discovered,

* Department of Geology, University of Western Australia.
Trans. Roy. Soc... Aust., 75, September 1952

ist

THE PROTEROZOIC SUCCESSION

Rast of the Everatd Ranges the Adelaide System (Proterozoic) oceurs
as two major blocks preserved by downthrows into the Archaean rocks, Oue
of these blocks of sediments lies a little to the north of Moorilyanna Hill.
The sedimentary succession has already been shown in Lockhart Jack's
sketch section (1915, section facing p. 44). The most significant features
are as follow.

North-east of Moorilyanna Hill he reported that these beds lic uncon-
formably wpon the Precambrian gneisses. The sediments are cut by large
quartz veins, but by neither pegmatite nor dolerite dykes which are plentiful
in the gneissic complex. The basal beds consist of conglomerate containing
pebbles and boulders of an unusually large variety of rocks. They dip south
off the gneisses at 30° to 35°, and this dip is maintained to the fault contact
with the gneissic complex about five miles south. The conginmerate (for
which the name “Mvorilyanna conglomerate’? is proposed) has interbedded
arkose, Huvioglacial and slate members which make the formation between
2,500 and 3,000 feet thick, The matrix uf some of these boulder beds is much
mote shaly than is normal for a conglomerate, and thin-section study leaves
little doubt that much of this basal formation is of glacial origin.

This formation is followed by about 4,000 feet of light-grey slaty sedi-
ments with several prominent bands of quartite and conglomerate. Some of
these scem to be of fluvioglacial origin. Then appears about 1,000 feet of
dark-grey shaly material with interbedded pebble-bearing strata. As first
recorded by Lockhart Jack, this is similar to certain facies of the famous
Sturt tillite. The six or seven thottsand feet of sediments stratigraphically
beneath this material represent outwash from a nearby ice-capped mountain-
ous terrain, but this patticular 1,000-feet section of the succession 1s best
explained as a deposit conditioned in the main by melting of icebergs,
Numerous well-faceited erratics up to 18 inches across wete found, but none
as yet with definite glacial striac.

The succession continues through another two or three thousand feet
of slates and conglomerates, but is terminated abruptly at an epidotized
fault-contact with the Archaean gneissic complex.

The other (and larger) block of the Adelaide System lies to the south
of Chambers Bluff, Mt. Chandler and Indulkana Creek, and may be traced
southward for several miles to Mt, Johns where it is covered by (?) Ordo-
vician sandstones. This area is made up primarily of slates, with lesser
quantities of quartzite, grit, dolomite and tillite, These sediments are cut
by quartz veins, but by neither the pegmatite nor dolerite dykes which ate
so plentiful in the nearby Archacan gneissic complex, Lockhart Jack shows
a fault-centact with this complex.

The writer made a rapid reconnaissance south from the well 13 miles
E.S.E. of Moorilyanna Hill. The contorted gneisses make a (concealed)
fault-contact with slightly folded unmetamorphosed dnlomitic shales 1{ miles
south of the well, ie. 6 miles N.N.W. of Chambers Bluff, At this particular
place nearly two thousand feet of dolomitic shales and vccasional pale-fawn
dolomites were encountered, most of which dip south about 30° to 40°. Then
followed a white dense feldspathic quartzite which is about 200 feet thick,
No unconformity seems to exist between the quartzite and the underlying
shales. Above this yuartzite was discovered a tillite, for which the name
“Chambers Bluff tillite’ is proposed. A thickness of about 300 feet 1s exposed
before the series is unconformably covered by the sub-horizontal (7) Ordo-

162

vician quartzites. A prominent slaty cleavage (E-W, dip N. 45°) could
easily be confused with bedding in this virtually non-stratified tillite. It is
otherwise unmetamorphosed.

The Chambers Bluff tillite consists of a non-surted rock-fout matrix
with numerous erratics (up to three feet in diameter) of quartzites, granites,
gneisses, limestone and various plutonic and volcanic rocks. Many are
faceited, and several excellent examples of striated erratics were collected
gm siti,

The most impressive feature of the tillite is its unusual colour. The
bottont half of the exposed tillite is fawn in colour, but the formation grades
upward into a pinkish-brown facies, and finally into about 30 fcet of dark
purplish-red tillite. The colours appear ta be neither a surface effect nor
telated to the nearby unconformity with the (?) Ordovician. Microslides
indicate that some of the red members of this tillite contain up to 50%
haematite, although they mostly contain only about 10%. The iron seems
to be part of the original sediment and not a replacement feature. The source
of the iron is unknown.

In colour the Chambers Bluff tillite is similar to the Elatina tillite which
was recently described by Mawson (1949). This oceurs about 9,000 feet
stratigraphically above the (grey) Sturt tillite in the Adelaide System of
the Fiinders Ranges. However, tuffaceous material, which is characteristic
of the Elatina tillite in the type locality, was not noticed in this new tillite,
although the considerable number of remarkably fresh basic volcanic erratics
may be significant in this respect,

‘The Chambers Bluff tillite appeats to be several thousands of feet strati-
graphically above the grey glacial and fluviogiacial sediments associated with
the Moorilyanna conglomerate, which are probably of Sturtian age.

CORRELATIONS

The Moorilyanna conglometates and associated fluvioglacials resemble
the great boulder beds and arkoses of Mt. Olga and Ayers Rock on the
northern flank of the Musgrave Ranges. As recorded by Ellis (1937, p. 24),
Blatchford was the first to recognise the probable importance of ice action
in the deposition of the Mt. Olga boulder beds. Many facctted boulders (but
none with detinite glacial striae) were seen, and the matrix of many parts
of the Mt. Olga conglomerates is suggestive of tillite. In the writer's
Opinion, however, the bedded character of the deposit shows that, like the
Moorilyanna beds, these are largely the result of outwash from the nearby
mountaingus ice-capped terrain. In addition, there may have been a little
detritus frum Hoating icebergs. Thus the basal beds of the Adelaide System
in this region of Central Australia may be co-eval with the Sturtian {glacial}
Series us developed in the Flinders and Mt. Lofty Ranges.

Mawson (1947, p. 275) has shown that must of the non-fossiliferaus
sub-horizontal quartzites and grits of Eyre Peninsula and west of Lake Tor-
rens are probably basal beds of the Adelaide System and not Ordovician or
Cambrian, as Lockhart Jack (1927) and Segnit (1939) and others have sug-
gested. On this basis, however, some prefer to consider that the similar
quartzites of the Mt, Chandler Range are, likewise, basal beds of the Adelaide
System. This cannot be so, for the Mt. Chandler quartzites unconformably
overlie the Chambers Bluff tillite. The Mt. Chandler guartzites are in tutn
everlain wiih slight unconformity by Upper Cretaceous Sandstones.

The Mt. Chandler quartzites are, therefore, post-Adelaide System but
pre-Upper Cretaceous. H. ¥. L, Brown (1905) and Lockhart Jack (1915,

163

p. 23) correlated them with the lithologically similar beds across the North-
ern Territory border at Mt. Kingston and Mt. Watt where Ordovician fossils
have been found. At the new tillite locality a htirried examination of
the grits and sandstones just above the unconformity showed abun-
dant worm tracks and unusual circular impressions as well as gall-like
nodules and typical clay-pellet impressions, an assemblage which is remark-
ably similar to that in undoubted Ordovician Sandstones some 120 miles to
the north. Owing to lack of better evidence, the Mt. Chandler quartzites,
which unconformably overlie the Chambers Bluff tillite, could continue to be
considered of Ordovician age.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Though the author was in Central Australia on field work financed in
part by a Commonwealth Research Grant administered by the University of
Adelaide, this particular investigation was made possible only by the gener-
ous co-operation of Mr. and Mrs. Rex Lowe of Kenmore Park cattle station
in regard to transport and hospitality, The map was prepared for publication
by the Geology Department, University of Adelaide,

REFERENCES
Brown, H. Y¥. L. 1905 S, Aust. Parl, Paper, No, 71
Etxis, H, A. 1937 Annual Report of Geol. Survey of W. Aust, for 1936, 16-31
Jack, R. Lockwart 1915 Geol. Survey of S. Aust., Bull. 5
Jacx, R. Lockuart 1927 Dept. Mines 5. Aust. Report Book No. 10, 247
Mawson, D. 1947 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, (2), 259-280
Mawson, D. 1949 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, 117-121
Secnit, R. W. 1939 Geol. Survey S. Aust, Bull, 18

SEDIMENTS OF THE ADELAIDE SYSTEM IN THE MOUNT
PLANTAGENET AREA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY ALAN H. SPRY

Summary

In the Mount Plantagenet area, about 20 miles east of Hawker and 240 miles north of Adelaide,
sediments of the Adelaide System are broadly folded into the Worumba Anticline and the
Holowolina Syncline. The geology of the Hundred of Adams, Warcowie, Basedow and Wonoka
and the country to the east is discussed. An upfaulted block of sediment from lower in the System
has been introduced into the centre of the Anticline, replacing the western limb. The sediments of
this block are rather sharply folded and crushed with the intrusion of about sixty small dolerite
bodies. The nature of the sediments and estimate of the thickness of the formations represented is
given. It is suggested that sediments of the Adelaide system of this area were laid down in very
shallow water in miogeosyncline.

164

SEDIMENTS OF THE ADELAIDE SYSTEM
IN THE MOUNT PLANTAGENET AREA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA *

By Aan H. Spry
[Read 8 November 1951]

SUMMARY

In the Mount Plantagenet area, about 20 miles east of Hawker and 240 miles
north of Adelaide, sediments of the Adelaide System are broadly folded into
the Worumba Anticline and the Holowolina Syncline. The geology of the Hun-
dred of Adams, Warcowie, Basedow and Wonoka and the country to the east
is discussed, Ari upfaulted block of sediment from lower in the System
has been introduced into the centre of the Anticline, replacing the western limb.
The sediments of this block are rather sharply folded and crushed with the
intrusion of about sixty small dolerite bodies. The nature of the sediments and
an estimate of the thickness of the formations represented is given, It is suggested
that sediments of the Adelaide system of this area were laid down in very shallow
water in a miogeosyncline,

CONTENTS

SUMMARY - - - - - - - - - - -
INTRODUCTION - - - - ~ - - - - -
REGIONAL STRUCTURE ~ - - - - - - - -
‘TopoGRArity = - - - - - - - - -
PROTEROZOIC FORMATIONS OF THE ADELAIDE SYSTEM!
The Phyllite Dolomite Formation - - - - - -
The Yednalue Quartzite - - = - - - - -
The Magnesite-Dolomite Formation - - - - -
The Calcareous Siltstones - - - - - = =
The Lower Glacial Beds - - - - - - - -
Interglacial Beds - - - = = = = = os
The Upper Glacial Beds - —- - cS te de
The Fluvioglacial Beds (mainly slates: y)- = - - -
The Quartzite Formation - - - - - -
The Oolitic Limestone - - - - - = - -
The Calcareous Slates - - - - - - - -
The Chocolate Slates - - - - - - - -
Composite STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN IN THE MouNT PLANTAGENET
REGION - - - - - - - - - -

INTRODUCTION

Owing to its comparative inaccessibility, only little previous geological work
has been undertaken in this area. Segnit (1929) published geological notes on
portion of the Hundred of Adams. Winton (1922) briefly mentioned some
dolomites in a discussion of the guano deposits of the Arcoota and Good Vriday
caves, Professor Mawson made reconnaissances into portions of this area in

* This work was undertaken during 1950, aided by a Commonwealth Research Grant.
The author wishes to thank Professors D. Mawson and E. A. Rudd for encouragement
and assistance; also Dr. D. RK. Bowes, B. Jennings and J. Spry for assistance in the
field. Assistance was received also from R, C, Sprigg and A. Nic of the Geological
Survey of South Australia, Best thanks must go to Brian Dearlove of Worumba Station

for his most generous. hospitality during my stay in that area.
Tratis. Roy, Soc. S, Aust., 75, September 1952

165

cotinection with his investigation of the geology of the Warcowit region and
the Bibliando Dome. David (1950), following Segnit, indicated that certain af
the racks (a fawult-block) are Earlier Precambrian, but we disagree,

Score oF THE Present INVESTIGATION

Only a small portion of the area is covered by detailed survey sheets and
even these are so inaccurate as to be uscless for mapping. Consequently the map
was prepared from trimetrogon aerial photographs, Three vertical runs and the
enclosed oblique photographs were plotted by radial line methods, The accuracy
of this map is strictly limited both by the complete lack of reliable ground control
and the inherent faults due to the use of oblique photographs,

Time limitations and lack cf facilities prevented complete detailed mapping
and attention had to he directed only to the broader regional features.

The primary object of the research assignment for thesis was an inyestigu-
tion ef the igneotis intrusives. These, however, are involved in a fault block
and for ‘the better comprehension of the latter a fuller examination of the sur-
rounding sediments was deemed necessary, The structure and initisives of the
fault-block are discussed in a separate paper,

Economic ASPECTS

Apart from copper mineralization about the basic intrusions which is dis-
cussed elsewhere, there is little of econamic interest in this area. Barytes occurs
in scattered places along the great north-south fault and small quantities were
found west of Worumba and at Morgan Well. The sedimentary magnesite which
outcrops to the north-west of Yednaluc and west of Mount Plantagenet does not
show promise of economic exploitation, At Yednalue the thickest bed is fiftcen
feet and there is & total of less than eighty fect distributed through almost two
thousand feet of sediment. The deposits near Mount Plantagenet are most diffi-
cult to reach and the remoteness of both occurrences would in any case limit
their economic use.

Guano was found in several caves located in or near the Brighton Limestone
hotizon to the south of Holowolina, but this deposit was removed long ago,

REGIONAL STRUCTURE

Throughout the whole of the Flinders Ranges the Adelaide System has heeu
thrown into a series of broad folds. The folding of the Upper Proterozoic sedi-
ments took place duting Lower Palaeozoic time, perhaps as early as Upper
Cambrian. The trends of the fold axes are approximately east-west ou Kangaroo
Island, then turn north-south on the Fleurieu Peninsula. The north-south trends
continue almost to Hawker where the outcropping of the Adelaide System splits.
One arm continues to Lhe north while the other turns to the east to Broken Hill.
In this central zone, domes and basins are cammion (at Cradock, Bibliando,
Wilpena, Oraparinna, Mnorama, Blinman, etc,}, and in the area under consideration
large folds with curved axes occur. The Bibliando Dome warp appears again to
the west by a pitch reversal of the east-west auticlinal axis and forms an anticline
plunging to the east. The direction of the axis continues to be east-west until
about sixteen miles from the Dome where it swings sharply ta the south, The
majority of the western limb of this anticline has been removed by faulting but
the eastern limb continues for about thirty miles to the south. This fold will be
referred to as the Worumba Anticline, There is a large drag structure on the
northern limb where the axial direction changes and a secondary fold over a mile
across is outlined by the interglacial quartzite which is extensively broken by
small faults. To the north and west of this fold, the sediments are overturneil
and dip steeply to the south across the plains to the Druid Range

166

Towards the south-east the beds are folded in a great synclinal trough. At
the northern part the axis trends east-west and the plunge is to the west. The
axis then swings to the south and the fold continues for about thirty miles without
plunge until the trough closes with a pitch to the north. This fold will be
referred fo as the Holowolina Syncline.

AA ;

any
!

ON
rh eau
a0

7) Bef a

WOTCAGLACIAL GUARTIOTE

f WATERGLACIAL SHALES & SAYETOEES
[ET] wowen acral pees .
INI CLEANERS SiLFA tomes
THE) ssvstsive-povonste renmerion ¢
(eae VROWALUE Q@AATIOTE 4
(i) PUTLLITE- DOLOMITE FOAHATION 67

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ramer

Fig. 1
A geological map showing the regional features of the
Worumba-Holowolina area,

The folding within the fault block is on a smaller scale with folds similar
to the large structures and with generally north-south axes. The abundant in-
cotupetent dolomites and phyllites in this block are contorted while the quartzites
are frequently shattered.

In addition to the small faults and crush zones which are obvious in the
field, there are three major faults with considerable displacements, The phyllite-
dolomite formation is bounded on all sides by these faults, and has moved up as
a great block cutting off portion of the western limb of the Worumba Anticline,

167

The great north-south fault which passes to the west of Worumba is very tenuous
in outline. This fault is accompanied by considerable shearing and brecciation
and has a stratigraphic displacement of about nine thousand feet in the north
and about fourteen thousand feet in the south, Segnit (1929) recorded this as
an unconformity, but apart from the brecciation in the fault zone, the fault trans-
gresses over five thousand fect of sediments in twenty miles. The phyllite-dolomite
formation is in cortact with the lower glacial beds, the upper glacial beds and
the fluvioglacial slates and the relation is not onc of unconformity. Just north
of Morgan Creek there is a cross fault which causes a tongue of the phyllite-
dolomite formation to ru into the upper glacial and fluvioglacial beds.

MOLG WIL UNA

Srvceine

vaset fase font Fealr
rT
SLE
er

Fig. 2
Sketch sections across the map showii in fig. 1-

Another large fault occurs parallel to rhe north-west limb of the Anticline
and meets the north-south fault near the drag structure previously mentioned,
The stratigraphic throw of tine thousand feet of this fault is difficult to account
for. Both the beds and the fault appear to be steeply dipping and any moyement
would be along the bedding planes and a large stratigraphic displacement would
not occur. The tenuous outline of the faulls and their large stratigraphic throw
suggests that the faults may he low angle thrusts. The Anticline is quite asym-
metric and overturned, and these features are {teqtiently associated with thrusts.
However, it was established in several places in the ficld that the attitude of the
fault was approximately vertical. There was probably considerable horizontal
movemerit along this fault. Another structural peculiarity occurs in the eastern
part of the Anticline. Like many anticlines in the Flinders Ranges, the dips
steepen towards the centre of the fold giving a “pinched” structure. ITowever,
the interglacial shales which are vertical in the centre appear to be a great deal
thicker than their normal thousand feet. It is likely that there is some puckering
in the axial zone, but outcrops were too poor to establish this in the time available.

The pattern of forces required to produce these structures is complex and
indefinite. A strong thrust from the south-east would produce the fold system
with curved axes and would also account for the overturning in the north-west-
The secondary drag fold was next to form, due to shearing in a north-east direc-
tion. The faulting was probably associated with the last stage of this second
folding and appears to have been due to vertical forces transmitted through the

168

basement. The theory of the strain ellipsoid was applied to the structures in an
effort to explain the fold-fault system by a simple set of forces, but it was found
that there was no simple explanation which would account for the combination
of folds with curved axes and intersecting normal and partly transcurrent faults.

TOPOGRAPHY

The area is subject to moderate aridity. High temperature and low rainfall
condition the processes of weathering, In its distribution the vegetation is mainly
dependent on the underlying rock types. For itistance, eucalypts flourish on
magnesia-tich soils over the magnesite-dolomite formation, also on the inter-
glacial shales, while stunted pines and spinifex are usually restricted to the high
barren ridges composed of glacial and glaciofluvial beds.

There is a sudden change from the flat alluvial plain in the west to the rugged
peaks of the interglacial quartzite ridge. The higher ground is controlled by the
arcuate form of the Worumba Anticline and a series of ranges sweeps atound
from the south-west to the northeast. The area in the south-east is smoother,
and low rounded hills occur in the region of the limestones and calcareous shales
of the Holowolina Syncline,

The drainage system may he divided into two portions. The one shuws a
distinct relation to the geological structure while the other is characterised by
a more obscure regional control, The rivers which drain the Worumba Anti-
cline illustrates the first of these ‘The anticline is normal in that it is well eroded
in its axial zone, There is a slightly trellised river system with consequent,
subsequent and obsequent streams,

Rivers of the second drainage type are typified by the Wofioka which flows
along the base of the Druid Range across a wide alluvial plain, Willow Creek
and Morgan Creek (together with a host of small unnamed watercourses) flow
out of the hills across this plain to the west, It is of some interest that the Morgan
shows a well-preserved truncated meander with the present course several feet
below the old bed.

The topographic expression of the more prominent formations is sum-
marized below.

The phyltite-dolomite formation—The folded phyllites, dolomites and quartz-
ites within the fault-block show a variety of forms, The dolomites are surprisingly
resistant and some ridges with a quartzite core are most rugged, The slates and
phyllites weather to rolling grassy hills. The dolerite plugs are not particularly
resistant but may form quite high conical hills as at the “Three Sisters” about
six miles north-west of Worumba.,

The Yednalue guartzite—This horizon is more notable in a physiographic
than a stratigraphic sense and it farms the range of rounded hilts to the east of
the road which leads north-west from Yednalue.

The magnesite-dolomite forniation is easily eroded and rarely forms obtru-
sive hills, It supports a stunted eucalypt flora, This feature is very noticeable
Just north-west of Yednalue where a narrow belt of trees is visible in the aerial
photographs.

The glacial beds—The tough conglomerates, quartzite and siltstones form a
series ul high rugged hills. Mount Plantagenet (pl, x, fig. 3) is the highest point
in the area and is composed of the upper glacial beds,

The quartsite formation—The massive siliceous members of this formation
stand up as a well-defined range from Yednalue to Holowolina.

The immensely thick Pound Sandstone formation, regarded by Mawson as
probably constituting the base of the Cambrian sequence, extends as the Druid
Range in sky-line relief along the northern limit of the area under consideration.

lid

PROTEROZOIC FORMATIONS OF THE ADELAIDE SYSTEM

During field investigation the Proterozoic rocks were sub-divided into forma-
tions according to their lithological characteristics and a local name was given
to each. Correlation with the sequence in the vicinity of Adelaide (Mawson and
Sprigg 1950) is possible by mcans of the main market horizons, and the jorma-
tions may be renamed with some certainty of a correct relation to the type
gequence. The nomenclature conforms as closely as possible with the s#rati-
graphic code (Raggatt 1950). In the following discussion of the nature and the
possible environment of deposition of the beds of the Adelaide System in this
area, the local field name and the probable equivalent in the type section are giver.

A series of stratigraphic columns shown in fig. 3 illustrates the correlation
in various afeas in the Mount Lofty-Flinders Ranges and shows the correctness
of Mawson’s (1947) contention, namely, the distinct thickening towards the
centre af the geosyncline (at Hawker and Bibliando), with thinning most marked
towards the edges (particularly Copley). An attempt is made to determine the
tectonic environment during the various phascs of deposition.

mone & love
satvousth apa

‘
OM M-Le Herel aad

.y
FP AL ea nite seme
=e (este Gores warren TH

Seats buna afew Leal cused 2s tis Tae

? iE eh eeeth S haenareee
PUT MoT,
wh ae HDT

SD avert santreny”

ADELAIDE BIBLSaNDO WILPENA MUNDALLIO COPLEY

Fig. 3
Stratigraphic columns showing the correlation between the Hawker area and
the type section at Adelaide. Additional columns show the general thickening
io the orth and to the centre of the geosyncline and thinning towards
the western edge.

THE PRHYLEITE-DOLOMITE FORMATION

This formation consists of more than two thousand two hundred feet of
dolomite, phyllite and quartzite and is probably the equivalent in the Adelaide
area of the Castambul Dolomite together with the slates, phyllites and quartzites
immediately above and below it it. ‘The similarity to the “argillites and dolomites”
near Mount Painter which Mawson (1948) called the Arkaroola Series is strik-
ing. These beds underlie a massive quartzite which Mawson correlated with the
Emeroo Quartzite as the base of the Adelaide System and were regarded as aii
older series. The formation is richly dolomitic in part, and is also slightly meta-
morphosed and contains basalts “in part, at least, jutrusive”. If this correlation
is correct then the thin Yednalue quartzite would be the equivalent of the massive
arenite horizons at Emeroo Range, Mount Aroona, etc.

The formation is typified by the occurrence of great thicknesses of pure and
atgillaceous dolomites and dolomitic shales and phyllites, Some beds show cross-
bedding and there is an indication in several localities that slumping and intra-
formational brecciation may haye taken place. The formation is confined to a
block whose limits are marked by faults, A low grade of regional metamorphism

170

prevails irregularly over this fault-block. There has been intrusion and possibly
extrusion of basic magma at a period related to the early Palacozoie folding.

Petrographically, the rocks are characterised by the presence of doloinite,
angular quartz particles and fragments of fresh angular feldspar with secondary
chlorite, biotite and tale. Apart from fhe abundance of carbonate, the phyllites
resemble low-rank greywackes which have been mildly metamorphosed ta the
green-schist facies (Turner, 1948).

Phyllites which occur between Woruniba and Mount Craig, are light-grey
rocks with a poorly developed schistosity, They contain porphyroblasts of
allothogenic quartz up to 2-3 mot. in diameter, with feldspar (angular to sub-
rounded) set in a groundmass containing abundant fresh greenish-brown biotite
and idioblastic dolomite and a little talc. Accessories are apatite, iron ore and
tourmaline.

The dolomites vary in colour from deep blue-grey to yellow and are fre-
quently rather fine-grained. Some recrystallization, however, usually increases the
grain size in an irregular manner. There is a wide range of pure to argillaceous
aud arenaceous varieties. Specimen [S16] is a fine-grained dolomite from
Morgan Well, It shows bands rich in angular quartz or feldspar through a
granoblastic mass of dolomite. A little pyritcs and rutile are present.

Specimen [9014] which occurs near the contact of the large dolerite intru-
sion north-east of Morgan Well is fine-grained, yellow, and exhibits occasional
idioblastic dolomite crystals. It ig porphyroblastic with large well-formed
dolomite laths set in a groundmass consisting of rounded dolomite crystals in a
fine mesh of tale, A little secondary quartz occurs in veins. The rock contains
52-29% of insoluble material which is chiefly tale, 22°0% of Ca CO, and 25-0%
of MgCO,,

The quartzites are usually reddish-brown in colour with a very fine grain.
They oceur in beds irom several inches to hundreds of feet in thickness.

The presence of dolomite in most of the rocks of this formation, together
with the variable ratio of CaCO, to MgCO,, suggests that the magnesian lime-
stones may have been formed by a process of penecontemporaneous dolomitiza-
tion. However, it will be shown later that the dolomite was probably precipitated
under extreme chemical conditions. The beds probably formed in moderately
shallow to deep water in a tectunically active area.

THE YEDNALUE QUARTZITE

This horizon has no definite equivalent elsewhere and is only notable for
its topographic expression, In its thickness of 750 feet there is less than 500 feet
of quartzite and most of this occurs in narrow bands with shale. The largest
arenaceotis bed is about 280 feet thick. The rock is a rather coarse-grained cross-
bedded arenite which varies from 4 sandstone to a quartzite, The chief signifi-
cance of this bed is that it marks a period of dominantly clastic deposition after
the dolomites of the phyllite-dolomite formation and before the dolomites and
magnesites above. It indicates a fairly shallow-water environment and moderately
stable tectonic conditions,

THE MAGNESITE-DOLOMITE FORMATION

This horizon is remarkably persistent and has heen noted in many places
in the Flinders Ranges by Mawson (19418, 1947), and was correlated with the
Upper Torrens Dotomite, (now called the Montacute Dolemite, Mawson and
Sprigg; 1950) by Sprigg (1946). The extreme conditions required for the deposi-
tion of sedimentary magnesite were probably not repeated during deposition of
the Adelaide System, and consequently the magnesite horizon is probably the sunst
retiable marker horizon for correlation purposes.

171

Iti a well-exposed section, three miles north-west of Yednalue station, this
fortnation extends fot about 2,300 feet. Of this thickness only 70 feet js mag-
nesite, while there is about 1,300 feet af shale, almost 1,000 feet of dolomite and
20 feet of grit and saidstone, The magnesite is distributed through the lower
1.400 feet of the formation as beds of a foot or two in thickness, although a bed
of impure pellet magnesite is 12. feet thick. The sequence shows a poorly
developed cyclic form with a large number of thin dolomite, shale, magnesite
and prit beds.

The shales are usually soft and grey in colour and weather more quickly
than the other sediments. They contain an appreciable amount of carbonate,

The dolomites are usually a dark blue-grey and vary from massive, flagey
yaticties to thinly-laminated shaley rocks. Some horizons contain abundant black
rounded chert fragments. A compact dark-blue dolomte [S66] is very fine-
grained and contains 410% of MgCO,, 55°69 CaCO, and 3% of inseluble
material, The insoluble porlion contains a little angular quartz and a consider-
able amount of fine, black carbonaceous matter. An arenaceous dolomite [9072|
is a light-grey rock with abundant grains of glassy quartz set in a Ane-grained
dolomite matrix. It has a porphyroblastic texture shown by quartz and teldspar
fragments together with ooliths in the finely crystalline dolonnite base. ‘The quartz
varies in size up to 0-6 mm. in diameter and shows angular outlines due to well-
developed secondary growth about originally rounded erains, The feldspar is
fresh microcline showing crosshatehing. The ooliths are both round and
avoid up to O-6 mm, in diameter. They are composed of dolomite with
a crystalline centre and a dark fine-grained border, Finely divided tale and ruti‘e
occur in the crystalline matrix. Chemical analysis shows 390% Ca CO,, 40°1%
Mz CO, and 28-69% of insoluble material,

The urenaceous rocks vary from quartzites to gritty dolomites. A coarse
buff-coloured quartzite [S26] found one and a half miles west of Wornmha, ts
stib-arkosic. Tt contains angular te sub-angular quartz grains varying in size from
an average of O'1 mm, to 0-6 mm. There is lesser alhite and microcline present as
moderately fresh grains. Tourmaline and limonite are acvessuries,

A dolomitic grit outcropping three miles north-west of Yednalue is a light-
erey gritty rock, It consists chiefly of rounded to angular fragments of quartz
with lesser fresh albite and mictocline with a dolomite cement, Also present are
a few ooliths and a rock fragment (graphic quartz-feldspar intergrawth) with
alittle tale and chlorite, Roth the quartz and feldspar show the effects of second-
ary etilargement, The quartz tends towards fully-formed erystalline shapes, while
the albile and microcline show a secondary peripheral zone with cleavages and
twinning continuous across the whole crystal, The occurrence of anthigenic
microctine which shows the typical eross-hatching is rather unique,

A well-banded dolomitic, siltstone [9073] from Willow Creek, about three-
quarters of a mile west of Woruntba also occurs in this formation. It is a dark-
coloured strongly banded rock which is very fine in grain, A partial chemical
analysis shows 68% quartz and 32% dolomite with ouly a slight amount of
at'villaceous material, The quartz is present as very small angular particles, The
bedding is shown by bands rich in Gne-grained dolomite, with poorly developed
ripples arid cross bedding visible,

The magnesitic beds oecur to the north-west of Yednalue and again west
of Worumba and Mount Plantagenet. In the latter area the sequence ts indefinite
and the relation to the nearby phyllite-dolomite formation is not clear, A bed of
material resembling a pellet magnesite occurs on the south end of the ridge west
of Mount Craig. The rock consists of a number of round buff-coloured pellets
cemented by dark-blue dolomite, In one band the pellets are roughly spherical
and about § mim, in diameter, while in the other the pellets ave rather oval and

172

several cm. across. An analysis of a pellet gives 57% Mg CO,, 38% Ca CO, and
3% of insoluble material, The pellets are often corroded about the edges, and
some Goliths are present, This bed shows some lithological similarities to the
pellet magnesite, but its field relations rather indicate that it is a member of the
phyllite-dolomite formation.

The magnesite itself occurs in two distinet forms, There are beds entirely
composed of white eryptocrystalline magnesite which is hortiogeneons and breaks
with a conchoidal fracture. The beds which are referred to as pellet magnesites
consist of rounded fragments of the eryptocrystalline variety, cemented by
crystalline carbonate. The most common pellet rock is typihed by [S39] from
the western flank of Mount Plantagenet. It is a pale bluish-grey ruck, and an
analysis shows 83'2% Mg CO,, 70% CaCO,, 3-5% Fe,O,, Al,O,,, ete., and
6'1% insoluble material. The magnesite pellets are rounded tu angular in shape
and vary in size up to 10 tam, in diameter. Under the microscope they appear
as a brownish mass of exceedingly fine-grained material. Same authigenic tale is
present, and this forms the bulk of the insoluble fraction.

A light-grey breccia [S28] which occurs one mile west of Worumba on
Willow Creek is a subarkosic pellet magnesite rock and is different from the
common variety described above. It contains sub-angular to angular fragments
of quartz and feldspar up to 20 mm. across, together with highly angular mag-
nesite pellets up to 4 mm. Jong. The feldspar is very fresh and is occasionally
poikiloblastically associated with dolomite, suggesting that the feldspar may be
authigenic. The quartz shows the effects of secondary peripheral growth, and
a little tale is present.

The pellet magnesite is seeri tu be directly derived from the cryptocrystalline
beds by a process of penecontemporaneous erosion, This process is similar to one
described by Howchin (1920) for the formation of mud-flake breccias and was
recognised by Mawson (1947). The lower bands of white are broken up {pos
sibly by subserial drying) and the flakes incorporated in the bed above.

The origin of the white cryptocrystalline magnesite, however, presents a
difficult problem,

A certain amount is known, or may be deduced conceming the environment
of deposition of the magnesite, and this in turn forms a basis for suggestions for
a mechanist: of deposition. The formation contains examples of ripple marks,
cross bedding and sun cracks, while some magnesite beds contain ooliths, The
pellet magnesites were formed by erosion and redeposition of the massive mag-
nésite. These facts indicate that deposition took place in an environment that
varied between mud flats and very shallaw water, The preseri¢e of pure dolomites
and magnesites with alternations of shales, indicates that tectonic conditions were
stable. The gritty bands are in the minority and indicate brief periods of tectonic
activity, The presence of angular quartz and fresh feldspar, and a fragment of
quartz-feldspar rock in the sediments points to an igneous or metamorphic terrain
for the source of the clastic material, The magnesite is found over a large area
in the Flinders Ranges, and thus it seems likely that deposition took place in a
large, calm, shallow basin. From the peculiarity of the type of sedimentation, it
does not seem likely that this basin was capable of free circulation with the
open ovean,

When Mawson (1941a) established the existence of bedded magnesite hori-
zons as part of the Adelaide System, he first suggested that the outcrops might
be explained as due to surface secondary enrichment in magnesium of original
dolomite, with the expectation that the high magnesia valye would fade at depth.

However, the above speculation ceased when mining opetations commenced.
The continuity in depth of the magnesite was then proved, alsa the pellet struc-

173

ture exhibited by some of the magnesite beds demonstrated a primary sedimentary
origin,

In searching for an explanation to account for this notable precipitation of
magnesite, despite the apparent lack of organic remains in the Proterozoic rocks
of the Adelaide System, consideration may be given to the possibility that it was
effected by primitive algae. Jong ago in Upper Proterozoic limestones of the
Adelaide System in South and Central Australia there was found (Mawson 1925
and Mawson and Madigan 1930) structures whose origin was referred to the
activities of algae. Twenhofel (1939) mentions that some algae may secrete up
to 25% of magnesium carbonate. However, from the complete lack of organic
remairs in this formation, and the lack of knowledge of an organism which could
precipitate 100% magnesium carbonate, it seems likely that a theory of organic
precipitation is untenable,

If now we consider that the magnesium carbonate was precipitated from
solution as such, then this may have been due to evaporation or to chemical
reaction, The extrenie fineness of grain of the magnesite and the lack of usso-
ciated salt deposits or salt paramorphs in associated argillaceous beds tends ta
contradict an evaporite origin.

Thus it seems most likely that the magnesium carhonate was precipitated
by a chemical reaction under abnormal conditions.

On account of the small concentration of magnesium in sea water and the
greater solubility of magnesium carbonate as compafed with calcium carbonate,
it is obvious that the possihility of direct precipitation of magnesite from sea
water as we know it today, even under the most abnormal physical chemical
environment, must be very small indeed.

Even allowing for considerable differences in the saline content of the waters
of Precambrian seas, as suggested by Daly (1909), it is not obvious how
there could be precipitated such large scale deposition of magnesite as is embodied
in the Adelaide Series.

Bam (1934) suggested that sedimentary magnesite might be due to the
precipilation of hydro-magnesite, which is relatively insoluble. This apparently
would change to magnesite under the influence of carbon dioxide in solution,
over a period of time. To explain the origin of certain American sedimentary
mignesites he postulated a basin containing brine rich in sodium carbonate into
which Howed a solution containing abundant magnesium salts,

Baleman (1942) mentions the occurrence of 200 feet of sedimentary mag-
nesia in Nevada, and other deposits in Kern County, California, Idaho, British
Columbia and Germany, These are apparently local deposits associaled with salt,
gypsum, shales and limestone. He adopts Bain’s mechanism of deposition,

Tt is possible that Bain's explanation or some modification of it may account
for the magmesites of the Adelaide System. They were deposited in un extensive
geosynclinal basin but on a scale far exceeding that considered by Bain, To
reproduce the conditions postulated by Bain contemporaneous vulcanism is
required. So far the existence of such is known on a limited scale only, How-
ever, it may be that an area of more intense volcanic activity existed to the east
of the basin.

To summarize, it is considered that the magnesite was precipitated from
solution as hydromagnesite by chemical reactions. The process took place in a
large shallow basin, under possibly arid conditions. It would appear probable
that intense volcanic activity contributed waters rich in sodium carbonate which
reacted with magnesium salts in solution to proditce insoluble hydro-magnesite.

174

Tue CALCAREOUS SILTSTONES

This group occurs only to the north-west and west of Yednalue, It is strati-
graphically above the magnesite-dolomite formation but dees not extend up as
far as the lower glacial beds in this area. The rocks outcrop over a series of low
hills and dip at increasingly shallow angles to the west towards the alluvial
plains, bordering the road from Cradock to Hawker, These are a series of blue
caleareous siltstones, quartzites and a little limestone. The beds show cross bed-
ding and intraformational slumping.

Rock [9070] is fairly typical of these calcareous siltstones, It is a light-grey
fine-grained rock showing cross-bedding etched m relief by weathering. Jt con-
tains angular quartz particles up tu 0°15 mm, across set in a fine-grained matrix
rich in calcite and indefinite micas. There are a few flakes of recognisable sericite
and biotite.

Rock [9068] approaches the sub-greywacke facies more closely than any
other rock in this area, It js fine-grained and greenish with a dense homogeneous
texture, and consists of subangular quartz and lesser microcline set in an indefinite
micaceous groundmass. The texture is irregular with large areas of the matrix
free from the large clastic particles. A partial anatysis yielded 24:9% CaCO,,
1% MgCoO, and 74% of insoluble material. The matrix is difficult to resolve but
coisists mostly of green chlorite with abrindant calcite and limonite and with
accessory tourmaline, iron-ore and zircon,

The teridency towards poorly washed and sorted sediments becomes more
notable in this division, and the approach in lithological character to the grey-
watke facies probably indicates tectonic instability as a pretude to glaciation.

THe Lower GLACIAL Beps

The lower glacial horizon is equivalent to the Bibliando glacigene beds to
the east (Mawson 1949), and these have been tentatively correlated with the
arkoses and varye-like shales of the Mitcham Quartzite.

In this area, the beds occur only on the western overturned portion on the
northern flank of the Worumba Anticline, Here the formation extends far about
3,870 feet and contains gritty tillite and boulder beds together with abundant
shales and siltstones. There are numerous erratics in the tillite of dolomite,
quartzite and shale which are lithologically identical with beds lower in the
Adelaide System. This feature has been noticed frequently and Mawson (1948)
has staled that there was terrestrial glaciation with erosion of the previously
deposited sediments, In this particular series of glacial heds there is compara-
tively little true unsorted boulder tillite and the beds are chiefly fluvioglacial in
arigin, There is a little limestone interbedded near the base. The thickness of
3,870 feet given for this formation is not the actual maximum as the lower part
of the sequence has been removed by faulting. Thus there is a period between
the lower glacial beds and the undetlying calcareous siltstone of which there is
no record m this area.

INTERCLACIAL BEDS

The formation which separates the upper and lower glacial horizons is
correlated directly with Mawson’s (1948) Willyerpa quartzite and the accom-
panying shales at the Bibliando Dome. They would appear to be contemporane-
ous with the Mitcham quartzites at Adelaide. Almost 900 feet of quartzite and
230 feet of shales and siltstones at the western part of the Worumba Anticline
are compared with the 1,200 icet arkose and quartzite and the 850 feet of
arenites with some minor silty and shaley bands at Bibliando.

175

The quartzite forms a massive rugged range which outlines the form of the
Worumba Anticline in bold topographic relief. A specimen [9075] is a light
reddish-brown quartzite with a hard massive appearance, A little decayed feldspar
appears as spots of kaolin but there is not sufficient tcldspar present to suggest an
arknse similar to those which occur in this horizon at the Bibliando Dome. It is
a medium-grained granulose rock consisting almost entirely of quartz in well-
rounded grains up to 0-4 mm, in diameter. A few grains of quartz are sub-
angular and there is a little chert present. Secondary peripheral crystallization
is frequent, and the rock has a strong siliceous cement, It is of interest to note
that the suite of accessory minerals (tourmaline, apatite, zircon, rutile, muscovite,
and iron ore) is typical of this horizon in the Bibliando Dome, about 25 miles to
the cast.

This rock is an orthoquartzite typical of a tectonically stable shelf in a norma
climate rather than a geosynclinal deposit with glacial assoctations.

Tae Urrer Gracia Gens

This series of glacigene rocks is most irregular in its developments, even
thongh it is equivalent to the Sturt tillite at Adelaide, and consequently is a wide-
spread persistent horizon throughout the Flinders Ranges. In the northern parts
of the Bibliando Dome, Mawson (1948a) has shown it to be 4,550 feet thick and
containing almost 400 fect of true tillite with grits, shales, siltstones and sand-
stones. At 25 miles west on the northern part of the Worumba Anticline it is
scarcely recognisable and consists of almost 1,000 fect of blue-grey gritty
quartzite with bands of angular gritty tillite, On the western flank of Mount
Plantagenet, it is well developed with three distinct boulder-tillite horizons.
There are etratics of quartzite, limestone, pegmatite, gillimanite schist, gramite
and slate. In the lowest part of the sequence there are tilliles with
matrices containing up to 50%. CaCO,,. /

A specimen of tillite [9106] from this locality has a fine-gramed base. Ih
one thin section there are four pieces of fine-grained basic igneous rocks, the
largest being 3°9 mm, across. These consist chiefly of weathered plagioclase laths
with calcite and micaceous material. The most abundant rock type present as
fragments is 4 quartz-calcite-albite rock. This occurs as subangular particles up
to 2:6 mm. x 1:2 mm. in size and composed of varying proportions of the three
minerals. Also present are quartzites, a plagioclase-mica-quartz rock, a biotite-
feldspar-quattz schist together with the minerals quartz, microcline and plagio-
clase, Authigenic minerals are calcite, talc, biotite, chlorite and muscovite, The
finely divided groundmass is rich in indefinite micas and iron-ore.

A siltstone [S31] from just above the lower tillite bed is a light-coloured
rock, fine in grain and showing well developed cross-bedding. It contains abundant
liny angular quartz. grains with a little albite in a matrix of green micas, Calcite
is abundant and is concentrated in certain bands, Also present are minor amounts
of sevicite, iron ore and limanite,

THe Trarmioa.actar. Beps

This formation extends from the upper limit of the upper glacial horizon
almost to the limestone of the Brighton horizon and is correlated with the Tapley
Hill Slates near Adelaide. The thickness and lithology is variable in ditferent
parts of this area. Along the Waiaca Creek, the sequence consists of 8,000. feet
of blue-grey banded siltstones and slates, with shales and narrow cross-bedded
yuartzites, Small sandy lenses are common in the lower parts.

A siltstone [9066] from Walaca Creek, is a dark-grey fine-grained rock with
a fine banding. A prominent feature, particularly in the field, is a system oi
small calcile-filled gash veins, It consists chiefly of sinall angular quartz frag-

176

ments (0-1 mm. in diameter) with lesser feldspar in a fine matrix of indefinite
micacteous material. There are bands ncher in feldspar and chlorite. A small
gash vein filled with calcite showing comb structure is prominent although the rock
contains only 4% of CaCO, hy analysis.

THE QuartTzitE ForMATION

This formation outcrops as the line of hills to the west of the Yednalue-
Holowolina road, Here it occurs as almost two thousand feet of buff to blue-
grey quartzites and siltstones with a little grit, limestone, slate and sub-grey wacke.
It ts one of the few horizons in the Adelatde System which shows rapid facies
changes along the strike and south of Warcowie, on the other limb of the anticline,
this formation is scarcely recognisable and is represented by a little over 300 feet
of grey quartzite and grit.

A siltstone [9078] from the Holowolina road is a fine-grained grey rock
showing no bedding, and breaking with a conchoidai fracture. It is even-grained
and consists chiefly of angular quartz (averagimg 0-1 mm, in diameter), together
with abundant chlorite and a little biotite. Angular albite and microcline are
preserit with accessory iron-ore, rutile, tourmaline, muscovite, apatite and zircon.

Some beds approach low-rank greywackes, and this formation may represent
sedimentation during the dying phase of the tectonic activity during glaciation,

Tue Ooutrce LIMESTONE

This bed is equivalent to the Brighton limestone at Adelaide and is a useful
and persistent marker horizon. It occurs as a buff oclitic limestone between
240 teet and 300 feet in thickness, and varies to grey, non-oolitic and arenaceous
varieties. On analysis it was found to contain 98'2% of CaCO, and is thus the
lowest non-magnesian limestone in the Adelaide System in this area.

A specimen [9063] from the Holowolina road is buff and oolitic with a
sight banding. It consists of an aggregate of ooliths cemented by crystalline
calcite, pl. xi, fig. 5. The ooliths are rounded or ovoid in shape and average
0'8 mm. x 0°6 mm. in size. Individuals have a dark-coloured finely crystalline
centre, the whole being composed of calcite. Some ooliths contain a moderately
large quartz fragment and some of this silica is authigenic. There is a well-
defined preferred orientation shown by the long axes of the ouliths; Sprigg
[1946] kas attributed this elongation to flow during folding. Also present are
minor amounts of quartz, microcline and tale. The quartz almost invariably
shows the effect of secondary peripheral crystallization with the consequent
obliteration of the original clastic shape. Some show the growth of prism and
pytamid faces, wlile others are raunded with pitted surfaces.

This bed grades upwards into grey limestone and grey calcareous shales
and some difficulty was experienced in mapping the extent south of Holowolina,
where the dips are very flat on the nasa of the syncline.

The nature of the limestone indicates deposition in very shallow water under
stable tectonic conditjons.

THE CaLcakkous STALES

justi above the oolitic limestone there is a variable thickness of calcaréous
shale which forms the base of the chocolate shales, These beds cover a large area
in the centre of the Holowolina syncline and appear to be 3,500 feet thick, whereas
along the Waiaca Creek there is less than 1,200 feet. In the former area the
sequence begins with 200 feet of grey limestone which merges into the oolitic
limestone below and the grey caleareous shales above.

The apparent thickening of the zone between the politic limestone and the
clyacnlate beds ts probably due to the lack af the typical red colour of the lower
part of the chocolate slate formation.

17?

Tue CHocoLate SLATES

The upper part of the Marinoan Series of the Adelaide System is charac-
terized by the presence of chocolate and purple slates and quartzites. Here almost
8,000 feet of steeply dipping (overturned) chocolate-coloured beds occur in a
zone parallel to and south of the Druids Range (Mawson 1941b). The sequence
is composed chiefly of slates, siliceous slates and shales, siltstones and grey
quartzites with abundant thin grey limestones in the upper parts. Cross bedding,
ripple marks, sun cracks and curious flowing markings (pl. xi, fig. 4) occur. At the
very top there are several hundred feet of blue, buff and grey limestones showing
intraformational slumping. There follows six hundred feet of red sandstone
before the massive white Pound Sandstone of Cambrian age is met.

The depositional environment of the “red beds” of the Adelaide System
is rather unique and has been investigated by a number of workers. The beds
show the characteristics of shallow water deposition under moderately stable
conditions. The sediments are not particularly well washed or sorted but do not
resemble preywackes. The flow markings shown in pl. xi, fig. 4 suggest mud
flow amount small prominences on the sea floor and also indicate that the floor
may have been sloping. These sediments are not unlike those of the clinoform
environment of Rich (1951) because of the slumping, but resemble the undoform
type with their ripple marks and cross hedding. There is no clear division here
and the sediments probably formed on a minor slope in very shallow water.

It is concluded that the chocolate beds were laid down in very shallow water,
which may have been terrestrial (lacustrine) or marine under normal climatic
conditions in a moderately stable tectonic environment,

COMPOSITE STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN IN THE
MOUNT PLANTAGENET REGION

This composite stratigraphic column is made up of a series of sections taken
in various parts of the area as follows: Formations 14 to 12 were measured along
Waiaca Creek, 11 and 10 Morgan Creek, 9 Waiaca Creek, 8 Worumba, 7 to 5
Waiaca Creek, 4 to 2 two miles north-west of Yednalue, 1 along Morgan Creek.

The thicknesses in the last portion of the section are approximate, and the
beds shown constitute only portion of this formation,

CAMBRIAN

14 POUND SANDSTONE (Cambrian) - ~ - - - 2800
2200 ft. White quartzite and sandstone,
600 ,, Red sandstone.

PROTEROZOIC
13 CHOCOLATE SLATES - - - - - - ~ 6100

450 ft. Blue, grey and buff limestone

R800 ,, Chocolate slates with interbedded grey limestone.

700 ,, Chocolate slates.

1500 ,, Chocolate slaty quartzite, thinly bedded, showing riople marks
and slumping; and a little pink quartzite.

66 ,, Light grey fused quartzite with ctirrent bedding.

2580 ,, Finely-laminated chocolate shales with tipple marks and sun

cracks and narrow bands of cross-bedded quartzite,

12 CALCAREOUS SHALES - - - - - - 1300
in the tpper part.
150 ,, Soft prey shale.
45, Laminated siltstone.
210 ;, Soft grey slate
90, Slaty quartzite.
290 ,, Soft blue slate,

178

11 OOLITIC LIMESTONE - - - - - - (240-300)

240 ft. Gritty and oolitic buff limestone.

10 QUARTZITE FORMATION - - - - - - 1820
120ft. Blue limestone, becoming siliceous and gritty at the top.
1300 ,, Blue-grey siltstone showing facies changes along the strike.
400 ,, Slaty siltstone with varying amounts of argillaceous or
arenaceous material.
9 FLUVIOGLACIAL SLATES - - - - - - 8200
220 ft. Blue gritty shales,
70 ,, Coarse blue-grey grit.
970 ,, Slates and siltstones with irregular sandy lenses.
150 ,, Sandstone showing cross bedding.
30 ,, Slaty siltstone.
20, Blue quartzite,
480 ,, Banded blue siltstones.
30, Quartzite.
1765 ,, Siltstones and slates, blue to grey in colour, strongly banded
and showing cross bedding. There are numerous bands of
quartzite about 4” thick.
150 ,, Grey quartzite.
4235 ,, Siltstone and. quartzite.
8 UPPER GLACIAL BEDS - - - - - - - 1650
5it. Tillite.
500 ,, Gritty slate and quartzite.
20 ,,, Tillite.
1000 ,, Slates, siltstones, grits and gritty slates with erratics.
120 ,, ‘Tillite with interbedded Hmestones up to 20 ft. thick,
7 INTERGLACIAL QUARTZITE - - - - - - 890
155ft. Quartzite.
10 ,, Coarse angular grit.
150 ,, Quartzite.
150 ,, Siltstone.
255 ,, Gritty quartzite.
45 ,, Breccia,
125 ,, Quartzite.
6 INTERGLACIAL SLATES - - - - . - 430
410 ft. Purple to chocolate siltstone and slates.
20, Gritty quartzite,
§ LOWER GLACIAL BEDS - - - - - - - 3879
3870 ft. Quarizites, siltstones, shales with bands of gritty tillite,
boulder beds and a little limestone at the base.
4 CALCAREOUS SILTSTONE - - - - - approx. 4850
1000 ft. Blue calcareous siltstone showing cross-bedding.
1500 ,, Bluish quartzite with bands of siltstone and limestone.
1000 ,, Quartzite.
350 ,, Grey limestone,
1000 ,, _Blue-grey calcareous quartzite and siltstones showing cross-
bedding and intraformational slumping.
3 MAGNESITE-DOLOMITE FORMATION - - - - 2300

53{t. White flaggy marble.

62,, Soft grey shale.

29 ,, Coarse white marble.

51 ,, Grey shale with magnesite pellets.

22 ,, Dolomitic shale.

197 ,, Blue cherty dolomite with narrow bands of magnesite.
91 ,, Laminated dolomite and shale.

19 ,, Dolomite with white magnesite bands.

179

73 ft. Soft grey shale.
49 ,, Dolomite with white magnesite bands.
65 ,, Impure shaley dolomite.
48 ,, Dolomite.
45 ,, Soft dolomitic shales,
41 ,, Dolomite and shale,
40 ,, Soft shale.
39 ,, Dolomite with a little magnesite and grit.
12,, Impure pellet magnesite.
42 ,, Dolomite and shale with a little grit.
15, Pellet magnesite.
4,, Grey dolomitic grit with cross-bedding.
1, Coarse pellet magnesite.
59, Flaggy blue-grey dolomite with a narrow grit bed.
34, Dolomite with narrow bands of crypto-crystalline and pellet
magnesite.
90 ,, Blue slaty dolomite.
14,, Dolomite and peliet magnesite,
32, Soft bluish shale.
71, Blie-grey dolomite.
4,, Grit with cross bedding,
120 ,, Shale with a little dolomite and magnesite.
935 ,, Laminated and flaggy blue-grey dolomite and shale.

2 YEDNALUL QUARTZITE = 2 - 2 ; ‘ 750
150 ft. Sandstone Anely bedded or massive.
25.,, Shale with a little sandstone.

25 ,, Somewhat fractured quartzite,

12,, Shale.

40 ,, Shale with narrow quartzite bands.
60 ,, Sandy shale.

15, Sandstone,

45, Shale with a little sandstone.
280 ,, Sandstone and quartzite.

95 .,, Impure limestone and shale,

1 PHYLLITE-DOLOMITE FORMATION - - - - 2200

300 ft. Dolomite.
» Blue lamimated slates.
35 ,, Dolomite.
10 ,, Siltstone-quartzite.
1700 ,, Impure dolomite,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bary, G. W. 1934 ‘Types of Magnesite Deposits and their Origin. Econ. Geol., 19

Bateman, A. M. 1942 Economie Mineral Deposits. New York

Daty, R. A. 1909 The First Cambrian Fossils and the Evolution of the Limestone. Bull.
Geol. Soc. Amer., 20

Davin, 1. W. FE. 1950 The Geology of the Commorwealth of Australia. London

Howcwix, W. 1920 Autoclastic, etc, Breccias and Conglomerates, etc. Trans. Roy, Soc.
S. Aust, 44

Mawson, D, 1925 Evidence and Tndications of Algal Contributions in the Cambrian and
Precambrian Limestones of South Australia. Trans. Roy, Soc. S, Aust., 39

Mawson, D, 1941a Middle Proterozoic Sediments in the Neighbourhood of Copley. Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 65, (2)

Mawson, ). 1941b The Wilpena Pound For-nation and Underlying Proterozaic Sediments.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust, 65, (2)

Mawson, D. 1947 The Adelaide Series as Developed along the Western Margin of the
Flinders Ranges. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, (2)

Mawson, D. 19482 The Late Precambrian Ice-Age and Glacial Record of the Bibliando
Dome. Journ. and Trans, Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 82

Mawson, D. 1948b Sturtian Tillite of Mount Jacob and Mount Warren Hastings. Trans.
Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 72, (2)

M

180

Mawson, D., and Manican, T. 1930 Pre-Ordovician Rocks of McDonnell Ratge.
Q.J.G.S,, 86, (3)

Maweiny D., and Srenit, E. R. 1948 Purple Slates of the Adelaide System. Trans. Roy.
Soc. S, Aust., 72, (2)

Mavsos, D., er, SH R. C. 1950 Subdivision of the Adelaide System. Aust. Journ.

c, 13,

Raccatr, H. G. 1950 Stratigraphic Nomenclature. Aust. Journ. Sc., 12, (3)

Ricw, J. L. 1951 Three Critical Environments of Deposition. Bull Geol. Soc. Amer., 62

Secnit, R. W, 1929 Geological Notes from ihe Hundreds of Adams, Flinders Ranges.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 53

Spricc, R. C. 1942 The Geology of the Eden Moana Fault Block. Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Aust., 66, (2)

Spricc, R. C. 1946 A Reconnaissance Geological Survey of Part of the Western Escarp-
ment of the Mount Lofty Ranges. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust, 70, (2)

Turner, F. J. 1948 Evolution of the Metamorphic Rocks Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 30

TwenHoreLt, W. H. 1939 Principles of Sedimentation. New York

Winton, L. J. 1922 Report of the Guano Deposits, etc. Sth. Aust. Dept. Mines Rev., 36

181

ROYAL SQCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA (INCORPORATED)
Receipts and Payments for the Year ended 30th September, 1951]

RECEIPTS PAYMENTS
£s, da £5. 4 Es. d £58, d
To Balance, 1st October, 1950 64 6 7 By ‘Transactions (Printing &
« Subscriptions... wy. + 211 010 Lublishing Vol, 73, pt. 2,
» Subscriptions ‘Associates Tol. 74, pt. 1,, Vol. 74,
Fees from F.N.S. 3115 0 fits” a Saeee Gneele ring ne 846 14 2
» Government Grant for y Reprints se sen vee sues 5110 0
Printing, ete. au 400 0 0 sy Lelbrariary ccspp. eves eene eens 33 0 0
» Grant from Agricultural » Printing, ete. .... 5913 7
Department... 350 0 0 .. Printing Rules - Bylaws 23 12 6
» Sale of Publications and » Leal Expenses .., ™ 246
Reprints : vy POSt&LC vere tee eee tee aso 4714 4
University a. us. on 73 18 11 » Sundries:
Mines Department ... 71 2 0 Lighting nde ve oe OT
Sundries yer nee eee 663-18 0 Insurance oa we ee) =6 0 12
————-._ 208 18 11 Cleaning Rooms .., .. 18 lL 0
» Hire of Rooms... 17 0 Hire Epidiascope ... .... 110
», Interest Re wat. (ect, re 209 0 3 Petties 2. 0 i 9 32, 7
Associates subscriptions
remitted to F.N.S, ... 3115 0
———— = (6:13 3
» Balances—30th Sept., 1951
Savings Bank of S.A. 4. 220 18 9
Aust, and N.Z.
Rank Ltd.... 12915 4
Less Out-
standing
Chqus : 8 11
411
E 10 0
400
17 310
————. 112 11 6
» Cash in Hand Dich ot) LAG
335 6 3
£1476 8 7 £1,476 8 7

Reccipis and Payments for the ENDOWMENT FUND as at 30th September 1951
— : 7 Zs a £ sd

£ s. ad, £ os, d 1951—September 30
1950—October 1 By Revenue Account ws 209 0 3
To Balance— Balance:
Aust. Inscribed Stock 6,010 0 0 Aust. Inscribed Stock 6,010 0 0
Sayings Bank of S.A. 218 7 Savings Bank of S.A. 62 18 7
6,072 18 7 ————— 6,072 18 7
1951—September 30
To Interest—
Inseribed Stock .. ... 199 14 6
Savings Bank of S.A, 9 5 9
—————._ 209 0 3
£6,281 18 10 £6,281 18 10

Audited and found correct. The Stock and Bank Balances have been verified by certificates from
the respective institutions.

F, M. ANGEL Letsc-Anai
N. ANGEL, A.U,A. Com, J > on. Auditors

Adelaide, 9th October, 1951, H. WOMERSLEY, Hon. Treasurer

182

AWARDS OF THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL

1929 Prov, Watrer Howcutn, F.G.S.

1930) Jors McC, Buack, ALS.

1931 Pror. Sir Dousras Mawson, O.B.E., D.Sc., B.E., F.R.S,
1933) ror, J, Burton Cienanp, M.D.

1935 Pror. T. TLlaxvry Jonnstox, M.A,, D.Sc,

1938 Por, J. A. Prescorr, D.Sc. FLAC,

1943 Herwert Womersiey, A.L.S., F.RES.

1944 Peor. J. G. Woon, D.Sc, Ph.D,

1945 Creu T. Manman, M.A, BK, D.Sc. IGS.

1946 Herrerr M. Ilann

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.
AS AT 30 MARCH 1951

Those marked with an asterisk (*) bave contributed papers published in the Saciety’s

Trausactions, Those marked with a daggct (+) are Life Members.

Any change in address or any other changes should he notified to the Secretary.

Nolte—The publications of the Society are not sent to those members whose subscriptions

are im arrear,

Bink Honorary FELLows
1945, *Fewwer, C. A. E., D.Sc., 42 Alexandra Avenue, Rose Park, Adelaide—Fellow, 1917-45;

1949,

1945,
1947.

Coineil, 1925-28; President, 1930-31; Vice-President, 1928-30; Secretary, 1924-25;
Treasurer, 1932-33; Editor, 1934-37.

*Crenanp, Prov. J. B. MD., Dashwood Road, Beaumont, S.A.—Fellow, 1895-1949;
Vereo Medal, 1933; Conneil, 1921-26, 1932-37; President, 1927-28; 1940-41; Vice-
President, 1926-27, 1941-42.

Friows.

Arniz, Prom A. A, M.D, D.Sc. Ph.D., University of Adelaide,
Aircenisos, G, D., BLE. Waite Research Institute (Private Mail Bag), G.P.0,
Adelaide.
*ArnerMAn, A. R., Pi.D,, D.Sc., F.G.S. , Div. Indus, Chemistry, C.5,LR.0., Box 4331,
G.P,O., Melbourne, Vietoria—Couneil, 1937-42.
Anperson, Mrs. §. 11, B.Sc. Zoology Dept., University of Adelaide, S.A.
Anprew, Rey J. RR. c/o Methodist Manse, Maitland.
Anoprews, J., M,B., B.S., 40 Seafield Avenue, Kingswood, S.A,
*Anpaewartua, H. G, M.Agr.Se., D.Sc, Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag),
Adelaide—Council, 1950; Vice-President, 1950-51; President, 1951-.
*AnneRwartHA, Mrs, TT. V., BAgr.Sc., M.S. (nee H. V. Steele), 29 Claremont
Avenue, Nethorby, S.A.
*Ancer, F. M., 34 Fullarton Road, Parkside, 5.A.
*ANGEL, Miss L, M., M.Sc, c/o University of Adelaide.
*RartLert, H. K., L.Th., 15 Claremont Averitie, Netherby, S.A,
Brastny, A. K., [Harris Street, Marden, S.A.
Breer, Rk. G, BAgSe, RDA, Linewood Park, Mittel, S.A.
Besa, P. R., D/D\Se,, L.D.S,, Shell House, 170 North Terrace, Adelaide.
Rest, R. J., D.Sc. A.C. Waite Institute (Private Mafl Bag), Adelaide.
Brack, F.C. M.B., B.S., Magill Road, Tranmere, Adelaide.
Bonyry, N. J.. MB, BS, FRCS. (Eng), FRACS, 144 Hill Street, North
Adelaide, S.A.
*Bonvtuon, C. W., B.Sc, A.A.CI, Romalo House, Romalo Avenue, Magill, S.A,
Bonyraon, Sir J. Layrxcron, B.A. (Camb), 263: East Terrace, Adelaide,
*Boomsma, C. D., M.Se, B.Sc.For,, 2 Celtic Avenue, South Road Park, S.A.
Bowzs, D. R,, Ph.D,, M.Sc, D.1.C, F-G.S., 51 Eton Strect, Malvern.

183

Hate of

Election,

1939. Brookman, Mrs. R, D, (nee A. Tarvey), DA, Meadaws, 5,A.

1945. Broucurox, A, C., Farina, S.A,

1948, Brownie, T..0., B.Sc (Sy¥d.), Waite Institure (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide,

1944. *Rurnivcs, Miss N. T., M.Sc, CS.LRO,, Diy, Plant Industry, P.O. Box 109, Can-
berra, ALC.T.

1923. Buon, RK. S., D.Sc. University of Ademide—Couneil, 14h,

1922, *Camecet,, T. BD, D.DSe, DSc, Dental Dept, Adeliide Hospital, Adelaide—
Corneil, 128-32, 1935, 1942-45; live-President, 1952-34; President, 1934-d3,

1944. Casson, P. B., B.Se,, For. (Adel.), 5 Benjafield Terrace, New Town, Hobart.

195}. Cairtemorouun, R. G., BSc, c/o CS.1R,0., Div, of Fisheries, 1 Museum Street,
Perth, WA,

1929, Curistir, W,, M.B., B.S. Education Departtnent, Social Services, 5] Pirie Street
Adelaide—-Treasurer, 1933-38.

$950. Coavsrav, S. BE, B.Sc., 6 Hampton Street, Ilawthorn, S.A.

1949, Couuitver, F. S,, Gealogy Department, University of Queensland,

1930. *Conguuun, T. T., M.Sc. 10 French Street, Netherby, S.:A—Seeretory, 1942-43.

1907, *Cooxe, W. T., DSc, AAC, 4 South Terrace, Kensington Gardens, 8,A—Couneil,
1038-41; Vice-President, 1941-42, 1943-44) President, 1942-4d-

1942. *Coormr, H. M., 51 Hastings Strect, (dlenelg, S.A.

1929. *Cotron, B. ©, S.A, Mnseum, Adeluide—Cownetl, 1943-46, 1948-49; WiceS’resident,

1949-50, 1O5L; President, 1950-51,

7951, Bayan. ALCL, VED. B.Sc, Waite Research Institute, Private Mail Bag, G,.P.O.,
Adelaide,

1924 vs Crresprowy, Str C, 1. C, D.5.0., M.D,, P.R.C.P., 219 North Terrace, Adelaide.

1950. Drawn, C. M, M.B., BS., D.P.H., D.J.M., 29 Gilbert Strect, Goodwood, S.A.

1941, Drcxtyson, S. B, M.Sc, 52 Burnside Road, Kensinglon—Cynnetl, 1949-51; Mice

President, 1951-

1930. rx, E. V., Hospitals Department, Rundle Strect, Adelaide, 3.A.

1944, Dunstone, S. M. L., MB, #S., 124 Payneham Road, St. Peters, Adelaide.

1931. Dwyer, J. M., M.B., B.S. 105 Port Road, Hindmarsh, 5.A.

1933, *Eanpiey, Miss C. M., M.Sc. University of Adelaide—Couneil, 1943-46,

*Kpmonps, S. J,, BA, M.Sc, 56 Fisher Terrace, Mie End, 5A,
*Epourst, A, G., 19 Farrell Street, Glenelg, S.A—Couneil, 1949-,

Freres, Miss. H. M., M.Sce., 8 Tay'or's Road, Mitchuin,, 5.A.

“JintAvson, H. H., 305 Ward Street, North Adelaide—Cowneil, 1937-40,

Fisuer, R. H., 265 Goodwood Rodd, Kings Park, S.A,

+Fry, H. K., D.S.0.,, M.D, U.S, BSc. FRAC P., ‘Yow Tall, Adelaide—Cowiedl,

1933-371 Pice-President, 1937-38, 1939-40; President, 1938-49,

Fuvion, Cor, D., C.M.G,, CBE, Aldgate, §.A.
*Grason, FB. S. H., M.Sc., 297 Cross Roads, Chtrence Gardens, Adelaide.

Goprrey, F, K., Box 951H, G.P.O., Adeiaide.

¢Gotpsack, H., Coromandel Valley, S.A.

7Gosse, Sie James IT, Gilbert House, Gitbert Place, Adelaide,
*Geant, Prov. Sie Krur, M.Se, WLP, 36 Fourth Avenue, St. Pelers, 5 A,

Gray, J, T., Orroroo, S.A.

Greaves, H., 12 Edward Street, Glynde, S.A.

Green, J. W., 4 Holden Street, Kensington Park, S.A.

Georith, H. &., Dunrobin Road, Brighton, S.A.

Gross, G. F., B.Sc., South Australian Museum, Adelaide—Seeretary, 1950-,
Goppv, D. J., Se, Mineral Resources Survey, Canherra, A.O.T,
*Hare, H. M., Director S.A. Museaom, Adélaide~—Perco Afedal, 1946; Council, 1931-34,

1950-; Mice-President, 1934-36, (937-38; President, 1936-37; Treasurer, 1938-1950,

Hau, D, R., Mern Merna, via Quorn, 5.A.
*TIanpy, Mus. J. i. (nee A. C. Beckwith), M.Se., Box 62, Smithton, Tas.

Harars, J. R., B.Se:, 94 Archer Street, North Adelaide, S.A.

Hesnersox, D. L. W,, P.M.B., 20 Bourke, N.S.W.

Herrror, R. 1, B.Agr.Se., Soil Conservator, Dept. of Agriculture, 5.A,

Hocxtne, L, J., 57 Matino Parade, Seacliff, S.A.

Houtoway, B. W,, B.Sc, 33 Kyre Avenue, Kingswood, S.A,
*Hossreip, P, §., M.Sc., 132 Bisher Street, Fullarten, 5.A,

HMowarn, P. F., B.Sc, c/o Great Western Consolidated, Bullfinch, W.A.
Humepz, D, S. W., 238 Payneham Road, Paynchatn, S.A.

Hyrton, J. T., B.Se, 18 Emily Avenue, Clapham.

Irquny, P., Kurralta, Burnside, $.A.

jexxtxs, © F, H., Department of Agriculture, St, Gearge’s Terrace, Perth, WA,

184

Date ol

Election,

1918, *Jexnisox, Rey. J.C. 7 Frew Street, Fullarton, S.A,

1945. *Jessur, R, W., M.Sc., 3 Alma Road, Fullarton, S.A,

1910. *Jonyson, E. A. M.D, M-R.C.S. 1 Baker Street, Glenelg,

1930. Jouns, R. K., B.Sc. Department of Mines, Flinders Street, Adelaide, S.A.

1951. Karaaovic, D., B.A:Sc. (Mun.), 22 Grandview Road, Toorak Gardens, S.A.

1951. Kestine, N. G,, Dept. Arts and Ed., P,A‘C. Preparatory School, 3 Hartley Road,
Brighton, S.A,

1939. TRAE AS, HL. M,, PA.D., M.B,, F.R.GS., Kbaklar Buildings, CP, Tauk Road, Bon-
bay, ia,

1949. *Kinc, D., M.Se., 44 Angwitt Avenue, Mair Athol, S.A.

1933. *Kiveman, A. W., M.Sc., University of Adelaide—Secretary, 1945-48; Pice-Pryesi-
dent, 1948-49, 1950-51; Prestdent, 1949-50,

1922, Lenoon, G. A, M.D, BS., F.ILCP., AMP. Buildiug, King William Street, Adelaide,

148. Lormian, T. RN, N.D.H. (N.%.), Director, Botanic Gardens, Adelaide.

1949. Lower, H. F., 7 Avetiue Read, Highgate, S.A,

1931. *Lupgroox, Mrs. W. V. (nee N. H. Woods), M.A,, Eliinatta Street, Reid, A.C.T.

148. MeCuntocn, R. N., MB.E., BSc. (Oxon), BAgr Sei. (Syd.), Roseworthy Agricul-
tural College, S.A.

1938, Mapbern, C, B., B.DS., D.DSe,, Shell House, North Terrace, Adelaide.

1932, Mann, £. A., C/o Hank of Adelaide, Adelaide.

1939. Mansnair, T. J, MAgeSe, Ph.D., Waite Institue (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—
Council, 1948-,

1905, *Mawson, Pror. Sir Dovgras, O.B.E,, D.Se, BE, IRS, University of Adelajde—
Verco Medal, 1931; President, 1924-25, 1944-45; Vicw-President, 1923-24, 1925-265
Council, 1941-43.

1950. May, L. H., B.Se., 691 Esplanade, Grange, S.A,

1920, Mayo, ‘THE Hon. Mx. Justice, LL.B., KC. Supreme Court, Adelaide,

1950, Mayo, G. M, E., B.Ag.Sec. Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide, S.A.

1943. McCarruy, Miss D, F,, B.A., B,Sc., 70 Ealton T errace, Kensington Park.

1945. f*Mues, K R, D.Sc, F.GS., Mines Department, Flinders Street, Adelaide.

1951, Mires, J. A, K., M.A,, MLR, B.Chir. (Cant.), 48 Gladys Street, Edwardstown, S.A,

1939, MincHam, V. H., Hammond, S.A.

1925. }Mircuert, Prov. Sir W.. K.GM.G., M.A, DSe, F itzroy Ter., Prospect, SA.

1933, Muircnen., Pror, M. L., M.Se., University, Adelaide.

1951, Mircre, F_J.,c/o The South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide,

1938, MoorHovse, F. W., MSc,, Chief Inspector of Fisheries, Flinders Street, Adelaide.

1936, *Movunrrorp, C. P., 25 First Avenue, St. Peters, Adelaide.

iy44. Murerrt, J. W., Engineering and Water Supply Dept., Port Road, Thebarton, S.A.

1944, Nrat-Smira, C. A. B.Agr.Sci., 16 Gooreen Street, Rew, Canberra, A,CT.

1944. Ninwes, A. R,, B.A., 62 Sheffield Street, Malvern, S.A.

1945. “Noarincorn, K, 1, B.Agr.Sc., A.LA.S., Waite institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1930. OcKennen, G. P., B.A. c/o Flitders Street Practising School, Flinders St, Adelaide

1947, *Orner, f. L., 65 Fifth Avenue, St. Peters, S.A.

1913. *Ossorn; Prov, T. G, B, D.Se., Department of Totany, Oxford, England—Couscil,
1915-20, 1922-24; President, 1925-26; Vice-President, 1924-25, 1926-27,

1937, *Paxkin, L. W., M.Se., c/o North Broken Hill Mining Co, Melbourne, Vietoriie

169, Parkinson, K. J., B.Sc. 8 Mooreland Averiue, Beverley, S.A

1945, Parrrson, G., 68 Partridge Street, Glenelg, SuA.

1924. Paurt, A. G, M.A. BSc, 10 Milton Avenue, Fullarton, S.A.

1926, *Prrrr, C. S,, D.Sc, Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Conneil, 1941-43;
Vice-President, 1943-45, 1946-47+ President, 1945-46,

1948. Powrit, J. K., BSe., CS.LR.O., Division of Biochemistry, University, Adelaide.

1947, Poynron, J. O., M.D. MA. ChB, MRCS, L,R.CP., Institute Mediciite, Wet
Science, Frome Roz cd, Adelaide,

1949, Pratre, R, G, 81 Park Terrace, North Unley, S.A.

1925, *Presoorr, Paor. J. A, CBE, D.Sc, ALC, Waite Institute (Private Mall Bag),
Adelaide—Werca Medal, 1938; Council, 1927-30, 1935-395 [* ige~President, 1930-32;
President, 1932-33,

1926, Price, A. G., C.M.G., M.A, Litt.D., F\RG.S., 46 Pennington ‘Terrace, North Adelaide.

1945. Pevor, L. D,, M.Sc, Dip.For., 32 La Perouse Street, Griffith, N.S,W,

1950, *Rastigan, J. H, B.Sc, Bureau of Mineral Resoutces, Mclbourne Building, Canberra,
ACT.

1931, Ravsex, I, B.Sc, Box 111, Borlertewn, S.A.

Io, Riceman, U. S, MSc, BAgrSe, C.S.LR.0., Division of Nutrition, Adelaide,

185

Date of

Election.

1947, Rieper, W, R, B.Sc, Oceanographic Institute, Gottenburg, Sweden.

1948. *Riwes, G. D., B’Sc., 24 Winston Avenue, Clarence Gardens, SA.

1947. Rix, C. E,, 42 Waymouth Avenue, Glandore, S.A,

1946, “*Rozreson, E. G,, M.Se., 42 Riverside Drive, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada.

1951, Rossex, L. D., ¢/o. High School, Port Pirie, §.A,

1951, Rowe, S. A., 22 Shelley Street, Firle, S.A,

1951, Rowe, S. E., B.Sc., 22 Shelley Street, Firle, S.A,

1950. Rupoo, Por. E. A, BSc. A.M., University, Adelaide, S.A,

1945, Rymitr, J. R., Old Penola Estate, Penola, S.A.

1944, *5anvars, Mtss D, F.. M.Sc., University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland,

1950, Saunvers, F. L., 79 Winchester Street, Malvern, S.A.

1933, Scunewer, M., M.B., B.S., 175 North Ter., Adelaide.

1951, Soorr, F. D., B.Sc, c/o S.A. Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, S.A.

1946, “*Sxenrr, BE. R., M.Sc., C.S.1.R.0., Division of Industrial Chemistry, Box 4331, G.P.O,
Melbourne, Victoria.

1924. *S5ecni7, R. W., M.A., BSc. Engincering and Water Supply Department, Victoria
Square, Adelaide—Secretary, 1930-35; Council, 1937-38; Vice-President, 1938-39,
104041; President, 1939-40.

1925. *Swearp, H., Port Elliot, S.A.

1936, *Sueanu, K,, Fislierics Research Diy. C.S,LR.0., University of W.A,, Nedlands, W.A,

1945, SuperHero, J. H., M.Se, B.A, c/o Anglo-Westralian Mining Pty. Ltd.

1934. Semnkrrerny, R. C, Salisbury, S.A.

1924. Srmpson, F. N., Pirie Street, Adelaide.

1949, Simrsox, D. A. M.B., B.S., 42 Lockwood Road, Burnside, S.A.

1941, "Ser Ts Lasorosn-, B.Se., Department of Post-War Reconstruction, Canberra,

1941. Seuvucort, R, V, MB, BS, D.T.M. & H,, 13. Jasper Street, Hyde Park—Coumcil,
J948-31; Treasurer, 1951-.

1936, Sourawoop, A, R., M.D., M.S. (Adel.), M.R.C.P,, Wootvona Ter,. Glen Osmond, 5, A.

1047, *Srecur, R. L. M.Sc, 15 Main Road, Richmond, $A —Council, 1951-,

1936, 7*Sprics, R. C., M.Sc, Mines Department, Flinders Street, Adelaide,

1951. Sreapman, Rev. W. R,, 1 De Saumarez Street, Kensington Park, S.A,

1947. Spurninc, M. B., B.Ag Sc, Agricultural College, Roseworthy, S.A,

1949, *Spry, A. H., B.Sc., 63 LeFevre Terrace; North Adelaide, S.A.

1938, *Srevaens, C. G., DSe., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1935. SOC A_G, MAgrSe., 11 Wootcona Terrace, Glen Osmond, S.A,—Comrcil,
1947,

1932. Swan, D. C.. M.Se., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Secrelory,
1940-42; Pice-President, 1946-47, 1948-49; President, 1947-48.

1948. Swann, F. J. Wa. 38 Angas Road, Lower Mitcham, S.A,

1951, Swresxt, P,, M.Ag.Se., 222 Henry Street, Croydon, S.A.

1934. Symons, I, G,. 35 Murray Street, Lower Mitcham, S.A.— Editor, 1947-,

1929. *Yavuor, 7. K., B.A, M.Sc. Waite Instinite (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Counel,
1940-43, 1947-50: Librorian, 1951-—

1950, Tavtor, G. H.. B.Sc, Department of Mines, Old Legislative Council Building, North
Tetrace, Adelaide, S.A,

1948, PT ROM AE: L M., MSc. (Wales), University, Adelaide—Secretary, 1948-50; Council,
950-

193% *THomAs, Mes. I, M. (nee F. M. Mawson), M.Sc, 36 King Street, Brighton.

1940. Tsomson, Cart, J. M., 145 Military Road, Semaphore South, S.A.

1923. *Tinuvare, N. B., B.Sc, South Australian Museum, Adelaide—Secretary, 1935-36;
Council, 1946-475 Vice-President, 1947-48, 1949-50; President, 1948-49.

1945, ‘Trven, N. $., .M.Se., B.Agr.Se., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide,

1937, *Trumme, Prov, H. C, D.Sc, M.Agr.Sc,, Waite Institute (Private Muil Bag),
Adelgide—Couneil, 1942-1945; Mice-Prestdent, 1945-46, 1947-48; President, 1946-47.

1925. Turner, D. C. Brvokman Buildings, Grenfell Street, Adclaide,

1950. Vieren, S. 'T., Port Lincoln, 5,A,

1912. *Wagp, L. K., 1S.0., B.A. B.E., D.Sc., 22 Northumberland Avenue, Tusmore—Council,
1924-27, 1933-35; Wice-President, 1927-28; President, 1928-30.

1941, *Wars, D. C., M.Agr.Sc., Div. Plant Tndustry, C.S.LR.O., Canberra, A.CT,

1936. Warernouse, Miss L. M., 35 King Street, Brighton, S.A

1939, *Weerpinc, Rey. B. J., 5 York Street, Henley Beach.

1949. *Weoener, C. F, B.Se., Department Mines, Flinders Street, Adelaide, SA.

1946. Wuerrer, A. WG, B.Se., Mines Deparment, Flinders Street, Adelaide,

1050. Wiettams, L. D. “Dumosa,” Meningie, S.A,

186

Date of

Election

1946, *Wuison, A. F., M,Sc., University of W.A., Nedlands, W.A.

1938. *Wuxson, J. O., C.S.LR.O., Division of Nutrition, Ade‘aide.

1930. *Womerstey, H., F.R.ES., A.L.S. (Hon. causa), S.A. Museum, Adelaide—Verco
Medal, 1943: Secretary, 1936-37; Editor, 1937-43, 1945-47; President, 1943-44, Vice-
Eegadent, 1944-45; Rep. Fauna and Flora Protection Committee, 1945; Treasurer,
1950-51.

1944. *Womerstey, H. B. S., M.Sc., University of Adelaide.

1944. Womerstry, J. S., B.Sc. Lae, New Guinea.

1923. *Woop, Pror. J. G. D.Sc. Ph.D., University of Adelaide—Verco Medal, 1944;
Council, 1938-40; Vice-President, 1940-41, 1942-43: Rep. Fauna and Flora Board,
1940-; President, 1941-42; Council, 1944-48.

1950. Wooparn, G. D., 20 Kensington Road, Leabrook, S.A.

1943. Woonotanps, Harotp, Box 989H, G.P.O., Adelaide.

1945. Wortuiey, B, W., B.A., M.Sc., A. Inst. P., University, Ade‘aide.

1948. *Wymonnp, A. P., B.Sc. 4 Woodley Road, Glen Osmond, S.A.

1949, Yeates, J. N., LS, A.M.LE., A.M.I.M.E,, Richards Buildings, 99 Currie Street,
Adelaide, S.A.

1944. Zimmer, W. J., Dip.For., F.L.S. (Lon.), 7 Rupert Street, Footscray West, W.12, Vic.

13

;

GENERAL INDEX

[Generic and specific names in italics indicate that the forms described

are new to

Abbie, A, A.: A new Approach to the Pro-
blem of Huinan Evalution, 70

Adelaide System, in the Riverton-Clare Re-
gion, Northern Mount Lofty Ranges:
Alan F, Wilsot, 131 ;

Adelaide System, in the Mount Plantagenet
Area: Alan H. Spry, 164

Alustrofilaria rhipidurae, 3

Basic Igneous Rocks of the Worumba Re-
gion: Alan H. Spry, 97

Black, J. M.; J. B. Cleland and: An Enum-
eration of the Vascular Plants of Kan-
garoo Island, 22

Brookes, Helen M.; The Morphological De-
velopment of the Embryo of Gryllulus
cummodus, 150

Brown, W. L.: The Dacetine Ant Genus
Mesostruma Brown, 9

Cleland, J. B., and J. M. Black: An Enum-
eration of the Vaseular Plants of Kan-
garoo Island, 22

Corynosoma clavatum, 16

Cosmuritun Ophelii, 62

C. rotundum, 64

Cosmocephaluts anstraliensis, 34

Cotton, Bernard C.: Australian Recent and
Tertiary Mollusca, 38

Cunningham, G. H,: Twa Undescrihed Aus-
tralian Gasterorycetes, 14

Desmils, Some South Australiany G. W.
Prescott and A, M. Seott, 55

Diomedenema diomedeade, 32

Edmonds, 5. J.; T. H. Johnston and: Aus-
tralian Acanthocephala, No. 9, 16

Ericusa orca, 53

Eusetia leterna, 1

Evolution: A New Approach to the Problem
of Human: A. A, Abbie, 70

Fenner, C. H.: Lake Eyre in Flood 1950;
Muds, Salts, ete., 5

Gasleromycetes; Two Undescribed Austra-
lian: G. 11. Cunningham, 14

Gryllulis commodus; Morphological De-
velopment of the Embryo of; Helen M.
Brookes, 150

Heteronympha penelope; On a New Form
of: N. B. Tindale, 25

Hone, M, R.: The Post-Orbital Wall; A
Comparative and Ethnological Study, 115

Hymenogaster effodiendus, 14

science, |

Individual Aspects in the Culture of the
Australian Aborigines; H. V, V. Noone, 1

Johnston, T. Harvey, and §. J. Edmonds:
Australian Acanthocephala, No. 9, 16
Johnston, T. Harvey, and Patricia M. Maw-
son: Some Nematodes from Australian

Birds and Mammals, 30

Kangaroo Island; Vascular Plants of: J. B.
Cleland and J, M. Black, 22

Lake Eyre in Flood 1950; Muds, Salts, ete:
C. E. Fenner, 5

Mawson, Patricia M,; T. H, Johnston and:
Some Nematodes from Australian Birds
and Mammals, 30

Mesostruma; The Dacetine Ant Genus: W,
L. Brown, 9

Micraranthocephalus hemirhamphi, 17

Miles, KK, R.:; Tertiary Faulting in North-
Eastern Eyre Peninsula, 89

Mollusca; Australian Recent and Tertiary:
Bernard C. Cotton, 38

Moniliformis ‘semoni, 18

Moniliformis dubius, 20

Nematodes from Atstralian Birds and Mam-
mals: T, MH, Johnston and P.M. Mawson,
30

Noone, H. V. V.: Individual Aspects in the
Culiure of the Aiistralian Aborigines, 1

Nototerebra flindersi, 41

Pervicacia subplicata; P. helenac, 40

Plewroploca eucla, 52

Post-Orbital Wall; A Comparative and
Ethnological Study: M, R. Hone, 115

Precambrian Tilhtes East of the Everard
Ranges; Allan F. Wilson, 160

Prescott, G. W., and A. M. Scott;
South Atistratian Desmids, 55

Some

Rissoina wincentiana; R. grata; R. fiscina;
R. jaffa; R. axiscalpa, 46-48

Scott, A. M.; G. W. Prescott and:
South Australian Desmids, 55

Secotium fragariosum, 14

Sediments of the Adelaide System in the
Moust Plantagenet Area, South Australia:
Alan H. Spry, 164

Serrataspicuhum zuttatum, 32

Spirura sp. 36

Some

188

Spry, Alan H.: Basic Igneous Rocks of the } Wilson, Allan F.: The Adelaide System as

Worumba Region, South Australia, 97 Developed in the Riverton-Clare Region,
Spry, Alan H.: Sediments of the Adelaide Northern Mount Lofty Ranges, South

System in the Mount Plantagenet Area, Australia, 131

South Australia, 164 Wilson, Allan F.: Precambrian Tillites East

of the Everard Ranges, North-Western
Tertiary Faulting in North-Eastern Eyre South Australia, 160
Peninsula: K. R, Miles, 89 Worumba Region; Basic Igneous Rocks of:
Tetrameres australis, 33 Alan H. Spry, 97
Tindale, N. B.: On a New Form of Hetero-
nympha penelope, 25

CONTENTS

OBITUARY AND BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE LATE Proressor T, Harvey JOHNSTON
Noone, H. V. V.: Individual Aspects in the Culture of the Australian Aborigines
FENNER, CHARLES: Lake Eyre in Flood, 1950—Muds, Salts, etc. ....

Brown, Witiram L., Jr.: The Dacetine Ant Genus Mesostruma Brown ....
CunNINGHAM, G. H.: Two Undescribed Australian Gasteromycetes

Jounston, T, H., and Enmonps, S. J.: Australian Acanthocephala, No. 9

CLeLanp, J, B:, and BLACK, J. M.: An Enumeration of the Vascular Plants of- Kan-
garoo Island. Second List of Additions and Corrections .. : SS et sist

TINDALE, Norman B.: A New Form of Ng ange Waterhouse Bay
doptera Rhopalocera, Family Satyridae) —

Jounston, H.-T., and Mawson, Patricia: Some Nematodes from Australian Birds
and Mammals .... bs eee hte = < = aa oF Ss

Corron, Bernarp C.: Pherae, Recent and Tertiary Mollusca, (Terebridae, Rissoini-
dae, Fasciolariidae, Volutidae) Spee a ane ae ae rn mrs

Prescorr, Geratp W., and Scorr, ArrHur M.: Some South Australian Desmids
Assiz, A. A.; A New Approach to the Problem of Human Evolution

Mires, Kerr R.: Tertiary Faulting in North-Eastern Eyre Peninsula, South Australia
Spry, ALAN H.: Basic Igneous Rocks of the Worumba Region, South Australia
Howe, M. R.: The Postorbital-Wall. A Comparative and Ethnological Study

Witson Attan F.: The Adelaide System as Developed in the Riverton- Seats Bony
Northern Mount Lofty Ranges, South Australia .... 5x

Brooxes, Heten M.: The Morphological een of the Embryo of eke
commodus Walker (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) ms; on Py ae 7s

Wison; Arran F.: Precambrian: Tillites East of the Everard 1 Ranges North-Western
South Australia eS Pi era pc Wee as See aie set

Spry, Avan H.: Sediments of the Adelaide a stem in the Mount 1 Phatagene Area,
South Australia aS o ah Te ing

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