VOL. 98, PART 1 28 FEBRUARY, 1974 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA INCORPORATED CONTENTS Wopfner, H. Post-Eocene History and PiLaLBEOP DY of Northeastern South Australia - - - - - - - - - 1 Jago, J. B. The Origin of Cottons Breccia, King Island, Tasmania - - 13 Foster, C. B. Stratigraphy and Palynology of the Permian at Waterloo Bay, Yorke Peninsula, South Australia - - - - - 29 Barker, S. Studies on Seasonal Anaemia in the Rottnest Island Quokka, Setonix brachkyurus (Quoy & Gaimard) (Marsupialia; Macro- podidae) - - - - - - - - & - 43 PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS STATE LIBRARY BUILDING NORTH TERRACE, ADELAIDE, S.A. 5000 POST-EOCENE HISTORY AND STRATIGRAPHY OF NORTHEASTERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY H. WOPFNER* Summary WOPENER, H., (1974).-Post-Eocene History and Stratigraphy of Northeastern South Australia. Trans. R. Soc. §. Aust. 98(1), 1-12, 28 February, 1974. The post-Eocene history of the central Great Artesian Basin is characterised by long periods of aerial exposure interspersed with comparatively short-lived depositional events. Products of deep chemical weathering on long exposed land-surfaces therefore gain major stratigraphic importance, equal to that of actually deposited rock-units. To arrive at a meaningful and workable stratigraphy; a scheme is proposed which combines conventional rock-units with morphological units of stratigraphic significance. POST-EOCENE. HISTORY AND STRATIGRAPHY OF NORTHEASTERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA by H. Worsngk* Summary Woeener, H., (1974).—Post-Eocene Ilistory and Stratigraphy of (Northeasterq South Australia. Trans, R. Soc. 8. Anst. 98(1), 1-12, 28 February, 1974. The past-Eocene history of the central Great Artesicn Busin is characterised fy Jong periods of aerial exposure interspersed with comparatively shorttived depositional events. Products of deep chemical weathering on long exposed land-surfaces therefore palm ninjor stratigraphic importance, equal to that of actually deposited rock-units. To arrive at a meaningful and workable stratigraphy, a scheme is proposed which combines conventional rock-units with morphologseal units of stratigraphic significances, The sequence of events considered here commences with the CORDILLO SURFACE, an aggradational plain which existed in the late Eocene ta early Oligocene. On this. plain formed a “surface-quartzite*, the SILC REE OF THE CORDILLO SURFACE. The post- Cordillo diastrophism deformed the Cordillo Surface and shaped broad fold structures, Im the synclines of these structures the DOONBARA FORMATION, consisting mainly of tetruginous sands and pisolites, formed. This formation is overlain conformably by the CADELGA LIMESTONE, a chemical depesit of middle ta Inte Mioctene age. Introduction The depositional record of the ‘Vertiary period in the central and western region of the Great Artesian Basin comprises two compara- tively thin sequences of fluviatile and lacustrine sediments. The two depositional events were separated by a period of exposure and non deposition which was mitiated by widespread epeirogenelic movements, These movements not only formed the principal structural pat- tern of broad aiticlines and syoclines 4s i] exists today (Jack 1925, 1930; Wopfner 1960; Wopfner & ‘Twidale 1967), but also strongly influenced distribution and thickness of the Tertiary deposits. The first depositional event which com-: menaced in the Paleocene und was terminated ia the middle to late Eocene, comprises a dominantly flrviatile and paludal sequence of mualute sandstones with interbeds of line- clustics and Tignites. This stratigraphic unit which is now. termed EYRE FORMATION (Wopfner, Callen & Harris 1974), was laid down as an ulmost continuous sediment- blinket, disconformably covering the under- lving Cretaceous strata of the central. southem and western Great Artesian Basin. Sediments of the second depositional phase Were first recoguised in the vicinity of Lake Eyre and termed ETADUNNA FORMATION by Stirton e¢ al. (1961). This formation con- sists mainly of primary dolomites with inter- beds of dotomitic shales and mudstones, Sub- sequent results of drilling on Lake Eyre and from Poonarunna No. 1, northeast of the lake, has demonstrated an extensive distribu- tion of this formation at shallow depth (Johns & Ludbrook 1963; Wopfner & Twidale 1961). Stirton et al. (1961) suggested an Oligocene ze for the Etadunna Formation, but palyno- logical data obtained recently by W, K. Harris vf the Geological Survey of South Australia from very similar dolomite sequences in the Frome Embayment are indicative of a Miocene age (Wopfner et al. 1974). The distribution of the Etadunna Formation ond iis equivalents is much less ubiquitous than that of the Eyre Formatron, being restricted ta the large downwarped areas of the Lake Eyre region, the Strzelecki Desert and the Frome Embayment. The purpose of this present paper is ta dis- cuss the events which followed the deposition of the Eyre Formation in northeastern-most * Geologisches Institut der Universitat Kéln, Z0lpicliersirasse 49, 5 Kaln, West Germany. Formerly Geological Survey of South Australia. ia Oodnadands Selon Cadelga” Pimasiere™ er Operhoa Ne Cadelga WH “ Well Silts ele @ setiian Be Saubne Fourat any - + "Huddon Dans’ RUI i> \Condilla im Powe KILOMETRES 0 ac) pid 30 ap 33 KILOMETRES ATyne suthe> ieeahan NMapseinileye Article Hadden Synelire Mount Howie Aaticline Poichowerrad lout SCALE KILOMETRES 0 200 300 Tyae sect on” Moun! ‘Gaser U. WOPFNER \ SIMPSON AMount Alcs DESERT fF Panrerunna No.l - Gidgealpe | ? —Msemba:” " Gas Tields LAKE GATRONER Ipmamincke Dope Tickerna Anticlire Uph tl Mount John and Dolhause Apticlines 400 500 KILOMETRES SAL Leg ol Mea iit Fig, 1: Locality map showing major anticlinal structures in north-eastern South Australia. South Australia. This region is characterised by its large and often complex anticlinal struc- tures and thus contrasts markedly with the large, downwarped areas. This contrast is not only evident in the different sedimentological record but also in the development of altera- tion products, resulling from chemical weather- ing processes on long-cxposed land surfaces. Such palaeosurfaces have therefore no less stratigraphic importance than actually deposi- ted sediments aid are treated here as morpho- logical units of stratigcaphic significance. Type localities and places and structures mentioned in the text are indicated on Fig. 1. Cordillo Surface GENERAL DESCRIPTION This new name is. introduced to identify that land surface which existed in the early Tertiary POST-EOCFNE HISTORY OF N.E. SOUTH AUSTRALTA 3 shortly before and after the termination of the deposition of the Eyre Formution. This land- surface developed over the whole central and western region of the Cipeat Artesian Basin but also extended westward well beyond the basin margins (Wapfier 1967). Termioation of the deposition of the Eyre Formation, and consequently the development af the Cordillo Surtace, was however not a spomaneous event. Within the central Great Artesiun Busin deposition ceased first in those regions Where, due (vu epeiroyenetic instability, jinticlinal structures began to farm. This struc- tural growth which followed a pre-existing pat- tern of fold structures already established in the Permian (Woptner 1966; Martin 1967; Kapel 173). is demonstraled by the overall thinning and lensing out of the Eyre Pormna- Hou aergss the crests of those aniielines (Wopler ef wi 1974). This left some of the unticlinal crests “hald-headed", exposing Win- fon Fornmtion to the processes of weathering. The rivers which were responsible for the deposition of the Eyre Formation were thus deviated into rhe svaclinal areas where sedi- Invhlaviad contmued en vast Mood plains and Mm iterititlent lakes and swamps. Depositional regression g7adually reduced the area of this carly Tertiary phase of sedimentation to such wn exient that most of the region remnined as astable and, fo all mtents and purposes, far land-sorFace Vhs stable surfiee of the late Rocene aud carly Oligocene ms here ienmmed CORDILLO SURFACE. SUCKEL) ar the Cornito Sturpace On the Nat and stable Cordilla Surfuce, lat- eril rin off Was al a minimum, Coupled with & high groundavater duble caused by the depositioual regression, conditions existed whieh led te deep chemical weathering and the development of a leached soil-protile. Appar ently within the B-horizon of this profile silien hezan to accumulate in irrecular nodules which then uselutinated into rod shaped aggeresates, 2 to 4 om thick and 15 to 30 cm long. As the prolile matured. silica concentration imereased lurther to form centripetally oriented colunrms or polygonal prisms of a dense and brittle sil- crete, The silerete. which may be up to 3 m thick, grades downward into a zone af angular. broken-up parent rock und this is underlain hy leached and kaolinised. bur otherwise undis- lured parent rock (Wopfner 1964: Wopfner & Twidale 1967), Tl is proposed that this Silerete be referred tuas SILCRETE OF TILE CORDILLO SUR- PACE. The Silerete of the Cordillo Surface is com- posed entirely of quartz, Whereby detrital quartz grains and pebbles of the original rock are still renunecd in their original shapes, eneased in a microcrystalline quarte-nmatrix, This contrasis with younger sileretes, like red and white silic¢ified breveigs, silicified ¢arbon- ales and opaline layers, in which tridimitic- eristubaliue silica prodommates. The Silerete of the Cordilla Surface is ustilly best developed neue the erests and on the flanks of the surface anticlines. Alone the lower flanks of the wnticlines where the Eyre Formation occurs in an all-tap position, sey- eral layers of immature silerete niay be inter ealated in the sediment-sequence, whereas a mature sflerete usually caps the secuon. This May indicate temporary “instability? of the surluce when the formation of a silcrete- profile was terminated hy the deposition ol vew sediment on lop of ir. Brom the limbs of the anticlines the silerele commonly can he tpaced below the present surface where its presence can cause great difficultics during drilling operatens und is therefore invariably vrevarded by the driller, In the deeper synching! parts of te basin how- ever, the silérete i$ oflen ubsent or its develop ment is so rudimentary that it can he over- looked very vasily. ft would appear thetelore thal the fornmarian of the silerete of the Cordillo Surface vom- Menced in lhe crestal revion of the embryonic amfeliaes whenve its development progressed oulwards as lopeer areas heeame excluded from sedimentation Thus the silerele way Just but usually alsa least developed jn those areas Where sedimentation persisted lonuest, Tyre ARMA AND SroVioNw The type area for the Cordillo Surface is the Corlilio and Innamineka regsion where this surface was first recognised, Por ohvicus reasons ho type seclion can he estublished, but Figs. 2 & 3 show typical expressions of this surface, The type section for the silerete of the Cordillo Surface and the associated deep weathering profile is Situated on the head- waters of the central tributary of Jiblie Crock where a compleie, monogenetic profile is exposed on the cast face of a tall mesa, stand- ing isolated in front of the Nappamilkiec esearp- ment, Other sections more readily accessible a . WOPFNER Fig. 2: Typical expression of silerete-capped Cordillo Surface on north limb of Innamincka Dome. The silcrete capping forms the sharp edge at the top of the escarpment and is characterized by an even, almost textureless pattern on aerial photographs. Scarp-foot erosion from the south (left) has cut deeply into the northern limb of the dome, whereas a consequent drainage still prevails on the north-dipping Cordillo Surface. View is to the WSW from a South Australian-Queensland border. exist in the vicinity of Needle Hill and on Innamincka Dome (Fig. 2). The name is derived from Cordillo Downs station which occupies the northeast corner of South Australia. Cordillo Downs homestead is built on the south-dipping, silcrete-cove ed Cordillo Surface. DISTRIBUTION AND LATERAL DEVELOPMENTS The Cordillo Surface can be recognised in all structurally positive areas where it forms the dip slopes of anticlinal structures (Figs. 2 & 3). It extends over the whole northeastern corner of South Australia and the adjacent structural uplands in southwestern Queensland (Wopfner 1960). From the Cordillo anticlinal complex it can be traced westward through Sturt’s Stony Desert to the region of the Birds- ville Track where the surface gains prominence again in the Mt. Gason Dome. It is also prominently developed on the Innamincka Dome (Fig. 2) and on the Tick- erna Structure. point near the {t cannot be traced with confidence beneath Lake Eyre but equivalents of the Cordillo Sur- face exist in the Oodnadatta and Dalhousie region, where in parts it may be developed on Lower Cretaceous strata. From here on west- wards, the surface progressively —transsects older rocks (Wopfner 1964), including Lower Palaeozoic sediments and granites, exposed along the margin of the Great Artesian Basin. From these relationships it is apparent that the Cordillo Surface and its equivalents may be regarded as a depositional plain within the area of the Great Artesian Basin, but as a peneplain near the basin margin and beyond. The geomorphic form of this surface indi- cates that the system was exorheic, and open to the sea in a southwesterly direction—a situ- ation similar to that proposed for the drainage pattern during the deposition of the Eyre Formation (Wopfner et al. 1974). An exorheic system may be indicated also by the fact that remnants of silcreted surfaces can be traced all the way to the shores of Spencers Gulf on POST-EOCENE HISTORY OF N.E. SOUTH AUSTRALIA $ Fig. 3: West limb of Haddon Syncline, showing marked east-dip of silcrete-covered Cordillo Sur- face. Flat-lying Doonbara Formation (in background behind and to the left of tree) uncon- formably laps onto the folded Cordillo Surface. Some columnar silcrete is exposed in right foreground. The type section of the Doonbara Formation is about 1 km to the south of this location, Yorke Peninsula. The map of silcrete distribu- tion produced by Stephens (1971) also sug- gests an open system. However, it should be noted that the age suggested by Stephens for the silcrete formation is demonstrably too young. Mid-Tertiary (Post Cordillo) Diastrophism Epeirogenetic movements which had made their presence felt during the deposition of the Eyre Formation became active again in the middle of the Tertiary. The exact time of this event cannot be ascertained as yet. The infor- mation available at this stage indicates an interval with a lower limit in the early Oligo- cene and an upper limit in the early Miocene, during which these movements could have taken place. The movements resulted in further folding and warping in the deeper parts of the basin and in normal faulting along the basin-margins. The deforming forces acted in the same sense as those which had been active during the early Tertiary, thus reactivating structural growth along pre-existing patterns. This led to the development of large, commonly closed anticlines with structural reliefs of 90 m to 200 m (Wopfner 1960), Within the deeper parts of the basin, these diastrophic forces appear to have acted rather uniformly, resulting in slow but continuous fold-movements. Along the basin margins however, the same diastrophism was expressed by a sequence of pulses which, depending on the local stress-accumulation, occurred as short-lived events in different parts of the basin at different times. This is indicated by the considerable variations in the maturity of those sileretes of the Cordillo Surface which were tilted or otherwise deformed by faulting along the basin margin. Good examples may be observed along the Mt. Harvey and Mt. Mar- garet Faults south of Oodnadatta and the War- ratta Fault southwest of Tibooburra. As such strong deformation of these silcretes disrupted the balanced morphological and groundwater conditions required for the formation of these silcretes, their stage of maturity also gives the 6 TL WOPENER reluuve time of their deformation (Wopfner & Twidale (967). ‘There can be litthe doubt, if any, that the Cordillo Surface was actually deformed by folding. tt can be shown in many places that the planar contact between the late Cretaceous Winton Formation and the early ‘Tertiary Eyre Formation sirikes und dips i sympathy with the Cordillo Surface, although the dip on the latter may be one or two degrees less than that observed at the base of the Tertiary, This indi- cules quite clearly ihe common deformation of both plones. Exeellent examples of this were deseribed from the Innamineka Dome!, the Hidudon Syneling aud the Morney Dome (Wopfuer 1960), The Cordillo Surface was also sed as the structural datum for the aerial mapping of the central Great Artesian Basin by the author and Dr. BR. 0, Brianschweiler in 1957, Using the altimeter of the aircraft to (measure the elevations of the folded Cordilfo Surface, w structire-contour map was praduced ol all the major surface sltuctures between the Grey Range i western Queensland and the Suppson Desert in South Australia (sce Sprigs 1958). Extensive acismiec and geolagical sur- vevs carried out over Ihab area singe then have proved! this iaph essentially vorrect, fhus con- firming the basic morpho-stmitigraphie concept outlined above, Phe post-Cordillo diastrophisot cemplelely reshpped the marpholagy of the central and western Cifeat Artesiun Basin. ‘This changed tuorpholowy, which ts andl the basis for the Ustibuion of the mayor lanid-lorms of today, also had @ promauneed effect on the drainage and thereby on the sediment distribution. The once vast and monotonous plains new heeame sub-divided into distinctive morphological und stroctural units Apirt from the various fold- structures mentioned before, two lurge areas of deposition commenced to take shape: one formed in the region of Lake Eyre am! the southern Simpson Desert, und a second one developed in the area of Lake Blanche «and the Strveleeki Desens The (wo negitive areas were separited by a chain of antictines which formed along the region now traversed by the Hirdsyille Track. It would appeur cherefore, that tus period of mid-Tertiary diastrophism also farmed the mould out of which developed jhe present endorheic drainage system of Lake Eyre and Lake Fromme. SF Doonbara Formation GENERAL DESCRIPTION As the unticlines rose above their suerournd- ings. intial erosion gouged shallow, cunsequent Urainuge systems into the flanks of the struc tures. The eroded material wus deposited in the neighbouring synelines, the sand-fraction lose to its place of origin ani the finer grains in the rhore distal segious. Reworked silercte of the Cordillo Surface, ranging in purticle- size trom course sund to cobbles, was fre quently incorporated, purticidarly near the bise of the sequence. The formation of bread ind shallow drain- age channels rather thin deep erosional incis- ions Suggvests wat the area as a whole was tol elevated much above base-level. The lowering by erosion of the leadwater regions, coupled with ihe gradual filling up of the depositional areas, resulicd in a further and progressive reduction of dynamic tntensily. Erosianal vradients were thus reduced to such a degree, that the landtorms heswne qudasestabilised, This allowed for the cornmencement of ferral- lisalion, a process which was particularly effec- tive within the syoelinal regions, where high groundwater levels were Tkely to have existed, Ferralitisation, however should be envisaved as a contionwos. almost syo-depesmanal event Which acjustul lo new levels whenever new crosunal detritus was mlded onfe an esting surface The result of this combination af deposition und soil-precess led to the formation of ferris. gingus ypisolites, pisolitie sandstimes and in places to ferrngingus aolites. Tr is proposed here ta term this. sequence the DOONBARA FORMATION. The hase of the Doonhira Formation is defined by its unconlormable of disconformable contact with the silecete of the Cordillo Surface of older rocks (Pig. 4), whereas the top is placed below the first car- bonate-hed of the overlying rockeurit, Linio.osy The Doonhirs Formation 1s subswintially a brick-red, medium-grained, ferrginous sanil- stone, large parts of which show pronounced and well developed pisolitic texture. ‘The clas- tic components consist almost entirely of quarty grains which ore generally rounded to subrounded gnd polished. Sorting is usually good and il is suspected thitt a large proportion | Worrnce, BH. (1958)—Vhe Geology of the Ionamincka Dome. Report for SANTOS Ltd a S. Aust. Dept. Mines Fovel, 74. Unpublished, POST-EQCENE a HISVORY OF N.E. SOUTH AUSTRALIA a Fig. 4: Typical flat cake of ferruginous pisolite of basal Doonbara Formation, resting on reworked and fragmented silerete of Cordillo Surface. Silcrete-clasts are cemented with ferruginous material derived from the Doonbara Formation. km east of Cordillo homestead. of the quartz grains have been derived by reworking from the underlying Eyre Forma- tion. In those parts of the section which have not been affected by the formation of pisolites, current bedding is often discernible. It is usually a shallow trough-bedding with indivi- dual sets averaging 15 to 25 cm thickness. Near the base of the formation the grain size increases to coarse sand. Granules and rounded cobbles of silcrete are also common, An off- white pebble conglomerate in coarse sand- matrix may be present at the base of the formation. The pisolitic portions of the Doonbara Formation occur either in thick, flaggy banks or in the shape of round, flat cakes with dia- meters ranging between 40 and 90 cm (Fig. 4), The usual colour is again brick-red, although medium brown and dark yellow are also common. Marked colour-differences are often observed within the cake-shaped portions of the formation, where the cake is often dark red and the surrounding pisolitic material of a much lighter, often bleached appearance. Locality is at Nilpie Nilpie Creek. about 50 The individual pisoliths vary between 0,5 and 2 cm in diameter. They are generally mas- sive, although concentric structures are present in some areas. In cross-section the pisoliths show a ferruginous, largely goethitic matrix, enclosing fine to medium grained quartz. There is normally very little clay within the pisoliths. Frequently the inside colour of the pisoliths is much darker than the surrounding “matrix”, Cementation between the pisoliths is poor, giv- ing the formation a very high porosity and permeability. The quartz-content of the sandy portions of the Doonbara Formation is about 80 percent but it may be less than 60 percent in the iron- rich pisolitic portions. The average contents of iron and alumina also yary over a wide range, A number of analyses of pisolites from the Doonbara Formation (then referred to as “fer- ruginous pisolite’), were presented by Wopf- ner & Twidale (1967). These analyses show that despite the wide range of the individual values, the ratio between Fe.O. and Al,O,, remains fairly constant at about 0,3. # H, WOPFNER Immediately beneath the base of the Doeon- bara Formation ong observes 4 kind of rezo- lith, where the underlying, older rocks have been broken up and disintegrated info angular lrayments. The interstices between the rock fragments are cemented with red, ferruginaus material derived from the overlying Doonbara Pormation, Still further below the contact, a pronounced red and white mottling in the pre- Doonbara material is developed, In many instances the hase of the Doonbara Formation cun be seein (rans-secting from silerete onto sediments of (the Eyre Formation or even older rocks, clearly demonstrating the erosional and disconformuble relationship between the Doonbura Formation and the underlying stratigraphic urls, Tyr AREA AND Seciion The type area for the Doonbiura Formauon is the northeastern-miost portion of South Aus- iralla, in particular the immediate surroundings of the Cordillo Structures, the Tonantingka Dome and their extensions into Queensland. The type section is situated on the COR PIT) 12250000 nrap-wrea. about 70 ki north of Cordilla Downs homestead. where about 8 moot dark red sandstane and pisotite are exposed on the western limb of (he Haddon Syneline (Fis. 9). The locality is almost he west of Narrartell(i waterhole. Additiomul tofor- mation on the sequence was obtitned from seis- mye shop hotes. dled aeross the Haddon Svneline (Wopfner 1960)- Avy excellent seclan also existy at Candra- decku walerhole on the northwest limh of the Invamninteka Dome (IS NAMINCKA 12250 000 mapedredy, Phos section whieh was described in some defail recently 16 selected ay a reference section® Vhe name of the formation derives from Doonbary Well, situated ou the west linth of Ihe Nuppaniikie Antiing (Wepfoer 1960). and some 60 km north of Cordilla Downs homestead. The well ohigins its water from. the Doonbary Formation (Wopfaer 1961). Dist Rib iow AND AGE The Doonhara Formation is ubiquitous along the Munks of all the major surface anti- clines, Whence it extends inte the subsurface (Wopfner 1960, 1961). It is generally present within the synelinal structures where it is usually covered by younger deposits. The average thickness observed in outerop is about 7 to 15S m, but i some areas it may be con- siderably thicker. The maximum thickness revorded sa fur is 40 m iw the core of the Haddon Syacline (Wopfner 1960). Locally the Doonbara Formation provides the reservoir for the run-off from: occasional precipitation and forms an aquifer on the slopes and peripheries. af the anticlinal struc: tures. In proximity to local (take areas the water is of excellent qualily (Woptner 1961) From the surluce structures ih oortheastern- most South Austtalia and western Queensland, the Deonbura Formation can be traced west- ward under Sturts Stony Desert Occasionally the formation is exposed ow the surface us for instance north of Beckwith Swamp and on the castern slopes ol the Mt, Guson Uplift. Ferru- winous pisolites und ovlites at the base of Lhe Btadunta Formation in the Lake Fyre bores (Johns & Tantbrook 1963) are regarded hy the present author as equivalents of the Doon hata Pormation (see Wopfner & Twidale 1967), The value of alumimous hlerites: as strau- gtuphic marker horizons was ported oul most recently hy Valeton (1972). Sinee terratilisa- lion also frequives rather specialised climatic and morphological condhons. i would appear reusonuble ta use this criterion as @ basis lor correlation To the northwest of Lake Evre, litholagieally identicul sequences are aeain exposed alone synelinul areas between Qodhadatla and. the Norther Territory border. Extensive renmants also occur onthe Lleatanna platedu COODNA- DATTA 1:250 000 map-areny und on the Emmery Kinge (DALHOUSIP 1:250 000) map-rren) No fossils have been found Wt the Dounhara Formation so far and iis uge 1s nol kiown With certainty. However. if the correlation with the ferruginous. oolites ait the base of the Etaduona Formation is correct, an approsi- mute age Gain he deduced. Recent palynological work by Horris (see Woptner er al, 1974) indiciwtes uo Miocene agé for the Eraduona Formation, From this a late Oligowene or carly Miouene ape seems to he most likely for the Doonhara Formation. Cadel Limestone GeNeRAL Deserir fon A thin sequence of carbonates overlies the Doonbura Formation in many places. The *THors ran, BR. C., Aust, Kepl. 73/26, (1974). Unpublished Mousured Seetions from the Innamineka 1:250 000 area, Ceol, Surv. 5. POST-EOCENE lypical ltholoyy of this ecarbouate sequence, comprisiny pale coloured, cherty limestones anu dolomitic limestones, remains remalkably Uniform over large areas of the central and Weslern Great Arivsuin Basin. It is proposed here to uune Min curhomite sequence the CADELGA LIMESTONE, The lower boun- dury of this unit as delined by is contact with the underlying Doonbara Formation whereas the upper limit ts usually formed by an ero- sonal surhice The contict between the Doonbara Forma- ton and the Cadelew Limestone generally uppears to he conformable. although toa wun, her of exposures a disconformable relationship is Suuvested by marked crosiaiial features al the base of te carbonate cleposits, Erosion must be expeeted at this bauudary which marks the chinge from the subseren! deposition and ferratitisation under which the Doonbara Vor- tation Was formed ane the subaqaeous envir- onment in which the Cadelyu Limestone was. hud down, Where the water came trom which provided the medium for the deposition of the Cadelya Limestone is Sui highly speculative. From the Widespread distribution of this limestone und is cquivadents, esiending from western Queens - land to Westeru Austhivia. ane would be justis fied in accepting ether permanent or tidal Mundation by sea-water a4 suggested by Toye (1968), provided a satisfactory explanation can be found for the almost complete absence of maring fossils (see below), It was mentioned carlier that the landscape which existed at the time of deposition of the Doonbara Forniation Was not much elevated ahove base level, If this base level was sea level, even u small flue tuation of the Jatter would have inundated large areas, in particular the synchitral regions, to Lorn chains of shallow pans and lagoons. The paucity of clastic ovatenal together with Ihe abundance of dolomite, chert and algal structures is indicative of a mildly evaporitic environment, and hypersalinity would thus account for the near absence of marine fossils, Allernalively, only slight variations would he required to udjust the above model to an endorheie system of similar or identical morph ology which Was never or only rarely con- necled with the sea, [In this case the occasional foraminifera could have heen brought in by hirds, whereas larger animals could have enited ecess via lemporary interconnecting channels HIShORY OF NE. SOUTIT AUSTRALIS ” Liriacocy It is Vory difficut to find a surface exposure ot the Cadeloa Limestoue which m nor reduced by erasiou. However, the dominant litholowies constituting this stratigraphic unit are so vhur acteristic that they ean be recognised and readily icentitied i widely separated localitivs. Jn the type seetion about 4 om of Cudelya Limestone q'e exposed, The lower pure of the section consists of fawn lo pink. ehulky lime- stone, containing a great abundance of reworked tragments of the underlying Doon- bara Formation. This reworked material nuiges in size [rom individual, goethite-coared quarte- erains to fragments und aggrevates. of pisohites ubout 2 10 3 em in-diameter. These limestones are interbedded with olive green. silty shale, calcareous shale and thin carbonate-bands, Lenses of red, sandy limestone are also present Outside the type section one observes at thes level also banded limestones, consisting of alternating crewnr and maroon or purple bands. several centimetres thick. ‘This rock-type was also reworked itd is then found, forming aagulor fragments up ta 2 em thick and 5 om Jong, am slightly tizher portions of the sequence. Vugey limestones are also common in thiv lower purt of the succession. On the southern flank af the Cordillo Dome, in the lower reaches of Nilpie Nilpie Creek, some round and fibrous structures, about | to 2 em in diameter, up to 25 cm long and irceger lacly curved, are observed om the bedding planes. ‘These strictures are thought to be culctfied algal colonies. The middle and upper parts of the sequence consist of thickly-bedded to flazgy limestones. usititly of fight grey to beiwe colour. ‘These are hard, brittle and dense carbonutes, rang- ng In composition from slightly dolomite limestones to dolomites. All ot these eomain Jenses, wisps amd irregularly shaped bodtes of whit grey and black chert. Some of the cherts are banded and show depositional fea: (wes Indicative of primary cheris whilst ethers wppear lo have replaced the original carbonate during disgenenis. This latter ovcurrence may hest be expliined as a nucleation effet Usually the ¢herts are amorphous, consisting of tridimitic and cristobalitic silica. but reerys- lallisution is reasomibly common an same parts When exposed to weathering the carbonate dissolves, leaving Ihe cherts to form rent and Tugged remnants on the surface of the rock (Fig 5). In some instances where the carbon- ate has been renioved cornpletely, the eroured 10 H. WOPFNER Fig. S: Exposure of Cadelga Limestone at the type section, about 7 km northeast of Cadelga water- hole and just south of the border fence between South Australia and Queensland. The dark portions on the otherwise light coloured rock in the left and central foreground are stringers and irregular patches of chert. Hammer handie measures about 25 cm, surface is covered with residual chert frag- ments as the sole indication of the once present Cadelga Limestone. The carbonates are generally micritic, but dolo-siltites and calcarenites are also observed, Dark grey to almost black, bituminous lime- stone occurs near Horseshoe Well. on the southern limb of the Cordillo Dome. Apart from the possible algal structures mentioned above. some gastropods and (?)diatoms were observed in thin sections, made from material from the CORDILLO 1:250 000 map-area. Based on the lithological and textural char- acteristics outlined above, it is suggested that the Cadelga Limestone is largely a chemical deposit which was laid down in large, shallow pans. The dolomitic nature and the abundance of chert indicate a mildly evaporitic deposi- tional environment. lyepk AREA AND SECTION Phe type area for the Cadelga Limestone is the region around the Cordillo and Innamincka structures and Sturt’s Stony Desert. The type section is situated on the area of the COR- DILLO 1:250000 map-sheet, about 13 km north of Doonbara Well and on the western limb of the Nappamilkie Structure (Fig. 5). The name of the formation is derived from Cadelga waterhole, situated approximately 7 km southwest of the type section. Cadelga Limestone occurs in the immediate vicinity of the waterhole and grey and white cobbles and pebbles of chert with a typical smooth, lustrous (“greasy”) surface appearance were concentra- ted by selective erosion along the northern bank of the waterhole. According to aboriginal legend, these chert-pebbles are the fat which was splattered by the ancestral goanna when he went hurriedly underground to escape the chase by the kangaroo man. The hole which formed where he went down is now Cadelga waterhole. The cherts associated with the Cadelga Limestone were of considerable im. portance to the aboriginal inhabitants of that region, Who valued them as an excellent raw material for the manufacture of stone imple ments. MOST-EOCENE HISHORY OF NE. SOUTIT AUSTRALIA iI DisiRmuTION AND AGE Cadelga Limestone ts exposed intermittently wlong the westeris and southern limbs of the Cordillo structure, in the Haddon Syneline and the northern part of Sturt’s Stony Desert. Ir occurs also on the north limb of the Inna- mincka Dome and in the Patchawarra Trough, where it is covered by younger sediments, From here jt may extend below the surface into the area of the Gidgealpa and Moomba gas fields, where chalky limestones and cherty dolomites are folind above the clastic sequence of the Fyre Fornration. These carbonates are thought to be. at feast in parts, equivalents of the Cadelga Limestone. From there to the south-west, the same carbonates. are then cor- related with the Ftadunna Formation of Stic- ton vt al. (1961) and with Miocene carbon- ‘tes in the Frame Embayment (Wopfner et al, 1974). Chalcedonic limestones of identical lithology ry the Cadelga Limestone are exposed on the West shore of Lake Eyre, near the mouth cf the Neales River, an occurrence which, jhrough its proximity to the Etadunna Forma- tion beneath Lake Evre (Johns & Ludbrook |963}, strengthens 4 lithological correlation between Lhe Cadelyo Limestone and the Eta- duntu Fermation. Lithe-cquivalents of the Cadelea Limestone are widespread alsa belween the Simpson Des- ert and the western margin of jhe Great Artes- inn Basin, In the Oodnadatta region they are referred to as Alberga Limestone (Freytag e: vi. 1967), Undquestionable fests of foramini- fera were Found by the present author tn thin sections of Ajberea Limestone From a locality neat MA Alice. As tuentioned above, the only fossils tecurded [ram the Cadelga Limestone so far ure some yastropods, (?)diatoms and algal sttuclures, None of these are sufficiently diag- mastic to establish the aga of the sediment, Based on the correlatron with the Etadunna Formation, 4 middle to late Miocene age is suygested tor the Cadelga Limestone, Conclusions Recognition and definition of post-Eocene sedimentiry and morphological units allows the reconstruction of the geological history af the northeastern portion of South Australia and adjoining parts in Queensland. This his- tory is characterised hy a topography of low amplitudes, thin sedimentary sequences and a plonolinced presence mf alteration products. Throughout the period under consideration, the region €Xperienced fettenic stability, except for the period of epeirogenetic movements {post Cordillo diastrophism) ty (?)late Oligo- vene tw early Miocene time. The depositional periods described here fol- lowed the diastrophic movements and major depositional areas were established in the syn clinal and synectiform depressions formed by these movements. Such dependence of sedi- mentation on structural events as indicated hy the reciprocal thicknesses of the carbonates (Cadelya Limestone, Etadunna Formation and. equivalents) and the Doonbura Formution can be interpreted as due to longer exposure to aerial conditions, and thereby later inundation of the vegions proximal to structurally positive areas If the total Tertiary sequence, jaclusive of the Eyre Formation is considered, one notices # remarkable similarity with other Tertiary successions in South Australia, When coim- piring the much more complete and largely Marine sections of the coustal basins with those sketchy sections from the very margin of deposition, one must not overlook the fact that only basic trends will remain to be com- pared, and that long periods of time may he represented by only a few metres af sedijnent or just a palaeosol. Of interest is the climatic history of the region as indicated by the sequence of sedli- ments and palacosols described m this paper. A moist to seasonally wet and warm-temper- ale climate 19 indicated in the early Tertiary during the dvpasiliow of the Eyre Formation (Wopiner et af. 1974), and very much the same climate, perhaps with more pronounced seqsonal aridity, can be precheted for the silerete formation. The ferralitisation during the period in which the Doonbara For- mation was formed is indicative of a warmer, probably hot climate with high rainfall, where as increased artdity and warm to hot condi- tions prevailed during the deposition of the Cadelen Limestone: Thus a temperature maximum is indicared in the Miocene, with lower preceding lemperi- tures jn the early Tertiury and a gradual de- cling in the post-Miocene. This mid-Tertiary temperature peak observed in Australia con- trasis with the palaeo-climatic curves for the Tertiary of Europe and North America, There the temperature decreased steadily from ithe Eorene onwards. until the minimum of the Pleistocene glacial periods was reached. This wus pointed out by Schwarzbach (1966), who [2 ii. WOPFNER suggested drifting of the Australian continent to account for this discrepancy in the palaeo- glimatic history of the Australian Tertiary. Such u hypothesis, invoking a north drift of the Austrulian continental mass in the carly to mid-Tertiary is also in close agreement with latest geological data obtained from Creta- ceous-Vertiary basins along the southern cust of Australia, and with palaeomagnetic results trom Australian Tertiary volcanics and the floor of the Soulhern Ocean. At the beginning of the Tertiary the distribu- tion of land-forms ia northeastern South Aus- tralia was considerably different lo thiat observed today. The basic distribution of morphological units as it exists al present was introduced by the post-Cordillo. diastrophism ivy the early mid-Tertiary. Since the deposition of the Cadelga Limestone, modifications. occurred only by degree and the changes so apparent in the late Cainozoic history of the region can be ascribed exclusively to varia- lions of the climute coupled with some minor opeitogehetic re-adjustments, References Peevrac. 1. #, Urari, G. R, & Worrnor, H, (1967), DODNADATTA map sheet, Geo- logical Atlas of South Australia, 1:250 000 eerie, Sheet SGS53-15 zone 5. (Geol, Sury. §. Aust: Adelaide). lack. R, T.. (1925),—Some developments in shal- Jow warer arcas im the northeast of South Australia. Bull, geal Surv. §. Aust. V1. Jack, RK, lL. €1990).— Geological stricture and oiher Faclors in relation to underground water supply in portions of South Australia. Bull. geal Surv. §. Aust, 14, Jouns, RK. & Tiinanoox, N. A. (19639) —tTavesti- ayiion of Luke Kyre, Rept, Invest. geol. Surv. a. Austr. 24, Karec, A, J. (1972).—The geology of the Patch- wwuten area, Cooper Basin J. aust, Perrel. Explor, Ass. P20), 53-57, . Lroyp. A, R, (1968).—Possible Miucene marine transeression in northern Australia. In Pulacontological papers, 1965. Bull. Bur, Min, Res. 80, 85-102. "4 Martin, C, A, (1967) —A deseriptive summary of Moomba. gastield. Australas. Oil Gas, J. 13( 12), 23-26, Seuwanesacnh, M, (1966).—Das Klima des rhein- ischen ‘Tertiivs, 24. deutsch. avol. Gey JLB, 43-68, Sertcs, R, GC, ((958).—Pelroleum prospects of western parts of Great Australian Artesian Basin, Bull. stm, Ass, Petrol, Geol, 42, 2465- 2491. Srepursxs, C. G. (1971).—Laterite and silerete in Ausindia; A study of the genetic relution- ships of laterile and silerete and their com- pinion materials, and their collective -signifi- eanee in the farmution of the weathered mantle, soils, telief ond drainage of’ the Aus- tralian continent. Geoderma 5, 5-52, Stiaton, R., Teprouo, R. 1. & Mincer. A. A. (1961).—Cenozmie stratigraphy and verte- brate palaeontology of the “Tirart Desert, South Australia. Ree, 8, ust, Mas. 14, 19- OT, VALETON, I. (1973)—Taterite als Leithorizonte zur Rekonstruction tektonischer Vorgiinge auf den Festhindern, Geol. Rdsch. 6241), 153-161. Worrner, Ho (1960).—On some structural devel- opment in the central part of the Great Ans- tralian Artesian Basin, Trans. R. Soe. S. Anst. 83, 179-193. Worrner, H. (1961),—The occurrence of a shal- low vroundwater horizon and its natural oui- fots in northeastern-most South Australia. Trans, R, Soc, S. Aust. 85, 13-18. Worerser, H, (1964).—Tertiary duricrust-profile on Upper Proterozoic sediments, Granite Downs area. Quart, geol. Notes, geal. Surv- S. Aust. 12, 1-3, Worencr. IT, (1966).—A case history of the Gidvealpa gasfield. South Australia, Afotra- las. Oil Gas J. 12011), 29-53, Worrner, 1. (1967)—Some observations on Cainozoie fand-sarfaces in the Officer Basin. Onart. geal. Notes, weal, Surv, §. Aust. 23, 3-8, Woarrner. H. & Twiparn, GC. R. (1967).—Geo- morphological history of the Eake lyre Basin, Jn 4. N. Jennings & J. A. Mabbult, Eds... “Landform studies from Australia and New Guinewx”. pp. 118-143. (A.N.U. Press: Canberra.) Worrner, H., CALLEN, R. & Harris, W. K. (1974),—The Lower Tertiary Fyre Forma- tion of the south-western Great Artesian Basin. J. geol, Soc. Aust. 21(1). THE ORIGIN OF COTTONS BRECCIA, KING ISLAND, TASMANIA BY J. B. JAGO Summary JAGO, J. B. (1974).-The Origin of Cottons Breccia, King Island, Tasmania. Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 98(1), 13-28, 28 February, 1974. Cottons Breccia is the southernmost and most isolated of the proven and possible Late Precambrian glaciogenic sediments of Australia. It outcrops over a distance of 8 km along the southeast coast of King Island; it varies in thickness from 40 to 100 m. The lithology varies considerably, both laterally and vertically over quite short distances. Cottons Breccia is a very poorly sorted, crudely stratified rock with angular clasts set in a carbonate or limonite cement. Thin siltstone and sandstone lenses are reasonably common. The great majority of clasts show some rounding although some clasts show no sign of rounding. The largest clasts in any particular horizon are generally 30-50 cm or less across. However, at one locality there is a 15 m interval of very large carbonate clasts with the largest one being over 3.3 m long. The larger clasts tend to be quartzite and the smallest clasts a variety of metasiltstones. However, on the whole, various types of carbonates dominate the clast assemblage. Very rare basic lava clasts are known; no acid igneous or high grade metamorphic rock clasts have been found. THE ORIGIN OF COTTONS BRECCIA, KING ISLAND, TASMANIA by J. B. Jaco Summary Jace, J, B. (1974),—The Origin of Cottons Breccia, King Island. Tasmania. Traas. 2, Sav, A. Aust, 98(1), 13-28. 28 February, 1974, Cottons Breccia is the southerumosl and most. isolated of the proven and possible Late Precambrian glaciogenic sediments of Australia, It outcrops over a distance of 8 km alom the southeast coast of King Island; it varies in thickness from 40 to 100m. The lithology varies considerably, both laterally and vertically over quite short distances, Cottons Breccia is a Very noorly sorted, crudely stratified rock with angular clasts set in a carbonate or Hmonite cement. Thin siltstone and sandstone lenses are reasonably common. The great majority of clasts show some rounding although some clasts show ny sign of rounding. ‘I'he largest clasts in any pat- ticular horizon are generally 30-50 om or less across. However, at one locality there is a 15 m interval of very large carbonate clasts with the largest one being over 3.3 m long, The Jucger clasty tend to be quartzite aml the smallest clasts a variety of metasilistones. However, an the whole, various lypes of carbonates dominate the clast assemblage, Very rure busic luva clasts are known} no acid igneous or bigh grade metamorphic rock clasts have been Found, Features such as drop-stones, thin sandstone lenses within the breccia, and the possibility of varved sediments, suggest a glaciogenic origin for Cotions Breccia. The presence of graded bedding, the crudely stratified nature of the breccia and the fuct that almost all the clasts vre sedimentary suggest a densily flow origin. It is possible that Cottons Breccia originated in a fectonically active area by a combination of glacial action and submarine masy transport, Introduction Dunn ef al. (1971) have proposed to use the Late Precambrian glaciation of Australia ag the basis of a contintent-wide chronostratt- graphic unit, The southernmost and mest wo- lated of the glaciogenic sediments noted by Dunn e¢ al. (1971) is a tillite-like rock from King Island (Fig. 1). ‘The regional geology of King Island is shown in Fig. 2, This reck, defined below as Cottons Breccia, was first noted from City of Melbourne Bay by Warethouse (1916) who cansidered it to be a Permo-Carboniferous glacial till, Carey (1947), while supporting a glacial origin for Une cock, suggested a Cambnan age and corre- lation “with the Adelaide series glacial horizon, and iso with the Daspoort and Griquatown tillites of South Africa’, Carey also suggested that the overlying laminated dolomite may be a varved sediment. Hills & Carey (1949, p. 23) included the King Island rocks within the “Zechan Glacials” then considered to be of Cambrian age but now known to he Permian (Spry 1958; Blissett 1962). Hills & Carey {1949) stated: “this formation includes o true illite rich in striated pebbles associated with varved shales”. However, it was not specifically Stated that striated pebbles cume from King Tsland although Hilly & Carcy noled striated pebbles trom the Zechan-Dundas. area. David & Browte (1950, p. 77) called the tocks under discussion the King Island Beds and assigned them to the Late Precambrian. Banks (1956, 1962) and Spry (1962) agreed with Carey (1947) and considered the King Tsland rocks to be a tillite; Spry (1962) sug- gested correlation with the Sturt TVillite of South Australia. Edwards ef al, (1956, p, 75) noted the presence of irregular ovoid patches or “pods” in the hanging wail of what they termed the Top Orebody Bed of the King Island Scheelite Open Cut. They further suggested (p. 77) that these pod-bearing beds are the metamorphosed equivalent of Cottons Breccia. Bartlett (1962) called the rock a con alomerate Without reference to its origin, A map by Bartlett {p. 8 in Smith & Williams 1963) of the southeast coast of King Island notes the presence ef tillite and dolomite * Department of Applied Geology South Australian Institule of Technology, Adelaide. S.A, 5000, I4 J. B. JAGO 4 Claciogenic sédiments as Possible glaciogenic sediments 1000km Fig, |. Distribution of proven and possible glaciogenic sediments in Australia (modified after Dunn ef al. 1971). breccia. Schwarzbach (1965) noted the uncer- tain stratigraphic position of Cottons Breccia which he regarded as being of possible Late Precambrian age. In reviewing the possibility of a world-wide Late Precambrian glaciation, Harland (1964, 1965) included Cottons Breccin. in the Late Precambrian tillites. Solomon & Bartlett (in Solomon 1969) pro- duced a generalized stratigraphic succession of the southeast coast of King Island, They noted the presence of striated pebbles and mapped the unit concerned as a Lower Cambrian or Upper Proterozoic tillite. Large (1971) used the term tilloid to describe the rocks under discussion which he included in the Grassy Group. However, the Grassy Group was named by Knight & Nye (1953, p. 1,222) as “the contact metamorphosed sediments of the mine and environs”, One of the problems of the geolagy of the south-east of King Island has been the difficulty in trying to correlate from the City of Melbourne Bay arca to the mine area, Wo satisfactory correlation is available, and hence the term “Grassy Group” should not be used for rocks outside the mine area, The terminology of sediments of possible glacial origin has been discussed by various workers (Schermerhorn & Stanton [9463. Schwarzbach 1965, Schermerhorn 1966, Har- tand et al. 1966, Cooper 1971, Kroner & Ran- kama 1972. Rankama 1973). The terms till and tillite have been used for « considerable time for unlithified and lithificd glacial sedi- ments respectively (Harland e¢ al. 1966), Numerous workers (e.g, Schermerhorn & THE ORIGIN OF COTTONS BRECCIA, KING ISLAND. TASMANIA 15 @Naracoopa REFERENCE QUATERNARY and TERTIARY fs] aeouanire and LIMESTONE CARBONIFEROUS f+] GRANITIC ROCKS () CAMBRIAN SEDIMENTS and VOLCANICS PRECAMBRIAN GRANITIC: ROCKS _-7See Fig:3 SEDIMENTS and LOW-GRADE METAMORPHICS City of Melbourne Bay Fig. 2.. Geology of King Island (modified after Tasmanian Department of Mines map, 1961 edition). Stanton 1963, Kréner & Rankama 1972) supg- gest that the term tillite should be applied only to rocks of undoubted glacial origin. Such terms as tilloid, pseudotillite, diamictite and maixtite have been used to describe tillite-like sediments of doubtful or non-glacial origin. There is no general agreement as to which term, if any, should be used. In the following definition and discussion the term breccia is used because (a) it does not prejudge the origin of the rocks of southeast King Island and (by) it is a suitable descriptive term for these sediments. Definition Cottons Breccia is herein defined as that poorly sorted, crudely stratified rock, with imgular clasts set in a carbonate or hematite cement, which outcrops over a distance of about 8 km along and near the southeast coast of King Island between Lancaster Creek (lat, 39°57.2'S; long, 144°08.2'K) and Cottons Mlat (lat, 40°01.5’S; long. 144°06.9’E). The most common clasts are various carbonates, yuartzite and metasil{stones. They range up to 3,3 m across. Cottons Breccia is overlain cither conformably by a. siltstone or disconformably by a dolomite or dolomitic siltstone. It overlies a metasiltstone with apparent conformity. The formation yaries in thickness from about 40 m in the Robbins Creek/Cumberland Creek area to about 100 m in the City of Melbourne Bay area. The lithology varies considerably, both laterally and vertically, over quite short dis- lances. Hence, no type section is designated. The unit is unknown away from {he southeast coast of King Island. The age of the formation is either Late Precambrian or Cambrian, Cot- 16 J. B. JAGO REFERENCE ?LATE PRECAMBRIAN —?CAMBRIAN c volcan v_v_} Basic volcanics Dolomite, dolomitic siltstone, siltstone and shale . o © | Cottons Breccia j Ne t Lancs Dolerite SSter Cree [| Sandstone and siltstone —— Fault he Gut Creek oO fo Cottons /o 2hag Flat o// Fig, 3. Geology of part of south-east coast of King Island. THE ORIGIN OF COTTONS BRECCIA, KING ISLAND, ‘IASMANIA 7 fons Breccia tf oamed after Cottons Creek which enters the “ew at lat 40°01.4'S; long, 144°07.1' ER. Age at Rocks By comparison with similar yoleanics from western and northwestern Tasmania, the vol Cunics assocmied with the breccia suggest a Cambrian age (Carey 3847, Scott 1951, Solo- mon 1969}. Mowever, the age of the base of the essentially Cambrian volcanics in Tas- mania is unknown; it could be asx old a® the Late Precambrian, There is ulso the reverse argument, ic, if the breeela is indeed one of the Late Precam- brian tllites and that these fillites represent 4 chronostraugraphre unit as suggested by Dunn et al. (1971), then the essentially Cambrian volcanism of Tasmania would have started in the Late Precambrian. The volcanics from King Island have not been dated radio metrically, 1 conducted an unsuccessful search for fossils m the sediments overlying dhe breccia, The only tocks dated radiometrically on King Island are those reporied by McDougall & Legeo (1965), These workers concluded that the granitic racks of the west coast of King Island were most probably emplaced about 750 ma. If (he sedimentary rocks in- truded by granite on the west coast are con- formably overlain by the sequence centainiog the breccia on the east coast, then this would suggest a Precambrian age for the breccia. An alternative explanation is thai ihere is an un- conformity betwcen the sequences exposed on the west anc cast coasts of the island (Gres- ham 1972; Geopekn Ltd., unpublished report)- However, over most of King Island away from the coasts, a thin veneer of Quatemary sedi- ments obscures the underlying rocks, Thus, at present there is no direct evidence for the age of the breceia. Present Investigation In order to attempt to determine the origin of Cottons Brecetu, 9 days were spent on King Island between December 28, 1972, and January 5, 1973, The geology of the area undec discussion is shown in Fig. 3. The breceia is exposed along the south-east coast- line between Cottons Flat and Lancaster Crock over a distance of abnut. 8 km The re- lationship between the geology of the area shown ls Fiz, 3 and that of the mine area (immediately south of Fig, 3) & unknown The breccia appears to be cot off at both the Worth aid south by faults. Simligraphic sections were measured across the breeeta ar various points (Fig. 4). Where possible the sections Were ammeasured from the base of the overlying massive voleanics, down through the siltstones and breccia to the wnder- lying dolerite intrusion or sedimentary rock, However, at many localities even the top of the breecia was maccessible due to the sea. Once away from the shore platform, outcrop is very poor except in the gorges of Cuntberland and Robbins Creeks. In the southernmost outezops in the Cottons Flat avea, neither the lop mor the bottom of the breccia could be Jovated. although general stratigraphic considerations suggested that the base of the outcrops in this atea Were close ta che base of the. breccia, In most sections the breccia appears to conform- ably overlie u fine quartzite or metuasiltstone. However, in Robbins Creck it directly overties dolerite, In most sections a dolerite mtrusion is found only a Jittle way below the base of the breccia. In some localities (e.g The Gut) the breccia 1s overlain with appansnt conformity by a fine red hematitic sandstone (Figs. 6 & 7), a Jamifated red sillone or a fine preen siltstone, However, at one locality abawt 100m south of Shower Droplet Rock the laminated dolomite directly overlies the breccia with clear evidence of disconformity between the breccia and the dolomite (Figs. 8 & 9), In hoth Figs. 8 and 9 the busal part of the dolo- mite is clearly conglomeratic (particularly Fig. 9}. In the two northern sections (Cumberland Creek, Robbins Creek} the situation is dif- ferent. In both sections the main body of breccia is overlain by about 3.5 m of a hard, green Ivminuied dolomitic siltstone which In Robbins Creek contains a few pebbles } in 2 em across, This siltstohe is in tur overlain by about 1.5 m of fine breccia. In Cumberland Creek this “upper” breccia is overlain by about 3 m of pebbly sandstone before passing up into ar least 8 m of well-bedded, purplish silt- stone and dolomite, Jn Cumbertand Creek there tf no more than 43 m of section between the top of the breccia and the base of the avetlying massive volcanics. In the other sections whore the sediments above the breccia and averlying thin siltstone are exposed, there are between 3 and 12 m of laminated dolomite Which in places is pyritic. This is followed by between 20 and 35 m of Ls 1 & JAGO lominared grey, green, and black siltstones ant shales, some of which are dolumitic or pyritic. At some localiti¢s there are volcanic horizons (tufts amd lavas) within these siltstones, Basic dvkes cut the breccia and overlying sediments m numerous localities. Lithvlogy of Cottans Brecei The breccia is jenerally a very poorly gorted, crudely stratified mock wath angular clasts sel in a carbonate, or a limenite, cement (Fivs. (0, 1) and 12). The breccia varies in thickness from about 40 nt inthe Rebhins Creek/ Cumberland Creek are to abour 100 m in the City of Melbourne Bay urea, However, in the City of Melbourne Koy area Ihe out-crop is poor and the figure of 100 m may he excessive. In the Cunglo- merate Créeck urea between the mouth of Con- plomerate Creek and Shower Droplet Rock the thickness 1s about 80 m althaugh outerop ig poor (Figs. 4 and 5) so that the exact thick- ness is dificult ta obtain. However, the pre- sence of scattered float in the parts of the sec- lions Shown in Figs, 4 und 5 as “No utterop™ suggests that SO mr is the approximate thick- ness of Cottons Breccia in the Conglomerate Creck/Shower Droplet Rock ares. Thus, there appears & definite thinning to the north. As noted above, neither the top nur the hettom of the breceia is exposed in the Cottons Flat arcu south of City of Melbourne Bay. The hrescia shows great lithological varia- Gon, both lateral and vertical, over extremely short distances. Fig, 5 shows the distribution of elast sizes within the breccia frum various seglions. ‘The fine breccia in Fig. 3 is where few or to elpsts are over 10 em across, melinm beceia is considered to be where there are a substantial number of clasts be- tween 10 snd 20 em across, but few abave 20 eit across: course breccia is considered to be where there arc a substantial number of clasts mute than 20 em across, Admittedly, this. ir an arhitrary subdivision, but it was found to be a convenient one in the field: hence ? feel that it is of some value As shown in Fig. 5, there is no correlation on the basis of clist sive even in closely spaced sechons. However, it the Conglomerate Creek/The Gut area there is an apparently continuous, very coarse hori- zon (1 to 4m thick} just below the top of the breccia (Figs. 6, 7, 13 and 14). The breccia it Robbins Creek, the northernmost section measured, showed less variation in average Mast size than ual the breccia further squth. Thin Cup to 30 cm across and 10m lon), comparatively well-sorted siltxtone afd sand- sloiwe lenses are reasonably common within the hrecein (Vigs. }Oand 15). Most horizons show foie sighs of crude stratiivation with Jurger clasts tending to line up with theis long axes roughly purallel to the stratification (Pigs, 1] and 15). Between Cottons Flat and The Gat there is an apparently continuous hartéun wi tuff which in thin. section shows shards. The great majority of the clasts show some rounding (Figs. 11 and 13) although some show no roumling at all (Figs, 16 pnd 17}- The largest clasts at any level are usually 30- $0 em actress although at many bhomvons they are less than 10 em across (My. 15)- How- ever, at The Gut there is a 75 mi intervil of very Jarve cream carbonate clasts wilh Lie largest clast being over 3.3 m long, This large boulder is itself a conglomerate with lyht prey carbanate and chert clasts set in a ercam car- honule (ies. 18 and 19), No similuc yery larac clasts were seén away from Uhe Gut. The clas! types include various carbonates, ipiarizite, pyritic quartzite, chert, metasilt- stones, sandstones, rect jasper and basic lavas, The vartous carbonates: dominate the elast assemblage with cream and grey dolomites being the most common (Fig, 12), except in the Cottons Plat area where quartzite clasts tend to be as common as the carbunate clasis. A very dark limestone is found occasionally near the top of the breccia (Fig. 13); # [ew oolitic limestone clasts are known throughout the sections. Quurizite clasts tend to make up the majority of clasts uver 20 cm across, The pyrilic quartzite clasts were seen only in the Cottons Flat area. The smallest clasts (less (han 3 om) tend ta conlain a predominance of black, greet and grey. sometimes laminated, metasiltstones, Rare cross-bedded — siltstone clasts are known, The red jasper clasts ate quite rare, although they are up to 40 cm across. Tit any one section, a particular cream dolo- mite or a black metasiltstane may predominite at a vertaia level, However, when plotted over the whale ared. it was found that the commen clast types occur throughout the breccia and thar no particular clust type can be sotd to he characteristic of any particular level within the breccia, with the probable exception of the rare very dark limestone mentioned ahove. Very rare clasts of basic Invas ure known. No acid igneous rocks of high grade metamor- 19 CIA, KING ISLAND, TASMANIA OTTONS BREC C THE ORIGIN OF ‘¢ ‘sff ul uMoys ole C-D pUue q-Y SUOT}SaS JO SUONedO, BYT “Wj4 SuUOT}OD 0} YsesD suIqqoy Was Syd01 luadefpe pue BiId901g sMO}OD YsnoIY} suoides o1ydeisneng “p ‘S14 WIOU LIWdOeT H3MOHS Awe aNSmOg Ta 20 ALD YAW = SNOLOD avid SNOLIOS Oe 2 NOILDIe 8-7 NOR 235 ’ y WA3sS | SNTHBOW w3ds0 ONTIHAISHINS REEL a SL¥HIWIOVINOD ASALEIY IORI OUTDO ON Cistal HL | HARA Suenos SIMISHIS Pu HUIS BS AIM ad TAIGISDUES BUI) NUR AVOISTS UME HIS 2 AIQJOP PURE ILULIOG SHES PIP SAUDIS S AsUIN RIP AqEussah pay STMIEDION SiseR SINIS3d38 J, B. JAGO St BIdI9Iq assZoo [SSO.198 wo QT aAogR May ynG "SSO WD OZ ULY} alOU s}s¥j> JO JOqWUN TENURISGNS B 318 a1dY} aay aq O} Pesapisuo0d SZ pue QO] Ueamjaq s}SE[D JO JAQIUNN JeNUBISQNS B ae a1sy) eJeymM 3q 01 Polopys _ JO May SIaYM SI BIDIAIG SULLY “BIMIeTG SUONOD UTYIAA sazIs JSETD JO uoNNgINSIGE “¢ “Bly “sSOIOB UID -UOD Sf PIDIAIG WINIPaUL ‘sso13e UID OT JaAO ae sqsujd OU SN GBH WaadS CON THINS WOON L4dOWO BIMOHS d-3 NOILOAS Sono any [3] Aubyduod sedapjay trend) GS] prs sauuyon seed Tana ML a ‘AUDIT By avorspuies [7] wnoaig aseug [5 0 esnen| lumpaly [ES winoasy aula [Woee SONaeS 4398 u-¥ NOUS WA 4AVeBWOTDNOD voone SN OL whic oMCaeT s100d AVE ANYNOATIW 4O ALD iwia4 SNOLLOO wa3UD SNOLLOD visas Wiican. WasUeKa SAUL LHE ORIGIN OF OOTTONS BRECCIA, KING ISLAND, TASMANIA 21 phi: recks are known from the clast assem-= blage. Since the source of the clasts is inknown, a classification into intrabasinal and extrubasinal lypes in the manner of Schermerhorn & Stan- ton (1963) is inapplicable, Sedimentary Structures within the Breccia In the Cottons Flat area, graded bedding is quite conimon, There are two scales of graded hedding, The finer scale of graded bodding is exposed towards the base of the outerops in a fine green sandstone and siltstone with pyrite pseudomerphs, Each graded layer is between 2 and 7 em across. The best exposures of the coarser scale of graded bedding are Just south of Cottons Creek where each graded Jayer is up to 30 ¢m across (Fig. 20). One possible example of reversed grading is scen in the Cartons Flat jrea, Graded bedding as not seen awpy [rom the southerit outcrops, There is af lenst one well marked local dis- conformily within the hraccia at (be southern- most oulcrop at Cottons Plat. There appear to he disconformities within the breccia at ather Iocaliuies, cg, at The Gut just abave the biggest clast (Fig. 21). However, the generally very poorly bedded pature of the breccia makes disvonformities within it difficult to. pick out, There tre a few examples of wet sedinicit movement within the breceiw. At one Inoation in the Cottons Flat area convolnted bediiny iidicates 4 west to east muvemeni of the scdi- ment, In the vicinity af The Gut there ure rare clasts af sandstone Which show lear evi- dence of being transported lo the site nf ue position before hein properly consolidated (Fig. 22), Striated pebbles have been feparted by Solo- mon (1969), but the weiter did nov observe any Such pebbles. Theee are several examples of what may be drop-siones (Pigs. 23 ans 24}, These figures show possible drop-stones in the Cottons Flat area, Figure 24 is of particular interest tr dhat the surrounding sediment is reasonably fine grained. About 5 cry below at there is a 6 cm thick set of Jamimae of graded fine sandstones and siltstones which could be interpreted as yarves. Origin of Cottons Breecia The criteria used for the recognition of glacial sediments have been discussed or listed by several workers (Flint 1961, 1971, Harland 1964, 1963, SchWarvbach 1964: Heeven & Hollister 1964; Harland er al, 1966: Hamilran & Krnsley 1967; Kroner & Rankama 1972). Harland e af (1966) comprehensively reviewed the criteria for distinguishing lillites from other rocks, They concluded that there is Only one criterion which con be considered lo be unequivocally in favour of a sediment having a elavial origin, ie the presence of uumerous large boulders penetrating and de- forming a series of host strata. However, as noted by Harland et al. (1966) the shape, surface, size and composition of the clasts within the sediment under consideration may be used in favour of a glacial origin if the features are of sutlivient quantity and quality. Harland er af. (1966) also note that the presence of extensive grooved and striated pavements also clearly indicates glacial abra- sion, e.g. the Lite Precambrian pavements of the Kimberly Revion of Western Australia des- cribed and figured) by Dow (1965), Dow & Gemuts (1969) and Perry & Roberts (1968), However, problems arise when there ave only limited exposures: of pavements or possible pavements (¢.2, Daily vf al, 19735. One af the most commonly used criteria lor evidence of glaciation is the presence of striated clasts, However, striations can be formed by other menns (Harland ef af, 1966). Despite this, some workers (e.g. Bruckner & Anderson [971) continue te use the presence of! striated clasts as unequivocal evidence of a stacial origin for the enclosing sediment. Tf a tillite-like sediment is not of vlaciogeric origin, the most commonly postulated alterna- tive explanation is a mudtiow or density flaw Origin (eg. Schermerhom & Stanton 1963; Winlerer 1964; Schermerhorn 1964), Scher- merhorn & Stanton (1963) listed 22 points as evidence in determining whether « breccia from the West Congn Gieasyncline should be considered to be of glacial origin ur of density Raw origin, Kifhurn ey al, (£965, p, 358) dts pulte the validity of all but three of these cri- letig and suggest that the criteria which favour a density flow origin are (1) the presence of graded bedding, (2) the presence of the largest boulders in the thickest tillite-like beds and (3) the occurrence of tillite-like sediments at the beginning of sedimentary cyeles accompanied by sharp epeirogenic downwarping of the basin. Flint (1971, Table 7-B) tabulated the characterrstics of tills and tillites ss compared with fllite-like sediments of non-glaciogenic nrigin. Heezen & Hollister (1964) stated that turbidity current deposits are frequently associated with glaciation but thay need not he An example of this is the Lute Palaeozoic glacial sequences af the Falkland Islands which 2 | B. JAGO in purt dre the result of submarine mass moye- ment {Frakes & Crowell 1967) allhough a similar tase from the Late Precambrian of northern Nopyay desuribed by Siedlecka & Roberts (1972) has been strongly disputed by Bjonykke (19733, Heeven & Hollister (1964, Table 1) suggested (hal although turbidity cur- rent deposits tre clearly different from placio- veme sediments, lillites and sediments of mud- flow origin ure very difficult to distinguash. Kilburn et al (1965) and Spencer (1971) have suggested that the presence of discon- tinuwas horizons of sorted sediment (mudstonc and sandstone) within structureless breccia are dificult io explain by a mudflow hypothesis und that such horizons indicate a glacial origin for the breceit, Dott (1963), Fisher (1971) und Cook er al, (1972) have discussed various uspeets of sediments derived from submarine eravity transport, The pomls in favour of Cottons Breccia being of glaciogenic origin are (1) the angular nature of most clasts: (2) the passihility of drap-stones being present, (3) the presence ot some fine graded sedi- ments within the breccia in the Cottons Mlat area which could be interpreted as varves; (4) the prescnee of undetarmed and com- paratively well sorted sandstone and siltstone Lenses up to 10 om long within the breccia. The maim Featires of the rock suggesting that the rock is oot of ginciogenic origin are; (1) The presence of a considerable amount of coarse graded bedding in the Cottons Ilal area, Although the fine seule grad- ing noted above could be considered as varves, the coarse grading shown in Fig. 20 is unlikely to have been de- posited hy wlacial action. (2) She “conglomerate in conglomerate” nature ol the furgest boulder at ‘The Gut indicating that there are at least Iwo similar depositional cycles involved in the deposition of this boulder. (3) ‘The only non-sedimentary clast types are rare basic Javas which are alniost certainly of local origin. In other well known placial sequences, e.g, the Per- mian rocks of Tasmania and the Late Precambrian Sturt Tillite of South Aus- tralia, metamorphic and igneous clasts are yery promment where there are abuudant wlasts. This suggests a oit- glacial origin lor Cottons Breccia, although such evidence is clearly far from conclusive, because the clast types in glacial sequences depend on the ter- rain over which a glacier has passed. No formation similar to Cottons Breeei is known in the Late Precumbnan or Cambrian sequences of Tasmania: If such i formetion was found in a similar stratigraphic position then the acrial extent of the rock woyld probably indicate a glacial origi. Dolomite, or a dolomitic siltstone. 15 closely associated with many of the confirmed Austra- lian Late Precambrian tillites (Dunn et of. 1971). Spencer (1971) and Spencer & Spencer (1972) have noted the association of proven tillites and dolumites in Late Precambnan sequences, The presence of dolomite and dolo- miti¢ siltstones just above Cottons Brescia May indicate glacial or at leust cold conditions, Speneer & Spencer (1972) have moled the appuirent contradittion of the high temperature origin (>22°C or 35-S55°C) usually propused lor primary dolomile in relation to the ussoviated cold temperature tillites. Fisher (1971) has suggested (hut course. grained deposits, forrned by high concentration debris flows. will be poorly sorted, will have un utwupperted framework, may include elon- pute frauments aligned roughly partllel with the hedding and may show inverse erading. These features are present in Cottons Hreveta except that the grading in Cottons Brevela ts normal, However, as nated above, sediments furmed by submarine mass movernent are guile likely to be found in a ghicral enviran- ment. The presence of volcanics within Cottons Brescia indicates thal, at the time of deposi tion, the King Island area may have been tee- tonically active. Intermittent earthyuakes vould have given rise to a series of Uchbris flows. Against this is the presenee of the contpara- tively well sorted thin lenses of sinustone und siltstone within the breeeia. Such bodies are dificult to explain if a gravily slide mechanism is invoked for the origin of the breccia {Kil- burn ef al, 1965; Spencer 1971). Conclusions The evidence discussed above docs not pro- vide an unequivocal answer to the problem of the origin of Cottons Breccia, Features such as drop-slanes, the thin sandstone lenses within the breccia and the associated dolamite favour w glacial origin. The presence of graded bed- ding, the crudely stratified nature ol the breccia and the faet thar almost all the clasts are of THE ORIGIN OF COTTONS BRECCIA, KING ISLAND, TASMANLA 33 sedimentury origin tend to favuur yw density flow formation. It ts possible that Cuttons Breccia originated in a tectonically active area by a combination of glacial action and sub- mutine mass transport, Le. it May represent a density flow deposit derived from an area affected hy glaciation. The area in which the breccia was deposited was intermittently alfec- ted by volcanism and may have had twebergs floating on the overlying sea, releasing debris which dropped into the underlying sediment. Acknowledgements Thus work would not have been possible without u grant from the Keyl Society of South Australia Research and Endowment Fund, Mr. M. Rogers, Senior Geologist ul Geopeku Limited, kindly arranged accammo- dation at Grassy; he generously supplied the writer wilh maps and sections of the areca, Mr. J, Skipworth of City of Melbourne Bay kindly allowed the writer access to the out- craps worth and south of City of Melburene Bay. Mr. D. Carver and Miss A. Boos pro- vided villuuble technical assistance. Dr. A. S. Joyce (South Austrajian Institute al Tech- nology) em Uhanked for advicy on thin section work, Dr B. Daily (University of Adelaide) gave valuable advice. References Banks, M. R. 1 19S6).—The Middle and Upper Cambriun Sees (Dundas Group and its Cor- telules}) in Tasmania. E/. Sister Cambrica, Proe. 20 Int. géol, Couge, 2, 165-272. Banks, M. R, (1962),—Cambrian System. J. geo), Sor. Arst. 9, 127-146. Basteutt, H, S, (19462)-—King Island. J. geel. Soe. Anse. 9, 134. RyoweyKRt, PF. (1973).—A conintent, A Late Pre- cambriana oid fram Varangerhalvoya—evi- dence of both glaciation and subsaquecus ig movement. Norsk. geal, tidyskr. $3, 79- 0 Rarssevy, A. H. (1962)—Ciedlovy of the Zeehan Sheet, 1 Mile Geol. Map Scries K 55-5-5() Explan. Rep. Geol. Srv, Taso, Bruckner, W, b., & ANDERSUN, M. M. [1971 ) —Liute Precambrian glacial deposits ji) South- pue suonoas oydei8ness reuUNOD * SINT ONWS INZITY 54 Cc. B. FOSTER Baculatisporites sp. Calamaypora diversiformixs Balme & Hennelly 1956 Calaimospora sp. cf. C. microregosa Schopt, Wilson & Bental! 1944 Deltaidespera directa (Balme & Hennelly) Norris 1965 Densaisporites solids Segroves 1970 Granafatisporites sp. ct. G, teisinas Balme & Hennelly 1956 Granwlatixsporites trisinus Balme & Hennelly 1956 Horriditriletes ramosuxy (Balme & Hennelly) Bharadwaj & Salujha 1964 Krauselisporites sp. Leschikisporis. cestus Segroves 1970 Laphorriletes sp. (Fig. 11} Trilete, triangular amb with — strongly developed concave sides, paralleling the laesurue, Ruised lips (1 pm) slightly thickened, Exine | pm thick supporting on the distal sur- face and ul the equator small blunt cones (2 wm high, 1 ym apart) and spines 2-4 pm, 1.5 ,m apart. Ornament lacking on proximal face. Diameter 35,.m. Differs from ¢f, L. versus Bharadwaj & Salujha 1964 by the strong con- cavity of the amb and the increased armament. but lacks the thickened interradii ‘reas of C- roviens Singh 1964, Aficrohaculispora tentila Tiwari 1965 Punetaiiyporites. gretensiy Balme & Hennelly 1956 Prnctatisporites sp. cf. P. gretensis (Fig, 7) In all regards this form resembles P, grefen- sis, except in size. Av, diameter 20 pm cf, 118 ym. of the latter: The exine, 2 pm, 1 thicker than that of P. rininius de Jersey 1960, Verrucasisperites sp- Antcturma POLLENITES R, Potonié 1931 Turma PLICATES Naumova 1939 Subturma MONOCOLPATES Iversen & Trocls-Smith 195U Cycadopites cymbatus (Balme & Hennelly) Seygroves 1970 Marsupipollenites triradtatys forma iriradiatus Balme & Hennelly 1956 TYurma SACCITES Erdiman 1947 Subturma MONOSACCITES Chitaley emend. Potonié & Kremp 1954 Papasaccites gondwanensts (Balme & Hen- nelly) Segroves 1969 (Fig. 16) Purusaceites sp. A (Fig. 17) Monosaccate, trilete scar ruptured on several specimens. Distal saccus attachment overlaps 1/3 of corpus diameter, Amb triangular, with undulant margin. Corpus rounded triangular in shape. Sacci brochi clongate, 05-1 pm ia diameter, Dimensions (3 specimens): T.D, 60 um, C.D. 30 ym. This species differs fram lV. wriangularis (Mchta) Lele 1964 in that the corpus is roundly triangular and not circular. Parasaceites sp. Parasaccites sp. cf, ¥, Mehtae Lele 1964 Parasaccites iiffusus Tiwari 1965 Potonieisporites: balmet (Hart) Segroves 1969 (Fig, 9) !Moffmeisterties sp. (Fig. 19) Monosaccate, Amb oval, corpus. sub-circu- lar with marginal folds, Trilete mark not seen. Saccus attachment. is equatorial and sub- equatorial. Dimensions; longitudinal axis. 160 pm}; transverse axis 100 pm; corpus diameter 73 wm. Subturma DISACCITES Cookson L947 Alisporites gracilis Segraves 1969 Limitispovites moersensis (Grebe) 1963 (Fig. 13) Limitispariies sp. cf. L. reetus Leschik 1956 (Fig, 21) Dillers from LZ. rectus being somewhat larger; total breadth 76 ,.m, breadth of corpus 42 ym; saccus length 38 pm, corpus length 46 pm; cappa width 26 pm. Protohaploxypinus rugatus Segroves 1969 Sviatoabietites multistriatus (Balme & Hen- nelly) Hart 1965 (Fig. 5} Sulcatisporites sp. Sulcatisporites sp. cl, §. splendens Leschik 1956 (Fig, 18) Filiatina sp. Klaus Incertae Sedis Group ACRITARCHA Evitt 1963 Subgroup ACANTHOMORPHITAE Dewnie et af, 1963 ?Baltisphacridiuar sp. (Fig. 12) Micrhystridium spp. Subgroup POLYGONOMORPINTAE Downic et al, 1963 Veryhachinm spp. (Fig. 10) Subgroup NETROMORPHITAE Downie er al. 1963 Lelofusa spp. (Fig. 15) Algae Borryococeus braunii Kiltzing 1849 (Fig, 6) Composition of Palynological Assemblage No significant quantitative changes in ntic- spore composition were recorded from any of the samples (see Fig. 3), Unfortunately, spores {ron the upper samples in Peesey Swamp Ne. |b (10.6 m5 m) were too pourly PERMIAN SEQUENCE AT WATERLOO BAY 35 WATCRLOG BAY ASSEMBLAGE S 2419 MEAN *% WATERLOO BAY ASSEMBLAGE Migevebueuidspera ASSEMBLAGE SEGROVES (1970) A&B PERTH BASIN Cad WATERLOO BAY 1 “TOTAL” SPORES 2 MONOSACCATE POLLEN 3 (NON STRIATE) DISACCATE POLLEN 4 (STRIATITI) . i“ 5 SPINOSE ACRITARCHS & NON SPINOSE ACRITARCHS 7 MONOCOLPATE POLLEN 8 MONOLETE SPORES TRILETE SPORES Acnihotvidetes ASSEMBLAGE 3 SEGROVES (1970) NOTE: 1. SEGROVES DID NOT INCLUDE GROUPS 7, 8 & 9 2. “TOTAL SPORES FROM THE SUMMATION OF 8 & 9 PERCENT OF TOTAL ASSEMBLAGE Fig. 3. Quantitative comparison of microfloral assemblages. if C. B. FOSTER preserved io allow airy firmer conclusious other than that the fssemblage is of Permian age, Consequently, ouly one microflora] assemblage is considered lo be preset, This well preserved, moderately diverse assemblage is dominated by monosaccate pollen including Poeronteisperites baled and FParasuccites spp. (av. 20%, max, 30%). Monoculpaie pollen. Cvcadopites cyimbetis, 18 also abundant (S--10%) as ix the trilete spore Micrabaculispora teatila (12%). Nonestriate bisaceates form a minor element of the assem- blive (3¢6) .and striate bisaccates are rare (<1%). Four venera of spinose acritarchs are presen! (up ta 13%) and include Mery- hachitun. Miorhystridium, and Lelofusa. Per- centages are bused on a total count of 1,600 apecimens, Apart from these elements, a well preserved reworked Middle to Laie Devenian microflora (up ta 298} is present, including Gemninesprra lerawata Balme, Corvelutivpure fromenvix Balme & Hassell, and Avcrvaspora sp. Fungal spores, algac, Botryacocrus braanti, and wood fragments lotm 4 minor background element. No megaspores were found. Biosiraligraphy and Age The Australian Permian = mierofloral sequence has been subdivided into various pulynastratigraphic zones, Evans (1969), working in southern und eusterm Australia, erected a five-fold subdivision (“Stages 1-5) which he considered ranved from Late Car- bonilerons through to Late Pennian (Stages 25). He related these Stugexs to the early work by Balme (1964) in Wester Australia. Paten (1969) re-subdivided Stages 45 into six sub-stages on material from ihe Cooper Basin (South Austeatia). More recently Scgraves (1970) produced five assemblage zones within the Permian sequence of the Perth Basin. The relalionship hetween these schemes is shown in Fig. 4. Atthouwh the late Karly to Late Per- minh subdivisions do not apply ia this study, they have heen included for completeness Recugnition of these subdivisions is based upon the first appearances of key specics and the quantitative composition of the assembluge (in particular Segroves 1970; this study). Prob- lems exist using this approach because of facies variuliums (Balme 1969; sec later), and ih Many cases the precise stratigraphic ranges of the key species are not known Negative evidence such as [he absence of a particular Stave (indicator within a well preserved assem- lage is often used to preclude it Frans heing younger than that Stage. This approach may noc be desirable and it reflects the need for further study of the Austealian Permian, The writer iy currently engaged in research into these problems in the Bowen Basin, central Queensland. Coarrelation The Waterloo Bay Assemblage muy be com- pared with Evans’ (1969) assomblages (‘Stages’) and with those of Segroves (1970)- The correlation usmg both works is shown separately and the differences are discussed. Two species, Deltoiduspora directa and Maérsepipofenties triradiutus forma, triradiatis, which Evans (1969, Vig. 4) has shown do hor oveur in ussembliuges older than his Stage 2. were found in the Waterloo Ray Assemblage. In addition the presence of striate bisaccate forms. c.g, Proloheploxsypinus rugatus, exclude the assemblage from Stage 1, The absence of Fermneavisperites psreudoreticulats, a. Stage 3 index form, within this well-preserved assem- blage, is taken Lo indicate that the microflora ts nul younger than Stage 2, Consequently, using these criteria (he Walerloao Bay Assem- blage i& equated with Stage 2, In terms of Segroves’ units (L970, text. fix. 2) the Waterloo Bay Assemblage compures closely with that of the “Micrabaculispora Assemblage" (Stage 2, Evans’ units). A quanti- tative comparison is given in Fig. 3 The slightly higher percentage of striate bisuceale pollen at Waterloo Bay suggests that its micro- fiora is younger than the Perth Basin assem- htage, and is therefore correlated with the upper Nangelly Vormatian, Perth Basm. However. using the range chart (Seeroves 1970, fig, 4) the Waterloo Bay Assemblave appears ta correlate with the “deanthetrileres Assemblage” (Stage 3 plus lower Stage 4; bvans" units). ‘The species whose ranges indi- cafe this are Grannlatisporites trisinus, Tuber- culctosporites modicus and Laevivatosporites flexuy; and are included with several other species (yiz. C. diversiformits, .4. teretiangu- fatus, A. levis) of the ien considered diagnos- tic of that assemblage (Scgroves 1970, p. 514). ‘Yo check this discrepancy the two microfloras were compared quantitatively (Fig, 3). The Waterloo Bay Assemblage way found to differ from the “Acanthetriferes Assemblage’ as tollows: (i) The greater abundance of monosaccute pollen, PERMIAN SEQUENCE AT WATERLOO BAY 47 PLATE CARBON IFEROUS EARLY PERMIAN PLATC PERMIAN m5 MMarobactiispom: | duadyienorites | Aeaitho. Fp Linsye tia Pulfimeleeepors Assemblage QL6T SANG Assemblage Assems}age Assam] aye a3emb]sge ; oe iydhur ony ASspmhlage SANOZ TWeO140Y liv Assetblage Toga bettie Pe Assemblage. * andi uaddn SdTYenoul } aLBul | tueg RAUEMBUL LY) Pasemeun yey SLEyS aaust Any ‘Wy Uo [Lsdy :]Pauasoy ‘W) Se4yb roo, NISWS YF4d903 2191 asnoyazeg GIDGEALPA FORMAT LON > a g > o ps z a a ° a 3 im io pow ‘ { da ) BUpAey UCN, uoLirsudap 4X8) fas 7 \ TON BUsaoouezOOR PUL plod, NISVd VONTUVRdaY Toon yues Appny 5 i Siduey |y2l6i Shey WUjod UMoug 226. # 6961 Sh44eH “qdaq yg sqvoday pays ..qndy ba Sauly Oot Shidey a? Fig. 4. Permian microfloral subdivision, South Australian biostratigraphy. 4B CG. B, FOSTER (ii) The greater abundance of spinose acri- tarchs. (li) The lower frequency of bisaccate pollen, ‘The first two can be explamed by facies variations, the acritarchs indicating saline con- ditiahs, while the monosaccate pollen indicate proximity to the floral source, as their disper- sal is effected by wind and water currents (Muller 1959). However, the low frequency of bisaecatés cannot be explained by the same reasoning, and is considered significant as they reflect the progression of floral evolution (Balme 1962). Consequently the apparent correlation (ic. with the “Acanthatriletes As. semhiave) is rejected. Because of this, the stratigraphic ranges of these three species, mien- tioned above, presumably extend into earlier Permian strata, age Marine shelly fossils from the Nangetty For- mation. Perth Basin, and the Upper Lochinvar Formation, Sydney Basin, hoth Stage 2 micro- floral localities, have been correlated with those: from the type Sakmarian (Dickins 1963, 19682, b) and are accordingly of Karly Per- mian age, The Waterloo Bay Assemblage cor- telated herein with the Stage 2 microflora is. therefore, of Early Permian age. Moreover the gross microfforal composition of this assem- blage, in particular the low percentage tacniate hisaceate poilen, is considered indicative of middle Sakmarinn age (Ralme 1962; Segroves 1969; Hart L971). Although problems jn correlating the Aus- tralian Permian with the standard Russian sec- tions exist (see Waterhouse 1970), the Standard Stage names ave used in this paper to allow rapid comparisons with earlier pub- lished works. However, should the recent con- clusions of Balme (1973) regarding the posi- tion of the Carboniferous/Permian boundary he accepted, the Waterloo Bay Assemblave will be of Late Carboniferous age. Local Implications Correlations with other Permian scdiments within South Australia are shown in Fig. 4. Such information is useful in palaeogeouraphic and environmental interpretations, Within the Troubridge Basin the outcrop at Waterloo Bay has been correlated with at least 35 m of Per- mian sediments intersected (45-80.5 m) in Poesey Swamp No, |, The high frequency of reworked, execl- lently preserved Devonian spores suggests a local origin (Harris & McGowran 1971), Long distance transport along ice movement path- ways [rom areas of proven Devonian sedimen- tation (eg. Antarctica, Uclhy & McElroy 1969) would destroy the palynomorphs, par- Licularly these with delicate appendages such as Anervespora. This ts further evidence of Devonian deposition within the State (see Harris & McGowran 1973). Faviranment The following environmental inferences are made [rom a consideration of the preserved associations of microfossil groups in the Water- foo Bay sediments. Spinose acritarchs have in general been re- garded ns indicators of marine conditions or marine influences (Downie, Evitt & Sarjeani 1963), Smith & Saunders (1970, p. 324) demonstrated that acyitarchs of the same genera (viz, Feryhachiurm, Baltisphaeridium: also see Staplin 1961) as those from Permian sequences ate “confined to areas continuously or intermittently open to marine waters and FIGS, 5-21 All figures x 400, Pig Fig. Fig. 7, Punctatisporites sp, 8. Apiculalixperis sp., S$ 2441/2, 27,8:110,1. - Laphatriletes sp,, 8 2388/1, 48.0; 104.7, Letojisa sp., 8 2389/1, 33,0:93.3. 5, Strintuahtetites, maltistriatus (Balme & Uenneliy) Hart, § 2267/3, 23,8:114.1. 6 Botrvococens Pbraunii Kitzing, S 2267/1, 25,5:113.0, cf. P. erétensis Balme & Hennelly, & 2267/4. 40,8:101,9, - Poronteisporires balmet (Hart) Segroves, S 23%)! 1, 32,3;99.8- . Fervhachinm sp. (cluster), S 2267/4, 27.0:100.4. 2. YBaltisphaeridium sp. S 2389/1, 39.0;95,0. (Nomarski Interference.) . Limitisporites movcrsensiy (Grebe) Klaus, 8 2267/4, 25.5:110.8. . Laevigatasporites flexns Segroves, S 2267/4, 25.811 103. ” 19, "20, 21 eo. 21. . Parasavcites gondwanenyty (Balme & Hennelly) Segraves, S 2267/2, 36.8:109 7 - Parasaccites sp. A, 8 2419/1, 4). 2112.4, » Sulcatisporites sp. cf, S. splendows Leschik, 5 2390/3. 20.0: 109.1. ?Hoffmeisterites sp.. S 2390/5, 39.6: 109.6. Geminespara lemerua Balme (reworked Devonian example), S 2267/4, 99,6404 Limitispovites sp. of. 1. zecths Leschik, S 2388/3, 32,4:92.8, PERMIAN SEQUENCE AT WATERLOO BAY 39 AY ( do nor Oeeur an Muviil deposas”. Data from SAG. Cootatoorina No, ) CArckariney Basin, Harris & MeGowran 1973) are it keeping with this conclusion and suggest a threshold salinity is requiree for their Sppearanee. Within the Permin sequence al Waterloo Bay the vsseciation of spmose aeritarchs and ariaceous Foraminifert ts taketh to midivaie unequivocally marine conditions, Further- mote, a dow selinin marine emuronment is in- ferred from the following: (1) The presence of Borrvococetis bratutii within ihe assemblage. This is generally rumirded as a fresh wuter species (Blackburn 1936; Duthuriv 1944) although Cookson (7983) has recorded B. brani From Recent brackish walter environments, (2) The meagre foraminiferal assenmblige consisting of only a few specimens (LR) of upparently only a single species, Hertidiseny bale’ Ladbrook IAT which is a primitive form, far which uw low salinity envirenment seems likely (Harris & McGowran 1971). (3) The excellent preservation of the miv- spores, in particular the reworked Devontin forms. Tsehudy (1969) has shown that such preservation wauld best be achieved under low pH, negwive Eh canditions where bicterial aelivily is minor, Such conditions are commonly developed on hake bottoms and in closed basins; Le. not normal murine situations. Accordingly it is believed that the Permian sequence pt Waterloa Bay was deposited in a low salinity onuine or quasimaripe enyiron- ment. Evidence of Permian glivial activity within the Troubridge Basin, particularly on Fleuricu Pemisula (hig. 1), has been well documented (see Ludbrook 19699). At Waterloo Bay vlaucial influence is indicated by erratics und rare faceted pebbles which occur within the sequence. Accordingly cold climatic conditions are inferred. This view is also maintained by Ludbrook (1967, 19699) and Harris & MeGow- rin (1971) wha have stated that the aren- uceous foraminiferal assemblages are also con- sistent wilh cold water conditions (see above). Moreover troughs or fiords have been postu- litect as the sites of deposition of the micro- faunas (Ludbrook 19694). The diversity of the microflaral assemblage at Waterloo Buy suggests, however, that con- ditions were not fully glacial and that the cli- Mate Was becoming warmer. In a comparative study Of microfloral assemblaves (Stave 2) RO FOSTER from Antarctica, South Americ and Pakistan, Kemp (1973, p. 48) concluded it was likely that the sediments extimined “represent a late sluge in the ghicial history of the areas stucicd™. An active leclome environment covering all af southern Australia has heen proposed hy Woplner (1970) and MeGowrar (1973). Both Workers hive postulated that unittal rifting between Australia and Antarctica occurred during this time. Although there is little olher evidence from the present study. it is most Itkely that the sediments were deposited ut graben strayctiies formed by syhgenetic Yaultinw (see Woptner 1970), The imprediate cnvironnicat of deposition using this noel is the same us that proposed hy Ludbrook (19694). although “Alpine type” glacial features us proposed by Campana & Wilson (1955) would not be present. Syrithesns From the =o microflaral evidence orl oy postulated that the period of glaciation was ending. Svndeposiional movement. in particu- lar uplift during deglaciation, rejuvenated erosion and increased sedimentation rates, Rapid rates of sedimentation are supported by the presence of unullered biotite, which forms a significant part of the micaccous clenrent af cliystones (see Woptner 1970). and the excel- lent preservation of the reworked Devonian iniaspores, Such preservation demands rapid recycling Within a reducing envinpoarent. There is clear evidence that during this period a iurine idgression occuited. ft is sie vested that) inflowing glacial oo mellwaters appreciably lowered the salinity of the ingress- ing sea and Consequently restricted faunis to aveniecous Foraminifera, This model, consistent with known sedi- mentologicul and palacontological = dali, equates the sediments of Waterloa Bay with the sccond marine shale umt of Wopmer's (1969) three-part lithological sequence for the Per- mian of South Australia. The younvest unit. generally a fresh water deposit, has not been recorded within the Troubridge Basin. Conclusions From the results of a taxonomic study given. in this. paper, the Waterloo Bay Assem- hlage is correlated with Evans’ (1969) “Stage” 2 microflora (lower Dalwood Group, Sydney Basin) and equated with the “Microbaculis- pora Assemblage” (Nangetty Formation, Perth PERMIAN SEQUENCE Basin}, This and the gross quantitutive micro- faral data indicate a probable Sakmarian (Early Permian) age. The stratigraphic seyuenve described is of local Impertance and includes two Cainozore discoveries; the dating of the Tertiary lime- slanes at Late Eocene, and a further record of planktonic Foraminifera within the Quaternary acolianitic sequence. From u consideration of the palynomorphs and associated arenaceous Foraminilera, a low salinity environment of deposition was con- cluded. It is thought to have resulted from glacial meltwaters lowering the salinity of an ingressing sea, Acknowledgements {am mdehted to the following who have ailted this study: G. F. Whitten (Deputy Director of Mines, South Australia) for erani- AT WATERLOO BAY 41 ing permission to use the Palynological Laboratory of the Geological Survey of South Australian, where much of this work was originally undertaken; Drs. B. McGowran and K. Jenkins (University of Adelaide) who aug- gested and supervised the Honours project from which much of this paper was taken: Wayne K. Harris (Geological Survey of South Australia) for encouragement and generous Provision of laboratory and palynological library facilities as well as much unpublished data (particularly Fig, 4); J}. M. Lindsay {Geological Survey of South Australia) who provided biostratigraphic information for the Cainvzoic foraminiferal assemblages; Dr. G. Playford (Universily of Queensland) for advice and criticism; Geosurveys of Australia Pty Ltd. who kindly provided bore hole sumples from Peesey Swamp Noa. 1 and in particular A. T. von Sanden who provided steatigraphic information about the samples: R. F. Harris and others. for helpful discussicn. References Batme, B. E. (1962)—Some palynoligical evi- dence besring on the developmient of the Glossopténs Flora, Jn "FEyolution of Living Orgunisms”, pp, 269-280. (Melb. Univ. Press.) Batme, B. E. (i964).— The palynologleal record of Australian pre-Tertlary Floras. fa “Ancient Pacific Floras”, pp. 49-80. (Univ, of Hawali Press: Honolulu,) Baume. HB. BE, (1969)—The Permian-Triassic Boutdary in Australia. Spec pibly. peal, Sec. Awst, 2, 99-112. BatMe, B. . (1973).—Age of a mixed Curdiap- teris-Glossopreris flora. J. geel. Sac. Anst 20. 193-104. Beacksuun, K. B. 61936) —Beiryococcns and the Algal Coals. Trans. R. Sec. Edin, 38, 841-853. CAMPANAS, B.. & Witson, R. 8. (1955).—Tillites and related glacial topography of South Aus- tralia, Heloy. Geol, Help, 48, 1-30. Coats, R. P. ({962),.—Permian deposits, possible occurrence fear Blinman, Quart, geel, Notes, eval, Surv. S. Aust, 1, 4, Cookson, T. C. (1953).—Records of the oeeur- renee of Rorryoceceus Braunti, Pediastrivy und the Hyvystrichosphacridia in Cainueoic depasits of Australia, Men, avtn, Mus. Vice. 18, 107-123. Cooxson, T CC (1955).—The necurrence of Palacozoic micrespores jn Australian Upper Cretaceous and Jower Tertiary sediments. Aust # Sef. 18, 56-58, Craweonp, A. R, (1965)—The geology of Yorke Peninsula, Aull. oval Swev 8, Avy, 39, 1-94, DrTrMinn, M, E, (1983)—tpper Mesoziie microftoras from south-casi¢rn Australia. Prac, R. Sac. Viet. 77, 1-148, pls, 1-27 Dickins, J. M. (4963),—Permiun pelecypous and gasiropods trom Western Australia. 8uif. Bur. Miner. Resour Geof, Geophys, Aust. 63, 7-203, Dicems. J, M. (19682),—Correlation of the Per- miin of the Hunter Valley. New Sauth Wales and the Bowen Basin, Queensland. Hull. Bur. She Resour, Geal, Geophys. Aus. ®0. Dickins, J. M. (19685) —Discovery of the crineid Calcvalispengia in the Permiaa of Queens- land. Bull Sur. Miner, Geophys. Aust. 80, 15-24. Downes, C,, Every, WR, & Samreann, W, A, S, (19631.— Dinaflugellaies, Hystrichospheres. and the classification of Acritarchs, Stanford Univ. Publs. (geol, Sei.) 7, 3-16, Duatiuner, J. A. 11944) —Orisin of the New South Wales Torbanites. Prac. Linn, Soc, N.S. 69, 26-48. Evans, P, R. (1969).—Upper Carboniferous and Perniian palynological stages and their distri- bution jn Bastern Australia, 2 Simposio inter- rectonal sobre Extrativrapfia y Palaeontologie cle genavans; Mar de Plata, Argentina, pp, 41-59, Firman, J. B, (1969).—Quaternary Period. jn L, W. Parkin (F.). “Hanihook of South Australian Geology", pp. 24-239. (Geol. Surv, S. Aust: Adelaide.) GateHouse. C. G. (1972)}—Formuations of the Gidgealpa Group in the Cooper Basin. Ayyi. Git Gay Rev, 18, 10-15. Geanssner, M. F, (1945).—"Prittciples nf Micro- palueontolagy”. (Melb, Univ, Press: Mel- bourne.) Resour, Geel. 42 C. B. FOSTER Harris, W, K., & McGowran, B, (1971) — Per- mian and reworked Devonian microfossjls from the Troubridge Basin, Quart. geal. Notes, geol. Surv. S. Aust. 40, 5-11. Harris, W. K., & MeGowran, B. (1973)-— South Australisn Department of Mines Cootanooring No: 1 Well, Ft. 2. Upper Palucozoic and Lower Cretaceous micro- palaeontology. Rept. Invest., geol. Surv. 8. Aust. 40, 59-80, 4 pls,, 2 tables. Harr, G. F. (197!).—The Gondwana Permian Palynomorphs. 42. Acad. brasil, Cienc. 43 (Suppl), (45-176. Hriny, R. I. & MeEtroy, C. T. (1969).— Microflorns from the Devonian and ‘Triassic of the Beacon Group, Antarctica. Nid. J. Geol. Geophys. 12, 376-382. Howemin, W. (1900)..-Evidences of cxtinet glacial action in southern Yorke's Peninsula, Trans. R. Sac..S. Aust, 21, 71-80, Ken, E. M. (1973) —The palynology of Palaeo- zoic deposits From Antarctica, Pakistan and South America. Abstracts 3rd Gondwana Symp. Australia, p. 38. KremMp. G. W. (1965)—**Morphologic Encyclo- pedia of Palynology”. (Univ. of Arizona Press: Tucson, ) Korrtowsx, F. E. (1965).—“Measuring Strati- graphic Sections”. (Geologic Field Techniques Series; Holt, Reinhart & Wihston.) Lunpprook, N. H. (1965)—Appendix In Craw- ford, A. R. “The Geology of Yorke Penin- sula’. Bull. geol. Surv. S. Aust. 39, 83-96, Lupexvok, N. H. (1967)—Permian deposits of South Australia and their fauna. Trans, R- Soc. S. Aust. 91, 65-87, 4 pls. Lupsroox. N. H. (1969a).—Permian of South Australia—A Review. Spec. publs. veol, Sov: Aust, 2, 39-45, Lupsroor, N. H. (1969b).—Palaeozgoie Era. i L. W. Parkin (Ed.) “Handbook of South Australia Geology", pp. 117-129 (Geol, Surv, S. Aust.: Adelaide. McGowran, B. (1973),—Rifting and drift of Ausirulia and the migration of mammals. Selence 180, 759-761, Mctier, J. (1959).—Palynology of Recent Orinoco deltu ond shelf sediments. Micro- paleontology 5, 1-32. Taten, R. J. (1969).—Palynologie contributions to the petroleum exploration in the Permian Formations of the Cooper Basin, Australia, J. Aust, Petrol. Explor. Avs. 9, 79-87. Perriiosn, F. J. (1957).—“Sedimentary Rocks”. (Hatper & Row: New York,) Potonig, R. (1956)—Synopsts der Gattungen der sporae dispersac. I Teil: Sporites. Beil, geol, Jhb. 23, 1-103, pls. 1-11- Reywoips, R. C., & JoHNson, J. M, (1972).— Chemical weuthering in the temperate glacial environment of North Cascade Mountains, Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta 36, 537-554, Sucroves, K, L. (1969).—Saccate plant micro- fossils from the Permian of Western Aus- tralia. Grana palynologica 9, 174-227, Sucroves, K, b.. (1970).—The sequence of puly- nological assemblages in the Permian of the Perth Basin, Western Australis, Pree. 2a Gondwana Symp, 8. Afr. 311-315. Smith, N. D., & Sauwpers, R. S. (1970).— Palneoenviranmenis and their contral of acri- torch distribution: Silurian of East-Central Pennsylvania. J. sed, Pet. 40, 324-333. Stapuin, F. L. (1961).—ReeEcontrolled distribu- tion of Devonian microplankton jn Alberta, Palueortology 4, 392-424, pls, 48-51. fscrupy. R. H. (1969). —Relationship of Palyno- morphs to. Sedimentation, In Tschudy, R. H., & Scott, R. A. (Eds.}, “Aspects of Palyno- logy”. pp. 79-96. (Wiley: New York.) Watrernouse, J. B.. (1970)—Correlation of murine Permian faunas of Gondwana. Prac. 2nd Gondwana Symp. S, Afr., 381-394. Worrner,, H. (1969),—Deposilional history and tectonics of South Australian sedimentary basins, #th FE.C.A.F.E. Symp. Canberra, E.C.A.F.E. doc. 1, NR/PR4/57. Woprne_er, H, (1970),—Penmian palaeogeography and depositional environment of the Arckaringa Basin, South Australia. Proe. 2nd Gondwana Syinp. §. Afr., 273-291. STUDIES ON SEASONAL ANAEMIA IN THE ROTTNEST ISLAND QUOKKA, SETONIX BRACHYURUS (QUOY & GAIMARD) (MARSUPIALIA; MACROPODIDAE) BY §S, BARKER* Summary BARKER, S., (1974) .-Studies on Seasonal Anaemia in The Rottnest Island Quokka, Setonix brachyurus (Quoy & Gaimard) (Marsupialia; Macropodidae). Trans. R. SOC. S. Aust 98(1), 43-48, 28 February, 1974. A population of the quokka, a small marsupial, lives on Rottnest Island, which lies off the west coast of Australia. Most of the annual rainfall occurs during the winter and there is a summer drought. During the summer no free water is available to quokkas living on the West End of Rottnest I. Water is available at this time to quokkas living in the centre of the island. The population of quokkas undergoes an annual weight cycle and an associated cycle in haematological condition. They are at their peak weight and their blood counts are normal at the end of spring. By the end of summer, there has been a large decrease in body weight and an associated decline in haematological condition. The factors contributing to the cycle are reviewed. Depressed food intake during the summer leading to inadequate nutrition is probably the major cause of the observed cycle. STUDIES ON SEASONAL ANAEMIA IN THE ROTTNEST ISLAND QUOKKA, SETONIX RBRACHYURUS (QUOY & GAIMARD) (MARSUPIALIA; MACROPODIDAE) by S. Barker* Summary Ranken, S., (1974).—Studies an Seasonal Anaemia in The Rotinest Ixland Quokka, Sefonix brachyurns (Quoy & Gaimard) (Marsupialia; Macrapodidae}. Trans. R. Soe, &. Atisi. 98(1), 43-48, 28 February, 1974, A population of the quekKa, & small marsupial. lives on Rottnest Island, which lies off the west. coast of Australia. Most of the annual rainfall occurs during the winter and there is @ summer drought, During the summer no free water is available io quokkas living on the West End of Rottnest I. Water is available at this time to quokkas living in the centre of the island, The population of quokkas undergoes an annual weigh! cycle and an associated cycle in haematological condition.. They are at their peak weight and their blood counts arc normal at the end of spring, By the end of summer, there has been w large decrease in body welght and an associated decline in haematological condition. The factors contributing 1 the cyclo are reviewed. Depressed food intake during the summer Jeading to inadequate nutcilion is probably the major cause of the observed cycle. Introduction Rottnest Island, lying west of Fremantle, Western Australia, was named hy de Vlamingh in 1696 after the small wallaby that was abun- dant lhere at that time and which he mistook for a todent. This wallaby, the quokka Setonix brachyurys. (Quoy & Gaimard}. is still abun- dant on the island (Hodgkin & Sheard 1959)- The tolal urea of Rottnest is 1900 ha, of which 200 ha is covered by salt lakes. Fresh-water seepages occur on the shores of several of these and ure important as water sources for the quokkas during the summer, The island is 9.7 km long and 4.8 km wide al the maximum width and the long axis Is orientated roughly east-west. At 6.4 Km Crom the eastern end, the island is constricted to a narrow Heck of land some 180 m wide and further west the island broadens out to a maxi- mum width of 0.7 km. The part of the tsland west of the narrow neck is known by the get- eral name of West End. All of the salt lakes, secpages and the few fresh-water soaks are confined to the middle and eastern end of the island and none are known further west than near the main lighthouse, situated on the high- est hill which is in the middle of the island. Weather conditions on Kottnest T.. are simi- lar to those on the nearby mainland, except that annual sainfull (734 mm) is 150 mm less and maximum and minimum temperatures are less extreme. The overall pattern is ane of win- ter rainfall and summer drought. During sum- met, maximum daily temperatures can be in excess. of 38"C and temperatures above this figure have been recorded during November- March. Mean rainfall during the same period is 14 mm per month in November und March, 10 mm in December and February, and 6 mm in January. No free surlace water is available to West End quokkas in the summer except after ocessional thunderstorms when surface pools may form but quickly disappear. The season usually breaks in April when general winter rains commence. Maximum monthly rainfall occurs in June. When Europeans first settlad tm Western Australia, the predominant trees an Rottnest I, {Somerville 1954) were the Rottnest ping, Callitris preissi Miq., ti-tree, Melaleuca pube- sceny Schau., and coastal wattle, Acacia ras- tellifera Benth. Since the estublishmemt of a prison on the island in 1838, changes occurred in the vegetation caused by cleuring, fires and overgtazing by quokkas (Storr 1963}, At the present time pines have almost disappeared, wattle now occupies only a small area and ti- trees accor sporadically. The predominant * Department of Zoology, Uhe University of Adelaide, Adelaide. S. Anst, 5001. 44 5. BARKER plaut ussociation which fras increased iit area since settlement is a heath of Acanthecanns preissit Lehm,-Sripa variabilis Hughes (Storr et al $959), The samphires, Arfiiroenemum arbuscula (R Br) Mog, 4. felocnemoides Nees, and Aalicermia australity Banks et Sol,, grow around the salt lakes and soaks, some of which are fringed hy swordgrass, Galinia rrifida Labill., and the sedge. Scirpus neduyus Katth., both forming a dense cover heavily utilised hy. guokkis. A flora list has been published by Storr (1962), The quokka if one of the small members of the family Macropodidae. Adult females weigh from 2.5:3.0 kg and adult males from 3.5-4.5 ke. Its relationships with the rest of the group have heen discussed by Sharman (1954) and Ride (1957), Moir ef al, (1954. 1956) described = ruminaut-like digestion in the qunkka, which has 4 well developed bactcrial popvlation in the fore-stomach and pre-gastric fermentation. Blood glucose and plasma vola- tile fatty acid concentrations abe intermediate between (hose of ruminants end rabbits (J. Barker 1961). Quokkas occur all over Rottnest 1, bur duv- ing summer those living in the central part of the island congregate in the vicinity of Fresh- water seepages on the edges of che salt takes and near the fresh-water soaks, They graze the mat of salt-water couch, Spurebolus vireinious, (L.) Kunth. so close that it becomes a typical! ‘marsupial lawn’, similar to those seen in Tas- mania (Ridpath 1964) and other areas of Australia. They live in high density on the eastern end of the island. under the houses used for tourist accommodation, and they are addicted gatbuge feeders. ‘The smallest popula- lion probably occurs between the main fight- house and West End. There seems to be a fairly constant population (Niven 1970)? ving wu West End, which shows local feeding move- mens during summer (Nicholls 1971), They do fot migrate from West End to fresh-water sources during the height of summer or indeed ut any time of (he year (Dunnett 1962)- Work on the ecology of the quokka, popu- Jatin) Of Rottnest T commenced with a teg- ging programme if November 1953. The sum- mer of $953/54 was het anc dry and hy March 1954 many yuokkas were emaciated and same were dying. Research was com- menced to find out why animals were dying unl what factors were controlling population numbers (Waring 1956). The progress made on these problems is the main subject of this paper. Seasonal Ansemia In 1953 it was found that huemoglobin con- centrations of quokkas caught in the centre of the island in simmer were much less thao those of quokkas kept in the yards af the Zoology Department, University of Western Australia, wt the same time of the year {War- ing 1956). The first possibility considered was the occurrence of a seasonal deficieney of cop- per, cobalt or both, It was known at that tinve that the quoakka had riminant-like digestion (Moir et ai 1954, 1956), that sheep quickly dic on Rotinesct from copper und cobalt defici- ency, und that deficiencics of both copper and vobalt in ruminants result in anaemia. By analoy, the same deficiencies might have been affecting the quokkas, Barker {unpublished) collected serwm sumriples front animals captured ul West Eud and at lake Bagdad over an 18 month pertad. The samples were assayed for Vitamin By (by the Hacmutolozy Depariment, Royal Perth Hospital) using Bugle as the fest organism. Mcan serum yilamm Bis ¢on- centration of unimals caught near Lake Bagdad was very much greater than that of animals caught at West End al all times of the year (means varying between 2.000-4,500 pg/ml as asuinst a mean of around 1,000 pg/ml). The West End animals showed 4 slight annual Aurtuation with the lowest mean serum vilit- min Bye concentration im the spring and the hizhest in summer None of these animals had concentrations low endugh to indicate copalt deficiency when compared to dhe voncenira- tions meysured mn animals that had been fed very low cobalt intakes for several munths (Barker unpublished), Blood copper analyses of Lake Bagdad qguokkas showed a positive correlaiaya with hacmoglohin coitcentration but this relation- ship was not found in West End quokkas. 1 was considered that only in the Lake Bugdad population “was copper deficiency likely to exert any ellect on blood parameters and then it was only likely to be one factor associated ‘Niven presented a computer sludy wal suinbers ealenlated From date far the West End quokka population between 1955-63, based on Holdsworth, W.N. (1964).—Marsupial behaviour with special referenee ta paputatiom homeostasis in the quokkas on the West Find of Rottnest Island, Ph.D, thesis. University ot Western Australia (unpublished). SEASONAL ANAEMIA TS THE QUOKKA 45 with tite develapment of seasonal anaemia (Burker 1961). Shield (7959) found that, haematulayical counts fluctuated with season and wer¢ ¢orrela- ted with changes in body weight, Adult quokkas from West End and from around Lake Bagdad were in peak condition in rhe spring, Their body weight was maximal and their blood counts were normil. By the end of summer there was 4 mean decline of up to 25% in body weigh! and there was a similar reduction in red cell parameters. here were differences between quokkas caught in the two areas in that West Enc animals showed higher Maxima in spring and lower minima in sutomna than those trom Luke Bagdad. The possibility of disease causing the anae- mis was discounted. as white cell counts were lower in the summer than in the winter, where- as tt would be expected thal white cell oum- bers would increase if disease accurred in the summer. Dehydration was not thought te be a contributing. Factor to the decline in condition of West End animals, as Shickd (1959} had found that quokkas kept for 6 months without aceess to drinking water, lost weight but had ingreased plasma protein concentration. [fow- ever, it is unlikely that West End quokkas would experience such severe dehydration. Storr (194dq) culculated that they had a daily water intake of jbout 130 ml gained fram water contained in their plant food. Shield (1959) found that in West Fnd quokkas, haematocrit and plasma protein concentration declined dunng the summer period. In a later study (Shield 1971) he found that plasma vol- ume of field animals was unchanged through- out the year. Clearly, the field animals were hot cxperiencing the acute dehydration seen in the yard animals that did not have uccess to drinking water, However, the possibility that a fesser or more chronic degree of dehydration fy o¢cucring im the field cannot be excluded and this could aggravate the quokkas’ condi- tion. As a resuli of bis studies, Shicld (1959) (Main er af. 1959) suggested thal the quokkas were alfected annually by ‘severe semi-starva- tion’. which Main (1968, p. 99) interpreted as protem deficiency: In a study of the planis eaten by ihe quokka, Storr (19640) made calculations of the nitro- gen and water intakes of quokkas from differ- ent localities om the island a! different times of the year. The figures he used for nitrogen requiremenis of male quokkas Were those of Brown (1964)* from one arhilt male quokka used in two series of nitrogen balance irials. Extrapoluting fram this data, Storr (19648) stated that an adult male quokka requires 0.6 g N/day to remain in positive nitrogen bal- ance. He calculated mean nitrogen intake al different localities on the island at different times of the year and concluded that quokkas ut Cape Vlamingh had a large surplus of nitro- gen in winter and a varying deficit in late summer. There is no doubt that Storr’s use of the data of Brown (1964) is an oversimplifi- cabon: for example 3 of the 4 adult male quokkas used in a feeding trial hy Calaby (1958) were in negative nitrogen balance, although their daily nitrogen intake ranged from 13-16 g@ N/day. The diets used by Calaby Were net comparable to ¢hat uscd by Brown (1964). Barker ef al. (1974) collected blood sam- ples from one sub-papylation of quokkas living on West End it spring aad at the end of sum- mer (197/71), The weight differences between the snimals im spring and autumn were marked, yet mean plasma urea concen- trations were sinular. The ficld plasma urea concentvalions found by Burker er al, (1974) were significantly less than plasma trea con- centrations found in a group of male quokkas fed on high-protein food for 3 mouths prior to feeding them a low-protein dict. In this experiment it was found that quokkas wilh u low nitrogen intake (= 0.3 g N“/day) and given walter ed Hh, had plasma urea conven- tration reduced to 20 mg/100 ml! within four weeks. Thereafter plasma urea concentrations of most animals rose, Plasma urea concentra- tions of quokkas fed the same diet but with o restricted water intake, fell to 40 mg/ 100 ml and then remained at this concentration This pattern has not been found in the Kan- garoo Island wallaby im a similar type of experiment (Barker et al, 1970). Wallabies fed on & low nitrogen diel showed a progressive fall in plasma urea concentration over a tywo- month period. Ih a proup fed a similar diet but with restrigted water intake, plasma urea voncentrations also fell hut remained higher than fn the control proup througheut the experiment. It seems mest probable that in both the experiments with the quokka and “Brown, G. D. ( (964). —The nitrogen requiremenis of macropod marsupials, Ph,D. thesis, University of Western Australia funpablished). an S BARKER Ratigarod Island wallaby, the higher plasma urea concentration in water restricted animals i8 a Tefiection of a lnwered and inadequate energy intake. Water restriction below the ad fib. Intake results in om immediate decline in appetite and thus ia dry matter intake, The uctual reduction in dry matter intake appears to be correlated with the severity of water restriction comparcd with the ad Jib. intake. This seems to be constant in individual animals though it fluctuates widely between individual animals. Two isolated short-term studies have also been carried out on Rottnest I. quokkus, Her- rick (1961) measured adrenal ascorbic acid concentration of Retinest I. and experimental unimals to determine changes tn adrenal fonc- tion during summer stress, but his Tesults were inconclusive. Packer (1968) counted eosino- phil numbers in blood samples taken frum auokkas on Rottnest I. at different times of ihe year to determine whether changing popu- jalion density caused changes in circulating easinophils. He found no consistent trend that sugecsied changes at different times of the year. Nature of the Summer Stress So Jur the only evidenve of disease affecting the quokkas on Rottnest I. has come from the work of Gibb ev al, (1966) who deseribed the occurrence of Toxoplasmosis on Rottnest T. but mmily from animals captured in the vicinity of the settlement on the eastern end of the island. Tt is expected that pther infective agents will eventually be deserthed after a diligent search has heen made for them, but very little research effort has been made in this impor- tant direction, The key ta summer survival for the quokkas uo West End is probably their success or other- wise in Obtaining walter from their food plants. No permanent source of Iresh-water is known to occul further west than the main lighthouse durmg the summer. However, on the night of March 22nd, 1957, the writer and Dr E. P, Vodgkia of the Department of Zoology, observed about 20 quokkus on a nat- rew beach in Green Island Bay, beneath a low cliff, The animale were lined up ai the water's edge aid were upparently drinking sca water. Trum close observation it was seen that the animals were digging holes in the sand, near to the water's edge. before drinking, Water saiiples were taken from some of these holes and frum the sea soine 12 inches from where the quokkas were drinkmg. Analysis of the samples showcd that the water sampled trom the hole in the sand was much fresher than sea-water (Cl 0,519) while that taken from the sea (Cl 1.61% ) was slightly less salty than normal sea water (Cl 1.99%}, Casual observa- tion withiul collecting water samples would have led ys to the conclusion that the quakkas were drinking sea Water. As Bentley (1955) found that the quokka can maintain walter balance under laboratory conditions drinking 2.5% NaCl {but not sea water) it seems reasonable to assutie that animals drinking scepage water were able In maintain a positive water halance- Although water is cssenttal for Lhe main- tenance of fluid space, excretion and tempera- ture regulation, one of the first manifestations of water shortage is depression of appetite. To an animal that may have to forage for suitabic food over tong distances and sutvive the stress period on a marginal dic, Irom an energy paint of view, this could lead to a slowly worsening starvation state, The animal would gradually lose weight, become weak, and unless there was relief from a change in the seusem, it could eventually succumb. Storr {1964a) indicated that although quokkas which teed on Carpobratuy al Cape Viamingh may get sufficient water from this plant to imect their neets, their nitrogen intake would certainly be reduced below a reasonable intake for maintenance purposes and such animals could fil into the scheme outlined above. Water is also am essential requirement for thate unimals living close to freshwater soulves, particularly ducing summer and this fact has heen expluited for the capture of large numbers of quokkas (Dunnet 1956). Access to water silone, however, is not sullicient for the maintenance of constant blood piirameters Both Shield (1959) «and Barker (1961) showed that in animals with access tn drinking water haemoglobin concentrations fell during the summer though not as dramutically as in animals captured on West End. Despite a great deal of work and speculation on this problem,. there 1s still no clear-cut answer to the question of the nature of the stress experienced by quokkas during the sum- mer and early winter. It is probable that some animals surviving summer stress, but debjilita- ted by it, are killed off when the scason breaks and they are faced with cold and wet condi- tions. Barker ef al, (1974) found that 8 uy of 11 yuokkas that had survived for 8 weeks on a low nitrogen intake, died in 10 days when SEASONAL ANAEMIA IN THE QUOKKA 47 might and early morning temperatures fell uver a shert period. There is a strong possibility that. lhe popula- tion al West End faves & more severe suress than those in the central parts of the istanil. At West End, quokkas almost certainly face a less than adequate water intake, excep! for those feeding on Curpebrotus at Cape Viamingh (Sterr 1¥64a), 9s well as nutritional stress. Quokkas living in the centre of the island Face a nutritional stress only, water being available. A water shortage at West End would result in quokkas having a decreased dry mat- ter Intake causing a lowered nutritional status leading to anaemia, WFP nitrogen intake of quokkis m the Lakes area becomes inadequate in summer, dry mytter intake would be depressed also leading (o anaemia. The nature of the anuemia developed at each area would be similar despite a different origin (Barker ef al. 1974). Inadequate water intake does not necessarily lead to haemo-concentration (Barker ef al. 1974). Shield'’s (1959) conclusion that water intake is. not limited on West Bnd in summer was based on the results of his experiment Where no-waler whatever was provided for the experimental animals. This situation never occurs on West End as although muisture con- tent of food plunts is reduced during summer (Ston 19648), the reduction jn water intake is nat likely to be myzh ereater than half of the ad Jif, requirement. Shield {1971} showed that a decrease in hlood volume does occur in West End animals duriag the autumn relative to blood volumes of Wost End animals meas- aired in the spring. However, (he difference was due to & reduction in red cell mass, not in plasma volome. a finding not incompatible wih the thesis of a restricted water intake exerting a pulritional effect through loss of appetite. Although the figures for nitrogen requise- ment of the quokka piven by Storr (19642) are too limited to be conclusive, it seems from his data that nitrogen intake al West End could be less than the maintenance require- ment. However, the possibility that nitrogen shortage alone causes the debility seeins remote if « complex situation, where nitrogen is likely to be only one of sevaral compenents of the diet which are seasonally deficient, Fitture of the Rottnest Quokka Despite the obviously deteriorating ebyiren- ment on Rottnest 1, caused mainly hy human activities but also affected hy natural eroston, the quokka population is. surviving. Some of the differences between the Rottnest J. envir- onmentinel that of one area where the quokka sull occurs on the adjacent mainland, have been outlined by Storr (1964b). In ane way, Rottnest is totally unlike the mainland situation in Chat no predators are present. If they were. the population would be reduced as those animals weakened by scasonal influences would fall casy prey te a predator, The quekka has a considerable and unique value as a Natural resource and ii Is to be hoped that it has u guaranteed Future on Ratt- nest I. ‘Ihe value of the island #8 4 draining ground for scientists has been stresacd hy Main (1959, 1967) and this is largely because of the occurrence there of the quokka. How- ever. the greatest value of the giiokka Ties jn its asset as a tourist attraction. 11 is to be hoped that the Western Australian Governmeni Tourist Bureau, which controls the tsland, does not underrate this asset and takes positive steps towards ensuring the permanent survival of the quokka on Rottnest I. Acknowledgements 1 am indebted to Professor P, Bentley, Dr. I. G. Jarrett and Mr, D, Kabay for criticisny of the manuscript. The University of Adelaide provided funds which cnabled me ta wark in the Department uf Zoology, The University of Western Australia where this paper was wril- ten during sabbatical leave, T am grateful to Professor H, Waring for accommodation in his Department. References Barken, J, M, (1961)—The metabolism ef able variation within each race and conver- gence of feajures may be found in specimens from different races. In view of this, 1 have preferred ot to erect subspecies of A. frenny. Sepcimens BXaMINeb: AREA 1; 3 ki SW oot Bedu Hill, R3877; Bowmans Creck, Bosworth Sin, RaK33: north-west tip of Carrapateena Arm ol Lake Torrens, RIG319: Encolo © reek, RIAGO4 R1Z485: eastera Side of Lake Hart, RS065-7 south end of Lake Torrens, R3832; 24 hm S of Pimba, R6IR9; Uro Bluff RI2832. RII835-6, R12904: Woodforde Creek, R2795, R279¥. AREA 9: Blue Runge. ROI RLOI73; Carappee Hill. R933, 212927: Corunnn Hill, R445, R127, Kondoolka Stn, BRLI7S53: Liacoln Gap Sin, R}2466-70; Middieback Range. S of Tron Raton, Ri2079. R1I3055: Ml, Nott, S of Thurlen HS, 6229-30) Payney Stn, R&KU4: South Tent Hill. 24 km WNW of Pi, Augusta, R13054: Tandale Rock Holes, R12592; ‘Thurlga Sin, R5804, AREA 4: 45 km S of Baird Bay. R9241-2: Flinders L., Ri443: Mi Wedge, R57392, RSR3IO. RY243: Pear- ‘ Another rage wis found recently on granite onterops immediately north of Pt, Lincoln by Mr. J Gibbons. Dept, of Zoology, University of Adelaide, This race, adult males of whieh are siiperficinlly lke those of the Neptune I, race in coloration, may equally well be ihe typical One. REVISION OF THE AMPMMBOLURUY DECRESH COMPLEX ab son 1s. (RINI39, RIOKAES) northern island, R1O208); St, Francis [. REY6. R3009, RIZSTA: Streaky Bay, R392, ARPA 4: castern cage of Bascombes Well Notional Park. R12615; Blesing Reserye, R9227-40: near Fishery Bay, R2551; Hincks National Park, RLOIO0O; Hundred of Nivholls, RLOLOL, R1O1N3-5, RIOLOT-10, RIOVIS. RIOII6, RIONI9, RIOT78; 19 km NW of Kurkoo. R947; Lineoln Nalional Park, R12094-4: southern end of same, RI2926, RiWOSH) Marble Range. RI29IO; Mikhira JIS, RS7S2-3, 19 kim from Sheringa, R3626: Sleaford Mere. R&IO2> 4 key W of same, RIM998. NEPTUNE Is. R230, RS722-3: south island, R535). Reddo, RIO&79-42- north ishind, RI2899, WEDGE T: R5340, RIN636-7, RULSTA Amphiboluris yadnappa, sp, nov, FIGS, f, 2, 12, 1a, 1416 Helawpe ¢ {RId16B). Aroona Waters (138° 21K, 30°35'S). Flinders Ranges. 8, Aush, 3.1959, PL F. Lawson. This species inhabits Areas 5 und 6 (Fig, 1), the type locality being in the latter. Prox- imity of the range of this species to that of the northern race ot 4. fionni and the remarkably similar coloration of adult males of hath forms might sugeest thal they are merely races Of the one species. However, ihe two may be distinguished on the features outlined in’ the key, Adult miles of 4. padnappe also tend to exhibit a bright bluish sullusion of the chin, Nanks, uid limbs which iy not known in horthem A. fount. Some ditferences in body Proportions also occur (see below), This attractive species was well known to Aborigines of the Flinders Ranges {rom whose fanguage the specific tame has been taken, the Aborigioes were impressed by the presence of red bars on the males alone and likened males to boys uboul ta be initkted who are painted with red stripes on the back. The females they likened (o girls who are never so adorned. ‘Thev call the trzard Tivadnappa’ (‘iti lizard, ‘yudnappa’ — boy puintec for initia- tion ceremony). (R. W. Ellis, personal com. munication ). The specific name is dsed as a noun and is not Hable to termination changes. FRINDERS Rances (Tyriea.) RACK (Atea 6, Vig, 1) Head wind body only moderately depressed (less than the other two species}; neck in adult males at Jeast as wide as head so that litier appear to sit direetly on shoulders, Meusnremenrs of holoivpe: Total length, 252 mim) snout-veot length, 79 ron Gail length, 173 mo hind Gib length. 70 mm: head width, 22 mini, snout-gular fold length, 29 mm; tetal femoral and preanal pores. +3. Scalations Scales on top of snout coarsely wrinkled (Big. 2), seldom almost smooth. never simply keeled as in Pig, 3; fokis of skin above and behind ears and on sides of neck With clusters of small spines (leebly developed in juveniles and females); scales of fimks very small, subtubercular and homogeneous. gradiag into slightly larger. Matter dorsal scales which ave very feebly keeled, Jlanks without scattered ‘ingle tubercles: a row of perfectly aligned, longitudinally keeled scales extending from duehal crest about three quarters of length of back (less well-developed in females); this keel line Frequently wecentuated by being raised on fold of skin. Adult male coloration: Wead pale brown dor- sully; broad mid-dorsal stripe from nape to base of tail und upper parts of limihs und tail light grey or blue-grey: sides of neck and body blackish with orange or red spets and blotches usually partly coulesecd forming irregular ver- fieal bars (Fig. 12): chest with linge diffuse black patch anterior to Which skin is bright yellow, the yellow extending onto throat and shoulders and occasionally 4s spots along Nunks;: chin and 34 longitudinal lines on exch side of lower jaw blue or blueevrey; limbs and datk ground colour of flanks slightly to strongly suflused with blac (the yellow, orange, red und. to a lesser extent, blue colorations pradually [nde away in spirit). Female coleration: Dull brown above with course dark mottling on sides of neck and body forming uw patlern of alternating, irregu- lar, light and dark bars; dorsal surface with scattered blackish spots; lower jaw amd throat with longitudinal dark grey lines (more numerous and prominent in juveniles). WILLOURAN Races. Race (Area 5, Fig. 1) The Willouramn Ranges, lying west of the Lyndhurst-Marree road. represent a north- western spur of the Flinders Ranges system but ure isolated by wide tracts of sand and soil plain, Threesmales from this aren differed from the typical form io their less robust build ane narrower necks. The pale spots on their bodies were smaller and while tending to be aligned transversely, dict not coalesce tm the same degree (Fig, 13), SPULCIMUNS EXAMINED: Paratypes —Anpepeni, 3) km F of, R3423; Arkaroola, RIOOTR 23, R116), RL1373; Aroony Waters. RA416 A and ©, RABI 1: Beltana, R3OOI: Boulder Bore R1OU%4-5: Com- 56 T. F. HOUSTON 1] REVISION OF THE AMPHIBOLURUS DECRESI? COMPLEX S7 inoore, 9,7 ky NE of, R2819; East Painter Gorge, last & km of, R10965-7; Echo Camp, Arkaroola Sin, R10946; Ilinawortina Pound, R5950; Mi Aroona, R3314A, BR aml D; Mt Fitton. Moolawatany Sm, R81!4; Narring Stn, Ri0402-4; Oruparinna National Park, B12749, RI3053; Parachilna Gorge, R4321; Terrapinng Springs. R12432, Waukawoadna Gap, 96 km N of Blinman, R12837; Vudnamutana Gorge, R3492, R13123; Wilpona Pound, R1O638, Allotype— Mt, Armona, R&31dC. Morpho- metrics Maxinuiun size The maximum size attained hy adults was found io vary somewhat between races as shown in the following table, ee Meaximnitte sreteat-veat lererh in mim Species or Race {df and 2) a. deeresté (Northern) - : 82 73 (Southern) . . - 75 75 Ay fioniti (Northern) pnt 94 32 (Central) e -_ 78 72 {West Gaast) i S&S 79 (Southern) 77 76 (Neptune Js.) 96 87 These figures suggest 4 north-south trend of decreasing body size apart from the Nepuine Is, race Which attains the greatest body size of ull. Relative length of hind Kmbs end tail In this comparison only dala From adule and subadult specimens were incorporated, since the relative lengths of appendages deeiease slightly with increasing body size (i.e, with age), The lengths of the limbs and tail are expressed as funetions of the snout-vent length (SVL). The range and mcum for cach form is shown graphically in Figs, 14 and 15, Un- fortunately, the sample size in some cases. is extremely small because of the number of specimens which had hroken tuils. A general trend is. noticeable towards shehtly relatively longer limbs and tails in males (except perhaps in A. deeresii), While there is wile overlap in the data of each form amd the means of most of them approximate, A. vadneppe stands out from the rest in its greater mean relative length of both hind limbs znd tail. Femeral and preanal pores. The total number of pores wax counted on as Many specimens as possible, Unfortunately, the pores on feihuale Ay decresié specimens were so faint (especially distally) that teHable counts could not be obtained. The ranges und means of data for cach form are shown graphically in Fig. 16. Wide over- lap occut's in all forms with means of most approximating. However, the Neplune Is. sample is Outstanding in the telatively low Means of both sexes. The data represented in Figs. 14-16 reflect the morphological uniformity of the complex and confirm that pore counts and the telative lengths of hind limbs and tail will nat serve as useful characters for the recognition of «hE ferent forms. Discussion Affinities af the vomplex The A. deeresii complex shows obvious uffinity with two other species: Aumphibolorns rufescens Stirling & Zietz of north-western South Australia and A. ornarity (Gray) of south-western Australia, Both these species are rock-dwellers agreeing with the diagnosis given above for the 4, decresii camplex exeepr in features of coloration, The adult mate of 4. ofnatuy is boldly patterned dorsally with black and yellow and the tail is banded. Sexual dichromutism js not su pronounced in A. rifescens as i A. ornares aT members of the A. decresii complex: males tack bright colour Washes about the lower jaw and throat but are bright ferruginous dorsally, matching well the colour of the rocks which thew inhabit, These two species. and the A. derresil com- pilex constitute a fairly well-defined and Probably watural group which may be culled the Amphikoluruy deeresil spectes-group. Storr (1967) included 4. rufescens a3 a tace of 4. caudicuictus (Giinther), a species com- posed of several races distributed widely throughout northern, central and north-western Australia. I regard A. rufesceny as sufficiently distinctive to merit specific rank but I do nat dispute ite close wMinity with some races of A. candicinetuy. It is quite probable that the A. decresié species-group and 4. cundicincms share u common ancestry, ee Pigs. 1411, Amphihelvruy fionni. Adults in dorsal view. Fig. 10-—Holotype female from Pt. Lincoln Area 4) Fiz. 11—Male : from near Carrapateena Arp of Luke Torrens ¢Area 1). Figs. 12-13, Amphibefuris vadnappe. Adults in dorsal View, Fig. 12.—Tfolotype mute from Aroona Waters (Area 6}, Fig. 13—-Male from Miriee Picnic Ground (Area 5) 58 T. F. HOUSTON A. vadnappa —_—__+—_——_. A. fionni | ——_—_+—____. ier i N ———_}+—_—— 95 —__|——. 43 c ——_}———_. 14 ———_}— io Ww —__—___}———_ “eg ———_—_f>+—— sor s ——+—. 1o¢9 —_|— 7o# NI ——_}———_ 14% A, decresii 60 A.vadnappa A. fionni A, decresii Fig. 14. Hind limb length as a per cent of snout- vent length in mature and near mature individuals of the Amphibolurus decresii complex. Ranges of variation represented by horizontal lines and means by vertical lines. Sex and sample size shown to right of each. N = northern trace, C = cen- tral race, W = West Coast populations, S = southern race, NI = Neptune Ts. race, Tail length as a multiple of snout-vent Jength in mature and near mature in- dividuals of the Amphibolurus decresii complex. Explanation as for Fig. 14. Total number of femoral and preanal pores in various forms of the Amphibo- lurus decresii complex. Explanation as in Fig. 14, Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Superficially, at least, there is fairly close resemblance between members of the A. decresii species group and A. pictus which in- habits chiefly sandy, shrub-dominated habitats. Dispersal—past and present Since the lizards of this complex appear to inhabit only rock-strewn terrain, the question arises as to how they could have colonized the many isolated hills and ranges where they now occur without haying crossed wide expanses of soil plain. While I have never seen adult and subadult specimens anywhere other than amongst rock REVISION OF THE AMPAIROLURUS DECRESH COMPLEX sq Oulcrups, | have observed very small juveniles vE A. decresif up to 100 oyetres away from the nearest rocks uali\ohyst dense heath and une Was observe’ wallowing in loose sand on 4 Ire path, This sugyests chat small juverriles are get behaviourally tied to rocks as are older uiimals and that some degree of dispersal over non-rocky (efrain may be possible in the juvenile stage, | would expect, however, that the distances which such small tWards could cover would be relatively small and pot sufficient to explain the colonization of hills separated by tens of kilometres of soil plain. Because all members of the A. decresii specics-group confine theniselves to rocky habi- tats, I must assume that their ancesiors did ihe same ind I believe they could have dispersed ever long distances only where there Was suffi- ciont rocky cover and where the gaps hetween outcrops did not exceed the dispersal ability of juyeniles, It is Necessary to suppose, then, that rocky terrain in past times was far more eatensive in Sauth Australia than at present, providing several cormdurs for dragon lizard dispersal and that -crosion and deposition over very jong periods eventually marooned many populations as valleys widened and filled with alluvium. I consider, too, that the lizards would not be able 10 cross sea barriers in the wiy some others ate able (such as by the rafling of adults or their eges im Rood debris). The occur- rence of members of the complex on several islimds olf the coust of South Australia appears to necessitale the assumption that the islands were once part of the mainland and that ihe lizards colonized them at that time. Since the nearest living relatives of the A. deerevé complex occur north and west of South Australia, it is likely that ancestors of the complex migtated in from those directions. Migration is unlikely 10 have core through the west ef the State where lies the Nullarbor Plain and the sandy Great Victona Desert, or the north-east Where lies the sandy Simpson Desert. The only corridor which would have heen available to ihe lizards lies between these deserts and is constiluted by the Peake aad Denison Ranges, Through these ranges the lizards could have qmigroted from the Musgrave and Everard Ranges, past the western side of Lake Eyre tw the northern end of Lake Tor- Tens. This Jast inentidned lake and Spencer and St. Vincent Gulfs lie in ihe prest, sediment: filed South Austeuliun Rift Valley whact is burdered along its eastern margin by the Plinders-Mt, Lofty Range system and along its Western Inargin by the Andamooka Ranges and @ series of low ranges along the eastern margin of Eyte Peninsula. Further migration may then have occurred im two separate paths, one each side of the sunklands. The eastern path probably led them south to the area now foluning Kangaroo {. and u branch could have spread along the Olary Ridge {from Peter- borough to the tegion of Broken Hill), The western path may have led south to areas of which the Neptune and Gambier Is. are now remamants. Expansion of the lizards’ range westwards possibly occurred in two areas: (1) From the hills near the junction of Lake Torrens and Spencer Gulf through the Gawler Ranges sys- lem as far west as Lake Everard, and (2) from southern Eyre Peninsula north-westwards as far as Nuyts Archipelago seross 4 great expanse of seolianite (limestone) country. While the latter expanse of rock does not form any ranges, it does outcrop on low rises and in gullies. It is not necessary to suppose that this expanse was once exposed ulong the full length of the West Coast to explain the dragon lizards crossing it. Pockets of exposed rack. as occur toduy, may have expanded, coalesced, shjfted and shrunken with the pro- cesses of crosion so that lizards may have been able to move from one patch to another from jime to time, gradually expanding thew range. The limestone sheet surrounds many franitic, eneissic and sandstone outcrops ahd prohithly provided a pathway to them, Evelution af races T have sought below to fit the picture of variation within the complex to the conven- tional concept of new farms arising through geographic isolation, although realleing that alternative cxplanadions may be pdvanced. Following colonization of major areas of South Austraha by the ancestral form, changes must have yqsen which rendered the ares north of Lake Torrens unsuitable for habitation as It now appears to be, Thus, populations of the est were separated From those of the west hy the Lake Torrens-Spencer Gulf sunklands. Per- haps cuincident with these changes wos the isolation of populations in the Northern Flin- vers Runges from those further south, In this hypothetical situatian we may envisage the independent evolntion of the three main forms found today- fl) T. F. HOUSTON ta) Anrphibolurus decresti Because a single colour form occupies aTeas on both Kangaroo J. and the southern Mt. Lofty Ranges while another is found in the more northerly ranges, it must be supposed thal w& burrier to dispersal existed between the North and South Mt. Lofty Ranges well betore the separatian of Kangaroo J. by the forma- tion of Backstairs Passage, The area now. between Gawler and Kapunda, consists of very low rolling hills which do not provide any suitable autctops for habitation hy A. decresil. The widening and filling of valleys between individual ranges and hilly hus isolated many populations in the more northerly parts of the range of this species sind, presumably as a result, a minor degree of diversity in colora- Hon has arisen amongst them, (b) A. flartm The present distribution of male colour forms sugeests isolation occurred of popula- tions in Areas 1, 2, 3-4 (Fig. 1) and on Nep- junc and Wedge Is. allowing genebc diver- gence to develop, Since the populations of Neptune and Wedge Is, show strong differences from those of the near mainland, it may be suggested that these islands were separated (by the sea level rising in telation to the and} much earlier than islands to the north-west. where populations appear more like those of the near mainland. The generally deeper waters surrounding Nep- tune and Wedge Is. give same credence tn this theory. Huwever, It could also be sugaested thar there are some differences in the habitats occupied on these islands which exerted strong selective pressures and brought about changes in the inhabitants whereas the habitats of the north-west islands were imuch the same as those of the mainland, Two barriers to dispersal must have arisen another un southern Eyze Peninsula (isolating area 2 from area 3-4). In these two areis development of rocky Lerrait: was presumably weaker than elsewhere 30 that the processes of erosion and deposition were able to break Jown or bury the rocks over a sufficrently wide arca to disrupt dispersal. As time went on, this process continued within each area splitting off more and more isolates. Even very small populations ry show evidence of their jsolation. For example, an unusually bold colour pattern characterises females from the Marble Range. {el A, yvadnappa Only one major barrier to dispersal of this species appears lo have arisen; a bread tract of sandy country passing through Farina and separating the Willouran Ranges from the northern Flinders Ranges, Perhaps subsequent to the formation of this pap, the barrier separating 4. decresi/ from A. vadnappa was overcome by the farnrer, thus allowing colonization of the ensteta part of the range of the Jatter. f am at a loss, however, to sugvest just how this could have cone about, The evolution of the A. decresi? complex, as envisaged above, parallels the model of specia- lion proposed by Pianku (1972) for habitat- restricted livards Jiying in “shrub-Acecier! or “sandplain-T'riodie" habitats. in both cuses. habitats fluctuating in space and time are helieved ta he the key factor. Acknowledgements The author is indebted to the many people who provided specimens for the purposes of this study, and who assisted him with collection, in the field) Mr. R. W. Ellis, Curator of Aboriginal and Historic Relics, South Austra- lian Museum, kindly provided details of on the mainland! one north-west of Pt. Aboriginal mythology connected with the new Augusta (Separating area 1 from 2) and species. References Dumern, A. Mo Cc. & Brean, G. (1837).— Perers, E. (1864).—Obersicht der aus Buchsfelde Erpétologic Générale ou Flisteire naturelle bei Adelside eingesandten Amphibien- complete des reptiles, TV. {Paris.) Monatsh. Prenss. Akenl, Wiss, zu Berlin 1863, 228-234, Dumus. A. M, C.. & Bron, G. (7834),— Erpétologie Générale Athos, (Paris. Fitzinger, L., (1843) —Systema (Vienna.) Keptilium, Guint, J. (1954),—Catglogue des Lézards du Museum National Naturelle, (Paris,) Types de d'Alstoire Pranka, B. R. {1972).—Zoogeography and speciu- tion of Australian desert lizards: an ecologi- cal perspective. Copeia 1972. (1), 127-145, Procter, J. B. (1923)—On new and tare rep- tiles and batrachians from the Australian resins, Proc. zvol, Soc. Tond. 1923, 1069- 1077, Sioxu, G. M. £1967),—Geographic races of the agaoid lizard Amphtholurus caudicinetus, J. R. Sar. West, Aust. 50(2), 49-56, NOTES ON THE SMALL MAMMALS OF NORTH-EASTERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND SOUTH-WESTERN QUEENSLAND BY C. H. S. WATTS* AND HEATHER J. ASLIN* Summary WATTS, C. H.S., & ASLIN, Heather J. (19741.-Notes on the Small Mammals of North-eastern South Australia and South-western Queensland. Trans. R. Soc. Aust. 98 (2), 61-69, 31 May, 1974. The results of five field trips to north-eastern South Australia and south-western Queensland are presented. The following four species (and numbers) of dasyurid marsupials were collected: Sminthopsis crassicaudata (61), S. froggatti (3), Antechinomys spenceri (13), and Dasyuroides byrnei (18). Seven species of native rodents were collected: Notomys alexis (3), N. cervinus (48), N. fuscus (39), Pseudomys forresti (2), P. hermannsburgensis (8), P. australis (4), and Rattus sordidus (many). In addition, a colony of Rabbit Bandicoots (Macrotis lagotis) was located in Queensland. NOTES ON THE SMALL MAMMALS OF NORTH-EASTERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND SOUTH-WESTERN QUEENSLAND by CH. S. Wartrs* aml HEATHER J. ASLIN* Summary Watts, C. H.S., & Asti, Heather J, (1974).—Notes on the Small Mammals of North-easlern South Australia and South-western Queensland, Trans. R. Sec. Aust. 98 (2), 61-59, 3i May. 1974. The results of five field trips to north-eastern South Australia and south-western Queens- land ure presented, The following four species (and numbers} ef dasyurid marsupisis were collected; Sminthops/y vrassicuudeia (61). 8. froygaitt (3), Antechinomys spenceri (13), and Dasyaroides byrndi (18). Seven species of native rodents were collected: Netarnys alexis 13), N, cervinus (48), No fuses (39), Pseudomys forresti (2), P. hermanisburgensis (8), P. astealis (4), and Rattus sordidus (many). Tn addition, a colony of Rabbit Bandicoams (Macrotis lagotis) was located in Queensland. Distribution, status, and habitat preference within the avea is discussed for 9 number of species collected. In particular, R. sordidtis was found to be common in 1968 and 1972, but micommon in 1971, when it was restricted to wet areas around bores and floodplains, Lt is suguested that, following periods of good rainfall, R. serdiduy spreads from mesic refuges and temporarily occupies surrounding areas, giving rise to plagues in exceptional years, Introduction Knowledge of the distribution and habits of many of Australia's small desert mammals is accumulating only very slowly. There is litile or no published information on many species of native rodents and small marsupials from the central areas of the continent. Without further distributional cecords it is impossible lo assess whether these species are maintaining ther numbers, or have been striaysby affected by land-ase practices and by the presence of exotic mammals, In the hope of adding to present knowledge of the distribution and habits of smali desert mammals, this paper reports the findings of five field trips to north-eastern South Australia and suuth-western Queensland. The ficld work wits Carried out with the aim of collecting small mammals to establish breeding colonies in cap- livity, However, in the course of this work. information was Obtained on the distrilnition, status, habitat prefercnce, .and hahits of the species collected. This information is a neéces- sary prerequisite for effective conservation of the various species in the wild. The species collected were the following: the dasyurid marsupials Sminthopsis crassiceudata, S. froggaui, Dasyweoides byrnet, and Ante- chinomiys spenceri; the rodents Natomys alexis, N, cervinus, N. fuscus, Pseudamys australis, P. hermannsburgensis, P. forresti, and Rattus sor- didus. Information was also obtained about the status of the Rabbit Bandicoot (Macroris lagolis) in Queensland. A representative speci- men of each species collected has been lodged in the South Australian Museum, Methods Five trips were made, in September 1968, June 1969, June-July 1971, July 1972 and October 1972. A total of 43 days was spent in the field. A summary of routes taken is shown in Fig. |, Most animals were caught by spot-lighting on 33 nights, usually between the hours of 20.00 to 24.00, After detection, animals were caught in a hand-held net. Sherman live mam- mal traps (7 x 8 x 23 cm) were set on several occasions. Two species were obtained by digging up. burrows. Some animals were released after examina- tion, but imost were transported to the labora- tury alive. As it was difficult 10 determine precise loca- trons at which animals were caught, the Joca- tions given are approximate. 7 Institute of Medical und Veterinary Science, Frome Road, Adelaide, 5, Aust. 5000. 62 c. H. S. WATTS & H. J. ASLIN GLENORMISTON 14 0° HS ee RBOULIA MARION DOWNS Hs: COORABULKA H.S SANDRINGHAM) HSm_/ | BEDOURIET | \ OLD GLENGYLE® J &MONKIRA H.-S. 1¢ \ HS. fA DUR DIE HS JaeTOoTA BIRDSVILLE, J HS. CORDILLO DOWNS H.S. INNAMINCKA H. S. M\MULKA / H.8. ‘ / / Q / NE mE ARR EEN } Z 7 aed ADELAIDE KILOMETRES 135 Fig. 1. Summary of the routes taken on the five field trips. The routes followed are indicated by a broken line, CHANNEL COUNTRY MAMMALS 63 Nomenclature used in this paper follows that of Ride (1970), with the exception of the Long-haired Rat, which is now considered by Taylor & Horner (1973) to be a subspecies of the Dusky Field-rat, and is therefore referred to as Rattus sordidus villosissimus, not Rattus villosissimus. Results MARSUPIALIA Family PERAMELIDAE 1. Macrotis lagotis (Reid), Rabbit Bandicoot Locality: 16 km N Coorabulka Homestead, Qld; July 1972; 1 (sex unknown). Notes; One Rabbit Bandicoot was sighted on gibber plain while spot-lighting, and this ani- mal took refuge in a complex burrow system, consisting of approximately 20 holes, Reports from local residents indicate that a colony of M. lagotis exists in an area extending from Coorabulka Station into the adjoining stations of Marion Downs and Lorna Downs. In addition to this colony. reports of ani- mals answering the description of Rabbit Ban- dicoots were obtained from residents of Glen- gvle and Sandringham Stations. Family DASYURIDAE |, Sminthopsis crassicaudata (Gould), tailed Dunnart 2 Fat- De Localities: (() 72 km NE Anna Creek Homestead, S.A.; Tune 1971; 2 @. (ii) 8 km E Mulka Home- stead, S.A.; June 1969, July 1972; 2 ¢. (iii) 112 km SW Innamincka Homestead, S.A.: June 1969: 1 9. (iv) 80 km N Innamincka Homestead, S.A.; June 1969; 1 9, 1 & (v) 8&8 km § of Birdsville, Qld: Sept. 1968, June 1969, Oct, 1972; 4 9, 12 2. (vi) 48 km SE Pandie Pandie Homestead, S.A,: July 1972: 1 9. (vii) 16 km W Betoota, Qld: June 1969, July 1972; 5 &. (viii) 32 km W Durrie Homestead, Qld; July 1972; 1 ?. (ix) 32 km NW Monkira Homestead, Qld; July 1972; 1 &. (x) 16 km W Corrabulka Homestead, Qld: July 1972: 8 3. (xi) 32 km NW Coorabulka Homestead. Qld: July 1972; 1 2 (xii) 16 km N Coorabulka Home- stead, Qld: July 1971, July 1972; 5 2. (xiii) 8 km SE Sandringham Homestead, Qld: Sept. 1968: female with three young. (xiv) 8 km S$ Glengyle Homestead, Qld; Sept. 1968; 2 9, 9 d. (xv) 8 km E Glenormiston Homestead, Qld; Sept. 1968; 1 ¢. Notes: S. crassicaudata was found in a variety of habitats, including gibber and sand plain, alluvial flats, and clay pans. One animal was trapped by a bore drain, The species appeared to be thinly spread in most areas, but 11 ani- mals were caught by spot-lighting in an area of less than 2 hectares near Glengyle Home- stead, on recently flooded clay pans. 2. Sminthopsis froggatti faced Dunnart Localities: (i) 16 km N Pandie Pandie Homestead. S.A.; Sept. 1969: 1 & (ii) 16 km N Coorabulka (Ramsay), Stripe- a : ee ee i ne BR yy Soe 5 > Fig. 2. Habitat of Sminthopsis froggatti on Coorabulka Station, Qld. 64 Cc. H. 8S. WATTS & i. J. ASLIN ig. 3, Homestead, Qld: July 1972; 1 ¢, (iii) 32 km NW Coorabulka Homestead, Qld; July 1972; 1 ¢. Notes: One of the three S. froggarti is illustra- ted in Fig. 3. together with the habitat in which it was collected. 2 3. Antechinomys wuhl Localities: (i) & km W Birdsville, Qld; July 1969; 1 &. Gi) 16 km W Betoota, Qld; June 1969, July 1972, Oct. 1972; 3 @, 5 &. (iit) 16 km W Coora- bulka Homestead, Qld; Sept. 1968, July 1971, July 1972; 2 9, 2 ¢. Noies: A. spenceri was captured on gibber plain, by spot-lighting, and at each of the three localities was sympatric with the rodent, Notomys cervinus. One female A. spencert took refuge in what appeared to be a disused burrow of N. cervinus. spenceri Thomas, Wuhl- 4, Dasyuroides byrnei Spencer, Kowari Localities: (4) 8 km SE Coorabulka Homestead, Qld; Sept. 1968; 1 9. (ii) 16 km N Coorabulka Homestead, Qld; July 1971; 8 9, 6 &. (iii) 16 km W. Coorabulka Homestead, Qld; July 1971; 2 4 (iv) 8 km N Coorabulka Homestead, Qld; July 1972; 1 2. Notes: Of the 18 animals collected, 14 were trapped, two were caught by spot-lighting, and one was a road-kill. Adult male S. froggatti from Coot een rabulka, Old, In July 1972, seven D. byrnet were sighted on station roads north of Coorabulka Home- stead. When pursued, two of these animals took refuge in burrows occupied by Long- haired Rats (R. s. villosissimus) which were abundant at the time. All D. byrnei were cap- tured on gibber plain. Reports of animals which may have been D, byrnei were obtained at Betoota, Qld, and a skull of D. byrnei was found under an air- port marker near Betoota. RODENTIA Family MURIDAE 1. Notomys alexis Thomas, Spinifex Hopping- mouse Localities: (i) 80 km N Innamincka Homestead, S.A.; June 1969; 2 d. (ii) 8 km SE Sandringham Homestead, Qld; Sept. 1968; 1 3 2. Notomys cervinus (Gould), Fawn Hopping- mouse Localities: (i) 48 km S Pandie Pandie Homestead, S.A.: July 1972; 1 2. ii) & km S Birdsville, Qld; June 1969: 1 9, 2 &. (iii) 16 km N Birdsville, Qld; Sept, 1968; 3 9, 13 ¢. (iv) 16 km W Betoota, Qld; June 1969, July 1972, Oct, 1972; 3 9, 3 ¢. (v) 32 km W Durrie Homestead, Qld; July 1972; 2 9 (vi) 16 km S Glengyle Homestead, Qld; CHANNEL COUNTRY MAMMALS 65 Sepl, 1968: 5% 9 ¢, tvii} 16 km § Glengyle Homestead, Qld; July 1971, | 9, 4 dt. évili) 16 km N Cocrabwka Homestead, Qld; July 1972; 12 Notes; A total of 15 Females aiid 31 males of N, cenvinus were captired, hy Spot-lighting, either on open gibber plain, ov gibber Plain with alluvial flats. Several WN, cervinis took Tefuge in burrows which oonsisted of one to three closely grouped entrance holes, situated on open gibher plain. 3. Notumys fuseus (Jones), Dusky Hopping- mouse Loenlities: (i) 16 km N Birdsville. Qld; Sept. 1968; 1 of. (ii) 16 km W Betoola, Qld; Jime 1969, July 1972, Det. 1972; 2t 9. 17 A’ Netex: All N. fuscus from Betoota were ob- tained from a limited area of sand ridge which wis visited on four occasions (Fig. 4). Two burrow systems of NV. jascur Were exca- vated, and a diagram of one is shown in Fig 6, Neither of the burrows contained animals. 4. Psendomys forresti (Thomas), Forrest's Mouse Localities: (t) 16 km W Coorabulka Homestend, Qld; July (972; 1 &. (ii) 32 km NW Coorubulka Homestead, Qld; July 1972: 1 2, 5. Pseudomys (Leggadina) hermannsburgensis (Waite), Sandy Inland Mouse facdites: (i) 8 km SE Sandringham Homestead, Qid; Sept. 1968: 1 2 (fi) 16 km W Betoota, Qld; June 1969, July 1972, Oct. 1972; 7 3, 3 ot (iii) ea km aw Coorabulka Homestead, Qld; July S721 ds 6. Pseudomys australis Gray, Plains Rat Lacaiit\; 96 km NE Cardillo Downs Nomestead, S.Au June 1969; 3 9. 1 Notes, the four 1, aristralis were obtained from a-single burrow, Which was one in an exten- sive area of burrows situated on gibber plain with clay-pans. Seven burrows were dug Up. hut only che was occupled. Sections of some burrows were stuffed with green vegetation, 7, Rattus sordidus villosissimus (Waite), Long- haired Rat Localities; Li) 16 km N Clifton Hits Homestead, S.A; Sept. 1968; 3 2 5 3. (ii) 32 km NE Clifton Hills Homestead, S.A; Sept, £968; 7 9, 1 @. ili} {6 km N_ Birdsville, Qld; Sept. 1968, July 1971; 99, 11 a Civ) 72 km NE Anna Creek Home- stead, S.A.; June 1971; 2.9, 1 co. tv) 32 km SE Pandie Pandie Homestead, 5A. July 1971; ) ¢ und 6 young. | do. (vi) 16 km N Coorabulka Homestead, Qld; July 1972; many animals, Notes: Sixteea R. 5. villorissimus were trapped On sand-ndges and flood-plain at Clifton Hills Station in 1968. Green vegetation was plentiful at this time, A further 20 animals were trapped sear Birdsville on pibber plain in 1968 and 1971. The loculity on Anna Creek Station was a rord ahd sedge area around a bore drain, while on Pandie Pandie Station a female and her six young were dug out from a simple burrow in a sand ridge close to flood-plsin. The young were enclosed in a spherical nest of shredded plant material. In July 1972, signs of R, s. villosissimus were found in most areas visited, from’ Mulka Station northwards. Many rats were sighted during sporighting on Pandie Pandie, Durric, Monkira and Coorabulka Stations, and also near Betoota. They Were in plague proportions on Coorabulka Station, where many were trapped on gibber plain, and extended north to Boulia. Discussion The finding of Macrotis fagotis in south. western Queensland js of interest because of its present rurity and great decrease in range this century, Mack (1961) obtained Rabbit Bundicoots from near Birdsville in 1957-59, but the species has not heen seen recently in this area. Smyth & Philpott (1967) found the species to be common at Warburton Mission, W.A., and Walls (1969) focated colonies at ¥Yuendumu, Hamilton Downs and Papunya in the Nosthern Territory, This study suggests that Rabbit Bandicoots may still occur in scveral areas of western Queensland, where rabbits and foxes are in low numbers. OF the four species of dasvurid marsupials collected, Smikihopsir crasticaudata was the most common, and appears to occur fn all types of hahitat in the area studied, S$. cresyi- caudata from these areas were characterized by larger ears, Jonger tails and paler cost colour than animals from southern South Australia, and are relercable to the sub-species S. crarsi- caudata ventralis Thomas, Another species of Siminthopsix, identified by M. Archer (pers. comm.) as S. froggatri (sens. Ride 1970). was obtained jn the same areas as 3 crassteaudata, but was much less common. Ag extremely biassed sex ratio of 46 males tot] females (four animals were pot sexed), was found for S. crassicaudata capmted by spotlighting. This contrasts with Wood Jones’ (1923) finding that many more fernales than males Were captured by trapping and by domestic cats, This serves ro illustrate the way 46 C,H S. WATTS & H. J. ASLIN in which methods of capture may discriminate avainst one sex in Favotr of the other, OF the 11 female S. crasstcaudafa captured, mindy two hud young, beth in the spring manths. Since ull animals were captured in winter ur spring, and since most breeding in 5. crasi- cadate occurs between July and February, both it the field and in the luboratory (Godfrey & Crawernft 1971), it is surprising that more females with young were not captured. It seems that cither only a small percentage of females are breeding wl any one time, or that methods of capture which depend on the amount of time which the animals spends aclive outside refuges discriminate against females with pouch young. This is consistent. with Ewer’s (1968) observations. that captive females with pouch young were Jess active than usual, The small dasyurid Antechinombs spéencert was found to be moderately common in several areas of southewestern Queensland, but Was fot taken in South Australia, and appears to be rare in the north-east of the State, although Finlayson (1961) found it plentiful in the Everard and Musgrave Ranges of the north. west. All the animals captured in Queensland were taken on gibber plain. which contrasts with Wood Joncs' (1923) statement that A, ypeneer’ is an animal of sand-tidge desert. Marlow (1968) also found A, spenceri in ateas of gibber plain habitat, Until recently A. spencer? was believed to hop bipedully like the munds of the genus Notomys. Ride (1965) showed, however. thal A. spencer’ moves quadrupedally at all times. and Marlow (1968) found thal A. spenceri wiso adopted different escape lactics from N cervirus when pursued | similar habitat. This was also noted in the present study, A- spencer frequently crouched behind small clumps of vegetation, relying on concealment to escape capture, whereas NV. cervinws invariably hopped at high speed. and frequently changed uirec- lion, Unfortunately none of the female A. spen- cert from Queenslund had pouch young, although there is a tecofd of one fernale with young which was captured in September in the Northern Territory (unpublished data). If this species breeds during the winter and spring months, once again it is surprising that none of the five females captured had pouch young, The argument used fe account for the similar situation wit) §. ¢rassicaudata may NOt he applicable Io A. spenceri, vs only 3 slight excess Of males (8 males, S females) was te- corded for this species, Dasyuroides byrnei was found in a Jimited ea OF south-western Queensland, and appears to be restricted to gibber plain, The type juculity of rhis species is Charlotte Waters an the Northern Terntury, and it has been taken ax far south as Killalpaninna, on Coopet's Creek in South Australia (Wood Jones 1923), However, D. byrne? has seldom been collected trom the Northern Territory or South Aus- iralia in recent times, although it remaims com- mon |i parts of south-western Queensland, Seven of the eight female D. byrnei collected its July. 197), had pouch young, all of which were estimated ie have been hor in June, Woolley (1971) collected = pouch-gravid females in June, and pregnant females in November. Female cycles appear to be syn- chronized in this species, and most females come into breeding condition in May or Junc both in the ficld and an the laboratory. Turning to the rodents, firstly it is worth noting that although seven species of native todents were collected, the introdyced house mouse (Afus mmuscafus) was not found in the grea under study, Of the native rodents ob- tained, Neroneys cervinus was the most com- mon: 48 were collected in South Australia and Queensland. N. cervinus was found on both gibber plain and alluviai flats, bue not on sandy areas, It was abundant in some paris, particularly near Betoota. N. cervinas appears 10 be a soctal species as indicated by the groups of thres to four animals sighted simul- tancously in the field. Of the 15 female N. ceryinus collected, one Wag lactating in September, and another preg- nant in July, One juvenile was also collected in July. These records suggest that N, cervinus muy be a winter breeder im the wild. Noromys fuscus was obtained at Betouts in the same tinea as NL cervinus, which it closely resembles. However, hoth sexes of N. furcus have an abvious gular pouch, which distin-= guishes the species from N. cervinus, in which neither sex possesses a gular pouch (Aitken 1963). N, fuscus was found to be abundant on one sunc-ridge near Betoota, and was apparently confined to this ridge. N. cervime was collec- ted from the adjacent gibber flats, but only one WN. fasciry was captured on these flats. Ie seemed, therefore, that N. fascws ventured only rarely onto open gibber plain. Aitken (1968) has mapped the distribution of N- CHANNEL COUNTRY MAMMALS GROUND MAIN TUNNEL Fig. 4. Habitat of Notomys fuscus near Betoota, Qld. Fig. 5. Adult female N. fuscus. Fig. 6. Diagram of a burrow system of N. fuscus excavated on the sand-ridge shown in Fig. 4. ns CHS WATIS & HJ liven, ad has shown thal most records ot this species are from north-eastern South Aus- tralia, With the greufest concentration between Lake Eyre and the Queenshind border The present record fronr Betoata appears to be the most northerly locality al which the species hus been tuken. Burraws of No fayvedy located on the sanil- ridge conformed ty the typical Naroinys pat tern (Fig, 6), baving several vertical shafts descending te a depth of 70-140 cm (we to four feet), The number of animuls present on the Sanmteridge appears to fluctuate, as none was sighted in June. 1971, although conditions at this time were better than in July, 1972, when No fivens was eoninian. In addition, two females collected in July, (972, were pregnant, one gave birth to fiye young within a week of cupture. vod the other wave birth to one young 33 days uffer capture. Breeding in this species, if opportunistic us suggested for many desert rodents, may not be directly dependent on rainfall, ar there may be a considerable lag in response to improved conditions. Watts (1970) has shown that NV. fliserns eats mainly seed in the wild, and much af this seed may he lost cue to germination immediately after counfall, A lhed Navainy species, No alexis, Was col- jected from) two areas Of sand-pluin covered with Triedia, but was not common in the areas Visited. From these records it can be seen that the three species of Nerteniys in south-western Queensland have distinct habuut preferences: N, cervinus favours open gibher or alluvial plains, No fesers intuthits sarudi-ridges, und Vy, dleviy lives ou the furter ureas of deep sand. Three species of the genus Preadomry were collected: PF. fortes, Po heriannshargensisy and P. astreliv, The reeords of Po lermanns- burgdnséy from Queensland are unusiull, as the greqlest concentration of thix speectes is to the west of Alice Springs, some 480 km front the present loealities, Finlayson (1961) states that he could obtain na evidence of this species to the east of Stuart's Line, hut in this study P, hermuannsburgensiv owas taken from three widely separated localities in western Queens- Lamel. Of the four female P. heridnishireensis captured, one was pregnant when collected in June. 1969. and pave hirth to two young eight duys after capture. One juvenile male was collected in July, 1972, indicating that this species shows breeding activity in the winter months, Similarly, Wwo of the three female P- ASTIN australiy collected in June, 1969, were preg- nant, and gaye birth to three and two young in the laboratery at 15 and 16 days alter ep fure. Raitas sordidaus vitlosissonus was callected vn muiny Occasions, and some conclusions about its habits can be drawn, This species is known fo intrease vastly in mumbers at inter- vals of five to seven years. und Finlayson (1961) suggested that at these times Tt swarms from a breeding centre in western Queenslund into South Australia and the Northern Terri- tory. This theory requires large-scale migration of the species into previously unoccupied areas, Information from the present study indi. cules (hal dtirigg rat plagues the animals can be found in-all types of habilul, provided green phints of roots are available as a source of vuter, as Roy. villosissiuaty ts unable to stir vive without preformed water (unpublished data), These conditions prevailed in 1968 ani 972. When the species was abundant from northern South Australia to Boultu in Queens- lund. However, animals collected in 97) were obtained from areas close lo water, Such us uround bore-drains and from flood-plain Three females obtained fram Cliflan Hills Station in L9O8 were pregnant, bur there was evidence thal the vals were decreasing (ew range in this area. us there were muny unoecu- pied burrows in gibber plain) whieh had recently dried out, In a good segson it seems that Ry s. villosisvintny can occupy all pes of habitat, hut as vegetation dries oul the gibber plains are the first areas which became un- tenable. Similarly, in 1972, although ruts were present on gibber plat in many areas, they were most numerous around bore-trains. and animals living on the open pluins were often in poor condition, This information suggests that R. 9 villosis- sims ig always present in small numbers 1 pockely of favourable habitat. such as around bore-deains. In sueh pockets the rats can sur- vive droughts, and if conditions improve in surrounding ureas they are able to expand inte these ureas, These successive expansions from many breeding ouclei are therefore responsible for rat plagues, nut mgss migration from a single centre in westem Queenskind, In mesic refliges R, », villosivsinnis 8 a relatively eryptie species. which may account for the common helieF that it is completely absent from most areas in non-plague vears- In summary, it seems that a number of native mammals are moderately common in CHANNEL COUNTRY MAMMALS f9 nosth-eastern South Australia und south- western Queensland, in spite of almose com- plete pastoral exploitation of the area, The small mammals have fared better than those of intermediate size. In purticular, the desert bandicoots have suffered greatly in this cen- tury. Macrotis leticura, Chaerapus ecaudatur, Perameles eremiana and lsoodon atiratus all appear to have vanished with the invasion of the fox inte central Australia ( Finlayson (961). In view of this fact, the Rabbit Bundi- coot is most urgently in need of protection in Queenslund, as the colonies in this area are probably small and are widely separated from other known colonies, Many of the small mammals, however, uppear to be maintaining their numbers, although in many cases little is known about their distribution and habits. This lack of knowledge can only be remedied by more ex- tensive field work carried out regularly ovet long petiods. Such field work is particularly necessary for an understanding of the popu- lution dynumics of many of Austealia’s native rodents. Acknowledgements We are perateful to the Department of Fisheries and Fauna Conservation, South Aus- tralia, and the Department of Primary Indus- tres, Queensland, for allowing us to collect small mammals in the two States, and for issuing the necessary import arid eXport per- mits, The following people carried out field work it various times: Mr. C. Hann, Mr. J, Harlow, Dr. Ci, Judson, Mr. C, Pettet, Miss A. Olner, Mr, J. Satchell and Mrs. G, Watls. We ate extremely grateful for their assistance in what was often exhausting work. We appreciate the advice of Dr, M. Archer of the Queensland Museum on the identification of Sminhopsis specimens, Thanks are also due to the residents of a number of stations, particularly Coorabulka Station, for helpful adyice and assistance, Finally, we must thank Dr. P, S, Watts, whose interest and encourayement made this work possible, References AITKEN, P. F. (1968).—-Observations on Notomys fuseus (Wood Jones) (Muridae-Pseudo- mylnae) with notes on a new synonym. S. Aust. Nat, 43, 37-45. Ewer. R. F. (1968),—A preliminary study of the behaviour in captivity of the dasyurnl mar- supial, Sminthopsts crassicaudara (Gould), Z, Tierpsyvhol, 25, 319-365, Fintayson, H. H. (1962).—On central Australian mammals. Part IW—The distribution and status of central Australian species, Rec. S. Aust. Mrs, 14 (1), 141-191. Goprrey. G. K,, & Crowcrorr, P. (1971).— Breeding the Fat-tailed marsupial mouse in captivity, fnfer. Zo0 Yearbook 11, 34-32, Jones, F. Woon (1925).—“The Mammals of South = Australia”. (Government Printer: Adelaide, ) Mack, G, (1961)—Mammats from sonth-western Queensland, Mem, Old Mus. 13, 213-229, Martow, RB, JF. (1969)-—A comparison of the locomotion of two desert-living Australian mammals, Atfechinomys spenceri (Mar- zupialias Dasyuridae) and Notomeys certnus Peouenba: Muridae). J. Zoni., Lond. 157, Putyporr, C, M.. & Smyrn, D. R. (1967)—A contribution to our knowledge of some rare manmunals from infanad Australia, Trars. R. Sue. § Aus, 91, 115-134, Rink, BD. L, (1965)—Lacomotion in the Australizn marsupial Antechitobiyys. Nature 205, 199, Rive, W. D. L. (1970) —"A Guide to the Native Mammals of Australia”. (Oxford University Press: Melbourne.) Smytn, DR, & Purrrporr, C. M. (1968).—A field study of the rabbit bandicoot,, Macretiz lugotis, Marsupialia, from central Western Australla, Trans. R, Soc, 8. Aust. 92, 3-17. TayLox, J. Mary, & Horner, B:. ELizaperu (1973),—Results of the Archbold Expedi- tions. No. 98, Systematics of native Austra- lian Rattus (Roventia, Muridae), Bull, Amer Mus. Nat, fis. 150, 1-130. Watrs. C. H. & (1969).—Distributlon and habits of the rabbit bandicoot, Trans, R, Spe. S. Asi. 93, 135-141, Warts. C, H. S. (1970),—The foods eaten hy some Australian desert rodents. S Aust, Nat, H, 71-74. Woorey, P. (1971).—Maintenanes and breeding ef laboratory colonies (af) Dasyurvides byvenet and Desvcercus cristicawda. Inter. Zon Fearhook 11, 351-354. NEW SPECIES OF HYLID AND LEPTODACTYLID FROGS FROM SOUTHERN NEW GUINEA BY M. J. TYLER* AND F. PARKER Summary TYLER, M. J., & PARKER, F. (1974).-New Species of Hylid and Leptodactylid Frogs from southern New Guinea. Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 98 (2), 71-77, 31 May, 1974. Two new species of frogs (a hylid and a leptodactylid) from southern New Guinea are described. Details of habitats and habits are provided, and an analysis of the mating call of the leptodactylid is included. NEW SPECIES OF HYLID AND LEPTODACTYLID FROGS FROM SOUTHERN NEW GUINEA by M. J. TyLtea* and F. Parkery Summary Iycer, M, J, & PARKER, F. (1974).—New Species of Hylid and Leptodactylid Frogs {rom southern New Guinea. Trans. R, Soc, 5. Aust, 98 (2), 71-77, 31 May, 1974. Two new species of frogs (a hylid and a leptodactylid) from southern New Guitiea are described, Details of habitats and habits sre provided, and an analysis of the mating call of the leptodactylid is included. introduction In @ recent comparigon of the Australian and Papuan frog faunas adjacent to Torres Strait, Tyler (1972a) indicated that few species are exclusiye to the Papuan ccastal urea. However, it was noted that literature references to the occurrence there of the Aus- tralian leptodactylid Crinia signifera (Roux 1920; Van Kampen 1923; Parker 1940) ante- dated knowledge of the existence of a com- plex of species previously so identified (Moore 1954. Main 1957), and probably represented an wndesceribed species, Tyler & Parker (1972) increased the known Papuan hyhd frog fauna by describing Litoria ltmida from the upper tributaries of the Ply River, and from localities situated closer to the coust in the south-east of Papua New Guinea- On 4 March, 1973, one of us (F.P.) collec- ied vight species of frogs at Merauke, situated only 80 km west of the area from which the collections of Tyler & Parker (1972} were obtained. One of these species reptesents a previously undescribed hylid which we des- cribe here. Moreover, we now have adequate material from previous collections in southern New Guinea to re-examine the taxonomic status of the leptodactytid, Crinig Tschudi, as recognised by Parker (1940), is now regarded as constituting four dislinet genera: Assa Tyler, Crinia Tschudi, Geacrinia Blake and Ranidella Girard (Tyler 1972b; Blake 1973). The Crinia signifera com- plex has been referred to Runidella by Blake. und the species that we describe here is » mem- ber of that genus, Methods The specimens discussed here are deposited in the collections of institutions abbreviated in the text as follows: American Museum of Natural History (AMNH); Museum of Com- parative Zoology (MCZ), Naturhistorisches Museum Basel (NMB): South Australian Museum (SAM), and Department of Biology, University of Papua New Guinea (UPNG). The methods of measurement and morpho- logicul and descriptive terminology follow those of Tyler (1968). The descriptive abbre- viations used are: E (horizontal diameter of the eye); E-N (distance between the eye and the naris); IN (Ginternarial span); HL (head length); HW (head width); S-V (snout to vent length); and TL, (tibia length). Tech- niques of call recording and analysis follow Tyler & Menzies (1971). Merauke is situated approximately 80 km west, Gubam 30 kn east, and Mata 10 km east, of Morchead (Tyler & Parker 1972, Fig. 1). Litoria quadrilineata n.sp, Holotype: SAM R13489, An adult male collected on Jand adjacent to the Post Office, Jalan Trikora (—Trikora Road), at Merauke, Irian Jaya (formerly West Irian), New Guinea, by F. Parker on 4 March, 1973. Definition; A small lowland species (males 27,4-30.5 mm S-V) characterised by a narrow * South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, S. Aust. S000. t Wildlife Section, Dept. of Agriculture Stock and Fisheries, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea “+ nm Fig, 1, Hand and foot of Eitorie guadrilineuta. and rather clongated head und body. short limbs, unwebbed fingers, vestigially webbed toes and four dark, longitudinal stripes on the lateral and dorsal surfaces of the body. Description of Holetype; The head is high, triangular when viewed from above, and banger than broad (HL/HW 1,089), its length equiva- lent to slightly more than one-third of the snout fo vent length. The snout is high and prominent when viewed from above, rounded and projecting beyond the anterior limit of the mandible in profile. The nostrils are situa- led laleratly, their distance from the end of the snout being approximately one-half that from the anterior margin of the eye. The dis- tanec between the eye and the aris is greater thin the internarial span (E-N/TN 1.083), The canthus rosttalis is of moderale length, clearly defined and very slightly curved, whilst the loreal region is markedly concave, The eye is of moderate size and not conspicuously prominent, its diameter equivalent to the dis- lance between the eye and the naris. The tympanum ey conspicuous, with a narrow annu- jus partly hidden superiorly by a supra-tym- panic fold, The tympanic diameter is equiva- lent to approximately one-half of the horizon- tal diameter of the eye. Vomerine teeth are absent: there is a slightly raised clevation on the left side but not on the right. This eleva- tion is situated between the chononae, The tongue is broadly oval with a very weak pos- tenor indentahem- M.. TYLER & F, PARKER The fingers are tong, slender, unwebbed, and possess Only extremely slender lateral Iringes (Fig. 1), The decreasing order of length of the fingers is 3>452>1, The terminal discs are moderate, the diameter of the discs of the third finger being approximately one and one- half times the diameter of the penultimate phalanx, The hind limbs ure relatively short and slender, with a TL/S-V ratio of 0.407, and lucy in decreasing order of length 4>3>3>2 = 1. Only a vestigial trace of webbing occurs hetween the fourth and the fifth, and third and fourth digits (Fig. 1). There is a small circular inner but no outer metatarsal tubercle. The dorsal surfaces of the head, body und limbs ate minutely granular, Distinct tubercles are lacking. The skin of the throat and chest Jacks tubercles, but is greatly folded and con- voluted in association with the vocul sac. und is clearly a reflection of the calling activity of the specimen prior to preservation, The abdo- men und ventral surfaces of the femora are granular, There is an extremely prominent gland at the post-articular mutgins of the man- dibles, This. male specimen has w large, single sib- mandibular vocal sac with longitudinal puired apertures bounded by the anterior cornua, and glandular but completely unpigmented nuptial pads, The dorsum is a very pale brown, on which there are four narrow, bul conspicuous, longi- tudinal black stripes. The median pair com- mences on a Jevel with the anterior margins of the upper cyelids and extends to the femora. The lateral stipes extend from the tip of the snout to the inguinal region, In addition there is a very natrow and much less conspicuous mid-vertebral stripe, and a pair of short dark stripes on cach side of the cloaca, extending to a position anterior to the level of the femora. “There is a dark stripe on the outer margin of the forearm anda pair of mare con- spreuous dark stripes on the dorsal surface of the tibia and the tarsus, The post-labial gland is white and the venital surfaces of the body and limbs are dull cream and immaculate. Dimensions: Snout ta yent length 29,9 mm: tibia length 12.2 mm; bead length, 9.5 mm; head width 8.6 mm; eye to maris distance 2.6 mm} internarial span 2.3 mm; eye diameter 3.1 mm; tympanum diameter 1.9 mm. \arlation; The paratype series. consists of twelve adult males (MCZ 86014-21, SAM R13480-93}, collected jt Merauke with the NEW SPECIES OF NEW GUINEA FROGS 73 Fig. 2. Litoria quadrilineata in posed position shortly after preservation, holotype. They differ only slightly in size, the snout to vent length range being 27.1-30.0 mm, with a mean of 28.8 mm. The limbs are consistently very short (TL/S-V ratio 0.39- 0.44) and the body slender. The HL/HW range is 1,100-1.143 and the E-N/IN range 1.125-1.182. Figure 2 is of a freshly killed specimen in a posed position. Vomerine teeth are present on distinctly raised vomerine elevations; the vomerine eleva- tions may be present and teeth absent or both elevations and teeth entirely absent. The post-labial gland is present and con- spicuous in ten paratypes but is entirely lack- ing in two, Although all specimens have the skin of the throat gently convoluted and folded, indicating a period of prolonged vocal activity prior to collection, the nuptial pads are unpig- mented. In preservative the four longitudinal stripes are present throughout the series, the speci- mens differing only slightly in the background coloration: some being dark brown and others a sandy brown, The description of colour in preservative was prepared within only a few weeks of their collection. Living specimens differed principally in that the anterior and posterior surfaces of the thighs were bright red and the skin of the throat a deep yellow. The portion of the iris above the pupil was pale brown and that below it dark brown. Comparison with other species: Litoria quadri- lineata can be readily distinguished from all other species currently known to occur in New Guinea, but its phylogenetic relationships are difficult to establish, Ignoring the possession of the four dark longitudinal stripes, which are not exhibited by any previously described species, the size and general proportions are consistent with those exhibited by members of the Liroria rubella complex, This group, as defined by Tyler (1968), comprises L. congenita, L. caputula, L. rubella and L. wisselensis. All are of moderate size (snout to vent length rarely exceeding 35 mm) and have short limbs. Dis- tinct markings in these species, when present, trend towards the lateral orientation so clearly depicted by L. quadrilineata. Where L. quadri- lineata differs from the members of the L. rubella group most conspicuously is in’ the nature of the digits in terms of length, pro- portion of digits and webbing. In these respects the only hylids with feet resembling those of L. quadrilineata are the south-eastern Austra- lian species L. brevipalmata and L. citropa, 74 M. J. neither af which exhibit other obvious affinities 10 it, In the key to. Papuan Jiyla (Tyler 1968) (now CLitoriq, vide Tyler 1971). 2b. quedri- lineata keys most closely to L. jendei, The latter Species Jacks longitudinal markings, has au higher TL'S-V ratio (0.48. us opposed to 0.39-0,44 in L. gradrilineata) and a consicer- ably loner snout (E-N/IN [435 in Lh. fence: and 1125-1182 in L. quecdrilineata). Litovia quadrilineuia is a highly distinctive New Guinea hylic frog, woe there is currently no evidence of a paurticulariy close phylo- venetic relationship with uny other species known from the istahd, Habitat: The series was collected on a plot of low-lying, swampy vacant [and im the town- ship, amongst matted grass above and adjacent to waler. Collecting in similar habitats oceur- ring to the east ane south-east of the township vielled other speeies of Lireria, but no further representatives of LF. auadrifineata were observed or heard calling there. Call: Most of the specimens were calling when eallected. “Vhey were in a horizontal position on the grass produvme u law-pitched huze-tike call of approximately 2-3 seeands duration. Phe species was by ne means timid, continuimy to call whee illuminated by a spotlight. Ranidella remota nsp. Crinig sienifera, Roux C92), Criniag stenifera xignifera, Parker (L940) tpartt Holawpe: SAM R1AS24. A gravid female col- lected ait Morehead, Papun New Guinea by PF. Parker on 18 June, 1972, Definition, Ao small lowland species (inales 13,2-15.6 mms: females 14.3-18.7 mm S-V) characterised by its short and rather rounded snout, lack of a tympentim, and smoeaih on weakly granular abelominal ski. Deserintion ol holerypes Maxillary teeth present. Vomerine teeth absent. Snout short. bhint and rounded when viewed from above and in profile, and not projecting conspie- vousty, Eye to naris distance slightly less than the internarial span (E-N/TN 0.80), Canthus rosiralis poorly defined ynd = straight. loreal region slightly concave. Tympanim absent. Fingers relatively long, unwebbed and un- fringed. with well developed subarticular tubercles. Hind limbs short (TLéS-V O44), Toes Jong, unwebbed and with very slightly developed literal fringes. A Small inner bul no ouler pebatarsal tubercle, TYLER & F, PARKER Dorsal surtuce of head, body and limbs covered with very small tubercles. Throat smooth, abdemen very slightly granular, oA glandular post-libial wren, The dorsal surfaces of the body and timbs dre dark grey with a pair of pale creamish dorsal stripes extending from the scapular to the cocevgeul regions. The ventral surlace is pale creamy with a uniform, but yery sparse, faint grey stippling, Dimensions: Snout to vent length 16.5 mim; bia length 7.3 mimi: bead length 7.2 mim; head width 6.l mm: eye diameter 2.2 mm) eye to nuris distance 1.2 mm: incernarigt span 1.5 nia. Variation: There are 24 pyratypes consisting of 6 adult females (3 of then gravid), 9 males (8 adult). and ®@ juvemles! MOCZ S6119-21, SAM R1 3527-28, Crubam, )O40,1972: UPNG 1190, Moreheud. 2h.7.19692 AMNH S$8O31—32, SAM R13525—26, RI3681-82, UPNG 3847-30. MCZ 86127, Morehead, 19...1969: MCZ 6122-26. NMB 44180, Merduke 1920; Morehead LS.vi.l 972; MCZ SOTZR, Mata. vi i971. OF the pura- types UPNG 1190 was collected by J. 1. Men- vies, NMB 3180 by PL Wire and the remain- der by F. Parker. A living specimen is depicted in Pigure 3, An additional & specimens (MCZ O11) IS) were found in the slomach of it specimen of the colubring snake 4eiplilesmig gird col lected hy FP. at Morehead on p&.vi.1972. These specimens ure identifiable as Ro remote, hut ure so misshapen that ip has proved im- possible to obtain measurements or uny other Vata from them. Beenuse they have in ne wiry gontribuied to our knowledge of the species und have not been taken inte account in our assessment of variution. we haye not accorded them paratype stitus, Snout to vent lengths of the adult mates vary from 13.2-15.6 mm: gravid females vary from 15.5-18.7 mm; the smallest juvenile 10.4 mm, Variation in proportions of tbe adults in the paratype series are as follows: Th! S-V 0.44-0,50; HL HW 1.09-1,27; E-NVIN 0.80— 1.00, Polymorphism in tents of dorsal skin’ tex ture as defined by Parker (19400 and Main (1957) involyes the smooth, lyrate and warty morphs in the ratio of 8:52:10. Variation in dorsy) appearance of most adults involves the pair of longitudinal stripes extibited by the holovyps, They vary only in their intensity and extent of cantrast from the dull general dorsi! colouritent, NEW SPECIES OF NEW GUINEA FROGS 73 Fig. 3. Runidella remota. Ventral markings are confined to very fine und quite uniform stippling in all specimens, except for one adult in which the throat and pectoral regions are densely pigmented with black, and bisected by ™ narrow, median un- pigmented line. In life the dorsum is either predominantly grey or brown, the throat and ventral surfaces of the limbs grey, and the abdomen white. The portion of the iris above the pupil is gold and the portion below grey, Call: Males call from a horizontal position on the ground, usually beneath a leaf or some other form of cover, The animals appear ven- triloquial, making it dificult to locate them. particularly because they cease calling when disturbed. Data on the male mating call structure are based on recordings made by J. L Menzies of UPNG 1190 calling amongst flooded grass tussocks by the river at Morehead on 28.1.1969, A sonagram of this call is depicted in Figure 4, showing a dominant frequency of 4250 Hz. a duration of 720 milliseconds, and being com- posed of 14 pulses with an individual pulse duration of approximately 28 milliseconds. Menzies (pers. comm.) reports that there are from 12 to 15 pulses per call and that the Jast Iwo or three tend to have a shorter duration: the ucoustic impression is one of a series of short buzzes. Comparison with ether species: The status of the populations of Ranidella occurring in the Northern Territory and in northern Queens- land are currently unknown. Although it would be preferable to have these populations defined und described before describing what consti- tutes the northern peripheral member of the genus. we seek only to establish that the popu- lution that we describe here is new, Thus, although a close phylogenetic relationship may ultimately be demonstrated with such northern Australian species. we are now only uble to distinguish R. remota from those species that have been described. Morphologically R. remora firstly must be compared with the species known to occur in Queensland: R. yignifera, R. parinsignifera, und R. finnila. Absence of a tympanum and the greatly reduced pigmentation of the ven- tral surface distinguishes R. remota from each of these species. Runidella tinnula is also shown by Straughan & Main (1966) to have a 76 M. J. TYLER & F. PARKER Oo +f O L——— 1 second ——_ Fig. 4. Sonagram of mating call of Ranidella remata. conspicuous snout, greatly projecting in pro- tile, contrasting with the gently rounded snout profile of R. remota. Ranidella signifera extends from southern Queensland to the southern portion of South Australia. Many of the specimens from the western portion of the range have reduced ventral pigmentation, but the species is con- sistently larger, Ranges of snout to vent length for R. signifera derived from Littlejohn (1963) and Littlejohn & Martin (1965) are: males 18.0-24.2 mm: females 19.0-27.7 mm. Ranidella riparia of the Flinders Ranges in South Australia is the only Australian species known to lack wa tympanum. This species is also consistently larger than R. remota with snout to vent length ranges of 19,5-25.2 (males) and 23.0-25.2 (females). It also has extensive ventral pigmentation and further differs from R. remota in possessing broadly fringed toes. The most striking characteristics of the mat- ing call of R. remota are its long duration of 720 msec and the number of pulses (14). Within Ranidella this duration is considerably greater than the ranges of all except one of the species summarised by Littlejohn (1959) and Littlejohn & Martin (1965). The upper limit of R. riparia is quoted at 497 msec, but it is the south-western Australian species R. glauerti, with its maximum call duration of 820 msec which surpasses R. remota. Ranidella glauerti NEW SPECIES OF NEW GUINEA FROGS WV differs in its pulse frequency (7-12). The nature of the call differences between R- remota and R, glauerti are not considerable, Of the described Queensland species it is worth noting that the call duration of R. tinnula is Jess than 100 msec. The pulse rate of R. remota is relatively low but such low rates ure, in Ranidella, associated with a particularly short duration in the species compared by Liulgjohn (1959), Habitat and habits; Tn the Morehead and Weam areas, R. remota was found in areas of low mixed suvannahs, particularly slong the fringes ol low-lying gtass-covered flats having a grey clay soil. The occurrence of the ‘species in low monsoon scrubland and_ tall mixed savannas was restricted) to the area around Balumok, Ranidella remota was usually found away from permanent water, and was observed to be a secretive species living beneath leaf litter and amonyst grass on damp soil, but was not found beneath logs or bark fragments on the ground. It appears to be predominantly noc- turnal, although it has been observed hopping amongst grass on days when the skics were overcast, Acknowledgments We are indebted to Mr. J. I. Menzies (University of Papua New Guinea) for per- mission io reproduce the sonagram of R. remota, to Dr. L. Forcatt (Naturhistorisches Museum Basel) for the Joan of a specimen, to Miss M. Anstis for preparation of the Jine drawings and to Dr. J. Ling for reading the manuscript, References BLake, A. J, D, (1973)—Taxonomy and rela- tionships of myobatrachine frogs ( Lepto- dactylidae): a numerical approach. Asi. J. Zool, Zh, 119-149, LitteevoHn, M. J. (1959).—Call differentiation in a complex of seven species of Crinia (Anura: Leptodactylidae). Evolution 13 (4) 452-468. LirtLeJOHN, M. J. (1963).—Frogs of the Mel- bourne area, Fic. Nat, 79 (10), 296-304. Tiriveraun. M. J.. & Martin, A. A, (1965).— A new species of Crinia (Anura: Leptodacty- lidae) from South Australia. Capeia 1965 (3), 319-324. Main. A. R. (1957).—Studies in Australian Amphibia T. The genus Crizia in south-west Western Australia and. some species from guth-tastern Australian. Aust. J. Zool. 5, 30- Moorn, J. A, (1954)—Geographic and genetic isolution in Australian Amphibia, Amer. Nar. 88. 64-75. PaRKER, H. W. (1940)—The Australasian frogs of the family Leptodactylidae. Novit. Zool. (42), 1-106. Roux, J.. (1920).—Note snr Ja présence dti genre Crinta, amphibien cystignathide, en Nou- yee shinee: Rev. Suisse Zool, 28. (5), 118- 117. SMRAVIGHAN, [. R. & Mam, A. R. (1966).— Speciation snd polymorphism in the genus Crinta Tschudi in Queensland. Proc. R. Soc. Qlil TS (2), 11-28. TyLer, M. J. (1968).—Papuan hylid frogs of the genus Hyla. Zool, Verh. (96). 1-203. Tyver, M. Jj. (1972a).—An analysis of the lower vertebrate faunal relationships of Australia and New Guinea. Jn D. Walker (Kd.) “Bridge and Barrier: the Natural and Cul- tural History of Torres Strait.” (Dept, Bio- gcography and Geomorphology, Publ. BG/3 Australian National University, Canberra, ) TyLer, M. J. (1972b).—A new genus tor the Australian Jeptodactylid frog Crinia darline- toni, Zool. Meded., Leiden 47, 193-201, Trier, M. J., & Menzies, J, 1. (1971). -A new specics of microhylid frog of the genus Sphenophyrne fram Milne Bay, Papua. Trans. R, Sac, S. Aust, 95 (2), 79-83, Tyter, M. J. & Parker, F. (1972),—Additions io the hylid frog fauna of New Guinea, with description of a new species, Literia timida. Trans, RK, Soe, 3. Aust. 96 (3), 157-163. vaw KAMPEN, P. WN, (1923),—The Amphibia of the Indo-Australian Archipelago, (Brill: Leiden, ) EARTHWORMS (OLIGOCHAETA: MEGASCOLECIDAE) FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY B. G. M. JAMIESON* Summary JAMIESON. B. G. M. (1974).-Earthworms (Oligochaeta: Megascolecidae) from South Australia. Trans. R. . Soc. S. Aust. 98(2), 79-112, 31 May, 1974. The Megascolecidae is the only family of earthworms indigenous in South Australia. The megascolecid fauna of the state is impoverished, though specific endemicity is high, consisting of five genera with thirteen species. These are the circum-mundane Microscolex dubius (Fletcher, 1888a); the new endemic species Perionychella (P.) inconstans, Spenceriella imparicystis, 5. penolaensis, Gemascolex bursatus, G. mirabilis, G. octothecatus, G. similis, and G. walkeri spp. nov.; the previously known endemic species G. newmani Edmonds & Jamieson, 1973, and G. stirlingi (Fletcher, 1888a); and two species known also from Victoria, G. lateralis (Spencer, 1892; syn. Megascolex zeitzi Michaelsen, 1907b) and Heteroporodrilus shephardi (Spencer, 1900). the latter being represented by the new subspecies H. shephardi armatus. In sharing its four indigenous genera and two of its species with Victoria, South Australia shows close zoogeographic affinities with this state whereas affinities with Western Australia are minimal, consisting only of a close relationship between Perionychella and the Western Australian genus Graliophilus. The paucity of the fauna is attributed to the low rainfall and it is noted that ten of South Australia's thirteen species have excretory adaptations, in the form of intestinal enteronephry, which favour water conservation. EARTHWORMS (OLIGOCHAETA: MEGASCOLECIDAE) FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA by B. G, M, JAmMrEson* Sunimary Jamitson, B. G. M. (1974).—Rarthworms (Oligochacta: Megascolecidac) trom South Aus- tralia, Vrans, Re Soe. S. Aust, 9 (2), 79-112, 31 May, 1974. The Megascolccidae is the only family of earthworms indigenous in South Australia, The megascalecid fauna of the state is impoverished, though specifle endemicity is higl, con- sisting Of five genera with thirteen species. These are the circum-mundane Micrescolex dubins (Fletcher, (8884); the new endemic spécies Perionychella (P.) incenstuns, Spenceriella impari- crysis, S. penolaensis, Gemascolex bursatus, G. mirabilis, G. octothecatus, G. similiv, and G. walkert spp. nov.; the previously known endemic species G. newniani Edmonds & Tamieson, 1973, and G, sitrlingi (Fletcher. 1888a); and two speci¢és known also from Victoria, G. lateralis (Spencer, 1892; syn. Megascolex zeifzi Michaelsen, 1907b) and Hezeraperodrilus shephardi (Spencer, 1900). the latter being represented by the new subspecies H. shephareli armatus. In sharmg its four indigenous genera and two of its species with Victoria, South Australia shows close zoogeographic affinitic¢s with this state whereas affinities with Western Australia are minimal, consisting only of a close relationship between Periarychella and the Western Australian genus Graliophilus. The paucity of the fauna is attributed to the Jow rainfall and it is noted that tea of South Australia’s thirteen species have excretory adapta- tions, in the form of intestinal énteronephry, which favour water conservation. Introduction Three indigenous species of earthworms (Family Mepascolecidae) have previously been recorded from South Australia. All were assigned to a single genus, Gemascolex by Ed- monds & Jamieson (1973), The three species are G strlingi (Fletcher, 18882) of which Megascolex flercheri Shannon (1920) is a junior synonym; G, zietz? (Michaelsen 19076) which (see below) is a junior synonym of G, lateralis, (Spencer, 1892); and G. sewmani Edmonds & Jamieson, the type-species of Gemaycolex, The only other megascolecid carthworm previously recorded from the state is Microseelex duhius (Pletcher, 1888), for which Adelaide is a type-locality, This species is curyhuling and is circiim-tnuodane jo warmer, though not tropical, regions. Its cen- tre of origin is unknown. ‘The only other earthworms from South Aus- tralia belong to the holarctic Family Lumbri- cidae. This non-indigenous family is beyond the scope of this work. It is nevertheless of interest to note jocalities from whigh lumbri- cids were obtained in the present survey and these are included in the map (Fig. 1). With the assistance of Mr. T. Walker, the author collected earthworms in August 1972, after favourable rains, from 26. localities (see Fig. 1), from Mt, Remarkable in the north to the Fleurieu Peninsula in the south. Collcct- ing yielded twelve species of Megascolecidae, including the three previously described Gemascolex spp. and Microscoler dubius. A further species, collected by Mr. Ifor Thomas from Kangaroo Island, brings the total of known megascolecid species from the atate to 13. No collection was done on Yorke and Eyre Peninsulas in the west. nor in much of the wetter south-eastern portion of the state, and it seems likely that further species will be found in those areas. It is hoped that this study will stimulate others to make the further collections necessary to yield u definitive check- list of South Australian earthworms, Systematics The megascolecid species of South Australia fall into the subfamilies Acanthoctrilinae, rep. > Zoulogy Depariment, University of Queensland, S1. Lucia, Of¢ 4067, 80 Fig. 1. B. G. M. JAMIESON H | J K L o ua ty bet tl Ww Le 34° 35" 36 ta) fe} o ig 138° 139° 140 141 Map showing all known records of earthworms from South Australia. White circle, Megasco- lecidae only. Black and white circle, Megascolecidac and Lumbricidae. Black circle, Lumbrici- dae only. EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSTRATIA a4 reseed by the tribe Acanthodritini, and Megascolecinae, represented hy the tribes Pertonychini and Megascolecini sensi Jamie- son, 19714. The sub-families and tribes are set oul in this order in the present account and the species are listed in alphabetical order under their genera within. each tribe, Abbrevia- tions fer institutions in which specimens have been lodged arc; AM (Australian Museum, Syd- ney), BJ (Author's collections), BM (British Museum (Natural History)) and SAM {South Australian Museum). ‘Vhe major collectors, B. G. M, Jamieson and T. Walker, are indi- cated by the initials HJ. anc 7.4’, respectively, The abbreviation H signifies holotype and P paratype. Explanations of terminology used in descriptions may be found in Michaelsen (1900). Stephenson (1930) and (nephridia) in Jamieson (1971a). A key to the Megascolecidae of South Aus- tralia follows. To permit ready identification, without necessitating detailed study of the excretory systeny which is the basis for tribal elassificalion, tribes have been omitted and the key proceeds directly to species. As unknown species muy be cncountered by collectors, agreement with illustrations cited in the key is required, and the detailed descriptions should be checked to confirm identification. Family MEGASCOLECIDAE Subfamily ACANTHODRILINAEF $s, Jamic- son, 197La Tribe ACANTHODRITINI s, Jamieson, 1971a Holonephric, or, if wholly or partly mero- nephric, with a single pair of prostates. Pros- tates tubular, one to three pairs. Stomate. meronephnidia, where present, not forming a series median io astomate micromeronephnidia, Genus MICROSCOLEX Rosa, 1887 Microscolex dubins (Fletcher. 1888), Rosa, 1890; 511. Michaelsen, 19079: 146-148; 1907b; 5. Pickford, 1937; 429-432, figs 398-399_ Gates, 1962; 7-15. FIGS 2A, 12; TABLE 1 Eudrilus (?) dubius Fletcher, t®88a: 39$=381, Length = 36 mm, Ww (midelitellary = 3.4 mm, s — 88 (specimen 1), Circular in cross seclion. Pigmentless in alcohol, Prastamium not canaliculyte, cpilobous 1/2, closed. Peris- tomium not bisected ventrally, Dorsal pores ubsent. Setac & per segment, commencing int HI, in regular longitudinal rows throughout. Setae a and # absent in XVII. Key to the megascolecid species of South Australia |, Combined mule and prostalic pores a pair an XVIU (16th setigerous segment), Spermithecul pores. absent Mierase alex dubs, Fig. 2A 1. Combined male and prostatic pies a aa ‘on XVID Vath setigerous segment). ‘Spermuthecal pores present. _ 2, Nephtidia one pair per segment 2. Nephridia several to many ino segment w Nephridia with terminal bladders which alrernate from. Jateral to ventral . Ho dstihetinsa seit Heteroporadrilus shephardi. armiatus, Fi ig- 2B 3. Nephridia without bladders; ducty in w sinete series on each side Perienychella (P.) inconstens, Fig. 6c 4, Caloiferons glands present of the oesophagus, paired in X, XT-XTIT ‘terre etiasettos 5 4. Culciferous glands absent 5 Calelferais elands 4 pairs, in X-XI1. Spermathecus Mrpdined “Spenseriella Intakes vavix, Fig. 5. Calciferous glands 3 pairs, in XTX, Spermathecae paued .. 6, Spermathecal pores J pair, in 5/6. 6. Spermathecal poren more thin J pair, ip 7/8 ot 8/9 anteriorly vectra 7. Spermathecal pores 2 paire |... ., 7, Sperinathecal pores more than 2 pairs 8. Last spermathecal pores in 7/8 ... 8. Last spermathecal pores. in 8/9 9. Spermathecal pores 4 pairs paiavesiacs Dito 9. Spermathecal pores 3 pals... 10, Lust hearts in XI. tO, Last hearts in XILT . Genital marking(s) unpaired, midveotral . . Genital markings paired on —_" —— a 6 .. Spenceriella penolaensis, Fig. 9B Gemascolex walkeri, Fig. Gemaseolex jiirabilis, Fig. 5 oor ort Gemuxcalex Pursatus, Fig. 3A Gemascolex octothecains, Fig, 6A, B id Gemascolex lateralis, Fig. 4A. B Gemascolex newrrani. Fig. 7B 12 12. Male pores whout one third of the body circumference apart. No ‘genital markings present behind them Gemascolex similis, Fig. 3B 12. Male pores about one fifth “nf the © body. eiremifereaice apart, Paired genital markines be- hind them (tas ase cnt Gemascolex stirling’, Fig. BA, B o2 B. G. M, JAMIESON TABLE i foerseral elistancey in Mierascate, dubius ' Ct a ) |) | Seement Nal he te 11 TY 62 io 2 (U6 Segment XM rb GS th bl Fs 19 17 OF MAnddrdiyed as Up of clicumfereme : au sb be ed dd de cb ba Svement KET G90 65 4G 10S 248 116 4d GR Senment XX i500 3.1 15,3 11.7 277 10.2 178 fh Mean 107 6.0 13, 112 1635 103 150 60 Literval/alhy 1A if Ls 19) 4:1 1 27 10 Nephrepores inconspicuous. in the interseg- mental furrows 9 little less than 1/3 be below e first observed at 6/7. Clitellum annular, XIL-XVI with weak development through AVIL well developed but not strongly pro- uiberuni, apparent ay a smnoth region owing IO suipression of Intersevmental furrows. 14/15 and 15/16; setwe and nephropores retained. Male pores minule, equatorial in XVIT, lateral of seta) lines a, euch in un oval field, which is not stiliciently elevated to be termed a poro- phore, the pores 1.26 mm, 0.14 circumference, apart. Accessory genital markings absent. Fe- male pores paired, almost ul the anterior mar gin of XIV, shorily median of «lines. Spermathecal pores absent. Strongest septu 8/9-13/ 14. moderately strong, Dorsal blood vessel single, continuous onto the pharynx. Last hearts in XI, those in X-XIT latero-ocsophageal, tach with a con- neclive From the dorsal and [rom the poorly distinguishable supra-ocsophageal vessel; the Jatter oesophageal only, Commissuraly in VI- {X dorsoventral only, Subneural vessel absent Gizzard rudimentary, in V. Ocsophsgus thicker walled! and more rugose internally in X-X1V than anteriorly, monlifarm throughout though narrower in XV. Extramural culciferous glands absent. Intestinal origin XVIL; cyphlosole. caeca and muscular thickening absent. Nephridta stomate. vesiculate helonephridias those in T- IV each sending a duct laterally to discharue presetally in d@ line, the duct in TI avesicu- late, the duets ia TIF and TV each with a smull subspherical bladder; the nephridia in V dis- charging through emall subspherical somewhat crenulated bladders preserally immediately pelow c lines, the bladders joincd medtunly and slightly suhterminally by the ducts; by seement VIIY the duct median to the bladder is itself swollen ond by XI the original bladder protrudes from. the lateral aspect of the wedge shaped expansion of the duct and may he con- sidered a short rounded diverticulum; the bladders reach their furthest separation from ¢ line, at approximately one fourth ch. in the vicinity of XVIL und maintain this postion further posteriorly. Caudally the diverticulum becomes 2 definite lateral caecum, about twice as long as wide, though hidden by coils of the nephbridium. Holandric, clavate testes and) non- iridescent funnels in & and Xf; seminal vesicles 2 pairs, racemose, in XL and XL. Metagynoas; ovaries, flattened johes with severy) conjoined strings of large oocytes, aad ftunfels if XTTT; small ovisacs in XIV. Prostules almost Straivht, tubular, passing laterally From the ducts in X¥YI1 and widening evenly to the rounded free extremity so as to appear slen- derly clavate: the external duct indistinctly demazcated but with a shizht musculur sheen the double vas defetens joining the duct at its ental third. Penial setae present in two follicles. tt and &, the & follicle entering the body wall in common with the prostate duct. Buch peri- setal follicle with two functional and two reserve selue: each scta almost stevight, ectally tapering slightly to a blunt point. the ectal fifth bearing a longitudinal series of approxi- mately 7 to 10 circumferential sets of shart transverse incisions: the posteriur border of each incision forming a few minute anteriorly directed denticles, the incisions in a set arranged obliquely vround the circumference of the seta; this ornumentation poorly visible under the light microscope: Jengths of two functional setae 0.52 und 0.72 mm, general width of the shaft 16am and 26ym Tespec- tively. Spermathecae absent. Marertal examined: Lm). 140°S5'E, 38°01'S, 26 km from Mot. Gambier along road to Nelson. in sandy loam under sriss among wattles and gums and same garden escapes. Ba. aad TA, Wii 1972— 2 specimens (BJ). Type-lacality; Sydney, Mulwala (N.S.W,): Adelaide. Other Australian lacalities; Tas, (hide Michaelsen 1900); N.S.W—Neweastle. Para- matta (Michaclsen 1907a, b)> lenolan Caves area (Boardmin 1943}, South westem Ans- tralid | Michaclsen 190747, Old ‘Toowoomba {Stephenson 1933). AC.T., (Gates 1962), Remurks: Microscalex dubias is a euryhalioe species circum-mundane in the northern und southern hemispheres mostly in warmer regions, though not tropical, Absence of spermathecal pores, location of combined mule and prostatic pores on XV and progressive narrowing of setal interval a in an anierior direction from approximately EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 83 Fig. 2. armatis, holotype. 111. Genital fields of: A, Microscoiex duhius, specimen 1, Lml. #, Heteroporodrilus shephardi Symbols used in illustrations of genital fields: 9, female pore; g.m., accessory genital marking: ¢, male pore; sp.p., spermathecal pore, Roman numerals are segment numbers, Clitellum shaded, All by camera lucida. segment XXIL to XVHI allow ready recog- nition of this species. Subfamily MEGASCOLECINAE s. Jamieson, 19712 Tribe PERIONYCHINI 5. Jamieson, 19714 Male and prostatic pores coincident or (Diplotrema part, New Caledonia) near together on XVIII; sometimes with a single median combined mule and prostatic pore. Prostates one pair, tubular to racemose, Purely holonephric, or with meronephridia in a varying number of segments anterior to holo- nephridia; never (7?) with intestinal entero- nephry. Genus PERIONYCHEBLLA Michaelsen, 1907a Perionychella (P.) inconstans sp. nov. FIGS 6C, 10A; TABLE 2 4 R, G. M: JAMIESON Length = 63(H)-77(P1) min, Ww (mid- witellur) - 2 mm, s — 122(H)=-131(Pt). Pigmentiess in alcohal with the exception of the teddish brown c¢litellum, Form attenuated; circulur in cross section. Prostomium epi- lobous 2/3, acute. closed: not canaliculute, Peristamium not bisected ventrally. Setae 8 per segment, in regular longitudinal rows through- out (H) or cand ¢ irregular posteriorly (P1}; a and 4 absent in XVII. Nephropores sporadically visible, on and be- hind the clitellum, anteriorly in their segments in & Jines, Clitellum annular, very conspic- ueLs Owing lo streng lumescence and its red- dish color (almost fusiform and reminiscent of thal of the aquatic eenus Sparganophilus), clearly demorcuted in XIL-2/3 XVIII, but some clitellar modification and pinkisly pliamen- lation present throughout XII and XVIII dor- sally, ne. extent XII-XVITT (= 7 seements); intersegments 13/14-17/1L8 totally obliterated dorsally. Male purcs equatorial in a lines of AVILL on strongly protuberant, subcircular papillae which fill all buc a small anterior part of the segment, the lateral borders of the papillae less clearly demarcated than the median borders, The papillae tie in a whitish glandular field which interrupts the clitellum from shortly presecally in XVII, Isteratly be- yond & in XVEL and XWITT, and which extends posteriorly to include (H) or just preeede {P1) the sctal are of XX. The sete! annulus of XVII to shortly lateral of / forms a transverse ven- tral Hidge Mistinct yecessory genital markings are not recognizable in the male field but there § a suggestion of a Lransverse pucl trom mid wh to Interal ef f on each side filling the anterior third of XVILI An unpaired, midven- tril, citoular accessory genital marking with depressed central area and porelike centre almost fills the length of each of segments VT. VO and TX and extends Jaterally ta « Gr into ah (HR, Pl; seé Field Variation) Female pores paired. shortly antenor to (H) er anteromedian (PL) to setae a of NIV. in a common glandulsr field which fills 45 and longitudinally extends from 13/14 posteriorly to just include the ventral setal couples. Spermathecal pores in 7/8 and 8/%, ench on an inconspicuous papilla almost concealed in the intersegment, unpaired midventral (P1) oF paired immediately median to a lines (H). Thickest sepla 7/8-9/10, moderately stronety thickened (H, Pl). Dorsal blood ves- sul single, continuous onto the pharynx (HH). Last hearts In XIE, those ty K-XIT Jatero- TABLE 2 Hitersetal distunces im Perionychella (P.) incanstans mm aaoab Oh Uc te ich Setment XA Holotype oS O82 OF O48 Fa 4 Of FF Patiwere 1 U3 02 vs 03 2 us O04 Ut Sevment XX Tiolotype “4 02 O4 45 20 %O8 O45 BE Paratyne | Oo O02 US 03 20 O03 D4 92 Slnidardized oy %0 Gt crrcumference aaa ced dd de och by Seament X11 . * . Holotype 06 41 le 74 466 OS 48 oO Paratype J 77 Sh OT t> 49nN 7,7 SB AS Mean 91 AT WR HT ak? 7 os 49 Totervale at a Fh Bs 14 102 5 21 io Sevinent NK Holotype OF do if FS 264 GF INT ae Patatyre Sy SY [Ue 64 472 59 BO 50 Muar Qn 49 112 BI ARR 4A OH Ad Imeryalan 2 1 243 20 4S Pe een ee oesophageal, each feceiving a connective from the dorsal vessel and from the aupra-oesopha- geal vessel. The Jatter vessel extends Fram 1/2 VUL XIV (Pl), 1/2 XV (HI) and except al its extremities, is larger than Uhe aborsal vessel. No subneural vessel detectable. Gizzard smal) and glohose in V, its posterior limit being at 1/2 VI, muscular byt easily compressed. Oesophagus monilitenn bul mo! evidently vascularized in VI-VI1, in EX-XLV moniliform and apparently with tnereused vascularization (especially vascular in IX1, in XV-XVIT (H)-XIN (PH) tubolic and ante slightly vascularized, in NVHL 1H) similar to that in XVIL hut sinbose, Intestinal origin apparently XIX where the wall is thinner (BH) or XX (PI, with oesophageal valve at 19°20). not reaching full width until XXT: tvphlosole absent, though # rudimentary mid-dorsal ridge is observable in paratype J. muscular thicken- ing and cacea absent fH, Pl}. Nepbhrisia holanephridia first recognizable jn XI (PL) or XIE (1H) hit 2 pairs of small tuitlike struce tures on the badly wall, in TV and Vo ¢P1) may he tufted nephridia (the extreme nuarmowress of the worm tendering dissection very diffi- cult); each holonephridium with a lute pre- septal fudnel and narrow «uct discharging presetally in A line, Holandric. testes and iridescent funnels [n X and Ny seminal vesicles lure, racemose, with many large discrete Joculi, in IX and XI, Melugynaus (ovaries consisiing of ai few irregular chains of very large oocytes and fun- nels in XPM) true ovisics, each with) several very large oocytes, in XIV. Prostates a palr of thick short tortuous tubes restricled to XVII €PL) or their ental ends just entering XIX (11); muscular ducts straight ov slightly curved, not sinnous. Penial setae present, their EARTHWORMS PROM SOUTH AUSTRATIA 35 follicles extending from XVIII into XX, fill- form. Spermathecae in VILL and 1X, each with a succiform, narrow-slalked ampulla anu uw digiti- lorm-clavate (inseminaled) sinuous diverti- culum joining the base of the duct and longer than duct plus ampulla, In paratype 1 there is Only a single spermatheca in each segment, its duct entering the body wall helow the ven- tral nerve cord. In the holotype there are 2 spermathecue in cach segment, discharging median to « tines, and the right spermathecu in each segment has a replicated ampulla, Field variations The male genital ficld has the form described for the holotype in the 9 speci- mens selected as paratypes but the right pros« fate (and male porophere) is replicated in paratype 4 so thot there is one in X'VIIT and a further one in XIX, Midveniral unpaired accessory genital markings are present in VIT, VUL and EX in 3 specimens fineluding the holotype), in VIT and VII, in 3 specimens, and in VIL and &X in 4 specimens, Spermathecal pores, in 7/8 and 8/9, are paited shortly median of 4 lines in 3 specimens, paired but ventrally almost contiguous in | specimen, and are unpaired, midventral. in 3 specimens, being externally unrecognizable in the remaining specimen, Material examined: Hjl, 136°44'E, 35°56'S, in soft. waterlogged earth, bonded with grass and grass Toots, on the banks of Rocky River, about 1.6 kim N of Rocky River Homestead, Kangaroo L.: approximately 50 worms per square foal, f, Thomas, date?—-H, PI-9 (plus many additional specimens), H, P2+ (AM): PL. 5, 6(BM); P7 (SAM): BS, 8 and additional specimens (BI)- Remarks: This species differs fram others in Perjonychella in location of nephropores in & lines and In that cd is not as large relative to eb. These differences may indicate that it is phylogenetically Wislinct from the remainder of the genus but erection of jy separate genus for its Teception does not appear necessary. Genus HETEROPOGRODRILUS Iamieson. 1970 Heteroporodrilus shephardi (Spencer. armatus subsp, nov, FIGS 2B, 18, 1fA, 13; TABLE 3 Length = 113+) mm-132¢P1) mm. w (midelitellar) = 76PE)-BYH) mm. s = 109+ CH, pesterior amputee: Pl damaged), Form angular in cross section the periphery being 1900) straight between adjacent setal lines Pigmented ereytsh brown but pale yentrally in alcohof, Prosionium protanylobous, with a transverse furrow at O/1 (H) of epitanylobous with a transverse Durrow at + Ll; the peristomium with several longitudinal furrows so that extension of a dorsal prostamial tongue to 1/2 is ques- tionable. Canalicula absent, First dorsal pore 6/7 (H, P1), Setae & per segment, in regular Inngitudinal sows throughout; setae a and # absent, replaced by penial setae, in XVIIL Nephropores conspicuous, anterior in ¢heir segments in the holotype in I(7), HI-IV ig d lines, in V~TX alternating from d@ to mid he (commencing in V in d on the right and mid he on the left); thereafter alternating from d to 4 (in X in } on the right and ¢ on the left); the nephropores symmetrically disposed in paratype 1: in II-T¥ ia d lines; in V and VI in mid Se; in VIT-TX alternating from d@ co mid be; in X backwards alternating from > to d {examined 1 H und Pl to 20/21). Clitel- lum annular, XIV-J/3 XVI; dorsal pares occluded in 14/15-16/17; intersepmental fur- rows fainter dorsally; setie and nephropores elearly visible. Mule pores on XYVIIL ih }, each on a slender pupilla strongly protuherant fram =n indistinct Jow circular prominence. Aecces- sory genital markings: transverse oval to ob- long pads with porelike centres in VI (imi- lateral, right), VIL and VIIT (paired) filling wh and with centres at or slightly behind the setal are; similar but larger pads almost filling the segments longitudinally and with centres immediately presctal in wh paired in XT und XH and unilateral, right. in MXIT: paired deep pits in wh in 197/18 and immediately behind TABLE 3 feterseral distances in Hetevaporodrilis shephardi Armatos mn ie ab fe 4d dd fe ch bs Seorrent XEL Hoalatyne 76 21 53 TR GAR AG at 1 Paratvee 2 23 |.d 222 24 d4 24 22 19 Paratype 4 19 LS 2A 26 54 2H 2.2 15 Sverrent NX Holatyor 30 16 25 aS £2 49 29 IS Vurarypu 2 743 12 18 29 44 38 22 4 Poravoe 3 19 J3 24 234 42 24 24 11 sruncdurdined as % of ciredinference oooh he ed fh de och ba Seyment N11 Holotype 9h 7.5 192140959 15 1.4 7.0 Purecype 2 21 74 116 12.6234 126 11.6 9.0 Paratsne $ 9S FA UG IL AT WA WY 7S Mean Wa THUS 1228.1 2B 4 TR Tnietval/ah 14°10 16 58 948 7.7 15 10 Seament XX Holatype 117 62 135 189 MA 14. LL 8 Purarypo 2 4,9 G2 8:2 15.0 DB 40 The TI Taraiype 3 92 F8 126 126 IZI2SIZS 58 Mean W.5 G4 11,1 14.3 24.7 143 118 84 Tnterval/aly 17 1.0 1.7 22 59 22 18 1.06 eG 8B, G M, TAMTBSON Te 19, a small indistinct eyelike marking present postero-luteraliv to cach pit (H, se¢ Ficld Variation), Female pores inconspicuous midway berween the setal arc and anterior horder of NIV, shortly median of a (H. PI). Spermuthecal pores 3 pairs in 6/7, 7/8 and 8/9, in b lines land with inconspicuous ellip- tical lips, (EE)} or shortly Lateral of & lines. and preceded by 4 semicirculor swelling which fills the postenor third of the previous segment (FL). Septa 8!9-11/12 strongly thickened. Dorsal blood vessel single, continuous ou the pharynx. Supra-cesophageal vessel traced into VII, nat demonstrable in VIL, ending pas- teriacly in XTIL, receiving a transverse vessel from each of the calciferous lands, in X—XU- List beurts i OKIE, those in X-XUL, which are stont, originaling from the calcilerous ves- sels and receiving slender connectives Trom the dorsal vessel flatero-oesophageal hearts); coummissurals ta VIT-IX more slender, dorso- veotral only und, unlike the Iqltero-Gesuphugesl heurts, with parietal branches but mverthe- less valvular; vessels Trom the dorsal vessel in Vo wid VE beanehing on the gut. Gizzard broad, wossy. slrang hut fhitly easily compresnible (tt) or elongate and firm (P1), the preeeding oesophagus, in TY, forming a wide Maceit pro- yebtriculus. QOesophagis unmedified in 1X, bearing 4 pairs of ventroluteral browdly sessile extramural culcifecous glands, in N—-XII, the lumen of each gland jlmost occluded by Aumerous Tadial lamellac. Oesophagus short, narrow and chlorayzogendouy sm XTV, Latestinal origin’ XV. typhlosole absent. Wolonephric, nephridia with moderately lurge subspherical lerminal yesicles, Which are readily visihle in the posterior intestinal region, are lnss well developed in the anterier intestinal region und not apparent in the forebudy; preseptal funnels large. i ah irrespective of position of bladder (first demonstrated in XIV), Compacted sperm masses surrounding iridescent sperm funnels in X sind Xl, seminal vesicles tace- mose, i) TX and XI, Laree racemus¢e prostates a pair. in XVI XXE. 9 U-shaped muscular duce passing medianly from the middle region of the gland; the dice bifurcaiing at its ental exitemity 1® receive ducts from the pntetior and posterior portions of the gland) vas leferens joining the duct near its ectal end, Penial setae slender, sittuous, almost filiform, the ectal region, viewed from either side. ornu- mented with irregular, approximately trans- verse to oblique rows of a few (P71) Io several (H)} triangular llavlened scales, which except at their bases, are free fram the setal surface but point towaruls the ectal extremily ol the setay the scales in the hulotype with single, bifid ur trifid points and in two or three groups, each group corresponding approxinyaccly with one of the courser scales of paralype 7; total number of scales counted in u fongitudinal line approsimutely 20 lin 0.21 mm) anil 37 fio 0.44 mm) in two sete of the holotype; eqch scta tapering to a rounded bul delicate point: length of a fully developed seta 2.9(P1}-3.71H) mm; width of the most strongly ornamented region 27 or 20 pm (H) gnd 23 yam (PI). Female organs no ohserv- able (EH); ovaries with numerous egg strings, ynd funnels ia XIE; ovisucs absent. Spermathe- exe three pairs discharging antenorly in thetr teements; umpulla subspherical, slightly shorter than the stoutly fusiform muscular glossy dacr; an abruptly widening clavate diverticulum less than one third the Jength of the duct arising from the median aspect of the duct shortly etal of the ampulla (H. PI)- Field variajon: Th the four type specimens paired pads in @b, which Jo not include the anterior portions of their segmenis, are present in VI. VIL and Vill in H (R), P2 und P3, A liplike swelling extending to the preced- ing setal arc is present in these segments in front of each spermathecal pore in PI—3, An unpaired midventral circular posisetal marking with porelike centre is present in cach of sex- ments VI. VJ1 and VIE in P2 of in VUIE only in P3. Paired pads median to setac 6 anc occu- pying much of the length of the segment are present in Xin PT ahd P3. in Xi in H and Pl and 3, and in NIL in Hy, P2 and P3. Paired pits in ab lie in intersegment 17/18 sud im- mediately behind 18/19 in H. Pl, 2 and 3. Puired oval pads in wd occur in XXUL in P2 hut there is only one. unilalleral pad i) HER), PCR) and P3(L1. Indefinite turmd areas miry be present in the vicinity cf the paired pits of (7/18 and 18/19, Le. ill defined eyelike mark- ings postervlateral to the pits in XVUL and XIX in H or posteromedian ta the pily in XVII in Pl and P3 and tn XEX also in PL. Material examined: LIN, 140°49'F, 37°28’, 1) km S of Penola in eucalypts fringing Pinus radiata. BJ. and TW , 15,viii-1972-H. Lk2, 140°42°E, 36°37°S. 37 km from Ror- dertown along road to Naracaurtr, In bank of temporary pool in grassland with sparse yrassirees aad cucalypts, T.-H, L6,vili,1972— P4, 1k4, L40°44VB, 36°59'5. 2 km & of EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSEPRALIA ny Naracoorte, jn sandy soil With bracken and watten fear pasture, By, and TLiW., fo.viin.1972-Pi-3. HtAM}; PI-2(B)); P4( BM): P3(SAM}), Remarks: The new niaterial werees with H, srepharai alone in the genus (vide Jamieson 1970) tn alternation of pnephropores between @ and mid be, rather than the usual d to e, and it is here included in AY shephardi as a new subspecies although it shows ditferences. in- eluding the distribution of genital markings und the presence of penial setae, which might be considered to warrant separate specific status. Whether or not it be reproductively isolated from: the numinute subspecies it is unquestionably, from its morphology, more closely related to the latter than to any ether taxon in Heteroperodrilus. H. shephardi be- longs 19 a group of species with four pairs of ealedferous glunds, the other members of which are AH. eanatleularus (Fletcher }889a) and HM. muyiterreus (Pletcher 1888h). The latter two Species Occur lerrestrially in upper reaches uf the Murray-Darling river system while /f, shepard occurs on the Wimmera River, Tribe MiGascoLeomr s. Jamieson. 197 1a Male and prostatic pores coincident on XVI (rarely XVII); prosiales one pair, racemose (wilh branched internal ducts and no Single central lumen) or tubular (with a single centeg! lumen). Purely meronephric; median stomate néphridium, if present, opening into the intestine, Genus GEMASCOLEX Edmonds & Jamieson, 1973 Terresira!. Body circular in cross section or (G_ dursetes) dorsoventrally depressed. Frostumitim epilabous to tanylahous: peris- tomium bisected by 9 longitudinal furrow ven- Lrally, which is more conspicuous thon other srmooving which thay be present, or (G. shira- bility and G. stirling?) grooving present all round but not more conspicuous venérally. Setae numerous (more than 8) in each seg- ment, Nephropores not externally recognizable. A pair of combined male and prostatic pores on XVITL Clitellum annulat anterior to 18/ 19: its intersegments and dorsal pores obscures at maturity but setae visible. Intersegmental accessory genital markings alwavs present. Fe~ male pore presctal in XIV and midventral or. as # rare individual variation (G_ lateralis), paired, Spermathecal pores 24 pairs in $/6- 8/9, 3 pairs in 6/7 and 7/S, or a pair in 5/6 only. Dorsal blood vessel single; continuous onto pharynx. Hearts in X posteriorly latero- ocsophageal. each arising trom the shart supra- oesophageal vessel and from the dorsal vessel, Last hearts in XII er XII, latero-ogsophageal vessels (always?) present median to the hearts. Subneural vessel absent. Gizzard large, in V or VI. Oesophagus lacking extramural calciferous glands, Intestine commencing in XVII; a ridge- like low or (G. walkeri) deep dorsal typhlo- sole present; caeca und niiscular thickeoing absent, Exerelory system meronephric. Puired tufts present in FT. TI-V of which at feast those in IV and VY are enteronephric, with ducts entering the buccal cavity and/or the pharynx, Caudally with numerous entero- nephric meronephridis. euch with a preseptal funnel, dischatging into the intestine in each segment and with or withoul a longiludinal collecting duct (ureter? on cach side. Testes and funnels in X and Xi: tustis-sucs absent; seminal vesicles in XJ and XIL or rarely th 1X, XL and XI. Ovaries and [unnels in XU; avisucs present or absent, Prostates tubuloracemuse: liner, lobulated. with axial himen throughout which receives lateral canaticull; vas yleferens join- ing their muscular ducts, Penigl setae ubsent. Spermathecae with diverticula, Type-species: Geniayeoler newmant Edmonds & Jamieson, 1973, Disiribution: South Astralia and Victoria. CHECKLIST OF SPECIES *New combinations in Gemascolex South Australia; 1, Gemuscolex bursarus sp. nov. 2, Perichaeta Jateralis* Spencer, 1892 (also Victoria), syn. Megascalex zietzl Michael- sen, 1907b 3. Gemascolex tirabilis sp. nov. 4, Gemascolex newmant Edmonds & Jamic- son, 1973 5. Gemascolex octothecatus sp, nev. 6. Gemascolex similiy sp. nov. 7. Perlehaera stirlingi* Fletcher. 1R88a, syn. Megascalex fletcheri Shannan, 19206 8. Gemascoley walkeri sp. nov. Victoria: 9, Perichaeia dorsalis® Fletcher, )BERb Gemascolex bursatus sp. nov. FIGS 3A, 10C, 11B-E; TABLE 4 Length — 52(P1)-64(H) mm, w (mldclitel- lar) > 1,S¢PL)-2.5¢H) mm, s = BIPI- 102(H), Piemerted purptish-brown dorsally, pale ventrally; setae in pale circular fields. BR Rh. Ci. M. JAMIESON TABLE 4 hitersetal distances in Gemascolex bursalus @andarelieed a5 Fr mm of circumference Bp abo o= a2 u oy oabovy ca Seanent XU Holowre 0.6 04 04 05 $2 122 7H 74a [NF Pafotype t ba U3 04 04 62 B84 60 71 101 Mean 104 54a TS WT tntorval/ab 15 10 77 O18 Sesment XX _ _ Halowpe 07 Os 04 O03 58 18 32 75 140 Paratyoe | 06 0.3 63 05 46 i564 45 AG lA Mean 13.2 75 71) 323 Tntervalab L7 tO OF be Prostamum tanylobous. harrow, acute (IN) or epilobous, 3/4, open, Camalicula absent. Dor- sal pores minute, the dirst in 4/5. Setae of each sidé mure closely spaced luterally than dor- sally and ventrally; ab and be approximately equal, Numbers of setae per segment L8 in XII, 16 in XX (H, PL), 20(P1}-22(H) Ail- teen segments from the cyudal end; @ and 2 lines straight throughout; anteriorly with a wide break in the setul circlet dorsally and ventrally; posteriosly with a moderate ventral and almest inupprectable dorsal break. Setae a and } but not ¢ absent in XVILL Clitellum (developed in holotype only) XTM-XVL (= 4 segments). Male pores extensive transverse slits, with puckered lips bul 90 porophares, im- mediately median to setae ec of XVIII, 1.05(H)-L.30¢P1) mm, 0.29(P1)-(.381H) circumference, apart. A circular, low dome- shaped accessory genital marking present al 17/18 and 18/19 in Front of and behind the male pore, on the left side, but at 18/19 onty an the right side (UL): paired in these locations in Pl. A pair of elliptical eyelike markings in 16/17 in ab (FE only) and a Further pair of circular to elliptical markings in 8/9 slightly lateral of A lines (11, P1); all accessory genital matkines vudimentary in Pl. Spermathecal pores 2 pairs, in 7/8 ancl 8/9, laterally situated vaping clefts, shortly lateral of setal lines 4, L.32¢H)-—20(P1) mm, MaR(P1)-0.56/H) circumference. apart. Strongest septa 9/70-13/ 14, inoderately strongly thickened. Last hearts in XU, Supra- oesophaweu! recognizable in VII(H}, VOI PIy-4 XIN PL), XUT(H), well de- veloped. Gizzard in V. Intestine originauliig. in XVEIT in which it resembles the vascularisesd regions of the oesophagus; 4 low Lorruous der sal typhlosole first considerably developed in XXVIII but traceable forward as a rudiment to XXIII. Nephridia: a pair of tufts tn each of segments I-V, inercasing from small to large posteriad, those in IY ynd VY sending composite ducts to the pharyna; those in JT and TIP apparently exonephric, smull cxa- hephric tufts in VI accompanied laterally by jicromeronephridia (H, PL); numerous in- legumentary micromeronephridia in VIL pos- teriorly, at first posterior in their segments (F, Pl), in XVI-EXVUL especially conspicuous and densely crowded on the body wall (H); there« after (Tf, P1) moderately numerous on each ste and posterior in. cach segment, caudally with several fis many as 8 er 9) enlarged nephridia an cach side with a preseptal funnel, at least some of these nephridia On each side sending ducts to the roof of the inlestine; accompanied in the holotype by smaller asto- mile, (exonephtic?) ocphridia; no ureters demonstrable, Precise descnption of the nephridia nrust be postponed until more appro- priately fixed material is available. Sperm funnels in X and XI (iridescent in the mature holotype; seminal vesicles race- mose, in XI and XII. Ovanes oval laminae with several large oocytes. (H), rudimentary in the paratype: accompanicd mediunly by small sacs of unknown function, ovisacs present. Prostates tubuloracemose, cuch with flattencd leaflike glandular portion, in XXTT— XXVI, XXVTI, deeply incised by the septa and adherent to the intestine: the muscular duct strvight in XIX—XXIT but in MVE carv- ing medianly around the anterior Face of a large subsphericul bursa copulatrix. A tonicul penis-like structure projecting from the bursa into the male genital aperture though not visible externally; vas deferens joining the junction of prastale duct and gland (H); pros- tate glands rudimentary jn P1. Spermathecae 2 pairs, in VINE and TX: duct. ampulla and diverticulum tortuous, the diver- ticulum (inseminated) slender, tubular, uni- loculate, a little larger than the ompulla CH); spermathecye rudimentary in PL. Material examined: Jj3, 138°30B, 35°22", hill & km from Myponga, S falinends, (6.viiil.1972-H(AM), P1( BI). Remarks: The muscular bursae at the ectil ends of the prostate alucts in this species are um@que in the genus, Gemiascolex lateralis (Spencer, 1892) FIGS 4A, B, 10D-F, 11F; TABLE 5 Pevichaeta lateralis Spencer, 1892; 11-12, PI VI. figs 55-57, 78, Meeascalex lateralis Michaelset, Jamieson. 197 Lb: 95, Megascolex zietsi: Michaelsen, 1907b; Jamieson, 1971b; 95, 1900: 230, 7-19. EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 89 Xt XVI XVII XVII XIX A in Fig, The following account is drawn from the lectotype, two specimens. from locality Ji2 (SA77, 79). a specimen from LI] (SA15), and one from Lk3 (SA229). These are re- ferred to as L, and specimens 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively in the account. Length = 45 (specimen 3), 74 (specimen 2)-80(L} mm (specimens 1 and 4 are pos- 5p.p B 3. Genital fields of: 4, Gemascolex bursatus, holotype, Jj3. B, G. similis, holotype, LI2, terior Tegencrates), w (midclitellar) = 3-4 mm, s — 87 (specimen 3), 109 (specimen 2)~— 122(L). Circular in cross section. Pigmented purplish brown dorsally with the setae in pale fields (specimens 1 and 2); or pigmentless (bleached?) (L; specimens 3 and 4). Pros- tomium epilobous 1/2 (specimens 3 and 4) and 2/3 (specimens 1 and 2) or appearing ue B. G. M TABLE $§ fniersvpad distances in Gemascolex luteralis Spandardived zs S min of citcumfterence us ooab zy 77 ” aoa cy ee Seement Xft 13a TT if oe OF Ll ils $4 46 Gl aa 25a 75 10 BS Oo baie 6S 6h gf WS JSA 15 on 0A Of O89 TS 7,2 4.0 3.6 11.3 45a 229 07 D4 BS 9 Bz 76 44 54 92 Seument 4X 13SA 77 13 05 HS Lain w4 45 44 484 258A 74 14 04 O68 F2T3L J07 59 4h BY 3 SA 1s 10 @S UA TL O25 ws £3 18 JIN 45A229 1 O85 GS J FS 14 SS $3 157 tranviobous (LL); sor ur faintly canaliculate. closed or open. First dorsal pore 4/5. Setae more closely spaced ventrulaterally than doc- sally and ventrally on cach side; ab signifi- cantly, but not greatly larger thin fe in most yeements: numbers of setae per segment 21- 31 (meun of & 26) in XU, 17-24 (mean of 5 = 22) in XX. 20-38 (mean of 5 2A) fifteen scuments From the caudal end: a dis- tihet thourh odnly moderately wide ventral hreak present throughout, a dorsal break present in the forcbody but behind the clitel- lum only initially recognizable. of present bur narrow throughout. Sctac «@, A and ¢ ybsent in XVOT of (L) a and }, only absent. Clitetlum MIM (specimens 2-4). XIV (Es epecimen 1J-XWVI (L, specimen 1, 2), 1/5 XVIT (specimens 3 and 4) [> 3-4 1/3 seg- menis), Mile pores on prominent rounded porophores ine lines of XVUML. distance apart 2.04 [specimen 3), 2-81 [specimen 4), Jl (LL), 4204 (specimen 1}, 4.92 (specimen 2) mm: ratio of this lo circumference — 0.26 (LY, O:.30 {specimen 4). 0.31 (specimen 3). 0.33 (specimens | and 2), Accessory venital markings, & pair of evelike markings in cach of intersegments 9/10 and 10/11 ia ah (Ls specimens 1+). Additional markings in 17/18-212 22, varying From a@ lines at b7/18 to slightly median of w at 21/22 (1), or tn 17/ 18-22/25 (specimens | and 2) or absent (specimens 3 und 4). A further pair of sub- circular niarkings present in NXVILE in frone of the male pores (L: specimens 1-4) and a second pair behind them {specimens 1 anil 2) fsee Piel) Variation}: Spermathecal pores 3 pairs. clearly visible sunken orifices or incan- spicious, ifn 6/7-8'9, hetween setal lines 4 and 3; distance between pores = 2.04 {speci- men 3). 30 (specimen 4), 4.5 (lectotype>, 4.92 (specimen 1). 5.62 (specimen 2) mm: ratio of this distance to circumference = 0.24 (specimen 3), 0.34 (apecimen 41, 0,35 [lecto- type), 0,39 (specimen 2), {1.42 (specimen 1), ‘AMIESON Several pre-intestinal septa: thickened but none strongly. Jast hearts in XIE. Supra- oesophageal vessel in 1/2 VITI-1/2 XILL well developed (specimens 1 and 2); ill-defined in specimens 3 and 4, Vascular sysfem not intact in the lectorype. Gizzard in V, Inteslinul origin XVI; a very low, rudimentary. dorsal typhio- sole first definitely recognizable in XAXVIL Nephridia: small paired tufts in dt and Jil with anterolaterally directed compesite ducts which in specimens 1-4 appewr to be exonephric but in the Jectotype join the buccal cavity at ats anterior limit. Large tufts im VV und V enteronephric. their composite ducts running anteromediplly to join the phiurynx. Numerous exonephric astomate micromero- nephridia present in | or more bands in V posteriorly (visible from IL] in specimens 3 and 4), associated with the anterior anil posterior septa in XV {specimens | and 2) or XVII (specimens 3 and 4) posferiurly, Caudally with approximately & enlarged nephridia. each with a preseptal Funnel on each side; ome or Iwo hephri¢inl ducts traced to the rool of the intestine but prohably all enteronephric: ro longitudinal collecting duets demonstrable Sperm funnels iridescent in X and XI; seminal vesicles Slightly racemase, almost sacciiorm, 2 or 3 pairs, in 1X (Lh, specimens | and 2), XT and XIF fall spectmens). Ovaries, Natrened webs or lobes with several conjotned strings of large oocytes, and funnels; a crescentic sac of unknown function seen on the anterior sep- tum of XI[L median to the ovaries in che leotn- type and specimens | and 2: sacs on the an- ierior septum of XIV questionably ovisacs. Prostales tubuloracemose, hand-sectians of one of spectmen 2 revealing a very natrow ceniral lumen; the broad glandular portien linet, in XVIUEXXIF XXIIL deeply incised) by the septa: the musculur duct forming a Joop at leust the cetal limb of which widens strangly hut a copulatory bursa absent: the vas deferens joining the duct near its junction with the eland. No glandulir miusses distinguishable in- ternwily ul the sites of the accessory genital miurkings Spermathecae 3 pairs, diverticulum (inseminated) single. twhwlar, very lang and much coiled, Field variation: Anterior genital markings are commonly absent in specimens with well developed markings in the vicinity of the male genital field. When anterior niarkings are present they usually occur in 9/10 and 10/ tt but they sometimes are present in 1/11 ante und carely in 8/9 only, there are rarely 3 pilirs, EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA of Fig. in 8/9, 9/10 and 10/11. A pair of markings is invariably present in XVIII in front of the male pores and a further pair is usually present behind the pores. In no specimens are the posterior markings present in the absence of the ynterior pair, Paired intersegmental genital markings in the vicinity of the male pores may be absent 4, Gemasculex lateralis. Genital fields of: A, specimen }, Ji2; B, specimen 3. Li, but they are usually present in 18/19, 19/20, commonly in 20/21 and 21/22 and less fre- quently m 17/18 and 22/23. In all but one of the many specimens examined. the female pore was unpaired. Material examined: Ig\, 138°03'E, 32°46'S, Alligator Gorge National Park, under rocks negr Creek in gorge, BJ. and T.W., 02 B. G. M. JAMIESON 19, viii, 1972—SA 26-30, 33. $h2, 138°38'E, 33°55'S, 10 km & of Clare on road to Auburn, under eucalypis, &J. and TM, 8.vill, 1972—SA (65, SA 170, SA 318, 319, JiZ, J38°24'R, 34°5R'S, Mt, Lofty, Tor., 16.viii1972—SA 306 Mt Lofty. in cucalypl wooWland, BJ. and 7.W., 16.vii.J972—SA 289-296, 298, 299, 301-302, 304, 305; M1, Lofty area, in morst sotl in eucalypt scleco- phyil, TW. 20.viii.L972—SA 77, 78, 79, 82, RI. Jil, 138°41'E. 35°07'S, Mt. Bold reser- voir, on hillside with eucalypts and griss, TW, 21viil. 1972 SA 57-60. Jj2, 138°43°E, 34° 14'S. Kyeema National Park, near creek and under logs in cucslypt sclerophyll and in swamp, T.W., 21.viii.1972—SA 271, 279, 2ho, 287. Jj3, 138°30'R, 35°22'S. 6.5 km from Myponga, §. Edmonds, 16.viit,L972— SA I3h, 237. Jj4, 138°30B, 35°26°S, near Mt. Clark (S of Mypongal, eucalypt sclerophyll, T.W., 21.viit, 972—SA 64, 69- 72. Jj5, LSS" bt E. 35°36°S, 8 km from Cape Jervis along road to Victor Harbor, in grass- trec, bracken and eucalypt bushland, T.lW., WiLL EYT2—-SA 285, 2H7. Jj6, 1398°21'E, 35°34'S. 24 km from Cape Jervis along road tw Vietor Harbor, under rocks and logs in poor soil, 7.4, 21 viii,1972—SA 207, 209, 21, 215, Jp?, 138°25°E, 35°33'S, 30 km from Cape Jervis along road to Victor Har- hor, in grasstree and eucalypt mulga, 7'.W.. 21 viil, L972—SA 172, 176. Jj8. 138°32’E. 35°34°8S, 10 km from Victor Harbor to Cape Jervis, under roadside fog, T.H’., 21 -vili.1972 —S 42 (invmyture). Kyl, 239°2S8'E, 35°15'S, Tailem Bend, under rocks on bank of the Murray River, AJ, and 7,6, WOviiLIO72—SA 1RB-19D, 192-193, 105- WI, 203-205 Lk3, 14N*3R'E, 34°42'S, 32 km from Naracoorte to Bordertown, in sundy sail among Banksia, gums and bracken, BJ. and TW, 16.viii.1972—SA 219 330. LID, 140) 49°R, 37°28'S. 11 kim S of Penola at roadside. under cucalypts fring- ing Pinus radiata, «= RS. and oT, 1S.vii 1972—SA 15. LIZ, L40°32'B. 37°41'S, 18 km SE of Millicent on toad to Mt, Gambier, in sandy soil with fErass, bracken and Drasera fringing a Pinwy radiata plantation, F.W. IS.vii t972—SA AT SA 15, 79 (AM); SA 77, 229 (BM); SA 289 (SAM); the remaining specimens (BI), Remarks: Examination of the lectotype of Perichoeta lateralis reveals Ue presence of paired genital markings, overlouked by Spen- cer, 1 9/10 and 10/11 and does not confirm palnog of the female pore reported in his description. Agreement of the new material, and Michwelsen's deseripliun of Megaieoles rierze, With the lestotype is so close as to allow no doubt of conspecificity. The possibility that an infraspecific morph, subspecies. or, less likely, a sibling species should be recognized for at leust same popu- lations which have gemisl murkings on XVII both behind and in front of the male pores deserves jnvesligation. In such specimens (exemplified by specimens 3 and 4) the male spermathecal pores, allhOugh an the same setal lines as the typical morph. (cxemplificd by the lectotype and specrmens | und 2} ure usually closer together transyersely, The sper- mathecal diverticula are, so far as inyvestivuted, shorter and less convoluted. Furthermore. paired intersegmental genital markings jn ihe vicinity of the male pores may be absent though frequently present The occurrence sympatrically on Mt. Lofty of specimens with or without markings behind the male pores, in addition to those in front, at present mili- tates against recognition of subspecies, How- ever, it is hoped that 4 statistical examination of morphology in pepulations of G /ateralis and of theit biology will be undertaken hy workers in South Australia with a view to de- termining the status of the variants mentioned. G_ luteralis is the only indigenous megas- colecid, other than /feteroperodrilus shephardi, kiewn to occur outside South Austrulia Cin Victoria) Gemuscolex mirabilis sp, nov, FIGS 3. 10G; TABLE 6 Lenghh = 60¢H)-83(P1) mm, w (mid- clitellar) — S.5(H)-+.9fPI13 mm, » = L20(P1}-128(H). Circular in cross section. Pigmeniless with the exception of the brownish glitcllum. Prostomium epitanylobaus. closed at 1/3 peristomium and laterul borders to O/T not certainly distinguishable from longitudinal furrows on the peristomiam but bisected by a deep canalicula to 0/1. Peristumium longitud- inally grooved all round but not bisected ven- trally. First dorsal pore 3/4, fimperforate?, Pl), 4/5 (H, Pl). Setae subequally spaced. though oc is slightly wider than af throughout. Numbers of setae per segment 20(P1}—21(H) in XU, 2)¢PT)-220H) in XX, 20(H)-21(P1) fifteen segments from the caudal end; a@ lines straigh| throughni; 2 lines straight anterior to, irregular posterior to the clitellum: a ventral EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 9 TABLE 6 intersetal distances in Gemascolex mirabilis standardjrod an % mito of circumference a abo oay ma u aa oahooay we Segment NIT HoloWne 1.0 Ua O7 15 125 7.6 IN 59 14 Paidtyoe 12 06 68 47 157 74 40 5.4 105 Meun 75 38 SS. 4 Imtereal/ab 2.0 i 1.4 3.0 Serment XX Holotype O7 04 12 £9 13.9 44 25 6.6 17,9 Paratype | 14 06 10 2 17,6 80 3h AK Wi Mean GJ 3f 72 125 Interval ‘ub 72 10 24 41 and a dorsal break present throughout. Setac acand #, but not ¢, absent ia XVIT, Clitellum: XTA(P1), 1/ 3X1 H)-X VIC), L/3XVUN(PL) (= 4 2/3-5 1/3 segments), Male pores minute Jongitudinal slits in a near the median borders of a pair of large poro- phores; the pores 1,40(H)-1.79(P3} mm, 6.09(HI—-0,10( PL) circumference upurt, Accessory genital markings paired transversely elliptical tumescences, with slit like centres, ex- tending from lateral of ¢ to median of 4, in 16/17(P1), 19/20, 20/21. PIL), 21/22 and 22/23(H), Spermathecal pores 2 pairs of small pores concealed in 6/7 and 7/8, in ab, nearer a, With a faintly demarcated lip in front of each on the preceding segment; the pores 1,37(H)— 1.72(P1) mm, 0.09-0.11 circumference apart. Steongest septa 9/10-12/13, moderately strongly thickened. Last septal glands in TV, not javelving the gizzard. Last hearts in XIE connectives in X-XIM from supra-ocsophugeal larger than the dorsal connectives and each jomed before it reuches the latter vessel by a vessel from the corresponding side af the oesophageal Wall. Supra-nesophagesal in X— XIU, weakly developed despite jhe large size of the connectives to the hearts. Gizzard in V, Ocsophagus almost suppressed to VIEL and short In TX owing to backwards projection of the gizzard; vascularized (though not con- spicuously) and dilated in X-XITIT, with high internal villi almost occluding the lumen but not, uniting axially. Intestinal origin XVI: a well developed, though tow, tortuous dorsal typhlosole commencing jin XXV(P1Y or XXVI(H). Nephridia: a large pair of tufted nephridia, with inoumerable spiral loops, in VI sending several composite ducts anterolaterally aul anteromedially to ihe body wall anteriorly in this segment; an extremely large pair of tufts in V sending composite ducts to the pharynx and additional tong composite duets fur forward to the vicinily of interseament 1/2. Very stall pharyngeal tufts.in TV (H, Pl) a . Gerascolex mirahifis, Genital field. holo- type Jez. rudimentary tult on each side in LICH); none detectable in ICH} or in Il and BI(PL). Lateral bands of astomate, exonephnc micro- meronephridia posterior in their scgments in VII-XU(H), XUICPT) then becoming pro- gressively more anterior until in XV(PL) or XVI(H) they are attached to the anterior sep- tum, the bands especially dense jin XTII- XVI: in the anterior intestinal region with approximately 13 compact ustomate micro- meronephridia on each side dependent from the anterior septum but exonephric, Caudally with approximately 8 enlarged nephridia on each side, closely udjacent to and encircling the intestine fromm almost the middorsal line laterally; each with a large, long-stalked pre- septal funnel; these nephridia sending separate ducts medially to unite as a common duct which passes diagonally, posteromedially, heneath the dorsal blood vessel on each side, to enter the body wall posteriorly in the seg, ment; the diagonal duct on éach side com- municating by a narrower duct with that of the a4 B, significuntly lurger than ec, the setae of the ventral couple more conspicuous thin others. Numbers of setac per segment 20 in XINH, Pl); 1RCP19-19(H) in XX: 2ZO(PLI-2SLH) filleen segments from the caudal end; 2 lines straight, z lines irregwlat; a wide ventral and dorsal break in the setal circlet present Lhrough- oul. Setac uw, 4 and ¢ absent in XVLIT in the prostutic holotype but present in the aprostauc paratype |, Clitellum XILUCH), XIVEPT)—F/ 2X VET dor- sally (3 1/2-4 1/2 seements) annular ful ventrally (H) weakly developed in XIE and appurently not developed in XVII, iitterseg- mentul furrow 13/14 well demarcated ven- trally (though not dorsally), the xuceceding furrows weakly indicated; dorsal pore 13/14 Well developed. 16/17 partly oeclided, the others obliterated: setae « and / elearly vistble, the remainder only sporadically visthle (11) Male pores jninvte. on stump-like, annilated pseudopenes. in ce of XVI, which are strongly protuberant from gaping slit-like str- rounding basal areas which may represent the male pores before eversion of the pseudopenes, the basal slits each horne on a large annulated porophore: the bases of the pseudopenes 6.4 rim, 0,35 circumference apart (H). Male pores and porophores totally absent in paratype 1. Accessory genital markings paired with pore- like centres, presetally in X in 4; in 16/17 centred in or slightly median of &: in 17/18 und 18/19 slightly lateral of b; and in 19/20 gad 20/21 slightly median of CH, see Ficld Variation). Spermathecal pores 4 pairs, in S/f, 6/7. 7'°S and &/%: in a straight line on each side but between setal nes 4 and & in 5/6. and between @ and 7 jn 8/9, distinctly EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 95 TABLE 7 Interseral dismmees dt Gemasealex oeteihaealus Ee ne Hanlurizest ay Vp mm of ¢ircumicrence xr aa mb zy be u woabo xy ®& CRUNCH hy alate '7 J0 O07 as i78 95 56 40 40 Paratype ( LL O83 U6 1214 82 SA 45 60 Mean 8.9 3.6 4.3 [LS Toverpal/ah 16 10 98 ay Seeniont X Hotowne 7 Jv 1H 2643.5 92 60 £4 140 Pafaiyre: 1 11 OR O68 bs 444 TA 43 43 92 Meso #5 S77 AM 116 Interval/ab 15°18 D4 BL ee ee visible small whitish oval puplilae confined to the intersegmental furrows; in 8/9, 7.7(PL)— 9 O(H) min, (1.57 (HI-O.58(01) cireurference apart, 7.e, slightly dorsal (H, PL), Strongest septa 11, 12-13/14, moderutely strong, Last hearts in XI1, Supra-vesophageal vessel in VIR 1/2VEL-1/2X011, well develuped. Heals in V. VIT-IX dorsoventral only, thuweh still valvulae giving branches to septa and body wall. unlike the more posterior heurts. Giazard in VI Intestinal Ongin XVII; iw very low. Sairly broad dorsal typhlosole com- mencing tm XIX, Nephridia: a pair vt large tults. with many spiral loops in each of sep. mens JI-V, imeressing in size posteriad, to very large in V; the tufts in IL and JEL send- ing Lomposite ducts forward in common to juin the body wall near the buccal cavity and into the peristomium where they possibly enter the buceal cavity; those in IV and V dischurg- ing into the pharynx, Meronephridia parictal und apparently exonephric in transverse bands in VE posteriorly; caudally, from upproximately the 50h segment with 8 or more long-necked preseptal funnels on each side and with the median 2 of these stomate nephridia enlarged as Megameronephridia the 4 of which lie on the dorsul surface of the intestine and send therr ducts to the intestinal walls the evo ducts Wniting on each side of the dorsal vessel, and in continuity with thase of neigitbouring seg- menis: the longitudinal duct apparently but not tertuinly opening inta the intestine posteriorly in cach segment. Laterally the nephridia be- come progressively smaller. though each re- fams a preseptil funnel; they ace dependent from the anterior septum and sone at least send ducts to the roof of the intestine and are apparently also enleronephric. Elungate lobed testes and large complesly folded, pearly but NOL ividescent sperm funnels in X and XI; 2 or 3 pairs of moderately large sacciforny sem- inl vesicles in IX(H}), XI and XIU (H, P1). Prostites large, broad lobed structures ip NVUI-XXI (tft), —XXU tight), each deeply metsed laterally and less so medianly by the septs; the (\-shaped muscular duct entally AATFOW. Widening strongly and uniformly getul- wards hut lacking a Lerminal bursa; Vas deferens joining it near its junction with the gland (H), Large, paired. low internal glandu- Jar snasses in XVI-XXi corresponding with Cxtemul accessory eonital markings (A, PI). Prostates totally absent fram Paratype | al- (hough the specimen is mature; ectal portions ol vasa deferemia noi observuble. Ovaries (bushy with many large oocytes (PL) or poorly develuped (H)) and funnets in XIIL, accompanicd medianly by sacs of unknown function; sacs on the anterior scptum of XIV may be ovisacs, Spermathecae 4 pairs. diver- liculuny single, elongate clavate, uniloculate. shorter (Pl) or longer (H) than the sper- matheca, sumelimes coiled, field varition- OF the 6 lype-specimens, only the holotype has male pores: 3 of the pari- types dissecled. | of which is longer thun the holotype and fully clitellute, have na prostate glands, Puired accessory genital markings an- leriorly in X in } lines are invariably present as are paired markings in 16/17-19/ 2th They are present in 20/21 in paratypes 1 and 2, as i) the holotype, Additional paired markings are present in 15/L6 in paratype 3. A ruui- mentaty marking is preseat unilaterally on the right, in [2/13 in paratype 4. In specimens lacking inale pores the genit:| markings in 19/ 1818/19 sre dightly more median than in the prostwtic holotype, lying in a neurer b, Tather than in & lines, Material exainined: Lil, 140°49°E, 37°28'S, 11 km S of Penola in cucalypis fringing Pinus radiate, BJ. and PAM, 15.viii.1972— Pl, Lmt, 140°5S'E, 38°OL'S, 27 km from Mi. Gambier along roau to Nelson, in sandy loam under grass among watdes and gums with some herbaceous garden escapes, BL, and TW. 15,viii.1972—H, P2-5, H, p2 (AM): Pl (BM): P3 (SAM): P4 & § {B]}. Remarks: G. actoshecatuy resembles G. dorsalis {Fletcher}, from Vietoria, in possessing four pairs of spermatheeae and in the dorsal loca- tlon of their pores, A further similarity be- tween the two species is the pair of genital markings at the anterior margins of X and XVIL. G. dorsalis differs, however, in restric- lion of genital murkings to these locations in all localities from which it has been reporied (Fletcher I888b; Spencer 1892- Michaetsen 19076); and in the more dorsal location of the 96 B. G. M. JAMIESON A Fig. 6. Genital fields of: A & B, G. actothecatus, A, holotype, Lm1; B, paratype 1, Lil. C, Pertony- chella (P.) inconstans, holotype, Mjl. EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA a7 spermathecal pores. G. similiv differs fram tt. octolhecates in the smaller number of sper- mathecal pores, restriclion of wecessory genital markings to X, 76/17 and (8/19. and the greaier development of these markings. These Uifferehees of G, verothecarus from G_ dorsalis und G. sivuvfiy sre minor compared with those between ether species of the genus but union of the three entities in G. dorsalis nevertheless does not appear justified, The prevalence of individuals Jacking male lerminalia suggests tha} G. voctotheraus is commonly parthenogenetic. Gemascolex similis sp. nov, FIGS 38, 10), K; TABLE 8 Length = 40 mm + (posterior amputee), w (midclirellar} = 4.5 mm, s = ?. Pismented, purplish brown, dorsally, Citcular in cross sec- tion, Prostomium cpilobous 1/3, closed. Pre- clitellar setae large. postelitellar indistinct, setae of a side more widely spaced dorsally and ventrally than between, decreasing in size dorsally; wb slightly wider than be throughout. Numbers of setue per segment [8 in XU and XX_ 20? (indistinet) in NXXY; a lines straight, t lines irregular throughout; a wide ventra) hreak evirent throughour; dorsal break wider and clearly visible anterior to the clitellum, poorly defined behind it owing to minutencss and irregularity of the setae: a and 4 absent in XVI, co and d faintly visible on the lateral face of the jrophore, Clitellum rudimentary, apparently occupy- ing XIV-1/2 XVI (— 3 1/2 segments), pot sulfictently developed to obscure dorsal pores, intersegments oF seiae, Male pores minute, on sluimp-like, annulated pseudopencs, median to ¢ of XVII; a hasat circumferential groove around each pseudopenis may represent the margins of mele pore before eversion of the mseudopenis, this basal groove is itself borne on a large unnulated porophore; the centres of the bases of the pseucdopenes 4.8 mm, 0,33 sircuniference, apart, Accessory gemital mark- ings. pilited subelrevlar, butlunitke. sharply demarcated lumescences, cach differentiated into a penpheral ring and flat or depressed cen- Ir arca. filling the presetal part of X in 4: in 16/17 and 17/18 in eh, filling the spnce between the setal arcs of the adjacent seg- ments, these 7m 16/17 more median than those 17/18. Female pore unpaired. midventral in XIV, preseral in jin elliptical field, Spermathe- cal pores 3 pairs. In 6/7, 7/8 and 8/9, incon- spicuous Whitish ellipses, In selal Hines 5-6, TABLE 8 litersetadl distances in Geniascolex similis srindardized as % antn uf elreun ference ga oats vy ow u Ma uh oy ? Soetiont XT Holotype 17 09 09 Thi 72t Gt at ie tneerval/ab 20 10 Ly 2A ee 4-5 and 5-6 respectively (right sive, not cer- tainly visible eaternally on left side); 9 mm, 0,54 circumference apart, ic, slightly dorsal, Strongest septa 10/11 and 11/12, very suong; 8/9, 9/10, 12/13 and 13/14 also strong. Last hearts in XIII. Supra-cesophageal Vessel in IX-I/2 XIII; moderately developed. Gizzard in V1, Intestinal osigin KVII, a very law sidgelike dorsal typhlosole commeucing in ipproximately XVII. Nephridia: paired tits in 1-V, increasing posteriad from small to large: those in TI and UN discharging exonephnically anteriorly in their respective scgments; those in IV appurenily, but not cer- tainly, discharging into the pharynx; those in V each with 4 wide composite (multiple) duct running anteromedially to the pharynx wall in il. Numetous exonephric micromeronephridia mostly in posterior bands in their segments in VI-XITI: mastly presetal in XII; anterior and pusterior bands of micromeronephridia in XIV-XNJ; thereafter mostly anterior jn each vegment; no nephrostomes present but pos- lertor end missing behind the 40th seement. Sperm funnels iridescent in X and XT; semi- nil vesicles saccular, in XL und XU; 4 pair of small sacs on the anterior wall of X resenible seminal vesicles but in this locwtion presumably: ilo net have a seminal function, Ovaries with several chains of large oocyies, small Aattencd sacs on each side of them; ovisacs absent. Prostates large flattened lobes, with irregular, lobed, moderately deeply inciscd margins, restricted fo but greatly enlarging XVII: the tortuous muscular duct gradually but considerably widening through jis length to the pore. Large intraceclomic gplandolar masses amt associated with the accessory genital markings. Spermathecae 3 pairs, approximately uniform in size: diverticulum [inseminated) single, digitiform, but that of the lefl spermstheca of LX with a trileculate terminal dilatution. Material exaniined! LIZ. 140° 32 EB, 37°41, 17 km SE ot Millicent on-road to Mi. Gam- hier, in. sandy soil with grass, bracken and Drosera, Tringing a Pinus radiata plantation, TW, 15, viii, 1972—HA (AM). Remorrs) G, similis belongs io a G. dorsalis complex including alsa G. ovtothecatus Tt 98 Kh. G M, JAMIESON differs from beth the faller species in having only 3 pairs of spenmmuthtecae. Its accessory genital markings haye the same distribution as in G. dorsalis, though better developed, but it differs fram this species in the unpaired fc- male pore and absence o] seminal vesicles From LX, in addition to the smaller number of sper- mathecae and their more ventral location rela- live to setal lines. Diflerences between the three Species are minor relative to these be- tween most other species of the genus but union of the three entities under G. dorsalis at present appears unjustified, Gemascolex stirling) (Fletcher, 1888.) FIGS 8A, B, 10L. L1G; TABLE 9 Perichacta stirlinu’ Fletcher, 1488a; 395-398; LSK9b; 1017-1019, Megascolex stirling? Beddard, 1895: 373, Michaelsen, 1900: 222. Jamieson, 1971b: Y5, Fdmonds & Jamieson, 1973: 23- Meguscelex fletcheri Shannen, 1920; 301-314, PL XXVII-XXNT, ’ fron| Megaseolex fletcher’ Michaelsen, 1207b- 2t. Length — 300 mm, w ¢midelitellar) = 12 mm, s — 258 (Specimen |, Specimen 2 is a posteriar amputee). Pigmented dark olive- brown dorsally. Circular in cross section, Pros- tomiunt deeply bisected by a dorsal cunulicula, epilobous 1/2, closed. but peristomium with Aumerous longitudinal furrows all round so that prostomium might be considered epilany- lobous: transverse Eurrows render peristomium und prostamium mammilate, First dorsal pare 4/5 with, in specimen 1, an imperforate rudi- meht at 3/4. Setac well developed ventrally to midlaterally, rudimentary further dorsally; aa = ab but sctac progressively more closely speed dorsally. Numbers of setae per segment not or only approximately countable, 22 in XU, 20 fifteen seximents from the caudal end in specimen J; @ lines straight, z lines irregular, a Wide ventral and wider dorsal break in the getul circlet present throughout. Setac a. bd and c absent in XVII, Few intersctal distances measurable, Clitellum XIV—XVI1 (= 4 segments). Male pores transverse slits with low but tumid Sips, shortly mediag of setal lines c of NVITL, the potes §,43=6.71 mm, 0.20-0,21 clrcumference spurt (specimens {| and 2): each low poro- phore Iying in a depression and accompanied laterally by a raised slightly Jargct transverse ridee: the border of the scgment immediately in front of and behind the pore also. thickened 10 forin a narrow callosity (specimens 1 and 2) of a small interseymenta) tubercle present TABLE Ut fucersetl ittstances in Gemascoles stilingi standatdived as of cir- mint cumference da at u ae ab Segmeny Nil Specimen t 20 Le 18.0 cs 43 Socelmen 2 1.9 11 28,0 a6 4,1 Mein Ag 4.7 Interval/xb 16 io Speeimon XX Svectmen t 26 12 Av0 73 45 Spectmen 2 i+ 14 55.0 aS a3 Moan 6.9 44 Enteryal/ab 2.1 19 in front ot and hehind each pore ar 17/18 ispeeimen 3). Paired eyelike accessory genital markings in 16/17, centred in wi nearer ph, and in 19/20-22/23 (specimens 1-3), those in 19/20 centred slightly median of «, those in 22/23 slightly literal of & (specimens | and 2) or those in 19/20-22/ 23 all tn be {speci- men 3}: the markings with raised whitish cen- tral ureu, Paired postsetal oval genital markings with porclike centres immediately in front of and wightly Jateral of but contiguous with the sper- mathew! pores, in VIL VIC and VII (speci- mens 2 and 3). Spermuthecsl pores 3 pairs, m 6/7. 7/8 and 8/9. lurge pores with wide lips forming un ellipse, in Lhe Sth to 7th setal line; the pores, at 8/9, 13,57-14,43 mm, 0.44-0.45 circumference apart (specinien L andl 2), Strongest septa 9/10-12/13, very thick. Last hearts in XE. Supra-ocsophayeal 1/72 VUI— XII, well devefoped, Gizzard in VI. Intes- tinal Origia XVIT, typhlosole rudimentary, a slight thickening of the roof of the inlestine middorsaily, first discernible in XXVIL Neph- ridia: paired tufts with composite [multiple) ducts in If, LL, IV and Vo. wll large but in- creasing in size posteriorly, these in V very large: the tufts in IV and V open into the pharynx; the ducts of thase in ILL apparently join the buceal cavity though some ducts open at intersegment 1/2: whereas those in 1) appear wl tu be exonephric in the vicinity of 1/2 {specimens | and 2}. Dense lateral bunds of numerous {exsonephne?) micromeronephridia lice in VI-XI on the parictes at the posterior septum. in XIT-NEX nephridia are anterior as well as posterior in the seyment, heing especially dense in MYI-XVE; in XX pos- teriorly they are anterior only in the segment, Caudally with numerous large meronephridia on each side, adherent 10 the posterior faces of the septa on the intestine and body wall, each with a large single preseptal funnel which EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSIRALIS a has a long inflated neck, the nephridial ducts difficult te trace hut apparently (all?) open- ing into the intestine (specimen 1). Sperm funnels iridescent in X and X1, Semi- nal vesicles racemose, in XI and XII; a fur- ther pair of similar but smaller sacs on the anterior septum of XIII (specimens 1 and 2) median to the ovaries (1) or separate uvaries not developed (2), Ovaries consisting of many allenuated chains of large oocytes (specimen 1). Large sacs on the anterior septum of XIV may be ovisacs but show no loculi (specimens ! and 2), Prostates tongue-shaped, lobulated and. incised, restricted to XVI, the glandu- lar part passing directly laterally, with slit-like central lumen the greatest width of which is only about one tenth the width of the gland, Lc. gland tubuloracemose; the muscular duct S-shaped, with an abrupt bursa-like terminal dilatation. White paired glandular masses in each of segments XVII, XIX—XXIII, cor- responding with the external genital markings, large with the exception of those in XIX which correspond with the rudimentary mark- ings in 48/19. Similar paired masses on the KIV A Amin bedy wall in VL VII and VIII in line with the spermathecal ducts; and corresponding with the external genital markings. Sperma- thecae 3 pairs, in Vil, VIII and IX, increasing in size posteriorly; diverticulum (inseminated) Single, clavate, unijoculate (specimens | and 2). Field. variaiion; Specimens {-4 have a circular genital marking anterolateral to ¢ach sper- Mathecal pore (with sporadic omissions) whereas in specimen 5 the marking is postcro- lateral, in the succeeding segment. Genital markings at 16/17, at or near 17/18 and. 18/ 19, and in 19/20—22/23 are constant in all specimens and ure paired with the exception thal that on the Jeft in 22/23 is absent in specimen 3, Material examined: Igl, 138°03°E, 32°46’S, Alligator Gorge National Park, under rocks near creek in gorge, BJ. and T.F,, 19, vili.1972—specimens 1 and 2. Jg?, I38°10.E, 32°48'S, Mr Remarkable, under moss in soil pocket in scree of mountain side, BJ., 17.viii.i972—specimen 3, Jh1, Fiz, 7. Genital fields of: 4, Gemtaccolex walkari, holotype, 1k &, G. newmani, Warren Gorge speci- meq, Ta 138° TSE, 33°035°S, 21 kay from Gladstone wloug road tw Port Auguslu, in red loam jiimong red voms hy road, HI and TOV. 1S.¥lii,1972—specimen 4. Ji2, 138°42’E. 35°0S, Craters, meur Adelahle, R.A, 24.51.197l—specimen 5, Specimen ] (BM), specimen 3 {AM)\ specimen 2 (SAM); specimen 4 and 5S (BJ). Remarks: Location of tbe genital markings in 16/17 median to Une mule pores, while those in 17/(8-221/23 ure approximately in line with these pores, permis ready identification of G. valeting, Seumascolex walkeri sp. nov. FIGS 7A, 10M, 11H; TABLE 10 Length = 42 mm, w (midclitellat), = 3 mm, s = 107, 1LI(H. Pl). Pigmentless in aleohol, Circular in cross section, Prostomium epitanylobous, posteriorly convergent, narrow. First dorsal pore 4/5. Sclue a& and he wide throughout and approximately cqual, being slightly wider than other intersetal distances of a side antenur to the clitellum; posterior to the clitellum ab and Se remain the largest in- tervals bur spacing of other setae becomes very irregular, Numbers of setac per segment 14 1A NI anc XX (H, P1), 18(P1)-22(H} filtcen segments from the caudal end; a lines straight throughout: z lines straight in the forcbody, irregular in the hindbody; a moderatcly wide ventral break visible throughout; a dorsal break clixcernible in the forebody but not present in the hindbody. Setag a and & absent in XVII. Clitellum rudimentary, some annwar modi- fication un XIV-XVI. Male pores on hemis- pheroidal parophores in XVII: the pores 2.29¢P1)—278(H) mm, 0.30(P1)—0.34(H) circumference apart. Paired cyclike ventrally conjoined yvenital markings in intersegments 17/1K-24/ 25. converging posteriorly from ab in 17/18 to @ in 24/25 (H, see Field Varia- tion}. Spermathecal pores L pait, ventral in 5/f, small elliptical papillae in setal lines ¢y 2.49(H)—2.64(P1) mm, 0.34(P)}-0.38 cir- cumference, apart. Sirangest septa 10/11 und 11/12, moderately strong. Last hearts in XIIl, Supra-oesophageal traced In IX-XUE. Giezard in V. Intestinal origin XVIT; a deep laminar dorsal typhlosole commencing in XXI Or XXIP but continuous ag a rudiment forward into XVII, Nephridia: Paired meronephrie cufts in ff. EIT. TV and V with composite ducts opening into the pharynx; very large in V_ de- creasing in size anteriad (H, PL), Traneverse hands of nmumerous astomale. micromero- H, Gi, M. JAMTESON TABLE 10 lmersetal slistances in Gertmiscolex, wilkeri siandarived as 6 mm af crcamterenee . aa ab my 22 o aa ab «your Seement X11 Holotype 1.2 OF Wo U7 7.2 1s 28 79 84 Paraiyne 1 06 OF US DE FH IF TO Gt WT can 056 74% 65 99 dnterval/ah 1.4 40 10 th Sremea, FOS Holnuyre 08 07 6.7 06 60 01) Sa af 79 Paratype 1 08 OF OF Ba 7.9 $2 WG 74 98 Mean TOU Ra FR Re Interval/ab T2 TU TY 10 nepheidia exonephric on the body wall in VI- VIM associated ity IX—XV with the posteriur septa. ig XVE with the anterior and posterior sepla, and in XVIE and succeeding segments with the anterion septa: all septal oephridia lacking detectable parietal ducts (entero- nephric?) (H), Coudally, from abouwl segment 70, with fewer, larger nephridia, approximately 5 on wach side, exch with a preseptal turinel, the nephridial ducts running on the posterior face of the septum fo join the ventrolateral wall of the intestine, some suggestion of u longitudinal duct joining those of adjavent seg- Ments seen on the side of the gut hut requiring confirmation; postseptal nephrostomes absent: some oustomate, parietal anil apparently exonephric micromeronephridia present in caudal segments in addition to the stomate nephridia (HA, Pl). Sperm funnels weakly ifiulescen) In X and XI: seminal vesicles race- mose, almost sacciform, in XI and XI. Ovaries bushy with several stcings of Jarge oocytes: smull sues in NTV may be ovisaes. Prostates Mattened, leaflike, with deeply in- ciscd murgins and a grouvelike ‘midrib’, re- stricted to XVITT; duct U-shaped, bent median- wards, the ectul limb preatly thiekened: vas defetens joining the ental limb. at midiength, Spermuthecue one pair, in VIL divertictuluim (uninsemingted) single, digitiform, unilacu- late, slightly longer than the ampulla {H, Pt). Wield variations In the sexual, though imper- fectly clitellate types (holotype and 4 para- types). genital markings are consistently present in the seven inlersegments 17/18— 23/24 but those tn 20/21—23/24 may be spor- adically absent unilaterally, Only Pl agrees with the holotype in having a marking (uni- lateral, night) in 24/25. Miyerial examined: Jil, J38°38°E, 35°00°S, Belair National Park, dry geass ant eucalypt selerophyll, T.W., 2Lvii1972—H, PIl-4 Jiz, ('38°42'E, 34°S8'S,) Mi Lofly, in eucalypt woodland, BJ, and = T\W,, EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 101 VI KI XIV Fig. 8 Gemascoles stirlingi, Genital fields of: A, specimen 1, Jgi. B, specimen 3, Jg2. 16.vili.1972—P5 and 6. H, P2 (AM); Pt, P3 (BM); P4 (SAM): P5 and 6 (BJ). Remarks. ‘The single pair of spermathecae, resiricted to VI, distinguishes this species. Genus SPENCERIELLA Michaelsen, 1907a emend. Terrestrial, Body circulat in cross section. Prostomium epilobous; peristomium usually bisected by a Jongitudinal furrow ventrally which is more conspicuous than other grooving which may be present. First dorsal pore 4/5 or 3/6. Selac numerous in each segment. A pair of combined male and prostatic pores on XVITI. Clitellum annular, anterior to 17/18. its intersegments and dorsal pores obscured at maturity bot setae. visible. Segmental accessory genital markings present. Female pores paired, in XIV, anteromedian of setue a. Spermathecal pores in 2-5 intersegments ending in 8/9, or a pair in 7/8 only; single or paired. Dorsal blood vessel single, continuous onto the pharynx, Last hearts in XII or XIII. those in X posteriorly latero-ocsophageal, each aris- Ind ing from the short supra-cesophageal vessel and From the dorsal vessel. Subneural vessel absent. Gizzard large, in V. Three ar four pairs of well-defined extramural glands, typically with many internal septa, dorsoluteral on the oesophagus, in X, XI-XILL Typically with a latera-oesophageal vessel on each side supply- ing the caltiferous xlands. Intestine commenc- ing we XV or XVI of (8, hall’) XVI) typhlo- sole 2 low dorsal ridge or absent; cacca and museulir Ubickening ubsent, Excretory system meronephric. Fharyngeal tufts present an- leriorly, succeeding segments with astamate, exnnephric — mecromeronephridia, Caudally (always?) with several nephrostomes on each side in each segment or with all but the median-most funnel reduced; with (always?) some at least of the meronephridia entero- nephric nil interconnected hy a longitudinal paired excretory duct f{ureter). Testes and funnels in X and XI; testis-sacs absent: semi- nal vesicles in 1X and NIT, Ovaries and funnels in XL]; ovisacs present. Prastates rubuloracemose (partly or wholly linear with central lumen) or racemose (here bipartite}; vasa deferentia joining their mus- culur ducts near the glands, Spermathecae each with one or more clavate, uniloculate diver- liculit, Type-species> Diporechaeta notabiliy Spencer, 191) Distribilions Souch Austratia, “Tasmaniin, New Zealind? Vietona and Creckiisr or Srecits * New eouthinations in Spercericlte, South Australis: |, Spevicepielle impuricysis sp. nov. 1, Spenceriella peitolacasis sp, nuy Vietor: Perichaeta freachl® Spencer, 892 Periehaeta halli* Spencer, 1892 Perichaeta hogei* Spencer, 1892 Niparachaeta notabilis Spencer, 1900 Perichaeta rabra® Spencer, 1892 Perichaeta steeli® Spencer, 1892 Perichaeta sylvatica* Spencer, 1592 ’ CON DAR Tasmitnia: 10. Perichaeta tasmanica* Spencer, 1895 Species incertae sedis: 11_ Megascolex antarctica Baird, 1871 svn, Diperochacia shakespear’ Benham, 1906 (New Zealand) B. G. M. JAMEESON 12. Spenceriella argillne Lee, 59 (New Zea- land) 13. Diparechaeta gigarledn (New Zealand) 14, Diperochaeta miplestent Spencer, 1900 (Vicloriz) 15. Spenceriella pallida Lee, 1959 (New Zea- land) Remarks: Jamieson (972) described 2 neo- typic specimen of the type-species, Spencerielle norrhilis. The specimen was in very poor con- dition and it was only possible to say of the several rows of meronephridia that a presep- tal funnel was seen in one segment an the nephridium nearest the nerve cord. This sug- gested membership. in the tribe Dichogasirini. a group characterized by a single preseptul funnel on the medianmost nephridium on each side in caudal segments. Three other species, of which material has been examined by the author, are clearly cangeneric with Spencericlu notahtliy trom their general morpholegy and particularly from, the form and urnimwement of extramural calcifernus glands, These are the two new species 5. fiaparieystiy and S$. peno- lueusix anct a species provisionally placed in Megascolex by Jamieson, 1974. Perichaetya tas manica Spencer. 1895, The two South Austra- lian species have multiple caudal nephrostomes with enteronephry and therefare show that Sperceriella must be consigned to the tibe Meeascolecini. Only the median funnel on each side was identified with certainty In the new material of P. rasmatien bul what appeurcd 10 be vestivial funnels were present laterally to this and caudal enteronepbry was demonstra- ted for the median nephridium. This suggests 4 sceondary approach to the dichogastrin con- dition Tn this species The other species in- cloded phove in Spenceriella agree closely with the three studied in generu) morphology, in- clading the arrangement of calciferous plands, though details of excretory and vaseviar sys- lems are unknown. Occurrence in one and the same genus of linear lobuloracemose or bipar- tite prostates with branched ducts, further con- firms the author's contention (Jamieson 1971a) that the form of prostate glands has only very secondary importance in the ctasai- fication of megascolecids, contrary to the view of Gates (1959), Other species included by former workers in Spenceriella are listed by Jamieson (1972: 73). OF these Perichaeta lateralis, tentatively instuded by Michaelsen 19074, ig bere placed in Gemescolex, The remaining species pre- Benham, 1906 EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSTRAIIA viously included are ireated above as incerrae sedis because, though not placeable in Spen- cerielly a5 homogeneously defined above, they are nor uf present placeable elsewhere without premature erection of new genera for their reception. Megascolex uaturctice placed. us Diporachaeta shakespeari, in Spenceriella by Michaelsen (19074) deserves separate com- ment, From its, albeit inadequate descriptions this conforms sufficiently closely with the ibove generiv definition Cineluding calciferous glands in XJ-XEf1) 40 ¢onceivably be con- generic with Spetceriella norahilis bue little is known of its nephridia hevond the existence of hands of meronephridia. Its peregrine distribu- liom in New Zealand wnd its islands rakes an Austealian origin uf this species or an ancestor conceivable. Spenccriclla imiparicystis sp, nov. FIGS YA, LON; TABLE 11 Length = 44(H)-45(F1) mm, wo (mid- clitellar} — 2.8 mm, s = 1U7(P1}-122(Hb. Pizmentless in alcohol Prostomium mot cana- liculate, epilobous 1/2(H)-2/3(P1) open but with two weak transverse furrows anterior 10 ils posterior limit. First dorsal pore 4/5, but an imperferale rudiment at 3/4. Setae subs equally spaced: 24 in XIL, 22(H)-23(P1) in XX, 22 caudally: @ lines straight, z lines irregu- Jar; a ventral break appreciable throughout; a Jorsal break present only in seme anterior segments. Setae a und A ubsent in XVII Clitelum weakly developed, 1/2 XITI-XVII (4 1/2 seements), dorsal pores, intersegments and selac retained (H=: not developed in Pl). Male pores quadriridiate apertures jn ab of XVITL cach atthe centre of an oval papilla in aw Very strongly protuberant paired porophore which fills the segment longitudinally and ts wider than long; cach porophore almast tauch- ina the other; the pores 0.77 (P1)-G.88 mm (Hy, 0.1 circumferences apart. Accessory geni- tal markings paired midventrally conjoined lumescences filling their scements fongitudin- ally and With presetal pore-like centres luteral of & in XL and In «bh in XVII amd XIX. A pair of small elandular areas present posteriorly in cach of VIT and VIEL on each side of the spermathecal pore af the sev- ment, On a imidventral elliptical tumescence sitaddling 7/8 and 8/9 (H, Pl; see Field Vitiation). Spermathecal pores unpaired, mid- ventral, in 7/8 sod 8/9, ench continued an- teriorly as a short slit bisecting the posterior part of the surrownding tumescence. 1D3 TABLE 11 Hiteesetal distances in Spenceriella imparicyslis Se ee Stundardiz=d s3% ini oF clroumfenenoe ab aw or u a 2 Ww 2 Sequeent XTL Hotere O7 OS O63 O4 78 O95 38 42 SD Paratype 07 02 OF OF Te OS Bl 48 4 Mean “5 33 40 42 Tilerval/ab 29 10 12 146 Seement XX Holoiyee 07 07 O02 O02 99 70 25 20 35 Patatype | O6 027 03 83 Ba 79°29 24 Ft Mean 7A 77 UT DB Tntetyal/ab 77 10 Im to a Stronvest septa 9/10-11/12, inoderately sirong. List hearts in XII} those in) X—XIL latero-oesophageal, each originating from a transverse vessel (calciferaus vessel) which bounds, and tamifies over the correspowding caleiferous gland and receiving (observation from one heart) at its junction wilh this vessel, a slender connective fromr the dorsal blood vessel} a continuous supra-cesophageal vessel not demonstrable; the two calciferous vessels on each side in a segment join in the midling helow the dorsal vessel, al the doreal extremities of the glands high above the acsophagus. Cammissurals in VII=IX well de- veloped but dorsoventral only and, unlike the latcro-vesophageal hearts, giving ventrally branches to the parietes. A lavero-oesophageal vessel present on each side median to the hearts, thickest in Eront of the calciferous giunds to each of which it contributes a branch, becoming suboesuphageal and subpharyngeal in front of the gizzard. Gizzard farge, with anterior rin, firmly mus- cular in V. extending posteriorly to interseg- ment 10°11; free oesophagus in [TV not as wide as the gizzard, Oesophagus only slightly shorter in VE than Llutiher posteriorly: conspicuousiy vascularized, moniliform het fairly narrow in VITT and IX; in each of X, XT, XM and XU hearing a pair of ovoid vertically elongated true calciferous glands, the short narrow stalks of which join the dorsolateral wall of the ueso- phagus, the glands lying above the oesophagus and cach contiguous with its partner medianly; each gland with numerous Jamellac projecting from the walls and grouped radially around the long (vertical) ais of the sinnd, almost contiguous axially but no union demon- strated; each gland, with the exception of the pair in XII, circumscribed on ites outer side hy the corresponding heart, Intestinal origin XVI; a very low, Indefinite dorsal ridge com- Mencing in XVII. scareely justifving recog- nition as a typhlosole; muscular thickening and 1 Fig. caecca absent. Nephridia: a pair of very large tufts with innumerable spiral loops in V sends composile ducts anteriorly to join the wall of the anterior region of the pharynx (entero- nephric): much smaller tufts in [VY are not cer- tainly cxonephric; while aggregations of nephridial tubules in I and IJ! are exonephric, via sheaves of ducts, at the anterior margins of their respective segments. In the anterior intestinal region with numerous parietal asto~ B. G. M. JAMIESON 9, Genital fields of: 4. Spenceriella imparicystis, holotype, L-k4. B, 8. penolaensis holotype, Lm1. mate, exonephric, micromeronephridia. Caud- ally with several enlarged nephridia on each side, each with a singie (presceplal?) funnel. Lateral nephridia exonephric; more median nephridia contributing their ducts to 4 common iransverse medianly directed duct which joins the dorsal surface of the intestine shortly lateral of the dorsal blood vessel; a longitud- inal duct which apparently connects these seg- mental nephridial ducts visible running through EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSTKATIA some caudal segments (H, P]). Sperm funnels iridescent in X and XI. Ovaries slender, pin- nate, with large gocyles, True ovisacs contain- ing oocytes in XLV. Prostates with 4 flattened laterally directed tongue like portion in XVII which t juined at approximately mid length by a tortuous, depressed almost tubular por- hon in XIX, the entire gland not linear but having the appearance of derivation {rom a tor- tuous depressed tubular gland in which some adjacent adpreszed coils have united; vas deferens joining the steaight muscular duct Where this joins the gland. Spermathecae un- paired, midveotral, in VINE and EX: each with 2 (inseminated?) clavate uniloculate diver- ticula, the two diverticula projecting of both sides of the ventral nerve cord and (ne of them passing under it to join the wide spermathecal duct where this enters the body wall (H, PL). Field variation: In the four type-specimens the accessory genital fields are constant, with the exception that thé paired markings in X are absent in paratype 2, probably owing to im- maturity, Two immature specimens, not desig- nated types, from locality LIZ have genital fields and an internal anatomy which suggests they belong to this species but all genital mark- ings are slightly more median than in the types. The median markings at 7/8 and 8/9 are absent bit spermathecae are unpaired mid~ yentral at 7/8 and 8/9, the paired segmental markings in X have centres presetal in ab: those in XVII are absent but there is a pair in each of XIX and XX presctally and slightly median of a; the male pores are median to a lines. Mudlerial examined: ka, 140°44'E, 36°59'S, 1.6 km § of Naracoorte, in sandy soil with bracken and wattles near pasture, BJ. and T.W., 16.40. 1972—H, Pi-3. LI2, 16 km SE of Millicent en road to Mount Gambler. in black soil Under mallee gums, BJ, and TM V5 viii.1972—2 semi-mature specimens not designated types. H (AM): P1—2 (BM); P3 and LI2 (BI)- Remurks: Spencerigila onpurievstis is mor- Phologically very similar to the type-spectes 5. naiabilis (see Jamieson 1972). the genitul fields in the specimens from locality LI2 being especially similar. The similarity extends to locatton of jatero-oesophageal hearts in X-XIE with calciferous glands in X—XIIM. The un- paired spermatheexe in VIII and TX in S§, imparicystis clearly distinguish it from § nora- hilis which has a pair ot spermathecae in VIL Ws only, The paired spermathecal diverticula ate alsa distinctive, The distribution of calciferous glands and hearts distinguishes |t, among other features, from §, penolaersis, Spenceriella penolaensis sp, 1, FIGS 9B, 10 0; TABLE 12 Length — 43-54 mm, w ¢(midelitellar) — 3 mm, s = 79-128 (H, postenur amputee?, Pi). Pigmentless in alcohol, Prostomium canaliculate, epilobous 1/2, with transverse furrow at 1/4, the lateral grooves. continying almost to intersegment 1/2. Dorsal pores very large, the first at 4/5. Setac small and dificult to discern, subequally spaced but he signifi- cantly wider (hat wh; a@ lines straight, z lines regular; a ventral break well developed throughout, a dorsal brenk present except in some caudal segments. Intersetal distances in XX not measurable. Setaec a and / absent in XVIUL Chitellum XUM-XVIUL, but in XVI present only dorsal to the genital murkings. Male pores in ab of XVII, each a small orifice on an approximately hemispheroidal porophore which is laterally skirted by a tumid ridge: the pores 0.56(P1J-O.88(H) mm, 0,05(P1)-0.12(H) circumference apart but not accurately measurable as body wall ts depressed betweert pores. Accessory genital markings all scgmen- lal. not intersegmental; a pair of large tumid whitish pads filling their segments long- itudinally, each with central circular area dis- tinct from a peripheral strongly \umid rim, ex- tending laterally of ¢ lines in X und XT. with centres stighily postsetal and lateral of & (H, Pt), and in XVI (right only) (H). XVII, XIX, XX (H, PL) and XXU (paired) (H), with centres slightly presetal and Jateral of 4; most genital markings medianly conjoined (see Ficld Variation), Spermathecal pores 5 pairs, in 4/5-8/9, in & lines: scarcely tecopnizable extemally| the pores 1.47 mm (H, P1), O.15(P1)-0.16(H) circumference apart Strongest septa 9/10-11/12, moderately strong. Last hearts in XtIL, those im X—NTH, each arising from a supra-nesophageal vessc) {in XJ or from a transverse vessel bounding TABLE 12 interseta? distances ta Spencericlla penolaensia Slandetdired as nin Of étreumferenze yee u ax oat ouy 22 Suement X11 olowne 0.6 Paratyre 1 0.7 Mean {nterval/ab Sm Ti the corresponding calviferous gland (ta XI- NIM) and receiving a long slender connective fram the dursal blaod vessel; otherwise Un- hratiched, Comrmissurals of VE-LX dorsoven- irat only, slender though, like the posterior hearts. valvulun but differing from the latter in ventrally yiving branches tu the parictes, Supra-cesophigenl vessel not demonstrable as a cormtinvous vessel but seen in X and XTIL Gizzard very large, ovoid bor fattened at the anterior wider end, firmly muscular in V, (septum 5/6 exceedingly attenuated) its posterior end extending almost to inlerseazment 10/11, Oesophagus very shore in VI-X hut m each of XI, XIf and XI bearing a pair of ovoid vertically clongated tric calcifernus glands, the shore narrow stalks of which join the dorsolateral wall of the oesophagus, the glands lying above the oesophagus and each contiguous with its partner medianly; cach gland with numerous lamellae projecting fram the walls and grouped radially astound the long {yertical) axis of the gland, scveral uniting axially. the others almast contiguous but not liniting; euch gland circumscribed on its Outer side by the corresponUing heart. Intestinal origin XVI; a low irregular dorsal typhlosole commencing in XX caeca and muscular thickening ubsent. Nephridia: astomate mero- nephridia in TL loosely aggregated into tufts send sheaves of ducts dorsolacerally to inter- segment 1/2) similar aggregations in II-V¥ also appear to be exonephric. are adherent ta the pharynx and are apparently ut least partly enteronephric, what appear to be pharyngeal iluets. being demonstrable in PI. Succeeding ocsophageal and intestinal segments have each 4 lransverse row of approximately LO ustomace parietal micrameronephndia on each side. Cuudally (Pt and 2) with several somal nephrnstomes (one to a meronephridium) on euch side in cach segment, each Funnel lying in the segment projecting from its mephridial body near its duct and not preseptal with the exception of the medianmost nephridium which, in some segments was seen ta have i preseptal funnel, At leasl some of the neph- ridial ducts in each segment combine to send a duct to the dorsolateral surface of the intes- tine; these ducts communicating from segment to segment by a longitudinal wuct on each side which runs on the external surface of the intes- tine of several segments where visible but is nol demonstrable, and is therefore questian- abte continous, throughout the cauda) region. Confirmation of the exact arrangement of the B, G, M- JAMIESON nephridia of this species is required as unusual difficulty in demonstrating the structures des- scribed precludes certainty that the pharyngeal and all caudal nephridia are emeronephne and acttial openings of the caudal ducts into the intestinal lumen have not been demonstrated. Sperm Funnels iridescent in X and XJ. Ovaries bushy with many chains of very large oocytes (H, P1); ovisacs absent (H) or well developed, containing numerous oocytes, on the antenor septum of XIV (Pl). Prostates tubulorace- mose. bobulated but linear, the gland folded once and occupying XVII and XIX, with very nurrow central lumen throughout, surrounded hy thick vlandular walls; the curved muscular duct joined near its junction with the gland by ihe vas deferens. Penial setae, and internal glands corresponding with the accessory peni- tal murkings, absent. Spermathecae 5 pais, diverticulum (inseminated) single. clavate, uniloculate, Wield variaion: In the eleven typeespeciinens, including the holotype, paired genital markings with centres lateral to 4 and slightly postsetal are invariably present In X and XI; paired genital markings with centres lateral to 6 and slightly presetal are invariably present in XVIT and XIX, occur in 6 specimens in XX (FH, P1-3, 6, 10), and are represented, on the right only, in 2 specimens 1H. PO). Female pores are always paired, presetal, 1/3-L/2 az apart aud spermulhecal pores are never discernible with certainty externally. Material examined? LI, 140°49°B, 37°28'S, 11 km S of Penola. in cucalypts (ringing Prius radia, BJ, and TW. 1S.vdi.1992— P7-I0, Lml, 140°S5°E, 38°OL'S, 26 km from Mr. Gambier along roud to Nelson, tn sundy loam under grass among wattles end sums with some herbaceous garden escapes. AJ, and TW, WSwliil972—M, PI, H. P2-4+ (AM): Pl, 5, 6 (BM}) P7-3 (SAM); P9, 10 (BI). Remarks: S. penolaensis is distinguished fram the type-species, S$, nelabilis, and from 5, Im- parieysris, ty having only three pairs of cal- ciferous glands, lacking those of X_ It dilfers fram hoth species in having five pairs of spermathecae and in other respects, Discussion The earthworm fauna of South Australia is remarkably impoverished, though of high specific endemicity. Tt has been shown above that the teral known fama in the only Indigenous family, the Megascolecidae, con- EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 107 ——— iim ——— Fig. 10, Spermathecae (right segment 1X unless otherwise imdicated): A, Perionychella (P.) incan- stans, holotype, Hil. 8, Hetéroporodrilus shephardi armatus, LI. C, Gemascolex bursatus, holotype, 3j3. D-F, Gemascelex lateralis; D, specimen 1, Ji2; E & F, specimen 3, LIL (dorsal and ventral views, right VIII). G, Gemascolex mirabilis, holotype, Jg2. H & 1, Gemascolex octothecatus; H, holotype, Lml; /, paratype LU. J. & K, Gemascolex similis; holotype, L12 (J, left WI; K, left IX). L, Gemascolex stirlingi, specimen 1, Igi (left IX). M, Gemascolex walkeri, holotype, Jil (right VI). N, Spenceriella imparicystis, holotype, Lk4 (unpaired, IX)- O, Spenceriella penolaensis, holotype, Lm1. 1s sists. of A peregrine species of Micrescalex, a single species questionably assignable ta Perionychetla (from Kangaroo Island}, 9 3ub- species of a Victorian species of Helereporo- drifus, eight species of Gemasceler and twa species of Spenceriella: m all, ignoring the peregrine Microscolex, four genera with twelve species in contrast with thirteen genera with seventy eight species in neighbouring Victoria and (welve genera with forly eight specics to jhe small istanid state of Tasmania. All of its genera and two species are shared with Vic- foria, South Australia therefore has close zoogeographic affinities with Eustern Ausiralia. Apart fram the fact that the Kangaroo Island Pertonychella shows aflinities with the genus Grefiophilus in’ Western Australia, there are Ho generic or specific affinities with the latter stale, The paucity of the fauna of South Australia is correlated with its low rainfall. A south- eustern coustal wedge, the Fleurieu und Yorke Peninsulas anu Kangaroo Island are the wettest parts, with an annual rainfall, with local excep- Hons, of between 500-750 mm (20-30 inches) but the remaining coastal region, including the Evre Peninsula, has only 400-500 mm [16— 20 inches) or very much less and the interior is virtually desert. Pickford (1937) in a very thorough survey of the earthworm fauna of South Africa found no earthworms whete the rainfall was less than 25 inches and the wetter parts of South Australia are near, often below, this limit, The rainfall in coastal Victoria, in contrast) varies from 500-750 mm (20-30 inches) in the drier west to 750-1975 mm (30-80 inches) in the eas! while Tasmania &.G. M JAMIESON also has areas ranging from 500-2000 nim but is generally wetter than Victoria, Of the regions in South Australia not investi- gated ior earthworms. only the Yorke Penin- sula appears to be wet enough to yielul earth- worms and though some additional species doubtless remain to be discovered in the areas from which they have been collected, if is unlikely that further collecting will elevate the South Australian Fauna above a total of about twenty species. it ts noteworthy that the great majorly of South Australian species, all in Genurcolex and Spenceriella, have caudal enteronephry, a cenditien which would appear to be an ulup- tation for water conseTvation 28 urine exercted into the intestine is presumably concentrated by resorption of water in the hind gut, The close similaricy of the species within Geinay- colex, as im Spenceriella, suggests relatively recen( speciation from aii-even smaller fauna, Acknowledgements The author is indebted to Mr. G. Gross of ihe South Australian Museum for the loan of material and to. Mr, Ifor Thomas and, Dr. S. Edmonds for donation of specimens. Mr. T, Walker is thanked for his indispensable aid in the field and for uxsistance in mapping and other respects. Thanks ate also duc to the Electron Microscope Department, University of Queensland for printing the micrographs of setae, A illustrations are by the author. The work was made possible by Australian Rescarch Committee grant no. 239260-R-Zool- ARGC-120-72 and by a Royal Society Nofficld Bursary, References Barsp, W. (1871)—Megascolet aeteretien, an earthworm from New Zeulund. Proc. Linn. Soc, Lond, 11, 96. Bentham, W. RB. (1906).—Farthwarmys fram Lie Barrier fsladd. Trans, NZ, Inst. SB, 248.256. Boanoman, W. (1943)—On a collection of Oligo- chaeta from the Jenolan Caves District, New South Wales, Rec. Aust. Mes. 21(3), 148- 17R- Epsionps, S, J, & Jamieson, B. G, M. 119731.— A new venus and species of earthworm (Megascolecidae> Oligachaeta}) from South fueare. Trans, R, Sad, §. Aust, 97(1), 23- Frercuer, J, J. ( F8S8day—Notes on Austrulion eurthworms, Pact U1, Prec, Linn Sac. Wo 2 (ser, 2), 1887, 375-402. Fraicuen Fo J. (1888b).-—Notes ou Australias carthworms, Part IV. Proc “ion. Sac. NS. 2 (ser. 2), 1887, 601-620, Firrener, J, I (1889a)—Notes on Australian eurthiweortis. Pact V, Proc. Lili. Sov. NSW. 3 (ser. 2). 1888, 1521-1558, FiercnerR, J, J. (1889b).—Notes on Austrian earthworms. Part Vi. Proc. Linn, Spe, NS Wd (ser. 2), 1889, 987-1019. Gares, G. FE. (1959) —On a taxonomic puzzle and the classifiention of the earthworms. Bull. Mus. comp. Zool, Harv, W214, 229-24)- Gaves, G. EF. (4962).—On an exotic carthworm now domiciled jn Louisiana. Prac Lovisittne Acad. Sci. 25, 7-15. Tamurson, B, G, M, (1970).—A revision of the Australian carthworm genus #aadwardiella with descriptions of iwo new genera, J, Arvel, Lond, 162, 99-144 EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 109 Jamieson, B. G. M. (1971la).—A review of the megascolecoid earthworm genera (Oligo- chaeta) of Australia. Part I—Reclassification and checklist of the megascolecoid genera of the world. Proc. R. Soc. Od 82(6), 75-86. Jamieson. B. G. M. (1971b).—A review of the megascolecoid earthworm genera (Oligo- chaeta) of Australia. Part I]—The sub- family Megascolecinae. Mem. Od Mus. 16(1), 69-102. Jamieson, B. G. M. (1972).—The Australian earthworm genus Spenceriella and descrip- tion of two new genera (Megascolecidae: Oligochaeta). Mem. nat. Mus, Vic. 33, 73-88. Jamieson, B. G. M. (1974).—The indigenous earthworms (Oligochaeta: Megascolecidae) of Tasmania. Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. 26. 203-328. K, FE, (1959).—The earthworm fauna of New Zealand. Ball. N.Z, Dep. scient. ind, Res. 130, 1-486. MICHAELSEN, W. (1900).—“Das Tierreich”, 70, Vermes. Oligochaeta (Friedliinder: Berlin.) MicHagBisen, W. (1907a).—Oligochaeta. In “Die Fauna Siidwest-Australiens” 1(2), 117-232. (Fischer: Jena.) MICHAELSEN, W. (1907b).—Oligochaeten von Australien, Abh. Geh, Naturwiss.. Hamburg 19(1). 3-25, LER. PickForb, G. E. (1973),—*A monograph of the Acanthodriline earthworms of South Africa.” (Cambridge. ) Rosa, D. (1887).—Sui generi Pontodriluy, Micro- scolex et Photodrilus. Boll. Musei Zool. Anat. comp, R. Univ. Torine 3(39), 40. Rosa, D, (1890).—Terricoli Argentini raccolti dal Dott. Carlo Spegazzini. Annali Mus. civ. Stor. nat, Giacomo Doria 29, 509-521, SHANNON, J. H. (1920).—On the structure of a new species of earthworm from South Aus- tralia, Megascolex fletcheri. Proc. R. Soc. Viet. 32 (n.s.) (2), 302-313. Spencer, W. B, (1892).—Preliminary notice of Victorian earthworms. Part II. The genus Perichaeta, Proc. R. Soc. Vict. 5, \-26, Spencer, W. B. (1895).—Preliminary notes on Tasmanian earthworms, Proc. R. Soc. Vict. 1. 33-54. Spencer, W. B. (1900).—Further descriptions of Australian earthworms. part JI. Proc. R. Noe, Vict. 13 (n.s.) (1), 29-67. STEPHENSON, J. (1930).—*The Oligochaeta.” (Ox- ford.) STEPHENSON, J. (1933).—Oligochaeta from Aus- tralia, North Carolina, and other parts of the world. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 1932, 899-941, 110 B. G. M. JAMIESON Prostates of: A, Heteroporodrilus shephardi armatus, paratype 3, Lk4. B-E, Gemascolex bur- saius, holotype, J)3: B, dorsal; C, ventral; D & E, prostates in sita, Showing bursae, muscu- lar ducts, and glands adherent to the intestine. F, Gemascolex lateralis, specimen 3, Ll. G, Gemascolex stirlingi, specimen 1, Jgl. H, Gemascolex walkeri, holotype, Jil. Scale 1 mm. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. EARTHWORMS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 11] 1oum F 104m — Penial setae of Microscolex dubius, by scanning electron microscope. A, entire seta with muscle adherent basally; B, tip of same seta: C, D, E. sculpturing of same; F’, seta of second specimen, Ll4. 8. G. M. JAMIESON Penial setae of Heteroporodrilus shephardi armatus, by scanning electron micro: F holotype, LIl; A, tip of seta; B & C, sculpturing; D, sculpturing of second seta; EF & F’, para- type 1, Lk4; &, tip: F, sculpturing. VOL. 98, PART 3 31 AUGUST, 1974 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA INCORPORATED CONTENTS Rogers, R. W. Lichens from the T. G. B. Osborn Vegetation Reserve at Koona- more in Arid South Australia - - - - - - 113 Dulhunty, J. A. Salt Crust Distribution and Lake Bed Conditions in Southern Areas of Lake Eyre North - - - - - - - 125 Mawson, Patricia M. The Genus Potorostrongylus Johnston and Mawson (Nema- toda: Trichonematidae) from Macropod Marsupials - = - 135 Bourne, Jennifer A., Twidale, C. R., & Smith, Dianne M. The Corrobinnie Depression, Eyre Peninsula, South Australia - - - - 139 Firman, J. B. Structural Lineaments in South Australia - - - - - 153 PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS STATE LIBRARY BUILDING NORTH TERRACE, ADELAIDE, S.A. 5000 LICHENS FROM THE T. G. B. OSBORN VEGETATION RESERVE AT KOONAMORE IN ARID SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY R. W. ROGERS* Summary ROGERS, R. W. (1974) .-Lichens from the T. G. B. Osborn Vegetation Reserve at Koonamore in arid South Australia. Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 98 (3), 113-123, 31 August, 1974. The Koonamore Vegetation Reserve has a lichen flora of at least 38 species. The level of endemism (19% confined to Australian arid regions) is lower than that in other arid lands, but the total number of species is similar to that found in the arid lands of Asia and North Africa, and the percentage of foliose species is higher. It is possible that either the environment at Koonamore is less harsh than other areas with similar rainfall, or that Australian foliose species are more drought resistant than those from other areas. However, the broad species concept followed here, and the topography of the reserve also, tend to limit the number of crustose species. All soil-surface species occur more frequently on loamy soils than on sandy soils. It is suggested that Collema coccophorus, Dermatocarpon lachneum, Endocarpon pusillum and Heppia lutosa, the species most common on sand and most commonly occurring alone, are the pioneer species on the soil. Brief descriptions and a key to the species of lichens found on the reserve are appended. LICHENS FROM THE T. G. B, OSBORN VEGETATION RESERVE AT KOONAMORE IN ARID SOUTH AUSTRALIA by R. W. Roceks* Summary Roeers, R. W_ (1974).—Lichens from the T. G, B. Osborn Vegetation Reserve at Koonamore in arid South Australia, Trans. Ro Sec. S. Aust. 98 (3), 113-123, 31 August, 1974. The Koonamore Vegetation Reserve has a hchen flora of at least 38 Species. The level of endemism (19% confined to Australian arid regions) is lower than that in other nrid lands, bul the total number of species is similar to that found in the arid lands of Asia and North Africa, and the percentage of foliase species is higher. It is possible that either the environ- men{ al Koonamore is less harsh than other areas with similar rainfall, or that Australian foliose species are more drought resistant than those from olher areas. However. the braad species concept followed here, and the topography of the reserve also, tend to limit the number of erustose: species, All soil-surface species accue more frequently om loamy soils than on sundy soils. It is suggested that Collema coccophoras, Dermatocarpan lachneum, Endocarpan pesillanm and Heppia latosa, the species most common on sand and most commonly occurring alone, are the pioneer species on the soil. Brief descriptions and a key to the species of lichens found on the reserve are appended. Introduction There have been a number of recent studies concerning lichens in arid southern Australia {Rogers 1971, 1972a, 19726; Rogers & Lange 1971, 1972); however. these have dealt only with species growing on the soil. The T. G, B, Osborn Vegetation Reserve at Koonumore (139°27’'R, 32°15/S) was, estab- lished in 1925 to study the regeneration of over-grazed arid shrubland, this work being summarised by Hall, Specht & Eardley (1964). Although it is only small (390 hectares), it has 4 vegetation representative of much of arid South Australia, The Reserve ts loca(ed in an area where vegetation formations of the more arid, Jow, open shrublands to the north occur wdmixed with fornialions from the low wood- lands to the south, The Reserve has. a rainfall of only 182 mm per »onum, and, using the eri- terig of Meigs (1953) is Arid. The only report concerning lichens from the Reserve is: in Osborn, Wood & Paltridge (1935). The collections were made by C. Barnard, and Specimens sent to Kew for determination. Examination of the material retained as. dupli- cates in the berbarium of the University of Adelaide (ADU) shows that some ef the con- fusion in the discussion of lichens by Osborn, Wood & Paltridge was due to limited knowledge of lichens and their structure, The “undetermined species of Acarosporu” referred tu as forming patches up to § cm in diameter is, in the specimens retained, mostly lurge colonies of Diploschistes scruposus. How- eyer, in a few cases, small, fertile thalli of .4. smaragdula (rarely 2 em in diameter) are pre- sent in the crust of 2. serupasus. It is probable That similar material was sent to Kew, and the obviously fertile Acarespera, but not the often sterile Diploschistes, determined. Two of the three other soil-surface species discussed as being conspicuous. because of their apothecia, are not so, Lecidea decipiens has small pink stqjuamules with a white edge, and rarely, black marginal apothecia. Osborn, Wood & Paltridge upparently mistook the small thallus Tor an apothecium. Similarly, they confused the thal- jus of Dermatocarpon hepaticum with \apo- thecia: D. hepaticum has immersed perithecia, not apothecta, During 1965-1971 the Reserve was visited frequently by the author who collected speci- mens for lichen studies. *Kolarny Department, University of Queensland, St. lucia, Old. 4067, 114 The Lichen Flora ‘the soil lichens at Koonamore are a siriking feature of the Reserve. Over much of the area the lichens form a continuous carpet, which is rich in species, Many of the small calearcous pebbles on the soil surface are completely en- crusted with lichens, often with a variety of species on a pebble no more than 1 cm in dia- meter, Bark and wood of live or dead trees and shrubs supports a usually sparse growth ol lichens. From the collections made in 1965-1971, and from collections housed in the Botany Department, University of Adelaide, 38 species in 25 yenera were determined by reference io the literature and herbarium material, These ate listed in the Appendix. The flora is eam- parable in number of species to that found in south-western Africa (41 species, MDoidge 19501, in Arizona (33 species; Fink 1909) and in the Negev (37 species; Galun & Reichert 1960). Brief descriptions and a key to the species from the Reserve appear in the Appendix. Biogeographic Considerations Weber (1962) commented on the similarity of sri vone lichen floras from various contin- ents. Rogers & Lange (1972) illustrated this by reference to the soil-surface lichets fram all continents except South America. in desert areas, the genera Acaraspura, Aspi- cilia, Ruellia, Cajoplaca, Collema, Dermato- carpon. Endocarpon, Heppia, Lecgnore, Rino- dina and Verrucaria daminate the lichen flaras. All these genera are crustose. "The most coim- mon foliose genus is apparently Physeia, bub Parmelia, Teloschistey and Xanthoria are also R, W, ROGERS widespread. All of these genera are recorded in the Reserve although it is likely that the records fot Ritedina und Buellia ave based on identical material (see corament in species des- criptions). Literature was searched to see whether the species occurring at Koonamore grow in other deserts, Reports were placed into four regional groupings: North America (Fink 1909, Herre 1911, Rudolph 1953, Weber 1963), North Africa (Faurel, Ovenda & Schotter 1953), western Asia (Steiner 1921, Lamb 1936, Svatala 1957, Galun & Reichert 1960, Poelt & Wirth 1968), and southern Africn (Doidge 1950), Of the 38 species found in the Reserve, tour occur in each of the other four desert regions considered, These are Avarospara suhleichert, Caloplaca murorum, Dermatoearpor lachrenn and Lecidea decipieny. A further four species, Endocarpon pusillum, Parmelia pulle, Physcia stellavis.- and Toninia cvoeruleontgricans occur 10 three of the four regions, The seven taxa (19% ) asterisked in Appen- dix II are endemic to Australia, wiih the excep- tion of Chondropsis semiviridis. and Parmelia reprans, which alsa occur in New Zealand, This is lower than the 30% endemism recorded by Faurel, Ovenda & Schotter (1953) fog the Sa- hara, and similar to the endemism reported by Galun & Reichert (1960) for lichens [rom the Negev, Israel. Of the other species, 18 (43% ) are also found in North American deserts, 1-1 (37%) in southern Africa, 11 (28% ) in west- em Asian deserts, and & (21%) in the Sahura- Comparison with floras from other atid lands (Table 1) indicates that the flora ut Koonamore is unusually mich in foliose species. The most TABLF, 1 Life-forns spectra for the lichen population in desert regions, with ather South Australian specina far coaMmiparixven. Ee EEEt ttt Location % cruslose and squamulese % foliase = % Fruticase Koonamare Reno (Herre 1911) Tucson (Fink 1909) Negev (Galun and Reichert 1960) Sahara (Kaurel, Ovenda and Schotter 1953) Acid South Australia*® Semi-Arid South Australia* ‘Temperate South Australia" AIL of South Austtalia® species species Species 58 42 75 25 0 9) 9 0 9) 6 2 97 2 a 7S 23 2 57 55 8 37 4] 22 45 36 19 Nisin mcs apc bali sk as "Rogers. R, W, (1971) Unpublished Ph.D, thesis (University of Adelaide} Apperstix J, pp, 183-186. LICHENS FROM KOONAMORE lis directly Comparable area is that studied by Fink (7909) at Tucson. That arca was somewhat larger with more diverse substrates and a slwhtly higher rainfall. The area studied hy Herre (1911) ut Reno included aw altitudinal range of several thousand feet, alsa with a higher rainfall than Koonamore. Both of these areas were, however, poorer in foliose species, From Table J it is alse evident that the Koona- more Reserve is relatively richer in foliose spe- cies than and South Australia taken as a whole. Kenaut, Marrache & Troter (1968) cxa- mined the use of lichen life-form spectra as liidicators of avidity, With 42% foliose species, Kooninrore would rate as suh-humid or per- haps semi-arid on their scale whereas it is vhissed as aril by use of climatic indices (Meizs 1953), AL first his suggests that either the climate at Koonamore ts Tess harsh m reta- Hon to its eainfall and teoyperature regime than other desert regions. or that southern Austra- lian foliuse lighens ure more dronglit resistant than their counterparts elsewhere. However, the relatively high percentaye of folioxe lichens on the Koonamore Reserve may be duc in part to the ahsence of cautcroppine rocks m the area, Two species absent from che Reserve, but which occur on rocky outerops in the mearhy Yunta and Waukarings hills, are Dfplaschisres avpsaceans (erustose) and Heppia euploca (squamulose!. Another factor may he the broad species 100) per ascus, non-septate. Common on calcareous soil surfaces, often with Diptoschistes scrrposas. Specimens examined: Barnard, 12.xii.1927; Anon... May 1943; Eurdley, June 1946) Rogers, 20.xi.1967, “ Specimens cited as Regers ure in the author's private herbarium, wl alhers in the berburium of the University of Adelaide (400). 120 Aypicitia calcarea (L.) Mudd 1361; 161. Ciehen calearens L.1753)1140, Thalius white to greyish, either urustase ar more or Jess fruticose; if crustose then arcolute, it fiuti- cose the lobes cylindrical, psendocyphellule, ana- stomosing, 0.5-1.0 mm thick. Apothecita known only on crustose forms, Jmmersedl with a crenate margin, the dise densely pyruinese. Spores 2-8 per AscUS, Mon-septale. Virtually any calcareous pebbig of the reserve jas the crustose Torin om it samewhiere. “Lhe fruti- cuse form is less common but occurs mest often al the junction of pebbles and soil. Both forms also accur on calcareous soil alone, Nunterovs intergrades. have becn observed on the reserve. Specimens eaumined: Anon. May 1948; Rogers, Fx. 1967, Bombylieryora tlontingersts (Pers.) Zahlbr, var- avcontiaeca Zahlhr.. in Magnussan & Zahlbruckner 1945:32. Thallus an obscure yellow-prey: crust covering extensive urcas on old wood. Apeihecia orange, <1 mm in diam, very fumnerous, sessile, convex. Spores 8 per aseus, usually 5 septute, Very common on-desd, decorlicale Iwigs. espe- cially wf Cusste spp. and Ererntophila spp, where entire branches may be covered. Spocimens eaxa- tolucd: Barnard, 12-XxiU.1927, Rogers, 5.231967. Buellia subalbila (Ny) Muell, 1880:79, Lecilea subalhula Nyl, 1868516, Thallus » white, areolate crast forming patches up io Scm indiam. Apothecia black, up to 1 mm in diam., numerous, sessile, convex, with a false white exciple disappearing carly in development, Spores 8 per ascus, black, seplute- Wery common on calcareous pebbles. Specimens examined; Anon,, Sune 1946; Anon., Muy 1948; Rogers, 24.11. 1969, Although the material has nat been examined | is likely that specimens determined at Kew as Rinedina diffractella Muell, for Osborn, Wook & Paltridge (L995), was identizal with the napterial here called #. subulhila. The bvo species are very similar wecording to their descriptions, cach having a thalloid exciple when young, which disappears with) acc, hence confusion about the appropriate genus for the material. The species differ, however. in that there are slightly Jarger spores (!2-12.6 x 5.7--4 wn) in Bo subalheta than in R, diffractelta (7-10 x 4-4.5 pn), Caloplawe murorin (Holtm) Th Pr Lichen murvrvit Hoffer, |784203- “Lhallus crustose, arevlale at the centra, some- times with distinc, marginal Inbes |—t nm long, or the thallus o£ verrucose Squarciiles, light arange- hrown. Apothecia sessile, the cise olanee to rusty brown, the exciple concetonraus wilt tre thallus. Spores % per aseus, polari-hilocular: On siliceous rocks, not common. Specimens exa- mined: Womersiey, 6.411946; Anon, May 1948- Candelaria conculur (Dicks,) Stein jn COL 187)! 18712170, ' Lichen conceloe Dicks. 1793: 1R- ‘Lhallns yellow, minutely foliose, lobes 0.1-0.5 maint tread, « I mm. long, forming rosettes of R. W, ROGERS spreading irregularly. the margins irregularly gra- nulur, Fertile specimens have not been found in South Australia, According ta Osburn, Weod & Paltridge (1935) this specics iy uncommon, but forms extensive patches an twigs. This specics bas hot been relocated by recent collectors despite cateful examination of the area. Record: Barnard. 12.11.1927 (not seen) Candelariella antennaria Ras. 19392137 Thallus missing. Apothecia sessile on the sun- strate, the disc and exciple greeaist yellow. Spores § per ascus, gun-seplote. Paraphyses xeplate, sonie- times branched. A cominon but obscure species occurring ad- mixed with Bumbylivspara domingense var. cdurat- face on wood. Specimens examined) Rogers. 2211x1969, Ragers, 141,971. §Chundrepsis semiviridis (T Muell. ex Nyl,) Nyl- ex Cromb. 1880:397. Parmnelionsis semiviridiy F. Muell ex Nyl 1885: 57. Thallus foliose, creen above, pule yellow-brown helow, lobes 3-5 mm broad, strictly dichnlameously branched, rolling into a ball when dry, lying flat when wel Apothecia extremely rare, sessile, dise brown, exeiple cencoluurous with the thallus. Spores &, woo-scptate, At Koonamore ihis species tas lobes approach ing 5 mm wkle, passibly the broadest form found in Australia, Common on soil surfaces in scattered, patehes. Barnard apparently did not find this dis finctive species on the reserve in 1927, Specimens examined’ Anon, May 1942; Barren, 71944; Ragers, UNL 9I6B. Cladenia Sp. Schilered squamules grey green above, whine below, without padetial development, Very raro on shaved sail under Meteradendruny, Specimen exnmined: Rogers, 8.x. 1967, Ceallema coccepharura Tuck. TR62~385, Thallus a rosette of deep olive lo black crenare fobes 2-3 mm Jong. much convoluted, sometimes wilh cyliedrical lobules, gelatinous when wo, Aji. thecia Tot comtmon, about L mm broad, the disc and exciple concoloraus with Li thallus. Spares € pet Ascus, ONCE sepPlate Jofreqnent, om culeareatis oe sandy soil. Sprei- men examined: Mapers, S.xi7,1967, Denmatecarnan curpacen (Mass) Teltan, 1912: 52. Placidinat cempuviin Mass, 1836:32, ‘Vhallus of minute (0.2-0.3 unm) squamules fucked together forming a dark brown playtic Petithecis. opening by pores, sporés & per asscris non-septate- Common, hut itcunspicuows on calcarsous pebbles, Specline examined: Ragers, 9.1x.1969, Derniarocarpan tached CAch) Smith 191) :270. Lichen lochnens Ach, 1798:140. Vhallus of lan to dark brown squamules I-27 mm accass, initisly ovate, entire, plane to slightly convex bul becomine crénate and distorted with uve The rhizoids of this species remain fine, per- mifting IL ws be distinguished From the coarse LICHENS FROM KOONAMORE IZI rhizined Endecarpen pusilion, Perithecia opening hy pores, Spores & per ascus, non-seprate- Common and consprcmous on calesreous soil, superficially like Endocarpon prsiliim. Specimens examiiied) Barnard, V2.50,1927: — Regers, 20, xi, 1967, Diploschistes avefarus (Vil) Norm. 1853:232- Lichen wwellatus Vill 1789-988. Thallus an extensive while crist of smoath, chalky arcoles up ta 1 mm broad. Apothecia poorly developed or absent on the seserve, but sesallé with a dick thalloftd exciple and 2 blick, fist disc. Spores 8 per sscus, black, oniriform, A tare, but quite striking lichen on calcareous soil in deeply shasled sites. Specimens cxamined: Actin, | Stay 1942; Hurdley, June 1946: Revers, Mi . Diplaschistes serupasvs (Schreb.) Norm. 1853:232.- Licher scrapesws Schreb. 17717133, Thallus aa extensive Moury ercy or white crust With aregies << mm across. Apothecia very com- mon, immersed, ¢, 0.5 Jum ja diam, the dise black. Spores 8 pér ascus, black, murifarm. Comman on calcoreous soils. Specimens caxa- Muned: Barvard, V2xi.1927: Berdley, Iune }946: Rogers. 20.x1. 1967. Endavirpan jpesitlaen Hedw. 1789:56, Thallus of brown, usually crenate, squamules with extensive rhigoidal and stolon development helow. Perithecia immersed, opening by a black pore on the upper surface. Spores usually 2 per ascus, black, muriform, Common on caleaicous soils and firm sanis, easily confused With Derménivarpan lachnetm, Specimen examine: Kogevs, 20.Xi,1967, Fulgeasia. subbracieata (Nyl.) Poel 1941, na 137 Tecanore swbbracteata Ny 1885:534_ ‘Thallus crustose. somewhat grinulur, very pale yellow when dry, bright yellow when wel, the Mains showing minule lobes Apolhecia adnate, rare, the exciple colored like the dise, deep rusty brown. Spores 8 per ascus, Nun-septaue. Rare, on sandy and calcareous soils, Specinica examined: Rogers, 2.41969, Heppia lutesa (Ach) Nyt, 1K#S;45. Collerta titesum Ach. 1814:309. Thallus squumulose grey-green to olive, squa- mules forming snail rosettes (5 gim in diam.) the Mmuareins ganular, Apotheciu immerses, sually one per squamule, disc ved. Spurcs 8 per seus, mion- septate. Common on calcareotts salle Specitron cava mined; Kogers, 4.¥ii.1969, Heppia padyspera Tuck, 18822115, Thaltus squamulose, fan tn alive, squamules 1-4 Mm it diane, round oF crenate with & thickened margin. Apothecla usnally one per squamnle, immersed, the disc red. Spores many (>32) per ASCUS, NON-septate, Common, bul very obscure on sandy and cal- carebus soils. Specimen examined: Rogers, 4vii 1969, *Lecanora spheeraspore Muell, 1892:L96. Thallus crisiose, white to grey, areotate, areoles up to | mm la diam, Apothecia sessile with a white margin, Usually cronale, the dise grey, al first flat then becoming trarkedly convex, Spores § per ASCHS, NoN-seprate, Very common on calcureous pebbles, Specimens examined: Reapers, §.xiL,1967) Rocers, IU,ViL96S, *ecidea crystalfifera Tayl, 18471148. Phallus of grey-brown squamoles |-3 mm broad, enlire to crenate ar sarmewhat lacerate, the upper surface sculptured inta 4 ahasy of pyramid like solid angles, giving if a crystalJine appearance, Apothecia not found at Koonamore, bul sessile, flat to convex, the disc dark grey lo black. Spores § per ascus, non-septate, Very common att valcareous soils. Specinicn examined: Rugersx, 20.41.1967, Leelded decipiens (Hoffm.) Ach. 1803:80 Psora decipiens Haoffm. 179468, Thallis of pink squamulcs 1-7 mm broad, the Inargins or the whole thallus white pryinase, the squamules entire to crenate of lacerate, often maskedly concave at the contre with deflexed margins. Apothecia rare, marginal, sessile, the disc Mack. markedly convex, Spores 8 per Asctis, non- scplale, Qne of the most common and obvious lichens on soil in the reserve. Specimens examined: Har- add, 12.4%01.1927, Anon, 1-i¥,19392; Fandlev, June 1946; Rogers, 20.xL,1947. *Parmeli cenvaluta Kremph, 88i;347, Thallus yellow-green ubove, fohiesc; the lower surface light brown, sparsely rhizinate, usually con- cealed within the rolled and convoluted Jobes, the older fobes offen rugose above, up la 5 mm broad, Aputhecia very tare, sessile, the disc hrawn, the iargin yellow green. This species is separated from the very similar P. -australivnse by the prescnee of Salicinic acid (medulla K— yellow becoming red) whereas J”, wusrraliense Jacks salicinic acid and 1 Therefore K— {Kurokawa 1969). Mixed populatinnys have heen fonnd in some places, tut all Koonamore Material exumined 8 FP. convalned. Common, lying free on the soil sarfice Speci- mens exainined: Bartard, 12.xi1.19272 Anot., Muy 1942; Rogers 20.x1.1967, Rogers, 17.4969. *Parmelia ferax Mucll, 18861257. Thallus yellow-green above. foliose. the lower surface black, sparsely rhiainate, lobes 0.5-1.5 min broad, margins crenaie, branching irregular, Apo- thecian common, margin oolared like the thallas, the disc brown. Spores 8 per ascus,, non-septate. Parmilia ferax may he confused with P. rretideta, hut it has «4 more rugose thailus, has no K-| acids, and produces physodalic not protocetratic acid (Kurokawa 1967), Common on dead twigs and bark of trees. Speci- mens examined; Barnard, 12.xii1,.1927; Anon., May 1942. Womersley, 6.¥i.1946; Rogers, 20.xi.1967. Parmiclia ¢f, lineata Berry 1941:77. Thallus yellow-green above, foliose, the lower surface pale to dark brawn, closely adnate to the subsitale. lobes 2-5 mm broad, sub-iichntormous, 422 R. W. ROGERS the upper surface becoming rugese and cracking. Apothecis nat xecn. The subgenus Nenrhaparmelia ta which ibis material belongs is complex and poorly undet- stood. Absence of isidia and Soredla, and presence of salicinic acid, place this species clase to P finedla, a western North American spzeics, Rare on quartzitic pebbles. Specimens examined: Womerstey, 6.vi.1946; Anon, May 248, Rogers, Zhe 47, Parrteliy pulla (Schreb y Ach, ISl4)206 Lichen pullus Sehreb. 17715131. Thallus dark olive or brown above, foliose, the jower surface dark, lobes 1.5-3.0 mm broad. sparsely rhizinale. the Margins crenale, branching irregular, Apathecis rare, the margin curicvolorans with the thallus. dise dark brown, Spores & per HSCs. NON-seplate. Rare, of deeply shaded culeareouy soils and rocks, Specimens examined! Wantersley, 6.vi. 1946: Anon. May 1948, “Povmelin reptans Kuok: in Baker et al. 19732137- Thallus yellow-preen above, foliose, forming rusettes [-3 em in divm. mere or Jexs dicholu- mausly branched, lobes Nnear, 0.7—2.0 unm broad, lower surface pale brown with lang blick rhizoids. Apothecia unknown. Very similar to #, auiphixautha Muacll, bow- ever Po reptans tends to jrnve wider lobes (P, amphixactha up ta Emm) and has fumaprote- cetruric. succinprotocetraric and usnic acids (Pa yellow turning crimson) whereas 2, aipltsentha has furslictic, stietic and usnic acids (Pd yellow) (Hauker et al, 1973). On soil, weuslly in deep shade. Specimens ¢xa- mined: Farnard, 12-x11.1927; Earilley, Tune, 1946. *"Parmiclia subaltiedis Stitt, 1877-7$:254. Thallus grey-blie, foliose. light brawn below, lobes 1.5-4.0 mm broad, sparsely rhizginale, the margins irregular, branching sub-dichotomaus. Aputhecia common, the margin concolorous with the thallus, dise brown. Spores & per ascus, non- septate. Very common on bark and dead twigs, tsuully with Ff. ferqy. Specimens examined: Anon. May 1942: Heorwestey, 6.411946, Ragers. Wax 1967. Physcia atba (Pee) Much. 1887;12. Parmellg alha Fee (824: 115. Thallus erey-blue, foliose, forming distinct rosettes. closcly. adnale, lobes up to 3 mm broad, without soredia of isidia, pole below. Apothecia common, the margift concoloreus with, the thallus, dise brown, asually pruinose. Spares & pee ascus, once septule, brown. Cortex K+ yellaw, Pd-+ yellow. Medulla K+ vellaw, Pd+ yellow. Rare on the bark of trees, Easily confused with PR, vtefldtels in the field. Specimens examined; Anon, May 1948. Phyycia albicans (Pers) Thoms. 196388, Parmelia albiewns Pers, 1211517. Thatlus blue fo samewhat olive, foliose, form- ing distinct rosettes, closcly adnate, lobes 1-4 mm broad. enntiguouy to the margin with ascendent lubtifunnt soralia; pale below, becoming dark, Apothecia rare. Ypores B per asums, once seplile. brown, Cortex K+ yellow become red, Pul— medulla K-- yellow hecoming red, Pi—, Rure, found on the bark of Cuswuriia cristata. Specimens examined: Anon. May 1948; Royers. 20,X1.1967, Pheseta siellaris (Ach. Nyl. 18562307. Parmelia sietlarixy Ach, V8103:209, Thallus blue-grey, foliose. forming rosetces. or extended pitches, not closely appressed, lobes (.5— 1.5 mm broad, without isidia or soredia, pale below, Apothecia common, the margin coloured like the thallus, the dise brown, often bluish pritinose. Spores & per useus, pice septate, brown, Cartex K--vellow, Pd—: medulla K— Pd, yellow brown. Ou the bark of trees, not cammon. Specimen exumined: Rogers, 20.01.1967. Phosciopsis syncolla (Tuck.) Poelt 1965230. Pheyscia syncotla Tuck im Nyl, 1838428 Thallus brown, foliose, Forming extensive putehws. closely udmaic. lahes about 1 min braad, dark below. Apothecia up to 1S mim broad. the marsin concolorous with the thallis the dise brown, sometimes prujnass. Spores 8 per ascus, once septate, brown, Obscure, hur in extensive patches on the barb of deacio girenes. Specimen examined: Repers, TK. 1967. Syneliyvya sympltorta (Ach) Nyl. 18562204. Fichen ayenphoreus Ach. 17981355, Thallus dark olive-green to black, minutely friticose, packed into patches up-to 4.cmin Umm.. individual thalli 1 mm high, less than bE utt in diam., branehed, the lobes tightly packed, scane- what nodulate, Apothecia up te 0.2 mai in diam., more ar less immersed in the dips of the upright lobes. Spores usually & per uscus, mon-seplate, A Very inconspicuous species on calcurouus sil. Specimen examined; Rovers, 2Ux11967. Trteschistes chrvsoplihuintins CL.) Th. Fr. 1861-51. Lichen cherysophthalmus LO 17712311. Thalluy gold to grey, foliose, forming ia slirubby clump, the lobes 0.5-2.5 min broad with long mar- vinul fibrils, with neither isidian nor soredia. Apo- thecia common. pedicellate, Up to & mm in diant.. with fibrils on the margin, concdlaraus willt the thallus. Spores & pet ascus, septate. On twigs of bushes and bark of trees Specimens examined: Barvurd, 12.xi1.1927; Anon. May 1942, Toninta coerulronivvicans (Light) Th, Br, 187th: 356. Lichen coernleonigricons Light! W777; 805 Thallus of dark grey, small (1 min in diatn.) inflated, reticulutely cracked, usually hlue-priuinose squumules, Apothecia often larger than (he squa- mules, the murein ane the disc boil) black, often prinose, Spores B per ascus, fusifunm. ones sep- tate. Common on calcareous and sandy soils, Speci- mens examined: Barnard, 12.xii.1927, Anon, May (943: Womersler. 6.41.1%6; Anon. May 1948; Regers, 30,iv. 1969. LICHENS FROM KOONAMORE 123 Verrucaria aff. calciveda DC. in M. Lam. & DC, 1805:317. Thallus a whitish crust, almost indistinguishable from the substrate, smooth, somewhat powdery. Perithecia immersed in pits in the thallus, showing as sunken black spots barely 0.1 mm in diam, Spores 8 per ascus, 24 wm by 12 »m, non-septate, hyaline, An extremely obscure species on calcareous pebbles, appearing to be a pitted limestone surface unless carefully examined. Specimen examined: Anon., June 1946, Xanthoria ectanea (Ach,) Ris. ex R. Filson 1969: 83. Parmelia parietina var. ectanea Ach. 1810:464. Thallus forming a golden rosette, foliose, adnate to the substrate, the lobes smooth, up to 2.5 mm broad, the margin raised then deflexed. Apothecia common, about 2 mm in diam. Spores 8 per ascus, septate. Rare on twigs of Lycium australe. Specimens examined: Anon., May 1942; Rogers, 30-iv.1969, SALT CRUST DISTRIBUTION AND LAKE BED CONDITIONS IN SOUTHERN AREAS OF LAKE EYRE NORTH BY J. A. DULHUNTY* Summary DULHUNTY, J. A. (1974).-Salt crust distribution and lake bed conditions in southern areas of Lake Eyre North. Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust 98(3), 125-133, 31 August, 1974. Investigations and surveys of salt crusts and the lake bed conditions in southern areas of Lake Eyre North were carried out during 1972-73, using specially adapted transport and equipment. The nature and extent of salt crusts in Jackboot and Belt Bays are described. An east-west belt of watery silt with little or no salt crust, separating the main southern salt crusts from northern red-clay surfaces, is described and termed the Slush Zone. Progressive changes in crust thickness and distribution of salt, over a period of 43 years, are described in Madigan Gulf and their significance is discussed in relation to early unrecorded floodings of Lake Eyre and possible instability of the lake bed. SALT CRUST DISTRIBUTION AND LAKE BED CONDITIONS IN SOUTHERN AREAS OF LAKE EYRE NORTH by J. A. DULAUNTY* Summary Devuunty, J. A. (1974).—Sall crus} distribution and lake bed conditions in southern areas of Lake Eyre North, Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 98 13), 125-133. 31 Auenst, 1974. Investigations and surveys of salt crusts and the fake bed conditions in southern areas of Lake Byre North were carried ont during 1972-73, using specially adapted transport and equipment, The nature and extent of salt crusts in Jackboot and Belt Bays are described. An cast-west belt of watery silt with littke or no salt crust, separating the main southern sult crusts from northern red-clay surfaces, is described and termed the Slush Zone. Progressive changes tm crust thickness und distribution of sali, over a period of 43 years, are described in Madigan Gulf and their significance is discussed in relaiion to early unrecorded floodings of Lake Eyre and possible instability of the Iake bed. Introduction Lake Eyre North is a large salina approxi- mately 148 km long, from north to south, and 65 km wide, connected by a narrow channel at its southern end to a relatively small salina known as Lake Eyre South. For general geo- eruphical and geological settings ef the Lake Evre Basin, reference should be made to Johus (1963) Wopfner & Twidaie (1967) and Williams (1973). The investivations described here ure concerned with Lake Eyre North, und principally its southern balf including Madigun Gulf, Jackboot Bay and Belt Bay (Fig. 11. The lake bed, which lics between 10 and 15 m below sea level (Bonython 1955, p. 69: 1956; 1960; Wopfoer & Twidale 1967), is gently tilted from north to south, falling some 4m in 120 km from the northern shoreline to the lowest areas in Madigan Gulf and Belt Bay, When flood waters from the Northern Territory and Western Queensland reach the lake, they enter wt its northern end and nurth- eastern side, and flow south across the lake bed 10 the southern hays where salt is dis- solved, fine silt deposited, and salt redeposited on evaporation of the water (Bonython 1956). This has resulted in the occurrence of crusts overlying Recent sediments in southerit ateas of the lake and a red clay surface over its slightly elevated northern half from which salt is periodically transferred to the lower southern half. Small quantitics of water, insufficient to cover the whole lake bed or dissolve all the salt, enter the lake and reach the southern bays al relatively frequent totervals of 1 to 10 years. Major floodings, covering the lake bed completely and. dissolving all the salt crust. would appear to occur at widely separated in- tervals of the order of 30 years (Bonython & Mason 1953). This occurred in 1949-50 and was well documented (Bonython & Mason 1953; Bonython 1955; Mason 1955), Observations and investigations of the salt crust in Madigan Gulf were first made by Mudigan (1930) and later by Bonython (1956) and the Geological Survey of the South Australign Department of Mines (Johns 1963), In 1963 Bonython compiled on isopachyles map of salt crust thickness in Madigan Gulf (pers, comm,, C. W. Bonython, Adelaide, S.A), By 1963 reasonably compre- hensive information had been recorded about ihe occurrence of salt in Madigan Gulf. The existence of salt crust in Belt and Jackboot Bays had been noted (Bonython 1956; Johns 1963) but no quantitative dala bad been re- corded about its thickness or extent. In 1972-73 the present authur, assisicd and accombunied by his wife on all occasions, carried out surveys of the distribution of salt crust and variation in its thickness in Belt and + Department of Geolozy and Geophysics, Universiry of Sydney, N.S'W. 2006. 136 Sackhont Ba\s. and like bed conditions were investigated between shorelines and crusts, and between crusts and northern red-clay muds, Surveys Were also carried out in Madigan Gulf to investigale Jake bel conditions along thy northern limits of sall erust, and also to obtain evidence of any changes in salt disiribution which may have accurred since measurements were flrxt made in 1929. Results af these sur- veys and invesligations ale presented here. Lake Bed Surveys Conditions on the so-called “dry” lake hed, or lake bed withoat water cover, vary widely from place to place, Damp or wet marginal muds along southern shorelines jie asually sufficiently firm to walk an, but boggy for con- ventional and four-wheel drive motnr vehicles, and m places too soft for motor bicycles with normal-width tyres. Salt crusts in the southern bays overlie slushy mud. The atrength of the erust varics from place in place, depending Inrgely on bulk densiiy. In general, however, crusts less than 2.$ cm om thickness may not support persons Gn foot er motor bicyeles, and anything breaking throueh will sink inte under- ying Mush. Crust aver 10 cm in thickness will support light vehicles and those over 20 em will support heavier vehiries such js medium-weight trucks, To curry out comprehensive surveys on the luke hed, ir wiis necessary to have a meuns of transport for persons and equipment which would trayel over as wide a range of surtace conditions as possible, at speeds up to ahoul 4f) km.p.h. Honda “ATC 90" motor tricycles, Weiehing about 90 kg cach and eanipped with bulloon tyres 34 cm Wile and 68 emi in diameter, were successfully used, These michines, tawing light equipment trailers, would each carry ane person over surlaces an which it was not possible to walk, When they broke throush into watery slush the buoyancy of the three balloon tyres Kept the machines afloat and facilituted recovery fram otherwise hopelessly bogeed conditions Maps used for the surveys were based on the 1:250,000 topographical sheet SH53-4 Ed, |. Series R502, prepared by the Common- wealth Division of National Mapping from aerial phategraphy, Aerial photoanosaics pre- pared) by the South Australian Department of Lands were also used for mapping and photo- interpretation in the investigation of lake bed conditions. Distances on the lake bed were measured by cyclometers attached! to the wheels of the tricyeles. Magnetic bearings were J, A, DULHUNTY tsliblished by surveying compasses, and lines along bearings were marked by black flags at intervals of 1 mile (1.609 km), Sult thickness was determined hy horing an 8 mm dianreter hole through the crust, with an auger and brace, then inserting a mictut rod with a right aigle hook at its end, hooking the base of the crust, and meastiting its thickness. Where salt crust was absent, or less than 1 em in thick- ness. the condition of the lake bed was assessed as “vompetent® where it would support a standing person, or ag “incompetent where a person attempting to stand would sink into Nuid mud or watery silt. Before commencing lake bed surveys, broad roconnaissances were curried Out over the three southern hiys of the lake, and for 24 km north werosy the centre of the luke rom Hambidge Point. Survey lines, most likely to yield significant data, were first selected on the map across Madigan Gulf, Jackboot Bay and Helt Bay. The selected survey lines were then estab- Jished on the lake. and salt crust thicknesses woud lake bed conditions were measured and assessed at numerous points along each line. After consideration of results, additional lines and points were sclected for further surveys. Tn some places levelling was carried out along survey lines. as the first part of a comprehen- sive level survey, us yet incomplete. Acrial photo-interpretution, based on ground control established during ‘uke bed surveys, was carried out and followed by a law. ji Ntitude aerial reconmatssance, Results and Conclusions Results of surveys and investigations of the lake bed are Wustewted in Fig. 1. Thickuesses ol salt along survey lines, and at isalied points, are shown in centimetres at points of measurement. Many more mensiremenls were made along survey lines than could be shown in Fig. 1. Atcas of conypetent mud ure shown between shorelines and salt crust sheets m the three southern hays. Areas of incompetent sill or slush are shown extending east and west across the Inke between the southern salt sheels und the ted clay suriace to the north Salt Crusts of Jackhoet and Belr Bays Well developed salt crusts were found in both Jackboot and Belt Bays. ‘The thickness and extent of salt in cach bay at the time of the survey during the winter of 1972, is iu- strated in Fig. 1, The crusts were separated from the shere bv zones of shoreline nial, from 0,1-2 km wide, which were moist and 127 LAKE EYRE NORTH NOULWLS Jeo (8108) FuHAF n> NOLAP II 7aNNHD SHOVEL Sae13WILN39 “SSINHOIHL isnga ows sf AYVONNOS 3NOZ ESITIS SY _—- “CNW ANITZYOHS ONY Lsnwd Svs NZaM198 AYVONNOR ~~. QN39371 t sands EI Te):) LOCI? y cS i Su ri ~ amo N ¥ = isa] re ANiOu 3DClaWYH 33vVaaNS >» = 4 VoLeneeeny S3Y4LAWOINH SZ oz oO} -31vos— SNOILIGNOD G38 SHV ONV NOLLNEILSIG L1VS ONIMOHS (HLYON) SYAg 3ANV1 dO SAVA NYAHLNOS SHL 40 dVW |2% soil, sumewhal aandy, mostly competent to walk on bul bogey to motor vehicles. Salt crust Was Cominuous cound the northern en of Babbage Pepinsula, The greatest thicknesses of sale measured were 29 cm in Belt Bay and 23 em in Jackhaot Bay. In both bays the maxi- muni thickness of salr occurred close to, and about midway along, their eastern shores. Tn centra) aveas of the salt sheets, thickness changes were mostly very gradual, but at some plates wuddun chunges occurred, Along a hear- ina of 307° magnetic from Bonython Head to the morthwest head of Belt Bay (Fig. 1). salt crus (hickness decreased gradually From 29 em near Honython Head to 20 em near the centre OF rhe bay, over a distance of 10 km, Then it decreased suddenly to 10 env over approximately 1.5 km {between the thickness points af Zl) and LO cm shown in Fig. 1), following which it increased gradually to 13 em, then remained between 12-13 em for 5 km, and finally thinned rapidly, as usual, near the shoreline. A level survey along the same line across the eentre of the bay showed a gritual uniform rise on the upper surface of the sall, indicating that the sudden thickness chanyves were stepdike undulation in the lake bed yt the base of the crust. Simifac, but less pronounced evidence of sub-critsiq] steps in the lake bed was found in Jackboot Bav and Miatigun Gute The lower portions of the salt crust, present in 1973, had probably formed during 1952 by evaporwtion of the 1949-30 flood Waters, and remuined tnattected by suh- sequent minor fillings which dissolved and redeposited only ihe upper pertians af the sali chust, From this it would seen likely thar the sleptike tindulalions were Tormed by scouring of ehinnely or areas in the lake bed after solu- lion of the Whule erust in 1950 aod 1951. anc before its subsequent redepositian in L452. Yhe Slush Zone To the north of Jackboot and Bele Bays between Hunt Peninsula and the western shore. and in the northern areas of Madigan Gulf between Hunt Peninsula and the eastern shore, salt crusts (hin out a5 they pass to the north, and unsterlying silt; consist of incompetent slush. In these areas salt crusts ure of low strength, Light motor vehicles and heuvy ani- male such as camel break through crusts af 7-8 em) persons on foot or conventional motor cycles break through crusts of 2-5 om, and motor tricycles with balloon tyres, as used in the present surveys, break through ecmists of 1-3 em, Anything breaking through the thin J, A, BULHUNTY erust sinks Into underlying slush und becomes bogged, Wild cumels, which had broken through 7 cm of salt, were found 3 km east of Hunt Peninsula m the north-western area of Madigan Gulf They had foundered or strugvled for ouly ¥ om before dying of exh. tion earlier in 1972, to be entombed in Recent sediments and preserved as future fossils under conditions similur to these which trapped and preserved the now extinct diprotodans whose remains are found in Pleistucene sediments around Lake Eyre (Surton, Tedford & Miller 1961). Persons sinking into the slush can neither swim nor wade, and must crawl or roll over crumbling salt and mud to. reach crust strong enough to support their weight when standing, In seme plices the crust is only U.5-1 em thick, whilst in others it is little more than an encrustation of 1 mm or less which is dissolved und removed by epeh fall of rain, but but up again between tainfalls hy evaporation uf brine rising through the sill. Aveas described above are the most treach- erous and difficult to negotiate tn the whole of Lake Eyre. As far as could be ascertained from surface exploration amd aerial photo- interpretation, che arcas extend right across the lake for about 65. km, on an east-west whgament through the north head of Hunt Peninsula. They form 4 zone from about 7-12 km wie. for which the term “Slush Zone’ hs proposed, as tlustrated in Fig. 1. It encloses practically all of Brooks Island. the narth head of Hunt Peninsula incliding Hambidge and Artemia Points, and a large island siltated 11 km west of Hunt Peninsula. M1 is almost impas- sible to Uravel into the Slush Zone over the surface of the Inke bed, Prior lo the present survey, Ike only party ta reach Braoks Island truvelled hy boat during the 1449-50 flood (Bonython 1455, p. 27), During the investiga- lions of surface cunditians in 1972, the Juke bed trom Hunt Peninsula to Brooks Island was crossed hy Honda motor tricycles. travelling over 1-2 em of crust in the Slush Zone. The crossing was penlous intl succeeded only by travelling at a speed of xhoul 35 kmep.h.. as ut lower speeds the muachines would have sunk into the slush, A similur utlemipt to travel over the lake bed to the large tsland west of Hunt Peninsula was nmsuecessful as the machines and riders broke through a crust of 1 ent or less und sank into the underlying slush, How- ever it wax teached by boat during a minor figading of Belr Bay in July 1973, which made possible an cswmination of the island and lake LAKE EYRE NORTH bed in the western Slush Zone. A perminent survey mirk, consisting of 1.5 m of copper pipe driven 0.75 im into the ground, was left at at) elevated place, situated 640 m in a direc- tion 325° magnetic from the most southern point af rhe island, As far as is known this was the first occasion on Which anyone had Teiched the island, Hambidge Paint The Slush Zone, situated a little south of the geagriphical centre of the lake, forms a barrier to worth-seuth Iravel on its bed, There is only one place at which, if condilions are suitable, it can be crossed hy persons on foot or on conventional motor vycles. This is from the northern shoteline of Hunt Peninsula, where sand has been carried out into the Slush Zone by south-east to south-west winds. Bonython crossed the Slush Zone from the tip of Ham- bndge Puine in 1970, ond walked for some 20 kin to a point bearing 348° magnetic fram Rambidue Point. which he calewated as close fo the geographical centre of the Iake (pers. coin. C. Warren Bonython, 1972, Adelaide, S.A), During the present Jake hed survey, réconnuissance was mide from a point on the shoreline about 2 kim south-east fram) Ham- bidve Point to true north across the Slush Zone, for 24 km over the central region of the lake. Between Uambidge Point and a small island about 1.5 km to the north, the level of the lake bed falls slightly, by about 30 cm to a channel long which water flows round Hunt Peninsula when sufficient siceumulites in either Belt Bay or Madigan Gulf to cover the lake hed as for north as Hanibicdge Poini, The existence af such w channel. linking Belt Bay and Madigan Gulf, and whe possibility of water flowing along it fram one bav to the other, was first sug- gested by Bonython (1955, p. 8). This pru- cess wis observed in operution during ihe winter of 1973. Water Nawing down the War- burton Groove filled Belt Bay afmosi to (lam- hidue Point. When strong sowth-westerly winds moved the water north-east, tt reached a depth of about 15 cm at the Pont, and flowed eust along the channel. It then spread out over a witle srca northwest und west of Brooks island. communicating with Madigan Gulf only by a marrow and shallow jrea along the eastern side of Hunt Peninsula, south from Ariemia Point, Before finding ils way into Madigan Gulf, inest af the water was blown hack round Hambidze Point tito Belt Bay by south. iu easterly to |orth-easterly winds, whiol usnally follow soon after south-westerly wines Fle Northern Reed Clay Surface Daring the reconnyissance 74 km north from Hambidge Point, some information was gained about the general nature of the Jake bed in central areas, North of the channel in the Slush Zone round Hantbidge Point, the lake bed gradually beeame firmer and drier, as the wet, black, grey and preen silts of the Slush Zone carrying a soft thm salt crust, were re- placed by damp red or yellow-red clay. carry- ing in places a thin soft powdery salt. but no crust. Between 20 and 24 km noith of Ham- bidge Point, the surface of the clay was ulmost dry and suncracked. with thin aprurned flakes of dry clay and very liule dry powdery salt. A comprehensive and detailed study of the northern half of the lake bed remains to be accomplished: however, progressive changes to the north in the nature of the lake bed, des- cribed above. are in accord with the Fact that the lake bed falls genily io the south, provid- ing draimage info the southern bays which serve a8 4 sump. or “xeodetic centre’, of 1.300,000 sq. km of internal drainage. Self Crusty of Maegan Gulf Sul erual thicknesses in Madigan Gulf, measured during (he winter of 1972, eanfirmed the agcurrence of i large area of sult crust as described jn previously recorded information, to which reference has alrendy heen made. It wus stparuled From the shore by shoreline mud from O.5-4 km owe. avernging about 2.5 km. A maximuny crust thickness of 46 ent, the grewtest thickness of sult ever recorded in Lake Eyre, was formd near the centre of Madi- gin Gulf, and a consideruble yreqy was aver 30 em thick. as illnstrated in Fig b. WDerail sur- veys Of sale crust thickness were carried out, across the previously mapped and measured sale crust of the gulf, with the objecé of detecting changes in thickness and distribution which may have occurred over the period nf 43 years, from the firsy recorilet measurements to 1972. In 1929 Madigan (1930) walked for 18,9 km tna direction 324° magnetic fram Presentt Point to the central area of Madigan Gull, apd measured salt thickness at 6 places along the mute, During 1954, Bonython (1956) carried out an cxtensive survey for 24 ken along 305° magnetic, from Prescott Pot, ond also G other lines across and near the central area of the gull, measuring salt thickness at numerous places, In 1961, the Geological Sur- 130 J, A. DULHUNTY “pont (Looks MADIGAN GULF I, (LAKE EYRE NORTH) LEGEND TRAVERSE LINE WITH NUMBERED #3 SALT-CRUST MEASUREMENT POINTS SALT THICKNESS IN CENTIMETRES MEASURED BY ' MADIGAN, 1929... ... M30 BONYTHON , 1954. B28 S.A, GEOL-SURVEY,|961.678' DULHUNTY, 1972 D6" CENTRE-POINT; INTERSECTION OF LINES H-J,.-M,N-O cP® CAMPBELL POINT a _ 2 wi 2 2 lu oO. Bil Wing p23 02% De H 1 (a WILLOW HEAD SHELLY ISLAND FIGURE 2 LAKE EYRE NORTH 4) yey of the South Australian Department of Mines ¢(Johus 1963) mensured thicknesses for ever 40 km fram Prescott Point along 305° Magnetic, Tinally, in 1972 the present author measured thicknesses along 305° magnetic for 44 kin from Prescott Point to the shore of Hont Peninsula near Artemia Point. and also along, 6 other Jines Over Madigan Gull, Results of the foregoing salt crust thickness- Measurements ate shown on the map of Madi- gim Gulf in Fig. 2. Lines along which measure- menls were made are designated by capilal letters, Positions at which meusurements were made along each hne are aumbered consecu- \ively from the more southerly end of the line. Thicknesses af é¢ach point are preceded by letters indicating the persons who made the measurements, as indicated in the Jegend of Fly. 2, For example, at point 8 on line P—A, 24 cm of sult was measured by Bonython in 1954, 20 om by the Geological Survey in 1961, aiid 39 cm by Dulhunty in 1972: ay point 4 on line P-B, Madigan measured 20 ¢m in 1929: slong line E~G, Bonython measured 25 em at point 6 if 1954 ond Dulhunty measured 14 cin at point 5 in 1972. Along line P-A, measurements hy the Cieological Survey and Dolhunty were made at Intervals of 1 mile, wr 1.609 km, as shown in Hig, 2, Measure- ments by Banython (7956) were noe all at 1 nite Intervals, and a small amount of inter- polation was necessary in transferring his results lo jhe intervals shown along linc P-A in Fig, 2 Ti ath other cases, thicknesses ote shown at the points measured hy the persons concerned. Some interesting facts, problems and con- cliisiois emerge From the data assembled fn Fig, 2: I, Sali crust measurements by Madigan, along line P-B jn 1929, show 18 em at 3 km fram Prescott Point, 00 Crist at point 2 on Kunoth Shoal, and an increase in thickness from 9 em at point 3 to a maximum of 43 em at point 6, the lini mM his traverse. The rate of increase falls off between poiits 5 and 6, indicating the cxistence in 1929 of an appreciable area, per- haps 4 km in diameter, with a crust. thickness of at least 40 em. This crust, which may be referred io as the “Madigan Crust’, hed been m cxisteiice for sume years before Madigan Treasured it in 1929. Tt must have originared by redeposition of sall during the drying up of the gulf after an early, unrecorded major filling which had dissolved the whole uf the pre-existing crist, The Madigan Crust, so formed, suryived partial JINIMVAT seujuazida ayenbyves & Me *—— “TMH ‘ a == a ‘ _ owsoe yeas © ars xX Soneniat 7 2s a. soi Wer aesoaaas > = © 4 Sooner NT on SSS in Tes ~e ~ mn > -s Rare aganiog) >= ~~ june en, THE CORROBINNIE DEPRESSION i4l sal eo, WETHES 2000® A Lotduowe | BE: ' / | 2 = — = PT 3 a AILOMETAES thpvigad Fig. 2. Topographic sections between A and Ay wad Band B; (on Fig. 1) across the Cor- rdbemnie Depression, Drawn fram field ata, 32 kn between the two points (S.A. Register. 13 November, 1844; Twidale 1974). Thus though not 4 spectacular topographic form, the Corrohinni¢ Depression constitutes a distinet and, by virtue of its extent. a major geomorphological feature cutting diagonally across the broad northern base of Eyre Penin- sulla, What is the reason for the Depression anu ils distinctive assemblage of landforms? Origin of the Depression Structural considerations, Both the extent and lincarity of the Correbinnie Depression suggest a structural, and in particular, a faull-generared origin. No other explanation can satisfactorily account tor these characteristics in combina- tion: few fvcks older than Quaternary are exposed in the Depression and no faults have been observed, but # number of lines of evi- dence and argument support the general in- ference that the topographic feature is related to fractures. in the crust, Geophysical surveys, for example, suggest that the Depression in general terms is aligned parallel to dykes and sills which traverse northern Eyre Peninsula and adjacent areas in a NW-SE direction (Boyd 1970!'). Several of these vccur within the Depression though they have been detected only on veromagnetic surveys. tl is reasonable to suppase that their trend reflects weaknesses or fractures in the erust, and similar possible fracture zohes bave heen located in the areas south-east of Byre Peninsula where they evidently play an impor- tart part in delineating and determining major telief features (see Twidale 1971, pp. 144— 149). Such a NW-SE trend is indeed an im- portant feature of the structural pattern of the entire Australian continent (Hills 1946, 1955), Vhere is also some slight evidence ot seis- micity within the suggested fracture zone. for lwo earthquake cpicentres (Fig. 1) have been recorded atong its trend in recent years (Sutton & White 1968; Sutton, pers. comm.). Many more have been recotded near the cast coast, and to a Jesser degree the west coasl, of Eyre Peninsula (Sutton & White 1968; Stewart, ‘Slade & Sutton 1973) and possibly this reflects the relative instability of the margins of the Peninsula compared to its interior. ‘Thus late Cainozoic faulting has heen Gemonstrated (Miles 1952) over a wide area be(ween Whyalla and Cowell and suggested for the north-western margin) in the eastern purt of the Nullarbor Plain (Jones 1880; Jennings 1963). These ureas. are however remote from the feature under discussion where, within and at the margins of the Corrobinnic Depression, there is no evidence of any recent dislocation of at order adequate to explain the topo- graphic low. This conclusion is necessarily tentative for small fault scarps may have developed only to be obscured by alluvium ar sant drifts, But on the available evidence the Depression originated by faulting in the dis- tunt past, There is no evidence of recent 1ec- tonism of geomorphological significance in the vicinity of the Depression. It seems more likely to be # fault zone of great antiquity which has heen subject to recurrent jogeling. The presumed fracture zone separates dis- unct lithological provinces, for apart from some (?)Archaean sediments in the Mt Allalone area and granitic outcrops at and around Numimee and Waulkinna hills and in the Bucklehoo area (Fig. 1), the area north of the Depression is occupied by the Gawler Range Volcanics (Fig. 3), a predominantly dacitic lava flow but with some rhyodacites. ee ee eee 1Bovd, D. (1970), —Eyre Peninsula: Regional Magnetic Interpretation (121,000,000). Unpublished map, Dept. of Economic Geology, University of Adelaide. 142 JENNIFER A. BOURNE, C. R. TWIDALE AND DIANNE M. SMITH ELLISION 7TAQUGH AUSTRALIAN BIGHT oe rata road trirk, el . aNtelinal se S oy Uptends eye WHI pia —" — BE . h, (AEF a \I ZSARaner coh ois bitty wos Fig. 3, Regional location map and major geological! structures of northern Eyre Peninsula. Compiled ftom existing geology maps and field data. and rhyolites (A. H. Blissett, pers. comm.) of Precambrian age and dated by radiometric means as being of the order of 1,535 million years old (Compston, Crawford & Bofinger 1966; Compston & Arriens 1968). To the south and south-west of the Depression, on the other hand, the bedrock is essentially granitic, Admittedly at Mount Cooper and on Hurt Island (in the Nuyts Group, some 80 km SW of Ceduna) there are small outcrops of porphyritic rock but they are of very limited extent und are in any case not of Gawler Range type. Also, though certain discrepancies have appeared in the dating of granitic and gneissic basement rocks of Eyre Peninsula, their reported ages are in the range of 1,590— 2,800 nvy. (Thomson 1969, pp. 30-31). Thus whatever the details of the relative ages of the various masses of granite and gneiss, they are consistently older than the Yolcanics. The limits of the suggested fault zone are reasonably clear in the south-east where it extends at least as far as Spencer Gulf; in the Cleve Hills there are exposures of deformed Precambrian sediments and metasediments the folds of which are truncated by a linear siruc- tire running NW-SE through Cleve (Fig. 3), To the north-west however, the fault zone gradually fades. There is neither morphalogi- cal nor geological evidence of its continuation beyond the Hundred of Toondulya. Furiher- more the stratum contours of the base of the Tertiary rocks in the Eucla Basin (Tectonic Map of Australia 1960)? give no indication of * Published by the Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Department of National Development, Canberra. THE DORROKINNIE DEPRESSION 145 tongiing soulh-easiwards toward the Depres- sion, Streuerire of the Depression. Whether the Corobinnie Depression is essentially a tectonic oro structural feature cannot be determined with any certainty. tt could be seen as occupy. inga graben which has largely been filled in hy detritus Washed in from. the adjacent areas. The feature is long gnd narrow and though there is some offsetting of the margins all these features are characteristic of known graben, The prominent Sranile ndge running through the Minnipa and Wadinoa districts, south-west of ihe Depression, could be an adja- cent horst or anticlinal block (Twidale 1964), Corrobinnie Hill anc Peetla Rock could be regarded as minor horsts or ws components of # single borst hlock within the major depressed structure. Paraholic dunes are closely associa- ted with the Depression and their distribution south-east of Kina suggests that one branch al ihe postulated fracture zone bifurcutes in i# manner iypical of known graben (Twidale 1971, p, 121). However none of this evidence is conclumve and can he interpreted in other Ways. The Depression could occupy u fault-angle valley similar to that which occurs to thr south-west of the feature under discussion, in the Polda Basin (Rowan 1968) and in its westerly submarine extension in the Elliston Trough «Smith & Kamerling 1969), Only one fault has been identified by geophysical means und the two structures together are regarded xs a Eaullangle trough in which are preserved Mesozoic and ‘Tertiaty strata {Harris 1964: Rowan 1968; Smith & Kamerfing 1969}. Support for the view that the Depression occupies the site of an ancient fault-anele structure derives from the gross morphology of the Gawler Ranges which are delimited on their southern margin by a series of faults, The uplands rise abniptly from the plains to the south but slope gently down to the north. They could be viewed in gross as a fault-tilted block, with a prominent though naw much dlissecied Fault scarp forming the southern boundary of the Ranyes and the northern limit of the Corrobinnie Depression. If this inter- pretation is correct. the faulting responsible for the tilting was active during the early Creta- ceous for high energy streams from the (re- cently uMifted?) Ranges carried pebhles and houlders of Gawler Range Yolcanics to the north where they occur jy strata of early Cretaceous age (Wopfner 1969, p. 152). However this is speculation. There is no uneguivocal cvidence that the Corrobinale De- pression is tectonic. If it Were initiated as a graben or tault-angle depression then the tec- tonic outlines of the feature have long since heen blurred and obscured by Weathering, erosian and deposition. An alternative possibility is that the Corro- binnie Depression is not primarily tectonic but is of structural origin sense sireio\ ie, it has tvalved through the exploitation of a major fracture zone by agtats of weathering and/or érosion. If this were so then Iwo miujor ques- tions arise: What agents aze Yresponsible for the development of the Depression? This prob- lem in turn necessitates a consideration of the age of the feature, 2. Why has the fracture zone to which the Corrobinnie Depression owes its otigin been exploited ro a much greater extent than the others which evidently are present in the region? Formation und age of the feature. Though the faulting to which the Cormbinnic Depression is related is probably of great antiquity, this provides no real measute of the age of the feature under investigation. The only evidence relevant to this question cetives From a bore located some 12-13 km west of Balumbgh und logged by R,. G. Shepherd (S.A. Geol. Survey, Report Buok 67/113, Bore 6-0), Hundred of Panitya). This bore is Jocated at the margin of the Corrobinnie Depression, bot it is typical of the Depression us indicated by a comparison with Bore 20-1 (Hundred of Carqlye) lovated some 2 km to the SSW. The latter ran through less than 6 m of sand hefore penetrating the gneiss basement, whereas 6-01 penetrated some 50 m of sediment before reaching the weathered granitic bedrock. The upper two thirds of the sedimentury fill con- sisted of sand, gravel and clay assigned to the Pleistocene arid Recent, but within the lower third, which also consisted of gravel. saud and silt, was a lignitic horizon which ts compared with known Lower Tertiary lignites at Kopi (Fig. 1) and other shallow basins on Eyre Peninsula, It is cmphasized that this is extra- polation and is not based on un examinution of the contained organic materials, of which, unfortunately, none were preserved (W. K. Hareis, pers, comm.). Bat if this interpretation ig correct, then clearly the Corrobinnie Depres- sion was already in existence as 4 topographic feature by the Eocene, \44 If the Depression were essentially inizisted during the laler Mesozoic of the earliest Ter- tiary, then it is im relation la the climates and conditions of these times that its mode of for- mation should be sought, Apart from dreikunter found in the present Lake Eyre region in strata of Upper Jurassic age (Wopfner 1969, p. 147). there is no evidence and no argument from general considerations (Brown, Campbell & Crock 1968, p. 245 ef seq.; Wellman, McElhinny & McDougall 196%, Embleton 1973) pointing to deserlic condi- tions in or in the vicinity of northern Eyre Peninstila at any tine from the later Mesuzoic until the Tale Pleistacene, ‘Vhough aeolian action is responsible for moulding much of the present surfice of the Depression, it is difficult lu substantiate aby argument which attributes the erosion of the feature to wind action, Two agents of degradation that warrant serious consideration are rivers and weather- ing. It nwy be argued that the fracture zone has heen preferentially weathered because the faults allowed ready penetration nf ground- Water Which aliered the cock with which it cate into contact within and adjacent ta the fracture zane, This weathering niwy have con- Iributed to che formation of a tepographic depression either by permitting ready stecam erasion, ol by causing volume reduction of the bedrack and consequent lowering of the land surface. If sireums hud Nowed in ated caused the lowering of the floor of the Depression. there should in theary he seme evidence of an outlet through which water and sediment were evacu- ated. No such outlets have heen located though litte inforihation is available concern- ing the morphology of the hedrock Pio. 9, Shallow depressions or moata at base of granite residual north of Wudirma. ¢C. R- Twitale.) Fig. 10. Coerobinnie Hill stands sume 15 m above a pitted grunite plarform (foreeround) pmd is sur- mounted bY a prominent tower, also of granite, (C, R, Twidole) THF CORROBINNIE DEPRESSION JENNIFER A. BOURNE, C. R. TWIDALE AND DIANNE M. SMITH sitesi STRUCTURAL LINEAMENTS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY J. B. FIRMAN* Summary FIRMAN, J. B. (1974) .-Structural Lineaments in South Australia. Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 98(3), 153-171, 31 August, 1974. Particular linear features can be seen on photo-mosaics at a scale of about 1:63.360. Some sets are better developed in one natural morpholithological subdivision than another. Sets trending approximately NW, NNW, NNE and NE are more common than sets trending WNW and ENE. The features have been compared with geological and geophysical patterns and trends. There is reasonable agreement between patterns and trends of the linear features and of geological features on maps at scales as small as about 1: 1,000,000, and quite good agreement between linear features and geological and geophysical features at scales of 1:250,000 and 1:63,360. The comparison of maps of linear features with geological and geophysical maps shows sufficient correspondence of patterns and trends to confirm that particular linear features on photographs are structural features. The persistence of these features as straight lines through different landscapes suggests that they are planar structures with a vertical dip. For these reasons the features have been named structural lineaments. Their development appears to be associated with major tectonic events such as warping of the basins and uplifting of the ranges, and it is suggested that they reflect profound structures and tectonic elements in the crystalline basement. Structural lineaments appear to post-date very young deposits, and to be cross-cutting with respect to Palaeozoic and older fold trends. They also outline basin margins and the structural boundaries of crystalline basement and, in these situations, may be rejuvenated structures as old as the time of formation of the basins and the time of origin of the welded blocks themselves. Because the youngest structural lineaments are parallel to old structural features marking the margins of ancient blocks, it appears that there has been no major disorientation within the study area of even the oldest structural units. STRUCTURAL LINEAMENTS IN SOU'LIL AUSTRALIA by J. B. Firnman* Summary Pmean, J. B, (1974)—Structural Lineaments in South Australia. Trans. &. Soc. S. Atest, 98 (3), 153-171, 31 August, 1974, Particular linear features can be seen on photo-mosaics at a scale of about 1:63,240. Some sets are better developed in one natural morpholithological subdivision than unother. Sets trending approximately NW, NNW, NNE and NE are more common than sets trending WNW and ENE. The features have been compared with geological and geophysical patterns and trends. There is reasonable agreement between patterns and trends of the linear features and of geological features on maps at scales as small as about 1;1,000,000, and quite good agreement between linear features and geofogical and geophysical features at scales of 1:250,000 and 1;63,360. The comparison of maps of linear features with geological and geophysical maps shows sufficient correspondence of patterns. and irends to confirm that particular linear features on Photographs are structural features. The persistence of ihese features as straight lines through different landscapes suggests that ihey are planar structures with » vertical dip, For these feasons the features have been. named s¢rijetural lineaments. Their development appears to be associated with major tectonic events such as warping of the basins and uplifting of the ranges, and it is suggested that they reflecl profound structures and tectonic elements in the crystalline basement. Structural lineaments appear to post-date very young deposits, and to be cross-cutting with respect to Palaeozoic and older fold trends. They also outline basin margins and the structural boundaries of crystalline basement and, in these situations, may be rejuvenated structures as old as the time of farmution of the basins and the time of origin of the welded blocks themselves, Because the youngest structural lineaments are parallel to old structural features marking the margins of ancient blocks, it appears that there has been no major disorientation within the study area of even the oldest structural units. Introduction Extensive patierns of rectilinear fractures— including joints and major faults—were first Observed by the author during field-work for the Bureau of Mineral Resources in the Dar- win-Katherine, Georgetown-Einasleigh, Calvert Hills-Robinson River, and Port Headland- Ripon Hills areas in Northern Australia during the 1950's. The regional extent of these lineat features became apparent when the author compiled early versions of portions of the 1960 Tectonic Map of Australia, including Western Australia, the Northern Territory arid parts o£ Northern Queensland. Later phato- interpretation of areas in the Northern. Terri- tory between the MacDonnell Ranges and the Victoria River Basin revealed similar recti- linear patterns, in this case in sparsely vege- tated and soil covered aveus. The recognition of similar features in soil covered areas in the Murray Basin of South Australia from low-flying aircraft and on photo mosaics led to a study of these features in 1966 (Firman 1970). The work was con- tinued in later years when student geologists from the University of Adelaide and other geologists from the Geolovical Survey of South Australia assisted the author to identify and plot the lineaments on available 1;63,360 photo-mosaics for the rest of the State. In 1972, 4 different method was used to compile a map of lineaments in the Great Artesian Basin on the easiern margin of the State, In 1973, compilation was contiaued using other motheds for lineaments in an area including * Geolosical Survey, S.A. Department of Mines, Adelaide. S. Aust. 5000, 154 the eastern Eucla Basin and the western mar- gin of the Gawler Block (see Fig. 1). The paper begins with a brief description of the lineaments, discusses different methods used to compile maps of the lineaments, and concludes with a comparison of the lineaments with geological and geophysical features. Structural Lineaments For reasons set down in Firman (1970) and fuborated later in this paper, the particular MAJOR TECTONIC UNITS OF CAMBRIAN AND PRECAMBRIAN AGE MAO) EROLOIG SUSTALLINE BASE HENT PROTEAN ZO COVER ROCKS ie 3B Seuare Sael= ayer Mulgrave Block S OVoriam Bayemny ae Gakwler Blozk> Gawler Range Vetere; and akpored-larian Bayemene _ Bodhiat Geelaneiiag CARSRIAN Keywiantsu Trougy ane Hipa WHipid BIBL Delameran Bsjenieni Precambrian crystalline bosemenr uideriees oes, = LS a a KILDMETNES {00 WOOT RO ihe re tebe 42-2 Del) Loe TRE ITOR® J. B, FIRMAN features appearing on photo-mosaics and described in lhe introduction as "linear features” have been culled “structural Jinea- ments”. ‘The Jinear features appear as local features on individual mosaics, but these can be traced through other mosaics for great dis- tances, or can be seen to be parallel to other similar features having regional extent. There can be, therefore, no simple classificatian into separate “Jinears” of local extent and “linea- ments” of regional extent as defined by Dennis = 7 _ SLU ERSSL AND w | ho es py ee ed —. es Chie Hhavelerateenie Bo brash J KILOMETRES 12 Farming 11972) Fig. Lt. Locality Map, Morpholithological subdivisions in South Australia. STRUCTURAL LINEAMENTS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA [ss (1967), Although same local features are obviottsly joints, there are also local features known to be faults, sa there ts no simple classification possible into local “lincars”™ which are joints and regional “linewments” which are faults. Huntington (1973)? uses “fracture trace” to describe the kind of feature described herein. Unfortunately, some of the topographic and other features included in his definition have been specifically excluded from the defini- Gon Of structural lineaments because they are wat the particular features recognised on photo- mosuics in this study. For these reasons, the names “linear” and “fracture trace’ have not been used, “Structural lineament” jas used herein refers to straight linéar features, The features mark structures which are mainly, but not exclu- sively, fractures (faults and joints). They have both local and regional expression. The struc- tural lineaments described hercin occur as par- ticular features on photo-mosiics, al a scale of about 1:63,360. On photo-mosaics of larger scale and smaller area—or on individual air photos—the hneuments cunnot be seen so easily. There is no doubt thut structural linea- ments also have expression on other imagery. Lineaments are real for the following reasons: They cun be seen in the zone of overlap of individual air photos taken at dif- ferent times from different places, and they are also traceable across adjoining runs in each 1:63.360 photo-moszic (where at least four different air photos gre involved) and from one phote-musiic to pnother, Lincaments can be seen from low-flying aircraft, and they have been. checked in this way between Adelaide and Coober Pedy, Adelaide und Port Augusta aand Adelaide and Renmark. There appears to be no unique reason con- nected with rock type or topography to explain why lineaments should be so clearly visible, The. lineaments are equally well defined in ter- rain developed on crystalline basement—Wwhere they are parallel to jointing in outcropping rock—and on terrain developed on fiat-lying sediments. In folded sedimentary sequences, most of the third order landforms reflecting fold structures appear to have no relationship at ull to the lineaments which cut across them. In faulted arcas, some lineaments lie along or closely parallel to fault-line scarps where struc- tural control of landform is clear. Other linea- ments in these areas appear to have na rela- tionship to third order landform wt all. It is suggested that the lineaments are the result of jointing and faulting, and that they can be seen and photographed even in soil-covered areas Of no obvious topographic conitrust because vegetulion changes occur along them, probably duc to moisture variation within the zone penctrated by the roots of growing plants, A ground check of structural lineaments has been made at various places in the Murray Basin fsee Figs. 9 and 10 for locations). Examination of terrain along the Morgan Fault, Marmon Jabuk Fault and Kanawinka Fault {Lincament), which are all marked by ‘Huntington, J. F. (1973).—Fracture Anulysis. Jn “Photo-Interpretution for exploration and survey geologists". Australian Mineral Foundation [Tnc.). Study Course (unpubl.). MORPHO-LITHOLOGICAL SUBDIVISIONS Wealero Aanins 1 ODPFICER BASIN PROVINCE Western Shield 2 GAIRDNER PRO. VINCE Coke Galrdner aves Central Busius It] TORRENS BASIN ¥ROVINCE Hightand Chain Eastern Basins |, MUSGRAVE It GREAT ARTESTAN RANGES PROVINCE BASIN PROVINCE Peake ancl GBenisen Ranges 3, CENTRAL KANGES PROVINCE Minders Ranees OMlary “Ranaes'” Vv_“FROME EMBAY- MENT PROVINCE Yl SPENCER RASIN PROVINCE VY EUCLA RASIN PROVINCE Eyre Peninsula VII ST: VINCENT Mr. VU MURRAY BASIN Lofty Kanges PROVINCE BASIN PROVINCE Kanenron Istand 6. to 1X Padthoway Ride IX OTWAY BASIN PROVINCE INFRADASINS A Pédirks Usdin RB Arckazinga Basin © Laks Piling D Boorthenny Trough E Copper Basin Tiouely 154 stinictural Ilfeaments, shows the ustul features stiguesting fuulling. These include fault-line scarps and linear third arder landforms parallel to (he structure (and the structural linea- micnts), ahd juxtaposition of different naterials st the surface or tn bores. Sprigg (1952, pp. 32-38) records delaniitization of small faults and jaints marked by secondary catcium car- bonate which appear to mutch regional struc- turul trends im the south-east of South Aus- tralia. No separate unique feature appears to mirk ihe lineaments. Elsewhere, for example at some places in the Murray River cliffs, weak fracturing is the only structure matching struc- tural lineaments, Neither lineuments markine the Encounter Fault Zone nor those marking the Hamley Fault have surface expression in busin sediments. although a tmonocline aficct- ing the Morgan Limestone is exposed in river cliffs neat where the matching structural ligea- ment intersects the Murtay River The absence of strong individual fractitres in basin scda- ments shark! not be taken to mean thal dis- placement doves not occur, because strony wurping may result From small movyeruents on close-spaced piirallel fractures- The recognition of structural lineaments on photo-mosaics is made easier if the observer fakes an oblique view of the mosaic in bright natural light. The position of the photo-mosale should he changed sa as to ensure thit wll possible directions are covered. The more tiffuse Jineamenty are easier to ste when a number of mosaics are malched together. The recognition. of Lineaments 3s also controlled to some extent by the quality of the mosaics: Some of the mosiics used in this study ire so poor photographically and photo edges are so dominant. that i is extremely difficult to locate any linear features ar ol]. Alignment of photo corners trimmed at 45° interferes with lincamene trends to some extent, but this is a minor matter compared to the interference of the EW und NS trending photo edges. These trends ate so strong, particularly whee com- bined with processing marks in the same direc- lion, That possible meridional (NS) ana. Jati- tudinal (EW) lineaments aver large areas could well be obscured. The most prominent characternstic of struc- tural dincaments is their persistence over great distances through different landscapes. Many uf the prominent lineaments shown on Fie. 7 are between 100 and 300 km in Jength, and some exceed 400 km including Lingaments be- longing to high frequency sets One of the J.B FIRMAN longest lineaments of Figs. 7 und § is thal trending NE Fromm the NE shore of L. Gairdner actasé the Arcoona Platea\y, | Terrens, the Northern Flinders Ranges and Willouran Ranges to near the NW shore of L,, Blanche midway hetween L. Eyre and L. Frome. This prominenc lineament matches geological boun- daries on maps at a scale of 12250,000 in the SW and trends am the Ste Bouguer Gravity Map in the NE. The presence of through- going lineyments of this kind in particular sets of lineaments Js evidence that the lineaments are indeed siruciurul features, The structural lineaments do not necessarily reflect either simple lincar lopoyraphic features or complex alignments of topographic features, although in many cases they parallel such features and in some cases an: prohahty genetically related. Throughout this work only particular lineaments with the chatuctevistics weady described have been recorded, Other su'uctures prominently tisplayed on phota- mosaics by obvious topographic features- -but not by structural linewments—have been deliberately omitted feom the study. ‘The struc- ures omilled include the Eden Fault near Adelaide, smal! meridional structures marked by low scurps an northern Eyre Peninsula (Miles 1952) snd the structure underlying the Oolden Sand Range on the northern margin of the Eucla Basin (alibough there are a number of closely parallel lineaments in the Lest casey. The persistence of the lineaments as straigh! lines through different lntidscapes suggests Lhut they are traces of planar structures with @ ver- tical dip, Truces of such structura) features on different mans—if followed far cnowgh—rmust eventually reflect Ihe map projection used. but no systematic variation from a straight fine ts apparent on the maps produced in this stwly- The siraightness of the lineaments ts of prac- tical value for purposes of compilation, Where a suspected structuri) lineyment occurs within or alongside obviously parallel topographic frutures, the stispected lingament can be truced through a series of mosaics to the point where —if it is a structural Hneament—the topo- eraphic trends diverge and the lineament con- linues on in the original direction. Now all situations may be so simply resolved. Slightly curved lineaments have been developed in the NW and § portions of a map of the Murray Basi) in South Australia (Firman 1970, p- 2). In the NW these fineaments probably refiect bedding trends in folded Cambrian Kanmantoo Group metusediments beneath w thm veneer STRUCTURAL LINEAMENTS IN SOU'TH AUSTRALIA 157 Of basin sediments. In the south they represent Suranded shoretine or linear dune Features, Both may be straight line features in part. An important point is that it is onty when the lineaments are compiled on a number af photo- Mosaics that long-distance trends can be appreciated. The general trend of the lineaments is NE and NW, but there arc several serfs, and rhese intersect to form rectangular and rhomboid blocks. The presence of structures with these trends has long beet proposed as a result of studies of lopographic patterns (Umbarove 1947, pp, 294-296; Hills 1956). The presence of similar but less obvious strictures with meridional (NS) and latitudinal (EW) trends has also been proposed from studies of tepo- giaphic patlerns, but these were not thought to be us important as the others by eastier investigniors, In this study, meridional (NS) lineaments have been drawn on « few photo- mosaics showing parts of the Musgrave Block, and the Flinders Ranges, F.atitudinal (EW) lingamentis have been drawn on. individual photo-mosaies of the Officer Basin. the area hear Cook in the Euela Basin, the grea pear lake Gairdner on the Gawler Block, and ureas near Innamincka in the Great Artesian Basin and on the southern margin of the Wiliyama Block. Neither the meridional (NS) nor the latitudinal (EW) lineaments have been continuous enough to retain on the generalised maps accompanying this report, One reason could he that the lineaments are not con. tinuous, but it is more likely that their omis- sion is connected with certain features of the mosuics themselves, as already noted. Methods of Compilation Various methods of compilation were used as the study proceeded, These are now des- cribed in the original order of their develop- ment. Areas involved are shown on the study area diagram (Pig. 2). Marrav Buxin During the prepyration of a structural linea- meént mup of the Murray Basin it South Aus- tralia (Firman t970), photo-mosaics at 1:63.360 scale Were taken st random from the set of 12 covering each 1:250,000 map sheer Lincamenty were drawn and those which con- tiqued across at least two of the b:63,360 scale photo-mnsaics were then transferred ta n base map. Some spparent off-setting appeared at mtup borders where ane lingament in set of parallel lIneaments was selected Tuther than another. This produced a pseudo ea echelon efcet which was eliminated by tracing one strung and continuous lidieament Unrouzhoul and abatidoniig the others, There were, bowever, zones comprised of parallel close-spaced linea- ments which were well defined and continuous. An attempt was made in this case to map more than one lingament so as to portray the zone, Pigure 3 results from this method. Prelindaary Stateovide Study The coincidence of regional trends and of specific lineamenis with faults and with other trends on aeromagnetic maps in the Murray Busin study was sufficiently cncouragiis to extend the work to the rest of the State. The size of such a projeci—the whole State is covered by about 280 one-mile meosates, mclud- ing about 79 in the Murray Basin—led to the division OF that part of the State outside the Murray Basin into five wreas on cach of which lineaments were mapped by about eight in- dividuals. «A total of 192 man-hours was required Io complete the task, Individuals new to this work were shown structural lineaments on a mosaie selected at random und they then delineated the lines- ments on other mosaics selected at random from those within the zone. The result was a (iscontinupus pattern of lineaments huving stmilar trends, but with major interruptions along the mosaic howndarics, Reexamination of the mosaics showed « number of reasons for the discontinuily. Some individuals found the recognition of lineaments very difficult and they developed a pattern purallel to the linear trends of obvious topographic features, The trends identified in this way were either dis- conlinuvus ar not exactly aligned with trends of structural lineantents on adjoining mosaics. These dilferences sufficed to climmate the non- aligned topographic linenments during Jater generalisation, The majority of individuals conld sec the structural limejments, In this case, the number of lineaments mapped depended upon the observers confidence, Some observers. the mure confident, having identi- fied w lineament proceeded to delineate all the parallel lineaments in that set appearing on the mosaic, Others, the less confident or more cautions, delineated only the strongest ane more obvious lineaments. An example of this phase of the work is shown on Fig. 4. Although the pattern of Hpeaments on each musiic was itself useful, the overall discan- linuity of the State-wide pattern was a proh- 158 J, B, FIRMAN NORTHERN TERRITORY a = Ss NSLAND QUE: } thd HAW Vy WEW SOUTH WALES G, ih Ke Fort Auuisto | Pant Lineeln WILOMETRES FiG.9 | 73-878 bel se Fig. 2. Study area diagram. lem. This was overcome by a simple generalisa- Murray Basin north to the Great Artesian tion as later described. Basin along the eastern houndary of the State. ; . The compilation began in the south in a zone Great Artesian Basin of overlap one photo-mosaic across from north A deliberate attempt was made to map all to south, and lineaments were then followed the lineaments appearing on the photo-mosaics {o the north through successive mosaics. Dur- continuously across adjacent photo-mosaic ing this phase of the work, each mosaic was boundaries in an area extending from the checked in an altempt to locate prominent STRUCTURAL LINEAMENTS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA MARGIN OF MURRAY BASIN } be i PINNAROO ‘sx: LAN ~f ian Sy Kangaores 2" Island ~ N a ROSE DIAGRAM Fram Y3°SN bo S848 REFERENCE J %, Lineament.__ . : Ne” Nar “ Bedding trend Mapped fault. | _— Geological boundary —~ -——~ KILOMETRES J Firman Fig. 3. Murray Basin—Structural lineaments. acoorte a \ 4 Bordertown th \ 4\ \ VICTORIA J. B. FIRMAN TOTAL STATE LINEAMENTS KILOMETRES 25 50 75 100 400 290 0 2706 400 600 ROSE DIAGRAM 73—426 = Dal.WJI.E. J.8 Firman $.4 Dept. of Mines Fig. 4. State-wide study—Structural lineaments from photo-mosaics. SCRUCTURAL LINEAMENTS IN SOUTH PANDIE PANDIE CORDILLO INNAMINGRA = 5S aw — G cI = - - nm GALLABONGA . Z, ' es Wogey e = STRUCTURAL LINEAMENTS STRUCTURA RANDOM MAPPING LOCALITY MAP Pethians ot PRIS |asentense woteh ws ttruchial |nouments Fofhons gl ERIE lirsampety werolel op srcwral | noaments Fig. 5, Great Artesian Basin. Comparison of ERTS lineaments and structural L LINEAMENTS CONTINUGUS MAPPING we ERIS Lacomants Harvey fume trewds KG Cr oathechuinl inetmency AUSTRALIA 161 CORGILLO INHAMINCKA STRZELECKI CALLABONNA a —¥ ERTS. LINEAMENTS ERTS licens nor watch tae i steun Kigl le oanerns KILOMETRES, HW «640 er Ab Desk zl Mines lineaments (right and centre). Areas drawn by different methods and integrated on Figure 7 (left aid centre). lineaments not appearing on mosaics previously examined to the south. Such lineaments were then mapped along with the others. The attempt to trace lincaments continuously removed the artificial break produced along the EW trending margins of one-mile mosaics, but did not entirely remove the artificial break along the NS trending margins. This was muinly due to the difficulty of recognising con- tinuation of lineaments intersecting the shorter NS trending side of the mosaic at a small angle. The problem was resolved for the Eucla Basin (later described), Although the method was successful, in that a relatively uninterrupted pattern of lineaments was pro- duced, it had the disadvantage common to all methods using only one observer, That is, some lineaments not forming part of the dominant pattern recognised in the region were overlooked. The contrast between the pattern of linca- mehts derived by this method and that derived by the earlier method involving random selec- tion of mosaics and delineation of Jineaments by a number of observers is shown on Fig: 5. The procedure tor generalising structural 142 lincaments—Inter described—suceessfully Te- moves the contrast. The actual integration of jhe two rather different patterns is shown by 4 comparison of lineaments un the strip maps of Fig, 5 along longitude 139°30" with the lineaments For the same unsa shown on Fig. 7 Because all the lineaments were drawn and then the number zeduced systematically with reduction in seule, the spacing of the linca- ments on the map prepared by the author is meaningful, Becwuse the liicalnents on this map integrate with the lineaments on the rather diferent map prepared by students on adjwin- ing areas, the spacing of lineaments on the students nip ts also meavingful at a scale ol 1:5.000.000. A comparison of the lengths of prominent lineaments with the lengths of matching structures {see later) suggests that the lengths of the lineaments derived hy this generalisation are also meanimylul. A check has been made om an aren in the NE of the State where a large number of linea- mans have been drawn independently on ERTS imagery by Devine? ant on photo- niasaics by the author (Fig. 3). The correspon- dence of some lineaments is su close that they uppear to be the same features on the ground ideniiied hy the two different methods. Many of the lineaments are noi related and i) seems thal they may represent quite different Features on the ground, Although different patterns of lineaments have been delineated by different observers using ERTS imagery, this is not the reason for the difference between the linea- iments drawn by Devine and the author. Per- haps some kinds of lincuments can only be identified om photo maps of large areas such as those compilcu from ERTS imagery. Again. different methods und different altitudes of cumetas und scanners may reveal different features. Other important Teferences relating to lhe study of ERTS jmwgery in South Ausirslia are given in Thomson (1974)*4 Eucla Basti A large area ineluding ihe castern Eucla Basin and the western margin of the Gawler Hlnck had not previously been studied hecause phote-mosaics were not available. In this area. 5 B, PIRMAN lineaments were identified on two blocks at adjoining photo-mosaics with an irregular east- west houndary close to 31°S latitude. The Mosaics in each block were arranged for best fit at cde centres, Despite some obvious off- setting duc to lack of control on each mosaic the jireaments could be traced through adjoin- ing photo-masaics without interruption. This method had the advantage that the more prominent and continuguy lingaments coulkl be readily identified. Furthermore, com- pilylion time was markedly reduced. Apart from the disadvantages which arise when only one observer does the work, such as omission ef some less obvious linvaments, there was (nother unusual result. Because some of the liieaments were more prominent in each block an exuggerated zone of discontinuity was developed between the blocks, This was re- moved hy checking to see if lineaments developed on one block did in Fact continue on the other. This revealed that the differences had been exaggerated ond that this could be corrected by continuing the less obvious trends from one Block of photo-mosuics to the other. Fig. 6 shows the pattern of lincaments resulting from the use of this method. The excreise does show the need for check- ing so that only real differences in the pattern af lincaments are recorded, The presence of regional differences in the pattern of lineaments is important and is mentioned below, In buill-up reas, structural linaaments are obscured and may be difficult to separate from engineering structures with Jinear trends. Th these arcas. the methods of laying down a large number of photo-masuyics has obvious aclvan- tages. The most Important is that structural lincatnents cum be identified outside the buill- up area and then traced through it, The method has alsa been proved useful on coastal Margins, particularly where a confused paltern of yoitueer seolian and transitional depasils occurs together with the structural lincaments. Gerrralivation @) Structural Lineaments The patterns of lincaments drawn for local areas were added to the State lineament map compiled by the author and others at a scale of 131,000,000, Lineaments for small areas previously omilled for a wamely of reasons 2 Devine, S. B. 11973)—Studies in small-scale geological mapping, South Australia (Corridor +; Cooper Basin). FRTS-| Type II Report. July [972 to January 1973. Dept. Mines S.A. Report 73/67 {unpubl.}, $"Phomson, B, FP, (1974),—ERTS-1 Imagery and small-scale mapping studies in South Australia. Final Repart, Dept. Mines S.A. NASA final report (Type ily. DM [097/72 (unpubl, ) 163 SFRUCTURAL LINEAMENTS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA ‘\ MAURICE NY BIGHT GREAT AUSTRALIAN 4 G ROSE DIAGRAM KILOMETRES of Mines S.A. Dep) J B-Farmon 73-598 Del CES Fig, 6. Eucla Basin—Structural lineaments. \64 were also added al this stage. The largest of these was a N& inending strip of photo-musnics on the Western margin of the Great Aricsian Basin, incliding Irwin, Ungoolatanna, Granite Powns, Yoolpertunna, Marla, Ouldburra and Manya. The method wsed fur this area was that of continuous mapping as developed in the Great Artesian Basin, The procedure for generalising structural lineaments was as follows. The 1;1,000,.000 scile compilation was first Teduced = ta 1:2,500,000 and work was begun on those parts of this map drawn from the preliminary State map. That is, (he parts showing greatest discontinuity across photo-mosaic boundaries. The continuation of aligned but disconnected lincumients could best be seen within “ree|yngu- lar” areas of about 2° on the side. No attempt Was made to connect lincaments thal were not jligned at thé original scale of 1:1,000,00, thal te Were further apart than 0.5 km when the lineaments were projected. Thterpolation hetween aligned lineaments was curred oul within each rectangle wherever the distance apart was nO greater than the sutn of the lengins of the aligned lincarents, This restric- tion was necessary to avoid interpolation across areas where it was likely that the linea- ments did not in fact occur, Al thes punt ia the procedure, lineaments developed on the [nela Basin, Great Artesian Basin und Murray Busin compilations by other methous could he integrated because some were aligned and continued across the boun- tlanes of the different map areas, and because others were of abont the same length and spac- ing, The map wis then reduced to 1:5,000,000 and the more prominent lineaments were iden- lifed and marked, ingluding those in local areus delineated originally by a variety of methads. “This pattern of lineaments is shown on Fig. 7 ‘The reality of the prominent Hueanents us to trend. length and spacing throughout the State Ucrives from the original attempt by the author 10 trace all visible ineaments in certztin areas throughout their length, and depends upon the methes! uf generalisation used. and upon the jotegration of the prominent lnea- ments so defined with lineaments ofiginally mapped it a random way by a number of ulher observers. A comparison of prominent lineaments and known faults shown on geo- logical maps at the same scale shows that the Prominent lineaments are of ~abour the same length as the major faults. At this sesle J. B. FIRMAN (172,500,000) the major faults have been traced to their natural liniits, Lincaments of preater length could he drawn by continuing the generalisation step by step with reduction in scale. WW is probable that lincaments so drawn would no Jonver ork simple faults but would mark more complicated tectonic: features of another order. The venerylisajion of structural lineaments and selection of the more continuous leads to the omission of some discontinuous but pro- mincnt lineaments which are possibly of con- siderable local importance. These, however, are Tecerded on the original mosaics at a useful scale of 1:63,360. Ii contrast to more general methods, those used herem make the closer investigation of interesting local areas ut o larger scale q rélatively simple matter Discussion of structural lineaments through- out the State can be simplified if the sets are assumed to belong to conjugate systems of intersecting lineaments with an inferred meridional axis, as suggested by inspection of Fig. 7, Described in this way, the lineaments atc grouped into a system with a large merigionyl component in which sets trend approximately NNW and NNE, a system with sels Lrending upproximately NW and NE, and a system with a large latitudinal com- ponent in which sets trend approximately WNW und ENE. The system with a large latitudinal component contains few lineaments and is therefore not as obvious os the other syslemns. The set of lineaments in the svstem with 1 large meridional component which trends approximately NNW is prominent in the southern Eucla Basin, south-east Cireut Amesiat Basin and Murray Basin, The set of linea- ments in this system Which trends approxi- mately NNE is prominent in part at least of ull the Provinces. Neither the NNW nor the NNE trending sets of lineaments are prominent in the Musgrave and Gawler Blocks, In the system with sels of lineaments trending approcmatcly NW and NE. the Jineaments of hoth sets mre prominent throughout the State. In the system with a large latitactinal camponent, the set of Imeaments trending wpproximately WNW is prominent in the west of the State, purticularly in the Officer and Eucla Basins, but ig not sa prominent in the easlern basins. The set of ilneaments in this system which trends BNE occurs in all blocks and. basins throughoot the State, and is well developed in the Eucla Basin. STRUCTURAL LINEAMENTS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 165 NORTHERY = a ”. Ne » | & eS oP, SPs NN OPS x “< anes . as i % Godr, ta a Sy * “ ts re poate. Mole Gridh tép-esent: 1 250.000 sheet oneos RILOOMETPES 73-539 bel cee JB Fine L/ h | (Por! Lineal BA Depuslinusl
i) w ;= us = 7% Sf 1 Penn } BLOGK 4, sollént features ony Por deluits, see the Teclonic Mep of Auatia ic and Mew Grinea te? | KILOMETRES 500 4 SS el bee Sh Dew ol Moves Fig. 8. Structural lineaments matching geological und geophysical patterns and trends, lioned, oly the Bouguer gravity map with complete Siate coverage has been used to cam- pile the appropriate lineaments on Fig. 8. The Bouguer gravity map docs show similar trends, but selection of coincident features is not easy because a number of contour lines are shown rather than single features, which on checking can be shown to be either cainci- dent or not coin¢gident with a particular linea- ment. There are two kinds of geophysical features on the gravity plan parallel to linea- ments. These are gravity contour shapes which 168 J, B. FIRMAN KILOMETRES you }OXTON BASIN Mesownic sediments Dijedtian of ice wovement Pera Sentinels DELAMERIAN GRANITE Bediack outcrops. Including Fo aeozolc granite (diagrammatic) Centedes ef eeorent thickress of Cambrian yes ae the le of fést below bese BRUNA A FORMATION _ | Fe 507 B Firmen SA Cust) of Mies \ % 2 oy Say jBardenlown ‘ " Cembian sedinems of the KANMASTOQ TROUGH Cambriag Shell Zone Prelerozere sediments of the ADE AIDE GIOSYNG LINE Precambrian STUART SHELF. Norther linn) of Cretoceous sediments in the Gambier Emboyment — — apap pepe Foul — lineament. —., MURRAY BASIN Tertary prargin Cartaurs oh tie Tertiary too Dapths beraw sea—leve! in feel, Stbmorine form | res ar fathers 2 0 se Fig. 9, Murray Basin. Development of the western margin and geology of the Tertiary floor. STRUCTURAL LINEAMENTS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA RECENT Aeolion gypsum sond Coengmbidgal Fm. eos Molingoux Sand Bunyip Sand .__, . Lineoment —~_ __ 73—544 Del. WIE. we | i oe d Fe ieee ~ RINNAROO BLOCK ~~ KILOMETRES 20 3002S AO LEGEND PLEISTOCENE Gre Loveday Soil Woorinen Fm. Bokata Soil Blanchetown Clay __ LA TERTIARY ad sso Undifferentiated $ Aeromagnetic trend lines Form fine—Loxton Basin Contour of Tertiary Floor Depth below sea ps level in feet-~ I.B.Firman 5.A, Dépt. al Mines Fig. 10. Tectonic sketch on RENMARK shect S1/54-10. 1G (70 in detail fit fairly closely io shapes formed by intersecting lineaments—this fit may be rather more apparent than real, because selection of another contour interval could produce it rather poor fit—and major trends on the atavity map which parallel major trends on the map of structural lineaments. In some places small closed features on the gravity map are marked by the intersection of several linea- ments or are framed by a pattern of lincuments around the periphery of the feature, On the 121,000,000 geophysical map show- ing contours of magnetic intensily and inter- preted depths to mignetic basement, the fit of structural lineainents with geophysical features is nor good, The trend of structural lincaments cuincides best of all with the trend of contours showing depths to magnetic basement: There is a very poor fit of the trends of structural lincaments and trends of contours of total marmetic inleasily, except where the Irends at contours of depths to magnetic busemeot and af contours of total magnetic intensity are in a similar direction. Only a few of the structural lincaments are coincident with inferred base- ment! faults shown on the geophysical map, Aeromagnetic maps at a scale of 1263.360 were used to compile trends of geromuynetic features in the Murray Basin. Structural linea- ments Were in very good agreement with yero- mughetic trends on this map {Firman 1970, p. 2), The comparison of maps af structural linca- ments with other geological and geophysical maps shows sufficient correspondence of pat- terns and trevids to confirm the earlier con- clusion from the Murray Basin study that the linear features on photo-mosaics are jctitully structural features. Muny of the lincaments mark structures associated with warping of the basins and uplifting of the ranges. and refiect profound structures and tectonic elements in the crystalline basement. An incidental observation resulting from this study is that the sélection of more important atroctural lineaments. cun best he made by comparison with olher geological and yea- physical features associated with the linca- ments, Firman (1972, RENMARK sheet) and Fig, 9. und the tectonic sketch in Firman (1972) together with Fig, 10, provide examples J. B. FIRMAN ‘Time of Origin of Structural Lineaments in general, structural lineaments appear to post-date very young deposits. This is. con- clusion based upon their presence in arcus mantled by surficial deposits thick enough fo bury the older rocks. Some of the lineaments serve to outline the margins of Busing con- taining relatively flat-lying Cainozoic, Meso- zole und Palaeozoic rocks and these lineaments could mark much older rejuvenated structures as ald us the first deformation of the original basins, In regions of strangly folded Palaeozoic and older rocks, the lineaments are cross-cutting with respect to majer fold (rends and obviously post-date them. However, mujar structural boundaries between the fold belts and adjoin- ing blocks of crystalline hasement are also miucked by structural lineaments, The implicu- tion i8 that the lineaments mark much older structures, some of which must immediately posi-date the welding of ancient sedimentary unl metamorphic components te form the blocks themselves. Because both the oklest structures delimeal- ing basement blocks and the youngest Jinea- ments form part of the same through-going and nhiquitous sets of structural lineaments, it appears that there has been no major dis- orientation within the study area of even the oldest structures. Acknowledgements This report is published with the approvul of the Director, $A, Department of Mines. A number of student and graduate geologists assisted! the writer in the compilation ot the preliminary State-wide study, including R, F Boomsma. R. Coumb, BE. H. Briese, G. Griffin, S$. Lyon and N, ©. Walker. Thinks are duc to Mr. B. P. Thomson and Dr. B. G. Forbes for helpful discussion during Phelo-interpretation of the lineaments. Lineament trends were measured hy M. Cal- well und Bo Savage of the computing group in the Exploration Geophysics Section, and rose diagrams were prepared by $. Cummings and W. Jeffery of Cartographic Compilation Section. The ilfustrations accompanying this paper were prepared by the Illustrating and Display Section under the supervision of B. F. Frost. STRUCTURAL LINEAMENTS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 17i References B.M.R. (1960).—Tectonic map of Australia 1:2,534,400. (Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics: Canberra.) Corrin, R. J., & Hari, J, M. (1972)—Great Artesian Basin in South Australia. Contours of mugnetic intensity and interpreted depths {o magnetic basement (scale 1:1,000,000). (Geol, Surv, 8. Aust.: Adelaide.) Coppin, R. J., Hatt, J. McG.. & Mitton, B. E. (1971).—Great Artesian Basin in South Aus- tralia. Bouguer gravity anomaly map (scale 1:1,000.000), (Geol. Surv. S. Aust-: Ade- laide,) Dennis, J. G. (Ed.) (1967),—International Tec- tonic Dictionary. Mem. Am, Ass. Petrol, Geal. 7. Firman, J. B. (1969)—An introduction to the structure and stratigraphy of the Murray Basin and the Gambier Embayment. Jn B. Daily (Ed.), “Geological Excursions Hand- book”, 41-48, ANZAAS, section 3, 1969. Firman. J. B. (1970),—Structural lineaments in the Mutray Basin of South Australia. Quart. geal. Notes, geol. Surv, §. Aust. 35, 1-3. Firman, J. B. (1972) —RENMARK South Aus- tralia. Explanatory Notes 1:250,000 Geologi- cal Series Sheet S1/54-10 International Index. (Geol. Sury. S. Aust.: Adelaide.) Firman, J. B. (1973).—South Australia, Jn R. W. Fairbridge (Ed,), “Encyclopedia of World Geology”, (Reinhold: New York.) Forres, B. G., Coats, R. P., Weas, B. P., & Hor- wirz, R. C. (1965).—MARREE map sheet H54-5, Geological Atlas of South Australia, 1:250,000 series. (Geol. Surv. S. Aust: Adelaide.) Freyrac, J. B., HEATH, G. R., & Worrner, H. (1967,)—OODNADATTA map sheet $G53-15, Geological Atlas of South Australia, (:250,000 series. (Geol. Surv. S, Aust,; Ade- Taide.) G.S.A. (1971).—Tectonic map of Australia and ew Guinea 135,000,000. (Geological Society of Australia: Sydney.) Hirts, E, 8. (1956).—A contribution to the morphotectonics of Australia. J. geol. Soc. Aust, 3, 1-15. Hoses, W. H. (1911).—Repeating patterns in the relief and structure of the land. Bull. Geol, Soc. Am. 22, 123, Mi.es, K, R. (1952).—Tettiary faulting in north- eastern Eyre Peninsula, South Australia. Trans. R. Soc, S. Aust. 75, 89-90, SpricG, R. C. (1952)—The Geology of the South- East Province, South Australia, with special reference to Quaternary coastline migrations and modern beach developments. Bull, Geol. Surv. §. Aust. 29. Umocrovr, I. H. F, (1947),—The Pulse of the Earth. (Martinus Nijhoff: The Hague, ) Witttams, A, F. (1973)—GASON map sheet $G54-13, Geological Atlas of South Australia, 1:250.000 series (Geol, Surv. S. Aust.: Ade- laide.) (In preparation.) VOL. 98, PART 4 30 NOVEMBER, 1974 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA INCORPORATED CONTENTS Orchard, A. E. A New Species of A SOR ney, GiialothpAceas) from Northern Australia - - - = - - - - 173 Hutton, J. T. Chemical Characterization and Weathering Changes in Holocene Volcanic Ash in Soils near Mount Gambier, South Australia - 179 Preiss, W. V. The Systematics of South Australian Precambrian and Cambrian Stromatolites. Part III - - = - - - - - 185 Houston, T. F. Amphibolurus gibba, a New Dragon Lizard (Lacertilia: Agamidae) from Northern South Australia - - - - 209 van Tets, G. F. A Revision of the Fossil Megapodiidae (Aves), ia a Description of a New Species of Progura De Vis - - 213 van Tets, G. F., & Smith, Meredith J. Small Fossil Vertebrates from Victoria Cave, Naracoorte, South Australia III. Birds (Aves) - - 225 van Tets, G. F. Fossil Birds (Aves) from Weekes Cave, Nullarbor Plain, South Australia - - - - - - - ~ - - 229 Annual Report of Council, 1973-74 - - - = - - - - - 231 Award of the Sir Joseph Verco Medal - - - - ~ - - - 232 Balance Sheet - - - - - ~ - - - - - - 233 PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS STATE LIBRARY BUILDING NORTH TERRACE, ADELAIDE, S.A. 5000 A NEW SPECIES OF MYRIOPHYLLUM (HALORAGACEAE) FROM NORTHERN AUSTRALIA BY A. E. ORCHARD* Summary ORCHARD, A. E. (1974).- A new species of Myriophyllum (Haloragaceae) from Northern Australia. Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 98 (4), 173-177, 30 November, 1974. A new species, Myriophvllum callitrichoides, is described from northern Australia. It differs from all previously described species in its dimorphic stems and leaves, filiform styles and cruciform fruit, and seems to have no close allies. It is tentatively placed near M. integrifolium Hook.f. and M. drummondii Benth. A NEW SPECIES OF MYRIOPHYLLUM (HALORAGACEAE) FROM NORTHERN AUSTRALIA by A. E. Orcnarn® Summary OrcHAko. A. E. (1974).—A new species of Myriaphylium (Haloragaceae) ftom Northern Australia. Tranny KR. Sec. S. clus 98 (4), 173-177. 30 November, 1974. A new species, Myrigphythin calliiriehoides, is deseribed trom northern Australia. Tt differs frum all previously desevibed species in its dimorphic stems and leaves, filiform: styles unl eroviform fruit, and seems ta have no close alfies. In is tentatively pluced near M. integri- folinm Hook t. and Af. denmunoendii Benth. Myriophylam callitrichoides: Orchard, sp, nov Herbu aquatica ad 25 em alta, caules. et fotia dimorpha. Cuules primarit moverute robustt ascen- dens ad basin radicuntes 5-7 em alti 2-4 mm clia- mots spars Famost, Colla alterna obovoidea (in vivo) vel spathulata (in siceo) 6-8 mm longa 1.52.0 mm Tata apicum versus contracta: ad 1,0 mm busin versus suceulenta integra, apices rotun- dat cullo atruto priediti, plusminusve recurvata glandibus 2 minutis fliformibus stipuloidibus udeei- duis atralis subleola. Caules secundarii filiformes axillis foliovum inferiorvis exarientes, ad 1S civ longi 0.2-0.3 mo diametris., axillis foliorum 1.0- L5 mm Jongorum distantiim wlternorum = (raro suboppesitorun) redlctorim bractegidum ramifi- cuntes, Polit emergentia ad extremum eaulium secuntariorum urete agegregata alterna petiolata. lubiina succulenla ovata 2.0-3.5 nim longa 2.0-2.5 mn latit integra, apex rotundatus callo atro api- cali. basis contraeta abrupte ad petiolum, nervi indistincli plusminusve paralleli, peliolus 1,0-1.5 mm longus, oppendicibus stipuloidibus 2-4 atris filiformibus aa basion petiolorim, ususquisque folium emergens florem unum bisexuiem wdoulum ad petriolluim: praeditus Florey 4-meri sessiles appendicibus 2 stipuloidi- bus subtenti. Sepala 4 anguste deltoidea (.2 mm longa O.1 mm tata integra vel infirrne denticulata, Petula 4 cuculara 0.8-1.0 mm longa 0.3 mm tata infirme curinata, Stamita 4 antipetala fila OQ mm longa ad ca 0.5 fm pest unthesin protenti, imtherue luteue ovoideae 0.6 mm longae 0.2-0.3 mm latae minule apiculatae. Styli 4 filiformes 1.5 mm longi. Qyarium sessile obturbinatum 0,4-0,5 mm longhm 0.7-0,8 mm latum sub petalis sacca- tim sub sepalis suleatum 4-loculare ovalis unis tn WrUsguisgie, Proctus cruciformis petiolus yaricus, mericarpia ad apices connata deorsiim extrinsecusque ad angu- lum 45° divergentia unwuste obovoidea .t-{.2 mm longa 03-04 mm diametro verrucosa in superficie emMeriore praceipue in parte inferiore tuberculis retrorsis; semen 1 i unusquisque meri- CuTpo. Ffolotypus: ©, Dunlop 3387. 28.41.1973, Nour- langie Creek, 132°47 ER Rockhole in sindstone conglomerale, Aqttatic rooted in organic Sludge: dimorphic leaves. submerged leaves fleshy. CANB243801 (fh. fra! (Fig. 1). lsarpic AKL DNA, NT!, BRI, K, 1, Weak aquatic herh to 25 em high, stems und leaves dimorphic. Primury stems moderately robust, ascending, rooting at base, 5-7 em tall, 2-4 mm in diam.. sparsely branched, leaves alternate, succulent, ohovoid (in vivo) or spa- thulate (in siceo), 6-8 mm long, 1.5-2.0 mm broad towards tip, tapering to 1.0 mim towards buse, entire. slightly recurved, tip rounded, with black terminal callus, Leaves with 2 minute filiform stipule-fike deciduous black glands at base of petiole. Filiform secondary stems atising in axils of lower (primary) leaves. to 15 cm long, 0.2- 0.3 mm in diam,, branching from axils of dis- tant alternate (rarely subopposite) bract-like reduced leaves 1.0-1,5 mm long. Emergent leaves closely clustered at tips of secondary stems, alternate, petiolate, himina succulent. ovate, 2.0-3.5 mm long, 2.0-2.5 mm wide. entire, tip rounded with black apical callus. base abruptly tapered to petiole, veins indis- tinct, = parallel, petiole 1.0-L.5 mm long, with 2-4 black filiform, stipule-like appendages at its hase. Each emergent leaf provided with * Auckland Instituie & Museum, Private Bag, Auckland, New Zealand. 174 A. E, ORCHARD YBRASIUM SUL EEALIONDE CAI NO 245801 Fig. 1. The holotype of Myriophyllum callitrichoides Orchard. A NEW SPECIES OF MYRIOPHYLLUM 175 single bisexual flower, adnate to middle of 0.8-1.0 mm long, 0.3 mm wide, weakly keeled. petiole. Stamens 4, antipetalous, filaments 0.1 mm long, Flowers 4-merous, + sessile, flanked by 2 lengthening to ca 0.5 mm after anthesis; anthers stipuloid appendanges as for leaves. Sepals 4, yellow, ovoid, 0.6 mm long, 0.2-0.3 mm wide, narrow-deltoid, 0.2 mm long, 0.1 mm wide; minutely apiculate. Styles 4, filiform, 1.5 mm entire or weakly denticulate. Petals 4, hooded, long. Ovary + sessile, obturbinate, 0.4-0.5 mm Figs. 2-4. Habit of M, callitrichoides, Fig. 2—Whole plant. Fig. 3.—Base of plant showing young pri- mary stem and leaves, and lower part of secondary stems. Fig. 4.—"Rosette’” of emergent leaves, flowers and immature fruit, viewed from above. (All from Duniop 3387: fig. 2 from dried material, figs. 3 and 4 from liquid preserved specimens.) (76 long, 0.7-0.8 mm wide, saccate below petals, grooved below sepals, 4 locules with | avule in each, Fruit black, cruciform, straddling petiole. mericarps fused at apices, diverging down- wards and outwards at 45”, mericarps narrowly obovoid, 14-1.2 mm long, 0.3-0.4 mm in diam.. vertucose on outer fage, particularly in lower part, with downward pointing asperities; I] seed per mericarp. The epithet “callitrichoides” refers to the emergent leaves, which very closcly resemble the rosette of floating leaves of Callitvi¢he siag- natin. This remarkable plant dillers [rom ull pre- viously described Myriophylluny specics in a number of respects. Although dimotphy of the leaves is common in the genus, with the cmer- A, E. ORCHARD vent leaves. often very different from the sub- merged ones, this scems to be the only species that also has dimorphic stems (Fig, 2). The primary stems (Fig. 3) are the relatively stout, honeycombed axes common in the genus, but the secondary stems bearing reduced, bract-like leaves at wide intervals, and arising from the axils. of the primary leaves, are filiform and flexible. In contrast to the primary stems they ure frequently branched. The emergent leuves are borne in a tight rosette-like cluster at the tips of the secondary stems (Fig, 4), and are unusual in that they apparently Maat on the surface of the water, rather than being held aloft as in most other species, Furthermore, the flowers are adnate to the petioles of the emer- gent leaves, instead of being borne in their axils (Fig. 5), The styles are filiform, instead Figs. 5-9. Flowers aud fruit of M. callitrichoides. Fig. 5.—Flower adnate to petivle of emergent leaf- Fig. 6.—Isolated mericarp viewed from slightly above, with positions of other mericarps indicated, Fig. 7—Smele mericarp viewed from below. Fig. 8.—Semimature fruit with one abortive mericarp, viewed from above. Fiz. 9.—The same, viewed from below. (All from Hunlop 3387; fie. 5 drawn trom liquid preserved material, figs. 6-9 from dried material.) A NEW SPECIES OF MYR/OPHYLLUM of clavate, and more closely resemble those of Gunnera than those of other Myriophylium species. The fruit is unique, not only in its peculiar radiating mericarps, but also in the fact thal they are fused near their apices, rather than lower down (Figs. 6-7). Occasionally | (very rarely 2) of the mericarps fails to deve- lop, and an irregular fruit results (Figs. 8-9). With all of the above peculiar features, it is difficult to place M. callitrichoides in existing treatments of the genus. Ih the standard mono- graph (Schindler 1905), it keys out to subgen. Mvyriophyllam (“Eumyriophyllum”] sect, Tes- saronia, but does not fit well into any of the subsections. Van der Meijden (1969, extended in van der Meijden & Caspers 1971) has recently published a revision of the south-east Asian, Malesian, Mascarene, and African spe- cics of the genus, Using his key, M, ceallitri- chojdes comes closest to M. oliganrhum (W. & A.) F.v.M. and M. tuberculatum Roxb,, but this reflects only leaf arrangement and the tetrao- drous flowers; in leaf, flower and fruit mor- phology there is little similarity. The nearest relutives of M. callitrichoides are probably M. integrifeliium Hook.f. and M. drummondi Benth. with which species it 177 shares its alternate, entire leaves, tetrandrous flowers and ovoid anthers. However. the rela- tionship is not close, as M. callitrichoides dif- fers from the other two species in its dimorphic stems, broader and more succulent leaves, bi- sexual flowers which are adnate to the petioles of their subtending leaves, filiform styles and cruciform fruits, At present M. callitrichoidey is known only from the type collection. Further specimens ate needed to determine whether its peculiar habit 18a constant feature or merely a reflection of ecological influences (e.g. a sudden change in water level during the growing season). How- ever, even if this should be shown to be true, the species is still adequately characterized by its flowers and fruits to merit recognition as a most unusual member of its genus. Acknowledgements [ am grateful to Mr C, R. Dunlop, of the Animal Industry and Agriculture Branch, Department of the Northern Territory, who first. brought this plant to my attention. The duplicate collections in. Herbarium Austra- liense (CANB) and the Arid Zone Research Institute (NT) were kindly loaned by the curators, References ScHInpier, A, K. (1905).—Halarrhagaceae. Das Pflanzenreich 23, 1-133. VAN DER Merpen, RK, (1969).—An annotated key to the South-East Asiatic, Malesian, Mas- carene and African species of Myriophyllum (Haloragaceac). Blumea 17, 303-311. VAN DER MEIJDEN, R., & CAspers, N. (1971).— Haloragaceae. Flora Malesiunu 7, 239-263. CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND WEATHERING CHANGES IN HOLOCENE VOLCANIC ASH IN SOILS NEAR MOUNT GAMBIER, SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY J, T. HUTTON* Summary HUTTON, J. T. (1974).-Chemical characterization and weathering changes in Holocene volcanic ash in soils near Mount Gambier, South Australia Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 98(4), 179-183, 30 November, 1974. Surface soil samples collected within 12 km of the volcanic crater of Mt Gambier, South Australia, have been analysed for thirteen elements by X-ray fluorescent spectrography. The amounts of eight of these elements in each of ten samples have been compared with the amount present in a sample collected close to the volcano and it is clear that the ejected material was of uniform composition. The amount of ash deposited on the Pleistocene beach dune sands decreases as distance from the Mount increases. By comparing the present composition of the ash with the composition of a sample of Mt Gambier basalt, it is shown that 60-80% of the calcium, magnesium and sodium has been lost but there has been essentially no loss of titanium, silicon or aluminium. In 5,000 years, about one half of the volcanic ash has weathered to clay minerals which do not readily disperse and the leached sodium and magnesium appear to reach the groundwater. CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND WEATHERING CHANGES IN HOLOCENE VOLCANIC ASH IN SOILS NEAR MOUNT GAMBIER, SOUTH AUSTRALIA by J. 'T. Hurron* Summary Hutton, J. T. (1974)—Chemicul characterization and weathering, changes m Holocene vol- canic ash in soils near Mount Gambier, South Australia Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 98(4), 179-183, 30 November. 1974. Surface soil samples collected within 12 km of the volcanic crater of Mt Gambier, South Australias, bave been wnalysed for thirtcen elements hy X-ray flugrescent spectrography, ‘I'he aniounts of eight of these elements in each of ten samples have been compared with the umouot present in a sample collected close to the volcano and it is clear that the ejected materia! was of uniform composition, The amount of ash deposited on the Pleistocene beach- dune Sands decreases as distunce from the Mount increases. By comparing the present composition of the ash with the composition of a sample of Mt Gambier basall, it is shown that 60-80% of the calctum, magnesium and sodnim has been lost but there has been essentially no loss of titanium, silicon or aluminium, Jn 3,000 years, about one half of the valeanic ash has weathered to clay minerals which do pot readily disperse anid the leached sodium and magnesium appear to reach the proundwater. Introduction Hutton, Blackburn & Claike (1959) indi- cated the distribution of soils affected by val- eanic ash from Mt Gambier by a study of the size of the particles: added to the siliceous sand of former beach dunes. As this earlier work had shown that ihe material ejected and depo- sited on the existing dunes was uniform in the physical size of the particles, it should be pos- sible from a study of the elemental composition of the same soils to confirm the uniform nature of the ash and also sce what elements may have been differentially lost by weathering since the deposition of the ash 5,000 years ago (Fer- gusson & Rafter 1957). Methods of Analysis Eleven surface samples siudied previously were analysed for thirteen clements by X-ray fluurescent spectrography. Fur the eight major clements, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, phos- phorus, potassium, calcium, titanium and iron, the ignited soil samples were fused with a lithium borate flux as deseribed by Norrish & Hutton (1969) and cast into glass dises. Cali- bratton for these elements was based on fusions of pure chemicals in the borate flux and results were all corrected for variations in mass ab- sorption due to variations in sample caomposi- tion. For the elements chromium, manganesc, nickel and zinc. present in low concentration (10-1,000 ppm), and for sodium, the finely ground samples were pressed into suitable dises without any dilution (Norrish & Hutton 1964) in order to obtain sufficient sensitivity, Calibra- tion was made again by comparison with stan- dards prepared from pure chemicals mixed with a sample of clean quartz. Variations in mass absorption due to changes in sample composi- tion were measured and the appropriate cor- reciions applied. Results The results of analysis of sample A 363/13, collected about 3 km northwest of the Mt Gambier crater and considered from field mor- phology to have the greatest amount of ash mixed with the leached siliceous sand, are given in Table 1. For comparison the resujts of ana- lysis of sample A 361/1, collected from near = CSIRG Division of Sotls, Glen Osmond, S. Aust. 5064. ! CSIRO Division of Soils sample reference number. 180 J. T. HUTTON TABLE | Composition of soils, volcanic ash (calculated) and estimated change daring weathering Soil Soil Present Sb change lurgely largely compositian Composition (relative to Element dune sand volcanic ash of ash* of hasaltT basalt) AJ61/1 A363/1 Na. %e 008 0.17 0.4 wag —&0 Mg, % 0.03 1.47 24 w.12 —70 1 0.90 5.35 a0 7.62 +20 Ob 45.7 34,9 26,0 22.0) +20 Ht 0.01 0,29 0.20 a 0.22 0,59 1.3 1.27 0 a 0.07 1.04 3.1 7.A8 60 6 OAS 0.96 1.3 1,22 +20 Cr, ppm 29 118 Mn, ppm {1s B25 Fe, % 0.52 5.08 8.2 8.35 1) Ni, ppm 2 65 Za, ppm 5 96 Scat ich * Average of values calculated on assumption that A 363/1 contains 40% dune sand, A 4464/1 con- tains 45% and A 349/1 contains 50%. + Stanley (1909). TABLE 2 Composition of ash soils expressed ay % composition af A 363/1- i cae eee EE Sst ESSE SEES ESSER nn Distance Sample Mt Gambier number km Direction Ms Al Ti Fe Cr Mn Ni Zn A363/1 3 NW 100 109 100 1nd 100 100 100 100 AN 464/1 24 E 91 R7 79 81 2 66 118 BS A 349/1 3 S 83 92 7 83 &8 75 118 7 A3S1/) ft SE 46 104 54 60 67 Th 46 AR A 364/1 5 S 56 40 66 58 57 64 50 42 A 360/1 64 N 28 53 50 47 68 a7 40 28 A 355/1 3 EK 38 36 41 38 33 43 49 pa) A 2092/1 \J NE: # 29 39 27 3 28 16 25 ASS8/1 63 NE i 23 12 25 31 21 3 6 A 467/1 5+ NW % 20 11 12 19 21 3 7 * Amount too low to be determined with sufficient accuracy to obtain » meaningtul figure. the northern limit of the influence of the ash, are also given. Of the thirteen elements determined, mag- nesium, aluminium, titanium, iron, chromium, manganese, nickel and zinc are considered to be associated with volcanic ash and the results for these elements in the other nine samples are given in Table 2, where they are expressed as a percentage of the concentration found in sample A 363/1. Discussion The eight elements chosen for listing in Table 2, namely magnesium, aluminium, tita- nium, chromium, manganese, iron, nickel and zine, ate present in higher concentration in basultic type rocks than in other types such as sands, limestones or granites. For this reason they were chosen in this investigation to be In- dicalors of material of volcanic origin in a region of sand dunes and swales. Sample A 361/L is typical of the surface of the sand dunes and sample A 363/1 taken 3 km NE of the crater of Mt Gambier is typical of the material of volcanic origin after 5.000 years exposure, The data in Table 1 show that the dune sand is not pure quarlz as it appears to contain a titanium mineral and some clay or feldspar to account for the potassium. The umount of potassium would indicate that wea- thering and leaching have not been excessive and so the Jow levels of some elements, parti- cularly magnesium and nickel, suggest the ab- CHEMISTRY OF VOLCANIC ASH IN SOILS NEAR MT GAMBIER sence of volcanic ash from this site 1i km N of Mt Garnbier, By calculating the amount of these eight “basaltic” elements present in the ten samples of surface soils as a percentage of the amounts in sample A 363/1, the significance of the dif- ference in the composition of these soils be- comes apparent. As distunce from the Mount increases, 4he amount of each element is re- duced by a similar proportion, In order to determine the amount of ash in the soils stu- died, relative to sample A 363/1, three some- what independent sets of chemical data and the particle size data given in Hutton, Black- burn & Clarke (1959) can be used. OF the eight elements recorded in Table 2, magnesium, aluminium, titanium and iron are preseat in A 363/1 at about 1% or more, They can be determined accurately but as some variation in asa composition can be expected, the relative percentages given for these elements in Table 2 were averaged for listing in Table 3. Chro- mum, manganese, nickel and zinc are present in smaller amounts (less than 0.1%) and ure therefore determined less accurately, but they do represent u different geochemical parameter from the major elements, and again, 10 reduced individual fluctuations, the data of Table 2 were averaged for presentation in Table 3, The third chemical measure of the amount of ash material is obtained from the results of the determination of the silicon content of cach sample because the addition of the basaltic minerals will ceduce the high silicon content of the silica sand of the dunes. (Thts. measure is nat strictly independent of the other chemical values in that wher expressed as. oxides, SiO. constitutes fhe hulk of the sample that is. noi Al,O.. MgO, Fe,O., and TiO.+. The amount of particles im the size range 2 ym to 50 ym 81 found in these same soils js given by Hutton, Blackhurn & Clarke (195%) and the very high ash soils close to Mt Gambier have about 40% of these particles, Again, the amount of 2 pm to 30 «um particles in the samples from the other sites can be calculated relative io this figure and the data are given in Table 3. These four estiniates have been used ro calculate Tmean values for the relative proportions of the basaltic material added to the sand dines, The comparatively low values of standard devia- tion (Table 3) suggest that ial! four measures are of the one property. The sumples examined in this study had mostly been collected from soil profiles asso- ciated with the higher sand dunes, where some mixture of ash und sand has occurred, The data given by Flutton, Blackburn & Clarke (1959) had indicated that in many cases the resulting mixture is unifarm down to 40 em. This mix- ing is nor due to cultivation as many of the simples were collected from roadside cuttings, but is attributed to the activities of soil animals in fertile, well-aggregated soils. Evidence sug- gests that where more than 150 cm of ash Was deposited there was less mixing of sand and ash, while as the deposit of ash became thinner more mixing and resultant dilution took place. Hence it is difficult to define the true limit of the area that received the voleanic accession, The climate of Mt Gambier. with the aver- ige Maximum temperature ranging [rom 12°C to 25°C and with about 700 mm ef fain falling mostly in winter, 1s condusive to the weather- ing and |caching of the deposited ash. Stanley (1909) analysed the basalt frona Mt Gambier and his results are viven in Table 1. An esti- mate of the present a¥eruge composition of the ash, obtaied from samples A 363/T, A 4064/1 and A 349/1, 15 also given in Table |. TABLE 3 Relative ameuni of volcanic asic in soils Averuge based on Average based on Dilution of Particles* Mg, Al, Ti, Fe Cr. Man, Ni, Zn Si by ash 2-50 am Mean & 8.D-_ A363"1 100 1a0 THO 100 1b0 — A 464/) 4 aS 53 93 S| fi A 3449/1 &4 BB a6 93 8S 4 AASleh 66 59 a9 58 AR \4 A364/] 60 56 s7 70 61 6 A360/1 44 45 44 47 45 | AShS/1 38 37 35 42 44 3 A 1292/1 32 25 23 32 28 § A w58/'| 20 45 9 it 15 4 Aa67T I 14 12 a la tl 3 gg ee « * Valnes from Horton, Blackburn, & Clarke (195%), [82 do. For this estimate it has been assumed whut 60% of profile A 363/17 is of Volcanic origin, 33% of A464/l und 50% of A 349/1 and the bal- unce is silica, and rhese assumptions sre con sistent wilt the purticle: size distribution curve tor profile A349 given by Hutton, Blackburn & Clarke (1959). From comparison with this estimated present composition of the ash ond analysis af the basalt, ir is possible to calculate the change in elemental composition on the assumption that ash and basalt were from. the sume source, The results. (Table L) show that in the 5,000. years of exposure there has been considerable (60-8091 loss of sodium, mag- nesium and calcium due te the weathering of minerals such as olivine and plagioclase uns some Inss of potassium and iran relative to alu- minium, silicon and titanium. The calculated guin in these elements is due to the loss of the olher elements and the similarity in the gutn figure for silicon compared with those for alu- minium and titanium confirms the assume ratio of sand tu ash in the three soi samples. Thus from these ratios and the data of Table 3, ihe amount ef ash in ull ten suil samples can be cileulared (Table +). The relative gain of 20% in the “insoluble” elements suggests that 20% af the ash has been lost in 3.000 years, Le. 1% In 250 years. This logs of 20% of the weight of ash tue to the lass of 70% of the original sodium, magnesium and calcium has meant considerable change hus taken pluce. The soils with 35% to 60% ash have exchange capacities of 30 m, equiv. per 100 @ (Clarke 1965) and in sample A 972 taken close to sample A 464 the clay mincrals have been identified as illite, kaolin and ran- domly interstratified material and the mixture fas an exchange capacity of about 70 m. equiv. per 100g (Stace et af. 1968, p, 133). Assum- ing 12 m. equiv. of the exchange capacity ix TABLE 4 Calewlated amroant of vacant: ask in soils i Sh {fheafest 5%) A 463/14 an A 464/1 55 A 349/1 St) ABS =n A 3864/1 35 A 3460/1 25 A355/\ 25 A 2292/1 15 A 358/) 10 A 4a7y/1 s a HUT 1ON due to organic matter, there is then 18 11. equiv, per 100 g due to clay minerals, Thus the exchange capacity suggests Lhat the cliy mitie- rals constitute about 25% of these soils which originally were ahout 50% ash, 50% sand, The clay minerals have formed i sizu and have not moved down the profile—in fact using stand- ard Ixyboratary dispersing techniques, the soils yielded little material tess than 2 yn. enabling the unsorted distribution of the pariicles im the range 2 p.m to 50 um to be used as a charac- Leristic. As there is no run:oit of water from the soils around Mt Gumbier, the sodium, magnesium and calcium released by weathering should be levched to the groundwater, Sodium ond nap- hesium are quite soluble and calcium is mode- rately suluble in the presence of the high con- ty) eras; (s)—SIS8, Turiguasia etina, (o-F)—Onachenia wfschuriea, from the uppermost beds of the Tapley Hill Formation, -$392_ Note; Not all bridges could Se shown on dia- Flinu Foumation, & km east of Blingtaby (t)—SIS7, Tareussia ena, Etina Pormutlon, Enorama Creek. SOUTH AUSTRALIAN STROMATOLITES III 19] SA Dyeareiiene of Phe Growp OMACHTENJA Nuzhnoy Collena omachiensis Nuzhnow '96eQ: 1422. Omachtenia Nuchnav '967> 134. Type Por: Omuclvenia anvichtersis Nuzhi- ney, from the Omakhtin Suite of che Uchur Busin, Uchuro-Maya region, S.E, Siberian Plstform. Pjagnesivs Columnat-layered stromatolites com- sisting of cylindrical and subeylindrical un- walled columms, frequently widening \pwards, wilh mumerous cornices and bridges linking several columns. Rranching is mainly w-parallel; colunins are usually vertical, sometimes cadiat- ing or curved, Cantent: Omuchrenie omachreasis Nushnoy, O, weechurieg Nushnov sad O. givimnensty Nuzhoy. Age and Distribution: Early Riphean in the Uchuro-Mayy region of the USSR, but Jn South Austrulix, QO. wtschuriea occurs in rocks correlated with the Lite Riphesn, Ontachtenia utschurices Nuizhnov 1967. 133. TIGS, Jo-r, Se, 6¢, Fle, 10a-c Material: Nine specimens trom Depot Creck and Mundallo Creek. Description Made ef Occurrence: The stromatolites form small lenticular bioherms repeatedly inler culated jn very finely laminated calcareous silt- stones of the top of the Tapley Hill Formation, south-western Flinders Ranges. Commonly dis- erele, biohermis 2 ta several tens of metres wide, develop on ¢rosionyl surfaces on the underlying laminated siltstones (Preiss 1973h, pl. 28) and are closely assucisted with chan- nels Aled with imbricuted flat-pebble breccias, often surrounding the bioherm. Bioherms are generally less than | m thick. All gradations from flat-laminated to domed, club-shaped, psudocolumnar and columnar stromatolites exist (Figs. 20-7, 9d.c), Where columis are developed, their axes are mostly vertical, but their sides may slope in various directions, and overhang the interspaces (Fig. 10a). Calum Shape and Arrangement: Where columns are discrete, they are generally sub- cylindrical. sometimes widening upwards, either vertical, or radially arranged. Columns are rarely completely discrete for more thin w tew centimetres, but are either linked by bridges or coinpletely coalesced. They may pass htlerilly as well as vertically inio laterally linked or flat- laminated stromatolites, which miiy in turn pass mio fiat-pebhle breecia, at feas| some of the intraclasts being rewnrked chips ef algal mats W. V. EP REISS Columns commonly commence growth upon some irregulanty of the subsiratum, e.g, on the erosional surface GF the underlying sills or on upturned flat pebbles (Fig, 2p). Calumns ire mastly circular in cross section, 2-15 emi in diam., but may be eomplexly lobules Branching; True branching into discrew columns is moderately rare, but may be mul- tiple. Branching, may he n- f- Or y-parallel, sometimes markedly »-parallel. or slightly di- vergent. Branched columns ure frequemly bridged over, of coulesec, after a few centi- metres. Margin Sirvcture: Column margins are exteemely inregular with numerous short cor- nites, bridges und overhanging laminae, which drape over the penodically deposited interspace ecdiment (Fig. 10b). Bridges consist of from one to many laminae, up to several centimetres thick. Over intervals withouw! bridges or over- hanging laminae (whicl may represent periods of growth during which interspaces were not filled) the column murgin bears small ribs and bumps. Nowhere is a wall developed. Laming Shape: Larninac are never steeply con- yext i most cases, they are Mul-topped, with Jown-turned edges, 1.2. rhombic or rectangular. They may grade both laterally and vertically into continuous Alal fominac, Typical lamina shapes ire illustrated in Fig, Sc, Of 40) Jaminue measured, 83% have h/d belween 6.2 and 0.4 (Tig, fc), W the growth of a column ts isym- metrical, lamjnae are plso asymmetrical, but growth always proceeds vertically. although column sides may he sinping, Laminate are smooth, very rately wrinkled or finely wavy, occasionally with micro-unconformilies. Aficrostructure is distinctly banded and con- sists of an alternation of sparry and pelletal cal- cite Jaminae and fine. granular dolomite laminae (Fig. 10b,c). Dolomite laminae are 0.2 to 1,0 mm thick, and chin only slightly lowards columo margins. Their upper and lower boundaries wfe more or less parallel; the upper boundary is always shurp and often smooth, while the lower Js usually gradationsl into pelletal laminae, Delomite laminac. with almost no calcite, consist of granular, equi- dimetisional hypidiotopic to idintopic dolomite, grain size 0,01-0.03 mm. At the boundaries, euhedral dolomite crystals protrude into the adjacent sparry laminae. In places, several thin dolomite laminae are grouped to form macro- laminay up lo 2 mit thick, bere (he dolomite laminae are separated by thin, discontinuous SOUTH AUSTRALIAN STROMATOLITES IL lenses of sparcy calcite. which may be open space fillings (Fig. 10b), Dolomite layers are everlain with sharp and sometimes Sighily eroded contact by coursely spatry calcite lamihyt xurying in thickness from O.1-14) mm, which pinch and swell sud may lens out laterally. The calcite 3s hypidia- topic tO xXenolopic. transparent. consisting of frequently twinned crystals, grain size O.04— 0.2 mm, Tn places there are lenses of coarser, polygonal calcite of gruin size up to 0.6 mm, und tTarely, ot acicular caltite. Scattered very small dolomite rhombs occur in places, Sparry calcite laminae grade up into pelletal laminae, consisting of subrounded pellets 006—-0.1 mm in diam., of fine grained hypidiotopic dolomite (0.13-0,02 mm grain size), with clear, xeno- lopic calcite cement filling the yoids. Pellets become more tightly pucked upwards, so that they grade into homogeneous dolomite laminae. In one specimen (Fig. 1fe) pelletal Iaminac ure poorly developed, Interspaces between columns are Aled with intraclast and pellet grainstones. periodically interrupted by hricging Inminae, Essentially the Sime sediment occurs outside the bioherms in channels cut into the underlying silts, but there it is bedded, and clasts are imbricated. In the interspaces, the sediment is largely unbedded (Fig. 10a,b) consisting of flat intraclasts wp to several centimetres long, I-} mm thick, ran domly oriented and loosely packed with numer- ous Tound to ovoid pellets, 0.15-0.3 mm im diam. Peliets and intractasts consist of equi- granular hypidiolopic dofomite similar to that of the dolomite Jaminae; the fntraclasts were prohably derived rom the erasion of the flaut- laminated varicty of the sifomatolites, while pellets are interpreled as comminuled and rounded, repeatedly reworked dolomite intra- clasts. Allochems must have been in part matrix supported, but oily locally is a Time mud mat- TIX preserved. Must grains are cemented hy a clear, sparry cement of xenolopic inequigsranu- tar calcite, grain size up to 0.4 mm. Whar must have been primary lime mod supporting scat- tered intachasts now censisty of recrystallized hypidiotopic calcite. grain size 0,05-0.1 mm with scattered dulomite rhombs. In places, large allochems or overhahging column margins shel- tered the underlying areas from settling mud, and these are now filled with course, open space filling sparry calcite, Secondary Alteration; Dolomite pellets and intraclasts were probably sewerked as dolomite, 193 i.e. the oviginal sediment was affecteil by early diagenctic dolomitization and then redeposited: maoy intraclasts are long and flat, and could not hove withstood transport without being lithified. ‘I hese allochems were partly supported by lime mud. and partly winnowed, leaving open spaces filled! wiih sparry cement. The time uf dolomitization of the dolomitic siromatolite laminae is nol clear; dolomite pellets are cemented with spurry ealette, suguesting that the sediment was brought in as dolumite. But dolomite rhombs in the laminac appear to pinst- date the culcite cement. Ln aduitten, dolomite rhombs occur seuttered throughout the reerys- tallized lime mud (now mictospar}, and the Sparry, open space filling calcite. It is likely that minor secondary dolomitization affected the whole sediment after its deposition. Post- depositional pyrite cubes, 0.08-0,20 mm wide, are scattered throughout the rock. Stylolites are fare, wnel ame restricted to hroad|y conformable \ypes which follow bridging laminse between Columns. Camparisens The columnar and colurmnar-layered portions uf this stramatolite accord with Nuzhnov's des- cription of Guyachtenia in having eviindsical or sub-cylindrical columns with frequent cornices und overhangs on the lateral surfaces. which are linked by numerous bridges and Javers commer to several columns. Branching in bok is dichotomous or multiple, usually o-parallel. Columns are usually vertical, or rarely, radiat- ing. As the domed and flatlarnimated. sirama- tolites cannot be separated fram the columnar and columnar-layered portions. these must be included ous environmental variatlons of Omachtenia, The stromatolites differ from Jurusania Krylov and Kussiella Krylov in hav- ing more wregolar, more Frequently branching columns repeatedly linked by bridges. The repeated bridging and characteristic thick. pel- letal luininae distinguishes them from the basal portions of Inzeria conjunete and Acaciella ages. OC. utsehurtca Nuzhnov differs from O. aivunensis Nuzhnov in having more gently conver laminae (h/d less than 0.5). GO. etach- teasis Nuzhnovy has genenlly narrower columns and some short, lateral outgrowths. und thin- ner, non-pelletal laminae. O. urschurica from the Tapley Hill Formation is extremely similar to ©, utschurica from the Uchur River, USSR, it gross shape, tvpe of bridges and lamina shape, but has slightly thicker pelletal Jamnae- (Pellets may also be present in the type muite- 194 rial, as in Nuzhnov 1947, Pl. 11¢4)). Omtach- tenia closely resembles Schuncheria Korolyuk in pross shape. lamination and bridging; Schan- elaria, however, appatentiv has a thin, one- layered wall (Korolyuk, 1960), Diseibetion; The Omakhtin Suite of the Orhur River, 8-E, Siberian Platform, and the upper Tapley Hill Formation, Depot Creek and Mundallic Cresh, S.W. Plinders Ranges, S. Aust. Age Early Riphewn in the USSR, but here iL is Late Adelaidean, in beds correlated by other stromatelites with the Late Riphean, Group TUNGUSSIA Semikhatov Collecie suvkerwigusica Semikhatoy 1960; 1481. Tungussia Semikhatoy 1962; 208- Type Form: Tungassia tedoso Semikbotov, from the Sukhotungusin Suite. Yunisei Mountains. Didgpesiv: Tuherotis to subeylindrical, heri- zontal to vertical columns with frequem, mul- tipfe, markedly divergent branching; lateral sur face is smooth or with small peaks, and at least locally with a wall. Corient: T. Hodosa Semikhatov, T. conftase Semikhatov, T, sibiriee Nuzhnoy, T. inet Walter and 7. ereern Walter. T. bassa is a lateral variant of Linella ukka Krylov, 7. enpiggent Ruaben and 7. rvsva Raaben are itwulliciertly described and illustrated to allow comparison, and the description of 7. weties Raaben is unavailable. New forms are T. eine and T, wilketenaa. Aye: Middle to Late Riphean. and probably Vendian, Tungussia ¢tina {. oy. FIGS, 25,0. 3a—-m, dab, Sd, 6d, Ode, J 1a-«, l2a Materia!: Twenty-eight specimens lrom Mt Chambers Gorge, Teatree 0.8... Blinman, Martin's Well, Enorama and Arkaba areus. Holorype: S435 (Figs, 3i,1, dab, 1c), Me Chambers Garge. Nanw: After the Etina Formation, in which the stromatolites partly occur, W. V. PREISS Diagnosis; Tungussia with a wide varlation of branching style from subparallel to markedly divergent, a thin, interrupted wall, and thick, pinching and swelling, wavy laminue. Coarse detritus can be incorporated in Jight laminae, if it Was available during growth. Deyeription Mode of Occurrence: The stromatolites occur in irregular tonguing bioherms and lenticular beds in the Elina Formution and ils extensions in the Northern Flinders Ranges, Exposures are often inadequate to determine the cxuct shape of the Jenyes, but generally they are discrete welated bodies, surrounded by sandy and oolitic limestones. Tn the vccurrence neur Mt Chambers Gorge, the columnar stromatnlites overlic irregulatly laminated sandy and oolitic limestone (the contact is now stylohitic), and form a lens up te 2m thick in its thickest part In places, growth continued on the 3p of the lens in the form crt inegularly wavy and pseudocolininar stromatolites. At the margins of the bioherm, columns grade laterally into psenduco!umns and Wavy Jaminac, which inter- tongue with oolitic limestone. At Teatree O.S., the stromutolitic bed again intertongues with oolitic limestones, but hete columas are mere inclined at toe hioherm margins than tn their centres. Siniar relations of slromatolitic bie- herms intertonguing with sandy oo and intra- clast grainstones were observed in the Elina Formation in the Arkaba Hills, Enorama Creek (Fig. 10c), Blinman and en the south-western fiank of the Enoramu Dispir. However, at many locations in the Central Flinders Ranges. the colurnnar portions are poorly developed. Calumnar Shape and Arrangement: Well deve- loped columns persist vertically for more than 10 em only in the sections ar Mt Chanbers Gorge, Enorama Diapir and at Teutree O.S,; elsewhere short, irregular columns quickly prude up info linked pseudocolumns, At Mc Chambers Gorge, the orientation of columns varies [rom vertical to variously inclined, to subhorizontal (Fig. 1d), Columms from the Teatree GS, locality are also variously inclined, but rarely subhorizontal; some are subparallel (Figs 2s.t. 12a), Columns from all areas are tuberous, bumpy. swelling and constricting. or, nig ANA Fiz. 3. S km east of Blinman; Revonstractions of Trngwrsie etina, Umberatane Group, Central and Northern Flinders Ranges. (a|—S286, Wundow Limestone, near Teatree O.8.; {(b)—S148. Etina Formation, (e)—S56L, Etina Formation, S.A. margin of Enorama Diapir: (d)- - §522, Buna Formation, Arkaba Hills; (¢) —S526, Balcanoona Formation. near Mount Cham- bers; (f. g, I)—Wundowie Limestone Member, near Teatree OS; (£) S441, [z) S444, (h} $440: (i. 7, k, mJ—Balcanoona Formajion, nen Mount Chambers: (i, $}—Holotype, $433, (7) —S436, (kj—S525. (m)—S524, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN STROMATOLITES IIL 19 (San dee Fiz. 3. SA Dap tid oh tates 196 wiv less commonly, straight, subcylindnical Short columns from Central Flinders locylities are Frequently bulbous (Fig. did). Bumps and swellings are generally bread and rounded, while constrictions sometimes tuke the fornt of dcop indentations into the main colunin, at poms of branching (Fig, 3a,ih). Some columns branching from the main column ate only u few centimetres long. with either pointed or TOwnded terminations (Fig, 3a). Columns vary greally in diameter from | to 10 cm, the largest oceurning at Mr Chambers Gorge. Transverse sections vary irom ellipucal to cam- plexly Jubate: circular sections pre rare. Branching is yery Frequent and highly variable; even within single specimens, both parallel and markedly divergent branching may occur. Spe- cimens from Mi Chumbers Gorge have prt dominantly multiple, markedly divergent brimehing. although columns may became sub- pacallel soon alter branching (Fig. 3m). At Teutree O.S.. otrkedly divergent branching and purallel or slightly divergent branofring pecur together (Figs. 3h, Ila, L2e) Columus from Enoranm Creek are frequently rnincated hy siyluliies paralicl to tverall bed- ding, so that the style of branching is ahscured. Columns fram this locality that allowed recan- struction (Fig. 2L). show markedly divergent branching, Margin Siruesiees Primary margin structure is frequently obscured by stylolites; in some speci- mens from Arkaba. Teatree O.S. and Mt Chambers Gorge, alnest no column margins ure preserved. Where columns are. relatively unallected by stnlites, they are seen to bear thin, antcrrupred walls. involving two or three laminae only, or very locally, multitaminate walls, cg. Enorama Creek and Teutree OS. (Figs. |la,hy}, But Whe latler ave affected by pervasive reerystallization, sa that commonly only the outer murgin of the wall is preserved. Adjacent colurins frequently coulgsee, Or are inked hy mussive bridges up to several centi- metecs thick. Bridges and overhanging laminae ure common on unwalled porions of columns. especially {roms Mt Chambers Garge (Fig, 3m). Column margins are gently bumpy, with gecasional short transverse ribs Must of the surface irregularity of some specimens finn Teatree O.S. ig due to stylolitic solution of column margins (e.g. Fig, 3a)- Lamina Shape is most commonly moderately stveply convex (Fig, 5d). Measurement of h/d rauio is difficult in same specimens de to removal of column margins by stwlolitte solu- PREISS tions thus measured ratios nay be tog low ih Ihese cases, OF 131 Jaminue measured, 93% have ratios of h/d between (2 and 0.7. the mode being between 0.3 and 04. Laminae are moderately to thurkedly wavy, the undulations having a wavelength of 3-10 mm, and aypli- tude 1-3 mm. Laminae are lenticular. ani pinch and swell murkedly over short distanves: this irregulacity if caused at least in part by erosional micrn-uncanformities (Fig. [1ce}. Micrayructrrsy A broad, irregular lamination is well pfeserved in some specimens [rom Tea- tree O.S., Blinman, Enoruma Creek and Mt Chambers Gorge. where thick, wavy, pinching, and swelling light laminae alternate with darker thin, fine-grained laminae frequently with clay or iran oxide impurities, Ligh! lanunae vary rapidly in ubickness from 0.2-2.00 mm, and frequently lens out laterally; few exten geross a full colunin width. Very commonly, the Jight laininac are truncated hy erosion sttrlaces, espe. cially in specimens from Mt Chambers Gorge (Fig. tte). They are composed al equigranotar Xenotopic ta hypidiotepic mosuic caleile, grain size 0.006-G.03 mm. Gccasionally, coarser detritus is incorporated. if it was available, For ¢xample, the Enorama Creek stramatolites con- tain up lo SUS: of ooids and coated grains, 0.3-1.00 mm in diam., within their light lami nae. Elongated ooids aml coated prains are aligned parallel ra the lamination, and are always supported by the finer sediment of the stremuatolitic Jaminae, Ooids are extremely abundant in the inlerspaces. Specimens from Teatvee O.S. contain very few ooids, but here the supply was not great, as seen from the pre- ponderance of linve mud in the interspaces, At Mt Chambers Gorge, ooids are absent both in interspaces and stromutolite Jaminse, but fine sand present in inlerspices ix also incorporated into Jaminae. These observations suggest that the algal mats were cupable of trapping coarser detritus, if it was brought to the sile. The thinner dar& laminae ate 0.05-0.15 mm thick, and composed of very fine micritic calcite, of xenotopic, equigranular texture and prain size 0,002-0,01 mim. At Mt Chambers, the dark laminae ore emphasized by very fine, hypidio- uipic ferruginous dolomite cancentrated along them. In places (e.g, Blinman!, dark laminae with shatp lower boundaries grade up mio lizhi laminae (Fig, 11d), At Arkaba Hills, the dark laminae are largely stvlolitic. lnterypaces: Columns are moderately closely spaced, interspaces 5 mm=2 em wide, The type SOUTH AUSTRALIAN STROMALOLITES UT 197 of sediment fillicgg the interspaces varies in the Uifferont prods, and its relation to the quantity of detritus in laminae has already been dis- cussed, At Mr Chambers Gotpe, interspaces are filled mainly with slightly dolomitized and recrystallized puctly laminated lime mud. with a few bands up to 2 cm thick of very fine, sub- angular yuartz sand. Flat intraclasts up ta 2 cm long are in places stacked vertically in inter- spaces hetween walled columns. indicating a minimum relief of 2 ¢m_ Discrete areas af intraclast grainslone suggest that ufter column erowth, coarser detritus was occasionully washed in hetween times of settling of lime mud. At Teatree O,S. interspaces contain poorly bedded micritie limestone and ooid wackestune: in one specimen (Fig. 11b), these alternate in 5 mm bands. Ooids are commonly preserved only as moulds infilled with sparry culcite. Unbedded fine or medium sand with micrite matrix commonly fills interspaces. in the Etina Formation, At Blinman, the sand con- tains rounded medium grained quartz, red feldspar and green pellets consisting of a chio- titic mincral. Since little sand is incorporated into the stromiitolitic laminae, the interspuces were probably rapidly filled after. not during. column growth, Interspaces at Enorama Creek are filled with ovid grainstone exclusively—the ullochenis are chiefly ooids with a sitgle outer Jamina and coated, flat intraclasts. Oolitic jaminug may be partly detached, perhaps due to the growth ol sparry cement, Secondary Alteration: Specimens from Blin- mun und Enorama Creck are the best pre- served. the chief alteration being the formation of cyicile veins, cut by liter stylolites parallel to bedding. Doloniitization is restricted to spe- cimeny from Teatree O.S. anc Me Chambers Gorge: rhombs of dolomite varvilig fromm 0.01~ 0.015 mm, sometimes ferfuginnus, are scat- tered throughout both lamina types. Ferru- gmuus dolomite is concentrated in the dark laminae and the interspace sediment at Mt Chambers Gorge. Small areas of reerystatliza- tion of fine srained calcite to grumous texture are present in ull specimens: the wall zone espe- cially may be almost totally recrystallized, leav- ing only the outer lamina preserved. Light luminae are completely recrystallized in one specimen from Mt Chumbers Gorge, Stylolites on column margins are yery frequent yt Teatree O.S., Arkaba Hills and Martin's Well, post- dating the recrystallizatiow of taminge and replacement of ooids by sparry calcite, but apparently pre-dating dolamitization. Local large sGulion cavities are rimmed wih zoned ferruginous Uolomite rhombs, then Filled with course. Branvlar sparry calcite. Comparisons The stromatolites are characterized by w very wide varialion of gross morphology, especially: branching, which distinguishes then from all parallel-branching stromatolites, although some resemble Inzeria Krylov in having deep inden- tations into the main column at branching, They are assigned to the group Tungursia on the presence of imarkedly divergent branching, subhorzontal columns, and thus differ from the other divergent branching groups Linella Krylov, Baicaia Kryloy, Anahbaria Komar, Poludia Raaben and Parmitex Raahen. Linefle hus very numerous pointed projections, and columns are subhasizontal only in the marginal portions of bioherms. Baleulie differs in having chiefly ragged, unwalled, margins, with fre- quent overhanging Taminae. Anubaria has con sistent, slightly Wivergent branching, and cylin- Urical columns, The columns of Paludia are complexty curved ond intertwined, while those of Pormites are anastomosing. Tragessia etine differs from all other forms of the group in ity great variation of branching style, and its microstructure. Some specimens closely resemble Tunpessfa inne Walter in hav- ing aolitic, wavy laminac, but TL etlira is uis- tinguished by its distinct thicker, pinching and swelling lamination and variable branching. Diswipution: Etina Formation and equiva- lents, Umibcratana Group, Central and Northern Flinders Ranges: Rakcanoona For- mation at Mt Chambers Gorge: Wunduwi¢ Limestone at Teatree O.S,; Etina Formation near Blinman, Martin's Well, the S.E. flank of the Enorama Diapir. Enorama Creck and the Arkaba Hills area- Age: Late Adelaidean, cormelated With Lhe Late Riphcan or Vendian of the USSR, Tongussia vilkatanna f. nov. FIGS. dc4, Se, be, 12b-« Marertal: Five specimens (rom Depot Creek und Mundallio Creek. Holotype: S412 (Figs. 4f,12e), Depot Creek. Name: After Wilkatanna H.S., & km nornthe west Of the type localily, Diagnosis; Tungussia with smooth to pently bumpy suheylindrical to tuberous, frequently walled columns, with markedly divergent mil- tiple branching and continuous thinly banded, hentspherical laminae. ent ol Mines Departny a a SOLVH AUSTRALIAN STROMATOLITES Ul Deseriprion Mode of Occurrence: The stromutolites occur in pale pink to white pure dolomites und pos- sibly also ih datk grey dolomites, as extensive bidstromes, 0,3-2 m thick, interbedded in lami- nured siltstones and shales. ‘The upper surfaces uf biwstrames are irregular, undulating, and in places. erosional, Stromatolitic columns arise from fatdomimated or cumulate buses (Fig. l2c), growth frequently commencing upon the vroded surface of the underlying shale, In some beds, only the flatlaminated or cumulate stage of growth is atlained, in others, up to 2 m thickness of columns develops. Columns are either bridged aver at the top by laterally ligked hemispheroids, or eroded. Columnar portions may grade laterally alone the bio- strome into laterally linked hemispheroids, Colume Shape and Arrangemet; Columas are subcylindrical to tuberous, humpy, 2-10 cm in diain,. with low broad swellings and constric- tions; portions of columns widen rapidly above aconsini¢tion (Fig, 40,d.f). Cross-sections vary From subeircular lo highly lobate, The orienta- ton of columns is highly variable, both hori- zontal and vertical columns being common. Individual columns are 5-20 em high, but the whole sttucture muy attain u height of 2 m. franching: Both vertical colunins and broad cumule may arise from the Mat-laminated base. These typically give rise to a number of hon- zontal columns, from which in tum cither vee- fical columns branch upwards, or the hori- zontal coluimns themselves turn sharply up- wards (Fig. 4e-4), Columns are frequently consinicied at branching, and then expand up- wards tuptdly. Multiple, markedly divergent. branching from one point ig cammen. Margin Strnerures The lateral surface bears. numerout broad bumps of up to several centi- metres (Flg, 4c), but in places columns are quite smooth (Figs. 4f, 12e}). Overhanyging laminae pte relatively rare, and any peaks and cornices present are only a few millimetres long (Fig. 461, A wall is usually preseny but may he absent: unwalled areas are relatively smooth of finely fringed, the laminae abutting against the columA margin at varus angles (Fig, 12b,u1, In walled areas, the Jaminae gradually thin and cover the surface for a distance of up lay fo 1 em. The wall varies jn thickhiess Lrom | to 10 Jaminae (Fig. 12e). Bridges became pro- minenl near the top of the structure. Lamina Shape is mostly hemisphericul, bul gently convex Jaminae occur in wide columns and in some horizontal columns, especially in unwalled portions. Laminac are smuothly curved, without sharp flexures, their shape being inberited from underlying laminge. Micro-unconformities occur, but are mostly only slight, Fig, Se illustrates some representa- tive Jamina shapes. 83% of laminae have h/d between 0,2 and 0,5, the mode (33%) being between 0.3 and 0.d (Fig. Ge). In places lami- hae develop two crests, anticipating branching. Near the margins of columns, laminge thin. and gither abut against the margite (in places eroded) wr bend over to farm 4a wall, Laminae are either amooth or very gently wndulating, with amplitude not exceeding one millimetre. Micrasieucture is best preserved in silicified portions of colamos; it is finely banded, con- sisting Of alternating (hia continuous dink and light luminue; continuity is broken only hy micro-unconformities (Fig. 12e}, In the less well preserved dolomitic stromatolites. the finest latdinue are frequently obliternted and macrolamimnae lend to predominate (Big, 1b). Light fuminee vary in chickness from 0.05-0,2 mm, most commonly 0.05-0.1 mm, bur thin towards the column maryins where they form the wall. The upper and lower boundaries are parallel, and usually distinct and smooth. Na unequivocal detrital grains were scen; some thicker pale laminae are of finely grumous tex- ture. representing parttally recrystallized dark macrolaminae. Well preserved light laminae in silicified columns consists of extremely fine lransparent chert—u xAcnowpic aggregate of equidimensiona!l quuitz grains, 0.001-0.01 mm in diam. Where preserved as carbonate, the light laminae consist of xenotopic ta fypidin- topic dolomite uf cquidimensional 0.005-0.02 mm erains. Dark feminee are generally thinner than Jight laminge (0.02-0.2 mm, most com- monly 0.02-0.08 mmm). Where well preserved they have smoath. distinct boundaries. and are quite continuous, but jn parts of dolomitic columns, they are preserved only as chains of elongated lenses, 0.1 to 0.5 mm long (Fig. Fig. 4. Reconstructions of Tinipussa efiea und T'vnsassia wilkatanna. (a, b)—Tungussia etina, Holo- type $435, Balcanoona Formation, near Mowat Chamibers; (c-7)—Troenssia wilkotanna, Skil- logalee Dolomite, Southern Flinders Ranges; fc, t)—S169. Depot Crock: (d)—S323, Mun- dallio Creek; (€]—S410, Depot Creek; (f|—Holotype. S412. Depot Creek: (g}—S408, Depot Creek; (1) S209, Depart Creck. A. Deponmont of Miner 7i-P ida Tig. 5. Examples of Lamina shapes of stroma- tolites, traced from thin sections, (it) — Linea ukkay (b)—Linella mauayallina; (e)—Qmachtenia utschuriea: (d)—Tun- sussia efina, (e)—Trngyssta iwilkatanie un de BA Deapersirentoal [sme Frequency distribution of Jamina con- vexities for stronratolites illustrated in Fig. 5 W. ¥. PREISS 126). Silicified dark laminae consist of extremely fine, pale brownish-yrey organic stained chert, of grain size 0,00)-0,005 mm. Carbonate laminae consist of xenotopic dolo- mite of equidimensional 0,003—0,005 mm wrains. Macrolaminae, 1-3 mm thick, coastst- ing of up to 10 light-dark lamination puirs, occur only in the dolomitic portions of columns (Rig. 12b). In plages, the fine internal lamina- tion of macrolaminae is obliterated almost entirely, but these grade laterally into unaltered light and dark, very thin Jaminae, Interspaces: The distances between. neighbour- ing columns vary from several millimetres to several centimetres. The interspaces are filled with almost completely unbedded intraclast wackestone, Clasts vary from 0.5-2 cm; most are wel! rounded, and compoxed of homo- geneous dolomicrite. Some are partially recrys- tallized to grumous-textured dolomite. Long, Nat intractasts. O.5-1 mm thick, up to 2 ¢m long, are common near the buse of one speci- men; these ure commonly replaced by coarse sparry hypidiotopic dolomite. Intrachasts are randomly oriented, looscly packed and gene- rally matrix-supported. Secondary Alteration. All definitely identified ovcurrences ure found in pale pink to White dolomites; other specimens from dark grey Uolomites at Depot Creek probably also belong to this group but are inadequate for reliable identification. The dolomite generally preserves most fine structure (as does the Skillogalec Dolomite of many other areas), but in places id significantly recrystallized. Silicification of portions of columns occurred after the growth of whole columns, but before partial alteration of the surrounding carbonate, since it best pre- serves the finest lamination. In places it is pos- sible to trace unaltered very thin laminae from silicified to carbonate portions of columns; in the Jatler, only broad light and dark macro- liminaeé are preserved, The dolomitie nature of the whole (unsilicificd) sediment suggests either penccontemparaneous dolomitization (during siromatolite growth) or trapping ol dalomitized lime mud, Silicifleation therefore probably post-dates dolomitization. Grumous lextures. are developed sporadically throughout stromatolite and interspace sediment, and were probably formed by partial recrystallization during later diagenesis. Irregular stylolites. buth culting columns and following column margins. post-date the development of grumous texture. They are commonly rich in linvonite, and, in Places, pale green chlorite. SOUTH AUSIRALIAN STROMATOLITES UE Compurisons The stromatolites ate assigned to the group Tungussia on the basis of their multiple, markedly divergent branching and frequent horizontal and. gently inclined columns, These Characters, in addition to @ cansistently smoother murgin structure and frequent pre- sence Of a wall, distinguish them from Boaicalta burre which occurs elsewhere in the Skillogalee Dolomite. Tungussia wilkatenna js dilfcren- Hated from T, nodosa Semikhatoy by its smoother column margins, smoother, consis- tently hemispherical and never disharmonic laminae. It resembles 7. sihiriea Nuzhnoy in having numerous horizontal columns with up- turned ends, but is distinguished by its smoother margin and presence of a wall. 7. wilkafanna is distinguished from TT. bassa Krylov in lacking long horizontal columns, and in aceurring independently, not as a fateral variant of Linelle wkka Krylov. Unlike 7: erecra Walter. it lacks long erect columns, and is distinguished from Ty inne Waller by its smooth laminae. T. wilkata@ina most closely Tesembles T, confuse Semikhutav, but is dis- tinguished by its thinner, more continuous lami- 201 nac of predominantly hemispherical shape. 7. wilkatanma has more regular and discrete columns of constant! shape and branching than T. efina, and has thinner, more continuous, smoother larninae. Distribution: ly the lower third of the Skillo- galec Dolomite, Burra Group; South-western Flinders Runges: Depot Creek and Mun- dallio Creek. Small specimens possibly to be included, come from near the base and near the lop of the formation, Mye-> Early Adclaitean., Acknowledgments 1am indebted to Prof. M, F, Glaessner for supervising this study, to the support given by: the Centre for Precambrian Research, Univer- sity of Adelaide, and to Dr M. R. Walter Por discussions and collaboration, Messrs. B. Murrell und N. S. Pledge kindly supplied me with specimens, and Mr R, P. Coats indicated several stromatalite loculities, Drafiine hy the Drafting Branch, Department of Mines, and by my wife is gratefully acknowledged. This puper is published with the permission of ihe Director of Mines. References KHOMENTOVSRIY, V, Vu, SHENTIL'. Vo ¥.. YARSHIN, M. S.. & Borakoy, BE. P. (1972)-—"Opornye ragrezy ollozhemty verkhnego dokembriyn i nizhnego kembriya sibirskoy — platformy” (“Standard sections of Upper Precambrian and Lower Cambrian deposits of the Siberian Plinform”) (Publishing House “Nauku"> Mauscow.) kKoroLyuk, LK. (1960).—Stromatolity nizhnego kembriya i proterozoya Irkutskogo amfiteatra (Stromatolites of the Lower Cambrian and Proteruzoie of the irkut Amphitheatre.) Trudy fast. Geol, Razah, Gasyuelh. tsheip. Akad. Nawk SSSR WV, 1-161. Keypow LON, {1967} Riteyakls 1 nizhne-kem- briyskie stromatolity ‘lyan’Shanya i Karatau, (Riphean and Lower Cambrian stromatolites of Tien Shan, and Karatau), Fruedy geol. Inset. Leniagr., V7, 1-76. NuvHnoy, 8S. V. (1960),—Stromalolily poxdnedo- kembriyskikh i kembriyskiskh otlozheuiy vos- tochnykh sklonov Aldanskogo — Shchita. (Stramatolites of the late Precambrian und Cambrian deposits of the eastern slapes of the Aldan Shield.) Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 132(6), 1421-1424, NuzHnov, S$. V. (1967).—Rifeyskic otlozhentyu yugo-vostoka sibicskoy platformy. (Riphean deposits of the southeast Siberian, platform.) Inst. Geol, Yakuisk. Filial Sibirsk. Otdel. Akad, Nauk SSSR; Moscow, 1-160. Preiss, W. V. (1972).—The systematics of South Australian Precambrian and Cumbrian Sto- matolites, Purt 1. Trans, R, Soe So Aayr. 96, 67-100. Preiss, W. V, (1973a).—The systematics of South Australian Precambrian and Cambrian stro- piste Part UL. Yrany. R. See. §. Aust, 97, 1-125. PREiss, W. VY. (1973b).—Palavogcologica! inter- pretattions of South Austratian Precambrian stlromatalites, J, geal, Soe. Aust. 19, 501-532. Sesoeiatov, M.A. (1960) —O vertikal'nom rus predelenii stromatolitov y rifeye Turukhan- skugo rayona, Dekl. Akad. Nawk SSSR 135 (6), 1480-1483. SEMIKIATOV, M, A. (1962)—Rifey | fizhniy kembriy = Yeniseyskogo Kryazhs. (The Riphean and Lower Cambrian of the Veniser Mountains | Trady. geol. lst) Leniner. 68. 1-242. Wactex, M. R, (1972).—Stromotolites aud the hiostratizraphy of the Australian Precambrian and Cambrian, Palaeontology, Spee, Paper M1, 1-190, 33 pls. 202 Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 10. W. V. PREISS Linella wkka, Balcanoona Formation, Burr Well, Northern Flinders Ranges. (a)—Longitudinal sections of tuberous columns with pointed projections in outcrop. Marking pen is 10 cm long; (o)—Longitudinul sections of inclined columns at a bioherm margin. Diameter of lens cap is § cm; fc)—Cut slab, showing divergently branching columns. The while areas ate patches of coursely crystalline calcite. $478; (d)—longitudinal thin section (S477); Laminae are largely obliterated by recrystallization; (¢)—A cut. slab, adjacent to thin section in (d), Linella munyallina, Wundowie Limestone Member, Northern Flinders Ranges. (a)—Recurvyed margin of a bioherm, lowest Jimestone band, Burr Well; (b)—Longitudinal sections of com- plexly branching columns, Rocbuck Bore: (¢)—Inclined columns at a bigherm margin. Lowest limestone band, Burr Well; (d)—Outcérop of a small bioherm. Lowest limestone band, Burr Well; (e)—Thin section inclined columns from a bioherm margin. Here the wall is poorly developed, Vowest limestone band, Burr Well. 5486; (f)—Thin section of columns with numerous bridges, Munyallina Valley, S294. (a-c)—Linella munyalling, Wurdowie Limestone Member. (aj)—Thin section of slightly divergent branching columns, Roebuck Bore. S431; (b)—Thin scetion of holotype, $495, showing steeply domed laminae in parallel, walled columns, Note sandy lenses in the inter- spaces; (c)—Thin section of slightly divergent branching columns. West Mount Hut, $555; (d)—Oniachtenia ulscharica, outcrop, uppermost beds of the Tapley ill Formation, Depot Creek: (e)—As for {d), showing numerous bridges between columns. {a-c)—Longitndinal thin sections, Omachtenia uischurica. C(ay—Dlustrating pelletal lamina- tion and coarse intraclasts in interspaces, $166, Depot Creek; (b)—Iustrating details of pel- fetul microstructure. $399, Depot Creek; (c)—-Illustrating broadly banded microstructure; (d, e)——Tungussia etina; (d)—Longitudinal outcrop section showing markediy divergent branch- ing, Balcanoova Formation, neat Mount Chambers; (e)—Onutcrop of irregularly tuberous columns, Etina Formation, Enorama Creek. (a) —Tungussia etina, Umberatana Group, Flinders Ranges, Longitudinal cut slab showing markedly divergent branching of columns. Wundowie Limestone Member, near Teatree O.S. $441; (b)—Longitudinal thin section of walled columns, Wundowie Limestone Member. near Teatree O.S. 8446; (c)—Vertical thin section of variously oriented columns, Balcanoona Formation, neat Mount. Chambers. Holotype $435; (d)—Wavy, banded lamination seen in thin section, Etina Formation, east of Blinman, 5158; (e)—Longitudinal thin section, HKal~ canoona Formation, near Moiint Chambers, $525. . (2)—Longitudinal thin section, Tungussia etina, Wundowie Limesione Member, near Teatree OS, $286: (b-c)—Tungussia wilkatanna, Skillogalee Dolomite, Depot Creek, (b)—Longi- tudinal thin section illustrating sharp flexure in column. S169; (c)—Outerop of bushy, diver- gently branching clump of columns: (d)—Cut slab, S169, illustrating markedly divergent branching; (e)—Thin section, holotype 5412, showing markedly divergent branching columns. White arcas are silicified. SOUTH AUSTRALIAN STROMATOLITES Il 203 W. V. PREISS 204 m 2c Fig. 8. SOUTH AUSTRALIAN STROMATOLITES IIL 205 206 W. V. PREISS SOUTH AUSTRALIAN STROMATOLITES III 207 i SE, = oS i) n 3 2 cm Fig. 11. W. V. PREISS 208 Fig. 12. AMPHIBOLURUS GIBBA, A NEW DRAGON LIZARD (LACERTILIA:AGAMIDAE) FROM NORTHERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY T. F. HOUSTON* Summary HOUSTON, T. F. (1974). -Amplibolurus gibba, a new dragon lizard (Lacertilia: Agamidae) from northern South Australia. Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 98(4), 209-212, 30 November, 1974. A new species of agamid lizard is described and figured. It is regarded as a member of the Amplibolurus reticulatus species-group and shows close affinity with A. maculosus (Mitchell). It appears to be confined to the gibber plains of northern South Australia. AMPHIBOLURUS GIBBA, A NEW DRAGON LIZARD (LACERTILIA: AGAMIDAE) FROM NORTHERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA by T. F. Houston* Summary Houston, T. F. (1974).—4mphibolurns gibba, va new dragon Jizurd (Lacerulin; Agamidae) from notthern South Australia. Trens. R- Soe. S. Aust. 98(4), 209-212, 30 November, 1974. A new species of agumid lizard is described and figured. Wt is regarded as a member of the Anphibolurus reticulatus species-group and shows close affinity with A. miaeulosus (Mitchsll). Jl appears to be confined. to the gibber plains of northern South Australia. Introduction The species described herein as. new is a lille known inhabitant of ihe barren, stone- strewn gibber plains of far northern South Australig, Specimens have been received at the South Australian Museum over the past 27 years bur were variously misidentified. most of them as Amphihbolurus imbricatuy Peters (=4. ¢, caudicinenis (Gunther)—Storr 1967). Mitchell's (1955, p. 387) reference to the necnrrence of A, inthrivatis near Marree und Finniss Springs, S. Aust., was based on these apecimens, Enquiries by the present author revealed one specimett in the National Museum of Vic- toria, Melbourne, but none in other Austra- lian museums. Except where indicated other- wise, all specimens listed below are in the South Australian Museum. Afl localities men- tioned are in South Australig. Amphibolurus gibba n.sp. FIGS. 1-4; TABLE 1 Holotype: 2. RiZ9S4A, 5.5 km NNW. of Alberrie Creck Railway Siding, S. Aust. (29°35'S, 137°31'E), 14.7974, ex burrow under cracked mud crust of gibber plain, R. Forsyth & T. Houston, Diagnosis: Agrees with A, reficulatus (Gray), A, inermis (De Vis) and A. maculosus (Mitchell) in general form (short decp head. abrupt profile, denticulate eye lids, smooth- scaled back and relutively short tail), Agrees with A. maculosns, but not A. reticularus and A. inermis, in having nostrils situated below * South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, 5. Aust. 5000. Hos ®Conber Pady Fig. t. Map of north-eastern South Australia showing collection localities (solid squares) of Amphibelurus gibba, (not On) canthus rostralis. Differs from the three in having relatively longer hind limbs (mean tatio of Ieg Jength to snout-venl length =81%; cf. 57-67% in other species): femoral and preanal pores (mean — 30) more numerous thon in 4. ineroms (21) and A. maculosus (10, femoral only) but fewer than in A. reticulatus (37); ear openings relatively smaller than in 4. rerculams and A. inermis but not scale-covered as in A. maculosns. Dis- 210 linguishable also by coloration: throat with conspicuous round black patch {with dark reticwum in A. redicu/aras and A- inernis; with Jongitudinal black strenk jn A- mtacnlosus); chin with median black streak, back butt to jurra-cotra ted, offen darkly speckled, usuully with &—-8& pairs of blackish paravertebral spets (with blackish reticulum in adult A. resiculatius and 4. inerniix; white to grey in A. macitlosay with bolder paravertebral spots); tail with linear series of 2630 dark spots each side (absent in other species). Description: Stout, moderate-sized dragon lizards reuching a snout-vent Iength of 82 mm and total Jength of 190 minty. head relatively short and deep; snout obtuse, rising steeply in profile; nostril situated helow slightly swollen canthus rosttaliss ear aperture relatively small und elliptical; body depressed: fore limbs relutively large, reaching or almost reaching groin wheo adpressed; hind limbs moderately long; til anoderately long and evenly taper- ing. «(See Table | for proportions}, Tn juveniles the head und appendages are relatively longer than in adults. TABLE 1 Howlv proportions expressed as percentaye roties jer spectnens af A, gibba with « seentvent length of 53 nom or nlere (n — sample sims ro > range, im mean, 2 = standard devialion) Propoction n 7 m 5 Hond Jonsth: SVL oi 2642 30a Head width: Jena 1 ASRS 35 As Eur diameter bead width 15 16-21 18 is Dore timh lane: SYL 14 39-48 3B pu | And limb teneth. SYL 14 75-90 3! a8 "Vall leoeth: SYL 12 i121 54 133 78 Dorsal scales of head weakly lu stronely convex, angular, transversely carinate or ridged in front of and behind supra-orbital jreus; a sow of enlarged, longitudinally ridged or carinate scales from belew eve to above ear; outer margin of lower eyelid fringed with s row of very acute scules; 4 seale rows separating nasals from upper labials; 12-17 upper Jabial scales each side; temporal, occi- pital, nuchal and axillary scales very small and convex, Interspersed on the head (sometimes) with a few spinous tubercles; no nuchal crest but a few median scales slightly enlarged; seales on temainder of body, Jegs and tail (dorsally) flat ind smooth, those of the buck largest medially; keels appearing only on yen- Iral side of tail, strongest distally; 26-395 T. F, HOUSTON {mean ~- 30) femoral and preanal pores well- spaced along a fairly straight Jine extending full length of each thigh; each pore surrounded by several scales, those anterior to it being slightly enlarged. Dorsally grey to buff-brown, tinged in some indivadwals with pink or lerra » & By S28 2 Ei § = § S82 Be BE 2) Zz 2 @ 8 af &s AE P. uuracvortensis. SAM, Pi7153 1444 36 #14 «#3 SAM, PI7154 32 SAM, P18183 49 14 «FZ SAM, F17878—* li 26 G, victoria NMV, W6676 WS 34 «12 «25 GC. scheepmakerl NMV, RS054 ROAM AP AMA TAP AP Re eRe Bs 3 be ws L, ectilata SAM, Bllda2 io 62200~«&a & 19 SAM, 18039 2 24 #9 19 103 24 BOY NMY, B9276 wy oa 9 19 18 2 9 20 Aw tuthumt MMV, W964 7 21 G 18 $6 20 8 NMV, W4sS4 2 u 18 x Bs & oI NMY, W4545 $8 oa 4 on 89 1 B. 1B M. roinwardt CSIRO, GALS 2 f kL @2 19 is R HZ 19 R #616 Csi, GALS 3 FS & 8B W a WT R 84 19 8 16 M. orltehardi USNM, 119634 L sg 42 4 ii R 59 12 464 * Juvenile, Weights Weights of seven male Mallecfowl ranged from 2.0 to 2.2 kg and of four females from 1.5 to 1,9 kg. Weights of five male Scrubfowl ranged from 0.8 to 1.2 kg and of seven females from 0.6 to 1.1 kg. Maschlanka (1972) found no significant sexual differences in the bone lengths of Malleefowl and Sutter (1965) Jound that of three Brush-turkcy raised in cap- tivity, two females reached weights of 2.0 and 2.1 kg and a male 2.5 kg. This limited evidence suggests that male megapodes are only slightly Jarger than females. If if is assumed that weight is proportional to the cube of the length of the coracoid and that the average weight of Malleefowl is twa Fig, 3, a—tleft humerus, M. reinward? (CSIRO, GALS3): 4.—left humetus, P. naracoariensis (SAM, P17153); c—left radius, P. naracoortensis (SAM, P18184); ¢@—left radius, M. reinwardt (CSIRO, GALS3); e—tleft reversed ulna. P. naracoortensis (SAM, P17879); f—rieht ulna, juvenile P. naracoortensis (SAM, P17877): 2— right ulna, M, reinwardt (CSTRO, GALS3): hi. and i—right ulna, P. gallinacea (AM, F54721 and F54722). 220 TABLE 4 Measurements of Ulnae of Megapudes ana Crowned Pigéons UU U EEE ESSE 2 4 guf2 2 g z 2 2 Es ia ca ia = ay 26 S Se P. callinaceaz QM,.15553 R Hi 20 AM, F54721 R 23 AM, F54722 R 12 22 AM, F54723 R We 22 P. naracgor(ensis SAM, P17879 L ig 19 SAM, PI8182 L WwW 19 SAM, PL7877—— R 137 9 10 ‘G. Victoria NM¥, W676 L it 19 9 17 R bal 18 17 G. scheepmakeri NMV, R&054 L ws 18 & 14 R 124 #17 q i4 LL. ocelluta SAM. 111482 d Tr. 105 14 % 79 R103 14 7 13 SAM. B39 OL 1068 1H AB R 106 15 4 13 NMV, 09276 L olt:t 14 7 12 R it4 15 7 13 A, lathami NMY, W964 L RY 5 7 12 R 8 13 & IL NMY, W4554 L #8 13 vy oat R RE 3 7 VW NMYV, W4555 {, AR VW 7 it R 88 13 6 41 M. reinwardt CSIRO, GALS 2 gf Lk 8 12 6 10 Rh 85 6 1 CSTRO- GALS 3 4 L 87 13 5 6 R RB i3 6 1) M. pritchard? USNM, 3.19634 r 67 & 4 7 R 66 8 3 7 —_ * Juvenile. kg and of Scrubfowl one kg, then the weight of P. gallinacea would have been aboul five to seven kg and of P. naracoortensts about sour io five kg. A reconstruction of the relative sizes of the Australian megapodes is given in Fig. 5. Power of flight There are several kinds of birds thal are over seven ky in weight and are capable of flying, e.g. turkeys, bustards, cranes and swans. The wing bones of the two Progura species are relatively and absolutely long and slrong enough for them to have been capable of at least Jimited flight. Ecolagy Until more material, especially of the skull, of the species of Progura becomes available for study, very little can be suid about how and in what habitats they lived. As Jarge land G. F. vaw TETS TABLE 5 Measuremenis. of Radii of Megapodes ard Crowned Pigeons = EE - 2 g 3 a ¥ EI « 3 2 £2 Ge & a 2 &@ 2 4 & &2 aE P. qaracoortensls SAM, PIS184 L 135 10 G 13 G. victoria NMY. Waé676 E 4720 Y) 5 1 R 120 10 5 Ww G, scheopmakeri NMV, RB054 L ii4 7 5 10 R114 % 5 a L, ocellata NMV, 89276 1 104 7 4 8 rR 105 7 4 § A, lathamni NMY, WS964 L 80 3 3 K R 79 bh 3 8 NMY, W4554 I. §1 i J 8 RK 80 t a & NMY, W455 | Ae <2 a 4 # R BI i) 3 ¥ M. reluwardl CSIRO, GALS2 Jd L 7 6 3 8 R 79 6 & CSIRO, GALS 4 a L £0 4 3 7 kK ‘80 f 3 7 M, pritehardl USNM, 319634 L 61 § z Ss R 5 4 2 x IS TABLE 6 Measurements of Carpometacarpit of Megapodes and Crowned Pigeons = # olf 2 2 3 Fi a 25 2 2 2 a = #5