The Victorian Naturalist Volume 111 (1) 1994 | /. | February Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884 EUM OF VICTORIA “HN March Tues 1 Sat 5 FENCY Calendar of Activities Fauna Survey Group Meeting. Vegetation Diversity at Jilpanger Springs — Damien Cook. Herbarium Hall 8 pm. General FNCV Excursion. Bush Regeneration at Alan McMahon’s Property, Erica. Contact Dorothy Mahler 435 8408. Thurs 10 Botany Group Meeting. Orchids after the Anglesea Fire — Ilma Dunn and Sat 12 - Mon 14 Wed 16 Wed 23 Sat 26 Sat 26 April Fri 1- Mon 4 Tues 5 Sat 9 Mon 1] Thurs 14 Botany Group Meeting. Action Statements under the Flora and Fauna Sat 16 Wed 20 Sat 23 Sat 23 — Mon 25 Wed 27 Notice: te Victorian Naturalist is the bi-monthly publication of The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria, F John Eichler. Herbarium Hall 8 pm. No General Meeting - VFNCA Camp from Fri. 11 to Mon. 14, Gippsland. Fauna Survey Group Field Survey. Wilson’s Promontory. Contact Russell Thompson 434 7046, Microscopical Group Meeting. Microscopical Freshwater Life — Dr. Russell Shiel. Astronomer’s Residence 8pm. Geology Group Meeting. Geology of the North-west Shelf — Ian Russell. Herbarium Hall 8 pm. Botany Group Excursion, Seaweeds and Shore Plants at Flinders. Leader Tom Sault. Meet Golf Course Road Car Park 10.30 am. Melway 197 G10. Own transport. Fauna Survey Group Field Survey. Leadbeaters Possum Survey. Contact Ray Gibson 874 4408. Fauna Survey Group Field Survey. Easter Camp, Ned’s Corner. Contact Ray Gibson 874 4408. Fauna Survey Group Meeting. Population Viability and Analysis for Rare Species — Mark Bergman. Herbarium Hall 8 pm. President’s Picnic — Wattle Park. All club members are asked to join in this get together. Meet at Chalet Car Pi off Riversdale Road 11.30 am. This picnic replaces the excursion. Annual General Meeting — Herbarium Hall 8 pm. Guarantee Act — Pam Clunie. Herbarium Hall 8 pm. Fauna Survey Group Field Survey. Leadbeaters Possum Survey. Contact Ray Gibson 874 4408. Microscopical Group Meeting. Videos on Live Cell Functions — Prof. Pickett-Heaps. Melbourne University. Contact Ray Power 717 3511. Botany Group Excursion. Boneseeding at Seawinds, Arthurs Seat. Meet Car Park 10.30 am. Own transport. Contact Joan Harry 850 1347. Se Group Field Survey. Brisbane Ranges. Contact Ray Gibson Geology Group Meetin . Herbarium Hall 8 ina Bi MEA g all 8 pm. Contact Karina Bader The distinguished Japanese mycologist Y. Kobayasi died 6 Jan 1994. He was the world expert on cordyceps. The ictorian aturalist Volume 111 (1) 1994 February Editor: Robyn Watson Assistant Editors: Ed and Pat Grey Research Reports The Distribution, Habitat and Conservation Status of the Greater Long-eared Bat, Nyctophilus timoriensis, by L.F. Lumsden... erretretan 4 Contributions Naturalist Notes ANHM Address Book Reviews Obituary ISSN 0042-5184 Germination Characteristics of Eight Common Grassland and Woodland Forbs, by John W. Morgan and lan D. ENIE E, 10 Cellular Slime Moulds: the Simplest Complex Eukaryotes? by Keith L. Williams .eeseeennenenennnnnnunnnnnnnnn nun 18 Anti-Predator Behaviour of the Brush-Tailed Phascogale (Phascogale tapoatafa), by Todd Soderquist ceee 22 The Biology, Ecology and Horticultural Potential of Banksia L.f.: A Bibliography of Recent Literature, by A.K. Cavanagh... 25 Butterflies (Pieridae) Eaten by Dragon Lizard and Rainbow Bee-eater, by lan Faithful... tet 31 Volvox at Albert Park Lake, by D-E. McInnes ~es 32 A Dog’s Life - But Butchered by a Bird, by Arthur J. Farnworth.... 34 Exploring Local Seasonality, by Alan J. Reid „ssie 35 Door to the Forest, by Ellen Lyndon, reviewer Sheila Houghton..... 38 Collecting and Preserving Herbarium Specimens, by David Albrecht, reviewer Editors iesene 38 The Encyclopaedia of Australian Animals: Reptiles, Frogs; Mammals and Birds. 4 VOlUMES...seeneennnenennnnnunnnuntn 38 39 Wir Wil) T A S a a ar ar es RST Cover Photo: A forest of slime moulds, photographer K. L. Williams (see article on page 18.) Research Reports The Distribution, Habitat and Conservation Status of the Greater Long-eared Bat Nyctophilus timoriensis in Victoria L.F. Lumsden* Introduction During the last decade, extensive sur- veys for bats conducted throughout Victoria (e.g. Emison et al. 1984, Robertson et al. 1989, Brown and Howley 1990, Lumsden er al. 1991) have greatly increased our knowledge of the distribu- tion of the bat fauna throughout the State (Atlas of Victorian Wildlife). Recent taxonomic revisions (e.g. Kitchener et al. 1987, Adams et al. 1988) have revealed new species for which more detail is re- quired, but the distribution, relative abundance and broad habitat require- ments are now known for most species within Victoria. The species with the least number of records is the Greater Long- eared Bat Nyctophilus timoriensis (Fi g. 1), with only four records from Victoria. The taxonomy of the genus Nyctophilus is under revision, and the status of N. timoriensis throughout its range requires clarification (H. Parnaby pers. comm.). In Victoria N. timoriensis previously in- cluded Gould’s Long-eared © Bat Nyctophilus gouldi, which is now recog- nised as a distinct species (Parnaby 1987). Most records in the early Victorian litera- ture (e.g. Pamaby 1977; Emison et al. 1978; Menkhorst and Gilmore 1979) are now known to be N. gouldi. Fig. l. The Greater Long-eared Bat Nyctophilus timoriensis, i * DCNR, 123 Brown St. Heidelberg, Victoria 3084 Nyctophilus timoriensis is widely dis- tributed throughout southern mainland Australia, generally associated with the semi-arid environment. Within this area however, its distribution is patchy, and it is rarely recorded (Richards 1991). In South Australia, it is restricted to the broad band of mallee vegetation across the mid-north of the State (Reardon and Flavel 1987). In Victoria, all records are from low rainfall areas in the north and north-west of the State. Due to the paucity of records, N. timoriensis is classified as Rare in Vic- toria (CNR 1993). It is listed as Vulnerable in the Action Plan for Bat Conservation in Australia (Richards and Hall 1993), and as a threatened species in the Murray Mallee region (Stephens 1992). This paper summarises information on the known distribution, habitat require- ments and conservation status of N. timoriensis in Victoria, and compares it with that of other species of Nyctophilus in this State. Methods Extensive surveys for bats have been undertaken in three study areas within the potential distribution of N. timoriensis (Fig. 2). Two Land Conservation Council (LCC) areas were surveyed for vertebrate fauna: the Murray Valley between Sep- tember and November 1982 and the Mallee between August 1985 and May 1987 (Robertson et al. 1989). Recent sur- veys (January to April 1992 and December 1992 to March 1993) have con- centrated on bats in the northern plains as part of a research project into the effects on fauna of habitat fragmentation and the role of remnant native vegetation in rural landscapes. These study areas are located inland of the Great Dividing Range, within the Victorian Nat. Research Reports ® Records of N. rimoriensis CO Distribution of N. gouldi . Mopoke Hatiah `) _ MALLE TaD a NORTHERN PLAINS YX. gets 2! MURRAY VALLEY / \ ee et * Yarrock Bullock Ck f J nedas $y = be - P O Fig. 2. The four Victorian records of the Greater Long-eared Bat Nyctophilus timoriensis and the distribution of Gould's Long-eared Bat Nyctophilus gouldi in Victoria. Study area boundaries are indicated by broken lines. The Murray Valley area boundary approximates that of the Northern Plains and is not shown, Murray Lowlands physiographic region, where the elevation is less than 200 m. Mean annual rainfall varies from 250 to 500 mm. Bats were trapped using either harp traps (AUSTBAT, 32 Longs Rd., Lower Plenty 3093), or mist nets (nylon and mono- fila- ment) and trip-lines. Traps were placed in potential flight paths, either at or away from water, or adjacent to possible roost trees. Mist nets and trip-lines were employed at water bodies. Captured bats were processed and released later that night or the following morning. The age, sex, reproductiye condition, forearm length and weight of each bat was recorded. Habitat and weather conditions were also noted. Museum specimens and relevant litera- ture were checked for additional records of N. timoriensis in Victoria. Results Records of N. timoriensis in Victoria During surveys in northern and northwestern Victoria, within the poten- tial range of N. timoriensis, 5267 bats of 15 species were caught, only two (0.04%) of which were N. timoriensis (Table 1). Details of these two records and two ear- lier Museum specimens are summarised in Table 2. Trapping results for bats at the three most recent specimen localities are presented in Table 3. A brief description of each locality where N. timoriensis has been recorded is provided below. l. Yarrock, 11 km NNW of Kaniva (36°17'S 141°12’E, elevation 100 m, mean annual rainfall ~ 450 mm) One specimen originated from Yarrock in 1888. This area is now predominantly private land that has been cleared of native vegetation for wheat cropping and sheep grazing. Remnant vegetation reveals that the Yarrock area is on the border between the broad band of mallee vegetation to the north and Yellow Box Eucalyptus mel- liodora woodlands to the south. Other Table 1. Capture success rates for bats during surveys in north-western and northern Victoria. Study area Survey dates Number of trap-nights Number of mist net-hours Number of captures of N. timoriensis N. gouldi N. geoffroyi Capture success for N. timoriensis per bat trap-night per mist net-hour Total number of captures of bats Number of species Vol. 111(1) 1994 Murray Valley Northern Plains 1992-3 Mallee 1985-7 595 595 Research Reports habitats within the Yarrock area include Black Box E. largiflorens woodland, River Red Gum £. camaldulensis swamps, Buloke Casuarina leuhmanni and Slender Cypress-pine Callitris preis- sii woodlands. 2. Mopoke Tank, Sunset Country, 48 km W of Hattah (34°49’S 141°45'E, elevation 40 m, mean annual rainfall ~ 300 mm) tank is open mallee, predominantly White Mallee E. gracilis with a chenopod under- storey. Buloke and Cattle-bush Hetero- dendrum oleifolium are present on the nearby dunes. Mallee trees in this area are mature and have numerous hollows. This area is now part of the Murray-Sunset National Park. During three nights trap- ping at Mopoke Tank in 1986/87, with One specimen was caught on 5 Novem- harp traps and mist nets monitored all ber 1961. The habitat surrounding this Table 2. Details of the four Victorian records of Nyctophilus timoriensis. (SAM South Australian Museum; MV Museum of Victoria). Mopoke Tank MV C3240 5 Nov 1961 Male Hattah Bullock Ck MV C28470 - 24 Jan 1987 23 Mar 1992 Male Female Adult Adult Testes Pre-parous enlarged 42.1 13.0 Yarrock Specimen number SAM M490 Date collected Aug 1888 Sex Female Age Adult Reproductive condition 47.3 15.3 Forearm (mm) Weight (g) Table 3. Trapping details from bat surveys at the three recent specimen localities of Nyctophilus timoriensis. Mopoke Tank Hattah Bullock Ck Dates trapped 14-15/12/1986 24/1/1987 22-23/3/1992 and and 19/1/1987 15-17/12/1992 Trapping effort bat trap-nights 7 11 mist net-hours 93 Numbers of N. timoriensis caught 0 Capture success rate for N. timoriensis per bat trap-night per mist net-hour Numbers of other species caught Mormopterus spp. Tadarida australis Chalinolobus gouldii Chalinolobus morio Nyctophilus geoffroyi Scotorepens balstoni Vespadelus baverstocki Vespadelus regulus Vespadelus vulturnus Overall capture success per bat trap-night per mist net-hour Victorian Nat. Research Reports night, 162 Lesser Long-eared Bats N. geoffroyi were captured; however, no N. timoriensis were caught (Table 3). 3. Hattah-Kulkyne National Park, 7 km NE of Hattah (34°43’S 142°20’E, eleva- tion 60 m, mean annual rainfall ~ 300 mm) One male was trapped using monofila- ment mist nets at a tank on the Mournpall Track on 24 January 1987. The habitat immediately surrounding the tank con- sisted of an open woodland of Buloke, with some Slender Cypress-pine and River Red Gum. Extensive areas of mal- lee vegetation (E. socialis, E. dumosa, E. foecunda) and River Red Gum woodland occurred within one kilometre of the site. Four mist nets were monitored from dusk (2130 hrs) until midnight, with the N. timoriensis caught at 2230 hrs. Weather conditions were still, without cloud, moon or rain. Temperature during the trapping period ranged from 27° to 22°C. Sixty individuals of 5 other species, including 35 N. geoffroyi, were also caught at the site (Table 3), 4. Bullock Creek, 10 km SE of Pyramid Hill (36°07’S 144°11’E, elevation 100 m, mean annual rainfall ~ 400 mm) A female N. timortensis was trapped in a harp trap on 23 March 1992, in remnant Black Box woodland along Bullock Creek. Understorey vegetation was dominated by clumps of Tangled Lignum Muehlenbeckia cunninghamii. The area was public land water frontage that had been selectively logged in the past and used for grazing stock. The width of the remnant vegetation along the creek at this site was 280 m, with farmland on either side. There were numerous large trees with hollows providing potential roost sites. The bat was trapped sometime after 2200 hrs on a mild night (overnight min- imum temperature 17°C) with no wind or rain, and approaching a full moon. Trap- ping on two consecutive nights at this site resulted in the capture of 17 individuals of 5 species, in addition to the N. timoriensis. The site was trapped again in December Vol. 111(1) 1994 1992, when 49 individuals of eight species were trapped (Table 3), Fifteen other sites within a 10 km radius of this location, were also trapped during March and December 1992, with a total capture of 161 individuals of seven species, but no further N. timoriensis were caught. Relationships with other Victorian Nyctophilus Nyctophilus timoriensis and N. gouldi (which were previously synonymous) have largely non-overlapping distribu- tions (Parnaby 1987). N. gouldi occurs predominantly in the mesic eucalypt forests of the Great Dividing Range. In Victoria its distribution extends into the drier box woodlands inland of the Divide, with the inland limit generally cor- responding with the 500 mm isohyet, although it extends into lower rainfall areas along the Murray River in the vicinity of Echuca (Fig. 2). The recent surveys of bats west of Echuca have recorded these two species within 25 km of each other, both within Black Box woodland. Specimens of N. gouldi from the Echuca area are significantly smaller than those further to the south (Students T-test p< 0.001) (Table 4), and they are quite dis- tinct from N. timoriensis. The head of N. timoriensis is proportionally larger and with a broader snout than N. gouldi, and the body is more thickset. The outer width of the upper canines is greater than 5.6 mm in N. timoriensis and less than 5.6 mm in N. gouldi (Parnaby 1992). The distribution of Nyctophilus geof- froyi is widespread, and includes areas where both N. gouldi and N. timoriensis occur, It can be distinguished from both by its smaller size and Y-shaped noseleaf. However, in the Echuca area, weights and forearm lengths of N. gouldi overlap those of N. geoffroyi (Table 4) and identifica- tion tequires confirmation by noseleaf shape. N. geoffroyi was caught, often in large numbers, at all sites where N. timoriensis was trapped (Table 3). Research Reports Discussion The paucity of records of N. timoriensis in Victoria is believed to reflect its relative abundance. Although little is known of the ecology of N. timoriensis, it is likely to be similar to other species of Nyc- tophilus. The flight pattern of the Tasmanian N. timoriensis was described as slow, undulating and agile, frequently in the understorey, which was very similar to that of N. geoffroyi (O’ Neill and Taylor 1986). Hence, it could be expected that if present, N. timoriensis would encounter traps and mist nets, especially in north- western Victoria where the canopy height is between 5 and 30 m. If the ability to detect bat traps and mist nets is similar to that of other Nyctophilus, the techniques employed during the surveys should have been suitable to catch this species. The capture of 1050 N. geoffroyi and only 2 N. timoriensis suggests that N. timoriensis really is rare. Itis possible that these records represent vagrant individuals to Victoria, however, this is unlikely, as the slow manoeuvrable flight of this species is not conducive to long distance flights. The other species of Nyctophilus in Victoria are considered to be sedentary. The Victorian records of N. timoriensis reveal that several broad habitat types are used: mallee vegetation, open woodland of Buloke, and Black Box woodland. These vegetation types are widespread in northern Victoria, and so at this broad level there appears to be extensive areas of potential habitat. Other vegetation types from which N. timoriensis has been recorded throughout its mainland range include River Red Gum woodlands (Richards 1983). In Tasmania, N. timoriensis has been recorded in wet sclerophyll forest, coastal mallee and Blackwood swamps (Taylor and O’ Neill 1986), habitats which are not used on the mainland. The results of these surveys support the listing of N, timoriensis as Rare under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act, Victoria. Due to the lack of historical records, it is not known whether the species has suf- fered a reduction in abundance since European settlement, or if it has always been rare in Victoria. As the reasons for its current rarity are unknown, it is dif- ficult to suggest appropriate management regimes. However, several broad ecologi- cal requirements are known. Like most species of insectivorous bats in Victoria, tree hollows are utilised for roosting Table 4. Morphometric data for Nyctophilus spp. in Victoria. Measurements are from adult individuals. Value: parentheses, Species Nyctophilus timoriensis Victoria Nyctophilus gouldi Echuca area Nyctophilus gouldi Southern Vict 11.0 + 1.29.0 - 16.0) s are means + standard deviation with the range in Weight (g) Forearm length (mm) 13.0 15.3 42.2 + 0.1 (42.1 - 42.2) 46.8 + 0.7 (46.3 - 47.3) 0 (7.2 - 14,4) 6 (7.4 - 14.6) 39.6 + 1.9 (38.0 - 45.2) 40.9 + 1.4 (38.4 - 45.2) 43.1 + 1.1 (40.0- 46.6) 13.44 1.5 (10.0 - 16.5) 44.7 + 1.2 (41.8 - 47.7) Nyctophilus geoffroyi Victoria 6.6+ 0.7 (4.6-9.2) 89+ 1.3(5.6- 14.5) 35.5 + 1.3 (32.0 - 39.3) 37.9 + 1.4 (33.5 - 41.7) Victorian Nat.. Research Reports during the day. In Tasmania it was found to consume mostly non-volant prey (caterpillars and scorpions) (O'Neill and Taylor 1989), assumed to be obtained by gleaning as it foraged in the understorey (O’ Neill and Taylor 1986). Therefore the availability of shrubs and other under- storey vegetation may be important. The localities of the three records since 1960 are from public land, two within National Parks. However, as we do not know why this species is so rare, we can not assume that its long term status in Victoria is secure. Therefore further in- formation on the distribution of N. timoriensis and of its habitat and ecologi- cal requirements are needed, Acknowledgements I would like to thank Andrew Bennett and Joan Dixon for improving earlier drafts; Steffan Krasna and John Silins for assistance with trapping; Harry Parnaby for confirming the identity of the Hattah specimen; Joan Dixon for access to the Museum of Victoria records; and Lynette Queale for information on the Yarrock specimen. References Adams, M., Reardon, T.R., Baverstock, P.R. and Watts, C.H.S, (1988). Elecrophoretic resolution of species boundaries in Australian Microchiroptera. IV. The Molossidae (Chiroptera). Australian Journal of Biological Science 41: 315-26. Brown, G.W. and Howley, S.T. (1990). The bat fauna (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) of the Acheron Valley, Victoria. Australian Mammalogy 13: 65-70. CNR (1993), Threatened Fauna in Victoria. Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Emison, W.B., Menkhorst, P.W., Mansergh, L.M., Nor- man, F.1., Robertson, P., Corrick, A.H, and Alderson LA. (1984). Wildlife surveys conducted by the Fisheries and Wildlife Division in Victoria, 1972- 1983, In ' Survey Methods for Nature Conservation’. Eds K, Myers, C.R. Margules and I. Musto, pp 166-94, (CSIRO: Canberra.) Emison, W.B., Porter, J.W., Norris, K.C. and Apps, G,J. (1978). Survey of the vertebrate fauna in the Gram- pians-Edenhope area of southwestern Victoria. Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria 39: 281-63. Vol, 111(1) 1994 Kitchener, D.J., Jones, B. and Caputi, N, (1987). Revision of Australian Eptesicus (Microchiroptera: Vespertilionidae). Records of the Western Australian Museurn 13: 427-500, Lumsden, L.F., Alexander, J.S.A., Hill, F.A.R., Krasna, S.P. and Silveira, C.E, (1991). The vertebrate fauna of the Land Conservation Council Melbourne-2 Study Area. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmen- tal Research Technical Report Series No. 115. Menkhorst, P.W. and Gilmore, A.M. (1979). Mammals and reptiles of north central Victona, Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria 40: 1-33. O'Neill, M.G, and Taylor, R.J. (1986). Observations on the flight patterns and foraging behaviour of Tas- manian bats. Australian Wildlife Research 13: 427-32. O'Neill, M.G. and Taylor, R.J, (1989), Feeding ecology of Tasmanian bat assemblages. Australian Journal of Ecology 14: 19-31, Pamaby, H. (1977). Bat survey of the Daylesford area, Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 94: 191-7, Pamaby, H. (1987), Distribution and taxonomy of the Long-eared Bats, Nyctophilus gouldi Tomes, 1858 and Nyctophilus bifax Thomas, 1915 (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) in eastem Australia, Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales 109: 153-74. Pamaby, H. (1992). An interim guide to identification of insectivorous bats of south-eastern Australia, Tech- nical Reports of the Australian Museum No, 8. Reardon, T.B. and Flavel, S.C. (1987). ‘A Guide to the Bats of South Australia’. (South Australian Museum: Adelaide.) Richards, G.C. (1983). Greater Long-eared Bat Nyc- tophilus timoriensis. In ‘The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals’. Ed R. Strahan, pp. 328-9. (Angus and Robertson; London.) Richards, G.C, (1991). The conservation of forest bats in Australia: do we really know the problems and solu- tions? Jn ‘Conservation of Australia’s Forest Fauna’. Ed D. Lunney, pp. 81-90. (Royal Zoological Society of NSW: Mossman.) Richards, G.C. and Hall, L.S. (1993). Action Plan for Bat Conservation in Australia (Draft). Report to Australian Nature Conservation Agency. Robertson, P., Bennett, A.F., Lumsden, L.F., Silveira, C.E., Johnson, P., Yen, A., Milledge, G., Lilywhite, P. and Pribble, J. (1989), Fauna of the Mallee Study Area, north-western Victoria. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series No. 87, Stephens, S. (1992). Endangered species and com- munities and threatening processes in the Murray Mallee. Draft status report, Murray Darling Basin Commission. Taylor, R.J. and O'Neill, M.G, (1986). Composition of the bat (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) communities in Tasmanian forests. Australian Mammalogy 9: 125-30. Research Reports Germination Characteristics of Eight Common Grassland and Woodland Forbs John W. Morgan and Jan D. Lunt* Abstract AS, Seed germination characteristics were examined for eight species of native forbs from lowland grasslands and grassy woodlands in Gippsland, eastern Vic- toria: Arthropodium minus, Craspedia variabilis, Dichondra repens, Helich- rysum scorpioides, Lagenifera gracilis, Leptorhynchos linearis, | Solenogyne dominii and Veronica plebeia. Two temperature regimes (constant 20°C and alternating 20/10°C) and two light regimes (16h light/8h dark and constant dark) were examined. An additional ex- periment was undertaken with Craspedia variabilis to determine the rate of ger- mination in the dark. Few seeds of A. minus or D. repens germinated under any treatment, but at least 79% of seeds of all other species except C. variabilis ger- minated under one or more treatments. At least 75% of H. scorpioides, Lagenifera gracilis and Leptorhynchos linearis seeds germinated in the light and the dark under at least one temperature regime. V. plebeia and S. dominii germination was inhibited by darkness and significantly fewer H. scorpioides seeds germinated in the dark than in the light under constant temperature. C. variabilis seeds appeared to germinate faster in the dark than in the light under alternating temperatures, but the final percentage germination was al- most identical regardless of the duration of the dark treatment. The eight species Studied all responded differently to the four experimental conditions imposed, and grassland forbs did not, as a whole, respond differently to the woodland forbs. Grassland and woodland remnants both include species with a wide Variety of germination characteristics. Introduction In recent years, increasing use has been made of indigenous herbs for rehabilitat- * Botany De 3083 partment, La Trobe University, Bundoora 10 ing and restoring natural ecosystems (Buchanan 1989; Duggan 1991; Offor and Watson 1991; Kemp and Irvine 1993). Such projects have highlighted the need for detailed information on the ger- mination and establishment requirements of these plants. A number of recent papers have inves- tigated the germination requirements of selected native forbs (herbs other than grasses) from temperate grasslands and grassy woodlands (Hitchmough et al. 1989; McIntyre 1990; DeKock and Taube 1991; Willis and Groves 1991), Twenty- four species have been investigated in these four studies. McIntyre (1990) in- cluded species of a range of life-forms and micro-habitats, but Hitchmough er al. (1989), DeKock and Taube (1991) and Willis and Groves (1991) concentrated on conspicuous, flowering perennials of rela- tively open habitats, such as native grasslands and open grassy woodlands. Previous studies have found dramatic dif- ferences in germination behaviour between co-occurring species. McIntyre (1990) and Willis and Groves (1991) con- cluded that much more information is needed before we can confidently predict optimal conditions for seed germination and establishment in the field, In this study, we document the germination char- acteristics of eight species of perennial forbs from remnant grasslands and grassy woodlands on the lowland Gippsland plains in eastern Victoria. Methods Eight species were selected for study (Table 1), including two species that are common in rail-line grasslands ( Craspedia variabilis and Helichrysum scorpioides) and six that are common in remnant Woodlands (Arthropodium Minus, Dichondra repens, Lagenifera gracilis, Leptorhynchos linearis, Solenogyne Victorian Nat. Research Reports Tablel. Seed collection sites, habitats and seed weights. Collection site Bnagolong Forest Reserve Arthropodium minus Liliaceae R. Br. Craspedia variabilis Everett & Doust Dichondra repens J.R. & G. Forster Helichrysum scorpioides Labill. Asteraceae Convolvulaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Lagenifera gracilis Steetz Leptorhynchos Asteraceae linearis Less. Solenogyne Asteraceae dominii L. Adams Veronica plebeia R. Br. Park Scrophulariaceae dominii and Veronica plebeia). Arthropodium minus also occurs rarely in some grassland remnants. Species selec- tion was partly limited by the availability of seed since many perennial herbs produced little seed in late 1991 owing to dry weather. Seed of all species was collected be- tween May and December 1991, and was stored at room temperature in the dark until used. The germination experiments began in July 1992. All plant names fol- low Ross (1993). Voucher specimens have been lodged at the National Her- barium of Victoria (MEL). Experiment I - Light and temperature effects Seeds of all species were placed in two growth cabinets (brand names Clegg and Zankel, 108 and 110 microeinsteins/m‘/s light intensity respectively) under four light and temperature regimes: (1) con- stant 20°C with a 16/8 hrs light and dark cycle; (2) constant 20°C in the dark; (3) alternating temperature, with 16 hrs light at 20°C, and 8 hrs dark at 10°C; and (4) alternating temperature, 16 hours at 20°C and 8 hrs at 10°C, in the dark. Seed of L, Vol. 111(1) 1994 Munro rail reserve Moormurmg Flora and Fauna Reserve Munro rail reserve grassland Moormurng Flora and Fauna Reserve Moormurng Flora Fauna Reserve Stratford Highway Moormurng Flora and Fauna Reserve Habitat Eucalyptus tereticornis 960 grassy woodland Seeds/gram Themeda triandra grassland Eucalyptus tereticornis grassy woodland Themeda triandra Eucalyptus tereticornis grassy woodland Eucalyptus tereticornis grassy woodland Eucalyptus tereticornis grassy woodland Eucalyptus tereticorni grassy woodland linearis was only placed under alternating temperature (i.e. regimes 3 and 4) due to limited quantities of seed. Twenty seeds of each species were placed on three sheets of moist Whatman No, 1 filter paper in a 9 cm petri dish, with five replicates per treatment. The dark treatment dishes were sealed and covered in aluminium foil. The petri dishes were then placed in one of two growth cabinets: one with constant and one with alternating temperatures. The light treatment seeds were inspected every 2-4 days for 36 days, and all ger- minated seeds were counted and removed at each inspection. The filter paper was re-moistened with distilled water as necessary, The dark treatment seeds were inspected at the end of the experiment after 36 days. Because the two temperature treat- ments, alternating and constant, were studied in different growth cabinets, any apparent differences in germination response could possibly be due to un- defined cabinet differences rather than to temperature differences per se. To inves- tigate this possibility, the initial experiment was repeated with three 11 Research Reports species, H. scorpioides, Lagenifera gracilis and V. plebeia. The experimental condi- tions were identical to the first trial, but the temperature regime was switched be- tween the two cabinets, and only the light treatments were examined, Experiment 2 - Germination rates in Craspedia variabilis The rate of germination in the dark was not determined in experiment (1), as dark treatment samples were only examined at the end of the experiment. To provide information on the relative rate of ger- mination under light and dark treatments, a subsequent experiment was undertaken with one species, C. variabilis. Five treat- ments were examined, all under alternating temperatures at 20°C for 16 hrs in the light and 10°C for 8hrs in the dark: (1) germination in the light for 67 days, (2) dark germination for 7 days, followed by light germination for 60 days, (3) dark germination for 16 days, followed by li ght germination for 51 days, (4) dark ger- mination for 22 days, followed by light germination for 45 days, (5) dark ger- mination for 28 days, followed by light germination for 39 days. The experimen- tal protocol was the same as in experiment (1), with five replicates of 20 seeds for each treatment. Seeds were examined every 2-3 days after being exposed to the light. Seed viability Seeds of three species (A. minus, C. variabilis and D. repens) germinated poorly in experiment one. To determine whether this response was due to un- Suitable germination conditions or to the presence of many non-viable seeds, an additional 100 seeds from the same seed lots were subsequently tested for viability using the tetrazolium test (Freeland 1976). Statistical analyses The mean percentage germination of seeds of each species under the four light and temperature treatments in experiment (1) was compared Statistically for all 12 species that attained 20%. germination under one or more treatments. The results were analysed using arcsine-transformed data. Before transformation, 0% germina- tion values were increased by 0.05% and 100% values were reduced by 0.05%. Germination often differed dramatically between replicates under the same treat- ment, and arcsine transformations did not eliminate the heterogeneity of variances. Consequently, results were compared using the Games and Howell test for un- planned comparisons between pairs of means, which assumes that variances are heterogeneous (Sokal and Rohlf 1981), Results Seeds of the eight species displayed dif- ferent patterns of germination under the four light and temperature treatments. Less than 25% of seeds of A. minus, C, variabilis and D. repens germinated in all treatments in the first experiment (Table 2). By contrast, at least 79% of seeds of H. scorpioides, L. gracilis, S. dominii, V. plebeia and Leptorhynchos linearis ger- minated under at least one treatment (Table 2). Due to the high variability be- tween the small number of replicates, many of the apparent differences in mean germination in Table 2 are not Statistically significant (p>0.05). The viability tests showed that 98% of A. minus, 62% of C. variabilis and 13% of D. repens seeds were viable, Most non- viable D. repens seeds were unfilled, Thus, the poor germination of C variabilis and D. repens seeds was partly due to the presence of many non-viable seeds, whereas the poor germination of A. minus seeds presumably was due to unsuitable germination conditions. Germination of S. dominii and V. plebeia seeds was suppressed by darkness (Table 2). Fewer seeds of both species germinated in the light under alternating temperature than under constant tempera- lure, but this difference was not Significant (p>0.05), due to the small number of replicates and considerable variability between replicates under alter- nating temperature. H, scorpioides Victorian Nat, + Research Reports Table 2. Mean percentage germination of eight forbs after 35 days under contrasting light and temperature regimes. Treatment means that are followed by a letter of different case (i.e. A vs. a) are significantly different at the level shown in the column ‘p’. N.S. = not sampled. Light constant temp. Arthropodium minus Craspedia variabilis Dichondra repens Helichrysum scorpioides Lagenifera gracilis Leptorhynchos linearis Solenogyne dominii Veronica plebeia germination was more complex, and was suppressed by darkness only under con- stant, and not under alternating, temperatures. Only 28% of H. scorpioides seeds germinated under constant tempera- ture in the dark, compared to over 74% of seeds in all other treatments. More than 95% of Lagenifera gracilis seeds ger- minated in all treatments except under alternating temperature in the dark, in which, on average, only 61% of seeds germinated, although this difference was not statistically significant (p>0.05). Similar quantities of Leptorhynchos linearis seeds germinated in the light and the dark under alternating temperatures. The results from the first experiment suggest that H. scorpioides, Lagenifera gracilis, S. dominii and V. plebeia seeds germinated faster under constant temperature than under alternating temperature (Fig. 1). However, these ap- parent differences were not maintained when the experiment was repeated with the treatments swapped between the two cabinets. In the repeated experiment, there was little difference in the rate of germination of H. scorpioides and Vol. 111(1) 1994 Light alternating temp. Dark constant temp. Dark alternating temp. Lagenifera gracilis seeds, and the dif- ference in germination rate of V. plebeia seeds was considerably reduced (Fig. 1). The apparent differences in germination rate in the first experiment may have been experimental artefacts, perhaps induced by unknown differences between the two growth cabinets or the effects of seed storage, rather than effects caused by the different light regimes. Many species had clearly attained their maximum germination under the condi- tions imposed by the end of the experiment. Under at least one light regime, nearly all seeds of H. scorpioides, L. gracilis, Leptorhynchos linearis, S. dominii and V. plebeia germinated in the first 25 days of the experiment (Fig. 1). For the other species and treatments, how- ever, additional germination may have occurred if the experiment had lasted longer. In such cases, the effects of a particular temperature or light treatment may have been to delay rather than to inhibit seed germination. The results of the second experiment with C. variabilis seeds demonstrate that the maximum germination that was 13 Research Reports (a) Arthropodium minus 20 30 days from sowing (c) Dichondra repens (e) Lagenifera gracilis (g) Solenogyne dominii Fig. 1. Mean (n=5) germin alternating temperature (open squares) in the light. Only altern Leptorhynchos linearis. open triangles show trial. achieved in the first experiment (20%) was limited by the short duration of the experiment (36 days). In the second ex- periment, the mean germination of C, variabilis seeds in the light increased from 14 The experiment was repeated for H. scorpioi emperature regimes swapped between th germination under constant and altern (b) Craspedia variabilis (d) Helichrysum scorpioides (f) Leptorhynchos linearis (h) Veronica plebeia ation rates of eight forbs under constant temperature (closed squares) and ating temperatures were used for e two growth cabinets. Closed and ating temperature, respectively, in the repeat 26% at 36 days to 45% at 67 days (Fig. 2). The total germination of C. variabilis seeds after 67 days was not affected by the duration of darkness, and between 44% and 52% of seeds germinated under all Victorian Nat. Research Reports 60 50 40 30 % germination 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 days from sowing Fig. 2. Germination of Craspedia variabilis seeds following dark treatment for specified periods. treatments (Fig. 2). However, the rate of germination appeared to differ between treatments. Seeds which were kept in the dark for the first 28 days of the experiment ap- peared to germinate faster than those kept in the light (Fig. 2). The differences be- tween treatments in mean germination prior to day 28, which are visible in Fig. 2, were not statistically significant (p>0.05) due to the high variability be- tween the small number of replicates, but the general trend to faster germination for seeds kept in the dark for longer periods appears unmistakable. Thus, by 28 days, on average only 14% of the seeds that were kept in the light had germinated, compared with 37% of those kept in the dark for 28 days. After 41 days, however, there was little difference in the mean germination between any of the treat- ments (Fig. 2). Thus, prolonged darkness appeared to increase the rate of germina- tion of C. variabilis seeds, but did not alter the final germination achieved. Discussion These results demonstrate marked dif- ferences in the germination behaviour of Vol. 111(1) 1994 the eight species studied. Seed germina- tion was found to be inhibited by darkness for S. dominii and V. plebeia, and by an interaction between darkness and temperature regime for H. scorpioides; H. scorpioides germination was only sup- pressed in the dark under constant temperature. C. variabilis seeds appeared to germinate faster in the dark than in the light but the final proportion of ger- minated seeds was not affected by the duration of the dark treatment. The rate of germination differed greatly between species under the same tempera- ture and light regimes. At two extremes, it took over 60 days for 50% of C. variabilis seeds to germinate under any treatment, whereas 50% of L. gracilis seeds germinated in 7 days under one treatment. Seed germination rates are strongly dependent on temperature for many species (see e.g. Willis and Groves 1991), and the slow rates reported here for A. minus and C. variabilis might be due to unsuitable temperature regimes. The poor germination of A. minus seeds is surpris- ing, as Arthropodium strictus seeds germinate readily, although germination is suppressed at temperatures above 15°C 15 Research Reports (Hitchmough et al. 1989; J. Morgan un- publ. data). The poor germination of D. repens seeds was primarily due to the presence of non-viable seeds, but addi- tional germination of the few viable seeds may have been obtained by seed scarifica- tion. Hitchmough et al. (1989) found that scarification enhanced seed germination for another member of the Convol- vulaceae family, Convolvulus erubescens, and Atwater (1980) suggested that seed scarification may be required by all Con- volyulaceae species. In the initial experiment, many species were found to germinate faster under con- stant than alternating temperatures, but this pattern was not maintained, par- ticularly for H, scorpioides and L. gracilis seeds, when the temperature regimes were swapped between the two cabinets (Fig. 1). This phenomenon is likely to have arisen from some unknown differences in the germination conditions imposed by the two cabinets, and it illustrates a fun- damental problem in interpreting many published results from growth cabinet Studies: i.e, it is often impossible to separate treatment effects from undefined cabinet effects, Most growth-cabinet Studies (including Hitchmough et al. 1989; McIntyre 1990 and Willis and Groves 1991) involve pseudoreplication, by replicating samples within a treatment (iè. one temperature regime within the one cabinet), but without replicating the actual treatments (Hurlbert 1984), Conse- quently, the effects of the treatments imposed (in this case, alternating versus constant temperature) cannot be distin- guished from any unknown cabinet effects. Had we not repeated the first ex- periment with the two temperature. treatments Swapped between the cabinets, we would have Suggested that H, scor- pioides, L. gracilis, §. dominii and V. plebeia seeds germinated faster under constant than alternating temperature (Fig. 1). These apparent differences were virtually eliminated for H. scorpioides reac wee ee mer Swapped between the 16 cabinets. The reality of the ‘patterns’ for S. dominii and V, plebeia is debatable. Future researchers could attempt to over- come this problem either by using more than one cabinet for each treatment (which is usually impractical), by calibrating cabinets with an initial bioas- say test, or by repeating experiments with the treatments swapped between the cabinets, although the latter approach would lead to variable periods of seed storage between experiments. Except for the artificial differences in germination rates described above, the other germina- tion patterns described in this Paper remain valid as they are based on different treatments imposed within the one cabinet (ie. light versus dark treatments). The ecological implications of seed ger- mination characteristics were superbly summarised by McIntyre (1990). For ex- ample, a requirement for light or alternating temperatures may restrict ger- mination to surface sown seeds, thereby enabling the formation of a permanent seed bank at depth in the soil. Alternative- ly, these requirements may restrict germination to gaps in the plant canopy, by preventing germination beneath estab- lished plants or leaf litter, If this simple model is applicable, and seed behaviour in the field accords with the results found in this simple laboratory experiment, then germination of $. dominii and V. plebeia seeds is likely to be restricted to gaps, and shaded or buried Seeds might remain dormant, forming a permanent seed bank, until they are ex- posed to the light. By contrast, seeds of L. gracilis germinated well under all condi- tions imposed, and if similar behaviour occurs in the field, then it seems unlikely that this species would develop a per- manent soil seed bank. Further work is needed to investigate whether factors such as high summer temperatures might induce seed dormancy, and thereby enable the formation of a permanent seed bank. H. scorpioides may behave in a similar fashion, and good germination might be expected in light or dark sites Victorian Nat. Research Reports wherever temperatures alternate regular- ly. However, the suppression of H, scorpioides germination under constant temperature in the dark may enable this species to develop a seed bank at depth in the soil. McIntyre (1990) found that the germination of small, but not large, seeded species was inhibited by darkness, However, one of the two species in this study which required light for germina- tion, S. dominii, has moderately large seeds (c. 3000 seeds/g; Table 1), and does not follow this pattern. The eight species studied responded dif- ferently to the four experimental conditions imposed, and the grassland forbs did not, as a whole, respond dif- ferently to the woodland forbs. Indeed, the two species with the most similar ger- mination patterns, H. scorpioides and L. gracilis, occur in different habitats in the region: in grasslands and woodlands respectively. Grasslands and woodlands both include species with a wide variety of germination characteristics, as has been found elsewhere (Hitchmough et al. 1989; McIntyre 1990; DeKock and Taube 1991; Willis and Groves 1991). Seed germination in the field is in- fluenced by many complex factors (e.g. alternate wetting and drying, shading by leaves), and field distributions might be controlled by other, unstudied factors which influence seed germination. Alter- natively, the field distributions of many species may not be controlled by seed germination requirements, but might in- stead be controlled by factors which limit the growth and vigour of seedlings or adult plants, such as moisture and nutrient availability or light intensity. Field studies are required to demonstrate such processes. Unfortunately, few such studies have been conducted on forbs in south-east Australia. In one study, regeneration of the rare daisy, Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides, was found to be limited by the habitat requirements of sce- dlings rather than by seed germination requirements (Morgan 1992). A wide variety of factors affect plant establishment and survival, and Vol. 111(1) 1994 laboratory studies such as this, on their own, give limited information from which to predict establishment success in the field. Field experiments, in which see- dling establishment and mortality and flower and seed production are measured, will undoubtedly prove to be of greater value than simple laboratory studies to the pressing requirements of ecosystem res- toration and management. Acknowledgments Gill Earl, Keith McDougall, Bob Par- sons and Robyn Watson kindly commented on the manuscript. Seeds were collected under ermits (1/70/90/0025 and 1/70/91/0027) from the Department of Conservation and En- vironment, References Atwater, B.R. (1980), Gennination, dormancy and mor- phology of seeds of herbaceous ornamental plants, Seed Science Technology 8, 523-573. Buchanan, R.A, (1989), ‘Bush Regeneration: Recovering Australian Landscapes’. (TAFE NSW; Sydney.) DeKock, B. and Taube, M. (1991). Reproductive Phenol- ogy of Seven Native Forbs and Implications for their Establishment and Management, (Unpubl. B. App. Sc. (Horticulture) report, Victorian College of Agriculture and Horticulture - Bumley Campus: Melbourne.) Duggan, D. (1991), Planning and design of bushland restoration. /n ‘Flora of Melbourne: A Guide to the Indigenous Plants of the Greater Melbourne Area’, pp. 22-25. (Society for Growing Australian Plants Maroondah Group: Melboume.) Freeland, P.W. (1976). Tests for the viability of seeds, Journal of Biological Education. 10, 57-64, Hitchmough, J., Berkeley, S. and Cross, R. (1989), Flowering grasslands in the Australian landscape. Landscape Australia 4, 394-403. Hurlbert, S.H, (1984), Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field experiments, Ecological Monographs 54, 187-211. Kemp, B. and Irvine, R. (1993). Design and use of planting zones at the Organ Pipes National Park: Notes on research and planting for the first 20 years. Victorian Naturalist 110, 113-124. McIntyre, S. (1990), Germination in eight native species of herbaceous dicot and implications for their use in revegetation, Victorian Naturalist 107, 154-158. Morgan, J.W. (1992), Some Aspects of the Ecology of the Endangered Composite Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides F. Muell. (Unpubl. M. Sc. prelim, thesis, Botany Department, LaTrobe University: Melboume.) Offor, T. and Watson, R, (eds) (1991). ‘Growback ‘Ol’. (Growback Publications: Melbourne.) Ross, J.H. (1993). ‘A Census of the Vascular Plants of Victoria’. 4th, ed, (Royal Botanic Gardens; Mel- bourne.) Sokal, R.R. and Rohlf, F.J. (1981). ‘Biometry’. (W.H. Freeman and Co.; New York.) Willis, A.J, and Groves, R.H. (1991), Temperature and light effects on the germination of seven native forbs. Australian Journal of Botany 39, 219-228. 17 Contributions Cellular Slime Moulds: the Simplest Complex Eukaryotes? Keith L. Williams* It is surprising to many people that the cellular slime moulds are a common group of simple eukaryote organisms which are found in soils. Even myco- logists often overlook these amoeboid organisms because they tend not to be found unless specifically looked for. Nevertheless in rich soils they are present in hundreds and sometimes thousands of amoebae in each gram of soil. The trick in finding cellular slime moulds is to provide them with a lawn of bacteria to eat. Being much more animal-like than fungi, they have quite complicated nutrient require- ments; the easiest way to satisfy them is to feed them whole bacteria (Fig. 1E). Fig. 1, Steps on the way to multicellular anty: A, ang 100,000 cells (0.2 mm di a each cell is approx 10 um long; C, a D. discoideum slug, approx 100,000 cells, 1 mm long; D, several D, discoideum fruiting bodies 1-2 mm tall, each of which is Slime moulds prefer gram negative bac- teria, but will also eat some gram positive bacteria and some yeasts. They are very fussy eaters, and in the laboratory specific genes can be mutated so that they no longer eat particular species of bacteria. For example, three genes are known which when mutated lead to deleting Bacillus subtilis from the menu! Presumably these mutations lead to a loss of specific surface molecules (possibly sugars?) that the slime mould amoebae recognise as food, and hence the B. sub- tilis escape being eaten. On the other hand, cellular slime mould amoebae can be tricked into eating indigestible objects, à ggregate of slime mould amoebae containing approx ameter); B, high magnification view of amoebae streaming into an aggregate; contructed from a slug; E, D. discoideum » previously spread with bacteria (Klebsiella aerogenes). Slime © eat the bacteria, forming plaques which first clear the bacteria School of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109 18 Victorian Nat, Contributions for example by sugar coating dextran beads with appropriate sugars. I have seen a picture from Gunther Vogel’s laboratory in Germany in which a slime mould amoeba that is 7 microns in diameter attempted to ingest a dextran bead perhaps five times its diameter! What are cellular slime moulds? Cellular slime moulds are curious or- ganisms that have features of animals, plants and fungi. They are amoebae with nuclei, mitochondria and other organelles characteristic of eukaryotes. They have a small number of chromosomes and a very small genome size; Dictyostelium dis- coideum, the most studied cellular slime mould has seven chromosomes each of which has only slightly more DNA than an Escherichia coli bacterium. Animal- like features include the presence of a naked plasma membrane and movement by extension of pseudopodia. In fact slime mould amoebae closely resemble human white blood cells, and they do much the same things, (eating bacteria etc) except that slime moulds do it as free living cells while white blood cells live in our own bloodstream. It is when the amoebae run out of food and starve that the organisms undergo a plant-like development. In the most com- mon species amoebae signal each other, aggregate together (Fig. 1A,B) to forma slug-like migrating organism (Fig. 1C), which subsequently transforms into a fruiting body consisting of asexual spores and stalk cells (Fig. 1D). The stalk cells (which die) are plant-like, being highly vacuolated and having cellulosic cell walls. In fact Dictyostelium is now a sys- tem of great interest for studies on cellulose synthesis as it is the only eukaryote organism in which cellulose synthesis has been achieved in the test tube. Finally, when the cellular slime moulds form sexual structures known as macrocysts, they resemble fungi in having a simple system of mating types. Usually the slime moulds are classified near the bottom of the tree structures drawn for eukaryote evolution. Exactly Vol. 111(1) 1994 where they fit is controversial, but to those of us interested in the cellular slime moulds, the taxonomic position of the or- ganisms is of no great matter. They simply are fun to study. How to isolate cellular slime moulds Cellular slime moulds are very easy to isolate from soil. They are most abundant in soils of temperate and tropical regions with rich leaf litter and which support a high bacterial population. Nevertheless they are ubiquitous, being found in arid, alpine and tropical soils. Their popula- tion numbers may be indicators of the ‘health’ of the soil, as a decline in their numbers seems to be associated with degradation of agricultural soils. All that is required to find cellular slime moulds is some hay or grass to make a weak hay infusion agar (10 g hay boiled in 1 litre of water, strained, 15 g agar, 1.5 g KH2P04, and 0.75 g NazHPOg.12H20, autoclaved), If hay agar plates are spread with a culture of gram negative bacteria (e.g. E. coli or Klebsiella aerogenes) and then diluted samples of soil mixed with water are spread over the plates, colonies of slime moulds will be observed after about one week of incubation at 210°C as clearing areas on the agar (Fig. 1E). Once the bacteria are eaten, the cellular slime mould amoebae aggregate and form deli- cate asexual fruiting bodies. The combination of the hay infusion and a heavy inoculum of bacteria suppresses the growth of fungi so that slime mould colonies are easily observed. The slime moulds can be stored for many years by desiccating the asexual spores on silica gel or by lyophilisation. Australian cellular slime moulds No systematic collections have been made of cellular slime moulds in Australia, but Gill Robson (now Whitington) did some surveys around the ACT and in the Northern NSW in the late 1970’s (Robson 1978), Since that time people have given me samples to check out from Tasmania through to Lizard Is- 19 Contributions land in Queensland. Essentially all soil samples that I have examined contained cellular slime moulds. Noel Tait from Macquarie University is one of very few people to have seen a fruiting body of a cellular slime mould in the wild. He brought a dung sample back from Tas- mania that had a beautiful specimen of Polysphondylium pallidum, complete with several whorls of spore heads. In Australian soils, as in the rest of the world, the Dictyostelium mucoroides complex is the most abundant group. P. pallidum and Dictyostelium purpureum are also very common. More rarely Dic- tyostelium minutum and Polysphond- ylium violaceum are encountered. So far D.discoideum has not been isolated, but nor has this most studied slime mould been found in Europe or indeed the rest of the world apart from North and Central America and Japan. However, since D. discoideum is often rare, the failure to find itin Australia may reflect a lack of serious effort in searching for it. Why are cellular slime moulds studied? Cellular slime moulds are the simplest complex organisms as they spend part of their life cycle as single cells and (in most species) part as multicellular organisms. In doing this they exhibit many of the features of organisation that are found in much more complex organisms. Figure 2 shows three levels of organisation found in different cellular slime mould species, that reflect steps on the way to forming a complex organism, Figure 2A shows the fate of starving Nematostelium. Single amoebae cover themselves with extracel- lular matrix and then each amoeba constructs a tiny fruiting body comprising a single spore. In this genus, there is differentiation of amoebae into spores, but no cell association occurs. In Fig. 2B, Starving Acytostelium amoebae aggregate to form a tissue mass which covers itself with extracellular matrix and undergoes morphogenetic movement to construct a 20 multicellular fruiting body comprising an acellular stalk, on which is nestled a clump of spores. Here a true multicellular organism is formed, and it exhibits polarity (ie it has a front and back) as well as differentiation. However, all cells have the same fate, so there is no specialisation. The final process required for forming multicellular organisms like ourselves involves cell specialisation, and this is observed in Dictyostelium species (and best studied in D. Discoideum, Fig. 2C). The simplicity of the D. Discoideum system and the ease of studying it (the whole process requires only 24 hours), have made it popular for understanding how proportion regulation (determining how many of each cell type to make) and polarity (determining where the front is) are combined to make the final shape (pattern formation). This process invol- ves signalling between cells using diffusible morphogens, cell-cell contact, and cell-extracellular matrix interactions. The actual molecules involved in D. dis- coideum development are being dis- covered. How they are wired up remains a challenge, but one that seems possible to solve. Perhaps the most interesting finding is that many of the features of complex organisms, such as the existence of an epithelium, seem to have their counterparts in the D. discoideum slug, although in a very simple form. There certainly is much that escapes the eye in the leaf litter of the forest! Acknowledgements Thanks to Jenny Minard and Ron Oldfield who prepared the photographs and Barbara Duckworth for the line draw- ing. Keith Williams’ research on the development of Dictyostelium dis- coideum is supported by a Program Grant from the Australia Research Council. References Robson, G.E, (1978). Mating and Vegetative Incom- patibility in D. discoideum. MSc Thesis, Australian National Uniyersity, Canberra, ACT, Australia, Victorian Nat. | Contributions | A Nematostelium e A 10 um 10 um 10m Differentiation only B Acytostelium er J SS 10 um 10 um Differentiation and polarity C Dictyostelium Differentiation, polarity and pattern 1004m Fig.2 Three stages on the way to complexity; A, single-celled Nematostelium, which exhibits differentiation only; B, Acytostelium, which is multicellular, but all amoebae differentiate into spores; C, Dictyostelium, which is multicellular and exhibits cell specialisation. Vol. 111(1) 1994 21 Contributions Anti-Predator Behaviour of the Brush-Tailed Phascogale (Phascogale tapoatafa) Todd Soderquist* The Brush-tailed Phascogale Phascogale tapoatafa is an arboreal carnivorous mar- supial occupying dry forests and woodlands of Australia. This rare nocturnal species has elicited interest among naturalists because of its boldness in the presence of observers, the pilo-erection of its large black ‘bottle- brush’ tail when excited, and its unusual foot-tapping response to potential predators. Various speculations have been offered for these behaviours, but the lack of extensive observations on wild animals has hindered interpretation. Based on several hundred hours of nocturnal observations of radio- collared phascogales**, I propose that these behaviours are best explained as anti- predator mechanisms. Several of the behaviours used by phas- cogales to counter threats from predators are common to many arboreal mammals. On the simplest level, a phascogale avoids diurnal predators by sleeping in a tree hollow with a small entrance that precludes access by larger species. However, secure hollows are not always available, especially in forests lacking older trees, and phascogales often use vulnerable sites. If discovered by a predator (simulated by a researcher check- ing a nest box), a phascogale flees if possible, burrows deeper into its nest, or presents an open-mouthed threat accom- panied by a rasping hiss. This threat is not a bluff: phascogales can bite through the fingernails of incautious humans. Some predators are not deterred by such behaviour as evidenced by the death of six radio-col- lared phascogales taken by goannas from daytime nests which provided inadequate protection, , Phascogales spend 80-90% of their forag- ing lime in trees (Traill and Coates 1993; Soderquist unpubl. data), but also hunt on the ground (Lunt 1988). When frightened, Phascogales invariably escape by climbing. * Department of Ecology and Evoluti i “4 University, Clayton, Vicwwia3168 EY article phascogales refers to Brush-tailed Phascogales 22 Like many small carnivorous marsupials (Dickman 1991), phascogales typically spiral up the trunks of trees as they escape, thereby reducing exposure to an attacking predator, Because phascogales are quick and agile climbers, few quadrupedal predators can catch them when they are active in trees. In addition to these habits, phascogales have evolved two unusual anti-predator be- haviours, The first involves pilo-erection of the long tail hairs (35-55 mm) to form a conspicuous black brush which is nearly the size of the phascogale’s body. These tail hairs are relaxed or half-erect while forag- ing, but are fully erected when the animal is excited, First-time observers of phascogales are often surprised to see how highly visible the black tail is by comparison to the griz- zled-grey colour of the body (Fig. 1). Such an attractant would seem counter-produc- tive to predator avoidance, but the function of the tail is probably to distract an attacking predator and deflect its strike. Imagine an owl which has become aware of the rather noisy foraging of a phascogale. The owl is faced with two targets as it closes for the strike: a conspicuous black ‘body’ anda less obvious grey one. If the owlattacks the black brush, its talons sink through hair and fail to close tightly on the pencil-thin tail. The phascogale escapes. Variations on such predator distractants are common in nature, including ‘tail- targets’ which function like that of the phascogale. The effectiveness of distrac- tants in deterring predation has been demonstrated experimentally with Weasels (Powell 1982), During winter, some species of weasels which forage on snow have white coats but prominent black tips on their tails. In trials with hawks trained to attack weasel- shaped models, the predators’ success was greatly reduced if the weasel had a distract- ing black tail tip than if the tail was entirely white. Placing a black dot on the model’s Victorian Nat. Contributions Fig. 1. The phascogale’s erect tail hairs form a conspicuous black brush whereas the griz- zled-grey body is relatively camouflaged against the fire-scarred trunk of Messmate eucalypt. This radio-collared female, photographed while feeding on supplemental food, was part of a reintroduction of phasogales into Gippsland. body improved the hawks’ capture rate. Similar results were obtained in trials with Bannertail Kangaroo Rats Dipodomys spec- tabilis of the North American deserts, which have brown bodies and white tail tips. When a white. spot was painted on a rat’s body (to facilitate nocturnal identification by humans), its vulnerability to owls was in- creased greatly (W. Radke pers. comm.). Likewise, the white tail tip of possums and gliders may afford some degree of predator distraction. However, the incidence of white-tipped tails is not consistent across the Petauridae nor within some species, so the evolutionary benefit of this trait remains speculative. The second unusual anti-predator be- haviour of phascogales is foot tapping, When frightened, phascogales simul- taneously slap their front feet on trees (about 1 slap per second), making a tapping noise that can be heard by humans up to 20 maway (depending on substrate), Although foot tap- Vol. 111(1) 1994 ping is performed under various circumstan- ces (interpretable as “annoyance’), it is most commonly elicited when the phascogale first becomes aware of a potential predator such as a human observer. Tapping can last for several minutes, and, if the observer moves or otherwise conveys a threat, is often re-initiated. Foot tapping occurs only when the phascogale is in a position that is inyul- nerable to the predator (é.g. on a tree). If frightened while on the ground, it will climb a tree before tapping. Why does the phascogale appear to draw the attention of a predator? The answer depends on the assumption that the predator is already generally aware of the phascogale’s presence through either scent or sound. The function of tapping, then, is to inform the predator that it has been detected, will not successfully ambush the phas- cogale, and would more profitably hunt elsewhere. This explanation is supported by the specificity of the response: although foot tapping is commonly directed toward ter- restrial predators, phascogales become motionless in the presence of owls, perhaps because they are seldom invulnerable to aerial attack. Similar pursuit deterrent sig- nals have evolved among other mammalian species (Hasson 1991). For example, Kan- garoo Rats drum on the ground when confronted with snakes (Randall and Stevens 1987), and Hares rise on their hind legs and stare at approaching Foxes (Holley 1993). In both cases, the predator departs without attempting to attack. The evolution of pilo-erection and foot tapping might be attributed to social interac- tion among phascogales, but evidence argues against such explanations. Like phas- cogales, Kowaris Dasyuroides byrnei have black tail-hair (20 mm) which can be erected. They use their tail brushes as ag- gressive signals in confrontations with other Kowaris (Hutson 1982). Wild phascogales often erect their tail hair when agitated by conspecifics, and sometimes rustle the brush, but the tail is held inconspicuously behind the phascogale rather than elevated in the stylised manner observed in Kowaris. As in my research on wild phascogales, 23 Contributions Cuttle’s (1978) exhaustive study of phas- cogale behaviour in captivity found no evidence that the brush is important in social communication. The tail of Kowaris may have originally evolved as a predator dis- tractant and its role as a social device has become important subsequently. Foot tapping potentially serves as an alarm signal (Cuttle 1983) to warn kin of danger. (Altruistic alarms which attract the attention of predators theoretically should be used to help kin rather than genetically unrelated individuals; Sherman 1977). Tapping is sometimes taken up by nearby phascogales in captivity or among young siblings in the wild. However, the sparse density and solitary behaviour of adult phascogales in the wild argues against the explanation that tapping evolved as an alarm. Female phas- cogales are intra-sexually territorial, occupying large home ranges (20-70 ha), and kin are very rarely nearby while forag- ing. Males, which disperse from the maternal home range, seldom forage near other phascogales even though their home ranges (about 100 ha) overlap with those of females and other males. Thus, tapping is very unlikely to be heard by another phas- cogale and is best explained as a benefit to the foot-tapper itself. References Cuttle, P. (1978). The behaviour in captivity of the dasyurid marsupial Phascogale tapoatafa. M.Sc Thesis, Monash University. Cuttle, P. (1983). Brush-tailed phascogale Phascogale tapoatafa. In Strahan, R. (Ed.) The Complete Book of Australian Mammals, Pg. 34-5. Angus and Robertson, Sydney. Dickman, C. R. (1991). Use of trees by ground-dwelling mammals: implications for management. In Lunney, D. (Ed.) Conservation of Australia’s Forest Fauna. Pg. 125-36. Royal Zoological Society of NSW, Mosman. Hasson, O., (1991). Pursuit-deterrent signals: com- munication between prey and predator. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 6, 325-9, Holley, A. J, F. (1993). Do brown Hares signal to Foxes? Ethology 94, 21-30. Hutson, G. D. (1982). An analysis of offensive and defensive threat displays in Dasyuroides byrnei (Dasyuridae, Marsupialia). In Archer, M. (Ed.) Car- nivorous marsupials. Pg. 13-22. Royal Zoological Society of NSW, Mosman. Lunt, T. D. (1988), Observations on the behaviour of the Brush-tailed Phascogale (Phascogale tapoatafa) at Black Hill, Victoria. Victorian Naturalist 105, 41-2. Powell, R. A. (1982). Evolution of black-tipped tails in weasels: predator confusion. American Naturalist 119, 126-31. Randall, J. A. and Stevens, C. M. (1987). Footdrumming and other anti-predator responses in the Bannertail Kangaroo Rat (Dipodomys spectabilis). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 20, 187-94. Sherman, P. W. (1977). Nepotism and the evolution of alarm calls. Science 197, 1246-53. Traill, B. J. and Coates, T. D. (1993). Field observations on the Brush-tailed Phascogale Phascogale tapoatafa (Marsupialia: Dasyuridae). Australian Mammalogy 16, 61-5. CAUTION!!! DON’T READ THIS if you have already paid your subscription for 1994. If you have forgotten, then THIS IS YOUR LAST COPY OF THE VICTORIAN NATURALIST _ unless Your subscription is paid by the END OF MARCH Victorian Nat. Contributions The Biology, Ecology and Horticultural Potential of Banksia L.f.: A Bibliography of Recent Literature A.K. Cavanagh* Introduction Since my last review (Cavanagh 1989), interest in the biology of banksias has not diminished. Studies of pollination and banksia breeding systems still pre- dominate although it is interesting to note that the factors controlling or limiting seed-set are beginning to be studied in detail. Results from more fundamental field studies are also now being applied in horticulture to improve cut flower production. Research continues to con- centrate on the major role of birds in pollination and the important if limited part played by non-flying mammals has not been neglected. Several studies have discussed the feeding habits of bats and flying foxes whose consumption of banksia flowers, along with insect damage to inflorescences, contributes to reduced seed-set. Yet mature banksia plants can hold up to 20,000 viable seeds in canopy seed storage (serotiny) and several surveys have attempted to docu- ment the dynamics of this development. In South Africa, so long suffering from the invasion of Australian acacias and hakeas, the serotinous nature of these plants has led to concern that recently introduced banksias may have the potential to spread similarly into the native fynbos vegeta- tion. Many of the ecological studies of Banksia report on the role of fire and are of important practical and theoretical in- terest. A number of banksias are rare or endangered and others are exploited for the wildflower trade. Consequently, data from these studies can and have been used in both Australia and South Africa to pro- vide guide-lines for fire regimes which can optimise the post-fire recruitment of banksias and indeed other Proteaceae. Additionally, as Cowling et al, (1990) state (Ref. 168): ‘-- banksias provide ex- “Deakin University, Geelong, 3220. Vol. 111 (1) 1994 cellent opportunities for exploring the evolutionary significance of fire-adapted reproductive traits and the mechanisms that promote the co-existence of species.’ Yet another field of interest has been the water relations of banksias, with attention being given to groundwater recharge into and evaporation from banksia woodlands and the structure of their root systems and in particular, the nature and chemical properties of the proteoid root mat a modified root system unique to the Proteaceae. Finally, nutrient allocation and other constraints on seed production as well as the factors controlling co-exist- ence and development of seedlings have also been studied. Along with increasing exploitation of banksias in the wild has come the realisa- tion that many species are either rare in terms of their small, sometimes un- protected, populations or are endangered from commercial picking or other natural or man-made causes such as expansion of agricultural land, Phytophthora cin- namomi and droughts and fire. Seven banksias are now declared rare flora in Western Australia while a further five are on a reserve list and are to be carefully monitored to determine their exact con- servation status. A practical outcome of these concerns has been the establishment of the Australian Network for Plant Con- servation based in the Australian National Botanic Gardens, Canberra, one of whose aims is to form an ‘Endangered Species Collection’ in the form of a multi-site collection of living plant material (seeds, rooted cuttings or growing plants). The development of the cut flower in- dustry in Australia with its potentially large overseas market has led to much more study of the horticultural require- ments of banksias. While some of the research is relatively fundamental, much of it is more applied and deals with a diversity of topics such as hybridisation 25 Contributions techniques to improve cut flower produc- tion and studies of potting mixes, especially of the iron-phosphorus relation in container-grown banksias and of means to minimise the effect of Phytophthora. Several hybrid banksias have now been registered with the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority and the number is bound to increase with the spread of plan- tation cultivation to areas as diverse as South Africa, Israel, Hawaii and Tenerife. The bibliography lists material mainly published since 1988. It is arranged al- phabetically by author under the following categories: Books. Taxonomy. Reproductive Biology: Pollination - General; Pollination - Birds; Pollination - Mammals; Seed and Flower Predators and Seed Loss; Seed Development and Canopy Storage; Mechanisms of Seed Release; Seed Germination. Ecology: General Studies; Role of Fire; Role of Phytophthora; Rare and Endangered. Horticulture: General; Propagation, Cultivation and Chemical Studies. Numbering follows on from the pre- vious bibliography (Cavanagh 1989). All Banksia taxa recognised by Taylor and Hopper (1988) are listed in the appendix, Each taxon is indexed to relevant papers in the bibliography. Forty-two of the 92 Species, sub species and varieties are referred to in the Papers listed in the bib- liography. In this Way it is hoped that the bibliography will also be of use in indicat- ing species on which little or no work has been done. References Cavanagh, A.K. (1989), The Biology and Ecology of Banksia L.f.: A Bibliogr aphy of Recent Literature, The Victorian Naturalist 106: 140-147, Taylor, A, and Hopper, S ( 1988). ‘The Banksia Atlas". Australian Flora and Fauna Series Number8; Bureau 98 Wrigley, John W and Fa y y, x Eg, Murray (1989), Banksias, Waratahs & Grevilleas and a ne 26 Taxonomy 99 Hopper, S.D. (1989). New subspecies of Banksia seminuda and Banksia occidentalis Proteaceae from the south coast of Western Australia. Nuytsia 7: 15-24, 100 Newbey, K.R. (1990), Supplementary notes on the flora of the Fitzgerald River National Park Western Australia. 1. Additional and unnamed taxa and laxa with a high conservation value. Kingia 1: 195-216, Reproductive Biology Pollination - General 101 Armstrong, D.P, and Paton, D.C. (1990). Methods for measuring amounts of energy available from Banksia inflorescences. Australian Journal of Ecology 15: 291-298, 102 Ayre, D.J. and Whelan, R.J. (1989). Factors con- trolling fruit set in hermaphroditic plants: studies with the Australian Proteaceae. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 4; 267-272. 103 Coates, D.J. and Sokolowski, R.E.S. (1992). The mating system and patterns of genetic variation in BanksiacuneataA.S. George Proteaceae, Heredity 69: 11-20. 104 Fuss, A.M. And Sedgley, M. (1990). Floral initia- tion and development in relation to the time of flowering in Banksia cocecineaR.Br. and B. men- ziesii R.Br, (Proteaceae). Australian Journal of Botany 68: 487-500. 105 Fuss, A.M. And Sedgley, M. (1991a). Pollen tube growth and seed set of Banksia coccinea R.Br. (Proteaceae). Annals of Botany 68; 377-384 106 Fuss, A.M, And Sedgley, M. (1991b). The development of hybridisation techniques for Banksia menziesii for cut flower production. Jour- nal of Horticultural Science 66: 357-365. 107 Goldingay, R.L, and Whelan, R.J. (1990), Breed- ing system and tests for pollen-limitation in two species of Banksia. Australian Journal of Botany 38: 63-71. 108 Goldingay, R.L., Schibechi, S.M. and Walker, B.A. (1991). Breeding system and pollination levels of Banksia ericifolia. Australian Journal of Botany 39: 365-372. 109 Ramsey, M. and Vaughton, G. (1991), Self-incom- patablity, protandry, pollen production and pollen longevity in Banksia menziesii. Australian Jour- nal of Botany 39: 497-504. 110 Stock, W.D., Pate, J.S., Kuo, J. and Hansen, A.P. (1989). Resource control of seed set in Banksia Laricina C. Gardner Proteaceae. Functional Ecol- ogy 3; 453:460. Vaughion, G. (1989). Pollination and seed set of Banksia spinulosa. Evidence for autogamy. Australian Journal of Botany 36: 633-642. Vaughton, G. ( 1991). Variation between years in pollen and nutrient limitation of fruit-set in ri sigs spinulosa, Journal of Ecology 79: 389- 1] 1 nN 113 Vaughton, G. and Ramsey, M. (1991). Floral biol- ogy and inefficient pollen removal in Banksia spinulosa var. neoanglica (Proteaceae ). Australian Journal of Botany 39: 167-177. 114 Walker, B.A. and Whelan, RJ. (1991). Can andromonoecy explain low fruit:flower ratios in the Proteaceae?, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 44: 41-46, Victorian Nat. Contributions Pollination - Birds 115 Armstrong, D.P. (1991). Nectar depletion and its implications for honcyeaters in heathland near Sydney. Australian Journal of Ecology 16: 99- 109. 116 Arnold, G.W. (1988). The effects of habitat struc- ture and floristics on the densities of bird species in Wandoo woodland Australia. Australian Wildlife Research 15: 499-510. 117 Ford, H.A. (1991). Coping with an erratic nectar source. Easter Spinebills Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris at New England National Park, New South Wales. Emu 91; 53-56. 118 Ford, H.A. and Paton, D.C. (1986). ‘The Dynamic Partnership; Birds and Plants in Southern Australia’, From the series ‘Handbook of the Flora and Fauna of South Australia. (Government Printer: Adelaide.) See especially articles by David C. Patton ‘Honeyeaters and their plants in South- Eastern Australia’: 9-19 and Stephen D. Hopper and Alan H. Burbridge ‘Speciation of bird-pol- linated plants in South-Western Australia’; 20-31. 119 Ramsey, M.W. (1988). Differences in pollinator effectiveness of birds and insects visiting Banksia menziesii (Proteaceae). Oecologia 76: 119-124. 120 Ramsey, M.W. (1989). The season abundance and foraging behaviour of honeyeaters and their poten- tial role in the pollination of Banksia menziesii. Australian Journal of Ecology 14; 33-40 121 Vaughton, G. (1990). Seasonal variation in honeyeater foraging behaviour, inflorescence abundance and fruit set in Banksia spinulosa Proteaceae. Australian Journal of Ecology 15: 109-116. 122 Vaughton, G, (1992). Effectiveness of nec- tarivorous birds and honeybees as pollinators of Banksia spinulosa Proteaceae. Australian Journal of Ecology 17; 43-50. Pollination - Mammals 123 Cunningham, S.A. (1991). Experimental evidence for pollination of Banksia spp. by non-flying mam- mals. Oecologia 87: 86-90. 124 Goldingay, R.L., Carthew, S.M. and Whelan, R.J. (1991). The importance of non-flying mammals in pollination. Oecologia 61: 79-87. 125 Ward, SJ. (1990). Life history of the Eastem Pygmy Possum Cercartetus nanus Burramyidae Marsupialia in South-Eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Zoology 38:287-304. Flower and Seed Predation and Seed Loss 126 Hara, A.H. and Hata, T.Y, (1992). Ant control of Protea in Hawaii, Scientia Horticulturae (Amster- dam) 51: 155-163. 127 Law, B.S. (1992). Physiological factors affecting pollen use by Queensland Blossom Bats Syconyc- teris australis. Functional Ecology 6: 257-264. 128 Law, B.S. (1992). The maintenance nitrogen re- quirements of the Queensland Blossom Bats Syconycleris australis on a sugar-pollen diet, Is nitrogen a limiting resource? Physiological Zool- ogy 65: 634-648. 129 Parry-Jones, K. and Augee, M.L. (1991). Food selection by Gray-headed Flying Foxes Pteropus poliocephalus occupying a summer colony site near Gosford, New South Wales, Australia. Australian Wildlife Research 18: 111-124. Vol. 111 (1) 1994 130 Wallace, D.D. and O'Dowd, D.J. (1989). The ef- fects of nutrients and inflorescence damage by insects on fruit-set by Banksia spinulosa. Oecologia 79: 482-488. 131 Vaugton, G. (1990). Predation by insects limits seed production in Banksia spinulosa var. neoanglica (Proteaceae). Australian Journal of Ecology 38: 335-340. Seed Development and Canopy Storage 132 Bellairs, Sean M. and Bell, David T. (1990). Canopy-borne seed store in three Westem Australian plant communities, Australian Journal of Ecology 15: 299-305 133 Lamont, B.B. (1991), Canopy seed storage and release. What's in a name? Oikos 60: 266-268. 134 Lamont, B.B., Connell, S.W. and Berg] S.M. (1991). Seed bank and population synamics of Banksia cuneata: the role of time, fire and mois- ture. Botanical Gazette 152: 114-122. 135 Stock, W.D., Pate, J.S, and Rasins, E. (1991). Seed developmental patterns in Banksia attenuata R.Br, and B. laricina C. Gardner in relation to mechani- cal defence costs. New Phytologist 117: 109-114, 136 Witkowski, E.T.F., Lamont, B.B. and Connell, S.J. (1991). Seed bank dynamics of three co-occurring banksias in south coastal Western Australia: the role of plant age, cockatoos, senescence and inter- fire establishment, Australian Journal of Botany 39; 385 397, Mechanism of Seed Release 137 Enright, N.J. and Lamont, B.B. (1989). Fire temperatures and follicle-opening requirements in 10 banksia species. Australian Journal of Ecology 14: 107-114. Seed Germination 138 Kullmann, W.H. (n.d.). ‘Seed Germination Records of Westem Australian Plants’, (King’s Park and Botanic Gardens: West Perth.) Ecology General Studies 139 Anon, (1989). Banksia woodlands symposium. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 71: 83-118. 140 Auld, T.D. and Morison, D.A. (1992). Genetic determination of erect and prostrate growth habit in five shrubs from windswept headlands in the Sydney region. Australian Journal of Botany 40: l-11 141 Bellgard, §,E, (1991). Mycorrhizal associations of plantspecies in Hawkesbury sandstone vegetation. Australian Journal of Botany 39: 357-364. 141a Bergl, S.M. and Lamont, B.B. (1988). The water relations, rooting patterns and phenologies of two sclerophyllous shrubs, /n ‘TIme Scales and Water Stress: Proceedings of the Sth International Con- ference on Mediterranean Ecosystems’. Eds. F.di Castri, Ch. Floret, S. Rambal and J. Roy, pp 569- 573. (1.U.B.S.: Paris.) 142 Brundrett, M.C. and Abbott, L.K. (1991), Roots of Jarrah forest plants. 1. Mycorrhizal associations of shrubs and herbaceous plants. Australian Journal of Botany 39: 445-457, 143 Burgman, M.A. and Lamont, B.B. (1992), A stochastic model for the viability of Banksia cuneata populations: environmental, demographic and genetic effects. Journal of Applied Ecology (in press), 27 Contributions 144 Chladil, M.A, and Kirkpatrick, J.B. (1989). A tran- sect study of the sand dune vegetation at Bakers Beach, Tasmania, Australia, Papers and Proceed- ings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 123: 247-256. 145 Copland, B,J. and Whelan, R.J. (1989). Seasonal variation in flowering intensity and pollination limitation of fruit set in four co-occurring Banksia spp. Journal af Ecology 77; 509-523. 146 Farrington, P. et al. (1989), Evaporation from banksia woodland on a groundwater mound. Jour- nal of Hydrology (Netherlands) 105: 173-186. 147 Farrington, P. and Bartle, G.A. (1991). Recharge beneath a banksia woodland and a Pinus pinaster plantation on coastal deep sands in south Westem Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 40: 101-118. 148 Feam, S. (1989). Some observations on the habits of Paroplites australis (Erichson) (Coleoptera: Cerabycidae, Prioninae) and its damaging effects on the food plant Banksia marginata Cav. in Tas- mania. Australian Entomological Magazine 16: 81-84, Grierson, P.F, (1992). Organic acids in the rhizo- sphere of Banksia integrifolia L.f. Plant and Soil 144: 259-265. 150 Grierson, P.F. and Attiwill, P.M. (1989), Chemical characteristics of the proteoid root mat of Banksia integrifolia L.f. Australian Journal of Botany 37: 137-143. Honig, M.A., Cowling, R.M. And Richardson, D.M. (1992). The invasive potential of Australian banksias in South African fynbos; a comparison of the reproductive potential of Banksia ericifolia and Leucadendron lauredum. Australian Journal of Ecology 17: 305-314, 152 Hopper, S.D. and Hopkins, A. (1989). Mount Lesueur: Jurien jewel. Landscope 4; 28-33, 153 Howard, J. (1989). Diet of Petaurus breviceps Marsupialia Petauridae in a mosaic of coastal eet and heath, Australian Mammalogy 12: 5-22. 153a Lamont, B.B, (1988). Sexual versus vegatative reproduction in Banksia elegans: Botanical Gazette 149; 370-375. 154 Lamont, B.B. and Barrett, C.J, (1988). Constraints on seed production in a root-suckering banksia. Journal of Ecology 76: 1069-1082. 155 Lamont, B.B., Enright, NJ. and Bergl, S.M, (1989). Coexistence and competitive exclusion of Banksia hookeriana in the presence of congeneric atl along a topographic gradient. Oikos 56: 14 = 15 pas 156 Lamont, B.B. and Bergl, S.M. (1991), Water rela- tions, shoot and root archilecture and phenology his "Shar grb Bankja spp. Noevidence for ifferentiation in the patt f Oikos 60: 291-298. wee 157 Low, A.B. and Lamont, B.B. (1986). Nutrient al- location in winter rainfall proteaceous heathlands oth Std bo the nutrient losses through ae ie picking and fire, Acta Horticulturae 158 Low, A.B. and Lamont, B.B. (1990). Aerial and below-ground phytomass of Banksia scrub heath at Eneabba, South-Westem Australia, Australian Journal of Botany 38: 351-360. 28 159 Moms, E.C. (1992). Canopy damage to native vegetation on the central coast of New South Wales. Current status and detection of future chan- ges. Australian Journal of Ecology 17: 141-154. 160 Richardson, D.M., Cowling, R.M. and Le Maitre, D.C. (1990). Assessing the risk of invasive success in pinus and banksia in South African mountain fynbos. Journal of Vegetation Science 1; 629-642. 16] Sharma, M.L., Barron, R.J.W. and Craig, A.B, (1991). Land use effects on groundwater recharge to an unconfined aquifer. Australian CSIRO Division of Water Resources Diy, Rep. 91: 1-38. 162 Turpin, M.C. (1990). Ecological appraisal of an isolated banksia woodland reserve no. 3694, south of the Swan River, Perth, Western Australia. Western Australian Naturalist 18: 131-138. Role of Fire 163 Bradstock, R.A. (1990). Demography of woody plants in relation to fire, Banksia serrata L.f. and Isopagon anemonifolius (Salisb.) Knight. Australian Journal of Ecology 15: 117-132. 164 Bradstock, R.A. (1991). The role of fire in estab- lishment of seedlings of serotinous species from the Sydney region. Australian Journal of Botany. 39: 347-356. 165 Bradstock, R.A, and Myerscough, P.J. (1988). The survival and population response to frequent fires of two woody resprouters Banksia serrata and Isopogon anemonifolius. Australian Journal of Botany 36: 415-431, 166 Bradstock, R.A, and Bedward, M. (1992). Simula- tion of the effect of season of fire on post-fire seedling emergence of two Banksia species based on long-term rainfall records. Australian Journal of Botany 40; 75-88. 167 Burrows, N.D. and McCaw, W.L. (1990). Fuel characteristics and bushfire control in banksia low woodlands in Western Australia. Journal of En- vironmental Management 31; 229-236. 168 Cowling, R.M., Lamont, B.B. and Ennght, N.J. (1990). Fire and management of south-western Australian banksias. Proceedings of the Ecologi- cal Society of Australia 16: 177-183. 169 Enright, NJ. and Lamont, B.B. (1989). Seed banks, fire season, safe sites and seedling recruit- ment in five co-occuring Banksia species, Journal of Ecology (Oxford) 77: 1111-1122. 170 Hobbs, R.J. and Atkins, L. (1990). Fire-related dynamics of a banksia Woodland in south-western Western Australia, Australian Journal of Botany 38: 97-110. 171 Lamont, B.B., Witkowski, E.T.F. and Enright, N.J. (1992). Post-fire litter microsites: safe for seeds, unsafe for seedlings. Ecology (in press). 172 Midgley, J.J. (1989). Season of burn of serotinous Proteaceae: a critical review and further data. South African Journal of Botany 55: 165-170. Role of Phytophthora 173 Anon. (1991). Fungus disease strike banksias. The Greener Times (September); 2. Rare and Endangered 174 Connell, S., Lamont, B. and Bergl, S. (1988). Rare and endangered: Matchstick Banksia. Australian Natural History 22: 354-355, 175 Keighery, G. (1988). Endangered: Brown’s Banksia (Banksia brownii). Landscope 3: 54. Victorian Nat. 4 Contributions 176 Leigh, J., Boden, R. and Briggs, J. (1984). ‘Extinct and Endanged Plants of Australia’ pp 291-292. (MacMillan: South Melbourne.) 177 Patrick, S.(1992). Banksia brownii Baxter ex R.Br. (Family Proteaceae). Jn ‘Threatened Australian Plants: Overview and Case Studies’. Eds. J,H, Leigh and J.D. Briggs. (Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service: Canberra.) The following contain listings of rare and endangered Banksias and should be consulted for more information on this important topic. 178 Briggs, J, and Leigh, J (1988). ‘Rare or Threatened Australian Plants’. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service Special Publication No. 14. (Can- berra.) 179 Hopper, Stephen D., van Leeuwen, Stephen, Brown, Andrew P. and Patrick, Susan J, (1990). “Western Australia’s Endangered Flora and Other Plants under Consideration for Declaration’. (Department of Conservation and Land Manage- ment: Perth.) 180 Meredith, L.D. and Richardson, M.M. (1990). ‘Rare or Threatened Australian Plant Species in Cultivation in Australia’. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service Report, Series No. 15, (Canberra,) For a discussion of ex situ plant conser- vation in Australia see: 181 Butler, Geoff, Meredith, Lyn and Richardson, Mark (1992). "Conservation of Rare or Threatened Plants in Australasia - The Proceedings of the Conference, Protective Custody - Ex Situ Plant Conservation in Australasia, March 1991, (Australian National Botanic Gardens: Canberra.) Horticulture General Studies 182 Australian Cultivar Registration Authority (1989). Registered Australian Cultivars. Landscape Australia 11; 45. 183 Australian Cultivar Registration Authority (1989). Registered Australian Cultivars. Landscape Australia 11: 377, 184 Ben-Jaacov, J., Ackerman, A., Gilad, S. and Shchori, Y. (1989). New approaches to the development of proteaceous plants as floricultural commodities. Acta Horticulturae 252; 193-199 185 Blake, T. (1990). Banksia. A spectacular group from Western Australia. Australian Plants 15: 351-358. 186 Burghman, M.A, And Hopper, S.D. (1982). ‘The Wester Australian Wildflower Industry 1980- 1981". Report No. 53. (Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Western Australia: Perth.) 187 DeFrank, J. (1990). The response of nine Protea species to spray applications of fluazifop-p. Tropi- cal Pest Management 36: 145-146. 188 Faragher, J.D. (1989). A review of research on postharvest physiology and horticulture of Australian native flowers. Acta Horticulturae 261: 249-256 Vol. 111 (1) 1994 189 Fuss, A.M. and Sedgley, M. (1991). Variability in cut flower production of Banksia coccinea R.Br and Banksia menziesii R.Br. at six locations in southern Australia. Australian Journal of Ex- perimental Agriculture 31: 853-858. 190 Keighery, G. (1991). Banksia canei mountain banksia in Westem Australia. The Western Australia Naturalist 18: 167-168. 191 Molyneux, W.M. (1990). Banksia (Banksia eran var, spinulosa). Plant Varieties Journal : 5-6. 192 Rodriquez Perez, J.A. (1989). Introduction of proteas for cut flower and foliage in Tenerife, Acta Horticulturae 246: 265-267. 193 Rye, B.L., Hopper, S.D. and Watson, L.E. (1980). ‘Commercially Exploited Vascular Plants native in Western Austalia: Census, Atlas and Prelimi- nary Assessment of Conservation Status’. Report No. 40. (Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Western Australia; Perth.) 194 Waite Agricultural Research Institute (1991). Banksia (Banksia hookeriana hybrid), Variety: ‘Waite Orange’. Application No. 911020. Plant Varieties Journal 4; 9-11. Propagation, Cultivation and Chemical Studies 195 Dixon, K.W., Frost, K. and Sivasithamparam, K. (1990). The effect of ammendment of soil with organic matter, a herbicide and a fungicide on the mortality of seedlings of two species of Banksia innoculated with Phytophthora cinnamonmi. Acta Horticulturae 264: 123-131. 196 DeFrank, J. and Easton-Smith, V.A. (1990), Evaluation of pre-emergence herbicides on four proteaceous species. TropicalAgriculture 67: 360- 362. 197 Fuss, A.M., Pattison, S.J, Aspinall, D. and Sedgley, M. (1992). Shoot growth in relation to cut flower production of Banksia coccinea and Banksia menziesii (Proteaceae). Scientia Horticul- turae 49: 323-334. 198 Grose, M. J. (1991). Uptake of 32P by young plants of Banksia hookeriana Meissner when healthy and infected with Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands. Journal of Experimental Botany 42: 717-722. 199 Handreck, K.A. (1991a). Available phosphorous in polling media extractants and interpretation of ex- tract data. Communications in Soil Science Plant Analysis 22: 529-558. 200 Handreck, K.A. (1991b). Interactions between iron and phosphorous in the nutrition of Banksia ericifolia var. ericifolia Proteaceae in soil-less polling media. Australian Journal of Botany 39: 373-384. 201 Handreck, K,A. (1991c). Phosphorous and iron effects on the early growth of some Austalian native plants. Combined Proceedings-Internation- al Plant Propagators Society 1990 (publ. 1991) 40: 56-59 202 Handreck, K.A, (1992). Relative effectiveness of iron sources for an iron-inefficient species grow- ing in a soil-less medium. Journal of Plant Nutrition 15; 179-189, 203 Hardy, G.E. StJ., Sivasithamparam, K. (1991). Suppression of Phytophthora root rot by a com- posted Eucalyptus bark mix. Australian Journal of Botany 39: 153-159. 29 Contributions - Banksia lemanniana Meissner k, W.D., Pate, J.S. and Delfs, J. (1990). In ia le i E habe of seed size and quality on seedling Banksia littoralis R. Brown development under low nutrient conditions in five Banksia lullfitzii C. Gardner - 176 Australian and South African members of the Banksia marginata Cavanilles - 144. 148 a ic 78: 1005-1020. Banksia media R, Brown diy pa EE Banksia meisneri Lehmann var. ascendens A.S. George Appendix Banksia meisneri Lehmann var. meisneri Listing of all Banksia species (sensu Banksia menziesii R, Brown - 104, 106, 109,119, 120, a d Hopper 1988). Species are 126, 132, 137, 141a, 158, 168, 169 Re hae REAY sort p Banksia micrantha A.S. George - 137, 169, 170, 188, 189, 3 196, 197 Banksia aeea kes 3 erge Re Banksia nutans R. Brown var. cernuella A.S. George ol ashbyi E G Baker -192 Banksia nutans R. Brown var. nutans Banksia attenuata R. Brown -132, 135, 137, 158, 169 Banksia oblongifolia Cavanilles var. minor (Maiden and i s 32, 135, 137, 158, 169, 170, 195 Camfield) Conran and Clifford Banksia audax C. Gardner Banksia oblongifolia Cananilles var. oblongifolia - 115, i iR 124 Poia waits pee -136 Banksiaoccidentalis R. Brown subsp. formosa S.D. Hop- i iana C. Gard per - 99 i l FOR yiii AEN Banksia occidentalis R, Brown subsp.occidentalis - 195, Banksia brownii Baxter ex R. Brown -175,177 203 ae Banksia burdetii G. Baker -168 Banksia oligantha A.S, George Banksia caleyi R. Brown Banksia oreophila A.S. George Banksia candolleana Meissner -137, 168, 169 Banksia ornata F, Muell, ex Meissner Banksia caneii JH. Willis -190 Banksia paludosa R. Brown - 107, 145 Banksia chamaephyton A.S. George Banksia petiolaris F. Muell. Banksia coccinea R. Brown -104,105,136,189,197 Banksia pilostylis C. Gardner Banksia conferta A.S. George var. conferta Banksia plagiocarpa A.S. George Banksia conferta A.S. George var. penicillata A.S. Banksia praemorsa Andrews George Banksia prionotes Lindley - 137, 168, 187, 188, 192 Banksia cuneata A.S. George -103, 134, 143, 168, 174 Banksia pulchella R. Brown Banksia dentata Linnaeus f. Banksia quercifolia R. Brown Banksia dryandroides Baxter ex Sweet Banksia repens Labillardiere Banksia elderiana F. Meull, and Tate Banksia robur Cavanilles - 124 Banksia elegans Meissner -137, 153a, 154, 168 Banksia saxicola A.S, George Banksia epica A.S. George Banksia scabrella A.S. George - 185 Banksia ericifolia Linnaeus f. var. ericifolia - 108, 114, Banksia sceptrum Meissner 115, 124, 140, 145, 151, 164, 166, 199, 200, 201, 202 Banksia seminuda (A.S. George) B. Rye subsp. Banksia ericifolia Linnaeus f. var. macrantha AS. remanens S.D. Hopper -99 George Banksia seminuda (A.S. George) B. Rye subsp. seminuda Banksia gardneri A.S, George var, brevidentata A.S, Banksia serrata Linnaeus f. «1 15, 124, 145, 163, 164, 165, George 166, 182 Banksia gardneri A.S. George var. gardneri Banksia sòlandri R. Brown Banksia gardneri A.S. George var, hiemalis A.S. George Banksia speciosa R. Brown -136, 187, 192 Banksia goodii R, Brown Banksia sphaerocarpa R, Brown var. caesia A.S, George Banksia grandis Willdenow - 142 Banksia sphaerocarpa R. Brown var. dolichostyla A.S. Banksia grossa A.S. George - 132, 137, 185 George Banksiahookeriana Meissner- 132, 137, 141a, 155, 158, 168, 169, 188, 194, 198 Banksia ilicifolia R. Brown - 169 Banksia incana A.S. George - 185 Banksia integrifolia Linnaeus f, var. aquilonia A.S, Banksia sphaerocarpa R. Brown var. sphaerocarpa A.S. George -185 Banksia spinulosa Smith var. collina (R, Brown) A.S. George Banksia spinulosa Smith var. cunninghamii (Sieber ex Stl ms Reichenbach) A.S. George -125, 130 Baile i integrifolia Linnaeus f. var, compar (R. Brown) Banksia spinulosa Smith var. neoanglica A.S. George -111, 112, 113, 121, 122, 131 Banksia spinulosa Smith var. spinulosa -107, 114, 123, 124, 141, 145, 191 Banksia integrifolia Linnaeus f, var, integrifolia - 124, 149, 150, 159 integrifolia - 123, ate laevigata Meissner subsp. fuscolutea A.S. Banksia telmatiaea A.S. George -185 , s Banksia tricuspis Mei = ranaig peas Meissner subsp, laevigata Banksia weriiedin R aie ie Sri ranar As George -168, 185 Banksia victoriae Meissner -1 87 ricina C. Gardner -110, 135, 204 Banksia violaceae C. Gardner 30 Victorian Nat. Naturalist Notes Butterflies (Pieridae) Eaten by Dragon Lizard and Rainbow Bee-eater Tan Faithfull* Predation of Australian butterflies is in- frequently recorded in the literature. Nicholson (1927 pp. 81, 88) stated that it had been ‘a matter of frequent remark that butterflies are seldom attacked in the adult state’ and ‘that adult butterflies are sel- dom seen to be attacked by birds’. Common and Waterhouse (1981 pp. 42-3) stated that ‘remarkably little’ was known about butterfly parasites and ‘even less’ about predators. A more recent work (Barker and Vestjens 1990), on the food of birds, listed numerous records of ‘moths’, ‘butterflies’ and ‘caterpillars’ as prey items, but very few specific iden- tifications of the prey. Itis therefore worth reporting the predation by a bird and a lizard of two species of pierid butterfly at Mount Isa, Queensland, on 29 May 1989. In an aerial engagement during the morning of that day, near the Ray Donaldson Memorial Lookout to the east of the city centre, a Rainbow Bee-eater, Merops ornatus captured, and then ate, wings and all, a Common Migrant, Catop- silia pyranthe crokera (W.S.Macleay). During the afternoon, the gardens of the Civic Centre were found to be the home of several small, prettily coloured, ar- boreal dragons, Lophognathus gilberti Gray which frequented the shrubbery * 7/20 Adam Street, Burnley, Vic., 3121. along the north wall of the main building. Two butterflies were captured and con- sumed by this lizard; a Common Migrant, the wings again being swallowed, and a Common Grass Yellow, Eurema hecabe Phoebus (Butler). Butterflies were numerous around the Citrus, Lantana blossom and other flowers in this shrubbery and I estimated their relative abundance to be in the ratio of 15 E. hecabe: 5 C. pyranthe: 3 The- clinesthes miskini: 2 Anaphaeis java: 2 Euploea core: 1 Papilio anactus: 1 large hesperiid. So L. gilberti consumed the two most plentiful species. Vertebrate predation of these two but- terflies does not appear to have been previously recorded. The Bee-eater is known to eat the Australian Admiral, Vanessa itea (Fabricius) (Lepschi 1993). I am not aware of any record of butterfly predation by Lophagnathus. References Barker, R.D. and Vestjens, W.J.M. (1990). ‘The Food of Australian Birds 2. Passerines’. (CSIRO; Melbourne). Common, I.F.B. and Waterhouse, D.F. (1981). ‘Butterflies of Australia’, (Revised Ed., Angus & Robertson: Sydney). Lepschi, B.J., 1993, Food of some birds in eastern New South Wales: Additions to Barker and Vestjens. Emu 93:195198. Nicholson, A.J., 1927. A new theory of mimicry in insects, Australian Zoologist 5:10-105. New Books Available Visitors Centre, National Herbarium (03) 655 2341. Hours 10-4 pm, 7 days. Crosbie Morrison, Voice of Nature by Graham Pizzey. (A Victorian Press Publication, The Law Printer, Melbourne 1992, RRP $26.95). Philip Crosbie Morrison was a well known radio broadcaster, journalist and photo- grapher with a passion for nature. While chairman of the National Parks Authority he worked tirelessly to improve Victoria's National Parks. He was also a very active member of the FNCV: Hon Sec 1919-1920; President 1941-1943; winner ANHM in 1947 and wrote many articles for The Victorian Naturalist. Some of our long-time members may well remember him. In this el included memorabilia collected by Crosbie uent biography Graham Pizzey has orrison’s wife, and has produced a book that is delightful and evocative to read especially for those who remember Crosbie Morrison’s radio programme ‘Wildlife’. Vol. 111 (1) 1994 31 Naturalist Notes Volvox at Albert Park Lake D.E. McInnes* Albert Park Lake which is just South of Melbourne City is now a different lake to the one it was many years ago, Then it was nearly covered with water weed and all methods were tried to keep it clear enough to allow boat racing of all kinds. They were unsuccessful, but it was a great place to pond hunt, It was often possible to find aquatic caterpillars there, a source of wonder to juniors, and plenty of aquatic Insects, water mites bright red and blue and ‘water fleas’ of all kinds. Then came a period of killing off the weed by pouring chemicals into the lake. This was very successful and all of the weeds disappeared except the algae Cladophora which grew into great long strands attached to the concrete banks, but Strangely the ‘water fleas’ were not af- fected and at times were in great quantities. A few rotifers would also. be found. Recently the Lake has been emptied (half at a time) cleaned up, made deeper and now refilled with new water. But the new water is not the same as the old water which was always fairly clear, Now the water is quite clayey. Near the end of October a visit was made to the Lake to pond hunt. Samples were taken from the southern end, then half way and finally at the northern end, There were plenty of ‘water fleas’ but at one spot at the North there were surprise, surprise quite a number of Volvox to be seen. Now, Volvox is one of the green algae regarded by pond hunters as a prize to find. It is a beautiful minute green sphere Which just rolls along in the water and inside each sphere can be seen smaller green spheres. Under darkground il- lumination with the microscope they are 4 pleasure to observe, The Spheres are composed of hundreds of single cells each with two flagella and the action of all these flagella beating in unison enables *129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 32 Illustrations of Volvox life stages, in this case European specimens, from West, G.S. (1916). ‘Algae’, volume 1. (Cambridge University Press.) A, C, and D, Volvox aureus Ehrenb. A, monoecious sexual colony, x 210; C, two antherozoids (after Klein); D, ri pe oospore, x 475. B, ripe oospore of Volvox globator (L.) Ehrenb., x 475. a, androgonidia; an, antherozoid: 2. gynogonidia. the sphere to majestically roll along in the water, Later, on the 13th November, another visit was made and samples were taken in the same places as previously. What a surprise, this time at every spot the lake was teeming with Volvox and at the centre the pond net was covered with a sheer mass of green Volvox. Justa dip with a jar revealed plenty of the green spheres. The lake was in fact affected by an ‘algae bloom’, this time with Volvox. Is this unusual or has it happened to other lakes? Another surprise was the appearance of plenty of the Desmid Micrasterias hardyi everywhere in the lake, A point of interest is that it was given the name hardyi be- cause a Past President of the F.N.C.V., Mr A.D. Hardy, was doing an algae survey of Victorian Nat. Naturalist Notes the Yan Yean and described it in The Victorian Naturalist Volume 22, 1905. Micrasterias is one of the most ornate forms of the Desmids which are minute brilliant green algae with many varied forms that endear them to the pondhunter. Micrasterias hardyi has narrow lobes armed with tiny spikes in contrast to the usual wide rounded lobes of other Micrasterias spp. A further interesting find was colonies of the rotifer Conchilus. Their colonies are formed by many rotifers that grow outwards from a gelatinous blob forming a sphere with all their ciliary wreaths on the outside. The action of the ciliary wreaths causes the sphere to roll along in the water similar to the action of the Vol- vox. The colonies were most plentiful at the northern end, so much so, that a sample under the microscope showed over two dozen colonies in the field at the one time. What a sight for the pond hunter! As the writer, over a period of 40 years, has never before seen in Albert Park Lake any of the three species, it was thought that a Nature Note commenting on the change in the lake might interest other members. Postscript. On 25th November, on another trip to the Lake, samples were again taken at the same four places; the desmid Micrasterias was plentiful at all the spots and the rotifer Conchilus was seen everywhere, but not a single specimen of Volvox was sighted anywhere around the Lake, what a contrast. From being an algal bloom all around the Lake to not a single specimen. Is this unusual in such a short time? Two views of the desmid Micrasterias hardyi (dimensions 240p long, 2361 wide, 20u isthmus). (a) An electron micrograph by Dr P.A. Tyler and (b) drawing by Joan Powling. Australian Natural History Medallion Trust Fund Donations were gratefully received during 1993 from the following societies: Albury-Wodonga Field Naturalist Club Ornithological Society of Queensland Field Naturalists Club of South Australia Latrobe Valley Field Naturalists Club Launceston Field Naturalists Club Queensland Naturalists Club Ringwood Field Naturalists Club Royal Society of Victoria Wildlife Preservation Society of Australia $10 $50 $25 $20 $25 $50 $30 $100 $100 If you would like to contribute to this fund, which supports the Australian Natural History Medallion, donations should be sent to : The Treasurer, Field Naturalists Club of Victoria, National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra 3141. Cheques should be made payable to the ‘Australian Natural History Medallion Trust Fund’. The Medallion is awarded annually to a person who is considered to have made the most significant contribution to the understanding of Australian natural history in the last ten years. Vol. 111 (1) 1994 33 Naturalist Notes A Dog’s Life - But Butchered by a Bird Arthur J. Farnworth* Colloquially, ‘a dog’s life’ generally tefers to a miserable, harassed or op- pressed existence suffered by one human, often at the hands of another, although most modern dogs of the Canis familiaris variety seem to live ‘very nicely, thank you’. However, the expression took on a dif- ferent, sad and somewhat gruesome complexion for one such animal sighted recently at Currawong Bush Park, a 25- hectare conservation bush habitat of open forest and wetland in East Doncaster, an outer suburb of Melbourne. The small animal (approximately 10cm in length), unidentified at the time, was found firmly wedged in the fork of a fallen tree, some 1.5-2.0 m from the ground. The initial, and in retrospect foolish, thought was that the animal had found its way up the tree, got itself jammed in the fork and perished in its vain attempt to free itself. However, its general appearance and the force required to remove it rather refuted such a theory. Inspection of the accompanying photo- graphs by some zoologists at LaTrobe University elicited a consensus view that the animal was most probably a recently- born or aborted foetus of a dog and was almost certainly placed in the tree fork by a Butcherbird. The only species of Butcherbird found as far south as Melbourne is the Grey ae yo * A7 The Boulevarde, Doncaster, Vic, 3108. 34 Butcherbird (Cracticus torquatus). Most bird books state that their common name originates from their habit of ‘hanging up their meat/prey’ on thorns, sharp twigs or wedged in small forks of trees, either to assist them in feeding or to create a ‘larder’ of food to be eaten at leisure. The foods usually cited are larger insects, small reptiles, rodents, birds and their young and occasionally berries, to which should perhaps be added tiny dogs!! Only the unfortunate dog and its butcher know what happened and they are not saying. However, after considering all the factors - the location of the park, the posi- tion of the animal, the punctured lower neck stained with darkened blood and the bright, recently-congealed blood around the muzzle - it seems possible (likely?) that a recently-born dog from one of the houses surrounding the park was ‘collected’ by a Grey Butcherbird, killed by piercing its throat, transported to the park, forcibly wedged in the fork of the tree during which fresh blood from inter- nal bleeding was squeezed out throu ghthe nose and mouth, then left ‘hanging’ for future consumption - and all within a very short space of time just before I happened by. However, some experienced ‘birdo’ with specialised knowledge of the habits of Cracticus torquatus may have a much simpler or more profound explanation, Victorian Nat. ANHM Address Exploring Local Seasonality Alan J. Summer, Autumn, Winter, Spring - the four equal seasons framework by which most Australians make sense of environ- mental events during the year! In the temperate areas of southern, coas- tal Australia, it seems to work well as a holiday planner, as a gardening guide or, more importantly, as a land management tool. Spring, for example, is heralded by blossoming fruit trees and daffodils, emerging butterflies and the territory songs and nest-building of birds. The first day of Spring is recognised by most, especially weather forecasters, race com- mentators and fashion designers, as the 1st of September and the last day as the 30th of November. But does this European-derived framework really work? It certainly doesn’t work in the tropical north where white land managers only recognise a two season Wet and Dry. The four season indicators don’t work at all - butterflies emerge throughout the year, many fruits ripen in June and July after April and May flowerings and Scrub Fowl lay eggs in their April mounds. It certainly doesn’t work for tribal aborigines in the north. Their finely-tuned calendars, after 50,000 years of survival in the Australian environment, recognise from five to seven seasons, according to their locality. The Milingimbi Island people in N.E. Arnhem Land, for example, use a six season calendar, The longest season 1s Rarranhdarr. It is approximately eleven weeks long and begins in early August. The shortest is Mayaltha, the growth part of the Wet. It lasts five weeks. They live by the coast and the ecosystems on which they depend respond to particular climate patterns and the distinctive topography. In the Kakadu region, 180 km inland to the south-west, acompletely different pat- tern of seasons exists. The thirteen week wet season of Gudjewg is followed by the * Glenburn Victoria Vol. 111 (1) 1994 Reid* four week long Bang Gerang, charac- terised by receding waters, mating goannas, seeding grevilleas and blossom- ing melaleucas. Again it is a different pattern at coastal Aurukun on Cape York. The longest season is the eleven week Onchan Min and the shortest is the three week long Thurpak. In the Kimberley the tiny seasons, Bandemanya (maturing crops) and Golururu (onset of the trade winds), both occur in April. The longest season in the Kimberley is Yirma which lasts for a massive sixteen weeks. It is cool and dry with abundant food. In Alice Springs only five seasons are recognised, The European four-season framework doesn’t work either as you move from the southern coastal regions of Australia. We no longer have aboriginal calendars to refer to, but less than 10 km from the Victorian coast, magpies, plovers, gulls and even thornbills often begin nesting in early July. Some species of wattles are in full bloom then too, and Painted Lady butterflies often appear in early August. As you move inland or closer to the moun- tains, different provenances or sub-groups of the same plant and animal species ex- hibit different breeding times. In mediterranean climates, introduced European plants and animals do appear to respond more or less to the conventional framework. However, native species in neighbouring natural reserves have inde- pendent regimes and obviously different response patterns. These patterns vary from locality to locality. These are varied further by the impact of clearing, intro- duction of exotic plants and animals, creation of impervious and reflective surfaces, modifications of waterways, introduction of large scale farming prac- tices, changes in water and soil quality and the general attitude to and treatment of our wildlife and wild places. In other words, there are definite local seasonal patterns and there is a need to 35 ANHM Address understand them if we are to manage effectively. Local field naturalists are in an excellent position to contribute to this knowledge and practice, either as specialists or generalists, Our local knowledge should allow us to build local timelines of natural events. Such benchmarks especially if ac- companied by appropriate data, should allow for the measurement of the rates of change within ecosytems and help pro- vide management guidelines, Even combing back through our old diaries and journals will be useful in establishing these patterns. My interest in local seasonality began in 1960. Murray Hodges and I had just completed a 3 year weekly census of waterbirds on the Lake Colac foreshore. Donald Lamm of the U.S. embassy in Canberra had just published a similar study at Lake George. Lamm presented his results as ‘Seasonal Counts of Water- birds on Lake George’ and used the framework of Jan-Mar, Apr-Jun, Jul-Sep, Oct-Dec. For the purpose of comparison we decided to frame our data in the same way. The results were alarming. There was a general correspondence of trends and shifts of populations in both studies, but this was markedly different to the conven- tional Australian frame we had applied earlier, More alarming was the obvious bluntness of this analytical tool. The lumping had obscured the si gnificant sur- ges of Pink-eared Duck populations after rain, the mass movements of cormorants mn late February, the flocking of the Black- fronted Plovers in April, the movement of Coots and swans onshore during ‘winter’ and the retreat of the gulls to their nesting islands, } I have kept what I have judged to be significant event’ data since that time and used it to compile monthly summaries for the ‘Casey's Someries’ Magazine for children in the early sixties and to prepare weekly predictive ‘Beachcombing Diary’ articles for the Westernport News during the same period, More recently I have 36 used this material to produce the predic- tive Gould League nature diary called ‘Gumleaves and Geckoes’ and to produce monthly what-to-look-for columns for the Nunawading Gazette. The concept was also the basis for a two year northern Australian nature-event- gathering project for outback children, run through the Schools of the Air pro- gram during 1988 and 1989, I am currently analysing data collected from my 25 year long banding study of bush birds using an artificial lake and its surrounds at our Glenburn property. Some fascinating seasonal patterns are being revealed by the preliminary analyses. One of these is the persistence of mixed species ‘winter’ feeding flocks of insec- tivorus birds travelling along the farm fenceline corridors from the state forest to the lake. I first became aware of this movement in 1970 and in 1971 made a detailed analysis of this phenomenon. My latest banding project looks at the effect of extending these corridors. A typical movement pattern confirmed by analysis of my banding data is the ‘spring’/‘autumn’ migrations of the Yel- low-faced Honeyeater, their ‘summer’ presence (September to April) and the unusual presence of a small flock in early June 1974. One individual returned at least 4 times in 7 years. As systems evolve or are changed through sudden or slow-moving cata- strophic events, so will the local seasonal patterns change. In 1983, the day after the Catastrophic Ash Wednesday fires, a small group of Bell Miners arrived in the N.E. corner of the Graceburn property. Whether through successful aggression or through the exploitation of insect- Stressed trees, the miners have succeeded In establishing what appears to be an in- vincible colony of 400+ birds. There does appear to be a small reduction in species and numbers of other bush birds using the corridors, but this could be attributed to the evolving nature and succession se- quences of the vegetation complex within the corridors, Victorian Nat. ANHM( ‘Address Slow-moving changes such as increas- ing rainfall (perhaps through global climatic changes) could also impact on local wildlife and their seasonal pattern- ing. Rainfall on the Glenburn property has averaged 39.2 inches over the past 20 years. Over the last 5 years it has averaged 45.2 inches. It will be interesting to see if this is reflected in my wildlife census results. How much more interesting it would be if there was a pooling of local data to relate to such trends! If there was such a scheme, we would almost immediately retrieve the lost aboriginal local calendars. The process would be simple enough - a series of widely-advertised local workshop weekends within a defined natural region of shared climate and topography. Naturalists of all persuasions, who had worked in that region, would bring their notebooks and diaries and work methodi- cally through the calendar, contributing event information. Patterns and key events would then be identified to estab- lish the regional calendar. I recommend the launching of such a scheme to the FNCY. 1 know that the Gould League would also be interested in discussing the possibility of a joint project with you. * Thank you for the honour you have done me in making this award. My thanks go to all the naturalists and fellow enthusiasts I met along the way who profoundly in- fluenced me and inspired me - Roy Wheeler, Jack Hyatt, Graham Browne, Philip Crosbie Morrison, Jim Willis, Laura White, Bill Davis, Mare Gottsch, Susan McInnes, Norm Wakefield, Alan Kaufman, Alan McEvey, Ron Jensz, Sid Cowling, Myron Sutton, Jean Edge- combe, Alexis Beckett and the scores of Gould League personnel who supported me over the past 25 years. Thanks too to my wife and family who always encouraged my involvement in this most rewarding of fields. * Update We have had those discussions and I’m pleased to announce the first of those regional meetings along the lines I’ ve sug- gested. You are all invited to attend all or part of the weekend of March 25-27, 1994 at Tikalara Park in Doncaster to explore the local seasonal calendar for the Middle Yarra Region. This coincides with the Envirofest 94 celebrations. The Friday evening launch will feature graphic presentations by prominent specialists who will attempt to identify in their discipline the most significantevents and causal factors in that locality. The Saturday workshop will explore and record natural events occurring between the end of March and the end of Septem- ber, Sunday sessions will deal with the period between October and mid-March. There will be camping facilities avail- able for those wanting to stay the whole weekend. Please come armed with diary records for the period you intend to be present, We plan to leave the files open for 3 months after the workshop to allow you to contribute other records and look for grandpa’s diary too, We are calling the project ‘Timeline Australia’ as we hope to explore other localities in Australia in the same fashion, leading to a major presentation of some kind in the 2001 Centenary year. Alan Reid January 1994 Recent Publications in Natural History Birds of Prey and Ground Birds of Australia. Edited by Penny Olson, Francis Crome and Jerry Olson. (Publisher: Angus & Robertson. RRP $95.00. Available post-free within Australia from Andrew Isles Bookshop, Prahran, Victoria 3181). Vol, 111 (1) 1994 37 Book Reviews Door to the Forest by Ellen Lyndon Publisher: South Gippsland Conservation Society Inc, Environment Centre, PO Box 60, Inverloch, Victoria 3996. R.R.P. $10.00. Ellen Lyndon has been a member of the FNCV for many years, a contributor to The Victorian Naturalist and other journals, and was a founding member of the LaTrobe Valley Field Naturalists’ Club. She has been a lover and observer of nature all her life. In this attractive collection of her writings she gives us a vivid picture of life on a South Gippsland farm, as a child, and then of the hardships and triumphs of farming with her husband under the Soldier Settlement scheme after the Second World War, Always her quick eye and insatiable curiosity were directed to the natural world, whether it was in ‘Birding from the Kitchen Sink’, exploring the Mirboo railway line, studying the alcoholic tastes of butterflies, or watching the reactions of human visitors, who had suddenly become aware that the windows were plastered with frogs having an evening meal of moths and insects. While there is a lament for the flora and fauna which has disappeared, there is also the positive side, in the successful campaign to have Morwell National Park established. The book is enhanced by the delightful illustrations of Marion Kaighin-Chapman, and a final striking photograph by Donald Lyndon of a Great White Egret. Sheila Houghton Collecting and Preserving Herbarium Specimens by David Albrecht Publisher: National Herbarium of Victoria, Melbourne, 1993. Available from: Visitors Centre, National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141. R.R.P. $6.00 plus postage. Everything you need to know about collectin g and preserving plants. It also includes specific sections on Bryophytes, Lichens, Macroalgae and Macrofungi. This booklet is written in a logical and clear style that sets out the standards and expectations and requirements for collections that are to be lodged at an Herbarium. The value of the work of collectors is also highlighted, including an important comment on the ethics of collecting and when NOT to collect, Students of botany will greatly appreciate this addition to their library and private collectors will find the additional information on mounting, arranging and maintaining specimens of great value, This information can promote anyone’s collection from a mere presentation to one of great value. Editors The Encyclopedia of Australian Animals: Reptiles; Frogs; Mammals and Birds. 4 Volumes. Publisher: Angus & Robertson, NS W, 1992. R.R.P. $49.95, $29.95, $29.95, $29.95 respectively. This is a four volume enc - reptiles, frogs, mammals and birds. of each species with a distribution map and notes habitat and conservation they are of an excellent stand i à ard. However, with all the c would be wise to cross-check with other cu th E 38 Victorian Nat. Notice of the Annual General Meeting The Annual General Meeting of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria will be held at the Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra at 8 p.m. on Monday, April 11, 1994. Agenda 1. Confirmation of the minutes of the previous Annual General Meeting held on 5 April, 1993. 2. FNNA and adoption of Annual Report for the year ended 31 December, Receipt and adoption of Financial Statements and associated reports. Election of Members of Council. Election of Office Bearers. Appointment of Auditors (remuneration to be determined by Council). Any other business of which proper notice has been given in accordance with the Articles of Association. 8. President’s Address. Election of Councillors and Office Bearers All members of Council and Office Bearers retire annually but are eligible for re-election. Nominations by two financial members of the Club are required for the following positions. NAAR Council President 2 Vice-Presidents Ten other members Office Bearers Librarian Secretary Excursion Secretary Treasurer Conservation Co-ordinator Assistant Treasurer Publicity Officer Editor Sales Officer (Books) Activities Co-ordinator Sales Officer (Victorian Naturalist) This is your Club, and all members are urges to ensure its on-going viability by filling all the above positions with persons willing and able to contribute to activities, functions and the general work of the Club. Arrange a nomination for yourself or encourage some other appropriate member to be nominated. Nominations should be in the hands of the Secretary before the Annual General Meeting. Obituary Mr Will Lock In late July 1993,a very well-liked FNCV member, Mr Will Lock died. Will joined the Club with his twin sister Myrel in 1976 and they lived together at Surrey Hills. He had been a music teacher at Camberwell Grammar School for boys until he retired, then taught privately until near his death. I remember him coming on Botany and General Excursions, as well as Christmas tours including the one to Mt Kosciusko. We will all miss him and send our respects to Myrel. Joan Harry Vol. 111 (1) 1994 39 The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria In which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria : Established 1880 Registered Office: FNCV, c/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141, 650 8661. OBJECTIVES: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. “Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron His Excellency, The Honourable Richard E. McGarvie, The Governor of Victoria. Key Office-Bearers April 1993 President: Dr. MALCOLM CALDER, Pinnacle Lane, Steels Creek, 3775 (059) 65 2372). Hon. Secretary: Mr, ED GREY, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Ave. (650 8661/435 9019 A.H.). Hon. Treasurer: Mr. NOEL DISKEN, 24 Mayston St., Hawthorn East, 3123 (882 3471). Subscription-Secretary: FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 650 8661). aie Dane WATSON, C/- FNCV, National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (650 8661, A.H. 534 4712). Librarian: Mrs. SHEILA HOUGHTON, FNCYV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (A.H. (054) 28 4097), Excursion Secretary: DOROTHY MAHLER (435 8408 A.H.) Sales Officer (Victorian Naturalist only): Mr. D.E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvem, 3145 (571 2427). Publicity Officer: Miss MARGARET POTTER, 1/249 Highfield Road, Burwood, 3125 (889 2779). Book Sales Officer: Dr. ALAN PARKIN, FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (850 2617 A.H.). Programme Secretary: Dr. NOEL SCHLEIGER, 1 Astley Street., Montmorency, 3094 (435 8408). Group Secretaries Botany; Mr. JOHN EICHLER, 18 Bayview Crescent, Black Rock, 3143 (598 9492), Geology: Miss KARINA BADER, 73 Richardson Street, Albert Park, 3206 (690 4653). Fauna Survey: Miss FELICITY GARDE, 30 Oakhill Road, Mt Waverley, 3149 (808 2625 A.H). Microscopical: Mr. BRIAN WALDRON, 35 Ropley Avenue, Balwyn, 3103 (717 3511). The Victorian Naturalist All material for publication to be sent to FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra 3141. Telephone queries to 650 8661 or A.H. 435 9019. l MEMBERSHIP T of the F.N.C.V. is Open to any person interested in natural history. The Victorian laturalist St is distributed free to all members, the club's reference and lending library is available and other activities are indicated in Teports set out in the several preceding pages of this magazine. Membership Rates 1994 Individual (Elected Members) Membership Subscription Single Membership... Joint MemberShip wo... occ, Concessional rate (Full GPO/Unemployed Freon aut. Junior (under 18, no ‘Victorian Naturalist’) Subscripti ‘The Vi ist ‘oe Ae sels to ‘The Victorian Naturalist only) Overseas...........,, Printed by: Sands & McDougall Printing Pty, Ltd, 91-97 Boundary Road, North Melboume, 3051, Telephone (03) 329 0166 The Victorian Naturalist Volume 111 (2) 1994 April Published by The Field Naturalists ict “Of Vigtoria= crort® since ee, iS Te y vi A 482090 N a a rae 3 Fauna Survey Group Meeting. Population Viability and Analysis for the Helmeted Honeyeater and other Rare Species - Mark Bergman. Herbarium Hall 8 p.m. Sat 7 Fauna Survey Group Field Survey. Leadbeaters Possum Survey. Contact Ray Gibson 874 4408. i Sat 7 General FNCV Excursion. Bandicoots at Gellibrand Hill Park. Leader John Seebeck, Own transport. Contact Dorothy Mahler 435 8408. Sun 8 General FNCV Meeting. A Peep into the World of Insects and Spiders - Dr Arthur Farnworth. Herbarium Hall 2 p.m, Thurs 12 Botany Group Meeting. Ecology of Macro-fungi: Four Years Recording at Kinglake - Tom May. Herbarium Hall 8 p.m. Fri 13- Sun15 Fauna Survey Group Field Survey. Pallisters Reserve. Contact Felicity Garde 818 4684. Wed 18 Microscopical Group Meeting. Geological Slides: an Explanation - Dan McInnes, John Stewart et al. Astronomers Residence 8 p.m, Wed 25 Geology Group Meeting. The Last 50 Million Years around Ballarat - David Taylor, Herbarium Hall 8 p.m. Sat 28 Botany Group Excursion. Fungi at the Kinglake Block. Leader Tom May. Own transport. Meet FNCV property 10.30 a.m. Contact Joan Harry 850 1347. June Sun 5 General FNCV Excursion. Fungi at Murrindindi Scenic Reserve, Leader Nigel Sinnott, Own transport. Contact Dorothy Mahler 435 8408. Tues 7 Fauna Survey Group Meeting. Spotted Tree Frog - Graeme Gillespie. Herbarium Hall 8 p.m. Thurs 9 Botany Group Meeting. Members Night. Herbarium Hall 8 p.m. Sat 11 -Mon 13 Fauna Survey Group Field Survey. Box - Ironbark Forest. Contact Ray Gibson 874 4408. Sun 12 sees FNCV Meeting. Serengeti, South Africa - Joan Broadberry, Herbarium all 2 p.m. Wed 15 Microscopical Group Meeting. Simple Slide Making - Dan McInnes. Astronomers Residence 8 p.m. Wed 22 Soir Group Meeting, Brown Coal of Victoria - Colin Barton. Herbarium Hall p.m. Sat 25 At an Extraordinary FNCY Calendar of Activities (General Meetings May to September Sunday afternoons) Botany Group Excursion, Mosses and Ferns, Leader Arthur Thiess. Meet 10.30 a.m Grants Picnic Ground, Melway 75 K4. Contact Joan Harry 850 1347. National Herbarium on Monday 14 February o the Club’s Articles of Association were app 1, to delete the secon other members’, third sentence of article 29 the words ‘Secretary, Treasurer’, th sentence of article 29 the words ‘The Secretary and YNA Aa trata ai of the Council eight (8) members personally rum’, e Victorian Naturalist is the bi-monthly publication of The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist Volume 111 (2) 1994 April Editor: Robyn Watson Assistant Editors: Ed and Pat Grey Index to Volume 110, 1993 is in the centre of this issue. Letters Lightning Strikes Again .........ccccsesseeeeseseeeneeeeeaessseseenesesessseoneneness 44 Research Reports The Distribution of the New Holland Mouse Pseudomys novaehollandiae (Waterhouse 1843) in the Eastern Otways, Victoria, by Barbara A. Wilson ...cccsecsssseessseetereee retest seenseneeensees 46 Field Observations of the Behaviour of Free-ranging Eastern Barred Bandicoots, Perameles gunnii, at Hamilton, Victoria, by Anthony C. DUfty .c.scccessessssessecsecserreniecieneseessenennenssensenennenennenteneny 54 The Spotted Tree Frog Litoria spenceri: an Addition to the Amphibian Fauna of the Australian Capital Territory, by W.S. Osborne, G.R. Gillespie and K. Kukolic „u.s 60 Contributions Shallow Water Hydroids from Eastern Bass Strait, by Jeanette E. Watson „usses 65 Australian Spiders: is their Publicity worse than their Bite? by Natalie Korzniak, Catriona McPhee and David Story «eee 70 Some Urban Wombats, by John Seebeck „sssssrsserereren 74 ISSN 0042-5184 Cover Photo: Common Wombat Vombatus ursinus. Photo courtesy John Seebeck. Letters Lightning Strikes Again Dear Editor y As a member of the Field Naturalists’ Society of South Australia I was inter- ested to read the published comments of Noel Schleiger (Volume 110 (5) 1993) regarding a lightning strike through a Eucalyptus sideroxylon. I suspect that your member suggests an over-compli- cated mechanism as to what was observed. I have had a long interest in the occurrence and effects of lightning strikes. Some 40,000 thunderstorms occur world-wide daily with lightning dischar- ges at between 100 to 300 flashes per second representing globally acontinuous power flow of about 4,000 million kilowatts, Because of the high potentials often involved the instantaneous current flow can be very high (200 kilo amperes) but short, Temperatures in the narrow dis- charge path through the air may reach temperatures of up to 30,000°K - five times the surface temperature of the sun. Ifthe discharge is through wood or other parts of trees, the high power dissipation causes the generation of high steam pres- sures with forces which would make any- effect on the earth’s magnetic field insig- nificant as was probably the case in the two examples I give below. Therefore I would suggest that the path of the greatest conductance in the case of a tree would be under the bark on the southern side of the trunk or branch, orif same has a wet rotted core, more likely through the latter, For example in 1975 when in south-western New South Wales, we noticed thata still- green River Box Eucalyptus largiflorens had apparently collapsed, on the flood plain of the River Darling, as if the trunk and main branches had suddenly disap- peared. On examination it appeared that the tree had been the victim of a substan- tial lightning strike, All of the trunk and main branches had been blown apart and the pieces thrown to about 75 metres around, with no pieces being longer than about a half Metre, many of which had a Cross-section about that of a wooden rail- 44 way sleeper. At about the same time we noticed a collapsed dry Callitris (probab- ly) columellaris which had collapsed in a pile of splinters, few of which were larger than a 50 cm ruler, It would appear the generation of steam within the rotted cores of the River Box was the cause of its destruction and collapse, In the second case of the Callitris, the wood was ap- parently of much lower and uniform conductivity resulting in uniform steam generation and therefore uniform disin- tegration. It is well known that high objects, in particular trees, and man-made objects such as towers, buildings, masts of ships, etc. are often struck by lightning. Because these are usually better conductors than the adjacent air which is a good insulator until stressed by an electrical potential of abut 10 kilo volts per centimetre, a lightn- ing discharge occurring in the vicinity is likely to be diverted via the object. This means that an isolated object including a person or other large animal becomes more likely to be damaged but there is a relatively protected zone near the base of the object. It is unwise to shelter near the trunk of a tree, particularly an isolated one, as a secondary side flash may leave the tree since a human body may provide an easier path for the discharge. For the same reason a person struck by lightning may escape serious injury because wet clothes may conduct the main discharge. The electrical charges in a thunder cloud are usually negative at the bottom and positive at the top. Discharges can then occur within the cloud or between either the top or base of the cloud to earth, with both sometimes almost simultaneous. The effect of high current on trees is not only by lightning. Some years ago there Was a general power failure in the Adelaide metropolitan area. At the time I was aware that the Electricity Trust of South Australia was stringing second cir- cuits on both of the 275 kv lines between the Torrens Island Power Station and the Para Substation and the one line would be The Victorian Naturalist Letters’ de-energised. My guess was that the fault had occurred near Gawler Street, Salis- bury (a northern Adelaide suburb). As a radio news item gave that as the place of failure, I went to the location as soon as possible. The cause of the failure had been an introduced poplar tree which had grown up towards the lower conductor of the 275 kv line resulting in a flashover to ground via the tree. Although the tree had been cut down and removed, | found that the remaining lower one metre of the trunk - diameter about 15 cm - had about one third of the bark blasted off without any sign of burning. Comments from per- sons who were at the adjacent shopping centre led me to believe the explosion was equivalent to that of a hundred-metre long lightning discharge I since saw from low cloud to a church steeple, but of longer duration until the power was discon- nected. Another similar power failure had a dif- ferent cause. A bushfire in the Adelaide hills provided an ionised path between the 275 ky conductor and ground resulting in asurging power loss. As the false load was not sufficient to cause the disconnection of the line, the system control, not having experienced the situation before, had to initiate a shut-down. Such a situation is serious because both ends of the 300 km length of the Port Augusta/Adelaide lines (a quarter wavelength at 50 hertz) must be disconnected together. A similar unusual situation arose when a magnetic storm on the sun resulted in heavy earth currents in the Canadian power system. The result being that some 250 power stations in North America were temporarily taken off-load. Fifty years ago, while a linesman employed by the former Post-master General's Department at Alice Springs, I noticed other lightning effects. One was that we found while on a maintenance patrol towards Barrow Creek that oc- casionally insulators were completely ‘smashed into small pieces; the top portion of the wooden spindle was reduced to fibre so it looked like a shaving brush, the copper tie completely missing. The 300- Vol. 111 (2) 1994 pound-per-mile-wire had stretched some inches, apparently softened due to heating between the point of contact and the in- sulator. On 29 September 1979 we attended the opening of the Eyre Highway. The day before, we arrived at the site at the top of the Great Australian Bight at the end of a severe thunderstorm. I had delayed our approach because of the known danger from lightning at such positions. I had passed a large metal warning sign when my wife called out that the sign was hiss- ing. I immediately noticed that the man in front of me had his hair pointing upwards and that there was a 10 metre brush dis- charge from the sign. Realising that a lightning strike was likely within seconds, I called out to everyone in the vicinity to crouch as low as possible with feet together. Within seconds the strike took place into the sea within 100 metres of the 100 metre-high cliff, just outside of the zone of protection mentioned above. Early on 14 December 1993 I was near Renmark when an intense thunderstorm swept eastwards about 1 a.m. Conditions remained very humid for the next twelve hours until the arrival of the cold front. Although the front, when approaching, was not accompanied by a thunderstorm, an extensive thunderstorm line built up above the leading edge when it was near the S.A./Victoria border. I have seen this happen on numerous occasions in eastern South Australia, Local residents tell me this is a common occurrence even when there has been no cloud whatever 20 km westwards. I have long believed that in the Mallee zone, a change of elevation of only per- haps as little as 5 metres results in increased rainfall. I am interested to hear of any explana- tion for this thunderstorm activity near the border, particularly, as there were thunderstorms at 2-4 day intervals during the last September - January period (and is being repeated this year). G.L. Howie 53 Gladys Street, Clarence Gardens, SA 5039, 45 Research Reports The Distribution of the New Holland Mouse Pseudomys novaehollandiae (Waterhouse 1843) in the Eastern Otways, Victoria. Barbara A. Wilson* Abstract The results of trapping studies carried out in the Eastern Otways, Victoria be- tween 1981 and 1992 were analysed to determine the distribution of Pseudomys novaehollandiae. The species has a patchy distribution and was captured at only ten of the 96 sites trapped. The sites where P. novaehollandiae was captured were located on flat to undulating terrain, on soils derived from Tertiary sediments, The species occurred in woodland and low-open forest with heathy understorey and preferred early successional vegeta- tion. An area of approximately 2,300 hectares, located east of the Anglesea River, represents critical habitat for the species. Six of the sites where P. novaehollandiae was recorded occur in the Alcoa Lease area, and four in the Flora and Fauna Reserve. A number of proces- ses that represent threats to the survival of this species in the area were identified. They included potential land clearance, recreational pressures and inappropriate fire regimes. Introduction The New Holland Mouse (Pseudomys novaehollandiae) has been recorded at mainly coastal locations in New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania (Mahoney and Marlow 1968; Keith and Calaby 1968; Posamentier and Recher 1974; Seebeck and Beste 1970; Hocking 1980). It occurs in heathland and woodland (Posamentier and Recher 1974; Braith- waite and Gullan 1978; Kemper 1977: Hocking 1980), dry sclerophyll forest with dense shrub layer (Keith and Calaby 1968; Seebeck and Beste 1970; Fox and McKay 1981) and on vegetated sand dunes (Keith and Calaby 1968), Posamen- * Biological Sciences, Deakin Universit Geelong, Vic, 3217, i 46 tier and Recher (1974) proposed that the optimum habitat for the species was heath, actively regenerating after fire. The studies of Fox and McKay (1981) and Fox (1982) showed that P. novaehollandiae populations survived wildfire and reached maximum abundance at 2-3 years after the fire, Studies of the species in coastal heath and open-forest regenerating after sand mining showed that the abundance of the species increased with regeneration age (Fox and Fox 1978, 1984; Twigg et al. 1989). Pseudomys novaehollandiae was first recorded in Victoria near Tyabb on the Mornington Peninsula (Seebeck and Beste 1970). It has since been found at a number of sites on the coastal plains in- cluding Cranbourne (Braithwaite and Gullan 1978), Langwarrin, Wilson’s Promontory and several sites in Gip- psland (Norris et al. 1979; Department of Conservation and Environment, Wildlife Management Branch, unpubl. data). The species has a restricted, disjunct distribu- tion in Victoria, and west of Melbourne has only been found at Anglesea in the Eastern Otway Ranges (Kentish 1982). It is considered to be an endangered species lacking adequate protection (Ahern 1982; Ahern et al. 1985; Menkhorst et al. 1987) and has recently been listed under the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988). Information on the ecology of P. novaehollandiae in Victoria is limited. Two studies of the species at Cranbourne (Braithwaite and Gullan 1978) and Langwarrin (Opie 1983) found that P. novaehollandiae preferred immature dry heath regenerating after clearing and fire (2-8 years postfire age). In the Eastern Otways two populations were studied be- tween 1985 and 1989, after the 1983 Ash Wednesday wildfire (Wilson et al, 1990; Wilson 1991). The population density was low (0-3.1 ha’). Breeding occurred The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports from spring to summer. The species ex- hibited micro-habitat preferences for vegetation of high floristic diversity and within these floristic groups a preference for low, dense vegetation cover (Wilson et al. 1990; Wilson 1991). Both of the populations studied in the Eastern Otways declined to extinction in 1989. The results of a number of small mam- mal trapping studies carried out in the Eastern Otways are examined in this paper in order to determine the distribu- tion of the species in the area, and to investigate factors that may be important for predicting its distribution. The study area The study area in the Eastern Otways (Fig. 1) occurs on a dissected plateau and consists of mainly Tertiary sediments overlying older Cretaceous strata. Pitt (1981) identified four mainland systems based on climate, geology, topography, soil and vegetation: Anglesea; Bald Hills; Gherang Gherang and Mogg’s Creek. The Fig. 1, The study area in the Eastern Otways. Vol. 111 (2) 1994 soils in the area (e.g. sandy podzols, lateritic podzolic) are of low fertility (Walbran 1971). The vegetation com- munities consist of a diverse mosaic of mainly sclerophyllous forests, woodlands and heathlands (Land Conservation Council 1985; Meredith 1986; Wark er al. 1987). The area is predominantly public land with a major proportion consisting of the Alcoa Lease area (7,350 ha). Other areas include the Angahook State Park, Flora Reserves, Coastal Reserve and private land such as that previously known as the International Harvester testing grounds. In 1992 approximately 7,500 ha was listed on the Register of the National Estate because of its botanical and faunal values. The ‘Ash Wednesday’ wildfires in 1983 severely burnt approximately 40,000 ha of the Otway Ranges, including the study area. Several studies of post-fire revegeta- tion and small mammal recolonisation were initiated, and are reported elsewhere (Wilson and Moloney 1985; Wark et al. Pt Addis MM Coastal Reserve. MB Other Public Land CI Private Land [Z] Educational Land, E) ALCOA lease. Œ Fora and Fauna Reserve [D Angahook:Lome State Park. Anglesea Melbourne 47 Research Reports Table 1. Small mammal trapping surveys in the Eastern Otways (1981-1992) (*7 sites in common). Number of sites 1980-82 10 1983-92 *33 Study Years Kentish (1982) Wilson et al. 1990, Aberton unpubl. Wilson (1991) Laidlaw and Wilson (1988) Wilson, McLeod and Mills unpubl. Wilson, Belcher and Nichols unpubl. 1986-87 17 1987 *22 1990-91 14 1991 7 1987; Wilson et al. 1990). Methods A number of trapping studies have been carried out in the study area between 1981 and 1992 (Table 1). A total of 96 sites were trapped in a range of vegetation types and the data from these studies have been collated and examined. Live trap- ping and capture-mark-release techniques were similar to those described previously (Wilson et al. 1986, 1990). The trapping intensity ranged from 30-50 traps, set over a period of three to five nights. The iden- tification number of the animal, its site of capture, weight and routine body meas- urements were recorded. The physical factors and vegetation at sites where P, novaehollandiae was captured were described. Topographic, geological and soil information was collated from maps, and observations were made on the sites, The recorded attributes of vegetation structure included the number of strata and their heights, and the percentage of projective foliage cover of the tallest strata. This data was used to describe the structural vegetation types (Specht 1981). The dominant species in the upper-, mid- and understorey were recorded. The age of the vegetation since fire was deter- mined from maps and knowledge of the author, The land tenure of the sites was described and threatening factors or processes for the species were assessed. Results Pseudomys novaehollandiae was cap- tured at only ten sites (Fig. 1), and trapping success rates were low (0.5-5.5 per 100 trap nights). The species is cur- rently (1993) present at only four of these ten sites (Table 2), The populations at Coalmine Road were last recorded in 1982 and were eliminated by the Ash Wednesday fire in 1983. No populations have been recorded west of the Anglesea River since 1982. All other populations have been recorded within an area of ap- proximately 2,300 ha east of the Anglesea River. Survey trapping nearby to sites where P, novaehollandiae was recorded normally resulted in no captures, indicat- ing that the populations are very localised. Five native and two introduced small mammal species were captured on sites with P. novaehollandiae (Table 2). The sites where P. novaehollandiae was captured were located from 2 to 7 km inland on flat to undulating sites at al- titudes from 50 to 100 m above sea level. Table 2, Number of individual P, novaehollandiae captured (* sites where P, novaehollandiae is present-1992) , Sile Date Trap nights Coalmine Rd. (1) May 81 Coalmine Rd.(2) Higi ne Forest Rd, (5) Apr, 85 90 Pipeline Tk.(8) Apr. 86 90 Pipeline Tk.(9) May 86 80 Forest Rd. (7) Sep. 86 80 “Harrisons Tk.(9) Jan. 91 90 "Flora Res, (2) Apr. 91 90 *Flora Res, (3) Apr. 91 90 “Flora Res, (8) June 91 90 “* Species. Ast (Antechinus stuartii), 48 Am (Antechinus minimus), Nos. of **Other individuals Species captured 2 Sle, Rlu, Am, Mm 1 Sle, Am, Rlu 3 Mm 1 Ast, Mm 3 Ast, Rlu, Rfu, Mm l Mm 5 2 2 Mm, Rn 2 Mm 4 Ast, Mm Sle (Sminthopsis leucopus), Rlu (Rattus The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports The sites occur in two of the major land systems, Bald Hills and Gherang Gher- ang. The species was not recorded on the Anglesea or Mogg’s Creek land systems. The sites are on soils derived from Ter- tiary sediments; in the Bald Hills these sediments are known as the eastern View Formation (Paleocene) and in Gherang Gherang the Demons Bluff (Eocene) for- mation (Pitt 1981). The soils in the Bald Hills system are of quartz, sand, gravel and clay parent material and include grey sand, yellow gradational and grey grada- tional soils. In Gherang Gherang the parent material is quartz gravel sand, siliceous sands, laterized sediments. The soils are mottled yellow and grey duplex with ironstone, stony yellow gradational and lateritic podzolics (remnants of younger plateau). The vegetation where P. novaehollan- diae was recorded was low woodland to low open-forests with heathy under- storeys (Table 3). The species was captured in an old pine plantation, how- ever, the site was adjacent to (<100 m) native vegetation and animals may not have been residents. The predominant species in low woodland and low-open forest included Eucalyptus obliqua, Eucalyptus willisii, Leptospermum con- tinentale, Leptospermum myrsinoides, Epacris impressa, Acacia myrtifolia, Banksia marginata, Gahnia radula. At some sites there were small areas of scrub dominated by L. continentale associated with wet, damp depressions. The species was not recorded in open forests, scrub (sand dunes), fern gullies or Melaleuca swamps. The age of the vegetation when P. novaehollandiae has been recorded ran- ges from 3 to 20 years (Table 3). The known fire history of the sites included fuel reduction burning and the major wildfire of 1983. Six of the ten sites where P. novaehol- landiae was recorded occur on the Alcoa Lease area and four were in the Flora and Fauna Reserve (Table 4). The Alcoa Lease covers an area of 7,350 ha (Fig. 1). It has been leased to Alcoa Australia Pty Vol. 111 (2) 1994 Ltd since 1961 for brown coal mining. A range of possible threatening proces- ses has been identified. Current proposals toclear land in the area for use in sewerage treatment could contribute to fragmenta- tion of present populations. Inappropriate fuel reduction burning could threaten the survival of populations. Although the species prefers early stage successional vegetation, burning of extensive areas could eliminate populations and further fragment them. Recreation such as horse riding and trail bike riding occur within the habitat of the species. Resultant tram- pling and erosion causes damage to the vegetation. The presence of the Cinnamon Fungus (Phytophthora cinnamomi) has been recorded in the area. This plant pathogen devastates some vegetation communities and thus disturbs the habitat of animals. P. novaehollandiae popula- tions may also be susceptible to predation by cats, dogs and foxes. The impact of predators on the species is unknown. Discussion The results of trapping studies over a ten year period show that P. novaehollandiae has a patchy distribution in the Eastern Otways. The present known distribution is restricted to an area of approximately 2,300 ha east of the Anglesea River. Prior to 1983 the distribution extended to the west of the river and covered an area of 3,000 ha, The populations recorded west of the river in 1981 (Kentish 1982) were eliminated by the wildfire in 1983, It is likely that the presence of the open-cut coal mine, begun in the late 1950s, con- tributed to fragmentation of the populations, and that the extensive 1983 wildfire was a stochastic disaster which led to the demise of this part of the dis- tribution. The sites where the species has been located are flat to undulating, be- tween 50 m and 100 m above sea level. They are restricted to two major land sys- tems, Bald Hills and Gherang Gherang on soils derived from Tertiary sediments. The patchy nature of the distribution could be related to local soil variability. Pseudomys novaehollandiae inhabits 49 Research Reports burrows and Fox and Fox (1978, 1984) have shown that softer substrates and top- soil depth are important variables correlated with the biomass of the species. The vegetation at sites where the species was recorded, consisted of low woodland to low open-forest with heathy under- storey. In Victoria the species has been recorded in heathland, woodland and open-forest with heath understorey (Seebeck and Beste 1970; Braithwaite and Gullan 1978; Norris ef al,1983; Opie 1983). It has also been recorded on primary sand dunes in sedgefield with a coastal shrub layer (Menkhorst 1990 un- publ. data), Analyses of the microhabitat use of P. novaehollandiae in the Eastern Otways have shown that it prefers two floristically rich vegetation groups (Wil- son 1991). One group was dominated by understorey species such as Epacris im- pressa, Hibbertia stricta, Acacia myrtifolia, Banksia marginata and Lep- tospermum continentale. The dominant species in the second group were Dillwynia glaberrima, Hypolaena fas- tigiata, Amperea xiphoclada and Empod- isma minus. Although structural factors were not important to overall preference, they did contribute to within group preference where ihe volume of the vegetation in the lower understorey was important (Wilson 1991). Thus floristic and structural requirements affect the patchy distribution, The age of the vegetation where P. novaehollandiae was captured ranged from 3 to 20 years, most sites being of early successional age (3-4 years), The animals located at the 20 year old site were trapped in a patch of L, continentale left unburnt during the 1983 wildfire, Subsequently they moved out of this patch into the Surrounding regenerating vegetation (Wilson 1991), Thus the Species may survive in old patches, but probably only at very low densities, It is not clear what features of the early succes- sional stage are important. A high floristic diversity may Provide a variety of plants to produce seeds for this predominantly Branivorous species (Watts and Braith- 50 waite 1978; Cockburn 1980), Another factor worthy of investigation is the productivity of the vegetation. Early suc- cessional vegetation may have greater seed production compared to ageing vegetation, The importance of these chan- ges are presently being determined. The physical and biological data ob- tained can now be analysed more intensively, The aim will be to produce a predictive model which provides a better definition of the major factors determin- ing the presence and abundance of P. novaehollandiae in the area. This can then be used to determine potential habitat more accurately. This data would be valu- able to locate further populations and identify potential habitat into which animals may migrate. The patchy distribution of the species indicates that populations may be spatial- ly associated in a metapopulation. There is a need to determine how a metapopula- tion structure may contribute to the viability of the species in the Eastern Ot- ways. Preliminary work has been carried out on a population viability analysis (PVA) which may assist in answering such problems (Wilson and Myroniuk 1992). There is evidence that the species has become extinct in recent times (20 years) in reserves east of Melbourne e.g. Tyabb, and Langwarrin reserves (Wilson 1992, 1993). These reserves are small in area (20 and 214 ha respectively) indicat- ing that area may have been a contributing factor to the demise of the species. Atten- tion should be focussed on the populations in the Eastern Otways, where the area of potential habitat is much greater. Isolated populations should be Joined so they can act as a metapopula- tion, and migration and gene flow are enhanced. Since six of the sites where P. novaehol- landiae was recorded are located in the Alcoa Lease and four in the adjacent Flora Reserve (Fig. 1), the total area comprising 2,300 ha at present represents critical habitat for P. novaehollandiae. It should be managed with care and threatening Processes should be addressed. Land The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Table 3. General description of sites where P. novaehollandiae was captured, The numbers under the locations refer to trapping sites. Location, Altitude Topography, Geology, Soils Coalmine Rd Hillside, well drained. (1)s9 Soils derived from Demon's 2km inland Bluff, Eastern View formations. 75m Sandy, loam Coalmine Rd Lower hillside, depression (1)s8 Soils derived from Demon’s 2km inland Bluff, Eastern View formations. 50m Sandy, loam Forest Rd Flat to undulating. (05) Soils derived from Demon’s 5 km inland Bluff formation. Sandy gravel, 100m Joam,clayey quartz Forest Rd Flat. (1b) Soils derived from Demon’s 5 km inland Bluff. Sandy gravel,loam, 100m clayey quartz Pipeline Tk Undulating. (1) Soils derived 4km inland from Demon’s Bluff, Eastern 70m View Clayey silt to fine sand Pipeline Tk Undulating (2) Soils derived from Demon's 4km inland Bluff, Eastern View 70m Clayey silt to fine sand Harrisons Tk. Hillside 6km inland Loamy coarse sand 50m Flora Res Flat. 2 Soils from Demon’s Bluff. 6 km inland Loamy, sand. 100m Flora Res Flat. 3 Soils from Demon’s Bluff. 6 km inland Loamy, sand. 100m Flora Res Flat. Soils from Demon’s Bluff. 8 Loamy, sand. 6 km inland 90m. clearance and recreation such as trail bike and horse riding which modify and frag- ment habitats further should be eliminated. The distribution of P. cin- Vol. 111 (2) 1994 Vegetation structure (Specht 1981) Dominant species Fire history Age Low woodland E. baxteri, E. radiata (7m), L. continentale, L. myrsinoides, A. myrtifolia, A. suaveolens, B, marginata, P, obtusangulum Low woodland, scrub E. radiata (7m), L. continentale, L. myrsinoides, E. impressa, A. suaveolens, B. marginata, wildfire 1969 13 years wildfire 1969 13 years Low open-forest, scrub E. obliqua, E. willisii (7-1 1m), E. impressa, A. pycnantha, A. myrtifolia, L. continentale, L. myrsinoides, G. radula Lepidosperma semiteres Low open-forest E. obliqua, E. willisii (13m), L. continentale, L. myrsinoides, Poa spp. P. obtusangulum, A. myrtifolia, G. radula Woodland, scrub E. obliqua, E. willisii (7m), X. australis, P. esculentum, G. radula, L. continentale, L. myrsinoides, L. semiteres, E. impressa, B. marginata, D. glaberrima Woodland, scrub E. obliqua, E. willisii (7m), X. australis, P. esculentum, G. radula, L. continentale, L. myrsinoides, L. semiteres, E. impressa, B. marginata, D. glaberrima Low woodland, scrub E. obliqua, E. willisii (7m), L. myrsinoides, E impressa, H. fastigiata, D. sericea Old pine plantation P. radiata, A. myrtifolia, A. serrulata, G. radula, H. stricta, P. obtusangulum. old patch 20 years wildfire 1983 4 years wildfire 1983 4 years wildfire 1983 4 years wildfire 1983 9 years wildfire 1983 frb 1989 3-4 years wildfire 1983 frb 1989 3-4 years Low open-forest E. obliqua, A. myrtifolia, A. serrulata, B. marginata, G. ecostatum, L. virgatus wildfire 1983 frb 1989 3-4 years Low open-forest E. obliqua, A. myrtifolia, A. serrulata, B. marginata, G. ecostatum, L. virgatus namomi should be determined because it has been found to affect the density and diversity of small mammals (Wilson et al. 1990; Newell and Wilson 1993), but the 51 Research Reports Table 4, Land tenure of trapping sites and localities of P. novaehollandiae. Land Tenure Units Alcoa Lease Total number of sites 45 22 Number of sites for 6 0 P, novaehollandiae effect on P. novaehollandiae and its habitat, however, has not been deter- mined. The effect of introduced predators such as foxes, cats and dogs should also be investigated. Fire regimes need careful investigation and design, as large extensive fires could wipe out the fragmented populations. Judicious use of small patch burning may be the only way to create suitable patches of preferred early successional habitat and increase its area, An understanding of the spatial structure of populations is required to enable the appropriate patch sizes and distances between them to be determined. Acknowledgements Tacknowledge the studies of W.S. Laid- law, J, Mcleod, D, Mills and D. Moloney. Thanks to the following people who provided assistance in the field D. Benel- lack, I. Jamieson, M. McGlynn, J. Milgate, A. Rothwell, S. Saunders. The work has been supported by grants from the former Department of Conservation and Environment, Victoria, Deakin University, Deakin Foundation and the Ingram Trust. The work was carried out under scientific permits issued by the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Victoria, and ethics approval from the Deakin University Animal Ex- perimentation Ethics Committee. References Ahern, L.D. (1982). Threatened wildlife in Victoria and issues related to conservation, Fisheries and Wildlife Paper Victoria No, 27. Ahern, L.D., Brown, PR,, Robertson, P. and Seebeck, J.H. (1985). Application of a taxon Priority system tò some Victorian vertebrate fauna. Dept, Conservation, Forests and Lands, Arthur Rylah Inst. me pbirorenental Research Technical Report Series o. 30, Braithwaite, R.W. and Gullan, PK. (19 i t i +P! 78). Habitat selection by small mammals ina Victorian heathland, Australian Journal of Ecology 3: 109- 127, 52 Angahook Coastal State Park Reserve Flora International Roadside Reserve Harvester Reserye 6 11 2 10 0 4 0 0 Cockburn, A, (1980). The dietof the New Holland Mouse (Pseudomys novaehollandiae) and the House Mouse (Mus musculus) in Victorian coastal heathland. Australian Mammalogy 3: 31-34. Department of Conservation and Environment, ‘Atlas of Victorian Wildlife’, Arthur Rylah Institute (in press), Fox, B.J. (1982). Fire and mammalian secondary succession in an Australian coastal heath. Evology 63: 1332-1341, Fox, B.J. and Fox, M.D. (1978), Recolonization of coastal heath by Pseudomys novaehollandiae (Mundae) following sand mining. Australian Journal of Ecology 3: 447-465, Fox, BJ. and McKay, G.M. (1981). Small mammal responses to pyric successional changes in eucalypt forest. Australian Journal of Ecology 6: 29-41, Fox, BJ. and Fox, M.D. (1984). Small mammal recolonization of open-forest following sand mining. Australian Journal of Ecology 9; 241-252. Hocking, GJ. (1980). The occurrence of the New Holland Mouse. Pseudomys novaeho!landiae (Waterhouse) in Tasmania. Australian Wildlife Research 7: 71-78. Keith, K. and Calaby, J.H. (1968). The New Holland Mouse, Pseudomys novaehollandiae ( Waterhouse) in the Port Stephens district, New South Wales, C.S.LR.O. Wildlife Research 13: 45-58. Kemper, C.M; (1977). The Biology of the New Holland Mouse Pseudomys novaehollandiae. Ph.D, Thesis (Macquarie University: Sydney.) Kentish, K.M. (1982). A new record of the New Holland Mouse (Pseudomys novaehollandiae) from Anglesea, Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 99; 128-129. Land Conservation Council ( 1985). Report on the Melboume Area, District 1, Review. Land Conservation Council, Victoria. Laidlaw, W.S. and Wilson, B.A. (1988). Distribution and habitat preferences of small mammals in the eastern section of the Angahook-Lorne State Park. The Victorian Naturalist 6: 224-236, Mahoney, J.A, and Marlow, B.J, (1968). The rediscovery of the New Holland Mouse. Australian Journal of Science 31 (6): 221-223. Menkhorst, P., Bennett, A. and Lumsden, L. (1987). Conservation status of mammals in Victoria. In ‘Nature Conservation in Victoria’ , Eds D. Frood and M. Calder. Report to the Victorian National Parks Assoc, Inc. Meredith, C, (1986). The vegetation of the Anglesea Lease Area. Report prepared for the Land Conservation Council, Government of Victoria. Newell, G. R. and Wilson, B. A. (1993). The rélationship between Cinnamon Fungus (Phythophthora cinnamomi) and the abundance of Antechinus stuartii in the Brisbane Ranges, Victoria. Australian The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Wildlife Research (in press.) Norris, K.C., Gilmore, A.M. and Menkhorst, P.W. (1979). Vertebrate fauna of south Gippsland, Victoria. Memoirs of National Museum of Victoria 40: 105-99. Opie, A.M. (1983). Report on the mammal fauna of Langwarrin Reserve, Victoria. Unpubl. Report, Ministry of Conservation, Victoria. Pitt, A.J. (1981). A study of the land in the Otway Range and adjacent plains. Soil Conservation Authority, Victoria. Posamentier, H.G. and Recher, H.F. (1974). The status of Pseudomys novaehollandiae (the New Holland Mouse). Australian Journal of Zoology 18: 66-71, Seebeck, J.H. and Beste, H.J. (1970). First record of the New Holland Mouse (Pseudomys novaehollandiae) (Waterhouse 1843) in Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 87: 280-287, Specht, R.L. (1981). Foliage projective cover and standing biomass. Jn “Vegetation Classification in Australia.’ Eds A.N. Gillison and D.J. Anderson. (CSIRO and ANU Press: Canberra.) Twigg, L.E., Fox, B.J. and Lia, L. (1989). The modified primary succession following sandmining: A validation of the use of chronosequence analysis. Australian Journal of Eclology 14: 441-7, Walbran, W.I. (1971). Soils. In ‘Barwon Region Resources Survey’. Central Planning Authority, Victoria. Wark, M.C., White, M.D., Robertson, D.J. and Marriott, PF. (1987). Regeneration of heath and heath woodland in the north-eastern Otway Ranges following the wildfire of February 1983. Proceedings of Royal Society of Victoria 99: 51-88. Watts, C.H.S. and Braithwaite, R.W. (1978). The diet of Rattus lutreolus and five other rodents in southem Victoria. Australian Wildlife Research 5: 47-57. Wilson, B.A. (1992). Distribution and status of Pseudomys noyaehollandiae in Victoria. Australian Mammal Society, University of Melbourme, September 1992. Wilson, B.A. (1993). Management and conservation of habitat for the New Holland Mouse in Victoria. National Estate Grants Program Final Report. A Report to the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Victoria. Wilson, B.A. (1991). The ecology of Pseudomys novaehollandiae (Waterhouse 1843) in the Eastern Otway Ranges, Victoria. Australian Wildlife Research 18: 233-247. Wilson, B.A. and Moloney, D.J. (1985). Small mammals in the Anglesea-Aireys Inlet area of southern Victoria - a post fire survey. The Victorian Naturalist 102; 65-70. Wilson, B.A., and Myroniuk, P. (1992). Preliminary population viability assessment of an Australian rodent, Ecological Society of America, Hawaii, 1992, Wilson, B.A., Bourne, A.R. and Jessop, R.E. (1986). Ecology of small mammals in coastal heathland at Anglesea, Victoria. Australian Wildlife Research 13: 397-406. Wilson, B.A., Robertson, D., Moloney, D.J., Newell, G.R., and Laidlaw, S. (1990). Factors affecting small mammal distribution and abundance in the Eastern Otway Ranges, Victoria. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 16: 379-94. Low Cost Natural History Reading Back volumes of The Victorian Naturalist Volumes 76 to 90 They contain 335 to 380 pages in 12 monthly parts Price $6.00 per volume Order and then pick up at any General or Group meeting. Postage in Victoria (if required) One Volume $4.60, Two Volumes $4.80, Four Volumes $5.00. Orders to D.E. McInnes, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145. Tel. 571 2427. Vol. 111 (2) 1994 53 Research Reports Field Observations of the Behaviour of Free-ranging Eastern Barred Bandicoots, Perameles gunnii, at Hamilton, Victoria. Anthony C, Dufty* Abstract . A total of 23 individual and 10 social behavioural acts were observed in a free- ranging population of Eastern Barred Bandicoots at Hamilton. Individual be- haviour involved acts relating to body posture during feeding, grooming and in- vestigation. Mating behaviour was promiscuous. Copulations between in- dividuals were rapid and repeated intermittently for up to 45 minutes. Intro- missions occurred when the female carried advanced pouch young. Many males gathered and mated with females during their receptive period. Males used olfaction in the location and pursuit of receptive females. Mutual avoidance be- haviour was often maintained between bandicoots although several antagonistic interactions were observed. These inter- actions usually resulted in the flight of the subordinate after strike, chase and/or threat vocalisation occurred, Introduction Although relatively widespread in Tas- mania, Eastern Barred Bandicoots, Perameles gunnii are critically en- dangered on mainland Australia (Seebeck, et al 1990; Dufty 1991a), The remnant free-ranging mainland popula- tion persists at Hamilton, Victoria (Moon 1984; Brown 1989) and as a safeguard against extinction, the species has been reintroduced to several locations on the volcanic plains (Seebeck 1990). Little information regarding individual and social behaviour of the species on Mainland Australia has been published. Coulson (1990) reviewed several be- havioural Studies in Tasmania and Victoria and concluded that there was an urgent need for detailed information, Fagen and Goldman (1977) demonstrated *Environmental Management Unit, Department of Geography and Environmental Sci ogra] lence, Mona University, Clayton, Vic, 3 168, Australia, pee 54 that the recording of unique behavioural acts often increase considerably with in- creased time devoted to observation of behaviour. Thus, less frequently-ex- hibited behaviours may not be observed without considerable effort, and it is likely that the complete behavioural repertoire of P. gunnii is yet to be revealed. Hein- sohn (1966) in Tasmania, and Brown (1989) and Dufty (1991a) in Victoria have commented briefly on observed in- dividual and social behaviours of P. gunnii but the only systematic research so far reported is that of Moloney (1982) and Clunie (1987) who undertook 165 and 65 hours of observation respectively on captive bandicoots in Tasmania, This paper reports on field observations at Hamilton and assists in the compiiation of a behavioural reportoire for free-rang- ing Eastern Barred Bandicoots, Pera- meles gunnii. Also, the paper discussed the implications of P. gunnii behaviour to the management of both the free-ranging and captive populations in Victoria. Methods Observations of individual and social behaviour were undertaken during monthly spotlighting sessions within the City of Hamilton, Victoria (37°45° S, 142°02’ E, A 100 Watt quartz-halogen spotlight powered by a 12 Volt gel type battery was used at night to obserye ban- dicoot behaviour. A total of 42 spotlight hours was logged between 5 July 1989 and 30 September 1990, A raised area of ground that overlooked optimal ban- dicoot nesting and foraging habitat at the Hamilton Municipal Tip was used to in- itiate observations of individual and social behavior. Observations were con- ducted immediately after dusk and were confined to one individual until it moved out of sight (usually between 2-3 hours). Bandicoots appeared to be unperturbed by the spotlight and the observers’ presence. The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports That is, no escape behaviour that could have been attributed to the observers’ presence and no erratic or unusual be- haviour (excessive grooming or sniffing of the air) was observed. Information on behavioural acts observed and general notes on the frequency of these acts was recorded. Other information recorded (if possible) during encounters included: in- dividual identification, sex, age class and reproductive state (presence/absence of pouch young or young at foot). Results Individual behaviour A total of 23 distinct individual be- havioural acts was observed, They are listed in Table 1, and described using the terminology of Moloney (1982) and Clunie (1987) as reviewed by Coulson (1990). Three behaviours (“bipedal sta- nce’, ‘prancing’ and ‘climbing’) which were recorded by Moloney (1982) and Clunie (1987) were not observed during this study. Foraging areas at the Hamilton Municipal Tip were associated with hard shelter and located in a patch arrange- ment. Travelling within open areas between foraging patches occurred rapid- ly, and foraging was observed only when individuals were within 30m of shelter. Foraging (‘dig’, ‘feed’) was maintained for between 5 and 25 minutes in a single foraging patch before the bandicoot’s ‘run’ to the next patch. Bandicoots ap- peared to search for food in a random movement, although two individuals were observed following fencelines for 25 and 17 minutes respectively. Nosing the ground with a lateral movement of the snout and loud snuffling noises preceeded all observed ‘dig’ behaviour, Digging was similar between all individuals and in- yolved thrusting the foreclaws into a very localised area of the ground quickly and alternately and withdrawing them up- wards and backwards. During digging, the hindquarters were raised, the back ar- ched and the snout pointed downwards towards the excavation, No attempt was made to remove soil which collected Vol. 111 (2) 1994 Table 1. Individual behavioural acts observed in free-ranging Eastern Barred Bandicoots at Hamilton. Act Description Quadmupedal Manus and pes both resting on substrate, body raised and head slightly lower than parallel to body. As above, but one forepaw retracted to budy Complete manus and pes resting on substrate, back arched, head raised and forequarters lowered. As for crouch, but hindquarters relaxed and head lowered to substrate and manus sometimes tilted to one side. Rear Hindlimbs in contact with substrate, head vertically extended, Sit As for rear but head not extended Walk Slow quadrupedal locomotion, cursorial motion of pectoral girdle while saltatorial motion of pelyic girdle. Run Faster quadrupedal locomotion Gallop Rapid locomotion, wherein forelegs are retracted to body while hindlegs exhibit powerful simultaneous thrusts. Vertical spring (up to 1 m), using sudden extension of hindlegs. Loud grunt, repeated up to 5 times. Lateral movement of snout across the substrate with audible sniff. Dig Excavating substrate with forelimbs and inserting snout in hole. Ingesting food; large items (e.g. nectarines) held on substrate while smaller items. (e.g. insects) are manipulated while sitting Clasping and rotating items (generally food) with forepaws. Hindlegs and tail in contact with substrate, forelimps brought down and away from body during extension. Pulling nesting materials backwards with forepaws. Raking movements of hindfeet to groom fur (especially head and neck). Wipe Rubbing the snout with licked forepaws. Lick Licking and chewing fur on body (except head and neck). Vigorous shaking of body, sometimes while in motion, Forepaws extended under head, body elongated, accompanied by yawning. Rest Lying on side in loose coil. Tripedal Crouch Huddle Leap Honk Nose Feed Manipulate Push Scrape Scratch Shake Stretch under the body during digging. The snout probed the hole periodically and a sniffing or snuffling noise was audible. When the food item was secured, the individual fed immediately, while adopting a quad- rupedal or sitting stance. A high foraging success was observed and often ban- dicoots would probe and sniff foraging holes that had been dug on other nights, sometimes enlarging these excavations. The excavations made during bandicoot foraging are conical pits, up to 80 mm deep. It is possible that they trap small invertebrates as Mr N. Gunn (pers. comm., 1989) has observed bandicoots 55 Research Reports searching and removing invertebrates from foraging holes dug previously. Occasionally during foraging a ban- dicoot was observed to ‘rear’ in an upright stance while smelling the air. When un- usual stimuli were encountered, a ‘tripedal’ or ‘crouch’ stance was adopted, often followed by a rapid ‘gallop’ or ‘sprint’, On three occasions after these responses, the bandicoot was observed to ‘leap’ up to 1 m into the air and then ‘run’ away in the direction it faced upon land- ing. The direction appeared to be random as all three bandicoots turned in a wide are of up to 180 degrees, passed cover and returned to shelter, close to where they were originally. Drinking was observed only once, The bandicoot spent four minutes lapping water that had collected in a fold of plas- tic, with a forward and upward motion of the tongue. Nest construction behaviour was ob- served once, Dead grass within 1.5 m of the nest site was scraped from the ground around perennial tussocks and dragged or pulled backwards into an upturned gal- vanised iron roof gutter by the forelegs (for descriptions of nests see Dufty 199 1a), Four bandicoots were observed emerg- ing from diurnal nests, Movement within the nest increased during the 15 minutes prior to emergence. Immediately after emergence, bandicoots were observed to ‘shake’ before they ran or walked to near- by foraging areas, Grooming (‘scratch’, ‘wipe’, ‘lick’) behaviour was most often observed after nest emergence when the individual was away from the nest within a foraging area, Upon retiring to the nest after nocturnal foraging, bandicoots were observed to move nest materials (grass and small sticks) across the nest entrance with their snouts, Social behaviour Mutual avoidance behaviour predo- minated throughout the observation periods but on four occasions social inter- actions were observed, Social behaviour acts are summarised in Table 2, 56 Aggression (‘chasing’ and ‘striking’) was observed on three occasions. During one interaction, the pair of bandicoots faced each other in the ‘arched’ stance with their mouths agape revealing their incisor, canine and premolar teeth, Eye contact was maintained between ban- dicoots and after about two minutes in this posture. The subordinate then slowly turned to move away and the aggressor was observed ‘striking’ the subordinate on its hindquarters. The subordinate fled ‘honking’ with the aggressor in ‘chase’. On another occasion a ‘chase’ had entered the area where a third bandicoot (male) was being observed. The ‘chase’ passed the third bandicoot within 4 m and he responded by pursuing the pair for a dis- tance of about 20 m. The male then returned and continued foraging. The third occasion where aggression was ob- served occurred when an aggressor entered a foraging patch occupied by a subordinate. The aggressor foraged about 15 m away from the subordinate for about 30 minutes, apparently unaware of the subordinate’s presence. However, on moving downwind of the subordinate and Sensing its presence (indicated by sniffing the air in a reared stance), the aggressor ‘chased’ the subordinate, causing the sub- ordinate to ‘spit’ and run for shelter. The aggressor stopped the ‘chase’ in the area where the subordinate was foraging and continued to forage in that area. Table 2. Social behavioural acts observed in free-ranging Eastern Barred Bandicoots at Hamilton. (*observed by Mr K, Drinkell or Mr N, Gunn). Description Nosing perineal area of conspecific. Persistent following of female by male. Male rears on hindlimbs and inclines body forward over female, Pelvic thrusting during mounting. Male bites female. As for quadrupedal but head slightly lowered and back ar ched, Striking conspecific on the back with forepaws, Chasing retreating subordinate, Honking vocalisation given by the retreating subordinate, Spitting vocalisation given by the retreating subordinate, The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Not all interactions were aggressive: on one occasion three bandicoots were ob- served foraging within about 10 m of each other for about 20 minutes. During this observation foraging was the principal ac- tivity and no oyert social interaction (mating, vocalisation, or chase) was ob- served even when two bandicoots moved to within 2 m of each other. Unfortunate- ly, the sex of only one of the bandicoots (a female with advanced pouch young) was determined and the group gradually dispersed in different directions. Two local residents at Hamilton (Mr Ken Drinkell and Mr Noel Gunn) have recorded mating behaviour on several oc- casions. Their descriptions are reported below. Mr Drinkell has lived adjacent to the Hamilton Municipal Tip for many years and has recorded information on breeding activity since 1988. Two individual females were resident on his property during the study, individuals numbered R41 and L8 R7. Female R41 was first marked on 7 May 1988, south of the Hamilton Municipal Tip when she was about four months old, while L8 R7 was first marked on 6 February 1990 on Mr Drinkell’s property when she was also four months old. R41 was first trapped on Mr Drinkell’s property (about 400 m from where she was first marked) on 13 Sep- tember 1988 and was regularly observed there subsequently. R 41 was observed mating with males about every 9 weeks and was the only breeding female to be observed on his property until March 1990, when female L8 R7 was observed mating. Although many males. gathered during the female’s receptive period, little ag- gression appeared to occur between them and avoidance behaviour was maintained. No spatial organisation (e.g. lek) or ob- vious dominance hierarchy was apparent. Males spent much of their time searching for the females in rapid, erratic move- ments. These male movements increased when more males were present. When a male picked up the scent of a female, the movements of the female were replicated Vol. 111 (2) 1994 exactly and males were observed bump- ing into objects placed by Mr Drinkell on the female scent path. Up to ten males were observed to copulate with a female, three or four times each. Copulation lasted about 20-30 seconds and was repeated every few minutes for more than an hour. During one period, R41 was observed mating with male L8 R53 four times and male L61 R8 six times as well as with other males whose identity was unknown, After mating with one male, the female was observed to move away while. the male was foraging and sometimes mated shortly afterwards with another male. Mr Gunn has maintained a captive breeding pair of bandicoots on his proper- ty outside Hamilton since 1984. The bandicoots are maintained within 20 m” enclosures and given supplementary food every second night. This has provided Mr Gunn with the opportunity for casual observations of captive bandicoot be- haviour, During or before supplementary feeding, Mr Gunn has recorded P. gunnii mating activity on four occasions (9 July 1988 for 15 minutes, 4 October 1989 for 45 minutes, 29 July 1990 for 17 minutes, 25 September 1990 for 20 minutes), All observations of mating were made during late afternoon, before sunset and either during or after light rain. Copula- tion was initiated by the male checking the female by a ‘bite’ to the loose skin on her hindquarters. As the male ‘mounted’, the female lowered her forequarters and raised her hindquarters. On three of the mating occasions, the female was carry- ing advanced pouch young and during the fourth the dependent juveniles jumped around the copulating pair. Copulation involved rapid ‘thrusts’ and lasted be- tween 5 and 30 seconds. As copulation progressed, the mail curled his tail under his body from an initial lateral position. Between copulation events, the male was observed to ‘follow’ the female’s scent closely and he was often observed forag- ing within 1 m of her (the pair usually avoided each other during non-mating periods). The male was often observed to smell the perineal region of the female 57 Research Reports prior to copulation. Intermissions be- tween copulations usually lasted between 5 and 40 seconds and on 29 July 1990, copulation was observed to take place 17 times in 17 minutes. Discussion During this study and others (Heinsohn 1966; Duffy 1991a) bandicoots spent much of their time foraging and feeding, suggesting that dietary items sought are either low in energy or are hard to find. The high success at securing subterranean morsels observed during this study and the depth of foraging holes (up to 80 mm), Suggest that bandicoots possess well developed olfaction, The dependence on olfaction to detect food resources has pre- viously been reported by Heinsohn (1966), Moloney (1982) and Quin (1985) in Tasmania, and Dufty (1991a) in Vic- toria. The observation that bandicoots utilise fencelines during foraging may be due to the lack of structural complexity at Hamilton, although the higher floristic diversity and lower compaction of these areas may also be important. The lack of extensive fat deposits (Lenghaus er al, 1990), aggressive defence of foraging patches and rare aggregations of ban- dicoots suggest that food resources at Hamilton are limited. Aggressive defence of foraging resour- ces appeared to be the most common social behaviour exhibited during this study. Dominant individuals were ob- served chasing subordinates from and temporally occupying foraging areas. Heinsohn (1966) Suggested that a dominance hierarchy was present and that smaller bandicoots were chased from key foraging patches. At most other times during the study, bandicoots exhibited strict avoidance behaviour and are regarded by Stodart (1977) and Russell (1984) as solitary. Although it was not clear what mechanism Operates to main- tain the dominance hierarchy, Russell (1985) argued that bandicoot olfaction may havea primary role. Male and female bandicoots possess a sub-auricular gland which exudes a pungent odour (Stoddart 58 1980) and it is likely that this odour is central to social interactions. Stoddart (1980) speculated that the odour has a calming effect which facilitates mating, while it may also be integral to the main- tenance of dominance hierarchy, Mating acts in Victoria described here by Mr Drinkell and Mr Gunn were similar to those described by Heinsohn (1966) in Tasmania. Heinsohn (1966) observed mating behaviour once in captivity and twice between free-ranging individuals. One striking difference was the high com- petition for receptive females at Hamilton. Drinkell reported that small ag- gregations of bandicoots occurred during the female’s receptive period and that several males mated with the female. Principally, the conservation of Pera- meles gunnii in Victoria has inyolved the establishment of three reintroduction and two captive breeding colonies (Seebeck 1990; Dufty 1991b). The artificial nature of captive breeding may alter the in- dividual and social behaviours observed in free-ranging population and com- promise the long-term viability of P. gunnii. To avoid this, three strategies were integral to the P. gunnii captive breeding programme: avoid domestication (either through human association or selective breeding for individuals that are easy to Manage in captivity); minimize an- togonistic interactions between colony members, and mimic the free-ranging populations’ mating strategy. Domestication of P. gunnii may reduce the species’ ability to survive in a natural environment (e.g. forage for food, avoid predators or attract mates), To lessen the effects of domestication, individuals were seldom handled, encouraged to forage and feed without supplementation and after reintroduction, were allowed to select Mates without imposition. Antagonism between captive colony residents may Cause injuries, increase stress levels and lower reproductive output. To minimise antogonistic interactions, only one male resided in each breeding pen, low den- sities of individuals were Maintained, Juveniles were removed as soon as they The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports became independent, food was supple- mented when needed, and shelter was provided for fleeing subordinates. Despite a promiscuous mating system prevailing in the free-ranging population, P. gunnii were initially bred in pairs to maximise outbreeding and conserve low density alleles. However, individuals were promiscuous in the reintroducted populations that were large, less in- fluenced by genetic stoichasticity, and regulated by naturally selection. The successful management of Pera- meles gunnii captive breeding and reintroduction in Victoria has been due, in part, to the resolution of many problems that were associated with captivity and the species’ individual and social behaviour. The application of behavioural informa- tion has aided the conservation of Eastern Barred Bandicoots in Victoria and should be seen as an important component of all wildlife management programmes. Acknowledgements I wish to thank Mr Noel Gunn and Mr Ken Drinkell for their many informative discussions regarding bandicoot breeding behaviour and allowing me to use their data in the manuscript. The manuscript was critically reviewd by Mr J.H. Seebeck and Mr G. Coulson. References Brown, PR. (1989). Management plan for the conservation of the Eastem Barred Bandicoot, Perameles gunnii, in Victoria. National Parks and Wildlife Division, Victoria. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series, No. 63. (Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands: Melboume.) Clunie, P. (1987). Aspects of the ecology and behaviour of Isoodon obesulus (Shaw and Nodder 1797) and Perameles gunnii (Grey 1838). Unpubl, B.Sc. (Hons) Thesis. Department of Zoology, University of Tasmania, Hobart. Coulson, G. (1990). Applied behaviour: its role in conservation biology of the Eastern Barred Bandicoot. Jn ‘Management and Conservation of Small Populations’. Eds. T.W. Clark and J.H. Seebeck. (Brookfield Ilinois: Chicago Zoological Society.) Dufty, A.C. (1991). Some population characteristics of Perameles gunnii in Victoria. Wildlife Research 18: 355-366, Dufty, A.C. (1991b). Conservation biology and Vol. 111 (2) 1994 management of Eastem Barred Bandicoot, Perameles gunnii, in Victoria. Unpubl. M.Sc. Thesis. University of Melbourne, Melbourne. Fagen, R.M. and Goldman, R.N, (1977). Behavioural catalogue analysis methods, Animal Behaviour 25: 261-274. Heinsohn, G.E, (1966). Ecology and reproduction of the Tasmanian bandicoots (Perameles gunnii and Isoodon øbesulus)}. University of California. Publications in Zoology 80: 1-96. Lenghaus, C,, Obendorf, D.L. and Wright, FH. (1990), Veterinary aspects of Perameles gunnii biology with special reference to species conservation. In ‘Management and Conservation of Small Populations’. Eds. T.W, Clark and J.H. Seebeck. (Chicago Zoological Society: Brookfield Ilinois.) Moloney, D.J. (1982). A comparison of the behaviour and ecology of the Tasmanian bandicoots, Perameles gunnii (Gray 1838) and Isoodon obesules (Shaw and Notter 1797). Unpubl, B.Sc, (Hons) Thesis. University of Tasmania, Hobart. Moon, B.R. (1984). Current distribution of the Eastem Barred Bandicoot, Perameles gunnii, in Victoria. National Parks and Wildlife Division, Victoria. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series, No. 5: (Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands: Melbourne,) Quin, D.G, (1985), Aspects of feeding ecology of the bandicoots, Perameles gunnii (Grey 1838) and Isoodon obestlus (Shaw and Nodder 1797) (Marsupialia: Peramelidae) in southern Tasmania. Unpubl. B.Sc. (Hons) Thesis, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Russell, E.M. (1984). Social behaviour and social organisation of marsupials. Mammalia Review 14; 101-154, Russell, E.M. (1985), The metatherians: order Marsupialia. /n Social Odours in Mammals. Eds, D. Macdonald and R.E. Brown. (Oxford University Press: Oxford.) Seebeck, J.H. (1990). Recovery management of the Eastern Barred Bandicoot in Victoria: statewide strategy. /n ‘Management and Conservation of Small Populations’. Eds. T.W. Clark and J.H. Seebeck. (Chicago Zoological Society: Brookfield Ilinois.) Seebeck, J.H., Bennett, A.F. and Dufty, A.C. (1990). Status, distribution and biogeography of the Eastern Barred Bandicoot, Perameles gunnii in Victoria. In ‘Management and Conservation of Small Populations’. Eds. T.W. Clark and J.H. Seebeck, (Chicago Zoological Society: Brookfield Illinois.) Stodart, E. (1977). Breeding and behaviour of Australian bandicoots, In ‘The Biology of Marsupials’. Eds. B. Stonehouse and D. Gilmore. (University Park Press: London.) Stoddart, D.M. (1980). Observations of the structure and function of the cephalic skin glands in bandicoots- Australian Journal of Zoology. 28: 33-41, 59 Research Reports The Spotted Tree Frog Litoria spenceri: an Addition to the Amphibian Fauna of the Australian Capital Territory W.S. Osborne*, G.R. Gillespie** and K. Kukolic* The Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spen- ceri) has a limited distribution, confined predominantly to the north-west slopes of the Great Dividing Range, between the Central Highlands in Victoria and the Mount Kosciusko region in New South Wales (Watson et al. 1991; Gillespie 1992, 1993). Within this area the species historically was known from only 11 streams in Victoria and one in New South Wales (Watson ef al. 1991). During the 1980's concerns were raised that L. spen- ceri had suffered a considerable population decline. Watson ef al. (1991) were only able to locate the species at two sites from which it had previously been recorded. Recent extensive surveys for L. spenceri throughout its known geo- graphic range have located the species along 13 streams in Victoria (Fig. 1); (Gil- lespie 1992, 1993, unpubl. data). Despite repeated searches by Watson et al, 1991) and Gillespie (1992, 1993) the species has not been found along four of the streams from which it was historically recorded. Furthermore, several of the remaining populations appear to have declined in distribution and abundance. There is now considerable concern about its continued survival at many sites and as a conse- quence it has been listed as a nationally endangered species (ANZECC 1991). Reasons for the decline of L, spenceri are unclear, although human disturbances to streams or catchments have been impli- cated (Watson et al. 1991; Gillespie 1993). In this paper we report the occur- rence of L, spenceri within the Australian Capital Territory, well outside its pre- viously known range. Spotted Tree Frogs are associated with rivers and large streams at a number of widely separated locations in the eastern * ACT Parks and Conservation Service, PO Box 1119 Tuggeranong, ACT 290), ) ** Department of Conservation and N 5 at Si Orbost, Vic 3888, abe ay 60 highlands of Victoria (Watson eral, 1991; Gillespie 1992). There is a single reported occurrence in New South Wales at Bogong Creek in Kosciusko National Park where a specimen was collected in 1975 (H. Cogger pers. comm.; see Cogger 1992 for a colour photograph of this specimen). Although the species appears to have disappeared from the collection site (G. Gillespie and W. Osborne unpubl. data), a large population was found recently by Ehmann er al. (1992) some kilometres upstream on the same river. Bogong Creek occurs in a particularly moist part of Kosciusko National Park and the capture site has a mean annual precipitation predicted to be about 1900 mm (Adomeit et al. 1987). By contrast, mean annual precipitation in the Brin- dabella and Bimberi Ranges in the A.C.T, reaches a maximum of about 1300 mm. It was thought that there was little likelihood of L. spenceri occurring as far north as the A.C.T., which is ap- {i | | TT e NEW SOUTH WALES Canberra VICTORIA Melbourne Fig. 1. The current distribution of the Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri), Closed circles indicate locations where the species still occurs (after Gillespie 1992 and Ehmann er al. 1992), The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports proximately 100 km north of Bogong Creek, until a photograph of the species (Fig. 2) was found in the slide collection of the ACT Parks and Conservation Ser- vice. The specimen had been collected by one of us (KK) in daylight on 1 October 1975 on an exposed pebble bank of the Cotter River at the upstream end of Ben- dora Dam (Fig, 1) at 780 m. At the time information on the different colour morphs of L., spenceri was not available and it was tentatively identified as L, phyl- lochroa before preservation. Recently the specimen (now in the Australian National Wildlife Collection; A1925) and photo- graphs were examined by several her- petologists familiar with L. spenceri and there was agreement that the specimen was L. spenceri (G. Gillespie, J-M Hero and P. Robertson pers. comi. ). The specimen collected from the Cotter River has lost all colour and the following description is based on the field notes of KK and subsequent examination of the specimen and colour slides. In life the specimen weighed 1.9 g and had a snout- vent length of 28.2 mm. The preserved specimen has the following measure- ments (mm): snout-vent length 29.3, hind limb length 41.2 (L), tibia length 14.3 (R), head width 11.0, inter-narial distance 2.58, eye - naris 2.58 (R), and eye length 3.05 (R). The snout is relatively short, slightly pointed when viewed from above and truncated in profile. The nares are Fig. 2. Adult male Spotted Tree Frog (L.spenceri) collected from the Cotter River upstream of Bendora River in the ACT in 1975 (see text for further details), Photograph C.A. Sherwood. Vol. 111 (2) 1994 obvious and located dorso-laterally close to the end of the snout. The eye is large and prominent and the tympanum is indis- tinct. In life the dorsum is dark olive-green with raised brown warts and brown mot- tling. A narrow dark-coloured stripe, bordered above by a pale-brown zone, runs from the nares to the centre of the eye, then continues beyond the eye and broadens slightly before extending along the flanks where it breaks into a series of dark blotches on the lower flanks. A large pale green zone occurs on either side of the head below the eye and nostril and extending to the line of the jaw. The limbs are 1nottled in green and brown and the posterior surface of the thighs are brown becoming slightly yellow behind the tibia. The toes are fully webbed whereas the fingers only show basal webbing. The ventral surface including the throat is white and the specimen appears to have slightly enlarged nuptial pads indicating that it is a male. On 24 April 1993 we carried out a preliminary survey of the site on the Cot- ter River where the ACT specimen was collected (Fig. 3). The original capture site (Site 1, 780 m altitude) was examined and notes made of the river phenology and of the riparian vegetation and adjacent hillside yegetation. The river bed at this point is 15-20 m wide and has been sub- ject to frequent innundation by the backed-up waters of Bendora Reservoir and is now highly disturbed. The underly- ing geology consists of Ordivician shales which outcrop as low cliffs and occasional rocky bars near the river, The river has a pebble (cobble) bottom, with intermittent exposed pebble banks and riffles. There is a narrow river terrace which abuts the steep, high slopes of the Tidbinbilla Range (highest point 1615 m) to the east and the Brindabella Range (1640 m) to the west. The terrace and adjacent slopes sup- port an open-forest of Eucalyptus radiata and £E. dalrympleana with a shrubby un- derstorey, The riparian vegetation near the original capture site is still intact and consists of tall dense Leptospermum 61 Research Reports lanigerum scrub which also includes Acacia pravissima, A. melanoxylon, Pomaderris aspera, Kunzea ericoides, Grevillea victoriae and Lomatia myricoides. The river banks appear to be completely free of blacxberries upstream of the reservoir. An intensive search was made of all exposed gravel, rock shingle and boulder cobble for a distance of 1,3 km upstream of the site. At the start of the search the air temperature was 20.1°C and water edge temperature was 12.7°C. Approximately 513 mof stream-edge shingle and pebbles was searched along the edge of the stream using the method described by Gillespie (1992), Five juvenile Litoria lesueurii were found at the 1975 collection site (Site 1), but no other species were recorded, However, metamorphs of L. spenceri Were found at two sites further upstream, both associated with exposed rock shingle adjacent to large shallow pools in the river. Fifteen specimens were found at the first site (Site 2, 780 m), which was approximately 120 m upstream from the 1975 collection site, and a single metamorph was found 600 m further upstream (Site 3, 790 m). Site 2 consisted of a narrow 20 m long pebble shingle bed which was almost flooded and had flowing water on one side and a still pool attached to the main stream at both ends of the bed. The pebble sub- strate included rocks of both sedimentary and voleanic origin, Much of the pebble bed was free of vegetation although there were several large Carex sp, and Scirpus polystachus tussocks and patches of Gratiola peruviana. The L, spenceri metamorphs were found beneath small flat pebbles which generally were smaller than a hand span in size. The frogs all had completely resorbed tails, weighed be- tween 0.3 and 0.4 g and ranged in snout-urostyle length from 13.3 to 16.6 mm (mean = 14.9), A single adult L, lesueurii also was collected, The riparian shrub vegetation and forest type was similar to that described at the original capture site above. The herb layer at the river edge was well-developed and in- 62 cluded the following species; Blechnum penna-marina, Adiantum aethiopicum, Blechnum cartilagineum, Rubus par- vifolius, Hydrocotyle laxiflora, Stellaria pungens, Acaena novae-zelandiae, Senecio sp., Carex appressa and Luzula sp. Site 3 consisted of a long (40 m) partially vegetated pebble bank. The specimen was found near the edge of the stream beneath a small stone in an area consisting of an expanse of exposed pebbles. Several Gratiola peruviana clumps occurred within a metre of the capture site. The riparian vegetation was not as dense at this point and consisted of tall shrubs of A. pravissima, L. lanigerum, L. myricoides Cassinia aculeata, K. ericoides and P. aspera, with Pteridium esculentum and Rubus parvifolius providing thick ground cover. The single metamorph captured weighed 0.3 g and was 14.9 mm in SUL. A recently metamorphosed Litoria lesueuri also was found at this site. The sixteen metamorphs which resembled L. spenceri had brown dorsal surfaces (some were darker than others) with scattered raised warts, Paler specimens also had numerous dark flecks on the dorsum, All specimens had a faint darker stripe on the side of the head run- ning from the nares to the eye and then from behind the eyes to the flanks. This stripe had a faint pale upper edge. The ventral surface of the metamorphs was speckled with grey and dark brown, with a yellowish tinge beneath the thighs. Be- cause of the difficulty of identifying juvenile frogs, four metamorphs were retained and are being raised in order to check adult appearance, the other in- dividuals were released at the time of capture. _A search also was made at three loca- tions on the river downstream of Bendora Reservoir on 25 April 1993. The sites were located at distances of 3.2, 5.7, and 12.2 km downstream of the reservoir wall. The lengths of river-edge pebbles sear- ched consecutively at each site were 210 m, 300 m and 270 m. No L. spenceri were found, although a total of six juvenile L. The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports lesueurii were collected. The river bed at each of these sites appeared to be suitable for L. spenceri although it was obvious that stream flow was considerably reduced and there was a fine matrix of silt and sand amongst the gravel and pebbles that reduced the amount of loosely-piled shingle. The river upstream of Corin Dam ap- pears to be unsuitable for L. spenceri. The valley floor is broad and the river is nar- rower and has extensive areas without exposed river stones. The surrounding vegetation includes Eucalyptus pauci- flora, E. stellulata and E. dalrympleanc woodland and forest dominated by subal- pine and high-montane species (Helman et al. 1988). The length of river between Corin Reservoir and Bendora Reservoiris 14.5 km, and this section of river passes through a deeply dissected montane tract similar to that near the two capture sites. Most of the populations remaining in Vic- toria occur in similar steeply dissected mountainous country, It is possible, there- fore, that this is the only area still supporting L. spenceri in the A.C.T, Al- though the river along this section is remote, without road access and is rela- tively weed free, the presence of Corin Reservoir upstream of the L. spenceri site is likely to have influenced the species. The reservoirs are managed by A.C.T. Electricity and Water (ACTEW) and the bed of the Cotter River provides the means for moving water between the two reservoirs. It is possible that sudden releases of water downstream of Corin Reservoir may impact on L. spenceri along this length of river. The montane and subalpine ranges reach their northern limit in the Brindabella Range and it is therefore likely that the northern-most populations of L. spenceri are represented in this area. It remains to be seen if this population is disjunct from the Bogong Creek population or whether other streams in between the two loca- tions also support the species. A recent bioclimatic analysis using BIOCLIM (G. Gillespie unpubl. data) indicates that there is considerable potential for the Vol. 111 (2) 1994 species to occur along suitable rivers on the western side of the Brindabella Range and Kosciusko National Park. Further sur- veys are required to assess the status of the ACT population of L. spenceri and to consider potential impacts on the species in this region. Acknowledgements We thank J.M. Hero, P. Robertson, M. Littlejohn and G. Watson for providing information and assisting with the iden- tification of the 1975 speciment; M. Davis for identifying plants; K. Williams for comments on the draft; B. Terrill (ACT Parks and Conservation Service) for Catter Dam CANBERRA KA É C % = D SS Tidbinbilla NR Corin Dam NAMADGI A NATIONAL i 5 PARK [ 1 Fig. 3. Location of the Spotted Tree Frog (L.spenceri) capture site in the ACT. The closed circle encloses Sites 1, 2 and 3 (see text). 63 Research Reports providing accommodation at Bendora Dam, and the Department of Conserva- tion and Natural Resources, Orbost District, for providing assistance with transport to GG. References Adomeit, E.M., Austin, M.P, Hutchinson, M.F. and Stein J.L. (1987). Annual Mean Rainfall and Temperature Surfaces, and Contour Maps of South-eastern Australia. CSIRO Division of Water Resources Technical Memorandum 87/15. ANZECC (1991), Australian and New Zealand Conservation Council, ‘List of Endangered Vertebrate Fauna’. (Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service: Canberra.) Cogger, H.G. (1992), ‘Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia’, (Sth ed.). (Reed: Chatswood, N.S.W.) Ehmann, H., Ehmann J. and Ehmann, N. (1992). The Rediscovery of the Endangered Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri) in New South Wales and some subsequent findings. Herpetofauna 22: 21-24. Gillespie, G.R. (1992), Survey for the Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri) in Victoria, February-March 1992, The Victorian Naturalist 109; 203-211. Gillespie, G.R. (1993), Distribution and Abundance of the Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri) in Victoria. Unpubl. report to the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra. Helman, C.E., Gilmour, P.M., Osborne, W.S. and Green, K. (1988). An Ecological Survey of the Upper Cotter Catchment Area ACT. Unpubl. report to the Conservation Council of the Southeast Region and Canberra. Watson, G.F., Littlejohn, M.J., Hero, J-M. and Robertson, P. (1991). Conservation Status, Ecology and Management of the Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri). Arthur Rylah Institute Techical Report Series No. 116. (Department of Conservation and (Environment: Victoria). Book Discounts Available Members of The FNCV are entitled to a discount of 10% on books purchased from the Royal Botanic Gardens Visitor’s Centre Shop if they show their FNCV library card. Library cards are available from the FNCV librarian, Shelia Houghton or at General Meetings. New Books Available An Introduction to Australian Insects by Philip Hadlington and Judith Johnston. University of New South Wales Press, RRP $14.95 16 pp. colour plates, black and white illustrations and photographs. Plant Ident kit: Common Plants of Sherbrooke Forest and Dandenong Ranges Common Plants of Otway Ranges Common Plants of Wilson’s Promontory Common Plants of Grampians New Titles; Common Plants of Coorong Common Plants of North Sydney (Hornsby Plateau) C . National Pay of South Sydney (Royal National Park and Heathcote Pocket-sized field guides, coloured line drawings. RRP $4.95. Cranbourne Botani Seton , : . Boss enue Garden: resource inventory including plant lists, maps Associations Between I Wale Piet SIOS nsects and Plants by Tim New. University of New South The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Shallow Water Hydroids from Eastern Bass Strait Jeanette E. Watson* Introduction Previous records of hydroids from Bass Strait east of Wilsons Promontory include four species collected by the Challenger Expedition (1873-76) from a depth of 70 m off Moncoeur Island (Allman 1888) and four species from the Endeavour trawlings in 146-546 m on the eastern slope (Bale 1915). Five species from a depth of 82 m, described by Busk (1852) from the voyage of the Rattlesnake, may have been dredged in Banks Strait, off the north-eastern coast of Tasmania. Until 1915, only three species Sertularia unguiculata (Busk 1852), Stereotheca elongata (Lamouroux 1816) and Amphis- betia operculata (Linnaeus 1758) were recorded from depths of less than 60 m in eastern Bass Strait, the first two from Banks Strait (Busk 1852), S. unguiculata from Sealers Cove on the eastern side of Wilsons Promontory (Bale 1884) and A. operculata from near Devonport (Bale 1915). The few eastern Victorian shallow water records from previous Australian researchers (e.g. Bale, Spencer, Bartlett, Mulder and Trebilcock) probably reflects the inaccessibility of much of this part of the coastline to earlier workers. This paper lists hydroids recorded to depths of 60 m in eastern Bass Strait. Most of the material was collected by the author, using SCUBA. The list includes collections from the Kent Group (1974 and 1993) (KGI), from shallow reefs off the Ninety Mile Beach (Woodside Beach to Delray Beach, 1977-1992) (NMB), from Gabo Island; Iron Prince reef and Mallacoota in the east (1973-1975) (GBI), from the Halibut and Marlin oil produc- tion platforms in central eastern Bass Strait (1974) (HMP), from the Seal Is- lands Group and the Nooramunga Reserve near Wilsons Promontory (1983- 1992) (NOR) and near Flinders Island (FLI). Localities are shown in Fig. 1. * Honorary Associate, Museum of Victoria 285 Russell Street Melbourne 3000. Vol. 111 (2) 1994 The list includes 9 species of athecate hydroids and 73 species of thecate hydroids. No doubtful or undescribed species are listed nor has any taxonomic revision been attempted in this paper. Species are listed with locality, depth range of collection and substrate notes where available. These provide an indica- tion of the bathymetric range and habitat preferences of each species. Ecological notes While all but one of the records are from the sublittoral zone, some of the epiphytic species listed may be expected to also occur on algae in tide pools on rocky shores in far eastern Victoria. The list gives no indication of the abundance or rarity of species; for example, the very small species, Calamphora parvula recorded for the first time from Bass Strait since its original description (Allman 1888), is rare, whereas the large plumose species, Aglaopohenia divaricata, is very common on coastal reefs. Some species, for example Obelia geniculata, Silicularia rosea, Orthopyxis caliculata and Aglaophenia setaceoides FIG 1. Map of Eastern Victoria showing locations of hydroid collections PKG) @ FLI Fig. 1. Map of eastern Victorian showing locations of hydroid collections. 65 Contributions are epiphytes on brown algae, the most important associations being with Phyl- lospora comosa, Ecklonia radiata and Sargassum spp. Other species such as Aglaophenia plumosa, Halecium delicatulum and Halopteris campanula are epizooites on other invertebrates in- cluding bryozoans, many species: of sponges and the solitary ascidians Herdmania momus (Savigny), Pyura australis (Quoy and Gaimard) and Pyura stolonifera (Heller). Larger forms includ- ing Aglaophenia divaricata, Aglaophenia whiteleggei and Gymnangium superbum, while listed as epilithic, frequently grow from a rootstock directly attached to rocky substrate. Their larvae may, however, have originally settled on small inver- tebrates on the rock surface, Nemertesia wattsi and Amphisbetia operculata are usually not associated with reefs and often form large colonies growing on fragments of shell and rubble in open waters, espe- cially in places of strong current flow. Clytia hemisphaerica, a small opportunis- Table 1. Hydroid species recorded from depths of 0-60 m from eastern Bass Strait. tic species, favours many different sub- strates, and rich colonies may grow on artificial surfaces such as buoys or raft on fragments of the seagrass Heterozostera tasmanica drifting in ocean currents. Size, habit and colour are all charac- teristics useful for recognition of hydroids to generic, and often to specific level. Most epiphytes are stolonal, the colonies usually growing close to the algal thallus; in general these species tend to be white in colour, or almost colourless. Erect- growing species, irrespective of habit, are often brightly coloured. Aglaophenia divaricata forms dense brown to black feathery colonies which may grow to 20 cm high while a similar species, Lytocar- pus whiteleggei, is white. Halopteris campanula is lacy in habit and bright orange in colour; Sertularia macrocarpa forms large colonies that are silvery white in situ but appear black out of the water. Most species of Gymnangium have tall plumose stems that vary from green to brown in colour. Species Locality Depth, m Substrate notes ATHECATA Family Hydractiniidae Styluvtis betkensis Watson, 1978 GBI 0-1 on gastropod Parcanassa burchardi Family Corynidae Sarsia radiata Lendenfeld, 1884 NMB HMP 3-10 buoy lines and mussels (Myriluy planulatus) Family Bougainvilliidae Bougainvillia ramosa (Van Beneden, 1844) NMB 3 buoy lines, mussels (Myrilus planulatus) Family Eudendriidae i Eudendrium terranovae Watson, 1985 NOR 10 epilithic, in cavern ales tl generale Lendenteld, 1885 FLI 25 from scallop dredge udendrivm merulum Watson, 1985 NOR 6 zoan ino Eudendrium balei Watson, 1985 NMB 15 aas Kii THECATA Family Haleciidae Hydrodendron australis (Bale, 1919) KGI ale, 3-14 sponge, ci idia Hydrodendron armatum (Stechow, 1924) KGI 3-33 Mri hie ene Halectum delicatulum Coughirey, 1876 NOR HMP GBI 3-23 barnacles, red algae, sponge, ascidian Halecium sessile Norman, 1867 KGI HMP 10 tarnacies. gjuri fecun bruniensis Watson, 1975 GBI 12 ascidian (Herdmania momus) falecium fragile Hodgson, 1950 HMP 36 solit sidia i Halecium beanii (Johnson, 1838) HMP GBI 17-20 ria patos ni Halecium luteum Watson, 1975 KGI 14 s epithe Family Lafoeidae i Ni Hebella scandens (Bale, 1888) Lafoea amirantensis Millard & Bouillon, 1973 Ral 14-20 hydroid (Amphisbetia geminata) Lafoea fruticosa (M. Sars, 1851) ` FU : Fabing voc, ee sesarle nese parte) Filellum serpens (Hassall, 1848) KGI F be age i ening Campanulariidae A Nisha elia geniculata Linnaeus, 1758 3 Obelia gustralis Lande KGIGBI 3-17 brown alga (Ecklonia radiata) ld, 1885 KGI HMP NMB idi lies NOR 6-65 Sponge, ascidian, barnacles mussel (M. planulatus) The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Species Obelia bidentata Clarke, 1875 Orthopyxis caliculata (Hincks, 1853) Campanularia crenata Hartlaub, 1901 Campanularia pulcratheca Mulder & Trebilcock, 1914 Campanularia integra MacGillivray, 1842 Campanularia gaussica Stechow, 1923 Campanularia ambiplica Mulder & Trebilcock, 1914 Clytia hemisphaerica (Linnaeus, 1767) Silicularia rosea Meyen, 1834 Family Syntheciidae Synthecium patulum (Busk, 1852) Family Sertulariidae Stereotheca elongata (Lamouroux, 1816) Crateritheca crenata (Bale, 1884) Salacia sinuosa (Bale, 1884) Salacia fenestrata (Bale, 1884) Thyroscyphus balei (Calder, 1983) Diphasia subcarinata (Busk, 1852) Parascyphus simplex (Lamouroux, 1816) Amphisbetia operculata (Linnaeus, 1758) Amphisbetia minima (Thompson, 1879) Amphisbetia minuta Bale, 1882 Amphisbetia gracillima (Bale, 1919) Amphisbetia pulchella (Thompson, 1879) Symplectoscyphus indivisus (Bale, 1882) Symplectoscyphus subdichotomus (Kirchenpauer, 1884) Symplectoscyphus neglectus (Thompson, 1879) Symplectoscyphus epizoicus Watson, 1973 Sertularia geminata Bale, 1884 Sertularia turbinata (Lamouroux, 1816) Sertularia macrocarpa Bale, 1884 Sertularia marginata (Kirchenpauer, 1864) Sertularia unguiculata Busk, 1852 Sertularia bicuspidata Lamarck, 1816 Sertularella simplex (Hutton, 1873) Sertularella robusta Coughtrey, 1876 Calamphora parvula Allman, 1888 Family Plumulariidae Pycnotheca producta (Bale, 1881) Antennella campanuliformis (Mulder & Trebilcock, 1909) Antennella secundaria (Gmelin, 1792) Halopteris buskii (Bale, 1884) Halopteris campanula (Busk, 1852) Plumularia setaceoides Bale, 1882 Plumularia setacea Ellis, 1755 Plumularia pulchella Bale, 1882 Plumularia spinulosa Bale, 1882 Nemertesia wattsi (Bale, 1887) Family Agalopheniidae Halicornopsis elegans (Lamarck, 1816) Aglaophenia plumosa Bale, 1882 Aglaophenia divaricata (Busk, 1852) Agalophenia parvula Bale, 1882 Aglaophenia bakeri Bale, 1919 Aglaophenia sinuosa Bale, 1888 Lytocarpus whiteleggei (Bale, 1888) Gymnangium longirostre (Kirchenpauer, 1876) Gymnangium superbum (Bale, 1882) Gymnangium proliferum (Bale, 1884) Gymnangium ilicistomum (Bale, 1882) Gymnangium thetidis (Ritchie, 1911) Gymnangium ascidioides (Bale, 1882) Gymnangium aureum Watson, 1973 Locality Depth,m Substrate notes NMB HMP 7-10 old shell, old cable, barnacles KGI HMP 2-20 brown alga (Ecklonia radiata) KGI 12 red alga KGI 28 red alga (Jeanerettia sp.) NMB GBI 15 red alga NOR 15 bryozoan, brown alga NMB 10 no record KGI NMB HMP 10-30 mussels, barnacles, ascidians, red and brown NOR algae, dead seagrass, man-made objects KGI GBI 10-30 algae, especially Phyllospora comosa KGI GBI NMB 22 sponge, ascidian (Herdmania momus) KGI NMB GBI 10-30 red algae NOR 10-12 bryozoan KGI NOR 15-35 bryozoan NOR 15 sheltered epilithic KGI 5 bryozoa, ascidian KGI 28 red alga (Jeanerettia sp.) KGI 33 ascidian NMB KGI 55 old shell KGINMBGBI 3-12 ascidian (Herdmania momus), sponge, KGI 3 ascidian (Herdmania momus) FLI 54 fishing net KGI 12-16 bryozoan KGI GBI 2-35 ascidian, red alga, brown alga KGINMBGBI 12 epilithic, algae NOR 5-10 brown alga KGI 35 hydroid (Aglaophenia divaricata) KGI 3-35 ascidian, red alga, hydroid (Agalophenia divaricata) KGI 27-30 red alga, brown alga (Sargassum sp.) KGI NMB 6-15 red algal holdfastsa KGI NOR GBI 5-30 red alga (Jeanerettia sp.), brown alga (Ecklonia radiata) KGI 2-30 brown alga KGI NOR 20 brown alga (Sargassum sp.) KGI GBI HMP NMB 10-17 oyster (Crassostrea angasi), sponge, ascidian KGI HMP 10-20 barnacles KGI 21 bryozoan KGI NOR GBI 10 epilithic, bryozoan, seagrass (Posidonia australis) NMB 12 epilithic GBI 4-17 sponge, red algae, epilithic KGI GBI NMB 12-30 ascidian (Didemnum sp.), epilithic NMB 12 epilithic KGI GBI 12 sponge, brown alga (Cystophora, Ecklonia radiata) NMB 9 epilithic, old shell KGI NMB GBI 20 ascidian (Herdmania momus) red alga GBI 12 red alga, ascidian (Herdmania momus) NMB 3-18 buoy ropes, old shell GBINMB KGI 14-17 epilithic KGI 3 brown alga, sponge KGINMB GBI 15-23 epilithic KGI NMB GBI 8-12 ascidians (Herdmania momus, Pyura australis), sponge, epilithic NOR 15 epilithic GBI 24 epilithic KGI, NMB 12-15 epilithic KGI 12-16 epilithic, bryozoan KGI GBI 15 epilithic GBI KGI 3-12 epilithic KGI 20 red alga GBI 12 epilithic KGI 16 epilithic GBI 23 epilithic Vol. 111 (2) 1994 67 Contributions Recommended reading . General texts which describe hydroid morphology and provide information on common southern Australian species are: Australian Seashores. W. J. Dakin, revised by Isobel Bennett. (Angus & Robertson). Marine Invertebrates of Southern Australia, Part I, Eds. S. A. Shepherd and I. M. Thomas. (Government Printer, South Australia.) References Allman, G. J., (1888), Report on the Hydroida dredged by H.M.S.Challenger during the years 1873 -76, Part Il, The Tubularinae, Corymorphinae, Campanularinae, Sertularinae and Thalamophora. Report of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger 1873-76. Zoology, 23 (70): 1-90. Bale, W. M., (1882). On the Hydroida of south-eastem Australia, with descriptions of supposed new species, and notes on the genus Aglaophenia. Journal of the Microscopical Society of Victoria, 2: 15- 48, Pls 12-15. Bale, W. M., (1884). ‘Catalogue of the Australian hydroid zoophytes’. (Australian Museum: Sydney.) Bale, W, M., (1887). The genera of the Plumulariidae with observations on various Australian hydroids. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 23: 73-110, Bale, W. M., (1888). On some new and rare Hydroida in the Australian Museum collection. Procedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, (2) 3: 745-799, pls. 12-21. Bale, W; M., (1915), Report on the Hydroida collected in the Great Australian Bight and other localities, Part HL RLS. ‘Endeavour’ Report, 3: 241-336, Pls 46,47. Bale, W. M. (1919). Further notes on Australian hydroids-IV. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, (n.s.) (2) 31: 327-361. Pls 16, 17, Bale. W.M., (1924). Report on some hydroids of the New Zealand coast with notes on New Zealand Hydroids generally, supplementing Farquhar's list. Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, 55: 225-268. Van Beneden, P. J, (1844). Recherches sur l'embryogenie des Tubulaires et l'histoire naturelles des differents genres de cette famille qui habitent la cote d'Ostende. Memoires de l'Academie Royal de Belgique, 17: 1-72. Busk, G., (1852). ‘An account of the Polyzoa, and Sertularian zoophytes, collected in the voyage of the Rattlesnake, on the coasts of Australia and the ine Pe etc.’ In MacGillivray, J., ive of the voyage M. Ae 1 tas, ee ge of H.M.S. Rattlesnake, fag aes R., (1983). Hydroida from estuaries of South teeta families Sertulariidae and ariidae. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, (1) 96: a a he Biological Society Clarke, S.F., (1875), Descriptions of new and rare species 68 of hydroids from the New England coast. Transactions of the Connecticutt Academy of Sciences, 3: 58-66. Coughtrey, M. (1875). Critical notes on the New Zealand Hydroida, Suborder Thecophora. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, (4) 17: 22-32. Ellis, J., (1755). An essay towards a natural history of the corallines, and other marine productions of the like kind, commonly found on the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland. (London). Gmelin, J. F, (1791). In ‘Systema Naturae’, Ed. 13. Vermes. 1 (6): 3021-3910, Lipsiae. Hartlaub, C., (1901). Revision der Sertularella-Arten. Abhandlungen auf dem Gebiete der Naturwissenschaften des naturwissenschaflichen Vereins Hamburg, 16: 1-143. Hassall, A. H., (1848). Definitions of three new English zoophytes. Zoologist, 6: 2223, Hincks, T., (1853). Further notes on British zoophytes, with descriplions of new species. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 11: 178-185. Hodgson, M., (1950), A revision of the Tasmanian Hydroida., Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, 1-65. Hutton, F. W. (1872), On the New Zealand sertularians. Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, 5: 256-259, Johnson, G. (1838), A History of the British zoophytes (Edinburgh: Lizars.) Kirchenpauer, G. H. (1864). Neue Sertulariden aus verschiedenen Hamburgischen Sammlungen, nebst allgemeinen Bemerkungen uber Lamouroux’s Gattung Dynamena. Verhandlungen der kaiserlichen Leopolino-Carolinischen Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher, (3) 31: 1-16. Kirchenpauer, G. H. (1876), Ueber die Hydroidenfamilie Plumularidae, einselne Gruppen derselben und ihre Fruchtbehalter (IL Plumularia und Nemertesia). Abhandlungenauf dem Gebiete der Naturwis- senschaften des naturwissenschafilichen Vereins Hamburg, 6: 1-59, Kirchenapuer, G. H. (1884). Nordische Gattungen und Arten yon Sertulariden. Abhandlungen auf dem Gebiete der Naturwissenschaften des naturwissen- schaftlichen Vereins Hamburg, (3) 8: 1-54. Lamouroux, J. V, F (1816). Histoire des polypiers corralligenes flexibles vulgairement nommes zoophytes. Caen. Lendenfeld, R. von, (1885a). The Australian Hydromedusae, I. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, 9: 345-353. Lendenfeld, R, von, (1885b) The Australian Hydromedusae. IIT, Proceedings Linnean Society of New South Wales, 9; 401-420. Lendenfeld, R. von, (1885c), The Australian Hydromedusae. IV. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, 9: 467-492. Lendenfeld, R, von, (1885d). The Australian Hydromedusae. V. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, 9: 581-634. Lendenfeld, R. von, (1885e). Addenda to the Australian Hydromedusae. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, (4) 9: 908-924. Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema naturae, Ed. 10. Holmiae. Linnaeus, C, (1767). Systema naturae. Ed. 12. Holmiae. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions MacGillivray, J., (1842). Catalogue of the marine zoophytes of the neighbourhood of Aberdeen. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 9: 462-469. Meyen, F. J. F. (1834). Uber das Leuchten des Meeres und Beschreibung einiger Polypen anderer neiderer Thiere. Nova Acta Acadamie Caes Leopold-Carol, 16 (Suppl. 1): 125 -216. Millard, N. A. H., and Bouillon, J. (1973). Hydroids from the Seychelles (Coelenterata), Annales de la Musee Royal de l'Afrique Centrale. (Belg) Sc., (Zool.) 206: 1-106. Mulder, J. F and Trebilcock, R. E. (1909). Notes on Victorian Hydroida with description of new species. Geelong Naturalist, 4; 2nd ser. 1-7. Mulder, J. F, & Trebilcock, R. E., 1914. Victorian Hydroida with description of new species. Geelong Naturalist, (1) 6: 6-47. Norman, A. M. ('867). Report of the committee appointed for the purpose of exploring the coasts of the Hebrides by means of the dredge.-Part II. On the Crustacea, Echinodermata, Polyzoa, Actinozoa, and Hydrozoa. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 1866: 193-206. Ritchie, J. (1911), Hydrozoa (hydroid zoophytes and Stylasterina). Jn ‘Scientific results of the trawling expedition of H.M.C.S. ‘Thetis’. Memoirs of the Australian Museum, (2) 4: 807-869. Sars, M. (1850). Beretning om en i sommeren 1849 foretagen zoologisk reise i Lofoten og Finmarken. Nytt Magasin for Naturyidemskapene, 6; 121-211. Stechow, E., 1923a. Zur Kenntnis der Hydroidenfauna des Mittelmeeres, Amerikas und anderer Gebiete. T. those given below, plus postage. Per Part, vols. upto 91 - Per Part, vols. upto 92 - Per Part, vols. 93 to Per Part, vols. 96 to Per Part, vol. 100 and volumes 93 onwards have 6 parts. Vol. 111 (2) 1994 The Victorian Naturalist - Back Issues Complete volumes are available, from Volume 63 up to the present. Back numbers start from Volume 11, but some issues are missing. Prices are 50 cents minimum. 75 cents. 95 - $1.20, vols. 101 to 102 - $2.50. 99 - $1.75, vols. 103 to 104 - $3.00. - $2.20, vols. 105 to 106 - $3.50. Volumes up to Vol. 91 contain 12 parts per volume, Vol. 92 has 11 parts All inquiries or orders to D.E. McInnes, The Victorian Naturalist Sales Officer 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, Victoria 3145. Tel: 571 2427. Teil, Zoologische Jahrbucher, (Syst,) 47: 29-270. Stechow, E. (1923b). Uber Hydroiden der Deutschen Tiefsee-expedition, nebst Bemerkungen uber einege andre Formen. Zoologische Anzeiger, 56: 97-119. Stechow, E. (1923c). Neue Hydroiden der Deutschen Tiefsee-expedition, nebst Bemerkungen uber einige andre Formen, Zoologische Anzeigen 56: 1-20. Stechow, E. (1923d). Die Hydroidenfauna der Japanischen Region. Journal of the College of Sciences, Imperial University of Tokyo, (8) 44: 1-23. Stechow, E. (1924), Diagnosen neuer Hydroiden aus Australien, Zoologische Anzeiger, 59: 57-69. Stechow, E. (1925a). Hydroiden von West- und Sudwestaustralien nach den Sammlungen von Prof. Dr. Michaelsen und Prof. Dr. Hartmeyer. Zoologische Jahrbucher (Syst.), 50; 191-269. Thompson, D’A. W. (1879). On some new and rare hydroid zoophytes (Sertulariidae and Thuiariidae) from Australia and New Zealand. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, (5) 3: 97-114. Watson, J. E. (1973), Pearson Island expedition 1969-9, Hydroids. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia, (3) 97: 153-200. Watson, J. E. (1975). Hydroids of Bruny Island, southern Tasmania, Transactions of the Royal Society South Australia, (4) 99: 157-176. Watson, J. E. (1978). New species and new records of Australian athecate hydroids, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, (2) 90: 301-331. Watson, J. E. (1985), The genus Eudendrium (Hydrozoa: Hydroida) from Australia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, (4) 97: 179-221. 69 Contributions Australian Spiders: is their Publicity Worse than their Bite? Natalie Korszniak*, Catriona McPhee** and David Story*** Recently, considerable attention has been focussed on the potential threat posed by common Australian house and garden spiders following reports of hor- rific injuries resulting from presumed spider bites (Sutherland 1983a, 1983b, 1987; Spring 1987). Such bites have been attributed to a wolf spider, Lycosa sp., and less certainly, although more frequently, to the white tailed spider, Lampona cylindrata, mainly because the resultant symptoms closely resemble those ob- served following envenomation by the North American brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa). Loxosceles reclusa envenomation pro- duces both local reactions and systemic effects such as nausea and dizziness, The local reactions to the spider bite have been well documented since the late 1950s (At- kins et al. 1957) and include the development of severe pain and swelling around the bite site a few hours after en- yenomation has occurred, and eventual necrosis (tissue death) of the surrounding skin (Foil and Norment 1979; Wasserman and Siegal 1979; Kurpiewski et al. 1981), Similarly, the Australian experience has been the development of severe pain in affected areas presumably several hours after painless and usually unnoticed bites, local swelling, ulceration, and, on oc- casions, necrosis in the affected areas (Sutherland 1983a, 1983b, 1987). Addi- tionally, most people affected by these symptoms had spent considerable time outdoors in an environment populated by the spiders Lycosa sp, and Lampona cylindrata, and thus these species came to be blamed for causing these reactions, Despite the fact that the observed responses to envenomation by Loxosceles * Victorian College of Pharmacy, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville 3052. ** Museum of Victoria, Abbotsford Annexe 71 Victoria Crescent, Abbotsford 3067. *** Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences RMIT, P.O. Box 2476V, Melbourne, Vic., 3001 È 70 reclusa and the local symptoms as- sociated with the presumed spider bites in Australia are very similar, differences do exist, especially with regard to the sys- temic reactions observed. Loxosceles reclusa venom is known to produce blood related disturbances (Nance, 1961; Foil and Norment 1979; Wasserman and Siegal 1979; Norment and Foil 1980). No such reactions have been observed in Australian patients (Spring 1987; Suther- land 1983b). Although the similarities between en- venomation by Loxosceles reclusa and the symptoms presented by Australian patients are remarkable, another issue has created confusion and controversy over the years with regard to establishing the cause of the necrotic lesions that have developed in people suffering ‘mystery bites’. The clinical manifestations of in- fection by Mycobacterium ulcerans, a microbe distributed widely in Australasia, Central and South America and the Southern African continent (Hayman 1984), are similar to those following en- venomation by Loxosceles reclusa and to those attributed to spider bites in Australia. They include ulceration and necrosis of the upper layer of skin, inflammation of the subcutaneous layer of fat and further necrosis which may extend down to the muscle tissue (Hayman 1985; Hayman and McQueen 1985; Song et al. 1985). Thus, there has been some debate as to whether or not infection by M. ulcerans is involved in the local reactions to the bites of wolf and white-tailed spiders”. It has been proposed that by biting and punctur- ing the skin, spiders enable any mycobacterium already on the surface of the skin to enter the wound and thereby initiate a local dermonecrotic response. Alternatively, it has been suggested that M. ulcerans resides on the fangs of spiders and may enter the skin when a spider bites (Sutherland pers comm). Preliminary in- The Victorian Naturalist Contribitions vestigations into the latter possibility have shown it to be unlikely (Lightfoot pers comm), Moreover, recent experiments performed with various spider venom ex- tracts, including those from wolf and white-tailed spiders demonstrated that venom from a wolf spider was capable of producing necrotic lesions in both in vive and in vitro situations (Atkinson and Wright 1991, 1992), while the venom of | the white-tailed spider was not (Atkinson and Wright 1992). Thus, the possibility does exist that envenomation by wolf spiders may have been the initiating factor for the development of necrotic lesions in some of the reported cases given the widespread distribution of these spiders throughout Queensland, NSW, and Vic- toria (McKay 1973), The past decade has seen the charac- terisation of a number of toxins from several species of spiders which act on the nervous system. Components of venoms obtained from different spiders often share common activities. There are several examples of substances isolated from spider and other venoms being deployed as ‘tools’ in biological research, particularly in investigations of nerve function (for a review, see Jackson and Usherwood 1988; Jackson and Parks 1989). Of the Australian spiders currently under investigation, most recent effort has centred on the effects of the Sydney fun- nel-web spider, Afrax robustus. A neurotoxin was isolated from the whole venom of the male spider by Scheumack et al. (1985) and since then experiments have confirmed that it is this component which is responsible for the neurotoxic and lethal effects following A. robustus envenomation (Mylechrane et al, 1989). A modified synthetic analogue of the natural spider toxin has, most recently, been put forward as an immunogen against the native funnel-web spider toxin (Mylechrane et al. 1990). Another of the funnel-web spiders, Hadronyche (Atrax) versutus found in the Blue Mountains of NSW, has yielded another neurotoxin (Browneral. 1988). The Victorian funnel Vol. 111 (2) 1994 webs H. modesta and H. meridiana so far seem to be relatively innocuous, with there being no reports of serious sequelae following enyenomation (Gray pers. comm.). In a more general study of common Vic- torian spiders, the venoms of the huntsman spiders Delena cancerides and Isopeda montana, the sac spider Clubiona sp., and two brown house spiders related to the red-back spider, Steatoda grossa and S. capensis, were recently inves- tigated for any pharmacological activity. Venom gland extracts from the female huntsman spiders D. cancerides and I. montana were found to produce increases in heart rate and blood pressure in rats (Korszniak and Story 1993). Further- more they produced local inflammatory reactions without producing any evident necrotic lesions (Korszniak and Story 1994b). Of all the huntsman spiders, only two species (Neosparassus [Olios] cal- ligaster and N. punctatus) have been reported as giving painful bites (Mascord 1989). However, it is possible that other species also deliver painful bites. In the case of D. cancerides and I. montana, any pain at the bite site resulting from en- venomation may be due to intense constriction of blood vessels in the area produced by both venoms, leading to a decrease in oxygen supply to the tissues (ischaemia). In addition, the pain produced may be due to the liberation of the body’s own chemical mediators of pain as a consequence of the inflam- matory response to either venom. The Clubiona sp. spiders investigated are related to the Chiracanthium spiders of Europe and North America, and both genera have been reported as giving ex- tremely painful bites (for a review see Bettini and Brignoli 1978). Crude venom gland extracts prepared from glands col- lected from female Clubiona sp. spiders produced increases in blood pressure and heart rate in experimental models, and also produced local inflammatory reac- tions following injection of the venom into the skin (Korszniak and Story 1992). Each of these effects of the venom could 71 Contributions be attributed to the activation of specific nerves in the body (Korszniak and Story 1992), Thus, in the instance of painful bites following Clubiona sp. envenoma- tion, the pain may be due to either intense constriction of local blood vessels leading to ischaemia, the liberation of the body's own chemical mediators of pain, or the pain and itching at the bite site may be due to the activation of specific neural path- ways (Bradley et al. 1986). It is surprising to note that the venom gland extracts from the two Sreatoda species exhibited vastly different phar- macological actions. $. grossa was largely inactive, its only action being to produce a local inflammatory response in the anaesthetised rat model (Korszniak 1992; Korszniak and Story 1994b). Conversely, $. capensis venom gland extracts produced effects consistent with there being at least two separate active components in this venom (Korszniak and Story 1994a). Thus S$. capensis venom was found to trigger the release of sub- stances from nerves, leading to increases in heart rate and blood pressure (Korszniak and Story 1994a), The remaining activity of S. capensis Hann venom gland extracts may actually be a composite of several different com- ponents in the venom. One or more of these components may account for the initial decrease in heart rate produced by the venom as well as being partially responsible for the increases in heart rate observed, In conclusion, there is a body of evidence which allows some of the specific symptoms of envenomation by some spiders to be linked to particular components of the venoms of those spiders. However, it should be noted that this research is not wholly supportive of many of the claims which have been made recently with respect to injuries that have been attributed to spider bites. Whilst it is possible that some of the reported symptoms in people suffering these mystery bites’ could have been a result of a spider bite, other causes are equall possible, Further researc EHH : earch must be under- 72 taken before it can be conclusively stated that the majority of common Australian house and garden spiders pose a sig- nificant threat to humans. Acknowledgements Many thanks to Mr Rob Kilpatrick and Dr James Ziogas for their reading of, and insightful comments on, this manuscript. Studies undertaken by the authors (NK & DFS) were supported by a Grant-in-Aid from Rentokil Pty Ltd, # Refer to articles published in ‘The Age’ (Melbourne, Australia) newspaper; ‘Spider’s reputation may be worse than its bite’ by Heather Kennedy (27.9.90), and ‘Rainforest bug bites back in Gippsland’ by Tim Entwisle (31.7.89). References Atkins, J.A., Wingo, C.W. and Sodeman, W.A, (1957). Probable cause of necrotic spider bite in the Midwest. Science, 126: 73. Atkinson, R.K. and Wright, L.G. (1991). Studies of the necrotic actions of the venoms of several Australian spiders, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiolagy, 98C (2/3): 441- 444. Atkinson, R.K. and Wright, L.G. (1992). The involyement of collagenase in the necrosis induced by the bites of some spiders. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 102C (1): 125-128. Bettini, S. and Brignoli, PM. (1978). Review of the spider families, with notes on the lesser-known poisonous forms. Jn ‘Arthropod Venoms’. Ed S, Bettini, 101-120. (Springer-Verlag: Berlin.) Bradley, P.B., Engee, G., Feniuk, W., Fozard, J.R., Humphrey, PA., Middlemiss, D.N., Mylechrane, E.J., Richardson, B.P. and Saxena, PR. (1986), Proposals for the classification and nomenclature of functional receptors for 5-hydroxytryptamine- Neuropharmacology, 25: 563-576. Brown, M.R., Scheumack, D.D., Tyler, M.I. and Howden, M.E.H, (1988). Amino acid sequence of versutoxin, a lethal neurotoxin from the venom of the funnel-web spider Arrax versutus. Biochemistry Journal, 250; 401-405. Foil, L.D. and Norment, B.R. (1979), Review article: envenomation by Loxosceles reclusa, Journal of Medical Entomology, 16: 18-25, Hayman, J, (1984), Mycobacterium ulcerans: an infection from jurassic time’? The Lancet, 8410: 1015-1016, Hayman, J, (1985), Clinical features of Mycobacterium ulcerans infection. Australasian Journal of Dermatology, 26: 67-73. Hayman, J. and McQueen, A. (1985). The pathology of Mycobacterium ulcerans infection. Pathology, 17: 594-600. Jackson, H, and Parks, T.N. (1989). Spider toxins: recent applications in neurobiology, Ann Rev Neurosci., 12: 405-414, The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Jackson, H. and Usherwood, P.N.R. (1988). Spider toxins as tools for dissecting elements of excitatory amino acid transmission. Trends Neurosci., 11: 278-283. Korszniak, N.V. (1992). ‘Investigations of local and systemic effects of venoms of Australian spiders’, (PhD Thesis, University of Melbourne.) Korszniak, N.V. and Story, DE (1992), Pharmacological aspects of the venom of the Clubiona sp. spider. In ‘Recent Advances in Toxinology Research’, Vol 2. Eds P Gopalakrishnakone and C.K. Tan, 144-154. (National University of Singapore Publication.) Korszniak, N.V. and Story, D.F. (1993). œ- and B-adrenoceptor agonist activity in the venom of the Australian Huntsman spiders, Delena cancerides and /sopeda montana. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, 20: 127-134. Korszniak, N,V. and Story, D.F. (1994a). Effects of the venom of the Theridiid spider, Steatoda capensis Hann, on autonomic transmission in rat isolated atria and caudal artery. Toxicon, 32: 85-96. Korszniak, N.V. and Story, D.F. (1994b). Preliminary studies on the inflammatory actions of the venoms of some Australian spiders. Natural Toxins, in press. Kurpiewski, G., Forrester, L.J., Barrett, J.T. and Campbell, BJ. (1981). Platelet aggregation and sphingomyelinase D activity of a purified toxin from the venom of Loxosceles reclusa. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 678: 467-476. Mascord, R. (1989). ‘Australian Spiders in Colour.’ (Reed Books Pty Ltd: Australia.) McKay, R.J. (1973). The wolf spiders of Australia (areanea: Lycosidae): 1. The bicolor group. Mem Qld Museum, 16(3): 375-389. Mylechrane, E.J., Spence, I, Comis, A., Tyler, M. and Howden, M.E, (1990). Immunisation with a synthetic robustoxin derivatiye lacking disulphide bridges protects anaesthetised monkeys against potentially lethal challenge with male funnel-web spider (Atrax robustus) venom, Proceedings of the 10th World Congress on Animal, Plant and Microbial Toxin, Abstract no. 076, Mylechrane, E.J., Spence, 1., Scheurnack, D.D., Claassens, R, and Howden, M.E. (1989). Actions of Tobustoxin, a neurotoxic polypeptide from the venom of the male funnel-web spider (Afrax robustus), in anaesthetised monkeys. Toxicon, 27: 481-492. Nance, W.E. (1961). Hemolytic anemia of necrotic arachnidism, American Journal of Medicine, 31; 801-897, Norment, B.R. and Foil, L.D. (1980). Histopathology and physiological action of venom from the brown recluse spider, Loxosceles reclusa. Toxicon, 18 (suppl.2): 69-76. Scheumack, D,D., Claassens, N.M., Whitley, N.M. and Howden, M.E.H. (1985). Complete amino acid sequence of a new type of lethal neurotoxin from the venom of the funnel-web spider, Atrax robustus. FEBS Letters, 181: 154-156. Song, M., Vincke, G., Vanachter, H., Benekens, H. and Achten, G. (1985). Treatment of cutaneous infections due to Mycobacterium ulcerans. Dermatologica, 171: 197-199. Spring, W.J. (1987). A probable case of necrotizing arachnidism. The Medical Journal of Australia, 147: 605-607. Sutherland, S.K, (1983a). Spider bites in Australia - there are still some mysteries. The Medical Journal of Australia, 2; 597, Sutherland, S.K. (1983b). Australian Animal Toxins. Ist edn, pp 226-231. (Oxford University Press.) Sutherland, S.K. (1987). Watch out, Miss Muffet! The Medical Journal of Australia, 147; 531. Wasserman, G.S. and Siegal, C. (1979). Loxoscelism (brown recluse spider bites): a review of literature. Clinical Toxicology, 14; 353-358. Dr Norman Barnett Tindale, AO. Norman Barnett Tindale, who died in California in November 1993, at the age of 93, was made an Officer of the Order of Australia in the Australia Day Honours List this year, for service to anthropology, particularly through the study of traditional Aboriginal society. . Although best known for his work in anthropology, Norman Tindale was also a keen entomologist, beginning his career as Assistant to the Entomologist at the South Australian Museum. The expedition to Groote Eylandt in the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1921 changed the emphasis of his studies, and he held the position of Curator of Anthropology at the South Australian Museum from 1928 until his retirement in 1965. He maintained his interest in entomology, together with those in ornithology, botany and geology. His extensive field work and subsequent publications in all these fields led to his being awarded the Australian Natural History Medallion in 1968. Vol. 111 (2) 1994 Sheila Houghton 73 Contributions Some Urban Wombats John Seebeck* On 19 August 1991, as I was driving to work, my attention was drawn to the body of a medium-sized mammal lying on the road, The location was the east-bound lanes of Banksia St., Heidelberg, some 50 m east of Dora St., and adjacent to the Yarra River Parklands, The body had been dragged from the point of impact (and presumed point of death) onto. the grassed median strip which divides Banksia St. at the site. The time was 0900 hrs (i.e, peak-hour), and the traffic was quite heavy in both directions. I recovered the body for examination. It was a female Common Wombat, Vom- batus ursinus. It weighed approximately 31 kg (it had to be weighed after dissec- tion and therefore there was some fluid loss), Standard museum measurements were taken; total length 866 mm; tail length 30 mm; head length 220 mm; hind foot length 102 mm; ear length 62 mm. These measurements indicate that it was an adult, although the head and body length (for a wombat this is very nearly the same as total length) is somewhat less than given by McIlroy (1988) who quoted a range of 900-1150 mm, with a mean of 985 mm, The animal was in good body condition, subjectively assessed. The ears were Scarred, the result of old, healed wounds. A large number of ticks were either loose in the fur or attached to the skin, No pouch young was present, nor was there sign of lactation or, indeed, recent breeding. The Tight nipple was Slightly longer than the left, but both were very small. The stomach was full, and contained mainly grass. The skull was extensively fractured and both lungs were ruptured. Road trauma was presumed to be the cause of death. There was nothing to suggest that this animal had been in captivity, It ap- peared to be a perfectly normal wild wombat. * Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Flora and Fauna Branch, 123 B i hae town St, Heidelberg 3084 74 The skull, gonads, ectoparasites and stomach contents are all in the collection of the Department, registration number 14906. In the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife there are a number of records of Common Wombat in the Greater Melbourne area (Fig. 1). Most are in the Yarra River val- ley, or in the Dandenong Ranges. The earliest ‘metropolitan’ record in the Atlas is from Beaumaris in 1931 (Colliver 1931). The skull of a wombat was ex- hibited at the December meeting of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria; it was reported to have come from ‘Kalimnan’, Beaumaris. ‘Kalimnan’ is a fossil series from the cliffs at Beaumaris, which is Tertiary in age. Colliver (1937) described the site and listed a number of fossils from there, including whales and seals, but did not list the wombat he had reported several years earlier, nor the fox also reported at that time. Certainly the fox must have been a modern intrusion, but the wombat is intriguing. There are a number of records in the Atlas of the species in recent years on the Mornington Peninsula, but none closer to the city than Greens Bush. n o Atlas record E] Forest cover Fig. 1. Distribution of Wombats near Melbourne. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions In June 1968 an adult wombat was found, presumed to be a road-kill, in Springvale Rd., Nunawading, about 0.5 km north of the Burwood Highway, by P.A. Rhodes, a Fisheries and Wildlife Of- ficer. It was recorded as being ‘reddish coloured’ but no other details survive, The site is about 2.5 km from the Dandenong Creek valley, from where Wallis er al. (1990) and Brunner et al. (1991) reported the presence of Common Wombat hair in a carnivore scat from the Dandenong Val- ley Metropolitan Park. In both papers it was suggested that the sample, a single guard hair in a cat scat, originated from remains washed downstream. Wallis etal. (1990) stated that, although several of | their sources had reported the species in the park area, their continued existence was not supported by recent evidence, The most recent reports were from rangers who believed that wombats had been present at one or two sites near the Bur- wood Highway until the early 1980s. Seebeck (1977) reported that ‘small numbers of wombats were present along the river at Lower Plenty until urban development in the 1960s’. The record had been obtained from I. Temby | (DCNR) who was resident at Lower Plen- i ty during that period. The Atlas records (Fig, 1) are, as indi- cated above, mostly from near- metropolitan hills or river valleys. Indeed, almost all are from the Yarra valley, upstream from the Mullum Creek junc- tion with the Yarra River. Other records are from Brushy Creek north of Croydon, Diamond Creek near Diamond Creek township and the Plenty Gorge, and most were obtained during extensive searches of the valley environs in the late 1980s. The ‘urban’ stronghold of the Common Wombat appears to be the Yarra valley, | Vol. 111 (2) 1994 Erratum Cellular Slime Moulds: The Simplest Complex Eukaryotes. , On page 19 the incubation temperature should read 21 C and not 210°C. much of which is incorporated in the linear parks system of Melbourne Parks and Waterways or the Warrandyte State Park, where the species is reported as ‘quite common’ (DCE 1990). The unfor- tunate female who met her death at Heidelberg was probably part of the population still extant in that reserve sys- tem, Acknowledgements Thanks to Peter Menkhorst and Barbara Baxter, DCNR, for arranging ready access to the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife, and to lan Temby, also of DCNR for recollec- tions of wombats near the Plenty River. Lindy Lumsden, Andrew Bennett and Peter Menkhorst commented upon and thereby materially improved the manuscript. Simon Bennett prepared the figure. References Brunner, H., Moro, D., Wallis, R. and Andrasek, A. (1991), Comparison of the diet of foxes, dogs and cats in an urban park. The Victorian Naturalist 108: 34-37. Colliver, ES. (1931), Exhibits. The Victorian Naturalist 48; 170. Colliver, F.S. (1937), Fossil localities in and about Melboume, Part I - Beaumaris. The Victorian Naturalist 53: 151-53. Department of Conservation and Environment (1990), Warrandyte State Park Management Plan. National Parks and Wildlife Division and Melbourne Region, DCE, Melbourne. Mcllroy, J.C. (1988). Common Wombat, Vombatus ursinus. In ‘The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals’ 2nd edition. Ed R, Strahan. (Angus & Robertson: Sydney.) Seebeck, J.H. (1977). Mammals in the Melbourne metropolitan area. The Victorian Naturalist 94: 165-71. Wallis, R.L., Brown, P.R., Brunner, H. and Andrasek, A.M, (1990). The vertebrate fauna of Dandenong Valley Metropolitan Park. Report prepared for the Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works. (Victoria College, Rusden Campus: Melbourne.) 75 Members Mr lan Aberdeen, Mr Ahern, Mr John Anthony, Mrs Claire Appleby, Mr George Appleby, Mr — Greg Bain, Ms Judy Baker, Dr David Beardsell, Miss Jennifer Beck, Ms Maria Belvedere, Mr Bill Birch, Mr Bill Black, Ms Marianne Bollman, Mr Brennin Bollman, Mr Geoffrey Bryan, Ms Barbara Burns, Miss Isobel Burns, Mr David Cafiso, Mrs Michelle Cassar-Smith, Mrs Dorothy Cassidy, Ms Carmen Cunningham, Ms Nicole Dennis, Mr Andrew Duffell, Mrs Ann Duncan, Mrs Julie Ellis, Miss Lisa Ann Enright, Ms Joanna Ferguson, Mr Ron Fletcher, Mr — Jim Fraser, Mrs Jane Fulton, Ms Gaye Gadsden, Mrs Lyndi Garnett, Mr Oliver Gasperini, Ms Margy Gaynor, Mr Bill Gillard, Mr Ian Greatorex, Mr — Chris Hamnett, Mr — Rob Hamson, Ms Margaret Harcourt, Mr _ Steven Jeffery, Ms = Ann Jelinek, Mr Andrew Johnson, Ms Paula Judson, Heino Lepp, Ms Elizabeth MacPhee, Mr Philip Maher, Mr Frank Marken, Ms Leonie Matthews, Mr Adam McGoldrick, Ms Jodie McHugh, Mr Adam Merrick, Mrs Jennifer Monaghan, Mr John Morgan, Miss Jan. Noble, Mr Tim O'Hara, Dr Alix Pigeaire, Ms Jill Plowright, Mr Garry Price, Mr Rampal, Mr Alan Reid, Ms Kathleen Reynolds, Mrs Robb, Mrs Bettine Sargeant, Mr Ben Schultz, Mrs Jacqui Sheppard, Mr Robert Smith, Kilmore Yarra Glen Box Hill North Camberwell Camberwell Wantirna South Moorabbin North Balwyn Springvale South Diamond Creek Hawthorn Tyabb Richmond Richmond Newport Templestowe Oakleigh Fitzroy Chadstone Burwood East Abbotsford Malvern Essendon Ivanhoe Ashburton Blackburn Northcote Clayton South Glen Iris Mosman Macclesfield Glen Waverley Geelong Richmond Diamond Creek Seaford Yarra Junction McKinnon Melbourne Ashburton Taggerty Mt Martha Sandringham Belconnen Hawthorn Deniliquin Kingsbury Hawthorn Mont Albert Ferntree Gully Mt Martha Wheelers Hill Carnegie Richmond Richmond North Fitzroy Surrey Hills East Keilor Apollo Bay Glenburn Ringwood Blackburn Gisborne Richmond Edithvale Northcote New Members Mr Miss Ms Mr Mr Mr Mr Mr Mr Miss s Dr Ms Mr Jason Sonneman, Birgit Spethmann, Clare Stanton, Jason Stewart, Ian Taylor, Brian Thompson, Neville Toplis, Russell Trainor, Karl Ulvestad, Helen Webster, Jenny Wilson, Wendy Wright, Judith Zarrella, John Zurbo, ‘ Joint Members Ms Mr Mr Ms Ms Mr Ms Mr Mrs Ms Mr Ms Mr Mrs Mr Mrs Mr Ms Mr Mrs Dr Ms Ms Mr Mr Mrs Mr Mrs Ms Mr Mrs Mr Mr Mrs Mr Mrs Michele Adler Rod McMillan, Ewen Patricia Cameron, Barbara Deere Robert Owen, Kathryn Earp John Rosenbloom, Marie Jennie Epstein Evans Felicity Lawson, David Christine Forbes, Jose Laura Garcia Todd Gardner Sarah Mercer, Graham Gwen Goodreid, Simon Green Karen Williams, Groom Paul Hunt, Jack Henderson Dot Henderson, Ernest Ruth Hobdell, Barbara Jacoby Leigh Oldmeadow, Helen William Kosky, Albert Betty Mason, Mark Nicole McLennan, Ken Opeskin Tanya Warms, Thomas Judith Perfect, Garry Sue Price, Kathleen David Ralston, Maggie Sinnott Smith, Alastair Carol Traill Maarten Van Den Buuse Ivonne Van Eerd Warragul Rosanna Glen Waverley Cheltenham Gisborne Orbost Box Hill North Maryborough East Bentleigh Eaglemont Essendon Fairfield Abbotsford Newport and Kew and Montmorency and Preston and Elwood and Brighton and Kew and Essendon and Fairfield and Thornbury And Hamilton Hill and Richmond and Toorak and Boronia and Box Hill South and Langwarrin and Middle Park and Diamond Creek and Hawthorn and Kew and Mentone and Harkaway and Malvern and Croydon and Wonga Park and Brighton The ictorian aturahist Volume 111 (3) 1994 June ‘Ground Flora - Restoration and Management’ Conference Greening Australia Victoria Selected Papers Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884 MUSEUM OF VICTORIA 19717 FNCV Calendar of Events (General Meetings July to September, Sunday afternoons) tay General FNCV Excursion. A Day in the Western Highlands. Leader John Stewart. Bus trip only. Contact John Stewart 306 2009 for bookings. Sun 3 Botany Research. Fungi Survey at Wattle Park. Meet car part 10.30 a.m. Contact John Julian 830 4795. Tues 5 Fauna Survey Group Meeting. Tiger Quolls - Chris Belcher. Herbarium Hall 8 p.m. Wed 6 Botany Research Meeting. Planning Meeting. Kew Community House 8 p.m. Contact John Julian 830 4795. Sun 10 General FNCV Meeting. Herbarium Hall 2 p.m. Thurs 14 Botany Group Meeting. Islands of Antartica-plant and bird life - Trevor Blake. Herbarium Hall 8 p.m. Wed 20 Microscopical Group Meeting. Polarised Light in the Microscope - Brian Waldron. Astronomers Residence 8 p.m. Wed 27 Geology Group Meeting. Herbarium Hall 8 p.m. Sat 23 Botany Group Excursion. Contact Joan Harry 850 1347. August Tues 2 Fauna Survey Group Meeting. Herbarium Hall 8 p.m. Wed 3 Botany Research Meeting. Kew Community House 8 p.m. Contact John Julian 830 4795. Sat 6 Botany Research. Fungi Survey at Wattle Park. Meet car park 10.30 a.m. Contact John Julian 830 4795. Sun 7 General FNCV Excursion, The Pines, Frankston North. Contact Dorothy Mahler 435 8408. Thurs 11 Botany Group Meeting. Herbarium Hall 8 p.m. Sun 14 General FNCV Meeting. Natural History of Irian Jaya - Margaret Cameron. Herbarium Hall 2 p.m. Wed 17 Microscopical Group Meeting. The Algal Monitoring of City Lakes - A Possible Group Project - Tim Entwisle. Astronomers Residence 8 p.m. Wed 24 Geology Group Meeting. Herbarium Hall 8 p.m. Sat 27 Botany Group Excursion. Contact John Harry 850 1347. Books Available from FNCV The Club has, over the years, published a number of books on natural history topics, It is currently distributing four of these as follows, which titles can be purchased from the Book Sales Officer or at any of the club’s meetings. What Fossil Plant is That? (J.G. Douglas) A guide to the ancient flora of Victoria, with notes on localities and fossil collection. Book Sales Officer 850 2617 (H) 565 4974 (B) te Victorian Naturalist is the bi-monthly publication of The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist Volume 111 (3) 1994 June Editor: Robyn Watson Assistant Editors: Ed and Pat Grey Proceedings Ground Flora - Diversity and Associations in Victoria, by T. Entwisle, D. Albrecht and N. Walsh v..sc.csccsscsssesssssssecsesccesss 80 The Ecology of Grasses and Grasslands in Lowland Victoria, DY GI OMAWAM OL BGI, Bc csve cers E A EA TA 87 The Role of Fire in Ground Flora Ecology, bY IEUITASTTA Age creel alas iy Bithocrory Aue SR MD E PO 93 Research Reports Buried Soil in Volcanic Ash Sequence at Bullenmerri and Gnotuk Maars, Western Victoria, Australia, by E.B. Joyce and S.M. Hill ...cececcccscccsssssessesssvssssvesessssssvensssscsnesens 96 Host-ectoparasite interactions in the Bell Miner Manorina melanophrys (Meliphagidae and other Sympatric Bassere S DY-AICO POIANA deseel N ANEA ATA ais 102 Contributions Predation of Butterflies by Birds, AN ATEI A A AT A O E A TAA 109 Elementary Reflections on the Biology of Bryophytes, PEOR EANES OOE ra oA A a o Aai 112 Notice Centenary of the 1894 Horn Expedition to Central Australia ...... 86 ISSN 0042-5184 Cover Photo: Themeda grasslands can have a diverse range of ground flora. On this roadside grassland reserve near Wickcliffe, Western Victoria, are the feathery flowerheads of Ptilotus macrocephalus. Photo courtesy Ian Shears. Proceedings Proceedings of the ‘Ground Flora-Restoration and Management” Conference, Greening Australia Victoria, August 1991. Part one of a four-part series. The conference was organised by Greening Australia Victoria with support from VicRoads and sponsorship by the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Greening Australia Victoria would like to thank Greg Hore, Pamela Trigg, Tamzin Rolloson, Shirley Diez and David Lloyd for editorial assistance. Ground Flora - Diversity and Associations in Victoria Tim Entwisle*, David Albrecht** and Neville Walsh* Abstract Vegetation about half a metre high or less is usually termed the ‘ground flora’. Most major taxonomic groups are repre- sented in this stratum. Elements of the ground flora can be also classified by their life-form or habit, allowing us to generalise about ground flora associa- tions. In this paper, two systems of life-form classification are provided, fol- lowed by a survey of the ground floras found in the major vegetation com- munities in Victoria. Diversity Definition of ground flora Vegetation classification has been based traditionally on the dominant upper stratum (or storey) species, which means that for forests and woodlands, the ground flora was hardly mentioned (e.g. early Land Conservation Council surveys). Al- though the upper stratum may contain the bulk of the total biomass (it receives most of the available solar energy; Specht 1972), in temperate communities the lower strata usually include a greater number of species. Associated with this taxonomic diversity is a diversity in life- forms, giving rise to a range of habitats and interactions vital for the functioning of the entire ecosystem. Vegetation clas- sification today attempts to deal with the whole composition of the vascular flora. In forests and woodland, the lower strata (or understorey) may include small trees * National Herbarium of Victoria, Bird South Yarra 3141. nil in ** Arid Zone Research Institute, 0871. Alice Springs, NT, 80 and shrubs to tiny herbs. The ground stratum is the lowest level of such an understorey and includes woody, suc- culent and herbaceous plants. In heaths, low shrublands, grasslands, herbfields and sedgelands, the entire vegetation may be included in this ground stratum. The ‘ground flora’ relevant to this conference comprises all plants which are less than half a metre tall (or at most up to one metre). More picturesque definitions in- clude ‘things you can mow or slash’ (Dale Tonkinson pers. comm.) or ‘vegetation you can put your foot on’ (Neville Walsh). Taxonomic diversity of ground flora The ground flora as defined above in- cludes most major groupings of photosynthetic organisms, from algae and lichenised fungi, to bryophytes (mosses and liverworts), ferns and fern allies (clubmosses, etc.), gymnosperms (e.g. Podocarpus lawrencei) and of course flowering plants (both monocotyledons and dicotyledons). The non-lichenised fungi, both macroscopic (e.g. toadstools and bracket fungi) and microscopic, may also be considered part of the flora. Life-form diversity of the ground flora A widely used system of life-forms was devised by Raunkiaer (1934). It is a dif- ficult system to remember and probably unnecessary for the broad generalisations we are making in this paper. However, as it is widely used in the literature, we in- clude it here for reference (Table 1). Halloy (1990) provides an even more complex system of life-form classifica- tion, but it does overcome the ‘one character’ restriction of Raunkier’s sys- tem, The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings A simpler system is often used in en- gevity (i.e. annual vs perennial). These vironmental surveys (Table 2), with Categories overlap to some extent but be- categories based on the overall morphol- cause they reflect general usage they are ogy (size and shape) of the plant, easier to remember. sometimes in combination with its lon- ase 1. Raunkiaer life-form categories represented in the ground flora (simplified from Kershaw 73). Phanerophyte (phanero = conspicuous): with Perennating buds or shoot apices on aerial shoots, Three subcategories are relevant to the ground flora. Nanophanerophyte: less than 2 m in height. Epiphytic phanerophyte: mostly small twining plants in the ground flora. Stem-succulent phanerophyte: subset of nanophanerophytes. Chamaephyte (chamae = lowly, on the ground or creeping): with perennating buds or shoot apices borne close to (0-25 cm above) the ground. There are 4 subcategories recognised, based on the orientation of the shoots. Suffruticose chamaephyte: erect. Passive chamaephyte: with weakened erect axis which fall over (buds arising along horizontal stems). Active chamaephyte: vegetative shoots persistently along the ground, usually rooting along their length. Cushion plant: a reduced and compact form of active chamaephytes. Absent in Victoria, but important in Tasmania and New Zealand. Hemicryptophyte (hemi = half, crypto = hidden): perennating buds at or just below ground level. ‘Three subcategories are recognised, Proto-hemicryptophyte: lowermost leaves on stem less perfectly developed than the upper ones. Partial rosette plant: best developed leaves in rosette at base of aerial stem. Rosette plant: leaves restricted to rosette at base of aerial stem. Cryptophyte: perennating buds below ground level or submerged in water, Four sub-categories are recognised. Geophyte: with rhizome, bulb or tuber. Helophyte: perennating organs in soil or mud below water-level with aerial shoots above water-level. Hydrophyte: most of plant below water, with leaves floating or submerged. Therophyte: (theros = summer): annuals. Table 2. Some life-form categories used in general survey work in Victoria (adapted from those devised by Ecological Horticulture Pty Ltd, e.g. Carr 1983). Note that the following is a simplified system: e.g. parasitic herbs or shrubs are not segregated from free-living plants and all aquatic plants are grouped together. Low shrub e.g. Epacris impressa. Sub-shrub (shrublet) e.g. prostrate species, some chenopods. Succulent herb e.g. Crassula, Carpobrotus, includes plants which would be otherwise called herbaceous perennials. Graminoid (tufted or tussock-forming herb) mainly monocotyledons. Rhizomatous or stoloniferous perennial herb e.g. Viola spp. : Herbaceous perennial (not or shortly rhizomatous) e.g. rosette-forming plants such as Brunonia. Annual herb (including some which are sometimes or always biennial) e.g. some Brachyscome spp., some Senecio spp. , pi Tuberous herb (with tubers, tuberoids, corms, bulb, etc., and dormancy) e.g. orchids, many lilies, sundews. Vine, twiner or scrambler e.g. Hardenbergia, Clematis, Kennedia prostrata. Aquatic including free-floating, submerged and emergent aquatics. ae Fern or fern ally although a taxonomic grouping, these plants often have a similar life-form; note that they could also be included in other categories, such as rhizomatous perennial herb or annual herb. Non-vascular plant i.e. bryophytes, lichenized and non-lichenized fungi, and algae. Although often inconspicuous, these organisms can have a major role in soil-binding and the break-down of rocks and leaf-litter in primary succession. Vol. 111 (3) 1994 81 Proceedings vat ne AS NATURAL REGIONS OF VICTORIA Fig. 1, Natural Regions of Victoria. Compiled and pepared by Barry J. Conn for the National Herbarium of Victoria, and kindly reproduced in black and white by Anita Barley. The original, colour version of this map can be found in the Flora of Victoria (Foreman and Walsh, 1993). Associations Ground flora associations found in the major vegetation communities of Victoria The vegetation in Victoria can be divided in various ways to show flora diversity and associations. The Flora of Victoria (Foreman and Walsh, 1993) uses a system of sixteen Natural Regions which reflect, to some degree, areas shar- ing a range of natural features including their flora (Fig. 1). Each of these Natural Regions includes a number of different plant communities, most of which occur in more than one Natural Region. Although there is no standard classifica- tion of plant communities available for Victoria, the major groupings are fairly well known. Within these broadly cir- cumscribed communities, the composition and species richness of the ground flora varies appreciably depending on fire his- tory (e.g. the time since the last fire), soil fertility, soil moisture, aspect, topog- raphy, grazing, extent of waterlogging, 82 pH, salinity and climate. Nevertheless, the vegetation communities listed below pro- vide a useful framework for surveying the ground flora associations found in Vic- toria. Information on the structure and com- position of the ground flora has been taken from a number of sources, including Beadle (1981), Frood and Calder (1987), Opie et al. (1984), Parsons et al. (1977), Specht (1972), various LCC and prelog- ging reports, and our own personal observations. For those wishing to seek more detailed information, one or two useful references are provided for each community considered below. Key to terms used in Ground Flora Associations section closed open very open 70-100% cover by top stratum 30-70% cover by top stratum % cover by top stratum with hard, stiff or leathery leaves soft-leaved and not producing wood sclerophyllous herbaceous The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings Warm Temperate Rainforest Distribution; East Gippsland, Wilsons Promontory. Ground Flora: The ground is charac- teristically covered by masses of leaf and stem litter, The flora consists mainly of ground-ferns and occasional graminoids (sedges and grasses). Vines or climbers are sometimes at ground level. Sup- pressed seedlings of overstorey species may be common and can be considered part of the ground flora. Beneath canopy gaps there are specialised colonizers, usually twiners and short-lived herbs. See Rainforest Technical Committee (1986). Cool Temperate Rainforest (e.g. Nothofagus Rainforest) Distribution: Otways, Eastern Highlands, Wilsons Promontory (in gullies within Mountain Ash forest); East Gippsland (e.g. Errinundra Plateau). Ground Flora: In life-form, if not in species composition, the ground flora of cool temperate rainforest is like that of warm temperate rainforest. The former, however, has more ferns and fewer clim- bers/vines at ground level. See Rainforest Technical Committee (1986). Montane Forest (e.g. Alpine Ash Forest) Distribution: Eastern Highlands Ground Flora: Ferns common but less diverse than in the rainforests or wet sclerophyll forest, but species richness of graminoids and broadleaf herbs higher. A few tuberous herbs are present (e.g. Chiloglottis valida and Arthropodium milleflorum). See Mueck (1990), Tall Open Forest or Wet Sclerophyll Forest (e.g. Mountain Ash Forest) Distribution: Otways, Eastern Highlands, Gippsland Highlans, East Gippsland; be- tween 160 and 1000m above sea level. Ground Flora: Similar to Cool Temperate Rainforest, with ground ferns (e.g. Blech- num and Polystichum) dominant and occasional broad-leaf herbs (e.g. the net- tles Australina and Urtica) and graminoids. Sometimes graminoids can dominate the understorey (e.g. Lepidosperma elatius Vol. 111 (3) 1994 and/or Tetrarrhena juncea Wire Grass; or in wetter areas, Gahnia spp,). In the first few years following fire, the ground flora can be dominated by rhizomatous ferns and tree ferns and a few flowering plants (Senecio spp, Dryopoa dives Giant Mountain-grass). See Mueck (1990). Moist/Damp Sclerophyll Forest Distribution: Otways, Eastern Highlands, Gippsland Highlands, Wilsons Promon- tory, East Gippsland. Ground Flora: A broad category with numerous subcommunities, including various proportions of ferns (e.g, Pteridium Bracken and Calochlaena, syn. Culcita), low shrubs (e.g. Platylobium formosum) and grasses (Poa ensiformis and Tetrarrhena juncea). In drier areas, bracken is common, particularly if the land has been cleared or regularly burnt. See Frood and Calder (1987). Dry Sclerophyll Forest or Woodland (e.g. Box-Stringybark Forest) Distribution: Midlands (mostly southern areas), Eastern Highlands; on skeletal soils derived from Silurian/Ordovician sandstones and mudstones. Ground Flora: Understorey ranges from heathy to open and grassy. Tussock gras- ses (notably Chionochloa pallida and Poa spp.) and a very wide range of sclerophyl- lous shrubs, particularly Fabaceae (peas), Mimosaceae (wattles) and Epacridaceae (heaths). Herbaceous perennials and tuberous herbs, e.g. orchids, lilies and Drosera (sundews), are often con- spicuous in inter-tussock spaces. Species diversity of native grasses can be as high as in grasslands on the basalt plains. See Frood and Calder (1987) and Yugovic et al. (1990), Box-Ironbark Forest and Woodland Distribution; Midlands (mostly northern areas). Ground Flora: Understorey can be very sparse. Drier forest and woodlands often have tussock grasses (Danthonia and Stipa spp.) and a diverse array of low shrubs. Orchids can be seasonally con- spicuous and some annuals are present. In 83 Proceedings the ‘goldfields’ area, everlastings (e.g. Bracteantha viscosa) and Grevillea al- pina are common, In general, as the tree canopy becomes more open (e.g. from forest to woodland) in any of the com- munities discussed, the biomass of the ground flora increases because more solar energy reaches the lower strata. See Carr etal. (1987), Frood and Calder (1987) and Walsh (1987). Riverine Red Gum Forest and Wood- land Distribution: Riverina, Wannon. Ground Flora: Near river courses, grasses (e.g. Pseudoraphis spinescens Moira Grass in Barmah Forest) and sedges are abundant and the broadleaf herbaceous flora is often sparse. Aquatic plants may be present. In the Wannon region, sedges are common, with grasses and herbs. Wet depressions may only support ferns and fern allies such as Isoetes, Pilularia or Ophioglossum. On drier sites, there may be fields of Bulbine and other lilies (e.g. Arthropodium). Much of this area has been cleared and modified for grazing. See Chesterfield et al, (1984). Lowland Grassy Woodland and Grassland Distribution: Wimmera, Riverina, Vic- torian Volcanic Plain, Gippsland Plain, Ground Flora: The volcanic plan was once covered by extensive areas of tree- less grassland, of which little remains today. Themeda triandra (Kangaroo Grass) is the major dominant, replaced under higher rainfall conditions or in lo- cally wet sites by Poa spp. Other grasses (e.g. Stipa and Danthonia Spp.) are also conspicuous. A wide range of broadleaf herbs (particulary Asteraceae Spp.) occur in the inter-tussock Spaces, but shrubs are rare. Grassy or savannah woodlands on the Northern, Wimmera and Sale Plains, and on the southern Margins of the Great Dividing Range, also have a grass- dominated understorey. In addition to grasses and broadleaf perennial herbs, an- nuals and tuberous herbs can be common. Such vegetation can be exceptionally 84 species rich, with up to 45 species per square metre. See Lunt (1990). Alpine Gippsland Distribution: Snowfields. Ground Flora: Dominated by tussock grasses, particularly Poa hiemata. About 90% of biomass due to Poa spp. Other ground flora only conspicuous in spring/summer (when flowering), but in- cluding a wide range of graminoids, some orchids and daisies (e.g. everlastings and related genera). Small shrubs sometimes present, and ground flora similar to that found under Snow Gum Woodland. See Walsh et al. (1984). Snow Gum Woodland Distribution: Snowfields (mostly). Ground Flora; Almost all plants in the understorey are low and can be included in the ground flora. Some areas are dominated by grasses (particularly Poa spp.) and broadleaf herbs (e.g. Wahlen- bergia spp.), while others are covered by dense low shrubs. While the soil, topog- raphy and microclimate affect the floristic composition of the ground flora, the grass/Shrub balance can be also swayed by fire and/or grazing histroy. See Walsh et al. (1984). Heathland and Heathy Woodland Distribution: | Grampians, | Wannon, Otway Plan, Gippsland Plain, Wilsons Promontory, East Gippsland (usually on sand) Ground Flora: A wide range of shrubs, from families such as Fabaceae, Epacridaceae and Myrtaceae, are repre- sented. If shrubs are low, all vegetation may be considered ground flora. Sclerophyllous monocotyledons such as Lomandra, Restionaceae and Cyperaceae can be important in the overall structure of the heathland. Orchids, lilies and sun- dews are an important floristic component of the ground flora. Bracken can dominate in frequently burnt areas. See Opie et al. (1984). Swamp Shrubland (e. g. Leptospermum- Melaleuca Thicket) The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings Distribution: As for Heathland and Heathy Woodland. Ground Flora: Often with a sedge-rush dominated ground flora, and some grasses (e.g. Hemarthria). Broadleaf herbs are usually sparse. Some tuberous herbs, such as the greenhood orchids Pterostylis tenuissima and P. furcata and the lily Hypoxis, are characteristics of this com- munity. See Opie et al. (1984), Coast Banksia Woodland Distribution: Gippsland Plain, Wilsons Promontory. Ground Flora: Broadleaf herbs (e.g. Dichondra), graminoids (e.g. Lomandra longifolia), bracken and some subshrubs are common. Plants with a scrambling habit and/orsucculence (e.g. Carpobrotus and Tetragonia) are also present. See Gul- lan et al. (1981). Coast Dune Scrub Distribution: Wannon, Otway Plain, Gip- psland Plain, East Gippsland. Ground Flora: Native dune colonists such as Spinifex, Scaevola aemula, Stack- housia and Senecio are replaced in many areas by the introduced Ammophila arenaria (Marram) and Cakile spp. (sea- rockets). Rhizomatous perennials are important in stabilisation of dunes. See Gullan et al. (1981). Coastal and Inland Saltmarsh Distribution: coastal - Otway Plain, Gip- psland Plain, Wilsons Promontory; inland - Victorian Volcanic Plain, Murray Mal- lee. Ground Flora: The structure of saltmar- shes can vary from shrublands to herbfields and grasslands. In most cases all vegetation can be considered ground flora, Chenopods are generally abundant. Succulent broadleaf herbs (e.g. Disphyma clavellatum, Wilsonia spp.) can be com- mon in some areas, as can salt-tolerant (halophytic) grasses and rushes (e.g. Dis- tichlis distichopylla and Juncus kraussii). On the edges of saltmarsh, and on slightly elevated habitats within saltmarshes (par- ticularly inland), a range of annual species are present. See Yugovic (1985). Vol. 111 (3) 1994 Mallee communities Distribution: Murray Mallee, Lowan Mallee, Midland (Whipstick and Long Forest), Ground Flora: Understoreys vary with soil type, salinity, and fire and grazing history. On richer loams and clays of broad flat dune swales (in mallee eucalypt communities with sclerophyllous shrubs and shrubby chenopods), the ground flora includes grasses and herbs, with many annuals. On fertile sands, the understorey grades from tussock grass to hummock grass (Triodia scariosa), the latter found in drier areas and including a very open low shrub layer and some annuals. On deep, infertile sands, heathy and scrubby communities have a ground flora with varying amounts of annuals. The Whipstick (near Bendigo) and Long Forest (near Melton) mallees generally have a sparse, shrubby understorey with grasses and annuals, See Cheal et al. (1989) and Frood and Calder (1987). References Beadle, N.C.W. (1981). ‘The Vegetation of Australia,’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.) Carr, G.W. (1983). Report on the Vegetation and Management of the Proposed Eltham Lower Park Flora Reserve. (Prepared for the Society forGrowing Australian Plants Yarra Yarra Group and Eltham Shire Council.) Carr, G.W., Reid, J. and Albrecht, D. (1987). ‘The Vegetation, Fauna and Managementof Antonio Park, City of Nunawading, Victoria’. (Prepared for the City of Nunawading.) Cheal, D.C, and Parkes, D.M. (1989). Mallee vegetation in Victoria, Jn ‘Mediterranean Landscapes in Australia, Mallee Ecosystems and their Management’. Eds, J.C. Noble and R. A. Bradstock. (CSIRO: Melboume.) Chesterfield, E-A., Loyn, R.H. & MacFarlane, M.A. (1984). Flora and Fauna of Barmah State Forest and their Management. Forests Commission Victoria, Research Branch Report 240. Foreman, D.B. and Walsh, N.G. (Eds.) (1993). Flora of Victoria. Vol.1. (Inkata Press: Melbourne.) Frood, D. and Calder, M. (1987). ‘Native Conseryation in Victoria’. (Victorian National Parks Association: Melbourne.) Gullan, RK., Walsh, N.G. and Forbes, S.J. (1981). Vegetation of the Gippsland Lakes catchment. Muelleria 4, 333-383. Halloy, S. (1990). A morphological classification of plants, with special reference to the New Zealand alpine flora. Journal of Vegetation Science 1, 291-304. 85 Proceedings Kershaw, K.A. (1973). ‘Quantitative and Dynamic Plant Ecology’. 2nd ed. (Edward Amold: London.) Lunt, I.D. (1990). Species-area curves and growth-form spectra for some herb-rich woodlands in western Victoria, Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 15, 155-162. Mueck, S.G. (1990). The Floristic Composition of Mountain Ash and Alpine Ash Forests in Victoria. Silvicultural Systems Project Technical Report 4, Opie, A.M., Gullan, PK. van Berkel, S.C. and van Rees, H. (1984), Vegetation of the Western Port catchment. Muelleria 5, 289-346. Parsons, R.F., Kirkpatrick, J.B. and Carr, G.W. (1977). Native vegetation of the Otway Region. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 89, 77-88. Raunkiaer, C. (1934), ‘The Life forms of Plants and Statistical Plant Geography’. (Translated by Carter, Fausboll and Tansley.) (Oxford University Press: New York.) Rainforest Technical Committee (1986). ‘Rainforest Conservation in Victoria’. (Report to the Hon. Joan E, Kimer, Minister for Conservation, Forests and Lands and the Hon. Evan Walker, Minister for Planning and Environment.) Specht, R.L. (1972). ‘The Vegetation of South Australia’. 2nd ed. (South Australian Government: Adelaide.) Walsh, N.G., Barley, R.H. and Gullan, P.K. (1984). “The Alpine Vegetation of Victoria (excluding the Bogong High Plains Region)’. (National Herbarium of Victoria: Melbourne.) Yugovic, J,V. (1985). The Vegetation at the Lake Connewarre State Game Reserve. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series 18. Yugovic, J.V., Crosby, D.F, Ebert, K., Lillywhite, P., Saddlier, S.R., Schulz, M., Vaughan, P.J., Westaway, J. and Yen, A.L. (1990). Flora and Fauna of the Koonung and Mullum Mullum Valleys (proposed Eastern Arterial Road and Ringwood Bypass). Ecological Survey Report 38. Centenary of the 1894 Horn Expedition to Central Australia To celebrate the centenary of the 1894 Horn scientific expedition to central Australia, the Museum of Victoria is organising an expedition in October 1994 and in March 1995, The original 1894 party had representatives from the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria. Unlike the 1894 expedition, which collected ver- tebrate, invertebrate, botanical, geological and anthropological material, the 1994-1995 expedition will concentrate primarily on the invertebrate fauna. There have been significant advances on our knowledge on the vertebrate fauna, the plants, geology and anthropology since 1894, but our knowledge of the invertebrate fauna is still very fragmented, _ The Museum of Victoria will co-ordinate the participation of approximately 20 invertebrate specialist scientists from across Australia to undertake field work in four selected areas that the Horn expedition visited in 1894: West MacDonnell Ranges, Finke Gorge National Park, Watarrka National Park (Kings Canyon) and Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park (Ayers Rock and the Olgas). Volunteers who are willing to pay their own expenses are being sought to assist Sees ap field work. No invertebrate knowledge is required - just the hours n EUEN The work will not be easy, and will involve long e cost of participation is approximately $850 per fortnight, which includes al seer from Alice Springs, all meals and camping IANDE Hit (sleep- mae TS aise and tents provided). The cost does not include return travel costs ete prings; the Museum is attempting to obtain a discount airfare for pedition participants. For insurance purposes, participants will be required to become iends Sy: ce haan of the Friends of the Museum of Victoria, who will be handling For more detailed informati rmation, please contact: Survey Department, Museu P. tact: Dr Alan Yen, Invertebrate Phone: 419 5200, Fax: nai lie 71 Victoria Crescent, Abbotsford 3067 The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings The Ecology of Grasses and Grasslands in Lowland Victoria John W. Morgan* Abstract The complexity of native grasslands arises because of the diverse range of na- tive plants (and animals) that contribute to the community and to variations in com- munity composition under different environmental conditions. Whilst we can identify and classify the types of plants that occur in grasslands, we know very little of the relationships that occur be- tween most species. The arrival of a whole suite of exotic species has further en- hanced the complexity of grasslands. Grasslands prior to European settlement were shaped by macropod grazing, burn- ing and interactions between the two. Recent management, however, has produced the remnants that we see today. A simple return to ‘natural’ regimes is impossible and will not conserve these ecosystems. Exotic species, for one, now play a significant role in the management of grassy communities. Introduction At first glance, grasslands may appear to be simple communities by virtue of their seemingly simple structure, i.e. just one apparent layer (Lunt 1991). Grasslands, however, may be extremely complex at the small scale (Patton 1935). Their com- plexity arises from the diverse floristic and faunal composition and their interac- tions with one another (Lunt 1991). Native grasslands are, after all, an ecosys- tem. Before we can discuss how best to manage or restore such communities, we must first understand their component parts, i.e. what exactly is it that goes to make up a grassland? To say that the community consists of grasses inter- spersed with forbs is a gross simpli- fication of the system. Whilst crudely true, it is the types of grasses and forbs which contribute to the grassland that will substantially influence the way in which the flora is managed. * School of Botany, LaTrobe University, Bundoora 3083 Vol. 111 (3) 1994 Characteristics of grasses The structure of grasslands is dominated by a single type of plant morphology - the grass plant. The more careful observer, however, comes to know the diversity of structure and life history that exists within the grasses. To illustrate how diverse gras- ses can be, and to start to understand how this diversity may effect the management of the flora, grasses can be classified in the following ways: (i) Origin - grasses can be classified as being either native to a site (indigenous) orexotic. This is the simplest grouping but the most important. The aim of conserva- tion mangement is to encourage the regeneration and survival of the native species whilst simultaneously discourag- ing the exotic species. (ii) Longevity of the individual - the life-span of a grass is usually annual or perennial. Annuals are plants which live for a single growing season. The whole plant will die after having flowered and set seed. Annuals produce comparatively few shoots and most of these will bear inflorescences. Perennials are longer- lived plants. Many shoots may be produced but relatively few will produce flowers at any given time. (iii) Growth habit - four growth habits may be recognised for perennial grasses but only three are of importance to most ground flora managers. The most com- mon growth habit to be encountered in Victorian grasslands is that of the tussock- forming grass. A tussock consists of numerous tillers. A tiller has its own roots, stem and leaves. Each tiller arises from protected basal buds and can function in- dependently of all other tillers. The major genera in native grasslands, Themeda, Danthonia, Stipa and Poa are all tussock grasses. Other grasses produce horizontal stems either above or below the ground. Such grasses are termed stoloniferous if the stems occur on the soil surface, e.g. 87 Proceedings *Stenotaphrum secundatum Buffalo Grass, or rhizomatous if the stems grow below ground. Both rhizomes and stolons may be found in the same species, e.g. *Cynodon dactylon Couch Grass. Stolons and rhizomes both root at the nodes and if the intemodes between the rooted nodes are broken, each piece can develop into a new plant. The fourth, and least common, growth habitat exhibited by some grasses is that of the hummock. It is found in some of the inland grasses such as Triodia spp. Spinifex and will not be considered fur- ther here. (iv) Growth period - the optimum temperature for growth of some species such as Themeda triandra Kangaroo Grass occurs in late spring and early sum- mer (Groves 1975). Such species have therefore been termed warm season gras- ses. However, growth of these species seems to be as reliant on adequate soil moisture as it is on high temperature (Mc- Dougall 1989). Themeda usually grows most rapidly in late spring when there is abundant soil moisture. During summer and autumn, soil, moisture is often limit- ing and growth slows. During winter, growth is slow but true vegetative dor- mancy cannot be assumed since McDougall (1989) found that the winter growth rate of Themeda was much greater than the late summer growth rate. Cool Season grasses grow over the winter months. Growth continues into spring when flowering and seed set occurs. As temperatures rise and soil moisture levels fall during summer, very little or no vegetative growth occurs. Elymus spp. (wheat grasses) are examples of native cool season grasses. Most annual exotic species also fall into this category. Year- long-green species (Lodder et al. 1986) are generally capable of flowering in late Spring and again in autumn given suffi- cient soil moisture and appropriate air temperatures. Vegetative growth occurs in spring and may continue into summer if soil Moisture is not limiting, Yearlong- green species may include some of the Danthonia sp. wallaby grasses and 88 Microlaena stipoides Weeping Grass. The concept of warm season, cool season and yearlong-green species ap- plies to optimum seasons. In the average season, however, there is likely to be con- siderable overlap in growth and flowering between species. The distinction between the growth period of grasses in southern Australian can therefore become blurred. (v) Physiology - grasses can be categorised as either C3 or C4 species according to the way in which they as- similate carbon during the process of photosynthesis. C4 species are also typi- cally warm season species. The importance of this classification is that the dominant grass of many grassland rem- nants, Themeda triandra, is a C4 species whereas many of the most troublesome grassy weeds of grasslands are C3 species, e.g. *Phalaris aquatica, *Nassella neesiana. The manager of the community may therefore be able to exploit the dif- ferences in physiology between C3 and C4 grasses as a means of controlling the exotic species (McDougall 1989). The above classifications, although detailed for grasses, can also be applied in part to grassland forbs. Indeed, Lunt (in press) suggests that both the growth form and life form are the most useful means of classifying grassland forbs. Such schemes are vital to understanding the functioning of grasslands and may provide a useful means of predicting their response to a management. What characterises Victoria’s grassy flora? Victoria’s once extensive natural grasslands (Lunt 1991) were dominated by perennial, tussock forming grasses such as Themeda, Stipa, Danthonia, Poa and Enteropogon. Very few annuals were found in Themeda-dominated grassland communities (Willis 1964) although their contribution was more significant in the less productive northern and Wimmera plains grasslands (McDougall et al. 1993). By contrast, the introduced flora found in grasslands today is dominated by annual species (Table 1). The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings Table 1. The percentage of annuals in the native and exotic floras of a range of lowland grasslands in Victoria. Region (site location) % of native species as annual % of exotic species as annual Source Basalt Plains 9 Basalt Plains (St Albans Rail Reserve) Basalt Plains Basalt Plains (Derrimut Grassland Reserve) Basalt Plains (Mt Mercer Rd) Basalt Plains Murray Valley Riverine (Northern) Plains Wimmera Plains nd = no data available The implications of these high numbers of exotic annual species in grasslands are varied: (i) As C4 grasses such as Themeda enter their main growth period in late spring, annual grasses have finished their life cycle. The annual grasses therefore do not compete directly for the same resources as Themeda (McDougall 1989). The ger- mination and establishment of Themeda in the presence of weeds is also unaffected (Hagon 1977; McDougall 1989). How- ever, since Themeda seedling establish- ment is inhibited by a thick cover in a natural grassland (McDougall 1989), there is likely to be a degree of competi- tion beyond which successful establish- ment will not occur. (ii) The occupation of space by exotic annual species may restrict or narrow the opportunity for re-establishment by na- tive species (Scarlett and Parsons 1982). Seedlings of native forbs may be par- ticulary vulnerable to competition from annual grasses as many forbs have similar growth patterns to exotic annual grasses (i.e. are cool season species). (iii) The assumed competitiveness of many exotic annuals (e.g. high rates of biomass production, high levels of seed production, etc.) has been suggested by Adair (1985) to lead to the displacement of the native species most closely paral- leling the same ecological strategy, i.e. annual or short-lived species. Alternative- Vol. 111 (3) 1994 Willis (1964) Groves (1965) Stuwe and Parsons (1977) Lunt (1990c) McDougall et al. (1992) McDougall et al. (1992) McDougall et al. (1993) McDougall et al. (1993) ly, native species of poor competitive ability may be lost from a community when exotic species exceed some critical minimum density and cover. Carr et al. (1988), for instance, demonstrated that at high cover (50-60%) and density (> 200 plants/m’), Briza maxima reduced the total native species richness of a Box- Stringybark Woodland by approximately 75%. These effects began to occur when the cover of Briza exceeded 10% and density exceeded 50 plants/m’. The mechanisms causing the reduced species diversity are unknown but are likely to include severe root competition, shading and soil moisture stress. (iv) Since annuals are short-lived as in- dividuals, their main means of persisting at a site is to form an enormous soil seed bank (Lunt 1990a). The disturbances which are necessary to maintain native species diversity (e.g. burning) are there- fore likely to promote exotic species as much as, if not more than, natives (Lunt 1990a,b). For example, Lunt (1990b) found that three species of exotic annuals accounted for 60% of all individuals after an autumn fire in a Themeda grassland. Any benefit bestowed by burning to the diversity of native species may be offset by the dramatic promotion of exotics. Many exotic annuals may therefore have to be considered permanent members of our grassland communities, particularly in degraded remnants (Lunt 1990a). 89 Proceedings Some basic grassland ecology Native grasslands consist largely of tus- sock forming grasses which are seperated by distinct intertussock spaces (Patton 1935). These intertussock spaces are often carpeted with cryptogramic soil crusts (Scarlett 1944) and support a whole suite of smaller plant species. These are often forbs, among which members of the Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Liliaceae are particularly abundant (Willis 1964). In grasslands dominated by vigorous species such as Themeda, some form of disturbance or stress is required to prevent the dominant grass from outcompeting the smaller plants. In the absence of dis- turbance to the vegetation (not the soil), vigorous species accumulate biomass and cause lower species richness due to com- petitive exclusion (Grime 1979). Low diversity may result from the capture and utilisation by the dominant species of light, water or nutrients, or from restric- tions on niche availability, particularly for regeneration. Prior to European settlement, the biomass of some grasslands would have been reduced by macropod grazing and periodic burning by Koories. We know very little of the original intensity of graz- ing by macropods, nor the frequency and season of burning by Koories in these communities. However, from research that has been conducted in (often degraded) grassland remnants, the follow- ing points about burning and grazing by native herbivores can be made: _ (i) although probably frequently sub- jected to fire, most native grassland Species do not need fire per se to regenerate. Rather, it is the release from competition with the dominant grass and the removal of surface litter that allows species to regenerate, (ii) the diverse grassland flora found in frequently burnt rail and road reserves compared with those sites that are prazed (by domestic stock) or unmanaged (Stuwe and Parsons 1977; McDougall etal. 1992) Suggests that most grassland species are well adapted to fire. Those that are not would have disappeared long ago. Some 90 grasses such as Themeda and Stipa pos- sess seeds with long awns. These awns help to drill the seed into the soil and therefore protect them from the heat of a fire (Lock and Milburn 1970). Most perennial species are capable of regrow- ingas individuals after a fire. They regrow from protected basal apices, tubers, un- derground buds, etc. Indeed, Lunt (1990a) found very few native perennials regenerating by seed after an autumn fire in a long-grazed and long-unburnt Themeda grassland. Where seedlings of a perennial species did not occur, they were considerably less abundant than were plants of the same species that regenerated vegetatively. (iii) a burnt Themeda grassland can return to pre-disturbance biomass levels within 2-4 years (Robertson 1985; Mc- Dougall 1989). To have maintained their species diversity, Themeda grasslands must have been frequently burnt (or other- wise disturbed) prior to European settlement, (iv) given that many native species can regenerate vegetatively after a fire and that there are few obligate seed regenerators in grasslands (at least in the remnants that survive to this day), the destruction of a single years crop of seeds will be inconsequential for the survival of most native species. It is therefore unlike- ly that the season of burning alone would have greatly affected grassland floristics, although Scarlett and Parsons (1982) hypothesise that the rarity of late-flower- ing native peas, e.g. Glycine, Psoralea, in some rail reserves is due to late spring/summer burning. It is the fre- quency of burning that is the important determinant of the effect of season burning (Scarlett and Parsons 1982; Robertson 1985; McDougall 1989), e.g. annual spring burning may prevent a species from flowering, setting seed and ultimately from regenerating by seed al- though the fire itself may have little or no adverse effect on the survival of the stand- ing population of that species. _ (v) native herbivores would have had an important effect on the ecology of native The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings grasslands. This would have been due to localised grazing, trampling and digging and their effects on plant survival, reproduc- tion and recruitment (Pyrke 1993). (vi) Eastern grey kangaroos have been shown to be highly selective grazers (Robertson 1985). Their diet in a grassy woodland at Gellibrand Hill near Mel- bourne consisted mostly of monocots, particularly grasses. Where grazing of the dominant grass occurs, subordinate species such as forbs may benefit due to a release from competition. The complexity of macropod grazing is shown, however, by Allen (1987). He studied Swamp Wal- labies at Gellibrand Hill and found them to browse woody and broadleaf plants more than grasses. To make generalisa- tions about the effects of native herbivores in grasslands is therefore very difficult. (vii) the combined effects of kangaroo grazing and burning were greater than the effects of kangaroo grazing or burning in isolation when studied in a Themeda dominated understorey (Robertson 1985). In pre-European grasslands with poten- tially high (localised) numbers of macropods and frequent Koorie burning, this interaction would have been a sig- nificant factor in the shaping of natural grasslands. Whilst Koorie burning regimes and macropod grazing were obviously impor- tant factors in the ecology of pre-settlement grasslands, a simple return to these presumed ecological regimes will not be sufficient to ensure the proper management of remnant grasslands. First- ly, it is recent management that has produced the remnants that we see today (McDougall et al. 1992). Many roadside remnants of Themeda grassland in western Victoria have been burnt annually since the land. was subdivided for soldier settlements. This ecologically ‘unnatural’ regime has produced some grassland rem- nants of national significance that are best conserved by maintaining the existing management unless there is an over- whelming ecological justification to do otherwise. Secondly, the presence of exotic species, Vol. 111 (3) 1994 both in the standing vegetation and in the soil seed bank, means that today’s ‘native’ grasslands will respond differently to burning and macropod grazing than did the original grasslands. Burning, for in- stance, may not significantly improve native species diversity (McDougall 1989; Lunt 1990a) presumably because many natives do not form persistent seed banks. Some exotic species, however, possess very large soil stored seed banks (Lunt 1990a) and burning will promote the establishment of these species. Lunt (1990b), for instance, found that both *Vulpia bromoides and *Briza minor in- creased 100-fold afteran autumn fire. The imposition of a regular burning regime will, therefore, undoubtedly maintain high densities of these exotic species. Similarly, the reintroduction of macro- pod grazing may lead to an increase in unpalatable exotic species. Robertson (1985) found that *Arctotheca calendula and *Trifolium spp. became particularly abundant in a grassy woodland since the kangaroos that graze the community favoured eating grasses over dicot species. Clearly, when the aim of ground flora management is the promotion of native species at the expense of exotic species, an integrated approach is required. In degraded remnants, fire and native her- bivores cannot be expected to achieve these aims on their own (Lunt 1990b). Conclusion We generally have a good knowledge of the species that contribute to grassland systems. We even have a basic under- standing about some of the ecological relationships that exist between species in grasslands, However, we still do not have sufficient knowledge to prescribe proper management guidelines for all sites and species. Although ecological studies have shown the importance of burning and macropod grazing, the data are scarce. Much of it comes from ‘once-off’ events at only a few localities and applies to only a limited number of species. Very little is known for communities other than 91 Proceedings Themeda grasslands. Before we can con- fidently recommend a burning or grazing regime for a particular site with a par- ticular suite of native and exotic species, research will be needed to define more accurately the impact of our actions on individual species, particularly the rare and endangered ones, and on the com- munity as a whole. One thing is sure - we will have to live with exotic species in our grasslands, The challenge for vegetation management will be how to best manipu- late the system to the advantage of the native species. Acknowledgements Jan Lunt and Bob Parsons provided use- ful comments on earlier drafts of this paper. References Adair, R.J. (1985). A development plan for the creation of an indigenous grassland at Royal Park. Jn Royal Park Landscape Development Plan, Melbourne City Council. Allen, G.G. (1987). Swamp Wallabies Wallabia bicolor and their Interactions with a Regenerating Woodland at Gellibrand Hill, Victoria. B. Sc. (Hons), thesis, Botany Department, University of Melboume, Melbourne. Carr, G.W., McMahon, A.R,G. and Todd, J.A. (1988). The Weed Flora of the Environmental Living Zone, Kanagaroo Ground, Victoria. An assessment of effects and management strategies for control. Report prepared for the Bend of Islands Conservation Association. (Ecological Horticulture Pty Ltd: Clifton Hill, Victoria.) Grime, J.P. (1979). Plant Strategies and Vegetation Processes. (John Wiley and Sons: Chichester.) Groves, R.H. (1965). Growth of Themeda australis tussock grassland at St, Albans, Victoria. Austrailan Journal of Botany 13, 291-302. Groves, R.H. (1975). Growth and development of five populations of Themeda australis in response to temperature. Australian Journal of Botany 23, 951-963. Hagon, M.W. (1977), Effects of competition, herbicides and activated carbon on establishment of Australian grasses. Weed Research 17, 297-301. Lock, J.M. and Milburn, T,R. (1970). The seed biology of Themeda triandra Forsk. in relation to fire. In ‘The Scientific Management of Animal and Plant ee for Conservation.’ Eds. E. Duffy and „5. Watt (Blackwell Scienti ications: Fina) cientific Publications: Lodder, M., Groves, R.H. and Wittmark, B. (1986). Natives grasses - the missing link in Australian meine aen Landscape Australia 8, 12-20, D. ). The soil seed bank of a long-grazed 92 Themeda triandra grassland in Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 102, 53-57. Lunt, LD. (1990b). Impact of an autumn fire in a long-grazed Themeda triandra (Kangaroo Grass) grassland: implications for management of invaded, remnant vegetations. The Victorian Naturalist 107, 45-51. Lunt, LD. (1990c). A floristic survey of the Derrimut Grassland Reserve, Melbourne, Victoria. Proceed- ings of the Royal Society of Victoria 102, 41-52. Lunt, LD. (1991). Management of remnant lowland grasslands and grassy woodlands for nature conservation: areview. The Victorian Naturalist 108, 56-66. Lunt, LD. (in press). A Flexible Approach to Grassland Management, Based on Plant Life-forms and Growth-forms. Proceedings of a 1993 conference on grassland conservation held in Canberra. McDougall, K.L. (1989). The Re-establishment of Themeda triandra (Kangaroo Grass): implications for the Restoration of Grassland, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, Technical Report Series 89. McDougall, K., Barlow, T. and Appleby, M. (1992). Native Grassland Sites of Significance and Species Rescue on the Westem Basalt Plains, Victoria, Final report for 1991/1992 - July 1992. A report on behalf of the Department of Botany, La Trobe University to the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Endangered Species Unit, Canberra. McDougall, K.L., Barlow, TJ. and Appleby, M.L. (1993), Western basalt plains, Lake Omeo, Murray Valley riverine plains and the Wimmera. In ‘Conservation of Lowland Native Grasslands in south-eastem Australia.’ Eds K. McDougall and J.B. Kirkpatrick. (World Wide Fund for Nature- Australia.) Patton, R.T. (1935). Ecological studies in Victoria. IV. Basalt Plains association. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 48, 172-191. Pyrke, A. (1993), The Role of Soil Disturbance by Small Mammals in the Establishment of Rare Plant Species. PhD thesis, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart. Robertson, D. (1985), Inter relationships between Kangaroos, Fire and Vegetation Dynamics at Gellibrand Hill Park, Victoria, PhD thesis, Botany Department, University of Melbourne, Melbourne. Scarlett, N.H. (1994), Soil crusts, germination and weeds - issues to consider. The Victorian Naturalist (in press) Scarlett, N.H, and Parsons, R.F. (1982). Rare plants of the Victorian plains. Jn “Species at Risk: Research in Australia’. Eds. R.H. Groves and W.D.L. Ride. (Australian Academy of Science: Canberra.) Stuwe, J. and Parsons, R.F. (1977). Themeda australis grassland on the Basalt Plains, Victoria: floristic and management effects. Australian Journal of Ecalogy 2, 467-476. Willis, J.H, (1964). Vegetation of the Basalt Plains in western Victoria, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria T7, 397-418. The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings The Role of Fire in Ground Flora Ecology John Stuwe* Introduction The effect of fire on ground flora will vary according to features of the fire itself such as: The thoroughness of the fire (i.e. how patchy the burn is). This is related to the intensity of the fire but is also related to site features such as the presence of large rocks or fallen logs which can break the continuity of the burn and leave some unburnt vegeta- tion. The season of the fire. A fire in spring which removes seed or flowers will presumably have a different effect to a fire in autumn when most species have shed seed. The survival of plants which have germinated from seed following the fire will also be affected by the season of the fire - fewer seedlings would be expected to survive a summer immediately after a spring fire compared to the winter after an autumn fire. The effect of fire on the floristic com- position and structure of ground flora also varies according to the vegetation itself (e.g. the structure and floristics of the vegetation) and according to site | parameters such as climate and soils. In productive habitats, where plant growth is not inhibited by lack of nutrients or water, biomass increase is limited by ‘external’ factors such as fire, grazing and parasitism. In unproductive habitats, the | lack of available nutrients or water also _ inhibits plant growth. Species richness (the number of species perunit area) is affected by environmental (edaphic, climatic) stress and by ‘external’ stress. In productive habitats, in the absence of grazing, burning and other processes which decrease plant size and/or vigour, those species which are able to efficiently exploit the environment * Flora Branch, Department of Conservation and Natural Resourses, Arthur Rylah Institute, Brown Street, Heidelberg 3084, Vol. 111 (3) 1994 may exclude other species by competi- tion. Grime (1973) identified a number of characteristics of species capable of com- petitive exclusion. These include: tall stature in relation to associated species, an expanded tussock growth form, and an ability to deposit a dense layer of litter - features exhibited by Themeda triandra Kangaroo Grass (Stuwe and Parsons 1977). This species is the major dominant of many of Victoria’s grasslands and gras- sy woodlands. Two grassy ecosystems with a ground layer dominated by Themeda are dis- cussed here - Basalt Plains grasslands, and plains grassy woodlands on soils of sedimentary or grantic origin. The Chionochloa pallida and Poa sieberiana dominated growth layer of Box-Strin- gybark Forests and woodlands are also discussed briefly. Basalt Plains grasslands The flat, virtually treeless and relatively fertile basaltic plains of south-western Victoria offered ideal pastoral land ready for immediate stocking with sheep. Agricultural development was rapid and thorough with the result that 99.9% of the grasslands have now been lost and the few surviving remnants have all suffered some form of disturbance and weed in- vasion. The basalt itself is very recent, having being laid down between the end of the Miocene and a few thousand years ago. The flora is therefore also very young in geological terms, and people (and their use of fire) have had a major influence on the flora for a signficant proportion of its development. Fire is one likely reason for the absence of trees and shrubs on the plains but is not the only reason - soil structure, topog- raphy, climate and competition from Themeda undoubtly have played a role. In the absence of fire and intensive graz- ing, Themeda forms a dense sward that produces abundant plant litter. Themeda 93 Proceedings grasslands from long unburnt sites are usually poorer in the number of associated species than either regularly burnt sites or those grazed by stock. Both burning and grazing can be seen as factors which reduce the competitive ability of Themeda and allow the growth of a range of as- sociated species (in terms of Grime’s ‘competitive exclusion’). Grasslands on the fertile plains would have experienced frequent natural fires. The arrival of people tens of thousands of years ago would have increased the fire frequency on the plains due to their deliberate use of fire for hunting, (direct- ly, and indirectly to attract animals to the new growth following the burn) and presumably accidentally, with escapes from camp-fires. The flora would certain- ly have been adapted to frequent fire at the time of European settlement - any species which were not adapted would have al- ready been eliminated or occupied particular micro-environments which would have escaped regular burning. The effect of frequent burning before European settlement would have been the reduction of size and vigour of the dominant species and the growth of a suite of associated native herbs, All remnants now carry some introduced species and all are surrounded by areas of predomiantly introduced species. The effect of reducing size and vigour of the dominant species is now to allow the growth of introduced as well as native species. Grazing, in addi- tion to fire, is likely to further favour introduced species due to associated soil disturbance. The vegetation surrounding the remnant (the surrounding vegetation will be particularly important for small remnants), and the character of the soil stored seed within the remnant will now largely influence the effects of fire. Lunt (1990a) studied the impact of a single autumn burn on a long-grazed Themeda Grassland at Derrimut, 14 km west of Melbourne. He found that ‘The fire promoted abundant regeneration of ex- Otics from seed, particularly Vulpia Camoira Romulea rosea, Briza minor paniana. However, few native 94 species regenerated from seed.’ There was not, however, a consistent change in vegetation composition following the fire. The species present in the soil seed bank studied was composed of 59% ex- otic species and 41% native species. The proportions of individual seeds, however, was 91% exotic and 9% native (Lung 1990b). Weed invasion following fire has ob- vious consequences for using fire as a management tool in grassland remanants to either simulate natural processes or to reduce the representation of introduced species while increasing the repre- sentation of native species. Where there is an abundant source of introduced seeds an increase in these species (at least initially) can be expected. In many cases this may not be a serious problem - or at least one outweighed by the benefits of encourag- ing native species. In other cases, few native species may benefit and/or serious and persistent weeds may be encouraged. Chilean Needle-grass Nassella neesiana is an example of such a weed of grassland remnants; this species threatens to dominate several grassland remnants near Melbourne. Burning should not occur in infested areas without follow-up treat- ment to remove the weed (unfortunately this currently means spraying with her- bicide), Without burning, however, most as- sociated native species will be lost or drastically reduced in abundance. Much research is needed into grassland manage- ment lest the few remaining remnants become weedy paddocks or virtual monocultures of Themeda. Sedimentary plains grassy woodlands Areas of sedimentary soil carrying Themeda dominated grassy woodland occur on the Western Plains of Victoria. The vegetation is in some ways similar to that of the Basalt Plains but with some Significant differences, Stuwe (1980) found Themeda grassland on sedimentary soils near Mortlake to be richer in the number of species than those of the Basalt Plains. The floristic composition also dif- The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings fered - in the representation of species or the degree of representation. Native species persisted far better than would have been expected of basalt grasslands given a similar degree of disturbance, pos- sibly due to less fertile soils. Lunt (1990c) studied grassy woodlands in the Gram- pians and at Langi Ghiran on alluvial soil and soil derived from granite. He found these to be among the most species-rich terrestrial vegetations of the world with up to 45 species recorded from one square metre. The areas had been grass tussocks to less than 5 cm high at all sites. While grazing is unlikely to have contributed significantly to species-richness, it is like- ly to help maintain it by decreasing competition from the dominant grasses (Lunt 1990c). Fire and grazing probably both helped maintain species richness at these sites prior to European settlement. Such areas do not seem to be as produc- tive as some of the basalt grasslands, probably due to poorer soils, and natural fires were presumably far less frequent than on the more productive sites. The dominant grasses at some sites, on very poor soils, may not ever form a dense sward capable of excluding other species by competition, as even minor grazing would be sufficient to keep biomass low and decomposers would similarly deal with litter accumulation. Grassy dry sclerophyll forest Open forests with a grassy and/or shrub- by understorey occur on soils of generally poor structure and low nutrient levels, such as those derived from Ordovician and Silurian sediments north-east of Mel- bourne. The ground layer is often dominated by Poa sieberiana Grey Tus- sock-grass and Chionochloa pallida Silvertop Wallaby-grass. Themeda tri- andra may dominate the ground layer of some sites. These sites would presumably have burnt at a lower frequency than those Vol. 111 (3) 1994 mentioned above, probably around every 15 to 20 years or more. The ground-layer dominants tend to grow into discrete (al- beit relatively large tussocks with large spaces in between, in contrast to the dense swards in Themeda Grasslands where vir- tually no spaces between tussocks in the absence of fire or grazing. Competition from the shrub and tree layers, and often low productivity of the sites are likely to contribute to the relatively open nature of the ground layer. Even in the long-term absence of fire, it is unlikely that many species would be excluded by competition from the dominant grasses in this vegetation type. Some shrubs, such as peas and wattles, may decrease as a result of the lack of fire, as fire stimulates seed to germinate from the soil seedbank. In contrast, fire at a frequency greater than the time required for the plant to germinate, grow and set seed again may also result in the loss of these species. References Grime, J.P. (1973). Control of species density in herbaceous vegetation. Journal of Environmental Management 1, 151-167. Hastings, L (1983). Cobra Killuc State Wildlife Reserve Management Plan: with notes on native grassland ecology. Resources and Planning Branch, Fisheries and Wildlife Service, Technical Report 2. Lunt, T.D. (1990a). Impact of an autumn fire on a long-grazed Themeda triandra grassland: implications for management of invaded, remnant vegetations. The Victorian Naturalist 107 (2), 45-51. Lunt, LD. (1990b). The soil seed bank of a long-grazed Themeda triandara grassland in Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 102 (1), 53-57. Lunt, I.D. (1990c). Species area curves and growth-form spectra for some herb-rich woodlands in westem Victoria, Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 15, 155-161. Stuwe, J. (1980). Unpublished report to Fisheries and Wildlife Division. Later incorporated into Hastings (1983). Stuwe, J. and Parsons, R.F. (1977). Themeda australis grasslands on the basalt plains, Victoria: floristics and management effects. Australian Journal of Ecology 2, 467-476. 95 Research Reports Buried Soil in Volcanic Ash Sequence at Bullenmerri and Gnotuk Maars, Western Victoria, Australia E. B. Joyce* and S. M. Hill** Introduction A section exposed in a road cutting be- tween Lakes Bullenmerri and Gnotuk in Western Victoria provides the opportunity for a detailed study of the volcanic se- quence and soils. This report records the result of examination of the cutting and contributes to the knowledge of the en- vironmental history of the area. Lakes Bullenmerri and Gnotuk are lo- cated on the western edge of the township of Camperdown, approximately 170 km west-southwest of Melbourne, within the Pliocene to Recent Western Victorian Newer Volcanic Province (Ollier and Joyce 1964). The lake areas represent maar craters that formed as a result of phreatomagmatic explosions (due to the explosive interaction of hot magma with ground or surface water). During these explosions fine volcanic fragments and gas were erupted. The result was the for- mation of wide craters, with deposition of ejected material around the crater rim to give tuff rings. Descriptions of the general features of | l] | i | | VICTORIA Fig. 1. Map of the Camperdown area showing the location of the road cutting. * School of Earth Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic 3052, the area have been by Grayson and Wess ey for Australian Regolith Studies, The Mahony (1910), Ollier (1967), Joyce and an National University, Canberra, ACT 0200. Knight (1973), Joyce and Evans (1976), 96 The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Timms (1976), De Deckker (1982) and the area is covered by the Colac 1:250,000 sheet of the Geological Survey of Vic- toria. Grayson and Mahony (1910), Gill (1953) and Joyce (1988) have made specific references to the section exposed in this cutting. The figure and description by Gill (1953) suggested that the se- quence represented violent and short- lived volcanic activity with an absence of any signs of intermission. This study has found the sequence to be more complex than was previously suggested with evidence for major intermissions in the volcanic activity. Volcanic activity in this area is generally regarded as youthful, and Gill (1978) sug- gested that the eruption of nearby Mt Leura was about 22,000 years ago, based on radiocarbon dating related to ash deposits at Lake Colongulac, to the north. Aminimum age for Bullenmerri of 16,000 years ago is indicated by radiocarbon dating of the base of a lake sediment core obtained for pollen study (Dodson 1979). A recent estimate of between 25,000 to 15,000 years ago for the final activity at Bullenmerri which built the crater rim, and thus the upper layer in the road cut- ting, is provided in a new study by Scutter (1993). Activity for any one of these maar volcanoes was probably short-lived, and measured in weeks or months rather than years or hundreds of years. The cutting The north-facing road cutting is on Sad- dlers Road which passes along the ridge between the two crater lakes (Fig. 1), Ex- posures occur along a distance of approximately 500 m. but are now becom- ing increasingly concealed beneath grass and slope deposits. The cutting and the road slope down towards the east, progressively exposing older volcanic aeposits and finally the underlying Ter- tiary strata (Fig. 2). The sequence The sequence exposed in the road cut- ting is shown schematically in Figure 3, Tertiary limestone - unit 1 The volcanic deposits rest unconfor- mably on Tertiary limestone, which is exposed at the far eastern end of the cut- ting with a yellow and red lateritic podsol soil. Less weathered areas are a light whitish-grey and contain shelly marine fossils. Basaltic lavas - unit 2 Basaltic lavas of the “Gnotuk Basalt’ (Gill 1953) occur at the base of the vol- canic sequence. At least four different basalt units can be identified varying from Fig. 2. Sketch looking south at the road cutting showing the relative positions of the main units. Vol. 111 (2) 1994 Research Reports cata CACAT NN NAVY YN NNNNA AEA NA AERAR RETE AA EENE NEE NENEN E NEEG INISINI NINININI NINININI NISIN E EEA lbh. Ţ Fig. 3. Schematic representation of the sequence in the road cutting. (1 = Tertiary limestone, 2 = Basaltic lavas, 3 = Soil developed on basaltic lavas, 4 = Lower tuff unit, 5 = Buried soil developed on lower tuff unit, 6 = Grey silt, 7 = Upper tuff, 8 = Soil developed on upper tuff). dark grey to red-brown and from highly vesicular to massive basalt. Some units have a distinct, fine-grained upper sur- face. Red, “spatter-like’ units suggest a pyroclastic origin for part of the sequence. The upper part of the basaltic lavas and its soil is affected by recent landsliding. 98 Soil developed on basaltic lavas - unit 3 The upper metre of the basalt has been weathered to a friable red-brown clay earth. Pedogenic structures are poorly developed, although the upper 40 cm of the profile consist of sub-angular polyhedral peds up to 5 cm in diameter. Also associated with the upper part of this profile are areas of dark purple staining (possibly manganese oxides/hydroxides) and salt efflorescence. Sub-angular ‘buckshot’ gravel (iron oxide/hydroxide concretions) occur throughout this weathering profile, particularly between 10 to 40 cm from its top. These have formed where iron oxides/hydroxides have precipitated from soil solutions due to the oxidation potential and greater sus- ceptibility to dessication of this zone. Younger tuffs bury this weathering profile, which represents a significant time interval between the effusion of the basalts and the deposition of the overlying tuffs. Lower tuff unit - unit 4 At least 85 cm of thinly bedded grey- buff coloured ash, with occasional thin beds rich in fine grained, non-vesiculated basalt fragments overlie the basaltic weathering profile. This ash has been lithified, and bedding is clearly seen in Figure 4. Buried soil developed on lower tuff unit - unit 5 The upper 50 cm of the lower tuff unit has weathered to a green-grey clay soil. This soil consists of angular polyhedral peds up to 3 cm in diameter that easily break down into angular fragments less than 1 cm in diameter. Carbonate concre- tions are abundant, mainly in the forms of thizomorphs and sub-horizontal car- bonate ‘pans’ that also extend down vertical cracks into the underlying tuff. The rhizomorphs are up to 5 cm in diameter and are evidence of colonisation of this soil bya well-developed vegetation community. The development of this soil and its associated features occurred during a significant cessation in volcanic activity. Dark brown clayey areas within this soil The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Fig. 4. Photograph of the central portion of the road cutting, looking south. (Numbers refer to the units shown in Fig. 3.) represent contamination from the present surface soil that has moved down joints within the overlying upper tuff. Grey silt - unit 6 Awell-sorted grey clayey silt (Fig. 4) up to 35 em thick overlies the undulating surface of the soil developed on the lower tuff unit. This unit has poorly developed sedimentary and pedogenic structures, al- though there is an abundance of carbonate concretions particularly in the form of thizomorphs. The rhizomorphs within this unit continue down into the soil developed on the lower tuff unit indicat- ing that the vegetation colonisation occurred after deposition of the grey silt. An even distribution of rounded ‘buckshot’ gravel less than 5 mm in diameter occurs throughout the silt. X-ray diffraction analysis of a sample of this silt showed a dominance of quartz, indicating a non-basaltic source. The fine silt grain size, the rounded grain shapes and poor development of sedimentary structures, as well as the mineralogy, sug- gest that this deposit is of aeolian origin. Vol. 111 (2) 1994 Previous studies have documented similar deposits of aeolian origin from other parts of western Victoria (Gill 1953, Jackson et al. 1972) and it is possible that this deposit is related to them. Likely source areas for this quartz silt are the Tertiary to Quater- nary beach ridges and quartz sand sheets found further to the west. In another study, oxygen isotope signatures of quartz grains from such source areas have been found to be similar to aeolian quartz accessions found in basaltic soils in western Victoria (Jackson et al. 1972). Aeolian sand deposits are particularly sensitive to climate changes, being fixed by vegetation during wetter phases and mobilised during drier periods (Bowler 1976). The association of this grey silt with known arid periods during the Quaternary provides some potential in determining the age of the volcanic se- quence. There is a general acceptance that the last major dry period in southern Australia associated with dune activation occurred between 25,000 and 16,000 years ago 99 Research Reports (Wasson 1986). If the grey silt deposit is related to this last arid period then the deposition of the lower tuff unit must have pre-dated this period and the upper tuff unit must post-date it. However the grey silt may instead be associated with one of the earlier arid phases that have occurred within the past 700,000 years (Bowler 1982), Upper tuff - unit 7 The grey silt is overlain by more than 6 mof well-bedded brown-grey tuff. Beds are typically thicker than in the lower tuff unit although they are mostly less than 10 cm thick. This tuff unit is generally coar- ser grained than the lower tuff unit and contains a greater range of particle sizes including ash, lapilli and bomb-size frag- ments. Most of the beds are poorly sorted, although some are dominated by ash or lapilli size particles deposited during more explosive periods of volcanism. The lapilli-size fragments consist of accretion- ary lapilli, and basalt and limestone fragments. Bomb-size fragments of basalt or limestone are associated with impact structures which disrupt the underlying bedding, such as the large ‘U-shaped’ structure within the bedding approximate- ly 10 m eastwards from the western end of the cutting. The upper tuff represents a resumption of eruptive activity following the weathering of the lower tuff unit and the deposition of the grey silt. Soil developed on upper tuff - unit 8 The exposed upper tuff has weathered to form a dark brown earth which is the modern surface soil, Discussion Whilst this study has shown the presence of a break in the volcanic se- quence exposed in the cutting, the interpretation of the origins of the as- sociated events is open to discussion. Although Gill (1953) did not recognise this significant interval in volcanic ac- tivity, he was still able to distinguish between the two different tuff units. He suggested that the lower tuff unit was comparable in appearance to buff coloured tuffs that originated from Mt 100 Leura (Fig. 1) and that the upper tuff originated from the Bullenmerri and Gnotuk craters. If this is so, then in the light of the evidence presented in this paper Mt Leura must have erupted well before the Gnotuk and Bullenmerri erup- tions. The large difference in grain size and unit thicknesses noted between the two tuff units suggests that the finer grained and better sorted lower tuff unit has originated from a more distal source than the upper tuff . If the lower tuffunitis from a more distal source then Gill’ s suggestion is of some merit, as Mt Leura is ap- proximately six km east of this section while the craters of Bullenmerri and Gnotuk are adjacent to the section. The lower tuff unit also does not appear to extend very much further to the west (away from Mt Leura) as this unit is absent from sections exposed within an aban- doned railway cutting west of Lake Bullenmerri. Such a distribution would not be surprising if the lower tuff did in fact originate from the Mt Leura eruption, as prevailing westerly winds which are known to have been associated with the dispersal of ash from other volcanoes in this region would have limited the dis- tribution of ash from Mt Leura to the west. Joyce (1988) however put forward the suggestion that the separate tuff units may have originated from separate eruptions of Bullenmerri and Gnotuk. The differen- ces between the characteristics of the two tuff units may be due to different condi- tions during separate explosive eruptions of the Bullenmerri and Gnotuk maars. For example, different intensities of phreato- magmatic explosion or changes in pre- vailing wind directions at the times of eruptions might have produced variations in the deposits at any one point. Further investigation of the sequence in other sec- tions within the area and the study of subtle geochemical differences between deposits originating from separate vol- canic centres may provide the evidence necessary to resolve this problem. Allowing for the weathering of the lower tuff unit, an event which must have The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports taken at the very least several thousand years, and using Scutter’s (1993) estimate of up to 25,000 years for the age of the eruption of the upper tuff, we can con- clude that explosive maar activity from at least two major centres has taken place over perhaps 30,000 years or more. The underlying basalt lavas and the develop- ment of their soil cover are even older events. Conclusion A sequence of events for the units described within this cutting is as follows: 1. Deposition of Tertiary marine sedi- ments followed by exposure and lateritic weathering of the emerged sediments. 2. Effusion of basaltic lava flows. 3. Weathering of lava flows and pedo- genesis to form a red-brown clay earth soil. 4. Deposition of volcanic ash (lower tuff unit) either by eruption from Mt Leura or from one of the eruptions of Gnotuk or Bullenmerri. 5. Major intermission in volcanic act- ivity, with weathering and pedo- genesis of the lower tuff unit. 6. Aeolian deposition of grey silt followed by stabilisation and coloni- sation by vegetation. 7. Resumption of volcanic activity in the form of phreatomagmatic explo- sive activity resulting in further lapilli and ash deposition (the upper tuff). 8. Lakes formed in Bullenmerri and Gnotuk craters. Colonisation of the modern landsurface by vegetation. Weathering and pedogenesis with localised erosion and deposition on slopes to the present. Evidence within the volcanic succession exposed within this road cutting indicates that two separate periods of volcanic erup- tion have occurred, The intermission between these two periods of activity was significant enough to allow for weather- ing and pedogenesis of the lower tuff unit to occur, followed by the deposition and stabilisation of a grey silt. The interpreta- tion of this exposure has provided greater Vol. 111 (2) 1994 insi ght into the volcanic and environmen- tal history of the Camperdown area. References Bowler, J.M, (1976). Aridity in Australia: Age, origins and expressions in aeolian landforms and sediments. Earth Science Reviews 12, 279-310. Bowler, J.M. (1982). Aridity in the Late Tertiary and Quatemary of Australia. Jn ‘Evolution of the Flora and Fauna of Arid Australia’. Eds. Barker W.R. and Greenslade P.J.M. (Peacock Publications: Adelaide.) De Deckker, P. (1982). Holocene Ostracods, other Invertebrates and Fish Remains from cores of four Maar Lakes in Southem Australia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 94 (4), 183-220. Dodson, J.R. (1979). Late Pleistocene vegetation and environments near Lake Bullenmerri, Westem Victoria. Australian Journal of Ecology 4, 419-427. Gill, E.D. (1953). Geological Evidence in Westem Victoria Relative to the Antiquity of the Australian Aborigine. Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria 18, 25-92. Gill, E.D. (1978). Radiocarbon Dating of the Volcanoes of Western Victoria, Australia. The Victorian Naturalist 95, 152-158. Grayson, H.J. and Mahony, D.J. (1910). The Geology of the Camperdown and Mount Elephant Districts, Geological Survey of Victoria Memoir 9. Jackson, M.L., Gibbons, FR., Syers, J.K. and Mokma, D.L. (1972). Eolian influence on soils developed in a chronosequence of basalts of Victoria, Australia. Geoderma 8, 147-163. Joyce, E.B. (1988). Colac - Camperdown. In ‘Victorian Geology Excursion Guide’. Eds. I. Clark and B. Cook. (Australian Academy of Science; Canberra.) Joyce, E.B. and Evans, R.S. (1976). Areas of Landslide Activity in Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 88, 95-108. Joyce, E.B. and Knight, M.J. (1973). A Buried Soil with Fossil Gilgai within the Volcanic Deposits at Terang, Westem Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 93, 272-278. Ollier, C.D. (1967). Landforms of the Newer Volcanic Province of Victoria. Jn ‘Landform Studies from Australia and New Guinea’. Eds. J.N. Jennings and J.A. Mabbutt. (Australian National University Press: Canberra.) Ollier, C.D. and Joyce, E.B. (1964). Volcanic Physiography of the Western Plains of Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria T7 (2), 357-376, Scutter, C. (1993), ‘The voleanology and geomorphology of the Bullenmerri volcanic complex, Newer Volcanic province, Westem Victoria’, Unpublished Honours Report, Department of Geology, University of Melbourne. Timms, B.V. (1976), A comparative study of the limnology of three maar lakes in Western Victoria, I. Physiography and physiochemical features. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 27, 35-60. Wasson, RJ. (1986), Geomorphology and Quaternary history of the Australian continental dunefields. Geographical Review of Japan 59B, 55-67. 101 Research Reports Host-ectoparasite Interactions in the Bell Miner Manorina melanophrys (Meliphagidae) and other Sympatric Passerines Aldo Poiani* Summary Several hypotheses were tested regard- ing the relationship between avian hosts and their ectoparasites using the Bell Miner Manorina melanophrys Latham and other sympatric passerines as a model. Richness of ectoparasitic genera decreased as age increased in Bell Miners, and infestation by ixodid ticks decreased when the colony density increased in the same host species; the latter result, how- ever, was confounded by the different distribution of the understorey in the study site. Ectoparasite intensity tended to be positively correlated with Bell Miner body mass thus suggesting that the levels of parasitism observed did not have a dramatic effect on the development of hosts. Finally, cooperatively breeding and sedentary host genera tended to share more ectoparasite genera than migratory and non-cooperative hosts suggesting that philopatry may favour transmission of ec- toparasites. Host-parasite interactions have recently become the focus of intense debate espe- cially with regard to the role of parasites in the evolution of mating systems and their importance in the process of epigamic selection (Hamilton and Zuk 1982; Borgia and Collis 1989), However, our knowledge of the relationships be- tween Australian avian hosts and their ectoparasites is still relatively scant with few published works - outside the field of recta ane questions of evolu- ionary significance (e.g, Borgia g Collis 1989). sE Pa ag Several variables can affect the relation- ship between host and ectoparasite. Age is a possible variable affecting the suitability of a bird as a host to ec- toparasites (Arlian and Vyszenski-Möher 1987). Kuris et al. (1980) applied island biogeography theory to host-parasite in- * School of Geneti iati University, AEAN AnaS eae n 102 teractions and predicted that older in- dividuals (as well as long-lived host species) should harbour more êc- toparasites than young individuals (or short-lived hosts). Borgia and Collis (1989), however, found that Satin Bower- bird (Ptilonorhynchus violaceus) males in juvenile plumage harboured more bird lice (Myrsidea ptilonorhynchi, Meno- ponidae) than adult males. Following ontogenetic considerations it is possible to argue that younger birds may have less developed defences (both physiological and behavioural) against ectoparasites leading to differences in the ectoparasitic burdens of juvenile and adult birds; e.g. juveniles may be less skilful at preening, or they may need to develop immunological defences against ectoparasites, etc. It is also expected that high colony den- sity (Hoogland and Sherman 1976; Hoogland 1979; Hoogland 1981; Maller 1987; Shields and Brooke 1987) and sociality (e.g. cooperative breeding) (Alexander 1974; Poiani 1992a) should favour transmission of ectoparasites. Cooperative breeding is characterised by the presence of helpers, that is individuals careing for offspring which are not their own. Cooperatively breeding avian genera are mainly sedentary, whereas non-cooperatively breeding genera are mainly migrant or semi-migrant (Dow 1980; Brown 1987; Poiani 1992a). Seden- tariness and sympatry among cooper- atively breeding passerines may also favour invasion of new hosts by ec- toparasites harboured by any host species, since hosts living close to each other are also more likely to transmit their parasites from one to the other. If this is true then cooperatively breeding genera should share more ectoparasite genera among themselves, than with non-cooperatively breeding hosts, and the former should also share more ectoparasites than non- The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports cooperatively breeding host genera share among themselves. Any hypothesis which suggests that a particular behaviour is an adaptation against ectoparasitism relies on the im- plicit (or explicit) assumption that fitness is negatively correlated with the degree of parasitism. There is good evidence that ectoparasitism affects growth rate and probability of survival of nestlings (see review in Poiani 1992b). However, nega- tive effects on adult birds have also been detected. Moeller (1991) found that haematophagous mites caused anaemia in male Barn Swallows (Hirundo rustica), while ticks, which may transmit viral dis- eases (Ali 1963; Anderson and Mag- narelli 1984), may be a cause of mortality among adult birds (reviewed in Feare 1976). Here I test the hypotheses, that ec- toparasitic loads change with the age and population density of the host, using data available for the cooperatively breeding Bell Miner Manorina melanophrys. The effect of ectoparasitic loads on mor- phometric measurements of Bell Miners was also investigated. Finally, I studied the effect that the breeding system and sedentariness has on the degree of overlap of ectoparasitic genera found among sym- patric passerines. Materials and methods The study was carried out at the Sir Colin Mackenzie Zoological Park, Healesville, south-eastern Victoria. Birds were mist-netted from October 1988 to January 1989 (breeding season) con- tinuously from 0800-1900. Bell Miners were aged following Clarke and Heathcote (1988) (see Poiani and Fletcher (1994) for more details on the definition of age class 25.4 months). Body measurements were taken from the bird in the hand with calipers (tarsus) or a ruler (wing and tail) with a precision of 0.1 mm and 1 mm respectively. Body mass was measured with a 50g Pesola spring balance and 0.1 g precision. Ectoparasites were sampled by expos- ing the bird’s body to an environment saturated with chloroform vapours in a Vol. 111 (2) 1994 Kilner Jar apparatus (Fowler and Cohen 1983) for 1.5 min. This time of exposure allows for 100% efficiency in sampling mobile ectoparasites (i.e. hippoboscid flies) and about 25% efficiency for con- tagious ectoparasites (i.e. mites, bird lice and free-dwelling ticks) in the Bell Miner (Poiani 1992a,b). Parasites from the neck and head were counted by direct inspec- tion. Bell Miner density within the Park was not homogeneous. Two zones were iden- tified by Poiani et al. (1990) which differed in local density of birds; zone A (with about 87 Bell Miners/ha) and zone B (with 22 Bell Miners/ha) therefore it was predicted that Bell Miners in zone A would harbour more contagious ec- toparasites than in zone B. To test this hypothesis the intensity (i.e. number of ectoparasite individuals in each host) of ixodid ticks (which are contagious ec- toparasites very easy to count) was compared among Bell Miners in both zones. The following parasite sharing index was used in order to study the effect of sociality and sedentariness (since most of the sedentary species studied are also cooperative breeders (Poiani 1992a) whereas migrant or semi-migrant species are mainly non-cooperative (Dow 1980; Brown 1987; Poiani 1992a)) on the over- lap in the ectoparasitic fauna of sympatric host species: Sag =2Rap/ (Ra + Ra) where Ra = total ectoparasite genera (contagious and mobile) in host A, Rg = total ectoparasite genera in host B, and Rap = ectoparasite genera common to host genera A and B. If Ra = Rg then there is complete similarity in the ectoparasitic fauna of both hosts and therefore Sap = 1, if no ectoparasite is shared then Rap = 0 and Sag = 0. Parametric and nonparametric statistical tests are given throughout. Parasitological variables used (i.e. richness (R), diversity (H’), prevalence (P), mean intensity (MI), relative density (RD) and intensity (I)) in this work are defined as per Margolis et al, (1982, see also Poiani 1992a). 103 Research Reports Results : a) Effect of age on Bell Miner ec- toparasitic loads. Table 1 shows the data for five parasitological variables (all ectoparasites are considered) for Bell Miners of dif- ferent ages. Bell Miners reach sexual Table 1. Values of the parasitological variables for Bell Miners of different ages. All ectoparasites are included (contagious and mobile). Age Mean Body Mass + SD (n) Parasitological variables (months) (gr) R F P MI RD 25.4 30.31 + 1.68 50.0. 2.10 1.05 92 29.28 + 1.69 46.1 241 1.11 56 28.90 + 18I 63.6 171 1,09 3.8 29.00 + 0.70 100.0 17.00 17.00 27.56 + 2.49 93.7 14.93 14.00 (38) 6 0.668 (26) 6 0.566 üi) 2 0.294 (2) 5 0412 (16) 6 0.432 maturity at about 9 months of age (Clarke 1988), It is clear from Table 1 that as the bird becomes older the body mass also tends to increase. In order to eliminate the effect of body mass on the parasitological variables I first found a regression curve between log (parasitological variable) (i.e. R, H’, P, MI or RD) and log (body mass) of the kind: log y=a+blogx where y = any parasitological variable and x = body mass in grams. The linear regression curves were then used to cal- culate log y-predicted for each body mass value. Log y-predicted was then sub- tracted from log y-observed to obtain a value of log-residual (Harvey and Pagel 1991). Table 2 shows the log-residual values for each parasitological variable and age class. All log-residuals were nor- mally distributed (Shapiro-Wilk test for normality: log R-residuals (nu = 0.379, G = -1.20, n= 5, P>0.50); log H’-residuals (nu= 2.916, G = 1.40, n=5, P>0.90); log P-residuals (nu = 1.755, G = 0.37, n=5, Table 2. Log-residual values for the para- Sitological variables for Bell Miners of different ages, 0.153 0.497 0.118 0,715 1.159 P>0.60); log Ml-residuals (nu =2.32, G = 0.80, n=5, P>0.70); and log RD-residuals (nu = 1.652, G = 0.14, n = 5, P>0.50). Table 3 summarises the Pearson’s product-moment correlations between log-age and log-residuals. The general trend is for log-residuals to be negatively correlated with log-age but for the case of the ectoparasite diversity index (H’), however, the only significant correlation was for log R-residuals. Richness of ec- toparasitic genera (R) which is inde- pendent from body size significantly decreased with age (P<0.05). b) Effect of colony density on ixodid tick loads of Bell Miners. A total of 176 Bell Miners was sampled: 88 in the dense zone (A) and 88 in the less dense zone (B). The distribution of ticks of the genus /xodes on the birds was com- pared between zones using a Kolmo- gorov-Smirnov two-sample test. Table 3. Pearson’s product-moment correlations (r) between log-age and log-residuals of the parasitological variables for Bell Miners. Parasitological r variable Table 4 shows the frequency distribution of hosts with different tick intensities. Results of the Kolmogorov-Smimov two- sample test are significant (D = 0.159, P<0.05). However, Table 4 clearly shows that birds harboured more ticks in zone B (the less dense zone) than in zone A (the more dense zone) thus falsifying the ini- tial hypothesis. c) Effect of ectoparasitic loads on Bell Miner body size measurements. Table 5 shows median intensity of ec- toparasitism, range and sample sizes for Bell Miners of different ages for which I have morphometric measurements. Values of intensity were not corrected for the ef- ficiency of sampling (Poiani 1992a) which, in this case, is approximately con- stant throughout the age classes (minimum The Victorian Naturalist — Research Reports Table 4. Frequency distributions of tick intensities on Bell Miners from a densely populated zone (A) and a less densely populated zone (B). Intensity of ticks Table 5. Median values, ranges and sample sizes for intensity of ectoparasitism (total ectoparasites) for Bell Miners of different ages. = 24.6%, maximum = 25.6%). To make the test more conservative I restricted my analyses to birds 1.3 months old since they have by far the largest range of inten- sities and the second largest median value (Table 5). Furthermore, juveniles are still | growing, although at a slow rate, therefore any possible effect of ectoparasitism on the body condition should be magnified at this age. Figures la-e show the change in body mass (in grams), total head length (mm), tarsus length (mm), tail length (mm), and wing length (mm) with intensity of ec- Fig. 1. Relationship between ectoparasite (contagious and mobile) intensity values and different body measurements of immature Bell Miners: a) body mass, b) total head length, c) tarsus length, d) tail length, e) wing length. Figure la Body mass vs intensity of ectoparasitism. mass a ig) 30 D a o oo o 28 5 h o 26 a o o 24 22 r =y r r m Y o 0 20 30 40 60 60 70 Intensity Vol. 111 (2) 1994 Figure 1b Total head length vs intensity of ectoparasitism. 39 38 Head o o o Length a7 olo (mm) = o 36 = oo o 36 34 — x 7 + o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Intensity Figure tc Tarsus vs intensity of ectoparasitism. 30 o a is Sq0099 9 ‘5 o a 20 15 Tarsus Length (mm) 10 5 o + + + r o 0 20 30 40 so 60 70 Intensity Figure 1d Tail length vs intensity ot ectoparasitism. 96709 o o 5 o o oo 8s] 00 Tall Length (mum) 76 m a o 66 65 r + v -r T o v 20 30 40 60 60 70 Intensity Figure 1e Wing length vs intensity of ectoparasitism. 100 o oa 957 O a Wing Length mo o (mm) oo o 90 a 85 _—*t r 1—r v o 10 20 30 40 s0 60 70 Intensity Research Reports toparasitism at 1.3 months of age. y A Spearman’s rank nonparametric cor- relation indicates that intensity of ectoparasites increases with body mass, although the value of rho is marginally not significant (rho = 0.394, n= 15, P= 0.07). Positive but not significant correlations are also found for total head length (rho = 0.101, n= 13, P>0.30), and tail length (rho = 0.140, n = 13, P>0,30). The only nega- tive value of rho is for wing length (rho = -0.056, n = 13, P>0.40) which was not significant. d) Comparison of the parasite sharing index between cooperative and non- cooperative host genera. Table 6 summarises the values of the index for each pairwise comparison. Lists of parasites and sample sizes are available in Poiani (1992a,b). The mean value of S is larger for comparisons among coopera- tively breeding passerines (S = 0.43) than for cooperative/non-cooperative com- parisons (S = 0.33), and the latter value is larger than the value of S for non-coopera- tive/non-cooperative comparisons (S = 0.24). The above result is consistent with the hypothesis that cooperatively breeding (and hence sedentary) host genera share more ectoparasites than migrant hosts. This result, however, can be confounded by phylogenetic relationships among the host genera. In fact, although most of the host genera pertain to the Australasian parvorder Corvida, Zosterops and Aegin- tha are a more recent inclusion in the Australian avifauna, representing the par- vorder Passerida. Phylogenetic relationships between hosts and parasites have long been recognized (Waage 1979; Kuris et al. 1980). Therefore, I repeated the test excluding the Passerida genera in order to control for phylogenetic effects. Mean S values remained virtually un- changed: S(coop/coop) = 0.43, S(coop/non-coop) = 0.35, S(non-coop/non-coop) = 0.25, with similarity decreasing as we change from comparisons among cooperative breeders to comparisons among non-cooperative breeders. Unfortunately, a direct statistical test of the mean values of S between cooperative and non-cooperative breeders cannot be easily carried out. This is because statisti- cal tests usually require independence among observations, but in this case S values sharing one host genus cannot be considered independent. A possible way out of this problem is to use a method initially devised to analyse similarity in- dices in DNA-fingerprinting. The method is especially designed to account for the covariance among similarity indices shar- Table 6. Values of the ectoparasite sharing index for cooperatively and non-cooperatively breeding Australian passerines (see text for details). Cooperative Breeders S = Sericornis, E= Eopsaltria, M = Malurus, D = Dicaeum, Z = Zosterops, Ae = Aegintha. 106 x \ C= Climacteris, Ma = Mi ji = ii A =Acanthiza, P = Pachycephala, R = Rhipidura, L = LRE, anorina, Me = Melithreptus, Non-cooperative Breeders Ac = Acanthorhynchus, The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports ing one element (Lynch 1990; Lynch and Crease 1990). I am currently studying the possibility of adapting Lynch’s (1990) method to any similarity index which takes the same form as the S index (see Materials and Methods section). Discussion The results obtained in the comparison of ectoparasitic loads between Bell Miners of different age classes support the findings of Borgia and Collis (1989) for the Satin Bowerbird which indicated that young birds harboured more ectoparasites than older ones. I do not know which mechanism(s) actually explain this dif- ference between adult and juvenile Bell Miners. The Miners (genus Manorina) do not seem to allopreen, or at least they do not doit very frequently. I have never seen two Bell Miners allopreening during my study although they do preen. This con- trasts with observations on other cooperatively breeding species (e.g. Su- perb Fairy-wren Malurus cyaneus) which have been observed allopreening in the study site (pers. obs.). If Bell Miners must rely on their ability to preen themselves in order to control their ectoparasitic loads, and if the skills required to do so improve with age, then larger parasitic loads on juveniles can be the outcome of this on- togenetic process. However, other possible differences between juveniles and adults such as physiological condi- tion, biochemical and histological properties of the skin, etc. (Arlian and Vyszenski-Moéher 1987) may also help explain the same pattern. An unexpected result was obtained in the comparison of tick loads on Bell Miners sampled in two colonies of dif- ferent density. Bell Miners sampled in the relatively sparse colony (zone B of Poiani et al. 1990) harboured more ixodid ticks than Bell Miners sampled in the denser colony (zone A). A possible explanation is the unequal distribution of very low and dense bushes of Coprosma quadrifida in the two zones. Zone A clearly had fewer overall and also a smaller density of C. quadrifida plants than did zone B (pers. obs.). Ticks may get onto their hosts while Vol. 111 (2) 1994 the latter are roosting in the low bushes, Bell Miners roost in the understorey (Poiani 1990), sometimes in small roost- ing parties, although in zone A they have also been observed roosting solitarily in the canopy of Eucalyptus trees. The higher branches of trees are places inac- cessible to ticks which, in order to prevent dessiccation, do not normally leave the understorey (Arlian and Vyszenski- MGher 1987). Therefore, any possible effect of colony density on tick transmis- sion is swamped in this case, by other factors which may be related to the dis- tribution of the dense C. quadrifida understorey in the study site and the roost- ing behaviour of Bell Miners. Ectoparasitism is not negatively corre- lated with body conditions among juvenile Bell Miners. Quite the contrary, heavier birds seem to harbour slightly more ectoparasites. Unfortunately, [could not follow those juveniles through their subsequent development in order to estab- lish a possible effect of persistent ectoparasitism on the same morphologi- cal variables and on survivorship. However, this effect may not be very sig- nificant in this species since, as itis shown in Table 5, both the median value and the range of intensity decreased with age. The effect would be significant if low ec- toparasitism at older ages is a result of differential mortality of highly parasitized juvenile birds. Freeland (1976) suggested that the pat- terns of social behaviour in primates are a result (at least in part) of minimizing the probability of acquisition of new parasites and pathogens. Therefore group-living or- ganisms are expected to limit the flow of individuals between social groups to those which are likely to harbour the same parasites as the host group. In this way social animals would ayoid disrupting physiological adaptations to their parasites. If Freeland’s (1976) hypothesis is correct then cooperatively breeding genera should harbour very specialised parasites while non-cooperative host genera should have more generalist parasites; if there is a limited flow of ectoparasites within a population of social 107 Research Reports hosts (i.e. between social groups), diver- gence of characters and perhaps speciation might have been favoured among parasites. In this case the values of S should have increased from coop/coop comparisons to non-coop/non-coop com- parisons. Although a statistical test could not be carried out on the data set (the reasons for this are given in the Results section), the trend found was the reverse of that expected from Freeland’s hypothesis: S values for coop/coop com- parisons tended to be larger than for non-coop/non-coop comparisons. In the best case, a statistical test performed on my data will show that the similarity in- dices are similar (subject to limitations set by the statistical power of the analysis). The evolutionary event of a parasitic genus colonising a new host seems to be favoured by sedentariness of the host and it does not seem to be prevented by group living. This trend is not affected by dif- ferences in host sample size, and host body size between the two samples. Rich- ness of parasites can increase with both the size of the sample (the larger the sample of hosts the more likely is to detect an uncommon parasite) and body size of the host. Cooperatively breeding hosts are both more represented in the sample (Poiani 1992a) and have larger body sizes, this may account for part of the difference between cooperative and non-cooperative hosts. If we eliminate the effect of body size and size of the sample on the prob- ability of sampling rare parasites, the similarity indices for the Corvida show the same trend as above (Scoop/coop >Scoop/non-coop >Snon-coop/non-coop) al- though the differences in the S values are much reduced (unpubl. results), Acknowledgments 1 support was received from the M,A. pei Trust and the Department of Zoology, La Trobe 108 University. I am very grateful for the logistic support I received from the staff of the Sir Colin Mackenzie Zoological Park and my wife Marisa. I was supported by a La Trobe University Postgraduate Scholarship during the period of this study. I thank the Australian Research Council for my current postdoctoral fel- lowship. This research was carried out under permit No. RP-89-32 of the Depart- ment of Conservation and Natural Resources. References Alexander, R.D. (1974). The evolution of social behaviour, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5, 325-383. Ali, S. (1963). Recent studies of bird migration and bird ticks in India. Proceedings of the XIII International Ornithological Congress, 1, 354-361. Anderson, J.F. and Magnarelli, L.A. (1984), Avian and mammalian hosts for spirochete-infected ticks and insects in a lyme disease focus in Connecticut. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 57, 627-641, Arlian, L.G. and Vyszenski-Moher, D.L. (1987). Nutritional ecology of parasitic mites and ticks. In ‘Nutritional ecology of insects, mites, spiders and related invertebrates’, Eds. F. Slansky and J.G. Rodriguez, pp 765-790. (John Wiley & Sons: New York.) Borgia, G. and Collis, K. (1989). Female choice for parasile-free male Satin Bowerbirds and the evolution of bright male plumage. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25, 445-454. Brown, J.L. (1987). ‘Helping and communal breeding in birds. Ecology and evolution.’ (Princeton University Press: Princeton.) Clarke, M,F (1988), The reproductive behaviour of the Bell Miner Manorina melanophrys. Emu 88, 88-100. Clarke, M.F, and Heathcote, C.F. (1988). Methods for sexing and ageing the Bell Miner Manorina melanophrys. Emu 88, 118-121. Dow, D.D. (1980). Communally breeding Australian birds with an analysis of distributional and environmental factors, Emu 80, 121-140, Feare, C.J. (1976). Desertion and abnormal development in a colony of Sooty Terns Sterna fuscata infested by virus-infected ticks, [bis 118, 112-115, Fowler, J.A. and Cohen, S. (1983). A method for quantitative collection of ectoparasites from birds. Ringing and Migration 4, 185-189. Freeland, W.J. (1976), Pathogens and the evolution of primate sociality, Biotropica 8, 12-24. Hamilton, W.D. and Zuk, M. (1982). Heritable true fitness and bright birds: a role for parasites? Science 218, 384-387, Harvey, P.H. and Pagel, M.D. (1991). ‘The comparative method in evolutionary biology’. (Oxford University Press: Oxford.) Hoogland, J.L, (1979). Aggression, ectoparasitism, and other possible costs of prairie dog (Sciuridae, Cynomys spp.) Coloniality. Behaviour 69, 1-35. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Hoogland, J.L. (1981). Nepotism and cooperative breeding in the Black-tailed Prairie Dog (Sciuridae: Cynomys ludovicianus). In ‘Natural selection and social behavior. Recent research and new theory’. Eds. R.D. Alexander and D.W, Tinkle, pp 283-310. (Chiron Press: New York.) Kuris, A.M., Blaustein, A.R., and Alió, J.J. (1980). Hosts as islands, American Naturalists 116, 570-586. Lynch, M. (1990). The similarity index and DNA fingerprinting. Molecular Biology and Evolution 7, 478-484, Lynch, M. and Crease, T.J. (1990). The analysis of population survey data on DNA sequence Variation. Molecular Biology and Evolution 7, 377-394. Margolis, L., Esch, G.W., Holmes, J.C., Kuris, A.M, and Schad, G.A. (1982). The use of ecological terms in parasitology (report of an ad hoc committee of the American Society of Parasitologists), Journal of Parasitology 68, 131-133. Meller, A.P. (1987). Advantages and disadvantages of coloniality in the Swallow, Hirundo rustica, Animal Behaviour 35, 819-832. Meller, A.P, (1991), Parasite loads reduces song output in a passerine bird. Animal Behaviour 41, 723-730, Poiani, A. (1990), Communal roosting of the Bell Miner Manorina melanophrys, Meliphagidae. The Victorian Naturalist 107, 105-106. Poiani, A. (1992a). Ectoparasitism as a possible cost of social life: a comparative analysis using Australian passerines (Passeriformes). Oecologia 92, 429-441. Poiani, A. (1992b), ‘Hormonal, behavioural and ecological aspects of cooperative breeding in the Bell Miner (Manorina melanophrys, Melipha gidae)’. PhD Thesis, Department of Zoology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia. Poiani, A., Rogers, A., Rogers, K. and Rogers, D. (1990). Asymmetrical competition between the Bell Miner (Manorina melanophrys, Meliphagidae) and other honeyeaters: evidence from South-eastern Victoria, Australia. Oecologia 85, 250-256. Poiani, A. and Fletcher, T. (1994), Plasma levels of androgens and gonadal development of breeders and helpers in the Bell Miner (Manorina melanophrys, Meliphagidae). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 34, 31-41. Shields, W.M. and Brooke, J.R. (1987). Barn Swallow coloniality: a net cost for group breeding in the Adirondacks? Ecology 68, 1373- 1386. Waage, J.K. (1979). The evolution of insect/vertebrate associations. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 12, 187-224. Predation of Butterflies by Birds Michael F, Braby* Relatively few instances of predation of Australian butterflies by birds have been published. Although many naturalists have watched birds chase butterflies, the actual capture of a specimen seems to be an uncommon event. Here I summarise some of my own findings together with records extracted from the literature. McFarland (1978) provided a detailed account of a female Ogyris amaryllis Hewitson being captured and consumed by a Singing Honeyeater Lichenostomus virescens in Western Australia. The cap- ture occurred during the cooler, early hours of the morning when the butterfly appeared rather sluggish. Crosby (1988) noted that five specimens in his collection representing four temperate satyrines, Shouldered Brown Heteronympha pene- * CSIRO Division of Entomology G.P.O. Box 1700, Canberra, ACT 2601. Vol. 111 (2) 1994 lope Waterhouse, Bright-eyed Brown H. cordace (Geyer), Kershaw’s Brown Oreixenica kershawi (Miskin), and Silver Xenica O. lathoniella (Westwood), had beak marks, indicating that these species presumably had managed to escape from potential bird predators. Similarly, Faith- full (1988) recorded and illustrated three examples, Macleay’s Graphium macleay- anus (Leach), Monarch Danaus plexippus (Linnaeus) and Admiral Vanessa itea (Fabricius), which also possessed beak marks on the hind-wing. Brown (1988) observed a Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike Coracina novaehollandiae take a Cab- bage White Pieris rapae (Linnaeus) and a Dollar Bird Eurystomus orientalis capture and devour an adult Blue Triangle Graphium sarpendon, both in New South Wales, and T.A. Woodger (pers. comm.) observed a Graphium sp. (probably aris- teus) captured by a small honeyeater at 109 Contributions Mt. White, Coen, northern Queensland on § October 1989, Faithfull (1988) observed a Willy Wagtail Rhipidura leucophrys capture and cat a small lycaenid butterfly near Melbourne in 1983, and then in 1986 observed the same species of bird capture a female Common Brown Heteronympha merope (Fabricius), also near Melbourne. An carly reference to H. merope concerns the observations by W.C, Tonge at Eltham in January 1925 where a pair of Leaden Flycatchers Myiagra rubecula were recorded feeding their young on many adult H. merope (Barrett 1925). More recently, Faithfull (1994) observed a Rainbow Bee-eater Merops ornatus cap- ture and cat, wings and all, a White Migrant Catopsilia pyranthe crokera (W.S. Macleay at Mr. Isa, western Queensland on 29 May 1989, whilst Lepschi (1993) recorded the same species of bird feeding on the Admiral Vanessa ita, Near Brisbane Dunn (1993) observed an Australian Magpie-lark Grallina cyanoleuca with an adult Yellow Palm- dart Cephrenes trichopepla (Lower) in its beak, and Hutchinson (1988) noted Willy Wagtails preying on adult Orange Palm- darts C. augiades sperthias (Felder) at Perth, An interesting account is given by Scheermyer (1987) and Ford and Ford (1993) who describe the feeding be- haviour of White-breasted Wood- swallows Artamus leucorhynchus on the Blue Tiger Tirumala hamata (W.S. Macleay), In this instance the captured butterflies were dismembered and eaten in flight, so that the wings fluttered to the ground below. The birds apparently ac- complish this by transferring the insect from the beak to the feet and then bending the head under the body to consume the insect, Ford and Ford (1983) also noted two other species of birds, Spangled Drongo Dicrurus hottentottus and a friar- bird Philemon sp., taking T, hamata, each On a single occasion, i sa 24 pesanitee 1985 at 8.00 am (EST) observed a Magpie-lark capture and con- san al Heeroma merope u : , later in the season during 110 January-March 1986 I observed many adults (mostly females) of this butterfly being eaten by Willy Wagtails during ficld studies at Gresswell Forest, La Trobe University, Victoria. After capture a bird would descend to a favorite patch on the ground and eat the bodies of the butterflies leaving behind the wings. When several adults had been eaten in this fashion a large pile of (accumulated) butterfly wings would remain! I have also wit- nessed a White-breasted Woodswallow capture and eat a Common Crow Euploea core corinna (W.S. Macleay) apparently without ill effects, on the Town Common, Townsville, Queensland, in late 1989. More recently, in 1991-92 I made three separate observations of bird predation by the Northern Fantail Rhipidura rufiventris in the Coastal Paperbark woodlands near Cardwell, north-eastern Queensland, On the first occasion an adult of the Evening Brown Melanitis leda (Fabricius) was captured and eaten at 1355 hrs (EST) on 5 June 1991, On 3 June 1992 I witnessed another M. leda captured and devoured, this time at 0758 hrs (EST). On 17 Sep- tember 1991 I observed an adult male of the Cedar Bush-brown Mycalesis sirius (Fabricius) taken and eaten by a Northern Fantail soon after dawn at 0650 hrs (EST) when conditions were rather cool. In each case the fantails caught the butterflies with their beak whilst the insects were flying. In M. leda, the flight of both in- dividuals was typical of the species, being fairly fast and erratic, but in M. sirius the individual moved somewhat uncharac- teristically as it flew very slowly and more directly over the grassy understorey, pos- sibly because its flight muscles were insufficiently warmed at that time of day. The captures of these two satyrines by Northern Fantails were extremely rapid and very precise giving little chance of escape for the individual butterflies con- cerned, After capture the bird, on each occasion, would fly a short distance to a nearby perch and consume the butterfly in its entirety, On 3 October 1993 I was collecting several Azures Ogyris spp. as they came The Victorian Naturalist OO CAT S Contributions Fig. 1. Male Ogyris olane from near Paluma, north-eastern Queensland. Arrows indicate location of beak marks. Wingspan approximately 30 mm. in to feed on the flowers of a clump of mistletoe Amyema bifurcatum in the dry upland country west of Paluma, north- eastern Queensland. Five specimens (all males) were O. olane Hewitson. On set- ting them the next day I noticed one particular individual (Fig. 1) possessed a pair of obvious beak marks to the wings above, and the left hind-wing was very badly chipped. In this instance the butter- fly had clearly been captured by a bird, but somehow managed to avoid being eaten. The record is interesting because mem- bers of this genus are extremely fast and erratic fliers, and with the exception of McFarland’s (1978) record, one finds it hard to imagine that the species of Ogyris could ever be captured by birds! At present we know very little of the escape tactics employed by Australian butterflies. In view of the paucity of our knowledge of butterfly predation, espe- cially by birds, it would clearly be worthwhile to keep careful records when such instances are observed in the field. Studies overseas have shown that some adult butterflies are very toxic to birds, other species appear to defend themselves by a variety of behavioural mechanisms including rapid, jerky flight and crypsis when at rest. For example, I have watched Xenicas Geitoneura klugii being hotly pursued by Willy Wagtails but have yet to witness an adult of this butterful being Vol. 111 (2) 1994 eaten - their fast erratic fligh pattern seems to work well in preventing capture. References Barrett, C. (1925). Birds and butterflies. The Victorian Naturalist 42: 47-48. Brown, J. (1988). Birds versus butterflies. Victorian Entomologist 18: 42. Crosby, D.F. (1988), Birds attacking butterflies. Victorian Entomologist 18: 21. Dunn, K.L. (1993). Notes on the biology and larval hosts of Cephrenes epidoptera: Hesperiidae: Hesper- iinae) in Queensland. Victorian Entomologist 23: 97-110. Faithfull, I. (1988). Butterflies and birds. Victorian Entomologist 18: 103, 106. Fiathfull, I. (1994). Butterflies (Pieridae) eaten by dragon lizard and Rainbow Bee-eater. The Victorian Nautralist 111: 31. Ford, H.A. and Ford, J.A. (1983). White-breasted Woodswallows Artamus leucorhynchus feeding on distasteful butterflies. Australian Bird Watcher 15: 38. Hutchinson, M. (1988). The invasion of SW Australia by the Orange Palmdart Cephrenes augiades sperthias (Felder), Lepidoptera, Hesperiidae, and the subsequent increase in species associated with the fronds of the Canary Island Date Palm (Phoenix canariensis). The Western Australian Naturalist 17: 73-86, Lepschi, B.J. (1993). Food for some birds in eastern New South Wales: additions to Barker and Vestjens. Emu 93: 195-198. McFarland, N. (1978). Ogyris (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) captured and eaten by a bird. Australian Entomological Magazine 4: 97. Scheermeyer, E. (1987). Seasonality or Opportunism in Reproduction of Australian Danaine Butterflies: Euploea core, E. tulliolus and Tirumala hamata (Lepidoptera) Ph.D. Thesis, Griffith University, Brisbane. 111 Contributions Elementary Reflections on the Biology of Bryophytes George A.M. Scott* Introduction Bryophytes are a group of plants known to most naturalists only in general terms, some- times confused or mistakenly confounded with lichens, often depreciated as ‘just moss’. In reality, they are a relatively small and ancient group of plants, clearly distinct and with no intermediates linking them to other groups. Even the puzzling genus Takakia which, since its discovery in the 1950s, has been the sole candidate for a connecting link with other groups such as algae or pteridophytes (ferns and their allies), or for a totally new group of plants within or without the bryophytes, has recently been shown, by the discovery of reproductive structures, to be unambiguously a moss. Not only are bryophytes, both world-wide and in Australia, small in size and in number of species (1,500 to 2,000 in Australia, per- haps 20,000 world-wide) they have a comparatively small number of devotees, compared with flowering plants in Australia a dozen or two. But there is at presenta good deal of activity in their taxonomy, some in ecology, and an increasing recognition of their value in experimental biology. There are 3 groups which form the Bryophytes: Mosses (Musci), Liverworts (Hepaticae) both leafy and thallose, and Homworts (Anthocerotae) although the Precise level at which these groups are recog- nised taxonomically varies, and the forms of these names vary to match. Victoria is moderately rich in species with roughly 600, 250, and 6 in the 3 groups respectively. Moreover, Victoria played a large part in the post-war revival of bryology in Australia. From about the time of World War I to the 1950s, there was very little bryological ac- tivity in Australia, Then Jim Willis at the National Herbarium of Victoria, almost single handedly initiated the revival of the study of Australian bryophyte taxonomy (in- cidentally publishing the results of his research mostly in The Victorian Naturalist), * School of Botany, University of Melbourne 112 closely followed by Ilma Stone and David Catcheside. Further impetus was provided by the publication of The Mosses of Southern Australia (Scott and Stone, 1976), Mosses of South Australia (Catcheside 1980.) and Southern Australian Liverworts (Scott, 1985). Now there is much current work on the bryophyte volumes for the Flora of Australia in the expectation of publication around the turn of the century. Bryophytes show half a dozen key characteristics, which direct their biology and ecology. These are explained in the following sections: (1) alter- nation of gener- ations with a dominant gametophyte, (2) lack of lignin, (3) sexual reproduction requiring free water but, paradoxically, (4) spore discharge requiring dry air, (5) totipotency and (6) a high propor- tion of species that are poikilohydric. Alternation of generations There is a life-cycle of two so-called ‘generations’. One, the gametophyte, is haploid; that is, each chromosome in the nucleus of each cell is present only once. This is the generation which is always present and which is intimately dependent upon, and hence reflects, the ambient environment; the generation we mostly see and handle and think of as ‘the moss’, In probably all cases, because of its totipotency (see below), this generation may reproduce itself vegetatively thus short-circuiting the full life-cycle. The second generation, the sporophyte, is diploid; that is, each chromosome in the nucleus of each cell is duplicated, just as in human beings. This generation, which has the form of a spore-producing capsule, arises only when there has been successful sexual reproduction of the gametophyte. In all cases it remains permanently attached to, and parasitic upon, the gametophyte, and at least partially dependent on it. Despite experimen- tal attempts, and occasional dubious claims of success, the sporophyte generation cannot survive and develop by itself any more than the human foetus can continue to survive in the absence of the mother. One day, both of | The Victorian Naturalist i Contributions A moss, Bryum sp. with sporophytes. Photograph Bruce Fuhrer. these may be possible experimentally, but not yet. This kind of alternation of generations con- trasts with that of the pteridophytes (such as | ferns or clubmosses and their allies), where | the sporophyte is the main generation and the gametophyte, a tiny transparent and flimsy plate, the prothallus, is a transitory part of the life history on which the sporophyte’s de- pendence is only short-lived; and with the flowering plants and gymnosperms, where the gametophytes consist of little more than the haploid elements of fertilisation - the pollen grains and the ovules - which form the seeds. In some bryophytes, for example the rare moss Buxbaumia, despite the dependent relationship between the two generations, their sizes are nearly equal. If anything the sporophyte is bigger although, in nature, the gametophyte may be much larger than is generally appreciated, being in the form of branching, alga-like filaments some of which are underground. Even without such rather bizarre cases, the two bryophyte generations are more nearly equal than in pteridophytes. Of the many consequences of this life- cycle, one is of particular note. The gametophyte is the generation directly ex- | posed to environmental selection, unlike the Vol, 111 (2) 1994 sporophyte which is partially insulated from most direct environmental stress by depend- ence on its maternal gametophyte. But in evolutionary terms a sporophyte, having two of each chrom- osome and hence of every gene, can accumulate mutations of single genes, each sheltered by the other matching gene which remains unchanged and function- ing as before. Such a condition where there are two different forms of the same gene existing together is said to be heterozygous for that gene. In this way a sporophyte can ac- cumulate hidden variability without exposing these new mutated variants to immediate en- vironmental selection, but having them available for trial, as it were, in the future. This allows a sporophyte a much greater chance of coming up with a successful answer to new environmental challenges in the future, since it has a bank of possible variants in waiting, sheltered by the heterozygous condition. There is therefore a higher chance of the species evolving to meet new demands. In a gametophyte, by contrast, the haploid condition where there are no duplicate genes, means that all changes in genetic composition through mutation and through interchange at sexual reproduction, are unshielded and immediately exposed to environmental selection. The chance of any change being beneficial at any one instant is, of course, negligibly small, so the vast majority of changes will be eliminated imme- diately. That means that the bryophytes are unlikely to evolve rapidly. They are an an- cient group, going back 350 million years or more, to the Devonian or earlier, which is another way of saying that they have not evolved greatly since that time. All plants - or at least all plants of a single ancestral strain - are of similar antiquity, but the groups that we call old are those whose crucial charac- teristics have remained unchanged over very long periods. The others have changed so much that their ancestors are no longer recog- nisable as such. i.e. they have evolved into new (and therefore ‘younger’) groups, Lignin There have been reports of lignin in some mosses but none ( I believe) substantiated. This lack imposes limits to the erect height 113 Contributions which bryophytes can reach. Although there are stories of some mosses reaching almost 1m in height, the usual limit is about half a metre and even that is a very big moss indeed. Lengths of nearer 3 m have been recorded, stretched out and floating in water, but the self-supporting height of an individual stem, lacking the strengthening power of lignin, is very limited and it is probably this feature more than anything else, that has kept bryophytes small. Being small seems to be correlated with a general lack of specialised conducting tissue, although one has to be careful not to argue cause andeffect here. The group of mosses which contains our largest species, Dawsonia, Polytrichum and their allies, may have quite elaborate internal dif- ferentiation into tissues which are very similar to xylem and phloem in both form and function, but lack lignin and hence are con- ventionally classed as non-vascular. For the majority of leafy mosses and liverworts, probably most of the water conduction takes place externally (ectohydric) in the capillary spaces between the leaves and the stem. which act as wicks. There is a further interesting aspect of the effect of the size limits imposed by lack of lignin, The plant bodies of the largest flower- ing plants are mostly dead tissue, wood, kept in place and keptfunctioning by the structural strength of lignin. Some bryophytes, espe- cially thallose liverworts, may - like some lichens - be very old indeed, capable of in- definite growth at the apex while remaining small by the matching process of decay at the rear. In the absence of lignin, this dead tissue leaves no residue, and without serological matching it is impossible to tell whether or not all the plants of a particular Species in an area are parts of the same original plant separated by branching and decay, but kept growing through centuries oreyen millennia. It is far from an unthinkable Proposition that a thallose liverwort in Victoria could be part of the same plant as one in South America, separated in Gondwanaland and growing continuously eversince, The same, of course could in theory be true of creeping flowering plant species of sufficient antiquity, but in that case lignin would tend to leave revealing traces. A further consequence of the lack of 114 lignin is, in a sense, the exact inverse. Not only are bryophytes, lacking the strength of lignin, unable to rise very far vertically up- wards, they are also unable for the same reason to penetrate very far vertically downwards. It is true that fungi penetrate the soil to considerable depths and in consider- able intensity without the help of lignin, but they are saprophytic , finding their food un- derground. For an auto- trophic organism , like all known bryophytes bar one (the European Cryptothallus mirabilis), photo- synthesis is the basis of life. Sine lumine omnia pereunt. To colonise effectively, below ground, requires the strength of lignin to keep open lines of communication and nutrition. Underground trains will not run if the tunnels collapse; nor will food and water and nutrients flow in a plant unless the chan- nels of conduction are kept stiff and open. Sexual Reproduction This cannot take place in the absence of water. Free liquid water is required for the motile sperm (antherozoid) to swim to the female non-motile egg and accomplish fer- tilisation. This absolute requirement, which is overcome in the flowering plants and gym- nosperms by bringing the male and female together beforehand by the process of pol- lination, imposes an ecological limit on bryophytes and may be partly the reason why bryophytes seem unable to colonise the driest habitats where lichens are abundant. Spore discharge Conversely the sporophyte generally re- quires dry air to accomplish spore discharge and this too may place an ecological limita- tion on the habitats easily occupied by The liverwort, Asterella drummondii. Photograph Bruce Fuhrer. The Victorian Naturalist | Contributions bryophytes. There is a whole range of mechanisms, mostly based on hygroscopic movement of peristome teeth round the cap- sule mouth in mosses, or of spirally thickened long cells, elaters, in liverworts, which en- courage spore discharge. Dr Ilma Stone has recently suggested (pers. comm.) the pos- sibility that some aquatic mosses (Fissidens spp.) may release spores under water or on the water surface, even though they have normal dry-air discharge mechanisms, but there is little in the way of detailed observa- tions on the subject. Possible mech- anisms could include squeezing the spores out by contraction of the capsule, or release when the capsule wall is eroded or rots. There are certainly other cases where moss spores are sticky and spread by agents such as flies instead of the customary air currents; and cleistocarpic (i.e. closed capsule) mosses which have no mechanism for dehiscence, butrelease their spores by erosion or irregular bursting or splitting of the capsule wall. Some liverworts such as Riccia have no other way of releasing spores than by rotting and erosion of the spore-containing tissues. Totipotency Bryophytes have a remarkable ability to regenerate entire plants from fragments or even individual cells. This is totipotency. Flowering plants can do so too from large portions such as cuttings, but generally not from small fragments in nature, and it took many years of experimentation before it was possible to bring this about in the laboratory. Bryophytes achieve it apparently without dif- ficulty and without special conditions. Many species of both mosses and liverworts have special reproductive particles called gem- mae, in the form of groups of one or more cells, which are dispersed and ‘germinate’ to produce new plants, but there are many other ways of vegetative propagation as well as gemmae and branching and decay (see under Lignin above): whole deciduous shoot tips, leaves, and even more commonly, parts of leaves either specialised for the purpose or casual fragments. I have seen a collection of moorland mosses dried, blended to a powder and sprinkled on a block of peat which was then kept moist; the particles of moss tissue, Vol. 111 (2) 1994 mostly only one or a few cells in size, grew into new individuals. For many bryophytes, this rather casual process must be the major method of propagation and indeed there are many species for which spore production is not known. Walk through a mossy forest in a gale and you will see fragments of mosses and liverworts being blown about like con- fetti, each capable of producing a new plant if it lands in a suitable habitat. Poikilohydry Many bryophytes, especially the mosses of dry areas, are resurrection plants. That is, they are capable of being desiccated without dying, able to resume metabolism and growth soon after being re-moistened, Such plants are poikilohydric and many lichens, but only a few pteridophytes and flowering plants, have the same capacity. It is this ability which allows mosses (and lichens) to grow on bare rock surfaces where they can withstand being baked to a crisp by full sun - in which condition, of course, any damage will also tend to lead to fragmentation and hence propagation (see Totipotency above). Sand dune plants, too, may show this capability and one Australian species from this habitat has been recorded as surviving in a greenhouse without water for 18 months but still resuming full photosynthetic activity within hours of being re-wetted, On the other hand, it does seem difficult for bryophytes to withstand full sun when moist, and in the hot wet tropics bryophyte growth seems to be predominantly in shade , where the moist plants can evade the damaging effects of sunlight. They can stand being baked but not boiled. It is the same, after all, for human beings, Further reading Catcheside, D.G. (1980). ‘Mosses of South Australia’. (Government Printer; Adelaide.) Schofield, W.B. (1985). ‘Introduction to Bryology”. (Mc- Millan.) Scott, G.A.M. (1985). ‘South Australian Liverworts’. (Australian Government Printing Service: Canber- fa, Scott, Ay and Stone, 1. (1976). ‘The Mosses of Southern Australia’. (Academic Press: London.) Smith, A.J.E. Ed. (1982). ‘Bryophyte Ecology’. (Chap- man and Hall: London.) Watson, E.V. (1964). ‘Structure and Life of Bryophytes’. (Hutchinson; London.) 115 The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria In which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria Established 1880 Registered Office: FNCV, c/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141, 650 8661. OBJECTIVES: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron His Excellency, The Honourable Richard E, McGarvie, The Governor of Victoria. Key Office-Bearers April 1994 President: Dr. MALCOLM CALDER, Pinnacle Lane, Steels Creek, 3775 (059) 65 2372). Hon, Treasurer: Mr. NOEL DISKEN, 24 Mayston Street, Hawthorn East, 3123 (882 3471). Subscription-Secretary: FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 650 8661). vee ROBYN WATSON, C/- FNCV, National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (650 8661, A.H. 534 4712). 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The use of unpublished data is only accepted if the data is held in a public institution, and the location must be cited in the references, Note that journal titles should be quoted IN FULL. Gill, A.M. (1981), Adaptive respon- ses of Australian Vascular Plant Species. Jn ‘Fire and the Australian Biota’, Eds A.M. Gill, R.G, Groves and T.R. Noble. (Australian Academy of Science: Canberra.) Leigh, J., Boden, R. and Briggs, J (1984). ‘Extinct and Endangered Plants of Australia’, (Macmillian: Australia.) Phillips, A. and Watson, R. (1991). Xanthorrhoea: Consequences of ‘Hor- ticultural Fashion’. The Victorian Naturalist 108, 130-133. Other methods of referencing may be acceptable in manuscripts other than research reports and the editors should be consulted. For further information on style, write to the editor or consult the latest Victorian Naturalist, Guidelines for Authors will be published each year. The Victori ame ay ` te Victorian Naturalist is the bi-monthly publication of The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria, The Victorian Naturalist Bulletin No. 4.3 Compiled by T. J. Entwisle ...scssesesseessseescsservees ISSN 0042-5184 Cover: Acacia longifolia, drawing by Anita Barley. Reproduced courtesy Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne (see article on page 145) Volume 1 1 1 (4) 1994 August Editor: Robyn Watson Assistant Editors: Ed and Pat Grey Proceedings Soil Condition, Treatment and Disturbance Factors in the Management and Re-establishment of Vegetation, by Dale Tonkinson and Russell Costello s.n... 120 Soil Crusts, Germination and Weeds - Issues to Consider, PYN EVES CANE Be. goons anaien A A E 125 Soil Microflora and its Importance in the Restoration and Management of Vegetation, by P. J. Keane „sose 131 Research Reports Observations on the Behaviour of Antechinus minimus maritmus (Marsupialia: Dasyuridae), by J. Aberton, B. Wilson and K. Chenery seses 135 Contributions A Review on the Geology of the Beaumaris Cliffs, DV a T aise resis onsen vasigye N sea dnce 139 A Case of Your Longyfolia, PGRJ RESO rset eir a Aa TATRA AEEA 145 Naturalist Notes Dual Occupancy! Daytime Use of a Tree by Two Species Of Possum, Dy ROD WALLiS ....cecsssseessssesssessesssssesesesearsersersereeesscessces 151 Leathery Turtle (Luth) Dermochelys coriacea, by RUSSE VETROM PSONE peesi s i EEA aberar tara akai NT 152 The Recovery of Two Crested Terns (Sterna bergii), by Russell THOMPSON .sssesssesssersssesssvsvsvsveeversvavessenssavecsessneseseessces 153 Book Reviews Kangaroo Island’s Native Plants, by Ivan Holliday, Bev and Dean Overton, reviewer J. H. Willis.. 144 The Story of Mossvale Park, by Ellen Lyndon (0.A.M.) reviewer Sheila Houghton... 153 Census Update Census of the Vascular Plants of Victoria Update 154 Proceedings Proceedings of the ‘Ground Flora-Restoration and Management’ Conference, Greening Australia Victoria, August 1991. Part two of a four-part series, Soil Condition, Treatment and Disturbance Factors in the Management and Re-establishment of Vegetation. Dale Tonkinson! and Russell Costello” The importance of the soil in re-estab- lishing the various components of the vegetation should not be underestimated nor should the long-term management of the soil be neglected. What is soil? Defined in a technical sense as the thin layer of weathered rock usually within a few metres of the earth’s surface. For the purpose of this discussion, however, we shall extend this to include the crust which is compacted and/or chemically altered (oxidized) by constant weathering and the algae, mosses, liverworts and fungi that are inextricably associated with this crust (see Scarlett, this issue). Characteristics of the soil Below the thin soil crust mentioned in the definition above, is a region rich in organic matter derived from the decom- position of dead plants and animals; the depth of this layer (horizon) varies greatly with slope, vegetation and climate. Beneath the organic layer is a horizon of leached mineral soil where water has per- colated through and leached out many of the minerals carrying them to the depth at which percolation ceases and redeposit- ing them there, The clearest sign of this tedeposition is a deep red colour where oxidized iron compounds have been deposited. The water table usually lies immediately below this area. The next horizon is unleached mineral soil and/or the parent material. Most problems with soil structure and most soil disturbance in natural ecosys- tems affect the uppermost 5-10 cm comprising the surface or crust, the or- 1 . Greening Australia Victoria, Birdwood Vance od Ave., South * EPA, 480 Collins St, Melbourne, 3000, 120 ganic horizon and the top of the leached soil horizon. Soil provides a number of requirements for plants: physical support for the plant’s growth, water retention and availability, drainage, and nutrition. Its characteristics can be seasonally affected by variations in water supply and drainage, e.g. in the Basalt Plains of western Victoria, where, in summer, the soil dries and cracks caus- ing damage to plant roots. Soil nutrition is significantly affected by the fertility of the soil and its pH level. Extremes of pH cause certain elements in the soil to be- come unavailable and other poisonous ones to become mobilised. Soil also acts as a host medium for many other or- ganisms that interact with plants e.g. pathogens and mycorrhizae (see Keane, this issue), Seed dispersal agents (e.g. rep- tiles and ants) and predators (e.g. insects, ground-dwelling mammals and birds) in- teract with the nature of the soil. Victorian Soils Soils in Victoria vary enormously from sands to heavy clays and organic peats; many have fancy names but for our pur- poses it is sufficient to understand that clays, earths and loams, and sands form a continuum with generally increasing par- ticle size and therefore with increasing friability and aeration. Within these mineral soils smaller particle sizes lead to denser (heavier) soils with greater water holding capacity, and soil fertility in- creases with the proportion of clay (small particles), Water holding capacity is not always as desirable for plants as it may — seem because in wetter climates denser soils may become waterlogged and limit plant growth, whilst in dry climates clay — soils may ‘hold’ all the water from a small ` to moderate rainfall i.e. bind it tightly to . The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings the clay particles, and very little, if any, will be available to plants. In dry situa- tions, from an equivalent rain event, much more water is available to plants growing in sandy soils. Many soils are a complex mix of different soil types at different depths (e.g. sand over clay) and these different types vary in their water holding and nutritional characteristics. Condition of the soil The vast majority of Victoria’s soils have been modified since European set- tlement, even mountainous forest lands have experienced altered fire regimes (af- fecting nutrient recycling), logging and public land grazing. Vegetation alteration by clearing, grazing and pasture works have often lead to a simplified vegetative cover that cannot withstand regular climatic fluctuations and does not interact with the soil in the same way as did the previously existing vegetation. These changes have lead to increased waterlog- ging and raised water tables often resulting in salinity problems, Inadequate vegetation cover has resulted in widespread wind and water erosion producing significantly altered surface characteristics of the soil. Compaction of the soil by grazing animals and vehicles alters the physical structure of the soil, making it less permeable to water and plant roots; in addition, it can cause localised microtopographic changes that may initiate sheet and gully erosion (e.g. regularly used walking and stock tracks across and down hillsides). Chemical changes may also occur in some soils through nutrient decline caused by cropping or erosion which leads to loss of topsoil. Conversely, nutrient addition may occur from grazing animals, fertiliser use or point sources such as sewerage or sullage outlets, Nutrient ad- dition often promotes the growth of weeds that out-compete desirable plants. The effects of these changes to the soil yary across all soil types with some types being more susceptible than others to some changes. For example, waterlog- Bing is usually only a problem of clay soils Vol. 111 (4) 1994 or shallow soils overlaying clays; salinity and compaction are most likely to occur on heavier loams and clays, while nutrient decline predominantly occurs in sandy or very shallow loamy soils. Water erosion, such as stream-bank, sheet and gully erosion, is more likely to occur on shallow coarse sands, loams and those clay soils with a hard setting surface (known as duplex soils). Wind erosion is mainly a problem with loams and clays in drier areas (evidenced by the dust storms of February 1983), but may also have localised effects in poorly vegetated sandy areas exposed to strong winds such as coastal dunes or sandy rises adjacent to flat plains, forexample in north-west Vic- toria. What is disturbance? Disturbance is defined here as a rapid change to the status quo, it therefore does not include most of the changes described above. In relation to soil disturbance it is useful to distinguish different scales of disturbance as their causes and outcomes for the yegetation differ, Major distur- bance, such as that resulting from most human activities, is that which covers more than 5 m? in a contiguous area and/or is deeper than 5 cm over a significant portion of the area disturbed; minor dis- turbance that rarely exceeds these dimensions, usually results from natural processes. Natural disturbances and their effects The most frequent and obvious source of natural disturbance in south-eastern Australia is the action of animals. Most diggings and scratchings affect a small area but the effects on the vegetation may be significant. The soil crust is broken, allowing easier water and root penetration and reducing local competition for water in particular. Other temporary changes, such as altered pH of the newly exposed soil not yet oxidized, have been impli- cated in promoting mycorrhizal activity and in turn orchid germination e.g, echid- na diggings in coastal south-west Victoria (Calder et al,, 1989). Other mammals in- cluding wombats, bandicoots and rodents 121 Proceedings dig for food and the resultant disturbance presents germination opportunities in a wide range of environments. Most dig- gings are selective to a greater or lesser extent and therefore result in dispersed or patchy disturbance in both space and time. The ultimate value of soil disturbance lies in its ability to provide suitable ger- mination conditions for a wide range of plant species and in particular those species that rarely find such conditions otherwise. It may promote germination of soil-stored seed by physical disturbance of a hard seed coat in, for example, legumes, The scratching and feeding of some birds (e.g. lyrebirds) may be quite intense locally but rarely over a sufficient area to qualify as a major disturbance. Swamphens Porphyrio porphyrio and some Native Hens Gallinula spp. feed by pulling up seedlings, bulbous leaf bases and underground storage organs of ma- ture plants from damp soil; at times, these birds will systematically and intensively work particular areas removing a large part of the original vegetation and turning the soil, Ant colonies cause intense localised disturbance of soil and vegeta- tion around their nests that at times may even constitute major disturbance, not to mention a visual spectacle. Ants further disturb the environment by concentrating seed collected over a wide area in their nests. Burrows and nests of ground dwell- ing animals may also concentrate nutrients in addition to the physical dis- turbance of diggings and entry pads. Death of large animals and plants also results in local soil disturbance, Large carcasses flatten existing vegetation, en- courage microbial and invertebrate ones that results in the localised addi- 10n or nutrients and possibly pH changes. The death of uae AA Tfal ipva standing for a time affects the soil surface by allowing increased light and water penetration as well as additional leaf litter. Uprooted trees, dead or alive, create ob- vious disturbance to their surrounds. ao cracking and movement due to s imatic factors such as wetting and tying or freezing and thawing may help 122 the movement of seeds into and within the soil profile and aid water infiltration. Fire, in addition to removing much of the vegetation, affects the soil surface struc- ture, altering pH and nutrient levels in the soil. An area that requires further investiga- tion is a study of those conditions most suited to the germination of a wide range of indigenous species with few weeds and those conditions that encourage weeds. General observaiions suggest that major disturbance events are predominantly fol- lowed by weed germination and that minor events are more likely to encourage local species to colonise if sufficient quantities of seed are available. Treating the soil, unnatural disturbance In rehabilitating a site, the type and ex- tent of treatment depends on the degree of naturalness of the soil. It is most important to minimise the long term effect of the treatment on the soil structure. One of the other crucial factors is to stop weed development. With a less natural site it is less impor- tant what you do because the substrate has already undergone a change, but on reasonable soils i.e. those not degraded, it is possible to get back to a reasonable level of indigenous vegetation cover without any heavy site preparation. For example, to return some farm paddocks to a proportion of natural vegetation, it is often enough just to fence the area and exclude grazing. This may allow healthy young trees to establish, and once they are established other species can deyelop or can be planted, In shelter belts witha stand of trees growing, an under-storey often develops and sometimes even spreads beyond the belt. On the other hand, some sites need preparation. The yellow Dupiex soils that are found in the eastern suburbs of Melbourne and many hill-country areas located from Broadford west to the Wim- mera, set hard on the top and compact very tightly, This tightness prevents plant roots from getting established in the soil. Com- pacted soil has a bulk density of 2 whereas The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings that of uncompacted soil is about 1.5 and water is 1. In an area of this type which is fairly natural, apart from the loss of top soil, itis advisable not to do too much, For natural regeneration or direct seeding a slight surface disturbance may be useful. Just tickle the surface with a cultivator, this will enable the seeds to establish themselves. A useful implement for this is the rake-hoe; a forestry tool, which has a flat blade one side and toothed blade on the other. The soil surface can then be chipped with the flat hoe blade and raked with the toothed edge. Seeds (from the area or nearby) are scattered over the area and tamped down with the hoe. Large areas can be regenerated quite cheaply by this method. The seeds that actually sur- vive here will hang on after this initial help, and then nature should be left to take her course. Again it is important to ex- clude the weeds by as little disturbance of the soil as possible. In some areas of highly compressed soils a clay breaker or conditioner and mulch may be required, but this is not adyisable unless the top soil is totally gone and there are only the sub-soil clays lett. The clay-breaker will create a top soil, but it also attracts weeds. Where there is tunnel erosion it can be removed with a ripper, but as this destroys any of the propagules remaining on the site, indigenous species from surrounding areas should be planted and care taken to exclude weeds. Some Alpine areas have a problem when their protective layer of upper soil is dis- turbed by cattle and traffic. This means that the plants are unable to re-establish themselves under the harsh winter condi- tions and a layer of mulch may be needed to overcome this problem. In areas of severe disturbance it is im- portant to get something established. These sites include areas of salinity and erosion where there are high levels of salt in the soil and the indigenous vegetation is unlikely to return. First it is important to deal with the catchment, the cause of the problem. The rehabilitation of the site then includes some drastic measures such Vol. 111 (4) 1994 as deep ripping, heavy fertilisation, grow- ing cover crops (non-indigenous) and establishing salt tolerant species (non-in- digenous). By a series of these phases it is possible to work towards a natural site. The reason for not using indigenous salt tolerant species is because their seed can enter the seed bank and alter the vegeta- tion regime, while introduced plants are so characteristic they can be ripped out with impunity. An example of this has shown up in the use of salt tolerant River Red Gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis in saline areas of northern Victoria and the introduced form of the River Red Gum has spread its seed amongst adjacent in- digenous forms - intraspecific hybrid forms may be produced that are not well adapted to either the saline or non-saline sites in the long-term. Some heavily disturbed sites, mainly as- sociated with mining, have a problem with pollutants and as with the salinity problem it is probably best to work through a series of unnatural vegetation types using introduced plants to recondi- tion the soil by increasing the organic matter. After this see if nature will take over, if not use a cover crop, like rye corn (which dies after a year) to improve the soil condition until it is possible for the natural processes to take over. Some areas may suffer from a chemical problem, usually an excess of fertiliser. This has come with the advent of agricul- ture, Since Australian soils are phosphorus deficient it is impossible to grow introduced cash crops. As a result superphosphate has been spread right across Victoria’s agricultural land. Phos- phorus is the most dangerous of chemicals when dealing with regeneration of in- digenous species. It is non-volatile and persistent and in a natural area when weeds invade they grow more vigorously. In agriculture this is not so much of a problem because with cropping every season the phosphorus runs down, How- ever, if a site is so degraded and poor that chemicals must be used, use nitrogen, in minimal amounts and place it close to the seed. Nitrogen is better because it remains 123 Proceedings only ashort while in the soil before return- ing to the atmosphere. In highly disturbed areas even indigenous plants respond to nitrogen. Soil acidification has only come to prominence in recent years and is usually associated with fertilised agricultural land. Soil sampling kits can be used to determine the pH of an area and its suitability for planting, Test the top soil of an area of indigenous vegetation close to the site, then test the site to be revegetated and note the comparative acidity. If there are only a few points difference do not worry. If there is a drastic difference, e.g. too acidic, add lime to the soil. Another major problem in some sites is that of disease, specifically Phytophthora cinnamomi., In these cases it is best not to mess with the soil which would spread the problem. Since Phytophthora cinnamomi seems to have a cycle of a few decades it is important to establish resistant in- digenous species. In some areas the soil and other condi- tions seem to be good and yet the plants will not grow, this may be a microbiologi- cal problem. Around the 1930’s it was discovered that some introduced plants such as Sub-clover Trifolium subter- raneum needed specific soil microbes in order to grow satisfactorily in poor soils and it has now been discovered that this also applies to a lot of our indigenous plants. These microbes have a rhizosphere with a living symbiotic relationship with the plant and these microbes make the nutrients in poor soils available to the plant, Therefore, it may be necessary to inoculate badly disturbed sites. The simplest way is to take some soil from a nearby good area with indigenous plants and then dilute the amount and spread it over the area to be regenerated, It is difficult to establish vegetation on sandy soils because of their poor water- holding capacity, the coarse grains allow the water to rapidly sink. A solution may be to mulch the area, or to add a hydrophilic polymer, a new product, which holds about 200 times its wei var Imes its weight of 124 It is impossible to emphasise enough that the use of these treatments should be considered only as a last resort where the problem is so severe that normal, minimal impact techniques for re-vegetation have not, or will not, work. Managing disturbance regimes in natural and semi-natural areas Once we have realised the importance of disturbance in the on-going regeneration of vegetation we may wish to consider ‘replacement therapy’, i.e. the manager tries to mimic natural processes as a management tool. This requires clear ob- jectives for both the vegetation as a whole and the use of disturbance itself. The ob- jectives for the vegetation fall into three main categories; management for high species diversity of indigenous plants (e.g, to encourage the return of ground dwelling vertebrate fauna to a suburban flora reserve); management for the main- tenance of good populations of rare or threatened plants and management for the continuance or re-establishment of natural processes and evolutionary potential. The first two objectives require high manage- ment inputs on a continuing basis which is unlikely to be sustainable in the long term. The third objective underpins the State Conservation Strategy and the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act and in the long term should require more modest resour- ces to manage a larger number of species. Achieving the first two objectives is criti- cal to achieving the third but we must not lose sight of the greater efficiency pos- sible by re-instating natural processes - our human desires to control the environ- ment must be tempered. Acknowledgments Discussions with Dr R.F. Parsons and Neville Scarlett over many years have clarified many points. Reference Calder, D.M., Cropper, S.C. and Tonkinson, D. (1989). The ecology of Thelymitra epipactoides FMuell. (Orchidaceae) in Victoria, Australia and the implications for management of the species. Australian Journal of Botany 37, 19-32. The Victorian Naturalist Procegdings Soil Crusts, Germination and Weeds - Issues to Consider Neville Scarlett! I am currently working on the re-estab- lishment of a number of rare and endangered plant species of the Themeda triandra Kangaroo Grass grassland com- munities of south-eastern Australia. All of my target species are dicotyledonous herbs whose natural occurrence is now restricted to a few sites on the lowland plains of western Victoria or in montane grassland in the Eastern Highlands of Gip- psland. The aim of my work is to establish viable populations of these species in secure reserves. In general, plants estab- lished by seedling planting or direct seed broadcast reach maturity and set abundant viable seed, but subsequent germination and seedling survival is unsatisfactory. Consequently, the factors controlling seed regeneration in the Themeda grass- land communities is of particular interest to me. John White (1986), an American prairie worker has said: *...the first rule of intel- ligent tinkering is to save all the parts (that is, save the species). Another rule might be as important: before tinkering, set aside a working model (that is, save the ecosys- tems)’, I would further add - while tinkering, develop some working hypo- theses from your working model by ob- servation or experiment. My working model is the species-rich, regularly sum- mer-burnt Themeda grassland inside fenced rail-reserves which has not been grazed by domestic stock. The gradual abandonment of burning in these reserves over the past twelve years has reduced my working model areas to distinct rarities. Field observations of rail-reserve Themeda grassland A noticeable and constant feature of this regularly-burnt grassland was the rela- tively low density of Themeda and the correspondingly high area of inter-tus- sock spaces. The soil surface of the inter-tussock spaces was normally cover- u Departmentof Botany, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083. Vol. 111 (4) 1994 ed with a continuous crust or mat com- posed of liverworts, mosses, lichens and algae - the soil crust, cryptogamic crust or moss-mat. In general, the dicoty-ledonous herb component of the grassland was also found in the inter-tussock spaces. I have not systematically surveyed the soil crusts of Themeda grassland in Vic- toria. The impressionistic account of their characteristics which follows is intended to provide some background for those working on ground flora restoration and management in other plant communities. In rail-reserve Themeda grassland on level terrain with relatively deep soils (‘non-stony rise’ sites) prostrate leafy and thallose liverworts form a dense, con- tinuous tightly woven ‘mat’, The major species are Lethocolea pansa, Fos- sombronia intestinalis, Fossombronia pusilla, Riccia crozalsii and Asterella drummondii. Other elements of this ‘mat’ are Fissidens spp., Tortella calycina (mosses) and Cladia sp. (squamulose lichen). The large mosses such as Breutelia affinis, Triquetrella papillata and Campylopus clavatus are prominent mainly around the shaded bases of Themeda tussocks. On stony rise sites these latter mosses, with Polytrichum juniperinum (moss), are of higher cover between the rocks. Liverworts also occur with a high diversity of Riccia species, Fossombronia intestinalis and Lopho- colea spp. The latter species is especially characteristic of shaded areas in rock crevices. Thallose and crustose lichens cover the rock surfaces, and blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) are prominent around rock pools. Exposed, dry sites often have a soil crust dominated by crus- tose lichens and algae. The most notable feature of the soil crusts of Themeda grasslands is the rela- tive rarity of thick moss-mats made up of species such as Hypnum cupressiforme, Thuidium furfurosum and Sematophyllum spp. - a notable feature of many areas of grassy woodland/open forest in the same 125 Proceedings climatic. zone, Interestingly, dominant apecies Composition of the Themeda grassland soil orust is more or less identi val from the Kellor- Werribee Plans with 500 mm of rainfall per year to the wetter (approximately 600 mm per annum) nnd higher platenu areas south and west of Ballarat (eg, Skipton and Middle Creek near Beaulort), However, further study may Well reveal differences im the occur renee Of other species Themeda grassland prized by sheep (and seldom burnt) has soil crusts in various degrees of depridation, AL praz ing levels ator below lesheep/O A-ha (1 sheep/iere) (aimpling damage is relative ly minon though the soil erust tends to be discontinuous, Th unimproved pasture’ With ermine levels at about bsheep/0.2 ha (2 sheep/iere), whieh is usually dominated by species of the grass genern Stipa Spear Grasses, Danthonia Wallaby Grasses and Pou Tussoek Grasses, the soil Crab in more discontiniious but itis sull a Hokible feature of the soil surface. At higher levels of grazing, whieh are usual in pastures whieh have been fertilised With superphosphate, the soul erust may be lolly absent or evident only around fehee posts or under lence lines, Sheep grase but do not trample such areas, Cul Hivation Of grassland removes the soil erustentirely, at least inthe short-term In Themeda grassland whieh has not heen burnt for over § years the soil crust isalso weakly developed) increased earth Worm activity, litter accumulation and shading by n closed Themeeda canopy nre the major reasons for this phenomenon Historieal evidence supports the selee ton of the open rail-reserve Themed Brassland as a Working model for the pie settlement communities, For example, James Fleming, gardener with the Grimes expedition to Port Phillip, deseribed the basalt plains West of Skeleton Waterholes Creek (Werribee district) as follows (Hriday, 11 February, 1803): "Went tö the top of the hill, itis stony; could see about JO miles around us a level plain witha few straggling bushes, The face of the ground one-third grass, one-do stone and one» né do earth, mostly newly burnt (Fleming 1972) GA, Robinson, Chief Protector of Aborigines wrote of the basalt plains neat Carisbrook (Maryborough area): “The soil of this upland plain is red with bare patches, A root of anthistiria’ to 1 and 2 square feet Barren soil, (Friday, 21 February, 1840) (Prestland 1977), He ap plied a similar description to the wetter areas further south around Clunes later in 1840 (Prestland 1977), and to the drier Campaspe Plains in 1843 (Clark 1988), A charted squire yard (0.8-m°) quadrat from the Keilor basalt plains published by Dr, ROT. Patton in 1945 (Lunt 1987 from Pat ton 1945, see Pig. 1) closely fits these 19th century observations, Indeed, GA, Robinson's higher estimate of Themeda density OF9 plants per square yard (= 1 per square foot) is close to Patton's quadrat figure of 12 plants per square yard, As pointed out by lan Lunt (1987), such ‘open berbheld’ vegetation now oecurs only on restricted sites within unburnt (or mMfrequently burnt) Themeda grassland, While nutrient or moisture stress may be mamuuning these open areas, As Lunt sug gests, regular early summer burning also mantamed an open vegetation as 1 have ported out above, In contrast, Me- Dougall (1989) reports a minimum density of 30 Themeda plants/m* for amissland remnants near the Organ Pipes National Park (formerly grazed, but rarely burnt), In the Laverton North Native Grassland Reserve densities as high as 152 plants/m` have developed in formerly grazed areas which are now burnt in autumn at 3-4 year intervals (McDougall 1989), Soil crusts are poorly developed in these areas, although some of the com- ponent species survive, Why bother with soil crusts? On the principle of ‘save the parts’, any project which aims at a complete restora- tion of Themeda grassland must include the soil crust and its species if it has been destroyed, damaged or depleted. More- over, the soil crust is also an important component of Themeda grassland struc- The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings A. Asperula scoparia Ai. *Aira caryophyllea B. Brachycome calocarpa Cf Calocephalus citreus Co. Convolvulus erubescens Cr. Crassula citreus D. Danthonia semiannularis Dg. D. geniculata he Di Dichelachne crinita E. Eryngium rostratum G. Goddenia pinnatifida L. Leptorhynchus squamatus E Plantago varia Re: Poa caespitosa Po. Podolepis acuminata T. Themeda triandra W. Wahlenbergia gracilis Fig. 1. Vegetation of a square yard (0.8m?) quadrat in a Themeda grassland on the Keilor basalt plains (Patton 1935). In the absence of disturbance such open vegetation is unusual. Note also the low abundance of introduced species. *Introduced species. Brachycome calocarpa = Brachyscome dentata Podolepis acuminata = Podolepis jaceoides Danthonia semiannularis = Danthonia sp. probably D. setacea. ture, It delays the invasion of some alien weeds and minimises their cover/abun- dance when they are already established in the community. Two lines of evidence support this hypothesis. Field Observations Narrow strips of Themeda grassland in rail-reserves have survived for over 130 Vol. 111 (4) 1994 years without the ‘one-way’ conversion of inter-tussock spaces to domination by aliens. Damage to soil crusts by stock trampling or light mechanical soil distur- bance usually facilitates the invasion and rapid increase of introduced aliens such as Romulea rosea, Holcus lanatus, Briza maxima, Bromus hordeaceus and Vulpia spp. Even if regular burning is main- 127 Proceedings tained, a continuation of trampling or mechanical disturbance maintains or in- creases the cover and abundance of aliens. It is notable that the application of regular burning to Themeda grassland with a long grazing and trampling history rarely has a dramatic controlling effect on alien an- nual species, although Bromus hordea- ceus may decrease in abundance (Mc- Dougall 1989; Lunt 1990), Experimental Evidence In this brief review of experimental evidence for the influence of soil crusts on seed germination, seedling survival and seedling growth I am excluding the results of work done in arid and semi-arid areas, since they are marginally relevant to the Themeda grassland situation, Soil crusts dominated by bryophytes (moss-mats) may have either positive or negative effects on seed germination and emergence and subsequent seedling sur- vival and growth (Tooren 1990; Ryser 1990). Tooren (1990) presents evidence for: i) the delay or inhibition of germination of certain species due to a reduced red/far red light ratio and (possibly) an overall reduction in light intensity, and ii) the inhibition of germination of some Species by leachates (aqueous extracts) from bryophytes. Ryser (1990) explains the positive ef- fects of the bryophyte layer in terms of a more humid microclimate at ground level, Hobbs and Atkins ( 1988), working in the Western Australian wheat belt, have shown that an intact soil crust will sig- nificantly reduce both density and dry matter production of the invasive weeds Avena fatua (a grass) and Ursinia an- themoides (a composite) even with the addition of a complete fertiliser. A com- bination of soil crust disturbance and fertilisation produced the greatest response in those species, The response of native annual species was mainly to fer- tilisation alone. Few native annuals tesponded significantly to the combina- tion of soil crust disturbance and fertilisation, The factors which may be responsible were not investigated, 128 Inferences from the Available Evidence In the case of Themeda grasslands, the experimental and observational evidence available supports the following inferen- ces: i) soil crusts increase the time-aboye- ground of dispersed seed, thus increasing the chances of destruction by fire and predation. Seed with effective burial mechanisms such as awns or barbed hairs will be less vulnerable to this ‘lag factor’; ii) seeds which exude mucous (sticky or mucous seeds) attach readily to the soil crust and are protected somewhat from desiccation, Species with mucous seeds (e.g. Senecio macrocarpus, Rhodanthe albicans) are likely to regenerate from seed more successfully than species lack- ing mucous seeds where lichen/liverwort soil crusts occur. Where thick moss mats occur, mucous seed species may have no advantage. iii) alien annual grasses and herbs are early germinators with fast initial growth, the ‘gap grabbers’ of Newsome and Noble (1988). Apart from the ‘lag factor’ men- tioned above, the dense layer of moss and liverwort rhizoids in the soil crust could be expected to restrict root growth in the inter-tussock spaces and thus reduce their competitive advantage over native species, Considering these points, soil crusts are unlikely to function simply to aid the ex- clusion of all alien weeds, or facilitate seed regeneration of all native species. For example, aliens such as Nassella neesiana Chilean Spear-grass and Nassel- la trichotoma Serrated Tussock, which have strongly-awned seeds can avoid the ‘lag factor’ - as also do the natives Themeda triandra and Stipa species. Arctotheca calendula Cape Weed and Hypochoeris radicata Flatweed are af- fected by the ‘lag factor’, except on stony rises where thick moss mats ‘catch’ and protect the seeds from fire and desicca- tion. Re-establishing soil crusts In my re-establishment work, “grader scraping’ is a useful technique for the establishment of populations of dicot The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings herbs in grazing-disturbed, depleted grassland. The grader removes 5-8 cm of topsoil, and this is followed-up by either seedling planting or seed broadcast. Aliens such as Holcus lanatus, Bromus hordeaceus, Vulpia bromoides and Arctotheca calendula are initially greatly reduced by this method, but they invariab- ly invade the plots in the following year. While mulching would exclude the aliens in the short term, it would also prevent the regeneration from seed of the native species. Accepting the evidence for the weed-inhibiting role of soil crusts in the working model sites, direct re-estab- lishment of soil crusts was deemed worthy of investigation. My trials had two aims; i) the development of methods for broad-scale soil crust re-establishment which could be integrated with seedling planting and seed broadcast; ii) the testing of the hypothesis that soil crusts can inhibit the invasion and proliferation of the alien ‘gap grabbers’. Naturally, the second aim can only be seriously approached if the soil crust re- establishment is successful. The account below applies only to the first aim of the trials. Methods Piece Placing - ‘saving the species’ Soil crust is cut from the soil surface in pieces of about 5 cmx 5cm, 3-5 mm thick, Larger pieces tend to break. In the glas- shouse these are then placed on the surface of pots or tubs filled with soil of the same or similar soil-type to the donor site. The tubs can then be retained either in a shade-house or outdoors for future species identification and expansion of the crust for further work. In the field, pieces can be placed directly on a mildly scarified soil surface. An ordinary table- fork is useful for scarifying. I have used donor area to recipient area ratios between 1:10 and 1:25. At the donor site, disturbed weedy grassland is avoided, and pieces are removed in winter or early spring so that weeds and weed seedlings can be removed. Soil-stored weed seeds, if they are present, will be at a minimum at this time of the year. Removal of pieces at Vol. 111 (4) 1994 other times may result in the transport of high numbers of weed seeds from the donor to the recipient site, Slurry Spreading Pieces of soil crust are made into a slurry using about 200 ml of water to about 150-cm? of crust pieces which are 3-5 mm thick. This can then be spread over soil surfaces. The soil should be mildly scarified prior to this to prevent excessive movement under heavy rain storms. I have used donor site to recipient site ratios of 1:4.5, 1:9 and 1:18. The trials were done in the glasshouse and in the field. The most effective time to spread the soil crust slurry in the field is the autumn- winter period after the first significant ‘break’ in rainfall. High surface soil temperatures in spring, summer and early autumn may kill physiologically active bryophtyes and algae. Care must be taken to minimise the transport of weed see- dlings and/or seeds from the donor to the recipient site as described above. Results Bryophyte growth rates are relatively slow, and 3-4 years are needed for reliable results. However, my observations over 18 months indicate that: Piece Placing - ‘saving the species’ Piece placing will transfer all species successfully if soil type and micro-en- vironments are matched. It is too labour intensive for broad-scale re-estab- lishment. Two person hours, excluding travel time, are needed to collect soil crust from a 0.1 m? area and place it over 1-m?, a donor site to recipient site ratio of 1:10. In a shadehouse with daily overhead watering in spring and summer, the weedy liverworts Lunularia cruciata and Mar- chantia spp. can out-compete the Themeda grassland soil crust species. After an initial 1-2 month period, shadehouse populations should be placed outside, This inhibits weedy liverwort growth. The crusts should not be watered in summer when high surface soil temperatures develop as physiologically active bryophytes and algae may be killed. 129 Proceedings Slurry Spreading Of the 8 species of high cover - Lethocolea pansa, Riccia crozalsii, Cladia sp., Fissidens sp. 1, F issidens sp, 2, Campylopus clavatus, Anthoceros sp. and Bryum sp. - only Riccia crozalsit and Cladia sp. were established over the entire recipient area, although Lethocolea pansa and Fissidens spp. showed sporadic estab- lishment. The ‘weedy’ moss Poftia truncata had meanwhile established itself over the entire recipient area, perhaps from airborne spores, Approximately | person hour is needed to collect soil crust from 1 mê, prepare it and spread it at a donor site to recipient site ratio of 1:9, again excluding travel time. Discussion Piece placing is probably only suitable for setting up founder populations or small areas for detailed study of soil-crust growth, However I do not as yet have any data on the rate of lateral spread of soil crusts, and the method may be more ef- ficucious than indicated by the early results, Slurry spreading has greater potential, but as many species failed to establish satisfactorily using my current method, more work on refining the method is needed, Re-establishment by spore broadcast may be the only feasible method of re-es- lablishing soil-crusts over large areas, Cultivation of founder populations in the glasshouse and developing efficient spore collection methods will be necessary before this can be tried, J Acknowledgements This work was funded by the World Wide Fund for Nature as part of a wider project, and given management support by the Department of Conservation and Environment and the National Trust of Australia (Victoria), I wish to thank Bob Parsons, Jan Lunt and John Morgan for useful discussion and pointing out useful references, Without the help of Lawrie Lees at ‘“Mooramong’ the major part of the work reported could not have been done. Thanks are also due to Dr. G.A.M. Scott 130 and Arthur Thies who determined and checked my collections. + Anthistiria australis R.Br., a synonym of Themeda triandra Forssk. References Clark, LD, (ed.) (1988). The Port Phillip Journals of George Augustus Robinson; 8 March - 7 April 1842 and 1% Marh - 29 April 1843, 65. Monash Publications in Geography 34. (Monash University; Melbourne.) Fleming, J. (1972), A journal of the expeditions of Charles Grimes, Acting Surveyor General of New South Wales, Zn ‘Historical Records of Port Phillip. First Annals of the Colony of Victoria’. Ed. C.E. Sayers. (Pioneer Series edition, Heinemann: Melbourne.) Hobbs, R.J. and Atkins, L. (1988), Effect of disturbance and nutrient addition on native and introduced annuals in plant communities in the Western Australian Wheatbelt. Australian Journal of Ecology 13, 171-179, Lunt, LD. (1987). Aspects of the ecology of Themeda triandra grasslands on the basalt plains of Victoria. Unpublished 4th year literature review, Botany Department, La Trobe University, Bundoora. Lunt, LD, (1990). Impact of an autumn fire on a long-grazed Themeda triandra (Kangaroo Grass) grassland; implications for management of invaded, remnant vegetations. The Victorian Naturalist 107, 45-51, McDougall, K.L. (1989). The Re-establishment of Themeda triandra (Kangaroo Grass): Implications for the Restoration of Grassland. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series 89. (Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands: Melbourne.) Newsome, AB. and Noble, LR. (1986), ‘Ecological and physiological characters of invading species, In ‘Ecology of Biological Invasions; An Australian Perspective’, Eds, R,H/Groves and J.J. Burdon). (Australian Academy of Science: Canberra.) Patton, R.T. (1935), Ecological studies in Victoria. 1V. Basalt plains association. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 48, 172-91, Presland, G. (ed.) (1977), Journals of G.A, Robinson, January 1840 - March 1840,61, 80. Records of the Victorian Archaeological Survey 5. Melbourne. Ryser, P, (1990), Influence of gaps and neighbouring plants on seedling establishment in limestone grassland, Experimental field studies in northern Switzerland. Heft 104. Ver Uffentlichungen des Geobotanischen Institutes der E.T.H., Stiftung Riibel, Zürich. Tooren, B.F van. (1990), Effects of a bryophyte layer on the emergence of seedlings of chalk grassland species. Acta Oecol. 11, 155-163, White, J. (1986). Why bother to protect prairies along railroads? /n “The Prairie: Past, Present and Future’. Proceedings of the Ninth North American Prairie Conference. Eds.G,K. Clambey and R,H. Pemble. (Tricollege University Center for Environmental Studies: North Dakota.) The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings Soil Microflora and its Importance in the Restoration and Management of Vegetation. P. J. Keane! Components of the soil microflora, mainly bacteria and fungi, play a crucial and often overlooked role in ecosystem functioning and stability, Soil bacteria and fungi have many ecological roles, both as free-living saprophytic organisms involved in decomposition of organic matter and recycling of nutrients, and as symbionts, forming intimate associations with plants and animals, which may benefit or damage the host organism. Decomposers Many saprophytic microbes obtain their nutrients from dead organic matter, and are crucial in breaking down complex, insoluble polymers such as cellulose, lig- nin and proteins into their soluble components, thus recycling the nutrients from those substances. Materials such as leaf litter, twigs, bark and wood, com- posed largely of cellulose and lignin, and animal remains and dung, are decom- posed and incorporated into the organic matter in soil which contains nutrients available for further plant growth, Thus fungi, bacteria and associated soil-in- habiting arthropods are critical for the humification of soil, which contributes so much to its fertility and structure. Fungi are particularly important in this role be- cause of their ability to produce a wide range of digestive enzymes and to penetrate into dead organic substrates; this gives them an advantage over bac- teria, which have little penetrative ability. Fungi living in soil and leaf litter have an important role as nutrient ac- cumulators. Through their network of hyphae they are able to accumulate dis- persed nutrients into concentrated nutrient sources such as fruiting bodies, which are an important source of food for small ground dwelling animals. | Reader in Botany, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083. Vol. 111 (4) 1994 Some free-living bacteria, which live in association with soil organic matter, are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen, convert- ing it into soluble nitrogen-containing compounds available for plant nutrition. Other bacteria are of critical importance in carrying out various nutrient conver- sions required for maintenance of soil fertility. Symbionts Many microbes form symbiotic associa- tions with other organisms. If both organisms benefit, the symbiosis is said to be ‘mutualistic’, ifthe microbe benefits at the expense of the larger organism, the symbiosis is said to be ‘parasitic’. The microbes involved in symbioses with plants obtain their sugar nutrition directly from their hosts. Mutualistic symbioses that are of great importance in vegetation establishment and stability, include the following: Mycorrhiza (fungus-root associations) The great majority of plants form a mutualistic symbiosis between their roots and fungi. The fungi obtain sugars from the plants and in return the fungi give the plants access to the phosphate from a much larger volume of soil. These sym- bioses are thought to be important in the adaptation of Australian plants to the generally phosphate-deficient soils on the continent. Again it is the penetrative ability of the fungal hyphae which is cru- cial for the functioning of mycorrhiza; the hyphae act as an extension of the root system. The main plant families which do not commonly form mycorrhizae are the Proteaceae, which, instead, form very finely divided ‘proteoid’ roots, and some families associated with either very wet (Juncaceae, Cyperaceae) or arid (Chenopodeaceae) conditions. Most eucalypts form ectomycorrhizae 131 Proceedings in which the fungus forms a sheath of tissue around the outside of the roots and changes the morphology of lateral roots, converting them into highly branched, coralloid structures. The fungi involved include many types of gilled mushrooms and puffballs which produce their spore- forming structures under the trees in autumn, Some trees, including eucalypts and many native shrubs, herbs, grasses and even non-vascular plants, form vesicular- arbuscular mycorrhiza, which are entirely different from the ectomycorrhizae; the fungi form little bush-like growths inside the root cells and large, swollen vesicles within the roots, but do not damage the plant cells or alter the root morphology. The fungi involved are a very restricted group of primitive zygomycetes which are very common in soils but have never been grown in pure culture. They survive as resting spores when they are not infect- ing roots. These fungi absorb sugar from the plants and in return act as an extension of the root system, assisting the uptake of phosphate by the plant. Heath plants form another Specialised type of mycorrhiza with a restricted group of fungi, which have also never been grown in culture, These fungi invade the roots, forming hyphal coils within the cells, without altering the morphology of the roots. Again the fungi derive sugar from the plants and assist in phosphate uptake by the plants. Orchids form a further special type of mycorrhiza, in which the balance of nutrient flow between the partners is more complicated. A group of fungi, many in the genus Rhizoctonia, with the ability to derive nutrients from dead organic matter, invade orchid roots and form hyphal coils within the root cells. The plants in turn obtain organic nutrients from, and are thus to some extent parasitic on, the fungi. It is Well known that growth of orchid see- dlings in culture is greatly stimulated by thie Presence of these fungi, and micro- een nets n up sections clearly an a Pitts the hyphal coils by > many so-called ‘sapro- 132 phytic’ orchids, which form very little photosynthetic tissue throughout their lives, must rely heavily on the associated fungus for their nutrition. Many experiments with a wide range of plants and mycorrhiza types have shown that the presence of these mycorrhiza stimulates plant growth, particularly in poor soils. Rhizobium bacteria in root nodules of legumes, Nodules formed on the roots of legumes by Rhizobium bacteria are critical in the adaptation of the legumes to soils defi- cient in nitrogen. These nodules are able lo convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into soluble nitrogen compounds available for plant growth. As the nodules or the legumes themselves decompose, these nitrogenous compounds are released and contribute greatly to the fertility of the soil. It is thought that legumes, especially acacias, play an important role in the growth of most Australian vegetation, Be- cause of their nitrogen-fixing ability, legumes are an important component of flora restoration on damaged sites. Actinorhizal nodules on Casuarina Species of Casuarina and Allocasua- rina are adapted to poor soils and con- tribute to soil fertility through nitrogen fixation carried out by actinomycetes in their root nodules. Plant-cyanobacteria associations Many vascular plants (e.g. cycads and some herbs) and non-vascular plants (e.g. some liverworts and water ferns) form beneficial associations with cyanobac- teria (‘blue-green algae’). As the cyanobacteria are capable of fixing at- mospheric nitrogen, it is likely that the plants benefit through improved nitrogen nutrition. The cyanobacteria involved are in the genera Anabaena and Nostoc, which can occur as free-living organisms in soil. The developing plants are infected by the symbionts from the soil, and so the cyanobacterial populations in soil can also be important in revegetation. The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings Lichens Lichens often form a crust on the soil surface which contributes to soil stability and, ultimately, to soil organic matter. Lichens are the result of a mutualistic symbiosis between an alga (or cyanobac- terium) and a fungus, The fungus derives sugar (and nitrogenous compounds if the partner is a nitrogen-fixing cyanobac- terium) from the photosynthetic partner, and the fungus assists in absorption of nutrients, particularly in the form of gases, and protects the alga from UV radiation by holding the algal cells in a plant-like thallus. Lichens are often particularly im- portant as early colonisers of disturbed or rocky soils. Parasites The mutualistic symbioses discussed above all contribute to the healthy growth of vegetation. However, soils harbour a tange of parasitic microbes which have detrimental effects on plant growth. These are often not evident in undisturbed vegetation, where the microbes may be part of the normal process of plant decom- position and recycling. Disturbance of ecosystems has often resulted in develop- ment of new plant disease problems. Disturbance can take the form of changes in the environment that may enable an otherwise unnoticed native parasite to be- come destructive, as in the case of the mushroom, Armillaria luteo-bubalina, the cause of patch dieback of eucalypts in certain forests of central Victoria and Tas- mania. There is evidence that logging provides food sources for the fungus in the form of remnant tree stumps, from which the fungus is able to invade and kill nearby healthy trees. Other aspects of vegetation disturbance such as road making and logging have introduced new pathogens. This has been the case with Phytophthora cinnamomi in many forests and heathlands of southern Australia. There is very strong evidence that this fungus evolved in the tropics where it is not particularly destructive in native vegetation (although it has been very damaging in agricultural crops). Vol. 111 (4) 1994 Upon introduction to forests and heath- lands in Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia, how- ever, it has caused dramatic death of large areas of vegetation which have evolved little resistance to attack by the fungus. Many fungal pathogens are very restricted in their host range, but P. cinnamomi is exceptional in attacking over 400 Australian plant species in about 48 families. Patches of large hardwood production forest have been destroyed in South and East Gippsland. Many of these sites have become dominated by grasses and sedges, although some sites have been regenerated with mixtures of resistant and susceptible eucalypts and associated plants. Drier, low open forests in the Bris- bane Ranges and the East Otway Ranges have also been damaged and are being converted into woodlands consisting of surviving eucalypts and resistant grasses and sedges. In these forests the distinctive understorey genus, Xanthorrhoea, proved to be extremely susceptible to the disease and clearly marks the extent of infestation by the fungus. It is unlikely that this genus will be re-established on diseased sites, its place being taken by grasses and sedges which tend to be resistant to the fungus. P. cinnamomi has been particularly destructive in the Jarrah forests of Western Australia, killing an estimated 250,000 ha of forest and spreading at a rate of 20,000 ha per year. The under- storey species, Banksia grandis, is very susceptible and tends to act as an indicator of fungal infestation. Indeed it is thought that the proliferation of B. grandis - at the expense of the resistant, fire-dependent species, Acacia pulchella, following the introduction of fuel reduction burning - has facilitated development of the disease. Not only has a new pathogen been intro- duced to the forests, but changes in the forest environment have probably favoured activity of the pathogen. A similar situation may have occurred in East Gippsland, where selective logging of eucalypts in the subgenus Sym- phyomyrtus, which are mostly resistant to P, cinnamomi, and leaving behind mostly 133 Proceedings susceptible Monocalyptus species, may have made the forests more vulnerable to damage by the pathogen. È P. cinnamomi has been most destructive in coastal forests. It is unlikely that it will cause much damage to highland forests where the soil is rarely warm enough for fungal activity. Recently the fungus has been spreading in the heathlands of south- western Western Australia, where quarantine restrictions will be needed to prevent further spread and destruction of the vegetation. Management of soil microflora Most of the above elements of the soil microflora, being microscopic, are often overlooked in considering management of vegetation, There are many well-docu- mented instances in agriculture and forestry of manipulation of microflora for the benefit of plant production, Inocula- tion of legumes with appropriate strains of Rhizobium, and inoculation of tree nursery beds with soil and leaf litter con- taining mycorrhizal fungi, have been important in establishing some plant species in areas outside their natural range (e.g. Pinus radiata in Australia), Inocula- tion of orchid seedlings with mycorrhizal fungi has also been important in propaga- tion of orchids. Augmentation of populations of saprophytic microbes by Increasing the organic matter content of soils has been a successful method of biological control of soil-borne plant pathogens, It is hypothesised that reduc- tion of the organic matter content of eucalypt forest soils following regular fuel reduction burning, leading to reduced populations of saprophytes in the soil, may have allowed greater activity of P, cinnamomi. Reduced growth of plants sown into soil sterilised by fumigation has been documented; it was concluded that fumigation had destroyed the mycorrhizal fungi required for optimal growth of the particular plants, However, very often there is little that can be done to manipulate soil microflora in management of native vegetation, A useful approach is to be aware that many 134 plants require associations with particular microbes for optimum growth and that, generally, reasonable levels of soil or- ganic matter promote the survival of mycorrhiza- or root nodule-forming microbes and also promote the activity of soil saprophytes that contribute to soil fertility or are antagonistic to soil-borne plant pathogens such as P. cinnamomi and Pythium. If an attempt is being made to rehabilitate Jand that has been severely denuded or disturbed, especially by removal of topsoil containing the bulk of soil organic matter and associated benefi- cial microbial flora, a useful first step would be to restore a reasonable ac- cumulation of natural organie matter. While the bulk of the organic matter could consist of material such as leaf mulch, it would be worthwhile ensuring that some ieaf litter or topsoil from nearby, less dis- turbed vegetation, is incorporated to ensure that populations of any beneficial microbes specific for that vegetation are re-established on the restored site. Of course in any such attempt at restoring natural soil organic matter levels, care must be taken to ensure that soil fertility is not increased excessively, leading to proliferation of weeds. Further Reading Harley, JL. (1971) Fungi in ecosystems. Journal of Evolowy 59, 653-668, Shearer, B.L. and Tippett, J.T, (1989). Jarrah Dieback: The Dynamics and Management of Phytophthora cinnumomi in the Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) Forest of South-western Australia, Research Bulletin No, 3, (Department of Conservation and Land Management: Como, Western Australia.) 3 Articles from Ecos: (CSIRO Science and Environment Magazine): Anon (1978), A destructive forest fungus. Ecos 15, 3-14; Anon (1978), More trouble for gum trees, Ecos 15, 15-17; Anon (1987). Trees and fungi - a productive partnership. Ecos 54, 21-27. The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Observations on the Behaviour of Antechinus minimus maritimus (Marsupialia: Dasyuridae) John G. Aberton', Barbara A. Wilson!, and Ken Chenery’, Introduction In Victoria, the Swamp Antechinus (An- techinus minimus maritimus), usually inhabits dense, wet, coastal tussock grassland or closed heathland, often close to a swamp or river area. It is frequently found in isolated patches along the coastline. Specimens have been recorded inland near Dartmoor, Heywood, Caster- ton, Wonthaggi and Gellibrand and on offshore islands in the Gippsland region - Glennie, Rabbit, Snake and Sunday Is- lands. Records indicate that there have been no observations east of Sunday Is- land in southern Gippsland (Atlas of Victorian Wildlife 1992). In a recent study in the Cape Otway National Park (Moro 1991), trapping success of the species was significantly positively corre- lated with vegetation cover 1 m in height and significantly negatively correlated with the presence of logs and tree canopy. The species is terrestrial and is con- sidered to be insectivorous, digging for food with well developed fore-claws (Wainer and Gibson, 1976). It exhibits Swamp antechinus Antechinus minimus mari- timus, 1 School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3217 Vol. 111 (4) 1994 sexual dimorphism, with adult males teaching 100 g weight and females 60 g. Females come into oestrus once a year and all males appear to die soon after one mating, although a study of animals on Rabbit Island found males alive up to 16 months after birth (pers. comm.). The number of young raised varies with the number of teats of the female, The number of teats on mainland animals is 6 and 8 in Tasmania (Wainer 1983). Females may survive a second or some a third year. A gestation period of 30+1 days for animals mated in the laboratory has been recorded (Wilson 1986). Breeding appears to be synchronous within the one locality each year, although variation does exist be- tween geographically isolated popu- lations. For example, births have occurred in a population near Port Campbell in July, in a population near Anglesea in August, (Wilson et al. 1986) and in a population in south Gippsland in Septem- ber (Wainer 1983), The species is rare and restricted. There is a perceived need for more conservation parks in wet heath- lands to decrease the risk to its survival . Observations and captures of the Swamp Antechinus were made in the Anglesea region prior to the 1983 Ash Wednesday fire (Wilson et al. 1986; Vic- torian Atlas of Wildlife), but despite subsequent annual trapping of the area only four captures of this species were recorded in 1984 and one in 1986 (Wilson et al.1990). The objectives of this study were to lo- cate and study the Swamp Antechinus in native habitat and to reintroduce some members of that population to part of the former range near Anglesea. An immedi- ate goal of the reintroduction was for these animals to successfully breed at the new site. This article refer to initial work at the capture sites near Port Campbell, 135 Research Reports Methods 1. Trapping and Telemetry t In an attempt to monitor an established population, transect trapping of likely habitats was conducted near the mouth of Skenes Creek in the Otway ranges, near Gellibrand and near Blanket Bay in the Cape Otway National Park in June 1992. Minimal trapping success and limited vehicle access in most of these areas resulted in the ongoing trapping effort being based at Port Campbell, about 200 km. south-west of Melbourne. Prelimi- nary trapping was carried out a few kilometres east of Port Campbell. In early July 1992, 60 Elliott traps baited with a mixture of rolled oats, peanut butter, and honey were set in a 6 x 10 grid pattern in closed heathland at the Port Campbell Rifle Range (38° 37’ 20" S., 142° 58” 56" E). Traps were set about 10 m apart, and were checked each morning and late after- noon for 3 days. Two transect lines of 15 traps each were set at Two Mile Bay, immediately adjacent to the rifle range in the Port Campbell National Park. A similar trapping regime was undertaken in late-July 1992, December 1992, May 1993, December 1993. Single stage radio transmitters and col- lars weighing about 1.5 g (Titley Electronics) were attached around the necks of a total of 5 adult Swamp An- techinus females and 1 adult and 1 juvenile male during these trapping periods. These animals were released at the point of capture and were tracked with hand held antennae and receivers. Posi- tional fixes were taken a minimum 4 times a day for a period of up to 7 days per animal. During the trapping period, weight, sex, and identification recordings were made on all species of small mam- mals captured. Radio tracking data was analysed using the computer software package Ranges 4, 2. Vegetation At each trap station, the plant species observed in a 1 m x 1 m area were recorded and structural features of the 136 Swamp antechinus showing position of radio collar. vegetation including height and density measures were taken, Results and Discussion 1. Trapping and Telemetry Captures of Swamp Antechinus were made in June 1992 in the Port Campbell National Park near Loch Ard cemetery (1 capture of the species for 40 traps set for | night) and near Two Mile Bay (2 cap- tures for 10 traps set over 1 night). Trapping in mid July at the Two Mile Bay site and on the nearby Rifle Range resulted in 10 captures of the species from 90 traps for 1 night. The 7 males ranged from 75-103 g in weight and the 3 females 45-52 g. All males and 2 females showed evidence of hair loss, ticks in the ears and orange coloured mites around the bare Swamp antechinus showing size relative to hand. The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports skin in the anal and female pouch region. During the last week of July 1992, only 4 females were trapped over 90 trap nights at the Port Campbell Rifle Range. Three of these showed no major pouch develop- ment, the other was carrying 6 offspring, each approximately 6 mm long. Weights of the captured animals ranged from 47- 54 g. The absence of males suggested that male die-off had occurred during mid to late July since they had appeared in such poor condition 2 weeks previously, The other species captured during trapping sessions were the Swamp Rat (Rattus lutreolus), which was located in densities of 40 per 100 trapnights, the Bush Rat (Rattus fuscipes), at 14 per 100 trapnights and the White Footed Dunnart (Sminthop- sis leucopus) found in sparse vegetation covering a salt pan, 3 per 100 trapnights. The first collared female was radio tracked and 14 fix positions were taken over a 24 hour period. The minimum con- vex area enclosed by all these readings was 0.53 ha. Soon after dusk the animal was traced to.a burrow in the sandy pod- solic soil about 100 m from the release site. The burrow entrance was about 4 cm in diameter. Later examination showed that the burrow was a 25 cm long sloping tunnel which reached an estimated depth of 10-15 cm. Another opening was lo- cated adjacent to the entrance, It led to a tunnel just above the soil surface but below the dense 5 cm deep litter layer. This litter tunnel was later used as an escape route when the animal had been released in the subterranean tunnel after subsequent recapture and collar removal. Dense shrubs of Allocasuarina paludosa 80-100 cm high obscured the burrow. Nearby two similar but not as extensive burrows were found. These ended after about 15 cm. The female was located in the burrow at half hourly intervals until 10 p.m. after which tracking ceased, The animal was present in the burrow at 7.30 a.m. the following day but had moved into dense Melaleuca squarrosa scrub by 11.30 a.m. It was later recaptured within 20 m of the burrow. Vol. 111 (4) 1994 Another female with collar was traced to a burrow in a decayed Xanthorrhoea minor bole near a living X. minor, about 120 m from the release site for this animal. The whole area was covered by a 2-3 m high spreading Eucalyptus ovata. An ex- tensive burrow system was located with at least two subterranean side tunnels ex- iting to the outside. The burrow entrance was also about 4 cm in diameter and the underground portion of the bole was used as a side wall in tunnel construction. The radio collar of this animal was retrieved from. where it had been dropped in one of the side tunnels. The side tunnel was more than 20 cm long and was subterranean, However, over the top of most of the tunnel system a 10-20 cm mound of old leaf and stem material was present. It was assumed that this resulted from natural leaf accumulation over a number of years. Deep leaf litter nearby showed recent signs of digging by a small animal. When this litter was investigated, arthropods 0-2 cm long were uncovered. Later analysis of trap scats from 8 animals revealed arthropod remains, chiefly Orders Coleoptera and Blattaria representing in- sects, and Order Aranae the spiders. Evidence of daylight movement by all Swamp Antechinus radio-tracked at ir- regular intervals was supported by trap captures during the day; traps cleared and then reset in the morning were found to have Swamp Antechinus captures that afternoon, This occurred on 9 occasions. 2. Vegetation The vegetation where the animals were trapped at Two Mile Bay was about 1-1.5 min height and the dominant plant species consisted of Leucopogon parviflorus and Leptospermum continentale as well as some Gahnia seiberiana, Banksia mar- ginata and Xanthorrhoea minor, Scattered stands of Casuarina stricta often reaching 4 m in height were present within 5m of trap settings. Frequent cap- tures of different individual Swamp Antechinus took place near these trees. The more dense vegetation of the rifle 137 Research Reports range was dominated by A. paludosa, L, parviflorus, M. squarrosa and L. con- tinentale. This wind-pruned vegetation on and near the Port Campbell Rifle Range presents a closed canopy at a height of 1-1.2 m which results in zero wind velocity at ground level. In wetter areas where some open ground was observed, conspicuous species included Juncus australis, Poa poiformis, Banksia mar- ginata, and Gahnia and Lepidosperma species. Conclusions The study found that Antechinus mini- mus maritimus utilise underground burrow systems, and are active during daylight hours. It appears that the males die-off in late July in this locality (Port Campbell). The mid-winter diet of the animals was mainly insectivorous, a find- ing consistent with other studies (Wainer, 1983). The species is sympatric with an omnivorous species (Rattus fuscipes), a herbivore (R. lutreolus), and a small car- nivore (Sminthopsis leucopus). References Moro, D. (1991) The distribution of small mammal species in relation to heath vegetation near Cape Otway, Victoria. Wildlife Research 18 (5), 605-618. Wainer, J.W. (1983). Swamp Antechinus. In ‘The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals’. Ed. R. Strahan. (Melbourne: Angus and Robertson.) Wainer, J.W. and Gibson, R.J. (1976), Habitat of the Swamp Antechinus in Victoria, The Victorian Naturalist 93, 253-255. Wilson, B.A. (1984). Reproduction in the male dasyurid Antechinus minimus maritimus. Australian Journal of Zoology 32, 311-318. Wilson, B.A. (1986), Reproduction in the female dasyurid Antechinus minimus maritimus. Australian Journal of Zoology 34, 189-97. Wilson, B.A., Bourne, A.R. and Jessop, R.E. (1986). Ecology of small mammals in coastal heathland of Anglesea, Victoria. Australian Wildlife Research 13, 397-406. Wilson, B.A., Robertson, D. (1990). Factors affecting small mammal distribution and abundance in the Eastern Otway Ranges, Victoria, Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 16, 379-396. Library News The following books have been added to the Club’s library: Bennet, I. (1992). ‘Australian seashores’. (Angus and Robertson: Pymble.) Cogger, H. (1992), ‘Reptiles and amphibians of Australia’, Sth ed. (Reed: Chatswood.) Cropper, S.C. (1993). ‘Management of endangered plants’. (CSIRO: Melbourne.) Ehmann, H. (1992), ‘Reptiles’. Robertson: Pymble.) (Encyclopedia of Australian animals) (Angus and Hoffman, N., Brown, A. (1992). ‘Orchids of south-west Australia’, 2nd ed. (University of Western Australia Press: Nedlands.) Kitching, R.L. (19932), ‘Ecology, biodiversity and the future of Australia’. (Griffith University: Nathan.) Lamp, C, Collet, F. (1989). ‘Field guide to weeds in Australia’, 3rd ed. (Inkata; Melbourne.) Strahan, R. (1992), ‘M Robertson: Pymble.) Tyler, M.J. (1992), ‘Fro Pymble.) Walraven, E. (1990), ‘Tarong Sydney.) Wilson, J. ed. (1991). ‘Victorian urban wildlife’. Womersley, H.B.S, (1984), ‘The marine benthic (Government Printer: Adelaide.) Womersley, H.B.S (Government Printer: Adelaide.) Books may be borrowed for two months by another member. The library is open before Sunday meetings, and on Tuesda ammals’. (Encyclopedia of Australian animals). (Angus and gs’. (Encyclopedia of Australian animals). (Angus and Robertson: Zoo's guide to the care of urban wildlife’. (Allen and Unwin: (Angus and Robertson: North Ryde.) flora of Southern Australia’, Part 1. . (1987). ‘The marine benthic flora of Southern Australia’, Part 2. , and renewed up to six months, unless required before General Meetings 7.15 p.m, or 1.15 p.m. ys from 11 a.m, to 2 p.m. Sheila Houghton Hon Librarian 138 The Victorian Naturalist Contributions A Review on the Geology of the Beaumaris Cliffs. R. P. Irwin! Introduction The Beaumaris cliffs on the north-east coast of Port Phillip Bay attain a height of 15 m and consist of a richly fossiliferous Late Miocene to Early Pliocene sequence. The abrupt indentation of the coastline at Table Rock Point marks the ascension of the cliffs which extend 1.5 km in a north- easterly direction before deteriorating into a vegetated bluff at Mentone Beach (Fig. 1). The scientific and recreation- al/aesthetic importance of this geological feature has been recognised by King (1988) and Rosengren (1988), both as- signing international significance to various aspects of the Beaumaris cliffs, particularly in terms of the fossil sites which enable correlation of Late T J land mammal faunas and marine sequen- ces in Australia. This review is aimed at summarising the geological aspects of the Beaumaris cliffs, particularly in terms of the origin, com- position and nature of the pertinent rock types which occur at this locality. The earliest geological interpretations, e.g. Selwyn (1855), consisted of little more than lithological descriptions, Later, stratigraphical subdivisions were propos- ed, and culminated in Singleton’s (194. ) section which has remained unchanged since its inception. Revision of the spatial BEAUMARIS MAGNETIC. CROMER ROAD HANGING ROCK a < Ç Q WANG MOTOR YACHT Lu 23 BODLEY SQUADRON > STREET T a KEEFERS D E ad BOATSHED W x S = BEAUMARIS S| & /4 HOTEL al 2 : f ) PORT PHILLIP BAY RICKETT'S / at POINT . YA 1 TADRE Rae 0 100 200 300 400 500 ya J WATKINS BAY í — — — BEAUMARIS MONOCLINE S T mm = = EXTENT OF REEF l School of Aquatic Science and Natural Resources Management, Deakin University, Rusden Campus, 662 Blackburn Road, Clayton, Victoria 3168. Vol. 111 (4) 1994 Fig. 1. Locality map of Beaumaris (adapted from Gill 1957). 139 Contributions distributions of the lithological units re- quired the reinterpretation of this cliff section and also led to a greater under- standing of the structural influence of the Beaumaris monocline. Stratigraphy The current stratigraphical scheme (Table 1) for the Tertiary sequence of the Beaumaris cliffs has been derived from interpretations throughout the century. The earliest stratigraphical profiles were given by Etheridge (1875) and Hart (1893) who considered the cliffs to consist of a four part sequence. However, with the exception of iron content, Hall and Pritchard (1897) and Hall (1909) found nothing to separate the upper and lower beds. Carroll (1949) also found no lithological or mineralogical evidence for subdividing the sequence in the cliffs. Singleton (1941) considered that the stratigraphical break marked by the development of an 8 cm thick nodule bed, separated the underlying ‘Baleombian’ (=Bairnsdalian) clays and marls, from the 6 m of fossiliferous ferruginous sandy marls which, together with the nodule bed, constitute the Cheltenhamian Stage type locality. The succeeding ironstones and ferruginous sandstones which were considered (by Singleton) to be younger, Table 1. Current stratigraphical scheme for the Beaumaris cliffs after Abele ef al. (1988). Singleton's Section (A) Revised section ix White sands d Red Bluff Sands (4 ft) (1m) Formation viii Feruginous sandstone C Ferruginous sandstone (6 f) (em) vii lronstones (8h) vi Ferruginous sandy marl b Ferruginous sandy (14 fl) (7m) marl containing shell v Sandymariwith Lovenia lagsand Lovenia (9m iv Eucrassatella zone (6in) lil Marlysandswith (Bf) calcareous concretions li Fine sandy marl (1 f) (laminated) i calcareous sandstone (64) m a Marlysandswith (2.5m) calcareous concretions =r ES Present beach level L Past beach level 140 therefore represented the Kalimnan stage. Both Gill (1957) and Wilkins (1963) ac- cepted Singleton’s Cheltenhamian stage despite Crespin (1943) integrating the stage as a facies of the Kalimnan. Between Melbourne and Mentone can be found the ‘Red Beds’ of Hall (1909), later renamed to the Sandringham Sands by Gill (1950) who subsequently sub- divided the formation into the Black Rock Sandstone and Red Bluff Sands members (Gill 1957), With elevation of both these members to full formational status on the basis that the Black Rock Sandstone, having been ferruginized, indicated a definite time break, Kenley (1967) upgraded the Sandringham Sands to group status. However, Kenley (1967) adopted the name Brighton Group, proposed by Gill (1950) to replace the term Brighton Beds, in preference to the almost synonomous Sandringham Group. Mallett and Holdgate (1985) and Abele et al. (1988) indicated that the Brighton Group rested disconformably on the Fyansford Formation which comprises the upper marly sections of the Torquay Group (Singleton’s (1941) *Balcombian’ clays and marls) within south-eastern Port Phillip Bay. The Newport Formation, proposed by Thomas and Baragwanath (1950), was considered by VandenBerg (1971, 1973) to be disconformably over- lain by the Black Rock Sandstone, The Newport Formation and Fyansford For- mation represent a lateral facies change (Abele et al. 1988), but being lithological- ly similar are considered difficult to distinguish, Therefore, all strata of the Torquay Group in the Port Phillip Basin, except the Batesford Limestone, were referred by Abele ef al. (1988) to the Fyansford Formation. Structure The Beaumaris coastline abruptly chan- ges direction at Table Rock Point where the Beaumaris cliffs run in a north-easter- ly direction parallel to the downthrow of the Beaumaris monocline (Fig.l). The monocline is traceable from the coast in- The Victorian Naturalist Contributions land as a low diminishing escarpment, reportedly trending 34 magnetic (Kenley 1967). The monocline elevated the Black Rock Sandstone from the typical near sea- level position observed between Elwood and Ricketts Point (VandenBerg 1971), to form cliffs 15 m high, and reflecting the presence of a bedrock fault. Hall and Pritchard (1897) recognised an asymmetrical pitching anticline and determined the strike of this anticline to follow closely that of the shore. Singleton (1941) and Pritchard (1976) both ob- served a pronounced roll within beds of the Black Rock Sandstone. The anticlinal axis is believed to be located immediately north-east of Keefers Boatshed between Bodley Street and Banksia Avenue, the beds descending away from this stratigraphic high point with apparent dips of 1-2. Gill (1957) attributed the gradual rise of the Black Rock Sandstone to this anticline and noticed that in the vicinity of Charman Road the dip steepened and swung eastward, the effect being visible in the ironstone reef. Sedimentology (Brighton Group) The general features of both the Black Rock Sandstone and Red Bluff Sands of the Brighton Group have been sum- marised in Table 2. According to Singleton (1941) the basal nodule bed is a conglomeratic layer of grit forming the base of the Black Rock Sandstone, containing glauconite and concentrations of cylindrical calcareous and ferruginous nodules up to 15 cm in length. Mallett and Holdgate (1985) how- ever, relegated the nodule bed to the underlying Fyansford Formation. The nodule bed has a rich vertebrate fauna and adiverse but poorly collected invertebrate fauna. Palaeoenvironmental interpretation The Black Rock Sandstone is a near shore facies as indicated by a marine fauna comprising specifically shallow water taxa such as molluscs and barnacles (Gill 1957), It is widely accepted that Vol. 111 (4) 1994 glauconite is formed in shallow waters (Deer er al.1985) and the presence of ter- restrial animal bones together with the sediment, leaves and wood at the top of the formation, indicate progressive shal- lowing. VandenBerg (1971) indicated that the molluscan fauna from beds imme- diately above the nodule bed were deep water forms (20-30 m), but molluses from higher in the cliffs indicated a very shal- low water environment. The Red Bluff Sands, according to Gill (1957), are mainly fluviatile, based on the presence of fossil wood, clay balls and lenticles containing Nothofagus-like leaves and freshwater sponge spicules. VandenBerg (1971) suggested that this fluviatile environment was fairly active and was probably supplied by a series of streams. The basal carbonaceous seam (Gill 1957) and the progression from marine to estuarine fossils and accumula- tion of land plant remains, indicates the progressive shallowing (Bird ef al. 1973). Revised stratigraphical and structural concepts Previously only recognised at Table Rock Point and Mentone Beach, the Red Bluff Sands are continuous from Table Rock Point along the top of the Black Rock Sandstone, progressively thinning Table 2. Distinguishing features of the Black Rock Sandstone and Red Bluff Sands Formations, Derived from Hart (1893), Gill (1957), Kenley (1967) and VandenBerg (1973). Lag Thickness Separation Lithology 75cm Strongly cemented, fossils complete, most shell material removed leaving blackened moulds. Skeletal material Upper 25cm diminishing either side of concentrated central 5cm- Middle Son B0 cm Concentrated decomposed shell fragments. Lower 40cm 50cm Divisible into an upper red layer containing whole bivalves and an equally thick grey/green layer containing sparse shell fragments, Bed(iv) 30cm Decomposed shell fragments diminishing in concentration upward. Few rounded quartz pebbles near base. 141 Contributions {rom a maximum of 3 m at the southern limit of the cliff, to apparently disappear adjacent to Keefers Boatshed, 100 m before the axis of the anticline (Fig. 1). Vegetation obscures the top few m of the cliff in the vicinity of the anticlinal axis and north-east of Keefers Boatshed the cliff deteriorates into a vegetated bluff, persisting beyond the Motor Yacht Squadron. The Red Bluff Sands Forma- tion reappears as a thin veneer 300 m beyond Keefers Boatshed, progressively thickening toward Mentone Beach; its true thickness unknown as eroded sands that adhere to the cliff face obscure the disconformity. Sudden thickening of the formation occurs 250 m south-west of Mentone Beach and this continues until opposite Charman Road, where the Red Bluff Sands comprise the entire section with the resultant development of a steep vegetated bluff, The abrupt north-easterly dominance of the Red Bluff Formation is due to the emergence of the Beaumaris monocline from the cliff 300 m south-west of Char- man Road. Contrary to previous reports of the monoclinal axis passing out of the cliff at Charman Road and then abruptly deviating to run parallel with the cliff face (Gill 1957; Kenley 1967), the attitude of the beds immediately south-west of Char- man Road to ‘Hanging Rock’ indicates a later emergence. Measured dips along the Metres above sea level (m) Table Rock Point (SW) 0 100 200 Fig. 2. A geological profile of the represents unit a composed of marly representing the Lovenia zone in the the proposed extent of the ferruginous sandstone märks the distribution of the Red Bluff Sands, 142 Coastal Profile And Geology Table 3. Modification of Singleton’s (1941) section, | Stratigraphical Sequence Age Red Bluff Sands Black Rock Sandstone Kalimnan | Brighton Group | Cheltenhamian Torquay Group Fyanstord Formation Bairnsdalian cliff in the order of 20-25" ESE reveal that turnover was induced by the monocline along an axis within the cliff. The monoclinal axis exits the cliff 300 m from Charman Road with a strike of 15°, which is maintained until the Motor Yacht Squadron pier, where a deviation in the reef indicates rotation and a strike parallel to the cliff face (Fig. 1). Modification of Singleton’s (1941) stratigraphical section (A) is expressed in Table 3 with the revised stratigraphy depicted in Fig. 2. A reinterpretation of the currently preserved cliff section is detailed below. Bed (vii) of Singleton (1941) is not divisible as a separate unit as it is irregular in its extent and distribution, being a post- depositional impregnation encompassing both the sandstones above and the sandy marl below, Within bed (v) are three distinctive lag deposits whose distribution and composi- tion are summarised in Table 4 along with Metres Mentone Beach (NE) Verticle Exaggeration -14:1 Beaumaris cliff from Table Rock Point to Mentone Beach, (a) sands with calcareous concretions; (b) is the lower half of unit b ferruginous sandy m arl; (B) is the upper half of unit b; (c) indicates unit c, and the beginning of the Kalimnan Stage; (d) unit d. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions bed (iv). Lovenia woodsii Etheridge is found extending upward from bed (iv) to 50 cm beyond the upper lag. Bed (v) and the overlying bed (vi) are lithologically identical except for the presence of cal- careous concretions in bed (v) and ironstone in bed (vi), both components being post-depositional. These two beds are therefore united with a line of demar- cation indicating the absence of L. woodsii. Bed (iv) which possesses L. woodsii is integrated with beds (v) and (vi) to complete the unit (b). Bed (iv) bifurcates 140 m south-west of Keefers Boatshed with an upper lag forming, con- sisting chiefly of Lovenia tests. This upper lag of bed (iv) is obscured by vegetation further to the south-west and is not repre- sented north-east of the Motor Yacht Squadron. Bed (iv) is evident near high water mark north-east of the Motor Yacht Squadron but subsides below the present beach level 100 m beyond the Motor Yacht Squadron pier. Singleton (1941), however, was un- able to recognise beds (iii) and (iy) at this location. Beds (iv) to (vi) representing unit (b) can attain a thickness of 7 m suggesting that half of the cliff north-east of the Motor Yacht Squadron is composed Table 4; Summary of lag deposits within revised unit (b). Brighton Group Red Bluff Sands Fine sands, grits and gravels Black Rock Sandstone Sandstones and marly sands Heavy limonite cement derived | Clay matrix from oxidation of glauconite Moderately lithilied Poorly consolidated lron oxide prevalent but less than in Black Rock Sandstone Ferruginous with locally developed ironstone bands Galeareous in par, or Non-calcareous originally sa No clay seams Clay balls and lenticies Beds and lenses of carbonaceous material at base Nor-earbonaceous Pastel shades of red, brown, Yellow, grey, ete, Yellowish red to reddish brown Reasonably well stratified Poorly bedded Only minor development of Cross bedding common current bedding Vol. 111 (4) 1994 of this one unit. Above this is the fer- ruginous sandstone, bed (viii), equivalent to unit (c), which marks the beginning of the Kalimnan and is itself disconformably overlain by the Red Bluff Sands, referred to here as unit (d). A reliable boundary between the ferruginous sandstone and the sandy marl cannot be established due to inaccessibility and their similar ap- pearance in outcrop. References Abele, C., Gloe, C. S., Hocking, J, B., Holdgate. G., Kenley, P, R., Lawrence, C, R., Ripper, D. and Threlfall, W. F. (1988). Tertiary. Jn ‘Geology of Victoria’, Eds JG. Douglas and J.A. Ferguson. (Victorian Division, Geological Society of Australia Incorporated: Melbourne.) Bird, E. C. F., Cullen, P. W. and Rosengren, N, J. (1973). Conservation problems at Black Rock Point, The Victorian Naturalist 90, 240-247. Carroll, D, (1949). Mineralogy of the Cheltenhamian Beds at Beaumaris, Victoria, Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 19, 104-111, Crespin, 1. (1943), The stratigraphy of the Tertiary marine rocks in Gippsland, Victoria. Bulletin of the Bureau of Mineral Resources in Australia 9, 1-101, Deer, W, A, Howie, R. A. and Zussman, J. (1985). ‘An Introduction to the Rock Forming Minerals’. (Longman Group limited: England.) Etheridge, R. (1875), Description of a new species of the genus Hemipatagus, Desor, from the Tertiary rocks of Victoria, Australia, with notes on some previously described species from South Australia. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, London 31 (2), 444-450, pl. 21. Gill, E. D. (1950). Nomenclature of certain Tertiary sediments near Melbourne, Victoria, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 62 (2), 165-171, pl. 10. Gill, E. D. (1957). The stratigraphical occurrence and palaeoecology of some Australian Tertiary marsupials. Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria 21, 135-203, pls. 1-4. Hall, T. S. (1909), ‘Victorian Hill and Dale’. (T, C. Lothian; Melbourne.) Hall, T.S. and Pritchard, G.B. (1897). A contribution to our knowledge of the Tertiaries in the neighbourhood of Melbourne. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 9, 187-229, Han, T, S. (1893). Notes on the rocks of Brighton and Moorabbin and the surrounding districts. The Victorian Naturalist 9, 156-159. Kenley, P. R, (1967). Geology of the Melbourne district - Tertiary. Bulletin of the Geological Survey of Victoria 59, 30-46. King, R. L. (1988). Geological features of significance and their conservation. Economic Geology. In ‘Geology of Victoria’, Eds J, G. Douglas and J. A. Ferguson. (Victorian Division, Geological Society of Australia Incorporated; Melbourne.) Mallett, C. W. and Holdgate, G. R. (1985), Subsurface Neogene stratigraphy of Nepean Peninsula, Victoria. 143 Contributions In ‘Stratigraphy, palaeontology, malacology: papers in honour of Dr. Nell Ludbrook’. Ed J. M. Lindsay. Department of Mines and Energy, South Australia, Special Publication 5, 233-245. ' Pritchard, G.B. (1976). Geology of the Sandringham - Beaumaris coastline. The Victorian Naturalist 93, 4-20. Rosengren, N.J. (1988). ‘Sites of geological and geomorphological significance on the coast of Port Phillip Bay, Victoria’. (Ministry for Planning and Environment: Victoria.) Selwyn, A.R.C. (1855). On the geology, palaeontology and mineralogy of the country between Melbourne, Westem Port Bay, Cape Schanck and Point Nepean. In ‘Geological Surveyor’s Report’. Votes and Proceedings of the Legislative Council 1, 1-10. Singleton, F.A. (1941). The Tertiary geology of Australia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 53 (1), 1-125. Thomas, D. E. and Baragwanath, W. (1950). The geology of the brown coals of Victoria, Part 3. Department of Mines, Victoria. Mining and Geological Journal 4 (2), 149-163. VandenBerg, A. H. M. (1971). Explanatory notes on the Ringwood 1: 63,360 geological map. Report of the Geological Survey of Victoria 1971/1, 1-35. VandenBerg, A. H. M. (1973), Geology of the Melbourne district. Ju “Regional guide to Victorian Geology.” 2nd ed. Eds J. McAndrew and M. A. H. Marsden, (School of Geology: University of Melbourne.) Wilkins, R, W. T. (1963), Relationships between the Mitchellian, Cheltenhamian and Kalimnan Stages in the Australian Tertiary. Proceedings of the Royal Sociery of Victoria T6 (1), 39-59. Book Review Kangaroo Island’s Native Plants by Ivan Holliday, Bev and Dean Overton Publisher: Swift Printing Service, Adelaide, 1994. Available from: ‘Environmental Realist’, 1 Nepean Avenue, Kingscote, SA, 5223. RRP: $12.00 (plus $1.50 postage) per copy. With small colour plates (4 or 5 per page) featuring 236 species, this 63-page booklet is by far the most comprehensive- ly illustrated (and probably most useful) guide to the flora of enchantin g Kangaroo Island, S, Aust. Each picture is accom- panied by the vernacular name (in large capital letters), up-to-date botanical bino- mial (italicized), plant family, brief description, flowering time (where ap- plicable), habitat, and distribution within and beyond Kangaroo Island - altogether a mine of information condensed into a limited space, none of which is wasted, If only this little volume had been available during the FNCV’s two-week excursion to the Island in October 1993, it would have much lightened the identification ef- forts of our botanical participants; but we 144 were indeed fortunate to have been joined on several outings by co-author Bev Over- ton who could, on sight, name all the flowers we saw, as well a lead us to the exact locations of several rare items. Her book portrays 28 of the 40 taxa that are restricted to this Island (i.e. endemic plants). On the whole, reproduction of Ivan Holliday’s and Dean Overton’s colour photographs are clear enough, but in one or two plates the essential details are too fuzzy for recognition - e.g. Slaty Sheoak (p. 4), Coast Spear-grass (p. 54) and coastal cliff vegetation (p. 59). ‘Kan- garoo Island’s Native Plants’ is certainly in the "must" category for any visiting and inquisitive wildflower fancier. J.H. Willis The Victorian Naturalist Contributions A Case of Your Longyfolia Glen Jameson! What is quite remarkable, is that despite the relentless, savage destruction of much of our indigenous plant and animal com- munities over the past 200 years, we can still almost imagine what the landscape must have been like in those days in the wilds of old Melbourne. In Warrandyte we are more than ex- tremely fortunate, in having quality bushland remnants around us, you don’t need to be a Plant Detective to begin to piece the puzzle together. But there are difficulties trying to imagine the original, complete Melbourne landscape, as dif- ferent and beautiful as any in Wild Australia. A National Park scenic wonder up and down Collins Street, Koalas down by the Wharves. Kangaroos on Museum lawns, lazily loafing through a chapter of Owls. How much do we know about our Natural Environment? It’s an enormous subject with an index file longer than you'll ever have time to read. Perhaps it should be observed and experienced as much as possible as it remains a mystery of Mythical proportions, There is so little natural bushland left in the urban areas and all that remains is in a desperate bid for survival. We need to know much more if we are to share the future with the rest of the Planeteers into the next generations. The question, as to whether or not Acacia longifolia is an indigenous plant of Warrandyte, that is, does it occur naturally in the local Forests as a bona fide member of the floral communities, or is it a weed, is an illustration of how we are learning to ask the right questions. Or at least, coming to terms with the com- plexities of the ecology of the natural environment. Attempting to comprehend the wonder and mystical allure of the Original Garden. Although it may seem to be a trivial argument to some, this ques- 1 P.O. Box 156, Templestowe, Victoria 3106. Vol. 111 (4) 1994 tion is of the essence to knowledge of Bushland Management. You must know precisely what you are managing, its com- position and how it relates to the other components. We have already established that there are around 600 plant species in the Warrandyte State Park'. Approxi- mately 376 are indigenous to the Forests of Warrandyte and 221 are weeds. We have worked out the parameters to a large degree and now it is only less than one percent that we are in doubt over. However, it is an important one percent because of the destructive nature of weeds to the natural environment. We know that there are 51 species of Orchids, 20 Grass species, 10 Eucalypts, 15 Acacias (another 8 species of Acacia are weeds in Warrandyte) and so forth. Although much of the vast detail of the landscape has been lost, including the stream of local extinc- tions, there still remains a lot of information we are sure of. How do we know this? Firstly, through the remnants that remain and the communities that they form both here in Warrandyte and throughout the Bushlands of Victoria. Often there are Geological clues to Flora distribution, for example, the distribution of the Red Box in Warrandyte is due to the underlying Silurian Mudstones and the Hilly Gorge country. Secondly through the historical records that document the Indigenous vegetation. Botany and the pursuit of knowledge in the Natural World, were passionate European pursuits in the sedate times of the late 19th Century, Field Naturalist Clubs were begun to foster interest and protection of the natural assets of the World, People boarded boats, crossed seas, Banking on a quest of discovery. As early as 1863, Baron Von Mueller, had produced the manuscript draft of ‘Plants Indigenous to Victoria’.’ Alas, it was never published in his time, not given the recognition it deserved, like so much of 145 Contributions our indigenous knowledge. But, the good Baron did manage to include a description of the distribution of Acacia longifolia at the time as ‘... in forest valleys of the eastern part of Gippsland; thence through New South Wales ...’ In 1886, Frances Vautier, a young and enthusiastic youth comes to the old Goldfield town of Warrandyte. Fired with Naturalist zeal to learn all that he can about this new and excitingly wild country, Frances compiles a list of the indigenous plants of Warrandyte. He floats along the Yarra, past Wetlands in a Bark Canoe. A Wurundjeri named Bor- ruba had made the canoe from the bark of a River Red downstream of Warrandyte. Frances carefully observes that three pieces of Yellow Box had been shaped to internally frame the Canoe*, Frances made lots of notes on the Wurundjeri when he lived in the Red Box hills of Warrandyte, where are they? In June 1985, debate arose under the Red Box and Messmate on the southern slopes of Fourth Hill. We are working to repair some erosion near the old Tin Shed just above the Gold Memorial Cairn, Some people did not want to plant Acacia lon- gifolia, some did, Those who did want the plant offered these thoughts. (1) Acacia longifolia is an Australian Native plant that presently is found in most of the vegetation communities in Warrandyte. (2) There are some old specimens in the Park eg. the Scout Camp site in Galatlys Lane, (3) It is mentioned in Frances Vautier’s notes and letter of 1886+, (4) Vautier also records a possible Wurundjeri connection with the plant, Those who didn’t want the plant countered with (1) Acacia longifolia was a proven Environmental Weed with the ability to invade many vegetation com- munities. (2) It had been planted widely Over the past 20 years in local Gardens during the surge of interest in Australian Native Plants. (3) The plant is normally a component of the East Gippsland forests, H te te also some large Spotted ms in the Scout Camp, but this doesn’t 146 make them indigenous. (5) Finally, they’d like to see Vautier’s letter as it looks like investigations are needed. Why is all this necessary to know I hear you ask? What damage could an Australian Native wattle possibly do to a Native Forest? The problem is that there exists a suite of Wattles that are components of the various vegetation communities through- out Warrandyte. These Wattles are, as the other indigenous plants and animals are, interlocking pieces of a complex ecology, that have natural constraints and pres- sures, keeping all the individual components in balance, These constraints and pressures hold the power of the Forests together. They bind the Web of Life with strands of life, connecting all the individual plants and animals into a dynamic, living system, When you throw a plant or animal from outside into this very specifically control- led system, the balances are thrown out, There is a spill of the rules. Chaos enters the ecology. Wrong plants in the wrong environment spells environmental dis- aster, This is true for all vegetation communities, in all Countries, for all the Planet. Australian Hakeas are destroying South African Bushlands. Tumbling Tumbleweeds from the American Cow- boy Deserts, are a weed from Russia. The wrong Australian Native Plants in the wrong Native Vegetation Community is just as destructive as a weed from another continent. A Fog Grass from Yorkshire. A Fox, a Rabbit, a Goat from Europe. A bird from Asia or a Raven from India. All put the ecology, already severely damaged by our actions, into risk of destruction and extinction, Some weeds, such as ‘Rib Weed’ invaded North America so fast, that it was given the name by the in- digenous Indians ‘Whiteman’s Foot- print’. Brush-tail Possums, just like the indigenous ones that run over our roofs at night, has caused ecological mayhem in New Zealand when introduced there from Australia. The plant communities have never had to deal with Possum behaviour The Victorian Naturalist Contributions before and consequently have been easily destroyed by the invader. Weeds compete with the indigenous plants for space, light and nutrients. Where they establish themselves, they will displace Plants from the natural com- munity by occupying the different ecological niches. They alter the flora around them by changing the shade, water and nutrient regimes. They can dramati- cally alter the Fauna around them, even unbalancing the indigenous fauna, Weeds set in motion a chain of degrading proces- ses and change the very dynamics of the forests, leading them to destruction. Weeds can be very expensive to remove and most of them escape into the Warran- dyte State Park from Our Gardens. Weeds threaten the ecology of the World. Things have been escaping into the bushlands for a very long time. A Flora list for the Mitcham area compiled by J.W. Audas, a senior Botanist at the Na- tional Herbarium in Melbourne, was published from a lecture given at the Mitcham Naturalists Club on 18 Novem- ber, 19375. One hundred and two years after Melbourne’s settlement by Europeans, Audas recorded a total of 411 plants, of which 136 were introduced weeds. Interestingly, Audas records Acacia longifolia as Garden escape (also Sweet Pittosporum and two other Native Wattles as Garden escapes). Already, by then, the use of Native plants in Gardens was well established in local suburbs and documented as invading Bushlands. On the 14 July 1986, Ross Williamson, Botanist for the then National Parks Ser- vice, wrote in reply to an inquiry regarding the natural distribution of Acacia longifolia, *...I have discussed the problem with numerous Botanists includ- ing David Cheal, David Cameron, Dr. Paul Gullan and Dr. Jim Willis. All of them agree with me in believing that Acacia longifolia is not native to Warran- dyte or anywhere near it...’. The letter went ona little further, ‘... David Cameron postulated that Acacia mucronata, the ‘Variable Sallow Wattle’, may have had Vol. 111 (4) 1994 intermittent and short lived populations along the Yarra after seed was brought down by flooding’. Well, that was that perhaps. A possible case of mistaken identity, certainly the natural distribution of Acacia mucronata coyers the Traditional area of the Wurundjeri and I knew that the plant had been recorded at the Bend of Islands in Kangaroo Ground in recent times. There are more variations to the story. To com- plicate the matter there is another Wattle, the ‘Coastal Wattle’ Acacia sophorae, which was also a weed in the Park and is often confused with Acacia longifolia, It is strictly coastal in distribution and es- caped into the Warrandyte State Park from Garden plantings. The experts had spoken, their word was thus, but what was the response of the Planters. They pointed to the Wurundjeri connec- tion in Vautier’s letter, Surely if there was an Aboriginal connection to the plant, it must have been here for some amount of time. Vautier wrote, *...Joseph Shaw, the Superintendent at Corranderk (the Aboriginal Mission at Healesville), told me an interesting legend in regard to the Sallow Wattle (Acacia longifolia). This legend told to him by William Barak Chief of the Wurundjeri says that when the last of the Wurundjeri dies (this in- cludes those of mixed ancestry), the Sallow Wattle shall never bloom again in the Land of the Wurundjeri. This was told to him to explain why this once plentiful tree was fast disappearing from the area”, It was hardly disappearing now, a good sign for the Wurundjeri perhaps but never-the-less, it was a powerful story that needed further investigation. Curiously in Vautier’s meticulous Botanical notes he gives two common names to Acacia deal- bata: ‘Silver Wattle’ and ‘Barak’s Wattle’. There is no Wurundjeri connec- tion noted for any of the ‘Sallow Wattles’ in his Plant List. I was in need of more information and expertise. I rang an Ar- chaeological author, who had just completed a book on the Wurundjeri and the Kulin Nation’, on how to assess the 147 Contributions strength of the Vautier letter. He held that if the words were not recorded directly from the person credited with the quote, it is not strongly creditable Ethno-history. So much for the Bible I thought, | wrote to another author who had published a book based on quotes from Barak”. The title involved the image of Wattles bloom- ing and I asked the Author if the identity of the Wattle that was mentioned in the title and seemed to be of cultural sig- nificance to Barak. The author did not know the identity of the Wattle. In the book, Barak had predicted that when the Wattles bloomed he would die, just as his father had and many other Wurundjeri people. Barak died in early August, just when Acacia dealbata begins blooming along the Yarra River, This ties into Vautier’s notes on the common name of Acacia dealbata being ‘Barak's Wattle’ or ‘Silver Wattle’, To complicate things, Acacia longifolia also flowers in early August. However, Acacia longifolia is not men- tioned in a 1911 report by G. Coghill about a Field Naturalists Club excursion to Warrandyte", It had been arranged to ‘See the Silver Wattles, Acacia deal- bata, in full bloom.... Our first view of the golden blossoms was secured as we crossed the bridge at Heidelberg ... here and there through Templestowe further glimpses were obtained ... in Warrandyte .» feasted our eyes ... on some splendid trees in full bloom.,.”, Barak’s Wattle and a delightful slice of Eco-Tourism in 1911 in which the participants ended with lunch in the local Grand Hotel, Still a good idea after all these years. Beth Gott, a Botanist at Monash Univer- sity with a long interest in, and an author on, Plant and Aboriginal relationships, same down strongly on the side of the mistaken identity theory. Beth believed that Vautier had mixed up the ‘Variable Sallow Wattle’ and the ‘Sallow Wattle’! Cliff Bueglehole’s ‘Distribution of Vas- cular Plants of Victoria’ series did list Acacia longifolia for the local area!*, In response to my letter, he stated that he was 148 dependant on lists sent to him and that there was bound to be some mistaken records (Vautier’s?). Cliff was not prepared to vouch for the validity of Acacia longifolia as local, Furthermore, he sent me his article about the destruction of local Bushlands near his home by the closely related Acacia sophorae. In fact there was no one of any Botanical stature who was willing to support Acacia longifolia as being local and I sought quite a few opinions other than those men- tioned. At the Museum of Victoria, there is a Koorie Keeping Centre and Graeme Ait- kenson is the bloke to see. I showed the letter to Graeme and he places it into the file not being able to comment on the letter much. Graeme is from the Yorta Yorta tribe in the Murray River region and knows plenty about his people and his country, but cannot comment on Wurundjeri matters, | visited the La Trobe Library and researched many of the refer- ences on the Wurundjeri (including Smyth'? and Howitt"), for surely if the Wattle is tied to the fate of a Tribe, then there should be mention of it. I get lots of great information, but nothing concerning Acacia longifolia, 1 must contact the Wurundjeri. There are many strong perceptions that sections of the Australian community hold when it comes to Aboriginals. One of those perceptions is that to be an Aboriginal, one must have a vast storehouse of knowledge on the Natural World. Plenty of this knowledge still remains, especially the instinctive con- nection and relevance of the Natural World to Human Society. However, the crushing of Aboriginal society by the European society, in some circumstances, made such knowledge non-essential for their own survival. Communing with Na- lure was frowned upon by the settlers, Authorities and those that ran the Mis- sions. The Wurundjeri were forced to give up the external manifestations of their Traditional connections with the Land. Lost were many of the intimate details of The Victorian Naturalist Contributions that relationship. Much of the Language was destroyed; the Legends, the Songlines, the Mythology fractured with prolonged contact. The Wurundjeri, as. with many other indigenous people who have faced such pressures, have used their own parameters to define themselves. Things, such as the centrality of Family and the importance of Relatives, the manner in which children are brought up, the Spiritual centrality of the Earth, are strongly integral to the self definition of the Wurundjeri. Even with the veneer of those things by which we define Aboriginality, sheared away from their day to day activity, it is these inner values that define and give strength to the Wurundjeri. Consequently, the Wurund- jeri could not help me in this investigation except to confirm the Cultural importance of the Silver Wattle. If anybody wants to identify local plants now, there are some marvellous refer- ences around. Local guides, regional lists, Flora Surveys, identification Guides on Grasses, Orchids or Eucalypts. In fact a wealth of reference books. However did Vautier manage to identify the range of plants that he did? What references were available then? I’m sure that he wouldn’t have had a photocopied version of Von Mueller’s Victorian Plant List. Vautier’s grandson, Arthur Williamson (no relation to Ross Williamson), a local Naturalist around Warrandyte, well known for his own list of Warrandyte indigenous plants that covers three generations of local Botanising, told me that most of Vautier’s letters had been destroyed in a house fire, In fact Vautier’s list from Warrandyte is only part of the list, the rest has been lost. How did Vautier identify his plants? Ar- thur showed me Vautier’s original copy of ‘Plants of N.S.W., According to the Census of Baron F, Von Mueller, Govern- ment Botanist of Victoria’, by William Woolls, (1885). It was purchased in 1886, the year Frances Vautier arrived in Australia, no doubt an expensive tome at the time. There was probably nothing available in print for Victorian Plants at Vol. 111 (4) 1994 the time. Sleuthing down at the Herbarium, once the haunt of Von Mueller and still the residence of cocooned Botanists, I was put on the trail of someone doing research on Plant Catalogues. They were able to show me a copy of a Seed Catalogue from a Melbourne Company advertising sale of Acacia longifolia seed. The year was 1856. No doubt it was a popular selection then, growing in many situations. Syd- neysiders had discovered its reliability and hardiness even before Melbourne was a twinkle in Batman’s eyes. The possibility that Acacia longifolia was grown as a Garden Plant in Warran- dyte and began invading local bushlands even before Frances Vautier was born, is a valid scenario. The massive vegetation clearance and disturbance during the Gold Mining in Warrandyte, set ideal condi- tions for weed invasion of the Bushlands. As soon as Europeans began arriving in Warrandyte and elsewhere, the push was on to create a Colonial style Paradise. Old photographs from the Warrandyte His- torical Society’s collection show Willows well established along the Yarra River by the 1870’s. The Tradition of using Australian Native Plants was also well established in England in the Nineteenth Century, with many species being sought after and grown by collectors. Landscape Gardeners had selected favourites that were used in many rural Australian set- tings, Bunya Bunya Pines, Lilly Pillies, Sydney Blue Gums, Lemon Scented Gums and many other natives adorn old Farm gardens, rural and metropolitan Botanical Gardens and Private Gardens. From the first, there has been an interest and excitement produced by the Flora of Australia, Arthur Streeton was smitten by the Silver Wattles wreathing the snaking Yarra River as he painted down by Heidelberg. I have camped in the Gippsland Forests where Acacia longifolia is a natural mem- ber of the Flora] communities (as is Sweet Pittosporum). There it doesn’t go wild and take over. It behaves like a good member 149 Contributions of the community by filling its niche, being held in check by all the natural constraints of that ecology. The same for the Sweet Pittosporum. They both look comfortable in the Gippsland Forests and there is a sense of belonging for these plants in these places. But the same cannot be said when they are growing in the Forests of Warrandyte. Here, they run riot, uncontrolled by the local Flora Com- munity Laws. They look out of place. Here they don’t look comfortable or feel tight. Here they do not belong, this is not their Country. There are still stands of Acacia lon- gifolia planted in the Warrandyte State Park, planted by those who believed it was the right thing to do. Some of the Planters still believe this. The seed provenance of these Plants would be interesting to inves- tigate, with the invasion of so much Acacia longifolia into the Park it would be impossible to find the original plants, if there were ever any! Acacia longifolia has been a useful Wat- tle. It has helped the return of Native Birds into the suburbs of Melbourne when it was planted widely in the last Twenty years as Gardens began returning to Australian plants. I imagine it possibly could have protected the Bushlands in some instan- ces, by invading areas of soil disturbance and stopping erosion and by sheltering Native Animals when so much of their habitat was being destroyed. It has in- spired local Theatre to create plays on the mythological importance of our Bush- lands. It has made us investigate the essence of the local Bushland and test us to see how much we know about it. How- 150 ever, despite this, it still remains from my investigations, a plant that is not an in- digenous plant of Warrandyte or anywhere nearby, Acacia longifolia, I salute you and then I must uproot you. Acknowledgements I would like to thank the cast of thousands within the Indigenous Flora and Fauna interest groups and per- sonalities who gave me advice , direction and encouragement during my investiga- tions. Also thanks to Robyn Watson, Pat Grey and Ed Grey for editorial advice and comment. References Warrandyte State Park Interim Plant Species List (1994), (DCNR; Unpublished). Meuller, F. (1864). ‘The Plants Indigenous to the Colony of Victoria’. (Unpublished), Vautier, Frances (1886), Private letter, Warrandyte, 31 December 1886. See note 3 above. Audas, J. W. (Senior Botanist, National Herbarium), “The Flora of Mitcham’. ( A lecture delivered before the Mitcham Naturalists Club, 18 November 1937). Williamson, Ros (Botanist, National Parks Service) (1986). Memo - Acacia longifolia at Warrandyte State Park, 14-7-1986. See note 3 above. Presland, Gary (1985). ‘Land of the Kulin’. Wiencke, Shirley (1985). “When the Wattles Bloom Again’. Coghill, G. (1911). Excursion to Warrandyte. The Victorian Naturalist 28, 59. News Diary, article, (1988). The Age, newspaper, August 1988, ~ Bueglehole, C. (1983). ‘Distribution and Conservation of Vascular Plants in the Melbourne Area, Victoria’. Brough-Smyth, Papers. La Trobe Library Ms Collection, 1878. Howitt, A. W, (1904). ‘Native Tribes of South-east Australia’. The Victorian Naturalist Naturalist Notes Dual Occupancy! Daytime Use of a Tree by Two Species of Possum Rob Wallis! On the morning of 3 May 1994 my children observed a Common Ringtail Possum Pzeudocheirus peregrinus rest- ing in the fork of a Lilly-pilly Acmena smithii tree in our back-yard in Burwood. The unusual feature was that the animal was sleeping in a fork of the tree in a pose reminiscent of that of Koalas. It was about 3 m above the ground. When I went to observe the possum, | noticed a Common Brushtail Possum Trichosurus vulpecula also resting in the same tree but near its top, about 4 m above the gound. It was quite alert and watched me but made no attempt to move. About one hour later I went to the tree again and noticed that the ringtail possum had moved higher in the tree and was asleep about half a metre from the brushtail. About an hour later it had returned to its original fork where itremained forthe rest of the day. About 8 p.m. that evening our dog barked at a Brushtail Possum (presumably the same one) as itran along the top of the fence near the tree where it had rested. The Lilly-pilly is next to a fruiting Feijoa sellowiana tree which, judging by the condition of scats in our yard, has been used by both possums as a food source. Perhaps both animals had been feeding in the Feijoa when dawn broke and they were left ‘stranded’ in the corner of our yard, Our dog was lying at the base of the Lilly-pilly for most of the day; it might have prevented the possums returning to their normal day-time rest sites around dawn. We have a Common Brushtai! Possum (a large male) which sleeps in our roof. At dusk I heard it shuffling about preparing ' School of Aquatic Science and Natural Resources Management, Deakin University - Rusden Campus. Clayton, Victoria 3168 Vol. 111 (4) 1994 to exit, and went to check if it and the one in the Liliy-pilly may be the same animal. There were not - the one in the tree was still there and was somewhat smaller than our resident possum. The next day we went away. When we returned home ten days later, we found the Common Ringtail Possum back resting in the fork of the Lilly-pilly, but the Com- mon Brushtail Possum was dead by the fence. What I consider unusual is the occupan- cy of the one tree by the two animals without any apparent audible or visible interaction, Furthermore, it is unusual for the possums not be to resting during the day in a shelter such as a drey (Ringtail Possum), tree hollow (both species) or in part of a building such as under a roof (Brushtail Possum). Both animals may well have been juveniles which had been born during spring and which were dis- persing from parental home territories. This is a time of high mortality in both species. b Common Ringtail Possum sleeping in fork of Lilly-pilly, Burwood. 151 Naturalist Notes Leathery Turtle (Luth) Dermochelys coriacea On 6 February 1993 a dead, beach- washed specimen of the Leathery Turtle Dermochelys coriacea was found 1,5 km north of the Darby River mouth on the north-west side of Wilson’s Promontory. This specimen was small with a head and body length of 1.2 m and a probable live weight of 100 to 150 kg. The animal was most likely sub-adult. The species is identified by a series of seven prominent longitudinal ridges above, and four ridges along, the plastron which is covered by a thick, smooth, leathery skin usually a uniform dark brownish-black above. Some specimens can attain a length of 3 m and a weight up to 900 kg. Nine records of the turtle have been made in Victoria since 1970 either as sightings at sea or strandings (Table 1) and the species is most frequently located around Australia in temperate waters. The Table 1. Victorian records of the Leathery Turtle species is rare though widespread and is found in all temperate and tropical seas. References Australian Natural History Magazine, Autumn 1992, vol 23, No 12. Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Victoria. ‘Atlas of Victorian Wildlife’. Cogger, H. G. (1992). ‘Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia’ 5th ed 1992, (Reed: Chatswood.) The following letter with additional in- formation is copied with authority from the writer: Dear Russell, Many thanks for the skull of the Luth which you brought into the museum recently. This has been registered into the collection as D66968. The museum does not keep records of strandings of marine turtles in Victoria, as we only hear of some of them. I believe that the Department of Conser- vation & Natural Resources keep records. We usually hear of strandings of marine turtles on the average of 1 Dermochelys coriacea. Leathery Turtle 9 records since 1970 1900 - 1969 before 1900 sub-fossil 9 blocks 0 blocks 0 blocks 0 blocks 147 149 Source: Atlas of Victorian Wildlife. 152 The Victorian Naturalist Naturalist Notes every two or three years, although they seem to come in spates. Specifically on the Luth, I have only heard of two sight- ings of this species within Victoria over the past 15 to 20 years. Both of these specimens had been caught in nets by professional fishermen. Worldwide, this species is possibly the most threatened species of marine turtle, with most rookeries being over exploited for eggs. 1 know of no Australian rookeries. Yours faithfully A.J. Coventry Curator of Herpetology, Museum of Victoria The Recovery of Two Crested Terns (Sterna bergii) Two beach-washed Crested Terns Ster- na bergii were recovered on an area of coastline 6-7 km west of Ram Head, Croajingolong, East Gippsland, Victoria, Both were banded as nestlings on Mud Island, Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, on the 19/12/92 by The Victorian Wader Study Group. Information on banding details is provided by the Australian Bird and Bat Banding Schemes when bands are returned to them. The time between band- ing and recovery was 5 months and 28 days and both birds had moved at least a distance of 335 km on a bearing of 64°. Band numbers were 072-23880 and 072- 23586. Russell Thompson 10 Nokes Court, Montmorency, Victoria 3094 Book Review The Story of Mossvale Park by Ellen Lyndon (O.A.M.) Publisher: Wooray! Shire Historical Society Francis Moss never lived at Mossvale. The nursery which he established in 1853 was at Mt. Buninyong, but in the 1890's he bought land on the western branch of the Tarwin River between Mirboo North and Leongatha. Here he established another nursery, Mossmont-on-Tarwin, in the care of a manager. After Francis Moss’ death the property was offered for sale, and there was a succession of owners, all of whom seem to have been happy to allow school picnics and sports to be held in the paddock along the river. In 1946 the Shires of Wooray] and Mirboo jointly purchased the land as a reserve, and from the mid-sixties the Shire of Wooray! has been responsible for the management of the park. In the 1980’s Ellen Lyndon asked the Vol. 111 (4) 1994 Mossvale Committee of Management what was the history of the park. The result, to coincide with the 25th anniver- sary of the Mossvale Summer Concert, is this booklet, in which she traces the his- tory of this land from a ‘riverside picnic ground’ to the park which today caters for a variety of activities, from camping to pony riding to the summer concerts, or simply enjoying the autumn splendour of the deciduous trees. The appendices con- tain details of the exotic trees which have survived from the original planting; those planted in 1987, 1988 and 1992, many by Francis Moss’ descendants; the 1979 sur- vey of fish in the Tarwin River and the ‘Music of the People’ held in the park. Sheila Houghton 153 Census Update Census of the Vascular Plants of Victoria Update Bulletin No. 4.3 Compiled by T.J. Entwisle! Introduction For the last three and a half years, the National Herbarium of Victoria has dis- tributed an update bulletin to publicise changes to the most recent edition of A Census of Vascular Plants of Victoria. These bulletins have had a restricted dis- tribution and it was felt that a wider audience might be interested in receiving such information. To this end, the update bulletins will be published in The Vic- torian Naturalist at appropriate intervals (depending on the number of additions and alterations to the Census). The num- ber (4.3) refers to the edition of the Census (currently edition four) and to the number of update bulletins produced since that edition (this is the third). The fourth edition of the Census is avail- able for sale ($18 over the counter, $23 posted) from the Visitor Centre, Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne, Birdwood Ave, South Yarra, Victoria 3141 (Ph: 03- 655 2300). Additions and corrections to the Census should be submitted in writing to Dr Jim Ross at the same address. Minor corrections and alterations - such as changes to the spelling of a species epithet, e.g. Acacia brownei to Acacia brownii, or the addition of a subspecific name without any change to the species name or the circumscription of the taxon in Victoria, e.g. Acacia mucronata to Acacia mucronata var. longifolia (the other two varieties are in Tasmania) - are not included in the update bulletins. The quality and quantity of information provided for each taxon depends on the available literature and the source of the record (diagnostic characters are taken from the original publication where pos- sible). Note that there may be some delay between the publication of new records or 1 r t a National Herbariumof Victoria, Royal Botanic G t ardens Melbourne, Birdwood Ave, South Yarra, Victoria 3141]. 154 species and their appearance in these up- dates. An asterisk (*) indicates that the taxon is naturalised in Victoria (i.e. it is native outside Victoria but has become established in this State). Conifers CUPRESSACEAE Callitris gracilis R. Baker, J. & Proc. Roy. Soc. New South Wales ser. 2,38: 839 (1904). Name change for Callitris preissii in Victoria. The type of C. preissii, from Rottnest Is. in Western Australia, differs from what has been widely known as ‘C. preissii’ in the rest of Australia and C. gracilis is the next available name for the more widespread taxon. Monocotyledons LILIACEAE Calostemma luteum Sims, Bot. Mag. 46, t. 2101 (1819). New record for Victoria. This species, known from inland South Australia, New South Wales and Queensland, has been found west of Merbein in far north-west Victoria. It differs from C. purpureum in having flowers wholly bright yellow ex- cept for 6 vertical red stripes in the lower third of the corona (between the perianth and the stamens) and in having generally larger flowers (perianth about 3 cm long and corona about 9 mm long). *Ornithogalum longibracteatum Jacq, Hort. Bot. Vindob. 3: 18 (1776-77). New weed record for Victoria, Com- monly called the Pregnant Onion, O. longibracteatum is an erect herb to 1.5 m high, producing numerous bulbils, with leaves 20-50 cm wide and up to 300 flowers per inflorescence. It has become established at Parwan South, Lake Lonsdale and in the Long Forest Flora and Fauna Reserve. The Victorian Naturalist Census Update LOMANDRACEAE Lomandra oreophila Conn & Quirico, Muelleria 8: 129 (1994). New name for Lomandra micrantha var. sororia (included in the Census as part of L. micrantha subsp. tuberculata), a species of mountain areas near Mt Wel- lington, with an outlying population at Mt Tingaringy. Lomandra oreophila differs from L. micrantha in its broader (3.3-5 mm), almost flat leaves. ORCHIDACEAE Caladenia amoena D.L. Jones, Muel- leria 8: 177 (1994), New record for Victoria. Previously confused with the New South Wales species Caladenia concinna but distin- guished from that species by its generally smaller flowers with the lateral sepals and petals curved downwards towards the ovary (giving flower a drooping ap- pearance). Caladenia toxochila is a similar Victorian species but it has darker coloured flowers with sepals more prominently clubbed, and the labellum has thicker, blackish, congested lamina calli. Caladenia toxochila is limited to north-west Victoria and South Australia, while C. amoena is known only from a few dry forest habitats near to Melbourne. Diuris ochroma D.L. Jones, Muelleria 8: 182 (1994). New name for Diuris sp. aff. lanceolata (Wonnangatta). Although known thus far only from the Wonnangatta Valley, this species may be more widespread. It dif- fers from D. lanceolata in haying dark striations on the perianth segments and in having labella with a complexly lobed lamina callus which extends by faint ac- cessory ridges on to the midlobe. Prasophyllum correctum D.L. Jones, Novon 4: 106 (1994). New name for Prasophyllum chas- mogamum. Due to an error in choosing the type specimen of P. chasmogamum, anew name was needed for this rare taxon from eastern Victoria, Vol. 111 (4) 1994 Prasophyllum suaveolens D.L. Jones & R.J. Bates, Muelleria 8: 184 (1994), New name for Prasophyllum sp. aff. fuscum (Basalt Plains). Restricted to relic grassland on the Volcanic Plain west of Melbourne and characterised by its rela- tively small stature (flowering plant to 25 cm tall) and its small (4-5 mm across) flowers emitting a strong, spicy fragrance and with a broad, smooth labellum callus which is prominently thickened in the dis- tal third. Pterostylis atrans D.L. Jones, Muel- leria 8: 185 (1994), New name for Pierostylis obtusa in Vic- toria. Pterostylis obtusa is now considered to be restricted to central and northern New South Wales (and possibly Queensland) leaving the Victorian plants long known as P, obtusa without a name. Pterostylis atrans differs from P. obtusa (in its new restricted sense) in flower size and colour, and in the slightly clubbed lateral sepals, Pterostylis monticola D.L, Jones, Muelleria 8: 189 (1994). New name for Prerostylis aff. alpina (Large flowers). As suggested by the in- terim designation used in the Census, P. monticola has larger flowers than P. al- pina (4-5 cm long cf. about 3 cm long). In addition, the sinus formed by the fused sepals protrudes in a shallow rather than abrupt curve when viewed from the side, and the free points of the sepals are erect rather than reflexed behind the hood. Pterostylis monticola seems to be widespread throughout south-eastern Australia but is so far known from only a few (montane) sites in Victoria, Pterostylis tasmanica D.L. Jones, Muelleria 8: 190 (1994). New record for Victoria, Apparently widespread in southern Victoria, Tas- mania and New Zealand, Pierostylis tasmanica has been hidden within P. plumosa, but it differs from that species in being shorter (to 14 cm tall), with smaller (to 7 mm long and 2.4 cm wide) leaves 155 Census Update arranged in a relatively tight rosette and small, self-pollinating flowers with a more densely plumose labellum and a short apical point on the hood (giving the flower a somewhat blunt appearance). Pterostylis plumosa in its new restricted sense is still considered to be a widespread species in Victoria. Pterostylis valida (Nicholls) D.L. Jones, Muelleria 8: 191 (1994). New name for Pterostylis squamata var. valida (‘= Pterostylis sp. aff, excelsa’ in Census). This taxon from the Maldon area is now presumed extinct. It is (or was) characterised by its narrow green flowers and narrow labellum attenuated at the apex, with few marginal calli and poorly developed basal lobe without any hairs. POACEAE *Hordeum yulgare subsp. distichon (L.) Korn, Zeitschr. Ges. Brauw. 5: 125 (1882). *Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare New weed record for Victoria. Two sub- species of Hordeum vulgare are now recognised in this State but var, vulgare is known only from Gardiners Creek at Box Hill South. The widespread subsp, dis- tichon differs from subsp. vulgare in having only 2 rows of spikelets maturing seed (hence the common name Two-row Barley) rather than 6 rows in subsp. vul- gare. *Spartina anglica C.E. Hubb., Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 76: 364 (1978). New weed record for Victoria. Pre- viously overlooked as part of Spartina x townsendii, this species forms extensive ‘cord-grass’ meadows in south Gip- psland, presumably the result of recent expansion, Spartina anglica differs from the hybrid taxon in having longer anthers (8-13 mm cf. 5-8 mm long) that produce fertile pollen (not malformed as in S. x townsendii), Spartina anglica is derived (by doubling the number of chromosomes) from S. x townsendii. 156 Dicotyledons AMARANTHACEAE Alternanthera sp. (plains) New record for Victoria. Previously confused with Alternanthera denticulata, but differing from that species in having shorter (ovate to obovate), broader leaves, broader perianth segments; a tap-root; and in being perennial rather than annual. Widespread mostly in northern Victoria (also on Volcanic Plain west of Mel- bourne) but not growing near rivers and lakes (as A. denticulata does). ASTERACEAE Senecio pinnatifolius A. Rich, Sert. Astrolab. 117 (1834). Name change for Senecio lautus. Senecio lautus is considered to be a New Zealand endemic and the name S. pin- natifolius has been applied to all Australian members of this variable taxon. Senecio psilocarpus Belcher & Albr., Muelleria 8: 113 (1994). New name for Senecio sp. aff. squar- rosus (South West Swamps), a taxon with a scattered distribution between Wallan and south-eastern South Australia. It dif- fers from S. squarrosus in having fruits which are reddish-brown to brown and entirely glabrous. CACTACEAE *Opuntia leucotricha DC., Mém, Mus, Hist. Nat. Paris 17: 118 (1828). New weed record for Victoria. Opuntia leucotrichais the only naturalised species of Opuntia in Victoria with (minutely) pubescent segments. The spines are more or less pliable and sometimes curved ir- regularly. It has thus far become established on roadsides near Bacchus Marsh and Merbein. FABACEAE *Chamaecytisus palmensis (Christ) Bisby & K. Nicholls, J, Linn, Soc. Bot. 74: 114 (1977). New name for Cytisus palmensis. Fol- lowing a revision of Cytisus, this Canary The Victorian Naturalist Census Update Island native has been returned to the genus Chamaecytisus based on the pale cream flowers (usually yellow in Cytisus) with a tubular calyx (campanulate in Cytisus). *Lathyrus odoratus L., Sp. PI. 2: 732 (1753). New weed record for Victoria. Native to Europe and collected once in Victoria, from near Nhill. It differs from the 3 other species of Lathyrus naturalised in Vic- toria in having pubescent calyx and pods. *Lathyrus tingitanus L., Sp. PI. 2: 732 (1753). New weed record for Victoria, A Mediterranean species which has become established in the Portland and Mt Eccles areas of south-western Victoria. It differs from the 3 other species naturalised in Victoria in having long (more than 7 mm) peduncles and glabrous calyx and pods. *Lotus corniculatus var. tenuifolius L., Sp. Pl. 776 (1753). Name change for Lotus tenuis. Native to Europe, Asia and northern Africa, it is established across southern Victoria, most notably at Glengarry near Traralgon and Princetown near Port Campbell, This nomenclatural change follows the 1984 revision of the Lotus corniculatus com- plex in Can. J. Bot. 62: 1044-53. *Lotus preslii Ten., FI. Napol. 5: 160 (1836). New record for Victoria. Specimens have been collected from Walwa in north- east Victoria and Ferntree Gully near Melbourne. It is distinguished from other members of the Lotus corniculatus com- plex in having a generally longer calyx with teeth about 1.5 times longer than the tube. *Lupinus angustifolius L., Sp. PI. 721 (1753). Previously misidentified as Lupinus cosentinii, this weed from the Mediter- ranean region has been collected from pastureland near Ballarat and along a dis- turbed roadside near Warragul. Vol. 111 (4) 1994 Pultenaea lapidosa Corrick, Muelleria 8: 119 (1994), New name for Pultenaea sp, aff. sub- spicata Benth. Known only from near Omeo and near Beechworth, it differs from P, subspicata in having larger flowers, longer leaves with a long hair- like tip, and longer stipules less closely appressed to the stem and with a long, recurved tip. Sphaerolobium acanthos Crisp, Muel- leria 8: 151 (1994), New name for Sphaerolobium sp. (Grampians). Previously confused with S. daviesioides, a Western Australian en- demic, it differs from the other two Victorian species of Sphaerolobium (S. vimineum and S. minus) in its distinctive branches which are numerous, short (to 15 mm), divergent, and spinesent. *Trifolium squamosum L., Anioen. Acad. 4: 105 (1759). New weed record for Victoria. A European and north African species which has been collected once from Codrington near Portland in south-west Victoria. It differs from Trifolium lap- paceum inthe corolla being substantially longer than the often hairy and 10-veined calyx. HALORAGACEAE Haloragis odontocarpa f. octoforma Orchard, Bull. Auckland Inst. & Mus. 10: 93 (1975), New record for Victoria. This taxon is not uncommon in open dune areas in the Hattah Kulkyne National Park. It differs from the more widespread f. odontocarpa in having fruits 4-winged longitudinally between the sepals, the wings constricted in the centre. MIMOSACEAE Acacia ancistrophylla C.R.P. Andrews, J. Western Australian Nat. Hist. Soc, 1: 40 (1904) var, lissophylla Cowan & Maslin in Simon & Whibley, Acacias of South Australia edn 2, 206 (1992). New name for Acacia lineolata as used in Victoria: A. lineolata (in its restricted sense) is only found in Western Australia. 157 Census Update Acacia lanigera var. gracilipes Benth., FI Austral. 2: 325 (1864). Acacia lanigera var. lanigera Acacia lanigera var. whanii (F. Muell. ex Benth.) Pescott, Census Acacia 24 (1914). New records for Victoria. Acacia lanigera has been split into three varieties which are distinguished in the following key: 1, Peduncles 6-9 m long; phyllodes nar- rowly elliptic with gland at or near base; East Gippsland.....var. gracilipes 1. Peduncles 2-3.5 mm long; phyllodes linear-oblanceolate or elliptic with gland 2--13 mm above base................ 2 2. Branchlets with dense, spreading hairs; phyllodes elliptic to linear-elliptic; north-east Victoria.......... var, lanigera 2. Branchlets with more or less sparse hairs; phyllodes linear-elliptic to linear-oblanceolate............ var. whanit Acacia montana The two varieties, var. psilocarpa and var. montana, are no longer recognised since the presence of glabrous pods (in var. psilocarpa) is no longer considered to be a reliable taxonomic character in this species. MOLLUGINACEAE *Mollugo verticillata L., Sp. Pl. 89 (1753). New weed record for Victoria, This prostrate plant growing on recently inun- dated flats beside the Ovens River south of Peechelba is native to Africa, North America and presumed to be introduced in Queensland and now Victoria (col- lected 1994); however it is accepted as a native species in New South Wales. It resembles Glinus oppositifolius but has seeds without a conspicuous caruncle and Smooth except for 3-7 narrow dorsal ridges, MYRTACEAE Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. acerina » Rule, Muelleria 8: 223 (1994). Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. hedrai: - Rule, Muelleria 8: 227 (1994), > 158 Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. par- vifructa K. Rule, Muelleria 8: 229 (1994). Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp, pauci- flora Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. nipho- phila (Maiden & Blakely) L. Johnson & Blaxell, Contr. New South Wales Natl Herb. 4; 379 (1973). New records for Victoria and a resur- rected rank for an existing taxon, Subsp. acerina, restricted to the Baw Baw Plateau, is non-waxy and has fruits 4-7 mm long and 5-8 mm in diameter. Subsp. hedraia, restricted to near Falls Creek, Mt Bogong and Mt Arthur, is characterised by being waxy, in having sessile buds, and in having fruits 7-10 mm long and 10-15 mm in diameter. Subsp. parvifructa is known only from the Mt William Range in the Grampians, and has juvenile leaves with waxy petioles, pedicellate buds, and fruits 5-8 mm long and 6-8 mm in diameter. Eucalyptus niphophila, with its relatively broad adult leaves, has been reduced, again, to subspecific rank. Eucalyptus serraensis Ladiges & Whiffin, Austral. Syst. Bot. 6: 367 (1993). Eucalyptus verrucosa Ladiges & Whiffin, Austral. Syst. Bot. 6: 367 (1993), nom. illeg. [unfortunately this is a later homonym of £, verrucosa Colla (1834) and a new name must be devised for the taxon described by Ladiges & Whiffin]. Eucalyptus victoriana Ladiges & Whiffin, Austral. Syst. Bot. 6: 366 (1993). New records for Victoria, These 3 taxa replace Eucalyptus alpina in the sense of J.H. Willis, Handb. Pl. Victoria 2: 411 (1973), the type specimen of which is now considered to be a hybrid. The following key separates the three new taxa: 1. Usually a tall tree; leaves broad-lan- ceolate, not coriaceous; flower buds 7-11 per cluster, only slightly warty; Victoria Range in Grampians Eimeria. E. victoriana l. Small tree, mallee or shrub; adult leaves ovate to circular, coriaceous; The Victorian Naturalist Census Update minated by short point; flower buds often 1-3 (but up to 7) per cluster; northern Serra Range and Wonderland Range in Grampians.......E. serraensis 2. Adult leaves nearly circular, apex notched; flower buds 3-7 per cluster; southern Serra Range in Grampians Sate TAn E. verrucosa nom. illeg, Eucalyptus silvestris K. Rule, Muel- leria 8: 193 (1994). New record for Victoria. Included in the informal ‘superspecies’ odorata, a group of taxa related to the non-Victorian species E. odorata. The following key separates the 3 taxa in Victoria. 1. Adult leaves dull; St Arnaud to In- Blewood........cecceseees E. polybractea 1. Adult leaves sub-lustrous or lustrous: west of Horsham..........ccccsceescsseseseseres 2 2. Stems box-barked; well-drained loams ARS cin Ee Se aR E, silvestris 2. Box bark basal or confined to lower stem; infertile ridges or sandy rises RATA sariini liais E. wimmerensis PLUMBAGINACEAE *Limonium hyblaeum Brullo, Bot. Not. 133: 282 (1980). Previously misidentified as L. bel- lidifolium. A Sicilian weed species of saltmarsh areas. PORTULACACEAE Montia fontana subsp. amporitana Sennen, Bull. Geogr. Bor. 20: 110 (1911). Montia fontana subsp. fontana Two new records for Victoria. Subsp. chondrosperma was previously the only recorded subspecies of M, fontana from this State. A key to the 3 subspecies fol- lows: 1. Seed virtually smooth, 1.3-1.8 mm in diameter; flowers both solitary and in clusters or all clustered; Baw Baw PUACCAN ss ete Ay ine var. fontana 1, Seed distinctly tuberculate, 0.6-1.2 mm in diameter; flowers all or mostly solitary MN AXIIS.......0ccsrerernd 2. Seed-tubercles of dorsal rows conic, elsewhere elongated and less raised; Snowy Range, Strathbogie-Merton Vol. 111 (4) 1994 area, Benalla.........0...., var. amporitana 2. Seed-tubercles rounded at apex, vir- tually equal in size, shape and distribution across surface; wide- spread... var. chondrosperma RANUNCULACEAE *Ranunculus acris L, Sp. PI 554 (1753). New weed record for mainland Australia. This European species, found near Poowong in Gippsland, is similar to R. repens but is not stoloniferous, the flowers have a glabrous receptacle and the beak is less than 1 mm long. VERBENACEAE *Phyla canescens (Kunth) E. Greene, Pittonia 4: 48 (1899), Change of rank for Phyla nodiflora var. canescens. Following a recent revision in J. Adelaide Bot. Gard. 15; 109-28 (1993) this variety has been raised to species level. WINTERACEAE Tasmannia vickeriana (A.C. Smith) A.C. Smith, Taxon 18: 287 (1969), Tasmannia xerophila subsp. robusta Raleigh, Muelleria 8: 255 (1994), Resurrected name for Tasmannia aff. xerophila (Baw Baws) and a new name for T. aff. xerophila (Errinundra Plateau) tespectively. Tasmannia vickeriana is restricted to the Baw Baw Plateau and is similar to T. xerophila but has smaller leaves (usually less than 2 cm long) and burgundy coloured berries. Subsp. robus- ta differs from the type subspecies of T. xerophila in its habit —it is a shrub to small tree 2.5-4 m tall — and in having leaves 7-14.cm long and 2-3 cm wide; itis known only from Goonmirk Rocks and Mt Ellery in East Gippsland. Acknowledgements The following provided information or read the manuscript: Ian Clarke, Jeff Jeanes, Jim Ross, Val Stajsic, Neville Walsh. 159 The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria In which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria Established 1880 Registered Office: FENCY, ¢/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141, 650 8661. OBJECTIVES: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron His Excellency, The Honourable Richard E. MeGarvie, The Governor of Victoria. Key Office-Bearers April 1994 President: Dr. MALCOLM CALDER, Pinnacle Lane, Steels Creek, 3775 (059) 65 2372). Hon. Treasurer: Mr, NOEL DISKEN, 24 Mayston Street, Hawthorn East, 3123 (882 3471). Subscription-Secretary: FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (650 8661). 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Ltd, 91-97 Boundary Road, North Melbourne, 3051, Telephone (03) 329 0166 The Victorian Nat Volume 111 (5) 1994 ` ‘Ground Flora - Restoration and Management’ Conference Greening Australia Victoria Selected Papers MUSEUM OF VICTORIA | | | | | | | | vy The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria | _ 23179 since 1884 EDITORIAL POLICY Scope The Victorian Naturalist publishes articles on all facets of natural history. Its primary aims are to stimulate interest in natural history and to encourage the publication of articles in both formal and informal styles on a wide range of natural history topics. Authors may submit material in the following forms. Research Reports - succinct and original scientific communications. The style for reports should follow the traditional format of scientific papers in the Australian literature. Contributions - may consist of reports, comments, observations, survey results, bibliographies or other material relation to natural history. 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JEAN GALBRAITH ES TCT 28 OCI i Pn een y A The — Lar Rant 7 ictorian aturalist Volume 111 (5) 1994 October Editor: Robyn Watson Assistant Editors: Ed and Pat Grey | Proceedings First Things First - Planning a Restoration Project, OVES TUEN Mien ee EEEren a EEE S A aE sanoe a irane aea a aae 164 Does Sydney have Ground Flora, PUNE RaWN Seras Neree e EGE EO EREE 169 Rapid Growth in Brisbane - The Weeds are Willing, LEU AA AA E S A E E E E 172 Research Report The Discovery of Leadbeater’s Possum in a Lowland Swamp Woodland, by Ian Smales ....sscccscessescenrsereeresesensenssessneneneeeseenenseees 178 Contributions Update on the Status of the Spotted Tree Frog in the A.C.T., by Graeme Gillespie and Will Osborne ......scie iii 182 Some Granite Landforms of Wilsons Promontory, SME Pill 7. rose sscrussksexssuescestvenconyese acest Tithe sageetesedesdobsesbias atalen 184 Predator Calls and Prey Response, by Ed MCNQDD.u...s.scescsseesesessecssetesteenenteneeneeneeneenensenenaneaseneenecsenenne 190 Search for Tropical Seeds and Fruits on Victorian Beaches, by J. M. B. Smith ...csccsccscsecscessestesseeseetennessesscsssenensenseennennennennenens 196 Status of Tradescantia virginiana in Australia, by J. G. CONTAN ..s.siserseesreseerrireerereresrsntnnntreeeneeerrerrtenresrittstetentet 205 Book Reviews Field Guide to the Birds of Australia, by Ken Simpson and Nicolas Day, reviewer Charles Silveira „sssri 202 ISSN 0042-5184 i a a a a l U Cover Photo: Granite tors, Tidal River, Wilsons Promontory. Photographer: Rod Barker. 7 , Proceedings of the ‘Ground Flora - Restoration and Management Conference, Greening Australia Victoria, August 1991, Part three of a four-part series. First Things First - Planning a Restoration Project Ian Sluiter! Introduction The present landscape of Australia has been moulded by at least 60 000 years of anthropogenic influence, although the current level of environmental degrada- tion - which is indeed the major reason we attended the seminar - is a direct legacy of European man’s 200 years of occupation. I have started with an historic and prehistoric reflection, principally to im- press upon participants the importance of embracing a temporal or time transient perspective to any landscape rehabilita- tion project. It is easy to remember or imagine a landscape froma photograph or historic record, it is far more difficult to conceive where that landscape came from, what stage it was at - indeed where it may have gone if it had not become degraded. I will return to this concept later in the paper when we examine a current rehabilitation programme I am presently involved with in semi-arid north-west Vicoria. The principal aim of this paper is to establish some guidelines as to how to go about planning a restoration project. Other participants have contracted to limit their discussions to the ground flora. I fully intend to take a broader perspective and include larger and longer-lived peren- nial vegetation in my discussion. Indeed, grasslands and wetlands excluded, in most cases others have dealt with ground flora but here I will include the Overstorey or future overstorey in my considerations. Why restore landscapes? This is a simple question for which a multitude of answers might be received. On examining the Philosophy for the crea- tion and maintenance of National Parks, Shepherd and Caughley (1987) suggest that seven points of view are currently in existence. They are to conserve (1) scenery and nice animals, (2) soil and plants, (3) the physical and biological 'DENR Mildura Office, 253 Eleventh St, Vic 3500 164 state of the land at an arbitrary date, (4) representative examples of plant and animal associations, (5) biological diver- sity, (6) genetic variability, (7) biological processes. Shepherd and Caughley con- tend that the above viewpoints need not be mutually exclusive and although refer- ring to National Parks, are not too distant from the thinking of any group or in- dividual concerned with environmental restoration anywhere, The only omission with respect to the above is that the word ‘enhancement’ could be added as this con- cept is implicit with any environmental restoration project. Indeed to ‘conserve and enhance’ is not too distant from the pivotal words of the Victorian Government’s Flora and Fauna Guarantee (FFG Act 1988) - to ‘service and flourish’ in the wild. In reality most environmental restora- tion projects, either by accident or design, Manage to create what Bridgewater (1990) terms ‘synthetic vegetation’ or a modified landscape. In other words a new form of vegetation originating from the fusion of ‘exotic/adventive/invasive species’ along with the indigenous plant species, The ideal of ‘naturalness’ or ‘indigeneity’ may, in actual fact, be just that - an ideal or abstract concept. Not- withstanding, there is nothing wrong in aiming to restore a degraded block of land to near original condition. As stated ear- lier, others may simply be interested in conserving and enhancing the soil, plants or nice animals. In short an environmental restoration project might be undertaken fora variety of reasons. These will depend on the project originators ideals, concepts and backgrounds. The criteria for accep- tance of these reasons, be it by governments, committees of management or public opinion - is another Story for another day, The planning process In the following discussion I will at- The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings ‘tempt to argue that landscape restoration projects involve a series of carefully con- sidered stages. If they are not followed, more or less in order, difficulties can arise and implementation of the project can be ‘delayed or even worse, become impos- sible. Depending on the project, in particular on the urgency for works im- plementation, some shuffling of the order may be appropriate. Stage 1: The status of the land The first energy of any group planning a restoration project should be expended on establishing all aspects of the status of the land. A check-list of questions should be assembled. For instance: who owns the land? (e.g. government, private in- dividual, financial institution, the public); who manages the land? (e.g. committee of management, owner, tenant, licensee, squatter); are there any covenants on the land?; is the land subject to an antagonis- tic zoning proposal); are there potentially conflicting interests or inter- est groups? The answers to these questions provide the statutory and legal justification to pursue a_ restoration project. Stage 2: The inventory This stage in the planning process is basically an information gathering exer- cise which provides the background information for the next stage - the development of a management plant. In- formation about the land in question can be gathered from a number of sources. A useful starting point is to again make a check-list. For instance: Historical records, reports and ac- counts are particularly useful with a good starting point being the Land File at the Regional Offices of DCNR. Occasionally, a published account may exist of the area. The Country Fire Authority or DCNR may even have some idea of the fire history of the area. If the site occurs on public land, check with the Land Conservation Council Study Area series. These publications provide probably the most up-to-date and relevant multi- disciplinary information on public land in Victoria. Compile flora and fauna lists for the site. Various local clubs may have previously taken an interest in the area e.g. Bird Observers, Field Naturalists. These groups may ac- tually have lists already, If not, ask for their help in compiling them. Liaise with your local office of DCNR. Some of the plants and animals could be rare or threatened which may necessitate special ac- tion, Assess the location of the land in relation to other areas of vegetated land. Are they, or can they, be con- nected? What is the condition of the land? What is left? Topsoil, pest plant and animal infestations, potential for soil seed store of indigenous plants? What are the threats to the land? Are they to continue or can they be mitigated? Maps, plants and photographs - can usually be obtained from Government Department offices such as the Department of Conserva- tion and Natural Resources (DCNR), Department of Industry, Technology and Resources. Local Government or Map Sales Victoria. Depending on the size of the area, decide on a base mapping scale and map the important features (geological, biological, hydrological, etc.). Vol. 111 (5) 1994 The information gathered in this process provides the biological, physical, en- vironmental and historical reasons for pursuing an environmental restoration project. Stage 3: The management plan In almost all cases, a management plan should then be developed. The plan should incorporate all of the data col- lected in Stages 1 and 2 and should be logically structured. An example of how 165 Proceedings this should be done is provided by Buchanan (1989) ina very useful publica- tion entitled ‘Bush Regeneration: Recovering Australian Landscapes’. No matter what the structure adopted, however, the management plan should (a) have a clearly defined aim (e.g. to restore a degraded remnant of urban bush- land to near original condition), (b) set realistic objectives on how the primary aim is to be achieved, (c) set certain guidelines on how the plan is to be implemented, (d) follow-up with some assessment of the success of the project (e.g. on-going monitoring). The management plant should also con- tain a detailed staged costing for the project and the contributions from volun- teer sources, An important point to note here is that a number of potential sources of both funds and labour exist that may not be immediately obvious. I have out- lined just a few in Table 1. Stage 4; Implementation of the plan With all approval and documentation in place, implementation of the plan can proceed. From personal experience I can testify that the rewards obtained during this stage can be great indeed and certain- ly more than compensate for the inevitable frustration experienced during Stages 1-3. The latter is an important con- sideration as with any project, time and resources may be either wasted or better utilised. Keep the central aim of the project clearly in view. A number of aspects should be em- phasised here. No matter what the project, the human dimension should not be over- looked. In short, the project should be enjoyable, achievable and well explained to volunteers, neighbours and the broader public alike. A public relations or liaison officer could be appointed to assist in this area. This will help facilitate a spirit of co-operation. The project should also be well supervised and co-ordinated with the safety of volunteers and protection of as- sets paramount. Project supervisors should maintain a variety of jobs to be performed and be aware of the diverse skills represented within a volunteer task force. Progress should be well docu- mented - take photographs and videos, Hold regular social functions (e.g. an on- site BBQ, slide nights, guest speakers) - all of this will help to maintain group enthusiasm, which is undoubtedly the major ingredient to ensuring success. An example - rehabilitation of Pine- Buloke Woodlands in north-west Victoria I have chosen to reinforce the above planning process by applying it to a cur- rent program - the rehabilitation of Pine-Buloke Woodlands in north-west Victoria by officers of DCNR based at Mildura. The planning process in this cir- cumstance ought to be relatively easily followed, although as we shall see, dif- ficulties arise. Table 1. Sources of funds for environmental restoration projects A Federal 1 One Billion Trees (Greening Australia) 2 National Estate Grants Program (Australian Heritage Commission) Voluntary Community Conservation Grants 4 National Resource Management Strategy (Murray-Darling Basin Commission) — 5 Stream Management Fund (RWC) 6 Land and Water Resources Development Program 7 Endangered Species Progr: PWS 8 World Wildlife Fund hee B State 1 Tree Victoria (DCNR) 2 Community Salinity Grants (Salinity Bureau 3 National Soil Conservation Program + (DCNR) 4 Recreation Development Program 5 Save the Bush (ANPWS) C Other 1 Philanthropic Trusts The Victorian Naturalist ` Proceedings Stage 1: land status For the greater part, the project is con- fined to public land and, in most cases, National Parks (e.g. Wyperfeld National Park, Hattah-Kulkyne National Park and Murray-Sunset National Park). Because of this most of the programs can proceed unhindered as there are no problems with respect to the ownership of the land (i.e. the public), or with managers (i.e. the project originators are the land manager). Some short-term conflict of interests ex- ists, however, in that some of the area will continue to be grazed over the ensuing four years. Stage 2; the inventory In this circumstance DCNR as the land manager is extremely fortunate as much of the background information abut Pine- Buloke Woodlands is summarised in the LCC Mallee Area Review (1987). 1 will summarise the status of the plant com- munity as described by the LCC: Pine-Buloke Woodlands are considered to be one of the most threatened plant communities in north-west Victoria; over 20 species of plants listed as rare or threatened in Victoria by Gullan et al. (1990) are mostly restricted to this com- munity (see Table 2); the loss, degradation and fragmentation of the community has placed considerable pres- sure on three rare or threatened bird species - the White-browed Treecreeper, Spotted Bowerbird and Pink Cockatoo; the plant community has been extensively cleared for agriculture; those areas remaining on public land have all been grazed with most being extensively logged as well; over large areas the graz- ing impact has resulted in an essentially exotic ground flora; natural regeneration of the woody perennial vegetation under present circumstances is impossible be- cause of high total grazing pressures. The LCC has recognised the conservation value of this community and recom- mended that the largest remaining areas be included in the new Murray-Sunset National Park and an extension to Wyper- Vol. 111 (5) 1994 Table 2. List of rare or threatened plants which are mostly restricted in Victoria to Pine-Buloke Woodlands or degraded remnants thereof, Taxa Status* Glycine canescens Endangered Santalum lanceolatum Endangered Scaevola depauperata Endangered Swainsona sericea Endangered Amyema linophyllum Vulnerable Jasminum didymum var. lineare Vulnerable Marsdenia australis Vulnerable Ryncharrhena linearis Vulnerable Sida ammophila Vulnerable Sida fibulifera Vulnerable Acacia oswaldit Depleted Alectryon oleifolius Depleted Allocasuarina luehmanni Depleted Eremophila deserti Depleted Hakea leucoptera Depleted Hakea tephrosperma Depleted Santalum acuminatum Depleted Templetonia egena Depleted Acacia colletioides Rare Corynotheca licrota Rare Stipa setacea Rare Triraphis mollis Rare *Status = Victorian Conservation Status (Status) is from Gullen et al. (1990). NB: This list is preliminary and may not contain all woodland rare or threatened taxa. feld National Park. The past, present and future threats to the community have also been recognised by DCNR (see Table 3) and plans put in place to counter them. Grazing by domestic stock is currently being phased out; massive rabbit control programs are currently under way in areas where licences have ceased; vegetation monitoring programs incorporating photopoints, biomass sampling and floris- tic surveys have commenced and kangaroo populations are monitored an- nually with some culling initiated in areas with acute problems. At this stage no overall management plan has been written specifically for Pine-Buloke Woodlands, although a rehabilitation strategy for the community has been developed. 167 Proceedings Table 3. Threats to Pine-Buloke Woodlands Management Outcome Option as 4 ts . p . Tieg High N/A Loss & fragmentation of habitat I saving High Sell resource Loss of gene pool (loss of habitat) Grazing f ; X a. - domestic stock High Some advice Degradation of habitat - feral (goats, rabbits) High Advice and lack of natural Weed invasion High N/A vegetation Present Threats Grazing ; , - kangaroos Locally High Monitor & control Aim: to arrest habitat - domestic stock Moderate Removal degradation, revegetate - rabbits Low-Mod Rabbit Control degraded areas, conserve - goats Low ? Monitor and enhance habitat Weeds High The Future Grazing Low Control grazing Conserve and enhance pressure. & fauna locally extinct flora Reintroduce habitat, revegetate degraded areas The four aims of this strategy are: to describe the synecology of the com- munity; to outline the autecology of the key plant species; to investigate the as- sociation between threatened fauna which depend for their survival on the long-term existence of the community; to use the above information in order to develop management plans and programmes aimed at conserving and enhancing the community, At this stage it is probably worth reflect- ing on some previous comments. | suggested earlier that for most restoration projects a carefully considered series of Stages should be followed more or less in order, I then deviated from this line of thought and outlined an example where flexiblility has been necessary in the plan- ning and implementation Stages because of the urgency of the problem. That is, the high degree of threat faced by Pine- Buloke Woodlands and characteristic species. | make no apology for this and maintain that the actions implemented thus far in Hattah-Kulkyne, Murray-Sun- set and Wyperfeld National Parks nec- essurily must proceed a detailed Manage- 168 —d ment plan because of the reality faced by DCNR in actually instigating a manage- ment plan under the present land management conditions. Most of the preliminary actions, I believe, will be sup- ported and continued in the future. The most important immediate direction that DCNR can take with Pine-Buloke Woodlands or their future synthetic equivalents is to enhance the present habitat and conserve the inherent bio- diversity. This message could be echoed for all other restoration projects. References Bridgewater, P.B, (1990). The role of synthetic vegetation in present and future landscapes of Australia. In ‘Australian Ecosystems: 200 Years of Utilisation, Degradation and Reconstruction’ by D.A. Saunders, A.J.M, Hopkins and R.A. How. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 16, 129-134. Buchanan (1989). ‘Bush Regeneration - Recovering Australian Landscapes’. (TAFE: New South Wales.) Gullan, P.K., Cheal, D.C, and Walsh, N.G. (1990). ‘Rare * or Threatened Plants in Victoria’. (DCE: Victoria.) Land Conservation Council (1987). ‘Report on the Mallee Area Review’. (Govemment Printer: Victoria.) Shepherd and Caughley (1987), Options for Management of Kangaroos. In ‘Kangaroos - Their Ecology and Management in the Sheep Rangelands’, Eds G, Caughley, N. Shep herd and J. Short, The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings Does Sydney have Ground Flora ? Judie Rawling! "At the beginning of 1788 the bushland of Sydney - a mosaic of forests, wood- lands heaths, scrub, sedgelands and swamps - stretched from the coast, west to the Nepean-Hawkesbury River. Forests occupied the most fertile and well- watered lands - those close to the coast or associated with the rich floodplains of Nepean-Hawkesbury River. Rich grasslands spread across the clay soils of the drier Cumberland Plain, shrubby woodlands covered the poorer sandy soils of the Hawkesbury Sandstone ridges. Heath and scrub occupied shallow, sandy soils or very exposed coastal sites. Swamps filled poorly drained depres- sions, and mangroves and saltmarsh fringed sheltered coastal estuaries" (Ben- son and Howell 1990). Although this landscape had been oc- | cupied and modified by Aboriginal peoples for thousands of years, the most devastating changes to Sydney’s bush- land have taken place in the two hundred = years since European settlement. From the birth of the new colony, clearing and cultivation removed bushland completely and changes in burning frequencies and intensities and replacement of the native fauna with domestic stock, altered the bushland irrevocably. In the twentieth century, the encroachment of suburban development and, in fringe areas, the spread of the ubiquitous "hobby farm’ have resulted in the fragmentation and alienation of remnant bushland. In 1788 there would have been about 1,500 native species indigenous to the Sydney region (Benson and Howell 1990), of which about 150 were trees and the remainder shrubs, climbers, grasses, sedges, herbs and ferns, There were also mosses, lichens and fungi. Since then, the introduction of exotic weeds has added 1 Urban Bushland Management Pty Ltd, PO Box 62, Roseville, NSW 2069 Vol. 111 (5) 1994 considerably to this number, at last reck- oning the exotics making up about 10% of our total vascular flora, Yet in 1991 Sydney is virtually unique amongst cities of comparable size in its natural assets - proximity to the ocean, extensive inland waterways and large areas of relatively natural vegetation. Ap- proximately 41,300 ha of natural bushland is dedicated as public open- space, of which 30,000 is conserved in four National Parks, 1,800 in three State Recreation Areas and the remainder in small suburban reserves under the care and control of local councils. Perhaps an additional 9,000 ha remains in private ownership - although, to date, no-one has made a thorough inventory. Sydney’s bush, outside the National Parks and SRA’s is now suburban bush’, largely confined to creeks or steep slopes and in spaces unsuitable for housing or other development. Their management problems are all those of suburban origin; weed invasion from upstream or up-slope residential area; rubbish dumping; chan- ges in fire regimes; theft of bush rock and plants and the effects of intensive recrea- tional use. The cumulative effects of the suburban sprawl on Sydney's remnant bushland and, in particular, its effects on the remaining ground flora have been devas- tating, yet the persistence of a varied and rich ground flora, even in degraded sub- urban remnants, is often surprising. Its survival has been dependent on a number of factors: location; topography; soil type and land-use history. The bushland on the shallow nutrient- poor Hawkesbury sandstones remains surprisingly weed-free and away from the suburban interface, virtually intact floris- tically. Located on the rugged landscape of the plateau to south, north and north- east, sclerophyllous vegetation, largely dominated by species of Eucalyptus, 169 Proceedings boasts a rich ground flora, However, where housing and major roadways have been developed on the ridges and upper slopes. the insidious effects of urban run- off and of frequent hazard-control burning (or conversely, the total suppres- sion of fire) have acted to eradicate much of the native ground flora in small urban reserves. Coping particularly poorly with the steady influx of nutrient-rich drainage waters, the sandstone soils undergo dramatic structural and chemical changes which act to eliminate most native under- storey species. The indigenous vegetation is gradually replaced by succulent or moisture-tolerant exotics: Spider Wort or Wandering Jew Tradescantia albiflora; Ludwigia peruviana, Kikuyu Grass Pen- nisetum clandestinum, scramblers and vines such as Morning Glory Ipomoea indica and I. cairica; Madeira Vine An- redera cordifolia and Honeysuckle Lonicera japonica and, of course, the u- biquitous Privet Ligustrum sinense and L. lucidum. Nowhere is this more evident than along the creeks and gullies of Sydney’s North Shore where the long- term use of these areas as service corridors has resulted in gross disturbance and al- most total destruction of the indigenous plant communities. An airline flight into Sydney approaching from the north dramatically illustrates the extent of the problem - as all major creek systems are seen to be lined with dead and dying trees. The restoration of these degraded areas in current economic circumstances may prove to be impossible or, at best, highly unlikely, Given the high cost of rectifying the problems inherent in the established drainage system and the equally high cost of labour for bush regeneration projects, there is little chance that most of these degraded areas will be rehabilitated, Even if funds could be found to re-structure the drainage System; to pipe stormwater out- lets to the main creeks, to create wetland filters and retention basins and to per- Suade town planners to avoid sensitive 170 areas, we face the very practical problems of revegetating degraded bushland with indigenous species which may no longer exist in the area, or which may not be able to adapt to the altered environmental con- ditions. On a more optimistic note, recognising that its earlier actions have contributed to the degradation of suburban bushland, the Sydney Water Board has commenced work on a five-year bushland rehabilita- tion program. Funded through the $80 household environmental levy, bush regeneration work is currently underway in up toa dozen sites in the greater Sydney area- sites which have been carefully chosen for their ability to respond to ef- fective treatment and for the long-term viability of the remaining plant com- munities. However, only a very small number of bushland areas can be treated with existing funding and, although the Board originally undertook the work on the understanding that local government would step in when Board funds were exhausted and take on local responsibility for bushland maintenance, there would seem to be little evidence of that happen- ing. The shale-based vegetation com- munities throughout Sydney have fared badly, particularly on the western plain which stretches towards the Blue Moun- tains Escarpment. The inherently richer soils of the Wianamatta Shales and the gentle topography made these area early targets for agricultural development. In more recent years the farmlands have been replaced by factories and suburban houses as Sydney reaches west, almost to the foot of the Blue Mountains. On the Cumberland Plain west of Syd- ney city, less than 6% of the original woodland survives, only 3% of the river- flat forests and only half of one percent of the Turpentine-Ironbark Forest - a sin- gular plant community which once covered some 36,000 ha (Benson and Mc- Dougall 1991). When compared to the 85% of woodland and heath remaining on The Victorian Naturalist ' Proceedings the Hawkesbury Sandstone, these figures are particularly alarming and even more so when one considers that the great majority of bush regeneration projects tar- get bushland on sandstone soils. Despite its history of intensive use, iso- lated stands of remnant native trees may still be found in Western Sydney, usually retaining a shrubby or grassy understorey but this depends on past disturbances or grazing treatment. Where the soils have remained largely undisturbed, perennial native grasses such as Themeda triandra, Eragrostis spp and Microlaena stipoides still occur and close inspection will reveal a variety of herbs, ferns and ground or- chids. In western Sydney, on the gently un- dulating plain, the bushland suffers less than its eastern and northern neighbours from suburban run-off problems but more from the early introduction of agricultural grasses and crops, and their accompany- ing pastoral weeds. Where the soils have been ploughed or fertilised, exotic grasses such as Paspalum urvillei and P. dilatatum predominate and the early in- troduction of woody species such as African Olive Olea africana, Boxthorn Lycium ferocissimum and Blackberry Rubus fruticosus has seen these plants spread alarmingly through the open grasslands and woodlands - in many areas displacing the shrub layer and totally sup- pressing the ground flora. Opportunities to rehabilitate remnant bushland areas in Sydney’s west are rare, especially when compared to those on Sydney’s North Shore where bush regeneration projects are almost an in- tegral part of local government policy. Fortunately things are changing. With the publication of several popular books, the adoption of the western suburbs bushland project by the National Herbarium and the increased availability of government grant moneys in the past two years, at least four Western Sydney councils have taken small but definite steps towards estab- lishing bushland rehabilitation programs. The challenge for the Sydney bush regeneration fraternity, whose methods and techniques have been pioneered on the sandstone, will be to develop new strategies and new management policies to cope with a highly specialised group of plant communities, each with its own in- herent set of values and problems. In this task it is vital that experience and knowledge gained in other parts of Australia, especially in Victoria’s grasslands, be applied to the Sydney scene. References Benson, D and Howell, J. 1990, "Taken for Granted - The Bushlands of Sydney and its Suburbs’. (Kangaroo Press: Sydney.) Benson, D and McDougall, L. 1991. "Rare Bushland Plants of Western Sydney’. (Royal Botanic Gardens: Sydney.) Fairley, A and Moore, P 1989. "Native Plants of the Sydney District’, (Kangaroo Press: Sydney.) CAN YOU HELP? The FNCV office has no stock of The Vic.Nat. 111 (3) 1994, June. We need some to send to new members so if anyone can spare their copy we would be deeply appreciative. If you are able to help please mail your copy to the office or hand it to Felicity Garde at a general meeting. Vol. 111 (5) 1994 171 Proceedings Rapid Growth in Brisbane - The Weeds are Willing Maureen See! Introduction Greening Australia - Queensland (Inc.) first became directly involved in urban bush regeneration with a Brisbane City Council project in 1986 at Raven St Reserve, a 23 ha eucalypt woodland in Brisbane’ s northern suburbs. With the construction of a community bushland education and management facility on the site in late 1988, Council’ s role has broadened to encompass strategic planning and community education. The on-site regeneration work has continued and five years down the track, the Raven St Reserve site represents a valuable resource in terms of demonstration and experimentation with regeneration strategies and techniques. The emphasis on ground flora re-estab- lishment in disturbed areas of the reserve has increased significantly in the past two years, as a result of lessons learned from early work and the development of plan- ning programs and necessary support ser- vices, This paper provides an introduction to the flora, specifically to the ground flora of Raven St Reserve and outlines the ap- proaches taken to re-establish this stratum at sites exhibiting various degrees of dis- turbance. The Vegetation of Raven St Reserve The reserve exhibits a diversity of vegetation types within a relatively small area, These include eucalypt woodland with a grassy understorey, eucalypt wood- land with a heath understorey, casuarina thickets and moist gully and creekside communities. The healthy understorey in the south-west of the area presents a tangle of low growing prickly small- leaved shrubs in addition to herbs and grasses. The common ground flora species of the reserve are listed in Table 1. Table 1. Common understorey flora of Raven St Reserve, Key: s = successful; e = experimenting; t = to be tried Botanical Name DICOTYLEDONS Apocynaceae Parsonsia straminea Asteraceae Helichrysum diosmifolium Helichrysum ramosissimum Dilleniaceae Hibbertia cistoidea Hibbertia linearis Epacridaceae Acrotriche aggregata Monotoca scoparia Fabaceae Daviesia ulicifolia Daviesia umbellulata Dillwynia retorta Gompholobium pinnatum Hardenbergia violacea Hovea acutifolia Jacksonia scoparia Monkey Vine Sago Flower Guinea-flower Guinea-flower Native Tomato Prickly Broom Native Gorse Native Gorse Dogwood Common Name Yellow Buttons Small-leaved Parrot-pea Poor Mans’ Gold Native Sarsparilla Pointed-leaf Hovea Propagation Present Technique Usage Seed S Seed s Seed S Cuttings t Cuttings t Seed š -heath Seed S Seed, Cuttings t Seed, Cuttings s Cuttings t Seed t Seed s Seed s Seed, Cuttings S 1 j : Greening Australia - Queensland (Ine) 172 The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings Botanical Name Fabaceae cont. Kennedia rubicunda Oxylobium scandens Phyllota phylicoides Psoralea tenax Pultenea cunninghamii Goodeniaceae Goodenia rotundifolia Melastomaceae Melastoma affine Myrtaceae Leptospermum flavescens Oleaceae Notolea ovata Polygalaceae Comesperma defoliatum Proteaceae Banksia spinulosa Hakea florulenta Lomatia silaifolia Persoonia cornifolia Petrophile shirleyae Rubiaceae Pomax umbellata Thymeleaceae Pimelea linifolia MONOCOTYLEDONS Iridaceae Patersonia sericea Liliaceae Bulbine bulbosa Dianella laevis Dianella caerula Laxmania gracilis Thysanotus multiflora Orchidaceae Dipodium variegatum Geodorum neocaledonicum Microtis unifolia Smilacaceae Eustrephus latifolius Geitonoplesium cymosum Poaceae Cymbopogon refractus Themeda triandra Xanthorrhoeaceae Lomandra filiformis Lomandra longifolia Lomandra multiflora Xanthorrhoea johnsonii Vol. 111 (5) 1994 Common Name Dusky Coral-pea Oxylobium Phyllota Bullamon Lucerne Grey Bush-pea Goodenia Blue tongue Wild May Native Olive Matchsticks Golden Candles Hakea Crinkle Bush Geebung Conesticks Pomax Slender Rice-flower Silky Purple-flag Native Leek Pale Flax-lily Blue Flax-lily Slender Wire-lily Fringe-lily Hyacinth Orchid Pink Nodding-orchid Common Onion-orchid Wombat Berry Scrambling Lily Barbwire Grass Kangaroo Grass Wattle Mat-rush Spiny-headed Mat-rush Many-flowered Mat-rush Grass-tree Propagation Technique Seed Cuttings Seed, Cuttings Seed Seed, Cuttings Cuttings Cuttings Seed Cuttings Seed, Cuttings Seed Seed, Cuttings Cuttings Cuttings Cuttings Seed, Cuttings Cuttings Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed (fresh) Present Usage ene Bw re OHM enn ee Dae 173 Proceedings Approximately three quarters of the area is eucalypt woodland with an open grassy understorey dominated by Kangaroo Grass Themeda triandra. The dominant families of this vegetation type are the grasses Poaceae, peas Fabaceae, the lilies Liliaceae and lomandras Xanthor- rhoeaceae. Apart from the creek banks, where en- gineering work has caused significant damage, this community has sustained major impact from vehicle access, graz- ing, dumping and burning. Away from drainage lines enriched by urban runoff, this area exhibits little weed invasion be- cause of its characteristically poor soil which is derived from quartz. Species diversity is richest in the heath with at least 30 families and over 120 species of understorey plants. The dominant families in terms of species and/or abundance include Fabaceae, Epacridaceae, Proteaceae, Xanthor- thoeaceae and Liliaceae. A series of narrow moist gullies criss- cross the reserve bordered by bottlebrush Callistemon, native hops and button- wood, Two main species of ferns carpet the gully floors; Mountain Bracken Cul- cita dubia and Common Bracken Pteridium esculentum. Water flow occurs only after rain and weed levels are generally low since the catchment lies within the reserve area, Creekside vegetation is generally highly disturbed along the length of the per- manent watercourse, Downfall Creek, which runs along the north-eastern boundary, The natural understorey of Wild May Leptospermum flavescens, Lomandra, other shrubs, ferns and grasses has been largely replaced by exotic gras- ses and Lantana. The known weed flora comprise over 60 species with high representation in both the daisy Asteraceae and grass Poaceae families. Development of a Ground Flora Re- establishment Program For a number of mainly practical 174 reasons, in the early stages of regeneration work in the reserve emphasis was not placed on re-establishing ground flora in moderate to severely disturbed areas . These reasons included: suitable seed and tubestock material of the understorey plants was not readily available from nur- series; staff and volunteers were unskilled in correct seed collection, processing and storage techniques; the Brisbane City Council nursery was not set up to propagate and return dedicated plant material collected at specific sites; the woody tall shrub and canopy species such as wattles and eucalypts were well known and easy to collect and propagate so they received greater attention; planning was not carried out far enough ahead to grow suitable material at the required time; rampant weed re-growth problems on such sites, especially with vines and pas- ture grasses, discouraged the use of such low-growing species; tall shrub and canopy species provided a rapid physical dominance of the site and allowed easier site maintenance by Council staff using herbicides. In the past two years, with the estab- lishment of a planned bush regeneration program and additional resources, these issues have been addressed in the follow- ing ways: training of volunteers in the collection, processing and storage techni- ques; assigning a small team of individuals to this task has been most successful; targeting the collection of cut- tings for those species that have proven difficult to propagate by seed; devising a flowering and fruiting calendar of native flora to plan for efficient collection of seed; keeping detailed records of all material collected; devising a system in conjunction with the Council nursery for the labelling, propagation and return of all Raven St Reserve plant material; ensuring that adequate staffing is available for maintenance of disturbed sites and ad- dressing weed growth and ground flora conflict on severely disturbed sites through experimentation with commer- cial weed control products, The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings Assessing the Sites and Selecting Strategies The specific approach taken to re-estab- lishing ground flora at the reserve at a given site depends on the classification of that site into one of three broad categories of disturbance - minor, moderate and severe. Each is described below: Category Description Minor - presence of all native forest strata and ground and shrub layer not strongly invaded by exotics. - minimal physical and chemi- cal soil disturbance. - few weeds. - low weed seed bank present. - absence of highly invasive weeds. representatives of all native forest strata present but ground and shrub layers strongly invaded by exotics. - often good bush surrounds the site. - minimal to moderate physi- cal and chemical soil distur- bance. - moderate weed seed bank present. - highly invasive weeds may be present. native forest strata virtually replaced by exotics; some canopy trees may remain. - large areas involved. - major physical and chemical soil disturbance. - wide range of weeds present generally including highly invasive types. Moderate - Severe - Minor In areas judged to be minor, replanting of tubestock is not usually undertaken. Weeds are removed by hand or by chemi- cal means and native seed comprising a range of species and strata is broadcast on any areas of bare soil. Brushmatting with cut branches containing ripe fruit has been found useful in promoting recolonisation Vol. 111 (5) 1994 of such sites. The ground flora species broadcast have included Kangaroo Grass, Wombat Berry, Hardenbergia, Kennedia and Banksia. Mulch is raked from sur- rounding areas onto the site. Any compacted areas such as previous trail- bike and walking tracks are drained with trenches - to shed runoff and to allow mulch end seed accumulation. The sur- face is also broken up with tools such as crowbars to create a better seed-bed. Branches and other debris are strewn across old tracks to deter foot traffic. Sig- nage is also used on previously well used tracks and, in some cases, letterboxing is undertaken to notify residents of the reasons for closure. Moderate Similar techniques are applied to moderately degraded areas except that replanting nearly always accompanies weed removal, and burning may be ad- visable to provide favourable seed bed conditions and to assist in trash disposal. The latter point has been found to be an important but often overlooked con- sideration when working in areas remote from vehicle access. Clearing of a thick Lantana area amidst good bush caused significant damage to the site by increased foot traffic from curious walkers. Ap- propriate signs solved this problem but was ineffective against wallabies who feasted on the tender Kangaroo Grass plants so lovingly planted. Burning may be highly desirable in ecological terms but due to currentcommunity concern in Bris- bane City this is not always an option. Maintenance on such sites includes checking barriers, cleaning out drainage trenches, weeding and reseeding. Severe Such degraded sites present a quite dif- ferent challenge. The dominance of weed plants and their propagules combined with subtropical growth patterns and often permanent physical and chemical soil disturbance has particular sig- nificance for ground flora reinstatement. 175 Proceedings Early work in regeneration of such sites in Raven St Reserve highlighted three particular problems: i (1) The wind dispersed exotic pasture grass, Green Panic Panicum maximum grows to 2m under optimal conditions and rapidly colonises such sites following clearing, irrespective of the previous weed cover. These weeds, able to grow even in deep shade and with peak growth rates of up to 30 em per week, physically smothered delicate ground plants and starved them of nutrients, water and light. (2) Two particular vines, Morning Glory Ipomoea indica and Madeira Vine An- redera cordifolia were usually present on bad sites, Both possessed excellent dis- persal mechanisms (tubers or seed) and growth rates that spelt disaster for the slower growing plants around them, (3) Sloping sites presented an added problem of erosion, especially along creek banks, following weed clearance. Replanting does not provide stabilisation of such areas, The general procedure on severely degraded sites has, up until recently, focussed on clearance by machinery, hand or chemical means, followed by replant- ing with tube stock. Control of weed regrowth is carried out by a combination of brushcutting and spraying with Glyphosate. Currently, a number of com- mercial weed control products are being trialed to assess their value on disturbed Sites, Although, these products may pos- sibly restrict regeneration, it is believed they are efficacious in specific situations. These include sites where highly invasive vines are present and creek bank sites Where stabilising the slope after weed clearance is vital, Trials to date have focussed on three products, (a) Enviromar, designed for erosion con trol rather than weed suppression, was used on steep slopes at the perimeter of the reserve which were replanted follow- ing removal of household refuse and weeds, Although useful for stabilising 176 banks, ithas been rejected for use in future works because its nylon netting traps and chokes small wildlife such as bearded dragons. Furthermore, it performs little, if any weed control function, Interestingly, its unnatural appearance which some people feel is incompatible for bushland areas, was responsible for stopping householders from dumping on the site. Feedback indicates that they respected what appeared to be someone’s project, but would have continued to dump if the area had simply been cleared and planted. (b) Bidim, a geotextile has been used in road building and by the landscape in- dustry for many years as a weed suppressant, It comes in various thick- nesses, However, it is not recommended for general use because its synthetic con- struction is likely to suppress regrowth of native species as well as the weeds, it is unlikely to break down and is aesthetical- ly unappealing. On the other hand, it has been used to great advantage on a gully site badly infested with Madeira Vine. This vine which regenerates from large numbers of tubers dropping off into the soil has been effectively controlled by the Bidim overlay and ground cover plants have been successfully established. Erosion has also been controlled on the steep bank and, again residents have ceased rubbish dumping there. Although the Bidim overlay will have to be removed at some future date, this is only a small area, (c) Jute, being totally organic, has the advantage of not requiring later removal, is aesthetically appealing and will rot to allow native seed to germinate. This product is to be investigated by the Bris- bane City Council/ Department of Primary Industries in a joint project with the commercial company that developed it. Initial tests by DPI scientists indicate that seed (grasses) can germinate in the lighter grades whilst thicker grades offer effective weed control. All grades are Very successful in controlling bank erosion because the fibre has excellent The Victorian Naturalist , Proceedings ground hugging properties. It is intended that direct seeding of native plants (gras- ses, shrubs and trees) into the Jute mesh will be carried out in addition to tubestock trials. Further trials with on other materials such as Bagasse (a by-product of sugar- cane use) and Coconut fibre are planned in the near future. Further considerations in tackling regeneration of very degraded areas in- clude (1), clearing large areas of disturbed bush tends to encourage traffic through the area. This has been prevented to some degree at the reserve by leaving a visual barrier uncleared between the worksite and walking trails. Signs can also help by explaining what is happening on-site. Publicity, education and involvement of local people is always important. (2), where permanent drainage changes have caused wetting and nutrient enrichment of previously dry soils, the original ground flora may not survive or flourish in the altered conditions. Native species which prefer the new environment have been used with success at Raven St Reserve. (3), while the cost of commercial mattings is considerable, the reduction in main- tenance costs when used in severely disturbed sites appears to justify the initial establishment cost. Conclusion The current work being undertaken in ground flora re-establishment by Green- ing Australia at the Raven St Reserve is still at a highly experimental stage. The main foci in this area in the future will be in the extension of our seed/cuttings col- lection program, to trial a wide range of commercial weed control products and experiment with techniques such as hydroseeding and direct seeding. It appears that there is a lack of written documentation of trial work by prac- titioners currently working in the field of bush regeneration. It is likely that consid- erable time and effort could be saved if greater sharing of information on the sub- ject was encouraged. STOP PRESS -000- Australian Natural History Medallion The ANHM for 1994 has been awarded to Joan W. Cribb, a botanist specialising in mycology. Joan was nominated by the Queensland Naturalist Club. The presentation will be made at the FNCV meeting on Monday, 14 November and Joan will talk on ’Enjoying Plants’. Everyone is welcome to come. Vol. 111 (5) 1994 177 Research Reports The Discovery of Leadbeater’s Possum, Gymnobelideus leadbeateri McCoy, Resident in a Lowland Swamp Woodland Ian J. Smales! Introduction Leadbeater’s Possum Gymnobelideus leadbeateri was discovered in a lowland swamp woodland at Yellingbo State Na- ture Reserve in August 1986. Since that time, the population has been alluded to (Lindenmayer etal. 1989; Macfarlane and Seebeck 1991; L.C.C, 1993), and some aspects of its ecology have been inves- tigated by Thomas (1989). This report documents the circumstances of the dis- covery, describes the habitat occupied by the possum at this locality and compares it with the markedly different habitats which it occupies elsewhere, and with historical site records. Site description Leadbeater’s Possums were found at Cockatoo Swamp, 3.7 km south-west of Yellingho P.O. (37° 50S, 145° 29'E) at 110 metres above sea level in Yellingbo State Nature Reserve, Cockatoo Swamp is a floodplain of about 6 km long, rarely exceeding 200 m wide, and encompassing an area of approximately 170 ha, Cock- atoo Creek and the lower reaches of its tributary, Macclesfield Creek, flow through this depression, seasonally inun- dating it with flowing water for at least ten months of most years, Water depth varies but at the time of this discovery it was approximately 50 cm. The vegetation of the Yellingbo State Nature Reserve has been investigated in detail by McMahon et al. (1991). The site inhabited by G. leadbeateri is within a floristic community they have desi gnated Eucalyptus camphora swamp woodland, sub-community 1.1. It is characterised by Mountain Swamp Gum E. camphora , Tassel Sedge Carex fascicularis and Soft ' Healesville Sanctuary, PO Box 248, Healsville, VIC 3777 178 Twig-sedge Baumea rubiginosa. E, cam- phora is the sole eucalypt of the floodplain and at this location it grows densely forming an interconnected canopy at heights varying from 12 to 25 m, Bole diameters at breast height of these trees generally range from 10 to 30 cm. The ground layer is composed of a prolific variety of sedges, reeds and herbs. A dis- tinct thicket community, Leptospermum lanigerum Woolly Tea-tree shrubland, grows along permanent channels through the swamp. Two other £. camphora sub- communities occur in the Cockatoo Swamp basin, as do other shrub alliances dominated by Scented Paperbark Melaleuca squarrosa and Swamp Paper- bark M. ericifolia . Despite its small total area, the E. cam- phora woodland community of Cockatoo Swamp is the largest patch of this com- munity known to exist (McMahon and Franklin 1993). McMahon et al. (1991) consider it to be of national significance for both its rarity and its essentially undis- turbed condition. i Discovery of Leadbeater’s Possum The population of the Helmeted Honeyeater Lichenostomus melanops cassidix is under investigation at Cock- atoo Swamp. Canvas hides have been used for some observation of the bird's nesting behaviour. In 1985 a hide was folded and left at the site for future use. It Was positioned on the trunks of some fal- Jen Mountain Swamp Gums about 70 cm above the ground. On 25th August 1986, finding this hide to be only 20 cm above water level, GJ. Covington checked its condition at 1540 hrs. He and the author examined a nest composed of strips of E. camphora bark, which was found between the horizontal folds of the canvas. The nest was ap- The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports proximately 35 cm in diameter and 12 cm deep. Four possums ran from the nest, whilst one remained within it. This animal was hand-caught, identified as G. lead- beateri and released. On 26th August the nest was revisited and was vacant at 1100 hrs. Efforts were made to obtain further evidence of the existence of the species there. On 29th August 30 hair sampling tubes (after Suckling 1978), and seven nest boxes were positioned within a radius of 40 m of the original find. Five boxes were cleaned plastic ICI chemical con- tainers with internal dimensions of approximately 30 cm high, 30 cm wide and 25 cm deep. Two boxes were made of sawn treated pine with internal dimen- sions of 30 cm high, 28 cm wide and 10 cm deep. All were fitted with removable wooden lids and had 4-5 cm diameter entrance holes. The nest boxes were erected at an average height of 4 m on the south side of E. camphora trunks. On Ist September 1986 at 1300 hrs, one wooden box was found to be filled to a depth of about 10 cm with strips of E. camphora bark similar to those from which the original nest was constructed. This box was checked again at 1345 hrs on 3rd September and found to contain five Leadbeater’s Possums in a nest which now virtually filled the box. Three animals (a mature female and two young males) were examined and photographed. One young male was retained for ex- amination and was ear-tagged and released back at the site on Sth September. On 16th January 1987 the same nest box was found still to contain animals, al- though they were not counted, They included a fully furred juvenile male with eyes open, approximately 120 mm in Jength from snout to tail-tip and which was not on a nipple when found. A juvenile was still present when a more thorough examination of all the animals in the box was carried out on Sth March 1987. Three males, two of mature size and one sub-adult, and two females, one ma- ture and one probably immature, were Vol. 111 (5) 1994 there in addition to the juvenile. The ma- ture female was lactating, with one nipple enlarged. All of the possums from the box were ear-tagged on that occasion. All nest boxes have been checked oc- casionally since then, and Leadbeater's Possums have been seen in a number of them up to the time of writing, in May 1994, During a seven month period of 1989 Thomas (1989) studied the spatial dis- tribution, population dynamics and social organisation of Leadbeater’s Possum in a three hectare area of Cockatoo Swamp which included the colony found in 1986. Her study site was also inhabited by a second colony, and she found that these two groups interacted both with each other and with a further two from areas adjacent to her study site, There is evidence that G. leadbeateri is distributed along a much greater length of Cockatoo Swamp. In October 1989 M. Miller (Healesville Sanctuary) examined an abandoned nest of shredded bark in a fallen eucalypt, approximately 1.5 km downstream from the first colony. It was consistent with those constructed by Leadbeater’s Possums in the nest boxes (M. Miller pers. comm. 1989). In Septem- ber 1990, D. Franklin, M. Miller, R. Edwards and S. Vaartjes (Department of Conservation and Natural Resources and Healesville Sanctuary) observed three Leadbeater’s Possums in Cockatoo Swamp, at Macclesfield Ck., 1.6 km upstream of the first location. The animals emerged from, and then returned to, adrey approximately seven metres high in a Melaleuca squarrosa thicket. (D. Franklin pers. comm. 1990), The drey was typical of the twig structures of Common Ringtail Possums Pseudocheirus peregrinus which are very common there, but with the addition of much shredded eucalyptus bark when examined a few days later by the author. In February 1993 two Common Ringtail Possums emerged from this drey when it was checked by the author. 179 Research Reports Comparisons with other sites and records Since the rediscovery of Leadheater’s Possum in 1961 (Wilkinson 1961) it has been found at numerous sites within the Victorian Central Highlands where it is restricted to moist, montane, ash-type forests at elevations between 520 and 1200 metres above sea level (Linden- mayer ef al, 1989, 1990). These forests are dominated by Mountain Ash Eucalyptus regnans , Alpine Ash E. delegatensis or Shining Gum £. nitens. In such forests the distribution of the possum is positively correlated with both a dense understorey of Acacia spp. and large hollow-bearing eucalypts (Lindenmayer 1989). A number of the key requirements iden- tified for Leadbeater’s Possum in montane forests are not present at the site they inhabit at Cockatoo Swamp. E. cam- phora at this location have no hollows and the occupation of both a canvas hide and the ready utilisation of nest boxes indi- cates the paucity of natural nest sites within the swamp itself, The terrace on the immediate edge of the swamp supports some hollow-bearing Green Scentbark £. ignorabilis, Swamp Gum E. ovata and Narrow-leafed Peppermint E. radiata. Thomas (1989) found one active Leadbeater’s Possum nest in each of these three species. Smith (1984b) studied the diet of Leadbeater’s Possum in £. regnans forest. He considered that Acacia exudates formed a very significant portion of the animals’ diet in that environment. Acacias are an insignificant component of the E. camphora swamp woodland sub-com- munity in which the possum lives at Cockatoo Swamp and are only repre- sented by occasional specimens of Blackwood A. melanoxylon. Sallow Wat- tle A. mucronata and Silver Wattle A. dealbata are found in the drier vegetation communities adjacent to the swamp, but notin dense stands. However, other sour- a “i aaa carbohydrates which Smith 0 be important, such as honeydew 180 and manna, are present within this E, cam- phora woodland. Thomas (1989) found that the spatial distribution, abundance and social or- ganisation of the possums she studied at Cockatoo Swamp were similar to those reported for montane ash forests. There is only one previous record of G. leadbeateri specifically from a lowland swamp. It is a specimen in the Museum of Victoria collection (no. C4378), donated by F.V. Mason who collected it in 1909. Brazenor (1932) records Mason’s infor- mation about the animal, ‘It was taken many years ago... from the edge of Koo- Wee-Rup Swamp (long before the swamp was drained), about three miles due south from Tynong Railway Station. We were felling a tree and as it fell the little animal came from a hollow branch. I had never seen one before, though we had lived for many years on the place.’ Mason's location is at 38° 07'S, 145° 37°E and at approximately 20 metres above sea level. It is 32 km south of Cock- atoo Swamp. Commencing in 1857, Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp was progressively drained and cleared of natural vegetation (Roberts 1985), The alienation of Koo- Wee-Rup Swamp was so thorough, in fact, that consideration of its former vegetation is rather speculative (Mc- Mahon pers. comm. 1993). However, remnant Melaleuca ericifolia and Eucalyptus ovata (Opie et al, 1984) as well as anecdotal historical information (Roberts 1985) indicate close similarities of floristics and structure between the vegetation communities it supported then and those present today at Cockatoo Swamp. Loyn and McNabb (1982) have dis- cussed the Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp record following their finding of G. leadbeateri in montane vegetation of the upper reaches of that swamp’s catchment. They considered it, ‘a perplexing record as it comes from lowland forest (now cleared) very different from habitats known to be used by the possum at present.’ They pos- tulated that, ‘Perhaps the Tynong animal The Victorian Naturalist + Research Reports could have moved into lowland forest in response to population pressures, or tem- porary habitat changes in the mountain ash forest.’ The existence of Leadbeater’ s Possums resident in Cockatoo Swamp demonstrates that the animal is not reliant exclusively upon montane forests and that such an explanation for the Tynong record is unnecessary. Three historical specimens came from Bass River (M.V. nos. C4379, C438, C1965). The first two of these are the type specimens. Exactly where on the river they, or the third, was obtained, is uncer- tain. McCoy’s (1867) description states simply that the types were from ‘the scrub on the banks of the Bass River in Vic- toria.” Kemp (1979) says that they were collected by J. Peters, ‘near the village of Woodleigh in the Bass Valley’. The Bass River rises at about 280 metres above sea level near Ranceby and Woodleigh is situated at an elevation of about 50 metres. Hence, whilst uncertainty about the exact location obviates any meaning- ful comment about the vegetation community inhabited by the possum there, the elevation from which they came is much more like that of Cockatoo Swamp than the elevations at which it lives in the Central Highlands. Thomas (1989) and Macfarlane and Seebeck (1991) have both suggested the need for further study of the Leadbeater’s Possum population described here. Ini- tially a broad survey of its distribution in this area is clearly warranted. Whilst it is of considerable interest that the animal exists in this habitat, it is also unfortunate that lowland eucalypt swamp com- munities are themselves so rare that the present record adds little to the conserva- tion status of Leadbeater’s Possum, Acknowledgments Graham Covington asked me to look with him at ‘a nest of possums’, the first described here, and | am very grateful that he did. Don Franklin and Michael Miller happily provided details of their observa- tions. Virginia Thomas and Malcolm Macfarlane contributed to valuable dis- Vol, 111 (5) 1994 cussions about Leadbeater’s Possums at Yellingbo and Malcolm, Steve Craig, Peter Menkhorst and Andy McMahon made valuable comments on earlier drafts of this paper. I also appreciate the support of Lawson Willoughby and Gary Back- house in my early work on Helmeted Honeyeaters which permitted me to be in the right place at the right time to make this fortuitous discovery. References Brazenor, C. (1932). A Re-examination of Gymnobelideus leadbeateri McCoy. Australian Zoologist 1, 106-109. Kemp, D. H. (1979). John Leadbeater (1831 - 88): A Naturalist in Victoria. Victorian Historical Magazine 50,36-41. Land Conservation Council (1993). Melbourne Area, District 2, Review - Proposed Recommendations. ( L.C.C.; Melbourne.) Lindenmayer, D. (1989). The ecology and habitat requirements of Leadbeater’s Possum. (Unpublished Ph.D thesis, Australian National University, Canberra.) Lindenmayer, D. B. and Dixon J, M. (1992), An Additional Historical Record of Leadbeater’s Possum, Gymnobelideus leadbeateri McCoy, prior to the 1961 Rediscovery of the Species. The Victorian Naturalist 109, 217-218. Lindenmayer, D. B., Smith, A. P., Craig, S, A. and Lumsden, L. F, (1989). A Survey of the Distribution ‘of Leadbeater’s Possum, — Gymnobelideus leadbeateri McCoy. in the Central Highlands of Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 106, 174-178. Lindenmayer, D. B., Smith, A. P, Craig, S. A. and Lumsden, L. F. (1990). Erratum, The Victorian Naturalist 107, 136-137. Loyn, R. H. and McNabb, E. G. (1982). Discovery of Leadbeater’s Possum in Gembrook State Forest. The Victorian Naturalist 99, 21-23 Macfarlane, M. A. and Seebeck, J. H, (1991). Draft Management Strategies for the Conservation of Leadbeater’s Possum Gymnobelideus leadbeateri, in Victoria. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environment Research Technical Report Series No. 111 (Deparimentof Conservation and Environment: East Melboume.) McCoy, F. (1987). On a new genus of Phalanger. Annals and Magazine of Natural History 3, 287-288. McMahon, A. R. G., Carr, G. W., Race, G. J., Bedgood, S. E. and Todd, J. A. (1991). ‘The Vegetation and Management of the Yellingbo State Nature Reserve with particular reference to the Helmeted Honeyeater Lichenostomus melanops cassidix? (Ecological Horticulture, Clifton Hill; Victoria.) McMahon, A. R. G., and Franklin, D. C. (1993), The Occurence of Eucalyptus camphora (Mountain Swamp Gum) in the Yarra Valley and its significance for the Helmeted Honeyeater, The Victorian Naturalist 110, 230-237 181 Contributions Opie, A. M., Gullan, P. K., Van Berkel, $. C. and Van Rees, H. (1984). ‘Sites of Botanical Significance in the Westemport Region.’ (Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands: Melbourne.) Roberts, D. (1985). ‘From swampland to farmland - a history of the Koo-Wee-Rup Flood Protection District.’ (Rural Water Commission: Melbourne.) Smith, A, P. (1982). Leadbeater’s possum and its management. In ‘Species at Risk Research in Australia.” Eds. R.H. Groves and W.D. Ride. (Australian Academy of Science: Canberra.) Smith, A. P. (1984a). Demographic consequences of reproduction, dispersal and social interaction in a population of Leadbeater’s Possum Gymnobelideus leadbeateri, In ‘Possums and Gliders.’ Eds. A, P. Smith and I. D. Hume. (Australian Mammal Society and Surrey Beatty and Sons: Sydney). Smith, A. P. (1984b), Diet of Leadbeater’s Possum. Australian Wildlife Research 11, 265-273. Smith, A. P. and Lindenmayer, D. (1988). Tree hollow requirements of Leadbeater’s Possum and other possums and gliders in limber production Ash forests of the Victorian Central Highlands. Australian Wildlife Research 15, 347-362 Suckling, G. C. (1978). A hair sampling tube for the detection of small mammals in trees. Australian Wildlife Research 5, 249-252. Thomas, V. C. (1989). The ecology of Leadbeater’s Possum Gymnobelideus leadbeateri McCoy at Cockatoo Swamp, Yellingbo State Nature Reserve. (Unpublished Hons, thesis, Latrobe University, Bundoora, Victoria.) Wilkinson, H. E. (1961). The rediscovery of Leadbeater’s possum Gymnobelideus leadbeateri McCoy. The Victorian Naturalist 78, 97-102. Update on the Status of the Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri) in the Australian Capital Territory G. R. Gillespie! and W. S. Osborne? We reported recently in this journal (Os- borne et al,1994) on the discovery of a previously unknown historic record of the Spotted Tree Frog Litoria spenceri from the Cotter River in the Australian Capital Territory in 1993 (Osborne et al.1994). An examination of the original collection area was also reported, during which 16 newly metamorphosed frogs were lo- cated. These frogs strongly resembled juvenile L. spenceri. In our previous ar- ticle (Vol 111, 62) we referred to these juvenile frogs as L. spenceri; however, this was premature. Another morphologi- cally similar species, the Leaf-green Tree Frog L. phyllochroa (form A after Lit- tlejohn 1967), has been recorded from some streams draining the north west slopes of the Great Dividing Range in north eastern Victoria and southern New South Wales (Gillespie and Hollis un- publ. data; Osborne unpubl. data). Indeed the original L. spenceri specimen col- lected from the Cotter River had been mistaken for this species. Because of the added difficulty of identifying juvenile oe Saun Flora and Fauna Branch, Depariment of Conservation and Natural Resources, Heidelberg. VIC 182 frogs, four of the metamorphs located were retained and raised in captivity in order to confirm identification. By December 1993, they had attained snout- vent lengths of 28 mm and had developed adult colour markings (Fig. 1). The four specimens were carefully ex- amined and compared to several living L. spenceri and L. phyllochroa individuals. Litoria spenceri is distinguished from L. phyllochroa primarily by having full web- bing between the toes. The latter has only three quarter webbing (Cogger 1992). Litoria spenceri has a warty dorsum while Gla i : Fig. 1. One of the Cotter River frogs raised in captivity. (Photo: Will Osborne.) The Victorian Naturalist Contributions L. phyllochroa is invariably smooth, The other differences between the species re- late to coloration which may be less reliable. Litoria phyllochroa has a uniform green, olive or brown dorsum, which is bordered dorso-laterally by a cream or gold-coloured stripe. Behind the forelimbs this stripe generally becomes wider and is bordered below by a wide brown or black area along the flanks. In comparison most L, spenceri have mot- tled grey, brown, gold or olive dorsal surfaces, but some populations in the Central Highlands of Victoria are predominantly green. However, on these individuals the green is usually inter- spersed with gold flecks and the dorso-lateral stripe is much thicker than in L. phyllochroa, In addition, the dark lateral band typical of L. phyllochroa is absent in L. spenceri. Interestingly, all four juveniles from the Cotter River shared morphological characteristics of both species. All were immaculate green to olive dorsally, which made them look like L. phyllochroa superficially, how- ever, they had scattered large warts on their backs and hind limbs typical of L. spenceri, In addition, the webbing be- tween the toes was intermediate in extent between the two species. All individuals had a gold-coloured dorso-lateral stripe. Numerous dark flecks were present along the flanks, particularly above the arms, but the more solid, dark lateral area typi- cal of L. phyllochroa was absent. On the basis of these observations, the four specimens were included in a genetic analysis carried out on the L. phyllochroa group by the South Australian Museum. This analysis included material from numerous L. phyllochroa populations and also L, spenceri. Preliminary results of this work have indicated that the Cotter River Frogs are clearly a different species from L. spenceri and are also genetically distinct from L. phyllochroa (S. Donellan, South Australian Museum, pers. comm.). Litoria phyllochroa exhibits considerable regional variation; two distinct forms are currently recognised (Littlejohn 1967), Vol. 111 (5) 1994 along with at least one very closely related taxa in northern New South Wales (Mc- Donald and Davies 1990). While none of these resemble the Cotter River frogs it highlights the potential for much mor- phological variation and taxonomic subdivision within this group, According- ly itis possible that the Cotter River Frogs represent a new species. Further genetic analyses are required before the taxonomic status of the Cotter River Frogs is fully understood. So where does this leave L. spenceri? We have re-examined the original specimen collected from the Cotter River in 1975 and the accompanying photographs and are confident that this individual was L. spenceri. However, the current status of L. spenceri in the Cotter River remains unknown. Subsequent searches during the 1993/94 season failed to locate any additional frogs (Gillespie and Hollis unpubl. data; Osborne pers. obs.) and a more comprehensive survey is now planned for late 1994. Acknowledgements We thank Peter Robertson and Greg Hollis from the Department of Conserva- tion and Natural Resources, Victoria) for sharing their knowledge of Litoria spen- ceri and L. phyllochroa. Steve Donellan provided us with preliminary results of the electrophoretic analyses. References Cogger, H.G. (1992). ‘Reptiles and Amphibians. of Australia’, (5th ed.) (Reed, Chatswood; New South Wales.) Gillespie, G.R. and Hollis, G.J. (in prep.). Distribution and habitat of the Spotted Tree Frog Litoria spenceri (Anura: Hylidae), and an assessment of potential causes of decline, Littlejohn, MJ. (1967). Patterns of zoogeography and speciation in south-eastem Australian amphibia, Jn ‘Australian Inland Waters and Their Fauna’. Ed, A.H. Weatherly, (Australian National University Press: Canberra.) McDonald, K.R. and Davies, M: (1990). Morphology and biology of the Australian Tree Frog Litoria pearsoniana (Copland) (Anura: Hylidae). Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 114, 145-156. Osborne, W.S., Gillespie, G.R. and Kukolic, K. (1994). The Spotted Tree Frog Litoria spenceri: An addition tò the amphibian fauna of the Australian Capital Territory. The Victorian Naturalist 111, 60-64. 183 Contributions Some Granite Landforms of Wilsons Promontory, Southern Victoria S. M Hill! Introduction This paper describes and accounts for some of the granite landforms that are a part of the landscape at Wilsons Promon- tory, Victoria. Rounded and irregularly shaped tors, cavernous hollows in fresh granite, cave systems and fluted surface channels are some of the individual landforms that are features of the area. This study complements other papers that essentially consider the large scale landscape features of Wilsons Promon- tory (Hill 1992; Hill et al. 1994). Wilsons Promontory, the most southerly point of the Australian mainland, consists of granite bedrock flanked by Late Cenozoic sediments (Wallis 1980, 1988). Weathering of the granites, since their emplacement in the Late Devonian, led to the development of deep weathering profiles by the Mesozoic. Since this time, regional stripping of the deeply weathered material has been at a greater rate than the continued weathering of the granite resulting in the exposure of fresh granite bedrock as well as unveiling a range of granite landforms. Further landform development has also occurred by modification of the granite by surface processes, Landform Features Tors Residual boulders of granite known a tors are a common landform feature of Wilsons Promontory. Stripping of weathered material from between cores- tones of fresh granite in deep weathering profiles results in the exposure of tors (Linton 1955). Granite is basically imper- meable to water, except along joints and fractures, These structures are therefore a major influence on the access of weather- "The University of Melbou me, School of Earth Sciences Parkville, Victoria 3052 sae 184 ing solutions and the subsequent develop- ment of corestones and tors. Tor development is best where joint spacing is close enough to create the initial com- partments of fresh rock, but not so close that waters moving along the joint planes completely weather all the granite. The road cuttings between the Mt Oberon quarry and the Telegraph Saddle car park show the joint bounded corestones within a weathering profile and their genetic relationship with the overlying tors (Fig. 1). Summit tors (Gerrard 1974; Ehlen 1992), also called nubbins or castle kop- pies (Twidale 1982) occur as major outcrops of large tors (up to 20 m diameter) on mountain summits or on the high points of ridges, such as at South Peak and Mt Bishop. Other tors occur on steep valley sides, ‘valley side tors’ (Gerard 1974), such as at Great Glennie Island (Fig. 2), or occur along spur lines, ‘spur tors’ (Gerard 1974), as in the Boulder and Vereker Ranges. In many areas such as in the Boulder Range, the Vereker Range and the Glen- nie Group of islands (Fig. 2) there is a relationship between tor morphology and altitude, where tors essentially become smaller and more rounded in higher areas of the landscape. This relationship is due to a regular increase in the weathering of granite corestones within the upper zones of the extensive, deep weathering profile that developed into the Mesozoic Era (Hill 1992; Hill et al. 1994). Tectonic uplift of Wilsons Promontory since this lime has instigated the stripping of this profile to reveal the regular arrangement of tors now seen. Erosion of corestones and weathered material by colluvial and alluvial proces- ses can expose large dome-shaped oulcrops of fresh granite with widely spaced joints, such as on the slopes of Mt The Victorian Naturalist i Contributions \é orestone | —_= 2i: { | 1 F N EE Le e ; Saprolite \ Sy Coreston t Saprolite we’ — bS T poe oL Ae ER, 0 im les we Z i Y raa anie. SCALE r wil \ ae Fig. 1. Granite weathering profile on Mt Oberon road approximately 100 m north of Telegraph Saddle. Note the joint bounded corestones in the centre of the figure and their genetic relationship. with corestones (tors) exposed at the surface, a) Photograph, b) Annotated field sketch, Vol. 111 (5) 1994 185 Contributions Fig. 2. Low oblique air photograph looking south over Great Glennie Island and the Glennie Group. Note the greater regolith stripping along the west coast, the structurally controlled north-south trend of the island ridge, spur and valleyside tors and a slight rounding and decrease in tor size with altitude. Fig, 3. Low feature on th strongly oblique air photograph looking south tow northern side of this island is approxim, controlled by the sub-horizontal Joints that ca ards Cleft Island (Skull Rock). The cavernous ately 50 m in height. The base of this cavern is n be seen on the north-eastern (left hand) side of 186 The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Oberon (Hill 1992). The tors that have been mobilised downslope tend to be ir- regularly arranged at the ground surface, in contrast to the regular arrangement of in situ tors that often reflects the original joint pattern of the bedrock. Cavernous features Cavernous features at Wilsons Promon- tory range in size from centimetre scale honeycomb-shaped hollows (honeycomb weathering), to larger more irregularly ar- ranged caverns over tens of centimetres in diameter (tafoni), to complex cave sys- tems tens of metres long. Honeycomb weathering and Tafoni Honeycomb weathering and tafoni are common in areas of coastal exposure, par- ticularly on prominent headlands along the west and south coast, At South-East Point, large cavernous tors up to 10 mhigh occur within the lighthouse reserve. The development of similar features in other parts of Australia has been a contentious issue (Dragovich 1969; Bradley et al. 1978, 1979; Winkler 1979; Twidale 1982). Most workers tend to agree, how- ever, that the development of these features is due to moisture attack along with granular disintegration from salt crystallisation. The large cavern on the northern side of Cleft Island (also known as Skull Rock, because of the skull-like appearance of the domical granite exposure and its caverns) is an enlarged tafone (Fig. 3). This cavern is approximately 50 m high and almost 100 m wide. Disintegrated granite debris and wind blown sand cover the cavern floor and have accumulated to form a dune at the entrance. The outer surface of the granite on the island is indurated by a red-brown coloured material. Thin sec- tion and X-ray diffraction examinations of samples taken from similar exposures at Wilsons Promontory found this red- brown staining to be a surface coating consisting of a mixture of iron oxides/ hydroxides and goethite, mostly derived from the weathering of iron rich silicate Vol. 111 (5) 1994 minerals such as biotite (Hill 1992). The development of the Cleft island cavern began along a sub-horizontal joint approximately 15 m above sea level (Fig. 3), that breached the indurated veneer of the granite exposing it to moisture attack and salt laden coastal winds. Granular disintegration of the non-indurated inte- rior of the granite has progressed upwards from this joint. Earlier explanations for the development of this cavern, requiring sea levels to have been 15 m higher than present (Wallis 1981), or for there to have been localised tectonic uplift of ap- proximately 15 m (Spurgeon 1980) have not recognised the significance of the sub- horizontal joint in accounting for the elevation of the cavern’s sub-horizontal floor. Tafoni also occur within the highland areas of Wilsons Promontory, particularly in the north, such as in the Vereker Ranges (Fig. 4) and on the low hills inland of Corner Inlet. These features are unex- pected in such high rainfall areas away from the coast. Their development is probably the result of the transportation of large amounts of cyclic salts well into the highlands of Wilsons Promontory (Par- sons and Gill 1968; D. Ashton pers. comm.1992). Scanning Electron Micro- scope and associated Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis found that a white efflores- cence visible in the caverns consists of halite crystals that have grown in microfractures and between mineral grain boundaries (Hill 1992), Caves Enclosed cavernous features are com- mon within the granitic areas of Wilsons Promontory. They are essentially due to subsurface stream or coastal erosion of the weathered rock along the joint planes be- tween cores of fresh granite. Sea caves at the northern and southern ends of Water- loo Bay and at the north-eastern end of Great Glennie Island are due to weather- ing and subsequent coastal erosion along joint planes. 187 Contributions Fig. 4. Tafoni within the Vereker Ranges near Lookout Rocks, along the Vereker Outlook Walking Track, These features are well developed at approximately 200 m altitude, often several kilometres from the present coastline. Fig. 5. Well develo end of Tongue figure. ( ped flutings on the upper surface of an Point. Also note the later deve approximately 7 m high tor at the western lopment of cavernous weathering in the centre of the 188 ‘ The Victorian Naturalist Contributions An extensive cave with an entrance along the Sealers cove Walking Track approximately 2 km east of Windy Sad- dle, contains a series of caverns over 10m long and 2 min diameter. A small stream flowing through the lower-most cavern is responsible for the subsurface erosion of weathered material from between zones of fresh rock. The walls of the cave consist of in situ saprolite and corestones. Coral- line speleothems, similar to those described elsewhere by Finlayson and Webb (1985) and Webb and Finlayson (1984), occur in areas of water seepage. An eroded joint opening near the summit of Mt Oberon also contains similar coral- loid speleothems, that consist of opaline silica (opal-A) and allophane (Hill 1992). The speleothems have precipitated from waters enriched in silica derived from the weathering of silicate mineral in the granite. Dry valleys with sub-surface streams and caverns enclosed by an irregular ar- rangement of tors also occur. Their formation is the result of downslope movement of tors into valleys where they enclose the underlying stream. The Sealers Cove Walking Track crosses many such streams, particularly on the southern slopes of Mt Ramsay. Fluting Some coastal exposures of fresh granite contain surface channels or flutings. The best examples occur at the western tip of Tongue Point (Fig. 5) and near the mouth of Freshwater Creek at Waterloo Bay. Sea-spray and rainwater draining down the surface of these rocks facilitates chemical attack and mechanical abrasion, forming channels. Once initiated they will tend to gather more water, augmenting these processes. The channels stop ap- proximately 2 m above the high tide level because of their obliteration by marine abrasion. Similarly, but dendritically branching grooves occur within fresh granite near the summits of Mt Latrobe and South Peak. Ashton and Webb (1977) made a detailed description of these grooves. Vol. 111 (5) 1994 They found charred root material in some of the grooves at Mt Latrobe, suggesting that their formation is the result of an increase in weathering along the moss- covered roots of an extensive Myrtle Beech Nothofagus cunninghamii forest. This forest was burnt in the 1943 and 1951 bushfires. The release of carbon dioxide and organic acids from the roots would facilitate this localised increase in weathering. Conclusion A variety of granite landforms have been described and explained from Wil- sons Promontory, Victoria. Of particular interest are the tors, the cavernous weathering features and the examples of surface flutings and grooves in many of the outcrops. These landforms have es- sentially evolved as a result of deep weathering and later stripping of the weathered material to expose areas of granite bedrock. As a result joint bounded corestones of fresh granite are seen out- cropping as tors, Further alteration of the granite by surface processes, including physical, chemical and biological weathering, and coastal and fluvial erosion has led to the development of surface features such as honeycomb weathering, cavernous features and flut- ings. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank the large number of people who generously gave their time to discuss aspects of this work, in particular: Bernie Joyce (for his moral support, knowledge and direction as the author’s B.Sc (Hons) supervisor), Jim Bowler, Dave Ashton, Gary Wallis, Guy Tuddenham, Ben Oyston, Cliff Ollier, Maunu Haukka and Aldo Cundari. The University of Melbourne Botany Depart- ment is greatly appreciated for allowing use of the McLennan Laboratory at Tidal River, so too are the rangers at Wilsons Promontory National Park and the Vic- torian Department of Conservation and Natural Resources who provided a re- search permit for this study. 189 Contributions References i Ashton, D.H. and Webb, R.N. (1977). The ecology of granite outcrops at Wilsons Promon tory. Australian Journal of Ecology 2, 269-296, Bradley, W.C. Hutton, J.T, and Twidale, C.R. (1978). Role of salts in development of granit ic tafoni, South Australia. Journal of Geology 86, 647-654. Bradley, W.C. Hutton, J.T. and Twidale, C.R. (1979). Role of salts in development of granit ic tafoni, South Australia: a reply. Journal of Geology 87, 121-122. Dragovich, D.J. (1969). The origin of cavernous surfaces (tafoni) in granitic rocks of south ern South Australia. Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie 13, 163-181. Ehlen, J. (1992). Analysis of spatial relationships among geomorphic, petrographic and struc tural characteristics of the Dartmoor tors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 17, 53-67. Finlayson, G.L. and Webb, J.A. (1985), Amorphous Speleothems. Cave Science 12, 3-8. Gerrard, AJ.W. (1974). The geomorphological importance of jointing in the Dartmoor gran ite. fir ‘Progress in Geomorphology’. Eds E.H. Brown and R.S Waters. Institute of Brit ish Geographers Special Publication 7, 39-50. Hill, S.M. (1992), The granitic regolith and associated geomorphology of Wilsons Promon tory, Victoria, Australia. BSc (Hons) Research Report, (The University of Melbourne, School of Earth Sciences: unpublished.) Hill, S.-M., Ollier, C.D. and Joyce, E.B. (1994). Mesozoic deep weathering and erosion: An example from Wilsons Promontory, Victoria, Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie (in press.) Linton, D.L. (1955), The problem of tors. Geographical Journal 121, 470-487, Parsons, R.F. and Gill, A.M. (1968). The effect of salt spray on coastal vegetation at Wilsons Promontory, Victoria, Australia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 81, 1-10. Spurgeon, P. (1980). Wilsons Promontory. /n "Geological Features of the National Estate in Victoria’, Eds E.B. Joyce and R.L, King. (Geological Society of Australia Inc., Victoria Division; Melbourne.) Twidale, C.R, (1980). ‘Granite Landforms’. (Elsevier: New York.) Wallis, G.L. (1980) Wilsons Promontory: An introduction to its geology. The Victorian Naturalist 97, 194-199. Wallis, G.L. (1981). The geology of Wilsons Promontory Batholith, Victoria: a study of the composition, emplacement and structure of an S-type granitoid. MSc thesis. (Monash University, Department of Geology: unpublished.) Wallis, G.L. (1988). Wilsons Promontory. Jn ‘The Victorian Geology Excursion Guide’, Eds I, Clark and B, Cook. (Australian Academy of Science.) Webb, J.A. and Finlayson, B.L, (1984). Allophane and opal speleothems from granite caves in southeast Queensland. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 31, 341-349. Winkler, E.M. (1979). The role of salts in development of granitic tafoni, South Australia: discussion, Journal of Geology 87, 119-120. Predator Calls and Prey Response. Edward G. McNabb! In recent years the tape recorder has become a tool regularly used by biologists when conducting fauna surveys. Noctur- nal birds are located by their response, usually territorial, to replays of taped calls of their species. For example, this method was used with success by the author when assisting with a fauna survey of Westernport Catchment in Victoria during 1980-1981 (Andrew et al. 1981), The rare Sooty Owl Tyto tenebricosa was located at several sites by this method. Over a period of 16 years I have observed the response, (sometimes unexpected) of Species other than that in the recordin gin many cases by potential prey. These responses have been aggressive and there- "P.O. Box 408, Emerald, Victoria 3782 190 fore demonstrate that some prey species are willing to bluff, or even attack a predator. Similar behaviour has been ob- served in their diurnal counterparts, e.g. a Willy Wagtail Rhipidura leucophrys ‘diye-bombing’ a perching Australian Hobby Falco longipennis, or an Australian Magpie Gymnorhina tibicen pursuing a White-bellied Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster out of its (the Magpie’s) nest area (pers obs). It has also been observed that a predator can some- times be lured by the playing of a recording of a potential prey item. These notes recount a number of these occurren- ces, many of which show the Yellow-bellied Glider Petaurus australis to be quite aggressive toward large owls. It also describes interesting responses of The Victorian Naturalist Contributions some smaller potential prey species such as Leadbeater’s Possum Gymnobelideus leadbeateri. Observations Response by Yellow-bellied Gliders and Leadbeater’s Possums 19 November 1980 Ash Landing Rd., Gembrook State Forest (now Gembrook Regional Park, 37° 57'S, 145° 37°E) 2100-2200 hrs ac- companied by K.McNabb. A tape-recorded Sooty Owl territorial scream was played whilst surveying the area, Several Yellow-bellied Gliders had been noted earlier and one gave a loud grow] as it Jaunched into a long glide, following the centre of the road align- ment, down toward us. This volplaning phalanger seemed to be targeting meas a likely landing site so just as it was braking for a landing on some part of my torso | ducked down. The landing was instantly aborted and a nearby tree trunk was chosen. The glider paused on this, 2.5 m above ground then scampered to the upper branches to escape the spotlight beam. 20 May 1981 Yellingbo State Faunal Reserve, Yel- lingbo (37° 50’S, 145° 31°E). A tape recording of the Powerful Owl Ninox strenua "whoo whoo..." was played near the Woori Yallock Creek where a Power- ful Owl had recently been observed. A Yellow-bellied Glider made the typical ‘gurgling, shrieking’ calls from ap- proximately 100 metres away and within a few minutes had arrived in a Manna Gum E. viniinalis directly above me. While the tape was kept running it climbed down the tree trunk and was 6 m away when the spotlight was trained on it. This light seemed to irritate the glider, as it returned 3 m back up the tree to another branch, where it watched silently as photographs were taken, then moved back out of sight into the tree canopy. A Long- nosed Bandicoot Perameles nasuta in the roadside vegetation also responded to the ‘owl call’ by making the ‘sneezing’ alarm call of the species. Vol. 111 (5) 1994 7 August 198] Grey River Reserve, Otway Ranges (38° 40'S 143° 51’E), accompanied by M.., D. and K. McNabb and N. Eyre-Walker. This site was visited to investigate an uncon- firmed report that a Sooty Owl had recently been heard in the area. In clear, calm moonlit conditions, a tape recording of the Sooty Owl’s territorial downscale scream was played to attract the species. After 5 minutes of no response, a tape recording of the "whoo whoo...,." call of a female Powerful Owl was played for about two minutes in an attempt to attract a Powerful Owl. No owl responded but a Yellow-bellied Glider started to ‘growl and gurgle’ from roadside eucalypts 150 maway. The tape was then stopped for 3-4 minutes; the glider seemed to settle down and the vocalisations subsided. When the tape was restarted the glider resumed call- ing as it climbed to upper branches. It then glided 100 m toward us and alighted on a roadside tree trunk 50 m away. As the tape continued to run the glider ‘gurgled’ again as it climbed to the upper branches and launched itself into a glide directly toward the source of the ‘ow! call’, i.e. myself, standing on the road, playing the tape recorder. Once again it seemed that I was to become a landing site so ap- propriate evasive action was taken. This caused the glider to veer off and alight on an acacia trunk 20 m to the left of me. It then scaled the acacia and was observed in the lower branches for a few minutes before disappearing quietly. 23 September 1981 Gembrook Regional Park, accompanied by D, Andrew and B. Gillies. A Yellow- bellied Glider was observed approximately 100 m away, feeding quietly in a known Messmate Eucalyptus obliqua ‘feed tree’ over a period of 5 minutes. A tape recording of the female Powerful Owl "whoo whoo...." call was played for only a few minutes when the glider became vocal. While uttering the typical ‘gurgling shriek’ calls it homed in on us rapidly by climbing to high points 191 Contributions and gliding from tree to tree. It glided down into the ground cover approximate- ly 10 m from us and stayed nearby, vocalising occasionally, even after we had made ourselves visible to it. A little later a recording of the Sooty Owl territorial scream was played but the glider made no response. 10 October 1981 Gembrook Regional Park, accompanied by D. Baker-Gabb. Whilst listening for a Sooty Owl a Yellow-bellied Glider was heard calling approximately 50 m away. To attract a Sooty Owl the downscale territorial scream was played; the glider showed no interest. Having no success with the Sooty Owl tape we decided to play the Powerful Owl "whoo whoo...." tape to find out if this species was resident in the gully. Two Yellow-bellied Gliders responded by first calling, then gliding closer until they arrived in trees near us. One came close enough to be identified, by using binoculars, as a male. 30 October 1981 Gembrook Regional Park, accompanied by J. and P. Klapste, P. Peake and A. Ur. A tape recording of the Sooty Owl scream was played beside Black Snake Creek; two Yellow-bellied Gliders ‘homed in’ on us. 12 December 1981 Gembrook Regional Park, accompanied by members of Ringwood Field Naturalists’ Club, Yellow-bellied Gliders vocalised in response to the playing of Powerful Owl and Sooty Owl tapes, over a period of 30 minutes. 23 March 1983 Gembrook Regional Park, Ash Landing Rd., accompanied by M. Varty, at a site where she had observed a Sooty Ow! per- ched in a Tree-fern during daylight a few days earlier. The Sooty Owl scream recording was played. Within a few minutes a Yellow-bellied Glider arrived on the trunk of a Messmate beside us. Another arrived soon after. 192 2 February, 1985 Tweed Spur Rd, approximately 1 kilometre outside the eastern boundary of Cathedral Range State Park (37° 23’S, 145° 46’E). While spotlighting in Moun- tain Ash E. regnans forest at 2130 hours, a Leadbeater’s Possum was observed running down the trunk of a young Ash. When dazzled by the spotlight it hesitated long enough for a photograph to be taken from about 5 m below it, then disappeared up into the canopy. Twenty minutes later I started to imitate the "Whoo whoo....." call of the Powerful Owl to try and attract a Yellow-bellied Glider which had called from the tree tops 50 m away, The glider responded by gliding to a trackside Ash almost beside me but 1 was distracted by the return of the/a Leadbeater’s Possum which was now only 1-2 m above ground, 4 m away on another Ash sapling. I con- tinued to make the owl calls and photographed this possum several times as it seemed to be seeking the ‘owl’, Another Leadbeater’s Possum arrived within minutes and scampered up and down several saplings, jumping from trunk to trunk, obviously also looking for the ‘owl’, The Yellow-bellied Glider watched silently from a branch 10 m above me, 3 February 1985 Little River Track, Cathedral Range State Park (37° 22'S, 145° 46'E), In another Mountain Ash area | mimicked the Powerful Owl call hoping to again attract a Leadbeater’s Possum, A Southern Boobook Ninox novaeseelan- diae was the first to respond, gliding silently onto a trackside tree branch about 15 m away. Soon however, a Yellow-bel- lied Glider called from down the gully and began to work its way toward me. I con- tinued to call "whoo whoo..." and within 10 minutes it glided overhead and landed on an Ash 30 m away. The "whoo whoo- ing" was continued and the glider passed back overhead to land in another tree 30 m past me in the opposite direction. After a ‘gurgling’ call it glided back to the pre- vious tree. This back and forth behaviour The Victorian Naturalist Contributions was repeated several times. A second Yel- low-bellied Glider arrived during the above activity and called from a high branch. The ‘Powerful Owl’ call also stimulated 3 Owlet Nightjars Aegotheles tristatus to call. 5 September 1987 "Jack the Miners’, Dandenong Ranges National Park (37° 55’S, 145° 22’B), ac- companied by S. Craig. In a known Yellow-bellied Glider area, the Powerful Owl “whoo whoo..." recording was played for 5 minutes, with intention to demonstrate the response of these gliders to the call, No discernible response oc- curred. A recording of the Yellow-bellied Gliders’ typical ‘gurgling shrieking’ call was then played. Two Yellow-bellied Gliders replied immediately from 100 m away then glided in and alighted on tree trunks directly over us. 30 March 1991 Garvey Track, Otway Ranges (38° 34 S 143° 55’E), accompanied by C. Compton. A Yellow-bellied Glider was heard ap- proximately 150 m away soon after dark. The Powerful Owl "whoo whoo...” tape was played and the glider came toward us, uttering loud gurgling calls from each of several trees used as it climbed up to glide closer. It arrived in a trackside tree 15 m from us and climbed up to the canopy, then became quiet after a spotlight was used to illuminate it. 9 January 1992 Blanket Bay Track, Otway Ranges (37° 49'S, 143° 32’E), accompanied by S. Dewar-McNabb. The tape recording of the Powerful Owl "whoo whoo...." calls was answered repeatedly by a Yellow- bellied Glider. This glider came to within approximately 40 m and uttered the ‘gur- gling shriek” several times in response to the owl call. Another two Yellow-bellied Gliders arrived from other directions. None ‘homed in’ any closer than 40 m from us. 17 June 1992 Butterfield Reserve, Monbulk (37° 54'S, 145° 26'E). Powerful Owl "whoo Vol. 111 (5) 1994 whoo...." calls were mimicked several times over twenty minutes. A Yellow-bel- lied Glider responded by calling immediately on each occasion. Some time later a tape recording of the owl call evoked the same response. The glider was not seen. Response by Southern Boobooks 3 January 198] Fern Tree Gully Sector, Dandenong Ranges National Park (37° 52’S, 145° 18’E). A resident pair of Powerful Owls had raised one chick during the previous winter, The "whoo whoo...." tape was played at 2120 hours to ascertain whether the owlet was still present in its parents’ territory. Within one minute all three Powerful Owls had arrived beside the track in response to the tape. They were immediately attacked by a Southern Boobook which swooped on them repeatedly, making duck-like "quack" calls. The adult Powerful Owls left the area quickly but the owlet seemed a little confused and remained nearby, trilling occasionally as if hoping for its parents to return. This was in spite of the Boobook’s vigorous assault, which at least once in- volved contact as the young Powerful Owl’s head feathers were ‘parted’. The Boobook eventually (after 10 minutes) flew off toward its nest tree, 70 m away. Subsequent observations revealed 2 young Boobooks. 14 December 1990 *Ferndale’ The Basin, Dandenong Ran- ges (37° 51’S, 145° 21’E). In a gully inhabited by a resident breeding pair of Powerful Owls, the "whoo whoo..." call was mimicked in an attempt to attract the two juvenile offspring. A Southern Boobook appeared, gliding down silently, at speed, between the tree trunks, straight at the source of the ‘Powerful Owl call’, ie. my head. After taking evasive action as the attacker passed, the "whoo whoo..." call was resumed, The Boobook did not venture close again, probably be- cause it had recognised the caller to be a fraud. 193 Contributions Sooty Owl Response to Prey Recording 15 December 1981 Gembrook State Forest. When survey- ing a gully for Leadbeater’s Possum, an ancient, hollow, living Manna Gum stag was watched to see if nocturnal mam- mals, particularly Leadbeater’s Possum, emerged at dusk. No such mammals emerged. At 2118 hours a Sooty Owl screamed some distance away, up the gully. Ten minutes later it screamed close by. Nothing more was heard from this ow] for the next 22 minutes. At 2150 hours I began playing a tape of Leadbeater’s Pos- sum ‘chittering’ calls, Within 2 minutes the Sooty Owl landed 4 m from me, on a vertical Messmate trunk, about 25 cm. in diameter. The bird remained in this posi- tion, seemingly unworried by my spotlight, for 4 minutes, watching me as I admired its large taloned feet clamped onto the tree trunk. After flying away it was heard to scream further down the gully, Earlier, on 8 April 1981, also in Gembrook Regional Park, the Leadbeater’ s Possum tape was played. No owls responded but a single Leadbeater’ s Possum arrived (Loyn and McNabb 1982). Discussion Gliders, Possums and Bandicoots. The above reports demonstrate that Yel- low-bellied Gliders and to a lesser degree, other potential prey species, are intolerant of large owls in their area, Even in a known Powerful Owl territory the playing of the owl tape often (withexceptions, see 5 September 87) attracts an aggressive glider/s before the Owl actually responds, As described above a Yellow-bellied Glider may even glide directly at the tape recorder operator, apparently intent on at- tack, A few years ago at Healesville Sanctuary, Victoria, (c. 1990), a free- ranging Yellow-bellied Glider was observed running out along a limb, 10 m above ground, of a creek-side eucalypt. It ran up to a clump of coppice growth vocalising loudly, then turned around and returned to the tree trunk. The glider ran approximately | m up the trunk, paused to 194 look down ata dark shape beside the outer side of the coppice, then repeated its charge down to and out along the branch. With the aid of a strong torch the dark shape was identified as a Powerful Owl. The agitated glider repeated its ‘attack’ many times over 10 minutes, running to within 0.5 m of the owl, separated only by the coppice, before each retreat. (K. Mason pers. comm.). In 2nd of February 1985 incident the Leadbeater’s Possums’ response seemed to be more investigative than aggressive but had an owl actually been encountered it seems logical to assume that their mood would have changed to the latter. To hear the alarm call of a potential prey species has not been surprising, such was the response of the Long-nosed Bandicoot (20 May 1981). Other species to react to the tapes have been Common Brushtails Trichosurus vulpecula and Bobuck T. caninus, in both cases by making their alarm call. Sugar Gliders P.breviċeps have often responded vocally to predator calls, utter- ing their "yap--yap" alarm call, therefore warning others of their kind that an owl is nearby. The only occasion in which an active response was observed involved a captive colony of Sugar Gliders and Leadbeater’s Possums which shared an enclosure. When a possum or glider was taken in hand both species reacted by dashing around the enclosure, the former growling and latter chittering furiously. Leadbeater’s Possums showed more courage and some individuals jumped onto the handler (pers. obs.). Owls and Nightjars The response by Southern Boobooks during their breeding season was not un- expected. In both cases they were defending their nest and young from predators and demonstrated their ferocity in doing so. Boobooks have also attacked humans who venture near their nest or newly fledged young (P. Lewis pers. comm.). The Sooty Owl’s response to the Leadbeater’s Possum sounds was also ex- plicable as the owl was already close by, The Victorian Naturalist Contributions and if hunting would investigate any sound which could suggest the presence of prey. At asite in the Dandenong Ranges in 1991 a young Sooty Owl came down to investigate a softly squeaking audio cas- sette which was recording the owl’s calls. Both of these experiences suggest a less aggressive technique for luring birds to a photographer or observer. The Owlet Nightjars’ response (3 February 1985) was also probably a warning. Using Taped Calls While the inappropriate use of taped calls is to be discouraged, these experien- ces show some interesting less known interactions of nocturnal species; avian, arboreal and terrestrial. The ‘call up’ tech- nique involves some degree of stress for both the predator and prey species. The playing of owl calls often provokes resi- dent birds to come and ‘defend’ territory. Such a distraction can linger for an hour or more (pers. obs.) and therefore disad- vantage a pair of owls during critical stages in their breeding cycle e.g. if the female is absent from newly hatched chicks for too Jong, or when energy is expended seeking ‘trespassers’ instead of hunting for prey during peak feeding (of young) time. Potential prey species such as Yellow-bellied Gliders also demonstrate stress by their level of ag- gression when a Powerful Owl call is heard. It is therefore obvious that the tech- niques described must not be over-used! Some points to consider if intending to use tape recorded calls are: Is the species being ‘called up’ for a valid reason such as a genuine survey, or just for entertain- ment? Is the species already known to be resident? If so then there probably is no valid reason to disturb them. When the species has a known breeding season, €.g. Powerful Owl, winter/spring, avoid ‘call ups’ at this time (see above). As owls are more likely to respond during this period don’t persist with the tape once you have your data, You need only to hear or si ght it once for positive identification. These can be effective methods of locating some of the cryptic nocturnal species but are by no means the only ones. A preferred Vol. 111 (5) 1994 method is to ‘stake-out’ an area at dusk, morning or evening, listening for calls. Owls are more vocal during their courting and breeding season, and are likely to communicate with each other as they first become active at night and when going to roost in the morning. Yellow-bellied Gliders also are usually vocal soon after dusk so to hear their calls at this time gives an indication of where they live. The well known mammal survey method of ‘stag watching’ is often successful and does not cause stress to the animals. This involves quietly watching likely nest/roost trees at dusk to see if an animal or bird emerges. (e.g. as in Loyn and McNabb 1982). Of course the time honoured method of ‘spotlight walking’, i.e. walking through the forest scanning the trees and understorey for ‘eye-shine’, the light reflecting off the subject’s retina, is still applicable when surveying forests. This is a pleasant way to spend a few night hours enjoying the outdoors and causes little stress to the creatures sought. Acknowledgements I am grateful to the following people for their company, interest and support in the field: Margaret McNabb (deceased), Kel- vin McNabb, Deirdre Harris(McNabb), Norman Eyre-Walker, Debbie Andrew, Belinda Gillies, David Baker-Gabb, Jerry Klapste, Peter Klapste (deceased), Attila Ur, Megan Varty, Steve Craig, Charles Compton, Susie Dewar-McNabb, Richard Loyn and Paul Peake. For obser- vations of captive possums and gliders I thank Des Hackett, Kevin Mason shared his experience with the Yellow-bellied Glider. I am also most grateful to Susie Dewar-McNabb and Ed Grey for assis- tance and constructive comments on the manuscript. References Andrew, D.L., Lumsden, L-F., and Dixon, J.M. (1984). Sites of Zoological Significance in Westernport Region. (Dept. of Conservation, Forests and Lands.) Baker-Gabb, D.J- (1993). Interim List of Threatened Fauna in Victoria in 1993.(Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.) Loyn, R.H. and McNabb, E.G. (1982). Discovery of Leadbeater’s Possum in Gembrook State Forest. The Victorian Naturalist 99, 21-23. 195 Contributions Search for Tropical Seeds and Fruits on Victorian Beaches J.M.B.Smith! Introduction Tropical fruits and seeds have long been known to wash onto beaches in north- west Europe, and a rich if fanciful folklore developed concerning their origins and properties (Nelson 1983). It is now recog- nised that these somewhat rare objects, rather than coming from eagles’ nests or submarine trees, are the buoyant propagules of certain land plants growing in the Caribbean region, having travelled north-east across the Atlantic Ocean over a period of about 15 months in the North Atlantic Drift. Study of tropical fruit and seed transport over very long distances by sea drift has also been extended to other regions, both temperate (e.g. Gunn et al. 1976; Nakanishi 1987; Nelson 1978, 1988) and tropical (particularly Pacific, e.g. Guppy 1906, 1917; Ridley 1930; Smith 1990). Recently, interest in the topic has developed in Australia. On the east coast, studies have been undertaken in the Great Barrier Reef area on fruits and seeds drift- ing to small cays lacking mature plants of the same species (Buckley and Knedlhans 1986; Hacker 1990; Smith 1992; Smith et al. 1990). It has been concluded that the great majority of them come from islands to the east or north-east, in the Solomons- Fiji-Vanuatu-New Caledonia region (Smith 1992; Smith ef al. 1990). Many of the same sorts of fruits and seeds have also been found, in dwindling numbers south- ward, on the New South Wales coast (Smith 1991), and in northernmost New Zealand (Mason 1961). Inspection of wind and current patterns suggests south- ward drift in the East Australian Current down the east coast of Australia (Fig. 1), and subsequent drift at more southerly latitudes across the Tasman § i toi ea (Smith ; Department of Geography and Planning, The University of New England, Armidale, NSW, 2351 196 However, records of tropical fruits and seeds from beaches in southern and western Australia are few, and it would be of great interest to discover more about the tropical drift reaching this area and the routes by which it travels. Kenneally (1972) reported finds from the south- western corner of Western Australia, though several of the specimens he described lacked collection details. He showed that fruits or seeds of at least seven species drifted there from tropical sources, one or two others probably owing their presence to human-assisted transport. At least two of the types he recorded were collected on the south coast of Western Australia, and these have also been found further east. Nelson (1990) recorded four seeds of the widespread tropical liane Entada (probably £. phaseoloides) found at Twilight Cove on the Great Australian Bight, Western Australia, Guppy (1917) noted that two seeds of Caesalpinia bonduc had been found at unidentified locations in South Australia. Detailed and extensive study of strandline materials at Anxious Bay (South Australia), during an investigation of oceanic pollution by floating debris in 1991, turned up no specimens (N.M.Wace, pers.comm. 1992), In western Victoria, there is one report of a coconut found in 1988 at Discovery Bay (D. Booth, pers.comm. 1988), and in east- ern Victoria one record of an Entada seed in 1986 from a beach north of Rame Head (G.J.Andrews, pers. comm. 1988, in Smith 1991). No records at all are known to me from Tasmania, but a seed of Caesalpinia bonduc has been found at subantarctic Macquarie Island, and later grown into a substantial plant (Costin 1965). Approximate locations of known tropical drift fruit and seed discoveries along the southern coastline of Australia are included in Fig. 1. The Victorian Naturalist 4 Contributions EDDIES v Fig. 1. General pattern of surface currents around Australia (after Cresswell 1987) and approximate locations of tropical drift fruits and seeds found between south-west Western Australia and Victoria, C - Caesalpinia bonduc, E - Entada phaseoloides, K - Cocos nucifera; records from Western Australia whose collection locations are not known, or of specimens which were probably transported by people, are not included. Drift dispersal is the most spectacular and easily studied example of seed disper- sal over very long distances. Most plant species demonstrating long distance drift dispersal are tropical, and most have wide distributions reflecting the efficacy of this dispersal mechanism. Some drift seeds remain viable over years of flotation in seawater and thousands of kilometres of drift. Drift into temperate latitudes is, of course, likely to have no biogeographical or ecological consequence because prevailing climatic conditions will not permit establishment after germination even in those cases where the seed remains viable. Nevertheless, the topic has interest in demonstrating the potential of some plants to spread in this way, as well as in helping unravel the complex factors and patterns that result in floating Vol. 111 (4) 1994 objects and materials being transported over considerable distances. The purpose of the present note is to alert naturalists to the possibility of finding tropical fruits and seeds on beaches in Victoria and elsewhere in southern Australia, and hopefully thereby to collect a larger number of records and build up a picture of drift patterns in the region. As well as having great intrinsic interest, such a study is relevant to understanding and predicting the drift of a variety of other buoyant objects and materials such as oil, floating solid pollutants, and debris and survivors from transport accidents. Below, I discuss possible drift patterns, describe some of the fruits and seeds most likely to be found, and invite correspon- dence with any potential or actual finders of specimens. 197 Contributions Likely Drift Directions The general current pattern in the southern Australia region is shown in Fig. 1. Two major currents converge in the area east of Tasmania. The East Australian Current passes southward off Queensland, before typically developing into a series of large clockwise eddies off the New South Wales coast which drift south until they lose their identity in the south-east Tasman Sea; there is also ir- regular eastward drift towards New Zealand across the Tasman Sea (Cresswell 1987). To the south of the con- tinent, the West Wind Drift sweeps eastwards. Kenneally (1972) suggested that tropical fruits and seeds he recorded on beaches in the south-west of Western Australia were carried there by the West Wind Drift from the African region, al- though as some were apparently South-east Asian in origin, this also in- volved anticlockwise drift around the Indian Ocean, feeding Asian specimens into the West Wind Drift via the south- flowing currents off East Africa. Since the publication of Kenneally’s paper, another current has been identified, the Leeuwin, flowing south then east around Western Australia from the tropical seas in the Timor region to the Great Australian Bight (Cresswell 1990). There appears to be a clockwise current in the Bight, and currents near the coast further east (in- cluding those in Bass Strait) seem to be rather variable, However, floating objects are not propelled simply by currents since wind can sweep the shallowest layer of the water in directions different from those of the underlying current if it blows in the same direction for a day or more. Objects floating high in the water (or bobbing above the surface of rough water) are, of course, affected even more directly by the wind, The tracks followed by floating ob- Jects are therefore far from simple and in any one area are probably rather variable from time to time. Overall, it seems likely that most tropical seeds and fruits which 198 might be found on beaches in eastern Vic- toria and eastern Tasmania derive from the Coral Sea, while most of those in Western and South Australia, and in western Victoria and Tasmania, would come from the Timor Sea region via the Leeuwin Current. However, for the most durable floaters which have pantropical distributions (such as Caesalpinia bon- duc), origins in Africa or elsewhere cannot be ruled out. Further collections of specimens from the region may help elucidate details of drift tracks, as it al- ready has in the Coral and Tasman Seas. Descriptions of Common Drift Fruits and Seeds Photographs of drift fruits and seeds found on beaches in south-western Western Australia and in New South Wales have been published by Kenneally (1972) and Smith (1991) respectively. Here I provide some descriptive notes on the three types already recorded on the Australian south coast from south-west Western Australia to Victoria, and eight other types which seem likely to be found there. This is to give beachcombers some guidance, but it must be appreciated (and hoped!) that other types may also be col- lected in the area. Drawings of the eleven types described are provided in Fig. 2. Aleurites moluccana (Candlenut, Fig. 2b): a widespread rainforest tree in the South-east Asian/Melanesian region, also native to north-east Queensland and oc- casionally planted for its seeds as far south as northern New South Wales. The seed is used as a source of oil and in preparing some Indonesian dishes. It is frequently found washed up on tropical beaches in the Coral Sea region and has been recorded south to near Sydney, and in New Zealand. Sea-drifted specimens are invariably dead, often oozing malodorous oil, and on beaches are often found in pieces. The seed has been called ‘fossil prune’ due to its wrinkled, black ap- pearance. It is about 3 cm long and the same wide, and about 2 cm thick, with a smooth but lumpy surface, usually black The Victorian Naturalist 4 Contributions text and likely to be found on southern 1976, except for E. indica; not to scale). tonia asiatica, b - Aleurites moluccana, © - Calophyllum inophyllum, d - Entada phaseoloides, e - Pangium edule, f- Cocos nucifera, g - Neisosperma oppositifolium, h - Caesalpinia bonduc, i- Xylocarpus moluccensis, j - Excoecaria indica, k - Heritiera littoralis. Fig 2. Drawings of the drift fruits and seeds described in the Australian beaches (originally by P.J. Paradine, in Gunn et al. a - Barring Vol. 111 (4) 1994 199 Contributions but commonly with marine encrustations. Broken specimens show the shell to be about 3 mm thick, with a prismatic struc- ture. Barringtonia asiatica (Boxfruit, Fig. 2a): a small tree of coastal habitats throughout the South-east Asian/Melanesian region, including north-east Queensland, Its fibrous fruits contain a hard seed which, however, is always dead (if not missing) in far-drifted specimens. Fruits are 8-13 cm long and nearly as wide, with several (usually four) pronounced ridges running from base to apex which have led them to be described as “square coconuts’. They have been used as fishnet floats in parts. of Melanesia, and are common on beaches in Queensland, having also been recorded as far south as Moruya in southern New South Wales, and New Zealand. Caesalpinia bonduc (Grey Nickar, Nickernut, Fig 2h): an abominably spiny, scrambling shrub growing on bouldery headlands and in other habitats throughout the tropics, including northern Australia. Its seed is hard, pale grey, spheroidal, with fine concentric surface cracks, and about 1.5 cm across. It is perhaps the best driftseed in the world, having been found on beaches as remote from the tropics as Svalbard (Spitzber- gen) in the Arctic, and Macquarie Island in the Subantarctic, the seeds usually proving viable if the hard outer testa is nicked to allow entry of moisture before they are sown, They have been recorded in Western Australia, South Australia, New South Wales and New Zealand, and might be anticipated to turn up on almost any beach receiving ocean drift. Calophyllum inophyllum (Fig. 2c): a Spreading, shady tree growing beside aches throughout the South-east Asian/Melanesian including wrinkling after itis shed, over a thin layer of fibrous tissue, but after drifting for Some time these outer layers disappear leaving a smooth, brown or grey nut-like 200 organ which is often nearly perfectly spherical except for an apical point. It is 2-5 cm across, and often rattles when shaken due to the loose contained seed, which in a few cases is viable even after prolonged transport. Broken specimens show the shell to be 1-2 mm thick with a corky layer inside it. Drift fruits of this species have been found on beaches as far south as Ulladulla in southern New South Wales, and are widespread on beaches further north. Cocos nucifera (Coconut, Fig 2f): this palm is typical of beach environments all over the tropics, but its native range is certainly more restricted and probably in- cluded the Melanesian region but not Australia or South-east Asia. Narrow, small nuts are thought to represent the original, ancestral form, while the com- moner and more widespread large, rounded nuts are the result of selection over many centuries. The coconut palm is, of course, a most important plant in many ways, the fruits, fronds, trunks and buds all having valued uses. Although de- husked coconuts may also float, the main flotation tissue is the thick husk; coconuts lacking the husk are likely to have come from ships rather than travelled entirely by drift. When found on beaches, coconuts may be variously damaged or broken, but when intact are typically 20- 30 cm long, and often nearly as wide. They have been recorded south to Moruya in southern New South Wales, in New Zealand, and with a single record in western Victoria, Entada phaseoloides (Matchbox bean, Fig 2d): a massive, woody climber oc- cupying a variety of forest habitats including the inland margins of mangrove Swamps, Over most of the South-east Asian/Melanesian area, including north- east Australia, The seeds are smooth, dark reddish brown, irregularly disc-shaped, 4- 6 cm in diameter and 1-1.5 cm thick, with a scar (hilum) in a notch at one side where the seed was connected to its containing pod. Other species of Entada may also The Victorian Naturalist 4 Contributions produce similar driftseeds in the region. Most seeds are viable, even after prolonged drift. They have been found in south-west Western Australia, eastern Victoria, New South Wales and New Zealand, and are common on Queensland beaches. Excoecaria indica (syn. Sapium in- dicum, Fig. 2j): a mangrove tree whose distribution extends from India to the Solomon Islands, but does not include Australia. Its fruit is brown, woody and spheroidal, 2-3 cm across, cracking easily into three (rarely four) segments to reveal seeds within, which in far-drifted specimens are always dead. Each segment is itself divided by a longitudinal suture. Separate segments may be found on beaches, as well as intact fruits. They have been found on Great Barrier Reef cays, especially in the north, as well as in south- west Western Australia. Heritiera littoralis (Looking-glass Mangrove, Fig. 2k): a widespread tree of mangrove swamps and other coastal habitats throughout South-east Asia and Melanesia, and in Queensland. Its fruit is woody, grey-brown, ovoid, tapered at one end, 4-7 cm long, and marked by a prominent, diagnostic ridge or crest run- ning from base to apex. They have been found as far south as Woolgoolga in northern New South Wales, and in south- west Western Australia. Neisosperma oppositifolium (syn. Cer- bera odollam, Fig. 2g): a small beachside tree found throughout the South-east Asian/Melanesian region, but apparently absent from Queensland where it is replaced by closely related species. It produces an avocado-like fruit, whose outer tissues rot after it is shed from the tree leaving a corky, longitudinally divided ‘brain-like’ organ, 6-8 cm long, about 5 cm wide and 4 cm thick, covered by coarse, pale brown fibres. When found on beaches after lengthy drift, the fibrous covering may largely have eroded away, or it may be partly covered by marine encrustations, They have been recorded Vol. 111 (4) 1994 south to Sydney, and in south-west Western Australia. Pangium edule (Fig. 2e): a rainforest tree, also widely cultivated in the South- east Asian/Melanesian region for its seeds which are edible after cooking, but absent from Australia. The woody seeds are rather irregularly shaped, 3-5 cm long, the grey or brown surface being marked by a wavy pattern of fine ridges, with a large scar (hilum, where the seed was joined to the containing fruit) resembling lips. Far- drifted specimens are always dead. They have been recorded on cays of the Great Barrier Reef, and in south-west Western Australia. Xylocarpus moluccensis (Cannonball Mangrove, Fig. 2i): a widespread tree of mangrove swamps throughout South-east Asia and Melanesia, and in far northern parts of Australia. The spheroidal fruits, from which the tree gets its common name, split open to release large, ir- regularly shaped corky seeds which can drift long distances. However, far-drifted specimens usually become broken and unviable, and may be hollow and oc- cupied by encrusting fauna. They have been found as far south as Woolgoolga in northern New South Wales, as well as in south-west Western Australia. A Request to Beachcombing Naturalists [hope the above discussion and descrip- tions might arouse interest among those with the opportunity to investigate the cast-up debris on strandlines of beaches in southern Australia, and who may indeed already have found tropical drift fruits or seeds in such places without, perhaps, fully realising their nature or significance. It is impossible for a single person to investigate beaches in all parts of a large region, but as has already been proved in my studies of drift fruits and seeds reach- ing beaches on Australia’s east coast, information and specimens from many people can be collated to produce a coherent and meaningful overall picture. 201 Book Review I curate a large, expanding and unique collection from the Australian region, and am happy to identify specimens (if I can) and either incorporate them into the col- lection or return them to their finder, as requested. Records without specimens are also welcome, provided the identification is beyond doubt, but in all cases it is important for the place and preferably the date of the finding to be known, Reference Buckley, R.C. and Knedlhans, S.B, (1986), Beachcomber biogeography: interception of dispersing propagules by islands, Journal of Biogeography 13, 68-78. Costin, A.B, (1965). Long-distance seed dispersal to Macquarie Island. Nature (London) 206, 317. Cresswell, G. (1987). ‘The East Australian Current,’ CSIRO Marine Laboratories Information Sheet 3. (CSIRO: Hobart), Cresswell, G. (1990). The Leeuwin Current. Corella 14(4), 113-118. Gunn, C.R., Dennis, J.V. and Paradine, PJ. (1976). ‘World Guide to Tropical Drift Seeds and Fruits’. (Quadrangle/New York Times Book Co.: New York), Guppy, H.B. (1906), ‘Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific between 1896 and 1899, Vol. 2, Plant Dispersal.’ (Macmillan: London), Guppy, H.B. (1917). ‘Plants, Seeds and Currents in the West Indies and the Azores’. (Williams & Norgate: London), Hacker, J.B. (1990). Drift seeds and fruit on Raine Island, northern Great Barrier Reef, Australia, Journal of Biogeography 17, 19-24. Kenneally, K.F. (1972). Tropical seeds and fruits washed up on the south-west coast of Western Australia. Western Australian Naturalist 12(4), 73-80, Mason, R. (1961). Dispersal of tropical seeds by ocean currents, Nature (London) 191, 408-409, Nakanishi, H. (1987). Stranded tropical seeds and fruits on the coast of the Japanese mainland. Micronesica 20, 201-213, Nelson, E,C, (1978). Tropical drift fruits and seeds on coasts in the British Isles and Western Europe. 1. Irish beaches, Watsonia 12, 101-112. Nelson, E.C. (1983), Tropical drift fruits and seeds on coasts in the British Isles and Western Europe. 2. History and folk-lore. Scottish Naturalist 1983, 11-63. Nelson, E.C. (1988). Exotic drift fruits and seeds from the coasts of Britain and adjacent islands. Journal, Royal Institution of Cornwall 10, 147-177. Nelson, E.C. (1990), Seeds of Entada sp. from the Australian coast, Moorea 8, 12-13. Ridley, H.N. (1930), ‘Dispersal of Plants throughout the World.’ (Reeve: London). Smith, J.M.B. (1990). Drift disseminules on Fijian beaches. New Zealand Journal of Botany 28, 13-20, Smith, J.M.B, (1991). Tropical drift disseminules on southeast Australian beaches. Australian Geographical Studies 29, 355-369. Smith, J.M.B. (1992). Patterns of disseminule dispersal by drift in the southern Coral Sea. New Zealand Journal of Botany 30, 57-67, Smith, J.M.B., Heatwole, H., Jones, M. and Waterhouse, B.M. (1990). Drift disseminules on cays of the Swain Reefs, Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Journal of Biogeography 17, 5-17. a aa a aae Field Guide to the Birds of Australia (Fourth Edition) by Ken Simpson & Nicolas Day Publisher: Penguin Books Australia Ltd, 1993 392 pp, numerous colour and black-and-white illustrations and distribution maps RRP $29.95 Thisedition retains an attractive, colour- ful dust-jacket and a protective vinyl cover. As with previous editions, it is superbly illustrated and contains suffi- cient pertinent text with which accurate identifications of Australian birds can be made, It includes 11 colour plates that ae, been othe upon or added to, 52 _ OF replacement black-and-whi drawings, 93 amended distribution ie 202 and a new section, the ‘Rare bird bulletin’, that includes identification and other in- formation on new species recorded for Australia. It is however, still too heavy and broad for a field guide and would improve markedly if it was reduced in size and if the handbook section, excluding ‘Hints for bird-watchers’, ‘Where the birds live...’ and ‘Australian island territories’ checklists’ was omitted. The The Victorian Naturalist Book Review handbook section, although very interest- ing, is more suited to the CD-ROM version of this publication. As this field guide is an Australian contribution to or- nithology it would have been preferable for it to have been printed and bound in Australia and not Hong Kong. It is com- petitively priced (cf. Pizzey 1991: $24.95; Slater et al. 1989; $29.95) and is well worth purchasing. The following improvements and cor- rections are suggested:- Dust-jacket: refers to ‘third’ instead of ‘fourth’ edition*. Ken Simpson is inter- ested in ‘birds, other animals and fossils’ or ‘birds, mammals and fossils’ but not ‘birds, animals and fossils’ as this promotes the common misconception that birds are not animals. Front inner: the text ‘27, 28 Giant Petrels’ is printed upside down. The profile of the White-faced Storm-Petrel should be exchanged with that of the Flesh-footed Shearwater on the back inner. Back inner: 51 Fulmar Prion Width should read ‘10-14.5 mm’ not *10-14.7 mm’ as all other given measurements are to the nearest 0.5 mm. Contents: DNA-DNA hybridization begins on p290 not p291. The Index of Common names begins on p387 not p382. Introduction: the vultures of south and central America are not a relevant ex- ample in an Australian field guide. How to use this book... : the legend for distribution maps should explain the use of thick boundaries on the maps for Night Parrot, Paradise Parrot, Plains-wanderer and Northern Scrub-robin. Non-breeding distribution should be separated from records of vagrants: retain the hatching for the former and perhaps use smal] open circles for the latter. The legend for breed- ing bars could use ‘unseasonal rainfall’ instead of the awkward but correct “un- seasonable rainfall’. Stop Press: New Bird for Australia: distribution map does not require the text ‘RAOU Atlas’. Key to Families: the small-type sum- Vol. 111 (4) 1994 mary text could include number of species extinct in Australia. For instance for Emus it could read ‘Species: World 1; Australia 1 (2 extinct)’. The terms ‘True’, ‘Long- tailed’ and ‘Broad-tailed’ to describe groups of parrots could be dropped as they imply that the last two are not true parrots; the use of ‘Parrots’ for each group with the family name beside is sufficient. Field Information: a bold-type sub-heading such as ‘Remarks’ or ‘Other comments’ is required to separate text that follows the ‘Habitat’ sub-heading as text that refers to habitat often merges with text that does not. 96 White-faced Heron: comparative illustration of the head of 102 Reef Egret should be labelled Grey ‘morph’ not ‘phase’. 101 Intermediate Egret: only breeds along the Murray River in Victoria (Emison ef al.1987). 102 Eastern Reef Egret - White morph; “Legs yellow’ in the text but green in the plate. 106 Yellow Bittern: ‘only one Aust. record’ in the text but two on the map. 138 Osprey: comparative colour il- lustration should be labelled ‘143° not ‘145’. 139 Black-shouldered Kite: ‘Juv.’ in the text but ‘Imm,’ in the plate. 140 Letter-winged Kite: sometimes breeds in Victoria; ‘Juv.’ in the text but ‘Imm.’ in the plate. 142 Black Kite: dark ‘phase’ Little Eagle in the text should be ‘morph’. 143 Brahminy Kite: both ‘Ist year’ and ‘Imm.’ in the text. 145 Square-tailed Kite: breeds in north-central Victoria (Debus and Silveira 1989); ‘light morph’ of Black-breasted Buzzard in the text should be ‘Ist year’ and/or “2-3 year’. 146 Black-breasted Buzzard: 2-3 year’ should be illustrated. 147 Brown Goshawk: “Ist year’ and ‘2nd year’ in the text but ‘Imm.’ in the plate. 149 Grey Goshawk: breeding distribution in Victoria is very restricted and not widespread as shown; “Ist year’ in the text and ‘Imm.’ in the text and the plate, 151 White-bellied Sea-Eagle: ‘Ist year’ in the text and ‘Juv.’ in one plate (p73) and ‘Imm. Ist year’ in another (p67). 154 Spotted Harrier: ‘2nd year’ is illustrated but not described in the text. 160 Grey Falcon: “Ist year’ in the text but ‘Imm.’ in the plate. 161 Brown Falcon: ‘Ist year’ in the text but ‘Imm,’ in the plate. 162 Australian Kestrel: ‘Ist year’ in the text but ‘Imm.’ in the plate; ‘Szie’ in the text should be ‘Size’. 164 Malleefowl: isolated breeding populations in the Wychitella-Wed- derburn area and the Little Desert, Victoria are not shown. 203 Bush Thick-knee: distribution is exaggerated for Victoria. 204 Beach Thick- 203 Book Review knee; vagrant/s recorded at Mallacoota, Vic- toria (Emison et al. 1987), 327 Crested Pigeon: not a breeding resident south of the Great Dividing Range in Victoria, 336B White-tailed Black-Cockatoo: requires colour illustrations showing the bird perched and in flight, and a black-and-white comparative illustration of the head. 366 Crimson Rosella: three races described and illustrated but ‘Seven races exist’ in the text; distribution of each race is not labelled on the map. 381 Elegant Parrot: breed- ing is unconfirmed for Victoria (Emison et al. 1987). 384 Turquoise Parrot: breeds in East Gippsland, Victoria (LCC 1985). 405 Masked Owl: should be ‘morph’ not ‘phase’ in the text; illustrations should not be labelled ‘Race kimberleyi’ or ‘Race castanops’; map needs adjusting in line with Debus (1993). 407 Sooty Owl: illustration should not be labelled “Light morph’. 427 Red-backed Kingfisher: voice could be described as a ‘repeated mournful whistle’. 428 Sacred Kingfisher: too much lemon in the illustration. 433 Rainbow Bee- eater: ‘Imm.’ correctly lacks extended central tail-feathers in the plate but not mentioned in the text. 464A Bassian Thrush: colour illustra- tion of the race cuneatais required; the race lunulata should be numbered 464A’ not ‘464" in the plate. 464B Russet-tailed Thrush: colour illustration is required. 470 Pink Robin: ‘ticks’ while foraging and occasionally sings. 515B Mangrove Fantail: colour illustration is re- quired, 522 Chirruping Wedgebill: not confirmed for Victoria (Emison et al. 1987). 550B Mallee Emu-wren: occurs in porcupine grassTriodia spp. not spinifex; also occurs in sand-plain heath. 555 Striated Grasswren: Juv, has a shorter tail than adult; voice includes a sweet melodious song. 561 Western Bristlebird: does not occur in Victoria but in SW of Western Australia, 582 Western Gery- gone: does not occur in mallee in Victoria but does sometimes occurin woodlands (e.g. Black Box, Callitris and Casuarina) in the Victorian Mallee region. 594 Slender-billed Thornbill tace hedleyi: does not occur in mallee but in sand-plain heath; distribution of hedleyi is not labelled on the map. 601 Varied Sittella: races are illustrated but distributions are not labelled on the map. 610A Little Wattlebird: colour illustration is required, 622 Black-eared Miner: not confirmed for NSW as no specimens exist from there; colour illustration must be adjusted in line with the contemporary definition of a Black-eared Miner (McLaughlin 1993), Ob- servers must be made aware that for positive 204 identification, a miner must be examined in the hand and be shown to possess all 17 definitive Black-eared Miner plumage characters. Ob- servers must also be made aware that a continuum of intergrades occurs between the Black-eared Miner at one extreme and the Yel- low-throated Miner at the other (Ford 1981, Joseph 1986, McLaughlin 1993); and that, of the 17 definitive plumage characters, an inter- grade may display at least one that may vary any-where between the Black-eared Miner and the Yellow-throated Miner (McLaughlin 1993). 659 White-cheeked Honeyeater: dis- tribution should include far eastern Victoria. 686 Striated Pardalote: races illustrated but distributions not labelled on the map. 689 Sil- vereye: races illustrated but distributions not labelled on the map. 712 Black-headed Man- nikin: does not occur in Victoria (Emison et al.1987). 744 Little Woodswallow: vagrants to SW Victoria (Emison et al, 1987). * This has been corrected in a later print- ing References Debus, SJ.S. (1993). The mainland Masked Owl Tyto novaehollandiae: a review. Australian Bird Watcher 15, 168 - 191. Debus, $.J.S, and C.E. Silveira (1989). The Square-tailed Kite Lephoictinia isura in Victoria. Australian Bird Watcher 13, 118 - 123. Emison, W.B., Beardsell, C.M., Norman, Fl. and Loyn, R.H. (1987). ‘Atlas of Victorian Birds’. (Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands and Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union: Melboume.) Ford, H.A. (1981). A comment on the relationships between miners Manorina spp in South Australia. The Emu 81, 247 - 250. Joseph, L. (1986). The decline and present status of the Black-eared Miner in South Australia. South Australian Ornithologist 30, 5 - 13. LCC (1985). “Report on the East Gippsland area review", (Land Conservation Council: Melbourne.) McLaughlin, J, (1993). The identification of the endangered Black-eared Miner Manorina melanoti. Australian Bird Watcher 15, 116 - 123. Pizzey, G. (1991). ‘A Field Guide to the Birds of Australia’, Revised Edition. (Angus and Robertson: Sydney.) Slater, P., Slater, P. and Slater, R. (1989). “The Slater Field Guide to Australian Birds’, Revised Edition, (Lansdowne: Sydney.) Charles E, Silveira The Victorian Naturalist Contributions The Status of Tradescantia virginiana L. (Commelinaceae) in Australia: Naturalised or Historical curiosity? J.G. Conran! The Commelinaceae are a world-wide family of herbaceous monocotyledons with about 25 native and introduced species in Australia (Morley and Toelken 1983). Nevertheless, although many of the species are weedy, including the na- tive Commelina cyanea R.Br. (Auld and Medd 1987), there is only a single species reported for Victoria: Tradescantia fluminensis Vell., which is also known as T. albiflora Kunth (Willis 1970; Wilson 1994: Conn in press) - a Brazilian species and weed throughout warmer regions of the world (Green 1994). This plant is com- monly known as Spiderwort or Wandering Jew (Mabberly 1987). Al- though as the latter common name is derived from allusion to a pejorative and anti-Semitic Medieval curse/legend, Spiderwort should be encouraged as its common name. Although this species is abundant in many Australian gardens and along creeks in disturbed areas, especially in settled areas, it has been very poorly collected, reflecting the problem of under- collection of naturalised introduced plants. During the examination of herbarium collections as part of an account of the Commelinaceae for the Flora of Australia project (Conran in prep.), a single acces- sion of the Common Spiderwort Tradescantia virginiana L. was found in the collections at the National Herbarium of Victoria (MEL) in Melbourne. Native to north-eastern and north-central North America, T. virginiana grows in a wide range of habitats including woods, meadows, hillsides, rocky outcrops and stream edges (Small 1933), and also oc- curs along roadsides (Peterson and 1 Botany Department, University of Adelaide, SA 5006 Vol. 111 (4) 1994 McKenny 1968). It has spread as an ad- ventive to other areas in the eastern United States and Canada (Nova Scotia), and is also widely cultivated as an ornamental with numerous horticultural varieties (Bailey 1949). The MEL specimen was collected by J.W. Audas in January 1924, and is labelled as coming from ‘Anderson’s Creek near Mt Beenak where it was grow- ing along the creek. The nearest equivalent place names listed in the 1:250,000 Gazetteer (Division of Nation- al Mapping 1975) to Mt Beenak (BT:S, 145°42’B) are for two different Anderson Creeks located at 38°08’S, 14621°E (near Yallourn North) and 37°47’S, 145°12’E (near Warrandyte). As these creeks are 63 km SE and 45 km WNW of Mt Beenak respectively, neither are likely candidates for Audas’ location. Although the plant was from an ap- parently isolated locality, it was in an area where there was considerable logging ac- tivity late last century and early this century. There are numerous abandoned logging camps around the Mt Beenak area, although again none called or lo- eated on ‘Anderson’s Creek’, and it is presumably from the garden of one of these now defunct camps that the propagules of T. virginiana escaped, €s- tablishing itself along the banks of an adjacent creek. The question remains whether this taxon should now be considered to be naturalised in Australia. No material has been collected from any location since 1924, and it is now not possible to deter- mine the precise location of Audas’ collecting locality. The simplest solution to this problem would be to assume that 205 Contributions T. virginiana was naturalised in the early part of this century, and has failed to per- sist. Nevertheless, this species is a rhizomatous perennial which can, if con- ditions remain favourable, continue to grow and reproduce vegetatively. In addi- tion, the specimens at MEL have most of the flowers in the inflorescence with developing fruits. This suggests that, rather than failing to persist, there is a good chance that T. virginiana would have continued to grow in the area. Accordingly, this paper is designed to bring the need for the collection of intro- duced plants to the attention of interested members, with the request that anyone finding naturalised material of this species, either near Mt Beenak or anywhere else, make collections (record- ing the location and habitat details accurately so that others can easily find the site of infestation) and submit the material to the National Herbarium of Victoria at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne. This request for accurate distribution data and collections applies similarly to any other garden plants encountered in apparently ‘natural’ settings where they appear to have self-seeded or to have ar- rived without being planted there deliberately. For example, the lilies Peruvian Lily Alstroemeria aurea Graham, Red Hot Poker Kniphofia uvaria L. and Agapanthus Agapanthus praecox Willd. subsp. orientalis (F.M. Leighton) F.M. Leighton are relatively common as weedy garden escapes in the Dandenong Ranges, but there are virtually no collec- tions of these species in MEL. The collection of such taxa not only provides information for the preparation of flora accounts, but more importantly, allows for the monitoring of the rate of spread and/or Persistence of potential weeds so that they might be controlled if necessary before they become widespread and im- possible to control. For example, the reproductive potential of Kniphofia as a weed in Victoria was documented by 206 Conran (1987). Unless such plants are controlled or at least monitored early, they can spread to such an extent that it be- comes prohibitively expensive to remove them. This applies particularly in bush- land settings where the introduced plants are generally not perceived by authorities to be causing an economic threat until the environment has been degraded substan- tially. Therefore, the importance of collecting accurate data detailing the loca- tions, and rates of spread by garden escapes monitored through collections deposited in MEL, cannot be over-em- phasised. References Auld, B.A. and Medd, R.W. (1987). ‘Weeds: An Illustrated botanical Guide to the Weeds of Australia’. (Inkata: Melbourne.) Bailey, L.H. (1949). ‘Manual of Cultivated Plants’. (Macmillan: New York.) Conn, BJ. (in press). Commelinaceae. In ‘Flora of Victoria Vol, 3’. Ed. N. Walsh and T. Entwhistle, (Government Printer: Melbourne.) Conran, J.G. (in prep.). Commelinaceae. In ‘Flora of Australia,’ Ed. Orchard. (AGPS: Canberra.) Conran, J, G. (1987). The genus Kniphofia Moench in Australia. Muelleria 6, 307-310, Division of National Mapping (1975), ‘Australia 1:250,000 Map Series Gazetteer’. (AGPS: Canberra.) Green, P. (1994), Commelinaceae. Jn ‘Flora of Australia’. Ed. A. Wilson. (AGPS: Canberra.) Mabberly, D.J. (1987). “The Plant Book’. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.) Morley, B. and Toelken, H. (1983). ‘Flowering Plants in Australia’. (Rigby: Adelaide.) Peterson, R.T, and McKenny, M. (1968). ‘A Field Guide to Wildflowers of Northeastern and North-central North America’, (Houghton Mifflin: Boston.) Small, J.K. (1933), ‘Manual of the Southeastern Flora’. (Published by the author: New York.) Willis, J.H. (1970). ‘A Handbook of Plants in Victoria Vol. I: Conifers and Monocotyledons’. (Melbourne University Press: Melbourne.) Wilson, P.G. (1994). Commelinaceae. Jn ‘Flora of New South Wales Vol. 4°. Ed. G. Harden. (New South Wales University Press: Sydney.) The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Taxon description and figure legend Tradescantia virginiana (Fig. 1) is an erect, frequently hairy, herbaceous perennial with numerous single or sometimes basally branched stems 20-50 cm tall. The leaves are few, up to 25 cm long, 1-2 cm wide and grass-like. The several to numerous flowers are borne in an umbel at the stem apex in a leaf-like sheath. The sepals are ovate, 10-20 mm long, generally finely hairy, and tend to persist during fruiting. The three petals are broadly ovate, 15-20 mm long, short-lived and generally bluish-purple, although they can also be blue, pink or white depending upon the variety. The six anthers are yellow and borne on hairy stamen filaments. The smooth capsular fruits are 4-5 mm long, sessile dehiscent at maturity. The reddish-brown seeds are 2-3 mm long. The main flowering period is from Spring to Summer, with fruits maturing through Summer and Autumn. Fig. 1. A: Tradescantia virginiana L. apical portion of plant showing the umbellate inflorescence enclosed in an apical leaf-like sheath; B: Detail of the flower. Scale units = cm. Vol. 111 (4) 1994 207 The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria In which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria Established 1880 Registered Office: FNCV, c/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141, 650 8661. OBJECTIVES: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron His Excellency, The Honourable Richard E. McGarvie, The Governor of Victoria. Key Office-Bearers April 1994 President: Dr. MALCOLM CALDER, Pinnacle Lane, Steels Creek, 3775 (059) 65 2372). Hon. Treasurer: Mr. NOEL DISKEN, 24 Mayston Street, Hawthorn East, 3123 (882 3471). Subscription-Secretary: FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 650 8661). pte ROBYN WATSON, C/- FNCV, National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (650 8661, A.H. 686 6336). Librarian: Mrs. SHEILA HOUGHTON, FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (A.H. (054) 28 4097). Excursion Secretary: DOROTHY MAHLER (435 8408 A.H.) Sales Officer (Victorian Naturalist only): Mr. D.E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (571 2427). Publicity Officer: Miss MARGARET POTTER, 1/249 Highfield Road, Burwood, 3125 (889 2779). Book Sales Officer: Dr. ALAN PARKIN, FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (850 2617 A.H.). Programme Secretary: Dr. NOEL SCHLEIGER, 1 Astley Street., Montmorency, 3094 (435 8408), Group Secretaries Botany: Mr. JOHN EICHLER, 18 Bayview Crescent, Black Rock, 3143 (598 9492). Botany Research: Mr, JOHN JULIAN, 24 Chatham Road, Canterbury, 3126 (830 4795 A.H.) Geology:Mr. DOUG HARPER, 33 Victoria Crescent, Mont Albert, 3127 (890 0913). Fauna Survey: Miss FELICITY GARDE, 30 Oakhill Road, Mt Waverley, 3149 (808 2625 A.H.). Microscopical: Mr. RAY POWER, 36 Schotters Road, Mernda, 3754 (717 3511). ; The Victorian Naturalist All material for publication to be sent to FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra 3141. Telephone queries to 650 8661 or A.H. 435 9019. MEMBERSHIP Membership of the F.N.C.V. is open to any person interested in natural history. 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Telephone (03) 329 0166 Naturalist Volume 111 (6) 1994 December ‘Ground Flora - Restoration and Management’ Conference Greening Australia Victoria Selected Papers M OF VICTORIA MUSEU! il | I| | | | 1 by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria 25010 since 1884 THANK YOU FROM THE EDITORS The editors want to thank all our authors and referees for their support, time, effort and assistance in preparing articles for publication in The Victorian Naturalist. Also we particularly want to thank our proof readers whose help this year has been invaluable. The quality and reputation of the journal largely depends on your efforts and we trust your support will continue in the future. Members Mr David Berry Mr J Brown Dr William Cowell Mr John Delpratt Mr Richard Dilena Mrs Joan Faragher Mr David Farries Mr William Fordyce MrE Foster Ms Christie Freestone Mr Ken Green Mr Wayne Hill Mr Allan Holoyda Miss Annabel Howe Mr Andrew Isles Mr Mark Jenkins Ms Sally McCubbin Mr David McKelvey Ms Elaine Moir Mr Brendan Murphy Miss Mandy Naylor Ms Suzanne Parker The 1995 members New Members Blackbur South | Mr David Rawlings Red Cliffs Mr Jon Sago Ivanhoe Mr James Shiels Richmond Mr Kenneth Simpson Ocean Grove Miss Michelle Smith Canterbury Mr Glenn Soutter Brighton Mr Martin Storey East Sale Mrs Kathy Strickland Belmont Ms Helen Sutton Altona Mrs Jennifer Tonkin Orbost Mr Ross Williamson McCrae Mr Rolf Weber Camegie Mr M Wouters McCleod Prahran Joint Members Mainridge Mr Ken Cross and Richmond Ms Margery Cross Ringwood East Mr Reinhard-Ittner and Glen Iris Mrs A Reiner-Ittner Toorak Mr Peter Rappolt and Mentone Mrs Margaret Rappolt Knoxfield Ms Donna Smith and Ms Grabrielle Pellissier Murrumbeena Mr Rick Hamilton 1995 Membership Rates I hip renewal forms are enclosed fees are due on 1 January 1995, Early payment Vermont Northcote Glenhuntley Warrandyte Ballarat North Brighton Kangaroo Ground Balnarring Ringwood Canterbury Yarram Shepparton Colac Woodend Brunswick West Kew Sherbrooke with this issue. Please note that would be appreciated. Volume 111 (6) 1994 December Editor: Robyn Watson Assistant Editors: Ed and Pat Grey Honours Australian Natural History Medallion 1994, PAPO OPA UUT CR ASTADD esx N N EENE savers vas ENN, 212 Proceedings Orchids: Indicators of Management Success? MEAT SV AES EE EE E E E E EE E R 213 The Impact of Terrestrial Molluscs on Native Vegetation in South-eastern Australia, by Adrian Daniell .......ccccccccsseseesseeeeees 218 Weed Control in the Ground Flora, PONTO EE DOI OE RISONA eee eaea eE renea taal AEEA EEEE LEren 223 Contributions Kate Weindorfer. The Forgotten Partner of the Cradle Mountain Legend, by Sally Schnackenberg „sesser 227 Declining Frogs - Think Locally, Act Locally, by Sid Larwill and Alex Kutt ..ccssessccessescsecsesersenssecssseensensesenseees 233 The Nature of Anecdotes or Anecdotes of Nature? by George Appleby ...isss.sssisersoartiroesisresrinoanrantsseneriesrnisesrereeoreernarest 235 Some Insects found on Blackthorn, Bursaria spinosa Cav. Flowers, by G.A. Webb ....cccccccsecsesssesesseeesteettenenenescacenersenseeenenenes 238 Naturalist Notes The Raven and the Leaf Case Moth .....And Another Raven, by Cecily Falkingham, Naturalist in Residence........:+eseese 241 How to be a Field Naturalist (A new Victorian Naturalist series), Birdwatching, by lan Endersby .....ssssesssessrsersireriesrrsertserrersrenenennes 242 Beach-washed Little Penguin, by Peter McAlley ......-s:sessessesrserees 243 Book Reviews ‘Common Australian Fungi’ by Tony Young, reviewer TOM May ...c.sccccessessesesersenesneenennenrseseresseseeeneeneneeennenenys 244 ‘After the Greening’ by Mary E White, reviewer Jack DOUgIAS....sscsscssssssseeeesessernsenseancessnssneenesessessssscrscess 246 Obituary Alexander Noble Burns 1899-1994......ccsesesssseserserserseserssssunsensene 247 ISBN 0042-5184 Ee eo ee Cover photo: Joan Winifred Cribb, awarded the Australian Natural History Medallion 1994 for outstanding achievement in natural history (see page 212). Honours Australian Natural History Medallion 1994 Joan Winifred Cribb As a botanist, Joan Cribb has exercised a very great influence in the field of natural history in Queensland and is known throughout Australia for her books, written in collaboration with her husband, Dr Alan Cribb, on native plants of traditional and modern use. Natural history has always been part of Joan Cribb’s life. Both her parents were botanists and her father, D A Herbert, was Professor of Botany in the University of Queensland, where Joan graduated with Ist class honours in botany, following this up with an MSc. She lectured in biology and microbiology at Queensland Univer- sity of Technology and also for a while at Queensland University. Together with her husband she developed an interest in edible native plants, which, they claim, were often tried out on their two sons! This interest led to the publication of “Wild Food in Australia’ (2nd ed 1987), to be followed by ‘Useful Wild Plants in Australia (1981), ‘Wild Medicine in Australia (1981) and ‘Plant Life of the Great Barrier Reef and Adjacent Shores’ (1985). Joan’s main research area is mycology, particularly into Gasteromycetes and marine fungi. She has described thirty- nine new species, as well as recording numerous species previously unknown for Queensland and some for Australia. In 1992 she took part in the Cape York Scientific Expedition conducted by the Royal Queensland Geographical Society, collecting fungi, and is currently serving on the Scientific Committee for the Royal Queensland Geographical Society Ex- pedition to Musselbrook Reserve, Lawn Hill, Queensland. 212 She has written more than thirty scien- tific papers and the sections on Shore Vegetation and Aboriginal Uses of Plants in ‘Lake Broadwater: the natural history of an inland lake and its environs’ (1988). Joan, a member of the Queensland Naturalist Club since 1950, has played an important role in the Club’s activities, as councillor, twice as president, and as editor of the ‘Queensland Naturalist’ since 1985, during which time the journal has been significantly expanded. She has led numerous one-day excursions and several extended ones, where her good- humour and willingness to identify specimens and help beginners has done much to foster an interest in natural his- tory. She has lectured to a wide variety of community groups, run evening classes on plant identification, traditional uses of Australian plants and, jointly with her husband, several weekend courses on wild food. She has appeared on the children’s television programme ‘Wombat’, presenting segments on native plants; helped train rangers on Fraser Is- land and conducted programmes for the public, both there and at Brisbane Forest Park. In 1992 she was awarded the inaugural Queensland Natural History Award, in- stituted by the Queensland Naturalists Club, A love of natural history fills all Joan Cribb’s work and it is characteristic of her that the title of her Medallion address was ‘Enjoying Plants’. Joan Cribb was nominated for the sex ua by Queensland Naturalists ub, Sheila Houghton The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings of the ‘Ground Flora - Restoration and Management’ Conference Greening Australia Victoria, August 1991. Final part of a four-part series, l Orchids: Indicators of Management Success? Marita Sydes! Abstract Orchids are a very specialised group of plants displaying complex interactions with the environment through their mycorrhizal associations and specialised pollination mechanisms. These interac- tions cause orchids to respond in a specific and measurable way to some components of changing environmental conditions. These characteristics suggest that orchids have great potential as indicators of aspects of community health. As indicators, orchids could be used in parklands and reserves to assist in the development of management programs. Introduction Since the early 1900’°s there has been an interest in the use of bio-indicators to assess the impact of pollution and other activities on community and ecosystem structure. These earlier studies docu- mented the plant and animal species inhabiting streams and rivers that were receiving sewage and other organic was- tes (Majer 1983). These studies suggested certain assemblages of organisms repre- sented different quality and magnitude of disturbance. In Australia, orchids have not been used as indicator species but here Thope to put forward a case outlining the possible use of orchids as indicator species of successful land management. For the purpose of this paper I will use the following working definition of an in- dicator: 1. Its presence is indicative of the exist- ence of certain environmental conditions and its absence is indicative of the absence of these conditions (Majer 1983). 2. The health of the indicator must some- how reflect the health of the community. 3. The indicator should interact with different ‘levels’ in the community. 1 Division of Botany and Zoology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200. Vol. 111 (6) 1994 Traditionally, complex food webs such as those found in freshwater ecosystems have been used to monitor community health. The complex mycorrhizal associa- tions and elaborate pollination mechan- isms of orchids are of comparable com- plexity to animal food webs. The stability of these orchid associations would also be dependent on community health. In this paper I have chosen the goal of manage- ment success to be the maintenance of habitat diversity. By managing for habitat diversity an overall high species diversity may be maintained. To achieve habitat diversity, regular patchy disturbance may be required in some habitats; itis probably in these situations that orchids could be of most use as indicators. Such disturbances could include small, local events such as animal scratchings and individual plant deaths, or the less frequent but more widespread natural disturbances such as fire. Limitations of orchids as indicator species There are, however, several factors to consider in using orchid species as in- dicators: 1. Orchids are not abundant in all habitat types, e.g. dense forests, 2. Terrestrial orchids exist as under- ground tubers for part of their life cycle, making monitoring of many species difficult at certain times of the year, 3. Many orchid species readily colonise disturbed sites, e.g. Thelymitra pauciflora and Microtis unifolia. A manager would need to be careful in selecting species of orchid for use as in- dicators. ‘Weedy’ or colonising species are not likely to provide useful informa- tion for management of the community as a whole. Orchids as indicator species The orchid family makes up ap- 213 Proceedings proximately 10% of the worlds flowering plants and is viewed as one of the most successful plant groups. The family has adapted to many of the worlds different ecosystems. There are over 250 orchid species currently recognised in Victoria (Ross 1990), inhabiting a variety of areas including coastal, alpine and desert areas. Their wide distribution and relative ease of identification suggests that orchids may be a good source of possible indicator species. Orchid indicator species could be used to examine both the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem. The biotic interactions of orchids include complex mycorrhizal associations and elaborate pollination mechanisms. While the abiotic components of the ecosystem such as moisture, temperature, light and pollutants can also have significant ef- fects on orchids. We can learn a lot not only about orchids but also the ecosys- tems in which they survive by studying or monitoring in detail their responses to different environmental conditions. Ex- amples of information gathered while monitoring individual orchid species and orchid diversity are discussed below. Competition by other plant species A decline in orchid species richness in some cases can be attributed to a lack of suitable management practices to prevent competitive exclusion of plant species. For example, past records for the Hoch- kins Ridge Flora Reserve North Croydon and the Tindals Road Wildflower Reserve Warrandyte list approximately 40 orchid Species in each reserve (McMahon et al. 1990). Recent reports on these reserves show a dramatic drop in the number of species present in each reserve. The study of the Hochkins Ridge Reserve (Carr et al. 1991) revealed only 16 orchid species and at the Tindals Road Reserve (Mc- Mahon et al. 1990), only 5 species were recorded. Competitive exclusion by both indigenous and non-indigenous plants is thought to be largely responsible for the decline of orchids. For example a large Population of the Nodding Greenhood Pterostylis nutans monitored at Hochkins 214 Ridge Flora Reserve has been eliminated over a 7-year study period. This elimina- tion of the population was attributed to the invasion of the orchid colony by Large Quaking Grass Briza maxima. It is thought that weed invasion such as this directly competes with the orchids for light and moisture. The long-term absence of fire in both the Hochkins Ridge and Tindals Road Reser- ves may also be responsible for the decline in orchid species numbers. At these sites the indigenous ground stratum, Silver-topped Wallaby Grass Chionochloa pallida, may without the presence of fire become so dense that it adversely affects the orchid populations. If fire was imple- mented as a management tool it is likely that the gaps formed in the vegetation would be suitable for many orchids and other plants present. These plants could be present in the soil seed bank or as dormant underground stems which have been un- able to compete with the dense vegetation. Thus decline in orchid species in these cases may be indicative of the lack of fire in these communities. This work also shows that other species haye become extinct. This is probably chiefly due to the increased competition by plants present. It is possible more species will disappear if active management is not undertaken. So in this example it appears that the monitoring of the orchids at these reserves may reflect the changes of other plant species in the reserves as well. Competitive exclusion of orchids by in- digenous flora due to the lack of fire or Opening up of the vegetation has also been documented for Thelymitra epipactoides (Cropper et al. 1989). Observations on plants subjected to competition from neighbouring shrubs and grasses suggest that the leaf size and the number of flowering individuals is related to nutrient levels and light availability. At one of the sites studied which had not been burnt for nearly ten years the population mainly consisted of non-flowering mature plants, while after disturbances such as burns, nearly all individuals flower. The impor- tant factor here is that inter-plant spaces The Victorian Naturalist ‘4 Proceedings need to be present to reduce competition, and allow herbaceous plants such as or- chids to grow and flower. Fire, however, is not needed in all vegetation types or for all species. The open woodland vegeta- tion of the Deep Lead Flora Reserve has no record of fire in the area yet it still contains 60 species (Carr pers. comm.) of orchids. This may be because the vegeta- tion is naturally very open and disturbance or opening up of the vegeta- tion is not required for further recruitment of new plants such as orchids. Orchid mycorrhiza associations - ochids as indicators of soil flora? A mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association of a specific fungus with the roots or other absorbing organs of a vascular plant (Bates and Webber 1990). This type of symbiosis benefits both members of the association; the fungus obtaining carbon compounds for growth from the host, and the host obtains nutrients such as phos- phates from the fungus. In many Australian soils nutrients and, in par- ticular, phosphates are naturally low. In these conditions plants that do not form myccorhizae are often disadvantaged and show poor growth. As early as the start of germination of orchid seeds there is an obligate require- ment for a symbiotic association with a fungus. Unlike the vast majority of seed plants which are self supporting from the commencement of germination, orchid seed has very little food reserve for embryo development. The orchid seed relies on the supply of nutrients from the fungus until the photosynthetic tissue is produced. In some cases leafless non- photosynthetic orchids depend on fungi for the duration of their life. But the majority of orchids become more or less autotrophic (self reliant) and dependence on the fungus is reduced. All species of orchid studied to date were seen to be associated with mycorrhizal fungi. Orchid mycorrhizae are usually basidiomycetes belonging to the genera Thanatephorus, Ceratobasidium, Tulasnella and Sebacina. Most terrestrial orchid species have a dor- Vol. 111 (6) 1994 mant phase in their life cycle, pereniating as underground tubers or rhizomes that give rise to the new root system when dormancy is broken. The mycorrhizal fungi may not be present, or may be present in a less active state with the dor- mant tuber, Reinfection occurs in new roots put out by the dormant tuber. The source of reinfection is thought to be either from soil or from tissue in the tuber (Harley 1982). Orchid tubers may remain underground for several years and in suitable conditions reappear. Whilst un- derground it is possible that the orchid obtains the nutrients needed for survival from an associated mycorrhiza (Wells 1967). Non-photosynthetic orchids such as Hyacinth Orchid Dipodium punctatum appear to have more complex relation- ships. With Dipodium the fungus is essential as the orchid does not produce a photosynthetic leaf. The orchid relies on the fungus for its supply of nutrients. Upon unearthing the root systems of Dipodium there always appears to be the presence of a woody root. It may be pos- sible in this case that there is a complex relationship between woody plants (usually Myrtaceae) and the orchid via the mycorrhizal fungi. The possession of such complex mycorrhizal associations may mean that orchids as a group may reflect the health of the soil flora. The persistence of the correct fungus species is required for the survival of the orchids as the soil is the source of the initial infection of the seed and reinfection of the underground tubers. If the orchid mycorrhiza are present then itis likely that the conditions present will also be suitable for the fungi which are involved in mycorrhizal as- sociations with other plants in the community Pollination of orchids - Orchids as in- dicators of insects? Orchids have evolved very complex pol- lination mechanisms. This is reflected in the diverse floral structures observed in the family. Floral morphology in the majority of orchid species promotes cross 215 Proceedings pollination. Table 1 documents the diver- sity of pollination mechanisms and pollinators serving a select group of ter- restrial orchid genera. Ta By looking at the natural pollination rates of predominantly cross-pollinated orchid species we may be able to infer the health of the natural insect population of the area. For example, in the study of Thelymitra epipactoides (Cropper et al. 1989) no natural pollination was observed at one of the study sites. Despite careful observation of the area, no native bees (the natural pollinators of this species) were seen in the vicinity. No bees were ob- served working typically bee pollinated plants in the area either, although numerous flies including hoverflies were seen on nearby Leptospermum scopar- ium. The lack of pollination at this site is possibly due to the local absence of the natural pollinator since other sites had 35% of flowers producing seed. The ob- servation of natural pollination rates of cross pollinated orchid species may pro- vide information on the insect community present in the area, A reduced pollination tate may reflect the absence of a specific pollinator from the area. Orchids having a wide range of specific pollinators may then be used to gain information on a variety of insects. Gaseous emissions G. Carr, while monitoring the recovery of Mellblom’s Spider-orchid Caladenia hastata populations after fire found that orchids and other plant species regenerat- ing after a burn were showing a loss of vigour and some were not regenerating (Carr 1988). Some of the plants regenerat- ing were showing signs of necrosis and distortion of their leaves. At the time that this heath was burnt the neighbouring aluminium smelter began operating and it is thought that the gaseous emissions (namely fluoride) from the smelter were affecting the regenerating plants. Caladenia hastata was observed to decline dramatically in numbers after this fire while on another neighbouring plot, after a previous fire and before the smelter 216 Table 1, Pollination mechanisms and pollinators for a select group of terrestrial orchid genera. pollinator Reward Calochilus Wasps Pseudocopulation Dipodium Native bee Mimic nectar flowers Prasophyllum Wasps, bees, beetles, flies Nectar, scent Prerostylis Fungus gnats Pseudocopulation Thelymitra Native bees, Pseudocopulation ?? wasps Floral mimicry was operating, orchid numbers were seen to increase dramatically. However, not only this orchid species was affected, Plants that appeared to be sensitive to the fluoride emissions included: Burchardia umbellata, Xanthorrhoea australis, Patersonia occidentalis, Exocarpos cup- pressiformis, Hypolaena fastigata, Restio complanatus and Leptocarpus brownii. Carr postulated that the fire, by removing protective vegetation, may have increased the effect of the fluoride poisoning. In this example the decline in the orchid flora appears to be related to the decline in other species present and may reflect the general health of the community in response to the commencement of opera- tion of the smelter. Predation by introduced animals Introduced invertebrates such as slugs, snails and millipedes are well established in many bushland reserves. Of these, slugs are probably the most significant orchid predators and are encouraged by, or are dependent on, invasions of exotic herbs such as Flatweed Hypochoeris radicata (McMahon et al. 1990; Carr et al. 1991). Predation by slugs on a large population of Pterostylis nutans was observed to have an effect on the colony, which, due The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings to acombination of this grazing and weed invasion, was lost (Carr et al. 1991), Other introduced animals such as rabbits have enormous potential to devastate orchid populations (McMahon ef al. 1990, Carr et al. 1991). Summary Orchids appear to respond to changes in environmental conditions. Their com- plex interactions with the environment cause a sensitivity to a number of ecologi- cally important changes in the habitat. The changes include weed invasion, plant competition, changes in availability of pollinators and changes to the soil microflora. By monitoring the health and diversity of orchids in particular habitats we may be able to gain information on the general health of the ecosystem. How- ever, the use of orchids must be viewed as being limited as it is unreasonable to as- sume that the health of one species or family indicates the health of a whole community. It may be more valuable to use orchids in combination with other or- ganisms as part of an indicator group (e.g. with Drosera species and butterflies). The use of orchids as indicator species will also be dependent on the conservation goals of the area in question. Orchids are usually associated with disturbance and thus would be best suited as management tools for species rich communities accus- tomed to regular burning such as heathland, grassland and grassy wood- land. This type of management may not be optimal for other species and com- munities. Thus care should be taken when trying to use a single species or family as indicators of management success. Vol. 111 (6) 1994 The Victorian Naturalist - Subject Index 1884-1978 d for all members. Price $5.00 pick up at any meeting or $9.60 posted to anywhere in Victoria. Remit to: FNCV, C/- D.E. McInnes, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, Victoria 3145. A handy reference book to have on han Acknowledgements I would like to thank the World Wide Fund for Nature, Australia for financial support during the preparation of this paper. My thanks also to Geoff Carr, Malcolm Calder and others for helpful discussions. References Bates, R.J. and Webber, J.Z. (1990). ‘Orchids of South Australia’. (Government Printer: South Australia.) Carr, G.W. (1988), ‘Portland Aluminium Smelter Environmental Design Report No. 4. Mellblom’s Spider-orchid Conservation’, Parts B and C: Programme 1980 to mid-1988. (Ecological Horticulture Pty. Ltd. and Kinhill Engineers Pty. Ltd.) Car, G.W., McMahon, A. R. G., Bedggood, S.E. and Race, G.J. (1991). “The vegetation and management of Hochkins Ridge Flora Reserve, North Croydon, Victoria’. Report prepared for the Hochkins Ridge Flora Reserve Committee of Management. (Ecological Horticulture Pty. Ltd., Clifton Hill: Victoria.) Cropper, S.C., Calder, D.M. and Tonkinson, D. (1989). Thelymitra epipactoides F. Muell, (Orchidaceae), the morphology, biology and conservation of an endangered species. Proceedings of the, Royal Society of Victoria 101, 89-101. Harley, G. (1982). Orchid Mycorrhiza. In ‘Orchid Biology, Reviews and Perspectives’, II. Ed. Joseph Arditti. (Comwell University Press: London.) McMahon, A.R.G., Bedggood, S.E. and Car, G.W. (1990), ‘The vegetation and management of Tindals Road Wildflower Reserve, Warrandyte, Victoria’. Report prepared for City of Doncaster and Templestowe. (Ecological Horticulture Pty. Ltd., Clifton Hill: Victoria.) Majer, J.D. (1983). Ants: Bio-indicators of Minesite Rehabilitation, Land-Use, and Land Conservation. Environmental Management 7, 375-383. Ross, J.H. (1990), ‘A Census of the Vascular Plants of Victoria’, 3rd Edition. (National Herbarium of Victoria: Melboume.) Wells, T.C.E. (1967). Changes in a population of Spiranthes spiralis (L.) Chevall, at Knocking Hoe National Nature Reserve, Bedfordshire, 1962-65. Journal of Ecology 55, 83-99. 217 Proceedings The Impact of Terrestrial Molluscs on Native Vegetation in South-eastern Australia Adrian Daniell! Introduction There are, in fact, more species of ter- restrial snails and slugs than those found in marine or freshwater environments (Abbott 1989). Molluscs are well known as sensitive environmental indicators in aquatic systems, but their ability to act as monitors in terrestrial systems is largely untested, A significant fauna of intro- duced species also exists in south-eastern Australia whose impact is yet to be fully assessed. It is the role that snails and slugs have on ecosystems which will be ex- amined in this paper. The Australian endemic fauna Snails and slugs are prominent features of most terrestrial ecosystems. However. the Australian molluscan fauna has been far from comprehensively studied and with most species details of their ecology is not known (Bishop 1981), The Australian landscape is dominated by a few families, with the Camaenidae and Charopidae having the largest numbers of species (Smith 1992). The continent as a whole, with a generally dry climate, is far from a suitable place for snails and slugs. The areas of higher rainfall along the east- em sea-board generally have poor soils (low in calcium which can restrict shel] building) and large areas where seasonal dry periods restrict mollusc populations. However, significant faunas are found in many regions of Australia, in particular, the tropical and sub-tropical regions with their generally more favourable climates and soils. High species diversity can be found in rainforest (Scott 1989) and in some dry areas such as the Kimberley Ranges (Solem 1988), With something like 500 species Australia-wide the fauna has been considered depauperate in com- i Deptartment of Genetics and H Sciences Building I, La Trobe Bundoora, Victoria 3083, uman Variation, Biology University, Plenty Road, 218 parison to other similar sized landmasses (Bishop 1981). More recent work by Solem (1992) and Stanisic (1990, 1994) would suggest that, in fact, many more species are yet to be described, with a possible doubling of the existing number of species (Smith 1984). Indigenous species of southern Australia The native species in south-eastern Australia range from minute endodonts (shell diameter approximately 1.5 mm), to the large carnivorous species of the Rhytididae (shell diameter approximately 34 mm) to the largest land snail in the region Pygmipanda atomata (shell up to 65 mm high). There are also a number of species of slugs, the Cystopeltidae and semi-slugs, the Helicarionidae. The en- dodonts make up the bulk of all terrestrial mollusc species of south-eastern Australia with around 61 named species, although many are not fully described and the total number of species is yet to be determined (Smith 1984). Ecology of Australian snails and slugs The Australian slugs and snails are lar- gely feeders on leaf litter, fungi and bacteria. Some species are thought to oc- casionally feed on live material, but the amount in their diet is probably very small. The carnivorous species feed on a diet of soft-bodied animals, principally other snails and earthworms (Smith, 1971). In the case of forest species, such as Cystopelta and Helicarion, they may help in the break-down of leaf litter and cycling of soil nutrients. The Cystopeltids primarily feed on microalgae and bacteria which grow on the surface of bark and leaves (Daniell 1992), The extent to which this occurs is related to the size and numbers of individuals of species in a given area. Little is actually known about the extent of this nutrient cycling but it The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings cannot be discounted in the total system. In grassland and woodland, where the en- dodonts represent the most abundant native species, the effect that they have is likely to be minimal due to small size and low population densities. These small species appear to congregate around rocks, fallen timber and large, mature trees (e.g. Eucalyptus camaldulensis), so that their distribution is fairly patchy at any given site. This congregation is probably due to the increased moisture associated with these microhabitats as well as shelter from periodic fires. In the case of congregation around mature trees this is probably an artifact of local habitat changes resulting in these small snails surviving in the leaf and bark litter around the base of trees. Another role which appears, at least with some arboreal species, is the movement of fungal spores. Fungal spores are usually tough enough to resist digestive actions in snails guts and so every time snails deposit some faeces they deposit some spores. This may be important in species which feed largely on fungi. Endodonts as indicators of habitat ‘health’ While not much is known about the ecology of the smaller snails, what is known about their biology, suggests that they could provide important clues to the impact of various management practices, These species are restricted within a par- ticular microhabitat and because of their low mobility, colonisation of new areas proceeds at a slow pace. Species which inhabit grassland and woodland are active during periods when soil moisture is high enough for activity, although they may still be restricted in overall distribution. Practices such as burning have a large impact on such leaf litter invertebrates, particularly if fires occur at periods when the litter fauna is close to the surface such as during autumn. Furthermore, en- dodonts seek shelter under rocks and fallen timber and excessive burning may eliminate these shelter sites or at least degrade their quality in a given area. ` Vol. 111 (6) 1994 Given the role of soil invertebrates in nutrient cycling, soil sterilisation through fire or alteration in the characteristics of the soil environment could affect nutrients and this may be observed in the soil fauna. Animals sensitive to such changes will reflect this and so act as indicators. The small endodonts with their low vagility and low ability to re-invade once removed from an area are ideal in this respect. Shells which are preserved in the soil can be used as indicators. Use of all these indicators may make it possible to monitor the impact of changes in management practices. An examination of several grassland areas of high conservation value revealed no native species (St Albans and Laverton North) or few species (Cooper St. and Cherry St.), This was particularly striking at Laverton North where the conditions appeared to be ideal for endodonts i.e. abundant rocks, It is possible the condi- tions which led to the loss of species may have occurred long before the areas were recognised for their significance, al- though continued monitoring will be required at these sites to confirm the results. The refuge provided by mature trees means that unless these are present at a site then there is probably little chance of finding any native molluscs. At the La Trobe University Wildlife Reserve, the endodonts Paralaoma caputspinulae can be found up to 1 m from the base of mature E. camaldulensis but no further out, in- dicating the importance of these micro- habitats as refugia. Introduced species Since the arrival of the first Australians, humans have been involved in the transportation of animals and plants. Slugs and snails have been an important part of this. Despite their soft, slimy bodies many molluscs are good travellers being able to aestivate for long periods or squeeze into small crevices. Much of this travel has been in the last 200 years via soil around plant roots and other agricul- tural products. Several species of introduced slugs were described as native 219 Proceedings species because they had been found far from settlements (Smith1975)., A number of introduced molluscs are now resident in Australia (Table 1), with new species likely to be introduced in the future, What impact do these introduced molluscs have on indigenous plant species? While the data is currently a bit sketchy, enough observations have been made which suggests their impact maybe sig- nificant. The most significant species in most habitats are the slugs. Despite the lack of a protective shell, slugs are in many ways better adapted to the seasonal- ly dry south-east of Australia than the more well known snails such as Helix aspersa. The evolution of the molluscan shell is thought to be an adaptation for water retention rather than protection. For slugs the ability to squeeze into small cracks in the soil means that they are able to inhabit dry grassland as well as moister environments, They also have the ad- vantage that they can survive on soils low in calcium, avoiding the burden of shell construction, They are also able, unlike snails, to avoid predators by sheltering in inaccessible places. Research overseas has shown that slugs are a major factor in seedling establish- ment in various species of ground flora. When slugs were eliminated from ex- perimental plots there was a 37% increase in plant size (Rees and Brown 1992), Other studies on slugs (Dirzo and Harper 1980) and on Helix aspersa (Weiner 1993) found that molluscan herbivory also had an impact on plant size and species composition. The effect of chang- ing the composition of plants through mollusc grazing also appears to have an effect on nutrient levels in the soil (Thompson et al 1993), It is quite clear that the interactions between molluses and plants are significant, but the extent of this in the Australian context is not clear. Importantly the native mollusc fauna, in particular that of the grasslands, is of a completely different nature to that 220 Table 1. Introduced molluses in southern Australia. Candidula intersecta Cernuella neglecta C. vestita C. virgata Cochlicella acuta C. ventrosa Eobania vermicuala Helix aspersa Oxychilus cellarius O. draparnaldi O. alliarius Theba pisana Arion intermedius A, hortensis A. ater Deroceras reticulatum D. caruanae Lehmannia nyctelia L. flava L. maximus Milax gagates Testacella haliotidea of the northern hemisphere. The southern Australian fauna lacks the large slugs and snails and therefore it is likely that most species of ground flora lack adaptations to avoid or respond to this type of herbivory. Indeed, no native slugs are found in grasslands, contrasting strongly with grasslands in other temperate regions of the world. Observations of slug and snail attack have been made on some species but there is still insufficient data on how significant it maybe. The silvery trails and chewed leaves are a good indication that slugs and snails have been active. In the case of geophytes, such as orchids, the underground tubers are eaten as well as the above ground parts. The endangered species Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides was found to have been attacked by the slug Milax gagates, a well known crop pest. In this case the plants lost about 25% of their foliage. Other native species attacked were Helichrysum spiculatum and Vel- leia paradoxa (John Morgan pers. comm.). If herbivory is selective this may lead to the alteration of species composi- tion and may also affect succession and possibly nutrient balance. The impact of these introduced molluscs will probably depend on the species present and the density at which they occur as well as the vegetation type. In native grassland, slugs can occur at very high densities while in woodland and forest, densities are usually much lower, The Victorian Naturalist Proceedings but there are no accurate figures, Den- sities also are not known for other native vegetation types throughout southern Australia. The only snails which are thought to have caused a significant im- pact on Australian native vegetation are the so-called ‘white snails’ of the Helicidae. These thrive in the calcium rich coastal areas and parts of the Murray Basin. One species, Theba pisana, occurs in extremely high densities; over 1350 snails per square metre have been recorded in some native vegetation (Smith 1967). The effect of these high densities on the local vegetation is not clear, but anecdotal evidence would sug- gest that the impact is extreme on many of the native species, in particular, low- growing herbs. Slugs and snails are active during the wetter months of the year, which includes the periods when seedlings are developing and geophytes, such as orchids, emerge. They attack the newly developing buds causing death or developmental retardation. In the case of geophytes, slugs will attack the bulb. In- deed the slugs and snails almost appear to ‘sniff-out’ new shoots as any grower of terrestrial orchids will testify. Slugs are able to detect damaged tubers at a distance greater than 50cm, The damage itself may not kill the plant but the damaged tissue seems to be more prone to subsequent fungal invasion, tissue necrosis and death. Slugs are also known to transmit viruses to tuberous plants such as carrots (Run- ham and Hunter 1970), but the extent to which this occurs with indigenous species is not known. In general, invasion of undisturbed na- tive vegetation seems to be very low, although grasslands maybe an exception. There is some suggestion that some species of introduced plants may promote invasive molluscs by providing altered soil conditions and probably nutrients. Introduced molluscs also invade along areas of altered vegetation strips which run through undisturbed vegetation, such as tracks to toilets. This is commonly observed in National Parks where intro- ‘duced species of molluscs appear to be Vol. 111 (6) 1994 restricted to walking tracks especially where some exotic plant species can sur- vive, Some species of introduced plants appear to offer prime shelter in otherwise inhospitable conditions. In native grassland slugs can be seen sheltering under the leaves of the introduced Hypochoeris spp. (N. Scarlett pers, comm.). Grasslands appear to be more readily invaded by slugs, probably be- cause many of the molluscs are of ‘Mediterranean’ origin and are well adapted to the conditions. At grassland sites such as along the Merri Creek where Themeda grasses predominate, the three introduced species Deroceras reticulatum, D. caruanae and Lehmannia nyctelia are common throughout the ground litter. However, there has been no study of the invasion of undisturbed stands of grasslands and therefore it is impossible to say for certain whether some introduced vegetation is required for the invasion of these intro- duced molluscs. Conclusions There are two distinct mollusc faunas in Australia, one of indigenous species which has little impact on local plant species, and an introduced species which has an impact on the local flora, Native species of molluscs are unlikely to be involved in the loss of terrestrial plants, but are important in monitoring local changes in soil conditions. They may also provide clues to past ‘management’ con- ditions, The impact of these introduced molluscs is probably to reduce the abundance of some ground flora species. This is largely through their lack of defence against mol- luscan herbivory and by the large numbers of certain species of slugs and snails found in some native vegetation. Selective graz- ing by molluscs could also alter species composition. This has been shown in those parts of the world where molluscs now introduced into Australia are native. One worrying factis that, as with environ- mental weeds, the distribution of these molluses is still changing so that while currently there may be no problem in 221 Proceedings some areas, this may not be so in the future. The movement of soil and other plant material is likely to transport slugs, snails and their eggs. In some instances plants being brought in for revegetation programs probably carry with them many species of slugs. Ground flora species are likely to be most adversely affected and the evidence so far suggests that this is occurring to species such as orchids and other geophytes. The damage they cause varies with vegetation types, but further changes in mollusc distribution probably associated with environmental weed in- vasion could mean more problems in the future. References Abbott, R.T. (1989), ‘Compendium of landshells’. Bishop, M.J. (1981). The biogeography and evolution of Australian land snails, Jn ‘Ecological Biogeography of Australia’ vol 2, Ed A. Keast, (Junk: The Hague.) Burch, J.B, (1976). Snails without shells, Australian Natural History 18, 310-315. Daniell, A.J. (1992). Taxonomy, genetics and ecology of the terrestrial slug family Cystopeltidae (Mollusca: Pulmonata). (Unpublished PhD Thesis, La Trobe University, Bundoora.) Dirzo, R. and Harper, J.L. (1980). Experimental studies on slug-plant interactions. I. The effect of grazing by slugs on high density monocultures of Capsella bursa-pastoris and Poa annua. Journal of Ecology 68, 999-1011. Rees, M. and Brown, V.B. (1992), Interactions between invertebrate herbivores and plant competition. Journal of Ecology 80, 353-360. Runham, N.W. and Hunter, PJ. (1970), ‘Terrestrial Slugs’, (Hutchinson University Press.) bequest to the M.A, Ingram Trust, 222 More information can be obtained from Eric Allen (885 4559), Scott, B. (1989). Fabians of the forest. Australian Natural History 23, 220-224, Smith, B.J. (1967). Notes on the distribution of the dune-snail, Theba pisana Miiller at Portsea Back Beach, Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 84, 267-270. Smith, B.J. (1971). Carnivorous snails of the family Paryphantidae, Australian Natural History 17, 55-58. Smith, BJ. (1984). Regional endemism of the south-eastern Australian land mollusc fauna. Jn ‘World-wide snails: Biogeographic studies on non-marine Mollusca’. Eds A. Solem and A.C. Van Bruggen. ( E.J. Brill/W Backhuys: Leiden.) Smith, B.J. (1992). Non marine mollusca. Jn ‘Zoological Catalogue of Australia’ Vol 8. Ed. W.W.K. Houston, (Australian Government Printing Service.) Smith, B.J, and Kershaw, R.C. (1979), ‘A Field Guide io the Non-marine Molluscs of South Eastem Australia’. (ANU Press: Canberra.) Stanisic, J. (1990). Systematics and biogeography of eastern Australian Charopidae (Mollusca, Pulmonata) from subtropical rainforest. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30 (1). Stanisic, J. (1994). The distribution and patterns of species diversity of land snails in eastern Australia. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 36(1), 207-214. Solem, A. (1988). Maximum in the minimum: biogeography of land snails from the Ningbing Ranges and Jeremiah Hills, northeast Kimberley, Western Australia. Journal of the Malacological Society 9, 59-113. Solem, A. (1992). Camaenid land snails from southem and eastern South Australia, excluding Kangaroo Island. Records of the South Australian Museum Monograph series, Thompson, L., Thomas, C.D., Radley, J.M.A., Williamson, S. and Lawton, J.H. ( 1993). The effect of earthworms and snails in a simple plant community. Oceologia 95, 171-178. The Victorian Naturalist = Proceedings Weed Control in the Ground Flora Kim Robinson! Background Typically weed control in the ground flora has been the domain of farmers and Shire or Lands officers who have under- taken broad scale herbicide treatments to prevent contamination of crops by noxious plant material, Such works have traditionally involved reducing the im- pact of plants with the ability to taint produce, foul machinery or reduce crop yield, and those plants with spines. Much information is available in this particular area. In controlling weeds for conservation purposes, the larger overstorey weeds are usually the main target, while the under- story is often overlooked. In restoration of denuded areas where total revegetation is required, the quick herbicide treatment prior to planting is often the only thought given to weed control. Increasingly we are realising that weed control cannot be separated from vegeta- tion management as a whole, and where it is carried out in isolation it usually fails to achieve control in the most efficient way. Ground flora is often ignored in vegeta- tion management. This is not surprising when our eyes usually focus on the larger trees and shrubs as we drive through the country admiring the roadsides. It is often only a spectacular display of flowers that brings the ground flora to our attention. Where are the weeds? What are they? Some communities are more susceptible to weed invasion than others. This is due to the presence of ecological niches similar to those found in the place of origin (mainly the Meditteranean) of many of our weeds. (Fig. 1) gives an indication of the numbers of weed species present in the main plant communities found in Victoria. Grasslands are the l National Parks and Public Land, DCNR, 250 Victoria arade, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002. Vol. 111 (6) 1994 worst affected due to the high levels of disturbance (from grazing) and the ability of introduced grasses to compete success- fully with native species under these modified disturbance regimes. Other areas subject to major or frequent natural disturbance (i.e. coasts and rivers) are also badly affected by weed invasion. Approximately 540 weed species capable of invading bushland have been recorded from Victoria (Carr et al in prep). Of these, 74% are understorey plants capable of directly competing with native species. The grass family (Poaceae) is most prominent with 89 species. (Fig. 2) shows the ten major ground flora weed families found in the understorey of native vegetation. Weed control for revegetation One aspect for discussion is restoration, where land previously used for other pur- poses is now being targeted for revegetation. Establishment Establishment of vegetation in bare areas may call for more drastic action, Removing the top layer of weeds and soil (scalping) is common for large scale projects. Herbicide use is often a major component. Preplanting ‘rings’ or ‘strip spraying’ is usually necessary for good tree establishment in planting projects or use of residual herbicides and soil discing before direct seeding. Post-emergent weed control Other ideas such as sowing a living ‘mulch’ with trees and shrubs can provide post-emergent weed control. Direct seed- ing of the Otways National Park coastline with tree and shrub species has also inad- vertently given rise to a native Brachyscome species which grows neatly around individual plants, providing protection for the young seedlings. 223 Proceedings More conventional methods include using commercially available matting of cardboard or plastic, woodchip mulch and ‘recycled’ felt carpet underlay from the local tips (not the type with the nylon threads). Mowing prior to placement of materials (where possible) assists in achieving better control. Plants that may be getting swamped with weeds have had plastic bags tied over them (or plastic/metal pipes over smaller plants) and non-selective herbicides such as Glyphosate used to control the weeds. Use of shields around spray nozzles can also help if the number of plants prohibits physically protecting individual trees from spray drift. Mass planting or direct seeding with fast growing understorey plants such as species of Goodenia, Helichrysum, Acacia and Senecio may also play a role in keeping on top of weeds. Managing remnant vegetation When considering action for managing remnant vegetation the more apparent species such as the trees and shrubs e.g. Pittosporum undulatum are usually removed. These ‘keystone’ species are also able to radically alter the understorey and sometimes removal of these species is enough to ensure that the degradation process is slowed or stopped (Fox 1988). Often other measures will be required. Chemical methods such as wick wipers, wands or spot placement of granules may be an option. Be aware that some herbicides designed to work on particular species, such as dicotyledons will also have severe effects on native dicots if wind or vapour drift occurs. Some selectivity tests have occurred and are continuing on grass her- bicides and tolerance by native grasses. _ Manual removal is often time consum- ing and if consideration is given to the variety of weeds that may be present then some discretion will need to be used in determining priority species for removal. Specific manual methods are available for different types of weeds and these are 224 outlined in books such as the Bush Regeneration Manual by the National Trust in NSW. Knowledge of the biology of the plants you are dealing with is im- portant and some modification of accepted control methods is often re- quired. In remnant vegetation, prevention of weeds becoming established through minimizing major disturbances is the most cost effective measure. Use of mowers (either mechanical or four legged animal variety) to lessen fire hazards can promote more weedy species which may have higher fuel loadings. Using fire is often suggested but the timing of opera- tions is not always compatible, either to (a) reduce fuel, (b) control weeds or (c) promote native species. The conflicting requirements and over- all objectives of managing the reserve or roadside in question need to be clearly understood, The constraints of fire season restrictions, legislative responsiblities to remove fire hazards at low cost and in a short time together with the intrusion of some strong local personalities can all become the overriding influences in managing a small patch of bush. The consideration of adjoining land uses may also influence the level of control. Adjacent agricultural landowners will push for control of noxious weeds capable of invading their property or control of non-noxious weeds such as Creeping Bent Grass that threaten pasture improve- ments. A Flora Reserve may have quite different priorities for species. The placement of drainage easements is common in roadsides and other small reserves. Culverts, regular grading and the occasional placement of utility services such an an underground communications cable can all add up to changed water flow patterns and volumes. Waterlogging of sites will alter understorey vegetation considerably and potentially impact on overstorey trees through the introduction of fungal diseases such as Phytophthora cinnamomi., The Victorian Naturalist + Proceedings m > H zZ Q = < = Ò S A N p} S a oa © = DAM P-F LP. Grasslands Coastal Riverine A lpine-dry Mallee Subalpine woodlands Damp forests Dry forests Swam ps and wetlands Heathlands WET-F _ DRY-W DRY -F HEA IH AIN SALT SWA MP A ALP-W R COMMUNITY TYPE Fig. 1. Weed species in Vegetation Communities. (Reproduced with permission of P.Gullan, Flora Information System, Kew). NUMBER OF SPECIES POACEAE ASTERACEAE LILACEAE CARYOPHYLLACEAE JUNCACEAE SOLANACEAE SCROPHULACHEAE ROS LIL CARY JUN SOL FAMILY AST IRID FAB Fig. 2. The ten most common ground flora weed families found in native vegetation in Victoria. (Carr et al. in prep). Soil conservation measures such as run off bays or settling ponds can be used to control weeds by keeping them in a con- fined area. Bulbs, corms, vegetative sections, tubers, and seeds can be con- tained in one location rather than contaminating larger areas. Movement of seeds and vegetative parts of weeds can also be regularly seen occur- ring when graders work along the sides of roads. Use of disturbance-loving in- Vol. 111 (6) 1994 digenous plants can change these areas from sources of infestation into spec- tacular wildflower scenes such as in the Mallee with the purple flowering Dam- piera and yellow Senecio. Many species of native plants have the potential to pro- vide such displays and in Western Australia these roadsides form a feature of their regional tourist drives. Thus careful observations of local disturbance-loving natives and some experimentation with 225 Proceedings timing, chores seen as necessary evils, can become an important vegetation manage- ment tool. The methods of attacking ground flora weeds need to account for weeds that may come in from outside the area, or that may become established during the removal of existing weeds. The impact of growth of the overstorey species on some weeds such as Cape Weed, may mean that con- trol is not needed, Factors such as reduced light intensity on the ground may eliminate weeds in the long term, Spot application of fire, herbicides and mulch may control aggressive invaders, as may the judicious use of whippersnip- pers or mowing on edges to prevent particular species of weeds from flower- ing or seeding. 195 4390 625 25D 245 486 Jan Mar May July Sept Nov Fig. 3. Eastern Rosella feeding habits (Wyndham et al 1980). Of interest is the use of understorey weed species by native birds. In a report on habitat requirements of the Regent Par- rot along the Murray river (A.Burbridge, 1985) it was noted that in cultivated situa- tions such as orchards, the Regent Parrot actively sought out the culms of intro- duced weeds shen as Soursob Oxalis Pescaprae as well as barle rass, flat- weeds and thistle E IAA i AH common birds such as the Eastern Rosella spend quite considerable amounts of time 226 feeding on the ground flora as (Fig. 3) clearly displays. The role of native birds in controlling these introduced species is unknown but it is a factor to consider if removing par- ticular weed species. Common birds such as Galahs are known to feed on the seeds of Cape Weed Arctotheca calendula, Thistle Cirsium vulgare, Ribwort Plan- tago spp, and clover Trifolium spp. (Barker et al 1980). The efforts of control- ling some species e.g. thistles along continually disturbed areas such as road- sides may be a waste of time and perhaps should be reconsidered in cases where there is little threat that thistles will spread into adjoining areas. In tight budgetary times the main- tenance of small reserves or roadsides often declines. Many years of work can be undone in the short flowering period of some weeds. The development of new methods to control particular weeds is occuring regularly. Manual and chemical methods in a variety of combinations will often be required. The use of local plant species to assist in the restoration of ground flora is essential to successful manipulation of plant communities. The task of setting realistic goals for those areas of prime importance must be part of any strategy to seriously control weeds in the ground flora. References R.D. Barker and W.J.M.Vestjens, (1980) ‘The food of Australian Birds. 1 Non-Passerines’. (C.S.LR.O.) A.Burbridge. (1985) The Regent Parrot: A report on the breeding distribution and habitat requirements along the Murray River in south-eastern Australia, Prepared for the Steering Committee on the Regent Parrot. Australian National Parks and Widlife Service. Canberra. G.Carr, J.Yugovie and Robinson, K.E. (1992). Environmental Weed Invasion: Conservation Management and Implications. (DCE and Ecological Horticulture.) M.Fox. (1988) ‘Ecological status of Alien Plant Species’ From ‘Weeds on Public Land’, Symposium, Clayton. P.Gullan. (1988) Weeds in Victoria: Where are we? “Weeds on Public Land’, Proceedings of a Symposium, Clayton. LR.Morgan (1989) ‘The Mallee in Flower’. (V.N.P.A.: Melbourne.) E Wyndham and C.E. Cannon, (1985) Parrots of Eastern Australian Forests and Woodlands. In ‘Birds of Eucalypt forests and Woodlands, Ecology, Conservation, Management. (Surrey, Beatty and Sons. Pty Ltd.) The Victorian Naturalist The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria 1995 Membership Rates Membership Year 1 January 1995 to 31 December 1995 ARE YOU ALREADY A MEMBER? 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If you have any questions regarding membership or fees contact the FNCV office on (03) 650 8661. Send cheque to: The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria c/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, Victoria 3141. Contributions I acknowledge the fact that she has been mentioned in various books and articles pertaining to him but information about her has often been derived from secondary sources which have not always been ac- curate. The purpose of this paper is to tell the untold half of the story and to extend not destroy the legend by revealing the woman who stood resolutely behind him and supported him in every way she could. Acknowledgment of Kate, Wein- dorfer’s wife, partner and best friend, and her role in the establishment of Tasmania’s beautiful Cradle Mountain- Lake St. Clair National Park is long overdue. The legend of Weindorfer as the ‘hermit of Cradle Mountain’ and the lone man who tamed a wilderness is not the reality. It is true that he created the concept of wilderness holidays whilst spending much time alone at the mountain, but he did not choose to be a loner. He enjoyed the company of other people and after Kate’s death he was forced to move to the mountain because of the anti-German attitude of the people from the Devon- port/Ulverstone area and from Kate's family. Rumours were spread that he was a German spy, his dog was poisoned and he was asked to sever his connections with the Ulverstone Club. Members of Kate’s family were hostile towards him for the same reasons and also blamed him for her death. They made it difficult for the farm to be sold and for him to receive the proceeds as Kate had directed in a Codicil attached to her Will. The farm was not sold until 1926, ten years after her death. Although he was alone for the remaining 16 years of his life, Weindorfer was not alone for the first ten years of the Cradle Mountain endeavour. He was supported and joined regularly by his wife, his _ partner in the venture, who expressed her love for him by giving him the means and freedom to realise his dreams. She was the woman whose letters he kept until the day ‘he died and whom he called ‘my best friend’. Footnotes Kate and Gustav each owned 200 acres of land at Cradle Mountain. They called their com- bined acreage the Cradle Mountain National Park. Source of information: Conversation with Parks and Wildlife Ranger, Bob Hamil- ton, Cradle Mountain, 1994. Inthe 1905 diary of Dan Cowle, Kate’s brother, Dan states that Weindorfer came to Tasmania to marry Kate and “learn farming" as Dan’s brother-in-law on his property, Lauriston, at Kindred, I think Weindorfer’s statement to Dan portrays his shrewd and humourous char- acter because according to Bergman’s biography, Weindorfer was a qualified Estate Manager Bergman, G.F.J., Gustav Weindorfer of Cradle Mountain, Mercury Press Pty. Ltd., Hobart, 1959, p.19: Bergman states that Weindorfer was disillusioned with his employment in Mel- bourne and when he failed to secure the position of Government Botanist with the Department of Agriculture in Victoria in 1905 he decided to return home and sought permis- sion to retum on the Austrian-Hungarian warship S.M.S. Panther. His application was refused and by the winter of that year he and Kate had decided to marty. Register of Births, Deaths & Marriages, Fingal District, Tasmania, 1863. Conversation with the Reverend Hugh Hadrill, Hobart, grand nephew of Kate. The establishment at which Emma Cowle (nee Cleaver) was educated is unknown to me. Gill, J., The Dame Schools, lecture presented atthe Tasmanian Local History and Genealogi- cal Societies 2nd Biennial History Conference, Launceston, 16 October 1993. 8 Diaries of T.P. Cowle II, held by Lord Evelyn Graves, Deloraine. ? loc. cit. 10 Joc. cit. N toc. cit, * loc: cit. 3 loc. cit, l4 Letters of Emma Cowle, held by Mr. R. Hadrill, Launceston. 15 Conversation with the Reverend Hugh Hadrill, Hobart. 16 The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Minute Book, 1901-1907, 87; 92 iy Telephone conversation with Houghton, FNCV librarian, 4.11.93. i8 Cowle, K.J., ‘Notes ofa Visitto Mount Roland, Tasmania’ and ‘Excursion to Yan Yean’, The Victorian Naturalist 20, 1903. 19 The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria, Minutes of Meeting, 9 November 1905. i) Sheila 231 Contributions 20 ibid, 12 December 1904; 16 January 1905; 13 February 1905; 10 April 1905; 11 September 1905. 4 FNCV, The Victorian Naturalist, vol, 22, 1905, .106, N Hardy, A.D., The Victorian Naturalist, vol. 21, 1905, p.106. 3 The Victorian Field Naturalists Club, Minutes of Meeting 11 April 1904, regarding an excur- sion to Yarra Glen. 24 Bergman, op. cit, p. 20. > loc. cit. % Dan Cowle’s diary, 1905. loc. cit. Conversation with the Reverend Hugh Hadrill, Hobart. ) Weindorfer’s diary, 1906. Tasmanian State Archives File No. NS234/19/16, Ronald Smith’s Diaries. 31 Weindorder’s diary, 1913. 32 Tasmanian State Archives File No. NS234/12/3, Kate’s letters to Weindorfer, 8 November 1915. ibid, undated letter written between Noyember and December 1915, Conversation with the Reverend Hugh Hadrill, Hobart. 35 Dan Cowle’s diary, 1926. Primary References Cowle Family Papers, held by Mr Robin Hadrill, Launceston, Tasmania. Cowle Family Papers, held by Lord Evelyn Graves, Deloraine, Tasmania. Register of Births, Deaths & Marriages, Launceston District, 1855. Register of Births, Deaths & Marriages, Fingal District, 1863. Parks & Wildlife Service, Hobart, Tasmania, maps of Cradle Valley and floor plans of Waldheim. Supreme Court of Tasmania, Probate Department, Wills and Affidavits of Assets and Liabilities for: Thomas Pressland Cowle I, Thomas Pressland Cowle IM, Kate Julia Weindorfer, Daniel George Cowle and Emily Mary Cowle. Tasmanian State Forestry Commission, Haslemere Parish at St. Marys, undated. Tasmanian State Archives, File Numbers: NS234/16/7; NS234/19/16; NS234/27/1; NS234/12/2; NS234/12/3. The North Western Advocate and Emu Bay Times, 19.2.06, 17.2.06 and 6.3.06. The North West Post, 28.10.1890. The North West Post, 12.5.1894. The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Minute Book, 1901-1907. (Copied by Sheila Houghton). The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Membership Lists 1904, 1905 & 1906. (Copied by Sheila Houghton). The Victorian Field Naturalists Club, The Victorian Naturalist, vols, nos.: 20, 1903 and 21, 1904, Map of Interviews The Reverend Hugh Hadrill, Hobart, Tasmania. (Grand Nephew of Kate). Lord Evelyn Graves, Deloraine, Tasmania. (Grand Nephew of Kate), Mrs Phyllis Martin, Devonport, Tasmania. (Kate's maid 1912-1914), Ms Ann Stocks, Weindorfer memorial Committee. The Victorian Naturalist - Back Issues Complete volumes are available, from Volume 63 up to the present. Back numbers start from Volume 11, but some issues are missing. Prices are those given below, plus postage. Per Part, vols. up to 91 - Per Part, vols. upto 92- 75 cents. 50 cents minimum. Per Part, vols. 93 to 95 - $1.20, vols. 101 to 102 - $2.50. Per Part, vols. 96 to 99 - $1.75, vols. 103 to 104 - $3.00. Per Part, vol. 100 Volumes up to Vol. 91 contai All inquiries or orders to 129 Waverley Road, East 232 - $2.20, vols. 105 to 106 - $3.50. n 12 parts per volume, Vol. volumes onwards from 93 have 6 on $ a a a a gente ae D.E. McInnes, The Victorian Naturalist Sales Officer, Malvern, Victoria 3145, Tel: 571 2427. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Declining Frogs - Think Locally, Act Locally Sid Larwill’ and Alex Kutt! The increase in the level of evidence pointing to a decline in frog populations in Australia has been alarming (e.g. Czechura et al. 1990; McDonald 1990; Osborne 1989; Ingram ef al. 1993; Richards et al. 1993). Due to the apparent rapid speed of the phenomenon and the perceived urgency in the need to bring the decline to the attention of the public some of the most often quoted published material on the decline has been anecdotal (e.g. Barinaga 1990; Hero 1991; Tyler 1991; Young 1990). There is little doubt that over the last 10-15 years gradual and catastrophic decline of frog species has occurred in some parts of Australia as reported in other parts of the world. Due to the paucity of long term population studies not only are the underlying causes for the observed declines generally un- known but in most cases there is insufficient evidence to discount natural population fluctuations as a possible cause (Pechmann et al. 1994; Blaustein 1994). Perhaps because of this uncertainty it has been common practice to attribute observed declines to a general notion of global environmental change (e.g. Tyler 1991; Johnson 1994). | A response to the plight of a threatened species must strike a balance between the need for immediate action and the need to be cautious in interpreting the available data. This balance is termed by McCoy (1994) as ‘the problem of standards of proof” and is the means to bridge the gap | _ between scientific understanding and ac- | f tion (McCoy 1994). The decline of frog species is an example where the difficul- ‘ties of striking this balance is demonstrated and, in some cases, the per- ceived need for action has outweighed due attention to scientific process. For example the overuse of generalised ex- planations, in association with anecdotal data, may delay the identification of local 1 Biosis Research, 322 Bay Street, Port Melboume, "Victoria 3207. 111 (6) 1994 and regional population patterns (declines or increases) and their causes. Of par- ticular concern is the tendency to accept anecdotal information as fact, which may lead to a failure to clearly identify conser- vation and research priorities within local areas. The Growling Grass Frog Litoria raniformis has been described by various researchers as being in a state of decline throughout its range in south-east Australia (e.g. Tyler 1994; Sadlier 1994) and in the Melbourne region (e.g. Johnson 1994), Much of the evidence supporting the decline has been anecdotal and is at odds with the data currently available for the Melbourne region. Johnson (1994) as- serted that in the Melbourne region only a single remnant population remains in two wetlands near Moorabbin, In our own fauna survey work we have recorded the Growling Grass Frog in moderate num- bers at seven separate locations in the Melbourne region since 1991, many of which were degraded in habitat quality. The records of the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife database (Wildlife Branch, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources) show that the species has been recorded at over 180 additional sites in the Melbourne region in the last ten years. The Growling Grass Frog has become a high profile species in conservation plan- ning in the Melbourne region; yet reference to the available data supports neither the assertion that it is declining in the region, nor the general assertion that the species is in decline throughout its range. This is an example of the risks associated with the incautious acceptance of anecdotal information that can quickly become accepted in the conservation community and influence the allocation of resources for conservation. a Reports of the decline of the Growling Grass Frog are doubtless worthy of inves- tigation. However, until such time as the decline is found to be a real phenomenon, 233 Contributions management authorities and conservation organisations may best be advised to focus on allocation of resources to the conservation of habitat, Over-emphasis on the status of the species to justify con- servation resource allocation has the potential to be counter-productive to long-term conservation goals if the sup- posed decline is unsubstantiated by further work. Conservation resources and public attention should be targeted to potential immediate local threats to am- phibian fauna, such as habitat loss and fragmentation, which is the most likely cause of any decline. The use of the decline of the Growling Grass Frog as an example of the effects of global environ- mental change has outlived its usefulness for helping the prospects of survival of this and other amphibian species, A recent review of reportedly declining frog species in Queensland indicated that now at least seven species cannot be relo- cated and a further four species are noticeably declining (Ingram et al. 1993), Inreporting these results the authors noted that the phenomenon of catastrophic decline is restricted to Queensland with the only southern Australian example being the Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea, There are published accounts of frog declines in Australia that are at odds with this assertion (e.g, Osborne 1989; Tyler 1994), Pechmann et al. (1994) cite a number of published ac- counts of amphibian decline, including four of the Queensland case studies, which may be examples of natural population fluctuations being mistaken for declines caused by human activities, Evidently there remains considerable un- certainty and some disagreement regarding the issue of frog decline within the scientific community. What is needed at a local level is clear Tesearch directives by conservation authorities that aim to clarify the status, di stribution and threats to endangered and declining Species. One positive example in Victoria has been recent survey work associated with the Spotted Tree Frog 234 Litoria speceri (Watson ef al. 1991; Gil- lespie 1992; Osborne et al. 1994). In this case there was evidence of a decline of this montane river species from sites where it was previously known to occur. The response was to undertake targeted surveys aimed to reassess the species status, conduct ongoing monitoring of known populations and search for new populations (Watson et al. 1991; Gillespie 1992). As a result, new populations in the ACT and in NSW have been identified (Osborne et al. 1994; Ehmann et al. 1992), w have increased understanding of the species biology and potential threaten- ing processes affecting the species survival have been identified (Watson et al. 1991; Gillespie 1992), This is an ex- ample where positive regional action, including a cooperation with interstate re- searchers, has greatly increased the understanding of the biology and conser- vation status of a declining frog specie. In setting priorities for use of limited conservation resources we must make adequate use of all the available informa- tion in order to maximise the chances of success. This should include rigorous and thorough research that concentrates on identifying causes and solutions for local and regional patterns of species decline. There is clear evidence that a number of frog species are declining around Australia, however, the focus needs to shift away from the notion of a global phenomenon and towards local action. Aknowledgements Thanks to Murray Littlejohn, University of Melbourne, for comments on an earlier draft of this article. References Barinaga, M. (1990). Where have all the froggies gone? Science 247, 1033-1034, Blaustein, A.R. (1994), Chicken Little or Nero’s fiddle? A perspective on declining amphibian populations. Herpetologica 50, 85-97. Czechura, G.V. and Ingram, G.J (1990). Taudactylus diurnus and the case of the disappearing frogs. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 29, 361-365. Ehmann, H., Ehmann, J. and Ehmann, N. (1992). The rediscovery of the endangered Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri) in New South Wales and some Subsequent findings. Herpetofauna 22, 21-24. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Ferraro, T.J and Burgin, S. (1993), Review of environmental factors influencing the decline of Australian frogs. Jn “Herpetology in Australia: a diverse discipline’. Eds D. Lunney and D. Ayers. (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Mosman.) Gillepie, G.R. (1992). Survey for the Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri) in Victoria, February-March 1992. The Victorian Naturalist 109, 203-211, Hero, J-M. (1991). A froggy forecast. Wildlife Australia 28, 14-15. Ingram, G. (1990). The mystery of the disappearing frog. Wildlife Australia (Spring), 6-7. Ingram, G.J. and McDonald, K.R. (1993). An update on | the decline of Queensland's frogs. In ‘Herpetology l in Australia: a diverse discipline’. Eds D. Lunney and D. Ayers. (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Mosman.) Johnson, P. (1994) Environmental ambassadors or global canaries? Park Watch 176 (March). McCoy, A.D. (1994). ‘Amphibian decline’: a scientific dilemma in more ways than one, Herpetologica 50, 98-103. McDonald, K.R. (1990). Rheobatrachus Liem and Taudactylus Straughan and Lee (Anura: Leptodactylidae) in Eungella National Park, Queensland distribution and decline. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 114, 187-194. Osborne, W.S, (1989). Distribution, relative abundance and conservation status of Coroboree frogs, Pseudophryne corroboree Moore (Anura: Myobatrachidae). Australian Wildlife Research 16, 537-547. Osborne, W.S., Gillespie, G.R. and Kukolic, K. (1994). An examination of scientific and ‘amateur comments on frog population declines reveals that ‘global environmen- tal change’ has been cited as a possible factor in few cases (e.g. DCNR 1994; ` Tyler 1993; Barinaga 1990). To clarify this issue, it is useful to note what global environmental change may refer to: the ‘Greenhouse Effect’; ozone holes; acid _ tain; cyclical effects such as El Nino or a “combination of these. One of these pos- ibilities, the ozone hole/UV radiation nk, has been examined in Blaustein et al. (1994). Other factors that may have caused declines in populations of specific The Spotted Tree Frog Litoria spenceri: an addition to the amphibian fauna of the Australian Capital Territory. The Victorian Naturalist 111, 60-64. Pechmann, J.H.K. and Wibur, H.M. (1994). Putting declining amphibian populations in perspective: natural fluctuations and human impacts. Herpetologica 50, 65-84. Richards, S.J., McDonald, K. and Alford, R.A. (1993). Declines in populations of Australia’s endemic tropical rainforest frogs. Pacific Conservation Biology 1, 66-77. Sadlier, R.A, (1994). Conservation status of the reptiles and amphibians in the Westem Division of New South Wales - an overview. /n ‘Future of the Fauna of westem New South Wales’. Eds D. Lunney, S. Hand, P. Reed and D. Butcher. (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Mosman.) Tyler, M.J. (1991). Our vanishing frogs. Habitat 19, 20-25, Tyler, M.J. (1993), Frogwatch: to shun a silent spring. Australian Natural History 24, 22-29, Tyler, M.J. (1994). Frogs of westem New South Wales. In “Future of the Fauna of western New South Wales’, Eds D. Lunney, S. Hand, P. Reed and D. Butcher, (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Mosman.) Watson, G.F., Littlejohn, M.J., Hero, J-M, and Robertson, P. (1991). ‘Conservation Status, Ecology and Management of the Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri)’, Arthur Rylah Institute Technical Report Series No. 116. (Department of Conservation and Environment: Victoria.) Young, S. (1990). Twilight of the frogs. New Scientist 126, 11. And a response The Nature of Anecdotes or Anecdotes of Nature? George Appleby! species are listed in Watson et al (1991) - specifically for the Spotted Tree Frog Litoria spenceri - and in Williams (1994). The authors of ‘Declining Frogs - Think locally, act locally’ (see this issue) quite rightly urge caution in interpreting the available (mainly anecdotal) data. Never- theless, anecdotal information is very valuable as a pointer for further conserva- tion and research work. In this context, we should be noting exactly what anecdotal information is: observation recorded in an unofficial way or’... unpublished narra- tives or details of history...the narrative of an interesting or striking incident or event’ (definitions of ‘anecdote’ from the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary). 235 Contributions Clearly, generalised explanations are not an integral part of anecdotes but can be a consequence of them. Anecdotes thus stand distinctly as valuable sources of in- formation. The comment about the population of the Growling Grass Frog Litoria ranifor- mis near Moorabbin (Johnson 1994) - ‘it is now only found in a single cluster of remnant, unprotected wetlands near Moorabbin’ - should have read ‘A sig- nificant population is now only found........ near Moorabbin’. (P. Johnson pers. comm.). Unfortunately, this error has led to the conflict between his data and that of the ‘Atlas of Victorian Wildlife’ on this species in the Melbourne area. There is widespread anecdotal informa- tion from around Melbourne, some country areas and interstate - ACT, southern NSW and northern Tasmania (Tyler 1993) - which suggests that Growling Grass Frog populations are declining. This species is quite distinct and relatively easy to record since it is large, mainly green and has a loud unusual call, so relatively unskilled observers can note its presence and hence population changes. The next step in the inquiry, namely the explanation for the species’ decline, is where we have to be rigorous, Research should certainly be directed towards fac- tors suchas habitat loss and fragmentation but further anecdotal information may point to more subtle effects. With some local declines of the Growling Grass Frog, observers have noted disproportional hi gh numbers of other species remaining in the same habitat. To find explanations for observations such as this, some lateral thinking by both scientists and amateurs, is required, Recent research from the USA has shown strong evidence that UV radiation 1s a cause of declines in frog and toad eggs and embryos (Blaustein et al. 1994). The research noted the differential hatching Tates of some species in relation to the level of the ‘UV-damage-specific repair enzyme, photolyase’ and amount of UV radiation. 236 It is unreasonable to say that anecdotal evidence supporting a decline in the Growling Grass Frog is at odds with offi- cial survey data. Two separate parameters need to be examined, namely occurrence and abundance. Recent fauna survey work may show ‘moderate numbers’ of Growling Grass Frogs in several areas in Melbourne (including those with degraded habitat) but comparable historic (anecdotal) information may have shown there to be relatively great numbers occur- ring in more areas. While the model of threatened species investigation used by the author(s) for the Spotted Tree Frog is excellent, ithas taken much time and effort. As such, the model is not easily applicable to more widespread species that show declines (e.g. Bibron’s Toadlet Pseudophryne bibroni) due to the difficulty of covering large areas of suitable habitat and the lack of available skilled surveyors. A program such as Frogwatch helps to provide an organisation of surveyors by encouraging people to become skilled in frog survey thus allowing more extensive monitoring of populations or species. To provide quantitative data on changes in frog populations, however, surveyors have to make observations over at least a few years. Many surveyors make the effort to revisit areas where they previously heard frogs and may be able to deduce factors causing contemporary and historic chan- ges in populations of frogs generally and of individual species. To scientists and conservation authorities, this information is useful to show local and regional dif- ferences in changes in frog numbers and possible causes for changes. Surveyors who identify causal factors of changes in frog numbers are able to modify manage- ment practices on their own land (their garden or their farm) thereby ‘thinking locally, acting locally’. This is one of the intended outcomes of several community conservation programs including Frog- watch, Landcare and Land for Wildlife. Inevitably, much of this amateur data will be perceived by some to be anecdotal and therefore unreliable. But can we afford to The Victorian Naturalist Contributions wait for funds for research projects or for anecdotal evidence of declines to become scientifically-proven before any action is taken? To prevent loss of populations, declines and their causes must be iden- tified earlier, so it is in the frogs’ interests that scientists and amateur frogwatchers pool their resources to initiate vital re- search before declines become irreversible. Aknowledgements Thanks are due to Murray Littlejohn for supplying information on frog declines and to Peter Johnson for comments. References Barinaga, M. (1990). Where have all the froggies gone? Science 247, 1033-1034. Blaustein, A.R., Hoffman, P.D., Hokit, D.G., Kiesecker, JM., Walls, S.C, and Hays, J.B. (1994). UV repair and resistance to solar UV-B in amphibian eggs: A link to population declines. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 91, 1791-1795. DCNR (1994). Frogwatch survey database. Unpublished, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Victoria. Johnson, P. (1994). Environmental ambassadors or global canaries? Parkwatch 176, 4-7. Tyler, M. (1993). Draft Action Plan for Australian Frogs. Prepared for the Australian Nature Conservation Agency. Watson, G.F, Littlejohn, M.J., Hero, J.-M. and Robertson, P. (1991), ‘Conservation Status, Ecology and Management of the Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria Spenceri)’. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series No. 116. (Department of Conservation and Environment: Victoria.) Williams, P.G. (1994). Literature Review on the Decline of Amphibians. Unpublished report for Comparative Animal Physiology, Deakin University. Postscript Since October 1994, Frogwatch (Victoria) has closed down but inquiries about the following frog matters can be referred to several organisations: Research, conservation and education - Victorian Frog Group, PO Box 424 Brunswick 3056, (03) 354 4718; Licensing of collection of frog eggs, tadpoles and adults- Wildlife Licensing Branch, DCNR, Arthur Rylah Institute, 123 Brown St, Heidelberg, 3084, (03)450 8600; Endangered species research - Graeme Gillespie, DCNR, Arthur Rylah Institute, 123 Brown St, Heidel- berg, 3084, (03)450 8600; Husbandry -Melbourne Zoo, Elliot Avenue, Parkville, 3052 (03)285 9300; Community water quality monitoring - Waterwatch, DCNR, 2/250 Victoria Parade, East Melbourne, 3002, (03) 412 4011. Books Available from FNCV The Club has, over the years, published a number of books on natural history topics which can be purchased from the Book Sales Officer. It is currently distributing four of these as follows: ‘What Fossil Plant is That?’ (J.G. Douglas) .........sceccesesesserersrneneneseers ny, A guide to the ancient flora of Victoria, with notes on localities and fossil collection. ‘Wildflowers of the Stirling Ranges’ (Fuhrer and Marchant)....... 144 magnificent illustrations of the spectacular flora of this region. ‘Down Under at the Prom (M. O’ Toole and M. Turner)............. be tte hirie $16.95 A guide to the marine sites and dives at Wilson’s Promontory (with maps and numerous colour illustrations. ‘A Field Companion to Australian Fungi’ (B. Fuhrer)......... PERTE DON ..$19.95 A reprint of the earlier book with additional photographs and changes of name incorporated. Vol. 111 (6) 1994 Alan Parkin Book Sales Officer 850 2617(H) 565 4974(B) 237 Contributions Some Insects found on Blackthorn, Bursaria spinosa Cay. (Pittosporaceae) Flowers at Bombala, New South Wales G.A. Webb! Abstract A wide range of insects, mostly beetles (Coleoptera), were recorded visiting flowers of Bursaria spinosa at two sites in southern New South Wales. The abun- dance and diversity of Coleoptera appeared to be related to the floral resour- ces available, with more species present where a range of other flowering species were available, Introduction Bursaria spinosa Cav. (Pittosporaceae) is a highly variable shrub which occurs in a wide range of habitats from coastal to montane regions throughout most of Australia and Tasmania (Elliot and Jones 1982). The flowers of B. spinosa are ar- ranged in terminal pyramidal panicles (Beadle et al. 1982) and when in full flower during summer, plants may be covered in masses of white, sweet smell- ing flowers. Insects are strongly attracted to the flowers of B. spinosa. Beetles, moths, but- terflies, flies, wasps and bees have been recorded visiting B. spinosa flowers (Armstrong 1979; Bernhardt and Burns - Balogh 1983; Best 1881, 1882, 1920; Clifford and Drake 1979; Common 1970; Hawkeswood 1978, 1981a, b, 1990a, 1990b; Michener 1965; Nikitin 1979; Rayment 1930, 1935, 1953). However, few quantitative data have been gathered so far. Hawkeswood (1990a) recently ex- amined the insect fauna of B, spinosa in northem New South Wales, recording a wide range of insects from the orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera, _ This paper reports on a collection of insects from flowering B. Spinosa plants at two sites in a young Pinus radiata (D, Don) plantation near Bombala (New South Wales) in January 1985. 1 Rhone-Poulenc Rural Australia Pty Lid, 3-5 R ilw St, Baulkham Hills, NSW, 2153, > WAY 238 Study areas and methods Insects were collected from or observed on flowers of B. spinosa in two sites near Bombala (New South Wales): a. Nalbaugh State Forest (23 January 1985): young (2 year old) Pinus radiata plantation with scattered B. spinosa, Derwentia derwentiana (Andrews) B. Briggs et Ehrendorfer, Cassinia longifolia R. Br. and Polys- cias sambucifolia (Sieb ex DC.) Harms, Insects were collected over a two hour period from 2p.m. (eastern summer time) in bright sunshine (ca. 30°C); b. Nalbaugh State Forest (20 January 1985) - young (2 year old) Pinus radiata plantation but with mainly grass understorey and few of the above native shrubs flowering. Insects collected over a two hour period from 3pm (eastern summertime) in sli ghtly overcast conditions (ca. 25°C). Insects were collected by hand and with a manually operated suction aspirator and transferred to killing jars. Gross pollen loads were assessed under a stereo micro- scope in the laboratory in Sydney. Pollen from B. spinosa was not distinguished from other pollen sources, Results and discussion Insect fauna Beetles were the most abundant and conspicuous group of insects on B. spinosa flowers, represented by 11 families and 29 species (several species are included under Mordella spp.) (Table 1). The most abundant taxa, in order, were Mordella spp. (Mordellidae), Chromomea deparchei (Tenebrionidae, Alleculinae), Chauliognathus pulchellus (Cantharidae), Eleale spp. (Cleridae) and the scarabaeids Polystigma punctata and Phyllotocus marginipennis. A large number of beetle taxa have now been recorded from B. spinosa flowers (Table 2), of which the Buprestidae, The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Table 1 - Insects found on Bursaria spinosa flowers at Bombala, New South Wales Pollen load: * light (scattered covering or isolated patches); i ** medium (concentrated isolated patches or moderate covering); *** heavy (heavy covering over all or most of body). i Abundance: R = 1 - 3 individuals; U = 4 - 10 individuals; C= 11 - 100 individuals; A =+ 100 individuals, Coleoptera Alleculidae Chromomea deparchei Fauv, Buprestidae Neocuris gracilis Macleay. Stigmodera bifasciata (Hope) Stigmodera vigilans Kerremans Stigmodera rufipennis (Kirby) Stigmodera delectabilis Hope Stigmodera hilaris Hope Cantharidae Chauliognathus pulchellus Macleay Cerambycidae Ancita lineola Newman Obrida fascialis White Stenoderus suturalis Olivier Cleridae Eleale nr. aspera Newman Eleale pulchra Newman Eleale simplex Newman Eleale nr. viridis Guerin Scrobiger splendidus Newman Elateridae Analicus xanthomus (Macleay) Lycidae Metriorrhynchus rhipidius Macleay Metriorrhynchus rufipennis Fabricius Mordellidae Mordella dumbrelli Lea Mordella leucosticta German Mordella spp. Ocdemeridae Pseudonanca ruficollis Blackbum Rhipiphoridae Pelecotomoides conicollis Gerst. Scarabaeidae Anoplognathus suturalis Blackburn Eupoecila australasiae (Donovan) Microvalgus scutellaris Blackburn Phyllotocus macleayi Fischer Phyllotocus marginipennis Macleay Polystigma punctata (Donovan) Mecoptera Bittacidae Harpobittacus sp. Hemiptera sp.1 sp.2 Mantodea spl Table 2. Coleoptera recorded visiting flowers of Bursaria spinosa (various sources). Key to references 1. This study 2. Best 1881 3. Best 1882 4. Best 1920 5. Duffy 1963 6. Hawkeswood 1978 7. Hawkeswood 1981a 8. Hawkeswood 1981b 9. Hawkeswood 1990a. Coleoptera Alleculidae Chromomea deparchei Fauv. Buprestidae Curis caloptera (Boisduyal) Curis splendens Macleay Neacuris gracilis Macleay Stigmodera bifasciata (Hope) Stigmoderacruenta Lapont and Gray Stigmodera delectabilis Hope Stigmodera hilaris Hope Stigmodera inflata Barker Stigmodera oblita (Carter) Stigmodera rufipennis (Kirby) Stigmodera vigilans Kerremans Cantharidae Chauliognathusnobilitaqus (Erichson) Chauliognathus pulchellus Macleay Cerambycidae Amphirhoe sloanei Blackburn Ancita lineola Newman Aridaeus thoracicus (Donovan) Distichocera thompsonella (White) Hesthesis cingulata (Kirby)* Hesthesis ferrruginea (Boisduval) Obrida fasċialis White Pempsamacra tillides Newman Stenocentrus concolor (Macleay) Stenocentrus ostracilla (Newman) Stenocentrus saturalis (Olivier) Tropocalymma dimidiatum (Newman) ee ee M e coe rs eres E Cerambycidae and Scarabaeidae form the dominant components. Other insect fauna present included species of Bittacidae (Mecoptera), Hemiptera and Mantodea. Flies (Diptera: Syrphidae, Tabanidae and Tachinidae) were also commonly observed on flowers but were too difficult to catch and iden- Vol. 111 (6) 1994 Cleridae Eleale nr. aspera Newman Eleale pulchra Newman Eleale simplex Newman Eleale nr. viridis Guerin Scrobiger splendidus Newman Elateridae Analicus xanthomus (Macleay) 1 Lycidae Metriorrhynchus rhipidius Macleay uy Metriorrhynchus rufipennis Fabricius 1 Mordellidae Mordella dumbrelli Lea t Marella leucosticta German 19 Mordella spp. 1,9 Oedemeridae Pseudonanca ruficollis Blackbum 1 Rhipiphoridae Pelecotomoides conicollis Gerst, 1 Scarabaeidae Anoplognathus suturalis Blackburn 1 Cacochroa gymnopleura var. gymnopleura (Fischer) Cacochroa gymnopleura var. concolor Lapante and Gory Eupoecilaaustralasiae ( Donovan) Microvalgus scutellaris Blackbum Phyllatocus macleayi Fischer Phyllotocus marginipennis Macleay Palystigma punctatum (Donovan) spp: *#Suspected occurrence on flowers only. tify. Few wasps (Hymenoptera) and no honeybees, moths or butterflies were ob- served on flowers. Given the short duration of observation it is difficult to assess the importance, as pollen vectors, of these other more mobile groups. In northern New South Wales (Hawkes- wood 1990a) beetles were the dominant 239 Contributions group found visiting B. spinosa flowers but flies and wasps were also common. Hawkeswood judged that B. spinosa was a generalist entomophile but possessed characters which fitted various pollina- tion syndromes: Cantharophily (beetles), Myophily (flies) and Melittophily (bees). The range of beetles observed at Bom- bala was similar to that recorded by Hawkeswood (1990a) with Mordellids and Scarabaeids numerically most abun- dant. However, closer comparison of the respective faunas is not warranted given the limited observations at Bombala. Pollen Loads The heaviest pollen loads were carried by the clerids (Scrobiger splendidus), lycids (Metriorrhynchus spp.), scarabaeids (Anoplognathus sututalis, Eupoecila australasiae, Polystigma punctata) and the unidentified species of Hemiptera. However, all of these taxa, with the excep- tion of P. punctata were rarely observed. Of the more abundant taxa (Abundant and Common in Table 1), the mordellids car- ried little pollen while the scarabaeid Phyllotocus marginipennis and the clerid Eleale nr. aspera carried moderate cover- ings of pollen. Given the short duration of observation and lack of separation of pollen into species, it is difficult to quantify the rela- tive importance of these taxa as pollen vectors. Nevertheless, the relatively heavy pollen loads observed one some Species suggests they may be important vectors. Differences between Sites There was a substantial difference in the number of beetle species observed at the two sites despite the similar amount of time spent at each site. At Site B, Bursaria spinosa occurred as scattered plants amongst Poa sp. and young P. radiata trees, There were few other species of plants present in abundance and in flower rs ip time. In Tape at Site A, Bursaria pinosa was more abundant and often oc- curred in thickets. Other species of plants Were present and in flower at the time. In Particular, Cassinia longifolia and Der- wentia derwentiana, were flowering 240 profusely and attracted a diverse insect fauna. Many of these species were present on B. spinosa as well. The greater abun- dance of insects observed at Site A appears to be related to the greater abun- dance and diversity of floral resources at this site. References Armstrong, JA. (1979). Biotic pollination mechanisms in the Australian Flora - a review. New Zealand Journal Botany 17, 467-508. Bemhardt, P, and P. Burns-Balogh (1983). Pollination and pollinarium of Dipodium punctatum (Sm.) R.Br. The Victorian Naturalist 100, 197-199. Beadle, N.C.W., Evams. O.D. and Carolin, R. C.(1982). ‘Flora of the Sydney Region’ 3rd Edition. (A.H. and A.W. Reed Pty. Ltd.: Sydney.) Best, D. (1881). Longicom beetles of Victoria 2. Southern Science Record 1, 21-24, Best, D. (1882). Longicom beetles of Victoria 5. Southern Science Record 2, 35-38. Best, D. (1920). To the alps for coleoptera. The Victorian Naturalist 37, 85-90, Clifford, H.T. and Drake, W.E. (1979).Pollination and dispersal in Australian heathlands. /n ‘Heathlands of the World’, Ed, R.L. Specht. (Elsevier Scientific Publ. Co.: Amsterdam.) Common, I.F.B. (1970). Lepidoptera, Jn ‘The Insects of Australia’ (Melboume University Press.) Duffy, E.A.J. (1963). ‘A Monograph of the Immature Stages of Australasian Timber Beetles (Cerambycidae), (British Museum Natural History: London.) Elliot, W.R. and D.L. Jones (1982), ‘Encyclopedia of Australian plants suitable for cultivation’ Vol. 2. (Lothian Publishing Co. Pty. Ltd.) Hawkeswood, T.J. (1978). Observations on some Buprestidae (Coleoptera) from the Blue Mountains, N.S.W. Australian Zoologist 19, 257-275. Hawkeswood, T.J. (198la). Insect pollination of Angophora woodsiana FM. Bail (Myrtaceae) at Burbank, southeast Queensland. The Victorian Naturalist 98, 120-129. Hawkeswood, T.J. (1981b). Observations on some jewel beetles (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) from the Armidale district, northeastem New South Wales. The Victorian Naturalist 98, 152-155. Hawkeswood, TJ. (1990a), Insect pollination of Bursaria spinosa (Pittosporaceae) in the Armidale area, New South Wales, Australia. Giornale Italiano di Entomologia 5, 61-87. Hawkeswood, T.J. (1990b). Butterflies as possible pollinators of Bursaria spinosa Cav. (Pittospor- aceae) at Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, Giornale _ Italiano di Entomologia 5, 89-93. Michener, C.D. (1965). A classification of the bees of the Australian and Pacific regions. Bulletin American _ Museum Natural History 130, 1-362. Nitikin, M.I. (1979). Buprestidae collected in the County of Cumberland 1957-1960. Circular Entomological SEN Royal Zoological Society New South Wales , 5-6. Rayment, T. (1930), Studies in Australian bees, The Victorian Naturalist 47, 9-16. Rayment, T. (1935). ‘A cluster of bees’. (Endeavour Press: Sydney.) Rayment, T. (1953). New bees and wasps, Part XX. The Victorian Naturalist 70, 68-71. The Victorian Naturalist | | | Naturalist Notes ; The Editors are very pleased to announce that Cecily Falkingham has accepted an invitation to be our ‘naturalist in residence’ for 1995. The article which follows is the first in a series of naturalist notes from Cecily which, we hope, will encourage other members to submit interesting observations. Dear Editor In the last 15 years I have noticed a decline in the amount of natural history writings. I keep a daily diary, I am sure many other nature lovers, naturalists, bird observers, volunteer bush regenerators etc. etc., could also contribute interesting observations. 5 Cecily Falkingham 27 Chippewa Ave, Mitcham, Vic 3132 The Raven and the Leaf Case Moth On 27 June this year (1994) I noticed two Ravens feeding high up in a leafless Liquid Amber tree. They were ap- proximately 20 m from the ground and appeared to be struggling with some dif- ficult prey. With the help of binoculars I watched one Raven trying to tear the tough outer casing off a Leaf Case Moth Hyalarcta hibneri cocoon. The Leaf Case Moth camouflages its cocoon with leaves from a wide range of plants and can be a serious threat because large numbers can breed up in one season and completely defoliate the host tree or shrub. The Raven eventually, after some minutes, succeeded in wrenching the case moth cocoon off the branch, It flew to our Leucoxylon rosea where I was able to watch more closely its frenzied attempts to open the tough silk case and extract the larva. It took five minutes of effort with the proposed meal always in danger of slipping from the branch. It held onto the cocoon with both feet whilst stabbing and tearing fiercely with its strong sharp beak. Eventually it succeeded and I then turned my attention to the other bird. a... ANd Another Raven This Raven was having a similar strug- gle with a Leaf Case Moth, and was trying to remove the whole case from the branch, as the first bird had done. Then it seemed to work it out that it was an advantage to leave the silk attached to the branch and - with a deft flick of the beak it positioned the cocoon along the branch, stretching the 5 cm food parcel between its feet. The cocoon remained steady on the branch and within 2 minutes the larva was devoured. We have since observed Pied Cur- rawongs feeding on the same Leaf Case Moth larvae. According to Leach (1922 and 1952, editions of ‘Australian Nature Studies’) Silvereyes, Mistletoe Birds and Vol. 111 (6) 1994 Shrike Tits are said to be able to extract larvae from case moth cocoons, but there is no mention of Ravens or Currawongs. In January this year (1994) I had hundreds of these Leaf Case Moth larvae defoliating Banksia spinulosa in my gar- den. I managed to successfully rear one to adulthood and to examine the emerged adult. A male moth with a jet-black 1 cm body, transparent wings and pale brown feathered antennae emerged from a black pupal case from within the cocoon. I would be very interested to hear from anyone else who has observed species of birds (other than those mentioned) feed- ing on Hyalarcta hibneri. Cecily Falkingham 241 Naturalist Notes How to be a Field Naturalist The world of the Field Naturalist stretches from Astronomy to Zoology with all sorts of plants, animals, rocks and places in between. Beginning in this issue we are presenting a series of articles that will help you to get started in each of the many aspects of Natural History. i Good naturalists spend their time between making observations in the field, looking up references in the library, and doing experiments in the laboratory or on the kitchen bench, Each of the articles will start with a list of the sorts of activities that you could expect to enjoy if you take up this new interest. We will be giving you advice on the books and field guides that could be useful and the sorts of equipment which you will need to get started. If there are any specialist societies we will list them for you and we will tell you about any journals that cover the subject. Finally we will try to include the name of one of our members who can give you more advice on how you might roceed, The first guide is for potential birdwatchers and in the next issue of the The Victorian Naturalist we will look at insects. After that will probably come fossils and we have at least twenty subjects that we can cover. That is enough material to last for three years. If you want your interest to be presented early in the series please let the editors know; they might be able to oblige. Ian Endersby Bird Watching Ian Endersby! Activities Field Guides/Handbooks As a Field Naturalist specialising in Bird Watching you can look forward to par- ticipating in; Field trips for bird identification or other studies; Preparing your own lists of sightings and species’ distribution; Participation in organised surveys - counts of birds, nesting records and similar surveys; Field studies of bird behaviour, diet or The Slater Field Guide to Australian Birds. Peter, Pat and Raoul Slater A Field Guide to the Birds of Australia. Graham Pizzey Field Guide to The Birds of Australia. Ken Simpson and Nicholas Day Where to Find Birds in Australia. John Bransbury (Waymark) Australian Birds - a popular guide to ecology; Bird banding for migration studies; Conservation of rare species and vul- nerable habitats; Bird photography, You might specialise in a particular prow of birds, such as the waders, birds druids, seabirds, or waterfowl. bird life. J. McDonald (Reed) Bird Life. lan Rowley(Collins) Equipment As soon as you take birdwatching serious- ly you will find that you need a pair of binoculars. 7x50 and 10x40 are the most popular models as they give good mag- nification and light grasp without being apie Some people use 9x20 roof 1 prism binoculars as they are very compact 56 Looker Rd, Montmorency, Victoria 3094. and give a short panne Ree it is ER The Victorian Naturalist Naturalist Notes essential with small bush birds. Wader and waterbird specialists will probably want to invest in a spotting telescope of at least 20x magnification with a sturdy tripod. Mist nets and bird banding equipment can only be purchased by registered "A" grade banders so it is best to pursue that interest with a group who specialise in that aspect of ornithology. Photographers need a camera that takes a telephoto lens but they can build their own "hide" from scrap materials and ingenuity Clubs and Societies Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union Bird Observers Club of Australia Victorian Ornithological Research Group Victorian Wader Study Group Journals As well as the newsletters that each club produces there are some good journals available in Australia. The Emu, produced by the RAOU, con- tains refereed scientific papers on all aspects of bird taxonomy, be- haviour and distribution. Corella, produced by the Australian Bird Banding Association, concentrates on survey methods and the results of survey and banding projects, Australian Bird Watcher, produced by BOCA, specialises in reporting field observations of bird be- haviour and distribution. The Stilt, produced by the Australasian Wader Study Group, covers all aspects of wader biology and con- servation in Australia and the Asian flyway. Enquiries Your FNCV Contact for Bird Watching is Ian Endersby. You can contact him on (03) 435 4781 or write to 56 Looker Road, Montmorency 3094, He will be able to answer many of your questions and direct you to others who can help. Beach-washed Little Penguin Peter McAlley (RMIT, Sciences Education Department, Coburg Campus) has sup- plied details about the finding of a dead Little Penguin at Port Campbell in January. The letter from the Australian Bird and Bat Banding Schemes is copied below: Dear Peter Thank you for reporting the details of the bird band that you recently found. We appreciate your action in reporting this find which will contribute to our under- standing of Australian birds. Please check the details given below. If not correct please amend and return the form to me at the above address. Finding Details - Band number: 190-80198 was recovered on: 24/02/94 at: Sherbrook River, nr Port Campbell Vic; Latitude: 38deg 39min Osec S; Longitude 143deg 4min 0 sec E; the bird was: Found dead, cause unknown and: Was dead and the band was removed. Banding Details - the band that you found was placed on a (n): Little Penguin or scientific name: Eudyptula minor, on 27/01/94, at Northern Shore Phillip Island Vic, Latitude 38deg 31 min Osec D; Longitude 145deg 8min Osec E. The bird was age: Nestling and its sex was: Unknown. It was banded by: The Penguin Study Group. The time between banding and recovery 1s 0 years 0 months 28 days and the bird had moved at least a distance of: 180 km on a bearing of 265 degrees. Thank you for participating in the Australian Bird and Bat Banding Schemes. Please do not hesitate to contact me should you need to know more about the activities of the schemes. Yours sincerely Lisa J Hardy for Tom Scotney Vol. 111 (6) 1994 243 Book Reviews Common Australian Fungi by Tony Young. Revised edition (1994). Publisher: University of New South Wales Press, Kensington, N.S.W. 154 pages, with 32 colour plates, 9 figures, and numerous line drawings. RRP $19.95. ‘Common Australian Fungi’ first ap- peared in 1982 and was reprinted with minor corrections in 1986. This latest ver- sion is a more substantial revision of text and plates and the format has been altered to a 21.5 x 11 cm. soft back. The basic layout of the text remains the same - with an introduction covering structure, ecol- ogy and other aspects such as edibility, followed by a key to common genera, with the bulk of the text being concise descriptions of 209 species. Most of these descriptions are accompanied by line drawings of fruiting body cross-sections, and spores. There is a list of ‘further reading’, reduced from the much more comprehensive bibliography which was a useful feature of the original edition. The most significant difference in this latest version is that the original 16 plates of watercolours by Kay Smith have been rearranged and supplemented so that 80 species are now illustrated, and 22 colour photographs by the author are also added to make up a further 16 plates. The paintings of various genera are ar- ranged more or less alphabetically, which does not exactly reflect the text, in which genera are grouped within a number of major taxonomic groups. Thus descrip- tions of Clavulinopsis miniata and Ramaria fumigata are on facing pages, whilst their illustrations are widely separated, The photographs are in no par- ticular order at all. The plates are not referred to in the text, but can only be located through the index. Only when consulting the index is it apparent that a number of species which are illustrated by photographs (such as Auriculariadelicata and Banksiamyces toomansis) are not mentioned at all in the text. Whilst the new format is generally agreeable, the quality of the reproduction of the plates and of the line drawings has 244 deteriorated, in some cases considerably. Some of the plates are rather blurry, as are many of the line drawings, with that of Hygrocybe gramminicolor being par- ticularly rough. The lack of clarity of many of the line drawings, whilst unat- tractive, is not a serious defect, but where spores have ornamented surfaces, the na- ture of the ornamentation is often difficult to make out. The colour illustrations are on the whole adequate depictions of the species - some- times barely so. The photographs seem to capture the characteristics of the species better, as can be seen from comparison of the several cases where species are il- lustrated by both watercolours and by photographs (Amauroderma rude, Boletellus emodensis, Chlorophyllum molybdites and Omphalotus nidiformis). The depth of focus of the photographs is rather shallow in some cases, and the photograph of Omphalotus nidiformis (plate 26) appears to have been reproduced upside down. A flaw in the arrangement of ‘Common Australian Fungi’ is that species some- times appear in the text under old names, with the current name in brackets, al- though confusingly in a few cases, as for Amauroderma rude, the name in brackets is in factan older synonym. Here and there outdated names are used with no indica- tion of the name currently used (for example Scutellinia scutellata is entered only as Peziza scutellata). The use of older names as the main heading for some species is frankly misleading and confus- ing. It is not right to place Tricholoma acerbum, T. nudumand T. rutilans next to each other, when the latter two species are now accepted as belonging to two entirely different genera (Lepista and Tricholomop- sis respectively). The explanation given The Victorian Naturalist Book Reviews for this practice is that it is easier to key out together some species which used to be placed in the same genus. There are indeed problems in keys of readily separating some genera without extensive use of microscopic characters, but in such cases it should have been possible to find some characters which separate at least the species dealt with, or else it would have been quite acceptable to key to a group of genera. The illustration of Dictyophora multi- color (plate 11) appears to be misidentified (looking more like D. in- dusiata); but according to the author (pers. comm.) the typical red colour of the indusium has not come out in the plate. Podoserpula pusio is described under Cantharellus pusio, but this latter name relates in fact to an entirely different fun- gus. Some spelling errors are Cytarria for Cyttaria (plate 27), pelliculosis for pel- liculosus (p. 37), scuttelata for scutellata (p. 144), sanipicolor for sinapicolor (p. 154) and Schleroderma for Scleroderma (p. 154). As an identification guide the key to genera seems to work as well as can be expected without frequent recourse to microscopic characters. Itis not, however, made clear that there are many genera, and a huge number of species, which are not included in the book, and some of these could reasonably be considered common. Just how to deal with the hundreds if not thousands of additional species of Australian macrofungi (many of which are yet to be formally described) has not yet been solved by any of the available field guides to Australian fungi. Com- prehensive field guides are available for other groups such as birds or butterflies but there is a long way to go before there is anything like a complete guide to even the common fungi. Like it or not, a knowledge of micro- scopic characters is essential for anyone wishing to really come to grips with the study of fungi, and so a major advantage of ‘Common Australian Fungi’ over other available works of similar scope 1s that drawings of spores are included for most species. The spore drawings do seem Vol. 111 (©) 1994 to have been done freehand, rather than by more accurate methods, but are nonethe- less adequate for a book of this nature. It is, however, unfortunate that the spores of different species are reproduced at un- specified and wildly varying scales, thus, for example, making the spores of Stereum illudens appear much smaller than those of the adjacent Trametes cin- nabarina, whereas the reverse is true. Various other microscopic characters which are mentioned in the text, such as cheilocystidia, are occasionally also il- lustrated, although what they are is nowhere indicated on the drawings. ‘Common Australian Fungi’ also has an advantage oyer some other field guides to Australian fungi in that concise descrip- tions of the characters of each species are provided, and furthermore these descrip- tions are based on first hand experience of the species, or else the author is careful to specify when he takes information from other sources. Another strong point of the work froma scientific point of view is that I believe thatthere are voucher collections for most if not all of the species dealt with, which means that the identity of species can be verified in future when species concepts are altered (as is bound to hap- pen). Jim Willis enthusiastically reviewed the first version of ‘Common Australian Fungi’ (see The Victorian Naturalist 100, 40-42), and whilst recommending the book, did provide some comments on im- provements which could be made. Regrettably, few of these suggestions have been addressed, even the most un- questionable errors remain uncorrected despite considerable revision of various parts of the text. For example, the list of states where Cortinarius archeri occurs does not include Tasmania, yet this is the state of origin of the type collection. The fact that ‘Common Australian Fungi’ is still in print 12 years after its initial appearance testifies to the demand for an introductory work on Australian fungi. The most recent version does not, however, take advantage of having been reprinted, and there is much room for improvement, notably the entering of 245 Book Reviews species under up-to-date names and the addition of cross references in the text to the plates, ‘Common Australian Fungi’ can nevertheless be recommended as the best introduction to the larger fungi of Australia in print - in that it combines a key, descriptions of each species and details of microscopic chacters, and is comprehensively illustrated, The best is still far from what might be possible. For the moment, the student of Australian fungi must be content to use ‘Common Australian Fungi’ alongide other avail- able field guides, especially those with better quality illustrations. Tom May (National Herbarium of Victoria) AFTER THE GREENING The Browning of Australia by Mary E White Publisher: Kangaroo Press RRP $59.95 Mary White, in 1986, came up with a winner in her ‘Greening of Gondwana’ superbly illustrated by the photographs of Jim Frazier. Palaeontological endeavour had been dying in the Universities and this presentation was perhaps the first (and perhaps most successful) of a number of timely reprieves in the form of major pub- lications. Now ‘Browning’ continues her story and the question is, how successfully? Well, there’s no doubt that it is a beauti- ful book. Decently bound, good quality paper, first class colour plates many again emanating from Frazier (with a laudable number of the authors own efforts). My old eyes preferred the type font in ‘Greening’, but nonetheless that used is quite satisfactory. The general layout is excellent and segments adequately signposted. I do not like, however, the chopping and changing from black and white to colour plate in maps and figures. RIFTING 4 (page 41) is a much more effective presentation than its fellows on pages 42 and 43. Now this is because pages 42 and 43 were not part of a colour sheet on the press, but the book suffers a little because of a perceived ‘no more than Xxx colour pages’ limitation, A couple of the special boxes e. g. pages 22 and 23, on darkened background seem to be poorly produced whereas others (see Page 62) are of higher quality. Too many of the figures e.g. map on page 45 with the Divide petering out on the Vic-NSW bor- 246 der, and map on page 62 with completely misleading “extent of Cretaceous sediment’ suffer from uncritical acceptance of pre- viously published material, and I could go on and on, but this is book reviewers stuff and nothing to deter would-be purchasers. ‘Browning’ offers a great deal more than a pictorial essay on the vegetation history of earth. It has far more text and the author bravely ventures to comment on a multi- tude of subjects. This could make it more attractive to some, less to others, I believe the straightforward fossil flora story presented in ‘Greening’ is a lot more as- similatable than the plethora of fact, theory and suggestion provided in the new book. There is dogmatic assertion of this and that, often on flimsy evidence, and some contradiction in places. There again this sort of overall assessment becomes unreadable and wishy-washy if handled as a thesis or scientific paper where every statement has to be justified to the nth degree. So, to sum up, we receive a well presented picture of our continent in the past, and, apart from the hiccups of the kind suggested, I see an invaluable refer- ence for those who want to know more about our most recent ice ages, earliest inhabitants, and a myriad of other ques- tions that are not discussed in the literature at hand in most households. Well done Mary White, I'll be buying a copy! Jack Douglas The Victorian Naturalist Obituary Alexander Noble Burns 1899-1994 Alex Burns, who died in June 1994, was one of the longest-servi 7 the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria. He was elected ata Gono Mectine uu 5 June 1916; became an Honorary Member after 40 years and in September 1987 was awarded a Citation for Outstanding Service, which he greatly valued. Born in Ferntree Gully, Alex Burns’ early interest in entomology was fostered when he became acquainted with F.P. Spry, Entomologist at the National Museum of Victoria. In his early years he worked in Queensland for the Commonwealth Prickly Pear Board and later at the Queensland Bureau of Sugar Experiment Stations. In 1936 he obtained his BSc. from Melbourne University, and then went to England, where he worked at the British Museum (Natural History) and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. In 1944 he was appointed to the staff of the National Museum, where he undertook the immense task of rehabilitating the entomological collections. He became Curator of Entomology in 1946, and was appointed Assistant Director in 1959, a position he held until his retirement in 1964. In 1953 he obtained his MSc. from Melbourne University and in 1986 was awarded a DSc. from the World University Roundtable, Arizona. ‘Butterflies of Australia and New Guinea’, written in collaboration with Charles Barrett, was published in 1951, followed by ‘Notes on Collecting and Mounting Insects’ (1954, 1964) and ‘Australian Butterflies in Colour’ (1969, 1979, 1983). Alex Burns’ first contribution to The Victorian Naturalist appeared in 1924, an account of butterfly collection in northern New South Wales and Queensland. The occasional article appeared during the 1930's and 1940’s but from 1952 onwards he became a regular contributor, writing articles mainly on butterflies but also on insects in general and spiders. After his retirement to Queensland he began a series ‘Nature-Notes from the Gold Coast’ which ran from 1973-1975, with a final article in 1979. Numerous scientific papers were published in the ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria’ and the ‘Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria’, and in 1957 he produced a checklist of Australian Cicadidae in ‘Entomologischeb Arbeiten aus dem Museum G. Frey’ (Tutzingbei-Munchen:Germany). Alex Burns was a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London and the Royal Entomological Society, London, a foundation member of the Entomological Section of the Zoological Society of New South Wales and a Fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society and the Royal Society of Victoria. In his retirement Alex Burns developed an interest in orchid-growing, astronomy and cosmology. Between 1970 and 1975 he established a plant and seeding nursery at the Bird Sanctuary which was then being developed at Currumbin, Queensland. In his article on Alex Burns’ retirement (The Victorian Naturalist 81, 169) R.T.M. Pescott described him as ‘an excellent field man’ who collected extensively throughout Australia and whose handling of specimens was always ‘near to perfection’. He also made a significant contribution to the taxonomy of certain groups of Australian insects, particularly the butterflies and cicadas. As Alex Burns had been encouraged in his youth by F.P. Spry, so he later trained and encouraged amateur collectors sharing with them his enthusiasm. k . Lam indebted to Dr Alan Beasley for much of this information; he remembers his colleague and friend as ‘a valued and popular member of the staff of the National Museum of Victoria’ and as a very great entomologist. Sheila Houghton 247 Australian Natural History Medallion In 1993 it became necessary to obtain a new Australian Natural History Medallion and Council decided that it would be timely to return to a traditional medal, while retaining the natural history theme of the free-standing sculpture which had been used since 1981. Tony Gilevski of The Works, RMIT Design Consultancy, created the design chosen. The three concentric circles air, earth and water, The cen has a lizard, gum nuts and a z a o pis = = & = a pp sl 5 a n yes Š = h m jea re) z o S oO A — ‘Australian Natural History Medallion’ ‘For furthering interest and knowledge in Australian d the central disc bears the name of the recipient and his design was presented to Alan J Reid in 1993. nd cast in bronze by Victor Kalinowski. The presenta- h um, from the Barmah Forest, was made by Cameron Miller, of The Small Hours Studio, Eltham. Sheila Houghton The Victorian Naturalist Index to Volume 110, 1993 Compiled by K.N. Bell Amphibians Amphibians and reptiles, coastal dunes, Venus Bay, 198 Australian Natural History Medallion Award, 60; 228 Authors Barker, R. and Grey, P., 98 Bell, K.N., 138 Bennett, A.F., 15 Blakers, M., 45 Briggs, L., 38 Calder, M., 4, 112 Claridge, A.W., 86 Claridge, A.W. and Lindenmayer, D.B., 91 Clarke, I., 74 (book review) Conole, L.E., 125, 142, 217 Davidson, I., 51 Duigan, S.L., 53 (book review) Endersby, I., 137 (book review), 262 (book review) Ettershank, G., 251 Editors (Vic. Nat.), 261 Eichler, J. and May, T., 76 Faithfull, I., 177 (book review) Fensham, R., 191 Franklin, D.C. and McMahon, A.R.G., 230 Fuhrer, B., 96 Fuhrer, B. and May, T., 73 Graham, E., 263 (obituary for U.M. Bates) Grey, E., 61 (book review) Grey, P. and Barker, R., 98 Gillbank, L., 209 Grgurinovic, C., 65 Grusovin, J., Thompson, R. and Myroniuk, P., 165 Houghton, S., 228 Irvine, R. and Kemp, B., 113 Kemp, B. and Irvine, R., 113 Koehn, J.D., 225 Lansberg, J., 37 Lee, J.,97 (obituary for G.R. Hughes) Lindenmayer, D.B. and Claridge, .W., 91 McCubbin, C.W., 84 (book review) McInnes, D.E., 179 (obituary for A Fairhall) dale McIntyre, S., 148 (letter) McKinnon, L.J., 186 McMahon, A.R.G. and Franklin, D.C., 230 May, T. and Eichler, J., 76 May, T. and Fuhrer, B., 73 Myroniuk, P., Grusovin, J. and Thompson, R., 165 O’ Hara, T., 149 Parker, B.L., 205 Prober, S.M. and Thiele, K.R., 30 Robinson, D., 6 Salkin, A., 128 Schleiger, N., 170, 219 Schulz, M., 198 Simpson, J.A., 70 Sivertson, D., 24 Thiele, K.R. and Prober, S.M., 30 Thompson, R., 218, 244 Thompson, R., Myroniuk, P. and Grusovin, J., 165 Tideman, S.C., 238 Traill, B.J., 11 Turner, E.K., 85 (obituary for E. Webb- Ware) van Huet, S., 154 Venn, D.R., 185 (letter) Watson, R., 53 (book review), 258 Webb, G.A., 160 Weste, G., 78, 260 Whinray, J., 247 Willett, B., 49 Willis, J.H., 62 Birds Gouldian Finches, where after breed- ing season?, 238 Helmeted Honeyeater, significance of Mountain Swamp Gum, 230 Regent Honeyeater project, 49 Shy Albatross, 218 Book Reviews Action plan for Australian Birds, S. Garnett (R. Watson), 53 Ants of Southern Australia, A Guide to the Bassian Fauna, A. Anderson. (I. Faithfull), 177 Ecology of Mycorrhizae, M.F. Allen. (C.W. McCubbin), 84 Field companion to Australian Fungi, B. Fuhrer. (Eds., Vic. Nat.), 261 Flying Colours, P. and M. Coupar. (I. Endersby), 262 Grasses of Temperate Australia, C.A. Lamp, S.J. Forbes and J.W. Cade. (S.L. Duigan), 53 Orchid Man, L.A. Gilbert. (1. Clarke), 175 Rainforest Fungi of Tasmania and South-eastern Australia, B. Fuhrer and K. Robinson. (E. Grey), 137 Spiders Commonly Found in Mel- bourne and Surrounding Areas, K. Walker and G. Milledge. (I. Endersby), 137 Botany Banksia, host specificity of disc fungi, 73 Blackberries, no more, 258 Box and Ironbark communities, Northern Victoria, 4 Census, plants of Deal Island for 1884, 247 Coastal vegetation remnant, Phillip Isl., 191 Eucalyptus sideroxylon, lightning strike on, 219 Grassy White Box woodland remnant, ecology and genetics, 30 Grevillea williamsonii FvM_ redis- covered, 163 Ironbark, lightning strike on, 219 Leatherwood, bees and insects as- sociated with, 251 Mountain Swamp Gum, significance for Helmeted Honeyeaters, 230 Mueller, F., visits to East Gippsland, 209 Plant associations of Australian Jewel beetles, 160 Planting zones, Organ Pipes N.P., 113 Rural dieback, insect damage in rem- nant native woodlands, 37 Conservation Conserving remnant habitat, private land, 51 Fauna conservation, Box and Ironbark forests, 15 Flora, conservation history of Waver- ley, 128 Lest we forget to forge, 6 Management in Box and Ironbark forests, 11 No more blackberries, 258 Remnant vegetation conservation, Box and Ironbark lands, NSW, 24 Strategies to conserve Box and Iron- bark forests, 45 Entomology Apiculture in Box and Ironbark forests, 38 Bees and native insects associated with Leatherwood, 250 ‘Bulldog’ ants, nest mound decoration, 217 Insect damage and rural dieback in remnant native woodlands, 37 Jewel beetles plant associations, 160 F.N.C.V. Aust. tragedy of errors, 112 Books available from, 159, 223 Fish Fish need trees, 255 Trout Cod, Barmah Forest record, 186 Fungi Cinnamon Fungus, is it a threat?, 78 Cordyceps, 98 Disc-fungi, | Banksiamyces, specificity, 73 Fungal diet of Long-nosed Bandicoot, 86 Fungal dissemination by Mountain Brushtail Possum, 91 Highlights of 65 years among fungi, 62 Hypocreopsis at Nyora, V., 76 Mycenella (Xerulaceae), first Aust- ralian record, 65 Photography of fungi, 96 Thysanophora in Australia, 70 host Geology Beach sands, periwinkles, green algae heights, Point Lonsdale, 170 Palaeontological investigations, Lan- cefield megafauna sites, 154 Invertebrates Austrocochlea spp., zonation at Cape Otway, 205 Echinoids of Victoria, 149 r Thecamoebians from Sth. Gippsland, 138 Localities WPR, Brisbane Ra. N.P., early spring in northern, 260 Cape Otway, Austrocochlea spp. zonation, 205 Deal Isl., plant census 1884, 247 East Gippsland jungles, F. Mueller visits to, 209 Horsham area, Swamp Wallaby dis- tribution, 184 Lancefield, palaeontological inves- tigations, 154 Mt. Cole, survey bellied Glider, 244 Myers Flat, ironbark lightning strike, 219 Nyora, Hypocreopsis at, 76 Organ Pipes N.P., planting zones, 113 Otways, Tiger Quoll in eastern, 142 Phillip Isl. coastal vegetation remnant, 191 Point Lonsdale, beach sand, peri- winkle and algal heights, 170 South Gippsland, thecamoebians, 138 Sunday Isl., mammal survey, 165 Venus Bay, reptiles, amphibians of coastal dunes, 198 Waverley, flora conservation history, 128 of Yellow- Price $5.00 pick up at any meetin Remit to FNCV, c/- D.E. McInne Victoria 3145, The Victorian Naturalist - Subject Index 1884-1978 A handy reference book to have on hand for all members. g or $9.60 posted to anywhere in Victoria. s, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, Yarra Valley, Helmeted Honeyeaters and Mountain Swamp Gum, 230 Mammals Long-nosed Bandicoot, fungal diet, 86 Mammal survey, Sunday Isl., 165 Mountain Brushtail Possum, fungal disseminator, 91 Perameles nasuta, fungal diet, 86 Petaurus australis, survey at Mt. Cole, 244 Swamp Wallaby distribution, 184 Tiger Quoll in Eastern Otways, 142 Trichosaurus caninus, fungal dissemi- nator, 91 Yellow-bellied Glider, survey at Mt. Cole, 244 Miscellaneous Lightning strike on ironbark, Myers Flat, 219 Obituaries U. Bates (E. Graham), 263 A. Fairhall (D.E. McInnes), 179 G.R. Hughes (J. Lee), 97 E. Webb-Ware (K.L. Turner), 85 Reptiles Reptiles and amphibians, dunes, Venus Bay, 244 coastal Part 1 (Feb.)-conference proceedings on Box and Ironbark Woodland Conservation. Part 2 (April)-issue devoted to Fungi.