The (« Victoria Naturalist Volume 112 (1) 1995 February Conservation of Invertebrates Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884 Notice of the Annual General Meeting The Annual General Meeting of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria will be held at the Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 8 pm, Monday, 10 April 1995. Agenda 1. Confirmation of the minutes of the previous Annual General Meeting held 11 April 1994. . Receipt and adoption of Annual Report for the year ended 31 December 1994, . Receipt and adoption of Financial Statements and associated reports. 2 3 4. Election of Members of Council. 5. Election of Office Bearers. 6 7 . Appointment of Auditors (remuneration to be determined by Council). . Any other business of which proper notice has been given in accordance with the Articles of Association. . President’s Address. Election of Councillors and Office Bearers All members of Council and Office Bearers retire annually but are eligible for re-election. Nominations by two financial members of the Club are required for the following positions: Council President 2 Vice-Presidents Secretary Treasurer Six other members Office Bearers Assistant Treasurer Excursion Secretary Editor (The Victorian Naturalist) Sales Officer (Books) Editor (The Newsletter) Sales Officer (The Victorian Naturalist) Librarian Activities Co-ordinator Conservation Co-ordinator Publicity Officer This is your Club, All members are urged to ensure its on-going viability by filling all the above positions with persons willing and able to contribute to activities, functions and the general work of the Club. Arrange a nomination for yourself or encourage some other appropriate member to be nominated. 8 Shae should be in the hands of the Secretary before the Annual General eeting. Nomination Forms are available from the Secretary, Geoff Paterson, 5716436. Species-scape Followi ng Society of America, re i » Tepresentations of major animal grou Ss are depicted at a siz that reflects i pease A ys ah anno ihee ver vertebrates is clearly any of the invertebrates should possibly be larger (or some of the Errata Volume 111 (6) 1994 Kate Weindorfer. The Forgotten Partner of the Cradle Mountain Legend Sally Schnackenberg. Due to a technical error the numbers referred to in the footnotes were left out of the text. The editors wish to apologise for this mistake and trust this sheet will help. Position in text rs a 17 De ee a 238 marty ee a a ae z m8 Weindorfer ere ur -—— Weindorfer | a ee en a a pf dia a gone ee es ae rs ee a Books Available from FNCV The Club has, over the years, published a number of books on natural history topics which can be purchased from the Book Sales Officer. It is currently distributing four of these as follows: ‘What Fossil Plant is That?’ (J.G. Douglas) A guide to the ancient flora of Victoria, with notes on localities and fossil collection ‘Wildflowers of the Stirling Ranges’ (Fuhrer and Marchant) 144 magnificent illustrations of the spectacular flora of this region ‘Down Under at the Prom’ (M. O’ Toole and M. Turner) A guide to the marine sites and dives at Wilson’s Promontory with maps and numerous colour illustrations ‘A Field Companion to Australian Fungi’ (B. Fuhrer) A reprint of the earlier book with additional photographs and changes of name incorporated. Alan Parkin Book Sales Officer 850 2617(H) 565 4974(B) 1995 Subscription Rates (Includes The Victorian Naturalist) Single member $35 Joint members $45 Concessional (student/pensioner/country) $25 Junior (under 18, no Victorian Naturalist) $5 Other FN Clubs $35 Institutional subscription $50 Overseas subscription AUD $60 Receipts will not be issued unless requested. Subscriptions are due on 1 January in each year. Those still unfinancial by April will not receive the journal. The Victorian Naturalist Volume 112 (1) 1995 February Editor: Robyn Watson Assistant Editors: Ed and Pat Grey Editorial Why Conserve Invertebrates? by Alan Yen and Tim New .........+.s:0010 4 Contributions Conservation Status of Terrestrial Invertebrates in Victoria, AVR C OW ae pes pace cases geass shyt: nusnetonfesnea sharedUatrEAtaze Capsoint et ibiz Sbaapeasectedqeai acted 6 Conservation of Freshwater Invertebrates, by R. Butcher and T.J. DO€g ....sessesecssssersssersenesveseecessesseneseseennensaneninens 15 Conservation Issues for Marine Invertebrates in Victorian Waters, by Mark D. Norman and Glenn J. Sant.......ssesssseeeseseieesreersrennietecees 20 Focussing on Species for Invertebrate Conservation, by T.R. New ...... 29 Protection of Invertebrates in Victoria: the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, by Pam Clunie and Julia Reed «1.1... tees niceiiens 32 Is Invertebrate Collecting a Threatening Process? by Alan L. Yen and Timothy R. NeWe..erssesssosesiserniresiennnisetscnns ania: 36 The Species: Elements of a Management Plan, by T.R. NQW sesssersesereves 40 Conservation of Victorian Butterflies, by Ross P. Field ss... 43 Conservation Strategy for a Threatened ‘Butterfly Community’, by Aran JelineK.ssssssssessssesesssssssssccssssncenstceencnncenensnnnnannanesnacsns een 47 Marine Invertebrate Conservation at San Remo, by T. (OM afilgireoicen: 50 Vulnerable Ecosystems: Victoria’s Alpine Regions, by T.R. New and AL, Yerd.......ssosssssrssevsinsensseresresnenne ees eee 54 Threatened Ecosystems: Agricultural Environments, by Paul A. Horne.. 56 Is There Life Beyond Butterfly Houses? by Alan VGH avcgsestzeartacet 58 Education: Improving the Image of Invertebrates, by Carolyn Meehan.. 60 How the Community and Naturalists can Contribute to Invertebrate Conservation, by Pat Vaughann....cssscrscsosseetsscniecssteenernenntnnnsnen recta 63 Book Review ‘Hidden Rainforests. Subtropical Rainforests and their Invertebrate Biodiversity’ by G. Williams, reviewer T.R. INGW stiracnsevercurchecteticomea ee 66 How to bea Field Naturalist Entomology, by Jan Emdersby .sos.-1-srssvssrrscresessi tt it 67 ISSN 0042-5184 Cover: The cover is a ‘species-s cape’ of Australian fauna. Illustration by Graham Milledge (Museum of Victoria). (see facing page for explanation). Editorial Editorial: Why Conserve Invertebrates? Until very recently, much of the world’s limited conservation expertise has fo- cused largely on the needs of vertebrate animals and, to a lesser extent, vascular plants, collectively the most obvious and publicly appealing components of biolog- ical communities even though they are numerically minor constituents. One practical exception to this has been butter- flies which, because of their unusually high popular appeal amongst inverte- brates, have been accepted readily as taxa worthy of conservation. Yet the predom- inant animals by far in all biological communities are other invertebrates, many of them small, inconspicuous, un- described and unnoticed by most people. Wilson’s (1987) categorisation of these as ‘the little things that run the world’ awak- ened widespread realisation that sustain- ing Earth's natural ecosystems may de- pend not simply on the well being of a few vertebrate species but, rather, on conserv- ing those myriad less conspicuous organisms whose number, biomass and controlling influences in ecological pro- cesses are of paramount importance. More pragmatically, many invertebrates have massive economic relevance to human welfare, be they marine molluscs or crustaceans used as foods, aquatic insects providing early warning of envi- ronmental degradation, insects used in crop pollination, or nematode worms act- ing as natural enemies of forestry pests. In short, their importance in conserva- tion has two major aspects: (1) as targets, whereby notable species are the focus of Major conservation management efforts of the kind familiar in vertebrate conser- vation, and (2) as tools, whereby change in the incidence or diversity of given taxa may be used to monitor the health of natural communities and indicate the effects of human intrusions. Many inver- tebrates are far more sensitive than other organisms to such changes, Invertebrate conservation, essentially the conservation of organismal biodivers- 4 ity, is an important practical facet of a holistic conservation need, but poses sev- eral practical problems. As examples, public images of invertebrates create prej- udice against them; their massive diversity means that enumerating taxa to provide inventories for a site or habitat is extraordinarily difficult; many (most) are undescribed and unrecognised, and ‘lack of names’ is commonly equated to ‘lack of interest or importance’; many are short- lived, their biology is unknown, and association of immature stages with adults is difficult; and little is known of the factors which influence their abun- dance and distributions. Another complex problem is logistics - the lack of sufficient resources, including trained personnel and adequate finance, to undertake the work needed to document invertebrate species and assemblages. Nevertheless, it is clear that many inver- tebrates are ecological specialists and are vulnerable to a wide range of threats. The most important is habitat (biotope) destruction on all scales - many inverte- brates are highly localised, so that the entire range of some species may be only a few hundred square metres, but others include influence of exotic species, pollu- tion and over-exploitation, Yet, despite the vast importance of in- vertebrates in natural ecosystems, their public image, and that of people who study them, has not been good. In the Parliamentary debate on the National Parks Bill in Victoria in 1956, opposition was voiced on the formation of a national park on the Bogong High Plains with the comment *... but where would the State Electricity Commission be if suddenly its works were invaded by ‘bug-hunters’? The lerps causing short circuits on the telephone lines would be nothing com- pared to the damage that would be caused to high-tension lines by Crosbie Morrison’s ‘bug-hunters’...’ (from Gra- ham Pizzey, 1992, Crosbie Morrison - Voice of Nature). The Victorian Naturalist Editorial This special issue of The Victorian Nat- uralist summarises some aspects of the needs and practice of invertebrate conser- vation in Victoria. The first three papers are reviews of needs in terrestrial (Coy), freshwater (Butcher and Doeg) and ma- rine systems (Norman and Sant) to set the scene for later contributions. Major facets in practise include setting priorities amongst species (New), the establishment and function of the pioneering Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (Clunie and Reed) and the emotional topic of collect- ing (Yen and New). The next group of papers indicates the various levels of con- cern and how these may be translated into practice - from individual species (New), through taxonomic groups (of which but- terflies have received considerable attention: Field) to larger units such as communities (Jelinek) and ecosystems, represented here by three contrasting cases: alpine zone (New and Yen), San Remo (O’ Hara), and agricultural systems (Horne). Finally, the importance of effec- tive communication in conservation is addressed by Vaughan, Meehan and Yen. We hope that these accounts, necessarily brief, will help to make other naturalists in Victoria and elsewhere more aware of invertebrates and help to remove some of the mystique and suspicions of the rele- vance of invertebrate conservation. We thank our colleagues for their con- tributions to this issue, Graham Milledge for providing the cover illustration, the Editor and Council of the Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria for agreeing so enthusiastically to our proposal, and the Department of Conservation and Nat- ural Resources for their support. Alan Yen and Tim New Invertebrates illustrated by John Las Gourgues, and diagrams courtesy of the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Feeding butterflies in UK Butterfly House. Vol. 112 (1) 1995 Contributions Conservation Status of Terrestrial Invertebrates in Victoria R. Coy! Abstract The Victorian terrestrial invertebrate fauna is in most cases poorly known, which gives rise to problems associated with its conservation. A brief description of the Victorian terrestrial invertebrate fauna is provided. Studies of terrestrial invertebrates in Victoria have usually been limited to single species and only recently have been included in faunal sur- veys. At present 31 species or com- munities are currently regarded as need- ing conservation, Possible approaches to the conservation, threatening processes and future needs of invertebrate conserva- tion are discussed. The relative abundance and diversity of invertebrates To effectively conserve the biodiversity of invertebrates in Victoria we need to know what fauna is present, what is cur- rently known of the distribution of species and their habitat requirements. Wilkinson (1982) states ‘we cannot protect our envi- ronmentif we do not know its components and how they interact’, and New (1984) emphasises the need for ‘frequent and em- phatic reiteration’ of this point. One theme constantly reiterated in the discussion of invertebrates is the astound- ing dearth of information on many aspects of the Australian fauna (e.g. New 1984). A major factor contributing to our lack of knowledge is the vast abundance and di- versity of invertebrates. The total number of invertebrate species in Australia has been conservatively estimated at 2- 300,000 (Greenslade 1985: Richardson 1983, 1984), Approximately 65,000 of these species have been described, classi- fied and named (Hill and Michaelis 1988) and a further 75,000 Species have been collected but as yet remain undescribed (Coy et al. 1993), In Victoria about 50% ! Museum of Victoria, 7] Victoria Cres, A a irae res, Abbotsford, 6 of the invertebrate fauna has been for- mally named (Vaughan, unpubl. data). By comparison approximately 5,610 verte- brate species have been recorded in Australia, most of which have been for- mally described, thus as a conservative estimate about 97 of every 100 animal species in Australia are invertebrates. In addition to the lack of taxonomic descriptions for many of the invertebrate groups, the ecology of less than one per cent of Australian insect species has been studied in detail (CSIRO, 1991), and most of these are exotic pest species associated with agriculture and plantation ecosys- tems, e.g. Neumann and Morey (1983), Clarke (1947), Farrow (1979, 1982a, b). Furthermore, much of the available infor- mation is spread throughout a large number of journals, other publications and on specimen labels. The widespread and often obscure information needs to be collated before a comprehensive list of Victorian invertebrate species and their distributions can be compiled. Considerable information is available in The Victorian Naturalist and “The Victor- ian Naturalist Subject Index 1884-1978" (FNCV 1979) provides a useful reference system for the articles. The Entomologi- cal Society of Victoria maintains an ongoing scheme, ENTRECS, for collec- tion and collation of data on Victorian insects. This type of collation is extremely time consuming and is generally left to amateur enthusiasts and dedicated natu- ralists. For example, it took many months of dedicated work to collate the dis- tributional data of one of the 114 families of beetles held at the Museum of Victoria (Burns and Burns 1992). Terrestrial invertebrates as a component of the Victorian fauna The majority of non-marine inverte- brates are terrestrial, at least for part of their life cycle. There are representatives in all the major invertebrate groups in- The Victorian Naturalist Contributions cluding protozoa and other microscopic organisms, annelids (worms), molluscs (snails and slugs), onychophorans (velvet worms), myriapods (centipedes, milli- pedes, symphylans and pauropods), crustaceans (e.g. slaters, land hoppers, land yabbies), collembola (springtails), insects and arachnids (e.g. spiders, scor- pions, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen). Annelids, particularly earthworms, are important to the agricultural industry (Lee 1983). However, research has primar- ily been restricted to those species occurring in agricultural lands and much of the native fauna is poorly known. Dyne (1984) and Van Praagh (1994) have stud- ied the giant earthworms (Megascole- cidae) and Jamieson (1981) discusses the conservation of native earthworm spe- cies. Gastropods (snails and slugs are the only terrestrial representatives of the Mollusca) are of importance to the agri- cultural and horticultural industries (Smith and Kershaw 1979). Amateur enthusiasts have contributed to our knowledge of their diversity, abundance and distribu- tion. An account of the known species and their distribution is summarised by Smith and Kershaw (1979). Many native species are endemic to Victoria (Smith 1977), Myriapods are abundant in many terres- trial habitats, especially in forest floors. Millipedes are responsible for the physi- cal breakdown of much of the litter while centipedes and symphyla are predatory. Some information is available on a lim- ited number of species (Mesibov 1986) but virtually nothing is known of the smaller symphylans and pauropods. In a study of Mountain Ash forest litter, the pauropods were among the more common taxa in soil core samples (Coy 1991). The Crustacea is an extremely diverse class but relatively little is known of the taxonomy and ecology of most terrestrial species. Relatively few have invaded ter- restrial habitats but amphipods and isopods are common members of the soil and leaf litter fauna in Victorian forests (Coy 1991), Vol. 112 (1) 1995 Economic importance and aesthetic ap- peal have promoted research on some invertebrate taxa. The Insecta is the most diverse invertebrate class and all Austra- lian orders are reviewed by a variety of authors in CSIRO (1991), but much of the specific information is only available in specialist publications, for example, Isoptera (Watson and Abbey 1993); Blattodea (Mackerras 1965, 1968); Or- thoptera (Marks 1969; Key 1978, 1991; Rentz 1985, 1993); Hemiptera (Moulds 1990); Lepidoptera (Common and Water- house 1981; Moulds 1977; Common 1994; D'Abrera 1974); Coleoptera (Zimmerman 1991, 1994); Hymenoptera (Andersen 1991). The most thoroughly known group in Victoria is the butterflies (e.g. Common and Waterhouse 1981), al- though substantial areas of the state have not been surveyed (New 1984). Much of the information available on this order has been gathered by amateur entomologists. The information on other Victorian orders and species tends to be reported as part of an Australian perspective and information limited specifically to the Victorian in- sects is restricted. : Victorian terrestrial arachnids include the spiders, ticks, mites, scorpions, pseu- doscorpions and harvestmen. Their diversity, abundance and distribution has been reviewed by a number of authors (Main 1976, 1981 a, b; Davis 1986; Koch 1977, 1981; Harvey 1981, 1985). The diversity and abundance of each invertebrate group is not reflected by the amount of research afforded to the group, rather economic importance, aesthetic appeal and accessibility have driven re- search priorities. For example, a recent assessment of the distribution of the Victorian butterfly species (Entomologi- cal Society of Victoria 1986) showed that the pattern of distributional data recorded followed major access routes and towns rather than a complete or even coverage of the State. Contributions Studies of terrestrial invertebrate fauna in Victoria Much of the work on terrestrial inverte- brates in Victoria is limited to single species or a small number of species (e.g. Horne 1992; Edwards 1993; Van Praagh 1994). The butterflies have received par- ticular attention (e.g. Vaughan 1988; Crosby 1987, 1990; Jelinek 1991) result- ing in a disproportionate representation on listings of species requiring conservation effort. Their conservation is more fully discussed by other authors in this series. There remains an urgent need for the in- formation on single species to be collated and presented in an easily accessible form such as that prepared by Smith and Kershaw (1979) for the non-marine mol- luscs and by Common and Waterhouse (1981), Dunn and Dunn (1991), New (1991) and Britton and New (1992) for the butterflies. In most ecosystems, invertebrates are the major faunal component in terms of biomass, diversity and abundance but until recently invertebrates were not in- cluded in most faunal surveys (e.g. Norris and Mansergh 1981; Westerway ef al. 1990). As invertebrates have gained rec- ognition, especially for their importance in ecosystem functioning and conserva- tion, fauna surveys of various ecosystems have included invertebrates (e.g. Yen er al, 1989). Some attempts to include inverte- brates in faunal surveys were limited by sampling design and the taxonomic level to which specimens were identified (e.g. Loyn et al. 1981). Current surveys concerned with terres- trial invertebrate communities and their conservation in Victoria include: an as- sessment of invertebrates in threatened habitats - Western Basalt Grasslands (Yen et al. 1994; Australian Heritage Commis- sion); an assessment of possible in- vertebrate indicators of remnant wood- land with varying disturbance levels (Museum of Victoria, unpubl. data); a study of the impact of forest management Operations on ground dwelling Coleoptera in the forests of East Gippsland (Museum of Victoria, unpubl. data), and monitoring studies of the Mt Piper butterfly commu- nity (Department of Conservation and Natural Resources). Although these stud- ies are not limited to single species they examine only selected groups of the enor- mous array of terrestrial invertebrates present. A report on the conservation status of non-marine invertebrates in Australia, which covers many points relevant to the conservation of Victorian terrestrial in- vertebrates, is currently being prepared (Yen and Butcher 1994), and inverte- brates are now to be included in the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife (Department of Conservation and Natural Resources). Conservation listings of terrestrial invertebrate species and communities in Victoria Ecofund Australia (1986) provides a list of Australia’s threatened invertebrates and the IUCN (1983) lists two Victorian terrestrial invertebrates. Hill and Michae- lis (1988) lists 260 invertebrate species worthy of investigation, of which 18 are Victorian terrestrial invertebrates. CNR (1993) lists five endangered, nine vulner- able and one suspected rare, vulnerable or endangered terrestrial invertebrates in Victoria. Eight terrestrial invertebrates or invertebrate communities in Victoria are listed under the Flora and Fauna Guar- antee Act 1988, and three sites of significance in Victoria based on terres- trial invertebrates have been proposed to the National Heritage Commission for listing on the National Estate. Most of these listings involve the same species and in total 31 species and one community of terrestrial invertebrates in Victoria are listed in these documents. Approaches to the conservation of terrestrial invertebrates in Victoria The conservation of invertebrates has been regarded as an adjunct to vertebrate or plant conservation and no reserve in Victoria has been established primarily for the conservation of invertebrates (New 1984). It was considered that if plant and The Victorian Naturalist Contributions vertebrate animal species were adequately reserved and protected, the majority of invertebrate species would also be ade- quately protected. Wagner and Graetz (1979), disagreed and commented that ‘... generalisations based on the more numer- ous vertebrate studies may not be applicable to the great variety of inverte- brate forms.’ A variety of approaches to the conservation of invertebrates has since developed and are discussed in New (1984) and Yen and Butcher (1994), A summary of each approach and its appli- cation to Victorian terrestrial invertebrate fauna is presented here. 1. Species approach The majority of invertebrate conserva- tion proposals are based on single species, and are strongly biased toward the better known taxa. There is sufficient informa- tion and evidence to suggest that certain species in Victoria have declined, either in abundance or distribution, and are now potentially under threat, for example the Eltham Copper Butterfly. Most single in- vertebrate species considered as requiring conservation are specialists (New 1984) with particular or restricted habitat re- quirements. In these circumstances the single species approach to conservation has provided at least interim protection. Given the enormous diversity of inver- tebrates in Victoria and our lack of knowledge of the majority of species, the species approach to invertebrate conser- yation has serious limitations. Compre- hensive baseline studies of the terrestrial invertebrates were not carried out before large scale clearing operations modified much of the Victorian environment, there- fore the loss of species or depletion of abundance since the arrival of Europeans cannot be fully assessed. Rarity may also be an artefact of incomplete distributional data. Species which occur in low numbers but are widespread may erroneously be regarded as rare, conversely rare species may be completely overlooked. 2. Community approach The study of various terrestrial inverte- Vol. 112 (1) 1995 brate communities in Victoria has exem- plified the importance of conserving whole communities. The community ap- proach to conservation recognises unusual assemblages of relatively com- mon species. Often rare or restricted invertebrates are included in these com- munities, Furthermore, the reliance of some rare species on the presence of more common species affects the development of effective management policies, One terrestrial invertebrate community in Vic- toria, the Mt Piper butterfly community, has been recognised as requiring conser- vation action and management plans are directed toward conserving the entire, functioning community. Any inverte- brates within the community will benefit from the community conservation ap- proach whether it has been specifically identified or not. The major limitation of the community based approach is that a comprehensive list of invertebrate com- munities and their distribution is not available. 3. Habitat approach The most effective approach to terres- trial invertebrate conservation is that based on the conservation of habitat (New 1984; Hill and Michaelis 1988; Greensl- ade and New 1991; Watson ef al. 1991). Key (1978) points out that even small areas of indigenous flora subject to occa- sional disturbance can be a valuable refuge for insects that have been com- pletely eliminated from the adjacent paddocks. The most serious limitation of the habi- tat approach to the conservation of terrestrial invertebrates is the recognition of discrete or representative habitats. The vast diversity and abundance of terrestrial invertebrates, and their individual rela- tionship with other components within the environment, ensures that any habitat is likely to support a unique community with more localised and rare species than wide- spread and abundant ones (New 1987). Habitat identification based on vegetation associations implies that invertebrates 9 Contributions distinguish suitable habitat on the basis of which plants or plant associations are present. Yen et al. (1989), and Friend and Williams (unpubl.) found that inverte- brate assemblages did not coincide with vegetation communities but may be more reliant on the substrate. Any network of reserves that are selected solely on vege- tation attributes will be deficient for invertebrates (Greenslade and Crawford 1994). Similarly, habitat identification based on vertebrate communities was equally poor in predicting invertebrate communities (Yen 1987). The conserva- tion of invertebrates must be planned separately to that for plants and verte- brates and should be based on invertebrate habitat requirements (Greenslade and Crawford 1994). 4. Limiting threatening processes Limiting threatening process within all environments or habitats, although diffi- cult to implement, is an effective means of conserving the diversity and abundance of terrestrial invertebrates. This approach would entail a major change in the attitude of both the authorities and the public, particularly in assigning values to terres- trial invertebrates. A number of threatening processes af- fecting the survival of terrestrial invertebrates have been identified. The greatest threat to terrestrial invertebrates in Victoria is habitat destruction and alter- ation, The habitat of over 60% of the State has been subject to severe modifica- tion, with 99% of the grasslands (Yen ef al, 1994) and over 65% of forests being eliminated or severely altered (Woodgate and Black 1988). Agricultural practices, in particular the pastoral and cropping industries have been responsible for the majority of habitat destruction, modifica- tion and fragmentation since the arrival of Europeans (Williams 1979; Mucher et al. 1988; Greenslade 1992). Forestry, urbanisation, industry and mining also cause widespread habitat destruction and modification. The ongoing spread of exotic species 10 continues to threaten native habitats. In- troduced herbivores have caused severe habitat modification (Ratcliffe 1947; Rolls 1984; Williams and Calaby 1985; Pickard 1994; Greenslade and Crawford 1994) and competition with invertebrate herbivores for resources. Other intro- duced animals cause disruption to the delicate balance of a functioning ecosys- tem. The introduced European wasp Vespula germanica, is a scavenger and a predator of other invertebrates and its ef- fect on native invertebrate survival is unknown. Spradbery and Maywald (1992) noted several square kilometres in Tasmania where many wasp nests were located and no other insects could be found, implying that V. germanica may be seriously reducing native invertebrate dis- tribution. Introduced plant species also modify the habitats they invade and re- duce suitable habitat for native inver- tebrate species (Greenslade and Crawford 1994), Other threatening process include wide- spread and indiscriminate spraying of pesticides, application of fertilisers (King et al. 1985), accumulation of pollutants in the environment, alterations to fire fre- quency, fuel (litter and log) reduction, alteration to drainage patterns, over col- lecting, soil compaction and possible climatic changes (Busby, 1988). These threatening processes are more fully dis- cussed in New (1984). Future direction for conservation of terrestrial invertebrates in Victoria There remains an urgent need for the collation of existing knowledge and gath- ering of further information on all aspects of the Victorian terrestrial invertebrate fauna. This collated and improved knowl- edge is necessary for the identification of Species, communities and habitats which are currently under threat, those which will become threatened if current con- ditions or trends continue, and the threatening processes which need to be ameliorated. Appropriate management priorities can only be based on such The Victorian Naturalist Contributions knowledge. An understanding of the rela- tionship between species and _ their habitats is necessary for the effective im- plementation of habitat based conser- vation strategies. Information on the rela- tionship between species within assemblages is urgently required before indicator taxa can be effectively utilised in formulating management strategies. The following suggestions for the future direction of conservation efforts have been proposed by a number of authors including New (1984), DCE (1992), Yen and Butcher (1994). + development of active conservation strategies based on the habitat approach and limitation of threatening processes to prevent further decline of terrestrial invertebrates. This approach would in- clude strategies directed toward (i) retention of indigenous habitats, (ii) re-establishment of indigenous com- munities, (iii) minimising unnecessary alterations to the original landscape, (iv) minimising the introduction and spread of non-indigenous species, (v) retention of different components of a habitat e.g. logs, litter and stags, rocks, soil, heterogeneity of microclimate, un- dergrowth diversity and density, (vi) limit unnecessary changes of regimes e.g. fire and flood, (vii) restrict the in- discriminate use of fertilisers and pesticides. + collation of existing distributional data into an easily accessible data base, such as the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife (CNR). This will involve the com- puterisation of data from Museums and other institutions, and the inclusion of reliable data collected by amateurs. + provide facilities and incentive for training of taxonomists and other spe- cialists to continue the collection and analysis of invertebrate data. Greens- lade and Greenslade (1983) noted that a lack of taxonomic work was contrib- uting to the difficulty of identifying invertebrates. * encourage the production of well Vol. 112 (1) 1995 illustrated field guides specifically aimed at amateur identification of in- vertebrates, + the establishment of sorting centres to coordinate and standardise collection of invertebrates from a wide variety of habitats and to distribute samples to relevant taxonomists for precise identi- fication. * implementation of educational pro- grams aimed at increasing the public awareness of the importance of inverte- brates in the functioning and conservation of ecosystems and as a future resource (e.g. medical, genetic). * appointment of invertebrate specialists to Government bodies involved in the planning of conservation strategies for the State. Summary The Victorian terrestrial invertebrate fauna is diverse and abundant but poorly described. In total, 31 species and one community of terrestrial invertebrates in Victoria have been recognised as requir- ing attention, This does not reflect the number of species or communities need- ing monitoring or protection, but rather reflects a lack of collated information on the Victorian invertebrates. The increased awareness of the importance of inverte- brates in ecosystem functioning, conser- vation and as a future resource has led to their recent inclusion in conservation studies and faunal surveys. Species, com- munity and habitat approaches to invertebrate conservation all have atten- dant strengths and weaknesses, however, the invertebrates of Victoria will increas- ingly require protection as threatening processes continue to operate. The future survival of invertebrate communities will depend upon the development of a coor- dinated habitat retention approach which identifies the needs of, and addresses the threats to, terrestrial invertebrates. Re- search on all aspects of the Victorian invertebrate fauna continues to be of great importance to conservation efforts, 11 Contributions References : Andersen, A.N. (1991). ‘The Ants of Southern Australia. A Guide to the Bassian Fauna’. (CSIRO: Melboume), Britton, D.R. and New, T.R, (1992). Ecology of the butterfly and ant community at Mount Piper, Victoria, (Unpubl. report), Department of Conser- vation and Natural Resources, Victoria. Bums, G.G. and Burns, A.J. (1992). The distribution of Victorian jewel beetles (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) - an ENTRECS project. Occasional Papers from the Museum of Victoria 5, 1-53, Busby, J.R. (1988). Potential impacts of climatic change on Australia’s flora and fauna. Jn ‘Greenhouse, Planning for climate change’, Ed G.I, Pearman. (CSIRO: Australia). Clarke, L.R. (1947). An ecological study of the Austra- lian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminifera Wald.) in the Bogan-Macquarie outbreak area, NSW. Bul- letin of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Australia No 226, CNR (1993), ‘Threatened Fauna in Victoria’. (Department of Conservation and Natural Resources: Victoria, Australia). Common, LEB. (1994). ‘Monographs of Australian Lepidoptera’. Vol 3. Oecophorine Genera of Australia. (CSIRO: Australia). Common, I.F.B. and Waterhouse, D.F, (1981), “Butter- flies of Australia’, (Angus & Robertson: Hong Kong). Coy, R. (1991). The effects of wildfire on arthropod and nematode abundance in Eucalyptus regnans forest at Powelltown, Victoria. Ph.D. Thesis, Monash Uni- versity, Victoria. Coy, R., Greenslade, P, and Rounsevell, D. (1993), A Survey of Invertebrates in Tasmanian Rainforest. Tasmanian NRCP Technical Report No. 9. (Parks and Wildlife Service, Tasmania, and Department of Ants, Sport, the Environment and Territories, Can- berra). 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(1991). ‘Butterfly Community No. 1°. (Flora and Fauna Guarantee Action Statement No. 6). (Department of Conservation and Environment: Victoria). Key, K.H.L. (1978). The conservation status of Australia’s insect fauna. Occasional Paper No. 1. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra. Key, K.H.L. (1985). Monograph of the Monistriini and Petasidini (Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae). Australian Journal of Zoology. Supplementary Series No. 107. Key, K.H.L. (1991) Orthoptera (grasshoppers, locusts, crickets). /n ‘The Insects of Australia’, CSIRO, (Melbourne University Press: Hong Kong). King, K.L., Greenslade, P. and Hutchinson, K.J. (1985), Collembolan associations in natural versus improved pastures of the New England Tableland in New South Wales : Distribution of native and introduced species. Australian Journal of Ecology 8, 245-255. Koch, L.E. (1977). The taxonomy, geographic distribution and evolutionary radiation of Australo-Papuan scorpions, Records of the West Australian Museum 5, 83-367. Koch, L.E. (1981). The scorpions of Australia: Aspects of their ecology and zoogeography. In “Ecological biogeography of Australia’. Ed. A. Keast. (Junk: Hague). Lee, K.E. (1983). Soil animals and pedological processes. In ‘Soils: an Australian viewpoint’. CSIRO Melbourne. (Academic Press: London). Loyn, R.H., MacFarlane, M.A., Chesterfield, E.A. and Harris, J.A, (1981). Forest utilisation and the flora and fauna in the Boola Boola State Forest in south-eastem Victoria. Bulletin No 28. Forests Commission of Victoria, Melbourne. Mackerras, M.J. (1965), Australian Blattidae. I, General remarks and revision of the Genus Polyzosteria Burmeister. Australian Journal of Zoology 13, 841-882. Mackerras, M.J. (1968). Australian Blattidae. IX. Revision of Polyzosteriinae tribe Methanini, Tryonicinae, and Blattinae. Australian Journal of Zoology 16, 511-575. Main, B.Y. (1976), ‘Spiders’. (Collins: Sydney). Main, B.Y, (1981a). Australian Spiders: Diversity, distribution and ecology. Jn ‘Ecological biogeography of Australia’, Ed. A. Keast. (Junk: Hague). Vol. 112(1)1995* Main, B.Y. (1981b), Eco-evolutionary radiation of Mygalomorph spiders in Australia, Jn ‘Ecological biogeography of Australia’, Ed. A. Keast. (Junk: Hague), Marks, E.N. (1969), The Invertebrates. Ju ‘The Last of Lands’, Eds. L.J, Webb, D. Whitelock, and J. Le Gay Brereton. (Jacaranda Press: Australia, Mesibov, R. (1986). ‘A Guide to Tasmanian Centipedes’, (Bob Mesibov: Zeehan, Tasmania), Moulds, M.S. (1977). ‘Bibliography of the Australian Butterflies (Lepidoptera; Hesperioidea and Papilionoidea) 1773 - 1973", (Australian Entomo- logical Press: Australia). Moulds, M.S. (1990). ‘Australian Cicadas’. (New South Wales University Press: Hong Kong). Mucher, H.J., Chartres, C.J., Tongway, D.J. and Greens, R.S.B. (1988). Micromorphology and significance of the surface crusts of soils in rangelands near Cobar, Australia, Geodlerma 42, 227-244. Neumann, EG. and Morey, J. (1983). The introduced Fiye-spined Bark Beetle, /ps grandicollis, in Victorian Radiata Pine plantations. FCV Research Branch Report No. 235. New, T.R. (1984). ‘Insect conservation - an Australian Perspective’. (Junk: Netherlands), New, T.R. (1987). Insect conservation in Australia; to- wards rational ecological priorities. /n “The Role of Invertebrates in Conservation and Biological Survey’, Ed. J.D. Majer. (Department of Conserva- tion and Land Management (CALM); Perth). New, TR. (1991), ‘Butterfly Conservation’. (Oxford University Press: Melbourne). Norris, K.C. and Mansergh, IM. (1981), Sites of Zoological Significance in East Gippsland. Ministry for Conservation, Victoria. Pickard, J. (1994) Do old survey places help us discover what happened to westem New South Wales when Europeans arrived? /1 ‘Future of the Fauna of westem New South Wales’. Ed. D. Lunney, (Royal Zoological Society of N.S.W.; Mosman). Ratcliffe, R.N. (1947). “Flying Fox and Drifting Sand’. (Angus & Robertson: Sydney). Rentz, D.C.F, (1985). “A monograph of the Tettigoniidae of Australia’. Vol. 1. The Tettigoniinae. (CSIRO: Australia). Rentz, D.C.F. (1993). ‘Tettigoniidae of Australia’. Vol. 2. The Austrosaginae, Zaprochilinae and Phasmodinae. (CSIRO: Australia). Richardson, B.J. (1983). ‘Survey of the status of taxonomic studies of the Australian fauna’, (Bureau of Flora and Fauna: Canberra). ; Richardson, B.J. (1984). Identifying the Australian fauna. What remains to be done? Search 14, 320-323. Rolls, E. (1984), ‘They All Ran Wild: the Animals and Plants That Plague Australia’. (Angus & Robertson: London). Smith, B.J, (1977), The non-marine molluse fauna of the Otway Region of Victoria, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 88,147-155. Smith, BJ. and Kershaw, R.C. (1979). ‘Field guide to the non-marine molluscs of south-eastem Australia’. (ANU Press: Canberra), 13 Contributions Spradbery, J.P. and Maywald, G.F. (1992). The distribution of the European wasp Vespula germanica (F.) (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) —_ in ‘Australia: Past, Present and Future. Australian Journal of Zoology 40, 495-510. Van Praagh, B. (1994). The biology and conservation of Megascolides australis (McCoy 1878) Ph, D. Thesis, La Trobe University, Melbourne. Vaughan, P.J. (1988), Management plan for the Eltham Copper Butterfly (Paralucia pyrodiscus lucida Crosby) (Lepidoptera:Lycaenidae), Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series No. 79. Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands, Victoria. Vaughan, P.J. (unpubl.) A Draft Conservation Strategy for the Non-marine Invertebrates and Non-vascular Plants of Victoria. Environmental Records Department, Museum of Victoria, Abbotsford, Victoria. Wagner, F.H, and Graetz, R.D. (1979). Animal - animal interactions, Jn ‘Arid-land Ecosystems: Structure, Functioning and Management’. 2nd Edn, Eds. D.W. Goodall, R.A. Perry. (CUP: Cambridge). Watson, J.A.L. and Abbey, H.M. (1993). ‘Atlas of Australian Termites’. (CSIRO: Australia). Watson, J.A.L., Theischinger, G., Abbey, H.M. (1991), ‘The Australian dragonflies: A Guide to the identification, Distribution and Habitats of Australian Odonata’. (CSIRO: Canberra and Melbourme). Westerway, J., Cherry, K.A., Duncan, P.E., Gillespie, G.R., Henry, S.R. and Mueck, S.G. (1990), Flora and fauna of the Lower Wilkinson and Fainting Range forest blocks, Bairnsdale Region, Victoria. Ecological Survey Report No. 27, Department of Conservation and Environment, Victoria. Wilkinson, C, (1982). Systematics and conservation. Entomologist's Gazette 33, 53-67. The Mt Stirling Stonefly, Thaumatoperla flaveola. 14 Williams, O.B. (1979). Ecosystems in Australia. In *Arid-land Ecosystems: Structure, Functioning and Management’. 2nd Edn, Eds. DW. Goodall, R.A. Perry. (CUP; Cambridge). Williams, O.B. and Calaby, J.H. (1985). The hot deserts of Australia, Jn ‘Hot Deserts and Arid Shmublands’. Eds. M. Evenari and I. Noy-Meir. Ecosystems of the World, 12A. (Elsevier: Amsterdam). Woodgate, P. and Black, P. (1988), ‘Forest cover changes in Victoria, 1869-1987’, (Department of Conser- vation, Forests and Lands: Victoria). Yen, A.L. (1987). A preliminary assessment of the correlation between plant, vertebrate and Coleoptera communities in the Victorian mallee. Jn “The Role of Invertebrates in Conservation and Biological Survey’. Ed. J.D. Majer. (Department of Conser- vation and Land Managment (CALM):Perth). Yen, A.L. and Butcher, R. (1994), An Overview of the Conservation Status of Non-marine Invertebrates in Australia, Report to the Endangered Species Unit, Australian Nature Conservation Agency. Yen, A.L., Horne,P.A., Kay, R. and Kobelt, A.J. (1994). The use of terrestrial invertebrates to rank sites of the remnant westem Victorian basalt plains grasslands. A report to the Endangered Species Unit, Australian Nature Conservation Agency. Yen; A.L., Robertson, P. and Bennett, A.F. (1989). A preliminary analysis of patterns of distribution of plant and animal communities in the Victorian mallee. In ‘Mediterranean Landscapes in Australia: Mallee Ecosystems and their Management’. Eds. J.C. Noble and R.A, Bradstock. (CSIRO: East Melboume). Zimmerman, E.C, (1991). ‘Australian Weevils’. Vol. Y. (CSIRO: Australia), Zimmerman, E.C. (1994), ‘Australian Weevils’. Vol. L. (CSIRO: Australia), The Victorian Naturalist ‘ Contributions Conservation of Freshwater Invertebrates R. Butcher! and T.J. Doeg? Introduction There is a highly diverse aquatic (fresh- water) invertebrate fauna in Victoria. This reflects the diverse range of aquatic habi- tats available, from fast flowing erosional upland zones of rivers to slower flowing depositional zones in lowland rivers, deep permanent lakes, shallow swampy coun- try and ephemeral waters. Each of these different types of aquatic habitats has dif- ferent suites of invertebrate species, adapted to the specific characteristics of the waterbody, in terms of water velocity, depth, physical characteristics such as substratum, vegetation or snags, as well as water quality factors such as temperature, dissolved oxygen and turbidity. In recent years, recognition of the value of aquatic macroinvertebrates as indica- tors of the ‘health’ of aquatic ecosystems (Hellawell, 1986) has led to an expansion of aquatic invertebrate research and through the use of invertebrates, numer- ous Victorian studies have shown the impact of changes on aquatic ecosystems (e.g. Metzeling et al. 1993). However, while this process may iden- tify predominantly ‘natural’ sites that have no artificial or human-induced dis- turbance or detect sites where ecosystem health is declining, it does not necessarily follow that the species or communities associated with those sites are themselves of traditional conservation significance (i.e. are rare, restricted or threatened, or representative), The process of identify- ing significant aquatic invertebrates is therefore seen as largely different from the identification of ecosystem health. There are several levels at which aquatic invertebrate conservation strategies can be directed including the species, commu- nity, habitat and threatening process prevention level. Each level has distinc- ' Water Ecoscience, 68 Ricketts Rd., Mt. Waverley, Victoria 3149. ; 2 Flora and Fauna, DCNR, 123 Brown Street, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084. Vol. 112 (1) 1995 tive requirements, including adequate taxonomic and distributional data on indi- vidual species and communities, criteria for identifying significant habitats, and a knowledge of ecosystem processes. This paper outlines the current state of knowledge in each of these fields for aquatic invertebrates and evaluates whether sufficient information is avail- able to successfully achieve conservation aims in each of the strategies, State of knowledge Taxonomic and Distributional Knowledge The exact number of aquatic inverte- brate species in Victoria is unknown, but is sure to exceed 1000. This uncertainty is derived from both a relative lack of survey effort for aquatic invertebrates, and the poor knowledge of the taxonomy of many groups. Much of the invertebrate identi- fication in Victoria is based on representative collections held by major institutions, where un-named presump- tive species are designated with numbers or letters. In one of the largest such col- lections, there are currently over 600 recognised ‘voucher’ taxa in the State Water Laboratory’s collection. Taxonomic knowledge of freshwater in- vertebrates in Victoria is generally poor compared to that overseas (e.g. Merritt and Cummins 1984), but is relatively good for Australia and is increasing. This is a direct result of the growing use of invertebrates in evaluating ecosystem processes and a developing interest in en- vironmental health. A relatively large literature base exists (Hawking 1994) but the available information is largely patchy and incomplete. Part of the problem arises from the particular life cycle of many aquatic invertebrates which involves two distinct phases - an aquatic larva and an aerial adult. For example, some groups are relatively well known to the species level as adults, 15 Contributions but can only be identified to the genus level as larvae (e.g. Ephemeroptera). In other cases, keys to the species level of juveniles are available (e.g. the pleco- pteran key by Hynes (1978)), but have been made largely redundant and inaccu- rate by subsequent taxonomic reviews that only include adult material (e.g. The- ischinger 1984), Concentration on adult taxonomy does not substantially add to the ability to identify the longer-lasting and more frequently sampled larval phases of invertebrate taxa. Given the high number of aquatic (fresh- water) invertebrate species and the poor taxonomic base, the current knowledge of the distribution of species is limited. Only in a few limited cases (such as taxonomic studies noted above) have extensive dis- tributions been established. Until the late 1980s the available data on invertebrates were patchy across the State with only one or two invertebrate studies having been carried out in most of the river basins. Data were also highly variable because of the method of collection and level of tax- onomic identification. Of the 28 Victorian tiver basins only four had significant in- vertebrate work done on them by 1987 and basins like the Campaspe had no data for aquatic invertebrates (DWR 1989), Most available data were published in Separate reports and no effort has been made to consolidate distribution data, Distributional information, even at the voucher species level, is also hampered by a lack of co-ordination between collec- lions taken by the various groups involyed in aquatic macroinvertebrate work. A comparison of voucher species lists from different institutions reveals a variety of different numbering systems, so that a Single ‘true’ species may be referred to differently in different Studies, thus ob- scuring the real distribution of many species, Single Species Conservation Due to the above limitations, our ability to identify individual Species of conserva- tion Significance is severely limited, In Victoria, a total of 23 extant aquatic inver- 16 tebrates have been identified as endan- gered, vulnerable or rare (CNR 1993; see Table 1). Another source of information on VROTs (vulnerable, rare or threatened species) is the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (see Clunie and Reed, this issue). Only thirteen of the 24 species in Table | and one further aquatic inverte- brate (Spathula tryssa) are listed under the Act. Quite clearly, such lists are incomplete. It is hard to believe that only 23 of the potentially thousands of species of aquatic macroinvertebrates are endan- gered, vulnerable or rare and it is difficult to accept that only one invertebrate taxon has become extinct in Victoria. In part, such a list of VROT aquatic invertebrates reflects the intensity of sampling within only a few groups such as some crustacea (e.g. Morgan 1986) and Trichoptera (e.g. Neboiss 1986). Additionally, the inclusion of some spe- cies on the list may be an artefact of limited distribution knowledge, Where only one or two sites_are covered in a particular region during a survey, species that are common and secure, but restricted to arelatively small geographic zone may only appear to have been located at one or two sites, salisfying one of the criteria to be listed as a VROT. All the above problems are perhaps ex- emplified by the Otway Stonefly Eusthenia nothofagi Zwick. The listing of this species under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 was based on one published record from the type locality (Zwick 1979), At the time of listing, the Species had not been recorded from the wild for over 50 years, a formal criterion for declaring the species as extinct. Since listing under the Flora and Fauna Guaran- tee Act 1988, another confirmed adult was found and CNR (1993) lists the species as endangered due to an extremely restricted distribution (a suitable criterion for list- ing). However, the species could only be distinguished from the near relative Eu- sthenia venosa as adults, while the more often collected nymphs of each species The Victorian Naturalist ‘ Contributions Table 1. Vulnerable, rare or threatened aquatic invertebrate taxa in Victoria (from CNR 1993), Engaeus sternalis Orbost Gayfish | Yes Riekoperla darlingtoni Mt Donna Buang Stonefly Yes Ys Archeophylax canarus Caddisfly Yes Calan Copeped australis Lilly Pilly Burrowing Crayfish Mallacoota Burrowing Crayfish | Yes Engaeus phyllocercus Narracan Burrowing Crayfish Yes Engaeus rostrogaleatus Surzelecki Burrowing Crayfish Euastacus crassus Alpine spiny Crayfish lacus neodiversus South Gippsland Spiny Crayfish Thaumaipera alpina Ys were effectively identical. Hence, while Eusthenia nymphs had been collected in the Otway Ranges, no other confirmed adults had been found at the time. Recent work rearing nymphs in the laboratory (J. Reed and T. Doeg, Freshwater Ecology Section, unpublished data) suggests that the species may be widespread through- out the Otway Ranges in south-west Victoria. In the longer term, with an increase in our knowledge base, the number of ‘true’ VROTs will increase significantly (possi- : < “ <)< + Vol. 112 (1) 1995 bly to hundreds of species based on re- Stricted distributions) and the species approach to conservation will become un- realistic. The value of single species conservation for invertebrate conserva- tion, however, should not be dismissed as there is great potential to utilise selected or flagship taxa to increase awareness of the issues (Yen and Butcher 1994), Aquatic Invertebrate Community Conservation Aquatic invertebrate communities have often been used to evaluate ecosystem health. While this work produces commu- nity lists from a wide range of sites, the use of this data in conservation work has been limited. There have been no aquatic invertebrate communities identified as having conservation significance in Vic- toria, and no criteria for identifying such a community are available as yet. Com- munity level conservation, in theory, is a useful tool as it will conserve representa- tives of the more common taxa as well as rarer or unique taxa. However, consider- able research is required before this approach to aquatic invertebrate conser- vation could be adopted. Habitat Conservation Previous and current conservation of aquatic habitats has been centred almost exclusively on wetlands. The identifica- tion of significant wetlands is often based on non-invertebrate criteria (mainly plants and water birds). However, the re- lationship between these classifications based on non-invertebrate flora and fauna in wetlands and invertebrate fauna has not been investigated. Nor has sufficient work been conducted to identify significant wetlands based on invertebrate criteria (either single species or communities). Only one Victorian wetland has been identified as significant on the basis of invertebrates. A swamp habitat for Hemiphlebia mirabilis at Tidal River has been registered as a significant site within a National Estate registered area by the Australian Heritage Commission (Green- slade 1994; A. Wheeler, Australian Heritage Commission, pers. comm. ). 17 Contributions In lotic (continuous flow of freshwater) systems, the Australian Heritage Com- mission has determined one significant site within a registered area based on the presence of aquatic invertebrates (Parker River and catchment based on the Otway Stonefly). Additionally, two sites have been placed on the interim list (based on Engaeus sternalis and the Mt Stirling Stonefly Thaumatoperla flaveola) and one site has been nominated and is under consideration (based on Riekoperla darlingtoni). While such listings are de- sirable and valuable (although see discussion above on the Otway Stonefly), the limitations with regard to taxonomic and distributional data noted above sug- gest that this process based on single species may only identify few of the ‘true’ sites of significance. Again, as for wet- lands, conservation values of aquatic habitat have mostly been assessed using a number of criteria, predominantly land use (agriculture, mining, forestry etc, - McMillan 1990; Meredith et al. 1989; Mitchell 1990). As stated, the identification and conser- vation of high value aquatic habitats based on land-use or non-invertebrate criteria, while probably conserving inver- tebrates within the habitat, does not necessarily conserve invertebrate com- munities or species of conservation significance. Threatening Processes _ Recent aquatic conservation measures in Victoria have concentrated on threaten- ing processes, Under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, it is possible to list threatening processes that have the poten- tial to adversely affect the survival or evolutionary potential of a range of indi- vidual taxa or communities. Listed Potentially Threatening Processes (PTPs) that have an impact on aquatic inverte- brates are: alteration to the natural flow regimes of rivers and streams: alterations to the natural temperature regimes of riv- ers and streams; increases in sediment input into Victorian rivers and streams due to human activities; removal of wood 18 debris from Victorian streams and inputs of toxic substances into Victorian rivers and streams due to human activities (pre- liminary listing only). Again, such a list is incomplete, partly due to the legal requirements associated with the listing process. Many other activ- ities that have a potential impact on aquatic invertebrates can be found, in- cluding: the effect of introduced inver- tebrate (e.g. Potomopyrgus) and verte- brate fauna (e.g. Salmo sp), the degradation of riparian vegetation, drain- ing of wetlands, increased stream and wetland salinity, eutrophication, direct exploitation of invertebrates (e.g. cray- fish), habitat destruction and long-term environmental changes. Much is known about the impacts of these processes and ameliorative mea- sures can be suggested for all of them. However, hard data on management op- tions and their effect is relatively sparse and needs to be improved. The successful management of such threatening pro- cesses will largely ensure that further degradation of aquatic ecosystems does not occur and, as a by-product of this Management, aquatic invertebrates will also be conserved, Future needs + A growth in taxonomic studies and in- tensive regional surveys is required to adequately describe the aquatic inver- tebrate resources of Victoria, and to identify aquatic invertebrates of con- servation significance; * A central database on aquatic inverte- brate information is required, providing access to up-to-date taxonomic and dis- tributional information; * Coordination is required between the various bodies involved in aquatic in- vertebrate work to ensure a consistent quality of identification and nomencla- ture; * Research into criteria and methods of utilising the community level approach to conserving aquatic invertebrates; * Research should be initiated into the impact of potentially threatening pro- cesses, and especially into the The Victorian Naturalist Contributions effectiveness of measures proposed to reduce those impacts. For example, water quality criteria for Victorian en- vironments based on aquatic inver- tebrates should be accurately deter- mined, rather than derived from overseas data. This must come from wide surveys, with distribution data correlated with environmental parame- ters or from an experimental approach (e.g. see Doeg and Milledge 1991); « Evaluation is needed of levels of iden- tification required to monitor conser- vation targets. The current trend to- wards identification of samples only to the family level (or higher) needs to be evaluated to ensure that conservation information is not lost. The detection of significant invertebrate communities probably will not be made from family level identifications; « While considerable resources are ex- pended on studies dealing with invertebrates (and mainly macroinver- tebrates) from flowing systems, there is a lack of data on invertebrate commu- nities in wetlands. The effectiveness of classification systems based on plants and waterbirds needs to be evaluated to determine whether those classifications correspond to systems based on inver- tebrates. Conclusions Current information on aquatic inverte- brates in Victoria is insufficient for most approaches to conservation. While a few species of conservation significance have been identified, concentration on the sin- gle species approach will leave many others open to further decline. No aquatic invertebrate communities of conservation significance have been identified as yet so it would therefore appear that the most likely short term conservation measures will rely on the identification of sites or habitats of high value (using single spe- cies, general invertebrate data or land use criteria), or the control of processes that threaten to degrade aquatic habitats. With this dual approach, it can only be hoped that significant species or communities will be conserved until progress outlined ‘Vol. 112 (1) 1995 under ‘future needs’ allows them to be identified and targeted with specifically designed conservation measures. References Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (1993). “Threatened Fauna in Victoria’. (Department of Conservation and Natural Resources; Melbourne). Doeg, T.J. and Milledge, G.A, (1991), The effect of experimentally increasing suspended sediment concentrations on miacroinyertebrate drift. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 42, 519-526. Deparment of Water Resources (1989). "Water Victona: An Environmental Handbook’. (Department of Water Resources: Melbourne), Greenslade, P. (1994), Heritage listing of invertebrate sites in southeastern Australia. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum Mi, 67-76. Hellawell, J.M. (1986). "Biological Indicators of Freshwater Pollution and — Environmental Management’. ‘(Elsevier Applied Science Publishers: London), Hawking, J.H. (1994). ‘A Preliminary Guide to Keys and Zoological Information jo Identify Invertebrates from Australian Freshwaters’ (Cooperative Research Centre for Freshwater Ecology: Albury). Hynes, H.B.N. (1978), ‘An Annotated Key to the Nymphs of the Stoneflies (Plecoptera) of the State of Victoria’. (Australian Society for Limnology: Melbourne). MeMillan, L. (1990). ‘Conservation Value And Status Of Victorian Rivers: Part Il East Gippsland Rivers’. (Faculty of Environmental Design and Construction, RMIT; Melbourne). Meredith, C., Goss, H. and Seymour, S. (1989), Nature Conservation Values of the Rivers and Catchments of East Gippsland. Report No. 44, (Department of Water Resources: Melbourne). Merritt, R.W. and Cummins, K.W. (1984), ‘An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America’, (Kendall/Hunt; lowa), Metzeling, L.., Bibrowska, H, and Goudey, R. (1993). The impact of fish farming on the Goulbum River. SRSOVOIL. (Environment Protection Authority: Melboume). Mitchell, P.A, (1990). ‘The Environmental Condition of Victorian Streams’. (Department of Water Resources: Melboume). Morgan, G.J. (1986). Freshwater crayfish of the genus Euastacus Clark (Decapoda; Parastacidac) from Victoria. Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria 47, 1-52, Neboiss, A. (1986). ‘Atlas of Trichoptera of the SW Pacific - Australian Region’, Junk: The Hague). Theischinger G. (1984). The species of the genus Iliesoperla McLellan (Insecta: —_ Plecoptera: Gripopterygidae), Australian Journal of Zoology 32, 573-602, Yen, A. and Butcher, R. (1994). “An Oyerview of the Conservation Status of Non-Marine Invertebrates in Australia’. (Endangered Species Unit, Australian Nature Conservation Agency; Canberra). Zwick, P. (1979), Revision of the stonefly family Eustheniidae (Plecoptera), with emphasis on the fauna of the Australian region. Aquatic Insects 1, 17-50. 19 Contributions Conservation Issues for Marine Invertebrates in Victorian Waters Mark D. Norman! and Glenn J. Sant Abstract Relatively little is known of the marine invertebrate fauna of Victorian waters. Where surveys have been carried out, these waters have been found to contain a rich diversity of marine invertebrates. In Victoria, a number of invertebrate species is targeted in both commercial and recre- ational harvests, some forming the basis of multi-million dollar industries. In cer- tain species, heavy exploitation has led to declines in animal numbers and size. Major reviews of management practices for many of the commercial species are currently in progress. Other human activ- ities indirectly exert pressures on Vic- torian marine invertebrates, including de- structive fishery practices, non-collecting visitation pressures, marine and coastal developments, eutrophication from sew- erage discharge, siltation, chemical poll- utants and introduced biota. Greater infor- mation on faunal composition, distri- butions, ecological relationships and human impacts are required before assess- ment of the conservation status for the majority of Victoria’s species is possible, and appropriate protection regulations can be developed. The value of total pro- tection of defined areas is emphasized as an effective conservation practice. Introduction Knowledge of the marine invertebrates of Victorian waters is patchy in nature, Restricted regions, particularly Port Phil- lip Bay and Western Port, have received considerable attention [see review in Land Conservation Council (LCC) Ma- rine and Coastal Descriptive Report, 1993], while whole sections of the coast- line are largely unsurveyed. In areas where surveys have been undertaken, the invertebrate fauna has proven to be rich Dei ‘ ‘ pea aoe University of Melboume, raffic Oceania, P.O, Box R594, Sydney, NSW 2000, 20 and abundant: e.g., 700 species in Port Phillip Bay (Poore et al. 1975); 350 spe- cies off Lakes Entrance (Parry ef al. 1990); and 600 species at San Remo (O’ Hara this issue). Several works provide an overview of Victorian marine invertebrates (Bennett and Pope 1953, Phillips ef al. 1984; Hand- reck and O’Hara 1994). These works recognise the poor state of knowledge of the taxonomy, distributions, biology and population dynamics for the majority of marine invertebrates in Victorian waters. Few studies have examined the impact of humans on, and conservation issues for, Victoria’s marine invertebrates. These studies primarily are reviews of the status of commercially harvested species [e.g., LCC 1993; Kailola ef al. 1993; Depart- ment of Conservation and Natural Resources (DCNR) 1993a] and, more re- cently, examination of the human impact on intertidal shores (Keough and Quinn 1991; Povey and Keough 1991; King 1992; Keough er al. 1993; Quinn ef al.1994), The objective of this paper is to provide a brief summary of the conservation is- sues relating to marine invertebrates in Victorian waters. The nature of these is- sues are dependent on the species and the nature of pressures on these animals or their habitats. Victoria’s marine inverte- brates can be categorised into: directly exploited species; taxa indirectly affected through human activities and localised or remnant species. Direct human exploitation Marine invertebrates directly exploited in Victorian waters can be divided into: i) commercial fisheries species; ii) recrea- tional harvest species, and iii) species collected for display, educational or re- search purposes. i) Commercial harvests Commercial harvest of Victorian ma- — The Victorian Naturalist Contributions rine invertebrates forms the basis of multi- million dollar fisheries, more valuable than any Victorian finfish harvest. The main commercial species are listed in Table 1 and reviewed in LCC (1993) and Kailola et al. (1993). Black-lip abalone (Haliotis rubra) is the most valuable fish- ery, with a landed (first sale) value of around 50 million dollars annually _ (DCNR 19936). Species of the greatest economic value (i.e., abalone, rock lobster and scallops) are targeted by specialised industries. Many of the lower profile species are har- vested as bycatch of fisheries targeting finfish or other invertebrate species. Table 1 summarises the fishery type for each commercial species. As an alternative or addition to wild harvest, a number of marine invertebrates are cultivated by aquaculture in Victoria. Blue mussels form the largest aquaculture industry in Victoria, with production gradually replacing wild harvest. Mussel farms exist in Port Phillip Bay, Western Port, Andersons Inlet and Mallacoota with a first sale value around $880 000 in 1990-91 (LCC 1993). Small scale exper- imental cultivation of Pacific oyster and abalone also occur in Victoria. For at least abalone and rock lobster, large-scale poaching occurs along the Victorian coastline. This illegal harvest takes three forms: i) licensed operators exceeding quotas or collecting undersised animals; ii) ‘shamateur’ operators, mas- querading as amateurs collecting legal bag limits and regularly returning to shore to unload catches; and iii) large-scale poaching. In at least the abalone fishery, it is estimated that the scale of the illegal fishery is very large. In New South Wales, the illegal catch of abalone has been esti- mated to be as much as twice the legal catch (Kailola et al. 1993). The major conservation issues for com- mercially harvested species are: } i) heavy exploitation/overexploitation; ii) control of illegal activities; and iii) developing fisheries. Vol. 112 (1) 1995 The perceived status of each marine in- vertebrate species commercially har- vested in Victoria is presented in Table 1. Black-lip abalone, rock lobster and scal- lops all experience heavy fishing pressure. In the former two species, con- cerns over regional depletions, decline in catch per unit effort and decreasing ani- mal size have instigated current major reviews of these fisheries and manage- ment practices (e.g., DCNR, 1993a, 1993b). The scallop industry is under sim- ilar review and, after closure in Port Phillip Bay in 1989-1990, there are en- couraging signs of massive recruitment and recovery of this boom-bust fishery in this bay (Smith and Bury 1992). Indications of overfishing (such as catch decline, localized depletions and decreas- ing body size) are evident in a number of species. Such trends may have serious implications for the recruitment, and hence survival, of these species and their fisheries. Historically there has been a perception that commercially exploited marine species are protected from biolog- ical extinction through economic factors closing a fishery before populations lose viability. With increasing efficiencies in fishing technology, rapidly increasing value of key species (e.g., abalone export prices rising from $7 to $50 per kg, in the shell, between 1979 and 1993, DCNR 1993b) and the absence of detailed data on longevity, fecundity, dispersal, recruit- ment and mortality rates for the majority of exploited species, it is possible that stock levels for many species may be ex- ploited to below biologically viable levels. The high scale of illegal harvest, partic- ularly for the most valuable species, is a source of major concern (e.g., DCNR 1993b). Such harvests undermine effec- tive management as illegal operators fail to observe fisheries regulations designed to protect stocks, such as quotas, size lim- its, closed seasons, protection of females in berry and protected areas. A number of molluscs and crustaceans not traditionally considered commercial 21 Contributions Table 1. Marine invertebrate species commercially harvested in Victorian waters. Abbreviations: Fishery type: A = aquaculture, B= bycatch, C = commercial, EA = experimental aquaculture, R = recreational. ; Management controls: Com = commercial regulations, rec = recreational regulations; B = bag limit (recreational), EP = experimental permit, F = licence (fee), FP = female protection; G = gear restrictions, L = limited entry fishery, M = minimum size limits, P = protected areas, Q = catch quotas, RF = under regional fishery regulations, S = seasonal closures, Sh = Victorian Shellfish Protection regulations, Z = zoning for licenced operators. Status: H = heavy exploitation, L = low exploitation. Other: # = catch statistics back to 1984 only for certain species; ## = erratic catches, figure is average of last 25 years (LCC, 1993); * = main distribution outside Victoria; ** = application to commence fishery current; (+) = possible underestimate, frequently treated in unspecified groupings. Sources: Catch and Effort, Victorian Fisheries Research Institute; plus Kailola et al., 1993; LCC 1993; DCNR 1993a, 1993b. Species Fishery Annual catch 1990-91 landed type (max /present) value Blacklip Abalone EA.C.R 1967-68: 3200t, $26 million## (Haliotis rubra) now: 14401 1968-69: 180, ~1% of blacklip catch Com: L.M,Q.Z: now: ~15t Rec: FM.B 1980-81: 737t, $7.2 million Com: FPL.G.MZ: 1993: 474t Rec: F.B,GM Southern Scallop 1980-81: -2500c (Pecten furnatus) 1993; 17431 wild <:1500t, 1992-93: 1121 $1.65 million aquaculure: 1990-91: —400t 1970; 90k; 1993: 434 1993: 415t 1984: 95 +; 1993: 50 Baié (sand) worms (primarily. " early 1980's: 30t; Family Nereididae) now ~10t 1984: 441; 1993; 0.41, errahe (+) Eastern King Prawn 1989: 811; (Penaeus plebejus) 1993: O.St, erratic (+) Ghost (or Bass) Yabby 1990-91: 1.44 Contr LG; (Trypaea australiensis) ect G ; King Crab 1993; 208t 3 (Pseudocarcinus gigas) Split Sand Crab 1988:70u(+) (Ovalipes australiensis) Purple Sea Urchin 1990; 621; (Heliocidaris erythrogramma) 1991: ~184, erratic 1992: 19, 1993: 8 Rec: none Com: none; Rec: none just started, as in Tas (+) gen. periwinkles: $8 000 Com: ?; Rec: Sh Conr EPL.QZ**; Rec: none aquaculture; small not applicable 1992: 18% 1993: 111 The Victorian Naturalist Contributions species are receiving an increasing fisher- ies profile. These developing fisheries include species such as the Turban Shell (Turbo undulata) and a range of crabs including the Velvet Crab (Nectocarcinus tuberculosus). For such species, either no catch and effort returns are submitted or, at best, catches are reported under head- ings such as ‘periwinkles, general’ or ‘crabs, general’. Coupled with the paucity of data on distributions, life history, fe- cundity, dispersal and recruitment for most of these species, there is significant potential for over-exploitation. In species of limited stocks, low fecundity or re- stricted distributions, over-exploitation could occur before appropriate monitor- ing and management is put in place. Current management practices are listed in Table 1 and include: — Stock assessment, monitoring and collation of catch and effort statistics. — Direct regulation tools: limited entry fisheries, minimum size limits, closed seasons, gear re- strictions, protection of gravid females, zoning, catch quotas, re- creational bag limits. —JIndustry generated agreements (unlegislated), such as protected areas and seasonal closures. — Government and industry-funded policing of regulations. — Protected areas through marine park and reserve systems, and shellfish protection regulations. A new Fisheries Act for Victoria is cur- rently being developed (DCNR 1994). Structured within this document are pro- visions to establish Fisheries Reserves, reserves established specifically to pro- tect areas crucial to commercial fisheries (including spawning grounds, juvenile nurseries, critical habitats, aquaculture projects and areas set aside for research and monitoring). ii) Recreational harvests ' Many marine invertebrate species are harvested by recreational collectors from Vol. 112 (1) 1995 Victorian intertidal habitats and adjacent waters, both legally and illegally. Ani- mals collected for human consumption and/or bait include: chitons (such as Ischnochiton elongatus, Plaxiphora al- bida), limpets (primarily _Cellana tramoserica), Dog Winkle (Thais orbita), Elephant Snail (Scutus antipodes), Tur- ban Shell (Turbo wundulata), abalone (Haliotis rubra, H.laevigata), mussels (primarily Myrilus edulis), Southern Scal- lop (Pecten fumatus), cuttlefish (Sepia apama), octopuses (primarily 0.berrima, O.maorum, O.pallidus), squid (primarily Sepioteuthis australis), Southern Rock Lobster (Jasus edwardsii), prawns (Metapenaeus —_ macleayi, Penaeus plebejus), Ghost (or Bass) Yabby (Trypaea australiensis), assorted brachy- uran crabs, assorted worms and the sea squirt Cunjevoi (Pyura stolonifera). The little data available on the scale or influence of this recreational harvest indi- cate that this it is potentially large, Keough ef al. (1993) monitored human activity on rocky shores near Melbourne and found high proportions of exploit- ative activity (25% of visitors actively collecting, despite protection regula- tions). Comparison of protected areas with unprotected areas also provide indi- cations of the pressures on accessible intertidal and shallow-water habitats. Keough et al. (1993) showed significant reductions in size and abundance of three targeted gastropods in exploited areas close to Melbourne compared with pro- tected areas, while non-target species showed no significant differences. The major conservation issue for recreationally harvested taxa is the heavy exploitation of intertidal invertebrates, particularly on shores close to larger cily centres. As a side-effect of the welcome cultural and culinary influences of Asian and European immigrants to Victoria, there has been an increase in recrea- tional/subsistence harvest of a wide range of intertidal molluscs and crustaceans. Interpretation programs, promotion of regulations and appropriate signage have 23 Contributions been developed to target and inform key groups. Current management practices include protection of certain invertebrate species in ‘recognized shellfish habitats’, primar- ily intertidal areas. In Victoria, the Shellfish Protection Zone currently ex- tends from Barwon Heads in the west to Venus Bay in the east, excluding several sections on the exposed coast and within Port Phillip Bay. These regulations pro- tect molluscs and crustaceans excluding squid, octopus, cuttlefish, abalone, squirter, pippi, ghost yabby, rock lobster, crabs and sand fleas. Gear restrictions apply for collection of bait species such as sandworms and ghost yabbies from soft- sediment substrata, ili) Collection for display, educational and research purposes Collection of marine invertebrates for display, educational programs (through schools, tertiary institutions and marine studies centres) and scientific research also occurs in Victorian waters. People undertaking such activities are required by law to possess a DCNR Scientific Col- lecting permit. No data are available on the scale of this collection or its influence, however it is possible that such activities may account for the marked reductions in certain intertidal molluscs, such as those reported for the cowrie, Notocypraea comptoni and two other gastropod spe- cies, Cabestana spengleri and Pleuro- ploca australasia, from certain sites along the Victorian coast (Marine Research Group (MRG), 1994), Indirect human impact A wide range of human activities appear to impact indirectly on Victorian marine invertebrates and their habitats. The key categories include: Destructive fishery practices _A wide range of fishing activities, par- ticularly trawl and dredge fisheries, can Cause significant alteration or destruction of benthic habitats. In Victorian bays and inlets, all trawling is illegal. Scallop 24 dredging occurs both within Port Phillip Bay and off East Gippsland. This practice has been suggested to cause damage to sessile invertebrate communities (McSh- ane 1981) and spawning aggregations of the Spider Crab (Leptomithrax gaimardii) in Port Phillip Bay (Parry and Currie 1992), as well as potentially releasing heavy metals from soft sediments (Fabris 1981), Current review of the Victorian scallop fishery includes calls for modifi- cations to dredge gear or exclusion of dredging activities from Port Phillip Bay, replacing this technique with diver har- vest. Bait pumping in soft sediments can cause sediment disruption, trampling ef- fects and possible heavy metal release (see discussion in Quinn et al, 1994), Non-collecting visitor pressures A number of non-collecting activities appear to have detrimental effects on Victorian marine invertebrates. Keough and Quinn (1991), Povey and Keough (1991) and King (1992) found that human trampling on rocky shores has a signifi- cant effect on algal communities and associated invertebrate fauna. Boat activ- ity and trampling on soft sediment substrata are likely to have similar effects on infauna. Quinn ef al. (1994) discuss pressures (such as exposure and desicca- tion) on intertidal biota caused by overturning boulders. Marine and coastal developments Coastal development or marine con- structions such as marinas (see O’ Hara, this issue) can directly affect invertebrate fauna through factors such as direct con- struction disturbance, dredging, modified or redirected water flow, increased silt- ation and increases in boating traffic. Watson (in LCC, 1993, pp 86-98) re- ported changes in invertebrate assemblages in Western Port in relation to heavy boat traffic, through factors such as increased siltation levels and dislodgment of sessile invertebrates from propeller thrust. Eutrophication Release of treated and untreated sewer- The Victorian Naturalist Contributions age can result in high nutrient concentra- tions or ‘eutrophication’ in marine systems (Axelrad 1978). Boag’s Rocks on the ocean side of Mornington Peninsula, Werribee Sewerage Treatment farm in Port Phillip Bay and Black Rock, near Barwon Heads, are the three largest sources of sewerage release in Victorian waters. This high nutrient input can lead to micro- and macro-algal blooms, drastic changes in both algal composition (Man- ning 1979; Brown et al. 1990) and invertebrate assemblages (Dorsey 1982), and the predominance of opportunistic invertebrate species (Dorsey 1982). Siltation Factors such as: i) dredging; ii) heavy shipping traffic; and iii) topsoil runoff from rural areas, tree clearing and urban development, all contribute to siltation problems in marine systems (LCC 1993), Heavy silt load is considered detrimental to marine life and has been implicated in the loss of large areas of seagrass and algal cover in Western Port (Shepherd er al. 1989), reduced light levels having been suggested as the cause of this dieback. Chemical pollutants A wide range of pollutants arc released into Victorian waters through industrial outfalls and sewerage systems, including heat, suspended solids, organic wastes, nutrients, non-persistent (e.g., ammonia, chlorine) and persistent toxicants (e.g., heavy metals), and pathogens (see LEE 1993), Such releases are monitored and regulated through the Environment Pro- tection Authority (EPA). All categories are potentially harmful to marine inverte- brates, depending on concentrations. Certain persistent toxicants such as heavy metals can cause problems through bio- accumulation, both to invertebrate species and their predators. Tributyltin (TBT), an anti-fouling agent used primarily on boat hulls, has been recognized as the most acutely toxic sub- stance deliberately introduced into the marine environment (Maguire 1987). TBT causes effects in marine animals Vol. 112 (1) 1995 ranging from death to severe behavioural alterations and gross mutations of somatic and reproductive tissues. Molluscs are the most susceptible group, often developing male reproductive organs over the open- ing of the oviduct, effectively preventing spawning. Daly (1990) examined levels of TBT in Victorian waters and found that in 1988/1989 levels in water, sediment and biota significantly exceeded those known to be sublethal to aquatic biota. In June 1989, the EPA introduced regula- tions limiting the sale and use of TBT based paints in Victoria. A 1990 survey found no significant change in TBT levels in Port Phillip Bay since EPA regulation (LCC 1993). Introduced biota In recent years, an increasing number of introduced invertebrate species have be- come established in Australian coastal waters. In Victoria, these include crusta- ceans (e.g., Carcinus maenas, Cancer novaezealandiae), molluscs (e.g., Theora lubrica, Musculista senhousia) and poly- chaete worms (e.g., Sahella spallanzanii, Boccardia proboscidea, Styola plicata) (LCC 1993). Exotic flora and fauna are considered to be carried into Australia in the ballast water of commercial cargo shipping. These species may severely af- fect native invertebrate species through direct predation, competition and/or hab- itat alteration. The Northern Pacific Sea Star (Asterias amurensis) has recently been introduced from Japan to Tasmanian waters, proliferating in the Derwent River. There are current concerns that this sea star may be introduced to Victorian waters, where there is potential for de- structive effects on wild, commercial and aquaculture invertebrate species (O” Hara, Marine Research Group, pers. comm.). Toxic and non-toxic dinoflagellates (such as Alexandrium catanella, A. tamarense, A. minutum and Gymnodium catenatum) are also thought to have been introduced into Victorian waters via bal- last discharge (D. Hill, Botany Dept., University of Melbourne, pers. comm.). 25 Contributions Blooms of the toxic algae can directly affect marine invertebrates through phys- ical damage to the gills, oxygen depletion or direct action of the toxins, Wild harvest and aquaculture species can also be af- fected causing health problems for seafood consumers (LCC 1993). Recent review of ballast water discharge practices in Victoria (Environment and Natural Resources Committee, Victorian State Government 1994) recommend that untreated ballast water discharge be pro- hibited in Victorian waters, with all ballast water being treated to eliminate the risk of introducing exotic marine organ- isms. A range of treatment techniques have been investigated, with heat sterilisation considered to be the most ef- fective and environmentally sound (Bolch and Hallegreff 1993) Combinations of factors such as those discussed above appear to have contrib- uted to the decline of certain habitat types in Victorian waters. The most dramatic example is that of loss of seagrass beds and associated algae (primarily Caulerpa spp.) in Western Port, having declined from approximately 250 sq. km in 1973 to 72 sq. km in 1984 (Shepherd et al. 1989), Factors suggested to have led to this decline include blocking of sunlight to seagrass leaves by heavy siltation and ex- cessive growth (and swamping) by epiphytic algae (as a possible conse- quence of high nutrient input) (LCC 1991), Localised or remnant taxa The scarcity of comprehensive data on the invertebrates of Victorian waters re- Stricts discussion of localised and remnant fauna, In regions where detailed surveys have been undertaken, such as Western Port, a number of important invertebrate species have been recognised (see O'Hara, this issue), The largest known populations of the primitive bivalve, Neotrigonia margarit acea, occur in Western Port. This living fossil is the only extant representative of this ancient genus (S. Boyd, Museum of 26 Victoria, pers. comm.). Western Port also contains the largest known populations of the lamp shell, Magellania fluvescens, a primitive brachiopod (J. Richardson, Mu- seum of Victoria, pers. comm.). Both these distinctive species are considered remnant taxa of once widespread forms. Discussion As stated above, limited distributional and ecological information prevents as- sessment of the conservation status of the majority of marine invertebrates found in Victorian waters. For many commercial species, major reviews are currently un- derway to assess data on biology, stock size and catch, and revise management practices, Underwood (1993) proposed that practices such as bag limits, size lim- its, or protection of individual species are not ecologically sound, politically achiev- able and/or possible to enforce. Underwood (1993) and Quinn ef al. (1994) suggest that the only appropriate approach to conservation of marine flora and fauna and their habitats is total pro- tection of defined areas, excluding all human exploitative pressures including foraging and angling. Military installations and other sites of complete public exclusion provide clear examples of the value and effect of total protection of defined areas, Keough et al. (1993) found that invertebrates on inter- tidal habitats abutting a rifle range in Williamstown — showed _ significantly greater size and abundance compared with adjacent sites accessible to the public. Marine parks and reserves currently cover a small percentage of Victorian wa- ters, with some of these parks allowing exploitative activities including commer- cial and recreational harvests of particular species, The Shellfish Protection Zone covers a large section of the Victorian coastline, however, signage and policing of protection regulations are considered inadequate, enforcement reported as only occurring close to Melbourne and inter- mittently during peak summer seasons (Quinn et al, 1994). The Victorian Naturalist Contributions The major requirements for assessing the conservation status of marine inverte- brates in Victoria, and developing appropriate protection and management are: — Increased support of primary in- ventory surveys, ecological studies, monitoring of human ac- tivities in marine systems, and long term monitoring of flora and fauna in impacted sites versus protected sites. — Direct and effective communica- tion between monitoring/research bodies and management/planning authorities. — Adherence to objective and inde- pendent environmental impact assessments of coastal and marine developments, as well as activi- ties such as dredging. — Expansion of both the areas and the nature of protection offered in marine parks and reserve systems. — Increased signage, interpretation, promotion, justification and po- licing of protective regulations. These goals should be rigorously sought and promoted in public forums. Both State and Commonwealth governments should continually be lobbied for the nec- essary commitment and funding to attain these objectives. The authors would also like to stress the importance and value of the watchdog role of both individuals and non-government organisations in moni- toring and reporting coastal and marine activities, and their potential impacts on vulnerable biota and habitats. Acknowledements We would like to acknowledge the valu- able contributions of staff of the Victorian Fisheries Research Institute (N. Coleman, G. Parry, P. Coutin, R. Gladwin, H. Gorf- ine and D. Molloy); S. Boyd and J. Richardson (Museum of Victoria); C. Handreck and T. O’Hara (Marine Re- search Group); N. Tsernjavski (Victorian National Parks Association); T. Allen (Marine and Coastal Network); G. Quinn Vol. 112 (1) 1995 (Monash University); S.Campbell (Vic- torian University of Technology); and M. Keough, G. Hawkes and R. Treble (Uni- versity of Melbourne). Special thanks to D. Tippett (Catch and Effort, VFRI) for compiling catch statistics for Table 1. References Axelrad, D.M, (1978). Effect of the Werribee Sewerage Treatment Farm discharge on phytoplankton produc- tivity, biomass and nutrients in Port Phillip Bay, Environmental Study Series No, 170, Bennett, I, and E.C. Pope. (1953), Intertidal zonation of the exposed rocky shores of Victoria, together with 4 rearrangement of the biogeographical provinces of temperate Australian shores. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 4, 105-159, Bolch, C.H. and G.M. Hallegraeff. (1993), Chemical and physical treatment options to kill toxic dinoflagellate cysts in ship's ballast water, Journal of Marine En- vironmental Engineering 1, 23-29. Daly, H. (1990), An environmental study of tributyltins in Victorian waters. Environment Protection Author: in, Scientific Research Series 90/020. Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. (19934). Management of the Victorian Southem Rock Lobster Fishery, Discussion paper, DCNR, East Melbourne, Victoria. Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. (1993b). The Victorian Abalone Fishery: back- ground and issues paper. Discussion paper, DCNR, East Melbourne, Victoria, Department of Conservation und Natural Resources, (1994). A New Fisheries Act for Victoria. Discussion paper, DCNR, East Melbourne, Victoria. Dorsey, J.H. (1982). Intertidal community offshore from the Werribee sewerage-treatment farm; an oppor- lunistic infaunal assemblage. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 33, 45-54. Environment and Natural Resources Committee, (1994). ‘The environmental impact of commonwealth activities and places in Victoria’. (Victorian State Govemment, Melbourne: Victona). Fabris, G. J. (1981). Effect of scallop dredging on mobilisation of heavy metals in Port Phillip Bay. Marine Science Laboratories, Technical Report No. 3. Fairweather, P.G. (1990a). Is predation capable of inter- acting with other communily processes on rocky reefs. Australian Journal of Ecology 15, 453-464. Fairweather, P.G. (1990b). Ecological changes due to our use of the coast: research needs versus effort. Pro- ceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 16, 71-77. Handreck, C.P. and T.D, O'Hara. (1994). Occurrence of selected species of intertidal and shallow subtidal invertebrates at Victorian locations. Special report to Land Conservation Council. Marine Research Group, Melbourne. 27 Contributions Kailola, PJ, Williams, M.J,,Stewart, PC., Reichelt, RE, MeNee, A, and Grieve, C, (1993) ‘Australian Fisheries Resources’, (Bureau of Resource Sciences, Department of Primary Industries and Energy and the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation; Canberra, Australia), Keough, MJ, and Quinn, GP, (1991) Causality and the choice of measurements for detecting human impacts in marine environments, Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 42, 539-554, Keough, MJ, Quinn, GP and King, A, (1995), Correlations between human collecting and intertidal molluse populations on rocky shores, Conservation Hlology 7, 478-390, King, A, (1992), Human aetivity and its effeets on marine intertidal plant and animal populations; monitoring and management, M.Sc, thesis, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Land Conservation Council, (1991), ‘Melbourme District Area 2 Descriptive Report’. (Land Conservation Council; Melbourne), Land Conservation Council, (1994), ‘Manne and Coastal Special Investigation Deseriptive Report’, (Land Conservation Council, Melbourne), MeShane, P, 1981), The effect of scallop dredging on the macrobenthos of a muddy environment in’ Port Phillip Bay, Marine Selenee Laboratories, Technical Report No, 4, Maguire, RJ. (1987), Environmental aspects of tributyltin, Applied Organometallic Chemiyiy 1, A75-A9K Manning, PE, (1979), ‘The biological effeets of the discharge of secondary treated sewerage effluent at Roags Rock, Gunnamatta Beach, Victoria. M Se thesis, LaTvobe University, Melbourne, Marine Research Group, (1994), Victorian coastal marine areas of biological significance; The basis of 4 minimum system of reserves, Supplementary submission to the LCC Marine and Coastal Special Investigation, MRG, Melbourne, Purry, G.D., 8.J, Campbell and D,K, Hobday. (1990), Marine resources off Bast Gippsland, southeastem Australia, Marine Science Laboratories Technical Report No, 72, Parry, G.D, and DR, Currie, (1992), Interim report on the effect of seallop dredging on Por Phillip Bay, Marine Selence Laboratories Internal Repart No. 193, May, 1992, Phillips, D., Handreek, C., Bock, , P., Burn, R,, Smith, 1B. and Stuples, D, (1984), ‘Coastal Invertebrates of Victoria’, (Marine Research Group and Museum of Victoria; Melbourne), Poore, G.C.H., Rainer, 8.7, Spies, RB. and Ward, E, (1975), The zoobenthos program in Port Phillip Bay, 1969-19734, Fisheries und Wildlife Paper No. 7, Povey, A, and Keough, MJ, (1991). Effects of trampling on plant and animal populations on rocky shores, Oikos 61, V55- 408 Quinn, G.P.,Pairweather, PG. and Keough, MJ, (1994), I'he effects of harvesting by people on coastal biota in Australia, Jv ‘State of the Marine Environment Report’, Volume 2, (Australian Government Pub lisher: Canberra, (in press), Shepherd, S.A, MeComb, AJ, Bulthuis, D.A,, Neveriuskus, V., Steffensen, DA, und West R, (1989), Decline in seagrasses, J ‘Seagrasses; treatise on the biology of seagrasses with special reference to the Australian region’ Eds, A,W,D, Lurkum, AJ MeComb and S.A, Shepherd, (Elsevier; New York.) Smith, M.G. and Bury, A, (1992), Abundance of scallops in Port Phillip Bay and predictions of yields for the 1991) season, Marine Selence Laboratory Technical Report No, 41, (Queenseliff, Victoria), Underwood, A.J, (1993), Exploitation of species on the rocky coast of New South Wales (Australia) and options for its management, Ocean Coastal Management 20, 41-62 Reprints of Articles After publication in The Victorian Naturalist, five complimentary copies of that issue will be sent to the principal author, However, if required, we can arrange reprints of the article or additional copies of the journal, Costs of Reprints lhis requires re-imposing the film and making new plates, The 50 copies are trimmed and stapled at the top lett side, 4 pages 6 pages 8 pages $100.00 plus postage $163,00 plus postage $173.00 plus postage Additional Copies of The Victorian Naturalist 100 copies 50 copies $50.00 plus postage $25.00 plus postage Please advise the editors when you submit your paper if you want to take Advantage of these arrangements, The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Focussing on Species for Invertebrate Conservation T.R. New! Introduction Focussing on ‘species’ or other taxo- nomic entities as conservation targets is a widespread strategy which has proved enormously useful in practice, especially for rare vertebrates but also for inverte- brates such as butterflies, which readily elicit public sympathy. Species can be important tools, as well as targets, for conservation. Programs designed to con- serve species benefit many less conspicuous taxa by assuring them of a place to live through habitat protection for the target species. In essence a ‘species’ is a tangible entity to which people can relate easily, whereas other levels of ‘biodiversity’ (and biodiversity itself) are more vague, For many biota, the species approach is entirely satisfactory in pro- viding a fine level of appreciation of the need for autecological study as a prelude to management, and for allocating funds and other support precisely. Many local lists and directories, such as ‘Red Data Books’, cite species in need of conserva- tion assessment or attention and rank them in some order of priority by alloca- tion to hierarchical categories. Especially for invertebrates, such lists can become very long. Nevertheless, they tend to imply moral commitment to practical conservation action. Problems of focussing on species Concentrating on species in this way as the major avenue to conservation is ex- pensive. The sheer diversity of inver- tebrate taxa in need of conservation or which could be included validly on lists of priority taxa precludes this as the main approach to practical conservation. How- ever, such designations are important in drawing attention to the needs of inverte- brates and expanding awareness of the scope of organismal diversity and the sub- ‘School of Zoology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083. Vol. 112 (1) 1995 tleties of species ecology and conserva- tion requirements. In Victoria, there is no doubt that taxa such as the Eltham Copper Butterfly (Paralucia pyrodiscus lucida), the Hemiphlebia Damselfly Hemiphlebia mirabilis and the Mt Stirling Stonefly Thaumatoperla flaveola have been instru- mental as flagships in increasing public and political awareness of invertebrates. But the levels of financial support gained to purchase habitats of the Eltham Copper are unlikely to be replicated even for the relatively few taxa already designated for attention under the Flora and Fauna Guar- antee Act 1988. Other than for drawing attention to particular taxa and providing appropriate leads for focussing on spe- cies, the practical ramifications of listing numerous invertebrates may be limited simply because of our restricted logistic capability to deal with them, However, the species included on any priority list (the recent IUCN list of Threatened Ani- mals, 1994, includes more than 2000 invertebrate taxa) vary greatly in their needs, Many taxa have been listed in the past on a somewhat ad hoc basis, when they have been perceived as threatened in some way, or as the result of the zeal of individual proponents of particular taxo- nomic groups so that - however deserving the taxa may be - lists may lack objective balance in relation to needs of all inverte- brates. Most species have been nominated on the basis of perceived rarity or threat, with little precise knowledge of their sta- tus or their role(s) in their respective communities, In some cases, ‘local pride’ has led to extensive efforts to conserve butterflies threatened in one State or coun- try, but which remain common and secure elsewhere (British butterflies on the edge of a more extensive European range are one example) whereas any local or re- gional extinction may indeed be important, such efforts may divert re- sources from species which may be at overall greater risk of loss. 29 Contributions Priority and ecological values With only limited resources and support for invertebrate conservation, selection of the optimal use of these is important, and any guidance for some selection of spe- cies (however distasteful this and its consequences may be in ethical terms) must be incorporated in helping to help to set priorities. At the extreme, some work- ers advocate abandoning such fine-level focussing for invertebrates and concen- trating entirely on protection and reservation of habitats, with the assump- tion that taxa living there will continue to thrive. However, experiences in Europe and elsewhere have demonstrated that this may not be so for ecologically specialised invertebrates, for example, butterflies de- pendent on early successional vegetation which may be lost without regular man- agement. Focussing on particular invertebrate species can be a strategy to enhance more widespread conservation effort through conserving resources needed by other species. For example, the world’s largest butterfly (Queen Alexandra’s Birdwing, Ornithoptera alexandrae) is listed by the IUCN as ‘Endangered’ and is a valuable flagship species because of its public ap- peal. It is also a potent ‘umbrella species’ - by assuring the security of primary forest habitats in Papua New Guinea on which O. alexandrae depends, a multitude of less conspicuous invertebrates also living there are likely to have their chances of persistence enhanced, The butterfly is thereby a ‘tool’ used to protect vulnerable habitat on which many other taxa depend. Such a species may not itself have a crit- ical ecological role, as a ‘keystone’ or similar taxon, but there is no doubt that many invertebrates do indeed play key roles in many ecological processes and conservation of ecological capability is an important facet of invertebrate conserva- tion. Species which occupy central roles may influence many others in an assem- blage and such important species thus merit strenuous efforts for conservation if 30 they can be recognised. Conversely, a species which may be ecologically ‘redundant’ (Walker 1992), if such a role exists, is by definition less important. Attention has also been paid to two other criteria in selecting priority invertebrate species or groups for conservation: (1) their use as indicators or monitors of eco- logical change and (2) their degree of taxonomic isolation. The first of these, referring either to species or larger taxo- nomic groups, are those invertebrates whose presence, abundance or distribu- tion reflect changing conditions in the environment and can sometimes provide subtle ‘early warning systems’ of changes wrought by human interventions. Knowl- edge of their biology is thus directly relevant to human welfare: a powerful, pragmatic argument for their conserva- tion, Giving priority to taxonomically isolated forms acknowledges the need to conserve the greatest diversity of evolu- tionary lineages, and schemes for such phylogenetic priority have been discussed by Williams er al. (1991), among others. In essence, if a species is the sole repre- sentative of its genus, it could be ranked as of more ‘value’ than a species of a large genus; likewise for higher taxonomic ley- els (see also Xu Zaifu 1987), so that the greatest overall representation is con- served. On this basis, many subspecies would rank very low; in practice consid- erable attention is paid ta conservation of butterfly subspecies in Australia and in many other countries. Imposition of sys- tems of ‘choice’ or priority is indeed fickle, and selection of the ‘most deserving’ taxa a topic of continuing de- bate. Discussion Evaluating the ‘status’ of an invertebrate to determine its relative or absolute need for conservation incorporates clarifying (1) its taxonomic status, (2) its ‘rarity’, in terms of abundance, ecological special- isations and distribution and (3) its de- cline and/or vulnerability to actual and perceived threats. ‘Rarity’ is an emotive The Victorian Naturalist 4 Centributions term in conservation and can be defined by many different parameters: it is equated popularly with ‘value’, and there is some tendency to regard individuals of a common species as less valuable than those of a rare species, an ethically diffi- cult proposition but one which is often true in commercial terms (New 1991). Nevertheless, objective evaluation of de- gree of threat to a species, as manifest in IUCN Red Data Book categories or some parallel hierarchy to these, is a major guide to conservation need. This selection is a major guide to allocation of our re- stricted resources. In the absence of sound quantitative in- formation on invertebrates there can be some tendency to exaggerate the status of a given species by zealous proponents, and this can be extremely difficult to counter. In Victoria, much of the emotion in debate over invertebrate species con- servation results directly from differences in opinion (only) over definition of status and the underlying vulnerability of the species. The current IUCN categories of threat are under review (Mace and Lande 1991, Mace etal. 1992), and development of objective viable criteria for application to invertebrates is a major practical need. It is at present doubtful whether criteria suggested to quantify risk of extinctions for vertebrates can be applied to most invertebrates, simply because of the diffi- culties of getting sound information on population structure and quantifying mor- tality factors. Even within an invertebrate species, the narrow and sporadic distribution in iso- lated populations may necessitate comparative study on different sites, as it may be unrealistic to extrapolate from one site to another because of local differences in resources, topography, or climate. It may, however, become feasible progres- sively to designate ecological correlates of conservation concern, Thus, for butter- flies in Britain, the rarest species tend to have one generation each year, have ‘closed populations, overwinter as eggs or larvae, have long-lived larvae with few Vol. 112 (1) 1995 food plant species, and utilise plants in unproductive habitats (Hodgson 1993). More generally, extinction-prone species have low vagility, are ecological special- ists, and have a small geographical range (Spitzer and Leps 1992), so that any of these features may be especially relevant in helping to quantify rarity, and conser- vation need. In Victoria, invertebrates from several phyla are listed for priority assessment and conservation under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, with the im- plication that status assessment and management plans will be forthcoming (Clunie and Reed, this volume). Those nominating additional invertebrates for listing could well consider their rationale for doing so in relation to some of the parameters noted in this paper and desig- nation of priorities for use of highly restricted funding for practical conserva- tion. References Clunie, P. and Reed, J. (in this issue, The Victorian Naturalist. ), Hodgson, J.G. (1993), Commonness and rarity in British butterflies. Journal of Applied Ecology 30, 407-427, Mace, G.M. and Lande, R. (1991). Assessing extinction threats: toward a re-evaluation of IUCN threatened species categories. Conservation Biology 5, 148- 157. Mace, G., Collar, N., Cooke, J., Gaston, K., Ginsberg, J., Leader Williams, J., Maunder, M. and Milner-Gul- land, E.J. (1992). The Development of new criteria for listing species on the IUCN Red List, Species No 19, 16-22. New, T.R. (1991). ‘Butterfly Conservation’. (Oxford University Press: Melbourne). Spitzer, K, and Leps, J. (1992). Bionomic strategies in Lepidoptera, risk of extinction and nature conserva- tion projects. Nota Lepidopterologica, Supplement 4, 81-85. Walker, B.H. (1992). Biodiversity and ecological redun- dancy. Conservation Biology 6, 18-23. Williams, P.H., Humphries, C.J. and Vane-Wright, R.I. (1991), Measuring biodiversity: taxonomic related- ness for conservation priorities. Australian System- atic Botany 4, 665-679. Xu Zaifu (1987). The work of Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanic Garden in conserving the threatened plants of the Yunnan tropics. Jn ‘Botanic Gardens and the world conservation strategy’. Eds D, Bramwell, O. Hamann, V, Heywood and H. Synge. (Academic Press: London). 31 Contributions Protection of Invertebrates in Victoria: the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. Pam Clunie and Julia Reed! In Victoria, invertebrates which are con- sidered to be threatened can be listed under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, This heralds a major step forward for invertebrates, because listed items are legally protected; they become protected wildlife under the Wildlife Act 1975. Once listed, the animal immediately has priority for protection and management to ensure its long term survival in the wild. Therefore when nominating invertebrates for listing, it is important to give consid- eration to the broader context of invertebrate conservation, Anyone can nominate an invertebrate for listing. The process of listing is summarised by Butcher ef al, (1994). So far, 22 invertebrates, and two communi- ties described on the basis of the invertebrate fauna, have been listed from a range of groups including worms, ma- rine and freshwater flatworms, crustacea, and insects including stoneflies, damselfl- ics, as well as the inevitable butterflies, Between 80-90% of these items have been listed on the basis of future threats and/or their rarity, while almost a third were eli- gible because of evidence of decline. Table 1 summarises the range of threats identified for listed invertebrates and the frequency with which they were men- tioned. Obviously development and habitat degradation are considered to be the most significant. Implications of listing invertebrates When listed, the animals immediately have a priority for protective action. Some of the benefits of listing are that: . They are immediately protected from ‘taking’, which includes collecting, Selling, disturbing, and so on, bringing them in line with other wildlife under the Wildlife Act 1975. In most cases, ! Flora and Fauna Branch, CNR, 123 B Heidelberg 3088 » 123 Brown Street 32 this is of dubious value, as direct taking is rarely a threat to invertebrates, espe- cially when compared to habitat loss and fragmentation. * Action statements, which are brief management plans, must be prepared, These show what has been done and what needs to be done to manage the item and ensure its long term survival in the wild, + Their habitat can be managed, through actions in an action statement, through agreements with public authorities, and through determining and protecting the ‘critical habitat’ of that species. + Surveys and research are concentrated on listed invertebrates. They become a Table 1 Threats to invertebrates listed under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. (N=22; as at October 1994) THREAT Habitat Development (includes recreation, land clearance, urbanisation, mining) Habitat Degradation/Alteration 54 - alteration of drainage patterns - destruction of riparian vegetation - cattle grazing/trampling nm] =[els]s| _ = ~ alteration of temperature/flow/ighy turbidity/nutrients - burning/mowing practices jelel>l=lefelelelo[s| - damage to associated items - genetic isolation ~ pesticide/herbicide usage The Victorian Naturalist Contributions focus for Departmental and Common- wealth funding, as well as often attracting interest from conservation volunteer groups. They provide a focus for grants to landholders e.g. Save the Bush. * They gain a higher public profile, through such avenues as action state- ments. The Department of Conser- vation and Natural Resources (CNR) threatened species brochures, and arti- cles in newsletters or publications including Land for Wildlife bulletins and Australian Geographic. + They are considered in planning deci- sions. All sites where listed inver- tebrates occur are added to CNRs databases, and are therefore available to staff when making land use planning decisions, and when liaising with vari- ous public authorities. They are also considered in documents such as LCC reviews and recommendations, and in- cluded in lists of values in areas of National Estate. Achievements following listing Prior to listing, few invertebrates had extensive monitoring or survey programs, exceptions being the Eltham Copper But- terfly and the Altona Skipper Butterfly, and to a lesser extent the Hemiphlebia damselfly and Giant Gippsland Earth- worm. Since listing, efforts on these animals have continued, and the number and range of invertebrates being studied has expanded. Action statements have provided an ef- fective mechanism of summarising past actions and focusing future work. So far, action statements have been published for 25% of listed invertebrates, including the Otway Stonefly, Dandenong Amphipod, Hemiphlebia damselfly, Eltham Copper Butterfly and two communities: San Remo Marine Community and Mt Piper Butterfly Community No. 1 (both of which were described primarily on the basis of the invertebrate fauna). In addi- tion, five are currently in various stages of preparation. Recommended actions in- Vol, 112 (1) 1995 clude survey, rearing, research, public ed- ucation, community involvement, fire management, and protection of habitat from activities such as forestry, cattle ac- cess, or development. A few examples The Otway Stonefly is an insect known only from the Otway Range. Prior to list- ing, it was thought extinct, though shortly after listing its existence was confirmed from two localities. Surveys to determine distribution were identified as a priority in Action Statement No. 45 (Reed and Smith 1993), During 1993/94, with the assis- tance of ANCA funding, the Otway Range streams were surveyed, and a num- ber of nymphs were retained and reared through to adults, all of which were con- firmed as Otway Stoneflies. The species is now known to occur throughout a large area of the Otway Range, including land which is secured in National or State Parks. The issue of delisting the species may need to be considered. Data on the species location will be incorporated on the Department's databases, where it will be available for use in planning decisions. The Orbost Crayfish occurs in streams in East Gippsland. It is currently known only from public land where forestry ac- tivities are the primary landuse. When listed, only one population was known, and only 14 specimens have ever been collected despite extensive surveys of riv- ers through Gippsland. Departmental staff, and more recently a group of conser- vation volunteers in close liaison with CNR, have been searching for the cray- fish, and it is now known from at least two new sites. The Alpine Flatworm is a small, white flatworm which lives in springs and bogs in Victoria's alpine and sub-alpine areas. At the time of listing, it was known from only three sites; two on Mt Buller, and one near Mt Howitt. Owing to concerns over future developments in the alpine area, CNR funded a survey in 1993 to deter- mine whether the animal's distribution was indeed this restricted. Representa- 33 Contributions tives of all white flatworm populations were collected and retained for identifica- tion (as the species is too small to be clearly identified in the field). The sur- veys found the species to be more widespread than previously known, though it is still only found in the Mt Buller-Stirling area and the Mt Howitt area (Dr. Ros. St. Clair, pers. comm.). However, another white flatworm was found which, despite extensive searching throughout the Alps, appears even more restricted. The Giant Gippsland Earthworm 1s patchily distributed over a small area in South Gippsland. The species is now re- stricted to areas not heavily utilised, such as stream banks and gullies (Yen and Van Praagh 1994). The primary issues regard- ing its conservation are protection of its remaining habitat from disturbance (such as ploughing), and determining a sustain- able level of taking - as animals are currently collected from the wild for part of an educational display. Since listing, CNR resources have been directed into community education to promote the issue of the worm as a threatened species in need of protection, and to explain to landholders how to manage their land to protect worm habitat. This information is largely targeted to landholders through the Land for Wildlife program - there is, for example, a Land for Wildlife Note on worms and their protection. At least two landholders will be helped to protect hab- itat through the Save the Bush program. Research has provided data for population The Giant Gippsland Earthworm, Megascolides australis, 34 modelling to determine sustainable levels of taking, and a group is currently work- ing on this issue. How to use the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act to best protect invertebrates Individual nomination and protection of threatened invertebrates is hardly feasi- ble, due to their large numbers, incomplete taxonomic knowledge, and because in general, the fundamental knowledge on how to manage them is not known (though as Murphy er al. 1990 note, information useful for the manage- ment of some invertebrates, such as butterflies, 1s available in insect pest man- agement literature, which also seeks to identify factors that regulate populations- though to different ends). A broader approach to conservation of invertebrates is provided by the abiltty to list communities and potentially threaten- ing processes under the Act. Management of these is likely to protect a far greater number of species than the single species approach. Management of communities and threats also provides the ability to protect habitat, which is widely accepted as the most effective method of protecting invertebrates (e.g. New 1984 and 1987). So far, fourteen communities have been listed, and these include examples from grassland, marine, alpine and rainforest habitats. Once a community is listed, all components of that community are pro- tected - which means that the habitat is protected. A community may be de- scribed on the basis of the invertebrate fauna, with an example being the Mt Piper Butterfly Community No.1. This commu- nity is characterised by an unusually high diversity of butterflies, moths and ants, including several threatened species. However, this is notnecessary in order for protection to be conferred on the compo- nent invertebrates, which is fortunate given that information to identify and de- scribe invertebrate communities is sparse. Any invertebrate which forms part of a community is protected when part of that The Victorian Naturalist + Contributions community, even if not threatened in its own right. For example, protection of the Western (Basalt) Plains Grassland com- munity will protect the invertebrates which form part of that community. Di- rection of effort toward identification and nomination of communities important for protection of invertebrate biodiversity would be of great value for invertebrate conservation, whether the communities are described on the basis of the vegeta- tion, the invertebrates, or some other descriptor. Thirteen potentially threatening pro- cesses have been listed, and as a consequence must be managed so that they cease to pose a threat to flora and fauna. The management of many, if not all, has the capacity to protect inverte- brates and their habitat. A number of potentially threatening processes already listed, including sedimentation, and alter- ation to temperature and flow regimes, have been identified as threats to listed invertebrates (Table 1). There are count- less processes which pose threat to invertebrates, and nomination and subse- quent management of these would be of great benefit to invertebrate conservation. Conclusion The Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act Huntsman Spider, Vol. 112 (1) 1995 1988 provides a number of mechanisms useful in protection of invertebrates. List- ing of individual species has focussed attention and management action on these species, but while useful in many cases, this approach will not be effective for invertebrate conservation as a whole. An increased focus on the identification and management of communities and poten- tially threatening processes would be of great value in protecting invertebrate biodiversity. References Butcher, R.J., Clunie, PE. and Yen, A.L, (1994). The Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act: Flagship legislation for invertebrate conservation, Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, ¥%6 (1), 13-19. Murphy, D,D., Freas, K.E. and Weiss, 8.B. (1990). An environment meta population approach to population viability analysis for a threatened invertebrate. Conservation Biology, 4 (1), 41-51. New, T. (1984), ‘Insect Conservation: an Australian Perspective’. (Dr. W. Junk: Netherlands). New, T. (1987). Insect Conservation in Australia; Towards Rational Ecological Priorities. Ja “The Role of Invertebrates in Conservation and Ecological Survey’. Ed. J.D. Majer (Westem Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management Report). Reed, J, and Smith, S. (1993). Otway Stonefly Eusthenia nothofagi. Action Statement No. 45, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Yen, A.L. and Van Praagh, B.D. (1994). Studies of the Giant Gippsland Earthworm Megascolides australis MeCoy 1878 (Annelida: Oligochaeta: Moegascole- cidae). (World Wide Fund for Nature). The Eltham Copper Butterfly, Paralucia pyrodiscus lucida. 35 Contributions Is Invertebrate Collecting a Threatening Process? Alan L. Yen! and Timothy R. New? Introduction Among the great diversity of threats des- ignated for invertebrates, perhaps none arouses more heated debate than ‘overcollecting’. The regulation of take has historically been the basis for much of the protective legislation covering inver- tebrates, and this has resulted directly from the belief that collecting is a major threatening process for invertebrates. This assumption is too simplistic, and has re- sulted in the ‘protection’ of some species that are not under any threat, and may have inhibited legitimate and important gathering of information about inverte- brates. ‘Collectable’ species tend to be the larger and more colourful species such as butterflies and beetles, but there is no doubt that rarity can indeed equate with value. Until the advent of the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 which funda- mentally protects habitat, much of the conservation legislation in Australia was aimed at controlling collecting rather than habitat destruction, and did not acknow]- edge the several categories of collecting involving different collecting intensities and different target groups. Prohibiting collecting of invertebrate species without protection of their habitat is largely futile, and the actual effects of collecting are questionable when compared to the ef- fects of habitat alteration and destruction. Types of collecting Material sought by collectors generally involves collecting at low volume levels. It can involve collecting by amateurs or professionals for taxonomic, biological, ecological or conservation research, col- lecting for educational purposes (at all levels), or collecting as a hobby, The taxa sought by collectors are primarily butter- : Invertebrate Survey Department, Museum of Victoria, 7 Victoria Crescent, Abbotsford, Victoria 3067. School of Zoology, La Trobe Uni it viene ee versity, Bundoora, 36 flies, the more colourful beetles, and spec- tacular invertebrates such as stick insects and theraphosid (‘bird-eating’) spiders. Specimens are often obtained by commer- cial dealers who sell material to scientists, museums and private collectors (Collins and Morris 1985). The level of commercial trade in native Australian species (predominantly butter- flies or beetles) is small, and most of the trade involves imported material. Some Australian species are advertised for sale overseas, although it is difficult to deter- mine the original source of much of the material (Hawkeswood ef al. 1991). High volume collecting involves the commodity markets. Large numbers of more common species are collected to be incorporated into curios such as paper weights, cuff-links, brooches, etc. The source of this type of curio market is predominantly Asian. The greatest volume of collected speci- mens involves material harvested for food. In Australia, relatively few terres- trial invertebrates are involved, although witjuti grubs and honey-pot ants are har- vested by traditional landowners or for tourism. The major food market involves freshwater crustaceans and marine inver- tebrates. It is important that commercial collecting of these taxa is founded on a scientifically determined ecologically sustainable base and the catch needs to be monitored and controlled if necessary, Mass collecting affects both target and non-target species, and commercial cul- turing of desired species should be encouraged, as is happening with some species of freshwater crayfish and marine invertebrates. Arguments against collecting Decline in populations of target species Many invertebrate species can with- stand a considerable level of harvesting because of their high reproductive capac- The Victorian Naturalist Contributions ity, although there are exceptions. Over- collecting can cause permanent decline to species (1) whose populations are already critically depleted by other factors such as habitat destruction, (2) with small popu- lations of high commercial value, (3) that have a low reproductive rate and low ju- venile recruitment (Collins and Morris 1985), or (4) which are limited in their ranges. Key (1978) could not list any Australian insect species on the Australian mainland that was directly threatened by collecting. More recently, some examples of inverte- brates have been found where collecting has been a factor in their decline. For example, due to its limited distribution, its longevity, its low reproductive rate, and its fragile body (Van Praagh 1992), local populations of the Giant Gippsland Earth- worm (Megascolides australis McCoy) may be threatened with extinction even by a limited amount of collecting (McCarthy et al. 1994). There is also evidence of overcollecting causing further decline in the already threatened Bathurst Copper Butterfly (Paralucia spinifera) (Dexter and Kitching 1993). Lack of recognition There is danger that collectors may be unable to recognise when they are deplet- ing a species below the recovery threshold, especially when they only visit the breeding areas for short periods of time. Many species can reproduce expo- nentially when conditions are suitable, but they may also decrease exponentially when conditions are poor. For many groups of invertebrates, the large numbers of species within the group means that often a specialist is required to confirm species identification, and a less expert collector may not be aware of the taxa collected. Non-target species ; Large scale or indiscriminate trapping methods are rarely used to collect spect- mens for the high volume collector ~ market because of potential damage to specimens. Consequently, it is likely that Vol. 112 (1) 1995 very few non-target specimens are di- rectly affected, although some may be indirectly affected through habitat de- struction. More non-target invertebrates are affected in some commercial areas, especially in marine fisheries, where ‘by- catch’ can be substantial. Habitat alteration and destruction Removal of specimens may have dele- terious effects upon the local populations of some species, but deliberate or acciden- tal habitat destruction by collectors may reduce the value of that particular habitat for both the target and non-target species. For example, microhabitats may be de- stroyed in searching for butterfly pupae desirable to rear perfect specimens. Creating demand Protective legislation can create illegal trade for collectors, and increase the com- mercial value of species. In Queensland, Papilio ulysses and Ornithoptera rich- mondia are protected, and this has established a black market for species that in some areas have become common gat- den butterflies where the food plant is grown as a garden tree. Arguments for collecting Information gathering Collecting, by both amateurs and pro- fessionals, has built up collections that provide information which is essential for practical conservation today. Information on past distributions and abundances of species is vital in determining whether a particular species has declined. Some of the enormous gaps in our knowledge of the Australian invertebrate fauna will only be filled with the assistance of ama- teur collections. Similarly in Australia, the life histories of many butterflies and moths has been brought to the attention of the public by dedicated amateurs (e.g. Coupar and Coupar 1992), Educational benefits The potential to use invertebrates in en- vironmental education has not yet been fully realised. Collecting can be an in- structive and educational hobby, and 37 Contributions many people used collecting in their for- mative years as an important part of their training, in graduating from hobbyist to professional biologist. Without collect- ing, such recruitment may be severely hampered. Economic benefits Commercial collecting can be an im- portant source of income and is not necessarily harmful. Habitat destruction is still the major problem, and the danger is that past sustainable commercial col- lecting levels will become unsustainable with decreasing habitat areas and quality, Captive breeding can provide high quality specimens to the trade and take pressure off wild populations, as well as providing employment. There is no better example of this than the butterfly ranching/farming programme in Papua New Guinea where some villagers earn more income by maintaining their forests for insect breed- ing than by converting them to coffee plantations (Orsak 1993), What is the compromise? Private collecting by amateurs is a very important part of science and the inven- tory of our natural world, Many biologists began their careers froma background of collecting, and private collections and the data associated with them are an import- ant (sometimes the only) source of information on the past occurrences of Many species of invertebrates, A major need is for private collectors to be edu- cated and aided in their endeavours so that the information they gather is made avail- able to appropriate authorities to assist management. This includes, besides re- sponsible collecting, gathering a minimal data set that notes locality, date of collect- ing and habitat information, and lodge- ment of information or specimens in recognised public institutions (such as State museums), Codes of practice Voluntary ‘collecting codes’ stress the need for responsibility and avoidance of overcollecting. The Joint Committee for 38 the Conservation of British Insects pub- lished a ‘Code for Insect Collecting’ (Joint Committee for the Conservation of British Insects 1971), which urges re- straint in collecting rare species (only a pair be collected), preferably towards the end of the mating/breeding season. The Entomological Society of Victoria has a short list of species in the ‘Limited Voluntary Protection’ category (Anony- mous 1988). Members of the Society are requested that any one collector nets no more than two specimens within any one season, and that no larvae or pupae be collected at any time. Legislation Responsible invertebrate collecting should not be discouraged, Legislation will be required to protect species that are known to be threatened and thus warrant protection, but should not alienate people who can contribute substantially towards understanding the species, and is not an end in itself. Responsible collecting will result in getting important distributional information for conservation manage- ment through the adoption of some kind of Code of Practice rather than a legisla- tive prohibition. Since the passing of the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act in Vic- toria, over 20 species of threatened invertebrates have been listed as protected wildlife (Butcher ef al, 1994), Only four of these species are butterflies, and most of the listed species are not in the ‘desired collectable’ category. One aspect of the Victorian experience is that much of the information used by the Scientific Advi- sory Committee to determine whether a species is actually threatened is based on information collected by amateurs (e.g. Crosby 1987, 1990). While protective legislation is necessary to assist the recovery of threatened inver- tebrate species, there is the danger that blanket prohibitive legislation, with its legal and bureaucratic barriers to pursuing a hobby, will simply discourage useful gathering of information by non-special- ists and encourage the hiding of The Victorian Naturalist 4 Contributions information by less scrupulous collectors. Such blanket legislation usually involves the protection of taxa that are known not to be threatened (Yen and Butcher 1994), Conclusion Collecting has often been cited as a threatening process for invertebrates. There are some cases where collecting has caused serious decline in the populations of some species, but in many cases, those species were already at risk through hab- itat alteration. The nature of collecting is complex, and its effects will depend on factors that involve the biology of the target species, its abundance, and the tim- ing of collecting. The paucity of information about most of the Australian invertebrate fauna requires the encour- agement of responsible collecting by hobbyists, students, naturalists and pro- fessionals, as long as the information that they collect is lodged with the appropriate institutions and made available for incor- poration into conservation management programmes. References Anonymous, (1988). Protected butterflies. Victorian Entomologist 18, 102. Butcher, R.J., Clunie, PE. and Yen, A.L, (1994), The Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act: Flagship Legislation for Invertebrate Conservation. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 36, 13-19. Collins, N.M. and Morris, M.G. (1985). ‘Threatened Swallowtai) Butterflies of the World’. (International Union for Conservation and Natural Resources: Gland/Cambridge). Coupar, P. and Coupar, M. (1992), *Flying Colours’. (New South Wales University Press: Kensington). Crosby, D.F. (1987). The conservation status of the Eltham Copper Buuerfly (Paralucia pyrodiscus lucida Crosby) (Lepidoptera; Lycaenidae), Arthur Rylah_ Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series No. 81, 1-19, Crosby, D.F, (1990). A Management plan for the Altona Skipper Butterfly, Hesperilla flavescens flavescens Waterhouse (Lepidoptera; Hesperiidae), Arthur Rylah_ Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series No. 98, 1-65. Dexter, E.M, and Kitching, R.L. (1993). The Bathurst Copper, Paralucia spinifera Edwards and Common, In ‘Conservation Biology of Lycaenidae (Butterflies)’, Ed. T.R. New. Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 8, 168-170. Hawkeswood, T., Callister, DJ. and Antram, F. (1991). Collection and export of Australian insects, TRAFFIC Bulletin 12, 441-448. Joint Committee for the Conservation of British Insects. (1971), A code for insect collecting. Entomologist's Monthly Magazine 107, 193-195, Key, K.H.L, (1978). ‘The Conservation Status of Australia's Insect Fauna’. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service Occasional Paper No. 1, (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra). McCarthy, M.A., Van Praagh, B.D. and Yen, A.L, (1994). An assessment of Giant Gippsland Earthworm harvesting. Unpublished report to the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Orsak, L. (1993). Killing butterflies to save butterflies: a too] for tropical forest conservation in Papua New Guinea. News of the Lepidopterists’ Society No. 3, 71-80. Van Praagh, B, (1992). The ecology, distribution and conservation of the Giant Gippsland Earthworm, Megascolides australis McCoy 1878. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 24, 1363-1367. Yen, A.L. and Butcher, R.J. (1994). An Overview of the Conservation Status of Non-Marine Invertebrates in Australia. Unpublished report to the Endangered Species Unit, Australian Nature Conservation Agency. The Victorian Naturalist - Subject Index 1884-1978 A handy reference book to have on hand for all members, Price $5.00 pick up at any meeting or $9.60 posted to anywhere in Victoria. Remit to: FNCY, C/- D.E. McInnes, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, Victoria 3145. Vol. 112 (1) 1995 39 Contributions The Species: Elements of a Management Plan T.R. New! Introduction Conserving species is commonly not simply a question of reserving habitat for them, although this may be critical be- cause, without a place to live a species clearly cannot survive. However, to as- sure the sustainability of the species in a habitat, some form of management may be needed, and this must be based on sound knowledge of the species’ require- ments. This knowledge is difficult to obtain for many invertebrates, and this paper is a brief outline of the components of a management plan for these animals to indicate some of the problems involved in designing and executing practical con- servation measures. Problems in determining status Species conservation, making a species the target for practical conservation activ- ity, involves a complex and intricate series of operations which may need to be undertaken with very little practical knowledge of the subject. For many inver- tebrates, even the various components of Status i.e. basic information on distribu- tion, population dynamics, and popula- tion structure, may be fragmentary. Deter- mining decline (decrease in numbers or Tange) and vulnerability (susceptibility of change) can also be difficult, because many invertebrates normally exist in very small populations, may be detectable eas- ily for only short periods within each generation (such as during a butterfly’s flight period), undergo intricate and highly specific interactions with other taxa, and may be susceptible to remark- ably subtle anthropogenic changes to its environment (such as changes in exposure due to clearing of vegetation). In addition, Most invertebrates targeted for conserva- ion are rare and highly restricted in geographical Tange; many are known from single sites or colonies, and quanti- 1 School of Zoology, La Trobe Universi atest kes luversity, Bundoora, 40 tative sampling or detailed investigation involving intrusions to the habitat may be ill-advised. Redressing these im- pediments is usually impossible in the short term and, at least, several seasons (often, years) of investigation may be needed to furnish even moderately reli- able biological information. Never- theless, accurate determination of a spe- cies ‘status’ is the standard against which the need for complex management or re- covery plans must be assessed. It is important to (1) assemble and incorporate all available information whilst (2) appre- ciating that this may be inadequate and that it may be necessary to provide for approximation rather than rely on precise quantitative data. Thus, it is often im- possible to obtain sound data on the population dynamics (including major factors causing mortality) for rare inver- tebrates, or to infer the precise causes of the (often) several-fold differences in numbers which can occur in successive generations, In short, rare invertebrates are difficult and expensive to study, and the data re- sulting from substantial funding may still be poor. Chance environmental variations may have pervasive effects (New 1994). For example, a three-year survey for the lycaenid butterfly Acrodipsas myrmeco- phila at Mount Piper, Victoria, yielded evidence of only five individuals, all seen hilltopping. The sole known ant host of the caterpillars of this species was not located during an extensive survey of ants in the area. It was therefore not possible to define the critical habitat for A. myrmecophila from that survey, and thus any constructive management plan for its conservation will lack vital information. However, and more positively, the pres- ence of the butterfly was confirmed in three consecutive flight seasons. Even though its existence may be tenuous, it is likely that maintaining the area in its pres- The Victorian Naturalist Contributions ent state will permit its continued sur- vival. For rare invertebrates, ‘presence/ absence’ data may have to be used in place of numerical data in conservation plan- ning. Even confirming the presence of such scarce animals (or, conversely, de- tecting a decline or local absence) has a strong element of chance observation, es- pecially for species known from one or few sites. Emphasis is thereby shifted from the species to the site(s) where it occurs so that the vulnerability of the site needs careful appraisal. Management plans The various stages in a species manage- ment plan (Fig. 1) show the general sequence of options usually available which stem from needs demonstrated by status evaluation. An invertebrate is re- garded as threatened or vulnerable if a decline in its abundance and/or geograph- ical range can be demonstrated. The geographical range may cover a large area or involve disappearances from particular sites. If local extinctions are not the con- sequence of a normal metapopulation structure (i.e. whereby a population exists over a greater area but occupies particular ESTABLISH STATUS a -VULNERABLE -THREATENED a4 NO DECLINE DECLINE [MONITOR] y RANGE ABUNDANCE DEFINE CAUSES | DEFINE CONTROL /MANAGEMENT IMPLEMENT MONITOR, REFINE Fig, 1 Elements of a species management plan. Vol. 112 (1) 1995 Sites in a series of rolling colonisation-ex- tinction cycles), the need for management to ensure survival at remaining sites may be urgent. Management must then include understanding and controlling threats, protecting the habitat (perhaps involving expensive land purchase, or legal reserva- tion) and restoring critical resources (such as food plants or other specific needs) which are in short supply. Conserving the species may entail maintaining current levels of abundance by arresting a decline or more aggressive (and more costly) at- tempts to foster recovery, perhaps incorporating translocation or other ex situ measures (New and Yen 1994, Yen and New 1994). Lastly, it is important, even critical, to monitor the effects of management as fully as possible by as- sessing subsequent trends in numbers and distribution of the target species, and to refine management progressively in re- sponse to increased ecological know- ledge. Discussion The steps outlined here demonstrate clearly that single species conservation of invertebrates is not merely a question of ‘locking up’ a habitat or site, although this may be the only practical interim step to secure a critical area against conflicting demands and exploitation by people. In some instances, listing or designation of a species for conservation priority has led to studies resulting in the knowledge that the species is far more secure than had been supposed, The Damselfly Hemiphle- bia mirabilis is an example in Victoria; it is now known from several sites in Victo- ria and Tasmania but at the time of listing under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act it was believed to be confined to Wilsons Promontory. Without the impetus pro- vided by its initial listing, the requisite surveys which clarified its status would probably not have been conducted. The massive ecological diversity of in- vertebrates ensures that extrapolation from knowledge of one species to another may not be realistic, but the above scheme 41 Contributions and the increasing number of relevant case histories from various parts of the world suggest that it may be possible to derive comparative conservation proto- cols. At least for butterflies, sufficient cases have been studied to indicate the generalities of this although, as for most other invertebrate groups, many pro- grammes have not progressed satisfac- torily beyond status evaluation and con- sequently management needs remain uncertain. Pollard and Yates (1993) summarised standard techniques for assessing butter- fly numbers, and Arnold (1983) presented an initial pro-forma management scheme for lycaenid butterflies, for example. Ide- ally, protocols should (1) be sufficiently general for easy replication in space and time and (2) be sufficiently flexible to be applied with little change to different taxa and habitats, as well as (3) incorporate the need for future comparative use for re- peated monitoring at the same site(s) or extrapolation to other localities for the same or related taxa (New 1994), They should also incorporate all possible facets of conservation activity, such as promot- ing public awareness, legal protection (if needed), habitat protection, threat abate- ment, consideration of captive breeding or translocation to augment low populations, and autecological studies of the target taxa, together with provision for contin- ued monitoring. A comprehensive management plan for an invertebrate spe- cies cannot be undertaken lightly. It is likely to be a complex, long-term process involving original discovery and scien- tific investigation rather than confident application of established or well-tried recipes, Perhaps the most complex management is that which involves taxa relying on early successional or transient habitats, having intricate associations with specific plants and other animals, and exhibiting a metapopulation Structure. This is exem- plified by many lycaenid butterflies (New 1993) whose caterpillars associate with 42 specific ants in early successional vegeta- tion. Their localised extinctions may sometimes be entirely natural as grassland is replaced naturally by other vegetation and so do not require a rapid ‘crisis- management” response. If such inverte- brates continue to be scheduled for con- servation management it is important that adequate resources are allocated to ensure that the programme has at least reasonable chance of success. Conclusions The steps noted in Fig. | are simplistic, and it may be necessary to review contin- ually the progress of management and to refine the needs and implementation as more information on the species’ biology is obtained. Defining ‘status’, and review- ing changes in response to management, is a central need in any such long-term programme. It is rarely possible to design and execute an ‘ideal’ management plan for an invertebrate species, simply be- cause of the complexity of invertebrate assemblages and the diversity of species which may be present in any particular habitat. Nevertheless, conservation action will usually involve the need for manage- ment, and the scheme outlined here indicates how this may be pursued con- structively, References Amold, R.A, (1983), Ecological studies of six endangered butterflies: island biogeography, patch dynamics and the design of nature reserves, University of California Publications in Entomology 99, 1-161. New, T.R. (ed.) (1993). ‘Conservation Biology of the Lycaenidae’, (IUCN: Gland). New, T.R, (1994). Evaluating the status of butterflies for conservation. Proceedings af the lnernational Symposium on Butterfly Conservation, Osaka, Japan, 1994 (in press). New, T.R, - (this issue, The Victorian Naturalist), New, T.R. and Yen, A.L. (1994), Species management and recovery plans for butterflies (Lepidoptera) in Australia. Australian Zoologist. (in press), Pollard, E. and Yates, TJ. (1993). ‘Monitoring Butterflies for Conservation and Ecology’. (Chapman & Hall: London), Yen, A.L. and New, T.R. (1994), Implementation of recovery programmes for endangered Australian invertebrate species. Australian Zoologisl (in press). The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Conservation of Victorian Butterflies by Ross P. Field! Undoubtedly the invertebrate group that has the widest general public appeal as a symbol of an unspoilt environment is the butterflies. This is largely because of their size, colour, diurnal appearance and, over the last 10 years, their high profile created by the worldwide proliferation of butter- fly houses. They have become a banner for urban conservation, thus, it was appro- priate to have the Eltham Copper Butterfly, Paralucia pyrodiscus lucida Crosby, as a test case for the conservation of invertebrates under the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988) (FFGA) (New 1991). Besides being readily iden- tifiable elements of our fauna and thus suitable banner species for conservation- ists, butterflies may be good indicator species of the health of the habitat (New 1991). However, in adopting particular species it is important to understand their ecology. Naturally rare species will in- volve different issues from abundant species that are on the decline as will migratory species versus more sedentary ones (Sands 1990). There are many butterflies that are un- common in Victoria because they are either migratory or their natural distribution extends southwards into small pockets of far eastern Victoria. These are not consid- ered in this paper from the point of view of conserving threatened species as they are more than likely naturally rare towards the extremity of their range. Table 1 indi- cates the uncommon species that were probably more widely distributed and abundant 100 years ago and today are only preserved in reserves or continue to face decline through habitat destruction. The biology of most butterfly species that occur in Victoria has been well doc- umented, or at least could be reasonably presumed from populations of the same species elsewhere. However, some ‘Museum of Victoria, 328 Swanston Street, Melbourne, Victoria 3000. Vol. 112 (1) 1985 lycaenid species are poorly understood because their life histories are closely as- sociated with ants. In particular the biology of the probable myrmecophagous species Acrodipsas myrmecophila, A. brisbanensis and Ogyris idmo halmaturia are virtually unknown and all are threat- ened species and listed as endangered under the FFGA (CNR 1993). The larvae of these species are thought to develop in ant nests. For A. myrmecophila, the ant is from the Papyrius nitidus group, the spe- cies associated with A. b. cyrilus is unknown and that associated with O. &. halmaturia is a sugar ant, Camponotus testiceipes (Field 1992), Each of these butterflies occur in few locations and in the case of O. i, halmaturia, no specimens have been collected in Victoria since 1972, and these specimens, from Mildura, may belong to an undescribed species known from Kalgoorlie in Western Aus- tralia which has also recently been recorded from the Riverland area of South Australia. Conservation of this species, and the two Acrodipsas species, is thus made more difficult because it is the pro- tection of specific ant species, and not unique vegetation that will govern the survival of the species. However, in the case of the Acrodipsas species they are generally known from specimens col- lected on hilltops which focus naturally rare species for mating. These species may be more common than realised be- cause there are relatively few sites (conical wooded hills where the species fly at the tops of the trees) where they can be easily observed. The only extant pop- ulation of A. myrmecophila and the major site for A. b. cyrilus is Mt Piper, near Broadford, This area was recently listed under the FFGA as a threatened commu- nity (Butterfly Community No. 1) and 140 ha of the Mt Piper reserve and adjoining areas has received National Estate nomi- nation. 43 Contributions (umo.g ssez3 proms) ayepury Mo1Un Dudagn auoydisty pue[ og pur soouneg ‘suriduimiy - euoIo, Waisam ynOS Diuypy jo sduinjs ase] Sunsoddns seam Kdwems weap Jofeu v si sraze Aduiems jo ofeurap tyeg JeuonrN ut paisaio1g punsagais miuynD (eoiuax sats auidje) uewysnoz Dsoppays SIOUD DIIuaNIAICE) (€661 YN ‘1861 esnoyneA pur uowWOD) 2]QeJ2UpNA Inq iuepunge A|fed0] - Yueg feuONeN ut palzaio1g WOT 2Aoqe sMopeou auidjy ed [BUONEN ojeyJng ino, (umoug s,meyssoy) FEpuLL Dpununy impyssay DIIUaNIZI—E (umoag pake-1ysuq) suing IUOS]IM 22Dp109 vydwduos may vaounl DuaYystiniia, pur j “dds vog apnjout yoiym sassein, (6861 AqsoiD) juepunge Xyje20] - uononuisap reigeYy q pouaieasyp suonedo] parsinsay Spuejssesd sasoy |] Aydosa|os 1a, UOs|aN Pue puEfog (£661 UNO "1661 uunq pue uUNC)) a]qesaujNA - jwonp Jofew e st seam Adurems jo a8euresp ‘yseq feuonen ap ur paisai01g JoourueEd Jeau 01 ye jeuoNeN sueiduieiy suejd }soy juepunge Suruoddns seas apes K380g pysaidd xain> (Wmoaq squeg) eputy DulAau lisyung pydwXuosasazy (1861 2snoysaie~4 pue uoWWOD) WouuOS Ay]eD0] - weg [EUONEN oy UI paroaioug Sassei3 Jos Joyjo pue ‘dds vog sat]n8 ys2104 [| Aydoxa]95 19,4 (7661 Aqeig pur sej3noq) uourwos Ajje50} umouyun jueld pooy SMoud Ja[]TW 99 aay ~ SUMO] Ul [OUOD Poem Jo s199]J2 2K 0} 1Dafgng aaneu /vaopy nw stsdoz¢C SUMO} UI SpURTaIseM UI SINIIQ) sued [euoneN sueidurery (saddrys auouXs) asnoysare 4 vasid auouds ojudsuy R[OOqUII] 01 SuRIZy ~BUOIDI A W2ISaM pur WaInION (2eddrys anrym pur y>"]q) (4addaz) Dq[D4jD Dqipaip vipodity MOQUIEY JEQU pur Yee ‘usssq Big - PLOIN A W21s2M YLION suoneindod muyop Burnuoddns puejysng aojepy (oyjXydossiaup °D os|e) vsa8tuny DiuyDD (7661 Aqeig pur sej3nog) ores pue PelsLisad - Saatosal pue syseg [PUONEN UI paysaioig (addnys ejorsorys) (esnoysare 4) 524042 DIOISODY? DIpodiuy (saddrys pazaayis) afepurL Yanosay pskSuvsdé19 oyjaadsapy (soddrys ystmoyja4) asnoysaie A Suarsaanpf suassaanyf oypiaadsapy (P861 SUPpYy) ares - eLIOISI A JeNuad puke Wa}se2 Jo ssTuOjoOD [jews 94) UI aundes ssa] 1Nq eg [PUOHEN sueiduers ay ut paioaioig qed [euoneN sueidwesy ap 01 purjsddin isea wiosy peaidsapi yy, qmosdar EMUYeD YM sare yleay Aig “sMol3 jue] pooy SU2YM ULE SAOQE (WIETITAL IN Uo Suis peos ) seare poqumsiq: (vkyoujsosonw “5 pue DuDsagais ‘D os[e) UNpDs DiuyDr laa test (Dptfiat ‘5 pue DINpos “5 ose) wmpyf piuyH Suojoseug seou “y2aID eIoUale A, *ejoor] seou den sauXoging Syreg [PuoneN sueiduie3p (1861 asnoysaie AA pue UOUWOD) UOUNUOD <}[eD0] ~ led [euoneN suetduress wt payooroid Auojoo ureyy (0661 Aqso3) uouruos Ajjea0] - papesZap 3ureq st euoy Te ays JURDTFIUSIS Be YSNoYITE SeAtosal aUIOS UI SINI9Q, BUOISIA W31SaM YINOS 0} quejd poos Zunoddns BUI] Y Wiody [ed0] Ing peasdsapr~y, seam ouljes pue Adwems (1661 uung ssoulaplim uasaq 31g (saddpys vos) sung pue uund) UoWOS Xjjes0] -saAJasaz UI paida}01g vonp]s papupwioT sounp pues - 3uiddoyyrpy Syed feuoney weseg emiry Djouasa WOI1IS sajizadosf Pe a a ee SN}B}g WONeBAIasuO; Poo [Bare Ty 7eIQeH Su0T}BI0T satadg pure Ajmmey “smgejs UOHNBAIASUOD Iau) pue (AJOWISIU-UOU) Sat[JouNg UeLOISIA UOWIWIODU *| a[quy, The Victorian Naturalist Tt vt ‘ Contributions pur]UI pur jseoo ayn UO sund30 yoy puppy uo wWepuadap Jng UMOUYUN SI UONNginsiq asnouale Ay pyguIZ0g]D SayisaunjIay |, (E661 UNO) Wed [euONRN Ul paiaiolg uayooy vumupy SOYe] YUld - PUOIDNIA WaIsam YON (yeansiiey UeLIOIDI A) StepurL aaysif ppursoqyo snuawjnpnas J (€661 UND 3|QusOUINA pue [edo] AIDA - Yseg PUONeN Ul parsaiolg uo]kxounjaw n12DIy pur[poom visv2y ypeg feuoneN sueiduieiy (€661 UND ‘2661 77 32 Aqesg) wOUNWIOD A]jzO0] 1Nq a[qesaujna - Auojoo 1s2Bse] By 40J das9sad []BWS & UI Par[nsas SEY WeYN|y Ul aseyoind pur] # 1nq seAJasai apisino aue suone|ndod iso weya pue SUIRWIANSED “eIeLy IedU SaTUC[OS paiuauisesy ing pecidsapiyy (saddoo weuny)q) Aqsoia ppion) snasiposdd p1onjps0 psouids piapsang ysas0j uado Aig, snaujndod uonyakyonag 2pn{sul pjnos 1Nq EUOIDIA UL UMOUyUl, (0661 wun) Soult] 12 WUEpUNGe - Yq [BUONEN ay) Ul pa1sqo1g (aniq pajaued) (ap[ad) simursqn sapyopuvD Stare 1soJ0jUIEYy yueg [RuONEN Jeary [qo (0661 uuNd) 1SB2 dy] Ul UOUTUIOD BIO Inq aJed - SAAIIS2I pue syzeg jeuoneN UI parsaioad Jam Apqeqosg (Aa}) 21724 Daapayy pur sapjou 194] 8 sipwa}D spnjoul pjnood 1ng BLO A Ur UM OWL] (anjq siqmutisu09) (aqepurL) 18ulpoos sijuasuos saprjppunD sosuey 0] BUOTDIA Wa\seq Isas0y [[Aydosayos 19,4, Zuouapueg ai (£661 HNO) peseSuepue - peosdsaprm sisau jue Suruteyuos sduins puojpeoig Jesu ‘sodid 1W, (anjq-iue |yeurs) asoul aq Kewl ing Jadig 1p SI word] JUaLIND AUC dnoi3 snprizu snuddog 0] as0]9 JO (sojeut Aj SOW) pur ‘poveald sem oAlasal eB (12477 pue asnoyaje mM) Soy PUNE. pUe BIO]-{ URLIOJSIA at) JOpuN poysaj01d - pooig jue uo Asojepaig Suiddoyyy punoy Ajjesauay Ua ‘PAOID ULIDO WI} UMC ojrydosauuXw sosdipossy (€661 UND *166] UUNC pue UUNd) peasdsapim aioul aq Kewl snuag aip ul so1seds punois) Jaypjo ae se sjue uo Arojepeid coseZuey eiApueue A pur psoypeoig: (anjq-iue a3sr]) 7ng paraSuepua - ly Bune, pue BIOL] UELIO}SIA OY] 2q 0) pawedsns ose seAse] (sayewt Ajisou) | seu sadig juno ‘sosuey Sue, nox (Aadg pure uossapuy) JopuN pur SoAJosos pUe Syed [EUONEN UI pajsanolg INq UMouyUN st AiOySIYy OJtT Suiddoyyry punoy Ajjesouap “yieg JeuoneN Suojesurfeory snjudo sisuaungsiig spsdiposoy dnoi3 snpymu smiskdog ayy downy (8261 J9ysi4) aze1 puke | wos syue NIM pue suasinzap -y sojeu ‘yaseq Sig ot ul yynig AUINOg]a} JOU pue SAdIH (jamal Asay) [eco] Asan - yasaq] Big ay Jo wore aarsuedxa ain Aq pue oyj;unuodd mspsy Poy 0} PUETUT ING 1s209 94) 01 UE29O “Base sSoUZAp]I A Wasoq (ype2]) pure {yzeg [euoneN Leased apiry etn ulti pajoaioly ‘sapnouydop mwo){yooig asojs Apureus ‘syeqiqey Jo AjOUe A, 3ig “ued TeuoNeN U9s9q apr snyquSi snus sdoskiysodéyy seam jue wosy Aeme sped IFT sey Uso ‘sadiaonjsai “D JE ay] YA payeioosse shemje Ing siegey sapjew Ayjens-) (€661 UND ‘7661 PI?) PasaSuepus -satoads paqiosopun ue 9q Aout sip YnouE ZL61 UE PANPIIWA 18 papsosas Ise] (£661 AND “PL61 ¥!ND ‘ZL61 Aqs015) paseduepua - uorjejndod younxe auo pue yueyxa guo Woy UMOUY ATUO YsnoINye Bare ssauTap[! AA OY) ur peasdsapim aq ABur ing $,0L61 2Y) U! paroaoosiq] sadiaovisal ‘3 uo Asoyepaid aq 0} paysadsns Inq uMoUyUN st ALOIS ByIT (en (ainze umasg 23221) ‘sueidwes ‘purquog ‘ery jodda |, puniowyoy owpt suK8Q sadjaonisai smouodup> WUE IeSns ay (IM uoNeIoOssE Ul wrnsawo]s wna40YD staue Burpealg aif 0} asoja siped yysiyy sey Ualjo puke ssunp pues uo sdop)ftfy (aunze wMolg [[eurs) HPPA U PUCD saumjo sukSQ aepyuanay a a mar ee Base ssouopiL AA Wasa Fig 45 Vol. 112 (1) 1995 Contributions A number of butterfly populations in the south-west of the state, albeit local forms or recognised subspecies, particularly from the families Hesperiidae and Nymphalidae, are threatened where land clearing and draining followed by grazing has reduced suitable habitats. Many of these populations now only have strong- holds in the National Parks (Table 1) where bushfires and land degradation through weed invasions and rabbit graz- ing constitute the major threats to their survival. Throughout the state, habitat destruction has contributed to many butterfly species being reduced in abundance. It is import- ant that ecological studies are undertaken on remnant populations of many of our uncommon species and that their habitats are conserved so that preservation of ge- netic diversity of the species can occur. This will also give local communities ‘banner species’ that provide platforms to address broader conservation issues. References Atkins, A.F. (1984). A new genus Antipodia (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae: Trapezitinae) with comments on its biology and relationships. Australian Entomological Magazine 11, 45-58. Braby, M.F., Crosby, D.F, and Vaughan, PJ. (1992). Distribution and range reduction in Victoria of the Eltham Copper Butterfly Paralucia pyrodiscus lucidia Crosby, The Victorian Naturalist 109, 154-161. Mt Piper from Jeffreys Lane. Conservation and Natural Resources (1993), ‘Threatened fauna in Victoria’. (Department of Conservation and Natural Resources: Victoria). Common, I.F.B. and Waterhouse, D.F (1981). ‘Butterflies of Australia’. Revised edition. (Angus & Robertson: Sydney). Crosby, D.F. (1972). Some butterflies of the Victorian Big Desert. Victorian Entomologist 1: 5-7. Crosby, D.F. (1989). Notes on the distribution of some butterflies in south-western Victoria. Victorian | Entomologist 19, 74-78. Crosby, D.F. (1990). Management plan for the Altona skipper butterfly Hesperilla flavescens flavescens Waterhouse (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae), Melbourne, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmenal Research, Tech, Rpt. No. 98. Douglas, F, and Braby, M.F, (1992). Notes on the distri- bution and biology of some Hesperiidae and Lycdenidae (Lepidoptera) in Victoria, Australian Entomological Magazine 19, 117-124. Dunn, K.L. (1990), Candalides absimilis (Felder) in Victoria, Victorian Entomologist 20, 49-53. Dunn, K.L, and Dunn, L.E. (1991). ‘Review of Austra- lian Butterflies: distribution, life history and taxonomy’. Parts 1-4, (Published by the authors; Melbourne). Field, R.P. (1992). Research Grant. Report. Life history studies and species determination of the Ogyris idine Hewitson (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) complex in Westem Australia. Myrmecia, 28(4), 12-17. Fisher, R.H. (1978). ‘Butterflies of South Australia’. (Government Printer: South Australia). New, T.R. (1991). "Butterfly Conservation’. (Oxford University Press: Australia), Quick, W.N.B. (1974), These butterflies are protected, Victorian Entomologist 4, 5. Sands, D. (1990). Australia’s endangered butterflies. En- tomological Society of Queensland News Bulletin 18(5), 63-68. The Large Ant-blue Butterfly, Acrodipsas brisbanensis cyrilus, and its allendant ant, Papyrius sp. aff. nitidus. The Victorian Naturalist ‘ Contributions Conservation Strategy for a Threatened ‘Butterfly Community’ Ann Jelinek’ Introduction The conservation strategy for a threat- ened ecological community, listed as Butterfly Community No. 1 on Schedule 2 of the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guar- antee Act 1988, integrates legislative responsibilities with surveys, research, Management, public awareness and in- volvement, and local government statu- tory processes. Butterfly Community No. 1 is charac- terised by an unusually high diversity of ants and butterflies (at least 40 species), including threatened, locally rare and mi- gratory butterflies. A detailed description of the butterfly assemblage and associated flora and fauna, ecology of the Ant-blue butterflies, habitat, threats, research and management is provided in Jelinek er al. (1994). The only known occurrence of this but- terfly assemblage is on and surrounding Mt Piper in central Victoria. Mt Piper (37°12’S, 145°0’E) is a steep, solitary mountain rising from 230 m to 440 m above an undulating plain between the Tallarook and Mount William ranges near Broadford. Mt Piper is a quartz plug or epithermal deposit of quartz and other minerals deposited by hot solutions. Major threats to the butterflies include removal of trees on Mt Piper summit which are used by many moths and but- terflies for ‘hilltopping’ or mate location, changes to vegetation composition and successional stages, especially acacias and mistletoes which are important food sources for caterpillars; and loss of dead standing and fallen timber used by the Coconut Ant, Papyrius nitidus which as- sociates with the Ant-blue butterflies, Acrodipsas myrmecophila and possibly A, brisbanensis. 1 Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Endangered Species Unit, GPO Box 636, Canberra, ACT, 2601. Vol. 112 (1) 1995 Conservation Strategy Key elements of the conservation strat- egy include an Action Statement and Research Plan, surveys and research, hab- itat management, public awareness and involvement, and statutory planning. Action Statement and Research Plan An Action Statement and a Research Plan for Butterfly Community No. 1 (Jelinek 1991, 1992) document the distri- bution and biology of significant species making up the butterfly assemblage and known threats to the community. They highlight high priority research and man- agement actions needed to achieve conservation of the community in accor- dance with the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 and Endangered Species Protec- tion Act 1992 respectively. Issues raised in these plans have impor- tant implications for the long term conservation of Butterfly Community No. 1, in particular: use and management of Mt Piper trigonometric station and com- munication facilities; rehabilitation works; visitor use; public involvement in butterfly habitat conservation; vegetation management and clearing on private land adjoining Mt Piper; fire wood collection; fire management; land use zoning and the potential environmental impacts of min- eral exploration and mining activities. Surveys and research Field work has focused on monitoring populations of the target butterflies, Acrodipsas myrmecophila, A. brisbanen- sis cyrilus and Ogyris genoveva genoveva, at known and potential hill- topping sites, intensive ant surveys, assessment of historic and currently known habitats of the Coconut Ant, Papyrius nitidus and documentation of flora, fauna and other important habitat characteristics on and around Mt Piper. Monitoring of the Golden Sun Moth, Syn- 47 Contributions emon plana, in native grassland at Mt Piper has been carried out over the past two years since its discovery at Mt Piper (Britton and New 1993). During the past three years there has been recorded at Mt Piper an additional 20 butterfly species, the ‘endangered’ Golden Sun Moth and over 130 morpho- species of ants. Also, similar butterfly assemblages have been located elsewhere incentral Victoria. Surveys of other fauna and detailed habitat assessment and veg- etation mapping has contributed to a better understanding of the ecological community, particularly the fluctuations in invertebrate diversity, depending on seasonal conditions (Beardsell 1994; Britton and New 1992, 1993; S. Hinkley pers. comm. 1993; Jelinek 1994; New etal. 1994; D. Britton pers. comm. 1994). Importantly, the results of the surveys and research provide a good basis for: + developing effective habitat manage- ment guidelines; * determining the critical habitat of But- terfly Community No. 1; + identifying opportunities for public in- volvement in butterfly habitat man- agement; * preparing a nomination of the core area of the critical habitat for listing on the Register of the National Estate, and * preparing and implementing a Recov- ery Plan in accordance with the Commonwealth’s Endangered Species Protection Act 1992. Habitat management Habitat management at Mt Piper in- cludes removal of feral goats, hand removal of thistles, restriction of vehicle access to a formalised parking area, re- moval of many disused radio com- munications structures on and around the summit, erosion control and rehabilitation of the steep vehicle and walking track leading to the summit, construction of a scenic walking track and fencing of an adjoining grazing property. Broadford Shire Council recently signposted roadside vegetation in the area 48 to prevent clearing, fire wood collection and unplanned fire. Agreement has also been reached to replace traditional line of site clearing requirements around the trig. station with satellite survey techniques which need minimal site disturbance and maintenance. Gazettal of regulations under the Conservation, Forests and Lands Act 1976 specific to Mt Piper Ed- ucation Reserve ensure that activities within the Reserve reflect the important scientific, cultural and educational values of the area. The proposed Amendment L8 to the Broadford Shire Planning Scheme will provide Conservation Zoning of Mt Piper and its environs through vegetation clear- ance controls over private and public land. It is based on guidelines specifically de- veloped to manage native and semi-native vegetation on and surrounding Mt Piper for invertebrate conservation. These guidelines are actively promoted and are, wherever possible, complemented by joint on-site inspections with landholders. Public awareness and involvement Increased public awareness of the envi- ronmental significance of Mt Piper is achieved primarily through improved management, information and involve- ment. An on-site information display, brochure and media items help to convey important messages about the area’s ecol- ogy. Broadford Secondary College stu- dents use Mt Piper Education Reserve for environmental education; others visit Mt Piper to enjoy the superb views from the summit and to see the diversity of flora and fauna, especially butterflies, or to ex- plore the area. Ideas and feedback from visitors are obtained from a Visitor’s Book included with the information dis- play. The most suitable breeding habitats for many of the butterflies and the Golden Sun Moth occur on private land adjoining Mt Piper Education Reserve. Public awareness and involvement are therefore an essential part of the conservation strat- egy. In particular, the long term success The Victorian Naturalist ‘ Contributions of the conservation strategy depends on the cooperation of landholders with habi- tat management activities, most impor- tantly, maintaining vegetation in a range of successional stages, leaving areas with dead standing and fallen timber and avoiding overgrazing of native grass- lands. Incentives for landholders to protect and enhance remnant native veg- etation are available through Landcare, Save the Bush, Botanic Guardians and Land for Wildlife programs which, in some cases, include financial assistance. Broadford Shire Council and Broadford Environmental Action Movement (BEAM) are facilitating the proposed amendment to the Local Planning Scheme for conservation zoning over all proper- ties within the identified critical habitat of Butterfly Community No. 1 (Jelinek 1994). BEAM and other groups like Proj- ect Mansfield and Mansfield Secondary College, maintain public awareness about the importance of native vegetation and hilltops for butterfly conservation through regular publicity and by encouraging in- volvement of land management and school groups in conservation activities. Strong community concern has been re- kindled on several occasions with applications for mineral exploration in the Mt Piper area, Critical Habitat In accordance with the FFG Act, ‘criti- cal habitat’ is defined as the whole or any part or parts of the habitat of the commu- nity that is critical to the survival of that community. Mt Piper forms the core area of the iden- tified critical habitat, with the summit being important for hill-topping species. The critical habitat also includes known and potentially important butterfly and moth breeding sites on the lower slopes of Mt Piper, outside Mt Piper Education Re- serve and in roadside vegetation where colonies of the attendant ant, Papyrius nitidus have previously been recorded. It covers approximately 150 hectares, with approximately 15 km of roadside vegeta- Vol. 112 (1) 1995 tion. The proposed Amendment L8 to the Broadford Shire Planning Scheme, Na- tional Estate interim listing and critical habitat determination each cover the same core area centred on Mt Piper. Discussion Within three years, high priority re- Search and management activities identified in the Action Statement and Research Plan have been completed or are in progress, The detailed study of ants and habitat characteristics provides a valuable basis for defining critical habitat charac- teristics and identifying potential breeding sites of the Ant-blue and Genoveva Azure Butterflies. Key environmental features identified include naturally vegetated mountain landscapes, all successional stages of eu- calypts and acacias, decaying ground timber, stumps and leaf litter, mistletoes and native grasslands. Comparative sur- veys at other mountain sites further highlight the significance of naturally vegetated, isolated, mountain peaks for hilltopping butterflies and moths. Long term protection of the critical hab- itat of the butterfly assemblage at Mt Piper is provided by statutory planning and leg- islative processes. The core area of the identified critical habitat, including pub- lic and private land, is also on the interim list of the Register of the National Estate based on its significance for invertebrates, particularly butterflies. Increased public awareness, improved hilltop management, maintenance of veg- etation in a range of successional stages and a study of ant species distributions and ecology within the habitat are pri- orities for future management and conser- vation of Butterfly Community No. | Better understanding of the relationships between the Acrodipsas butterflies and ants will further assist with identifying habitat requirements of these threatened species throughout their respective distri- butions. On-going public involvement with the management of hilltop, native grassland and successional habitats are 49 Contributions also contributing to achieving broader conservation goals. Acknowledgments Special thanks to Dr Tim New and Dr Alan Yen for contributing to the develop- ment and implementation of the strategy and David Britton, Simon Hinkley and Campbell Beardsell who also carried out a major part of the field work. D. Crosby and W.N.B. Quick provided valuable information about the butterflies at Mt Piper and the biology of Acrodipsas myrmecophila. Financial assistance for research pro- vided by the Australian Nature Conser- vation Agency under the Endangered Species Program and the Australian Her- itage Commission under the National Estate Grants Program is gratefully ac- knowledged. Appreciation is also ex- tended to the State Government of Victo- ria and the Australian Geographic Society for supporting other important compo- nents of this project. References Beardsell, C. (1994). Report on field surveys from 22 October 1993 to 23 January 1994 for the Small and eee Marine Invertebrate Conservation at San Remo T. O’Hara! Introduction The extensive reef and seagrass flats off San Remo support a distinctive assem- blage of marine invertebrates. The rarity and vulnerability of these invertebrates has been recognised by the listing of the ‘San Remo Marine Community’ on schedule 2 of Victoria’s Flora and F, auna Guarantee Act 1988 (Reed 1992). This listing was initiated in tesponse to a pro- posal to develop a large marina on the site. Permission to develop the marina was Subsequently refused under the Planning and Environment Act in 1991. However, the location of this site, adjacent to the 1 * Saint James Avenue, Mont Alben, Victoria 3127, 50 Large Ant-blue butterflies and their attendant ant species. Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (unpublished). Britton, D.R. and New, T.R (1992). Ecology of the butterfly and ant community at Mt Piper, Victoria. Department of Conservation and Environment. (un- published). Britton, D.R. and New, T,R. (1993). Communities of diurnal Lepidoptera in central Victoria, with empha- sis on the Mt Piper region, Broadford. Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (unpub- lished). Conseryation and Natural Resources (1993). ‘Threat- ened Fauna in Victoria’. (Department of Conser- vation and Natural Resources: Victoria). Jelinek, A. (1992). A Recovery Plan, Research Phase for a threatened butterfly community at Mt Piper in central Victoria, Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra (unpublished). Jelinek, A., Britton, D-R, and New, T.R. (1994), Conse vation of a ‘Threatened Butterfly Community’ at Mount Piper, Victoria. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, 36(1):115-120. Brisbane. ISSN. 0079- 8835. Jelinek, A. (1994). Recovery Plan, Research Phase - Annual Report 1993/94. Australian Nature Conser- vation Agency, Canberra (unpublished). New, T. R., Britton, D.R. and Hinkley, S. (1994). Re- covery Plan, Research Phase, for a rare and threatened butterfly community - report for 1993- 1994. Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (unpublished). township of San Remo and near to the very popular coastal tourist facilities on Phillip Island, presents a challenging long term conservation objective. Site Description The San Remosite is at the south-eastern corner of Western Port Bay, north-east o the Phillip Island bridge. It extends along. the coast for 1.75 km north-east from the: bridge, and seawards 300-500 m, from the: shore to the deep channel that runs be-: aon San Remo and Phillip Island (Fig,, The site has a combination of physical attributes that have not been found else- where in Victoria, and possibly southern The Victorian Naturalis Contributions Australia. The site has a northerly orien- tation. It is generally subject to low wave energy although occasionally receiving storm waves from the north. It is adjacent toa fast flowing channel and has excellent tidal flushing, contributing to the nutrient availability. The rock is a weathered ve- sicular basalt. It is very unusual to find such rock in the intertidal zone as it is quickly eroded by wave action. The sedimentation tegime is poorly understood, although nearby cliffs are actively eroding, A detailed model of the waves and tides at San Remo has never been developed. A large scale model of Western Port Bay, developed by the Victorian Institute of Marine Sciences (VIMS), indicates that there is a net current inflow through the middle of the channel, that travels north- wards, and then circulates eastward and southward around Reef Island. The smaller net current outflow is likely to travel along the edges of the channel (Dr K. Black, VIMS pers comm). The reef flats support a complex mosaic of substrata including: sand, mud, coarse shingle, seagrass, algae and rock. The ex- posed rocky areas are more extensive at the western end, including an important Fig. 1. Aerial photo of the San Remo area, showing the location and extent of the reef and Seagrass flats. Symbols are as follows: n - Newhaven township, Phillip Island, s - San Remo township, and t - San Remo tidal flats. Crown Copyright Reserved. Vol. 112 (1) 1995 section near the No. 7 beacon. The soft vesicular basalt provides many micro- habitats for invertebrates. Species rich shingle beds lie parallel to the channel in the middle of the site. Mud and seagrass beds predominate to the east, extending around the coast to Reef Island, Near the Bass River Estuary, they are backed by mangroves. Examination of recent aerial photo- graphs has revealed that these beds are part of one of the few large expanses of seagrass leftin Western Port Bay. The two dominant seagrasses are Heferozostera tasmanica and Zostera muelleri. Together they cover over 55 % of the area from the San Remo bridge to the No. 7 beacon. This cover increases to over 90 % at the east of the site (Handreck 1994). The pres- ence of healthy seagrass is probably due to the lack of sediment pollution in the area. The inflow to the area is largely from Bass Strait, via the channel, rather than from the north of the Bay where the major sources of sediment are located (Dr K. Black, VIMS pers comm). Marine Invertebrates The marine invertebrates have been ex- tensively surveyed by the Marine Research Group of Victoria (MRG) since 1981. One member, David Howlett, has visited San Remo in excess of 170 times (Burn 1990). The MRG has visited the site eleven times. The east of the site was surveyed four times as part of a year long study for the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (Handreck 1994). The surveys have found that the diver- sity of substrata at the site supports a correspondingly rich assemblage of ma- rine invertebrates. Over 630 species have been recorded (Handreck 1994). This is almost certainly an underestimate of the total species present, as several groups of animals from San Remo have not been fully identified. These include sponges, cnidarians, worms and small crustaceans (isopods and amphipods). The MRG has recorded the occurrence of 282 conspicuous marine invertebrates at intertidal and shallow subtidal locations 51 Contributions along the Victorian coast (Handreck and O’Hara 1994). Of the 74 locations sur- veyed, only the basalt rock platforms at Shoreham and Flinders have a greater re- corded percentage of the 282 species than San Remo. The most distinctive components of the fauna are the spectacular range of op- isthobranch molluscs and the very rich intertidal fauna of crabs and bryozoans. Opisthobranchs, misrepresented by their common name, seaslugs, are actually ex- traordinarily beautiful and graceful animals. One hundred and twenty five species have been recorded from the site (Handreck 1994), That is 25% of the known southern Australian species and over 6% of the world’s species. Many are undescribed species (Burn 1990). Eleven species have only been recorded, or were recorded first, from the San Remo local- ity. Two species, Platydoris galbana and Rhodope sp, are listed independently under the Fauna and Flora Guarantee Act. Some opisthobranchs only appear seasonally. Sixty-eight species of bryozoans (lace corals) and 40 species of crabs have been recorded from the San Remo reef flats and channel banks. This is many more than is usually present at shallow water locations. Some of the San Remo species are usu- ally found at deeper subtidal localities. This includes some of the bryozoans; the ctenophoran Crenoplana willeyi; the gas- tropeds Muricopsis umbilicatus, and Favartia brazieri; the bivalves Anadara trapezia, Atrina tasmanica, Mbyllita tasmanica, Timoclea cardioides and Venericardia bimaculata; and the crabs Huenia australis, H. halei and Macropipus corrugatus. The unusual soft basalt rock is also home to uncommon boring species. These include the bivalve Barnea obturamentum and the hermit crab Cancellus typus. Other very rare spe- cies include: the bryozoan Alcyonidium Sp; the chiton Acanthochitona wilsoni; the opisthobranchs ‘Retusa’ sculpta, Ely- Sia sp. nov. and Diaphorodoris Sp. Nov.; the small red gastropod Macrozafra com- $2 inellaeformis; and a sylobrid flatworm, Some of these species are known from only a handful of specimens (Burn 1990; Handreck 1994). Threats The two reasons that the San Remo Ma- rine Community was listed under Victoria's Fauna and Flora Guarantee (FFG) Act are that 1) it is significantly prone to future threats which are likely to result in its extinction, and 2) it is very rare in terms of total area it covers, has a restricted distribution, and has been re- corded from a limited number of localities (Reed 1992). The most obvious threat is from marine and coastal developments, such as a marina. These developments potentially remove suitable habitat, alter currents, and change the sedimentation processes at the site. The San Remo ma- rina proposals have situated the main entrance channel through the most spe- cies-rich section of the reef near the No. 7 beacon. The sedimentation processes at San Remo are poorly understood. In similar locations, adjacent to a fast flowing chan- nel, small alterations in coastal morpho- logy have had a large effect on current regime (Dr. K. Black, VIMS pers comm). If the net sediment flow is west to east, an area east of a development could be ex- posed down to bedrock, removing the seagrass and reducing the diversity of habitats available to the marine inverte- brates. Other threats include: pollution, includ- ing sediment pollution from terrestrial development sites, and damage from boat- ing, dredging and trampling (Reed 1992). Conservation The distinctive nature of the location and the assemblage of marine inverte- brates at San Remo, the presence of so many new, uncommon and rare species, and their vulnerability from known threats, present a compelling case for con- servation. Few southern Australian marine sites have such well known con- servation values. The listing of the San Remo marine The Victorian Naturalist Contributions community and the two opisthobranchs on the FFG Actis a landmark in the prog- ress of marine invertebrate conservation in Victoria. The FFG Act was designed to ensure the long term survival of Victoria’s biodiversity. Action statements prepared for listed communities or species can specify management restrictions. The Ac- tion statement for San Remo requires the Victorian Department of Conservation and Natural Resources to prevent works or activities that will threaten the destruc- tion of this marine community (Reed 1992). There have been several scientific criti- cisms of the listings. The first questions whether the San Remo biota really forma ‘community’ in an ecological sense. Mod- ern marine biologists hesitate to use the term ‘community’, preferring more re- Strictive terms such as _ ‘faunal assemblage’ until inter-relationships can be established. Regardless of the termi- nology, however, the underlying conser- vation objectives are the same. The San Remo site has a unique set of physical characteristics that supports a very dis- tinctive faunal assemblage, including many rare species. The second criticism questions whether any marine species can be restricted to one site, given the continuous nature of the marine environment. Indeed, one of the listed San Remo _ opisthobranchs, Platydoris galbana, has been recently re- corded off the Ninety Mile Beach (R. Burn pers. comm.). Nevertheless this pre- sumption does not hold true for all species. Current research has revealed that some conspicuous southern Austra- lian marine invertebrates are restricted to very small sections of the coast (O’ Hara unpubl.). Other species are vulnerable for different reasons, including their specific habitat requirements or their naturally low abundance (Handreck and O’ Hara 1994). San Remo remains critical habitat for a number of species. The San Remo FFG listings have not been viewed favourably by some sections of the community. Proponents of the ma- rina have of course voiced their opposition. Chisholm and Moran (1993) Vol. 112 (1) 1995 have used the listing as a case study of the adverse economic implications of the FFG Act. They imply that the economic benefits of developments such as a San Remo marina outweigh the conservation importance of a few marine invertebrates, and that a cash provision for another ‘higher priority’ conservation project would be an adequate compromise. The unjustified subjectivity of this argument is lamentable. Moreover, such a narrow view of biodiversity undervalues the im- portance of sites like San Remo in supporting ecological processes. In contrast, the author’s view is that the case study indicates the need for state- wide coastal planning. The selection of San Remo as a site for a new marina has had more to do with local politics and council boundaries than objectively bal- ancing the competing requirements of development and the environment. Acknowledgments The author acknowledges all the Marine Research Group members who have con- tributed over the years to the under- standing of the San Remo biota, in partic- ular Robert Burn, Clarrie Handreck and David Howlett; and Dr Kerry Black of the Victorian Institute of Marine Sciences for his assistance with current, tidal and sed- imentation information. References Burn, R. (1990). An Annotated List of the Opisthobranch Molluscs from San Remo, Weslernport Victoria. Marine News No. 100, Feb 1990. Marine Research Group of Victoria. Chisholm, A.J., and Moran A.G, (1993). ‘The Price of Preservation’, (Right Hand Corporate Communi- cations and the Tasman Institute: Melbourne). Handreck, C. (1994), San Remo Proposed Alternative Marina Site: A Basic Survey (1993) of Flora and Invertebrate Fauna. A report to the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources by the Marine Research Group of Victoria Inc, Handreck, C.P., and O’ Hara, T.D, (1994), Occurrence of Selected Species of Intertidal and Shallow Subtidal Invertebrates at Victorian Locations, A report to the Land Conservation Council by the Marine Research Group Inc. Reed, J, (1992). San Remo Marine Community. Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act Action Statement No. 18. (Department of Conservation and Environment: Victoria). 53 Contributions Vulnerable Ecosystems: Victoria’s Alpine Regions T.R. New! and A.L. Yen? Introduction Victoria’s alpine regions exemplify the problems of conserving invertebrates in natural ecosystems. They comprise a small but unique region of the State which supports a variety of endemic invertebrate life, together with other biota largely or wholly restricted to the areas above about 1250m a.s.l., mainly near or above the treeline. Together with New South Wales and Tasmania, alpine regions comprise an easily definable but highly restricted hab- itat and the problems faced by its invertebrates illustrate the difficulties of regional - or habitat-based conservation for an area subjected to a great variety of human and natural pressures. Alpine areas are characterised by ex- treme climates, but only a few hundred km? are covered by snow for more than three months a year, They encompass a variety of freshwater habitats (including lakes, reservoirs, bogs and streams: Campbell et al. 1986), and terrestrial grasslands, heathlands, herbfields and shrublands with numerous plants re- stricted to the alps. The history of European intrusion into the region involves traditional use of highland pastures for stock grazing in summer and winter sports activities, espe- cially in areas most accessible from population centres, in winter. Much re- cent discussion over alpine conservation has verged on confrontation between con- servationists, on one hand, and those who wish to accelerate development of winter Sports facilities on the other, anda number of notable alpine invertebrates listed under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act have become embroiled in such argu- ments in areas controlled by the Alpine Resorts Commission, The Alpine Na- 1 School of Zoology, La Trobe Universi vine Niversity, Bundoora, Invertebrate Survey Department, Museum of Victori : ‘ iclona, 71 Victoria Crescent, Abbotsford, Victoria 3067, 54 tional Park areas comprise a high propor- tion of the region, but are subject to grazing leases and extensive invasions by weeds and other exotic species. As in other parts of the world, alpine areas are sensitive and vulnerable to human intru- sions. As well as easily detectable anthropo- genic changes, the more widespread threat of global warming during the next few decades poses the likelihood of sub- stantial decline in present alpine area with loss of habitats critical for terrestrial taxa, in particular (Galloway 1988), Practical conservation for invertebrates must there- fore incorporate minimising the effects of increased human intrusion and settlement (including roadworks, housing develop- ments, aspects of water supply and waste disposal, increased visitor numbers and increased intensity of use) and endeavour- ing to safeguard sufficient natural habitat to assure the longterm survival of repre- sentative typical biota. Habitat restoration is needed in places, involving control of exotic plant weeds (Mallen 1986) which are already affecting the integrity of nat- ural alpine communities. Alpine invertebrates in Victoria Many alpine invertebrates are highly localised, and much debate surrounds the status of some of these which appear to be limited to particular mountains or sites and are thereby vulnerable, and may be- come directly threatened by particular development proposals, A simple strategy of protecting a particular subregion of the alps (such as designation of ‘wilderness areas’) is therefore not wholly satisfac- tory, and there is need for more widespread, mosaic, conservation efforts. _ There are thus two major, complemen- tary, foci for invertebrate conservation in the alps: (1) rare or highly localised taxa under perceived threat now or in the near future, and which may need specific mea- The Victorian Naturalist ' Contributions sures to conserve them and (2) endemic faunas characteristic of, and restricted to, the alpine region which are not currently rare or threatened but which need the cur- rent suite of resources to be maintained if they are to remain sustainable. The former include several freshwater taxa, such as stoneflies (Plecoptera) and planarian worms; the latter include taxa restricted to one alpine area (the satyrine butterfly Oreixenica latialis theddora is restricted to the Mt Buffalo plateau, where it is widespread) and others found more extensively over the higher altitudes (some geometrid moths: McQuillan 1986). Indeed, larentiine Geometridae, especially Xanthorhini, are particularly characteristic of uplands in southern Aus- tralia and New Zealand, with some species more narrowly endemic (Mc- Quillan 1986). Whereas the alpine Lepidoptera have been defined reason- ably well, this is not the case for some other terrestrial invertebrate groups, ex- cept in very general terms. Likewise, alpine elements in some aquatic insect (especially Plecoptera and Ephemerop- tera) and crustacean orders are well defined (Campbell et al. 1986), but this is not the case in some others. In both terrestrial and aquatic habitats, particular restricted species can be pre- dominant (and, probably, functionally important) components of the fauna; the mayfly Ameletoides lacusalpinae occurs only near Mt Kosciusko and comprised 54% of the animals collected from Bogong Creek (Campbell and Graser, in Campbell et al., 1986). By contrast, oth- ers are decidedly rare. Extensive searches for the Mt Donna Buang Stonefly Riekoperla darlingtoni, suggested that it is indeed restricted to a very small area near the top of that mountain (Neumann and Morey 1984); the Mt Stirling Stone- fly, Thaumatoperla flaveola, occurs only on Mt Buller and nearby Mt Stirling (Pettigrove 1991). Discussion However, the heated conflicts engen- dered by attempting to secure habitats for Vol. 112 (1) 1995 such species in the face of demands for commercial development are difficult to defuse, and even undertaking objective surveys is difficult and sometimes eroded by political innuendo. A common senti- ment is that, because of the remoteness and inaccessibility of much of the alpine tegion, the species involved may well occur elsewhere, so that assessment of conservation need based solely on current knowledge may be exaggerated. How- ever, there is little doubt that some aquatic insects and others are genuinely highly restricted in distribution, and that more comprehensive study of the terrestrial fauna will reveal similar examples of nar- rowly endemic taxa. Baseline data on terrestrial invertebrate assemblages, in particular, is an urgent need for conserva- tion assessment in Victoria’s alps. Wise management of the area is likely to involve increasing degrees of regula- tion to contro] deliberate human intrusion, and more active programmes to control exotic animals and plants, Much of this effort is directed toward maintaining the status guo and restoring perceptibly de- graded sites. References Campbell, I.C., McKaige, M.E. and Lake, P.S. (1986). The fauna of Australian high mountain streams: ecology, zoogeography and evolution. /n ‘Flora and Fauna of Alpine Australia’. Ed. B.A, Barlow. (CSIRO: Melbourne/ EJ. Brill; Leiden). Galloway, R.W. (1988), The potential impact of climate changes on Australian ski fields. Jn “Greenhouse. Planning for climate change’. Ed. G.1. Pearman. (CSIRO: Melboume). Mallen, J. (1986), Introduced vascular plants in the high altitude and high latitude areas of Australia, with particular reference to the Kosciusko alpine area, New South Wales. /n ‘Flora and Fauna of Alpine Australia’. Ed. B.A. Barlow. (CSIRO: Melbourne/ EJ. Brill; Leiden). McQuillan, P.B. (1986). Trans-Tasman relationships in the highland moth (Lepidoptera) fauna. /n ‘Flora and Fauna of Alpine Australia’, Ed. B.A. Barlow. (CSIRO: Melboume/ E.J. Brill: Leiden). Neumann, F.G. and Morey, J.L. (1984). A study of the rare Wingless stonefly, Riekoperla darlingtoni (Ilies), near Mt Donna Buang, Victoria, Forests Commission Victoria Research Branch Report No 253. Pettigrove, V. (1991). An investigation of the distribution and ecological requirements of the stonefly Thaumatoperla flaveola, Rural Water Commission of Victoria Report No 104. 55 Contributions Threatened Ecosystems: Agricultural Environments. Paul A. Horne! This paper discusses the problems with, and potential for, conservation of native invertebrates in agricultural ecosystems. A few examples of how agriculture has affected invertebrates, in both positive and negative ways, are given. The large percentage of Victorian land used for dif- ferent types of agriculture means that effects from agricultural practices are im- portant to very many invertebrate species in different districts of the State. Compared to most other ecosystems, ag- ricultural environments are generally less diverse in terms of species richness. The main aim of most agricultural systems is to produce a single species (the crop or grazing animal) and monocultures are standard. For example, a vegetable grower may aim to produce one species of plant (the crop) per paddock and actively remove all competitors, both plant and animal (pests, diseases, and weeds). De- spite this, surprisingly large communities of insects and other invertebrates do exist in agricultural ecosystems. For example, in Queensland, Cantrell ef al. (1983) re- corded over 160 species of beneficial Diptera and Hymenoptera plus other spe- cies of beneficial insects in potato crops. Agricultural ecosystems are not gener- ally constant or stable. Intensive horticul- ture or broad-acre cropping often involves removing all living plants from a pad- dock, either with cultivation or herbicides, then planting a crop which will be present for some months, and fi- nally harvesting the crop and possibly destroying crop residues (e.g. by plough- ing or burning), The habitat available for Insects to utilise is, therefore, fairly tran- sient. Insects need to be able to locate the crop and complete at least the part of their life-cycle dependent upon the crop before the plants are removed, Many insects are 1 A ‘ Institute for Horticultural Development, Department of oe Private Bag 15, S.E. Mail Centre, Victoria 56 able to do this, but the most obvious are pest species. Other cultural practices such as irriga- tion change the habitat for invertebrates. For example, soil irrigated over summer will have a very different moisture gradi- ent to that in natural, non-irrigated land. This may result in increased survival of some species, or alter the moyement of species (e.g. larval Tenebrionidae) that have a vertical migration in soil based on moisture gradients (Robertson and Simp- son 1988). Another factor that affects invertebrates in agricultural ecosystems is that the spe- cies of plants being grown may often be varied. This may be as part of a regular rotation of crops, or the result of changing economic values resulting in new crops being planted. For example, the same piece of land in Victoria may be succes- sively used for pasture, peas, potatoes and cereals or left fallow. Obviously such changes in the habitat will influence which invertebrates inhabit the area. Notall agricultural land undergoes such dramatic change. Orchards, vineyards and some pasture may remain intact for very many years, thus providing a long-term habitat. These habitats are still essentially aimed at producing one species but they have a more stable and physically com- plex structure. Apart from habitat change, the most ob- vious threat to the maintenance of invertebrate biodiversity in agricultural ecosystems is the use of pesticides, partic- ularly insecticides, nematicides and miticides. Even herbicides will have an effect on invertebrate populations as they reduce the number of plant species present in an area and possibly for more than the life of the crop on which they were ap- plied. For various reasons, there is a general movement away from total reli- ance on such pesticides but they still form a major part of crop protection measures in Victoria and Australia generally. The Victorian Naturalist ‘ Contributions The crops and animals produced in Victorian agriculture are, in the main, in- troduced species. This limits the number of native invertebrate species that can uti- lise such habitats but generalist feeders may be more successful. There are also examples of native species being able to take advantage of the change in plant spe- cies composition. The native black- headed pasture cockchafer Aphodius tasmaniae is a beetle that is particularly favoured by the maintenance of clovers and pasture grasses in grazing land in southern Victoria and South Australia (Birks and Allen 1969). Other examples of native invertebrates favoured by pas- ture production include many caterpillars such as cutworms (Noctuidae), pasture tunnel moth (Philobota productella: Oecophoridae), Oxycanus and Oncopera (Hepialidae). When insect pests become established in a crop or pasture, there is an almost un- limited supply of food. Insecticides are then often applied and non-target species can be affected more than the target pest (Jepson 1989). Little is known of the ef- fects of particular insecticides on native invertebrates. Few data are available even for the effects on beneficial species in agriculture. In general, beneficial insects such as parasitoid wasps tend to be more susceptible than pest species to insecti- cides (Jepson 1989). Broad-spectrum insecticides are still used regularly in Victorian agriculture and it can be assumed that they are limit- ing the number of species able to use agricultural habitats. However, the insec- ticides currently used are not as persistent as other chemicals (such as the organo- chlorines which are no longer registered for use) and so their effective (killing) time is less. That is, when there are only Vol. 112 (1) 1995 one or two insecticide applications the invertebrates present may be killed, but not those arriving a few days later. The effect on non-target species will depend, amongst other factors, on the timing of pesticide use, its persistence, the move- ment of invertebrates and the micro- environment of the invertebrates. Rotation of crops, different grazing in- tensities, different degrees of clearing and different farming enterprises within any given district mean that the agricultural environment is a mosaic of different hab- itats at any particular time. Amongst the land used for farming are areas of remnant vegetation, of varying degrees of quality. These may be extensive or only the vege- tation along the margins of watercourses and along roadsides, Mobile native spe- cies (such as the common noctuid pest Helicoverpa (Heliothis) sp.) will perhaps be more able to make use of agricultural habitats than those with long life-cycles and of limited vagility. We currently have extremely little information on the re- quirements of most native invertebrates (Hill and Michaelis 1988) and this limits our ability to effectively manage and con- serve native invertebrate populations, References: Birks, P.R. and Allen, P.G. (1969), Pasture cockchafer. Journal of Agriculture, South Australia 73, 39-43. Cantrell, B.K., Donaldson, IF, Galloway, LD., Grimshaw, J.F,, and Houston,K.J. (1983). Survey of beneficial arthropods in potato crops in south-east Queensland. Queensland Journal of Agricultural and Animal Sciences 40, 109-119, Hill, L. and Michaelis, F.B. (1988). Conservation of insects and related wildlife, Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Occasional Paper No, 13. Jepson, P.C, (1989), Pesticides and non-target inverte- brates’. (Intercept Press). Robertson, L.N. and Simpson, G.B. (1988). Sampling and dispersion of Plerohelaeus alternatus Pascoe and Gonocephalum — macleayi (Blackburn) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) larvae in soil. Queensland Journal of Agricultural and Animal Sciences 45, 189-193. 57 Contributions Is There Life Beyond Butterfly Houses? Alan L. Yen! Introduction Imagine walking through a humid rainforest when a brightly coloured but- terfly gently alights on you. This scene is repeated thousands of times a day around the world, commonly in countries with a temperate climate! You are in one of the many butterfly houses now operating around the world - basically a walk through glasshouse with free-flying trop- ical butterflies, tropical plants and a suitable climate to maintain them, The number of butterfly houses is sur- prisingly large, and more are being built every year, a phenomenon described by Pyle (1991) as a housing boom for butter- flies. There are approximately 40 butterfly houses in the United Kingdom (Collins 1987), at least six (and probably double or triple that number) in the United States (Pyle 1991), and over 250 in the world (Bronaugh 1993). There are several in Australia, the best known being that at the Melbourne Zoo (Crosby 1986). The yuk factor Most people can identify with birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians, and hence the popularity of zoological parks. There is less popular affinity with fish, and even less with invertebrates. Inverte- brates are often not considered as animals and it is common to see or hear the phrase ‘animals and insects’. Ignorance of animal classification is only a minor problem for invertebrates. The major problem is the extreme and disproportionate level of loathing fear they can evoke in people - the “yuk’ factor. Some of the yuk factor can be rationally explained: spread of diseases by inverte- brates, loss of agricultural production due to pest outbreaks, and venomous inverte- brates species. This fear is widespread (Kellert 1993), although the truth is that the number of invertebrate species in- 1 Invertebrate Survey Department, Museum of Victoria, 71 Victoria Crescent, Abbotsford, Vic, 3067, 38 volved in activities harmful to people is very small, and the vast majority of spe- cies are components of the numerous food webs that form the basis of our life support systems. The conservation value of butterfly houses In contrast, most people like butterflies: attractive animals that are not dangerous to humans. Consequently, butterfly houses have been built to initiate the public into the world of invertebrates in a gentle man- ner. The major aim seems to be to create an awareness and appreciation of butterflies. Most butterfly species displayed in American and European butterfly houses originate in Africa, Asia, or South Amer- ica. Often, they are ranched or farmed in the countries of origin and exported to butterfly houses as pupae, hence provid- ing a source of revenue for the economies of these nations. Ironically, the butterfly trade (both in live specimens for butterfly houses and in dead specimens for collectors) may be of positive benefit in habitat conservation. In butterfly rich regions such as Papua New Guinea and South America, indigenous peoples derive higher incomes by pre- serving tropical forests for the butterfly trade rather than clearing them for crops (Bronaugh 1993; Orsak 1993). The shortcomings of butterfly houses Undoubtedly the value of butterfly houses exceeds their shortcomings, but the latter need to be addressed because of ramifications for lesser known inverte- brates, Nearly all butterfly houses display large and colourful tropical species. While this is aesthetically pleasing and a good messenger for conserving tropical habitats, they are not directly relevant to the habitats where many butterfly houses are located: generally in affluent nations with temperate climates. Hence there is little reference to the conservation of local species in their own environments. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions The emphasis on one group of insects that represents only a limited range of trophic roles neglects the vast majority of species that form the basis of our biolog- ical diversity. There is danger that a new class of charismatic invertebrates will be established. Already there is the differen- tiation between the birds and other animals, and it is important that a ‘butter- flies and insects’ syndrome does not develop. It is important that butterfly houses emphasise the message that butter- flies are ‘flagship’ taxa for all the lesser known (and less attractive) invertebrate groups. The non-butterfly live invertebrates display Until the recent increase in butterfly houses around the world, there have been very few attempts to display other live invertebrates (with the exception of ma- rine invertebrates in aquaria). The longest continuous such display is the Regents Park Zoo Insect House, which was estab- lished over 75 years ago. Today, several insect zoos/invertebrate houses concen- trate on invertebrates other than butter- flies. These include, as examples, the Smithsonian Natural History Insect Zoo, the Smithsonian Zoological Park Inverte- brate House, and the Cincinnati Zoo Insectarium. However, most displays of invertebrates other than butterflies are set up merely as a minor addition to a butter- fly house. In Australia, an attempt was made to set up 2 live insect display as early as 1930 at the Burnley School of Agriculture (Anon- ymous 1930). Butterfly houses have been in operation in Australia for overa decade. Displays were set up in Queensland (such as those at Kuranda and Mount Glorious), but public attention was probably focused on the phenomenon with the opening of the Melbourne Zoo butterfly house (Crosby 1986). In Victoria, a small sea- sonal butterfly house recently opened near Castlemaine, Several other butterfly houses are found around Australia, and the one at the Brisbane Southbank loca- Vol. 112 (1) 1995 tion has several species of live inverte- brates in addition to butterflies. Local so- cial insects are displayed at the Northern Territory Wildlife Park near Darwin, and Macquarie University recently put up a display of an ant colony (Anonymous 1994). There is still no venue in Australia that displays a broad range of live inverte- brates in a non butterfly house setting. It is important to do so because butterflies are only a small, although obvious, com- ponent of the invertebrate world and are not representative of many major ecolog- ical roles. Efforts are now required to display a broader range of invertebrates, capitalising on the good image that butter- flies already have, as an important avenue in conservation education. The display of invertebrates other than butterflies has a major advantage im that they do not require large flight areas. Small-bodied invertebrates can be dis- played in a relatively small space, and it is possible to display a broad range of representative invertebrate biodiversity in a small space. More importantly, with live inyerte- brates, it is possible to exhibit functions: displays can be mounted where people can watch invertebrates go about their normal lives (such as feeding on plants, predator-prey relationships, decomposi- tion, etc.) in more complex systems. The need for using live invertebrates for display may be questioned. Dead speci- mens, models and photographs are effective in teaching us about structure and function, but they do little to over- come the pre-conditioned ‘yuk’ factor in most people. Several studies have demon- strated the importance of handling of dead or live specimens in assisting learning in school students, but contact with live an- imals fostered a deeper appreciation and positive attitude towards them (Sherwood et al. 1989; Hotchkiss 1991; Chilstrom 1993). Ideally, a live invertebrate display would use appealing species to attract 59 Contributions people to the display. The next step is to instil into them an awareness and appre- ciation of invertebrates as animals in their own right. This is followed by an educa- tional programme that only uses locally available species (the ‘nature in your own backyard’ approach). This then leads to a greater understanding of local conserva- tion issues, possibly including commu- nity action to conserve a threatened spe- cies of invertebrates (Yen 1993), Conclusion The importance of live invertebrate dis- plays is gaining recognition. “Inverte- brates’ was the main theme of a recent volume of the International Zoo Year- book (Olney and Ellis 1991), and there is an annual conference in the United States on ‘Invertebrates in Captivity’ (Sonoran Arthropod Studies 1993). Invertebrates are defined as animals without backbones. They could also be defined as animals in need of a good pub- lic relations company to assure that their importance is appreciated widely. The live invertebrate display, if designed in a balanced and unbiased manner, could well be that public relations company. Acknowledgements The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of an Esso Scholarship to visit various live invertebrate displays during 1990, and Tim New for useful comments on the manuscript. ee sa es Education: Improving the Image of Invertebrates Carolyn Meehan! Effective educational programs are needed if invertebrates, with their ecolog- ically significant roles, are to be conserved. Much has been written about why invertebrates - animals without back- bones - must be saved but holistic education is needed if it is to occur. This type of education teaches that the whole 18 greater than the sum of its parts and is 1 Interpretation and Evaluation Museum of Victori , toria, Box 666E, Melbourne, Victoria 3001. co 60 References Anonymous. (1930). Insectarium at School of Agriculture. The Victorian Naturalist 46,190. Anonymous. (1994). Museum fired up about ants. Australian Geographic No, 35, 10. Bronaugh, W. (1993). Farming the flying flowers. Wildlife Conservation 96, 54-63. Chilstrom, H. (1993). The insect z00 as an educational focus: programs from Metro's Washington Park In- sect Zoo from 1980-93. Jn ‘Invertebrates in Captivity.” Proceedings SASV/ITAG Conference, August 13-15, 1993, Tucson, AZ. (Sonoran Arthro- pod Studies Inc: Tucson). Collins, N.M. (1987). ‘Butterfly houses in Britain. The conservation implications’. (IUCN: Gland, Switzer- land). Crosby, DF. (1986). New Australian butterfly house, Antenna 10, 173-174. Hotchkiss, N,A. (1991). The pros and cons of live animal contact, Journal of Musewn Education 6, 14-16. Kellert, S.R. (1993). Values and perceptions of invertebrates. Conservation Biology 7, 845-855, Olney, P.J.S. and Ellis, P. (eds), (1991). *1990 Interna- tional Zoo Yearbook 30°, (Zoological Society of London: London), Orsak, L, (1993). Killing butterflies to save butterflies: a tool for tropical forest conservation in Papua New Guinea, News of the Lepidopterists' Society No. 3, 71-80. Pyle, R.M. (1991). Housing boom for butterflies. Wings 15, 3. Sherwood, K.P.Jr, Rallis, J.F and Stone, J. (1989), Effects of live animals vs. preserved specimens on student learning. Zoo Biolagy 8, 99-|04, Sonoran Arthropod Studies, (1993). ‘Invertebrates in Captivity’, Conference Proceedings SASI/ITAG Conference, Tucson, Arizona, August 13-15, 1993. (Sonoran Anthropod Studies, Inc: Tucson). Yen, A.L. (1993). The role of museums and zoos in | influencing public attitudes towards invertebrate . conservation. Jn ‘Perspectives on Insect — Conservation’. Eds. K.J. Gaston, T. New and M. Samways. (Intercept Lid: Andover, Hampshire). based on the assumption that at some fun- damental level everything in the universe is connected to everything else (Clark 1990). Invertebrates have a Poor Image The conservation of some species takes, precedence over others in attention, time: and money, as all species are not consid-: ered equal (Carson 1962). The conser- vation of invertebrates is largely over- The Victorian Naturalis Contributions looked and often neglected (Erzinclioglu 1990). Two barriers to their conservation are people’s biased perceptions and their negative experiences with invertebrates. Some people do not value invertebrates, believing that they have little worth and are not deserving of respect. Perceptions of invertebrates are biased by: * the homocentric nature of humans that places undue emphasis on the import- ance of human; « the view that nature is hierarchical and that humans represent the highest value in the phenomenal world (Nash 1989) thereby entitling them to ‘manage’ na- ture and * the threat that the large number and small size of invertebrates pose to human notions of individuality and in- dependence. Similarly, people’s experiences of, or interactions with, invertebrates are often negative because people relate to inverte- brates in terms of their nuisance behaviour, pest status or threat of danger. Some insects transmit disease and some arachnids have deadly venom, but all in- vertebrates are often lumped together and beneficial species are not recognised or are simple ignored. Human space and habitations are often invaded by inverte- brates in unexpected ways that put them beyond human control. Invertebrates are viewed as incapable of pain, rational con- sciousness or planned action (Kellert 1993) and people associate more closely with large animals, having what Wilson (1987) calls a ‘search’ image for them where people identify more readily with larger animals and understand their behaviour more easily. Kellert (1993) has shown that higher education is closely associated with in- creased appreciation, concern and knowledge of biological diversity and conservation of invertebrates. Education is the key but a specific kind of education is needed to change people’s perceptions and improve their experiences of inverte- brates. Holistic Education Educational practices which view the Vol. 112 (1) 1995 world as a series of parts and then study these parts in isolation from each other have resulted ina negative image of inver- tebrates. In fact, people view inverte- brates with aversion, fear and antipathy (Kellert 1993). Holistic education, on the other hand, considers all education to be environmental education. Viewed holistically people are one of many species and are a part of nature, not apart from it. Increasingly, value is attrib- uted to non-human organisms on the basis that their existence is in itself an expres- sion of a continuing process of immense age and complexity. Such long standing existence in nature carries with it the un- impeachable right to continued existence (Erhlich 1985). An awareness of the intrinsic worth of other beings is steadily growing. Invertebrates are essential for the sur- vival of human beings. If people were to disappear tomorrow the world would go on with little change and Gaia, the totality of life on earth, would heal itself and return to a rich environmental balance (Wilson 1987). But if invertebrates were to disappear, people would not last more than a few months because the nutrient cycles, in which invertebrates play vital roles, would cease to function (Wilson 1987). Whilst holistically the objective is to value all species for their own sake, pragmatically the importance of inverte- brates to people acts as a stronger motivation to protect them! Negative experiences and biased per- ceptions of invertebrates are due largely to ignorance about their biology and behaviour. This ignorance promotes a sense of their strangeness which transmits into a fear of all species - harmless, bene- ficial and beautiful. Increasing know- ledge about diversity of invertebrates pro- vides opportunities for more positive interactions and allow an appreciation of individual species to be fostered. With this increased knowledge, how- ever, comes the responsibility to make sure that it is applied appropriately (Orr 1991) as knowledge cannot be considered to be complete until its effects on all com- munities, not only human, are known. 61 Contributions Once knowledge of the value and import- ance of invertebrates is known, actions, now and in the future, cannot be taken without consideration of the inter- connectedness of all species and the effects each will experience. Characteristics of Holistic Educational Programs If invertebrate conservation is to be taken seriously, people need to be con- vinced of its necessity. Educational programs must focus on changing human attitudes and values regarding inverte- brates through the acquisition of knowledge about them and positive inter- actions with them. Environmental educational programs run by schools, local naturalist clubs and other educational institutions should have a number of characteristics that reflect a holistic focus to guarantee their success. 1, Invertebrates themselves are utilised as a tool to increase knowledge of form, function and habitat. 2. Participants learn about the beneficial nature of invertebrates to counteract previous ‘bad press’ and the vital eco- logical roles and aesthetic qualities of invertebrates are positively promoted. 3. Opportunities for participants to han- dle the animals in a controlled environment are provided. Physical contact, through handling, has long been understood to be a powerful method of learning: ‘I hear and I for- get; I see and I remember; I do and I understand’ (Old Chinese Proverb), The keeping of invertebrates as pets is encouraged to create emotional links with these animals, 4. Information provided in the programs isrelevant to the participants, Learning about the invertebrates from a local creek or roadway is more si gnificance than learning about exotic species from other lands - although they too have their attraction and use, 5. Successful programs teach throu ghex- ample. Observing someone interact positively with an animal provides strong inducement to be involved and a subtle model for appropriate behavi- 62 our. Everyone is encouraged to ac- tively participate and to learn from what is happening and from others. 6. The environment in which the pro- gram takes place is very supportive. Participants are challenged, not forced, Program experiences are con- sistently positive and the animals are promoted in the best possible light. 7. Effective programs stress the inter- connectedness of invertebrates, people and other species, and discuss the rela- tionships between them. 8. The language used is positive, never reactionary. In particular, the uncon- scious and often heard ‘ugh’ reaction is discouraged. 9. The results of the programs - information gathered, knowledge learned, appreci- ation gained - are shared as part of a network that assists scientific inquiry. Summary A holistic approach to biological educa- tion, emphasising the interconnectedness of nature, is essential if the problems of the next century are to be understood and solved (Robinson 1993). Humans need to re-evaluate their place in nature and the value they ascribe invertebrates, indeed all species. Until people recognise the in- trinsic worth of invertebrates and value the roles they play in the environment, their conservation, and ultimately our own, is at risk. References Carson, R. (1962). Silent Spring’. (Penguin Books Ltd: England). Clark, E. T. (1990). Holistic Education - A search for Wholeness, Holistic Education Review Summer, 3-8. Erhlich, P. R. (1985). ‘Dynamies of Extinction’. (John Wiley & Sons; New York), Erzinclioglu, Z. (1990). Spare a thought for the invertebrates. New Scienrist 7 July, 48. Keller, S. R. (1993). Values and perceptions of invertebrates, Conservation Biology 7(4), 845-55. Nash, R. (1989). ‘The Rights of Nature’. (University of Wisconsin Press: U.S.A.). Orr, D. (1991), What is education? Resurgence 44, 42-4, Robinson, M. H, (1993). Invertebrates: the key to holistic bioeducation. Jn ‘Invertebrates in Captivity’. Proceedings SASYITAG Conference, August 13-5, 1993, Tucson, AZ, 1-11. (Sonoran Arthropod Studies Inc:Tucson), Wilson, E, O. (1987). The lite things that run the world, Conservation Biology 1(4), 344-6. The Victorian Naturalist: ‘ Contributions How the Community and Naturalists can Contribute to Invertebrate Conservation Pat Vaughan! Introduction While certain groups of invertebrates are well known (such as the butterflies) and specific measures can be pursued for their conservation, most species are not well known and the only effective strat- egy for their conservation is the maintenance of the full range of habitats they rely upon. Different invertebrates utilise different components of a natural habitat, so it is therefore important to maintain or provide these components, which include indige- nous plants, leaf litter, fallen logs, dead trees, rocks, the soil itself and water bod- ies. Various processes can make an area unsuitable for resident invertebrates in- cluding weed invasion, changes to drainage patterns, the use of pesticides, and the presence of introduced animals, including introduced invertebrates such as the Honey Bee and European Wasp. We mustalso be conscious of the poten- tial changes to habitat arising from such global phenomena as changes to climate arising from the Greenhouse Effect and the damaging influence of ultraviolet ra- diation arising from Ozone depletion. The community’s action in reducing its pro- duction of carbon dioxide, the other greenhouse gases, and the ozone deplet- ing substances including chlorofluoro- carbons, will be critical to the survival of plantcommunities and theirresident faunas. In general, individual actions that re- duce energy utilisation, pollution produc- tion and natural habitat removal or degra- dation have the added bonus of being good for invertebrate conservation. General actions Given that so much land is in private ownership in Australia, the manner in which landowners manage their land be- le avironmental Officer, Shire of Nillumbik, PO Box 21, Eltham, Victoria 3095. Vol. 112 (1) 1995 comes critical to the conservation of na- tive species. While efforts have been made to ensure that all habitat types and their associated plants and animals are represented in reserves, this has not been achieved and protection on private land is essential to the survival of a great many species. With the limited resources available to government conservation agencies, the voluntary work of community groups (es- pecially Friends groups) has become an integral component of reserve manage- ment. Other groups working on river banks and other habitat remnants on pub- lic land outside the major reserves also make a substantial contribution to conser- vation. Individuals working on their own land, particularly if they co-ordinate their activ- ities with neighbouring properties as occurs with Landcare groups, are the most important ingredient of private land con- servation efforts. Many landowners are now placing Conservation Covenants on their properties that protect existing natu- ral habitat in perpetuity. These covenants which are organised through the Victorian Conservation Trust are placed on the title of the land and are binding on subsequent owners. There is also an increasing. participation by landowners in the Department of Con- servation and Natural Resources Land for Wildlife Program. Those who manage their land such that it provides habitat for native wildlife are accepted into the pro- gram, receive a sign which they can display on their property, and receive the most up to date advice on wildlife man- agement through a regular newsletter and notes on special topics. The other area in which the community can assist in conservation is in the re- search area. Amateur naturalists, through 63 Contributions recording the occurrence of species and noting their behaviour and habitat utilisa- tion, provide additional useful inform- ation to that obtained by the limited num- ber of professional researchers at institutions who are operating on limited resources. As one example, the rediscov- ery and subsequent protection of the Eltham Copper Butterfly, was due in large part to the efforts of amateur naturalists. Community actions Examples of direct actions by the com- munity to protect a specific invertebrate arise in the case of the Eltham Copper Butterfly. These actions were diverse and involved individuals giving or doing ac- cording to their skills, time available or financial circumstances. They included: i the formation of the ‘Friends of the Eltham Copper Butterfly’, who pro- duce a newsletter, run information stalls at community markets and festi- vals, and who undertake works such as weed and erosion control and planting at sites where the butterfly occurs; ii individuals donating to an appeal the proceeds of which went towards ac- quiring a reserve for the butterfly; artists donating works on the theme of the butterfly which were sold at a pub- lic auction, with proceeds going to the above appeal; iv people (especially those living adja- cent to butterfly reserves) planting indigenous species including Sweet Bursaria (Bursaria spinosa), the host plant of the butterfly, and thereby pro- viding additional potential habitat for the butterfly; v_ individuals with the butterfly on their own land, observing the behaviour and ecology of the species and providing seo useful to its conservation, an individuals being involved in annual counts of the butterfly and thus assist- ing with the essential role of moni- toring the size of populations and pick- ing up early signs of problems at particular sites. ii -- at Similar actions could be pursued by in- dividuals with any threatened species that occurs where they live. However a far — greater proportion of the community un- — dertake activities that are of benefit to a — wide range of indigenous species rather than concentrating on one species. Habitat rehabilitation works by Friends groups, Landcare groups and individuals are by far the most important in this re- gard, A steadily increasing proportion of the community is involved in such actiy- ities. In the Shire of Eltham alone, the number of Landcare groups has risen from one to twelve within a three year period, and given that rate of growth, every inch of the Shire should be covered by a Landcare or equivalent group by the turn of the century, While much of the above activity is land based, a considerable proportion occurs along waterways and is of benefit to aquatic fauna. The Community Stream- watch Program initiated recently by Melbourne Water, supported by many Councils, and undertaken by schools and community groups, involves the monitor- ing of water quality in local streams. The monitoring involves the testing of physi- cal characteristics such as_ turbidity, salinity and pH, but also involves sam- pling of aquatic macro-invertebrates, This will enable much more accurate targeting and effective implementation of conser- vation works by: providing information on the type and distribution of aquatic invertebrates; identifying stretches of wa- terways with pollution or other problems and increasing school and community involvement in works through their in- creased familiarity with, and concern for, aquatic invertebrates. Individual actions Obviously there is much the community can do for the invertebrate conservation. A summary of individual actions which — will assist the conservation of native in- vertebrates is provided opposite. The Victorian Naturalist — . 4 Contributions Retain existing native vegetation on your property. Native vegetation is what native invertebrates have evolved with and what best provides them with food, sites for reproduction and shelter. Many native invertebrates are totally dependent on one or a few native plant species; Retain a reasonable cover of leaf litter, fallen logs and rocks which provide habitat for specific invertebrates; Remove introduced invasive plants, as these displace indigenous plants utilised by native invertebrates, mod- ify the physical structure of the habitat and its microclimate and soil chemis- try. Plant local indigenous species on your property. A variety of publications are available to assist in the identification, propagation, germination and planting of indigenous plants (e.g. SGAP (1993), Costermans (1994)), and ad- vice can be obtained from the Department of Conservation and Nat- ural Resources and often from local Councils on plants appropriate to a given location. The plants used by host specific invertebrates such as butter- flies are indicated in many publications (e.g. McCubbin (1971), Common & Waterhouse (1981). Join and actively participate in local Landcare and Friends groups or com- munity environmental survey and monitoring programs. Learn more about local invertebrates through reading local publications or joining The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria, the Entomological Society of Victoria and local amateur naturalists groups. Generally be mindful of your lifestyle and its impacts in the natural environ- ment and attempt to reduce your personal use of energy, production of pollution and your consumption of products that cause loss or modifica- tion of natural habitats. References Common, I.F.B. and D.F. Waterhouse (1981). ‘Butterflies of Australia’. (Angus & Robertson: Sydney), Costermans, L.F, (1994). ‘Native Trees and Shnubs of South-eastern Australia’, (Lansdowne Publishing Pty Ltd: Sydney). McCubbin, C. (1971). ‘Australian Butterflies’. (Thomas Nelson Australia: Adelaide). SGAP (1993). ‘Flora of Melbourne - A guide to the indigenous plants of the Greater Melboume area’. (Society for Growing Australian Plants Maroondah, Inc. Hyland House Publishing Pty Limited: Victoria). The Dandenong Freshwater Amphipod, Austrogammarus australis. Vol. 112 (1) 1995 65 Book Review Hidden Rainforests. Subtropical Rainforests and their Invertebrate Biodiversity by G. Williams Publisher: New South Wales University Press, 1993, ISBN 0 86840 054 8, 188 pp. RRP $79.95. This splendid book is the result of many years study of a complex Australian envi- ronment, the subtropical rainforests of the Manning region of NSW, by Geoff Wil- liams. The text and plates are evocative of his enthusiasm for the area and, for the first time, emphasise the major compo- nents of animal diversity - the invert- ebrates. As the author points out, these are generally dismissed in environmental planning and assessment programmes, and one important role of this book is to emphasise their diversity and ecological roles to conservation managers. An introduction to rainforests in Aus- tralia is followed by a short chapter summarising knowledge of the region’s vertebrate fauna. The next chapter, ‘Rainforest Invertebrates’, develops the major theme of the book - the vast array of ‘lower animals’ present and the central roles they play in sustaining ecological processes in the forests. The author's major interest, insects, are given promi- nence and the chapter includes a rounded discussion of the ecology of arthropods in rainforests, with numerous specific exam- ples cited under a series of headings which range from purely taxonomic (various in- sect and other groups) to ecological (‘Feeding strategies and adaptations’) and faunistic (‘Bees in rainforests’, ‘Com- position of hemipteran fauna’) - the sequence of topics is sometimes difficult to follow and I wondered if one ‘hierar- chical layer’ of headings had been lost in production. Briefer treatments of other Invertebrate groups follow, and most higher taxa are illustrated in the excellent composite colour plates of the book. . Building on this general appraisal, ensu- ing chapters detail the characteristics and biota of each of the major rainforest areas 66 of the Manning catchment: littoral rainforest, riverine rainforest (Wingham Brush), additional riverine forests, Lansdowne - Comboyne Escarpment, ad- ditional rainforests, rainforests of the Gloucester Ridges (by Terry Evans), and Woko National Park. Each chapter sum- marises the peculiarities of the area, and readers unfamiliar with the region will be reassured by the series of photographs of major sites and habitats. A short chapter interspersed in this sequence deals with the complex topics of rainforest regener- ation and rehabilitation, including the needs to control invasive weeds - such as Lantana - in disturbed forests. The book concludes with a series of appendices de- tailing plant and animal (mainly invertebrate) taxa recorded, and detailed captions to the 40 composite colour plates; a bibliography and index (re- printed by the publishers to replace the original incomplete version) complete the volume. I found little to counter my initial highly favourable impression of this book. It is packed with information, but this is pre- sented clearly and with adequate referencing, and is remarkably free of the usual scientific jargon which can frustrate readers. It is a solid introduction to the hidden fauna of rainforests, and deserves to be read widely by conservationists and naturalists in Australia and elsewhere both for itself and as an excellent example of an authoritative natural history book of great relevance in our rapidly changing world. T.R. New, School of Zoology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083 The Victorian Naturalist 4 How to be a Field Naturalist Entomology Jan Endersby! Activities As a Field Naturalist specialising in Entomology you can look forward to participating in: Field collecting trips; Identification of species; Making your own insect collection; Studies of life history and food plants (in the field or with captive specimens); Distribution studies; Insect behaviour and ecology; Conservation of species and habitats; Close-up photography. Field guides/handbooks/ atlases Butterflies of Australia. 1.F.B. Common and D.F. Waterhouse. (Angus & Robert- son). Introductory Entomology for Austra- lian Students T.R. New UNSWP, Kensington. Handbook of Insect Collecting (Collec- tion, Preparation, Presentation and Storage). Courtenay Smithers (Reed). Australian Insects. John Child (Peri- winkle Press). - out of print but often turns up in secondhand book shops. The Insects of Australia 2nd edition (CSIRO). - the professional’s bible. Equipment Nets for catching flying insects or for dredging in ponds and streams can readily be made from scrap materials as can pit- fall traps. Portable fluorescent lights with a white backdrop sheet attract many spe- cies at night. Chemicals for killing and preserving insects can be obtained from specialist suppliers and so should proper entomological pins for setting insects for display. Setting boards can be made from balsa wood or some types of plastic foam and storage cases can be improvised, or made toa very high standard if woodwork is another of your hobbies. You will soon find that a good hand lens of at least 10x magnification is almost a “necessity to check small details on which '56 Looker Road, Montmorency, Victoria 3094. Vol. 112 (1) 1995 species identification is based. If you do a lot of specialised identification a stereo dissecting microscope with at least 10x and 20x magnification and good lighting will make life very much easier. Insect photography requires close-up equipment and macro-zoom lenses are now of high quality. Good, balanced lighting is essential so you will need flash- guns in your kit. Clubs and societies Entomological Society of Victoria Australian Entomological Society Australasian Arachnology Association Journals Victorian Entomologist concentrates on reporting field observations of insect distribution, life histories and food plants. Journal of the Australian Entomologi- cal Society contains refereed scientific papers on taxonomy, distribution and behaviour of insects with many of the papers discussing pest management. Australian Entomologist, many papers on insect listings. Enquiries Your FNCV Contact for Entomology is lan Endersby. You can contact him on (03) 435 4781 or write to 56 Looker Road, Montmorency, Victoria 3094. He will be able to answer many of your questions and direct you to others who can help. Nymph of Eusthenia nothofagi, he Otway Stonetly. 67 The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria In which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria Established 1880 Registered Office: FNCV, c/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141, 650 8661, OBJECTIVES: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron His Excellency, The Honourable Richard E. McGarvie, The Governor of Victoria. Key Office-Bearers February 1995 President: Dr. MALCOLM CALDER, Pinnacle Lane, Steels Creek, 3775 (059) 65 2372). Hon. Treasurer: Mt. NOEL DISKEN, 24 Mayston Street, Hawthorn East, 3123 (882 3471). Subscription-Secretary: FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 650 8661). eae ROBYN WATSON, C/- FNCV, National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (650 8661, A.H. 686 6336). Librarian: Mrs. SHEILA HOUGHTON, FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (A.H. (054) 28 4097). Excursion Secretary: DOROTHY MAHLER (435 8408 A.H.) Sales Officer (Victorian Naturalist only); Mr. D.E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (571 2427). Publicity Officer: Miss MARGARET POTTER, 1/249 Highfield Road, Burwood, 3125 (889 2779), Book Sales Officer: Dr. ALAN PARKIN, FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (850 2617 A.H.). Programme Secretary; Dr. NOEL SCHLEIGER, | Astley Street., Montmorency, 3094 (435 8408). Group Secretaries Botany; Mr, JOHN EICHLER, 18 Bayview Crescent, Black Rock, 3143 (598 9492), Botany Research; Mr, JOHN JULIAN, 24 Chatham Road, Canterbury, 3126 (830 4795 A.H.) Geology:Mr. DOUG HARPER, 33 Victoria Crescent, Mont Albert, 3127 (890 0913). Fauna Survey: Miss FELICITY GARDE, 18 College Parade, Kew, 3101 (818 4684). Microscopical: Mr. RAY POWER, 36 Schotters Road, Mernda, 3754 (717 3511). ; The Victorian Naturalist All material for publication to be sent to FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra 3141. Telephone queries to 650 8661 or A.H. 435 9019. MEMBERSHIP Membership of the F.N.C.V, is open to any person interested in natural history. The Victorian Naturalist is distributed free toall members, the club's reference and lending library is available and other activities are indicated in reports set out in the several preceding pages of this magazine. Membership Rates 1995 Individual (Elected Members) , Membership Subscription Single Membership.......c.ccscccccssseeeseeees eae os ‘ pe pore eer rota ee rote $35 MEIRIMSTHDOTSINK Zr, Booth icf wsssivallasyssscrmracchg terns, cutie ace ee $45 Concessional rate (Full Time Student/Pensioner/Country Member more than 50km from . Institutional Subscriptions (Subscriptions to ‘The Victorian Naturalist’ only) Within Australia Overseas Olea crryg aves 4 te ee So eee Printed by: Sands & McDougall Printing Pty. Ltd 91-97 Boundary Road, North Melbourne, 3051. Telephone (03) 329 0166 . i i The Victorian Naturalist Volume 112 (2) 1995 April | MUSEUM OF VICTORIA ll l | | | by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria sinte 1884 Australian Natural History Series During the 1990’s the University of New South Wales Press has been publishing a valuable and delightful series, on the natural history of a variety of Australian animals. The series editor is Professor Terry Dawson and the books themselves are beautifully organised for the reader; written in an easy-to-read style and the text is well supported by excellent illustra- tions, graphs and photographs. Titles published so far are: ‘The Platypus’ by Tom Grant. Illustrated by Dominic Fanning. RRP $19.95 ‘Little Penguin’ by Colin Stahel and Rosemary Gales, Illustrated by Jane Burrell. RRP $19.95 ‘The Koala’ by Anthony Lee and Roger Martin, Illustrated by Simon Ward. OOP ‘The Wombat’ by Barbara Triggs. Illustrated by Ross Goldingay. OOP ‘The Lyrebird’ by Pauline Reilly. Illustrated by Peter Chambers. RRP $19.95 ‘Goanna’ by Dennis King and Brian Green, Illustrated by Frank Knight, Keith Newgrain and Jo Eberhard. OOP ‘The Mountain Pygmy-possum of __ by Ian Mansergh and Linda Broome, the Australian Alps’ Illustrated by Katrina Sandiford. RRP $19.95 ‘Echidnas of Australia by Mike Augee and Brett Gooden, and New Guinea’ Illustrated by Anne Musser. RRP $19.95 ‘The Dingo in by Laurie Corbett., Australia and Asia’ Illustrated by Frank Knight and Laurie Corbett. RRP $24.95 In March 1995, *Kangaroos’ by Terry Dawson will be published, followed by ‘Flying Foxes’, At the time of writing, ‘The Koala’, ‘The Wombat’ and ‘Goanna’ were out of print but will be revised and printed again in 1995. Obviously the series has been very successful and this is undoubtedly due to the choice of subjects, the authors and the fact that the books are suited to general readers, students and wildlife experts. The books may be obtained from the National Herbarium Bookshop, Universities or by order from: New South Wales University Press, Sydney, NSW 2052. This series is highly recommended to all FNCV members. Editors Low Cost Natural History Reading Back volumes of The Victorian Naturalist Volumes 76 to 90, They contain 335 to 380 pages in 12 monthly parts. Price $6.00 per volume order and then pick up at any General or Group meeting. Postage in Victoria (if required i one (if required), One Volume $4.60, Two Voluimes Orders to D-E. Mc Innes, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145. Te;]. 571 2427. Victo ria n*)) Naturalist Volume 112 (2) 1995 — April Editor: Robyn Watson Assistant Editors: Ed and Pat Grey ee eee Research Reports Recent Foraminiferal, Ostracodal and Molluscan Faunal Changes - Corner Inlet, ere oe by K.N. Bell, J.V. Neil and R. Burn... Decode toma ts tetrad sbinay efeecas Oe Growth and Development of the Eastern Barred Bandicoot in Victoria, by Anthony C. Dufty.......ssssssssssrerssnnseesseseee 19 Activity and Stratification of ait Sena Bat Communites, East Gippsland, by A.S. Kutt .....ssssecseseesnereerees 86 Contributions Factors Contributing to'a Fish Kill in Broken Creek, by Lachlan McKinnon and Nik ShepHeard.......eseeesresveeveees 93 Occupancy of Peregrine Falcon Eyries near Melbourne, by W.B. Emison and V.G. Hurley .....-sesvsseesssseeccenn 100 The Oriental Weather Loach from the River Murray, by Michael MacQueen ..+..sssssesssssesssssssansnssnnnansnnnnnnnnannannsnnnnennennss 101 Naturalist Note The Grey-headed Flying Fox, by Cecily Falkingham, Naturalist in Residence 102 How to bea Field Shell Collecting, by Noel Schleiger .......+-sssssssresersssrseweneennenneess Naturalist Book Reviews Australian Natural History Series, reviewers the EditOrs .....s.ssssesnecsssenesseeneenseenteneennennennnaan es Inside cover Trees of Victoria and Adjoining Areas, by Leon Costermans, reviewer Jane Calder 104 Letter A Tribute to Alex Burm .....sssssssscssssssssesseessssssssescnnnnsnnssecnssnecsocnnnens ISSN 0042-5184 Cover Photo: Peregrine Falcon chick in Victoria. Photo by Ian Stevenson, Herald Sun, Melbourne. (See article on page 100) Research Reports Recent Foraminiferal, Ostracodal and Molluscan Faunal Changes in a Short Core from Corner Inlet, Victoria KN. Bell!, J.V. Neil! and R. Burn! Little is known about the faunal changes with geological time in the Recent Victorian marine faunas, Sea-level changes have a considerable effect both on coastal processes and the living biota. In the geological past sea-level changes have occurred as a result of eustatic and tectonic changes, In southern Australia sea-level reached its peak about 6000 years ago at about 1-2 m above present levels (Bryant ef al, 1992, Gill and Lang 1982) and has since then remained at about present levels. This means that at any given site on the coastline the water depth, and the associated temperature and salinity, may have changed over time and so has provided achanging environment forthe marine fauna at that site, A sediment core taken at any site can therefore indicate what changes in the environment may have occurred and by an- alysing the fauna present at different depths within the core these changes can be esti- mated, The present study was undertaken on a short core (350 mm long) from Corner Inlet, Victoria (Fig. 1). Three marine invertebrate groups (foraminiferans, ostracodes and mol- luses) were investigated to see what, if any, CORE 360 mm Fig, 1. Locality map showing core position and numbering of core samples, i a ef Honorary Associates, Museum of Victoria, Swanston St, Melbourne, Victoria, 3000, 72 faunal changes had occurred during the short time span represented by the core and what palaeoenvironmental deductions could then be made. No absolute dating has been under- taken on the core but a time span of the order of 1-2000 years has been suggested by com- parison with other Corner Inlet cores (pers. comm. to K.N. Bell from W.-Y. Zhuang, A.N.U., 1988), assuming little erosion or reworking of the sediments had occurred as would be expected in such a protected, low energy environment, Corner Inlet is a large estuarine area on the north coast of Wilson’s Promontory. It con- sists of extensive sand and mud flats either exposed or barely covered at low water and is dissected by five major tidal channels which range to about 20 m deep (Jenkin 1968), The core reported on here was taken about 300 m offshore at Foster Beach (Fig. 1) at an extremely low tide (5 March 1987) when the sandy mud flats in the area were exposed, Methods The core was taken by simply pushing a length of 50 mm PVC pipe into the sediment, with the upper end plugged with a sliding stopper and then extracting the tube. The enclosed core was slowly extruded and cut into 50 mm long sections (samples 1-7; Fig. 1). Each section (of approximately 100 ml) was boiled in water with a small amount of Calgon and washed over a (0,063 mm aperture sieve. The similarity (or dissimilarity) between any two samples can be estimated by using Sanders’ method (Sanders 1960); for each species common to the two samples being compared, the lower of the two percentage occurrences is taken and then the values totalled to give the Sanders’ similarity coef- ficient. Total values greater than 80% are usually taken to indicate that the samples are nearly identical; lower values indicate greater dissimilarities. The Victorian Naturalist | Research Reports The faunal diversity, N,.-value, is a meas- ure of the number of species making up 95% of the fauna; these values have the same environmental significance as the total num- ber of species but are not affected by those occurrences of rare species that constitute fractional percentages of the total popula- tions (Walton 1964), A relative change in the number of species or N,,-value has environ- mental significance: a decrease in numbers of species or N,,-value in successive sam- ples in a core indicates a marine regression, an increase in values indicates a marine transgression (Walton 1964), Description of the core The total length was 350 mm. The top 3-5 mm consisted of clean sand clearly de- marked from the remainder which was a dark grey to black sandy mud with a small amount of shell debris present. Upon drying this colour changed to pale grey. There were no obvious layers or laminations in the core and no indications of bioturbation. Upon washing, all samples readily disaggregated and, when sieved, left a remainder (varying from 5 to 20 g) of angular quartz grains, FORAMINIFERANS (KNB) Elphidium limbatum Table 1. List of Foraminiferans found in the core* ayaa eer fragments of muscovite and rare biotite, with abundant foraminiferans and ostra- codes and a sparse bivalve and gastropod fauna. The high proportion of silt/mud in the core samples and the lack of plant detritus would indicate that sedimentation took place near, but not necessarily on, seagrass flats which, in Corner Inlet, are most efficient traps of fine-grained sediment compared with the bare sandy areas (Zhuang and Chappell 1991). Results Foraminifera (author K.N. Bell): A total of 3,959 specimens belonging to 69 species of benthic and two species of planktic foraminiferans were identified from the core (Table 1). Of these, 18 species oc- curred in most samples, the remainder only in small numbers throughout the middle sec- tion of the core. Three species (Brizalina sp., Cibicides biserialis and Planodiscorbis planoconcaya) were found only in the top- most sample. The fauna was dominated by miliolid (9 spp.) and elphidiid (8 spp.) forms. Only one Miliolina labiosa Spirtnanacquats E. macellum aculeatum Nubecularia lucifuga | S. aequa Glabratella australiensis | Oolina gibbosa G. pacifica Planorbulina Triloculina oblonga mediterraniensis ‘ Nonionella auris Spiroloculina communis Planodiscorbis planoconcava Lagenid spp., (21 spp. of Lagena, Fissurina, Oolina Dentalina, usually only as single specimens). Lamellodiscorbis dimitiatus Q. subpolygona tohalysis sp. Reophax hee Rosalina australis Massilina sp. adyi G. regina Quinqueloculina | Vol. 112 (2) 1995 | Research Reports Fig. 2. Miliolid:Rotaliid: Textulariid ternary dia- gram, showing the relative percentage composi- tion of the samples. miliolid, Quinqueloculina seminulum, oc- curred in the surface sample, whilst four species of Elphidium (simplex, crispum, gunteri corioensis and advenum) were pre- sentin this sample. The other representatives of these genera ranged throughout samples 2-6 except Q. lamarckiana (sample | only), Q. subpolygona (sample 4) and Sigmoilina australis (samples 2 and 3). Agglutinated species were uncommon (seven species in four genera), none of which were typical of lacustrine or marginal marine conditions but which are found else- where in Victoria in protected marine envi- ronments, Planktic specimens were very rare and found only in sample 5, one specimen; sam- ples 2 and 7, two specimens each and sample 4, six specimens. The lagenid fauna comprised 21 species; they were present usually only as single species and specimens in the samples, ex- cept for sample 4 in which 12 species oc- curred. Using the relative percentages of the miliolid, rotaliid and textulariid groups pre- sent, the triangular M:R:T: plot (Fig. 2) shows the samples fall on, or close to, the M-R side and within the normal marine la- goon zone of Murray (1973), The Sanders similarity coefficient between all pairs of samples showed that samples 2 and 6 (82%), 3 and 2 (81%0), 3 and 4 (85%) and 2 and 4 (81%) couid be considered 74 identical; the other samples had values rang- ing between 54% and 79%. The Fisher a-index (see Murray 1973), the number of species and the N,,-value all show the same variation (Fig. 3) - increasing val- ues from sample | to 4 then a decrease to sample 7. Of the 69 benthic species recovered only eight were present in numbers greater than about 3% of the fauna of each sample. Am- monia aoteanus remained the dominant spe- cies and relatively constant throughout the core. Quinqueloculina seminulum and Trilo- culina oblonga showed a steady decline up the core. The elphidiids showed varying changes: Elphidium advenum and E. cris- pum decreased in relative percentage from sample 1 to 4 and then increased again; E- limbatum increased in relative percentage from sample 1 to 4 and the decreased whilst E, simplex increased with time. Spirolocu- lina aequa remained fairly constant from samples 1 to 6 but then disappeared com- pletely in the topmost sample. Ecological inference These changes can be most easily ex- plained by a simple deepening of the water from samples | to 4 and then a consequent shallowing to the present day. By compari- son with known Victorian faunas, the middle core samples (Samples 3-5) at Foster Beach are comparable with Collins’ Lower Bay fauna in Port Phillip Bay in depths of 5-25 metres (Collins 1974), and especially with the semi-marine fauna of the Reeve Channel (depths of 10-12 m) connecting the main e es = o e a 4 ° z Fig. 3. Foraminiferal o-values, Nos5-values and number of species found in each sample. The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Table 2. List of Ostracodes found in the core* Osticythere baragwanathi Neomonoceratina Ponticocythereis sp. koenigswaldi nziearti: Pectocytherinid indet. | Mackencythere venata Leptocythere hartmanni| Pterygocythereis sp. s.1. Callistocythere purii ?Notocarinovalva sp. melobesiodes C. sp.cf.C. windangensis ?Echinocythereis sp. lakes with the sea at Lakes Entrance (Ap- thorpe 1980). As Corner Inlet has major tidal channels at present, the depth changes pos- tulated above can be explained by the migra- tion of a channel into the Foster Beach area and then its subsequent movement away. Ostracoda (author J.V. Neil): From the seven samples in the core a total of 1,802 specimens was picked, repre- Senting 93 species from 59 genera (Table 2). These were distributed in generally increas- Vol, 112 (2) 1995 OSTRACODA (JVN) Parkrithella australiensis Loxoconcha australis Cytherella sp.A. Tanella gracilis ?Keijella sp. Paranesidea sp. Australocytheridea Bradleya sp. Microxestoleberis sp. vandenboldi ?Rhombonesidea sp. Cyprideis australiensis Jugocythereis ?Bythocythere sp, A. henryhowei : Aachisrochters. Bythrocypris sp. C. sp. Quadracythere ?Retibythere sp. obtusalata Hemicytheridea sp. Copytus sp. A. Loxocythere C. sp. B. L. sp.nov. hornibrooki Microcytherura sp. Cythereis sp. L. abditocostata Australimoosella liebaui L. sp. i: Macke ia Yassinicythere bassiounii portjacksonensis . Doratocythere sp X.estoleberis limbata Loxoconchella pulchra Cytherura sp. Propontocypris sp. Hemicytherura Spinifera Aglaiocypris sp. Semicytherura sp. Phlyctenopora zealandica Cytheropteron P. sp. sp.cf.C. whitei Cytheropteron sp. ?Pseudaurila sp. Xestoleberis plus LI indeterminate cedunaensis species. ing totals for each sample from the oldest (bottom of the core, sample 1: 124 speci- mens) to the youngest (top of the core, sam- ple 7: 415 specimens), Of these species, 26 occur commonly throughout the core, whilst 24 species occur in only one sample each, generally with only one or two specimens. The fauna is characterised by the occur- rence of six species, each of which consti- tutes 5% or more of the total number of specimens. These are: 75 Research Reports Mackenzieartia portjacksonensis 235 specimens (13%) Loxocythere hornibrooki 159 specimens (8.8%) Pterygocythereis sp. 8.1. 120 specimens (6.7%) Australocytheridea vandenboldi 110 specimens (6.1%) Loxoconcha australis 106 specimens (5.9%) Xestoleberis sp.1 97 specimens (5.4%) These species constitute 45.9% of the total number of specimens. Of the remaining spe- cies only Aglaiocypris sp., Yassinicythere bassiounii and Loxoconcha abditocostata are common. If the characteristic genera, rather than the species, are identified using the same criterion (5% or more of the fauna) then the same six appear but Xesteroleberis and Loxoconcha are second and third most abundant after Mackenzieartia, These six most common genera constitute 56.3% of the total number of specimens. The diversity of the samples as measured by Fisher’s -index ranges between 13 and 20, with no clear trend evident. As is usually the case when using this measure of diversity with ostracode faunas, the figures are consis- tently higher than for the foraminifera. The similarities between the faunas from each of the samples were measured using Sanders’ coefficient (Murray 1973), No pair of sam- ples could be described as identical (i.e. with a coefficient of 80% or more). The coeffi- cients ranged between 41,5 and 73, so that the group could be described as somewhat disparate in terms of faunal similarity. Ecological inferences The most abundant genera and species sug- gest a shallow estuarine to marine lagoon environment over the whole of the period of time represented by the core. The abundance of Mackenzieartia portjacksonensis points to a muddy substrate (Yassini and Wright 1988). Whilst there is an increase in the dominance of this species from 7% in sample 76 1 to 20% on sample 7, it is not possible to infer any clear trends in the nature of the substrate since the evidence of the other species is equivocal in this regard, Another commonly occurring species, Australocyth- eridea vandenboldi, which Hartmann (1980) also recorded from nearby Port Welshpool, reinforces the inference of a smooth sub- strate (Hartmann 1980). The presence of several species of Xestole- berididae and Loxoconchidae throughout the core indicates a continuing phytal associa- tion in the environment, probably with sea- grass. Loxocythere hornibrooki which shows a somewhat similar distribution through the core as M. Portjacksonensis, has been re- corded by Hartmann (1980) from Port Welshpool in sand/mud shallows with sea- grass, so that the presence of that species strengthens the inferences based on the other commonly occurring species. It is not possible to draw any inference of change through time in the environment in which these ostracode faunas lived. Unlike the evidence from the foraminiferans, which relate quite specifically to depth of habitat, the evidence from the ostracodes does not give any useful information about changes in depth. However, some additional informa- tion is provided by the occurrences of some significant species in small numbers in the samples. Osticythere reticulata, which oc- curs in all samples except number 4 (though in small numbers) is an indicator of marginal environments such as estuaries and shoreline lagoons. Its favoured substrates are shallow sands, silts and muds, especially when or- ganic detritus is present (McKenzie and Pickett 1984), The euryhaline Cyprideis aus- traliensis, Loxeconcha australis and Phlyctenopora zealandica all indicate the likelihood of salinity fluctuations. Paracythe- roma sp. cf, P.sudaustralis occurs through- out the core and is also indicative of marginal environments, possibly with some freshwa- ter influence. The occurrence of Tanella gracilis and Loxoconchella pulchra which favour sandy substrates (McKenzie and Pickett 1984) is a slightly anomalous feature. Some difficulty in drawing valid eco- logical inferences from the occurrence of The Victorian Naturalist Research R eports certain ostracode species in the fauna is ex- emplified by Yassinicythere bassiounii. Yassini and Kendrick (1988) refer this spe- cies to high energy environments, whereas Hartmann (1982) says it prefers warm, calm waters. However, in general terms, it can be suggested that the Corner Inlet environment has not shown marked changes in substrate, water temperature and phytal associates over the period of time covered by the samples. Salinity fluctuations have probably oc- curred, with freshwater influence from the discharge of nearby streams being a major factor in this. The depth changes inferred from the foraminiferal evidence are not sub- stantiated by the ostracode fauna. The dispa- rate nature of the ostracodal faunas from the samples when compared with each other, is to some extent paralleled by the foraminif- eral faunas. The variations appear likely to be due to varying depositional and winnow- ing effects in the channels which wander over this area through time, rather than to any substantial changes in the environment it- self. Yassini and Kendrick (1988, p.119) sug- gest some correlations between numbers of ostracodes (and foraminiferans) and two Table 3. List of Mollusca found in the core* MOLLUSCA trapoda; z Odostomia australis Lissotesta porcellana Diala suturakis Vol, 112 (2) 1995 Patelloida profundior | Cingulina spina calamus Tinopyraa Brevis Egila mayi Munditia subquadrata | Koloonella minutissima , Linga (Bellucina) praetermissa Anodontia ; (Cavitidens) omissa ——— Eatoniella Reiusa chrysoma melanochroma | Hydrococcus brazieri_ | Tornatina sp. (live taken) |[Gironobar australis | Cylichnanys campanula transgressive phases in the Swan River Es- tuary near Perth, In the Initial Phase of trans- gressive-lagoonal character, there were low energy levels, bioturbation and fluctuating concentrations of dissolved oxygen and sa- linity correlated with low densities of ostra- codes and foraminiferal populations. The Second Phase, also transgressive, was marked by higher energy levels and strong, sporadic salinity variation correlated with high density ostracode and foraminiferal populations. The increase in density of the ostracode populations from oldest to young- est samples from Corner Inlet may reflect similar influences to those on the Swan Es- tuary. Mollusca (author R, Burn): The molluscan record from the core is sparse: 324 specimens or fragments repre- senting 72 species (Table 3). Three bivalves, Electroma georgiana (6.2%), Cavitidens omissa (4.9%) and Cyamiomactra mactro- ides (7.4%) are present in all samples, and seven bivalves and 18 gastropods, including one live-taken species in the topmost sedi- ment, are represented by single specimens (7.7%). Electroma georgiana is a fragile epiphytal species; its presence in all samples suggests nearby long-term beds of seagrasses and algae in shallow (0-5 m) protected waters. plus 17 indeterminate spp. Legrandina bernardi Cyamiomactra balustrina C. communis C. mactroides Philobrya (Micromytilus) francisensis Musculus cumingianus Electroma georgiana Condylocardia sp. Salaputium micrum Paphies (Amesodesma) angusta Hiatella australis Barnea australasiae plus 13 indeterminate SppP- Arthritica semen Mysella donaciformis 77 Research Reports Barnea australasiae bores into relatively hard clayelike sediments at and below low tide level, The older samples (1-4) contain apecimens suggesting exposures of suitable sediments along the sides and bottoms of nearby channels, Paphies angusta (sample 2), Legrandina bernardi (samples 1,5), Mysella donacifor- mis (samples 15,7) and = Haminoea maugeansis (sample 5) all occur in lower intertidal/upper subtidal areas, hence the idea that these samples represent limes of shallow or lower intertidal waters, Artiivitica semen (sample 6) and Hydrococeus brasieri (samples 1, 3) today both live in marginal marine environments, suggesting very shal- low, perhaps upper intertidal conditions ex isted nearby, Cylichna thetidiy is a deeper water (3 m) infuunal species; its presence it sample 4 suggests this was atime of greater water depth, The absence of the three shal low water/lower intertidal bivalves L.ber nardi, M. donactformis, and particularly Pangusta, from sample 4 tends to confirm the deeper water conditions existing at that time. The limpets Naeceula parva and Patel: loida profundior calamus are both shallow subtidal species, the former living on sea rasses, the latter on hard substrates such as ive and dead shells and rock, Their occur rence in sample 2 perhaps indicates a slightly deeper water habitat, possibly not as deep as sample 4. Ecological inferences The molluses in the samples appear to represent the following sequence of marine conditions: f sumple 7 = shallow, marine sumple 6 » shallow, marine sample 5 « very shallow, marine sumple 4 - deeper, perhaps in excess of 3m, marine sample 3 = very shallow, marginal Sample 2 « a little deeper, more marine sample | - very shallow, somewhat marginal, Overall, a fairly stable marine environ: Ment is suggested for the time taken to lay down the depth of the core, with minor sea- level fluctuations producing marginal ma- rine conditions, perhaps in shifting channels due to increased currents, at times of higher seu-levels, Other Material Spines from the heart urchin Eehi ino- eardium are present in large numbers in all samples, pointing to the presence of nearby wh, ns, ca Be ine conditions, urred wood fragments are a feature of pnpiss 3 and 5, These could have entered © samples from local bushfires, either by “) wind action on to exposed low tide sandflats, or by runoff from nearby land into streams and Washed out to sea at times of subsequent rains. © Further details of the distributions of the three invertes brate groups within the core may be obtained from the respective author References Apthorpe, M. (1980), Foruminiferal distribution in the Fxtuarine Gippsland Lukes system, Proceedings, Royal Soelety of Victoria 91, 207-232, Bryant, H.A., Young, R.W,, Price, DM. and Short, S.A, (1992), Evidence for Pleistocene and Holocene riised marine deposits, Sandon Point, N.S.W, Aus- tralian Journal of Earth Selences 39 481-493, Colling, A.C. 1974, Port Phillip: Survey 1957-63, Foraminiferida, National Museum of Victorta, Mem: oir 38,1662, Gill, ED. and Lang, JG, 1982, The peak of the Flandrian transgression in Victoria, SE. Australia - Faunas and senlevel changes, Proceedings, Royal Society of Vie~ foria 94,2334, Hartmann, G, 1980, Die Ostracoden der Ordnung Podo- copoda G.W.Mueller, 1894, der warmtem-perierten und subtropiseh-tropischen Kustenabsehnitte der Sud) und Sudostkuste Austrutions (2wischen Ceduna im Westen und Lakes Entrance iin Osten), Mittellun- gen aus dem Hamburgischen Zoologivchen Museum wad Institut 78, 97-149, Hartmann, G, 1982, Variation in the surface ornament of three ostracod species from Australia. /a ‘Fossil and Recent Ostracods’, Hds, Bate, Robinson and Shep- pard, (Ellis Horwood and The British Micropalacon- tological Society; Chichester). Jenkin, J.J. 1968, The Geomorphology and Upper Caino zoie Geology of South-east Gippsland, Victoria, Geological Survey of Vietoria, Memoir 27, 147. MeKenvie, K.G. and Pickett, JW. 1984, Environmental interpretations of Late Pleistocene Ostracode As- semblayes from the Richmond River Valley, N.S, W, Proceedings, Royal Society of Vietoria 96,227-242. Murray, JW, 1974, "Distribution and Ecology of living benthic foraminiferida’, (Heinemann Educational Hooks; London), Sunders,H.L., 1960, Benthic studies in Buyzards Bay.3. The stricture of the sofl-bottom community, Limnol- ogy and Ocveanology §, 138-153, Walton, WAR, 1964, Recent foraminiferal ecology and paleoecology. In ‘Approaches to Paleoecology’, Eds J. lmbrie and N, Newell. (J, Wiley & Sons; N.Y). Yassini, 1 and Kendrick, GW, 1988, Middle Holocene Ostracodes, foraminifera and environments of beds at Port Waylen, Swan River estuary, southwestern Australia, Alcheringa 12,107-121, Yassini, 1. and Weight, AJ, 1988, Distribution and ecol- ogy of Recent ostracodes from Port Hacking, N.S.W. Proceedings, Linnean Soclety of N.S.W. 110,159- 174, Zhuang, W.-Y, and Chappell, J, 1991, Effects of seagrass beds on tidal fat sedimentation, Corner Inlet, south cust Australia, Jn ‘Clastic Tidal Sedimentology’, Eds D.G, Smith, G.E.Reinson, B.A. Zaitlin and R.A, Rahmani, Canadian Society of Petroleum Geolo- gists, Memoir 16, 291-300, The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports The Growth and Development of the Eastern Barred Bandicoot Perameles gunnii in Victoria Anthony C. Dufty! Abstract A growth curve of head length provided a means of assessing the age of Perameles gunnii from birth to four months. Measure- ments of body weight were used to detemine the age of bandicoots to 10 months. The development of neonates to emergent pouch young is described. Juvenile P. gunnii may emerge for short periods after 46 days of pouch life and re-enter the pouch until day 53. Weaning of offspring occurs when young are between 50 and 57 days old. Ju- venile P, gunnii that have emerged from the pouch may remain dependent on their mother for some time. Offspring that were aged between 57 and 86 days were observed associating closely with their mother during her nocturnal foraging. Perameles gunnii aged between three and six months and in- dependent of their mothers were referred to as subadult. Hence, three developmental stages were recognised for P. gunnii: juve- nile (0 - 3 months), sub-adult (3 - 6 months), and adult (greater than six months). Introduction The comprehensive description of a popu- lation’s demography depends largely on the ability to accurately determine the age of individuals, For endangered species, age de- termination and subsequent life-table analy- sis can be used to calculate population viability and age-specific rates of reproduc- tion and survival and highlight actions that will most effectively lead to population or species recovery. The remnant mainland population of the Eastern Barred Bandicoot, Perameles gunnii is highly endangered and persists only at Hamilton, Victoria (Brown 1989). During recent live-trapping studies in Vic- toria, the age structure of the population of P. gunnii at Hamilton was arbitrarily esti- mated using body weight; individuals that weighed more than 500 g were described as 1 Environmental Management Unit, Department of Geog- taphy and Environmental Science, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3168. Vol, 112 (2) 1995 adult (Brown 1989; Minta eral. 1990; Dufty 1991 a), In Tasmania, Heinsohn (1966) de- fined male and female P. gunnii that were six and four months respectively as adult and based his estimates on a combination of head length and body weight. Despite these defi- nitions, no standard method of ageing P. gunnii exists. This paper examines weight and mor- phometric data collected during recent monitoring of a captive breeding colony of P. gunnii at Gellibrand Hill Park in order to develop a means of assessing the age of P. gunnii. This information was then applied to data from the free-ranging population at Hamilton and the captive breeding colony at Gellibrand Hill Park to describe the growth and development of P. gunnii. Methods Weekly and bi-weekly monitoring of a captive breeding colony at Gellibrand Hill Park between August 1988 and December 1989 allowed regular measurements and ob- servations of pouch young to be made, The growth and development data for free-rang- ing P. gunnii was recorded during monthly live-trapping at the Hamilton Municipal Tip between 1989 and 1990 (Dufty 1994 5). Measurements of growth (to the nearest 0.1 mm using dial calipers) and observations of development of pouch young were under- taken in situ. No litters that were examined at Hamilton were assumed to include neo- nates (between | - 5 days old). The age of young P. gunnii observed at Hamilton was estimated from growth curves of head length and body weight that were constructed from data collected at Gellibrand Hill Park. Avoidance behaviour is commonly ob- served between P. gunnii of different ages and sexes (Dufty 1994 a). Hence, adult fe- males that were observed to be associating closely with young (e.g. an adult female and young that were live-trapped together) but displayed little or no antagonism toward them, were assumed to be the mother of the 79 Research Reports young, Young that had emerged from the pouch but were associating closely with an adult female were referred to as post-emer- gent dependent juveniles. Standard meas- urements of head, ear, foot, tail and scrotum (Brown 1989; Dufty 1991 a; 1991/) were recorded for juvenile, subadult and adult P. gunnii, Results Growth curves for head length and body weight were plotted from 58 encounters of 12 litters (totalling 33 individuals) that were first recorded as neonates at Gellibrand Hill Park (Fig. land 2), These growth curves, and the morphometric data collected in the field, HEAD LENGTH (mm) Fig. 1, The growth in head length of 33 Perameles gunnii that were first encountered as neonates in the captive breeding colony at Gellibrand Hill Park, Victoria, Values are means + standard error and line of best fit was plotted from a polynomial equation to the order of 3 (y = 4.84 + 1,06x - 0,003x* « 5.88e - 6x" R= 1,0), Fig. 2. The growth in body weight of 33 Perame- les gunnii in the captive breeding colony ut Gelli- brand Hill Park, Victoria, Values are means + standard error and line of best fit was plotted from 4 polynomial equation to the order of 4 (y = 0.32 j path ~ 0.006x" - 1,026 - 4x34 0.0e + 0x4 R= 80 allowed the age of a further 145 young in 66 litters observed at Hamilton to be estimated. Also, ten juveniles (in eight litters) were caught in the same trap as their mothers and their body weight, morphology and behay- iour were recorded, Hence, the growth of 188 young in 86 litters from both captive and free-ranging populations was reported (Table I and 2), and of these, the develop- ment of 27 pouch young in 13 litters was described (Table 3). Description of neonate Two litters of neonates totalling seven P. gunnii were known to be born within 24 h of examination and were described in situ. The mean head length was 5.75 mm (n=7) und mean crown-rump length was 13.6 mm (n=7), Neonates were reddish-pink in colour with hairless, glossy skin that was slightly moist to touch, The mouth comprised a cir- cular opening firmly enclosed upon a teat by an enlarged tongue that slightly protruded from the mouth, The nostrils were tubular and prominent on an abruptly ending snout. The eyes were represented by dark grey pigmentation that formed a ring under a translucent membrane. Neither ears nor sex was distinguishable. The forelimbs were well developed, with three toes on each limb, compared to the hind limbs that resem- bled flippers with two rudimentary digits on each, The tail was well developed and about 3-4 mm long, curving ventrally between the hind limbs. The neonates often moved dur- ing the examinations, In general, the fore- limbs moved randomly while _ the hindquarter moyed more saltatorially with the curved spine straightening as the hind limbs pushed backwards, Description of emergent pouch young The oldest pouch young observed were estimated to be 53 days old. The mean head length and body weight of emergent pouch young (between day 46 and 53) were 47.2 mm (n=10; range 49 - 44 mm) and 81.4 g (n=4; range 140 - 42,5 g) respectively. Their ears were erect, facing forward and 28,1 + 0.2 mm (n=2) high and their tail was 49,2 + 0.7 mm (n=2) long. The young’s eyes were open, all whiskers were present and fur covered the body to a length of 5 mm. The The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Table 1. Growth of head length, foot length and body weight for 145 pouch young in a free-rangin, population of Perameles gunnii at Hamilton, Victoria. Values are means + standard errors with the Age Head length Foot length Body (days) (mm) (mm) weight (g) Ee = Sa ia | RRL is — P —— ~ el ear | Pagde eae) == Ps [oss @_| 1 [03203 | Pir ee | Pe passe | 1 a 320 ee) ce LO m= as ES Eel Rem | 39 | 93208) | 954152) | | | 21 | 2i4z03 6) [7207 @ | | sa] | ea] =_— ey fur was very fine and soft to touch and pigmented a golden brown with distinct cream and dark patches that delineated bars on their hindquarters. The young were often found detached from a teat (one young was observed suckling two teats simultaneously) and were sometimes heard making soft squeaking noises. During examinations, the young were very curious and often sniffed and nuzzled objects e.g. fingers placed within the pouch. During this time, young may voluntarily emerge for short periods and later re-enter the pouch. On one occa- sion, after both mother and young were crouched on the trap floor, the young was observed re-entering the pouch. As the trap was approached, the mother raised herself to a standing position, arched her back and lifted her left forelimb to expose the pouch. The young promptly re-entered the pouch while the mother maintained her vigil. The 19.3+0. t 22.7405 (3) 12.3+0.5 (3) 23.8+0. Vol. 112 (2) 1995 Age (days) Head length Foot length Body (mm) (mm) weight (g) m [war@ [ere | m [268208 @ [wee | o[aors@ [em | RRs ie a pane [pERe| | z[aeszis @ [0503 | w [err e [eam | ps so [aso |_| [6 ror [Roo |_| [38 [309203 ey _[aiszas | sieo [so |_| «leo [eo |_| a [as as OL eo |_| Pe [a70%0 @ [468213 [FOO ek EXO RD Ps jeoso [| fag ae RT rs age of the young was estimated to be about 53 days. Description of post-emergent dependent young Although not observed during the study, emergent young were probably left in a nest during the mother’s nocturnal foraging. Many adult females were observed lactating, having greatly extended nipples, about 40 mm long, but without pouch young. This period of lactation when pouch young were absent, occurred between pouch emergence (day 53) and day 57. Eight post-emergent juvenile P. gunnii were captured with their mothers. The youngest of these juveniles was estimated to be 57 days while the oldest was 86 days. All mothers that were caught with post-emergent juveniles were not lac- tating or lactated with very immature young. Therefore, P. gunnii appeared to be weaned off milk by about day 57 but still depended on their mothers to find solid food. The Wi Ww) WwW] Ym 81 Research Reports Table 2. Mean size of live-trapped juveniles (aged 0 - 3 months), subadults (aged 3 - 6 months) and adults (aged 6 months or older), excluding pouch young, in a free-ranging population of Perameles gunnii at Hamilton, Victoria. Mean values are + standard error. a) Juvenile Characteristic Mean size Minimum Maximum Body weight 286.4 + 29 g 18 135 g 480 g Head length 65.1+ 1.4mm 18 53.0 mm 73.8 mm Foot length 62.6 + 1.2mm 15 54.0 mm 68.7 mm Ear length 37.9 + 1.6mm 18 31.8 mm 44.8 mm Tail length 71.3 +2.6 mm 1 53.5 mm 83.5 mm Scrotal length 11.74 1.1 mm 9 7.8 mm 18.2 mm Scrotal width 13.8 + 1.4mm 9 9.0 mm 21.8 mm b) Sub-adult Body weight 546.9 + 9.9 g 34 405 g 640 g Head length 79.8 + 0.6 mm 30 74.5 mm 89.0 mm Foot length 70.1 +0.5 mm 30. 66.0 mm 75.0 mm Ear length 42.3 + 0.7 mm 30 35.0 mm 47.0 mm Tail length 83.6 + 1.3 mm 27 73.8 mm 97,9 mm Scrotal length 19.6+ 1.4mm 1 12,0 mm 26.5 mm Scrotal width 23.4+ 1.6mm i 13.3 mm 29.5 mm c) Adult Body weight 805.8 + 4.8 g 236 645 g 950 g Head length 86.9 + 0.2 mm 225 78.4 mm 95.2 mm Foot length 75.1 +0.2 mm 223 68.0 mm 81.5 mm Ear length 45.9 + 0.2 mm 222 38.5 mm 52,0 mm Tail length 91.6+04mm 184 75,0 mm 105 mm Scrotal length 27.9 +0.2 mm 136 21.7 mm 33.0 mm Scrotal width 33.1+0,2 mm 136 26.3 mm 39.2 mm average head length and body weight of the live-trapped post-emergent dependent juve- niles were 59.9 mm (n=8; range 70 - 53 mm) and 161.4 g (n=7; range 220 - 135 g) respec- tively. On one occasion when mother and young had been caught in the same trap, the young attempted to enter the pouch but was re- fused. The mother adopted an arched-back stance (described earlier) but held her pouch closed. When the pouch of the mother was examined, three 2 day old pouch young were found. The post-emergent young was esti- mated to be about 70 days old and if the gestation period of Perameles gunnii is as- sumed to be about 12.5 days (Lyne 1974), these pouch young were probably conceived when the emergent young were about 56 days old (just weaned), The live-trapping of both mother and young in the same trap indicates that juve- niles continue to be closely associated with, 82 and dependent on, their mother for some time after weaning, During one occasion, two juvenile females (about 57 days old) were trapped with their mother. Upon unas- sisted emergence from the handling bag, the mother moved quickly into some tussock grass about 1.5 m to the north. One young followed her closely, while the other headed west but stopped about 2 m from her mother and made a soft squeak that was repeated five times at about one second intervals. The mother backtracked about half a metre and made a single low ‘honk’ that attracted the young to her and reunited the trio. The mother then slowly moved east out of cover at a walking pace and jumped onto the wire mesh of a mattress base, Again one young followed closely and climbed onto the base while the other (the one that was initially lost) went under the wire mesh of the base. Although this young could hear and see her mother, she remained out of contact, Exten- The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports ai toa, development of pouch young of eastern barred bandicoot, Perameles gunnii in Victoria escriptions were based on observations of 27 young in 13 litters in both the free-ranging population at Hamilton and captive population at Gellibrand Hill Park, Victoria. : Small anterior Lateral lip groove developing, Open laterally. opening MOUTH SUCKLING Young firmly attached. EVES Closed. Eyelids visible Fused to head. OUTER EARS Free. Pointing forward. Absent. PIGMENTATION Absent. Some papillae present, VIBRISSAE VOCALISATION POUCH LIFE sive vocalisations and searching for a break in the mesh by both mother and young were perceived until, probably by chance, the mother and young jumped off the base and the trio was reunited a second time. The mother then led the young northwards into a pile of Monterey Cypress Cupressus macro- carpa limbs where they were last seen. Description of sub-adult Sub-adults appear to be proportionally similar to, though smaller than, adult P. gun- nii (Table 2). The youngest female to suc- cessfully mate was about three months old although the mean age of females at first successful mating was 3.5 months (109 days; n=9). The onset of male sexual matur- ity is more difficult to determine using mor- phometric data, The growth of the scrotum appears to plateau when P. gunnii are about Vol. 112 (2) 1995 Small amount on snout. Continuously in pouch, Fully open. Young able to detach, Open, Distinguishable line between upper and lower lids Pointing backward. Extremities, All vibrissae present. Hair under membrane. Erupting. Fully furred. Pouch depression and scrotum visible. Sort squeaking Emergence DAYS SINCE BIRTH. 5 - 6 months (about 640 g body weight). Therefore, independent P. gunnii reach sex- ual maturity between 3 and 6 months. The period when P. gunnii are subadult can be morphometrically defined as when head length is greater than 74 mm and body weight is greater than 400 g but equal to or less than 640 g. Discussion During this study, P. gunnii were grouped into three age classes: 0 - 3 months (uve- nile), 3 - 6 months (subadult) and greater than 6 months (adult). These age classes also represent developmental stages. The juve- nile stage is when young are dependent on their mother for nutrition and shelter; the sub-adult stage represents when young are independent, becoming sexually mature and developing to full adult size, and; the adult 83 Research Reports stage is when P. gunnii are fully mature and independently established in their own home range. Dufty (1994 b) utilised these three age classes and further subdivided the adult group into three-month intervals to facilitate more intensive demographic analysis. Lyne (1964), Brown (1989) and Minta et al, (1990) classified the population on the basis of body weight into juvenile and adult, Dufty (1991a) utilised three age classes: less than 150 g, between 150 and 500 g, and greater than 500 g to designate juvenile, sub-adult and adult groups respec- tively, During this study, head length was favoured over body weight and foot length due to the greater consistency of measure- ment, the slow growth of body weight and foot length early in development, and the ease of head length measurement for P. eun- nii of all ages. Lyne (1964) and Heinsohn (1966) also believed head length to be the most suitable measurement for ageing juve- nile bandicoots, Head length measurements were accurate for age estimation of juveniles and subadults. However, the growth of P. gunnii slowed after six months while variations due to individual and seasonal differences increased. Therefore, age esti- mation using head length and body weight may be considered unreliable for individuals that are nine months or older. This may be of little concern during close demographic monitoring of P. gunnii due to their high trappability (Minta et al, 1990; Dufty 1994 b) and the likelihood that most individuals in the population will be encountered as juveniles, sub-adults or young adults, The description of P. gunnii pouch young during this study was similar to descriptions given by Heinsohn (1966) and Lyne (1964: 1951). The head length for neonate P gunnii (5.8 mm, this study; 5.3 mm, Heinsohn 1966) was similar to the head length of newborn P. nasuta (6.3 mm, Lyne 1964), Newborn Isoodon Sp. may be similar in size (based on head length) to newborn Perame- les sp. Mackerras and Smith (1960) deter- mined a mean head length of 4.5mm for L macrourus, and Heinsohn (1966) deter- mined that the head length of I. obesulus neonates from three litters were 5,8 mm, 84 6.6 mm and 6.0 mm. Young remained in the pouch for about 46 days and after emergence were able to re-en- ter the pouch until about day 53. Similarly, Heinsohn (1966) believed the period of emergence occurred when young were aged between 48 and 53 days. A large range in body weights was observed for emergent young during both this study (mean= 81.4 g, range: 140-42.5 g) and Heinsohn’s (1966) study (mean = 82.5 g, 143-61 g). The high variation in pouch young body weight may directly reflect the amount, and nutri- tional value, of milk produced by the mother. Stoddart and Braithwaite (1979) and Claridge et al. (1991) suggest that males frequently occupy optimal habitat and that few food resources and little shelter may be present in suboptimal areas (Dufty 1994 c). Female P gunnii that inhabit suboptimal areas may need to forage longer, spend more time avoiding predators and conspecifics, and use more energy keeping warm than females in optimal habitat. Hence, the size of pouch young and timing of their emer- gence may be dependent on the mother’s position in the dominance hierarchy in addi- tion to seasonal and climatic factors. Hein- sohn (1966) maintained a mother and pouch young alone in a captive enclosure (presum- ably with adequate food and shelter) and observed that the litter remained in the pouch until day 55 and periodically emerged and re-entered the pouch until day 58, con- siderably longer than was observed for free- ranging P. gunnii in Tasmania and Victoria. Heinsohn (1966) believed that young were kept in a nest for several days after emer- gence, The youngest and oldest post-emer- gent dependent juveniles were 57 days and 86 days old and if a period of nest-life was present during this study, it probably oc- curred between day 46 (emergence) and day 57, Young appeared to be dependent on their mother until they are about 3 months old, after which female and male P gunnii appear to become more independent and sexually active. Sexual maturity appears to occur at about 3.5 and 5 months for females and males respectively, although Heinsohn (1966) believed that females and males The Victorian Naturalist ‘ Research Reports reached sexual maturity at 3 and 4-5 months respectively. Acknowledgements The following people assisted in the col- lecting of data at Gellibrand Hill Park: Ms F. Marriot, Ms M. Watson, Mr N. Robinson, Mr J.H. Seebeck, Mr M. Downs, Mr L. Kogge, and Mr A. Govanstone. Mrs T. Dufty and Miss K. Alston reviewed an early draft of the manuscript. References Brown, P.R. (1989). Management plan for the conserva- tion of the eastern barred bandicoot, Perameles gun- nii, in Victoria, National Parks and Wildlife Division, Victoria. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series No 63. (Depart- ment of Conservation, Forests and Lands: Mel- bourne). Claridge, A.W., McNee, A. Tanton, M.T. and Davey, S.M. (1991). Ecology of bandicoots in undisturbed forest adjacent to recently felled logging coupes: a case study from the Eden Woodchip Agreement Area, In ‘Conservation of Australia’s Forest Fauna.’ (Ed. D. Lunney) (Royal Zoological Society of NSW: Mos- man). Dufty, A.C. (19914). Some population characteristics of Perameles gunnii in Victoria. Wildlife Research 18, 355-66. Dufty, A.C, (19914). Conservation biology and manage- ment of the eastem barred bandicoot, Perameles gunnii, in Victoria. M.Sc, Thesis, Zoology Depart- ment, University of Melboume. Dufty, A.C. (1994 a). Field observations of the behaviour of free-ranging eastern barred bandicoots, Perameles gunnii at Hamilton, Victoria. The Victorian Natural- ist 111, 54-9. Dufty, A.C. (1994 5). Population demography of the eastern barred bandicoot, Perameles gunnii at Ham- ilton, Victoria. Wildlife Research. 21, 445-57. Dufty, A.C. (1994 c), Habitat and Spatial requirements of the eastern barred bandicoot, Perameles gunnii at Hamilton, Victoria. Wildlife Research. 21, 459-72. Heinsohn, G.E, (1966), Ecology and reproduction of the Tasmanian bandicoots (Perameles gunni and Isoo- don obesulus). University of California. Publications in Zoology 80, 1-96. Lyne, A.G. (1951), Notes on external characters of the barred bandicoot (Perameles gunnii Gray), with spe- cial reference to the pouch young. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 121, 587-98. Lyne, AG, (1964), Observations on the breeding and growth of the marsupial Perameles nasuta Geoffroy, with notes on other bandicoots. Australian Journal of Zoology 12, 322-39. Mackerras, M.J. and Smith, R.H. (1960). Breeding the short-nosed marsupial bandicoot, [soodon macrou- rus (Gould), in captivity. Australian Journal of Zo- ology 8, 371-82. Minta, S. C., Clark, T. W., and Goldstraw, P. (1990). Population estimates and characteristics of the East- em Barred Bandicoots in Victoria, with recommen- dations for population monitoring. In ‘Management and conservation of small populations’. Pp. 47 - 76. (Eds T.W. Clark and J.H. Seebeck.) (Chicago Zoological Society: Brookfield Ili- nois). Stoddart, D.M. and Braithwaite, R.W. (1979). A strategy for utilization of regenerating heathland by the brown bandicoot (Isoodon obesulus; Marsupialia, Perameli- dae), Journal of Animal Ecology 48, 165-79. i Reprints of Articles After publication of an article in The Victorian Naturalist, the author (s) receive five complimentary copies of that issue. However, if required, we can arrange reprints of the article or additional copies of the journal. Cost of Reprints f This requires re-imposing the film and making new plates. The 50 copies are trimmed and stapled at the top left side. 4 pages 6 pages 8 pages $100.00 plus postage $163.00 plus postage $173.00 plus postage Additional Copies of The Victorian Naturalist 100 copies 50 copies $50.00 $25.00 Please advise the editors when you submit your final paper if you want to take advantage of these arrangements. Vol. 112 (2) 1995 Research Reports Activity and Stratification of Microchiropteran Bat Communities in Thinned, Unthinned and Old Lowland Regrowth Forest, East Gippsland A. S. Kutt! Abstract The results of a survey of bat species using ultrasonic detectors in thinned, unthinned and old regrowth forest in East Gippsland were examined to determine if structural differences of these forest types influenced the type of bat communities present within them. There were no statistically significant dif- ferences in individual species or total rela- tive activity between forest types, although a higher level of activity was recorded in unthinned forest, possibly due to a more complex vertical structure. Species recorded were divided into community guilds accord- ing to flight and foraging behaviour, No significant differences were recorded in relative guild activity between forest types, though some simple trends were observed in relation to species flight characteristics, ver- tical foraging position and structure of the forest type. Introduction The availability of roost sites, foraging resources and individual species mobility all influence microchiropteran bat distribution and sahil within a forest (Lunney et al. 1985; Taylor et al, 1987; Pamaby and Cherry 1992). In this case, it may be pre- dicted that alterations to the number of po- tential roost sites, the vertical structure of a forest and an individual bat species’ ability to travel from roost sites to foraging sites may affect bat community composition and level of activity in a forest, Recent studies of roosting and foraging behaviour, and movement pattems of micro- chiropteran bat species (such as those listed in Tal ie have concluded the following. (i) Many forest bat species will forage 1-2 km from roost sites, but may move ath 6-7 km during an evenings foraging (Parnaby and Cherry 1992), Movements of 5 km for Chalinolobus morio and N yetophi- lus geoffroyi (Lunney et al. 1985; Taylor and Savva 1988) and of 7-12 km for NV. geoffroyi and y Soiaiigl ia fasmaniensis (L. Lumsden, ers.comm., Parnaby and Chi ave Spanrets y erry 1992) have ) Australian Centre for Tropical Freshwater Researc James Cook University, Towneville, (iemaleager 86 (ii) Many forest bat species have a ten- dency to roost in large, old hollow trees with diameters greater than 80 cm (Lunney et al. 1985; Lunney et al. 1988; Taylor and Savva 1988) and often choose roosts with openings and cavities with one dimension only slightly larger than the bat (Tidemann and Flavel 1987; Taylor and Savva 1988). Fea- tures such as fissures, burnt boles, hollows, bark and residual (down) wood are often utilised (Taylor and Savva 1988). (iii) Relationships also exist between wing morphology, echolocation call struc- ture and habitat use (Aldridge and Rauten- bach 1987). Variations in wing morphology result in differences in flight speed and ma- noeuvrability (Dwyer 1965), Because of this, microchiropteran bat species are verti- cally distributed in the forest profile, accord- ing to their foraging and flight behaviour (Taylor et al. 1987). Both Crome and Richards (1988) and McKenzie and Rolfe (1986) demonstrated that bats can be grouped into foraging guilds that specialise in different vegetation and structural areas within a forest, This study examined the differences in activity and species composition of micro- chiropteran bat communities between forest types with different disturbance histories. Structural changes to the vegetation profile, (e.g. a decrease in large potentially hollow- bearing trees, an open canopy structure, thick shrub layer, increase in young regen- erating trees) associated with thinned, un- thinned and old regrowth forest were expected to influence the presence of some bat species in the forest. Study Sites and Methods The study sites were located in East Gippsland, Victoria, in State Forest 50 km east of the township of Orbost. Five sites were examined; Dyers Creek in the Cabbage Tree Forest Block; Towser Creek in the Jir- rah Forest Block; Stare Track in the Pur- gagoolah Forest Block; Hippo Track and Patrol Track both in the West Bemm Forest Block (Fig. 1), All these forests are managed by the Victorian Department of Conserva- tion and Natural Resources. Much of the area has been selectively logged or clear- The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports felled over the past 30-40 years, and the vegetation is dominated by eucalypt re- eo (LCC 1985). The vegetation of all ive sites has been described as Lowland Forest (Woodgate et al. 1994). Three types of forest stand were selected for examination: 25-35 year old regrowth coupes thinned between 1988-1992, 25-35 year old unthinned regrowth coupes and for- est coupes that have only been selectively logged in the past (old regrowth). In total there were 11 sites in thinned regrowth (two in each study area, except Stare Track which contained three), 10 in unthinned regrowth (two in each study area) and 5 in old re- growth forest (two each at Hippo Track and Towser Creek and one at Dyers Creek), Even numbers of sites for all forest types could not be achieved due to the lack of old forest coupes adjacent to the thinned and un- thinned sites in the study area. Each site represents a separate coupe. Relative bat activity and species presence for each site was surveyed using ultrasonic bat detectors. Each site was monitored twice for 40 minutes over two different nights, the calls being recorded on cassette tape for later analysis. Bat detectors and recorders were always placed in an area that seemed to constitute a clear flight path. Two different sites were always recorded simultaneously, so relative activity could be quantitatively assessed for different sites. Various combi- nations of simultaneously recorded sites LOCALITY MAP FIVE STUDY SITES IN WEST BEMM, CABBAGE TREE, JIRRAH, AND PURGAGOOLAH MANAGEMENT BLOCKS ORBOST REGION Le] 10 2c 30 40 —— KILOMETRES BAIRNSDALE é. e MT DEDDICK = Bonang / Bendoc yo LR Ws Berm River Fig. 1 Location of study sites in forest management blocks, ile ss ORBOST 4 MT CANTERBURY * ~~ _ REGION FY Buide ' § Sosa 9 Errinundrs wr a cj «MT KAYE ty duchon y REGION . ud e hy 5 é C) PURGAGOOLAH CS iy SS ‘Cann River mae) Bs: CABBAGE, » MT CANN REGIONAL LOCALITY MAP SOUTH hte ten WALES VICTORIA ‘ Orbost Tae aie ee SOUTH AUSTRALIA East Gippsland. H - Hippo Track, P - Patrol Track, D - Dyers Creek, T - Towser Creek, S - Stare Track. Vol, 112 (2) 1995 Research Reports were used, All recording was conducted be- tween dusk and 90 minutes after dusk, a period when bat activity is perceived to be greatest. All field work was conducted be- tween 7 January 1993 and 14 of March 1993 and no recording was conducted on nights perceived to be sub-optimal for bat activity (e.g. cold or wet nights, with temperatures <15°). The number of passes (a single clear echo- location sequence recorded on the detector) for each species was counted for each 40 minute tape. From this, the relative activity levels for each species in each treatment were estimated. Relative activity was simply the number of passes recorded for a species at a treatment site as a proportion of the total number of bat passes recorded for a single simultaneous monitoring session. These measures were then used to calculate the mean relative activity for each species in each of the three forest types. The number of passes (a single clear echo- location sequence recorded on the detector) for each species was counted for each 40 minute tape. From this, the relative activity levels for each species in each treatment Were estimated. Relative activity was simply the number of passes recorded for a species at a treatment site as a proportion of the total number of bat passes recorded for a single simultaneous monitoring session. These measures were then used to calculate the mean relative activity for each species in each of the three forest types. Species level identification was possible using local reference sequences collected by the author, and pre-recorded sequences on the ANABAT 1.1 analysis package. AN- ABAT II bat detectors were used for the field tecordings and the ANABAT II Zero Cross- ings Analysis Interface Module was used for the call interpretation and species identifica- tion (David Titley Electronics, Ballina, New South Wales). The Nyctophilus Species group and two species Vespadelus vulturnus and V. regulus were each treated as a single echolocatory complex, as they were deemed by the author to be too similar in pattern and frequency to differentiate confidently. The bat species recorded in this survey were grouped into suits according to flight characteristics and fora ing behaviour as as- sessed from previous surveys of bat popula- tions (Dwyer 1965; Fenton 1972; McKenzie and Rolfe 1986; Taylor et, al 1987). Criteria bad ais are listed in Table 1. Statisti- SiS used a non-parametric method, the Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance by tanks (Siegel and Casteilan 1988). Nomen- clature throughout this report follows Richards et al. (1993). The structural differences in vegetation be- tween the three sites are summarised in Ta- ble 2 and can be described as follows. Thinned forest is characterised by an over- storey of many, small, thin trees with a poorly developed canopy and containing very few trees with a diameter greater than 50 cm (and hence few well developed or large hollows), a low, open and rich shrub layer and almost no other trees other than Eucalyptus species in the sub-canopy. In comparison, the unthinned regrowth forest is characterised by an overstorey con- taining more trees with diameters greater than 50 cm (and hence more trees with hol- lows), a shrub layer that is of a similar height to the thinned forest, but containing fewer species with greater cover and a rich middle stratum of 16 non-Eucalyptus species greater than 6 m in height. Lastly old forest is characterised by a well developed mixed species Eucalyptus over- storey containing fewer but larger trees, in- cluding many greater than 50 cm in diameter (and hence a larger number of hollows), an understorey of taller thicker shrubs with a very high species richness and a very low number of non-eucalypt species greater than 6 m in height. Results A total of 10 species and one species group were recorded for all treatment sites using ultrasonic bat detectors. The species re- corded at each site and their relative abun- dance is given in Table 3. There were no statistically significant dif- ferences in total level of activity of all bat species recorded across treatments, though total activity was highest in unthinned sites and lowest in old forest stands (Table 4). Examination of the differences between the guilds also indicated no statistically sig- nificant differences between the treatments. However, some general trends between for- est types were revealed, Thinned stands had a higher proportion of species in guilds 1 (high speed, low manoeuvrability, above canopy) and 3 (low speed and manoeuvra- bility below and beside canopy), unthinned a higher proportion of species in guilds 2 (high speed and low manoeuvrability at and beside canopy) and 5 (low speed and high manoeuvrability inside canopy) and old stands a higher proportion of species in guild 4 (high speed and manoeuvrability below and beside canopy) (Table 4). The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports and Rolfe 1986; Taylor et al. 1987). 2 Miniopterus schreibersti Chalinolobus gouldi 3 Scotorepens orion Falsistrellus tasmaniensis Vespadelus darlingtoni Chalinolobus morio Vespadelus vulturnus Vespadelus regulus Nyctophilus spp. Structural characteristics Stocking of all eucalypts (per ha) Average diameter of all eucalypts (cm) Number of stags diameter > 50 cm (per ha) Average cover of understorey shrubs (%) Average height of understorey shrubs (m) chness of non-eucalypt species > 6 m Richness of understorey shrub species < 6 m Discussion This survey indicated that there was no statistically significant differences between bat activity in thinned, unthinned and old regrowth forest sites. This may suggest that the bat species recorded in this study may not forage preferentially in any of the forest types examined, though no conclusions can be drawn on the specific type of activity (c.g. foraging or flying through, roosting) under- taken by each species in the study sites. As the species richness for each forest type was almost equal, it can be concluded that these bat species utilised, or were at least present, in thinned, unthinned and old regrowth for- est at some stage. Other studies have also recorded bats active within logged and plan- Vol. 112 (2) 1995 Foraging area and behaviour Manoeuvrability Tadarida australis Fast aerial feeders, foraging hi i : ging high High Mormopterus spp. above the canopy or in large os * a beside the canopy Fast aerial feeders foraging close to and above canopy, or in gaps beside the canopy Medium to slow aerial feeders foraging below, inside and beside the canopy and sub canopy Medium to fast aerial feeders foraging below, inside and beside the canopy and sub canopy Medium-High Medium-High Gleaners foraging inside the canopy, sub canopy and shrublayer Stocking of eucalypts diameter > 50 cm (per ha) : Table 1. Guild classification for bat species recorded in thinned. i } : i sp , unthinned and old forest treat ites. using foraging and flight characteristics to group species (after Dwyer 1965; Fenton 1972: exons mary Medium-High Medium-High Low High Table 2. Overstorey and understorey structural characteristics of thinned and unthinned regrowth and old forest in East Gippsland (adapted from Kutt er al. 1993). tation forests, but generally foraging and roosting in areas of old growth forest nearby (O’Neill and Taylor 1986; Parnaby and Cherry 1992). The highest total bat activity was recorded in unthinned regrowth forest. This may bea function of the structural complexity of the unthinned forest (see table 3) compared to thinned and old forestsites. Unthinned forest may provide a greater variety of vertical foraging niches (and possibly prey items). Tidemann and Flavel (1987) have also sug- gested that bats may recolonise regrowth forest before other hollow requiring species, due to their ability to roost in small hollows and fissures and under exfoliating bark. 89 Research Reports Though there may be an expectation of higher relative bat activity in sites where there are potentially more roost hollows, the lower proportion of activity recorded in old regrowth may reflect a pattern of bats roost- ing in these sites but actively foraging else- where. Previous studies have indicated that the distribution of bats in an area is not a reflection of roost site availability (Taylor and O’Neill 1986; Lunney et al. 1988; Parnaby and Cherry 1992). The presence of Miniopterus schreibersii, (a cave and aque- duct roosting species), in each forest type may also reflect that foraging area and roost- ing sites do not necessarily correspond. For this species these forests may be important as foraging sites. No information on roosting sites or origin of bat species foraging in the forest stands was collected, however two general hy- potheses from the results of the present study could be postulated. Firstly, the proximity and ample number of hollow bearing trees in all sites (from riparian growth, old forest areas, stags and overwood), may mean that roosts are not a limiting resource in these areas. Secondly as was indicated above, bats Table 3. Average proportion of relative bat activity for each species, expressed as a percentage of the total level of activity recorded in thinned, unthinned and old forest types. Thinned (n=22) (n=20) ee 042 CO [Wespadelis davingin’ ——————SSSCSC~Ci [Nyctophiusspp———SSSCSCS~S~s CD [Scotoepensorion————SSSSCSCS~dCi [Monmopierss spp. ————SSCSCS~S~S~S i [Fatsirelustasmanienss___—_————~dtC~—— Treatment Old (n=10) 0.15 0.22 0. i 02 .03 Table 4. Mean proportion (and standard error) of bat guild activity in thinned, unthinned and old forest sites. Bold type indicates treatment with highest proportion for that particular guild, A= above canopy, C = close to canopy, I = inside canopy, B = below and beside canopy, LS = low speed, HS = high speed, LM = low manoeuvrability, HM = high manoeuvrability. Old (mean * s.e.) 0.01 + 0.007 The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports can travel large distances from roost to for- aging site so the mosaic pattern and size of the regrowth coupes, old forest and thinned forest (coupes were only 10-40 ha in size) is not restrictive to bat movement from roost to foraging site. Though there were no statistically signifi- cant differences in activity of bats in each guild at each treatment site, a few general trends emerged. Guild 1 (relatively higher proportion in thinned forest). These fast flying species with low manoeuvrability may forage at lower levels and in the gaps created in thinned forest due to the more open, acces- sible structure, Crome and Richards (1988) also indicated fast aerial feeders preferen- tially forage in gaps and areas lacking a dense canopy. Guild 2 (relatively higher proportion in un- thinned regrowth forest). These bats were recorded in very low numbers in all sites. Dwyer (1965) and Taylor ef al. (1986) note these species tend to forage beside stands or in open woodlands and farmland, and there- fore may not be commonly recorded in any of these forest sites. These species are more likely to be recorded along tracks and major roads. Guild 3 (relatively higher proportion in thinned regrowth forest). These are larger bats with low manoeuvrability and medium speed, that forage just below the canopy and in the sub canopy. Like the faster aerial feeders in guild 1, these species may prefer to forage in thinned stands, where there are more gaps and open spaces. Guild 4 (relatively higher proportion in old regrowth forest). These medium fast and highly manoeuvrable aerial feeders, forage close to the sub-canopy and shrublayer (Tay- lor et al, 1986), The higher proportion of these species in old regrowth forest and un- thinned regrowth forest may reflect an abil- ity or preference to forage in a structurally more complex vegetation profile (e.g. rich and dense understorey and shrub layers). Guild 5 (relatively higher proportion in un- thinned regrowth forest). As these slow fly- ing, highly manoeuvrable species glean invertebrates from inside foliage and shrub Vol. 112 (2) 1995 layers (Taylor et al. 1986), the more com- plex, thicker vegetation of the unthinned sites may be preferred foraging sites. There are a number of limitations in this survey that need clearer discussion. Firstly, monitoring of bat activity only pro- vides an estimation of relative activity using a count of the number of ‘passes’ (a single distinct echolocatory sequence) during a set time period. The use of simultaneous moni- toring to provide comparison of relative ac- tivity between sites overcomes this problem to a degree, but still lacks the resolution of direct counting of individual bat species and numbers at a site. Because of this, the results of this study should be taken as indicative of likely patterns of bat activity in each forest type. Secondly, there is no information on the origin of the bats recorded in each treatment (ie. location of roost site, type and size of tree, distance travelled to foraging area). Therefore the effect of the forest type on foraging activity and forest use for different species could only be inferred from available structural information. Thirdly, bat detectors only have a limited range of recording and this can be influenced to some extent by the height and closure of the forest canopy. Therefore, it is possible that in forest types with a more open canopy structure (e.g. thinned regrowth) the detec- tors may be more likely to record above canopy foragers than those recording in dense unthinned regrowth. These issues are discussed in Crome and Richards (1988) and Kutt (1993). In conclusion, this study suggests that there is no difference in relative activity and species composition between thinned, un- thinned and old regrowth forest coupes of small size. There is some variation in prefer- ence of some species or guilds for particular foraging areas and this may be dependent on the vertical structure of that forest, the re- sources available at that site and the flight and foraging characteristics of the bat spe- cies. More detailed surveys are required to determine the type of activity of these bat species in thinned and unthinned regrowth forest, including the extent of foraging and 91 Research Reports whether they actually roost in these areas or originate from sites containing old, hollow- bearing trees (e.g. old regrowth, riparian gullies). Clearly, longer term monitoring and more detailed surveys of these sites is necessary to examine how bat populations respond to changes in the forest over time, particularly if extensive, continuous areas of forest are thinned or remain as even-aged regrowth, and further intensive management is applied to the stand in an effort to enhance wood production potential. Intensively managed native regrowth forest is likely to become an increasingly prominent element of the forest in south-eastern Australia. The implications of this management compared to untended regrowth deserve to be examined and care- fully considered in the development of con- servation strategies in native forest. Acknowledgments I would like to extend my sincere thanks to the following people who assisted in this project: Stephen Henry; Brian Thompson; Tony Mitchell (Orbost Office, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, [DCNR}); Graeme Coulson (Zoology De- partment, University of Melbourne); Jeanette Kemp; Lindy Lumsden (Arthur Ry- lah Institute, DCNR); Harry Parnaby (Aus- tralian Museum) and particularly Lawrie Conole for invaluable information and dis- cussion on microchiropteran bats. This work was conducted while employed by the De- partment of Conservation and Natural Re- sources, Orbost Office, as part of a larger study examining the effects on vertebrate fauna of thinning eucalyptus regrowth in East Gippsland, and was funded by the Commonwealth Department of Primary In- dustries and Energy under the Common- wealth-State East Gippsland Forest Agreement. References Aldridge, H.D.J.N. and Rautenbach, L.L. (1987). Mor- phology, aorta and resource partitioning in insectivorous bats. Journal of Animal Ec. Y ready of Animal Ecology 56, Brown, G.W., Cherry, K.A., Gilmore. A.M., M } , KA, , A.M., Meges, R.A., Milledge, DR. Morris, B.J. and Nelson, rite (1991). Use of thinned and unthinned eucalypt forest by vertebrates. Management of Eucalyptus Re- 92 growth in East Gippsland Technical Report No.18. (CSIRO and Department of Conservation and Envi- ronment; Victoria). Crome, F.H.J. and Richards, G.C, (1988). Bats and gaps: microchiropteran community structure in a Queens- land rainforest. Ecology 69 (6), 1960-69, Dwyer, P.D. (1965). Flight patterns of some eastern Aus- tralian bats. The Victorian Naturalist 82, 36-41. Fenton, M.B, (1972). The structure of aerial-feeding bat faunas as indicated by wing and ear elements, Cana- dian Journal of Zoology 50, 287-296. Kutt, A.S. (1993). Ultrasonic bat sequences: some notes on recording type sequences and activity at different height levels. Australian Bat Society Newsletter 2, 16-23, Kutt, A.S., Thompson, B.R. and Trumbull-Ward, A.V. (1993), Short term effects and long term implications of thinning eucalypt regrowth on flora and fauna in lowland forest, East Gippsland, Victoria. Unpub- lished report to the Department of Conservation and Natural Resource, Orbost Office, Gippsland Area, Victoria, Land Conservation Council. (1985). ‘Report on the East Gippsland Area: a review’. (Land Conservation Council: Victoria). Lunney, D., Barker, J. and Priddel, D. (1985). Movements and day roosts of the Chocolate Wattled Bat Chali- nolobus morio (Gray) (Microchiroptera: Vespertili- onidae) in a logged forest. Australian Mammology 8, 313-317. McKenzie, N.L. and Rolfe, J.K. (1986). Structure of bat guilds in the Kimberley mangroves, Australia. Jour- nal of Animal Ecology 55, 401-420. O'Neill, M.G. and Taylor, R.J. (1986), Observations on the flight patterns and foraging behaviour of Tasma- nian bats. Australian Wildlife Research 13, 427-432. Parmaby, H- and Cherry, K. (1992). “A trapping study of the bat fauna of Mountain Ash plantations and old growth forest in the Strzelecki Ranges, Victoria’. VSP Internal Report No.5, SSP project. (Department of Conservation and Environment: Victoria), Richards, G., Hall, L., Hoye, G., Lumsden, L., Pamaby, H., Reardon, T., Stahan, R., Thomson, B. and Tide- mann, C. (1993). A revision of the inventory and English names of Australian bats. Australasian Bat Society Newsletter 2, 8-9. Siegal, S. and Castellan, NJ. (1988), “Non-parametric Statistics for the Behavioural Sciences’. (McGraw- Hill: New York), Taylor, R.J., O'Neill, M.G. and Reardon, T. (1987), Tas- manian bats: identification, distribution and natural history. Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 121, 109-119, Taylor, RJ, and Savva, N.M. (1988). Use of roost sites by four species of bats in state forest in south-eastem Australia, Australian Wildlife Research 15, 637-645. Tidemann, C.R. and Flavel, S.C, (1987), Factors affecting choice of diurnal roost site by tree-hole bats (Micro- chiroptera) in south-eastern Australia, Australian Wildlife Research 14, 459-473. Woodgate, P.W., Peel, W.D., Ritman, K.T., Coram, J.E., Brady, A., Rule, A.J. and Banks, J.G.C. (1994). ‘A study of the old-growth forests of East Gippsland’. (Department of Conservation and Natural Resources: Victoria). The Victorian Naturalist ontributions Introduction Seasonal flooding is an important factor for the successful spawning and recruitment ‘of many native freshwater fish species in the Murray-Darling Basin (Lake 1967; Mackay 1973: Rowland 1989). The regulation of rivers which involves the impoundment of water during the winter and spring months and subsequent release throughout summer and autumn for irrigation, stock and domes- tic purposes, is often cited as one of the major causes of the decline of many of our native fish species (Reynolds 1976; Cadwal- lader 1978, 1986; Pollard et al. 1990). During a large-scale flood event in Octo- ber 1993 in the Broken River drainage basin, a fish kill occurred in the Broken Creek downstream of Nathalia in northern Victoria (Fig. 1). Murray Cod Maccullochella peelit peelii, appeared to be the most adversely | affected native species, although Freshwater Catfish Tandanus tandanus, Golden Perch Macquaria ambigua and the introduced Carp Cyprinus carpio and Redfin Perca flu- | viatilis were also killed. Large numbers of | shrimp, Macrobrachium and Paratya sp. and Yabbies Cherax destructor, also died during the flood event. Although not uncommon, fish kills are sporadic events and can result from both anthropogenic causes, such as point-source pollution, and from ‘natural’ causes, such as disease epidemics and acute water quality changes (Harbison 1984; Trim and Marcus 1990). Major changes in water quality often occur with flooding (Cullen etal. 1978; Beer etal, 1981; Hart et al. 1987, 1988) and flood mitigation works have been implicated in causing fish kills through rapid de-oxygena- tion of water after flooding (Richardson 1981). Large-scale fish kills were also re- ported from the first releases of water from Hume Weir (Cadwallader 1978). Murray Cod have been reported in fish kills on other occasions in Victoria: the Ovens River ‘Departme: servation and Natural Resources, Kaiela mass Earl Station, P.O. Box 1226, Shep- parton, Victoria, 3630. Vol. 112 (2) 1995 Factors Contributing to a Fish Kill in Broken Creek Lachlan McKinnon! and Nik Shepheard! downstream of Wangaratta (Anderson, un- dated) and in the Broken Creek at Nathalia in 1936 (J. O'Hare pers. comm.). However, the causes of these kills were unknown. Fish kills involving large numbers of Redfin have also been reported from Victoria (Anon. 1984; Langdon 1984) and in several cases were attributed to epizootic haematopoietic necrosis virus (EHN) (Langdon 1986; Lang- don et al. 1986; Langdon and Humphrey 1987). Fish kills attributed to hypoxia have been reported in the Broken and Goulburn River Basins on previous occasions (Ander- son and McNamara 1984; Anon. 1986) but the introduced Carp and Redfin were the species most affected and no native species were reported on these occasions. A fish kill involving Murray Cod and Carp occurred in Menindee Lakes and was attributed to the lowering of the water level in the lake (Gre- gory 1994). This paper reports on a fish kill which occurred in the Broken Creek in 1993. It is proposed that this kill was due to hypoxic water conditions caused by the runoff from exceptionally large-scale flooding in an area where native riparian and floodplain vege- tation has been largely replaced by intro- duced pasture and crop species. Site Description Broken Creek is a relatively small tribu- tary of the Murray River, extending some 200 km from its effluence from the Broken River, downstream of Benalla, to its junction with the Murray River near Barmah. It is a lowland stream, fairly typical of the Murray- Darling Basin with a low gradient, relatively low flow, predominantly clay and silt sub- strate and with relatively high turbidity. Bro- ken Creek is used for both water supply and drainage disposal for irrigation and urban use. A total of nine weirs in various stages of repair are present on Broken Creek, most of which are downstream of Nathalia. As a result fish passage is limited to periods of high flow when weirs are overtopped or by-passed by floodwater. 93 Contributions Rice Wai (BANA) Goose Nock —_(Siin 3) Malorays Bridge (SNe2) ~ Flood Waters ~ Water Quality Sites * Dead Fish Observed — Skm *"Nathalia Fig. 1. Map of study area indicating water quality and fish sampling sites. Much of the riparian vegetation, particu- larly along the lower reaches of Broken Creek, has been removed for grazing and cropping both of which often occur right to the water’s edge. Consequently, an impor- tant aspect of fish habitat in Broken Creek has been adversely affected but despite the apparently high degree of modification and disturbance, a relatively good population of Murray Cod exists in the creek. Methods The first reports of dead fish in the Broken Creek were made on October 19. In situ measurements of dissolved oxygen and tem- perature were subsequently made using a YSI Model 57 Dissolved Oxygen Meter and in situ pH measurements were made using an Orion 250A pH meter. Water quality measurements were repeated over the fol- lowing three weeks, Water samples were collected at several sites on two separate occasions and preserved in eleven washed plastic bottles for later analysis of pesticide residues by the Rural Water Corporation Melbourne, using standard methods (RWC 1988). Total length (TL) measurements of dead Murray Cod were taken to the nearest 5 mm and freshly dead fish were weighed to the nearest 2g. Fish entangled amongst in- stream snags were retrieved for measure- 94 ment using hand-held grappling hooks, Results Dead Murray Cod were first reported on October 19 and again on October 31 (1993) in the section of Broken Creek from James Bridge to its junction with the Murray River (Fig. 1). The fish observed on the latter occasion had been dead for some time and it is presumed they had died at the same time as the initial report but had only become visible once the water level in the Broken Creek had receded. Dead fish were observed on the banks of the creek and partly sub- merged amongst inundated rye-grass (Lolium spp.). The fish species and numbers observed are listed in Table 1. Murray Cod were the most numerous (91%) of all the native fish species observed in the fish kill; a total of 41 Murray Cod were found dead and the majority (26) of these were found at site B in a 150m stretch of creek bank (Fig. 1). The length-frequency distribution of the Murray Cod measured is shown in Fig. 2. The length range of Murray Cod measured was 255 to 1260 mm TL and included several mature female fish (Fig. 3), Water quality measurements were made on October 20 and 26 and November 4 and 5 (1993) and results are presented in Table 2. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Table 1. List of fish and macrocrustacean species observed during the fish kill. Scientific Name Site} Nos. Macquaria ambigua Tandanus tandanus i Macrobrachium All |>1000 australiense Sites Paratya australiensis/ | All |>1000 Caridina mccullochi Cherax destructor All |>1000 Sites Introduced Species nai na am wm = a 5 ion < Fig. 3. Dead female Murray Cod prior to spawn- ing. Note expelled eggs. nN % Frequency mw wn Ww ooo Length Range Midpoint (mm) Fig. 2. Length-frequency distribution for Murray Cod from Broken Creek fish kill, 1993. 5 Vol. 112 (2) 1995 ° Contributions At the time of the fish kill, dissolved oxygen was 0.1 mg/l throughout the water column (dissolved oxygen levels of around 3.0 mg/l and above would be considered as favour- able). These low oxygen levels persisted for several days although they slowly improved with time and with distance downstream. Dissolved oxygen levels remained at below 1.0 mg/l at all sites on October 26 but im- proved to more favourable levels (4.1 mg/l) by November 4. Temperature ranged from 16,5° to 18,0° C over all sites with pH rang- ing from 6,7 to 7.3 (Table 2) and these variables were not considered to haye con- tributed to the fish kill, No chlorinated pes- licide residues were detected from water samples collected (Table 2) and so pesticides were not implicated in this fish kill. Of the water quality parameters measured, hypoxia appears to be the primary cause of the fish kill, Discussion Although the length-frequency distribu- tion of Murray Cod killed during this event Suggests that a large proportion of this spe- cies killed were immature (Gooley ef al. in prep. and references therein), the presence of mature fish in pre-spawning condition would indicate that spawning and sub- sequent recruitment of Murray Cod in the lower section of Broken Creek in 1993 would have been reduced because of this kill, The length-frequency distribution of the Murray Cod population in Broken Creek Suggests that the bulk of the population is made up of sub-adult fish but with a smaller but significant proportion of adult fish, Sub- sequent fish surveys conducted in the area Tuble 2, Water quality parameters measured dur- ing and after the fish kill, Chlorinated Pesticides seat Land. (mg/l) not detected at s 9% where the fish kill occurred did not produce any Murray Cod. However, Golden Perch and Carp were recorded in relatively high numbers (Douglas 1993), Golden Perch and Freshwater Catfish are known to be present in the lower reaches of Broken Creek but only a small number of these species appeared to be affected during the fish kill. This was not unexpected for Freshwater Catfish as the catfish population of Broken Creek appears to be relatively small. Golden Perch, however, appear to be common in the creek and thus may be ex- pected to have been represented in greater numbers in the fish kill, Adult Golden Perch may exhibit an ability to actively avoid ad- verse conditions such as extreme hypoxia. Gehrke (1991) demonstrated the tendency for Golden Perch larvae to avoid oxygen-de- ficient water and this type of behaviour is common for other species (Moller and Scholz 1991), Murray Cod, however, may be more tenacious in their behaviour and may not vary movement patterns in spite of poor water quality, Although Redfin are rela- lively tolerant of hypoxia at most stages of their life-history (Doudoroff and Shumway 1970) this species would not be expected to survive extended exposure to the low dis- solved oxygen levels experienced during the fish kill. It is expected that few aerobic aquatic or- ganisms would survive extended exposure to the hypoxic conditions observed during the fish kill, although few data on tolerance limits of many native species to hypoxia are presently available, Ryan (unpubl. data) found adult Golden Perch and Catfish sur- vived beyond 40 min. exposure to extreme hypoxia (0-2% saturation or 0.0 - <0.5 mg/l at 19,0 - 22.0° C) and adults were more tolerant than juveniles. Favourable long- term levels of dissolved oxygen would be about 30% saturation, Itis quite conceivable that Murray Cod would be equally tolerant. It is suggested, however, that fish kills caused by low oxygen levels, such as that observed in the Broken Creek, may occur only when hypoxia is persistent and fish are unable to escape to alternative habitat areas containing favourable levels of dissolved oxygen. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Large numbers of Yabbies Cherax destruc- tor were also observed dead during the fish kill (Table 1). This suggests that conditions were extremely poor for an extended period of time in Broken Creek as studies of the tolerance of a number of Cherax species to hypoxia indicate that these species are rela- tively tolerant of hypoxic conditions (Barley 1983; Morrissy ef al. 1984; Bezzobs 1988). Due to the wide range of fish and crusta- cean species recorded in the fish kill, it is likely that the cause was environmental rather than pathological. The fish kill occurred prior to, and during, the peak of the flood which in Broken Creek reached a flow of over 4,500 Ml/day at Kata- matite in early October (Fig. 4). Floodwaters covered an area of approximately 90 km” in the Nathalia area, much of which is managed as pasture and crop land comprising mainly annual and Perennial Rye-grass Lolium spp. and clover Trifolium spp., the crop species wheat Triticum aestivum, barley Hordeum vulgare and oats Avena sativa and common introduced weed species (G. Akers, Depart- ment of Agriculture, pers. comm.). Many of these introduced plant species exhibit little tolerance to inundation and waterlogging, particularly for extended periods (Depart- ment of Agriculture pers. comm.), although there is little published information on the flood tolerance levels of these species cur- rently available. It is suggested that oxygen > a uv a = o a 2 LJ £ ° = a E a @ = wn priv depletion of the floodwater due to the aero- bic microbial degradation of these flood-in- tolerant plant species caused the observed dissolved oxygen depletion and hypoxia in Broken Creek after these floodwaters were channelled downstream, Spring flood events can provide benefits to native fish populations through the provi- sion of spawning stimuli (Lake 1967; Mackay 1973) and production of zooplank- ton during the initial feeding phase of juve- mile native fish (Geddes and Puckridge 1989; Rowland 1992). Extensive flow events are probably of greater benefit than smaller floods. However, large proportions of floodplain and riparian habitats in the Murray-Darling Basin have been altered sig- nificantly with the clearing of large tracts of native vegetation in these areas and their replacement, in many instances, with exotic crop and pasture species that are often intol- erant of extended periods of flooding. Inun- dation of these species causes rapid de-oxygenation of the floodwater due to the increased biological oxygen demand associ- ated with the microbial degradation of or- ganic matter (Reddy and Chhonkar 1990), and consequently poses potential problems for fish and aquatic invertebrates (Wel- comme 1979; Gehrke 1993), Under natural conditions, more often than is currently the case (e.g. Dexter ef al. 1986), large scale flooding occurred in many floodplain areas First observation of Fish Kill SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER Fig. 4. Mean daily flows for the Broken Creek at K Vol, 112 (2) 1995 atamatite, Sept-Noy 1993. Gauge Station 404214A. 97 Contributions along the Murray River and its tributaries. However, under current land management regimes, extensive flooding of land cleared of native vegetation may not be desirable as this could exacerbate potential water quality problems associated with some flood events. Departmental records and verified angler reports indicate that Broken Creek is one of only a few waterbodies in Victoria that sup- port a naturally occurring riverine popula- tion of Freshwater Catfish (T. Raadik, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, pers. comm.). Freshwater Cat- fish has recently been nominated for listing under the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guar- antee Act (1988). The fact that this species was recorded in the fish kill places some concern over the future of this population in both this area and Victoria generally. This recent fish kill also adds to the concern regarding the status of the natural Murray Cod population of Broken Creek, particu- larly considering the heavy recreational an- gling pressure which resulted in the removal of over 1000 Murray Cod from the creek during the 1992 spawning season (D. Trickey, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, pers. comm.). Murray Cod is not listed nationally as a threatened species (Wager and Jackson 1993), It is, however, considered in Victoria as ‘Vulnerable’ (Koehn and Morison 1990) and is listed under the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988), An Action Statement outlining a range of management recommendations designed to enhance the conservation status of the species is ex- pected to be released in 1994 (Reed er al, in prep.). Given the present conservation status of Murray Cod in Victoria, it is of concern that currently depleted Victorian stocks of Murray Cod are subject to fish kills (Cad- wallader and Gooley 1984), Revegetation with indigenous plant spe- cies and fencing of riparian zones and flood- plain areas may be an option to reduce the incidence of fish kills. The manipulation of regulatory structures to provide water at de- sirable times of year to floodplain and river- ine habitat areas is seen as a means of ameliorating the current unnatural flow Te- 98 gimes for the benefit of native fish Jacobs 1989). Migration of several native fish spe- cies into forested floodplain areas and sex- ual maturation of these species have been associated with large scale seasonal flood events in Barmah Forest (McKinnon, un- publ. data), Thus, it appears that spring flood events provide benefits to native fish populations in relatively natural environ- ments but on a large scale may actually be deleterious to their populations in areas where natural habitats have been attenuated. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the fol- lowing people for their contributions to this paper: Richard Gasior for assistance in the field; Sue Jones for word processing; Nicole Hunter (Department of Agriculture) for in- formation on flood-tolerance of crop and pasture species; Greg Williams (Nathalia Shire Council) for providing information on the extent of flooding; Hugh Cathrie for supplying the hydrographic data and Geoff Gooley, Tom Ryan and John Koehn for con- structive comments on the manuscript. This work was funded by the Murray-Darling Basin Commission under the Natural Re- sources Management Strategy. References Anderson, J.R. (undated). (DCNR Filenote unpublished). Anderson, J.R. and McMamara, D. (1984). Report on Investigation of fish kills at Lake Nillahcootie. 19 December, 1984 (DCNR unpublished). Anon. (1984), Redfin in Lake Hamilton are Dying. ‘Hamilton Spectator’. 3 November 1984, Anon, (1986). Fish Kill at Reedy Swamp. 17 February, 1986 (DCNR Filenote, unpublished). Barley, R.J. (1983). A comparison of the responses to hypoxia of the yabbie Cherax destructor Clark and the Murray crayfish Euastacus armatus (von Mar- tens). B.Sc.(Hons.) Thesis (unpublished), University of Adelaide. Beer, T., Young, P.C., Humphries, R.B. and Burgess, J.S. (1982). ‘Environmental Water Quality. A Systems Study in Tuggeranong Creek and Kambah Pool’. (CRES Monograph Australian National University: Canberra), Bezzobs, T. (1988). A comparison of the respiratory responses of the Murray crayfish Euastacus arma- tus(von Martens) and the yabby Cherax destructor (Clark) to maintained hypoxia. B.Sc. (Hons.) Thesis (unpublished), University of Adelaide. Cadwallader, PL. (1978). Some causes of the decline in range and abundance of native fish in the Murray- Darling River system. Proceedings of the Rayal So- ciety of Victoria 90, 211-224. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Cadwallader, PL, (1986). Flow regulation in the Murray River system and its effect on the native fish fauna, In ‘Stream Protection. The Management of Rivers for Instream Uses’. Ed LC. Campbell. (Water Studies Centre: Chisholm Institute of Technology). Cadwallader, PL. and Gooley, G.J. (1984). Past and present distributions and translocations of Murray Cod, Maccullochelia peeli and Trout Cod, Maccul- lochella macquariensis (Pisces:Percichthyidae) in Victoria, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 96, 33-43. Cullen, P., Rosich, R, and Bek, P. (1978). “A Phosphorus Budget for Lake Burley Griffin and Management Implications for Urban Lakes’. Australian Water Re- sources Council Technical Paper No, 31. (Australian Government Printing Service). Dexter, B.D., Rose, H.J. and Davies, N. (1986), River Tegulation and associated forest management prob- Jems in the River Murray red gum forests, Australian Forestry 49, 16-27. Doudoroff, P. and Shumway, D. L. (1970). Dissolved Oxygen Requirements of Freshwater Fishes. FAO echnical Paper No. 86. Douglas, J. (1993). Victorian Fisheries Research Institute, Snobs Creek, Inland Fisheries Research, Field Trip Report Summary, Broken Creek Fish Survey, 8-12 November, 1993. (DCNR unpublished). Geddes, M.C. and Puckridge, J.T. (1989), Survival and growth of larval and juvenile native fish: the impor- tance of the floodplain. In ‘Proceedings of the Work- shop on Native Fish Management’. Canberra, 16-17 June, 1988. (Murray-Darling Basin Commission). Gehrke, P.-C. (1991). Avoidance of inundated floodplain habitat by larvae of Golden Perch (Macquaria am- bigua Richardson): influence of water quality or food distribution? Australian Journal of Marine and i Freshwater Research 42, 707-719. Gehrke, P.C, (1993). Effects of river red gum, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, litter on Golden Perch, Macquaria ambigua. Journal of Fish Biology 43, 265-279. Gooley, G. J., Anderson, T. A, and Appleford, P. (in prep.). Aspects of the reproductive cycle and gonadal devel- opment of Murray Cod, Maccullochella peelii peelii (Mitchell) (Percichthyidae), in Lake Charlegrark and adjacent farm dams, Victoria, Australia. Gregory, D. (1994), Outback outery at fish slaughter. “Border Morning Mail’, March Ist. 1994. Harbison, P. (1984). Fish kills can have natural causes. Australian Fisheries. April. 18-20. Hart, B.T., Day, G., Sharp-Paul, A. and Beer,T. (1988), Water quality variations during a flood event in the Annan River. North Queensland. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 39, 225-43. Hart, B.T., Ottaway, E.M. and Noller, B.N. (1987). Magela Creek system, Norther Australia. I. 1982-83 wet season water quality. Australian Journal of Ma- rine and Freshwater Research 38, 261-68. ; Jacobs, T.A. (1989). Regulation of the Murray-Darling River System. Jn ‘Proceedings of the Workshop on Native Fish Management’ (Canberra, 16-17 June 1988). : Koehn, J.D. and Morison, A.K. (1990). A review of the conservation status of native freshwater fish in Vic- toria. The Victorian Naturalist 107, 13-25. , Lake, J.S. (1967), Rearing experiments with five species of Australian freshwater fishes [: Inducement to Vol. 112 (2) 1995 Spawning, Australian Journal of Marine and Fresh- water Research 18, 137-153. Langdon, J. (1984). Laboratory Report - Fish kill of juvenile Redfin Perch at Lake Mokoan, ! December 1984, (Department of Agriculture unpublished). Langdon, J. (1986). A new viral disease of redfin perch. Australian Fisheries. December, 35-36. Langdon, .S., Humphrey, J.D., Williams, L.M., Hyatt, A.D, and Westbury, H.A. (1986). First virus isolation from Australian fish: an iridovirus-like pathogen from Redfin Perch, Perca fluviatilis L. Journal of Fish Diseases, 9, 263-268, Langdon, J.S. and Humphrey, J.D. (1987). Epizootic haematopoietic necrosis, a new viral disease in Red- fin Perch, Perca fluviatilis L, Australia, Journal of Fish Diseases 10, 289-297, Mackay, N.J. (1973). Histological changes in the ovaries of the Golden Perch, Plectroplites ambiguus, associ- ated with the reproductive cycle. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 24, 95-101. Moller, H, and Scholz (1991). Avoidance of oxygen-poor zones by fish in the Elbe River. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 7, 176-182. Mortissy, N.M., Caputi, N. and House, R.R. (1984). Tolerance of marron (Cherax tenuimanus) to hypoxia in relation to aquaculture. Aquaculture 41, 61-74. Pollard, D,A,, Ingram, B.A., Harris, J.H. and Reynolds, L.F (1990), Threatened fishes in Australia-an oyer- view. Journal of Fish Biology 37 (Supplement A), 67-78. Reddy, M.S. and Chhonkar, PK. (1990), Oxygen diffu- sion rate and redox potential as influenced by flood- ing, organic matter and regulatory chemicals. Journal of the Indian Society ef Soil Science 38, 731-732. Reed, J., Gooley, G. and Davidson, I. (in prep.). Murray Cod Maccullochella peelii peelii. Flora and Fauna Guarantee Action Statement. Reynolds, L.F. (1976). Decline of the native fish species in the River Murray. SAFIC 8, 19-24. Richardson, B.A. (1981). Fish Kill in the Belmore River, Macleay River Drainage, NSW, and the possible influence of flood mitigation works. In ‘Proceedings of the floodplain Management Conference’, 7-10 May, 1980. (Canberra, AGPS: Canberra). Rowland, S.J. (1989). Aspects of the History and Fishery of The Murray Cod, Maccullochella peeli (Mitchell) (Percichthyidae). Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 111, 201-213. Rowland, S.J. (1992). Diet and feeding of Murray Cod (Maccullochella peelii) Larvae. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 113, 193-201. Rural Water Commission of Victoria (1988). Chemical Methods, Volume 1. Routine Water Analyses, Report No. CE25, 2nd Ed. Trim, A.H. and Marcus, J.M, (1990). Integration of long- term fish kill data with ambient water quality moni- toring data and application to water quality management. Environmental Management 14, 389- 396. Welcomme, R.L. (1979). ‘Fisheries Ecology of Flood- plain Rivers’. (Longman: London), Wager, R. and Jackson, P. (1993). The Action Plan for ‘Australian Freshwater Fishes. Australian Nature Conservation Agency Endangered Species Program Project Number 147. 99 Contributions Occupancy of Peregrine Falcon Eyries near Melbourne during 1976-84 and 1992 WB. Emison! and V.G. Hurley” A study of Peregrine Falcons breeding at 21 eyries (20 oncliffs and one on adam wall) near Melbourne between 1976 and 1984, showed a progressive decline in occupancy of the sites during the years in which data were collected (Emison et al. 1993). This occurred at the same time as high levels of eggshell thinning and contamination of eggs by organochlorine pesticides were known to exist within the population. However, dur- ing the same period the observation time spent by the scientists at eyrie sites was progressively reduced, In their paper, Emi- son et al. (1993) indicated that data on eyrie occupancy were not sufficient to determine whether the observed decline was. due to pesticide contamination or to sampling bias. They suggested that a re-examination of the 20 cliff sites and the dam wall site near Melbourne during a future breeding season would be useful in determining whether the occupancy had actually dropped or, was commensurate with the levels found in the 1976-1984 study. During the breeding season in 1992, all 21 nest sites were again visited and details of occupancy were recorded. Most of the sites were visited during the incubation period but there were not many follow-up visits during the chick-rearing period, We found that 18 of the 21 sites (86%) were occupied by either one or two adult Peregrine Falcons, This is slightly higher than the mean occupancy (84%) for the nine years of 1976-1984. When this figure of 86% is included with those data which showed a negative correlation between the percentage of sites occupied and the years during which the data were collected (1976- 1984), there is no longer a negative correla- tion. The previous data would have predicted a percentage occupancy of onl about 59% (Fig. 1). ae u ae Box 4228, Melbourne University, Parkville Vic. 2 Department of Conservation and Natural Ri P.O. Box 137, Heidelberg, Vic. 3084, re 100 Therefore, we conclude that the decline in occupancy which was recorded between 1976 and 1984 was mainly because of sam- pling bias. However, it is possible that some contribution to the reversal of this decline can be attributed to reduced pesticide levels in the environment. The use of DDT in Aus- tralia peaked in the mid 1970’s and then declined until it was finally banned for use on farms in 1987 (Olsen et al. 1992). By 1983, DDT residues in Peregrine eggs had begun to decline in Victoria (Olsen et al. 1992) and this may have been a factor in the recovery of the percentage occupancy of Peregrine eyries between 1984 and 1992. Regardless of the reasons for the recovery % ie) ie; C U Pp A N C Y ee oe oes Oa Pee ee Oe ae Cae ee oe es ee ee) 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 30 92 YEAR * Predicted QO Actual Fig. 1. Percentage of territories occupied by one or two Peregrine Falcons in relation to the years in which the data were collected. The solid part of the regression line indicates the negative correla- tion between the percentage of sites occupied and the data collection years of 1976 - 1984. If this negative correlation had continued during 1985 - 1991 (illustrated by broken line) when no data were collected, the predicted occupancy for 1992 from the regression (y = 93.86 - 2.02x) would be about 59%. However, the actual percentage occupancy was found to be 86%. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions in occupancy, most (86%) of the Peregrine eyries around Melbourne that were studied a decade or so ago are still occupied by one or two adult Peregrines. Of the three eyries found not to be occupied, two were probably vacated because of human disturbance and the other one probably because of natural causes. References Emison, W.B., Bren W.M, and White, C.M. (1993). In- fluence of Weather on the Breeding of the Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus Near Melbourne. Jn ‘Aus- tralian Raptor Studies’. Ed. Penny Olsen. (Aus- tralasian Raptor Association, RAOU: Melbourne). Olsen, P,, Emison, B., Mooney, N. and Brothers, N. ( 1992). DDT and Dieldrin: Effects on Resident Pere- grine Falcon Populations in South-easterm Australia. Ecotoxicology 1: 89-100. A Record of an Introduced Fish, the Oriental Weather Loach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus: Family Cobitidae) from the River Murray Upstream of Corowa Michael MacQueen! The Oriental Weather Loach Misgurnus anguillicaudatus is a popular cold water aquarium fish in southern Australia, The species is typically found in still or slow- flowing waters with muddy bottoms (Burchmore er al. 1990). Weather Loach are tolerant of low oxygen levels, utilising at- mospheric oxygen under extreme condi- tions (Burchmore et al.1990). Feral populations of the species are estab- lished at a number of locations throughout south-east Australia, having been recorded from the Yarra River near Melbourne, the Wingecarribee River south-west of Sydney and the Ginninderra Creek in the A.C.T. (Allen 1984; Burchmore et al.1990; Linter- mans etal, 1990). The species has previously been recorded from the River Murray at least as far upstream as the confluence of the Ovens and Murray rivers (G.P Closs pers. comm.). In this note I report the occurrence of the species in the bed of a dry depression on the floodplain of the River Murray be- tween Corowa and Howlong (Grid refer- ence 191591; 15,000, Lowersdale 8126-5, 1st ed.). A single specimen of Weather Loach (length 61 mm) was discovered under a log while collecting Yabbies Cherax destructor on 24 July 1994, The fish was collected from a small depression located under the log. A further search yielded no additional speci- mens, At the time of collection, the depres- 199 Redlands Road, Corowa, N.S.W. 2646. - Vol. 112 (2) 1995 sion contained no water although the sur- rounding soil was very damp. The depres- sion in which the fish was found was located 95 m from the main channel of the River Murray, the nearest body of water. Another billabong containing water was located 105 m away in the opposite direction. Upon finding the specimen I was able to identify it as the Oriental Weather Loach having read a newspaper article earlier this year. Formal identification was made by my Biology lecturer Dr G.P. Closs, La Trobe University - Wodonga who also retained the specimen in his private aquarium. Water levels in the River Murray dropped following the cessation of summer irrigation flow in late April. Presumably the billabong in which this Weather Loach was found would have been isolated at some time dur- ing May. The exact time at which the depres- sion dried out is unknown. The fish appeared to have suffered no obvious ill effect due to being out of water because it tried to wiggle away when first discovered and swam ac- tively when placed in water. To my knowledge, this record is the fur- thest upstream occurrence of Weather Loach in the River Murray. The origin of the speci- men is not known, and could be derived from populations located further down- stream or a recent aquarium release. It is not known whether there is a permanent popu- Jation in the section of the Murray River. The finding of the fish in the absence of water is also significant, suggesting that this species 101 Naturalist Note may be able to tolerate a wider range of conditions compared with any other native or introduced fish currently recorded from the River Murray (Cadwallader and Back- house 1983). It may be able to colonise some temporary wetland habitats from which other species are presently excluded due to periodic drying. References Allen S. (1984) Occurrence of juvenile Weatherfish Mis- gurnus anguillicaudatus (Pisces: Cobitidae) in the Yarra River. The Victorian Naturalist 101, 240-242. Burchmore, J., Faragher, R and Thorncraft, G (1990) Occurrence of the introduced Oriental Weather Loach Misgurnus anguillicaudatus in the Wingecar- ribee River, New South Wales. Jn ‘Introduced and translocated fishes and their ecological effects’. Ed. D.A. Pollard, (Department of Primary Industries and Energy: Canberra). Cadwallader, P.L and Backhouse, G.N (1983).*A guide to the freshwater fish of Victoria’. (Government Print- ing Office: Melbourne). Lintermans, M. Rutzou, T and Kukolic, K (1990). Intro- duced fish of the Canberra region - recent range expansions. Jn ‘Introduced and translocated fishes and their ecological effects.’ Ed. D.A, Pollard. (De- partment of Primary Industries and Energy; Can- berra). Weather Loach, Drawing courtesy of Department of Conservation and Natural Resources - Fisheries Branch, From our Naturalist in Residence, Cecily Falkingham Grey-headed Flying Fox On Tuesday 11 January 1994, I observed a small group of Grey-headed Flying Foxes in my garden in Mitcham. They were feeding on the fruit of an Ornamental Cherry Plum Prunus sp. The time was 11 p.m. ! had visited the Botanic gardens in Mel- bourne on several occasions to view these beautiful animals so you can imagine my surprise, delight and excitement when | made the discovery, During spring, summer and autumn I stroll around our garden with a small spotlight and miniature tape recorder, These nocturnal tambles have been carried out for many years and even the neighbours no longer worry when the sharp beam of the spotlight strays into their gardens late in the evenings, Nocturnal insects, spiders and frogs so far being the main attractions with the nearby 102 calls of Boobook Owls adding to the joy of my night walks. Many people would be aware of the noise that Grey-headed Flying Foxes make whilst feeding not to mention the loud noise made by the large wings or flight membrane as they fly overhead, I watched the bats each evening from ap- proximately 11 p,m. until midnight or some- times until 2 a.m. in the morning depending on how long I could tolerate being eaten alive by mosquitoes. 1 found that they arrived within five min- utes of their 11 pm ‘rendez-vous’ with the Cherry plums. Isoon discovered how good their eye-sight was when one evening I wore white sneak- ers (normally I wore dark clothing and shoes), they flew around and over, circling The Victorian Naturalist | Grey-headed Flying Fox. Photo by Lindy Lumsden, my garden again and again and not until I hid myself did they settle down to their meal, The group of seven animals divided their time between my garden and a garden nearby of over 3 ha. After gaining permis- sion from the owners of the neighbours property I tried to observe what else they were feeding on. I discovered that they had arrived one month ago on the larger property and had possibly been feeding on plums and loquat fruit, arriving at this property at 10.45 p.m. each evening. By the time they had arrived at my garden all the fruit had been eaten at their first destination. Within three nights almost all the cherry plums were eaten in my garden. Their food then consisted of nectar from Eucalyptus globulus sub species bi-costata and E, cornuta. Both of these Eucalypts growing on the neighbours property were heavy with flowers. Our last sighting of the bats was on 22 January 1994. After making enquiries from Peter Menk- Vol, 112 (2) 1995 horst from the Arthur Rylah Institute, it would seem to be the first sighting from Mitcham where 1 live, It also seems to be the first recorded sighting of the bats feeding on Eucalyptus cornuta. I phoned two other Naturalists who liye in Mitcham, both of whom had no records of previous sightings in our area. Conclusions: © that the bats first food preference was a variety of plums and loquat fruit, and only when these were all gone did they turn their attention to the flowering Eu- calypts; ® their arrival in the two gardens was al- most at the same time each evening. Pos- sibly the bats left the Botanic Gardens in Melbourne at dusk, feeding at ‘random’ on fruits and nectar in other gardens on their way to Mitcham; ® thatin spite of several Eucalptus sp. flow- ering in the Mullum Mullum valley nearby, none produced the volume of flowers and the density of foliage protec- tion as did the two Eucalypt food plants previously mentioned; ® that this ‘appears’ to be the first record of Grey-headed Flying Fox sighted in Mitcham. It does appear that they are extending their range from Melbourne in their search for food; ® that in spite of a dog on the larger prop- erty barking intermittently during feed- ing they were not ‘put off their food’. The barking ceased when I asked the owners to kindly keep the dog inside at night, which they gladly complied with, being as delighted as I with their nocturnal visi- tors; ® thatin spite of a den of foxes between the two properties and a lot of fox activity in Mitcham they managed to survive. In fact, feeding on my property was as low as 2 m when the plums up higher in the tree had been eaten. We have a high population of cats around my house with two immediate neighbours owning four between them. It was infuriat- ing one night to watch one of the cats stalking 103 Book Review the bats, needless to say I intervened, The bats, feeding quite noisily at the time, were unaware of the danger. Still, in spite of dogs, cats and foxes, the seven animals survived. The Grey-headed Flying Fox seems to be extending its feeding locations further than previously recorded until my observations in Mitcham, which is a first, as far as we know. I would like a response from readers of The Victorian Naturalist as to their own observations in the eastern suburbs and be- yond if possible, I am particularly interested in the food preferences of the Flying Fox. Mr Peter Menkhorst would also appreciate any information in future on distribution etc. and he can be contacted at the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, 123 Brown St, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084. Cecily Falkingham 27 Chippewa Ave, Mitcham, Victoria 3132 Trees of Victoria and Adjoining Areas (Fully revised 5th Edition) by Leon Costermans Publisher: The Author. 1994. 176 Pages, 7 pages colour photographs. RRP $12.00. There can be few Victorians interested in the outdoors and more particularly in learn- ing about the surrounding bush who have not treasured and carried with them, a copy of ‘little Costermans’ ‘Trees of Victoria: an Illustrated Field Guide’. For me this genu- inely back pocket-sized book was indispen- sable when we first came to Australia and all eucalypts seemed to look disconcertingly alike. That was back in 1966, the year in which the original was published. Since then we alone must have accounted for several of the 120,000 copies which have been sold - we've worn them out, given them away, there’s one in the house, one in the car etc. This new revised edition, which brings in more of the areas adjoining Victoria (after all, plants know no political boundaries) has already, in only a few months, sold out its first printing. The highly successful and ac- cessible format of the 1966 original has been largely retained with, for the eucalypts, de- tailed line drawings of leaves, bark and buds, plus an overall sketch of the form of the tree, plus a black and white photograph of the general bark type, The language is simple, witha glossary for those terms that have been Necessary, and like elsewhere in the book there is excellent 104 cross-referencing. Like the equally valuable ‘big Costermans’ - ‘Trees and Shrubs of Southeastern Australia’, this is a book not just to name plants, but one from which you genuinely learn, in that the plants featured are grouped according to their relationships, not by the botanically meaningless criterion of the alphabet! In addition to the drawings which allow easy identification, there is now a section reflecting the growing interest of the human community in both ecological relationships and diversity of vegetation types. Simple line drawings of vegetation profiles are used in this section along with descriptions of soils and typical localities for each vegeta- tion type. In my opinion, this sort of infor- mation is enormously important if we are to develop a truly caring and responsible atti- tude to our bushland. No longer is it just enough to name a plant and move on to the next specimen. It is to Leon's great credit that he has been able to encompass both approaches so clearly and pleasurably in such a small and inexpensive volume. We are all, beginners and those more advanced, in his debt as a result. Thank you Leon. Jane Calder The Victorian Naturalist How to be a Field Naturalist Shell Collecting Noel Schleiger! Activities ‘Shell Collecting’ is usually confined to collecting alon ctin g coastal beaches although th enthusiast will include freshwater examples. ‘Collecting’ should be restricted to den i observations of living animals. You should be aware of the restrictions on the removal of ae material in some areas. Appropriate permits should be obtained - refer to clubs listed elow. As a Field Naturalist specialising in ‘shell collecting’ you can look forward to participating in: Field collecting trips; Participating in surveys; Making your own collection; Studies of species behaviour; Recognition of fossil shells in old marine deposits; Conservation of species; Conservation of habitat; Studies of shell associations. Field Guides/Handbooks Australian Sea Shells. J. Child. (Periwinkle Press: Sydney), What Shell is That? Neville Coleman. (Lansdowne Press: NSW). Marine Invertebrates of Southern Australia. (Eds.) S.A. Shepherd and I.M. Thomas. Australian Sea Shores. W.J. Dakin. (Angus & Robertson: NSW), Marine Molluscs of Victoria, National Museum of Victoria. (Melbourne University Press). Coastal Invertebrates of Victoria. Marine Research Group of Victoria and National Museum of Victoria. Life on the Rocky Shores of Southeastern Australia. Victorian National Parks Association, Melbourne. Equipment Hand lens (10 or 20 magnification) for looking at detail on shell specimens. Plastic bags, labels, water-resistant pens and plastic ties are essential for collecting for later analysis. Look-box or face mask for observations in rockpools. Camera, photography is important for illustration and study, Sketching equipment, sketches can bring out features not seen in photographs. Clubs and societies Marine Research Group Malacological Society of Victoria FNCV Journals . Journal of the Malacological Society of Australia, produced annually and deals with Mollusca. Australian Shell News, produced quarterly, related topics. The Victorian Naturalist, occasional articles on marine life. : Field Nats News (Newsletter of the FNCV), produced monthly, occasional articles on field trips. Enquiries : Your FNCY contact for shell collecting is Noel Schleiger and you can contact him on (03) 435 8408. 135/20 Were Street, Montmorency, Victoria 3094. Vol. 112 (2) 1995 105 Letter A Tribute to Alex Burns | Dear Editor The news of the death of Alex Burns sad- dened me indescribably. He had been a good friend to me. For several years, it has been on my mind to write to Alex but I have not done so, simply because 1 had no address and never developed the energy to get in touch with someone who would know. Now it is too late and I have never made due acknow- ledgement of an ancient debt. I was admitted as an associate member of the FNCV on 13 December 1920. My spe- cial interest was Lepidoptera. Very shortly after joining, I was introduced to Alex, Al- though Alex was then aged in his early twen- ties and I was eight years younger, we became friends and almost immediately | was Visiting him at his home in Lower Fern- tree Gully. The Burns property fronted Dor- set Road and was backed by the railway line, so the way to it was by foot along the rail track about a half mile from the Lower Fern- tree Gully Station. Alex lived in the farm house with an older, much older, brother and sister. As lremember his story, when he was born his mother was remarkably old, in her middle fifties. For a young man of 22, a boy of 14 is still a child, but never did Alex treat me, discuss with me, talk to me about any subject other than as with an equal, Even on the subject of butterflies, with me, he took the role of guide rather than that of an expert. He included me in many of his excursions. Several times with Charles French Jr, we went to Springvale where there was then natural bush country adjoining the old race track. Each time, our quarry was the pupae of what we called then Miletia delicia, (now Hypo- chrysops) to be found on Acacia mearnsii. That was the only way to collect them; but- terflies never came below the higher branches of the food plant and so were im- possible to net. We went together to Mount Donna Buang. Alex was making his own survey of the incidence of Macleays Swallowtail. So it was by train to Warburton, a night's rest ina shopkeeper’s spare room and then, early in 106 the morning, a hike straight up the mountain on a timber tramway which took us to the | mountain road three or four km from the summit. No vehicles used the road that sum- mer. The road was strewn with eucalypts brought down by winter snow, making it hard work for us to climb over them all. Several times too, we went to the Moorooduc Railway Station and from there walked the high ground back to Frankston, or several times once with Len Thorn, who got stung by a scorpion, to Woori Yallock RS and from there by bush to another station which, I think, was Seville, or once from Yarra Junction over the Don Gap to Heales- ville, a long walk. We wandered the open grassy country around the Broadmeadows RS, or, with Charles Barrett to the heath- lands near the Cheltenham RS. Always Alex had something specific in mind, always I Jearned much, not only of butterflies but also of native species, zoological and botanical. Mentioning Len Thorn’s casualty reminds me of Charles Oke, for some time the Club’s secretary. His interest was spiders and he was questioning the dangers attributed to spider bites. To satisfy himself about the subject, he teased all kinds of spiders into sinking their fangs into him. He experienced no adverse effect. Then, in discussion, he mentioned he was going to experiment with a Red-Back. Some of the audience at the FNCV meeting were shocked. Then, and later he received so many reports of first- hand very adverse experiences of Red-Back bites that he desisted. Years later it struck me; his inoculation by minor bites may have had the effect of inuring him to every kind of bite. But as he desisted, how can we form an opinion? As I write, it comes to mind, in 1922 my’ mother took me for a fortnight’s holiday to Double Bay. It so happened, at that time Alex: was also in Sydney. Together he and I ex: plored St Georges River to find, under th waterside rocks, the largest centipedes an scorpions I have ever seen. Another day wi took the tram from Manly to Narrabeen, Thi tram ran mostly not along a road at all, bu The Victorian Nat ’ through heath and low ocean-side scrub. My memory tells me after leaving the precincts of Manly, we saw very few houses until we reached the village of Narrabeen. Around 1929, I allowed my membership to drop, but rejoined the club in 1938. In the ' thirties, Alex worked from an office near my city address, 430 Little Collins Street. De- _ spite my not having seen him for some years, _ our friendship was as ever. It is here that I ‘think I find a minor error in Sheila Houghton’s account as to the beginning of Alex’s interest in orchids. It was in the early _ thirties that Alex had an orchid house at his Blackburn home. This was very helpful to , me. It was a time when, if you were taking | out your girl of the moment to anything special, you gave her a corsage to wear, The _ centre flower was most commonly a garde- nia or a cyclamen and, because they were hard to find, rarely an orchid. I had the great advantage that Alex would bring to the city _ for me an orchid (Dendrobium, Cymbidium or Cattleya) for the low price of two shil- lings. In the florist an orchid cost at least seven and sixpence and, as that was about the price of a front stalls seat at the theatre, _ it was for any young fellow a lot of money. A friendly florist would complete the posy. A couple of times I visited Alex at Black- burn. In addition to his orchid house of which I remember only that he had a variety of epiphytes including several species of Miltonias which I had not ever seen before, he had an amazing garden on the north side _ of his house. It was a garden with literally an ‘unexampled variety of tropical species _ growing there healthily in the open. Alex had ‘spent much time in Queensland, an area always attractive to him, if only because of its large population of handsome butterflies. [asked him how he managed to persuade Queensland species to grow so well in Melbourne. His recipe: give them copious ‘Water in summer and keep them as dry as ible in winter. Some years later, after I ied, I had a north facing corner in our 1 cannot remember why I let my member- ship lapse. Perhaps it was because the thir- ties were very difficult years. And then the war came. I think Alex moved to Queens- land, I am not sure. But I completely lost touch with him, seeing him again in Mel- bourne purely by chance only twice. All the same our meetings were just as though we had parted the day before. I have never forgotten the debt I owe Alex and with him many other members of the Field Naturalists Club; Edward Pescott, Charles French, Bert Clinton, Miss R.E. Chisholm, Charles Daley, are just a few that spring to mind. I have often wondered how they may have discussed having this brat along with them on three summer camps in the years 1923, 25 and 28 to Wilson’s Prom- ontory. In my later membership Crosbie Morrison, Stan Colliver and the Saroviches come high in my memory. Stan was then the Club sec- retary and intense in his study of palaeontol- ogy. In addition to all that entailed, one Sunday each month Stan enthused us by having a gathering of young (and not so young) Club members to his Essendon home where, over time, we discussed every aspect of nature study, The exigencies of war brought those meetings to an end. In short, these people, and no doubt first among them Alex Burns, enriched my life to such an extent that even now, daily, I expe- rience the benefit. And itis probable that one could trace the line of causation from those early influences that we have now retired to this high Strzelecki country where our home is now surrounded by the Tarra Bulga Na- tional Park, much of it in anear pristine state. I could only wish that more young people would be attracted to the Club. But to do so artificially would be very difficult and per- haps not at all effective. How to stimulate one from within is a moot problem indeed. Cedric Ralph RMB 7560, Balook, Victoria 3971 107 Australian Natural History Medallionist is Honoured in the 1995 Australia Day Honours List Associate Professor Michael James Tyler was made an Officer of the Order of Australia for services to zoology, in particular, his work with Australian amphibians. _ Michael Tyler was the Australian Natural History Medallionist in 1980. Australian Natural History Medallion Trust Fund The following donations were gratefully received during 1994: Valda Dedman $ 10 Stawell Field Naturalists Club $ 10 Royal Society of Victoria $100 Ballarat Field Naturalists Club $ 25 Peninsula Field Naturalists Club $ 5 Helen Aston $100 If you would like to contribute to this fund which supports the Australian Natural History Medallion, donations should be sent to: The Treasurer, The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria, National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, Victoria 3141. Cheques should be made payable to the Australian Natural History Medallion Trust Fund. The Medallion is awarded annually to a person who is considered to have made the most significant contribution to the understanding of Australian natural history in the last ten years. Sheila Houghton Membership Rates 1 January 1995 to 31 December 1995 INDIVIDUAL (ELECTED MEMBERS) MEMBERSHIP Single Membership $35 Joint Membership (for all categories) $45 Concessional Rate for each individual country member (more than 50km from GPO)/ student/ pensioner/ unemployed person $25 Junior (under 18, no ‘Victorian Naturalist’) $5 Pensioner Card/ Student ID IN UTES. 5225, s:cace aoe mee are INSTITUTIONAL SUBSCRIPTION Within Australia $50 Overseas AUD $60 Australian Clubs $35 Send cheque to: The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria c/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, Victoria 3141. Naturalist Volume 112 (3) 1995 June 4#SEUM OF VICTORIA 29114 Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884 Thank You Robyn Council and members of The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria wish to express their appreciation for the time and hard work put in by Robyn Watson as Editor of The Victorian Naturalist from 1989 to 1995. Her experience and professional knowledge contributed to maintaining the high standard of the journal. New Members Members Ms AlexaRyhorchuk Fish Creek Ms Judith Alcorn Seymour Mr Andrew Saniga St Kilda Dr _ Alan Beasley Balwyn Ms Natasha Schedvin Plenty Mr Adrian Cameron Rosanna Ms Celia Smith Rhyll Mr Darren Carmon Tyabb Mr Keith Tan Glen Waverley Ms_ Anne Casey Ascot Vale Mr Robert Taylor North Bayswater Ms LyndaChambers = Mooroolbark Mr James Todd St Kilda Ms_ Pamela Clunie Diamond Creek Mr Rodney Vanderree Langwarren Mr Dale Cummings Bayswater Ms Brigid Vaughan Elwood Mrs Dawn Dennis Spotswood Mrs Kate Walsh Strzelecki Ms_ Sheila Devine Parkdale Ms _ Jill Weatherhead Selby Mr Darcy Duggan Selby Mr John Weiss Frankston Mr Matthew Dunstan Northcote Dr R.G. Wilson Bendigo Mr Clem Earp South Melbourne Mr _ Robert Wright Kew Mr Murray Ellis Broken Hill Ms Annika Everaardt Mt Waverley Mr David Falla Donald Joint Members Ms Sue Garner Benalla Ms Jackie and Ms Maree Gilbert Boronia Mr Halley Balaban Deepdene ; i M ae Claire Green Collingwood Mins sds Boog Glen Waverley iss Amy Hahs North Carlton Mr Ian Higgins Moorabbin Nie Se Dene Ms_ Susan Myers Kew Mr Peter Howden Axedale Miss Kelley Glaister and | Mrs_ Elspeth Jacobs Montrose Miss Peta Glaister Richmond Mr Scott Jessup Beachworth Mr Brian and Ms _ Catherine King North Carlton Mrs Valerie Hill Lower Templestowe Mr S.A, Larwood Port Melbourne Mr Ian and Mr David Laurie Broadford Mrs Joyce Hunt Research Mr Ray MacPherson Lower Templestowe | Mr Sean McMullen, Mrs Sheri McGrath Pascoe ae ao ae ane wand Ms Ann McGregor Brunswick Smyth-McMullen Melbourne Mr Dennis Meltzer Balaclava Mr David Mitchell and Ms_ Nadine Michel Fitzroy Ms Joanne Emsley Parkville Mr Charlie Pascoe Wangaratta Mr Max and Mr Rob Price Bendigo Mrs Carol Patterson Blackburn South Mr Bruce Quinn Yellingbo Mr Denys and Mr Philip Robinson Mornington Mrs Bertha Phillips Camberwell Mr Alan Robley Glenroy Dr Ron Westcott and - Ms Lucy Rogers Collingwood Ms Cheryl Taylor Williamstown Mr Tim Rowe East Ringwood ae LS my : s ristine Wlodarezyk Balliang East ‘ The Victorian Naturalist Volume 112 (3) 1995 June Editors: Ed and Pat Grey Index to Volume 111, 1994 is in the centre of this issue. Research Report Contributions Naturalist Note How to bea Field Naturalist Book Reviews Census Update ISSN 0042-5184 Leadbeater’s Possum in Sub-alpine Woodland at Lake Mountain, by A. Jelinek, D. Cameron, C. Belcher and L Turner vsccessesssessess 112 Revegetation of Habitat for the Helmeted Honeyeater in the Yarra Valley, by G. Gadsden and M. AShDyY...csscecccsesssesessessesssssseses 116 Astelia australiana (Liliaceae): An Overview, by E. James ............ 122 Geology of Popular Places in the Western MacDonnell Ranges, Central Australia, by Dr. A.W. Bedsley...ccsccccsccsessesesssesescsescsssescseses 126 Whipstick Nature Trail, by R.SJ\ Fletcher... cscccsscocsoseesserseeseassssnessserte 129 Those Amazing Mistletoe Plants, by Cecily Falkingham, Naturalist IME SIA ON Cer yarn Eadie marr iamine nari mecnaniae Nate bera sy 134 MTOM YHULY eg DOUBLES ccssneveqserevesttrescstdsqettstewoat cosets Fe atveakedenstay feist 136 Peninsula Plants: A Field Guide to Indigenous Plants of the Mornington Peninsula, by K. and P. Strickland, reviewer PRD ONICR TOFS ERENT book corns cRcteaE er peeectesessaenctaet sPabeahnseras Pepnes bees sees |e! Identification Handbook for Native Grasses, by M. Mitchell, ME VICWET MATE Met aati terertantarsrs earaitichinevsaneter ecrhcarerterrserarvartse 138 Census of the Vascular Plants of Victoria. Update Bulletin No 4.4, compiled by T . J. Entwisle ...ssssscsesseeseeseieisessensreersscesees 139 Cover: Drooping Mistletoe Amyema pendulum. Photograph courtesy James Calder. (see article on page 134) Research Report New Perspectives on the Ecology of Lake Mountain: The Discovery of Leadbeater’s Possum Gymnobelideus leadbeateri McCoy in Sub-alpine Woodland Ann Jelinek!, David Cameron’, Christopher Belcher® and Lucille Turner Introduction Lake Mountain plateau is situated at the western limit of the Australian alps in south- eastern Australia. It is biogeographically important and also has conservation sig- nificance at all levels - national, state and regional, This is indicated by the concentra- tion of rare and disjunct populations of species and communities, and the concen- tration of species and communities, particularly plants, at the geographic and ecological limits of their range (CNR 1994), Although no comprehensive ecological surveys have occurred at Lake Mountain, recent flora and fauna surveys of the Long Heath-Echo Flat area highlight new ecologi- cal information, including the discovery of Leadbeater’s Possum, Gymnobelideus lead- beateri McCoy, in sub-alpine woodland, These surveys were completed as part of an assessment of the environmental impacts of two proposed cross-country ski trails at Lake Mountain in December 1993 (CNR 1994), This paper reports the discovery of Leadbeater's Possum in sub-alpine wood- land and results of two subsequent Leadbeater’s Possum stagwatch surveys (sensu Lindenmayer et al, 1989) carried out with The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria. Further details on methodology, taxonomy and results of the environmental assessment are given in CNR (1994), Study Area Lake Mountain (37°31’S 145°53’B) is north-east of Melbourne and 20 km east of Marysville in the Central Highlands of Vic- toria, High average annual precipitation of around 1400 mm per annum occurs, with frequent snow falls during June to October (Land Conservation Council 1991). Australian Nature servati indange Species Unit, GPO Box 636, Csbere Aer sone Department of Conservation and Natural Resources 123 Brown St, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084, ECOSYSTEMS, RMB 7285 Timboon, Victoria 3268, 112 The study area is 2.5 km north of Lake Mountain summit, It includes approximate- ly 90 hectares of the Long Heath plateau between 1400 m and 1440 m asl, including two tributaries of the Taggerty River, anda small area of approximately 12 hectares at the head of the Royston River catchment between 1420 m to 1450 m asl. Leadbeater’s Possum in Sub-alpine Woodland Leadbeater’s Possum is listed as ‘endangered’ on Schedule | of the ‘En- dangered Species Protection Act’, 1992 and is listed as a threatened taxon on Schedule 2 of the ‘Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act’, 1988. The species is also classified as ‘endangered’ by IUCN (1993) and ‘endangered’ by CNR (1993). Extensive | surveys indicate that Leadbeater’s Possum is predominantly confined to the montane ash forests in the Central Highlands of’ Victoria (Lindenmayer et al, 1989; Linden-- mayer and Dixon 1992; Macfarlane andl Seebeck 1991). . Leadbeater’s Possum. Note that the white piect’ hanging down below the branch is bark. The Victorian Naturalis) ‘ Research Report In early December 1993, at 1500 h, three Leadbeater’s Possums were disturbed from a one-metre-high hollow in a Snow Gum (White Sallee) Eucalyptus pauciflora stump in sub-alpine woodland at the head of the Royston River catchment (Fig. 1). After a short time climbing the nearby Snow Gums and leaping from trunk to trunk, the animals retreated to the original stump and another that was 0.75 m high. Each stump had small hollows at 0.5 m and 0.25 m above the ground respectively. One stump was as- sociated with two other dead coppice stems, the other was associated with two live and three dead coppice stems. The stumps ranged from 20-30 cm diameter and one of the entrances part way up the stump was distinctly chewed (see Lindenmayer 1989). A subsequent stagwatch in early March 1994, involving 17 observers, recorded five Leadbeater’s Possums (two groups of two animals and one individual) spread over part of the same area and all within sub-alpine woodland. One possum group was sighted at dusk, the others were seen after dark. The possums were observed climbing Snow Gums and acacias or moving through the understorey shrubs. No animals were recorded during another stagwatch in late March 1994 with 13 observers in an adjoin- ing area to the west of the Panorama Trail, where one possum was spotlighted during the previous stagwatch. Habitat Characteristics In the study area, Leadbeater’s Possum was recorded between 1420-1445 m asl on a ridge in the headwaters of the Royston River. A montane ash forest dominated by Alpine Ash Eucalyptus delegatensis is situated 350 m to the east of the most north easterly sighting. These sites are separated by a rocky escarpment, wet sub-alpine heathland and sub-alpine woodland. Multi-stemmed Snow Gums with connect- ng canopies dominate the sub-alpine woodland which also includes mainly ma- ‘ture, scattered Mountain Hickory Wattle Acacia obliquinervia of 5-8 m in height. Average basal area of A. obliquinervia in the area is approximately 3.5 m7/ha, although clumps of acacias do occur. Vol, 112 (3) 1995 Fig. 1. Snow Gum stump from which three Leadbeater’s Possums emerged. There is abundant evidence throughout the sub-alpine woodland community in the study area that the density of A. obliquiner- via was high until quite recently, and that most individuals of the currently senescing age class have recently died and most have already collapsed. Therefore, stands with an understorey of A. obliquinervia are increas- ingly uncommon in the sub-alpine wood- land community of the Echo Flat-Long Heath area. Three of the Leadbeater’s Possums were sighted near the highest part of the ridge at approximately 1445 m in shrubby sub-al- pine woodland. The most elevated and exposed stands of shrubby sub-alpine wood- land, on dry flat ridgelines and north-west aspects, are characterised by widely-spaced, broad-crowned E. pauciflora and a discon- tinuous shrub stratum with a distinctive herbaceous flora in the intervening gaps. Shallow soils and occasional outcropping rock account for the gaps in the tree and shrub strata. These stands of shrubby sub-alpine wood- land are significant on account of theirrather 113 Research Report restricted occurrence and because their structural and floristic heterogeneity con- tributes to the highest stand biodiversity recorded for sub-alpine woodland vegeta- tion within the study area, This significant form of shrubby sub-alpine woodland is also at the ecological and altitudinal limit of this vegetation type in the Lake Mountain area (CNR 1994). The vegetation around the stumps, from which the Leadbeater’s Possum emerged, represents a grassy and herbaceous form of sub-alpine woodland in which the under- storey is dominated by the grass Poa ensiformis, which has an estimated cover of 40%, together with a suite of forbs of which the most common are Asperula pusilla, Hydrocotyle hirta and Leptostigma reptans. Shrubs are scattered and poorly represented. Eucalyptus pauciflora forms a continuous and uniform canopy of 15-18 m in height and estimated cover of 35%. The current stems of E. pauciflora apparently represent a single age class, mostly multi-stemmed and often including both living stems of canopy height and self-pruned stags or stumps arising from the same lignotuber. These observations are consistent with the interpretation that the stand regenerated prolifically following the 1939 wildfires. This stand occupies a well-drained mid- slope site of uniform 5% (estimated) slope, NNE aspect and 1425 m elevation asl. Stand diversity is low with only 22 vascular species and ten non-vascular cryptogams (4 mosses, 4 liverworts and 2 lichens) recorded within one quadrat. Four species (Orites lan- cifolia, Ozothamnus secundiflorus, Prost- anthera cuneata and Uncinia flaccida) are considered regionally significant by Beauglehole (1983) but these are all widespread within sub-alpine woodland at Lake Mountain. No plant species of state or national significance were recorded. Distribution and ecology The Atlas of Victorian Wildlife ( 1994) has several records for Leadbeater’s Possum in montane areas around Lake Mountain, in- cluding the Lake Mountain summit area. Leadbeater’s Possum has previously been tecorded approximately 1.8 km to the east at 114 1180 m in Alpine Ash (D.B. Lindenmayer pers. comm.) and 3.2 km to the south at approximately 1420 m, in the Snow Gum/Alpine Ash ecotone (Jenkin and Thomas 1991; D.B. Lindenmayer pers. comm.). A sighting of Leadbeater’s Possum in sub-alpine woodland on Mount Baw Baw in 1971 is reported in Lindenmayer (1989). However, there are no records of Leadbeater’s Possum at Lake Mountain in sub-alpine woodland, distant from £. delegatensis or the Snow Gum/Alpine Ash ecotone, that is, outside their potential home range. The importance of sub-alpine woodland for the conservation of Leadbeater’ s Possum and the habitat requirements and home range of Leadbeater’s Possum in this habitat are not known. As the sub-alpine woodland is under snow for three to four months each year, itis possible that Leadbeater’s Possum may use this habitat only on a seasonal basis. Snow Gum stumps and old, dead coppice branches may provide suitable nest sites. Lindenmayer (1991) demonstrated that Leadbeater’s Possums use particular trees with hollows over many years, although it is not known whether these hollows are in continuous use. Leadbeater’s Possum often change nest trees, some of which are oc- casionally shared with other arboreal mammals (Lindenmayer et al. 1990a). Leadbeater’s Possums nesting in low stumps could be vulnerable to predation and the loss of a connected canopy fragments their habitat, although proximity of tree trunks may be even more important for movement. Loss of these features could in- crease their susceptibility to predation because they lack a gliding membrane and thus, in areas without a connected canopy or — stem proximity, they need to descend into | the understorey or to ground-level to move between trees. Thus, considerable care needs to be taken in planning and construct- | ing ski trails which involve changes to the vegetation structure and cover. The sap from Acacia obliquinervia is an important food source for Leadbeater’ s Pos- sum (Smith 1984; Lindenmayer et al. 1994). Fresh bite marks on several A, obliquinervia near the potential nest sites of Leadbeater’s The Victorian Naturalist! Research Report Possum indicate that they may be extracting sap from this species. Snow Gums have abundant loose bark which provides a suitable environment for invertebrates. Arthropods and other inver- tebrates are an important protein source for _ Leadbeater’s Possum and their abundance may directly influence breeding success (Lindenmayer et al. 1990b). Given the low density of acacias and abundance of other insect feeders, invertebrates could be an im- portant food source for Leadbeater’s Possum in sub-alpine woodland at Lake Mountain. The major populations of Leadbeater’s Possum occur in the montane ash forests of the Central Highlands. These populations are critical to its future conservation (Lin- denmayer and Possingham 1994), However, further study of Leadbeater’ s Possum in sub- alpine woodland is needed. This may assist with developing long-term conservation strategies using population viability analysis to determine effective reserve systems and management prescriptions for the species (Lindenmayer and Possingham 1994). Acknowledgements Special thanks are extended to members of The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria (Fauna Survey Group) and the Upper Goul- burn Field Naturalists who endured the chilly mountain air during two nights of stagwatching and spotlighting. The authors gratefully acknowledge the constructive comments and information provided by Dr D. B. Lindenmayer. References Beauglehole, A.C. (1983). “The Distribution and Conser- yation of Vascular Plants in the Melbourne Area, Victoria’. (Western Victorian Field Naturalists Clubs Association: Portland). DCNR (1993).Threatened Faunain Victoria, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Victoria. Vol. 112 (3) 1995 STOP PRESS Open Day - inspect our new home (see p.121) Sunday 23 July, 2-4 p.m. DCNR (1994), An assessment of the environmental im- pacts of two proposed ski trails at Lake Mountain. (Unpublished), Jenkin, J.F, and Thomas, V.C, (1991). Lake Mountain, Surveys of vegetation and small mammal fauna in relation to proposed ski trails - Helicopter Flat, Gerraty’s to Snowy Hill, Snowy Hill. Alpine Resorts Commission. (Unpublished). Land Conservation Council (1991). Melbourne area, District 2 Review. Descriptive report, Land Conser- vation Council, Melbourne. Lindenmayer, D.B. (1989). The ecology and habitat re- quirements of Leadbeater’s Possum, Ph.D. thesis. (Australian National University, Canberra), Lindenmayer, D,B. (1991). A note on the occupancy of nest trees by Leadbeater’s Possum at Cambarville in the montaine ash forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 108, 128-129. Lindenmayer, D.B., Smith, A.P., Craig, S.A. and Lumsden, L.F. (1989). A survey of the distribution of Leadbeater’s Possum, Gymnobelideus lead- beateri McCoy, in the Central Highlands of Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 106,174-78. Lindenmayer, D.B., Cunningham, R.B., Tanton, M-T. and Smith, A. P. (1990a), The conservation of ar- boreal marsupials in the montane ash forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria, south-east Australia 1. Factors effecting the occupancy of trees with hollows, Biological Conservation 54, 111-131, Lindenmayer, D.B., Tanton, M.T. and Norton, T.W. (1990b). Leadbeater's Possum - A Test Case for Integrated Forestry. Search 21, 156-159. Lindenmayer, D.B, and Dixon, J.M, (1992). Anaddition- al historical record of Leadbeater’s Possum, Gymnobelideus leadbeateri McCoy, prior to the 1961 Rediscovery of the Species. The Victorian Naturalist 109, 217-218. Lindenmayer, D.B., Boyle, S., Burgman, M.A., Mc- Donald, D. and Tomkins, B. (1994). The sugar and nitrogen content of the gums of Acacia species in the Mountain Ash and Alpine Ash forests of central Victoria and its potential implications for ex- udivorous arboreal marsupials. Australian Journal of Ecology 19, 169-177. Lindenmayer, D.B. and Possingham, HP. (1994), ‘The risk of extinction: Ranking management options for Leadbeater’s Possum using Population Viability Analysis’. (Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies, Australian National University: Canberra). Macfarlane, M.A. and Seebeck, J.H. (1991). ‘Draft Management Strategies for the Conservation of Leadbeater’s Possum Gymnobelideusleadbeateri, in Victoria’. ARIER Tech. Rep. Series No.111- (Departmentof ‘Conservation and Environment: Vic- toria). Smith, A.P, (1984). The diet of Leadbeater’s Possum, Gymnobelideus leadbeateri (Marsupialia). Austra- lian Wildlife Research 11, 265-273. 115 Contributions Revegetation of Habitat for the Helmeted Honeyeater, Lichenostomus melanops cassidix, in the Yarra Valley Gaye Gadsden! and Mark Ashby” Introduction The Helmeted Honeyeater population is now restricted to a small area drained by Cockatoo Creek, approximately 50 km east of Melbourne. The former range of the bird covered some 3,000 sq km within the Western Port and mid-Yarra catchments. Helmeted Honeyeaters are specialised foragers of riparian forests and require dense understorey vegetation for nesting. The primary cause of the decline in the bird’s population and distribution is the destruc- tion and degradation of these wide-spread vegetation communities since European set- tlement, practices which continue today with increasing efficiency, By 1965 most of the remaining Helmeted Honeyeater population was found along three creeks in the Yellingbo area. The Vic- torian Government duly proclaimed narrow stream-side remnants along the Woori Yal- lock, Cockatoo and Sheep Station Creeks as the Yellingbo State Nature Reserve (Back- house 1987). Revegetation of habitat for the endangered Helmeted Honeyeater population in the Yel- lingbo area began in 1978 (Smales e? al. 1990). Since 1975, cleared land bordering the reserve has been purchased to con- solidate its boundaries and incorporate habitat fragments. Revegetation of this cleared land has the objectives of increasing habitat within the reserve and providing a buffer zone between the reserve and sur- rounding agricultural land. Between 1978 and 1987 the Bird Observers Club, the Society for Growing Australian Plants and the State Government Conservation Depart- ment (term is used since the Department has had several name changes over the period) planted approximately 80,000 trees and some shrubs (Backhouse 1987). Sites Tevegetated during this period are, with few exceptions, devoid of a shrub layer (Mc- I 189 Swales Road, Macclesfield, Victoria3782 * 35 Christine Street, Millgrove, Victoria 3799. 116 Mahon and Carr 1992). The intent was to introduce an understorey once the tree layer had become established but this has not yet been done (Ian Smales pers. comm. 1994). By 1988, with the continued decline of the Helmeted Honeyeater population, it became apparent that protecting and expanding habitat within Yellingbo State Nature Reserve was not sufficient to save Victoria’s avifaunal emblem (Smales et a/. 1990). In 1989 the Helmeted Honeyeater Recovery Team was formed to direct the intensive management effort required to halt the decline of the population. In May of that year more than 300 Vic- torians responded to a multi-media campaign to enlist community support for the Helmeted Honeyeater and attended a public meeting in Lilydale. Friends of the Helmeted Honeyeater Inc. (FOHH) was founded. The group was formed to en- courage people to participate in activities designed to: a) increase public awareness of the en- dangered status of the Helmeted Honeyeater; b) improve the status of the Helmeted Honeyeater in the wild, and c) assist with the conservation of the Hel- meted Honeyeater in the wild. In this paper we will report on FOHH’s experience in revegetation on both private and public land. This information is presented to demonstrate the evolving na- ture of such projects. The rapid learning curve Priorities were quickly set within the revegetation sub-group of FOHH. With only 38 known birds, FOHH sought to work in the area immediately surrounding the population. It was decided that efforts were best directed at private landowners in the Yellingbo area and to leave revegetation responsibilities within Yellingbo State Na- — ture Reserve to the State Government The Victorian Naturalist 4 Contributions Conservation Department. In addition, it was believed at this time that the population was being limited by a lack of winter nectar sources (Wykes 1982) and upslope foraging requirements were not represented in the reserve when FOHH was formed. An information day, advertised through the local media, attracted a dozen interested land-holders whose properties abutted or “were close to the reserve. A major incentive for land-holders to revegetate was the FOHH’s offer to contribute 90% of material costs plus voluntary labour. Land-holders have had a variety of reasons for wanting revegetation works on their land which in- cluded the conservation of flora and fauna, an enhanced property value, creating a screen of vegetation and even, in one case, assisting political ambitions! By 1991, thir- teen properties had been assessed, but revegetation on several has not yet even- tuated. Some properties were too far away from recent or extant Helmeted Honeyeater sites to warrant immediate attention and in other cases the land-holders’ aims for the area were inconsistent with the aims of FOHH. For example, one land-holder wanted to continue grazing in proposed revegetated sites. To ensure that land-holders and FOHH intentions coincided, an agreement, to be signed by both parties, was drawn up by FOHH based on that used for the DCNR Land Protection Scheme. The agreement comprises a property description, descrip- tion and sketch map of the site, a costing of the project and a set of conditions to which both parties must adhere. The format has worked well and is still used. Information about local vegetation com- munities was limited and specific to only a few plant species. FOHH obtained aerial photographs to determine the extent of rem- nant vegetation and conducted its own surveys of local vegetation. Subsequently seed was collected with the aim of re-establishing as wide a range of appropriate species as possible. A lot of time was invested in learning the seed dispersal habits of the local flora, the seasonal varia- tions of those habits and in refining methods of collection and extraction. Loppers, lad- Vol. 112 (3) 1995 ders, tree climbing with spurs and a .22 rifle were all experimented with to obtain seed which could not be reached from the ground. Collecting seed from fallen branches after a strong wind is now the most common method used for these ‘hard to reach’ species. During this time FOHH contacted wholesale nurseries, seeking voluntary as- sistance with plant propagation, Nurseries from Ringwood to Bittern responded and FOHH received many thousands of plants via this method but several difficulties arose. These included oversupply of some species and under supply of others with few species available at any one time and also a problem in matching sites to available stock. Conse- quently FOHH often had to revegetate those areas for which suitable stock was available, including sites within the reserve. Efforts culminated with the first planting held in Yellingbo State Nature Reserve on Arbor Day 1990. Over 100 people attended the weekend including Scout and school groups. The first planting on private land, which had been delayed by lack of insurance cover, took place in October 1990 at “Yel- lingbo Farm’, owned by A. and A. Tegel. The 20 species planted consisted of over- storey and shrub species in an area fenced by FOHH to exclude stock. Planting methods were dictated by site conditions, a small budget and FOHH’s commitment to chemical-free weed control methods. Freehold sites are invariably on exotic pasture with its corresponding suite of vigorous introduced species. Sites were mown prior to planting. To control competi- tion from exotic grasses at the least possible cost, approximately half a square metre of turf was removed with a mattock, then the inserted plant was surrounded by a newspaper weed mat. The sods of turf removed during the scalping process were inverted on the corners of the weed mat to secure it. Obtaining finance from limited sources also involved hard work. Fundraising items were produced and sold, suppliers of materials were approached for sponsorship and the local Shires of Lillydale and 117 Contributions Sherbrooke contributed in kind to FOHH efforts. Submissions were presented for grants and TreeVic provided initial funding for fencing materials, fencing tools and tube stock, The successes and indeed survival of FOHH during this first year can be attributed to the intensive dissemination of informa- tion by the group. This campaign included media releases, bulk dispatching of letters, public information days, plant identification workshops for members and invitations to each of the 400 members to attend activities. From strength to strength Sites FOHH has revegetated approximately 10,5 ha of degraded habitat to May 1995 including 5 ha on nine sites within Yellingbo State Nature Reserve. Since there are many sites which need revegetating within the reserve, when planting cannot be done on freehold sites FOHH can quickly arrange planting on an alternative site. Although planting within the reserve was not the original aim of the revegetation sub-group it was decided that since artificial boundaries are irrelevant to wildlife, planting should occur where the need arose. Projects on private land have been under- taken on 10 properties in the area, leading to the revegetation of some 5.5 ha and erection of 3 km of fencing. Revegetated areas pro- vide a yariety of ecological functions: extending habitat; linking stream side rem- nants; arresting stream bank erosion; increasing the viability of roadside rem- nants; creating a vegetative buffer between the reserve and areas of intensive agricul- ture, and preserving the local floristic gene pool, Another major recruitment drive for land- holders was made in mid 1991, a project shared by FOHH and the regional DCE Land for Wildlife Extension Officer, Letters were mailed to 80 property owners with land between Woori Yallock Creek and Cock- atoo Creck. Owners were offered the Opportunity to assist the Helmeted Honeyeater by joining the Land for Wildlife Program or allowing the Friends either to 118 replant vegetation or protect remnant vegetation from grazing. There are now 46 properties registered in the Land for Wildlife program within the Cockatoo and Woori Yallock Creek sub-catchments. FOHH has assisted with revegetation on three of those properties and fenced off a riparian-zone remnant on another. Site preparation and maintenance In mid 1993 FOHH replaced mechanical site preparation with chemical preparation. The scalping method produced high survival rates but was physically too demanding for most volunteers. Also the exotic grasses, retained in the sods securing the newspaper weed mats, found the decomposing paper to be an ideal rooting medium. Sites are now spot sprayed with glyphosate prior to plant- ing. However, FOHH remain uneasy about the possible deleterious effects of herbicides on components of the ecosystem such as soil fauna and amphibians. Sites are maintained by hand weeding and dead plants are replaced. Plant survival rates vary enormously from 20% to 90%, the majority being around 80%. Eutrophication, competition from exotic grasses and brows- ing are the major causes of plant loss. Other losses have occurred from repeated flood- ing, careless application of herbicides on neighbouring properties, trampling by recreational anglers and slashing by service instrumentalities and government agencies. Substantial nutrient loads carried by run-off from adjacent land has resulted in high mor- tality of Eucalyptus and Acacia species on some sites. These areas are replanted with more nitrogen tolerant Melaleuca species, While this results in less representative planting, it at least provides a buffer between natural remnant vegetation and areas of in- tensive agriculture. Melaleuca species can be thinned at a later date to introduce a more desirable assemblage of species, In the presence of vigorous, exotic pasture grasses, the native seedlings often suffer from stem rot and slug and snail attack and, in the competition for light, either death or poor form development. Pasture grasses are therefore removed by hand from around the base of plants until the native species have The Victorian Naturalist * Contributions become established above their exotic com- petitors. Inadvertent grazing from both sheep and cattle has occurred on freehold sites where stock gained entry through temporary fences while rabbits, wallabies and deer are more likely to cause damage on sites within Yel- lingbo State Nature Reserve. FOHH has used tree guards on only one site because of the high cost and labour involved in guard- ing. Rabbits have not been a problem on most sites but where they were, a 4-foot- wide netting fence was used successfully to minimise damage. Approximately half the width of the mesh was laid horizontally along the ground, bending away from the revegetated site. All sites are visited once a year in Autumn for photo monitoring. The photographs are used for progressive comparison purposes. Species selection Consultants were employed by the Hel- meted Honeyeater Recovery Team in 1991] to document vegetation within Yellingbo State Nature Reserve, identify vegetation management issues and to prepare a revegetation strategy. McMahon ef al. (1991) recorded 11 vegetation communities including seven sub-communities within the reserve. FOHH replants assemblages of species from several of the identified plant com- munities. In general, assemblages are dominated by Eucalyptus viminalis, E. ovata, E. camphora, Leptospermum spp. and Melaleuca spp. These assemblages con- tain the principal foraging and nest-site plants of the Helmeted Honeyeater, as col- lated by ornithologist Don Franklin (McMahon et al. 1991). Species selection for a site is determined by existing remnant vegetation (if any), drainage, aspect, perceived nutrient load entering the site and the quantities of species available. While it is desirable to propagate species ona site-by-site basis, when planting on private land ina high rainfall area, delays often occur which make this level of plan- ning unworkable. Plant propagation Seed is collected within the sub-catch- Vol. 112 (3) 1995 ments as the opportunity arises, Within the group there is still a debate on how far from the proposed revegetation site it is accept- able to select seed plants. This dilemma has been resolved to some degree by adopting a ‘close-as-possible’ rule which still allows for intra-species diversity, However, the choice of seed collected is subjective and left to the discretion of the collectors. Since procurement of plants from com- mercial nurseries was sporadic and inconsistent, FOHH sought funding for a community nursery to be sited at Healesville Sanctuary. Three other Yarra Valley conser- vation groups shared in the submission and funding was received from TreeVic in April 1990. Members with commercial nursery skills enabled the nursery to be established at minimal cost. While still maintaining a stake in the Healesville facility, FOHH has set up other facilities at the Yellingbo Reserve and the first seedlings were propagated in 1992. Initially FOHH members had limited knowledge of indigenous plant propagation methods but through experimentation, con- tact with other community nurseries and, morerecently, Greening Australia, expertise has increased to such an extent that FOHH funds are occasionally augmented with propagation contracts. Plants are sold to government agencies for local projects and to land holders within the area, During 1993, FOHH volunteers attending four nursery days a month, produced around 30,000 tube stock. Almost all of the 45 species of trees and shrubs > 1 metre which occur in the Yellingbo/Macclesfield area are now propagated. Species and their required quantities aré determined on an annual basis according to the sites available for revegetat- ing with a planting rate of about a thousand tubes each activity day. Surplus stock is donated to DCNR for planting within the reserve by their staff and school groups on weekday excursions. Planting FOHH held revegetation days every week for the first few months, but the works group could not maintain the organisation and volunteer enthusiasm needed to keep up 119 Contributions such an intensive program. Twelve revegetation days are now held per year, avoiding the hottest summer months and holding two per month in the more favourable seasons of autumn and spring. In late 1993, mattocks were replaced with Hamilton tree planters when the switch to chemical site preparation was made. The number of plants going into the ground doubled. However, survival rates have fal- len. FOHH revegetates sites at a density of approximately 10,000 plants per hectare. While overstorey species are spaced at ap- proximately 3 m intervals, species such as Leptospermum continentale and Melaleuca Squarrosa are planted in thickets of up to 6 plants per square metre. Other community groups have collectively contributed thousands of hours labour to FOHH projects, Primary, secondary and ter- tiary students, Scouts and Venturers and other local interest groups have regularly helped the ten to twenty FOHH members who have formed the core revegetation group. Funding projects Revegetation works have been resourced by a substantial voluntary commitment, fundraising, state and federal grant programs and donations of materials. Based on estimates for 1993, FOHH contributes some $80,000 a year to revegetation in terms of labour, investment in equipment, the Provision of plants and expenses for telephone and travel, Additionally, over the past five years FOHH has received ap- proximately $15,000 through various grant programmes for plant propagation and revegetation , Co-ordination As early as 1990 it was apparent that a voluntary part-time committee and member- ship could not keep up with the level of community interest in the conservation of the Helmeted Honeyeater. Submissions to funding bodies to employ a part-time co-or- dinator were lodged in 199], Funding of $15,500 per annum has been received for the past two years from the federal ‘Saye the Bush’ program, A successful application has 120 been made to the ‘National Estate Grants Program’ to continue the position in 1995. The co-ordinator provides support to the reyegetation convenor and nursery super- visors by assisting with the planning and implementation of revegetation projects and nursery operations. With the creation and maintenance’ of a high public profile, the group receives many requests for further information and offers of help. By employ- ing a part-time co-ordinator FOHH has been able to respond quickly to such requests and thereby maintaining the group’s momen- tum, With a full-time co-ordinator FOHH could work over a wider area within the Helmeted Honeyeater’s former range, res- toring habitat at a greater rate and with more efficiency. Unsolved problems Incremental clearing of natural vegetation on freehold land, public land water frontages and roadsides surrounding Yellingbo State Nature Reserve continues at arate far greater than that at which land is being revegetated. In addition to remnant vegetation cleared under permit for ‘developments’, substantial vegetation is lost due to inappropriate road maintenance, fire prevention works, illegal firewood collection, fence re-alignment, stock access to streams and utility main- tenance; all of which repeatedly occur in this area. Despite efforts by many local FOHH members to arrest these problems, destruc- tion of remnant vegetation continues as the human population of the area increases. Protected habitat currently occupied by the temaining Helmeted Honeyeater population is also under stress, Eucalypt dieback within Cockatoo Swamp is widespread and locally severe (McMahon and Franklin 1993) with little regeneration occurring. Faced with these problems, it is imperative that FOHH integrate direct seeding methods into the revegetation program to maximise the area being revegetated. Direct seeding is not an option for the majority of sites that lie within riparian zones subject to annual flooding. However, direct seeding methods offer potential for rapidly establishing vegetation on the more elevated sites in order to provide continuous vegetation links The Victorian Naturalist ‘ Contributions between riparian-zone habitat remnants. Small trials carried out by FOHH indicate that the ‘brushwood’ method of laying seed- bearing Leptospermum __continentale branches over a scalped area, results in profuse regeneration, This method can also be applied to other Myrtaceae species. Ideally, future FOHH projects would in- clude groundstorey species in addition to trees and shrubs. The inclusion of in- digenous ground flora would create a more complex ecosystem with a greater potential to support evolutionary processes in the local area. At present, the labour and ex- pense involyed in revegetating and maintaining ground flora over large areas adjacent to weed sources, such as pasture, is beyond the resources of the group. There is no foreseeable limit to private or public land sites available for revegetation or restoration work within even a small radius of Yellingbo State Nature Reserve. FOHH hopes to retain enough support to continue its efforts to conserve the Helmeted Honeyeater population and other biota within the mid-Yarra catchment. It is hoped that, with time, these efforts will extend over much of the former range of the Helmeted Honeyeater. Acknowledgements We acknowledge all FOHH members who have assisted with fencing, seed collection, plant propagation and planting, in particular those members who initiated the revegeta- tion project in the first 12 months. Thanks also to the former Yellingbo State Nature Reserve Ranger, Mick Keenan, who has constantly supported the work of FOHH, and to those people who provided comments on this paper, If you would like to help or want more information on the FOHH, contact PO Box 295, Mt Evelyn, Victoria 3796, Tel: (059) 64 4494, References Backhouse, G.N. (1987). Management of remnant habitat for conservation of the Helmeted Honeyeater Lichenostomus melanops cassidix, In ‘Nature Con- servation; the role of remnants of native vegetation’. Eds. D,A, Saunders, G.W. Amold, A.A Burbridge and A.J.M, Hopkins. (Surrey Beatty: Sydney). McMahon, A.R.G.,, Carr, G.W., Race, G.I., Bedggood, S.E. and Todd, J.A, (1991). ‘The vegetation and management of the Yellingbo State Nature Reserve with particular reference tothe Helmeted Honeyeater (Lichenostomus melanops cassidix)’. (Report prepared for the Department of Conservation and Environment, Ecological Horticulture Pty Ltd: Clifton Hill, Victoria). McMahon, A.R.G. and Carr, G.W. (1992). Strategy for restoration of habitat for the Helmeted Honeyeater, Yellingbo State Nature Reserve. (Report prepared for the Helmeted Honeyeater Recovery Team and Department of Conservation and Environment, Ecological Horticulture Pty Ltd: Clifton Hill, Vic- toria), McMahon, A,R.G. and Franklin, D.C, (1993). The Sig- nificance of Mountain Swamp Gum for Helmeted Honeyeater Populations in the Yarra Valley. The Victorian Naturalist 110; 230-237, Smales, IJ., Craig, S.A., Williams, G.A. and Dunn, R.W. (1990). The Helmeted Honeyeater: decline, conser- vation and recent initiatives for recovery. In ‘Management and Conservation of Small Popula- tions.’ Eds T. W. Clark and J,H, Seeback. (Chicago Zoological Society; Chicago). Wykes, B.J. (1982), Resource partitioning and the role of competition in structuring Lichenostomus honeyeater (and Manorina melanophrys) com- munities in southern Victoria. Unpublished Ph D thesis, Monash University, Melbourne. OUR NEW HOME The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria now has its OWN home at 1 Gardenia Street, Blackburn, Victoria 3130. We will inform you of the actual date of our move and our new postal address and telephone number. So keep watching for updates. Vol. 112 (3) 1995 121 Contributions Astelia australiana (Liliaceae): An Overview Elizabeth James! Tall Astelia, Astelia australiana (J,.H. Wil- lis) L. Moore, is a rare lily endemic to Victoria. It is listed as a threatened taxon on Schedule 2 of the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. It was first recorded in 1929 when a colony was found by J.H. Willis near Powelltown. The following account sum- marises aspects of the species’ distribution, abundance, ecology and threats, as reported in several recent studies, The genus Astelia The genus Astelia has approximately 27 species (Williams 1987) divided into three subgenera mostly found within the southern hemisphere (Moore 1966). The genus is generally placed in the family Liliaceae (Willis 1939; Williams 1987). Astelia has been placed in Asteliaceae by Dumortier (1829) (monogeneric), Harden (1993) (five genera including Cordyline) and by Dahlgren, Clifford and Yeo (1985) (includ- ing the genera Milligania, five species in Tasmania) and Neoastelia, a recently described monotypic genus from New South Wales. The genus was also placed in As- phodelaceae by Dahlgren and Clifford (1982). Astelia was first recognised as a distinct genus by Banks and Solander during Cook's first voyage to New Zealand (1769-70) but the descriptions formulated of the three species were not published. The name, As- telia, was first published in 1810 by Robert Brown when he described the Tasmanian species A. alpina (Wheeler 1966). It is derived from the Greek, meaning ‘without a trunk or pillar’, referring to the habit of the plant in which leaves arise directly from a fleshy rhizome, The mainly southern distribution of the genus and its frequent association with Nothofagus cunninghamii is thought to reflect its ancient origin in the rainforests of Gondwana, the southern supercontinent that broke up over 45 million years ago (Turner 1 Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne Birdwood A South Yarra, Victoria, 3141. ps 122 1991). Seventeen taxa occur in New Zealand (Moore 1966) with three in Australia. The remaining taxa are found in Hawaii (a nor- therly outpost), northern Papua, New Caledonia, the Marquesas Islands, the Society Group and antarctic America, with an isolated representative in the Islands of Reunion and Mauritius (east of Africa). New Zealand is a likely centre of development and past migration. Australian species The three Australian species of Astelia are endemic and restricted to specific habitats in the temperate south-eastern corner of the continent including Tasmania. Astelia australiana (subgenus Tricella) has a dis- junct distribution in the Otway Ranges and Central Highlands of Victoria where it oc- cupies wet, silty sites within cool temperate rainforest. The other Australian member of the subgenus Tricella, A. psychrocharis, oc- curs in the alpine and sub-alpine areas of Kosciusko National Park in New South Wales where it occupies Bog and tall alpine herbfield sites (Costin et al. 1982), The third species A. alpina (subgenus Astelia) com- prises two recognised varieties and occupies similar habitats to A. psychrocharis. In Kos- ciusko National Park A. alpina var. novae hollandiae and A. psychrocharis are often found growing together. The former species also occurs in much of the Victorian high country. Asfelia alpina yar. alpina is restricted to the mountain areas of Tasmania (Costin et al, 1982). Astelia australiana Tall Astelia was first recorded in 1929 after a colony was found by J.H. Willis near Powelltown, Victoria. It was originally iden- tified as A. nervosa which is found in New Zealand but was later considered to be a separate species. It is a robust, perennial herb which grows up to 2 m tall, with leaves (60-230 cm long and 4-15 cm wide) forming tufts that are connected by rhizomes. The rhizomatous habit of the species leads to the The Victorian Naturalist Contributions formation of colonies but makes it difficult to distinguish individual plants. Flowering of individual tufts is infrequent and seedling recruitment appears to be a minor part of the plant’s reproduction. Green or reddish flowers are borne on many-flowered open panicles with individuals generally con- sidered to be either male or female (Willis 1939; Williams 1987). Marks (1992), how- ever, records the plants as either female or hermaphrodite and V. Turner (pers. comm., Dept. of Evolutionary Biology, Monash University) considers this to be the norm for A. australiana. Distribution and habitat All known colonies of A. australiana are within a relatively small area in the Powelltown-Beenak area of the Central Highlands except for one colony in the Lavers Hill area of the Otway Ranges (Fig.1). The species occurs mainly in cool temperate rainforest dominated by Myrtle Beech Nothofagus cunninghamii with two colonies in Riparian Thicket dominated by Scented Paperbark Melaleuca squarrosa and Woolly Tea-tree Leptospermum lanigerum (Fig, 2). The ecology of A. australiana and the implications for management are described in detail by Turner (1991). Decline in distribution Whilst the distribution of A. australiana has probably diminished over the past 2,000-10,000 years as the climate became drier, severe reductions in colony numbers have occurred since European settlement as Fig. 1, Location of populations of Astelia australiana. (Flora Branch, Department of Con- servation and Environment). Vol. 112 (3) 1995 Fig, 2. Astelia australiana in conjunction with Melaleucasquarrosa at Gembrook, (Photograph: E. James). aresult of land clearing, logging and succes- sive wildfires (J.H. Willis, pers. comm.). Early settlers reported that the plant was once common in the Yarra catchment (Parish of Beenak) but is now represented in that area by only two colonies, one of several hundred tufts and the other of a few tufts possibly derived from a single individual. An extensive population along the McCrae Creek has not been sighted since the 1939 fires and is presumed extinct (J.H. Willis, pers. comm.). It is thought to be sensitive to fire and may also be sensitive to the root rotting fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi under certain conditions. Genetic diversity The levels of genetic diversity in colonies of A. australiana are not known, There are no obvious phenotypic (morphological) dif- ferences between tufts either within or between different populations. The only ob- served phenotypic difference is the flower type present on inflorescences. The impact on genetic diversity, where populations are 123 Contributions lost due to human interference or a catastrophic event, is likely to be high be- cause the loss of variability from the population or species occurs quickly and is not related to the particular habitat in which the plant is found. Astelia australiana is both rare and restricted to a fairly specific habitat type. Its rarity may reflect adaptation to a habitat which has become rare through climatic change and European settlement. Inbreeding is highly likely in A. australiana because only a few individuals flower at the same time and nearby flowering tufts may be genetically identical. Reproductive biology Most information available for reproduc- tive biology in the genus is anecdotal. A general observation is that individual tufts flower infrequently and unpredictably. Dioecy is the occurrence, within a species, of separate plants which bear only female or only male organs. The genus is considered to contain either male or female plants ac- cording to published studies. Two sexual forms of A. australiana were observed but the species does not appear to be dioecious in the strict sense. The first form is female Fig. 3. Female plant of Astelia australiana. (Photograph: E, James). 124 with no male function (Fig. 3) and is in keeping with the literature relating to dioecy in the genus. The second form appears to be hermaphroditic rather than male because the flowers set fruit containing seed and also produce pollen (Fig. 4). This condition is known as gynodioecy. Williams (1987) has described A. australiana as normally dioe- cious although some male plants produce a few fruits with apparently normal seeds. The occurrence of female function in male in- dividuals is considered to be uncommon in other species of Astelia, Godley (1979) said that some male inflorescences in Astelia can carry functional hermaphrodite flowers and that male parthenocarpy (fruit production without seed) can also occur. The ratio of hermaphrodite to female in- dividuals in populations is unknown and can be based only on a comparison of flowering individuals but warrants further study and documentation. Pollen morphology and viability are described by Marks (1992). A pollen vector is required for the transfer of pollen between inflorescences and be- tween flowers on the same inflorescence but so far the vector has not been identified. ne sa LF liana. (Photograph: E. James). The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Fruitset on female inflorescences is usually very high. This may be due to a high percent- age of functional ovaries and efficient pollen transfer by vector, or apomixis (seed production in the absence of pollination) may occur, Apomixis can be ruled out by sectioning ovules during development to see if embryo sacs are formed. Fruitset on her- maphroditic inflorescences is often lower compared to that on female inflorescences and may be due to some apparently her- maphrodite flowers containing non- functional ovules. Alternatively, fruit may develop in the absence of pollination but not contain fertile seeds. Recent work on the genetic variation in A. australiana using DNA analysis (E. James, unpubl.) shows clearly that individuals from the Otways form a group which is distinct from the Central Highlands populations, yet there is still a high degree of similarity be- tween them both. It is suggested from these results that there was originally continuous variation in A. australiana throughout its geographic range. The Otways population appears to be a natural occurrence and was most likely separated from plants in the Central Highlands when Basalt flow formed the western basalt plains making large areas unsuitable for A. australiana. The number of genetically distinct individuals in A. australiana colonies is not known due to the rhizomatous habit of the plant but DNA analysis has shown that there are differences in DNA between tufts which can presumab- ly be correlated to different genotypes. The actual number of breeding individuals, how- ever, is extremely low and probably makes up a very small percentage of the entire number of individual tufts observed in any single population within the species restricted range. Long-term outlook for A. australiana Plants of A. australiana appear vigorous in sites of high habitat quality. However, dis- turbed habitats have a high incidence of Vol. 112 (3) 1995 invasion by species of e.g. Gahnia and in- troduced species of Rubus (R. fruticosa complex). The outlook for the continued survival and long-term viability of A, australiana is positive provided that the quality of the habitat is maintained, One of the major long-term goals for the conserva- tion of A. australiana should be to ensure that there is no diminution of the current level of genetic diversity so that future adap- tution and successful expansion in natural populations is possible. Conservation of habitat will be the most cost-effective and suitable method of maintaining current levels of genetic diversity. Ackowledgements I would like to thank Adrian Moorrees, Vivienne Turner, Marita Sydes, Roger Ash- burner and Jim Willis for their discussions and help with locations while I was working on Astelia. References Costin, A.B., Gray, M., Totterdell, C.J., Wimbush, D.J. (1982). ‘Kosciusko Alpine Flora’. CSIRO Australia und William Collins Pty Ltd: Sydney). Dahlgren, R.M.T. and Clifford, H-T. (1982). “The Monocotyledons. A Comparative Study", (Academic Press: London). Dahlgren, R.M.T., Clifford, H.T., Yeo, P.F. (1985). “The fumilies of the Monocotyledons; structure, evolu- tion, taxonomy’. (Springer-Verlag: Berlin). Dumortier, B.C. (1829), Jn ‘Analyse des Families des Plantes’. (J. Casterman, Tournay: France). Godley, EJ, (1979). Flower Biology in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 17, 441-446, Harden, G.J. (1993). In ‘Flora of New South Wales’. (University of New South Wales Press: Sydney). Marks, J. (1992). The ecology and reproductive biology of Tall Astelia, Astelia australiana. Honours Thesis, Monash University. Moore. L.B. (1966). Australasian asteliads (Liliaceae). New Zealand Journal of Botany 4, 201-40. Turner, V. (1991) Aspects of the ecology of Astelia australiana and implications for management. Department of Conseryation and Environment, Vic- toria, Internal Report, Wheeler, J.M. (1966). Cytotaxonomy of the large as- teliads (Liliaceae) of the north island of New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 4,95-113. Williams, J.B. (1987). Astelia. In ‘Flora of Australia’, 45. (Bureau of Flora and Fauna; Canberra). / Willis J.H. (1939). The occurrence of Astelia nervosa in Victoria. Kew Bulletin 1939, 173-7. 125 Contributions Geology of Popular Places in the Western MacDonnell Ranges, Central Australia Dr. A.W. Beasley! In recent years it has become much easier to travel further afield than in the past. Places that were once considered to be remote in the Northern Territory are now being visited by an increasing number of people. A holiday based at Alice Springs normally in- cludes a visit to the Western MacDonnell Ranges, to the west of the town. These ran- ges are especially interesting for their geology, plants and their native animals. The Western MacDonnell National Park covers an area of 210,000 ha and incorporates the localities that most tourists visit (Fig. 1). It is worthwhile for field naturalists and others who visit the region to know something about its geology, as the scenery is intimate- ly related to the geology. The rocks seen at the localities that espe- cially attract and impress people in the Western MacDonnell Ranges were laid down under the sea in Precambrian and Cambrian times. The Precambrian period of geological time precedes the Cambrian period, which itself dates back from 500-570 million years ago. Sedimentary rocks laid down under the sea during the Ordovician period that followed the Cambrian, also are significant components of the MacDonnell Ranges. The Ranges are exceptionally striking when viewed from the air. The ancient sedimentary rocks occur in long, sharp ridges, or cuestas, and in gently sweeping curves. The ridges are composed generally of quartzites, formed by the metamorphism of Precambrian sandstones, The quartzites are hard and resistant to erosion, The upheavals that produced the Mac- Donnell Ranges were the result of major earth movements that occurred during the Devonian period of geological time, about 350 million years ago. The ranges produced by these major upheavals were probably over 5,000 m high, Erosion over many mil- lions of years has reduced the ranges to their 1 . 4 Georgian Court, Balwyn, Victoria 3103. 126 present height. However, they are still im- pressive, rising up to 1,000 m above the surrounding plain, As well as the spectacular folding of the rocks, the steep (frequently nearly vertical) dip of the strata was produced during this ancient period of mountain-building. Heavitree Gap, through which the Todd River flows southward after heavy rain, is on the southern outskirts of Alice Springs. The Gap separates the Western MacDonnell Ranges from the Eastern MacDonnell Ran- ges. Heavitree Gap, Simpsons Gap, Ellery Creek Gorge, Serpentine Gorge and Ormis- ton Gorge are all gaps that have been formed by streams cutting through quartzite known geologically as the Heavitree Quartzite. This quartzite is often pinkish or brownish in colour due to staining by varying amounts of iron oxides both in and on the rock. The Heavitree Quartzite is of late Precambrian age, originating some time between 800-850 million years ago. Simpsons Gap, about 22 km west of Alice Springs, has been formed by the erosion caused by Roe Creek (Fig. 2). The creek was once fast-flowing and the gradient of the Stream quite steep, caused most probably by gradual warping or tilting of the land surface in the past. The eroding power of the fast- flowing stream over a long period of time has cut the narrow gorge through the rock. Thompson (1991) considers that the gorge probably follows a pre-existing joint (rock- fracture) trend in the quartzite. Ellery Creek Gorge, whichis located about 85 km west of Alice Springs, is best known to the public for the waterhole called the Ellery Creek Big Hole that has developed in the narrow gorge. Ellery Creek flows through the gorge and continues southwards to join the Finke River, though nowadays it is dry for most of the year. In parts of the gorge the strata are almost vertical, but on either side of the waterhole an overturned The Victorian Naturalist Contributions rane Glen ‘Helen } Tourist Camp it 414 hy aGoxse 1 ‘Se “r; NG. e S sh ee FANG, ara & rire Lookout P Onl y Lrearel ~~ Rork fal Eye] wy Mission gh xo KRICHAUFF 14) Areyonga RA Palin Native Sertlement Valley Chalet 44 Ce Hamilton Downs H.S ANG S 928, = 2 81\ “nya RA Mission Fig. 1, Map showing location of popular places in the Western MacDonnell Ranges. fold in the Heavitree Quartzite can be seen, produced by the intense lateral pressure that occurred during the ancient period of moun- tain-building. Thompson (1991) considers that Ellery Creek Gorge may lie along a north-south fault line which has slightly dis- placed the quartzite. From Ellery Creek Gorge downstream for about 8 km one can see a very interesting sequence of sedimentary rocks exposed along the banks and in the bed of Ellery Creek. Indeed, a thickness of about 6,000 m of sedimentary rocks can be inspected, in- cluding sediments laid down beneath the sea during the Cambrian period, the Ordovician period and later periods of geological time. The rocks, which include sandstones, shales, limestones and conglomerates, are fos- siliferous, and the various fossils found in them have been of use in dating the sedi- ments. Serpentine Gorge is approximately 20 km to the west of Ellery Creek Gorge. In fact, it has been formed by a stream that is a tributary of Ellery Creek. Two gorges ac- tually occur here where the south-flowing creek cuts through two ridges of Heavitree Quartzite. There is a prominent fold in the strata between the two ridges. At the upstream site at this locality, the very narrow gap indicates that the creek has eroded along a nearly straight, vertical joint. At Ormiston Gorge, about 24 km north- Vol. 112 (3) 1995 west of Serpentine Gorge, there are sheer 200 m cliffs of pinkish quartzite. The deep, narrow gorge has been eroded by Ormiston Creek, a tributary of the Finke River, The geology here is very complex with much folding and overthrusting of the rock strata. Glen Helen Gorge has been eroded by the Finke River through a sandstone of Cambrian age known as the Pacoota Sandstone. The shape of the Gorge has been controlled quite markedly by jointing in the rock, the joints (parting-planes) having acted as zones of weakness to erosional for- ces. The layers of sandstone that were originally horizontal have been turned up on end during the upheavals that produced the MacDonnell Ranges. This popular place is approximately 125 km west of Alice Springs. Standley Chasm is a narrow chasm which has been formed by erosion in quartzite known geologically as the Chewings Range Quartzite (Fig. 3). This quartzite is of early Precambrian age and is probably about 2,000 million years old. A vertical dyke of an igneous rock called dolerite here was intruded into Chewings Range Quartzite. Dolerite is much less resistant to weathering and erosion than quartzite and a south-flow- ing creek has almost completely eroded away this dolerite dyke leaving vertical quartzite walls; this is now Standley Chasm. The relatively narrow, parallel-sided ig- 127 Contributions sealed bitumen road that links Alice Springs and the Glen Helen settlement. At Glen Helen there are restaurant and accommoda- tion facilities. References Black, L.P., Shaw, R.D. and Offe, L.A. (1980). The age of the Stuart Dyke Swarm and ils bearing on the onset of Late Precambrian sedimentation in Central Australia. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia 27, 151-155, Thompson, R.B. (1991). A Guide to the Geology and Landforms of Central Australia. Northern Territory Geological Survey Special Publication 3, 1-136. Twidale, C.R. (1967). ‘Geomorphology’, (Thomas Nel- son (Australia) Limited: Melbourne). Woolley, D.R, (1967). ‘A Layman’s Guide to the Geol- ogy of Central Australia’, (Alice Springs Tourist Promotion Association). Fig. 2. Simpsons Gap. A gap cut through quartzite, Western MacDonnell Ranges, 22 km west of Alice Springs. neous intrusion was one of the dolerite dykes of the Stuart Dyke Swarm, which according to Black et al. (1980) intruded the older Chewings Range Quartzite about 897 mil- lion years ago. The intrusion of the molten igneous rock opened up fractures in the quartzite. These rock-fractures and major joint planes in the quartzite, resulting from other causes, have facilitated erosion contributing to the formation of Standley Chasm. The Chasm is at its most dramatic at midday when the sun briefly paints both walls a brilliant orange. This spectacular gorge is some 45 km west of Alice Springs. Micvanehetoay ee Fig. 3. Standley Chasm. A narrow gorge with from Namatjira Drive, the sri aig very steep walls of quartzite, 45 km west of Alice ‘ giventothe — Springs, The Victorian Naturalist - Subject Index 1884-1978 A handy reference book to have on hand for all members. Price $5.00 pick up at any meeting, or $9.50 posted to anywhere in Victoria. Remit to: FNCV, c/- D.E. McInnes, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, Victoria 3145. 128 The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Whipstick Nature Trail R.J. Fletcher! An article with this title was published by F. Robbins in The Victorian Naturalist 85 1968, 225-227. Reference is also made to a 1966 FNCV ‘Whipstick Excursion’ in 1966 (The Victorian Naturalist 84 1967, 50-53). The 1968 article was meant as a self-guided tour through a section of the Whipstick, while the latter is a report of a field trip and is basically a plant list. An opportunity arose in early October 1994 to retrace the route described as ‘The Nature Trail’, although this was later than the original August daterecommended by F. Robbins. His purpose was to draw particular attention to what he called the Hakea Wattle but which is known in this area as Whirrakee Wattle Acacia williamsonii (A. williamsonii A.B. Court formerly A hakeoides A.Cunn ex Benth and referred to as A. hakeoides var. angustifolia in ‘Flowers and Plants of Victoria’ by Coxhrane, Fuhrer ef al. 1968), which makes such a display atthat time. This shrub, featured in the original article, is still abundant although, in one instance where he mentions a ‘paddock full’, there has been some modification. A few late-flowering specimens of A, williamsonii were seen, especially near the old location of Magetti’s wine saloon. The 1994 season has been particularly dry and where Robbins mentions water and fords there are neither. Fords have been replaced by culverts and some alterations have been made in road and track re-align- ment. This is the main reason for some difference in mileage noted in Table 1. The sketch map, based on that of Robbins, shows the route beginning and ending at the foun- tain in Bendigo and the distances referred to in Table 1 are based on this route. After leaving the Midland Highway, just before the old Council Chambers at Huntly, the first point of significance is at what Rob- bins referred to as ‘the paddock full of A. hakeoides’. The paddock is still there with an intriguing sign that reads: 14/48 Newport Road, Clayton South, Victoria 3169. Vol. 112 (3) 1995 "Do not curse this old gate, You may be old and stubborn and hard to shift yourself one day". There are some remnants of the wattle in the paddock and a few trees such as Yellow Gum Eucalyptus leucoxylon and Grey Box E. microcarpa but it has obviously been heavily grazed for many years. However, there is a very good roadside remnant that shows some of its former glory. (List 1) List 1. Millwood Road, roadside verge Spreading Wattle Acacia genistifolia Whirrakee Waitle Leptomeria aphylla Along Goodings Road from the sign in- dicating Neilborough, the roadside verge is worth a few stops. At the sweeping curve in the new bitumen road there is also a large sign indicating the Whipstick State Park. Robbins mentions that, at this point, there are all sorts of interesting things to see in the paddock on your right. This is no longer the case. It also has been cleared and heavily grazed over the intervening years. Just a little further on is a roadside picnic area which indicates the start of Loeser Road. In spite of the extreme dryness of the season, many plants were observed although some were showing signs of distress. List 2 is by no means exhaustive but indicates some of the flora in the understorey of this area. Between this picnic area and the one at the site of the former Eucalyptus Distillery, now known as the Loeser Picnic Area, there are many places to stop and look. All that remains of the distillery is the boiler. Itis less than akilometre from here to the intersection with Skylark Road, and, especially along this section, the traveller needs to take time. 129 Contributions ure Trail (Sketch Map, not to Scale) Ate eeriaes Approx. Distances km. < - Lo Picni Pitter Boundary Rd. “Hartlands" KSadside Picnic Area Bendigo Ck. Levee Bank Ranke Range Rd. WHITE HILLS "Vicmap" Refs: Raywood 7714-4-] Summerfield 7724-1-4 Marong 7724-4-2 Epsom 7724-1-3) The Victorian Naturalist (Contributions ! able 1, Whipstick Nature Trail. Basic comparison of dist i ins i Se edeiec siento se sounld ores tad chanics) ances with that of F. Robbins in 1968 (some Vol. 112 (3) 1995 Feature Distance Bitumen FR ER ; (ml) (km) Fountain 0.0 = =60.0. Huntly 78 12.6 Bridge (Bendigo Creek) 9.7 156 Ford 10.8 17.4 Paddock 11.2 18.0 Neilborough turnoff 10:5; 13:5 12.0 19.3 Road turns to right 126 203 | Graded track Loeser Rd Picnic Area 13.4 21.6 Eucalyptus Factory 15.3 24.6 Ford 15.6 25.1 Fence 15.8 25.4 16.0 25.8 Skylark Dam 16.5 26.7 Stony Rise Tide ee. Sebastian Water Race 18.4 29.6 Old Hotel 19.0 30.6 Bitumen | Whipstick Road 21.7 34.9 Magetti’s Rifle Range 24.6 39.6 Lightning Hill 24.9 40.1 Eaglehawk 26.0 41.9 Bendigo Fountain 31.0 50.0 Observation The excursion described by Robbins began and ended at the fountain at the entrance to Bendigo from the Calder Highway Now a culvert, the bitumen continues Largely cleared and grazed but stand of Acacia william- sonii on roadside verge. (See list 1) Stand of Exocarpus sp Acacia williamsonii in paddock and on verge New bitumen road at beginning of Whipstick State Park. Paddock on right grazed out In spite of extremely dry conditions, Caladenia carnea and Westringia eremicola were seen. (see list 2) All that remains is a boiler and a dam the area is now a picnic ground What was a ford, ‘never dry’, is now a dry culvert Still remains of a fence. This is the intersection of Skylark and Loeser Roads Green flowered Grevillea rosmarinifolia and extensive colony of Caladenia carnea (see list 3) Rich flora area, also still favoured by gold? prospectors (see list 4) ‘Flagstaff Reservation’ , a long-since abandoned project (see list 5) . Pseudanthus ovalifoliu. Phebalium obcordatum. Shadbolt Picnic Area carpark. Old Tom Mine Walk Old Lamp still complete Turn-off to Notley Picnic Area, an alternative route to Rifle Range Road The main road to Eaglehawk All that remains are a few bricks and 3 Peppercorn Trees. Road to right rejoins Whipstick Rd Except for ‘Hill Behind’, the range is almost completely overgrown (see list 6) Lookout, directional plaque missing Town Hall and Old Log Jail Distance on current roads and tracks varies from point to point with those of 1968, but in total only 2.2 km 131 Contributions List 2. Boundary Road, at Loeser Road intersection Pink Fingers Caladenia carnea var. carnea Blue Dampiera Dampiera lanceolata Cyprus Daisy-bush Westringia eremicola This is typical “Whipstick’ scrub and a foray to the right or left at almost any point will be rewarded. List 3 details a few of the plants to be seen. List 3. Along Skylark Road Gold Dust Wattle Varnish Waitle Daphne Heath Brachyloma daphnoides Pink Fingers Caladenia carnea var. carnea Coarse Dodder-laurel The area around Skylark Dam is par- ticularly rich in interesting plants even though there has been, and still is, digging and fossicking carried on. Both the Blue Mallee Eucalyptus polybractea and Green Mallee E. viridis have also been cut for the eucalyptus distillery in the past but it is well worth spending time here. There is ample toom to park just before the dam is reached and List 4 indicates some of the plants you might see. Robbins speaks of a reservation to the South ofa ‘stony rise’ nearly 2 km further on 132 List 4. Skylark Dam and nearby area Rough Wattle daphnoides Red Box Eucalyptus polyanthemos Red Ironbark Eucalyptus sideroxylon Green Mallee Eucalyptus viridis Wax-lip Orchid Glossodia major olia (red & green forms) Rough Mint-bush Prostanthera denticulata Matted Bush-pea Pultenaea pedunculata from the dam. In fact this is about 0.5 km along Skylark Road and what remains of the reservation may still be seen, if you walk through the area that has been cut for the distillery, and the stand of Melaleuca decus- sata, This reservation was established by Frank Robbins and members of the Bendigo Field Naturalists Club in an attempt to preserve rarer species of flora, but is ap- parently not familiar to the current generation of Field Naturalists in the area. It has apparently been long since abandoned and the fence is in a state of disrepair (see The Victorian Naturalist 84 1967, 52). A few plants still have name tags painted in black enamel on pieces of galvanised iron, but the area, about 200 m x 50 m, could hardly be called the ‘Flagstaff Reservation’ any longer. List 5 indicates a few of the plants to be found here. At 28.3 km, just where Skylark Road leaves the Whipstick vegetation and enters a mainly Ironbark area, it is worthwhile to pull off the road and wander for a while. The Victorian Naturalist ‘ ‘Contributions List 5. ‘Flagstaff Reservation’, south of Skylark Road Crowea exalata Eucalyptus spp. Glischrocaryon behrii Goodenia amplexans Leptomeria aphylla Heath-myrtle (pink | Micromyrtus ciliata flowers, prostrate) Dainty Phebalium Phebalium obcordatum Rough Mint Bush Prostanthera denticulata Oval-leaf Pseudanthus | Pseudanthus ovalifolius Among the many smaller plants to be seen is Pseudanthus ovalifolius, growing in any- thing but the ‘usually sandy ground’ mentioned by Willis (Willis, ‘Handbook to Plants in Victoria’ Vol II, 351). When you reach the Shadbolt Picnic Area carpark, time out could be taken for a walk to the Old Tom Mine. What Robbins referred to as the “Sebastian Water Race’ is now marked on the map as Raywood Chan- nel. Shortly after this point the Eaglehawk-Neilborough Road is rejoined and the old hotel with its lamp still intact, is reached. A little less than 3 km further on is the turn-off to the Notley Picnic Area which, along with the Shadboldt Area, is the site of a former eucalyptus distillery. There are plenty of reasons to botanise on the left-hand side of the road along here, as there are along the Whipstick Road which is clearly signposted. Just past the commence- ment of the Whipstick Road is the site of the former Magetti’s Wine Saloon which was apparently the venue for some roistering times in the old days. Nothing now remains but an old Peppercorn tree *Schinus molle and what must be two of its descendants together with a few broken bricks. Just past this point you can rejoin the Whipstick Road and at about 39 km link up with the intersection of Rifle Range Road. The sign is not very visible when coming from the north, so if you come to the turnoff to the Lightning Hill Lookout, you have gone too far. Vol. 112 (3) 1995 List 6. ‘Rifle Range’ on Rifle Range Road Baeckea ramosissima (pink and white forms) Daphne Heath Brachyloma daphnoides Eucalyptus polyanthemos Exocarpus cupressiformis Apple-berry Rhytidosporum procumbens Feather Spear-grass _ | Stipa elegantissima Pink Bells Naturalist Note You will need time in this area. It is many years since this was used as a rifle range and, apart from the ‘hill behind’, there is little evidence of such a function. This is em- phasised by the sign which announces "No Shooting"! The regrowth is very interesting and would no doubt require more than one visit for a complete listing. List 6 names the plants seen in one traverse. It is worth a short diversion to the Light- ning Hill Lookout for an overview of the whole area. Unfortunately, as in so many instances, the plaque which once pointed out landmarks is missing. Just below the Lookout you rejoin the bitumen on the out- skirts of Eaglehawk and the circuit may be completed by returning to the fountain in Bendigo. In Frank Robbins’ article of 1968, obser- vation of Acacia hakeoides was its main theme, but it is quite apparent that the Whipstick will repay a visit at seasons other than late winter. *exotic plant From our Naturalist in Residence, Cecily Falkingham Those Amazing Mistletoe Plants This plant’s very beginnings are sheer magic and its survival in the early stages is an incredible story. This amazing plant oc- curs in mangroves, jungles, deserts, dry and wet sclerophyll forests, mallee, heathland etc, and it is time its public image was lifted. Mistletoe plants were long recognised by Koori people as a useful food source. Espe- cially the sticky fruits of the Amyema species which were eaten raw. The pulp is sweet and the leaves were also used for medicinal pur- poses, Fires lit by Aboriginal people all over this country would have effected some control over this fire-sensitive plant. On the other hand, an increase of Mistletoe has probably occurred with the altered landscape and fire regime that has developed with European settlement and as a result Mistletoe is now considered by some to be a problem plant. The majority of people I speak to, talk with concern about its required removal and I have witnessed large-scale vandalism in bushland reserves and on private property. Trees with only minor outbreaks of Mistletoe have suffered rigorous pruning and complete removal of the Mistletoe plant. This with little regard or knowledge for the food and shelter this marvellous plant provides. According to the literature a tree needs to be infected by at least 20-30% to be 134 in danger of becoming moisture stressed and possibly dying. Most people seem to lose sight of the fact that this green semi-parasitic plant does photosynthesise. Uses The twelve species of Mistletoe we have in Victoria provide nectar for animals over a long period; for example the flowering season of Amyema pendulum sometimes stretches from May until the following sum- mer. The flowering of various Mistletoes covers most months of the year and would be vital for animals in search of nectar in winter when little else may be flowering. Many animals use the bushy, thick and pendulous leaf masses on mature plants for shelter. I have observed many birds’ nests and possums’ dreys hidden in their voluminous foliage and seen many birds feeding and sheltering in Mistletoe plants. In fact, it has become an interest of mine when 1 discover Mistletoe to search for signs of its many uses by our local fauna. The large colonies of Imperial White but- terflies alone must be an important food source. (With two generations per year often containing sixty or seyenty larvae to one web this must surely be one of the natural — controls of Mistletoe). Wood White, Com- mon Jezabel and Imperial White butterflies _ both larvae and adults may contribute con-— The Victorian Naturalist Naturalist Note siderably to the food source of many animals especially birds. Last year I rescued approximately 40 Im- perial White butterfly larvae and pupae cases from the ground where they lay. Some were crushed and were injured and some of them were already dead. The large branch under which they lay had been cut down from a Eucalypt which had been sawn off and left where it fell. Perhaps the property owner mistook the dark larvae for sawfly larvae. This animal also suffers from a poor public image and again without just cause. But both Mistletoe and the insects obviously were not wanted and both were ALMOST destroyed, I did manage to raise and save more than half of the butterflies which were released into local bushland within metres of the site where I found them. Land Clearance Over the years I have observed heavier infestations on solitary trees on partially cleared land, and also a greater incidence of Mistletoe along roadsides. Opening the canopy, and more light as a consequence may favour the plant. Roadsides are often good flight paths for birds that spread the seed ie. Mistletoe Birds and Painted Honeyeaters. To test the roadside theory I have on many occasions explored further into good quality bushland DIRECTLY behind heavy infesta- tions and on all occasions fewer occurrences of the plant is observed, Over a period of nearly two decades of fascination and observation of this plant I have come to this conclusion, that we should be providing educational leaflets for proper- ty owners (urban and rural) which contain sensible guidelines on how to appreciate and/or control Mistletoe. As naturalists and scientists we need to inform the media in its many forms that this plant is a natural and fascinating component of our native flora and vital to the lives of many animals including birds, It is an impor- tant source of food and shelter and essential for the survival of several species of some of our most beautiful butterflies. Apart from all those reasons it is a plant that we could learn a lot more about so that we can support and nurture its growth and at the same time develop SENSIBLE manage- ment strategies. Cecily Falkingham 27 Chippewa Ave, Mitcham, Victoria Australian Defence Force Academy The Literature of Australian Natural History A One Day Seminar about Writers and Writings on the Animals and Plants of Australia This one-day seminar will be held in Canberra on Friday, 8 December 1995. The topics discussed will include both the writing itself - scientific, literary, popular - and the writers, from Joseph Banks to Densey Clyne. The seminar will provide a forum for writers and scientists, as well as students and amateur naturalists, to contribute and listen to modern debate on literary and historical aspects of Australian natural history writing, and just as importantly to share knowledge and interests with others. Registration forms will be sent out in early May, 1995. Please send enquiries and proposals for papers to: Nick Drayson, English Department, University College, Australian Defence Force Academy, Canberra, ACT 2600. Tel: (06) 268 8433; Fax: (06) 268 8899; e-mail: nick-drayson @ adfa.oz.au ‘Vol. 112 (3) 1995 135 How to be a Field Naturalist Geology Jack Douglas! Many Field Naturalist Club members will have an interest in geology. After all, the earth itself is an integral part of the environment, encompassing all the manifestations of nature. If you want to upgrade your expertise in geology (und this may well be from a most minimal base) you would achieve this most quickly by participating in the activities of the FNCV section called the Geology Group. Activities Regular monthly addresses on aspects of the earth sciences, with subject and speaker notified in the Club newsleter; Submission and discussion of specimens and items of interest at these meetings; Field inspections and excursions under the guidance of leader/s with pertinent expertise; Preparation and production of publications on aspects of Victorian earth science; Preparation of exhibits for Club displays or other organisations as requested, and providing personal explanation where feasible; Initiation and development of specific projects from time to time; Interaction with other FNCV groups and other groups interested in geology. Your choice As with bird watching, (see December 1994 volume 111) there is plenty of scope for specialisation. Some become fascinated with the record. of life in the rocks, that is PALAEONTOLOGY (often with further specialisation, perhaps becoming dinosaur hunters, or trilobite excavators, or investigators of forests of the past). Some may be intrigued with SEDIMENTOLOGY and examine the depositional patterns of age-old sandstones. YOU might acquire an outstanding knowledge of METEORITES and TEC- TITES. Equipment Equipment may well be minimal. A geological hammer with either pick or chisel end is essential for collectors, and a hand lens or good magnifying glass is vital in many circumstances. If you are loaded with money you would have a Magellan (GPS) instrument signalling satellites and pinpointing your location in off-the-track situations, but most of us are content with the 1: 25,000 topographic maps easily obtained at the government map. shop. A simple compass and clino-rule for the measurement of the attitude of the rocks (dip and strike) is necessary if you wish to map the strata and its subsurface projection, and other refinements such as a polaroid camera with ‘instant’ photos can help, but on many trips the hammer and notebook are the only essentials. There is plenty of scope for the desk-bound enthusiasts. Your personal computer is as comfortable analysing fossil distributions as Storing your tax figures. Further reading (specifically about Victoria) f ‘Geology of Victoria’. Geological Society of Australia Incorp.) Comprehensive but a little daunting for the amateur, ‘Introducing Victorian Geology’. (Geological Society of Australia .) A must! The Physiography of Victoria’ by E. S. Hills. Guide to landforms, ee Plant is That?’ by J. G. Douglas. A guide to Victoria’s ancient floras published Enquiries Your FNCV contact fo t the Geology G i i (03) 9890 0913, or write t gy Group is Doug Harper. You can contact him on © 33 Victoria Crescent, Mont Albert 3127. "42 Sunhill Rd, Mt Waverley, Victoria 3149, 136 The Victorian Naturalist Book Reviews Peninsula Plants: A Field Guide to Indigenous Plants of the Mornington Peninsula with Notes on Cultivation by Kathie and Peter Strickland Publisher: Kareelah, Balnarring. Vol. 1, 1992; Vol. 2, 1994; each approx. 200 pages. RRP $14.95 With the urgent need to halt the clearing of native vegetation and to revegetate degraded areas with indigenous species, it is essential that we have accurate, accessible and infor- mative literature to give sound guidance to people who want to take positive action, but who may not have formal environmental training. In their two volumes of Peninsula Plants, Kathie and Peter Strickland have made a valuable contribution, not only for residents of the Mornington Peninsula, but also for people with similar concerns in other Vic- torian coast-to-foothill areas where most of the species described also occur naturally. The original volume was put out as a self- published book in 1992 (the Stricklands operate Kareelah Bush Nursery). Because of its success, a second volume was published in December 1994. Each volume describes about a hundred species of trees, shrubs, creepers and small herbaceous plants, covering the most com- mon and cultivatable of the Peninsula’s 600-odd species. Each species has an accurately written full page description by Kathie, with interesting comments on history and nomenclature and practical advice on cultivation. On every opposing page are clear and mostly natural- size line illustrations by Peter, whose background as an artist is obvious. Diagnos- tic features are given special attention, with enlargement where appropriate. The plants in each volume are grouped: trees, shrubs over 2 m, shrubs under 2 m, creepers, herbs, tufted herbs and orchids. Glossaries and bibliographies are included. Vol. 112 (3) 1995 I did find a couple of difficulties in using the two books. An initial uncertainty arises because the second volume developed as something of an ‘add-on’ to the original one in terms of plant coverage, and there is no obvious basis for determining which plants are in which volume, My second concern relates to the organisa- tion within each book. Plants are described in botanical species-name order within each of the seven habit groups (which, apart from the reference in the table of contents, are not separated or headed in any way), yet the prominent heading for each species page is the common name in bold capitals. The ef- fect of this is to give an initial impression of ‘randomness’ of order and, indeed, similar or related plants (e.g. in the several genera of the pea-flowers, Fabaceae) tend to be scattered through each book. While the habit groupings are useful, I feel that subgroup- ings within these by family would have helped to bring similar plants together for comparison in identification. Clear iden- tification of the seven sections and the use of running-heads would also have given the books a more organised feel. These concerns aside, I certainly recom- mend these two books for their clarity and accuracy of content, practical usefulness and, at $14.95 each, inexpensiveness com- pared with some botanical publications we have seen of late. Leon Costermans 6 St Johns Ave, Frankston, Victoria 3199. 137 Book Reviews Identification Handbook for Native Grasses in Victoria by Meredith Mitchell Available from: Meredith Mitchell, Rutherglen Research Institute, RMB 1145, Rutherglen, Victoria 3685 This is a curious little booklet (34 pages) that, on the one hand, is simple in text and layout to encourage complete novices (the target audience are farmers) to identify the native grasses of their area and to alert them to the potential agricultural values of these species, whilst, on the other hand, is detailed enough at the minutiae of important grass characteristics that it serves as a very impor- tant companion introduction to students, naturalists, etc. wishing to learn to identify native grasses, an area of taxonomy per- ceived to be difficult. Of Victoria’s 64 genera of native grasses, ten are covered by this booklet. The booklet can hardly therefore be described as an iden- tification handbook to Victoria’s native grasses. At best, it is a simple introduction. The agronomic slant is obvious from the outset as no Poa species are included, it being widely recognised that these species are not favoured by grazing stock. The in- clusion of a species such as Dichanthium sericeumis also interesting given the limited distribution of this species. Each species is described according to general appearance and its distinguishing features. The now ubiquitous distribution map is also included. Agronomic values such as production (t/ha), forage value, crude protein content, digestibility and tesponse to fertility are included, These data rely heavily on the research of Wal Whalley and co-workers from the north-west slopes of NSW. Whether such data can be applied to northern and southern Victoria is uncer- tain. Certainly, the production of 8.3 t/ha cited for Themeda triandra is much higher 138 than most values recorded for Victorian grasslands other than in rank, long-unburnt stands. What makes this booklet one of the better | introductions to native grasses I have seen is John Schnieder’s superb photography of often difficult subject matter. Each of the ten genera described is accompanied by six photographs. These usually include (with great clarity but unfortunately no scale) the most important diagnostic feature of native grasses including: whole plant view, leaf blade, leaf tip, leaf sheath, stem node, ligule, seedhead and seed. Whilst you will not be able to identify a genus to species level with this booklet, it may help you to improve general character recognition and build con- fidence in identifying native grasses. There is also a useful identification table at the rear of the booklet to distinguish the genera covered when in a non-flowering, — vegetative state. A glossary and a diagram of the generalised anatomy of a grass round off the booklet, although I suspect that these would have been better placed at the front rather than the back of the publication. Despite some of the minor failings of thiss booklet, it is an important piece of work, It makes native grasses more accessible to” those people who do not speak the taxonomic language. Hopefully, it will also” foster enthusiasm amongst the farming com- | munity to view native grasses in a different light (our light?) John Morgan. School of Botany, LaTrobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083. . The Victorian Naturalist | Census Update Census of the Vascular Plants of Victoria Update Bulletin No. 4.4 Compiled by T.J. Entwisle! Update bulletins to A Census of the Vas- cular Plants of Victoria are published in The Victorian Naturalist at intervals depending on the number of additions and alterations to the Census. The first update to appear in The Victorian Naturalist (111(4): 154-159) was number 4,3. The number refers to the edition of the Census (currently edition four) and to the number of update bulletins produced since that edition (this is the fourth). Monocotyledons CYPERACEAE Descriptions, illustrations, distributions and keys to these species of Cyperaceae can be found in Flora of Victoria, volume 2, pp. 238-356. Baumea planifolia (Benth.) K.L. Wil- son, Telopea 5: 589 (1994), New name for Baumea sp. (Wallaby Creek). Chorizandra australis K.L. Wilson, Telopea 5: 594 (1994). New record for Victoria. Eleocharis macbarronii K.L. Wilson, Telopea 5: 599 (1994). New name for Eleocharis sp. aff. atricha (Mt Arapiles). Isolepis gaudichaudiana Kunth, Enum. PI. 2: 201 (1837). New record for Victoria. Schoenus lepidosperma (F, Muell.) K.L. Wilson, Telopea 5: 619 (1994) ssp. lepidosperma. New name for Schoenus tenuissimus. Schoenus lepidosperma ssp. pachy- lepis (S.T. Blake) K.L. Wilson, Telopea 5: 619 (1994). New record for Victoria. Uncinia nemoralis K.L. Wilson, Telopea 5: 620 (1994). New name for Uncinia sp. aff. rupestris. 'National Herbarium of Victoria, Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne, Birdwood Ave, South Yarra, Victoria 3 141. Vol. 112 (3) 1995 Uncinia sulcata K.L. Wilson, Telopea 5: 620 (1994), New name for Uncinia sp. aff. compacta. LILIACEAE Dianella amoena G.W. Carr & PF. Horsfall, Muelleria 8: 369 (1995). New record for Victoria. Restricted to grassland and grassy woodland in Victoria and Tasmania, and characterized by its long, very slender, wiry and much-branched rhizomes; the narrow, tapering and thin lax orstiff leaves that can be summer deciduous; the often small, relatively few-flowered panicles; and the large, showy stamens (with bright orange swelling). Dianella brevicaulis (Ostenf.) G.W. Carr & P.F. Horsfall, Muelleria 8: 375 (1995). New name for Dianella revoluta var. brevicaulis. This taxon is considered by the authors to be distinct at species level. Dianella callicarpa G.W. Carr & P.F. Horsfall, Muelleria 8: 366 (1995). New record for Victoria, Known from scattered, small populations in south- western Victoria, and from the Mornington Penninsula and Dandenong Ranges, but possibly more widespead (perhaps into South Australia). This species is charac- terized by having aerial stems; very long, lorate, strongly occluded, thin leaves which frequently arch or bend down; and flowers like D. caerulea var. caerulea. Dianella porracea (R.Henderson) P.F. Horsfall & G.W. Carr, Muelleria 8: 375 (1995). New name for Dianella longifolia var. porracea, This taxon is considered by the authors to be distinct at species level. Dianella tarda G.W. Carr & PF. Horsfall, Muelleria 8: 372 (1995). New record for Victoria. A fragmented distribution on the northern plains of Vic- toria, probably extending into New South Wales. Similar to D. longifolia var. lon- gifolia and D. porracea, but robust, 139 Census Update evergreen and densely tussock-forming; with narrow, more or less smooth, erect, moderately glaucous, deeply channelled, more or less fleshy leaves; and usually tall, more or less obovoid to elliptic (in outline) inflorescence of sprawling, elongated panicles, POACEAE Aristida jerichoensis (Domin) Henrard var. subspinulifera Henrard, Meded. Herb. Leiden 58A: 300 (1932). New record for Victoria, Collected once (in 1994) from a sandy rise in yellow gum woodland near Charlton. This locally rare grass differs from other Victorian species of Aristida in having lemmas each with a ventral furrow that is pronouncedly tubercu- late at the margin. Rytidosperma oreophilum H.P. Linder & N.G. Walsh, Muelleria 8: 283 (1995). New record for Victoria, Somewhat intermediate between Rytidosperma erian- thum and R, tenuis (previously Danthonia eriantha and D, tenuior) but differing from R. eriantha in the setae on the lateral lobes of the lemma being much shorter than the flattened part of the lobes, always included within the glumes, the lemma often with scattered hairs between the two rows of hair-tufts, and the more compact ovate inflorescence. From R. tenuis it differs in having a broader, obovate palea that is glabrous abaxially, and by the compact ovate (cf. linear) inflorescence. Rytidosper- ma oreophilum grows in grassland, open heathland or on rock outcrops along the Great Dividing Range and nearby moun- tains from near Canberra to just north of Heyfield in Victoria. Note that following a worldwide revision, all Victorian species of Danthonia except D, lepidopoda are now referred to Rytidosperma. Appropriate combinations for all Victorian species exist in Rytidosper- ma (and these may be found listed in synonymy in the Flora of Victoria, volume 2). Danthonia lepidopoda and Chionochloa pallida are probably con- generic but any taxonomic change must await a complete assessment of the tribe Arundineae in Australia. 140 Dicotyledons ASTERACEAE Picris angustifolia DC, ssp. merxmuel- leri Lack & S, Holzapfel, Wildenowia 23: 190 (1993). New name for Picris sp. (Eastern High- lands), Differs from P. squarrosa in having bracts which are all straight, the outer ones upright (sometimes slightly squarrose) and — not as Wide as inner ones. Further diagnostic features are not available currently. Siloxerus multiflorus Nees in Lehm., Pl, Preiss. 2: 244 (1845). | New name for Rutidosis multiflora. Field and herbarium studies indicate that Rutidosis multiflora is more similar to | species of Siloxerus than recent authors have thought. This species has been returned to the genus in which it was orginally described. EPACRIDACEAE Epacris celata R.K. Crowden, Muel- leria 8: 319 (1995). New record for Victoria. Widespread in damp areas on the Snowy Range and Bogong High Plains, extending into New South Wales in the Kosciusko region. This species resembles E, petrophila and E. breviflora, and has campanulate flowers clustered in heads, but differs in having rounder (length to width ratio c. 1,5), flatter leaves and a somewhat smooth, conspicuous margin that is rarely minutely serrate. There are further differences in leave shape and. orientation. Monotoca billawinica Albr., Muelleria 8: 303 (1995). New name for Monotoca sp. (Gram- pians). Rare and restricted to small areas i the Victoria and Mt Difficult Ranges in of its robust habit; absence of lignotul leaves usually 2.3-4.2 mm wide; lo peduncles (0,6-2.7 mm on lowermos spikes), sepals (1.2-1.9 mm), corolla (2.5- mm in male flowers) and anthers (1.3-1. mm and exserted); glabrous petioles on dis tal leaves; and red-orange fruits. Monotoca oreophila Albr., Muelleri 8: 299 (1995). The Victorian Natu ' Census Update New name for Monotoca sp. aff. elliptica (Alps). This Victorian endemic is restricted to Snowfields from Mt Baw Bawto Mt Kent, where it grows among rocks of various types. It is characterized by its dense, small leaves (4 -11 mm long, 1.4 -2.8 mm wide) with a pungent apex, its singly borne flowers, the absence of a lignotuber, and more subtle features of the flowers and the overwintering buds. It most closely resembles M. elliptica, a coastal species. Richea victoriana Y. Menadue, Muel- leria 8: 317 (1995). New name for Richea gunnii in Victoria. First noticed by the author during a chemotaxonomic survey of Richea, this endemic Victorian species is known from damp areas on the Baw Baw Plateau and the Blue Range (between Marysville and Tag- gerty). It resembles R. gunnii, now considered to be a Tasmanian endemic, but is a more robust plant with longer, wider leaves that are distinctively twisted. FABACEAE Gompholobium inconspicuum Crisp, Muelleria 8: 307 (1995). New name for Gompholobium sp. B aff. uncinatum. Restricted in Victoria mostly to the upper Genoa River area where growing in open forest and Allocasuarina nana heathland. It has tuberculate stems, trifolio- late leaves, and pale lemon-yellow or yellow-green flowers with a minutely ciliate or glabrous keel. Most similar to G. un- cinatum Cunn. ex Benth, fromnorthern New South Wales and south-east Queensland, but that species has reddish petals and lacks stipules. _ *Melilotus officinalis (L.) Pall., Reise Russ. Reich, 3: 537 (1776). New weed record for Victoria. Collected once from Red Cliffs, this European species differs from Melilotus albus in having yel- low flowers, longer fruiting racemes (10- 25 cm long) and reticulate-rugose (rather than transverse-rugose) pods. *Ornithopus perpusillus L., Sp. Pl. 743 (1753). New weed record for Victoria. A European species collected from two localities in South Gippsland, it differs from Vol. 112 (3) 1995 other species of Ornithopus naturalized in Victoria in having stems usually branched at base only, white or pink flowers with calyx teeth c. half as long as tube and corolla 3 - 5 mm long, and straight or slightly curved pods which are constricted between articles. Podolobium ilicifolium (Andrews) Crisp & P.H. Weston, Advances in Legume Systematics 7: 56 (1994). Podolobium alpestre (F. Muell.) Crisp & P.H. Weston, Advances in Legume Sys- tematics 7: 56 (1994). Podolobium procumbens (F. Muell,) Crisp & P.H. Weston, Advances in Legume Systematics 7: 58 (1994), New names for taxa previously included in Oxylobium. The genus Podolobium was resurrected in a recent revision. Species of Podolobium are distinguished from those of Oxylobium by their peltate hairs, trilobed bracts, rigid stipules that are usually recurved or spreading, calyx lobes that are recurved at anthesis, and the warty ridges on the pods. Pultenaea forsythiana Blakely, Contr. New South Wales Natl. Herb. 1: 121 (1941). Change of rank for Pultenaea juniperina var. mucronata. Pultenaea sericea (Benth,) Corrick, Muelleria 8: 392 (1995). Change of rank for Pultenaea paleacea var. sericea. Pultenaea williamsonii Maiden, The Victorian Naturalist 22, 99 (1905). Change of rank for Pultenaea paleacea var, williamsonii. In preparation for the Flora of Victoria, volume 3, account of Pultenaea, M. Corrick (Muelleria8: 391-394) has raised these three varieties to species level, using existing names in two instances. Pultenaea parrisiae J.D. Briggs & Crisp, Telopea 5: 647 (1994) ssp. parrisiae. New name for Pultenea sp. aff. paleacea (East Gippsland). First collected by Fer- dinand von Mueller from upper Upper Genoa River (in 1860) and now known from other sites in East Gippsland as well as New South Wales, this taxon has been hidden within P. paleacea. It, differs from that species in having flowers pedicellate and only 5-7 mm long (cf. 10-12 mm), and in its 141 Census Update more diminutive, procumbent habit (with generally shorter leaves and stipules). Pultenaea viscosa = Pultenaea mollis. M. Corrick (Muelleria 8: 393) has placed P. viscosa in synonymy with P. mollis. *Trifolium resupinatum var. majus Boiss., Fl. Orient 2: 137 (1872). *Trifolium resupinatum var. resupin- atum. New weed record for Victoria. Follow- ing the account in preparation for Flora of Australia, two varieties of Trifolium resupinatum are recognized in Victoria. Var. majus, native to the Middle East, differs from the Eurasian var. resupinatum in having hollow, generally longer and broader stems (to 80 cm long and 5 mm thick), leaflets often 30 mm or more long, dense flowering heads mostly more than 10 mm wide, and flowers with corolla 6-8 mm long. Itis currently known only as aroadside weed from Keilor and near Casterton (and may not be truly naturalized), *Trifolium vesiculosum var. vesiculos- um Savi, Fl. Pis, 2: 165 (1798). New weed record for Victoria. Recorded in 1993 as an infestation covering 40 ha on private land and roadside verge in the Little Desert area, possibly as a result of deliberate planting for seed or green manure. This European annual differs from other intro- duced species of Trifolium in having an upright habit, prominently toothed leaflets, inflorescence more than 20 mm long and with all flowers fertile, calyx tube con- spicuously inflated (bladdery in fruit), and corolla pale pink to purple, more than 10 mm long and persistent in fruit, *Vicia monantha ssp. triflora (Ten.) B.L. Burtt & P. Lewis, Kew Bull. 1949: 510 (1950), New weed record for Victoria, This sub- species, also native to Europe, has been found in disturbed areas at several localities in the far north-west of Victoria and at a single site in South Gippsland. It differs from ssp. monantha in having racemes 2-5-flowered, corolla 14-20 mm long, pod 3-5 cm long and 10-12 mm wide, and seeds 3.5-5 mm long and blackish. Specimens in- termediate between the two subspecies have been reported in Victoria. 142 *Vicia sativa ssp. cordata (Wulfen ex Hoppe) Asch, & Graebn., Syn. Mitteleur. Fl. 6(2): 968 (1909). New weed record for Victoria. Native to Eurasia and an occasional weed of roadsides and other disturbed areas in Victoria. It dif- fers from ssp, sativa in having pods 4-6 mm wide, without regular swellings and dark brown, and seeds 3-5 mm long. *Vicia villosa ssp. eriocarpa (Hausskn.) P.W. Ball, Feddes Report. 79: 45 (1968). *Vicia villosa ssp. villosa New weed record for Victoria. Follow- ing the account in preparation for Flora of Australia, two of four subspecies of the Eurasian species V, villosa are recognized in Victoria, Var. eriocarpa grows in a few disjunct localities in Victoria, usually on disturbed sites. It differs from var. villosa (the other variety in Victoria) in having stems glabrous or appressed pilose, stipules 1-3 mm wide, lower calyx lobes shorter than calyx tube and sparsely ciliate to sub- glabrous, and pod pubescent. MYRTACEAE Callistemon kenmorrisonii Molyne- aux, Muelleria 8: 379 (1995). New record for Victoria, Confined to a single population in the upper Betka River catchment of Victoria. It differs from C. citrinus, more common in the area, in being a shrub of rock crevices with less regularly hairy rachises, glabrous perigynium (except for irregular patches of hair at base), and generally smaller leaves (c. 15-52 mm long, 3-6 mm wide). Compared with C. sub- ulatus, which grows nearby, C, kenmorri- sonii is a larger bush; has longer, wider and more irregularly arranged leaves; purple rather than crimson anthers; and larger fruits, OXALIDACEAE Oxalis thompsoniae B.J. Conn & P.G, Richards, Austral. Syst. Bot. 7: 175 (1994). New name for Oxalis sp. sensu Joy Thomps. Known from Papua New Guinea, eastern Australia and New Zealand, but its precise distribution in Victoria is unclear’ (collections currently from Otway Plain, , Gippsland Plain and East Gippsland). Like: O. exilis and O. rubens it has hairs directe The Victorian Naturalis’ Census Update upwards (antrorse) on the branches, prominent stipules and a slender or absent taproot. It is glaucous (when fresh) like O. rubens. but with the apex of the fruit abrupt- ly narrowed as in O. exilis. It is further characterized by its fruit being arranged in 3s and always with a dense covering of spreading, septate hairs; seeds very flattened laterally and with indistinct transverse ridges; and stipules with a rounded, elongate apex. POLYGONACEAE *Fallopia sacchalinensis (Schmidt) Ronse Decr., Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 98: 369 (1988). New name for weed species Reynoutria sacchalinensis, following a reassessment of generic characters by Ronse-Decraene & Akeroyd (journal citation as above). PROTEACEAE Grevillea celata Molyneux, Muelleria 8: 311 (1995), New name for Grevillea aff. chrysophaea (Nowa Nowa). Endemic to the Bruthen- Nowa Nowa area in East Gippsland, and similar to both G. alpina and G. chrysophaea which are not known in Vic- toria east of the Tambo River. It is characterized by resprouting from the roots, the simple to 3-times branched conflores- cence with 2-8 flowers, the generally larger pistil (18-25 mm cf. 10-22 mm long in the other two species), and the conspicuous, angled nectary to 2.5 mm high. _ RANUNCULACEAE _ Ranunculus diminutus B.G. Briggs, Telopea 5: 583 (1994). ' New name for Ranunculus sp. B sensu BG. Briggs & Makinson. A small ' - stoloniferous species of moist habitats on the Volcanic Plains and in East Gippsland. It tesembles R. papulentus generally but has smaller petals (3.5-6.2 mm long, 0.6-2.0 mm wide), a less robust habit and usually entire leaves (although those of R. papulentus can be entire). VIOLACEAE Viola sp. A sensu T.A. James, Fl. New South Wales 1: 438 (1990). Interim name for Viola hederacea ssp. fus- coviolacea. This subspecies warrants recognition at species level and will be given a formal name prior to publication of Flora of Victoria, volume 3. URTICACEAE Parietaria australis (Nees) Blume, Mus. Bot, 2: 256 (1857). New record for Victoria. Mostly restricted to the Grampians and further north, growing in moist, shady habitats in woodland on tocky scarps. Also known from Western Australia and South Australia, this taxon was previously subsumed within P. debilis. It differs from that species in having bracts subtending lateral flowers nearly equal in length, broadly triangular-ovate, concealing the flowers entirely except for perianth tips, initially delicate and green but becoming brown and often harder at maturity, and with delicate reticulate venation visible; and nuts which are delicate, and pale brown to pale greenish-brown. Acknowledgements The following provided information or read the manuscript: Marco Duretto, Jeff Jeanes, Jim Ross, Neville Walsh. —— . 112 (3) 1995 143 The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria In which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria Established 1880 Registered Office: FNCV, c/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141, 650 8661, OBJECTIVES: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron His Excellency, The Honourable Richard E. McGarvie, The Governor of Victoria. Key Office-Bearers June 1995 President: Dr. ROB WALLIS, 24 Iris Street, Burwood, 3125 (9244 7278). Hon. Secretary; Mr. GEOFFREY PATERSON, 11 Olive Street, South Caulfield, 3162 (9690 4733; A.H, 9571 6436). Hon. Treasurer: Mr, ARNIS DZEDINS, PO Box 1000, Blind Bight, 3980 ((059) 987 996). Subscription-Secretary; FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (9650 8661). Editors: ED and PAT GREY, 8 Woona Court, Yallambie, 3085 (9435 9019). Librarian: Mrs. SHEILA HOUGHTON, FNCYV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (A.H, (054) 928 4097), Excursion Secretary: DOROTHY MAHLER (9435 8408 A.H.) Sales Officer (Victorian Naturalist only): Mr. D.E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (9571 2427), Publicity Officer: Miss MARGARET POTTER, 1/249 Highfield Road, Burwood, 3125 (9889 2779), Book Sales Officer: DreALAN PARKIN, FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (9850 2617 A.H.). Programme Secretary: Dr. NOEL SCHLEIGER, | Astley Street., Montmorency, 3094 (9435 8408). Group Secretaries Botany: Mr. JOHN EICHLER, 18 Bayview Crescent, Black Rock, 3143 (9598 9492), Geology:Mr, DOUG HARPER, 33 Victoria Crescent, Mont Albert, 3127 (9890 0913). Fauna Survey: Miss FELICITY'GARDE, 18 College Parade, Kew, 3101 (9818 4684). Microscopical: Mr, RAY POWER, 36 Schotters Road, Mernda, 3754 (9717 3511). The Victorian Naturalist All material for publication to be sent to FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra 3141, Telephone queries to 9650 8661 or A.H. 9435 9019. “a MEMBERSHIP Membership ofthe F.N.C.V. is open to any person interested in natural history. The Victorian Naturalist is distributed free toall members, the club's reference and lending library is available and other activities ure indicated in reports set out in the several preceding pages of this magazine. Membership Rates 1995 Individual (Elected Members) Membership Subscription SWUGIIO AEP PGI Is aang 6255 sib ARDY Tettaitiasdeess $35 Bande & icDougel Pri LIE KN nting Pty. Lid. oh 91-97 Boundary Road, North Melbourne, 3051. Telephone (03) 9329 0166 fle oe Naturalist Volume 112 (4) 1995 August ‘I | il iii Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria cinre 1884 The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Honorary Membership Honorary Membership is bestowed on several grounds, one being for those who have been Members of the Club for a continuous period of forty years. Two Members joined the Club in 1955 and will be presented with their Certificates at our December General Meeting. Mr Eric Allen was elected to membership on 4 April 1955. His involvement has ranged from Honorary Assistant Librarian and Honorary Sales Officer, to Council Member (1961-66) and President (1967-69). Mr Allen has also contributed to this journal and remains a Trustee of the M.A. Ingram Trust. Dr Gordon Mackenzie was elected to membership on 7 March 1955. His botanical interests, pursued where possible with his medical practice, have centred on endemic plants in the Grampians, including early collection of Borya sp. Both members deserve our congratulations on their long FNCV service. New Members to 18 May 1995 Council of the FNCV extends a warm welcome to the following new members. Members Mr Johnny Avraam Ms _ Rosemary Barham Ms _ Coral Cole Mr _ Greg Dennis Miss Margaret Drummond Mrs Marion Ducco David Duncan Clarrie Handreck Ralf Henman Peter Homan Rhys Jones Lincoln Kern Northcote Box Hill South Murrumbeena Camegie Forest Hill South Caulfield Middle Park Ringwood East Kew Eltham Kooyong Preston Klari Randall Mornington Catherine Sandercock Richmond Penelope Savage Murrumbeena Jim Sparrow Brighton Lynda Sharpe Healesville Jacqueline Stump Richmond Roger Thomas Ballarat West Quentin Tibballs Bacchus Marsh Matt White Alexandra Elizabeth Wicklein Viewbank Sandra Woolward Hawthorn SSSSSEVYSSSSSESESS David Low Edward Lowe Leticia Maher Mark Merryfull John Mitchell Adam Muyt George Paras Paul Peake Fred Pribac Clare Putt Armadale Blackburn Glen Waverley Northcote Mt Martha Northcote Bundoora Richmond Mt Waverley Camberwell Daniel Yencken Joint Members Mr Ms Mr Mr Mr Ms Mr Ms David Blake and Sonya Everard Berard and Loren Engelbrecht Jeremy Sullivan and Liz Dudley Simon Thorning and Fiona Granville Albert Park North Melbourne Westburn North Fitzroy Mulberry Hill olume 112 (4) 1995 [Research Report sContributions (Naturalist Notes Book Review How to bea ield Naturalist | \Obituary ISSN 0042-5184 Cover: Blue Pincushion Brunonia australis Grassland but is uncommon in true basalt p August Editors: Ed and Pat Grey Base-line Monitoring of a Significant Grassland Remnant at Evans Street, Sunbury, Victoria, by J.W. Morgan and T.S. Rollason. . 1... 0.0. eae 148 Reptiles and Amphibians of the Melbourne Area, BY SAREGIVTI tee TEN , 0,1] CED ee: Ae cet rne Pens 160 Discovery of a Cleistogamous Form of Clover Glycine in the Arthur’s Seat State Park, by Stefanie Rennick..... . 172 Searching for the Rare White Bird, by Glen Jameson .... . 174 The Wasp and the Spider, by Angus Martin .........-. 177 Those Magical, Mystical Creations - Galls, by Cecily Falkingham, Naturalist in Residence ........ 178 The Silken Web: A Natural History of Australian Spiders, by Bert Simon-Brunet, reviewers M. Elgar and R. Allan 180 Botany, by John Eichler»... ++ eee eee ees 182 183 William Perry 1911-1995... 2. eee ee et te es Photograph by Vanessa Craigie. is a distinctive feature of the Evans Street lains grassland (see article pages 148-159). Research Report Base-line Monitoring of a Significant Grassland Remnant at Evans Street, Sunbury, Victoria J.W. Morgan! and T.S. Rollason? Abstract . ' f ' , The frequency and overlapping cover of native and exotic plant species were determined from 110 x 1m? quadrats positioned in a uniform grid over the Evans Street grassland during December 1993. A species list of the cryptogamic flora was also made. Fifty-nine native and 44 exotic species were recorded in quadrats during the survey. Most native species are sparse, occur at low frequency and have low projective foliage cover. Indeed, some species (e.g. Ptilotus macrocephalus, Comesperma polyga- loides and Stylidium graminifolium ‘plains form’) are represented by only one or a few individuals. The frequency of occurrence of exotic species is bimodal with most species occurring in less than 5% of quadrats, but 20% of species also occur in greater than 50% of quadrats. One hundred and one native plant species have now been recorded for the site, making it as rich as the much larger Derrimut Grassland Reserve. Only 49 native species are common to both Evans Street and Derrimut. At least 32 cryptogams were also noted. Evans Street therefore represents one of the few opportunities to conserve species-rich grassland on the basalt plains. Patterns of current weed invasion are documented and some recommendations for assessment of future surveys are provided, Introduction Themeda grasslands on the western volcanic or basalt plains have been so thoroughly put to agricultural use since the mid-1800’s that much less than 1% now persists (McDougall et al, 1992; McDougall and Kirkpatrick 1994), Of this, possibly less than 500 ha is species rich with a minimal weed component (McDougall et al. 1992). The basalt plains grassland community is therefore amongst the most threatened in Australia (Frood and Calder 1987; Lunt 1991). Most refugia have survived to this day because they have been protected from intense or prolonged stock grazing and many have been regularly burnt for fire protection (as was the practice along railway lines and roadsides). As such, these small remnants now play a vital role in the conservation of the ecosystem, supporting Many species that can no longer be found in other grassland remnants (Stuwe and Parsons 1977). Only one reserve for the conservation of the basalt plains grassland community has been proclaimed (Derimut Grassland Reserve) although it has a history of cropping and grazing (Lunt 1990a). Many grassland plants of the region are absent or poorly represented at Derrimut due to this past management regime. Most grassland species (80%) are, as yet, unrepresented in ’ School of Botany, La Trobe Universi Bundoora; Victoria sone ; University, ? Ramsden Street, Clifton Hill, Victoria 3068 148 grasslands in permanent conservation reserves (Scarlett et al. 1992). All remaining remnants on the Keilor Plains, encompassing some of the best remnants of Themeda grassland in western Victoria (and many under imminent threat of urban and industrial development), are therefore vital to the conservation of this flora. The challenge of conserving such a fragmented ecosystem has been addressed by Ross (1993a) who proposed that the best remnants be seen as an integrated unit, linked by common objectives and management. The Evans Street grassland at Sunbury is an important component of this grassland reserve network. The grassland at Evans Street has received considerable attention from conservationists in the Melbourne region because of its size relative to most other remnants, and its perceived integrity. The biological values of the site have been recognised for some time (Rayner etal, 1984; Stuwe 1986; DCE 1990) but it has only recently been temporarily reserved for conservation, The aim of the research reported here was to document the condition of the grassland as it was at the time of reservation (1993) so that future changes could be monitored and an assessment of its condition at the end of the 10 year interim reservation period determined. Study Site The Evans Street grassland is approx- imately 30 km north-west of Melbourne on The Victorian Naturalist Research Report the southern perimeter of the town of Sunbury (37° 35° S, 144° 44° EB). It is approximately 100 m wide, 3.5 hain size and is bounded to the east by the residential Evans Street and to the west by the ‘Melbourne-Bendigo railway line, The area can be considered to be urban. The soil at the site is predominantly a red- 'brown to grey clay loam on Quaternary basalt. In the centre of the site, a lens of Ordovician silcrete protrudes from the surrounding soil and gives the site its topographical relief. The silcrete area indicates that the basalt soil is (probably) only a thin layer in places and absent alto- gether in others. As a result, Evans Street is not truly representative of the basalt plains. The vegetation is primarily free-draining plains grassland dominated by Kangaroo Grass Themeda triandra with numerous intertussock species and may be considered similar to the Keilor Plains community described by Sutton (1916) and Willis (1964). The outcropping silcrete area is dominated by Acacia paradoxa and contains many species that are uncommon in typical Themeda grassland (e.g. Brunonia australis, Stylidium graminifolium ‘plains form’). The site, previously a rail reserve, has been burnt regularly for fire protection for decades (J. Ross pers. comm.). The grazing history is unknown but presumably was light ‘or absent altogether. More recently, an ecological burn of the entire site was undertaken approximately nine months prior to this study. ‘Methods Data Collection _ Eleven 90 m transects were laid out across the site to form a grid to survey the grassland, Permanently marked transects, each approximately 20-30 m apart, ran east to west, i.e. from the roadside fence towards the railway line, stopping approximately 15 m from the rail-line itself. At 10 m intervals along each transect (i.e. 0 m,10 m, quadrats were sampled) and all species of yascular plants growing in, or projecting over, the quadrat were identified, recorded Vol. 112 (4) 1995 in and assigned a cover abundance value based on a six point scale, i.e: + - projective foliage cover less than 1% 1 - projective foliage cover 2-5% 2 - projective foliage cover 6-25% 3 - projective foliage cover 26-50% 4 - projective foliage cover 51-75% 5 - projective foliage cover 76-100% One-metre square quadrats were chosen as the sampling unit so that many quadrats could be placed throughout the site to monitor changes in abundance and cover. Small quadrats were chosen ahead of larger quadrats to give more accurate estimates of these changes even though they are probably below the minimal area required for this community (see Lunt 1990b). The sampling grid also allowed for the invasion by exotic species from reserve edge to be quantified. All sampling was done between 19-29 December 1993. Further observations were made during autumn-winter 1994 and non-vascular plants were collected for identification in July 1994. Plant Taxonomy Vascular plant nomenclature throughout this report follows Ross (1993b) and Walsh and Entwisle (1994) whilst non-vascular lant nomenclature follows Catcheside (1980) and Scott (1985). The survey was conducted late in the growing season of a particularly dry spring. As such, many plants had either completed flowering or had not flowered at all. This presented some difficulty in identification. Difficulties were encountered with the following plants: *Aira spp. - this small annual had completed its life cycle at the time of sampling. It is likely to include Aira cupaniana and A. caryophyllea. Asperula scoparia - most specimens of Asperula observed at the site were A, scoparia but some A. conferta may have been included. Plantago spp. - the native Plantago at the site could not be reliably identified because of the lack of fertile material, Both P. gaudichuadii and P. varia occur at the site and are included in this grouping. Exotic Asteraceae - identification of some small, infertile specimens to genus was difficult. 149 Research Report Unidentified Liliaceae - some small lilies were not reliably identified but are likely to have been Arthropodium strictum and Caesia calliantha. Exotic dicots - some very small, infertile exotic dicots were encountered but not identified to genus level. Unidentified monocots - some exotic grasses could not be identified to genus because they had completed their life cycle at the time of sampling. Difficulties in identification to species level were encountered in some instances with the following genera: Carex, Danthonia, Euchiton, Isolepis, Juncus, Stipa, Trifolium and Wahlenbergia. Given that the botanical survey was conducted in December, many seasonal species (notably geophytes and annuals) may have been overlooked. Many additional species would undoubtedly be recorded if the area was surveyed during the height of flowering in spring. Results A total of 93 species was identified in quadrats during the survey and a further 10 exotic species were recorded but not identified to species level (Appendix 1). Of these, 59 species (57%) were native and 44 species (43%) were exotic. A further 48 species have also been recorded for the site comprising 42 native and 6 exotic species, although it is not certain as to whether all recorded species still persist. The classification of species according to family, life history and growth form is shown in Table 1. Nine percent of native species were A g 3 B) r- a) 5 & rs a A Nw 2° ee 6.0-10 11.0-15 % frequency of occurrence Table 1. Indigenous and exotic species classified according to family, life history and growth form. Classification Exotic Indigenous Families Annuals Perennials Grasses Forbs Shrubs Trees Unclassified annual and 63% of all native species were forbs. The typical basalt plains families (Willis 1964) also predominate at Evans Street, namely Poaceae (33 spp.), Asteraceae (19 spp.), Fabaceae (11 spp.), Liliaceae (7 spp.) and Cyperaceae (6 spp.). Most plant species at the site were recorded in few quadrats (Fig. 1). Very few species other than the grassland dominant, Themeda triandra, and exotic annual grasses occurred in greater than 50% of quadrats. Given the low percent frequency of most species, it is not surprising that percent foliage cover per quadrat is also very low for most species (Fig. 2). Only Themeda has a significant cover (43%) at the site. Native species richness did not differ greatly on basalt versus silcrete areas (6.71 versus 7.02 species/m?). Some species, however, were restricted to, or more numerous on, the rocky silcrete substrate (e.g. Arthropodium strictum, Brunonia australis, Stylidium graminifolium ‘plains BB Native O Exotic 16-30 31-50 51-75 76-100 Fig. 1. The frequency of occurrence of native and exotic species (as a % of total number of species in each flora) as determined from 110 x 1 m2 quadrats. 150 The Victorian Naturalist ; Research Report E ° a 2 5 £ E - S id <0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.5 0,5-1.0 1.0-2.0 2.0-3.0 3.0-4.0 4,0-5.0 Average % cover Fig. 2. The mean cover of native and exotic species (expressed as a % of total number of species in each flora) as determined from 110 x 1 m? quadrats. form’, Acacia paradoxa and Dillwynia cinerascens). At least 32 non-vascular species were recorded from Evans Street including Riccia spp. Bryum spp. and Fissidens spp. (common components of grasslands) and Gigaspermum repens, Grimmia pulvinata and Triquetrella papillata (species more restricted to the rocky outcropping areas) (Appendix 2). Of the 151 species recorded at Evans Street, 50 (33%) are exotic species, Whilst numerically significant, most occur infrequently and have low cover. The number of exotic species did, however, outnumber the number of native species in 53% of quadrats. Highest numbers (Fig. 3) and percent overlapping cover (Fig. 4) of exotic species occur along both edges of the reserve, particularly the more disturbed Evans Street fenceline. Lowest native species richness and percent overlapping cover also occurs here. Exotic species richness throughout the rest of the grassland is similar to that of native species richness. Exotic species cover Native ——— Exotic 40 i) Ruil-line Distance along transect (mi) fenceline Fig. 3. Average species richness (per m*)of native and exotic species along transects (n=11) running across the Evans Street site. Vol. 112 (4) 1995 varies between 10-20% throughout the grassland proper whereas native species overlapping cover varies between 60-80%, most of which is contributed by Themeda. Three groups of exotic species can be recognised at Evans Street (Table 2): 1) Widespread, ubiquitous weeds These species occur in greater than 50% of quadrats and are found independent of the degree of disturbance. 2) Species that occur throughout the grassland with low (<10%) to moderate (40%) frequency. These species, such as Avena fatua, Juncus capitatus and Plantago lanceolata, are not restricted to disturbed areas and have not invaded the site to the degree that ubiquitous species have. It is uncertain whether these species will continue to increase their abundance and hence, become ubiquitous at a later date. 3) Disturbance/Edge weeds These species occur almost exclusively in areas of disturbance. Some, like Agrostis capillaris and Cynodon dactylon, appear to * Native —O— Exotic of oe “ML fence Distance along transect (nt) fenveline Fig. 4. Average percent overlapping cover of native and exotic species along transects (n=11) running across the Evans Street site. 151 Research Report Table 2. Indigenous and exotic species grouped according to frequency of occurrence and/or degree of site modification, * Note that exotic species found in disturbed areas are restricted to these areas whereas native species in disturbed areas appear to either tolerate the disturbance or can co-exist with exotic species in such sites. Widespread (>50% frequency) Exotic Species Aira spp. Briza minor Holcus lanatus Hypochoeris radicata Romulea rosea Trifolium campestre Vulpia bromoides Native Species Plantago spp. Schoenus apogon Moderately common (10-40% frequency) Avena fatua Centaurium tenuifolium Juncus capitatus Paspalum dilatatum Helminthotheca echioides Plantago lanceolata Bossiaea prostrata Calocephalus citreus Disturbed Areas* Acacia baileyana Agrostis capillaris Conyza bonariensis Cynodon dactylon Lolium perenne Phalaris aquatica Tragapogon porrifolius Vicia sp. Elymus scaber Geranium retrorsum Convolvulus erubescens Danthonia spp. Dichelachme crinita Elymus scaber Eryngium ovinum Gonocarpus tetragynus Lomandra filiformis Oxalis perennans Pimelea curviflora Senecio quadridentatus Stipa sp. Themeda triandra be invading from the mown road reserve in Evans Street . By contrast, when native species are classified into similar frequency or site modification groupings (Table 2), it is apparent that very few native species can co-exist with exotic species in the most disturbed sites. Elymus scaber, Geranium retrorsum and, to a lesser extent, Acaena echinata appear to be exceptions. Derrimut Grassland Reserve which supports 102 indigenous species from a variety of plant communities (Lunt 1990a). Indeed, the Evans Street grassland contains many species that are absent or poorly represented at Derrimut (and other grassland remnants in the region), particularly members of the Orchidaceae (e.g. Diuris lanceolata, Thelymitra nuda, T. pauciflora) and Fabaceae (e.g. Bossiaea _ rostrata, Dillwynia cinerascens) (Lunt 1990a). It_ supports one Victorian vulnerable speci (Comesperma polygaloides), one species (Stipa setacea) (Gullan et al. 1990) at least one undescribed species (Stylidium graminifolium ‘plains form’) and man species that are uncommon (Brunoni australis) or are becoming so in grasslan in the Melbourne area (e.g. Burchardi umbellata, Dianella longifolia, Minuria leptophylla, Pelargonium rodneyanu Ptilotus macrocephalus, Ptilotus spathulat Ranunculus lappaceus). The Evans § Discussion One hundred and one native plant species have been identified for the Evans Street grassland. This makes it one of the most diverse remnants of grassland on the basalt plains (McDougall et al. 1992; McDougall and Kirkpatrick 1994). A further 32 non-vascular plant species were also recorded for the site. Evans Street is likely to be one of the most significant grassland remnants in the Melbourne area in conjunction with the much larger (153 ha) 152 The Victorian Naturalis Research Report grassland makes an important contribution to the conservation of the Keilor Plains flora when it is considered that only 49 native species are shared between Derrimut (Lunt 1990a) and Evans Street. Whilst the site is species rich, many native species occur infrequently and at low cover. There are some species such as Ptilotus macrocephalus, Ranunculus lappaceus and Solidium graminifolium ‘plains form’ that are known from only one ora few individual plants at the site. Such species will need active management to ensure their persistence (i.e. propagation and planting to enhance population size and recruitment). McIntyre et al. (1993) has described similar patterns of occurrence for the temperate grasslands of the New England Tablelands area and concluded that much of the grassland flora can be considered to be of ‘sparse’ occurrence due to its wide geographic range, low levels of dominance and low habitat specificity. At Evans Street, low cover may be due in part to the fact that the site was burnt only nine months prior to sampling. Maximum native species richness at Evans Street (14 species/m?) is also less than that mapped by Patton (1935) for a single quadrat in a similar Themeda grassland on the basalt plains. The reasons for this are unknown but may be related to past management of the site. There was little difference in the total native species richness between basalt and silcrete areas although species composition often varied markedly, Brunonia australis, Kennedia prostrata, Stylidium graminifolium ‘plains form’ and Acacia paradoxa were Testricted to silcrete areas whilst Arthropodium strictum and Stipa spp. were ‘much commoner here than on basalt. Similar Species substitutions in grasslands as a result of environmental variation, but with no overall change in richness, have also been noted by McIntyre and Lavorel (1994). _ Exotic species are numerous at Evans Street and contribute 33% of all species. This is a typical contribution to the grassland flora of the basalt plains (McDougall et al. 1992). Their frequency and cover, however, are low in most cases and they (largely) do not detract from the aesthetic quality of the ‘site other than along the perimeter fencelines. Vol 112 (4) 1995 The exotic species at Evans Street differ in two fundamental respects to the type and pattern of occurrence of native species: i) the frequency of occurrence of exotic Species is bimodal (Fig. 1). Like the native Species, most exotic species occur very infrequently (<5%), perhaps limited to the edge of the reserve or to disturbed areas, However, unlike native species with an observed unimodal frequency distribution, there is also a second group of species (20% of all exotic species) that occur at high frequency (>50%). This group includes mostly annual grasses (e.g. Aira spp., Briza minor, Vulpia bromoides) but also includes perennial grasses (Holcus lanatus), forbs (Hypochoeris radicata) and geophytes (Romulea rosea). It is interesting that these species can persist at high frequency in the presence of Themeda (and the apparent absence of soil disturbance) whereas most native intertussock species do not. ii) annual species are far more important in the exotic flora than the native flora (43% of exotic species versus 9% of natives) whilst grasses contribute more to the exotic species (41%) than the native species (29%) (Table 1). It is suggested that the ubiquitous species will have to be accepted as a part of the flora at Evans Street. They occur too frequently (e.g. Romulea rosea occurs in 96% of quadrats and Briza minor in 84%) for control to be feasible. Many of these species function without threatening (at their current densities) the integrity of the standing flora. Their impact on seedling recruitment, however, is likely to be greater than their impacts on the standing flora and management should aim to prevent their frequency and cover from further increases. This may be achieved by particular burning regimes (e.g. spring) although these remain largely speculative and untried. Edge- or disturbance- dependent weeds could be expected to invade the grassland at a slow rate. Most of these species are restricted to the perimeter of the reserve and may be incapable of further encroachment provided that no soil disturbance occurs in the central grassland area. Their presence at the edge of the reserve, however, is correlated with a large reduction in native species diversity and this is likely to continue to decline whilst exotic species 153 Research Report remain. Only Elymus scaber, Geranium retrorsum and, to a lesser extent, Acaena echinata appear to ‘tolerate’ this disturbance (McIntyre and Lavorel 1994). The potentially most threatening group of weeds are those species that already occur widely in the grassland (10-40% frequency). It is not known whether these species will continue to increase their frequency and cover. The main threat of this group of weeds is that, unlike the ubiquitous weeds that are typically annual grasses of low biomass, this group of species includes weeds that are capable of directly outcompeting native species because of their potential higher productivity (e.g. Paspalum dilatatum, Plantago lanceolata). Themeda cover averaged 43% per square metre only nine months from buming. At that rate, 100% cover is likely to be reached within 2-3 years. It has been well documented that to maintain species diversity, periodic canopy reduction of Themeda is required to prevent smaller plants from being shaded out (McDougall 1989; Lunt 1991). The maintenance of diversity is dependent on the maintenance of the standing flora because many native species do not store seed in the soil for any length of time, i.e, often less than one year (Lunt 1995). As a consequence, if the grassland is left unburnt (e.g, five or more years) and plants die out as a result of old age or shade intolerance, subsequent burning will not return the site to its former diversity but will rather maintain the plants that have survived the inter-fire period (either as seed, dormant buds or standing plants). This phenomenon has been documented elsewhere (Scarlett and Parsons 1990). To maintain the diverse flora of Evans Street, it is crucial that Themeda is not allowed to maintain canopy dominance for an extended period of time (e.g. greater than 4 years). Thirty-two non-vascular species were recorded at Evans Street. By contrast, the Derrimut Grassland Reserve recorded only three moss species (Morgan et al. 1993). The difference in species richness may be attributed to differences in the management history of the two sites, Heavy shading under a dense canopy of unburnt Themeda is suspected to be the reason for the current P icity of cryptogams at Derrimut whilst 154 many species are also likely to have been adversely affected by the past sheep grazing regime there (Morgan et al. 1993; Scarlett 1994), Seven of the species at Evans Street, mostly mosses, appear to be restricted to the higher ground amongst silcrete rock. However, all but six species have also been recorded at Yarra Bend Park, Kew (Sago 1994) suggesting a widespread distribution of many of these species. Many of the cryptogams at Evans Street also appear to be common components of other volcanic grassland soil crusts, particularly on frequently burnt rail and road reserves (e.g. Riccia spp., Lethocolea pansa, Bryum billardieri, Fossombronia intestinalis) (Scarlett 1994; J. Sago unpublished data). Management aims This base-line study of the condition of the Evans Street grassland in December 1993 has produced some accurate estimates of the frequency of occurrence and the cover of 59 native and 44 exotic species. As such, it allows some specific goals to be stated for this site and a measure of the success of these goals can be determined by future monitoring. We believe that four main aims are appropriate for the Evans Street grassland: i) the maintenance of current native species richness. This grassland has an important role to play in the conservation of the Keilor Plains flora and every attempt must be made to ensure the persistence of all native species at the site. ii) populations of rare and vulnerable species, as well as undescribed taxa, should be maintained. iii) populations of species that are currently very small should be increased. It is known that some species are restricted to one or a few individuals (e.g. Ptilotus macrocephalus). These species should be planted in the reserve to increase the viability of their populations. From the plant frequency data obtained in this survey, we are also in a position to make some longer term recommendations. For example, all species that occur in 1% of quadrats should be planted to improve population viability. Species that occur in only 2-5% of quadrats should have seed collected and propagated to buffer against local extinction at some The Victorian Naturalist Research Report later date. Future surveys would be able to determine which species need to be added or deleted from this list. iv) exotic species richness and cover should be maintained at, or preferably below, their current levels. All species defined as being restricted to the edge or disturbed areas of the reserve should be controlled. Interpreting future surveys Monitoring is an essential way of determining vegetation change over time as it can determine changes in species abundance and cover with some precision. Anecdotal evidence and hearsay cannot be nearly as accurate. To determine whether the grassland is maintaining its high quality, it is imperative that a commitment be made to monitor the site and that future surveys be undertaken in the year following burning (rather than when the grassland has been left unburnt as this may obscure the results). The most important features to consider in the interpretation of results of future surveys are: a) Has native species richness been maintained? The loss of species that at present are represented by only a few individuals should not be viewed as a decline in conservation significance of the site, These species are unlikely to recruit many individuals to the population because of low seed set and, in the absence of vegetative regeneration, will probably disappear once established plants senesce. Plants such as Ptilotus macrocephalus and Comesperma polygaloides occur in such low numbers that their medium-term persistence at the site relies on an active propagation and re-introduction program. Indeed, manual re-stocking should be viewed as responsible site management. Species of ‘rare’ or sparse occurrence (<3% frequency) will probably remain rare because of their population structures or clumped distributions, At present, 15 native species can be considered to be of ‘rare’ occurrence. These species include grasses (e.g. Chloris truncata), geophytes (e.g. Burchardia umbellata), forbs (e.g. Chrysocephalum apiculatum) and shrubs (e.g. Eutaxia microphylla). The fate of these species will not be immediately obvious to ee but will have a large impact on Vol. 112 (4) 1995 whether the site has degraded over the interim protection period. Indeed, it is this group of species that McIntyre et al. ( 1993) suggests are often neglected in conservation Strategies because their usual widespread distribution understates their abundance and significance at a regional scale. Similarly, species such as Caesia calliantha and Eryngium ovinum, amongst others that are present at moderate frequencies, are sufficiently common at the site to determine how management is affecting the more conspicuous components of the grassland flora. The combined changes in both the common and ‘rare’ species of the flora should be far better indicators of vegetation condition than the loss of a few already critically low populations of species. b) What weeds have changed their abundance and cover over the course of time? Annual plants are likely to exhibit temporal fluctuations in their abundance and May not be good indicators of directional change. Particularly dry seasons may under- represent the contribution of these species to the flora and this could mistakenly be attributed to management. Far better indicators of vegetation ‘health’ are likely to be gained by following the changes of those perennial species that already occur commonly throughout the grassland (i.e. 10-40% frequency). Species such as Paspalum dilatatum and Phalaris aqu- atica, which appear capable of directly outcompeting co-occurring native species, may continue to increase under the present regime of management and it is this type of change that needs to be determined, Vigilance is al so required to monitor the establishment and spread of weeds that are yet to invade the site. Stipa neesiana poses by far the greatest threat of any potential new invader. c) Has exotic species richness increased per quadrat? If so, this will indicate a slow, but steady, invasion of the site by a number of exotic species. d) What type of species have declined/increased (e.g. forbs, grasses, shrubs)? If a growth form is favoured over another, this should indicate something about the management regime employed. Historically, frequent buming and no 155 Research Report grazing on rail reserves favoured herbaceous dicotyledons over woody species (Stuwe and Parsons 1977). Acknowledgments James Ross and Michael Fendley provided the impetus for this study and we thank them for their encouragement. We are grateful to Jon Sago for identifying the non-vascular flora, Ian Lunt and Bob Parsons kindly commented on drafts of this manuscript. We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Friends of the Evans Street Grassland. References Catcheside, D.G. (1980). ‘Mosses of South Australia’. (Government Printer: South Australia), DCE, (1990). ‘Remnant Native Grasslands and Grassy Woodlands of the Melbourne Area’. t of Conservation and Environment: East Melbourne). Frood, D. and Calder, M. (1987). ‘Nature Conservation in Victoria, Study Report’. (Victorian National Parks Association: Victoria), Gullan, P.K., Cheal, D.C. and Walsh, N.G. (1990). ‘Rare or Threatened Plants in Victoria’. (Department of Conservation and Environment: Victoria). Lunt, 1.D. (1990a). A floristic survey of the Derrimut Grassland Reserve, Melbourne, Victoria. Proceed- ings of the Royal Society of Victoria 102, 41-52, Lunt, I.D. (1990b). Species-area curves and growth-form spectra for some herb-rich woodlands in westem Victoria, Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 15, 155-161. Lunt, LD, (1991), Management of remnant lowland grasslands and grassy woodlands for nature conser- vation: a review. The Victorian Naturalist 108, 56-66. Lunt, 1.D. (1995) Seed bank dynamics of six native forbs in a closed Themeda triandra grassland. Australian Journal of Botany, in press, McDougall, K.L, (1989). "The Re-establishment of The- meda triandra (Kangaroo Grass); Implications for the Restoration of Grassland’. (Arthur Rylah Insti- tute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series No, 89, Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands: Melbourne), McDougall, K, Barlow, T. and Appleby, M. (1992), “Native Grassland Sites of Significance and Species Rescue on the Western Basalt Plains, Victoria. Final report for 1991/92 - July 1992", A report to the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, En- dangered Species Unit, Canberra prepared on behalf of the Department of Botany, La Trobe University. McDougall, K, and Kirkpatrick, J.B. (eds,) (1994), ‘Con- servation of Lowland Native Grasslands in south-eastern Australia’, (World Wide Fund for Na- cure: Australia), 156 McIntyre, S., Huang, Z. and Smith, A.P. (1993). Patterns of abundance in grassy vegetation of the New Eng- land Tablelands: identifying regional rarity in a threatened vegetation type, Australian Journal of Botany 41, 49-64. Mcintyre, S. and Lavorel, S, (1994). How environmental and disturbance factors influence species composi- tion in temperate Australian grasslands. Journal of Vegetation Science 5, 373-384. Morgan, J.W., Scarlett, N.H. and Rollason, T.S, (1993). ‘Native Grassland Sites of Significance and Species Rescue on the Western Basalt Plains, Victoria, Final Report for 1993’. A report to the Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Endangered Species Unit, Canberra prepared on behalf of the Department of Botany, La Trobe University, Patton, R.T. (1935). Ecological studies in Victoria. IV. Basalt Plains association, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 48, 172-191. Rayner, C., Marsh, D. and Kemp, B. (1984). Keilor plains flora - a battle against extinction. Parkwatch 139, 12-15, Ross, J, (1993a). A grassland park for Melbourne's plains? Indigenotes 6 (8), 2-4, Ross, J.H. (1993b). ‘A Census of the Vascular Plants of Victoria’. (National Herbarium of Victoria: Austra- lia). Sago, J. (1994). A checklist of Yarra Bend cryptogams. Part I, Mosses, liverworts lichens. Indigenotes 7 (9), 14-15. Scarlett, N.H. (1994), Soil crusts, germination and weeds - issues to consider. The Victorian Naturalist 111, 125-130. Scarlett, N.H. and Parsons, R.F. (1990). Conservation biology of the southern Australian daisy Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides. In ‘Management of Small Popu- lations’, (ed. by T.W. Clark and J.H, Seebeck.) pp. 195-205. (Chicago Zoological Society: Illinois). Scarlett, N.H., Wallbrink, S.J. and McDougall, K. (1992). ‘Field Guide to Victoria's Native Grasslands’. (Vic- toria Press: South Melbourne). Scott, G, A.M. (1985). ‘Southern Australian Liverworts’. (Australian Government Printing Service: Can- berra). Stuwe, J. (1986). ‘An Assessment of the Conservation Status of Native Grasslands on the Western Plains, Victoria and Sites of Botanical Significance’. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series No. 48, (Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands: Melbourne). Stuwe, J. and Parsons, R.F, (1977). Themeda australis grasslands on the Basalt Plains, Victoria; floristics and managementeffects, Australian Journal of Ecol- ogy 2, 467-476. Sutton, C.S. (1916), A sketch of the Keilor Plains flora, The Victorian Naturalist 33, 112-123. Walsh, N.G. and Entwisle, T.J. (eds.) (1994). ‘Flora of Victoria. Volume 2. Fems and Allied Plants, Coni- fers and Monocotyledons’, (Inkata Press; Melbourne), Willis, J.H. (1964). Vegetation of the basalt plains in Western Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 77, 397-418. The Victorian Naturalist — ee EEE Eel Research Report Appendix 1 Summary of Quadrat Data (n=110) and additional species noted ite ei i i by DCE (1990). (* denotes exotie species) pecies noted at the site either during this work or Common Name Av. % Cover/m? % Frequency Acacia paradoxa Hedge Wattle 0.02 5 Acaena echinata Sheep’s Burr 0.13 8 Agrostis aemula Blown Grass 0.07 5 A. avenacea Common Blown Grass 0.04 3 *A. capillaris Brown-top Bent 0.25 5 *Aira spp. Air Grass 0.29 58 * Anagallis arvense Pimpernel 0.005 1 *Anthoxanthum odoratum Sweet Vernal Grass 0.16 2 Arthropodium strictum Chocolate Lily 0.06 4 Asperula conferta/scoparia Woodruff 0.31 5 *unidentified Asteraceae 0.005 1 *Avena fatua Wild Oat 0.15 26 *Briza maxima Large Quaking-grass 0.01 3 *B. minor Lesser Quaking-grass 0.58 84 Bossiaea prostrata Creeping Bossiaea 0.89 15 *Bromus diandrus Great Brome 0.005 1 *B. hordaceus Soft Brome 0.09 9 Burchardia umbellata Milkmaids 0.01 1 Brunonia australis Blue Pincushion 0.14 1 Caesia calliantha Blue Grass-lily 0.13 8 Calocephalus citreus Lemon Beauty-heads 0.73 21 Carex breviculmis Short-stem Sedge 0.07 5 Carex spp. 0.06 7 *Centaurium tenuifolium Centuary 0.21 42 Cheilanthes austrotenuifolia Green Rock Fern 0.01 2 Chloris truncata Windmill Grass 0.19 3 Chrysocephalum apiculatum Common Everlasting 0.06 3 *Cicendia quadrangularis Square Cicendia 0.01 2 Convolvulus erubescens Pink Bindweed 0.25 15 *Conyza bonariensis Tall Fleabane 0.01 1 *Cynodon dactylon Couch Grass 0.57 5 *Cyperus tenellus Tiny Flat-sedge 0.01 1 Danthonia caespitosa Common Wallaby Grass 0.12 11 D. duttoniana Brown-back Wallaby Grass 0.25 5 D. eriantha Reddish Wallaby Grass 0.07 5 D. penicillata Slender Wallaby Grass 0.005 1 D. racemosa Branched Wallaby Grass 0.17 4 D. setacea Bristly Wallaby Grass 0.04 4 Danthonia spp. 0.34 23 Dianella revoluta Black-anther Flax-lily 0.05 2 Dichelachne crinita Long-hair Plume Grass 0.40 35 unidentified dicots 0.01 2 Dillwynia cinerascens Grey Parrot-pea 0.01 : Drosera peltata ssp. peltata Pale Sundew 0.03 Elymus scaber Common Wheat Grass 0.49 S Eryngium ovinum Blue Devil 1.33 ; *Euchiton sp. ’ 0.005 1 Eutaxia microphylla Common Eutaxia 0.14 Geranium retrorsum Grassland Crane's Bill 0.07 4 Gonocarpus tetragynus Common Raspwort 0.12 9 Haloragis heterophylla Varied Raspwort nt 34 *Helminthotheca echiodes Ox-tongue 0.5 Vol. 112 (4) 1995 157 Research Report Appendix 1 (cont.) Summary of Quadrat Data (n=110) and additional species noted at the site either during this work or by DCE (1990). (* denotes exotic species) *Holcus lanatus Hypericum gramineum *Hypochoeris radicata Isolepis spp. Juncus bufonius *J. capitatus Juncus spp. *Leontodon taraxacoides Leptorynchos squamatus unidentified Liliaceae *Lolium perenne Lomandra filiformis L. nana *Nassella trichotoma Oxalis perennans Oxalis sp. *Paspalum dilatatum Pentapogon quadrifidus *Peterahagia velutina *Phalaris aquatica Pimelea curviflora P. humilis *Platago coronopus *P. lanceolata P. gaudichaudii/varia Poa sieberiana unidentified Poaceae sp. 1 unidentified Poaceae sp. 2 *Romulea rosea *Rumex acetosella Schoenus apogon Senecio quadridentatus Solenogyne dominii *Sonchus oleraceus Stipa blackii S. setacea Stipa spp. Stylidium graminifolium ‘plains form’ *Trifolium arvense *T. angustifolium *T. campestre *T. subterraneum “Trifolium spp. Themeda triandra unidentified thistle *Tragopogon porrifolius Tricoryne elatior Veronica gracilis *Vicia sp. *Vulpia bromoides Wahlenbergia sp. 158 Common Name Yorkshire Fog Small St John’s Wort Cat’s Ears Toad Rush Dwarf Rush Hairy Hawkbit Scaly Buttons Perennial Rye-grass Wattle Mat-rush Dwarf Mat-rush Serrated Tussock Grassland Wood Sorrel Paspalum Five-awned Spear Grass Hairy Pink Canary-grass Curved Rice-flower Common Rice-flower Buck’s-horn Plantain Ribwort Native Plantain Grey Tussock Grass Onion-grass Sheep Sorrel Common Bog Sedge Cotton Firewood Solenogyne Sow Thistle Crested Spear Grass Corkscrew Spear Grass Grass Trigger-plant Hare’s-foot Clover Narrow-leaf Clover Hop Clover Subterranean Clover Kangaroo Grass Salsify Yellow Rush-lily Slender Speedwell Vetch Squirrel-tail Fescue Bluebell Av. % % Frequency Cover/m? ea) ~“ No hwW _ —U oO aA tot isd y ANRUT=H H+ BoOnrsBVANUdSaHauvcowon — —We Woh KW wn ‘oO ee ao ot The Victorian Naturalist Research Report Appendix 1 (cont.) 1993 = those plants observed during the 1993 survey. Other species not recorded in quadrats Other species not recorded in quadrats 1993 during survey during survey Acacia bail Acacia melanoxylon 1993 Cootamundra Wattle # Blackwood # Microtis unifolia Common Onion Orchid Dianella longifolia Dichondra repens Diuris lanceolata Drosera glanduligera Drosera whittakani Epilobium biardieria- num E. hirtigernam Glycine tabiacina Goodenia pinnatifida Halorgis aspera Tufted Burr Daisy Centipeda Centrolepis Small Milkwort Sieber Crassula Nut Grass Lobed Wallaby Grass Austral Carrot Pale Flax-lily Kidney Weed Golden Moths Scarlett Sundew Scented Sundew Robust Willow-herb Hairy Willow-herb Variable Glycine Cut-leaf Goodenia Rough Raspwort Minuria leptophylla Onxalis radicosa Pelargonium rodneyanum Pimelea glauca *Pinus sp. Poa labillardieri Podolepis jaceoides Ptilotus macrocephalus *Rosa rubiginosa *Rubus fruticosus ssp. agg. Rumex dumosus Sclerolaena muricata Stackhousia monogyna Thelymitra nuda Thelymitra pauciflora Minnie Daisy Oxalis Magenta Stork’s Bill Smooth Rice-flower Common Tussock Grass Showy Podolepis Feather Heads Pussy Tails Australian Buttercup Sweet Briar Blackberry Wiry Dock Five-spined Bassia Creamy Candles Plain Sun-orchid Sun-orchid SPP. agg. Thysanotus patersonii Vittadinia sp. Wahlenbergia communis W. gracilenta W. stricta Little Club Sedge Hoary Rush Isolepis marginata Juncus radula Juncus usitatus Rush Kennedia prostrata Running Postman *Lycium ferocissimum Boxthorn Lythrum hyssopifolia Small Loosestrife Twining Fringe-lily New Holland Daisy Tufted Bluebell Annual Bluebell Tall Bluebell Appendix 2 Non-vascular species recorded at Evans Street. * restricted to high ground, amongst silcrete rock. MOSSES Fissidentaceae Pottiaceae Codoniaceae Bartramiaceae Fissidens bifrons Acaulon integrifolium Fi ossombronia Bartramia papillata F. taylorit Barbula crinita intestinalis ; B. stricta F. vittatus Barbula sp. Fossombronia sp. Bryaceae Funariaceae Didymodon luehmanni Geocalycaceae Bryum argenteum Funaria hygroametrica *Triquetrella papillata *Lophocolea semiteres i i i Ricciaceae B. billardieri Gigaspermaceae icciace: B. dichotomum *Gigaspermum repens LIVERWORTS Riccia bifurca Bryum sp. Grimmiaceae Acrobolbaceae R. cartilaginosa Dicranaceae *Grimmia pulvinata Lethocolea pansa R. crozalsii C. lopus clavatus Hypnaceae Aytoniaceae te rinfiaaus niypnurt Asterella tenera LICHENS Ditrichaceae cupressiforme Cephaloziellaceae ener i Cephaloziella Cladonia sp. aml ali alba tin cailiflora undifferentiated crustose species juniperinum 159 Vol. 112 (4) 1995 Contributions Reptiles and Amphibians of the Melbourne Area S.A. Larwill! Abstract An inventory of reptiles and amphibians of the Melbourne area was compiled using records registered on the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife database (Wildlife Section, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources). The Melbourne area was defined by municipal boundaries and was divided into four physiographic regions used to characterise the distribution of species. An annotated species list was compiled including: a review of common names and scientific names of all species with notes on recent revisions to taxonomic nomenclature; notes on the distribution of each species; a review of the status of each species within the Melbourne area; a review of the conservation status of species at the state and national levels and notes on identification of some cryptic species. Introduction The objective of this paper is to provide an inventory of reptiles and frogs for use by naturalists in the Melbourne area. It includes a full list of species recorded for the region, notes on distribution and abundance, a review of changes in scientific names and some notes on identification. It is not intended that it be used as a key for identification. A number of good references are available for this purpose (e.g. Cogger 1992; Hero ef al. 1991; Coventry and Robertson 1991; Weigel 1990; Wilson and Knowles 1992; Barker and Grigg 1977; Littlejohn 1987). Since Littlejohn (1963), Martin (1965) and Rawlinson (1965) published early inventories of amphibians and reptiles of the Melbourne area, new species have been regularly recorded from the region (e.g. Martin et al, 1966; Littlejohn and Harrison 1987). Despite the time that has elapsed since their publication, these early papers still provide useful references for identification of the more common species. However, as inventories of species abundance and distribution and as guides to species taxonomy, they are now largely out of date and remain of historical value only, In addition, these early papers did not include an inventory of lizard species from the region and a widely available list has not since been published. A number of recent studies published by government departments or other research Organisations on behalf of government authorities provide updated species 'Biosis Research Pty Ltd, 322 Bay Street, Melbourne, Victoria 3207. yaa teen 160 inventories and assessments of distribution and abundance of reptiles and amphibians in the Melbourne area (e.g. Schulz et al. 199 1a; Meredith et al. 1991; Wallis et al. 1990; Yugovicertal. 1990), Although comprehensive, these studies have limited public availability. Similarly, a number of comprehensive reviews of the fauna of the Melbourne region have been published by the Land Conservation Council (e.g. LCC 1991; Lumsden er al. 1991; LCC 1985). However, these studies incorporate a large area including major parts of the eastern and western highlands, extending north to Seymour and including much of the western basalt plains, _—_ Bellarine Peninsula, Westermport region and South Gippsland. This extensive coverage limits their applicability to the fragmented habitat remnants of suburban Melbourne, most of which are excluded from the LCC studies, An overview of the reptiles and amphibians for use by naturalists in the Melbourne area is therefore warranted. It is widely recognised that an accurate taxonomic nomenclature is critical to effective conservation of species biodiversity (e.g. Donnellan et al. 1993; Parnaby 1991). There is considerable electrophoretic and morphometric analysis of species groups yet to be undertaken by taxonomists and on-going changes in nomenclature can be expected. A number of widely used references on reptiles and amphibians use zoological nomenclature that was out of date even at the time of publication (e.g. Jenkins and Bartell 1980; Wilson and Knowles 1992), This causes confusion over species identification, and may have implications The Victorian Naturalist Contributions for conservation of species when outdated zoological nomenclature is used in the context of conservation planning and land-use planning. Scientists and naturalists should aim to use the most accurate zoological nomenclature available at the time of publication. Confusion caused by changes in scientific names is compounded by the absence of a published list of common names for Australian frogs and reptiles. Individual species are referred to by a variety of names in the literature. For example Limnodynastes dumerilii is variously referred to as the Bullfrog (e.g. Littlejohn 1963), the Southern Bullfrog (e.g. Lumsden etal, 1991), the Pobblebonk Frog (e.g. Hero etal. 1991) and the Eastern Banjo Frog (e.g. Cogger 1992). The common names and zoological names of species occurring in the Melbourne area are reviewed in this paper. Study Area For the purposes of the present study, the Melbourne area is defined by municipal boundaries incorporating the Metropolitan Municipalities (MMBW 1987) and five outer municipalities to the north and west (Fig. 1), Werribee, Melton, Bulla, Whittlesea and Eltham (Department of Crown Lands and Survey 1981). This area is smaller than the Greater Melbourne Area referred to in a number of government metropolitan municipalities Fig. 1. Study area. Vol. 112 (4) 1995 Teports (e.g. Schulz and Webster 1991b) but corresponds approximately to the area chosen by Littlejohn (1963), Martin (1965) and Rawlinson (1965). The names and boundaries of these municipalities have been reviewed since the data were collated for the present study. The study area corresponds approximately to the new municipal boundaries of the Metropolitan Municip- alities and the five outer municipalities of Wyndham, Melton, Hume, Whittlesea and Nillumbik (Department of Finance 1995), The study area contains a number of representative physiographic regions (Fig. 2): the west Gippsland Plains to the south-east; the foothills of the eastern uplands to the north-east; the foothills of the western uplands to the north-west and the volcanic plains to the north and west (Emison ef al. 1987). Each region has an associated set of characteristic habitats and many of the reptile and amphibian species are associated with one or other of these physiographic regions. The major habitat types of the volcanic plains are the grassy ecosystems on the newer volcanic soils characterised by grasslands and open woodlands. Other habitat zones include coastal, riparian and wetland features. Much of the area is now modified as a result of residential, industrial and agricultural development. Few large Gippalaed Plaine (weet) — [7]]/]]| Easton Uplanda (oothilia) [[_] Western Uplands Goothitls) I Volcanic Plains Fig. 2. Physiographic regions of the study area. 161 Contributions intact habitat zones remain, with the exception of larger broad-acre farming areas with relatively low intensity farm practices. The habitat associations of the foothills of the western uplands are characterised by low hillslopes of woodland and open-forest types. These areas have been intensively developed for agricultural purposes and few large refuges remain. The foothills of the eastern uplands feature low hillslopes supporting dry woodland habitats, montane and damp sclerophyll forest remnants and floodplain riparian features. Larger remnants are found in a number of regional parks under conservation management including Yarra Valley Park, Warrandyte State Park and Plenty Gorge Park. The west Gippsland plains are characterised by floodplain, coastal scrub and heath associations. Wetlands, such as the vestiges of Carrum Swamp, are an important habitat feature and constitute the most significant habitat remnants in this region which has been intensively developed for residential and industrial uses. Inventory of Species A collated list of reptile and amphibian records for the study area was provided by the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife (Wildlife Section, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources) in April 1994. With one exception, all reptile and amphibian taxa recorded for the study area on the Atlas database are included in the inventory below, including species which have been introduced to the Melbourne area as a result of release or escape from captivity. The Yellow-bellied Sea Snake Pelamis platurus, which occurs in marine habitat on Australia’s northern coastline, is represented in the database by a single record from the Melbourne area and is not included in the inventory. : Zoological names follow Cogger (1992), Incorporating the taxonomic revisions of Hutchinson et al. (1990), Hutchinson and Donnellan (1992), and Rawlinson (1991). Notes on zoological nomenclature are provided for species which have undergone Tecent taxonomic revision and for which 162 some confusion may arise due to the on-going use of old names in the literature. Where available, common names are taken from the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife. The total number of records for the study area registered on the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife database prior to April 1994 is presented for each species. The database includes records of all specimens held at the National Museum of Victoria plus records submitted to the Atlas database by field scientists and naturalists. Submitting all fauna records to the database is a condition of all Wildlife Research Permits issued in Victoria by the Wildlife Management Section, Flora and Fauna Branch, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. It should be noted that such a permit is required for any capture or handling and releasing of native wildlife in Victoria. Notes on the distribution, status and identification of species are based on my own knowledge of the reptiles and frogs of the Melbourne area combined with background information from Yugovic etal. (1990), Meredith et al. (1991), Lumsden et al. (1991), Coventry and Robertson (1991), Brook (1975) and Hero et al. (1991). Notes on the status of each species in the Melbourne area include, where relevant, re- ference to the following listings of threatened taxa within Victoria and Australia: the List of Threatened Fauna in Victoria (Baker-Gabb 1993), Schedule 2 of the (Victorian) Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988), Schedule 1 of the (Commonwealth) Endangered Species Protection Act (1992) and The Action Plan for Australian Reptiles (Cogger et al, 1993). Status in the Melbourne region does not in all cases correlate with the total number of records on the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife. Cryptic or rarely encountered species may be poorly represented on the database despite being relatively common. Other species, such as Varanus varius, may be represented by a high total number of records consisting predominantly of historical records and yet may have been recorded only rarely in recent years. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions CLASS AMPHIBIA FAMILY MYOBATRACHIDAE Crinia parinsignifera Common Name: Plains Froglet Nomenclature: Previously referred to as Ra- nidella pales entero (Cogger et al. 1983); revised by Heyer et al. (1982). Atlas Records: 65 Status: Locally common. Distribution: Restricted. Victorian distribu- tion mainly north of the Divide with the southern limit extending into the study area in the uplands and foothills to the north. Notes: Morphologically similar to Crinia signifera. The advertisement call of C. parinsignifera is superficially similar to the territorial call of C. signifera which can be heard sporadically during the day, at the onset of calling activity at dusk, or at bene sie where calling males are present in high numbers. As for all am- phibian species, identification by advertisement call should be confirmed by hand-capture when possible. Crinia signifera Common Name: Common Froglet Nomenclature: Previously referred to as Ra- nidella signifera (Cogger et al. 1983); revised by Heyer et al. (1982). Atlas Records: 1108 Status: Abundant. Distribution: Occurs throughout the study area. Notes: Morphologically similar to Crinia parinsignifera. Geocrinia victoriana Common Name: Victorian Smooth Froglet Atlas Records: 135 Status: Locally common. Distribution: Restricted, confined to damp forest habitats of the eastern uplands and south Gippsland plains. Limnodynastes dumerilii Common Name: Southern Bullfrog Nomenclature: There are three Victorian subspecies: Limnodynastes dumerilii dumerilii, L. dumerilit insularis, and L, dumerilii variegata (Martin 1972). Lim- nodynastes dumerilit dumerilii occurs in the northwest of the study area and L. dumerilii insularis occurs in the east- ern half of the study area with inter- grades between the two subspecies oc- curring in the areas of overlap. Limnodynastes dumerilit variegata does not occur in the Melbourne area. Vol. 112 (4) 1995 Atlas Records: 443 Status: Common in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Widespread, occurs in wetland habitats throu ghout the study area. Notes: Also known as the Eastern Banjo Frog and the Pobblebonk Frog. The most common burrowing frog in the Mel- bourne area, sometimes found in suburban garden beds particularly in the outer eastern suburbs. Limnodynastes peronii Common Name: Striped Marsh Frog Atlas Records: 139 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Widespread, occurs in perma- nent water bodies throughout the study area, with records from the volcanic plains being rare. Limnodynastes tasmaniensis Common Name: Spotted Marsh Frog Atlas Records: 900 Status: Abundant. Distribution: Occurs throughout the study area. Notes: There are two call races of this spe- cies: a northern call race generally occurring north of the Divide and a southern call race generally occurring south of the Divide (Hero et al. 1991; Littlejohn 1963). Neobatrachus sudelli Common Name: Common Spadefoot Toad Atlas Records: 150 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Restricted, confined primaril to the basalt plains in the west althoug the species has been recorded throughout the low hill slopes and plains. Notes: Males of the species have explosive breeding periods characterised by short (2-3 days) intense periods of calling after heavy rains. It is therefore less often en- countered than other species with more prolonged breeding periods. Pseudophryne bibronii Common Name:Bibron’s Toadlet Atlas Records: 215 Status: Common in the Melbourne area. Distribution; Restricted, generally occurs throughout higher altitudes o the for- ested habitats of the uplands to the east and north-east and the drier grassy wood- lands to the north-west. Uncommon on the volcanic plains. Pseudophryne semimarmorata Common Name: Southern Toadlet Atlas Records: 225 163 Contributions Status: Common in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Restricted, occurs in the for- ested habitats of the foothill forests as well as heathland and coastal habitats. Within the study area restricted to the foothills to the east and the Gippsland plains in the south. FAMILY HYLIDAE Litoria ewingii Common Name: Southern Brown Tree Frog Atlas Records: 720 Status: Common in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Widespread, throughout the study area, but occurrence in the western volcanic plains is restricted to wetland and riparian habitats. Notes: Similar to both Litoria paraewingii and L. verreauxii verreauxii. Most com- monly encountered of the tree frogs (genus Litoria) in the Melbourne area. It is represented in Victoria by a northern form and a southern form. Only the southern form occurs in the Melbourne area (Atlas of Victorian Wildlife). Also known as Ewing’s Tree Frog. Litoria lesueuri Common Name: Lesueur’s Frog Atlas Records: 22 Status: Rare in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Restricted, occurs in the vol- canic plains in the north-west where it is recorded from riparian habitats on Jackson Creek and Deep Creek. Also recorded in the foothills of the central highlands in the north-west. In Victoria, generally confined to montane streams of the uplands in forested habitat. Notes: Also known as the Rocky River Tree Frog and Lesueur’s Tree Frog. Litoria paraewingii Common Name: Plains Brown Tree Frog Atlas Records: 7 Status: Rare in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Restricted. Victorian distribu- tion predominantly north of the Divide with the southern limit of the species range abutting the north of the study area. Four of the seven records from the study area are from a single location in the upper Plenty Valley. Notes: Similar to both Litoria ewingii and L, verreauxii verreauxii, Records of the species from Gardners Creek in Mel- bourne are likely to be either misidentifications or introductions due to escape or release from captivity. Litoria peronii Common Name: Peron's Tree Frog 164 Atlas Records: 22 Status: Rare in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Occurs in wetland and riparian habitats of the drier open forests of the foothills to the north-east and north and also recorded from damp sclerophyll for- est habitats. Most records from the study area are located in the upper Plenty and middle Yarra Valleys. Litoria raniformis Common Name: Growling Grass Frog Atlas Records; 272 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Occurs in deep permanent water bodies throughout the region. Notes: There is some evidence that this spe- cies is declining throughout its range (e.g. Tyler 1994; Sadlier 1394) in south-east- em Australia. Similarly, anecdotal reports suggest that the species has de- clined in abundance in the Melbourne area where it was once described as com- mon in grass sparen of small streams (Littlejohn 1963). e significance of the decline in the region is the subject of recent debate and warrants further inyes- tigation (Appleby 1994; Larwill and Kutt 1994). Indeed, further investigation is needed to determine the severity of the decline observed throughout south-east Australia. Sometimes referred to as the Southern Bell Frog. Litoria verreauxii Common Name: Verreaux’s Tree Frog Atlas Records: 332 Status: Locally common. Distribution: Occurs throughout the study area except coastal areas to the south- west. Uncommon from habitats in the westem volcanic plains, Notes: Similar to both Litoria ewingii and L, paraewingii, Two subspecies occur in Victoria: L. verreauxii verreauxii and L. verreauxii alpina. Litoria verreauxii al- pina is confined to higher altitudes and does not occur in the study area. There- fore all records of Litoria verreauxii from within the Melbourne region are taken to be Litoria verreauxii verreauxii. Also known as the Whistling Tree Frog. CLASS REPTILIA FAMILY CHELIDAE Chelodina expansa Common Name: Broad-shelled Tortoise Atlas Records: 3 Status: Introduced to the Melbourne area, Listed as ‘Insufficiently Known’ The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Guspected Victoria (Baker Cob a Distribution: Victorian Gistrioniee cae: fined to the Murray Valley in the north-west of the state. Introduced to the Melbourne area where it has been re- corded from billabongs in the middle Yarra region. Also known as the Broad- shelled River Turtle. Chelodina longicollis Common Name: Common Long-necked Tortoise Atlas Records: 63 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Widespread, occurs through- out the study area in the rivers, major streams and wetlands. Often seen bask- ing on rocks or logs at the water’s edge. Notes: The only indigenous and most com- monly encountered freshwater tortoise in the Melbourne area. Also knownas the Eastern Snake-necked Turtle. Emydura macquarii Common Name: Murray River Tortoise Atlas Records: 2 Status: Introduced to the Melbourne area, uncommon, Distribution: Victorian distribution con- fined to the Murray River valley in the north-west of the state. Introduced and uncommon in the Melbourne area, re- corded from the middle Yarra Valley and the upper Merri Creek. Also known as the Murray Turtle and, previously, as the Macquane Tortoise. FAMILY GEKKONIDAE Phyllodactylus marmoratus Common Name: Marbled Gecko Atlas Records: 60 Status: Rare in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Restricted, occurs in the dry forests of the foothills but most com- monly encountered in riparian habitats of the western and northern basalt plains, where it can be found in rocky outcrops or beneath basalt boulders. Often found beneath exfoliating bark of River Red Gums Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Notes: The only member of the gecko family recorded in the Melbourne area. FAMILY PYGOPODIDAE Delma im ' Common Name: Striped Legless Lizard Atlas Records: 79 ; Status: Rare in the Melbourne region. Nationally threatened species. Listed on Vol. 112 (4) 1995 Schedule 1 of the (Commonwealth) En- dangered Species Protection Act ( 1. Listed as ‘Vulnerable’ in Australia (Cog- ger et al. 1993). Listed on Schedule 2 of ¢ (Victorian) Flora and Fauna Guaran- tee Act (1988). Listed as ‘Vulnerable in _ Victoria’, (Baker-Gabb 1993). Distribution: Restricted distribution in the Melbourne area, Occurs almost exclu- sively in the grassy habitats of the western basalt plains (grassy woodlands and treeless grasslands). Most commonly recorded in native grassland habitat but also found in exotic vegetation. Notes: The west of the Melbourne area is one of the strongholds of the species range, with other recent records occur- ring from the Canberra region, west of Heathcote in central Victoria and the volcanic plains of the Colac/Ballarat re- gions. Delma impar is a cryptic species rarely encountered. Many of the known records originate from specimens located during physical destruction of their grass- land habitat including cultivation, excavation, grading, burning and re- moval of surface boulders. Delma inornata Common Name: Olive Legless Lizard Atlas Records: 1 Status: Rare in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Restricted, single record from rassy woodland habitat in Gellibrand Fill ark, This record is in need of con- firmation. Pygopus lepidopodus Common Name: Common Scaly-foot Atlas Records: 1 Status: Extremely rare in the Melbourne area, probably locally extinct. Distribution: Restricted, represented by a single museum specimen collected from the Frankston area pre-1900. Victorian distribution concentrated in drier habitats of the north-west of the state with occa- sional records from the Mornington Peninsula and East Gippsland. FAMILY AGAMIDAE Amphibolurus muricatus Common Name: Tree Dragon Atlas Records: 121 . Status: Locally common in some areas. Distribution: Widespread throughout much of the study area, but rare in the western basalt plains where it is confined to ri- parian woodland remnants. 165 Contributions Notes: Also known as the Jacky Lizard. Most often encountered agamid (dragon) lizard in the Melbourne area. Physignathus lesueurii howittii Common Name: Gippsland Water Dragon Atlas Records: 1 Status: Introduced to the Melbourne area. Distribution: Victorian distribution confined to East Gippsland east of the Thomson River. Any records from the study area represent introduced individuals escaped or released from captivity. Pogona barbata Common Name: Eastern Bearded Dragon Atlas Records: 5 Status: Rare in the Melbourne area, Distribution: Restricted, occurring in suit- able drier habitat isolates in the foothill forest in the north of the study area. Within Victoria generally occurs in drier forests and woodland habitats north of the Divide. Tympanocryptis diemensis Common Name: Mountain Dragon Nomenclature: Previously referred to as Am- phibolurus diemensis (Cogger et al. 1983); Tympanocryptis adopted by Wit- ten (1984) following Storr (1982). Atlas Records: 17 Status: Rare in the Melbourne area. Listed as ‘Insufficiently Known’ (suspected Rare, Vulnerable or Endangered) in Victoria (Baker-Gabb 1993), Distribution: Restricted, confined to the dry upland forests to the north-east and north-west of the study area. Notes; Adult Tympanocryptis diemensis are considerably smaller than adult Amphi- bolurus muricatus. Tympanocryptis lineata pinguicolla Common Name: Southern Lined Earless Dragon Atlas Records: 15 Status: Nationally threatened species. Listed as ‘Vulnerable’ in Australia (Cogger et al. 1993), Listed as ‘Endangered in Vic- toria’ (Baker-Gabb 1993). Listed on Schedule 2 of the (Victorian) Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988). Regionally oe and possibly vulnerable to extinc- n. Distribution: Restricted, recent Victorian re- cords are from only three locations, all from within the 3 ah area since 1987, All three locations support rocky 166 escarpment grasslands on the western basalt plains. Notes: Further investigation of the species distribution and status is urgently re- quired FAMILY VARANIDAE Varanus varius Common Name: Tree Goanna Atlas Records: 222 Status: Rare and restricted possibly locally extinct. Listed as ‘Insufficiently Known’ (suspected Rare, Vulnerable or Endan- gered) in Victoria (Baker-Gabb 1993). Distribution; Now restricted to damp sclero- phyll and dry open forest habitats to the north and north-east. Notes: This species was peuvay once com- mon and widespread in the woodlands and open-forests of the Melbourne area (e.g. Ward 1966). Of the 222 records registered on the Atlas of Victorian Wild- life only 17 records have been registered since 1983. Also known as the Lace Monitor. FAMILY SCINCIDAE Bassiana duperryi Common Name: Eastern Three-lined Skink Nomenclature: Previously included in Leiolopisma trilineata (Cogger et al. 1983); renamed Leiolopisma duperryi by Greer (1982); included in the genus Pseudemoia by Cog er (1992); revised by Hutchinson et al. al 990). Atlas Records: 52 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Occurs throughout the study area in stony habitats of the volcanic plains and drier foothill forests. Ctenotus robustus Common Name: Large Striped Skink Atlas Records: 123 Status: Locally common. Distribution: Restricted to the dry grassy ecosystems of the newer volcanic plains occurring in rocky habitats on stony rises and escarpments. Egernia coventryi Common Name: Swamp Skink Atlas Records: 1 Status: Rare in the Melbourne area. Listed as ‘Rare’ in Victoria (Baker-Gabb 1993). Distribution: Restricted, confined to the South panei plains where it occurs in Swamp Paperbark and other wetland/ swamp woodland habitats in the Morn- ington Peninsula and Western Port The Victorian Naturalist Contributions region. Only recorded from the south- east of the study area. Egernia cunninghami Common Name: Cunningham’s Skink Atlas Records: 96 Status: Uncommon in the Melboume area. Distribution: Restricted to the newer vol- a soils. aS ing in stony rises and rocky outcrops of escarpment sland and woodland throughout ibe shecten basalt plains. Egernia saxatilis intermedia Common Name: Black Rock Skink Atlas Records: 61 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Restricted to drier habitats of the forested foothills. Egernia whitii Common Name: White’s Skink Atlas Records: 78 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Restricted, generally occur- ring in the dry forests of the foothills with rare occurrences in riparian and flood- plain habitats of the western plains. Also occurring in rocky habitats. Eulamprus tympanum Common Name: Southern Water Skink Nomenclature: Previously included as part of Sphenomorphus tympanum (Cogger et al. 1983), refe to as 5, tympanum Cool Temperate Form (Jenkins and Bartell 1980), divided into the two spe- cies Eulamprus tympanum and E. heat- wolei by Wells and Wellington (1984). Atlas Records: 192 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area, Distribution: Widespread species through- out most of the study area although generally confined to damp habitat types. Rarely recorded from the western basalt plains where it is confined to riparian and escarpment habitats. Lampropholis delicata Common Name: Delicate Skink . Nomenclature: Previously included in ge- nus Leiolopisma (e.g. Jenkins and Bartell 1980), revised by Greer (1974). Atlas Records: 122 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Widespread species occurring throughout the east and north of the stud area but absent from the western basalt plains. Lampropholis guichenoti h ‘Common Name: Common Garden Skink. Nomenclature: Previously included in genus Leiolopisma (e.g. Jenkins and Vol. 112 (4) 1995 Bartell 1980), revised by G Atlas Records: 518 ata BS i Status: Common in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Widespread throughout most of the study area except the western basalt pe where it is uncommon and con- ined to woodland vegetation in riparian and floodplain habitats. Lerista bougainvillii Common Name: Bougainville’s Skink Atlas Records: 128 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Generally occurs in the drier habitats of the plains and the dry open forests of the foothills. Recorded in rocky outcrops and stony rises. Nannoscincus maccoyi Common Name: McCoy’s Skink Atlas Records: 81 Status: Locally common. Distribution: Restricted, confined to damp sclerophyll forests of the uplands. Occurs in damp detritus of leaf litter and rotting logs on the forest floor. Niveoscincus coventryi Common Name: Coventry’s Skink Nomenclature: Previously referred to as Leiolopisma coventryi (Cogger et al. 1983); included in genus Pseudemoia by Cogger (1992); revised by Hutchinson et al. (1990), Atlas Records: 32 Status: Rare in the Melbourne area, Distribution: Occurs in the forested habitats of the foothills and uplands. Rare in the study area but relatively widespread and common in adjacent regions such as the South Gippsland Plains (Andrew et al. 1984). Niveoscincus metallicus Common Name: Metallic Skink Nomenclature: Previously referred to as Leiolopisma metallicum (Cogger et al 1983); included in genus Pseudemoia by Cogger (1992); revised by Hutchinson er al. (1990). Atlas Records: 5 Status: Rare in the Melboume area. : Distribution: Restricted, occurs in a variety of habitats in the south-eastern plains. Common and widespread in the adjacent Western Port region (Andrew et al. 1984). Occasional records from coastal and grassland areas in the plains to the south- west of the study area are unusual and may warrant further investigation. 167 Contributions Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii . Common Name: Southern Grass Skink _ Nomenclature: Previously included in Leiolopisma entrecasteauxii (Cogger et al. 1983); referred to as Leiolopisma en- trecasteauxii Form B (Jenkins _and Bartell 1980); referred to as Leiolopisma entrecasteauxii Group 2 (Donnellan and Hutchinson 1990); referred to as Pseu- demoia entrecasteauxii Group (Hutchinson et al. 1990); revised by Hutchinson and Donnellan (1992). Atlas Records: 20 (records registered as Leiolopisma entrecasteauxit Form B only). Status? Generally uncommon to rare in the Melbourne region, although locally common in restricted areas, Distribution: Widespread, occurring throu- hout the eastern half of the study area in Forested habitats characterised by an un- derstorey supporting both woody shrubs and grasses. Absent from the treeless grassland habitats of the western plains, Notes: Morphologically similar to Pseude- moia pagenstechert and P. rawlinsonii. There are 210 records of Leiolopisma entrecasteauxii on the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife which represent either P. pagen- stecheri or P. entrecasteauxii and are not included in the above tally. P. pagen- stecheri and P, entrecasteauxii were both previously referred to as the Grass Skink. Pseudemoia pagenstecheri Common Name: Tussock Skink Nomenclature: Previously included as part of Leiolopisma entrecasteauxii (Cogger et al. 1983); included as part of Leiolopisma entrecasteauxii Form A (Jenkins and Bartell 1980); referred to as Leiolopisma entrecasteauxii Group 1 (Donnellan and Hutchinson 1990); in- cluded as part of Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii Group 1 (Hutchinson et al. 1990) revised by Hutchinson and Donnellan (1992). Atlas Records; 252 (records registered as Leiolopisma entrecasteauxii Form A only), Status: Locally common. Distribution: Restricted, occurs in tussock grasslands and grassy woodlands of the newer volcanic plains. Notes: The most commonly encountered Teptile * Ang oe of the western vol- canic plains. ighly variable species which may be confused with P. pared casteauxit and P. rawlinsonii. There are 210 records of Leiolopisma entrecas- 168 teauxii on the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife which represent either P. pagenstecheri or P. entrecasteauxii and are not in- cluded in the above tally. P. pagenstecheri and P. entrecasteauxii were both previously referred to as the Grass Skink. Pseudemoia rawlinsonii Common Name: Glossy Grass Skink Nomenclature: Previously referred to as Leiolopisma entrecasteauxii Group 3 (Donnellan and Hutchinson 1990); de- scribed as Leiolopisma rawlinsonii (Hutchinson and Donnellan 1988) re- vised by Hutchinson et al. (1990). Atlas Records: 19 Status: Rare in the Melbourne region. Listed as ‘Insufficiently Known’ (suspected Rare, Vulnerable or Endangered) in Victoria (Baker-Gabb 1993). Distribution: Occurs in swamp habitat of floodplain, wetlands and riparian zones. Notes: Morphologically similar to P. entre- casteauxti and P, pagenstecheri. Pseudemoia spenceri Common Name: Spencer’s Skink Atlas Records: 9 Status: Rare in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Restricted, occurs only in the north-west of the study area in damp sclerophyll moist hillslope and dry foot- hill forest. Saproscincus mustelinus Common Name: Weasel Skink Nomenclature: Previously included in genus wo Hee le (e.g. Co per et al. 1983), revised by Wells et one 984). Atlas Records: 161 Status: Common in the Melbourme area. Distribution: Restricted, occurs in the damp sclerophyll forests of the uplands and damp riparian and woodland forests of gullies in lowland areas. Absent from the western basalt plains. Often occurs in ardens in the outer eastern suburbs of elbourne. Tiliqua nigrolutea Common Name: Blotched Blue-tongued Lizard Atlas Records: 111 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Generally confined to the for- ested habitats of the foothills and uplands in the east. Absent from the vol- canic plains. Common and wide-spread in the adjacent Western Port region (An- drew et.al. 1984). Notes: Records registered as ‘Tiliqua sp.’ on the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife are not The Victorian Naturalist Contributions included in the above total number of records, Tiliqua scincoides Common Name: Common Blue-tongued Lizard Atlas Records: 362 Status: Common in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Widespread, occurs in the seins and grassy woodlands of oothills and newer volcanic plains, mostly in the west and north of the study area, Notes: Records registered as ‘Tiligua sp.’ on the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife are not included in the above total number of records. Also known as the Eastern Blue- tongued Lizard. Trachydosaurus rugosus Common Name: Stumpy-tailed Lizard Atlas Records: 3 Status: Introduced to the Melbourme area. Distribution: Victorian distribution includes areas north of the Divide and the south west of the state. Rarely seen in the Mel- bourne area. Also known as Stump- tailed Lizard, Shingleback or Shingle- back. FAMILY ELAPIDAE Austrelaps superbus Common Name: Lowland Copperhead Nomenclature: The species referred to as Austrelaps superbus in Cogger et al. (1983) has been recognised since 1969 as consisting of two distinct forms: a montane form and a lowland form ong: nally described by Rawlinson (1969) The two forms were described as sepa- rate species, A. superbus and A. ramsayi, by Rawlinson (1991). Atlas Records: 193 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Occurs on the timbered hill- slopes and plains, often associated with wetland or riparian habitats. Probably absent from the treeless grasslands of the western basalt plains. : Notes: This species was once widespread and common throughout the stud (Rawlinson 1965). The Highlanc rhead A. pr A occurs in ghlands east of Melbourne but does not occur in the Melbourne region. Drysdalia coronoides Common Name: White-lipped Snake Atlas Records: 78 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Occurs throughout the study Ae the Vol. 112 (4) 1995 area in box woodland, riparian wood- land and coastal heathland and coastal tussock grassland. Notechis scutatus Common Name: Tiger Snake Atlas Records: 326 Status: Common in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Occurs throughout the study area in a range of habitat types, often recorded in riparian and wetland habitats, Notes: The most commonly encountered large elapid snake in the Melboure area, although like the other large elapids in the study area, may be declining in num- bers locally. Pseudechis porphyriacus Common Name: Red-bellied Black Snake Atlas Records: 39 Status: Regionally rare - locally extinct. Distribution: Absent from much of the study area with most recent records being from the volcanic foothills of the uplands and the plains of the north-east region. Pseudonaja textilis Common Name: Eastern Brown Snake Atlas Records: 179 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area. Distribution: Occurs throughout the study area in a range of habitats excluding damp sclerophyll and montane forests. Rarely recorded in the South Gippsland lains, but occurs south of the study area in forested habitats of the Mornington Peninsula. Notes: Juveniles can be superficially con- fused with the Little Whip Snake Suta flagellum. Rhinoplocephalus nigrescens Common Name: Eastern Small-eyed Snake Nomenclature: Previously referred to as Cryptophis Ras (Cogger et al. 1983); revised by Hutchinson (1990), Atlas Records: 38 Status: Uncommon in the Melbourne area. Distribution; Restricted, inhabits the dry forested hillslopes of the north and east of the study area, Notes: Cryptic species rarely encountered. Suta flagellum Common Name: Little Whip Snake Nomenclature: Previously referred to as Unechis flagellum (Cogger et al. 1983); new name used by Cogger (1992) and Hutchinson (1990). Atlas Records: 228 Status: Locally common. ; Distribution: Restricted, occurs in grassy ecosystems, grasslands and grassy 169 Contributions woodlands of the newer volcanic plains where it is often associated with rocky outcrops, rock fences, stony rises and escarpments, Acknowledgements Collated data used in the present study were provided by the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife, Wildlife Section, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Discussions relating to the distribution and taxonomy of different taxa in the Melbourne area were held with Peter Robertson (Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Melbourne), Alan Webster (DCNR, Port Phillip Area), Geoff Witten (Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Bundoora Campus, Victoria), Mark Hutchinson (South Australian Museum), Si- mon Hudson (School of Zoology, La Trobe University) and John Coventry (National Museum of Victoria). 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(Depart- ment of Conservation and Environment: Victoria). Heyer, W.R., Daugherty, C.H. and Maxson, L.R. (1982). Systematic resolution of the genera of the Crinia complex (Amphibia: Anura: Myobatrachidae). Pro- ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 95: 423-427. Hutchinson, M.N. (1990). The generic classification of the Australian terrestrial elapid snakes. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 29 (2): 397-405. Hutchinson, M.N. and Donnellan, S.C. (1988). A new species of scincid lizard related to Leiolopisma entrecasteauxii, from south-eastern Australia. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 112 (4): 143-151. Hutchinson, M.N., Donnellan, S.C., Baverstock, P.R., Krieg, M., Simms, S. and Burgin, S. (1990). Immu- nological relationships and generic revision of the Australian lizards assigned to the genus Leiolopisma (Scincidae: Lygosominae). Australian Journal of Zoology 38: 535-554. Hutchinson, M,N. and Donnellan, S.C. (1992), Taxon- omy and genetic variation in the Australian lizards of the genus Pseudemoia (Scincidae: Lygosominae). Journal of Natural HistoryD 26: 215-264. Jenkins, R.W.G. and Bartell, R. (1980). ‘Field Guide to the Reptiles of the Australian High Country’. (Inkata Press: Melbourne), Larwill, S. and Kutt, A. (1994). Declining frogs: think locally, act locally. The Victorian Naturalist 111 (6): 233-235. LCC (1985). ‘Report on the Melbourne Area, District 1 - Review’. (Land Conservation Council: Victoria), The Victorian Naturalist Contributions LCC (1991). ‘Melbourne Area District 2 Review De- scriptive Report’. (La nd Conservation Council: Victoria). Littlejohn, M.J. (1963). Frogs of the Melbourne area. The Victorian Naturalist 79: 296-304. Littlejohn, M. J. (1987). ‘Calls of Victorian Frogs’. (audio tape) (University of Melbourne: Victoria), Littlejohn, M.J. and Harrison, P.A. (1987). Litoria peroni (Anura: Hylidae): An addition to the amphibian fauna of the Melboure area. The Victorian Natural- ist 104 (5): 137-140. Lumsden, L.F,, Alexander, J.S.A., Hill, FA.R., Krasna, S.P. and Silveira, C.E. (1991). ‘The Vertebrate Fauna of the Land Conservation Council Melbourne-2 Study Area’. (Arthur Rylah Institute for Environ- mental Research, Technical Report Series No.115, Wildlife Branch, Flora and Fauna Division, Depart- ment of Conservation and Environment: Victoria). Martin, A.A. (1965). Tadpoles of the Melbourne area. The Victorian Naturalist 82: 139-149. Martin, A.A. (1972). Studies in Australian amphibia III. The Limnodynastes dorsalis complex (Anura: Lep- todactylidae), Australian Journal of Zoology 20: 165-211. Martin, A.A., Littlejohn, M.J. and Rawlinson, P.A. (1966). A key to the anuran eggs of the Melbourne area, and an addition to the anuran fauna. The Victo- rian Naturalist 83: 312-315. Meredith, C., Larwill, S. and Jaremovic, R. (1991). ‘Plenty Gorge Metropolitan Park: Fauna: Planning and Management Guidelines. (Melbourne Water and Biosis Research Pty Ltd: Melbourne). MMBW (1987). ‘Metropolitan Municipalities’. (map) (Survey Division, Melbourne Metropolitan Board of Works: Melbourne). Parnaby, H. (1991). A sound species taxonomy is crucial to the conservation of forest bats. Jn ‘Conservation of Australia’s Forest Fauna’. Ed, D, Lunney. (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Mosman, NSW). Rawlinson, P. (1965). Snakes of the Melboume Area. The Victorian Naturalist 81: 245-254. Rawlinson, P. (1969). Reptiles of East Gippsland. Pro- ceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 82: 113-128, Rawlinson, P.A. (1991). Taxonomy and distribution of the Australian tiger snakes (Notechis) and copper- heads (Austrelaps) (Serpentes, Elapidae). Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 103 (2): 125-135. ‘ Sadlier, R.A. (1994). Conservation status of the reptiles and amphibians of western New South Wales. In ‘Future of the Fauna of Western New South Wales’. Eds. D, Lunney, S. Hand. P. Reed and D. Butcher. (Transactions of the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Mosman, NSW). Schulz, M., Beardsell, C. and Sandiford, K. (1991a). ‘Sites of Faunal Significance in the Western Wet- lands of Melbourne’. (Wildlife Branch, Department of Conservation and Environment: Victoria). ; Schulz, M. and Webster A.G. (1991b). ‘Sites of Biologi- cal Significance in the Merri Corridor: A Preliminary Investigation’. (Melbourne Region, Department of Conservation and Environment: Victoria). Storr, G.M. (1982). Revision of the bearded dragons (Lacertilia; Agamidae) of Westem Australia with notes on the dismemberment of the genus Amphi- Vol. 112 (4) 1995 bolurus. Records of the West Australian Museum 10: 199-214, Tyler, M. J. (1994). Frogs of western New South Wales. In ‘Future of the Fauna of Western New South Wales’. Eds. D, Lunney, S. Hand, P. Reed and D. Butcher. ( Transactions of the Royal Zoological So- ciety of New South Wales: Mosman, NSW). Wallis, R.L., Brown, P.R., Brunner, H. and Andrasek, A.M, (1990). “The Vertebrate Fauna of Dandenong Valley Metropolitan Park’, (Department of Science and Centre for Australian Applied Ecological Re- search and Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works, Waterways and Parks Division: Melbourne). Ward, G.M. (1966). Once in the suburbs. The Victorian Naturalist 83: 157-167. Weigel, J. (1990). ‘The Australian Reptile Park's Guide to Snakes of South-East Australia’, (Australian Rep- tile Park: NSW). Wells, R.W. and Wellington, C.R. (1984). A synopsis of class Reptilia in Australia. Australian Journal of Herpetology 1 (3-4): 73-129. Wilson, S.K. and Knowles, D.G. (1992). ‘Australia's Reptiles: A Photographic Reference to the Terrestrial Reptiles of Australia’, (Collins Angus and Robertson Publishers: NSW). Witten, G.J. (1984). Relationships of Tympanocryptis aurita Storr, 1981. Records of the West Australian Museum 11 (4): 399-401. Yugovic, J.Y., Crosby, D.F, Ebert, K., Lillywhite, P., Saddlier, $.R., Schulz, M., Vaughan, P.J., Westaway, J. and Yen, A.L. (1990). ‘Flora and Fauna of the Koonung and Mullum Mullum Valleys (Proposed Eastern Arterial Road and Ringwood Bypass), Vic- toria’. (Lands and Forests Division, Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands: Victoria). Striped Legless Lizard Delma impar. Photo, by S. Larwill. 171 Contributions Discovery of a Cleistogamous Form of Clover Glycine in the Arthur’s Seat State Park Stefanie Rennick! Clover Glycine Glycine latrobeana is a decumbent leguminous herb that is listed as vulnerable in Victoria and rare Australia wide, On the Mornington Peninsula it is known with certainty from only one location, at the Arthur’s Seat State Park, where it is scattered over about 0.4 ha of open grassy forest infested with Boneseed Chrysanth- emoides monilifera. The plants were discovered in October 1987 by a member of The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria (FNCV) some time after he had cleared a dense stand of the introduced weed, Boneseed. His attention had been drawn to the colourful purple flowers (Fig. 1). The location is adjacent to a plot where the FNCV remove Boneseed annually and is within a quadrat being monitored by the Botany Group of the club, Glycine latrobeana typically has erect flowering stems up to 14 cm tall with silky, appressed hairs and with a short terminal spike of showy purple and green, Fig. 1. The original specimen of Glycine latrobeana with chasmogamous flowers collected by Tom Sault, Arthur's Seat, October 1987. (Sketch by Stefanie Rennick), ‘11 Lancaster Street, East Bentleigh, Victoria 3165. 172 shortly-stalked to stalkless pea flowers. The flowers are about 15 mm across and produce pea-shaped pods after fertilisation. (These showy open flowers are known as chasmogamous flowers). However, in spring 1994 no such flowers appeared, although numerous pods were noted, apparently developing directly out of the leaf axils (Fig. 2). Investigations at the National Herbarium of Victoria revealed that those pods had developed from tiny self-pollinating cleistogamous flowers, i.e. flowers that do not open to expose their reproductive parts, thereby preventing cross pollination. These cleistogamous flowers are green and globular, about 1 mm in diameter and are enclosed in broad hairy bracts within the leaf axils. This flower form apparently has been overlooked by Victorian botanists, although examination of specimens at the National Herbarium revealed a number of plants from Fig. 2. Glycine latrobeana with seed pods that developed from cleistogamous flowers. (A.) Open pods seeds dispersed. (B.) Tiny emerging pod. (Photocopy of a pressing from Arthur’s Seat State Park Herbarium). The Victorian Naturalist Contributions various locations with cleistogamous flowers. This discovery demonstrates what interesting finds can be made when participating in botanical monitoring, habitat restoration and propagating work. It is reported that cleistogamous flowers can be produced by many plants in response to adverse environmental conditions. It would be interesting to investigate why the Arthur’s Seat plants are producing cleistogamous flowers despite the removal of the competing Boneseed plants and to record how frequently cleistogamous and ‘standard’ chasmogamous flowers are produced (Fig. 3). Acknowlegements I would like to thank: John Eichler for helping me produce this article; Bob Parsons and Neville Scarlett of La Trobe University for so promptly sending me valuable information on the Glycine; The National Herbarium, Melbourne for permit- ting me to view their Glycine specimens, dating back to the last century; Tom Sault who, in the first place, made us aware of this interesting Glycine on Arthur’s Seat and Iima Dunn for photographing it in situ for our book. “The Mornington Peninsula, A Field Guide to the Flora, Fauna and Walking Tracks’. Fig. 3. Glycine microphylla showing (A.) chasmogamous flowers and (B.) cleistogamous pods. (Photocopy of a pressing from the Arthur’s Seat State Park Herbarium. Specimen collected by Ilma Dunn, Greens Bush, 24 November 1988). Reference Scarlett, N. and Parsons, R. (1993). Rare and Threatened Plants of Victoria. Jn ‘Flora of Victoria’ Volume 1. Eds. D. Forman and N. Walsh. Books Available from FNCV The Club has, over the years, published a number of books on natural history topics which can be purchased from the Book Sales Officer. It is currently distributing four, as follows: ‘What Fossil Plant is That?’ (J.G. Douglas) A guide to the ancient flora of Victoria, with notes on localities and fossil collecting. ‘Wildflowers of the Stirling Ranges’. (B. Fuhrer and N. Marchant) $7.95 144 magnificent illustrations of the spectacular flora of this region. ‘Down Under at the Prom’. (M. O’Toole and M. Turner) $16.95 A guide to the marine sites and dives at Wilson’s Promontory (with maps and numerous colour illustrations). ‘A Field Companion to Australian Fungi’. (B. Fuhrer) $19.95 A reprint of the earlier book with additional photographs and incorporating name changes. Vol. 112 (4) 1995 Aian Parkin Book Sales Officer 9850 2617 (H), 9565 4974 (B) 173 Contributions Searching for the Rare White Bird Glen Jameson! If Dreaming places collect power through the stories that are generated by their spirit, then perhaps the Glynns property comes close to being the White Cockatoo Special Place. They sweep through the Gorge valleys and across the river flats in ecstatic, shrieking clouds. An amorphous white mass moving like crazed mist above the muddied waters of Birrarrung, the Yarra Yarra. In numbers of over one hundred, they replace the small bird chatter and hypnotic chime of the Bell Miner with raucous song and chorus of the day’s events, Piercing chants of Cocky lore break the skies. Sometimes the sound that they generate rises to such levels, that it can challenge the noise coming from the cars along Warrandyte roads; quite a splendid effort. It is reminiscent of the intense sound levels generated by Magpie Geese, Anseranas semipalmata, on Wetlands at Kakadu, but they haven’t always been in such a position of strength. In the early 1980’s, the Sulphur-crested Cockatoo, Cacatua galerita, numbered perhaps a dozen or so birds in the forests around Warrandyte, having gone through an intensive recent history of persecution and casual slaughter. It was the incorporation of the Glynns property (soon to be named Laughing Waters Park) into the Yarra Valley Parks, a Melbourne Parks and Waterways park, around this time that gave them a safe refuge and the opportunity to still call Australia home. Observing the changes that come to an area set aside as a Sanctuary such as the Glynns property, illustrates how the Flora and Fauna can recover when given the opportunity. Glynns is at the upstream end of the Yarra Valley Park. It is the land that is enclosed by the next river meander, immediately down stream from the Pound Bend. You see it across the river from the Pound Bend Picnic Reserve looking westward. The shapes in the river that create Pound Bend also create the biggest incised meander in the Australian river systems; the Glynns meander contributes to this extra- "Longridge Farm, Warrandyte, Victoria, 3113, 174 ordinary geological wonder. An incised meander is one where the river has maintained its general course over a section of land during a period of geological uplift, with the river incising its way down through the parent rock material to keep on its original course. The theme of this story centres on three species of White Birds (well, almost white), Sulphur-crested Cockatoo, Australian White Ibis (previously Sacred Ibis) Threskiornis molucca, and the white form of the Grey Goshawk, Accipiter novae- hollandiae. It is not the full story of all that has happened on the Glynns property, but a selective vertical slice of observations from the past ten years. It is late afternoon, one warm and balmy day just on the 1993 summer solstice and the first few Silent Scouts of the White Cockatoos glide over the Warrandyte Tunnel, cross the river and fly into Glynns. They follow the downstream flow of the River and move to strategic vantage points, commanding views up and down the River Valley. A little while later, the first of the Proclaimers leading the Cocky Mob follow the same path with exalted, loud and confident voices, calls that carry for a surprising distance, They are calls made by those unafraid of who hears the Big White Parrot. Their resonance stamps the ground as Cocky Country. Those Birds whose responsibility it is to keep watch from the ridge country, depart from the main Mob and effortlessly slip across the high ridges to carry out a patrol of the next valley. All the while that highly communicative voice of each individual, sending information back to the Mob who are now tentatively roosting on a massive Manna Gum _ Eucalyptus viminalis, overlooking the Wetlands and River at the bottom of the property in the south-west comer. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions The collective knowledge of the 100 or so Cockies that make up the Glynns Mob must be immense. Individual birds have been known to live to one hundred years old, They are strong fliers who can cover large areas in an attempt to satisfy their insatiable curiosity, those black eyes shining with wisdom and mischief, scanning the forests and streets for news and opportunity. In a Yellow Box, Eucalyptus meliodora, across the river from Glynns, at the bottom of Longridge (also Yarra Valley Park lands), are a small group of Yellow-tailed Black- Cockatoos Calyptorhyncus funereus. The younger Black Cocky birds, as usual are caWing to the parents, w hose call is a gentle whistling when compared to the White Cockies. A White Cocky Patrol of angry young Turks discover the Black Cockies and immediately descends upon them in a fierce attack. The Black Cockies are panic struck, two bolt down the river and the other five birds haphazardly make their way to another large tree nearby. The Black Cockies remain there, totally shattered and uncharacter- istically quiet, for the rest of the early evening. Meanwhile outraged Patrols of White Cockies speed up and down the river, screaming out warnings and threats to any others who may be lurking on their Trees, now strangely leaving the Black Cockies to themselves. The Black Cockies regroup and later slip off under the cover of night, wishing to avoid any more unpleasant confrontations, The drama subsides, another story to be re-enacted out in front of the Cocky Mob on the Manna Gums. The river meander resounds to the screeching howls and hoots of territorial superiority. From the top of the high ridge at Longridge members of the Trick Cockie Troupe take advantage of the steep slope to aerially dive and soar down at terrific speed. Half way down the slope, they tum upside down, twist and weave in spectacular aerobatic displays. It is breath- taking larrikin showoff bravado at its best and the crowd on the Manna Gums just about do the Mexican Wave in appreciation. The summer is theirs. Early autumn and the White Cockatoos, Teminiscent of grazing sheep, wander in a huge flock across the elevated river terrace, digging and eating Onion Grass Romulea Vol. 112 (4) 1995 rosea and Sour Sob Oxalis pescarpe corms. They must consume vast amounts of these weeds in search of the carbohydrate stored in the corms. Late afternoon is spent back on the big Manna Gums Eucalyptus viminalis, a tribe in each tree, where continued and sporadic disturbance sends one group or another up into the air to slowly flutter, circle and then returm to roost, They are the image of those wonderful tourist mementos; plastic ‘snow domes’ encapsulating your favourite destination, that silently float fake snow through the water when you shake them, It is now early spring, a week after the 1994 equinox. The dry conditions inland have begun to bring interesting visitors and extended the stay of migrating regulars such as the big mob of Australian White Ibis and Staw-necked Ibis, Threskiornis spinicollis, of which at least two hundred birds have been at Glynns from early winter. The Ibis mobs’ favourite overnight roosts are the massive Manna Gums overlooking the river in the south-west comer of Glynns. Previously the favourite roost of the Sulphur-crested Cockatoos, who are so severely crest-fallen they have barely raised a scrawk since the Ibis moved them on. The occupation of the site by the Ibis could not be in more contrast with the previous reign of the White Cockies, The Ibis return to their roosts in Glynns in the dusking early evening, after a full days honest slog in the wet meadows and swamps feeding on insects. None of this tuming up mid-afternoon like larrikin Cockies full of bragging wind. The Ibis stream into Glynns with meticulously ordered flight patterns, awesome, immaculate lines that enthralled Pharoahs and still generate an aura of timeless antiquity. Demure honking of the Ibis is faintly heard on the breezes, from a distance it can barely be heard at all. The Ibis flight path usually follows the river as they return from the extensive Billabong and Wetland system of the Yarra Flats (Heidelberg and Ivanhoe), down- stream. As their stay lengthens due to dry inland conditions, the Ibis come from more disparate directions, Kangaroo Ground, Eltham and Panton Hills. Finally, one night in late October, as the Ibis arrivals at Glynns started to become 175 Contributions more irregular, they showed their dry sense of humour when a few late arrivals to the roost, parodied the Trick Cocky Troupe by doing a couple of ‘upside -downers’ coming in to land. It must have kept the whole Ibis mob in quiet, honking laughter all night each time they thought of it. The White Cockies detested them. Disgruntled, the White Cockies kept to the eastern end of Glynns and bided their time, summer had to come and the Ibis had to eventually leave. Do the Cockies pose a management problem due to their dominating numbers? Are they a positive for Park management or do they threaten other wildlife and the health and integrity of the remnant Bushlands? They have been observed locally harassing Wedge-tail Eagles Aquila audax, Whistling Kites Milvus sphenurus and of course the Yellow-tailed Black-Cockatoos, Could they be over-harvesting local Eucalypt and other remnant Bushland seed? The overclearing for agriculture that has previously occurred on Glynns (and the surrounding residential areas) and the resulting unbalanced ecosystem has created an ideal situation for the explosion of their numbers to occur. The Cockies, who prefer open lightly forested habitats, are behaving like classic colonisers taking advantage of a vacuum, a niche that must be filled. Colonisers invade in waves of succession, just as Cassinias, Wattles and Wallaby Grasses do in some cases in the plant world. Niches that get filled and then succeeded by another assemblage of organisms as cond- itions change due to the effects of the colonisers’ life cycles. This is what we are observing, a vital stage in the initial phase in the restoration of the urban Wilderness. As the revegetation fills out and other Fauna find Glynns, it will become a less attractive habitat to the White Cockies who will be less able to dominate the site, Once the Glynns Wetlands becomes a suitable site for the Ibis to breed they may have a resident mob who will make it even more uncomfortable for the White Cockies. The Cocky Mob may have helped to establish a small group of Long-billed Corellas, Cacatua tenuirostris, Who have been in residence for the past years, Even a cage-escaped Major Mitchell Cockatoo Cacatua leadbeateri flew with the 176 Cockies a few years ago, until apparently falling prey to the Whistling Kites, who also use Glynns, What is apparent is that when we also consider the recruitment and generation of other Wildlife within Glynns, the power that ‘Sanctuary Areas’ have in restoring the ecology, is immense and of the greatest importance to the Urban Wilderness. The high numbers of Sulphur-crested Cockatoos may be antagonising the local human community. Damage that they can do to fruit and nut trees and, in some cases, to timbers on houses and the racket they make, can make them unpopular and an unwelcome fauna for some parts of the local human community. Park management may be seen as not being fair and reasonable managers of Wildlife to allow numbers to become greater and may get the local community offside. However, itis up to Park Management to continue the educative process in the manner that the ParkCare programme formalised and persuade those parts of the community who may be negatively inclined, that we all have to make allowances in the process of environmental reconciliation. There have not been many recordings of the white form of the Grey Goshawk in the middle Yarra region. It is an uncommon and mysterious visitor/vagrant, probably com- ing in during hard times elsewhere and this, 1994, was the year for it. The white form of the Grey Goshawk (the other form is, surprisingly, very grey) is the dominant form of the bird around the coast of Victoria, in Tasmania and over in the Kimberley region. One of the preferred habitats of the White Goshawk is heavily timbered edges of water courses. The bird is reputedly a particularly powerful, highly skilled hunter and I caught sight of it near the Annulus Billabong (Yarra Flats Park, [vanhoe) in April 1994, at first thinking it to be a White Cockie because of the size of its wings. A good view of it as it sat calmly whilst we scrutinised its details, confirmed it as the white form of the Grey Goshawk, probably a female which is the larger of the sexes. Observations of probably the same bird or perhaps its partner, were made in Warrandyte and on the Yarra Flats during winter and a later springtime The Victorian Naturalist Naturalist Notes observation of the bird calling from the large Sugar Gum that rises above the canopy on the crest of the Glynns hill. The white form of the Grey Goshawk was recorded at Glynns around the summer solstice of 1994 and there is speculation that it may be breeding locally. Would it breed so far from its territory? Would it take up permanent residence? Glynns certainly provides opportunities that make it attractive for the Goshawk to stay. They have been known to fly with flocks of White Cockies, using them as camouflage to take smaller birds who haven’t noticed the slightly different bird in the flock. The mix of open grassy areas, regenerating slopes, dry sclerophyll hill country and the riparian forest, river and wetlands generates a wide variety of prey and habitat. It is these qualities that create biological opportunity and give importance to an area such as Glynns, especially in a regional context, providing refuge in times of environmental stress in other parts of the State, It is the thrill of seeing the rare white bird finding and using these resources that is a reward for all the planning and work needed to restore the urban wilderness. It is a benchmark of the success of the Park vision a record a rare white bird as part of the auna. Acknowledgements I wish to thank Patrick Fricker for his encour- agement, vision and for playing *cockatoo’ for the Yarra Valley Environment. The Wasp and the Spider Angus Martin! In a garden in Camberwell at midday on 3 April 1995 I was casually observing the web of a Leaf-curling Spider Phonognatha graeffei; the web was in good repair. A spider (assumed, and later proved, to be a female) was in the curled leaf at the hub of the web; her legs were visible at the entrance. A European Wasp Vespula germanica landed at the hub of the web on the opposite surface from the leaf retreat. After a few moments the wasp left, to return about two minutes later. This time she forced her way through the web and immediately entered the leaf retreat. After about 1.5 minutes she left, to return yet again after another short interval. Now she landed on the same side of the web as the retreat and re-entered it. For the following 2.5 minutes neither spider nor wasp was visible, but the retreat shook and vibrated intermittently. The wasp then re-emerged tail-first, carrying the spider’s abdomen, which she dropped (presumably not intentionally) just after leaving the retreat (hence enabling the abdomen to be retrieved and identified). ‘Department of Zoology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052. Vol. 112 (4) 1995 I then removed the retreat from the web and carefully opened it. Fresh spider remains - part of a cephalothorax and about 15 leg fragments - were contained in the retreat. This observation shows that European Wasps have developed the capacity to exploit a presumably novel food-source (there are no Leaf-curling Spiders in Europe), utilising a feeding technique which discards all but the nutritionally-rich abdomen of the spider. Clearly neither the spider’s web, nor its venom, nor its use ofa retreat which is usually regarded as a refuge from predation, offered any effective defence against this exotic predator, even though the cavity within the leaf was so narrow that the wasp obviously did not have room to deploy her sting. Since both wasp and spider are most active in later summer and autumn, and since the spider seems to be so vulnerable to wasp predation, I cannot but feel some concern over the survival prospects of the Leaf-curling Spider in areas supporting dense European Wasp populations. 177 Naturalist Notes From our Naturalist in Residence, Cecily Falkingham Those Magical, Mystical Creations - Galls I wonder how many people, when walking in the bush, are aware that those strange, sometimes exotic-shaped creations seen on plants can tell a tale of mystery and intrigue comparable to any fairy story or science fiction invention. My fascination with galls started ten years ago when I collected my first gall, after years of wondering exactly what they were! I unsuccessfully tried to raise to maturity the tiny insect inside the gall. In my ignorance I had tried to do this by placing the stem of the eucalypt leaves, on which the gall grew, into a jar of water. The gall withered and died without the normal supply of nourishment flowing through trunk, stem and leaves, as well as an absence of sunlight which provides both carbohydrates and warmth for the tiny inhabitant. With a small home-made low-powered microscope (10 x) a world of bizarre-shaped insects housed in even more bizarre-shaped galls aroused such curiosity and wonder, I am still hooked on galls. The wonder of personal discovery is always so much more exciting than reading facts from books. I actually discovered facts about their life cycles long before I read about them. On the stems of Hop Goodenia Goodenia ovata grew an oval-shaped, 1.5 cm, pale mauye/green gall - the Goodenia ovata Gall (Fig. 1). Closer examination revealed a tiny brown empty pupal case or in some cases a minute cream larva curled in perfect safety in its well-camouflaged home. I then discovered the Nematode Gall, where the combined action of nematodes (Fergusobia) and a tiny fly larvae (e.g. Fergusonina nicholsoni) create many galls on leaves, stem tips, leaf and flower buds of cucalypts; the female fly larvae become infested with female nematodes which are then deposited in the eucalypt tissue with the fly eggs and both fly and nematode develop together in the gall, eventually leaving their gall home through many holes seen on the outside of the gall (Fig. 2). Golden Bush-pea Pultenaea gunnii yielded more questions when | discovered what looked, at first glance, like a cluster of 178 Fig. 1. The Hop Goodenia Goodenia ovata Gall. Photo. A. Farnworth Fig. 2. The Nematode Gall. Photo. A, Farnworth The Victorian Naturalist Naturalist Notes new growth or a mutation of the flower (Fig. 3). However, careful dissection with a sharp razor blade revealed the minute larvae nestled inside the intricate structure. I discovered that each gall shape indicated the insect family involved and that galls grow on buds, leaves, stems, flowers and developing fruit. The Banksia Mite Gall causes large misshapen brown powdery and rough-textured galls to develop over the outside of Banksia cones of several species. All this caused by a tiny microscopic mite. Then there is the remarkable Casuarina Gall which mimics the fruit of the plant. I then found that there is an exception to every rule (just to keep us on our toes)! The Eriococcidae Galls on eucalypts had a different shape according to whether a male or female resided inside the gall. The female gall - a large, green, acorn-shape - usually had some male galls nearby and they were small, ruby-red and trumpet-shaped. With this particular group I eventually had some success with rearing. After keeping the two galls (male and female) in a jar for some time I was able to observe the large, recumbent, mealy female with a 1.5 cm body entombed like an Egyptian mummy and, swarming all over her, dozens of tiny microscopic bright-yellow insects with large black eyes, six legs, tiny feelers and covered in hairs. I had noticed, some days before the ‘birth’, tiny feathery appendages waving outside the tiny hole in the large gall. Was she signalling for a mate? The males had 7: Fig. 3. Gall on Golden Bush-pea Pultneaea gunnii Photo. A. Farnworth Vol. 112 (4) 1995 emerged from their trumpet-shaped galls as tiny 2.5 mm orange, pale-winged insects with the same mealy powder on their bodies and were jetting around the jar where the female continued to wave her feathery plumes. Who needs television with all this action, romance and intrigue! After reading some of the short passages about galls in many books, | learned that gall makers can be Gnats, Midges, Psyllids, Weevils, Coccids, Flies, Thrips, Beetles, Mites, Nematodes, Bacteria, a few moth species and Fungi. The latter causing those large, knobbly, protuberant lumps on Cherry Ballart Exocarpos cupressiformis and Acacia species. I found that at least two gall-producing insects had been introduced: one, a Mexican species of fly Procecidochares utilis to control Crofton Weed Ageratina adeno- phora and two, the Gall Gnat, Zeuxidiplosis giardi to control St John’s Wort Hypericum perforatum, This also points to yet another interesting fact that perhaps the many varieties of galls play a role in providing a control over seed production and growth generally in plants and possibly exerting some control of over-population. So What are Galls? They appear to be an abnormal growth produced when an insect or mite introduces through saliva or chemical stem injection, a compound which influences the growth of plant cells. The complex and highly individual chemicals in the saliva or body liquid produce proliferation of plant cells and so triggering off the mechanism which forces the plant to house the egg. When and Why do Some Animals Create Galls? Most galls are produced in spring or early summer while plants are in active growth. The galls range from 30 cmx 10 cm (Weevil Stem Galls) to tiny pimples measuring a few millimetres e.g. ‘Pimple Galls’ which appear on some eucalypts and are made by a wasp from the family, Nonotontomerinae. Some of the largest galls I have seen were in Central Australia and called Bloodwood Apples. They grew on the eucalypts and were collected, roasted and eaten by the aboriginal people. In the desert, these large gall structures would have protected the animal inside against desiccation due to high daytime temperatures and hot winds, and from the freezing night temperatures. 179 Book Review Gall structures aid in insulation, protection from predators and provision of food, For a gall animal it would compare with us living in one room surrounded by an endless supply of growing food. Some galls replicate in shape, colour and texture the fruit, buds and seed of the plant and in doing so provide excellent camouflage for the developing animal. Many galls accumulate large amounts of sugars to support the growth of the larvae and some galls contain high amounts of tannic acid or protein and also carbohydrates such as starches. Galls have been used in medicine and as human and animal food; the Aleppo Oak Gall of Asia was once an important source of tannic acid, containing 65%, and the gall ink produced from Aleppo Galls was considered the best type of ink and imported into the USA for writing important documents, while the Gall, which contained high quantities of protein and carbo- hydrates, was fed to domestic animals. Predators They are not without enemies and control of galls is supplied by gall wasps, predatory mites, birds and human use and consumption. With approximately 2,000 different species so far identified, you would think our knowledge was fairly complete. But it is not and on taking some of my specimens into the entomology section of the museum I was told that, although they can now identify many of the species, the mystery of their sometimes complicated life cycle has yet to be accurately described. I would like to hear from anyone who has observed varieties of host plants, life histories and particularly predators, as these highly rich food parcels must surely be eaten by a range of animals, particularly birds. List of useful books ‘The Insects of Australia’. (1979). (CSIRO: Canberra), ‘Australian Insects’. (1945). Keith C. McKeown. (Sydney & Melboume Publishing Co Pty Ltd). ‘Insects of Australia’ (1980). John Goode. (Angus & Robertson). ‘Insects’. (1966). Ross E, Hutchins. ‘The Insect Book’. (1948). Walter W. Froggatt. (Shakespeare Head Press Pty Ltd). ‘Insect Wonders of Australia’. (1944). Keith C. McKeown. (Angus Robertson P/L). ‘An Introduction to Australian Insects. (1982). Phillip W. Hadlington and Judith A. Johnston. (New South Wales University Press). ‘Friends and Foes of Australian Gardens’. (1980). F.D. Hockings. (Reed Publishing). ‘Pests, Diseases & Ailments of Australian Plants’. (1986). David Jones and Rodger Elliot. (Lothian). ‘The World of Insects’. (1977). Zanetti Adriano. (Sampson Low). Cecily Falkingham 27 Chippewa Ave., Mitcham Victoria, 3132 The Silken Web: a Natural History of Australian Spiders by Bert Simon-Brunet Publisher: Reed Books, Sydney, 1994. 208 pp. RRP $39.95 (hb). For reasons that are not entirely clear, spiders have a bad press, and are consequently under-represented in the natural history literature. This is as true for Australia, which has an abundance of spiders, as for elsewhere in the world. Indeed, the last comprehensive book devoted to Australian spiders was Barbara York Main’s volume ‘Spiders’, published by Collins in 1976 and now out of print. Thus, the publication of the present volume could not be more timely, ‘The Silken Web’ is divided into two parts. The first part outlines the general biology of spiders, including evolutionary Origins, anatomy, habitat, predators, reproduction and the importance of silk. This account of spiders is generally accurate, although it is surprising that the 180 results of recent studies are not included. A very substantial body of research has emerged over the last fifteen years, and yet 75% of the articles in the reference list were published before 1980. In the second part of ‘The Silken Web’, Simon-Brunet divides the Australian spiders into the three major groups; the Mygalomorphs, Hypochilomorphs and the Araneomorphs. While the arrangement of these major groups is conventional, the Araneomorphs or modem spiders are arranged according to the ways in which they utilise silk to capture their prey, rather than to their taxonomic affiliation. Implicit behind this arrangement is the notion that these foraging strategies represent various evolutionary end-points which parallel the evolutionary radiations of the insects. Thus, The Victorian Naturalist Book Review the Araneomorphs are divided into open-range hunters, ambushers and anglers, apprentice weavers and master weavers. The open-range hunters rely on mobility, eyesight, strength and swiftness rather than silk to capture their prey, while the ambushers and anglers remain stationary in places where insects frequent, ambushing those hapless prey that venture within striking distance. The apprentice weavers build untidy, three dimensional silk snares that lack the characteristic symmetry of the webs of the master weavers. Several representative species from different families within each category are described, with details of their appearance, toxicity, danger to humans, habitat, distribution and reproductive behaviour. This arrangement is not a bad idea because, in most cases, these different foraging strategies are closely associated with particular taxa. However, the chapter describing the ambushers and anglers seems unnecessarily arbi and may be confusing. The Crab Spiders (Thomisidae) are certainly ambushers; these impressively cryptic animals hide in flowers, where they capture unsuspecting pollinators or other insects feeding on nectar. But the behaviour of the Lobster-pot Spider seems more analogous to web-building species; this thomisid spider builds a rigid, silken nest that resembles a lobster-pot, Ants that venture into these pots are then caught by the spider sitting at the base of the pet The chapter also includes those web-building spiders that do not build conventional orb-webs. Most familiar of these spiders is the moth- attracting Bolas Spider, which captures its prey on a sticky bolas that the spider swings on the end of a silk line. The problem with this arrangement of the chapters is that it seems to obscure the fascinating evolution- divergence, convergence and loss of different foraging strategies. The text is easy to read and nicely enhanced by simple diagrams and a wonderful collection of excellent photo- graphs. There are also some beautiful, large, full colour illustrations of several species. The main text is augmented by boxes that highlight particular species or unusual anecdotes about spiders. These visual aspects of ‘The Silken Web’ are superb, and surely confirm the beauty and fascination of many spiders. However, a natural history book must also be judged by the accuracy of the text, and in Vol. 112 (4) 1995 this respect the book is a disappointment. Some anthropomorphisms can atneae be forgiven, but not if they are based on errone- ous generalisations. Male spiders of sexually cannibalistic species may well experience fear; we'll never know. But itis unlikely that all male spiders are in fear of their lives from Tapacious females, because sexual can- nibalism is common in only three or four families. More importantly, there are simply too many factual errors, For example, the ant mimic Amyciaea albomaculata is a thomisid not a salticid, and while the taxonomy of Australian orb-weavers is rather poorly understood, ‘Araneus’ bradleyi does not belong in the genus Eriophora. Interest- ingly, we are told that the first Australian spider to be formally described was Gaster- acantha fornicata, now known as Aranea fornicata. In fact, this spider was incorrectly placed by Fabricius in the genus Aranea, not the other way round. Correct scientific names may not concern the general reader, but other errors might; it is certainly not clear that the white-tailed spider is responsible for necrotic sores, and the organism that causes ulcerating sores is a bacterium Mycobacterium ulcerans, not a virus called Microbacterius ulcerans. Spiders belonging to the genus Myrma- rachne have a very close resemblance to ants, yet there are no records confirming the claim that these spiders prey on their ant models. Particularly irritating was Brunet- Simon’s decision to re-name the webs built by araneid spiders ‘wheel-webs’ rather than the conventional ‘orb-web'. Changing common names is confusing at the best of times, but there is insufficient reason to do so here. The word orb may give the impression of a sphere or globe, but it is derived from the Latin orbis meaning ring, which is an appropriate description of the web. ‘The Silken Web’ can be recommended for its illustrations, and maybe as a general introduction to spiders. The book will undoubtedly stimulate an interest in these fascinating creatures, perhaps even among arachnophobes. But the errors will spoil the book for experts, and generate confusion for those wishing to find out more. It is a great shame that it was not reviewed and edited more thoroughly before publication. Mark A. Elgar and Rachel A. Allan Department of Zoology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052. 181 How to be a Field Naturalist Botany John Eichler! Activities As a field naturalist with an interest in botany you will have the opportunity with the FNCV to participate in the following: Regular field trips to the particularly varied vegetation communities found in the Melbourne region. Field trips generally deal with specific plant groups or vegetation communities and complement Botany Group meetings; Organised surveys which include collect- ing data on the structural form of vegetation habitat preferences, species composition, frequency, and changes over time. Current projects include: A fungal survey at Wattle Park; Pre and post fire surveys at the Botanic Gardens Annexe, Cranbourne; Monitoring regeneration following Bone- seed removal at Arthur’s Seat, Dromana; Collecting, preserving and identifying plant specimens (you will need a permit to collect on public land and permission from the owner to collect on private land); Plant photography; Workshops on plant identification, survey techniques etc. and field studies with expert speakers and guides; Habitat restoration projects; Preparing submissions on conservation issues, and Regular meetings on a variety of topics catering for beginners through to experienced naturalists. Members are en- couraged to contribute exhibits and nature notes, which are segments of each meeting. There is at least one Members Night a year at which members are invited to make a short presentation. Equipment A good hand lens of 10x magnification is essential to check details on which species identification is often based and to reveal the often hidden beauty of plants. A stereo microscope with magnification of 10x and 20x 1s a very useful piece of equipment but it 1s quite expensive and certainly not ‘18 Bayview Crescent, Black Rock, Victoria 3193. 182 essential, (Much higher magnifications are needed when examining fungi). A plant press is useful for drying plant specimens for identification at a later date and for preparing specimens for lodging at the National Herbarium, A press can be made from slats of wood nailed together in a lattice pattern to form 2 outer covers, each measuring approximately 50 cm x 30 cm. If you wish to photograph plants you will need a single lens reflex camera that can be manually focussed, a set of close-up lenses or a macro lens and a flash unit. You will want to apply names to the plants you find and to do this you will need some of the books listed below. To accurately identify those plants, it is necessary to learn some botanical terms and to use botanical keys. A number of the books listed below contain glossaries and keys. Field Guides and Textbooks General Trees of Victoria and Adjoining Areas - L. Costermans. (Costermans Publishing), Ex- cellent inexpensive introduction. Native Trees and Shrubs of South Eastern Australia - L, Costermans (Lansdowne). Excellent colour photos and line drawings. Flora of Melbourne - SGAP Maroondah Group. (Hyland House). Census of Vascular Plants of Victoria - J. Ross. (National Herbarium of Victoria). Lists all currently recognised indigenous and introduced plants and gives current and former names. Flora of Victoria - Vol I Introduction - D. Foreman and N. Walsh; Vol 2 - Monocotyledons - N. Walsh and T. Entwisle (Inkata) (Volumes 3 and 4, covering dicotyledon families, to be published March 1996 and September 1997). Compre- hensive, up to date coverage with dis- tribution information. Collecting and Preserving Herbarium Specimens - D. Albrecht (National Herbarium of Victoria). Specific Plant Groups Ferns and Allied Plants of Victoria, Tas- The Victorian Naturalist Obituary mania and South Australia - B. Duncan and G. Isaac. (Melbourne University Press). The Orchids of Victoria - G. Backhouse and J. Jeanes. (Miegunyuh Press). A field companion to Australian Fungi- B. Fuhrer. (The Five Mile Press). A Field Guide to Common Australian Fungi -T. Young. (NSW University Press). Clubs and Societies Indigenous Flora & Fauna Association. Society for Growing Australian Plants. Native Orchid Society. Fern Society of Victoria. Friends Groups associated with various nature conservation reserves. Periodicals Muelleria (a scientific journal published annually by the National Herbarium of Victoria). Australian Plants (contains articles of general interest, including information on cultivation), Answers in Nature Conservation (a scientific journal), . Indigenotes (contains articles of general interest), The Orchadian (contains _ scientific articles, articles of general interest and information on cultivation). Newsletters of relevant clubs and societies often contain interesting articles. Enquiries Your FNCV contacts for Botany are: John Eichler, phone: 03 598 9492 AH or write; Tom May, phone 03 655 2319 BH, 03 645 2381 AH or write to The National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, Victoria 3141. Tom and John will be able to answer many of your questions or direct you to others who can help. Obituary William Perry (1911-1995) William Perry, who died in March 1995 at the age of 83, was born and lived all his life in Eaglehawk. In his youth he was an enthusiastic member of the Eaglehawk Rifle Club, and it was in their company that he first began to observe the plants of the bush. Gradually his interest in flora and fauna supplanted that in shooting and he became an acknowledged authority on the flora of the Bendigo Whipstick. He was also interested in the mining history of the area - his grandfather was manager of the South New Moon mine in Sailor’s Gully - and in 1975 William published ‘Tales of the Whipstick’. He was elected as a country member of The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria on 8 June 1942 and three years later became one of the foundation members of the Bendigo Field Naturalists Club, and their first librarian. Between 1945 and 1969 William Perry contributed a number of articles and notes to The Victorian Naturalist and a glance at these indicates the breadth of his interest in natural history; birds, ants and spiders fascinated him, as well as orchids and acacias. He was also an accomplished photographer. He was always ready to share his love of the bush and his knowledge of the Whipstick with visiting naturalists, particularly on excursions to the area by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria. ; : In August 1982 the Bendigo Field Naturalists Club hosted the Victorian Field Naturalists Clubs Association weekend and it was at this gathering of his fellow naturalists from all over Victoria that William Perry was awarded the certificate of Honorary Membership of The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria, in recognition of his contribution to natural history over forty years’ membership. I am indebted to John Ipsen and Ray Wallace of the Bendigo Field Naturalists Club for much of the above information. Sheila Houghton Hon. Librarian, FNCV Vol. 112 (4) 1995 age The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria In which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria Established 1880 Registered Office: FNCV, c/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141, 650 8661. OBJECTIVES: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron His Excellency, The Honourable Richard E. McGarvie, The Governor of Victoria. Key Office-Bearers June 1995 President; Associate Prof. ROBERT WALLIS, School of Aquatic Science and Natural Resources Management, Deakin University (Rusden), Clayton, 3168. (03) 9244 7278; [fax] (03) 9244 7403. Hon, Secretary: Mr. GEOFFREY PATERSON, 11 Olive Street, South Caulfield, 3162 (A.H. 9571 6436). Hon. Treasurer: Mr. ARNIS DZEDINS, PO Box 1000, Blind Bight, 3980 ((059) 987 996), Subscription-Secretary: FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (9650 8661). Editors: ED and PAT GREY, 8 Woona Court, Yallambie, 3085 (9435 9019). Librarian: Mrs. SHEILA HOUGHTON, FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (A.H. (054) 928 4097). Excursion Secretary: DOROTHY MAHLER (9435 8408 A.H.) Sales Officer (Victorian Naturalist only): Mr. D.E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (9571 2427). Publicity Officer: Miss MARGARET POTTER, 1/249 Highfield Road, Burwood, 3125 (9889 2779). Book Sales Officer; Dr. ALAN PARKIN, FNCV, C/- National Herbarium, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, 3141 (9850 2617 A.H.). Programme Secretary: Dr. NOEL SCHLEIGER, 1 Astley Street., Montmorency, 3094 (9435 8408). Group Secretaries Botany: Mr. JOHN EICHLER, 18 Bayview Crescent, Black Rock, 3143 (9598 9492). Geology:Mr. DOUG HARPER, 33 Victoria Crescent, Mont Albert, 3127 (9890 0913). Fauna Survey: Miss FELICITY GARDE, 18 College Parade, Kew, 3101 (9818 4684). Microscopical: Mr. RAY POWER, 36 Schotters Road, Mernda, 3754 (9717 351 1). The Victorian Naturalist publication to be sent to FNCV, Locked Bag 3, PO Blackbur, Victoria 3130. MEMBERSHIP Members receive The Victorian Naturalist and the monthly Field Nat News free. The Club organises several monthly meetings (free to all) and excursions (transport costs may be charged), Research work, including both botanical and fauna surveys, is being done at a number of locations in Victoria and all members are encouraged to participate. Membership Rates 1995 Individual (Elected Members) Membership Subscription SIO MBSE ec on 5 17 Vee: ! so yaa Ad nap vacate Ca ae $35 SOIOTMON BONS Ye. 5 ale 2 ok ok kh 4) tee aca tnd amt hae ia $45 Concessional rate (Full Time Student/Pensioner/Country Member more than 50km from GPO/Unemployed Person)... ..........-.0c00ee $25 Junior (under 18, no ‘Victorian Naturalis’)... 2.2.2... =........ $5 Institutional Subscriptions — (Subscriptions to ‘The Victorian Naturalist’ only) PY Abarat: 2 WN or | ee $50 iscsi CLT POUNDER BO aye AUD $60 SUD y 2 ea ny Se ee EE Gd PR REM tua ks $35 Se EEE aE SEs ae Oia YA Printed by: Sands & McDougall Printing Pty, Ltd. 91-97 Boundary Road, North Melbourne, 3051, Telephone (03) 9329 0166 Volume 112 (5) 1995 October “Ill ill 3 1466 Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884 VALE MARIE ALLENDER It is with deep regret that we report the death of Marie Allender on 27 September. Marie will be remembered for her long and dedicated service to the club and especially for her outstanding work in organising club excursions over many years. NEW FNCV HOME Address: | Gardenia Street Blackburn Victoria 3130 Postal Address: Locked Bag 3 PO Blackburn Victoria 3130 (03) 9877 9860 Telephone and Fax: Disclaimer from John Whinray ‘A Census of the Plants of Deal Island, Kents Group, for 1884’ In 1993 the above paper was issued as my work in The Victorian Naturalist, 110 (6), 247-250. However, I neither saw nor approved the changed form in which it appeared. Given the standard of the changes, I would not have agreed to its publication. In so doing, I would also have mentioned the various typing errors, including the wrong dates. I hereby disclaim the paper totally. It should never be referred to as my work. All members and subscribers should fully cross it out in their copies and indexes. John Whinray, Flinders Island, Tasmania. Erratum Index to Volume 111, 1994 included in Volume 112 (3) 1995, should have included: Jameson, G, 145 We extend our apologies to the author. Volume 112 (5) 1995 October Honours Research Reports Contributions Book Reviews How to bea Field Naturalist Naturalist Note ISSN 0042-5184 Editors: Ed and Pat Grey Australian Natural History Medallion 1995 - Rodger Elliot, By Sen OURO uso ner ate Ow ao. 2 Se ee at 188 Reassessment of the Distribution, Abundance and Habitat of the Baw Baw Frog (Philoria frosti), by Gregory J. Hollis..c..c00000.... 190 Biosystematics of Australian Mygalomorph Spiders: Two New Species of Arbinitis from Victoria, Byssar Dar aay or kala tania te te acme tera hc vstecesemtie aia 202 Bats in Remnant Vegetation along the Barwon River, Victoria, by L.E. Conole and G.A. Baverstock cecsecssesssesvevsssessesesssen 208 Initial Results from Bat Roosting Boxes at Organ Pipes National Park, by R. Irvine and R. Bender iiecccccccccccssssssesssesssevsesesesees 212 Notes on the Alpine She-oak Skink in the Mt Hotham Area, Alpine Victoria, by M. Schulz, J. Alexander and I. Mansergh......... 219 The Wonders of the Weather, by Bob Crowder, GEVICW GIA TEA TAs CUTE O ITM mee Reset neals phanstess Pt vase berths. chapettes ret 207 Flora of Victoria, Vol. 1, edited by D.B. Foreman and N.G. Walsh, Vol. 2 edited by N.G. Walsh and T.J. Entwisle, TOMTOWOL EL MVMELESHer ann tacrusnxccrtarasm Gsieqeret banter anre tener rs atten ae 217 Mammal Survey, by Arnis Dzedins ....c.scssseccssesreeseseneeeeeieen 22d Carnivorous Plants - Carnivorous Bugs, by Cecily Falkingham, INFATUIPALISt NUR OSICENCE \ 111s 4, e¥eceeieng emtooreetissuatarcctareceateeraubagrenret esc? 222 Cover: Rodger Elliot, winner of the 1995 Australian Natural History Medallion (see article page 188). Honours Australian Natural History Medallion 1995 W. Rodger Elliot Rodger Elliot needs no introduction to botanists and gardeners throughout Austra- lia. Wherever people are interested in the growing of Australian plants his name springs to mind, not only as a provider of plants, but also for a great reference source, since the publication of the multi-volume ‘Encyclopaedia of Australian Plants suitable for Cultivation’ began in 1980. Growing native plants has been Rodger’s lifelong interest, inspired by an introduction to Australian flora while camping in the Grampians during his schooldays, and it is his understanding of the importance of envi- ronment to native plants which is significant in all his work. Influenced by Edna Walling, he abandoned his training as an industrial chemist, and in 1961 began work in the land- scape firm of E.H. Hammond and Sons. From growing and propagating native plants in his parents’ backyard, he progressed to the ‘Austraflora’ nursery, which he set up with his wife, Gwen, and which quickly became the Australian plant specialist nursery. In 1973 they transferred to the wholesale propa- gation nursery ‘Australian Tube Plants’ which has supplied plants to nurseries and floriculture industries in Australia, UK and USA. More recently, Rodger has become the plant expert in the ‘Koala Blooms’ company, which is developing a thriving export trade in Australian plants with the USA. The gar- den which he and Gwen established at Montrose, Victoria, has featured in a number of gardening magazines in Australia, Eng- land and USA, Rodger has had a long association with the Society for Growing Australian Plants, Vic- toria, of which he and Gwen were made honorary life members in 1987, He was a founding member of the Society for Growing Australian Plants, Maroondah, in 1967 and has been involved in the Melbourne Wild- flower Show, organised by this Group, since its Inception twenty years ago, where his ex- pertise in identifying specimens sent from all over Australia has contributed largely to 188 making it such an annual success. He is a Fel- low of the Royal Horticultural Societies of London and Victoria, an honorary life mem- ber of the Arboretum Associates, University of California, Santa Cruz, to whom he has supplied plants; the Australian Systematic Botany Society; the Bird Observers Club of Australia and is a past vice-president of the Ornamental Plants Collection Association for whom he holds the Dampiera Collection. In 1992 Rodger received the Australian Insti- tute of Horticulture Award of Excellence and this year, the Australian Plants Award (Pro- fessional) from the Association of Societies for Growing Australian Plants. Rodger is well-known as a lecturer and broadcaster. For eight years he ran courses for the Council of Adult Education and Monash University Summer Schools. He regularly gives lectures and demonstrations to the Victorian College of Agriculture and Horticulture, Burnley, and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne, as well as being in de- mand for talks to natural history societies. In 1988 he undertook a lecture tour in Califor- nia and has led botanical tours to USA, Europe and China as well as nearer home to the Grampians. He has travelled extensively throughout Australia on field collecting trips seeking not only plants with horticultural potential but also the rare and endangered species, so that stocks of these might be maintained. Many botanical gardens, here and overseas, re- search institutes and amateur enthusiasts have benefitted as a result of these expedi- tions. In 1991 he was invited to design a garden of eastem Australian plants at the Strybing Arboretum and Botanical Garden, San Francisco. Rodger Elliot’s career as an author began in 1972 with an article for Your Garden maga- zine and he became a monthly contributor for almost the next twenty years. In 1983 he be- gan a series ‘On Australian Plants’ for the Royal Horticultural Society of Victoria’s Gardening News. His love of the Grampians The Victorian Naturalist produced ‘An Introduction to the Grampians Flora’ (1975) and ‘A Field Guide to the } Grampians Flora’ (1984). In 1984 the ‘Plant ) Identikit’ series, covering four significant } botanical areas in Victoria, appeared, written t by W.R. Elliot and illustrated by T.L. Blake. Three more booklets followed in 1988, cov- ering areas in New South Wales. He has published a number of gardening books, but his major undertaking has been the ‘Encyclo- paedia of Australian Plants suitable for Cultivation’, written in conjunction with David L. Jones. This unique work, still in pro- gress, will cover the flora of the entire continent, providing a wealth of botanical in- formation as well as practical assistance in growing Australian plants. To have been in- vited by a publisher to produce such a work is testimony enough to Rodger Elliot’s stand- ing in the botanical world. And as his wife, who has been involve in all his endeavours, has pointed out, ‘the contributions Rodger is able to make are things he enjoys doing and which he feels have both value and purpose. There is no distinction between work and lei- sure’ - and in this he is a fortunate man, Rodger Elliot was nominated by the So- ciety for Growing Australian Plants, Victoria, and all his work exemplifies their motto ‘Preservation by Cultivation’. Sheila Houghton Australian Natural History Medallion The Medallionist for 1995 is Rodger Elliot His address will be ‘Things which have caught my eye and other senses’. The presentation will be made at the General Meeting of the club on 13 November in the presence of His Excellency, The Honourable Richard E. McGarvie, The Governor of Victoria. The FNCV Council extends a warm invitation to all its members and their guests, and hopes that you will be able to attend such a prestigious event. This award is presented annually to a person who can be shown to have increased popular or scientific knowledge of Australian Flora and Fauna, assisted notably in the protection or propagation of flora and fauna, discovered new species of importance, devoted much time to the study of the subject, done definite service by the publication of articles, books, photography and pictorial art, or by any other means. The FNCV is responsible for administering the award and bears the administrative expenses and the cost of the medallion itself, although two committees, the ‘general’ and the ‘award’, are responsible for the administration and selection of the medallionist, ; irs The current medallion was designed by Tony Gilevski and is presented in a box made by Cameron Miller. | Vol. 112 (5) 1995 189 Research Reports Reassessment of the Distribution, Abundance and Habitat of the Baw Baw Frog Philoria frosti Spencer: Preliminary Findings Gregory J. Hollis! Abstract Reports of amphibian declines and extinctions are now numerous throughout the world. A number of these pertain to amphibian populations restricted to mountain-top environments in relatively pristine habitats, A survey was implemented to reassess the conservation status of the Baw Baw Frog Philoria frosti based on these reports and recent anecdotal observations that suggest a population decline in the species. Numbers of calling males counted in 1993 represent a decline by several orders of magnitude when compared with surveys of calling males conducted a decade ago. The habitats and microhabitats of calling males and oviposition sites appear different to former known breeding sites, being restricted predominantly to topographically protected gullies consisting of sub-alpine wet heath and montane riparian thicket vegetation. Potential reasons for this decline are considered and future research and management actions identified. A recently completed survey in 1994 confirms this apparent decline of the Baw Baw Frog population. Introduction The Baw Baw Frog Philoria frosti Spencer (Fig. 1) is the only amphibian en- demic to Victoria (Hero et al. 1991) and is one of the most restricted amphibian species in south-eastern Australia, being distributed over an area of approximately 80 km? en- compassing the Baw Baw Plateau, Victoria (Malone 1985a) (Fig. 2). It is considered to be vulnerable in Victoria (CNR 1993a) and also regarded nationally as. a vulnerable spe- cies (ANZECC 1991). Population surveys conducted in 1983 and 1984 estimated the number of adult males to be 10,000-15,000 (Malone 1985a). Based on this estimate, the status of the Baw Baw Frog has been presumed to be probably secure (e.g. Tyler 1992), However, in recent years anecdotal observations made by her- petologists and personnel of the Victorian Department of Conservation and Natural Resources indicate that numbers of calling males are significantly lower than. that recorded by Malone (1985a) a decade ago. With increasing interest among both Austra- lian and international biologists regarding a number of recent amphibian declines (e.g. lylerand Davies 1985: Osborne 1989, 1990; Blaustein and Wake 1990; Watson er al. 1991; Mahony 1993: Richards er al. 1993) and extinctions (e.g, Barinaga 1990; Czechura and Ingram 1990; Osborne 1990; Phillips 1990), concerns were raised over the I ie Department of Conservation and Natural resources, 57 Victoria St., Warragul, Victoria, 3820. 190 current conservation status of the Baw Baw Frog. Of even greater concern, a suite of spe- cies restricted to mountain-top environments and relatively pristine habitats, like the Baw Baw Frog, are among those that have de- clined or disappeared (see Osborne 1989, 1990, 1991; La Marca and Reinthaler 1991; Crump et al. 1992; Richards et al. 1993). This paper presents the results of a survey for calling male Baw Baw Frogs conducted during spring and summer 1993. It docu- ments the first part of a three-year survey program to monitor and research the species. Abundance, distribution and habitat data are analysed and compared with surveys con- ducted a decade ago (Malone 1985a). Also presented, are the results of a systematic survey for egg masses. a ee Fig. 1. Baw Baw Frog Philoria frosti, The Morass, Baw Baw Plateau, Victoria. (Photo: Gregory J. Hollis). The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Fig. 2. Distribution of the Baw Baw Frog within five minute grids (Atlas of Victorian Wildlife), Methods Study area The Baw Baw Plateau is located 120 km east of Melbourne and is primarily sub-al- pine in climate; it receives a mean annuil rainfall of 1500-2500 mm and mean unnual temperatures range from 4-8° C, with July mean minimum temperatures of -2 - 0° C and February mean maximum temperatures of 11-13° C (Aldrick et al. 1992), From June to September snow may lie on the ground above approximately 1200 m. Geologically, the Baw Baw Plateau con- sists of granodiorite (the Baw Baw batholith) with a zone of metamorphosed sedimentary rock (hornfels) surrounding the granodiorite (Douglas and Ferguson 1976). Geomorphol- ogy of the plateau includes a wide variety of features associated with the weathering of _ the granodiorite, including broadly concave valleys, peaty flats, tors, stepped-valley heads and a distinctive rectangular drainage pattern which is controlled by the rectangu- lar pattern of joints in the granodiorite (Rosengren et al. 1981). Intermittent water courses drain the slopes of frost hollows into permanently flowing creeks within the larger valley flats, while ephemeral ponds often result from the accumulation of water in low-lying poorly drained areas. Soils on the plateau are characterised by: bog peats, restricted to the permanently wet bogs of sphagnum moss and hillside drainage lines: humified peats, found on the sloping edges of the bogs and in desiccating bogs on hill- sides; transitional alpine humus soils and acid brown earths, occurring on the plateau and its slopes and red earths, found on the lower slopes of the plateau below the zone of the acid brown earths (Sibley 1975), The Baw Baw Plateauconsists of a diverse Vol, 112 (5) 1995 assemblage of vegetation communities, in- cluding sub-alpine woodland, in which there exists two variants (shrubby and grassy sub- alpine woodland), wet sub-alpine heathland, damp sub-alpine heathland, dry sub-alpine shrubland, grassy sub-alpine shrubland, dry rocky sub-alpine grassland and montane ti- parian thicket (Moorrees and Molnar 1991; Cameron 1994), Sub-alpine woodland com- munities are predominantly restricted to ridges on the plateau while the other com- munities occur primarily in frost hollows or tocky areas (Fig. 3). Most of the Plateau is included in the Baw Baw National Park, with the exception of approximately 3.5 km? near Mt Buw Baw which is managed by the Victorian Alpine Resorts Commission. Data collection and analysis Audio strip transects (Zimmerman 1994) were used toestimate relative abundance, de- termine distribution and describe breeding habitats and microhabitats of male P. frosti, Previous surveys (Malone 1985a) used the same technique which was found to be very useful for detecting calling males during their restricted breeding season (two to three weeks in late spring; Malone 1985a). Due to the cryptic nature and complex breeding habitat of the species (small cavities within wet sub-alpine heathland), other census tech- niques were considered less suitable, particularly in a survey designed to cover a large area ina short time. The technique used involyed two search- ers walking in opposite directions around the perimeter of a frost hollow (10-50 m from the snow-gum woodland boundary) SS ee. Fig. 3. Baw Baw Frog habitat, The Morass, Baw Baw Plateau, Victoria. (Phare: Gregory J. Holliy). 191 Research Reports and recording the number of calling miles, Surveys were carried out diurnally at air temperatures above 5° C. The previous dis- Iribution of male choruses was found to be restricted primarily to the slopes of frost hol- lows rather than their basins, and high levels of calling activity occur diurnally at temperatures above 5" C (Malone 1985a), Along each transect the searchers peri- odically stopped for one to five minutes to listen for, and count calling frogs. Within any given search area, this method provided a measure of relative abundance of calling males. As many frost hollows as possible were surveyed across the plateau during the period in which frogs were calling, Com- mencement of calling activity was deter- mined by regularly visiting a number of easily accessible frost’ hollows (Creek Corner and Village Flat; Fig. 4) early in the breeding season, To monitor variation in calling activity, and determine when calling activily ceased, repeated surveys were con- ducted at one to two week intervals within sections of two frost hollows (Baragwanath Flat und Currawong Flat) throughout the breeding season, Frost hollows surveyed varied in size from 124.8 ha (Mustering Plat) to 1.2 ha (Access Road 3) and represented Approximately 60% of those containing suit- able breeding habitat on the Baw Baw Plateau, Geographic names and the distribution of frost hollows across the plateau were taken from the 1;25000 map of the Baw Baw Pla- teau (Balkau 1987) and aerial photographs (Latrobe Regional Commission Project 1988). In cases where geographic names of frost hollows were not provided by Balkau (1987), names were assigned on the basis of the nearest geographic feature such asa river or mountain (Fig, 4), _ Vegetation community types within al- pine and sub-alpine areas in Victoria have previously been based on the vegetation classification by Walsh er al. (1984), How- ever, @ more recent classification of Victorian Central Highlands vegetation communities by Moorrees and Molnar (1991), und an assessment of the vegetation proposed to be affected by ski trails at Lake ountiin (Cameron 1994), have provided detailed Vegetation community descriptions. The present study adopts these new taxo- eaycommuy, deseritons, although vonialecnh ets ege ation community as- tons on the Baw Baw Plateau is yet to 192 be fully deseribed (J. Davies pers. comm.). During surveys of calling males, prominent floristic and structural attributes of all frog localities, including microhabitats, were re- corded. A draft 1:25000 map of the Baw Baw Plateau detailing vegetation communities and Baw Baw Frog habitat classes (Roberts 1994) was used as an aid. A census of deposited egg masses at male calling sites was also conducted, This was expected to provide a relative measure of breeding activity of females within the frost hollows sampled and of the relationship be- tween numbers of calling males recorded and egg masses. Previous searches for egg masses showed they are deposited at, or within the vicinity of, calling sites (B. Malone pers, conmm.). Whilst undertaking repeated surveys of calling males at Barag- wanath Flat and Currawong Flat, accurately located calling sites were marked with flag- ging tape. A number of calling sites at Access Road 1 and Village Flat (Fig. 4) were also marked, On 16 December (after calling ac- livity had ceased on the plateau) each site wis systematically searched by two persons for}5 minutes over an approximate area ofS x | meither side of the marked site (most, calling sites were along linear drainage lines) and the number of egg masses counted. Survey comparison Surveys conducted in 1983 and 1984 (Malone 1985a) provide the only quantita- tive data on relative abundance, distribution and habitat of P. frost’ with which compari- sons can be made. Because both survey design and census techniques used in the 1993 survey followed those used by Malone (19854), it was possible to undertake com- parative analyses on three survey data sets (1983, 1984 and the present survey). The relative abundance, distribution, breeding habitat and duration of calling ac- tivity of male frogs are compared, Comparisons of calling male counts be- tween surveys are made from the same set of frost hollows. Most frost hollows sur- veyed in the present study were also surveyed by Malone (1985a) in either 1983 or 1984, or both, However, portions of some of these areas were not surveyed in this study, but were in the 1983 and 1984 surveys. After inspecting descriptions of Baw Baw Frog breeding habitats presented by Malone (1985a), these portions were considered to The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports aaI9 epeoased -yO 22/4 S,UEIASIN. -OW Ol MElaUM -OLM 6 MEIS}IYM -6M 8 ME|SIUM -BM 2 Meloy “2M EL MeElaUM-ELM 9 MEIAIIYM “OM ZL MEIA}UM -ZLM S MEIEIUM -SM, LL MeJ@YM -L LM. > MEISUM “PMA & Mela -EM uel uel di ZMeIUM -ZM —sulseg Bulppnd ad | MEISIUM -LA ule} auAiNaN -dN 1e]4 ABE -4A ye} 4 BULE}SNW -NW ZdJeAIY SIBAL -ZL yej4 euepucoy -4/ L danny suaA, -L1 ule} saysijeoey) -diW SSEIOW OYL -WL —UIE|q EGON}. 7-47 py yoel) dear © yoke) daar Z yoe1, daar L yoesy dear je|4 JEaUIMS, }e|4 Sueweal4 ues ise3 “or JBWIOD Y8D -OD -er yej4 Buomeuing -49 er yuleug 0 “1p Jeg yeuembereg -49 “JD E PRoYy sseooy -Ey -44 7 Peoy ssaooy -Zy alts, | Peoy ssa00y -LVy ON3931 SORWO|y sajew Buijed 40 Jequiny je1o], = N aus Buje peAanns eaiy Bally pales|g/doinjno yooy - puejqniyg auidje-gng Aig - yeyoIY) UEYEdIY aueyUoyy - puE|yyea} auidje-qns dweq - PUE|YJea}H auIdje-qns jan, ~ (mo}|OH JS014) Bay ssajaau) OL su 0 n@) 193 d more than once, the number Il censuses. aw Baw Frog calling sites within frost hollows on October-December 1993. For frost hollows surveye calling males (N) refers to the total number of calling males derived from a , 4, Distribution, number and locality of male B ‘ol, 112 (5) 1995 ‘the Baw Baw Plateau E ‘Fig. Research Reports be unsuitable for breeding; they were often dry and rocky with no aquatic habitat (e.g. frost hollows near Whitelaw Ruins; Fig. 4). Field constraints (e.g. logistics and adverse weather conditions) also prevented some surveys from being completed. The demarcation of some frost hollows presented by Malone (1985a) (Currawong Flat, Baragwanath Flat, Gwinear Flat and Jeep Track) was not provided, and asa result the exact location to which his calling male census statistics belong are not clear. To al- low comparison, Malone’s separate census statistics for each of these frost hollows have been amalgamated into one statistic for each frost hollow. Frost hollows with a relatively large area un-surveyed in 1993 (East Tanjil and Chair- lift frost hollows) were excluded from analysis. A number surveyed north-west of Mt Whitelaw (Whitelaw 11-13) were also excluded. To avoid the possibility of using re-counts of calling males in frost hollows which had their area surveyed more than once, only one census statistic (the largest) was used in calculations and analyses of rela- tive abundance, Some larger frost hollows that required more than one census on dif- ferent days to complete had their separate Statistics summed in order to derive a single total statistic. Pearson correlations (Systat, Inc., 1800 Sherman Ave, Evanston, Illinois, 60201- 3793) were conducted on measures of relative abundance recorded over the three Surveys Lo assess relationships between frog densities within individual frost hollows. Comparisons were also made of the altitudi- nal distribution of calling sites and the frequency of occurrence of calling males re- corded within different Vegetation com- munity types and microhabitats. A preliminary inspection of spring and summer rainfall totals over the three surveys (1983 to 1994) was undertaken to see if they provided any insight into differences ob- served between surveys. Spring (September ~- November) and summer (December - Feb- ruary) monthly rainfall totals were summed and a mean monthly total was derived for each season in each year, These records were collected from Erica (Department of Conser- vation and Natural Resources), a location close to the Baw Baw Plateau, in the ab- Sence of a weather station on the plateau. Spring and summer rainfall records were used because this is the period over which 194 the Baw Baw Frog is involved in calling ac- tivity, oviposition, egg development and larval development through to metamorpho- sis (Malone 1985a), and are considered the most vulnerable phases of the anuran life cycle (Williamson and Bull 1994), Results of 1993 Survey Calling activity, relative abundance and distribution Figure 4 shows the distribution, number and localities of calling male Baw Baw Frogs recorded in different frost hollows surveyed on the Baw Baw Plateau, Initial surveys conducted at Creek Corner and Village Flat frost hollows between 28 Oc- tober and 3 Noyember 1993 failed to detect any calling activity. An unseasonable snowfall of 50 cm which covered the Baw Baw Plateau from 3-11 November limited surveys but this may not have af- fected the census because only low levels of calling activity are exhibited by the Baw Baw Frog at temperatures below 5° C (Malone 1985a). Calling activity was first_ detected on 15 November 1993, from one frog at Access Road | and two at Village Flat, and appeared to cease on approximately 13 December when no calls were recorded from Baragwanath Flat and Currawong Flat. These two frost hollows were surveyed four times throughout the breeding season and recorded the following number of calling males respectively: (4, 0 [17 Nov]: 6, 2 [29 Nov]; 3, 0 [6 Dec]; and 0, 0 [13 Dec]). Opportunistic visits to sections of a number of frost hollows between 16-21 December, including Village Flat, Pudding Basin, Macullister Plain, Baragwanath Flat, Currawong Flat, East Tanjil, The Morass and Jeep Track 3, failed to detect any calling males. Calling activity appeared to last for approximately four weeks in 1993. Table 1 summarises the census statistics for each frost hollow suryeyed. Forty-three frost hollows were surveyed during the 1993 breeding season with calling males being re- corded in 19 of these. Including all census statistics (i.e, re-counts from frost hollows surveyed more than once), a total of 99 calling males was recorded from all frost hollows surveyed on the plateau. Numbers ranged from 0-30 in any one single sur- vey. Including only the largest census result from frost hollows surveyed more than once, the total number of calling males recorded The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports ‘ Table 1. Relative abundance of calling male Baw Baw Frogs recorded within different frost hollows on the Baw Baw Plateau during surveys conducted in 1993, 1983 and 1984. * denotes the largest census statistic obtained from frost hollows surveyed more than once in 1993, — denotes frost hollows that were not surveyed. NA denotes un-available information. Note: Currawong Flat 2 refers to a small portion of Currawong Flat surveyed in 1993, 1983 and 1984; the census statistic for 1993 and 1983 are not included in their respective totals as they already contribute to the census statistic for Currawong Flat. Approx. Approx. Area (ha) Area Sur- veyed (ha) Access Road 1 Access Road 2 Access Road 3 Chairlift Village Flat Neulyne Plain La Trobe Plain Macallister Plain Pudding Basin Moondarra Flat Baragwanath Flat Currawong Flat Currawong Flat 2 Creek Corner Tanjil Plain East Tanjil MeMillian’s Flat The Morass Jeep Track | Jeep Track 2 Jeep Track 3 Jeep Track 4 Freeman’s Flat Wombat Flat Tyers River | Tyers River 2 Mustering Flat Gwinear Flat Cascade Creek Whitelaw 1 Whitelaw 2 Whitelaw 3 Whitelaw 4 Whitelaw Ruins Whitelaw 5 Whitelaw 6 Whitelaw 7 Whitelaw 8 Whitelaw Creek Whitelaw 9 Whitelaw 10 Whitelaw 11 Whitelaw 12 Vol. 112 (5) 1995 Total 1993 | Total No. Call- No. Calling | No. Calling} No. Calling Males in 1993 woocn * % * H * On UWPNh a Ww 195 Research Reports was $6, The largest number of calling males recorded over four repeated surveys of Baragwanath Flat and Currawong Flat was six and two respectively, Calling mules were distributed over the western, northern and central regions of the Baw Baw Plateau, but were not heard on the eastern side (Vig, 4), No surveys were con- ducted in the south-east region of the plateau because of time constraints brought about by adverse weather conditions during the initial stages of the survey and by what appeared to be a short breeding season, All calling: males were located within or at the periphery of frost hollows along. intermittent water courses or seepiges. Their distribution was restricted primarily to dendritic or elonpate frost hollows (e.g. La ‘Trobe Plain), or to clongate portions of broader frost hollows (eg. The Morass; Fig. 4), Calling: males in most cases did not form agprepations, typically being recorded as solitary indi vichinails Habitat preferences Calling males were recorded within two Vegetation communities and three vepeta- lion community ecotones, These included: wet sub-alpine heathland (39 frogs; 39.49%) and montane riparian thicket (21; 21.2%), wet sub-alpine heathland — dry sub-alpine shrubland ecotone (8; 8.1%), wet sab-alpine heathland - montane riparian thicket eeotone (9; 5.0%) and wet sub-alpine heathland - sub alpine woodland ecotone (26; 26.3%), The positions of 87 males (from the total of 99) were located accurately enough to deseribe their microhabitat (Table 2), Mifly nine frogs were located in small cavities long seepage lines created by the roots of shrubs (lypically Riehea continentis, Kpacris paludosa, Baeckea utilis var. lanifolia, Orites lancifelia, Callistemon pityoides, Leptoxpermum erandifolinm and Nothofagus ciunninghamii) associated with smaller ground-cover species (Sphagmun cristata, Polyirichiun alpinunéeommune, Wittsteinia vaceiniacea, Astelia alpina and Carex paudichaudiana) and peat soil, Four- teen frogs were recorded beneath or at the base of large granite boulders (2 m2) with a soil or peat substrate only. OF the remaining frogs, Six were found heneath logs in as- sociation with peat soil, C, gaudichaudiane, W. vaceiniacea or P alpinundcommune ind seven in cavities beneath Wo vaceiniaved or Av alpina in association with peat soil 196 Table 2. Number of calling male Baw Baw Frogs (Philorta frosti) recorded in different breeding inicrohabitats and associated vegetation types during surveys conducted on the Baw Baw Pla- teau between 28 October and 13 December 1993, Key to Breeding Microhabitats: 1 - Peat cavities under roots Of shrubs; 2 - Peat cavities under logs/rocks; 3» Cavities beneath W. vacciniacea/A, alpina, Breeding Vegetation Communities/Eeotones Wet Sub-alpine Heathhind Montane Riparian Thicket Wet Sub-alpine Heathland / Montane Riparian Thicket ecotone Wet Sub-alpine Heathland /Dery Sub-alpine Shrubland ecotone Wet Sub-alpine Heathland /Sub- ‘pine Woodland ecotone or Palpinum/commune, Only one male was located beneath small moss-covered rocks (<20 cm?) and logs within a creek. Egg masses From 14 calling sites searched, only two eye masses were located, for a total search effort of seven person-hours over 70 square metres of breeding habitat, Both were located at Currawong Flat. The first of these wis found in a soil cavity (15 em depth) along a seepage line at the base of a large granite boulder (3-4 m?) in wet sub-alpine heathland/sub-alpine woodland ecotone, Plant species occurring outside this soil cav- ity inchided C. gaudichaudiana and S. crixtatum, The egg mass was fertile and contained approximately 20-30 live un- pizmented larvae at Gosner Stage 22 (Giosner 1960), The other egg mass was found in sub-alpine wet heathland along a seepage line within a cavity created by roots of the shrub R. continentiy in asso- clition with peat soil, A. alpina and §, eristatum, This egg mass appeared to have desiccated as only three partially decom- posed egg capsules were found. The few egg Masses recovered from searches may reflect minimal oviposition by female Buw Baw Frogs, However, due to the microhabitat complexity of some search sites (e.. under large granite boulders), a thorough search The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports + was not possible and could only be attained if destructive searches were undertaken, Comparison of 1983, 1984 and 1993 Survey Results Calling activity, relative abundance and distribution The calling activity period of the 1993 sur- vey (15 November - 13 December) was considerably shorter than that observed by Malone (1985a). He heard males calling as early as the third week of October and con- tinuing as late as the 24 December in 1983 and 1984 (approximately 8 weeks). Calling activity was greatest between 17-29 November 1993 which is similar to that reported by Malone who noted a peak in calling activity between 11-29 November (1983/84). Over the 1983 and 1984 surveys, Malone (1985a) recorded calling males in 73% (64 of 88) of frost hollows surveyed, com- pared to 46% (22 of 48) in 1993 (using Malone’s frost hollow units). In a subset of 35 frost hollows surveyed in both 1983 and 1993, Malone (1985a) recorded 3694 males compared with 83 in this survey. In a subset of 19 frost hollows surveyed in both 1984 and 1993, Malone (1985a) recorded &85 males compared with 19 in this survey. This survey only recorded 2.2% and 2.1% of the number of calling males recorded by Malone in 1983 and 1984 respectively, whereas, in frost hollows surveyed twice in consecutive breeding seasons by Malone, in 1984 he recorded 97% of the number counted in 1983. Together with the 1993 sur- @ Summer Spring Lillailtl 2/4 BA/BS BS/RE 86/87 87/48 BA/BS 89/90 90/91 91/92 92/03 83/94 E 5 z = é —_ EE = 5 — c H Hy = Year Fig. 5. Mean monthly spring and summer rainfall at Erica (DCNR), Victoria from 1983- 1994. Vol. 112 (5) 1995 vey results, Table 1] shows the number of call- ing males recorded in each frost hollow in the 1983 and 1984 surveys. Measures of rela- tive abundance (i.e. frog counts) within the same frost hollows for each survey were highly correlated (1983/84: 1? = 0.87, n= 16, P<0.001; 1983/93: 1 = 0.75, n = 35, P<0,001; 1984/93: r = 0.71, n = 19, P<0.005), indicating that the differences in frog densities between frost hollows were proportionally the same across all surveys. The distribution of calling males recorded in 1993 was similar to that observed by Malone in 1984 when males were restricted primarily to the central, western and north- western regions of the Baw Baw Plateau (Fig. 4). By contrast, during the 1983 survey Malone recorded calling males in the eastern region of the plateau. No surveys were con- ducted in the south-eastern region of the plateau in 1993 to compare with Malone’s, although he found the Baw Baw Frog to be conspicuously absent from unforested areas in the south-east in both 1983 and 1984. Comparison of altitudes from 1993, 1983 and 1984 calling sites showed that, in the same 15 frost hollows, there was ne signifi- cant difference in the distribution of calling sites (1983: mean + SE = 1442.9 + 6.1 m, n = 123, range = 370 m; 1984: 1441.7 + 8.3 m, n = 86, range = 370 m; 1993; 1435.0 + 18.5 m,n = 17, range = 270 m). In 1993, the range (lowest to highest altitude) of call- ing sites was less, and the mean altitude lower, than in the 1983 and 1984 surveys. A greater proportion of calling sites (31.4%) in 1993 were located at lower altitude (1150- 1350 m) when compared with the 1983 and 1984 surveys, where fewer sites (20.6%) occurred. Habitat use and breeding microhabitats _ Malone (1985a), by using vegetation units described by Walsh er al. (1984), recorded breeding males (calling and_non-calling males) in the following four habitat classes in ]983 and 1984 surveys: wet alpine heath - 1148 frogs (22.5%); wet alpine heath/bog ecotone - 3834 frogs (75.0%); bog - 82 frogs (1.6%); grassland (modified areas in the Baw Baw Alpine Resort) - 45 frogs (0.9%). He also recorded 102 frogs (24%) (calling males only) in habitats witha sparse under storey of N. cunninghamii and L. grandifolium but presented this as a separate statistic. To allow comparison with this sur- vey, a number of the habitat classes adopted 197 Research Reports by Malone (1985a) had to be correlated with the vegetation classification adopted in this study; wet alpine heath, wet alpine heath/bog ecotone and bogs fit into the vegetation com- munity ‘wet sub-alpine heathland’ while habitats with a sparse understorey of N. cunninghamii and L. grandifolium fall into the vegetation community ‘montane riparian thicket’. In 1993, 39.4% were recorded in wet sub- alpine heathland compared with 99.1% found by Malone (1985a). In ecotonal habitats, 39.4% were recorded at the pe- riphery of wet sub-alpine heathland adjacent to either sub-alpine woodland, montane riparian thicket or dry sub-alpine shrubland, Malone did not record aggrega- lions of calling males in these habitats (B. Malone pers. comm.). In montane riparian thicket and bog habitat 21.2% and 1.0% were recorded respectively, compared with 2.4% and 1.6% by Malone. Frogs recorded in bogs are also included in the ‘wet sub-alpine heathland’ percentages above. In the present survey no frogs were recorded within modi- fied areas in the Baw Baw Alpine Resort compared with 0.9% found by Malone (198Sa). The microhabitats in which many calling males were recorded in 1993 appear dif- ferent from microhabitats in which Malone (1985a) reported oviposition sites in 1983 and 1984, He recorded egg masses in natural cavities in vegetation (including Sphagnum spp., A. alpina, Empodisma minus, E, paludosa, R. continentis and Carex spp.) which acted as catchments for water travelling down slope, and under building materials, rocks and logs which occurred mostly in modified areas within the Mt Baw Baw Alpine Resort. In 1993, calling males and egg masses were also located in natural cavities which retained water, but none of these were located in modified micro- habitats within the Mt Baw Baw Alpine Resort, and not all cavities were in vegeta- tion. For example, 14 males were located in soil or peat crevices beneath large granite boulders. Those recorded in cavities cre- ated by vegetation were associated with most of the species reported by Malone (1985a), with the exceptions being attribut- able to proportionally greater number of males being located in association with Species that occur in montane ripanan thicket (N. cunninghamii, L. grandifolium and W, vacciniacea), 198 Rainfall Figure 5 shows mean monthly spring and summer rainfall totals spanning the 1983, 1984 and 1993 surveys. The mean (+ SE) monthly spring and summer rainfall total over all years examined was 117,2 + 7,2 and 82.2 + 8.1 mm respectively. Rainfall re- ceived during both 1983 and 1984 surveys was below the average for the decade, while rainfall received during the 1983 survey was greater than that received in 1984. In spring and summer of 1993, rainfall was consider- ably higher than in both surveys conducted by Malone (1985a), and the average for the decade. In several years preceding 1993 (1987/88 to 1991/92), spring and summer rainfall was relatively low, particularly summer rainfall, which was below the aver- age for all of these years. ‘Note in press’ Baw Baw Frog surveys conducted re- cently in November and December 1994 confirm the decline in calling males recorded in 1993. The number of calling males re- corded in 1994 was 15% lower than that recorded in the 1993 survey and approxi- mately 2% of numbers recorded a decade ago. As in the 1993 survey, the distribution of calling males was restricted to the western, northern and central regions of the Baw Baw Plateau. Many of the localities at which calling males were recorded in 1994 were identical to those recorded in 1993, with preferred breeding habitats restricted to topo-graphically protected gullies with wet sub-alpine heath and montane ripar- ian thicket vegetation. Discussion Survey results The relative abundance of calling male Baw Baw Frogs across all frost hollows sur- veyed in 1993 was approximately 2% of the numbers recorded by Malone (1985a) a dee- ade ago, indicating a size reduction in the male frog population by several orders of magnitude. Malone concluded that actual numbers of males were probably two to three times the number heard because of the presence of silent males in the vicinity of calling males and the frequent occurrence of more than one male at a calling site. From these observations he estimated that the adult male Baw Baw Frog population was 10,000 - 15,000. Using the same proce- dure, the adult male population would be in The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports the vicinity of 200 - 300 individuals in 1993. Data on abundance of the Baw Baw Frog prior to 1983 are only qualitative (Auas of Victerian Wildlife, Dept of Conservation and Natural Resources, Heidelberg) or anec- dotal. Frogs appear to have been relatively easy to locate during the 1950's, 1960's and 1970’s_ (M. Littlejohn unpubl. data, J. Coventry pers. comun.), but from 1989 to 1992 only low numbers of calling males have been detected (W. Osborne, J. Morey, P. Johnson pers. comm.) when compared with numbers recorded in 1983 and 1984. The re- sults from the present survey are in accordance with these later observations, Calling males tended to be confined to topo-graphically protected sites within shaded and moist gullies. These appear re- fugial when compared with former known breeding habitats where frogs were distrib- uted over a wider area in wet sub-alpine heathland (see Malone 1985a). The lower mean altitude and range over which calling sites were recorded in 1993 can be attributed to the proportionally higher number of males recorded in montane ri- parian thicket and ecotonal habitats at the periphery of wet sub-alpine heathland. Montane riparian thicket typically occurs at lower altitudes than wet sub-alpine heath- land, often arising at the drainage outlets of sub-alpine heathlands, and descending to in- tergrade with cool temperate rainforest or thickets at lower altitude (Moorrees and Molnar 1991). Possible reasons for an apparent decline Two possible scenarios may explain these results: 1) The first possibility is that the Baw Baw Frog population has declined and the spe- cies could be threatened with extinction. In the light of many recent reports of rapid population declines and possible extinctions in amphibians, concern for the stability and conservation status of the Baw Baw Frog population is justified, Although some amphibian declines have been attributed to anthropogenic disturbances such as habitat destruction and chemical pollution (Blaus- tein and Wake 1990; Vitt eral. 1990; Wyman 1990: Gillespie and Hollis inpress), other declines are not readily explained. In these cases other hypotheses have been suggested, including acid precipitation, 1n- creased ultraviolet radiation, introduced exotic species, pathogens and climate change (Blaustein and Wake 1990; Blaustein Vol. 112 (5) 1995 et al. 1994: Osborne 1990; Phillips 1990; Pechmann ef al. 199}: Trenerry ef al. 1994. Wyman 1990), Obvious anthropogenic disturbances on the Baw Baw Plateau appear limited when compared with amphibian habitats in other places. Modification of frog habitat through the construction of trails and areas for skiing and bushwalking is the main disturbance, However, this appears to be an unlikely ex- planation for the low number of males recorded because the decline across the pla- teau is relatively uniform and the modified habitats are relatively localised, although levels of embryonic and larval mortality of the Baw Baw Frog have previously been shown to be higher in these modified habitats because of increased desiccation, resulting in reduced recruitment (Malone 1985b). If the species has declined in these modified areas, it is not possible at this stage to distinguish between this decline and what appears to be a decline across the entire plateau, To a lesser extent, trampling and browsing by introduced species such as cattle and deer have also impacted ad- versely on habitat (G. Hollis pers. obs.). Less obvious disturbances such as the ef- fects of introduced predators (foxes, dogs and cats perhaps with pathogens) and pollu- tion from local industrial activity in the form of atmospheric deposition could also affect the Baw Baw Frog in an adverse way. 2) The results may also reflect normal popu- lation fluctuations in response to environmental variation (see reviews by Blaustein 1994; Pechmann and Wilbur 1994). The reduced breeding activity ob- served in this survey may haye occurred as a result of poor breeding conditions. Alter- natively, the low number of calling males may be indicative of an actual male popula- tion size, but is typical of normal population fluctuations. Some amphibian studies have shown that variations in climatic factors such as temperature and rainfall are unrelated to observed declines (e.g. Richards er al. 1993) while others have linked such events to drought or low precipitation (Osborne 1990; Pechmann ef al, 1991; Crump ef al. 1992), severe frosts (Heyer et al. 1988), or the synergistic effects of climatic and other environmental variables (Pounds and Crump 1994). lin Low spring and summer rainfall from the years 1987/88 to 1991/92 (Fig. 5) could be responsible for the small number of calling males recorded in 1993. Recruitment of 199 Research Reports frogs over this period may have been low due to increased desiccation of embryos and larvae resulting from low summer rainfall, and these frogs could now be the 1993 adult cohort, It cannot be determined whether the higher spring rainfall received in this survey was responsible for the re- duced calling activity recorded. when compared with the 1983 and 1984 surveys when lower spring rainfall was received and greater calling activity was recorded. The lower spring rainfall received during the 1984 survey, when compared to 1983, could also explain why Malone (1985a) observed a contraction in range of breeding by the Baw Baw Frog from the eastern side of the plateau, while frost hollows on the western side recorded similar numbers of calling males in both 1983 and 1984. The eastern side of the Baw Baw Plateau is primarily dner and rockier than the central and western sides (Roberts 1994) and may become un- suitable for breeding in dry periods. However, in this survey a contraction in breeding range from the eastem side of the plateau, similar to that recorded in 1984, was observed during a period of high spring rainfall. A more detailed in- spection of longer-term climatic data over several decades is required before any fur- ther conclusions can be made, particularly considering the absence in knowledge of the longevity of the Baw Baw Frog and the impact that rainfall and other cli- matic factors has on its breeding biology. Although the fundamental characteristics of the ecology and biology of the Baw Baw Frog have been discussed and documented (Martin 1967; Watson and Martin 1973; Lit- tejohn 1963; Malone 1985a: Malone 1985b), little is known about the demogra- phy and population dynamics of this species. According to Blaustein eral. (1994), without long-term data detailing demography and dynamics of amphibian populations itis very difficult, if not impossible, to unambigu- ously state whether or not they are suffering unusual declines, Therefore, interpreting the results of this survey as indicating a popula tion change outside the bounds of ‘normal’ fluctuations could be considered premature, although the 1994 survey results obtained recently also confirms this apparent decline, Long-term monitoring and research into the population dynamics and demography of the Baw Baw Frog is required to assess population stability and determine whether Or not it is suffering an unusual decline. 200 Monitoring of the population will be under- taken in the 1994 and 1995 breeding seasons by the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Planned research in- cludes: (1) age determination (using skeletal chronology) to assess longevity; (2) mark- recapture studies and radio tracking, to provide information on population size, dis- persal and utilisation of other habitats; and (3) an assessment of the impact of cli- mate on breeding activity. Guidelines outlining current conservation and manage- ment objectives for the Baw Baw Frog are contained in CNR (1993b). Acknowledgments This study was funded by the Australian Nature Con- servation Agency and the Victorian Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (CNR), Flora and Fauna Branch. Special thanks must go to Brian Malone (Latrobe University) who helped coordinate the study and assisted with some of the field work and to David Stewart (Ballarat College of Advanced Educa- tion) who assisted with all of the field work. John Davies (CNR, Warragul) and David Cameron (CNR, Heidelberg) assisted with plant identifications and vegeta- tion community classifications. Graeme Gillespie (CNR, Heidelberg), Peter Johnson (CNR, Bendigo). Will Os- borne (University of Canberra), Peter Robertson (CNR, Heidelberg) and Graeme Watson (University of Mel- bourne) provided additional guidance in planning and designing the survey. Murray Littlejohn (University of Melbourne) and John Coventry (Museum of Victoria) provided additional information on amphibian col- lection trips to the Baw Baw Plateau. Graeme Gillespie, John Davies, Peter Robertson, Will Osbome, Max James and Brian Ward provided comment on the manuscript. Steve Tullock (CNR, Gippsland) kindly as- sisted with drafting of the Baw Baw Plateau map. Thanks must ulso go to student volunteers from La Trobe Univer- sity (Zoology Department) who assisted with some of the field work. CNR (Gippsland Area) provided vehicles and logistic support. The Alpine Resorts Commission kindly assisted with accommodation facilities during the field work References Aldrick, J.M., Hook, R.A., van de Graalf, R.H\M., Nicholson, B.M.. O'Beime, D.A. and Schoknecht, N.R. (1992), * A Study of the Land in the Catchment of the Gippsland Lakes’. Volume 2, Ed. M_S. Lorimer. (Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Victoria: Australia). ANZECC (1991), Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council, List of Endangered Vertebrate Fauna. (ANPWS: Canberra), Balkau, F (1987). 125,000 Map of the Baw Baw Plateau. (Snowgum Press: Victoria). Barinaga, PH. (1990). Where have all the froggies gone”? Science 247, 1033-1034. Blaustein, A.R. (1994). Chicken little or Nero’s fiddle? A perspective on declining amphibian populations. Herpetologiva 50, 85-97. Blaustein, A.R. and Wake, D.B, (1990), Declinin amphibian populations: a global phenomenon? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 5, 203-204. Blaustein, A-R,, Wake, D.B. and Sousa, W.P. 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(1991). *Sites of Botanical Significance in the Land Conservation Council Melbourne District Il Study Area’. (Department of Conservation and Enyironment Victoria, unpublished d report). : : “-“: ns . + Martin, A.A. (1967). Australian amphibian life histories: some evolutionary and ecological aspects. Jn ‘Australian Inland Waters and Their Fauna’. Ed. A,H. _ Weatherly. (Australian National University: Canberra). Osbome, W.S. (1989). Distribution, relative abundance and conservation status of corroboree frogs Pseudophryne — corroboree Moore —(Anura. -Myobatrachidae). Australian Wildlife Research 16, 537-547. ‘ Osborne, W.S. (1990). Declining frog populations and _ extinctions in the Canberra region. Bogong 11, 4-7. vol. 112 (5) 1995 Osborne, W.S. (1991). The biology and management of the corroboree frog (Pseudophryne corroboree), Species Management Report No, 8. 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(Earth Resource Analysis, unpublished). Rosengren, N.J., McRae-Williams, M.S. and Kraemers, S.M. (1981). Sites of Geological and Geomorphological Significance in Central Gippsland. Ministry for Conservation, Victoria, Environmental Studies Series No. 341. Sibley, G,T. (1975). ‘A Study of the Land in the Tyers River Catchment’. (Soil Conservation Authority: Victoria). Trenerry, M.P., Laurance, W.R. and McDonald, K.R. (1994). Further evidence for the precipitous decline of endemic rainforest frogs in tropical Australia. Pacific Conservation Biology 1, 150-153. Tyler, M.J. (1992). ‘Encyclopedia of Australian Animals: Frogs’. (Angus and Robertson: Sydney). Tyler, M.J, and Davies, M. (1985). The gastric brooding frog Rheobatrachus silus, In ‘Biology of Australasian Frogs and Reptiles’. Eds. G. Grigg, R. Shine and H. Ehmann. (Surrey Beatty and Sons: Sydney). Vitt, L.J., Caldwell, .P., Wilbur, H.M. and Smith, D.C. (1990). Amphibians as harbingers of decay. BioScience 40, 418. Walsh, N.G., Barley, R.H. and Gullan, P.K. (1984). The alpine vegetation of Victoria (excluding the Bogong High Plains region), Volume 1[, Ministry for Conservation, Victoria, Environmental Studies Series No. 376. Watson, G.F, and Martin, A.A. (1973). Life history, laryal morphology and relationships of Australian leptodacty lid frogs. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 97, 33-45. Watson, G.F., Littlejohn, M.J., Hero, J-M. and Robertson, P. (1991). Conservation status, ecology and management of the Spotted Tree Frog (Liforia spenceri). Arthur Rylah Institute Technical Report No. 116. (Arthur Rylah Institute, Department of Conservation and Environment: Victoria). ; Williamson, [. and Bull, C.M. (1994), Population ecology of the Australian frog Crinia signifera: Egg-laying patterns and mortality. Wildlife Research 21, 621-632. Wyman, R.L. (1990). What's happening to the am- phibians? Conservation Biology 4, 350-355. Zimmerman, B.L. (1994). Audio strip transects. In *Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity: Standard Methods for Amphibians’. Eds. W.R. Heyer, M.A. Donnelly, R.W. McDiarmid, L.C. Hayek and M.S. Foster. (Smithsonian Institute Press: Washington and London). 201 Research Reports Biosystematics of Australian Mygalomorph Spiders: Two New Species of Arbanitis from Victoria (Mygalomorphae: Idiopidae) Barbara York Main! Abstract The genus Arbanitis is newly recorded in Victoria from Bairnsdale, Mt Buffalo and Glenaladale National Park and two new species are described. The occurrence of the genus in Victoria indicates a continuous distribution, albeit restricted to suitable habitats, from North Queensland to Tasmania. Introduction This paper is the eleventh in which I deal with the systematics of Australian Ctenizi- dae and Idiopidae as defined by Raven (1985)(see Main 1983, 1985 a, b for bibli- ography of earlier papers and Main, 1993, for re-establishment of two genera). Arbanitis Koch is one of the most wide- spread genera of trapdoor spiders in Australia (Main 1985a). Raven (1985) trans- ferred Arbanitiy from the Ctenizidae to his newly erected family Idiopidae. Arbanitis as currently defined (Main 1985b) has been recorded from Tasmania, north-eastern New South Wales, south-eastern and mid Queensland, south-western Western Austra- lia and one species from the Lofty Ranges in South Australia (Davies 1976; Gray 1976; Hickman 1967; Koch 1873, 1874; Main 1964, 1981, 1985b; Rainbow and Pulleine, 1918), However, from per- sonal collecting and examination of museum collections it is apparent that the genus is much more widely distributed in eastern Australia, from Cape York to Tasmania, than is indicated either in biological survey re- ports or from descriptions of nominal species. Similarly in Western Australia, al- though only species from the south-west have been described, personal observations and collecting as well as the specimens in the Western Australian Museum collections, show that Arbanitis extends well into the semi-arid region. These widely scattered records then raise doubts about the authenticity of the locality of the South Australian species A. zorodes (Rainbow and Pulleine) because no speut- mens additional to that of the type (Rainbow and Pulleine 1918) have been re- corded from South Australia, Main’s reference to the occurrence of Arbanitis in ‘Department of r iversi este rein None oe estehe 202 Central Australia (Main 1981) was in error as the species on which this statement was based was later transferred to Blakistonia (Main 1985a, b), This paper records, for the first time, the occurrence of Arbanitis in Victoria, and des- cribes two new species. The type specimens are housed in the collection of the Museum of Victoria. Ihave also collected immature specimens from Glenaladale National Park. Methods The format for species descriptions fol- lows that of earlier papers (see Main 1985b). Measurements are in millimetres throughout descriptions. Abbreviations. In reference to eyes: ALE, AME, PLE and PME, anterior lateral and an- terior median, posterior lateral and posterior median respectively. In reference to position of scopula, trichobothria and tooth rows of tarsal claws: P, prolateral; R, retrolateral; p. prolateral; r, retrolateral; v, ventral; d, dorsal; Py, pro-ventral; rv, retro-ventral; pd, pro-dor- sal. MV, Museum of Victoria; BY M, Barbara York Main collection housed in the Zoology Department, University of Western Austra- lia, Systematics Arbanitis victoriensis sp, nov. (Figs. 1 - 10 and Table 1) HOLOTYPE: Female, Buffalo River Dam, 8 September 1965 (MV K-3001). Colour (in alcohol) tan brown, chelicerae reddish, abdomen dark brown, dorsally with conspicuous, but pale, broken bands. Cara- pace glabrous; length 8.5, width 7.5. Deep cervical ‘pits’, Fovea deeply procurved, slightly ‘efoveate’ i.e. with backwardly di- rected swelling over the depression. Caput with high hump between eyes and fovea but with a depression immediately behind eyes; The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Table 1. Leg measurements of Arbanitis victoriensis s nei sis sp. n. female holotype. [The leg formula is fereth of leg divided by length of carapace (from anterior mid-margin to posterior ba ree tibial index is the width of patella x 100, divided by length of patella plus tibia (Petrunkevitch 1942)] Leg formula: F 45 44 Chel 5.0 4.2 Width of patella I at knee Width of patella IV at knee = 1.6, Tibial index = 22.2. clypeus short. A line of a few short, fine hairs between eyes and fovea; a group of about eight pre-ocular bristles; a clump of at least 10 bristles between posterioreyes. Eye group compact, anterior width 1.7 mm, posterior width 1.9 mm, length 0.9 mm; anterior row almost straight. Diameters of eyes: ALE 0.4 mm, AME 0,15, PLE 0.3, PME 0.15. Chelicerae with longitudinal band of stout bristles; rastellum of long pointed teeth on apical angle, no process. Teeth of groove (left) p 7, r9, 4 proximal intermediate; (right) p 7 (plus 2 tiny regen erated teeth on site of second distal tooth) r 8, intermediate 7; pro- lateral ventral keel on fang. Sternum with scattered short and long bristles, length 4.7, width 4.5. Posterior sigilla large, oval, about 0.8 from margin and about 1.8 apart. Labium length 1.0, with 2 anterior pointed cuspules. Maxillae with about 22 cuspules on inner anterior angle, some reduced bristles but no spinules. Legs. Scopula, palp tarsus P complete, R incomplete; I, tarsus P, R dense, metatarsus P dense, R apical only. II, tarsus and meta- tarsus dense P only. Trichobothria. Palp tarsus about 12, tibia 6 or 7 in p and r rows. I, tarsus about 12, metatarsus about 8 in irregular row, tibia 6 in pand rrows. II, tarsus 14, metatarsus 10, tibia p 6, r 5. III, tarsus about 12, metatarsus about 8, tibia p 6,15. IV, tarsus about 10, metatarsus 7, tibia p 6, r 6. Tarsal claws teeth, (right), palp with 2 teeth, Paired claws on legs: I, P 3, R 2 (?). I, (left - right broken) P 2, R 2. II, P IL,RLIV, Vol. 112 (5) 1995 2.0 1.9 23 3.5 = 1.3. Tibial index = 21.6. P 2, R 2 (2). Spines. Prolateral/ventral edge of femurs of palp and I (and less so on I) with dense line of long, strong bristles. Palp, tarsus pv 4, rv 6, tibia pv 9 (some broken), rv 8. I, tarsus v 4, metatarsus pv 3, rv 7, tibia pv 5, rv 4. Il, tarsus v 3, metatarsus pv 3,1V 3, tibia pv 1, rv 1 + 2 tapering bristles. Ill, tarsus v 4, metatarsus v 3 apical, d 2 apical, pd 2, patella pd 3 in a line. IV, tarsus v 8, metatarsus 4. Abdomen. Sparsely hairy and with few median dorsal bristles. Internal genitalia, pair of vesicles each with a broad based long stem, narrowing below globose crown; ‘tu- bercles’ covering whole of crown and stem (Fig. 10). Diagnosis Labium with cuspules; abdomen with sparse hairs and dorsal bars. Legs slightly stouter and less spinose than A. bairnsdale, paired tarsal claws with one to three teeth. Internal genitalia with globose vesicles and broadly based, flanged stems. Arbanitis bairnsdale sp. nov. (Figs. 11 - 17 and Table 2) HOLOTYPE: Female, Bairnsdale, 13 May 1964 (MV K-3002), Colour tan brown, abdomen dark brown with faint, narrow broken tansverse bands; chelicerae and sternal area reddish brown. Carapace glabrous, caput arched, depressed behind eyes, humped in front of fovea. 203 Research Reports Figs 1-10. Arbanitis victoriensis sp. n., female, holotype; 1, dorsal view; 2, abdomen, dorsal; 3, abdomen, ventral; 4, eyes; 5, sternal area; 6, left chelicera, teeth on groove margins; 7, rastellum, right chelicera; 8,9, femurs of legs I, II, ventral; 10, internal genitalia, dorsal view. Scale: 1-3, 5, 8,9=1.0mm; 4, 10=0.5 mm; 6, 7, not to scale, 204 The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports } Figs 11-17. Arbanitis bairnsdale spn. female holotype; 11, carapace; 12, abdomen, 13, maxillae and ~ sternum; 14, 15, right and left chelicerae, groove teeth; 16, prolateral view left leg III, patella, tibia, _ metatarsus and tarsus; 17, internal genitalia. Scale: 11 - 13, 15, 16=1.0 mm; 17,0.5 mm, 14, not to scale. a . | Vol. 112 (5) 1995 205 Research Reports Table 2. Lez measurements of Arbanitis bairnsdale sp. n. female holotype. [Method as in Table 1]. Leg formula: E P I 4.5 a II 3.8 PME, Il 3.7 2.9 IV 4.5 3.4 Palp 3.9 Pag. Total 1, 13.9 1. 12.5 ? l. 13.3 ? he 17.3 2.6 11.5 Width of patella Lat knee = 1.2, Tibial index = 20.03. Width of patella IV at knee = 1.4. Tibial index = 19.4. Fovea procurved (not projecting). Carapace length 7.2, width 6.7, Eyes, anterior width 1.5, posterior width 1.5, length 0.7. Clypeus a low mound, with slight anterior peak. Di- ameters of eyes; ALE 0.4, AME 0.2, PLE 0.2, stout tecth, decreasing in size dorsally. Tecth on cheliceral fang groove: (Right/Left) 7P, 6 + 3R, 6M / 7P, OR, 4M; on right chelicera median row in long line, on left chelicera form a stout basal group (Figs, 14, 15). Sternum length 4.0, width 4.0; posterior sigilla large, oval. Labium length 1.0, no cus- pules or spinules, Maxillae, 45 to 50 cuspules on inner anterior angle. Legs, Scopula: very sparse on palp tarsus, prolateral face only; I, thin on prolateral face farsus and metatarsus, a few hairs only on retrolateral face; 1, thin scopula on prolateral face of tarsus, a few apical hairs on pro- lateral face of metatarsus. Trichobothria. Palp, tarsus with about 11 including some rod-like and slightly clavate, tibia PidhG, Wy tarsus with 13 or 14 (non clavate), metatarsus 14 in irregular row. Tarsal claws, Palp, claw with two teeth, Paired claws of legs all with a single large tooth, fourth retro-claw with additional small tooth. Spines. Palp, tarsus p7, 67, tibia p 7,6, patella pv 2 apical. I, tarsus, V 7 in group, metatarsus pv 5, rv 6, tibia py 6, rv 4. II, tarsus v 5, metatarsus pv 5, rv 5, tibia pv 4, rv 5. TI, tarsus v 3, meta- lasrsus pv 2, rv 1 apical, d 2 apical, p 2, tibia PY | apical, p 2, patella P 4 short spines ina line (lett 3 only). IV, tarsus v 11, metatarsus PY 2, rv 3, tibia pv 1 apical, 206 PME 0,15. Chelicerae. Rastellum of Abdomen dorsally long bristles and hairs, very dark, with pale speckles and posteriorly with pale, barely perceptible narrow bar-like marks. Internal genitalia, paired vesicles cach with narrow base, spherical crowns; whole of stem and crown covered with tu- bercles (Fig. 17 ). Diagnosis Labium without cuspules, abdomen hir- sute, dorsally dark, pattern indistinct. Paired tarsal claws all with a single large tooth (ex- cept retroclaw IV). Legs slightly more slender and more spinose than A. victorien- sis. Internal genitalia, vesicles with spherical crowns and straight sided stems. Other records of Arbanitis from Victoria The genus is also known from Glenaladale National Park. I collected an immature fe- male (? ) with a carapace length of 5.2 mm (BYM 1972/32) from a burrow with a thin soil door on 13 November 1972, Note Additional specimens of further new spe- cies of Arbanitis from Victoria have recently been aquired by the Museum of Victoria, De- scriptions of these species are in preparation (B. York Main). Acknowledgments Ithank Dr K. Walkerof the Museum of Victoria forloan of specimens, The National Parks and Wildlife Service of Victoria is thanked for permission to collect spiders in National Parks, The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports References Davies, V. (1976). Spiders. Jn ‘Fauna of Eastern Austraiian rainforests: Preliminary report on patches surveyed by the Queensland Museum in mid-eastern and north eastern Queensland’, (Queensland Museum: Brisbane). Gray, M. R. (1976). Spiders, /n ‘A faunal survey of east Australian rainforests, Interim report’, (Australian Museum: Sydney). Hickman, V. V. (1967). ‘Some Common Spiders trom Tasmania’. (Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery: Hobart). Koch, L. (1973). ‘Die Arachniden Australiens’. (Bauer and Raspe: Nurnberg). Koch, L. (1874). ‘Die Arachniden Australiens’, (Bauer and Raspe: Nurnberg). Main, B. Y. (1964). ‘Spiders of Australia’. (Jacaranda, Brisbane). Main, B. Y. (1981). Eco-evolutionary radiation of mygalomorph spiders in Australia. Jn ‘Ecological Biogeography of Australia Vol. 2. Ed. A. Keast. (Junk: The Hague). Main, B. Y. (1983). Systematics of the trapdoor spider genus Homogona Rainbow (Mygalomorphae: Ctenizidae: Homogoninae). Journal of the Australian Entomological Society 22, 81-92. Main, B. Y. (1985a). Mygalomorphae. In ‘Zoological Catalogue of Australia” vol. 3. Ed, D.W. Walton. (Australian Government Publishing — Service: Canberra). J Main, B.Y. (1985b). Further studies on the systematics of ctenizid trapdoor spiders: a review of the Australian rami eran Mygalomorphae: Ctenizidae). ustralian Journal of Zoology, Su entary Series ie de oh of 1 ppementary Series Main, B. Y. (1993). From flood avoidance to foraging: adaptive shifts in trapdoor spider behaviour. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 33, 599 - 606. Petrunkevitch, A. (1942), A study of amber spiders, Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 34,119 - 464. ‘ Rainbow, W. J. and Pulleine, R. H. (1918). Australian : by spiders. Records of the Australian Museum 12, Raven, R, J. (1985). The spider infraorder Mygalomorphae (Araneae): Cladistics and systematics. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 182 (1), 1-180. ; The Wonders of the Weather by Bob Crowder Publisher: Australian Government Publishing Service for the Bureau of Meteorology RRP $39.95 from Commonwealth Government Bookshops or Freecall to A.G.P.S. 008 020 049 or A.G.P.S. Mail Order Sales, GPO Box 84, Canberra, ACT 2601 In the Preface to this outstanding book, the author states that meteorology is not only about weather but must embrace the study of the total environment - the land and ocean as well as the atmosphere. He set out to explain the complex, interacting processes which govern weather and climate in a manner easily understood, interesting and appealing to a wide range of readers - amateur and pro- fessional meteorologists, groups whose lives are intimately linked with the weather (avia- tors, mariners, farmers etc.) and especially students. Mr Crowder has succeeded admirably. This 264-page book is divided into eleven Chapters ranging from ‘The Sun, the Earth and the Seasons’ to ‘Myths, Facts and Fallacies’ and deals with such topics as radia- tion, greenhouse effect, wind systems, weather maps, clouds, precipitation, cyclones, thunderstorms etc, and, of course, weather forecasting. All the complex fac- Vol. 112 (5) 1995 tors are discussed in an easy-to-read, infor- mative and mystery-unravelling style but without ignoring the existing uncertainties and short- comings. In addition, the text is copiously illus- trated with magnificent photographs, well conceived and presented drawings, charts and graphs, and the odd cartoon, consistent with the overall somewhat informal - well! not too technical anyway - style. The book will certainly satisfy the target readership and be a boon to those who, like the reviewer, have never really come to grips with deciphering the weather map! It will also convince the sceptics that, with the aid of the sophisticated technology now available and covered in the book, ‘today’s four-day weather forecasts are as accurate as 24-hour forecasts were only ten years ago’. Arthur Farnworth The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria 207 Contributions Bats in Remnant Vegetation along the Barwon River, south-west Victoria: A Survey by Electronic Bat-detector L.E. Conole! and G.A. Baverstock! Introduction The Barwon River rises on the northern slopes of the Otway Ranges and then flows across coastal and volcanic plains, around the base of the Barrabool Hills, through the large provincial city of Geelong, and into the Lake Connewarre estuarine system before emptying into Bass Strait at Barwon Heads on the Bellarine Peninsula. In the headwaters, the East and West Barwon River branches begin in, mostly intact, indigenous, wet sclerophyll forest and cool temperate rainforest. As the river leaves the Otways’ northern slopes, the remainder of the river’s course flows through cleared rural, rural residential and urban environments. A narrow riparian strip of River Red Gums Eucalyptus camaldulensis, only one or two trees wide, is the sole surviving indigenous vegetation for much of the length of the river across the plains, until it reaches the marshland and White Mangroves Avicennia marina of the estuarine system, Other tree species in the riparian strip include Manna Gum E£. viminalis, Late Black Wattle Acacia mearnsii, Silver Wattle A. dealbata and Blackwood A. melanoxylon; major shrubs include River Bottlebrush Callistemon sie- beri, Blackthorn Bursaria spinosa, Hemp-bush Gynatrix pulchella, Tree Ever- lasting Ozothamnus ferrugineus, Tangled Lignum Muehlenbeckia florulenta and the exotic Boxthorn Lycium ferocissimum, The broad objective is to compile an in- ventory of microchiropteran bats (micro- buts) of the Geelong-Otway area. However, we have been largely prevented from survey- ing bats by normal direct methods e.g. trapping and netting along major water- courses such as the Barwon, Moorabool and Leigh Rivers. This has been due to the diffi- culty of access, ill defined bat flyways and the serious risk of vandalism to the highly visible equipment as well as other interfer- : 2/45 Virginia Street, Newtown, Victoria 3220. 1350 Noyes Road, Lethbridge, Victoria 3220, 208 ence by members of the public, all of which have been disincentives. We considered hand held, electronic bat-detectors as a pos- sible solution to some of these survey impediments and in late winter/early spring (August and September) of 1994, we con- ducted a brief, unstructured pilot project using bat-detectors to survey microbats at ar- bitrarily selected points along the Barwon River between Geelong near the estuary and Winchelsea on the plains. There are no existing written records of bats occurring in the riparian vegetation of the Barwon River near Geelong, but based on trapping in other remnant vegetation on the plains nearby, we expected to record White-striped Freetail-bat Tudarida aus- tralis, Little Forest Bat Vespadelus vulturnus, Southern Forest Bat V. regulus, Large Forest Bat V. darlingtoni, Gould's Wattled Bat Chalinolobus gouldii, Choco- late Wattled Bat C. morio and Lesser Long-eared Bat Nyctophilus geoffroyi (Baverstock and Conole 1991; Conole and Baverstock 1985; 1992; unpubl. data). We have trapped Little Freetail-bat Mormop- terus planiceps (small penis form) and Inland Broad-nosed Bat Scotorepens bal- stoni on farmland at Teesdale on the plains (Conole and Bayerstock unpubl. data), and expected that the plains section of the river might yield these taxa, Other possible oc- currences included M. planiceps (long penis form) and Eastern Broad-nosed Bat S. orion, Other bats of uncertain status in River Red Gum riparian vegetation in this area include Eastern Great Pipistrelle Falsis- trellus tasmaniensis, Large-footed Myotis Myotis adversus and Yellow-bellied Sheath- tail-bat Saccolaimus flaviventris (Conole and Baverstock 1985; unpubl, data). Methods and materials A number of locations along the Barwon River were selected for ease of access, suchas road bridges, pedestrian and bicycle paths The Victorian Naturalist s Contributions (see table 1). At each site, a 30-40 minute period after dusk was surveyed for microchiropteran bats using one hand-held ANABAT 2.0 electronic bat-detector (Titley Electronics, Ballina, New South Wales, Aus- tralia). Inaudible (to human ears) ultrasonic calls were detected by the ANABAT, and re- corded on audio cassette tape for later analysis. Recorded sequences were viewed and analysed using the ANABAT 5.1 signal processing software (Titley Electronics) on an IBM-clone personal computer. The soft- ware produced graphical representations of the microbat calls, with frequency on the y axis andtime on thex axis (see figs. 1 -3). Ref- erence sequences were not available from the Barwon River strip, so sequences from nearby in Victoria and elsewhere were em- ployed. Table 1, Results of dusk bat-detector surveys at selected sites on the Barwon River Victoria. Key: 1. Zillah Crawcour Reserye, Newtown. 2. Merrawarp Road bridge, Ceres. 3, Pollocksford bridge. 4. Winchelsea-Deans Marsh Road bridge, Winchelsea. 5, Balyang and Yollinko Sanctuaries, Princes Bridge, Newtown. 6, Buckley's Falls Regional Park, Highton. 7. Confluence of Barwon and Leigh Rivers, Inverleigh, 8. Murghebolue. ee 15903505 | Tadarida australis _| Mormopterus planiceps | Scotorepens orion | Falsistrellus Results The pilot project using the ANABAT 2.0 bat-detector was very successful, resulting in the detection of between eleven and thirteen species of microbats along the course of the Barwon River. As the sole indigenous wood- land vegetation for much of the river’s course, the riparian strip appeared to function as a focus for microbat activity, both for roosting and foraging. Bridge structures and aqueducts were important roost sites too, al- though over-represented in the survey due to our method of site selection. In an unseason- ally warm and dry winter, microbat activity was greater than we expected for this time of year in a cool temperate area. The expected species were recorded, and in some cases in areas where we did not ex- pect them. All records were the first for the Barwon River strip, and several were signifi- cant range extensions for some species. As expected, T. australis, C. gouldii, V. dar- lingtoni, V. regulus and V. vulturnus were ubiquitous. Nyctophilus geoffroyi was not often recorded, butasa ‘whispering bat’ (soft calls difficult to detect) we expected to un- der-record it. Chalinolobus morio was less widely recorded than expected. We are cur- rently not able to differentiate between V. darlingtoni and V. regulus calls, but enough variation was recorded to suggest that both species were detected. Mormopterus planiceps was recorded in the urban river suburbs of Geelong for the first time, as well as other new locations along the river. Two slightly differentiated call signatures were recorded from free flying M. planiceps at ~27 kHz and ~29 kHz, which may represent the two un- described taxa (species |, long penis; species 2, short penis), or simply individual varl- | i Vespadelus vulturnus ation. Scotorepens orion and Myotis | V, darlingtoni/regulus adversus were recorded for the first nee in ik ii the Geelong area at Pollocksford, at the base |Chatnolobs hi of the Barrabool Hills. Along with these tree- |C. morio hole roosting species, the cave roosting M. schreibersii was an unexpected resident of the strip; probably roosting in aqueducts and bridge structures. Some detector re- cords were verified or augmented by | Myotis adversus Miniopterus schreibersii 209 Contributions Gort Wie 0 bev eat cal Compressed Foto BO TNE a bat = 7°67 ws TRE TOTAL ~ 800 ws TICKS’ - 5s Nipts = 2108 wis AAR Fig. |. Foraging sequence of Gould’s Wattled Bat Chalinolobus gouldii showing three ‘kills’ or attempts to capture prey, recorded at Yollinko Sanctuary, Barwon River, Newtown (Geelong) by L.E. Conole. ANABAT V display, compressed mode (Titley Electronics). Compressed 8 to 88 kz By TOTAL - 408 ms TICKS - 25 ms &, \ mine ‘, » Smt oan NS, a SS . | | | | Fig. 2. Interrogative sequence of the Little Mastiff-bat Mormopterus planiceps recorded on the Leigh River near confluence with Barwon River, Inverleigh, by L.E.C i d mode (Titley Electronics), ee pe fey Somes 210 The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Compressed TOTAL - 888 ms 8 to 88 kHz ue TICKS - 58 ha 16 ¢ 6,39 ms fie a 4e088 VUUDTA.LCH | 184 4s FRE = 42, but: te 2 My Fig. 3. Combined sequences of Little Forest Bat Vespadelus vulturnus (c. 50 kHz), Forest Bat sp. V. darlingtoni or V. regulus (c. 45 kHz) and White-striped Freetail-bat Tadarida australis (c. 12 kHz) recorded at Pollocksford, Barwon River, by L.E. Conole. ANABAT V display, compressed mode (Titley Electronics). visual records, e.g. C. gouldii, M. schreiber- sii, M. planiceps. Discussion Remote sensing with bat-detectors proved to be a valuable technique for surveying a rich microbat habitat which could not easily be surveyed by direct trapping methods. A wider range of species was detected than that which occurs in any woodland remnant nearby on the plains (Conole and Baverstock 1985; 1991; 1992; unpubl. data). Clearly a combination of direct and remote techniques is preferable for producing verified records, and gathering morphometric and reproduc- tive data, but the bat-detector enjoys a clear advantage in gathering basic distributional data in certain difficult survey environments. Vol. 112 (5) 1995 Acknowledgments We would like to thank Alex Kutt, Alexander Herr and Martin Rhodes for the ANABAT refer- ence files that they provided. We also extend our appreciation to the trustees of the M.A. Ingram Trust who authorised a substantial financial contri- bution enabling us to purchase the ANABAT 5.0 bat-detector system. References Baverstock, G.A. and Conole, L.E. (1991). The mammals of the ‘Bannockburn Bush’. Geelong Naturalist 27(4):75-81. Conole, L.E. and Baverstock, G.A. (1985). Mammals of the Inverleigh Common Flor a Reserve, Part Ill. Geelong Naturalist 22:44-46. Conole, L.E. and Baverstock, G.A. (1992). The mammials of the Bamganie State Forest, Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 109(6):212-216. 211 Contributions Initial Results from Bat Roosting Boxes at Organ Pipes National Park Robert Irvine! and Robert Bender? Background The Organ Pipes National Park is located 26 km NW of Melbourne. The park is a spec- tacular example of restoration of natural vegetation, begun in 1972, that has rehabili- tated a barren and weed-infested landscape (Kemp and Irvine 1993), The Friends Of Organ Pipes (FOOP) are involved in this revegetation effort and also in encouraging animals back into this regenerated environ- ment. Early mammal survey In February 1988, Ray Brereton and Martin Schulz of the Arthur Rylah Institute (Department of Conservation and Natural Resources - DCNR) conducted a mammal survey at the Organ Pipes National Park and reported that bats were the most diverse group of native mammals occurring in the park (Schulz and Brereton 1988). Brereton and Schulz set up harp traps over Jacksons Creek and over three nights they trapped a total of 53 individual bats consisting of six species: Gould’s Wattled Bat, Chocolate Wattled Bat, Lesser Long-eared Bat, Large Forest Bat, Southern Forest Bat and Little Forest Bat (Table 1). An additional species, the White-striped Freetail-bat, was recorded in flight by spotlight. One of their recommendations was that ‘To encourage bats further into the area, the possibility of setting up ‘bat roost boxes’ should be investigated. These have been used with great success in Europe’ (Schulz and Brereton 1988). The FOOP decided to follow up these rec- ommendations with a project to build and install roost boxes, then undertake a moni- toring program. The project started with an invitation to Ms Lindy Lumsden, also of Arthur Rylah Institute, assisted by other DCNR staff, to do some bat-trapping in the "1 Mudie Avenue, Suinbury, Victoria 3429. ~ 9 Bailey Grove, Ivanhoe, Victoria 3079. 212 park. This helped us decide where the roost- ing boxes would be located. Trapping was conducted on 3 April 1992 using two harp traps set up along the river track in the area where we proposed to locate the boxes. A total of 23 individuals from four species (Gould’s Wattled Bat, Choco- late Wattled Bat, Large Forest Bat and Little Forest Bat) were caught, identified, measured, sexed, weighed and released (see Table 1), The White-striped Freetail-bat usually forages above the canopy and well aboye the height of the harp trap, hence they are rarely trapped, but may use the roosting boxes. Although it is difficult to estimate overall bat numbers from trapping data, it provided an indication of the range of species found in the area. Following the success of this sec- ond trapping session it was decided that this part of the river flat would be a good place to locate the roosting boxes. The FOOP suc- cessfully applied for a Bird Observers Club of Australia grant to construct ten roosting boxes. The timber used was Pinus radiata, which has weathered remarkably well over three years. The rear plate of the box Habitat and bat roosting box location along river track. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Table 1. Bat species and numbers trapped at OPNP. Species Common name Chalinolobus gouldii | Gould’s Wattled Bat Chalinolobus morio Chocolate Wattled Bat Nyctophilus geoffroyi Lesser Long-eared Bat Vespadelus darlingtoni Large Forest Bat Vespadelus regulus Southern Forest Bat Little Forest Bat Vespadelus vulturnus Tadarida australis WY A_leDepth 12cm Rear Height 31cm ntrance 3cm Fig. 1. Dimensions of Bat roosting boxes. extended above and below the box structure, and was nailed to the tree trunk at both ends (Fig. 1 and Llewellyn 1988). Bat roosting box design The species of bats caught in OPNP pre- ~ dominantly roost in tree hollows or behind loose bark (Schulz and Brereton 1988). The optimum roosting box simulates these kinds of roosting sites. As there was no published research on roosting boxes in Australia, overseas research was used to determine the size and design of the boxes. We selected a design (Fig. 1) based on successful Buropean Bat box similar to our bird boxes but without a base or round entry hole at the front. This Vol. 112 (5) 1995 White-striped Mastiff Bat Sex 23/2/88 24/2/88 25/2/88 3/4/92 Total = eee Cee CT” eee BT nee ae Bee 2 Spotlit in flight only €— Climbing Grooves design was to make the box dark and to en- able bats to enter from below. A series of grooves was machined on the inner surface of the rear plate to make it easier for the bats to climb and cling to the boxes. It was hoped the design would also restrict use of the boxes to bats, as it was believed that other arboreal animals such as possums and birds preferred a side entry, as used on nesting boxes for birds and Sugar Gliders also set up along the creek in the National Park. Box Location A range of factors was taken into consid- eration in deciding on the placement of the roosting boxes. Trapping had shown several 213 Contributions species were using the forested area by Jacksons Creek (Table 1). It was decid ed to place boxes about 5 metres above ground, in trees free from crowding branches, sheltered from wind and with a variety of aspects to cater for seasonal temperature variation, Ten boxes were installed in trees on 3 April 1992 in the locations shown (Fig. 2 and Table 2). Monitoring Inspections, Don’t give up hope! Inspections were conducted in November 1992 and July, October and November 1994. Until the last inspection in November, no bats were found to have been using any of Table 2. Box Installation notes and location details. Box no Height Tree species (metres) Manna Gum Eucalyptus N viminalis C2 4 Yellow Box SE Eucalyptus melliodora C3 4.5 River Red Gum N Eucalyptus camaldulensis C4 4.5 River Red Gum s CS 4.5 Manna Gum SE C6 6 River Red Gum W C7 4.5 River Red Gum NE C8 6 River Red Gum NW C9 45 River Red Gum SE 4 River Red Gum NW Organ Pipes Jacksons creek River track Harp trap Fig. 2. Location of Bat boxes. 214 Aspect the boxes and we had come to believe the boxes were unsuccessful, for causes unknown. Possible explanations considered were that the designs were unattractive to bats, box locations were poorly chosen, and the abundant presence of natural hollows were chosen by bats in preference to our artificial boxes. FOOP were also surprised to find that a number of the roosting boxes had been used by Sugar Gliders Petaurus breviceps as shown by the worn entrance where Gliders had squeezed through the narrow slit. Published illustrations of bat roost box de- signs (e.g. Llewellyn 1988) recommended a Sun/ Comments Shade Partial sun Shaded Surrounded by trees Hillside close to large open area, Ridge Track Surrounded by trees Sun/ Shaded Surrounded by trees Shaded Shaded Shaded Sun/ Shaded Shaded Shaded Surrounded by trees Surrounded by trees Surrounded by trees Near creek, surrounded by trees Surrounded by trees Overhanging creek The Victorian Naturalist Contributions slit dimension of 15 to 20 mm, but we had used 30 mm, apparently allowing larger animals to enter. Two bat roosting boxes contained nests made of eucalypt leaves woven into a hollow ball that is typical of glider nests (Triggs 1984). In the three years before the bat roost boxes were installed, a program of Sugar Glider releases had taken place - 37 Gliders in total; 13 in February 1989, 6 in March 1990, and 18 in April 1990 (FOOP 1989, 1990a, 1990b). The specifically designed boxes installed for these gliders, were mainly hollow logs with both ends bunged up and a round side entrance which was drilled through the timber. Sugar Glider use of the bat roost- ing boxes with the narrow slit underneath was unexpected. During 1994, a research project hadcommenced on social inter-action among Sugar Gliders, some of which were known to be nesting in the bat roosting boxes, The re- searcher had placed wooden pegs just below the entrance to some bat boxes, for attach- ment of sensing apparatus to detect glider movements into and out of the nest boxes. The biggest surprise came on 19 Novem- ber 1994 when, preparing to remove and relocate the boxes, we found a total of 34 bats (species were not identified) using 5 boxes in what appeared to be a random mix of as- pect, location and tree species (Table 3). In box C5 bats were roosting above the old nest- ing material of Sugar Gliders which was filling the entrance slit. Bat droppings were found in one additional box, According to recently released research from North America (Tuttle and Hensley 1993) roosting boxes are normally used inthe first season and, if not used within two years, will probably not be used at all. Until the November 1994 inspection, we felt justified in deciding that the boxes would never be used. Why the slow results? It may be that the bats were roosting, over winter, in more secure locations in tree hol- lows and had become more active as the weather warmed up and a plentiful supply of insects appeared, late in spring. The boxes may be too cold during winter, as is sug- gested by the research of Tuttle and Hensley (1993) in the USA where inland winters are generally harsher than in southern Australia. This emphasises the importance of roost sites being exposed to at least four hours of full sun during winter. All boxes at OPNP are in a densely wooded area, which is un- Table 3. Box Inspection results (boxes installed 3/4/92) CG = Chalinolobus gouldii. material = material for Sugar Glider nest (Eucalypt leaves). rt = radio detector indicating tagged Sugar Glider inside. s/glider = Sugar Glider (number in box), worn = entrance slit worn by glider. 8 Oct 1994 material Box 7 Nov no, 1992 empty 23 July 1994 material, fresh empty 1994 empty wom empty empty empty empty empty empty material, rt material emply empty emply empty empty material empty empty empty empty C10 empty emply empty empty empty material, 1 s/glider Vol. 112 (5) 1995 29 Oct no inspect, no inspect. 7 bats no inpsect. no inspect. no inspect. no inspect. no inpsect. no inspect. no inspect. 25 Feb 1995 material, some ants 1 s/glider, nest 18 bats CG 2 bats CG 22 Dee 1994 material 19 Nov 1994 2 s/gliders, large nest worn, bat worn, 2 bats droppmgs CG 2bats, worn | s/ghider material, fresh empty leaves 2 bats, material 10 bats empty 7 bats bat droppings worn, Ant nest Ant nest 13 bats 1 s/glider 1 s/glider material 2 bats CG material emply 1 s/glider empty Ant nest 2s/gliders material, 1 s/glider 215 Contributions likely to provide this source of winter warmth for a sufficient period each day. We just do not know why it took two and a half years for bats to show signs of using our roost boxes. All four bats found in the boxes in December 1994 were identified as Gould’s Wattled Bats and it is believed those found in previous inspections were also of this species. According to our expert Lindy Lumsden ‘The most probable reason for the marked change in numbers found between No- vember and December is that by December, the females would be using ma- ternity roosts. It appears that the boxes are not being used as maternity roosts (the internal microclimate may not be optimal for this purpose), so this leaves only the males to use the boxes’, The other factor that might have an impact was the pegs installed beneath the entrances to boxes C4 and C10 for the purpose of research be- ing conducted on Sugar Glider social inter-actions in the area, over part of this pe- riod, These wooden pegs - two placed about 10 cm apart across the entrance slit - would have made the bats’ access to the boxes more difficult. Only these two boxes had such pegs in place and eventually bats were found oc- cupying one of these two boxes. Fig. 3. Proposed new Bat roosting boxes. 216 Conclusions and the future There is now no doubt that bats may use the roosting boxes in the location s where we have installed them, regardless of the as- pect, position in relation to sunlight, or tree species in which they are located. FOOP intend to construct additional bat boxes to compare the success rates of diffe rent designs and positions. The new roosting boxes will be larger with multiple internal partitions, possibly of different internal dimension, to attract smaller bats than C. gouldii (see Fig, 3). They will also have no bases, which we expect will discourage Sugar Gliders which will have no support on which to construct their nests of eucalypt leaves. These designs have been very suc- cessful in North America. We hope these new boxes will be suitable for the bats during winter hibernation as well as at other times of the year. They will be checked on a regular basis and all bats will be banded to investigate the social organisation of the bats, To date, all bats found using the boxes and identified to species have been Gould’s Wattled Bats C. gouldii, despite the fact that six species have been identified as using the river flat where the boxes have been installed, This is a strong contrast with the distribution of species trapped by Brereton and Schulz in 1988, in ‘| — Climbing Grooves The Victorian Naturalist Book Review which only 3 of the 53 captured bats were Gould’s Wattled Bats, though harp traps might not give a representative impression of the proportional mix of species in an area, and C. gouldii may have been under-repre- sented by that sampling technique. It is possible that installation of the boxes, so attractive to one species, may have affected the mix of species using the area. The planned monthly series of box inspections through 1995 should help test this possibil- ity. However, it is known that bats such as C. gouldii may forage up to 20 km from their roost sites (L. Lumsden, pers. comm.), so they may not be using the park for forag- ing, despite using it for roosting. Further results will be published when the regular banding and monitoring program seems to warrant a further report. Acknowledgments Lindy Lumsden for trappings at OPNP and pro- viding advice throughout this project. Natasha Schedvin for trapping, banding and identifying bats. FOOP members Mark Scida and John Smith for helping with box inspections. Several uniden- ufied reviewers for their valuable suggestions. References FOOP (1989) Newsletter 22:1, FOOP (1990a) Newsletter 30:2. FOOP (1990b) Newsletter 32:2. Kemp, B. and Irvine, R. (1993). Design and use of planting zones at the Organ Pipes National Park: notes on research and planning for the first 20 years. The Victorian Naturalist 110, 113-124. Llewellyn, J. (ed.). ‘The Yarra Book: an urban wildlife guide’, (MMBW, January 1988). Schulz, M. and Brereton, R. (1988). Bats of Organ Pipes National Park, Arthur Rylah Institute. Reprinted in Kemp, B. (1994). ‘Organ Pipes National Park, a Natural History’. Ed. R. Bender, Friends of Organ Pipes. Triggs, B. (1984). ‘Mammal Tracks and Signs’. (Oxford University Press: Melbourne). Tuttle, Merlin D. and Hensley, Donna L. (1993). ‘The Bat Builders Handbook’ (Bat Conservation International: Austin, Texas). Flora of Victoria Volume I edited by D.B Foreman and N.G. Walsh 320 pp. 26 x 18 cm. RRP $75.00 Volume II edited by N.G. Walsh and T.J. Entwisle 26 x 18 cm, RRP $195.00 Publisher; Inkata Press, Melbourne/Sydney. During 62 years since the appearance, in May 1931, of this State’s only other full- length Flora of Victoria, immense strides have been made in botanical exploration of the whole region, studies in its ecology, plant communities and habitats. Also, as a result of considerable taxonomic research leading to revisional work, there have been many name changes. and the addition of numerous unrecorded taxa. The increase in the number of accepted species is demonstrable no more dramatically than in the orchid family - 149 Victorian species recognised in A.J. Ewart’s Flora of 1931, 270 in the present Flora (1994), Ewart had managed to squeeze his whole account into a single chunky volume of 1257 Vol. 112 (5) 1995 pages, selling for 25 shillings, but costs were commensurate with prices at the early years of the Great Depression. Actually, its binding was inadequate for such a weighty tome which, with frequent use, tended to fall in pieces; some owners were wise enough to get this government Printer’s pro- duction split and re-bound as two separate books. The new Flora of Victoria comprises four volumes of which the first two are already available - Vol. | in 1993 and Vol, 2 at the end of 1994. Volume | (A$75, as a special offer) is edited by D.B. Foreman and N.G. Walsh and is entirely introductory. In its 320 pages are ten chapters by sundry specialists - on prehistory of the flora; geology and geo- 217 Book Review morphology; climate of Victoria; botanical exploration; natural regions and vegetation; soils in relation to vegetation; use of Victo- rian plants by Koories; interplay of Victoria’s flora with fire; rare or threatened plants; ex- otic flora of Victoria and its impact on indigenous biota. Presentations of all these topics are fortified by photos, diagrams, maps or tables, and they provide and admi- rable, if not quite comprehensive, back ground for studying the whole vascular vegetation: particularly useful are those basic sections on natural regions and classi- fication of vegetation by B. J. Conn, soils by F. Gibbons and J. Rowan, and the exotic flora (weeds) by G.W. Carr. Volume 2 (A$155, by special offer, other- wise A$195) is under joint editorship of N.G. Walsh who wrote the account of Poaceae (grasses) and T. J. Entwisle (re- sponsible for the orchid family), Embracing 946 pages, it is the first of three taxonomic volumes and deals with ferns (also their al- lies), conifers and all monocotyledons - some 1300 species. The choice of type is good and it is generously set out, giving clar- ity. For each species the full binomial appears in bold-face, followed by authority and details of original publication in smaller type. Essential synonymy is given wherever necessary, and the ample descrip- tions are uniformly set out, with any accepted vernacular names at the end of the descriptive text. The next paragraph gives distribution both within and beyond Victoria, also flowering time, while any information on affinities, peculiarities, con- servation status, habitat etc, appears in final paragraphs. Every entry has an inset line- map of the State, indicating by small blacked rectangles the known range within each 10- minute grid (about 19x15 km). Far more information is thus provided than in other comparable regional floras, e.g. New South Wales (4 vols.), South-eastern Queensland (3 vols.), Perth Region (2 vols.). In a few instances the space allocated to one species will stretch almost a full column (to page- 218 depth); and it has been calculated that each species occupies 50% more space than in any other regional flora, Volume 2 is copiously illustrated by excel- lent line-drawings to show features of diagnostic importance for most species; these drawings are chiefly by Anita Barley (formerly at the National Herbarium of Vic- toria) who is also artist for all 16 of the magnificent colour plates. Both covers and end-papers portray a coloured map of Victo- ria showing the 16 ‘natural regions’ adopted for this State. One result of so much good- quality paper is a very heavy book - just over 3 kg -and one hopes the binding will stand up to continual usage; it certainly won't unless volumes are opened carefully while flat on a table. Unfortunately the retail price of A$195, which is three times the cost of other recent floras, places this fine book well be- yond the reach of most would-be purchasers, who will need to consult it at some accessible library. Quite obviously the print has been meticu- lously proof-read and contains very few undetected errors of etymology or spelling. The numerous keys (to genera, groups, spe- cies and lower taxa) all seem to work well. Our F.N.C.V.’s Botany Group devoted its meeting on 13 April last to a ‘hands on’ ses- sion, with co-editor Dr Neville Walsh present to demonstrate the use of keys from Volume 2 in identifying actual specimens (including some difficult grasses), It is a pleasure to recommend such a su- perior work, and to congratulate Inkata Press on the high quality of their beautiful production. The Dicotyledons are due to be published as Volumes 3 and 4 (in 1996 and 1997 respectively). After three generations, Ewart would surely be astounded to peruse the descendant of his one-volume Flora which was reviewed by Dr C.S. Sutton in The Victorian Naturalist of August 1931! J.H. Willis 102 Male Street, Brighton, Victoria 3186. The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Notes on the Alpine She-oak Skink Cyclodomorphus praealtus in the Mt Hotham Area, Alpine Victoria with a Description of a Potential New Survey Technique Martin Schulz! , Jerry Alexander? and Ian Mansergh? The Alpine She-oak Skink Cyclodomor- phus praealtus, previously included in the Tiliqua casuarinae complex has been a rarely encountered reptile, occurring above the treeline in alpine Victoria and southern New South Wales (Green and Osborne 1994). She-oak Skinks (as T. casuarinae) had the most disparate range of any reptile in Victoria (Fig. 1) and consequently there were suggestions for a revision of the ‘spe- cies complex’ (e.g. Norris and Mansergh 1981). This revision has now been com- pleted by Shea (1995) who recognises that the animals in the alpine areas (C. praealtus) are distinct at the species level from populations near the coast (C. michaelli). C. praealtus inhabits alpine grasslands and low heathlands in the Victorian alps (McDougall 1981), At present, the Cyclodo- morphus complex is regarded as vulnerable in Victoria (CNR 1993). Until recently, the eight records of C. praealtus in the Atlas of Victorian Wild- life were limited to the specimens collected in 1971, 1977 and 1983 from the Mt Hotham, Mt Loch and Lankey Plains areas (Fig. 1) Jenkins and Bartell (1980) provide an addi- tional record from the Buffalo National Park. Some observers suggest that the species 1s rare and threatened (Green and Osborne 1994; CNR 1993). The reduced limbs, snake-like move- ments and rapid disappearance into its grassy habitat may result in this species being easily mistaken for a small snake (e.g. Whitelipped Snake Drysdalia coronoides or young High- land Copperheads Austrelaps ramsayi). Unlike other alpine skinks, C. praealtus is infrequently observed basking; the rare observations are usually made as they disap- pear from view into the grass tussocks or other dense ground vegetation (M. Schulz pers. obs.), thus giving the observer insuffi- Faculty of Resource Science and Manugement, Southern Cross University, P.O. Box 157, Lismore, NSW 2480, Flora and Fauna Branch, Conservation and Natural Resources (CNR), 250 Victoria Parade, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, and 123 Brown Street, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084. ro Vol. 112 (5) 1995 cient time to positively identify the animal. Cogger (1983) considered the Alpine She- oak Skink normally crepuscular or nocturnal. These factors may contribute to the low reporting rates. A new technique (de- scribed below) which facilitates hand capture, should allow easier access to the species in the wild. Each year since 1988, the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (CNR) and Latrobe University have conducted the Alpine Ecology Course on the Bogong High Plains. In January 1995, the course was held for the first time in Mt Hotham-Dargo High Plains area. Among the full range of ecologi- cal studies, students are taught the basics of fauna survey including direct observation and active searching for cryptic reptile species. The latter includes searching potential resting sites beneath rocks and ground debris. During these ‘lessons’ six Alpine She-oak Skinks were hand captured: three in alpine heathland and three in al- pine grassland on Mt Hotham, Mt Loch and adjacent to the Loch car park. Of these, three were observed beneath small pieces of gal- vanised iron. Within 50 m of Mt Loch, one immature individual was observed under the same piece of iron on three consecutive days. Despite active searching under larger sheets of ‘feral’ galvanised iron (0.7 x 2,0+ m), no individuals were observed. The Fig. 1. The Victorian distribution of C yelodomor- phus praealtus (alpine area) and C. michaeli (coastal area). (Source Victorian Wildlife Atlas). 219 Contributions species was not observed during the courses held on the Bogong High Plains. These observations suggest that the spe- cies may be more common than previously thought, albeit in a quite restricted habitat. The abundance and distribution of the species needs to be clarified as a large pro- portion of its known range occurs within, or adjacent to, the Mt Hotham Alpine Resort, Areas of habitat may be subject to modi- fication by infrastructure development (e.g. ski runs) for the ski industry. Based on the above observations, a pro- posed survey technique for this (and other alpine reptiles) is the placement of small, about 25 x 25 cm pieces of galvanised iron within potential habitat (Fig. 2). These could act similarly to small mammal traps (e.g. Elliott traps). In this case the ‘bait’ is not food, but a place with increased ‘pro- tected’ hezi availability. The plate is laid to ensure that all edges are not flush with the ground, rather, that there are gaps to al- low access. The ‘trap’ allows complete freedom of movement of the animal and for several animals to use it simultaneously, In the present case, the aggressive nature of the She-oak Skink, may preclude other species (Jenkins and Bartell 1980), In some environ- ments (probably alpine) there may need to be an extended period to allow animals to find and use the ‘trap’ for a resting site. Elsewhere in Victoria large sheets of iron have been used to assess the herpetologic al fauna during a broad-scale vertebrate sur- vey of the Melbourne Area, District 2 (LCC A small rock or opher article raises the plate off the ground fo provide access for repiiles, Fig. 2. Diagram of the reptile trap. To open, the locking peg is twisted and the plate raised from side A. The hinge peg when ‘open’ allows side B to form a barrier to movement of the animals be- heath. The prototype has been developed by Elliott Scientific Instruments (Upwey, Victoria), 220 1991). Twenty (two per si te) sheets of cor- rugated iron (240 x 90 cm) were placed in a variety of habitat types to sample the reptile population, These sheets were checked for ten consecutive days, A total of five species (32 observations) were detected utilising the shelter of these sheets during this time period (see Lumsden er a/. 1991), If successful, this simple technique, using small custom built sheets, would assist with the detection of more cryptic species (includ- ing nocturnal) and allow non-intrusive access to wild animals for the collection of biological information (reproductive condi- tion etc,), Systematic placement of these artificial shelters (e.g. in grids and lines) could provide quantitative data for com- puter modelling for density estimates (e.g. White er al. 1982) and increase our current knowledge of distribution and abundance. Given the cost-benefit and non-intru- sive nature of this technique, the use of artificial shelters as a valuable survey tool should not be underestimated, An experi- mental program is being implemented to investigate this technique with the Alpine She-oak Skink around Mt Hotham, and traps have been laid prior to winter (D. Heinz pers. comm,). We would like to thank Glen Shea and Peter Robertson for some critical comments on the manuscript and Dean Heinz for taking the idea to field experimental stage. References CNR. (1993). ‘Threatened Fauna of Victoria - 1993’. (Conservation and Natural Resources: Melbourne), Cogger, H. (1983). ‘Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia’, (rev. ed.), (Reed Books: Sydney). Green, K and Osborne, W, (1994), ‘Wildlife of the Australian Snow-Country’. (Read: Sydney). Jenkins, R.W.G. and Bartell, R.J. (1980). “Reptiles of the Australian High Country’, (Inkata Press: Melbourne). LCC. (1991), “Melbourne (District 2) Study Area Review’, (Land Conservation Council: Victoria, Lumsden, L.F., Alexander, J.S,A,, Hill, RA.R., Krasna, S.P. and Silveira C.E. (1991). ‘The vertebrate fauna of the Lind Conservation Council Melbourne-2 study area’. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technology Report No. 115. (Dept. of Conservation and Environment: Victoria), McDougall, K. (1981). ‘Hotham’ (vegetation map). (Soil Conservation Authority: Victoria). Norris, K and Mansergh 1. (1981), ‘Sites of zoological significance in East Gippsland’ (2 v), (Ministry of Conseryation: Victoria). Shea, G.M. (1995). A taxonomic revision of the Cylodomorphus casuarinae complex (Squamata: le aie Reconds af the Australian. Museum 47 (1). 3-115. White, G., Anderson, D., Burnham, K. and Otis D,, (1982), Capture-recapture and removal methuds for sampling closed populations (Utah Co-operative Wildlife Research Unit, Los Alamos, New Mexico). The Victorian Naturalist How to be a Field Naturalist Mammal Survey Arnis Dzedins! Activities Australia has a unique and varied mammal fauna that passes largely unnoticed as mostof our animals are nocturnal, small and cryptic. There are surprisingly large gaps in our knowledge and amateurs have the opportu- nity to make a real contribution to science. Since much of the work involves trapping, which is illegal unless done under a permit (usually granted only to approved organisa- tions), there is limited scope for individual studies. By far the best approach is to join a group, where experienced naturalists will | help you to learn the appropriate survey tech- niques and pass on theirknowledge about the animals concemed. Surveys may involve one-day (or night) trips as well as trapping camps spanning a weekend or longer. By par- ticipating in these you will have the opportunity to see many of our mammals at close range, particularly the smaller species which you are very unlikely to see otherwise. Some surveys are in particularly interesting areas which have limited public access. Much survey work is done at the request of the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources and by participating you would be making a direct contribution to the manage- ment and conservation of our fauna. Methods Direct observation is limited toa few ofthe larger species such as kangaroos and walla- bies which are active for at least part of the day. Stag watching involves sitting under hol- low-bearing trees (i.e. potential nest trees) at dusk to observe animals coming out to feed at night. This is particularly suitable for pos- sums and gliders. Spotlighting is a widespread and useful technique for detecting arboreal mammals, Typically 30-55V spotlights are used with re- chargeable gel cell batteries. A red filter allows more natural behavioural observa- tions to be made, as the very bright white light ' PO Box 1000, Blind Bight, Victoria 3980. Vol. 112 (5) 1995 often causes animalsto freeze. Binoculars are also most useful. Indirect observations, such as tracks, skeletal remains and droppings, and road kills can indicate the presence of many species. The faeces or pellets of predators (e.g. foxes, owls) often have identifiable remains (hair, bones) of small prey. Hair tubes which contain a bait to attract the animal and 4 sticky tape to retain hairs are a relatively non-intrusive survey technique, but require expert microscopic analysis to identify the species. This technique is particu- larly useful fordetecting trap shy species such as the Long-footed Potoroo and Long-nosed Bandicoot. Nest boxes can be used as a survey tool, apart from their normal role of providing nest sites for threatened species suchas the Brush- tailed Phascogale. On public land they may only be used under permit. Trapping is by far the most useful and widespread technique for detecting small mammals. Traps are of several types: cage traps usually set out in a regular grid pattern and baited with an appropriate bait; Elliot traps - small collapsible aluminium traps; Pit traps, deep buckets buried in the ground, most useful for frogs and reptiles, but also suitable forsome very small mammal species such as Pigmy Possums, and Harp traps for catching bats. All these methods are intrusive and could be damaging to the animals con- cerned if not done with the utmost care. Trapping is illegal unless carried out with a permit and under the supervision of experienced personnel. Reference Books Strahan, R. fed.] (1983). ‘The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals’. (Angus & Robertson: Sydney). Triggs, B. (1984). ‘Mammal Tracks and Signs, A field guide for south-eastern Australia’. (Oxford University Press: Melbourne). Reardon, T.B. and Flavel, $.C. (1987). ‘A Guide to Bats of South Australia’. (South Australian Museuin: Adelaide). 221 Naturalist Note Menkhorst, P fed.| (1995), ‘Mammals of Victoria. Distribution, Beolopy, Conservation’. (Oxford University Press: Melbourne), Hye, J. and Shaw, N. (1980), ‘Australian Mammals, ‘A Field Guide for New South Wales, South Australia, Victor ind Tasmania’, (Thomas Nelson: Melbourne), Clubs and Societies The Fauna Survey Group of FNCY. Mammat Survey Group of Victoria, Australian Mammal Society Journals The Victorian Naturalist publishes the re sults of surveys run by the Fauna Survey Group, as well as research reports by profes: sional scienuists. Wildlife Research is published by the CSIRO and specialises in research on the bi- ology and management of wild animals. Australian Mammalogy is published by the Australian Mammal Society and contains articles of a specialised nature, Enquiries Ray Gibson is the Chairman of the Fauna Survey Group of FNCY. The Group holds meetings on the first Tuesday of each month and runs frequent surveys and trapping camps. Ray’s address is: 26 McCulloch Street, Nunawading, Victoria 3131. Ph (03) 9874 4408. From our Naturalist in Residence, Cecily Falkingham Carnivorous Plants-Carnivorous Bugs. Is There a Symbiotic Relationship? The first time T saw a Sundew Bug, more properly a Mirid Bug (family Miridae), it was an exciting and mysterious discovery. It was the year 1985 and | was down on my hands and knees inspecting Drosera peltata ssp auriculata commonly ealled the Tall Sundew when it suddenly looked to me as if part of the plant had grown legs. | was, in fact, looking at a beautiful green insect with plum-coloured antennae, Ithad a green cross on the back of the abdomen just below the head, large compound eyes, a red, jointed proboscis which was coiled under the body when not in use. The proboscis consists of two hollow tubes, one pumps digestive en- zymes down into its victim’s body while the adjoining tube sucks up the pre-digested liquefied tissues, The bug also had red knees on black and white striped legs. The two long hind legs, | discovered later, made it capable of long leaps, The opportunist in its bright-green and ruby-red ‘costume’ strode confidently amid the bodies trapped in the leaves of the plant. It crept up the stems, over the flowers and across the leaves without becoming trapped. Here surely was an amazing insect, immune to the Sundew’s sticky leaves and with incredible camouflage, Within the leaves of the Sundew there were a few insects in various stages of being ‘eaten’, One was freshly caught by the sticky 222 hairs on the plant. Several others were already reduced to mere shadows of their for- mer selves, Wings that were no longer necded for flight moved gently and ineffec- tually as 1 gently blew on them. Withered and crumpled bodies soon to be blown away in the wind, The soil where Sundews grow is usually deficient in nitrates and these insects are vital for the plant's survival. [Knew that Sundews Were insectivorous plants and obtained food by capturing insects, breaking them down with an enzyme into a suitable form for ab- sorbtion. This is in addition to obtaining food by photosynthesis. In the past I had observed many small insect skeletons as well as freshly immobilised ‘prey’ but not once had I seen such a handsome and agile insect ef- ficiently ignoring all the sticky leaves. What chemical did it produce on its feet to make it immune or, was it very skilful at avoiding the plant’s traps? I] placed the bug and some Sundew plant in a container, large enough not to injure either specimen, Sitting at home at the dining-room table T seemed to be witnessing a miracle. How was it that the bug did not become ensnared? This bug relies on the Sundew to trap the insects on which it then feeds -a free- loader robbing the plant of precious nourishment, The Victorian Naturalist Naturalist Note Fig. 1. Sundew Bugs on Sundew. Photo courtesey Dr Jan Taylor. The Mirid bugs of the genera Cyrtopeltis and Setocoris have been observed feeding on the Sundew itself as well as the trapped prey (Matthews and Kitching 1984, 26). It is known that some species of Mirid bugs con- sume eggs of insects so providing some form of control on insect numbers. During evolution of the species the Mirids may have started sucking sap of plants, then advanced to sucking the blood of soft-bodied insects who were themselves sap suckers. The Black-kneed Capsid Blephidopterus angulatus, another Mirid, mainly preys on Red Spider Mites, a pest of British orchards. What orchardist would not welcome this spe- cies to help control at least one of the many pests that plague their life! The Mirid bugs that I observed are only associated with Australian species of Drosera and do not capture their own prey. Much work remains to be done on this fam- ily. My specimen was colour-matched per- fectly to the Sundew on which it hid and, until it moved, was almost impossible to de- tect. In fact, the colour of these bugs varies from red to green depending on the general colour of the Sundew which in turn depends on where the plant grows - sun (red) or shade (green). Figs, | and 2 show West Australian spe- cies and the colour variation. Is the bug’s relationship with the Sundew symbiotic? | wonder if ALL of the insects that are trapped by the plant’s sticky hairs are digested? If not, this makes easy pickings for the Sundew Bug. Does this bug actually help the plant by quickly moving in and killing insects the moment that they arrive, and, does this killing and breaking down of the food Vol. 112 (5) 1995 Fig. 2. Green form of Sundew Bug. Photo cour- tesy Dr Jan Taylor. assist the plant to obtain food? Does the Sun- dew Bug assist pollination or is the bug just another fascinating co-existing evolutionary phenomenon - a freeloader, robbing the lar- der of the Sundew? In the quest for knowledge and under- standing I am constantly overwhelmed and fascinated with how much there is to learn and observe. Additional information from Gerry Cassis of the Australian Museum showed that these bugs are only associated with Australian Sundew species and that this particular bug is an ‘undescribed species’ for which few records exist from Victoria, This shows the great value of observation and keeping field notes. You never know what you may be observing and describing. Aknowledgements The generous help of Mali Malipatil (Department of Agriculture, Victoria), Gerry Cassis (Austrahan Museum) and DrJan Taylor(Nedlands, WA)is grate- fully acknowledged. Bibliography Chinery, M. (1974). “A Field Guide to the Insects of Britain and Northern Europe’. (Houghton Mifflin Company: Boston). CSIRO. Canberra (1979). ‘The Insects of Australia’. (Melbourne University Press). Hadlington, P. and Johnston, JA, (1982), ‘An Introduction to Australian Insects’. (New South Wales University Press). Jones, David and Elliot, Roger (1986). ‘Pests, Diseases and Ailments of Australian Plants’. (Lothian Publishing). Matthews, E.G, and Kitching, R.L. (1984). “Insect Ecology’. 2nd Edition, (University of Queensland). Cecily Falkingham 27 Chippewa Ave, Mitcham, Victoria 3132. 223 The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria In which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria Established 1880 Registered Office: FNCV, 1 Gardenia Street, Blackburn, Victoria 3130. (03) 9877 9860. OBJECTIVES: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron His Excellency, The Honourable Richard E. McGarvie, The Governor of Victoria. Key Office-Bearers June 1995 President: Associate Prof. ROBERT WALLIS, School of Aquatic Science and Natural Resources Management, Deakin University (Rusden), Clayton, 3168. (03) 9244 7278 (Fax) (03) 9244 7403. Hon. Secretary: Mr. GEOFFREY PATERSON, 11 Olive Street, South Caulfield, 3162. (A.H. 9571 6436). Hon. Treasurer; Mr. ARNIS DZEDINS, P.O, Box 1000, Blind Bight, 3980 ((059) 987 996). Subscription-Secretary: FNCV, Locked Bag 3, P.O. Blackburn, 3130. (9877 9860). Editors: ED and PAT GREY, 8 Woona Court, Yallambia, 3085 (9435 9019), Librarian: Mrs. SHEILA HOUGHTON, FNCV, Locked Bag 3, P.O. Blackburn, 3130. (A.H. (054) 928 4097). Excursion Secretary: DOROTHY MAHLER (9435 8408 A.H.) Sales Officer (Victorian Naturalist only); Mr. D.E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (9571 2427), Publicity Officer; Miss MARGARET POTTER, 1/249 Highfield Road, Burwood, 3125 (9889 2779). 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Home 1 Gardenia Street, Blackburn Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria ToRIA since 1884 ‘i The | Victorian Naturalist Volume 112 (6) 1995 December Editors: Ed and Pat Grey Research Reports Foraminiferans from Lake Connewarre, Victoria, eT REC) Ce A OER WO OE mE, Pot a ee OY 228 The Cryptogams of Royal Park, Melbourne, Victoria, VAI MY POR Te ae dedi tad Sg ete PERMA errors vr BAG eh Sgn ne eek te 234 Contributions Naturalist Notes How to bea Field Naturalist Book Reviews Obituary ISSN 0042-5184 European management of Remnant Grassy Forests and Woodlands in South-eastern Australia - Past, Present and Future, DYRUPDSEUNER SR eRt dikstiset ter atin TAA tite comet ire 239 A Trip to the Victorian Alps, by RJ. Fletcher...eccssesessersssseerssseeee 250 Mountain Ducks Tadorna tadornoides - Tragedy of Instinct, DYIG:AS CriGht Ort Mats ssszinctsratag taegareyenacotstvatyester teat] os ceased dea fieaveccss 255 White-winged Choughs Corcorax melanorhamphos and Bird Behaviour, by Cecily Falkingham, Naturalist in Residence....258 Northern Pacific Seastar, Dy T. O’ HATA ....sssssssssssssssssssevesserevessaseees 261 Pond Hunting, by D.E, McInnes .......sssssssscscssassnssrsssvavsavesrtnasananvases 256 The Bush (A Guide to the Vegetated Landscapes of Australia). 2nd Edition, by Jan G. Read, reviewer N. WALSH... 262 The Orchids of Victoria, by Gary Backhouse and Jeffrey Jeanes, reviewer Malcolm Calderiss.essssessesrnrrerninn 264 Australian Beetles, by John F. Lawrence and E.B. Britton, reviewer P. Kelly..csssusessvesssesererserseenesssnsacersneseseeeesens 266 Marie Allender ......c:ssssssssessesssesssssscerecsonensssesecceeeaeenssassnesesesesesesesees 267 Cover: New FNCV Hall at 1 Gardenia Street, Blackburn, Victoria 3130. The Editors would like to wish all their readers, authors, referees, proof readers and advisory group a very Merry Christmas and a Happy and Successful 1996, and we hope to hear from you in the New Year. THANK YOU FROM THE NEW MEMBERS to 11/10/95 EDITORS Members Ms _ Libby Anthony Mt Waverley Ed and Pat Grey wish to thank all the Mr John Burtonclay Mandurang authors and referees for their support, time, Ms Mandy Coulson East Brunswick courtesy and assistance in preparing articles Ms Shirley Diez Castlemaine for The Victorian Naturalist. ee ae mee oe illop We woulis particularly like to place se Mi Leonetleatd Adelaide record thanks to our conscientious group Of 4. Jeanette Kemp Townsville proof readers for their invaluable help. Mr Michael Krejany West Newport Finally, we must mention the advisory yr Ronald Lee Richmond group - Gill Earl, Ian Lunt, Ian Mansergh Miss Kylie Lewin Eltham North and latterly Tom May. Their expertise and Mr Craig Lupton _ Vermont contacts in the field have been of great help Mr Alexander MacKenzie Homebush Sth to us + Sapegte MeDesnel rises] : eter Neis outh Yarra ehesevor: of all sECEe Prnple baNe Mr Paul Nicholls Burwood helped to maintain the quality and yy. Janet Norman Glen Waverley reputation of the journal and we look Mrs Joyce Rowlands Heathmont forward to their support in the future. Ms Rachelle Rudduck = Mitcham Mr Mark Scida Strathmore oe ‘ Mrs Digna Smit-Martin | Woori Yallock Our Naturalist in Residence °° 5B Spine Raia This has been a very interesting series Mr Ian Thompson Hawthorn and shows how valuable accurately se iaywWee Rats recorded observations can be and how this Miss Natalie White Glen Waverley sort of information is a useful contribution to overall scientific research. Joint Members Ed and Pat Grey wish to thank Cecily Mr Mark Ashby and Falkingham for her great contribution to Ms _ Gitta Peterson Millgrove the journal. She has set a standard for al} Dr Lauren Bennett and who follow. Es aa se Brunswick r Jack an eny welone Glen Jameson who Mrs Dee Dinkgreve Wantirna South will take up this segment for 1996 - you Mr ~Glen.and will remember ‘The Rare White Bird’ and prs Mary Oliphant Frankston other articles by Glen. His contributions Mr Graeme and will be eagerly awaited. Mrs Francis Riddell Forest Hill VALE JIM WILLIS We regretfully report the death of Dr J.H. Willis. A.M. on Friday 10 November. Jim will be greatly missed personally, and for his contribution to the Club. His record number of articles in The Victorian Naturalist stands as a tribute to his enthusiasm. We extend our deepest sympathy to Mrs Willis and his family. Research Reports Foraminiferans from Lake Connewarre, Victoria K.N. Bell! Abstract A live foraminiferal fauna of eleven species is recorded from Lake Connewarre and the Lower Barwon River. There is no vascular plant growth within the Lake and this together with a high turbity of the waters and varying salinities has limited the foraminiferal fauna, One new species, Miliammina edens, is described. Introduction About 10 km south of Geelong the Bar- won River passes through an extensive reedy swamp area before entering Lake Conne- warre - *.., aS picturesque a sheet of water as ever I beheld’ (Lang in‘Campbell 1894). The Lake, which forms part of the Lake Conne- warre State Game Reserve (3,300 ha), covers an area of some 1,000 hectares before it is drained by the Lower Barwon River via a winding channel which enters the sea at Bar- won Heads (Fig, 1), The waters of the lake are brackish as it lies within the tidal influence zone, so it is classed as an estuarine lagoon, The salinity varies with the state of the tide and the degree of freshwater input from the Barwon River: itranges from about 4 parts per thousand near where the Barwon enters, to about 26 ppt near the Lower Barwon exit from the lake (Rosengren 1973). The tidal range is small, probably less than 300 mm but it can be greatly influenced by winds. The lake is quite shallow - ‘...a pleasanter and safer watercourse can nowhere be found ... the bottom is so near the top’ (Campbell 1894). In the early days of settlement yacht- ing regattas were held on the lake until siltation caused the water to become too shal- low (Balfour-Melville 1984). Coulson (1935) has shown that the average depth at the present, away from the river channel, is little more than one metre. Sedimentation has deposited over 10 metres of Recent sands and muds on parts of the lake floor, of which about one metre has been deposited since European occupation (Coulson 1935). Al- though some of this ‘European’ siltation is due to erosion after land clearance, much came from the sludge and tailings of the Ballarat goldfields where, from about 1856- 1887, it is estimated that ‘80,000,000 cubic yards’ of sludge had found its Way into the Yarrowee (Leigh) River, and from 1887- ' Honorary Associate, Museum of Victoria, Swanston Street, Melbourne, Victoria 3000. 228 1909 *.. at least 50,000 cubic yards of sludge and sand per year was entering the river sys- tem’ (Sludge Abatement Board Reports, quoted in Strom 1954). This material has then been reworked down the Yarrowee and Barwon Rivers into Lake Connewarre by normal bed-load flow and by turbulent flow during flood times, The natural history and geological setting of Lake Connewarre have been dealt with by Coulson (1933, 1935) and Rosengren (1973). Yugovic (1985) has described the vegetation of the area and found that, whilst there was no vascular plant growth in the lake, the reserve supported a very diverse estuarine and freshwater flora. Sherwood (1988) has discussed the possible impacts on Lake Connewarre that may occur with cli- matic change. On its northern side the lake is bounded by relatively steep cliffs cut into Middle Ter- tiary and Pliocene sediments. These cliffs may represent the position of a former coast- line during the last interglacial high sea-level when the sea was about 7 m above present levels (Gill and Collins 1983). The southern side of the lake, by contrast, is bounded by flat-lying sands and muds which overlie ba- salts of Pliocene age and lie only a few metres above sea level. Coulson (1933, 1935) proposed that the lake was formed by basalt flows damming the ancestral Barwon River at Tait Point and Pelican Rocks; the river later cut through the bars and formed an exit to the sea at Barwon Heads. Coulson (1935) lists foraminiferans (identified by W.J, Parr) obtained from shal- low borings made over the lake floor and surrounding areas. These foraminiferans may be either Holocene or Late Pleistocene in age and of the 17 species reported by Coul- son all but two are typical of fully marine environments, not the brackish conditions that occur at the present time, The lake bottom sediment is fine grained, varying from muddy silts to muddy silty sands with a high organic content. The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports @1 Sample site 4 @) Salinity %o Fig. 1. Lake Connewarre, showing the sample sites and average salinity values (after Rosengren 1973). Methods Fifty millilitre samples of sediment were collected, and processed and picked using standard techniques. Rose Bengal was used as a protoplasmic stain to distinguish the liv- ing foraminiferans. Results A total living fauna of eleven species was found, comprising six agglutinated and five calcareous species. The faunal distribution by sample site is given in Table 1. The species are well known in Victorian coastal waters and synonymies can be found in Collins (1974). Ammobaculites barwonensis Collins 1974 (Fig. 2.2). This species appears to be a very low Vol. 112 (6) 1995 salinity-tolerant form - it is very common in sample 3 whereas other samples have few, seldom live, specimens. Different salinities appear to affect the growth of this species; in the lower salinities specimens are often flabelliform, while in higher salinities the test becomes more cylindrical. This species is widespread in Victorian estuaries in lower salinity areas such as the Gippsland Lakes (Apthorpe 1980), Mallacoota Inlet (Bell and Drury 1992) and at Western Port (pers. obs.). Reophax barwonensis Collins 1974 (Fig. 2.1). This species shows a patchy distribution apparently not related to the salinity. In higher salinity areas (samples 12,14) it grows longer and more robust. 229 Research Reports Table 1. Distribution of foraminiferans, Lake Connewarre. Key: *- 1 specimen; Ml 2-4 specimens; @ 5-9 specimens; @ 10-40 specimens; ‘| 40+ specimensmens A. barwonensis R. barwonensis W. palustris T. inflata M. fusca M. edens Q. seminulum A. aoteanus E, macellum E, poeyanum H. depressula Warrenita palustris (Fig. 2.3), This is a very small, slender species with slightly compressed and overlapping cham- bers. Rare specimens are found in many samples. This species was originally de- scribed from the Holocene marshes of Louisiana; in Victoria it is also found in Swan Bay (pers. obs.). Trochammina inflata (Montagu 1808) (Fig. 2.10). Apart from rare specimens in sample 6, this species has a patchy distribution con- fined to the higher salinity waters, It may be substrate controlled since the localities where it is found were those with a higher mud content as was also found by Collins (1974) in Port Phillip Bay, although Matera and Lee (1972) report its preference for coarser sediments in a Long Island salt marsh. Miliammina fusca (Brady 1870) (Fig. 2.6, 3.4), , : : anes This species is typically found in brackish waters. It is large, with a coarse-grained but smoothly finished test surface that is often dark-coloured due to included mineral grains in the test matrix. The chambers are rounded and have a quinqueloculine ar- 230 (Warren 1957) rangement. The aperture is rounded with a bar-like tooth on the inner side. Many of the specimens from the lowest salinity samples (1, 2, 3) showed marked Variations in the test growth plan with some specimens even producing a linear tube in- stead of the norm al chamber. Miliammina edens n. sp. (Fig. 3.1-3). Diagnosis: A species of Miliammina with a squat, oblong shape and no apertural tooth. Types: Holotype (Fig. 3.1-2): NMV F74815, Museum of Victoria; from the Re- cent sediments of Lake Connewarre, Victoria; sample 3. Paratypes (Fig. 3.3): NMV F74816, Mu- seum of Victoria; from the Recent sediments of Lake Connewarre, Victoria; sample 5. NMV F74817 Museum of Victoria, (10 unfigured specimens); from the Recent sedi- ments of Lake Connewarre, Victoria, various samples. Description: Test agglutinate, small; quin- queloculine chamber arrangement; test wall is very fine grained with much cement and a smoothly finished surface; chambers are cy- lindrical with almost parallel sides, rounded aborally; aperture terminal, rounded to semi- circular, without a tooth; a paler rim of much finer grains surrounds the aperture; speci- The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Fig, 2. 1. Reophax barwonensis x 120; 2. Ammobaculites barwonensis x 60; 3. Warrenita palustris x 100; 4. Ammonia aoteanus, spiral side x 60; 5. Ammonia aoteanus, umbilical side x 60; 6. Miliammina fusca x 45; 7. Quinqueloculina seminulum x 75; 8. Elphidium macellum x 60; 9, Haynesina depressula x 120; 10. Trochammina inflata x 60. mens are usually a pale yellow-fawn colour when alive. Size: Holotype (Fig. 3. 1-2): length=430um, width=276pm, I/w=1.55. Paratype (Fig, 3.3): length=380um, width=288um, I/w=1.34. Derivation of name: Lat. e - without; dens - tooth. Remarks: One of the characteristics of the genus Miliammina Heron-Allen and Earland is the presence of a tooth in the aperture (Heron-Allen and Earland 1930). Notwith- standing this, the present species 1s placed in Miliammina partly because there is no other genus available and also because many authors previously have referred to speci- mens of another species of Miliammina (M. fusca) that may or may not have had an apertural tooth e.g. Brodniewicz (1965) both with and without tooth; Saunders (1958) no Vol. 112 (6) 1995 tooth; and the original description and figure of fusca by Brady (1870) with no tooth. Haynes (1973) stated that specimens from Brady’s localities contain forms both with and without an apertural tooth; he suggested that the presence or not of a tooth may bea preservational artefact. Of the several hun- dred specimens of M. edens studied none had an apertural tooth. Some specimens of M edens become almost spiroloculine in later growth (Fig. 3.3); this is most likely due to age and not salinity changes as only a very few larger specimens showed this develop- ment. M. edens differs from M. fusca in being of much smaller size; with a squat, oblong shape, having a fine-grained test and never showing an apertural tooth. Although some specimens of fusca may not have an apertural tooth (and these were quite uncommon In 231 Research Reports Fig. 3. 1-3, Miliammina edens n.sp. 1, Holotype, NMV F74815, x120; 2, close-up of aperture of Holotype, x400; 3, Paratype, NMV F748 16, x150. 4: Miliammina fusca, close-up of aperture, x400. Scale bar; 100 ym for each figure. Lake Connewarre) the two species can easily be distinguished on their other characters. M. earlandi Loeblich and Tappan differs from M. edens in having longer and narrower chambers, in having an apertural neck and apertural tooth and is a marine nota brackish, intertidal species. Quinqueloculina seminulum 1767) (Fig. 3.7). This species is only found in the Lower Barwon River downstream of the lake where the waters are almost normal marine (Rosen- gren 1973; salinities .32 ppt). Ammonia aoteanus (Finlay (Fig, 2.4-5), This is the most common species through- out the lake, although specimens are very rare and fragile in the lowest salinity locali- ties (samples 1, 2, 3). Elphidium macellum (Linné (Fig. 2.8). Small, infrequent specimens are restricted to the more mobile sandy areas where little clay was present. Elphidium poeyanum (d’Orbigny 1839) _ This small, thin walled, lobate Elphidium is widespread throughout the lake. However, 232 (Linné 1940) 1758) itis usually only present in rare numbers (1-5 specimens) except in samples 1, 2 and 12 where it is very common (20+ specimens). These sites have widely different salinities and the reason for the larger numbers is not known. Haynesina depressula (Walker and Jacob 1798) (Fig. 2.9). This species is common in sample 14, near Ocean Grove, with two isolated specimens found within the lake. This species is found widespread in Victorian shallow water sedi- ments and previously has been recorded under the name E/phidium simplex Cushman 1933. Itdiffers from true E. simplexin having more defined retral processes and that there is no boss in the umbilical region which, in depressula, is covered with small pustules which continue slightly along the sutures. Parr (1945) suggested that this form is a tem- perate water form of E. simplex. Discussion Although 11 species of foraminiferans are living in the lake and Lower Barwon River, the absolute number of specimens was low being of the order of 30 specimens in most samples, The reason for these low numbers may be complex. In an estuary the environ- mental conditions can be subject to large daily and seasonal changes which make it difficult for animals and plants to live. Within Lake Connewarre due to the high turbidity of the water and the possible mobile substrate there is no plant growth (Yujoyic 1985; Sher- wood 1988). This lack of plant growth within the lake is perhaps the major cause of the lower numbers since it is known that foraminiferan species are more abundant in epiphytic communities in Enteromorpha, Zostera beds, (Lee et al. 1969; Murray 1973) than in mobile sandy sediments. The turbid- ity of the waterreduces the light intensity and so may affect the production of phytoplank- ton which is a major food resource for foraminiferans. Decaying plant detritus in the sediments would lead to lower oxygen levels in the substrate and in fine sediments the black sulphide layer (i.e. reduced sedi- ments) lies close to the surface (Gray 1981). Foraminiferans are sensitive to low oxygen levels and are not found living in reduced sediments. However, these factors do not ex- plain all the distribution variations found, although where plant growth was present (samples 2, 3) live foraminiferans were more common (about 100/sample). The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Two species, A. aoteanus and M. Jusca, are more tolerant of the changing environ- mental conditions and were found in all samples. M. edens is a hyposaline species found living within the salinity range 11-23 ppt. Ammobaculites barwonensis also shows this hyposaline distribution but was most common in the lower salinity samples (2, 3); the high numbers in samples 10 and 11 may indicate lower salinity in that area than given by Rosengren since a small intermittent stream enters near sample 1 1. Inthe estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, Virginia, the related spe- cies A. crassus was found to prefer low salinities and fine, organic-rich substrates, but these were not limiting conditions (El- lison 1972). Sample 9 has quite a depauperate fauna (5 species; 23 specimens); the waters of the northern arm of the lake can be more saline than the sea in summer due to the prevailing. SW winds reducing water circulation (Yujovic 1985). With the higher salinity in the Lower Barwon (salinity >32 ppt) Q. seminulum and H. depressula become important components of the fauna. To understand the patchiness and variabil- ity of the foraminiferan fauna in Lake Connewarre we need much more informa- tion on the ‘microenvironment’ which occurs, especially the physical and chemical factors (such as sediment size, organic con- tent, oxygen level) and the biotic factors (e.g. phytoplankton and microbial production as foraminiferan food resources). Acknowledgements I thank the editors and an anonymous referee for suggestions which improved this paper. References Apthorpe, M. (1980). Foraminiferal distribution in the estuarine Gippsland Lakes system, Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 9, 207-227. Balfour-Melville, F. (1984). Investigator 19, 10-19. Bell. K.N. and Drury, S.R. (1992). Foraminiferal fauna of Mallacoota Inlet, East Gippsland, Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 109, 7-16. Brady, H.B. (1870). The ostracoda and foraminifera of tidal rivers. Eds G. S. Brady and D. Robertson. Annals and Magazine of Natural History (4) 6, $3-107. Toorang Memories. Vol. 112 (6) 1995 Brodniewicz, I. (1965). Recent and some Holocene foraminifera of the southern Baltic Sea. Acta Paleontologia Polonica 10, 131-248. Campbell, J.C. (1894), First settlers and early days. In ‘The Tourists’ Guide to Geelong and the Southern Watering Places’. (M. L. Hutchinson: Melboume). Collins, A.C. (1974), Port Phillip Survey 1957-63 Foraminiferida. Memoir, National Museum of Victoria 35, 1-61. Coulson, A. (1933), A study of Lake Connewarre. The Victorian Naturalist 50, 12-17. Coulson, A. (1935), Geological notes on Lake Connewarre, near Geelong. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 48, 1-10. Ellison, R.L. (1972). Ammobaculites, Foraminiferal proprietor of Chesapeake Bay estuaries. Geological Society of America, Memoir 133, 247-262. Gill, E.D, and Collins, A.C. (1983). Ancient seaway between Geelong Harbour and Bass Strait, Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 100, 200-203. Gray, J.S. 1981. ‘The Ecology of Marine Sediments’. (Cambridge University Press). Haynes, J.R. (1973), Cardigan Bay Recent Foraminifera, British Museum (Natural History), Zoology. Supplement 4, 1-245. Lee, J.J., Muller, W.A., Stone, R. J. McEnery, M. E. and Zucker, W. (1969). Standing crop of foraminifera in sublittoral epiphytic communities of a Long Island salt marsh. Marine Biology 4, 44-61. Matera, N.J. and Lee, J.J. (1972). Environmental factors affecting the standing crop of foraminifera in sublittoral and psammolittoral communities of a Long Island salt marsh. Marine Biology 14, 89-103. Murray, J.W, 1973. ‘Distribution and ecology of living benthic foraminiferids’, (Heinemann: London). Parr, W.J. (1945). Recent foraminifera from Barwon Heads, Victoria, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 56, 189-218. Rosengren, N.J. 1973. Lake Connewarre and the Barwon Estuary. Victorian Resources 15, 19-22. Saunders, J.B. (1958). Recent foraminifera of mangroye swamps and river estuaries and their fossil counterparts in Trinidad, Micropaleontology. 479-92. Sherwood, J.E. (1988). The likely impact of climatic change on south-west Victorian estuaries. /n ‘Greenhouse, planning for climate change’, Ed. G. Pearman, (C.S.1.R.0. Division of Atmospheric Research; Melbourne). Strom, H.G. (1954). The Barwon Riverand its Catchment. State Rivers and Water Supply Commission (Roneo, evidence to the Parliament Public Works Committee), Yugovic, J.Z. (1985). The Vegetation at the Lake Connewarre State Game Reserve. Arthur Rylah Institute Environmental Research, Technical Report No. 18. (Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands, Melbourne), 233 Research Reports The Cryptogams of Royal Park, Melbourne, Victoria Jon Sago! Abstract The cryptogamic flora of a 150 year old inner urban public reserve was surveyed and comprises twenty-one mosses, 10 liverworts and 24 lichen species. This represents 20.1% of overall plant diversity and 50.0% of indigenous plant diversity. In comparison with Yarra Bend Park, the nearest public reservation of similar size, the lower diversity values of cryptogamic species, across all groups, were attributed to recreational and topographical differences. Greatest species diversity, however, was in those remnant areas that have experienced minimal human activity. Introduction Royal Park, 3 km north-west of the Mel- bourne GPO and consisting of more than 100 ha, was reserved in 1856 with excisions for the Zoological Gardens in 1862, and railway and tramway purposes in 1889 and 1923 re- spectively (Sanderson 1932). A review of the geology and vascular plant ecology may be found in Carr and Race (1992) and Muyt (1991). The lack of a similar study of non- vascular plants was the impetus for this investigation, Between April 1992 and July 1993, Royal Park was regularly surveyed and species col- lected and determined. An objective system of random sampling was rejected because the diverse habitats, varying from from hori- zontal to vertical and encompassing natural and artificial substrates, presented formida- ble practical problems. Instead, a subjective estimate of the frequency of each species was made derived in part from Gilbert (1990), using the scale: Abundant, Common, Fre- quent, Occasional and Rare (ranging from ‘abundant’ species which were seen con- stantly, to ‘rare’ species which were observed only once). In addition, rather than dividing the park geographically and pre- senting the species site by site, an ecological approach based upon community analysis was undertaken combining substrate charac- ter and humidity regimes (Ashton 1985: Mazimpaka er al. 1993). This was consid- ered to give the most useful overview. Cryptogams, throughout this article, is used as a collective noun to incorporate mosses, liverworts and lichens. Non- lichenised fungi and algae were ignored, Nomenclature follows that of Scott and Stone (1976), Scott (1985), Cropper er al. (1991) and Filson (1986). "10 Wimble Street, Northcote, Victoria 3070. 234 Communities observed Turf Community Turf habitats include roadside verges, playing fields, golf links, and other recrea- tional areas with only occasional tree cover. These areas are all mown; cryptogam diver- sity and richness appear to be inversely proportional to mowing frequency. The loose wefts of the pleurocarpous moss Brachythecium albicans are wide- spread, as with other lawn environments across Melbourne. On recently burnt soils the cosmopolitan moss Funaria hygromet- rica is seen. Badly drained or shaded sites may also harbour the mosses Brywm argen- teum, Eurhynchium sp., Ceratodon purpu- reus and the thallose liverworts Lunularia cruciata and Riccia bifurca. Beneath and adjacent to Eucalyptus camaldulensis, the indigenous mosses Tri- quetrella papillata and Barbula crinita may also be encountered occupying shallow de- pressions that provide greater moisture availability and lesser mowing intensities. Red Gum Grassy Woodland Community Centred on the Upfield line rail cutting, west of Royal Park Station, this community contains both the most species (27) and the greatest number of indigenous species (24). Despite extensive clearing and past exotic uses, such as a rifle range, it comprises the highest quality extant remnant of the lower Moonee Ponds Creek valley (Carr and Race 1992). As the site has northerly aspect the cryptogam flora is restricted to that of a dry sclerophyll vascular species complement, On bare soil and eroded areas, the mosses Pleuridium nervosum, Archidium stella- tum, Bryum argenteum and B. dichotomum play a colonising role, as do the crustose li- chens Porpidia crustulata and Verrucaria spp. and the thallose Endocarpon simplica- The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports tum and E. pusillum, On moister, shaded sites the lichens Cladonia spp. in a non-fruit- ing condition, and liverworts Riccia bifurca and R. cartilaginosa can be observed grow- ing on undisturbed pluvial mud and silt. The prominent mosses Bryum billardieri, Campylopus clavatus, Barbula crinita, Polytrichum — juniperinum, — Triquetrella papillata, Weissia controversa and Hypnum cupressiforme are associated with the domi- nant trees E. camaldulensis and Acacia mea rasii and grasses Danthonia, Stipa and Ely- mus. The liverworts Fossombronia intest- inalis and Lethocolea pansa are restricted to this community, as are the lichens Hetereodea muelleri, Ramalea cochleata, Thysansothecium hookeri and Cladia aggre- gata, One of the Verrucaria sp. is unnamed (P. McCarthy pers. comm.), whilst Thysano- thecium hookeri is considered uncommon (Sammy 1992) and its occurrence at Royal Park is regionally significant. (Leigh ef al. 1984), Saxicolous Communities Saxicolous environments are the most di- verse habitats at Royal Park, encompassing artificial and natural substrata. These include exposed Tertiary bedrock, exogenous boul- ders, stones, brick and stonework, monuments, roofing and masonry. Due to radical alteration of the park few undisturbed rock surfaces remain and it is the artificial constructions, often over a century old, that show the greatest cryptogam richness. The crustose lichen Candelariella vitel- lina is ubiquitous, even in the most exposed sites, and is easily detected by its yellow pat- ina. Substrate preference is conspicuous, as granite an acidic substrate, appears to be far less amenable to colonisation than blue- stone, a basic substrate, Other crustose genera include Lecanora, Caloplaca, Buel- lia, Acarospora, and Verrucaria. The foliose lichens Neofuscelia pulla, Xanthoria parietina and Xanthoparmelia tasmanica habitually grow on most types of stone sur- faces. Thallus diameters of up to 30 cm, may be found, forming extensive mats of mixed species. The finest examples are those grow- ing upon the rail bridge that forms part of The Avenue, Parkville and the exposed Ter- tiary bedrock of Royal Park West. On south-facing brick walls and stone- work, the mosses Tortula muralis, Bryum argenteum and, to a lesser extent, Grima Vol. 112 (6) 1995 pulvinata are prominent. The latter species is restricted to basic surfaces, especially ba- salt and the cement tracks of brickwork where it forms small, hoary pads. Lignicolous and Corticolous Communities This environment, consisting of wood, bark and their worked derivatives provides a distinctive and peculiar environment. In or- der of descending cryptogam diversity the tree’genera Ulmus, Fraxinus, Allocasuarina, Ficus, Eucalyptus and Pinus provide the most suitable habitats. Such qualitative se- lectivity by cryptogams between tree species appears to be dependent upon available sur- face area and degree of bark deciduousness. The most commonly encountered mosses are Bryum argenteum, Tortula muralis and T. papillosa. The more delicate liverworts Frullania falciloba and Metzgeria furcata are restricted to the darker, moister recesses of Ulmus bark and Allocasuarina butts, always under the influence of artificial wa- tering of adjacent lawns. The crustose lichens Candelariella xanthostigmoides and lemon-yellow Chyrosthrix candelaris, the foliose lichens Xanthoria parietina and the blue-grey Hypotrachyna osseoalba often form extensive patches on Fraxinus and Ulmus bark. On tree extremities, such as twigs and small branches the lichen species Usnea sp. and Teloschistes sp. are found, In the vast majority of cases, lichens are ob- served in a non-fertile condition. Worked timber surfaces encompassing buildings, fences, benches, and, surprisingly, chrome-treated pine timber, are all exploited by cryptogams throughout the park. The youngest surfaces are inhabited by colonis- ing lichens such as Candelariella xanthostigmoides, whereas on older, more decayed surfaces, the foliose lichens H. osseoalba, X. parietina and Usnea sp., and the mosses Tortula muralis and Bryumar- genteum appear, Creek Community An unnamed tributary of Moonee Ponds Creek, that flows from Melbourne Zoo under the Upfield rail line, forms a narrow creek- line in the north of the park. Densely shaded by E. camaldulensis, Pinus, Ulmus and Fraxinus, itis the habitat within the park with highest humidity. The zone directly adjacent to the water line, composed of eroded Tertiary bedrock 235 Research Reports and loose boulders, contains the saxicolous crustose lichens, Lecanora, Buellia, Por- pidia crustulata and Acarospora citrina. Whereas bryophytes Lophocolea, March- antia, Rhacopilum and Brachythecium are typically terrestrial elsewhere in the park, within the confines of the creek-line they also inhabit rock surfaces, The aquatic moss De- pranocladus aduncus, egregiously absent from inner Melbourne’s waterways, is here confined to water soaks and seepages. Higher up on the banks, the fructicose — li- chens Cladonia humilis and C, scabriuscula may be found in abundance. This is the only site where these species may be encountered in fruiting condition, an indication of its rela- tive undisturbed and mesic nature, The pleurocarpous mosses Brachythecium, Rha- copilum and Hypnum cupressiforme also have high cover values. Close examination revealed small disjunct patches of the liver- worts Riccia bifurca, Lunularia cruciata, Marchantia berteroana, | Cephaloziella arctica ssp. subantarctica, and mosses Phi- lonotis tenuis and Eurhynchium. Brachy- thecium albicans is of only recent introduc- tion (Willis 1955) and its dominance of the habitat represents evidence of disturbance of the creek-line within the last fifty years. Above the creek-line, but still under the influence of tree shade, is a grassy commu- nity of Distichlis, Briza, Nassella and Danthonia. It is here that Hypnum has the highest cover, Other mosses found growing amongst the grasses were Barbula crinita, Triquetrella papillata and Bryum billardieri. Vitricolous and Anomalous Communities. These communities reside on substrata that are, by definition, artificial in substance and origin. They include glass, paint, bitu- men, concrete and oxidised metal surfaces. Broken, but subsequently undisturbed, beer and soft drink bottles provide a suitable habi- tat for Candelariella yitellina, Xanth- oparmelia tasmanica and Neofuscelia pulla. Studies have shown that glass and vitreous surfaces must initially become pitted before colonisation can be initiated (Brightman and Seaward 1977). Since the examples of colo- nised shards that the author has collected are up to 5 cm in diameter, it can be estimated that they have been laying on the ground for periods that can be measured in decades instead of years, 236 Concrete less than 20 years old, particu- larly building masonry and footpaths, is found to be colonised with Candelariella vitellina, Xanthoria parietina was observed only on such surfaces older than 20 years, and then only forming small, discrete patches, less than 3 cm in diameter. Exploiting the gaps and hollows of road metal in bitumen roads and paths, Xantho- parmelia tasmanica and Neofuscelia pulla are able to produce relatively high cover val- ues on areas of road surface. This phenomenon, which can also be observed across Melbourne, is apparently facilitated by the greater stability and moisture reten- tion of bitumen roads than locally available saxicolous habitats. If substrate age, aspect and absence of human activity suitably con- spire, the additional species Porpidia crustulata, Xanthoria parietina, Tortula mu- ralis and Bryum argenteum can also occur, Aged painted surfaces on wood, metal and stonework which have decayed to the point of flaking, or with only the pigment stain remaining, may be observed to carry Cande- lariella xanthostigmoides and Xanthoria parietina colonies, Discussion The total number of plant species includ- ing vascular species (Carr and Race 1992) was found to be 274 of which 20.1% were cryptogams. Of the overall indigenous (i.e. non-introduced) plant species 50.0% were cryptogams, Table 1 illustrates the cryp- togam floristics of the study area. Their figures are discussed below and those in brackets are percentages of species in com- mon with those at Yarra Bend (Sago 1994), which, in metropolitan Melbourne, is the nearest area of remnant vegetation to Royal Park. Twenty (39%) were mosses, 23 (26%) lichens and 10 (80%) liverworts. The Royal Park's lower values across all groups is at- tributable to the comparative lack of topographical variety, and past and present human activity. The gently undulating to- pography of the Park, with only a single creek-line, allows little amelioration of the effects of solar radiation and wind. The origi- nal E. camaldulensis Grassy Woodland has been cleared and, with only one exception, totally transformed (Muyt 1991). This is un- like Yarra Bend where a variety of original habitats persist. Also certain substrates, such as burnt wood, are entirely lacking, while the The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports 4 Table 1. Cryptogamic Floristics of Royal Park. Key: - 1.= red gum grassy woodland community; i : ity; 2.= turf community; 3.= creek coi i i Bee cas Ara : ; 3= mmunity; 4.= sa community; 5.= corticolous and lignicolous community; 6.= vitricolous and anomolous auintiests sip walt oe, A=abundant; C=common; F=frequent; O=occasional; R=rare., *=introduced or urban ve SPECIES SPECIES LICHENS Acarospora citrina OF Bryum billardieri F O Buellia sp. O F Bryum dichotomum* (Sem G29) Caloplaca sp. 00 Campylopus clavatus Cc oO Candelariella vitellina GA Ceratodon purpureus* F FO C. xanthostigmoides Depranocladus aduncus O Chrysothrix candelaris O Eurhynchium sp.* 00 Cladia aggregata O Funaria hygrometrica* O O Cladonia fimbriata O O Grimmia pulvinata F Cladonia humilis O O Hypnum cupressiforme O 9 C. scabriuscula O O Philonotis tenuis Endocarpon pusillum O O Pleuridium nervosum Endocarpon simplicatum F F Polytrichum juniperinum O Heterodea meulleri O Rhacopilum convolutaceum O Hypotrachyna osseoalba. ¢ Tortula muralis* Lecanora sp. (Ong Tortula papillosa Neofuscelia pulla C R E | Triquetrella papillata 000 Porpidia crustulata F O Weissia controversa O Ramalea cochleata LIVERWORTS Cephaloziella arctica ssp. subantarctica R Teloschistes sp Thysanothecium hookeri O Usnea sp. oO Verrucaria spp. O 0O Fossombronia intestinalis Xanthoparmelia tasmanica co F | Frullania falciloba R Xanthoria parietina* OF E10: Lethocolea pansa O Lophocolea semiteres O O Lunularia cruciata* O MOSSES Archidium stellatum 13 Marchantia berteroana (omme) Barbula crinita O Metzgeria furcata R Brachythecium albicans* O Riccia bifurca FOO Bryum argenteum* CCF FEO O} Riccia cartilaginosa R 237 Vol. 112 (6) 1995 Research Reports recreational pressure chronically degrades habitats and their formation. As a conse- quence overall species diversity tends to a minimum. However the colonizing compo- nent of terrestrial bryophytes are at an adaptive advantage in such situations. A common feature amongst some of the species present is their wide ecological am- plitude, in as much as they are almost indifferent to substrate and, to a lesser extent, microclimate. The genera Xanthoria, Can- delariella, Bryum, and Tortula would be included in this complement, Moreover, they are also classed as urban, cosmopolitan and early colonisers (Gilbert 1990; Mazimpaka et al. 1993), suggesting they are able to with- stand pollution and disturbance, prominent environmental factors of urban areas. In contrast, a group of indigenous cryp- togams can be characterised by a low tolerance of disturbance a nd a dependence upon a high integrity of soil structure. In the Royal Park environment they are concen- trated in refugia that have been bypassed by human destruction, The most prominent habitat form for such species is a superficial soil crust consisting of dense, interwoven cryptogam hyphae, rhizoids and associated algae, especially Nostoc. Unless hydrated, these crusts are present as an undifferenti- ated, continuous ‘mat’. Such mats have been implicated in the germination ecology of na- tive vascular plants (Scarlett 1994), and soil stability and erosion control (Eldridge and Greene 1994), Included in this grouping are the genera Cladonia, Cladia, Heterodea, Thysanothecium, Ramalea, Lethocolea, Fossombronia, Barbula, Polytrichum, Weis- sia, Triquetrella and Philonotis. A further group is limited to habitats of high relative humidity, and are therfore se- verely restricted within the Melbourne metropolitan area, In general, and in Royal Park particularly, artificial watering regimes of public parks allow a far greater geographi- cal range than that would naturally occur However, they tend to be tolerant of phoro- phyte (host tree), and include the bryophyte See Frullania, Metzgeria and Rhacopi- um. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Arthur Thies, Dr. Patrick McCarthy and Neville Scarlett for providing invaluable taxonomic opinion; Adam Muyt for providing an insight into local geology and geography; Max Bartley 238 and Dr. Bob Parsons for allowing generous access to Latrobe University Botany Department facilities. References Ashton, D.H. (1985). Bryological Communities associated with Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell, Australian Journal of Botany 34, 107-1029. Brightman FH. and Seaward, M.R.D. (1977). Lichens of Man-made Substrates. Jn ‘Lichen Ecology’. Ed. M.R.D. Seaward. (Academic Press: London). Carr, G,W. and Race, G.J. (1992). ‘Vegetation and Managementof Royal Park West, City of Melbourne’. (Ecological Horticulture Australia Pty, Ltd.), Cropper, S.C., Tonkinson, D.A. and Scott G.A,M. (1991), ‘A Census of Victorian Bryophytes’. (Department of Conservation and Environment: Victoria). Eldridge, D.J, and Greene, R.S.B.(1994). Microbiotic Soil Crusts: A Review of their Roles in Soil and Ecological Processes in the Rangelands of Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research 32, 389-415, Filson, R.B.(1986). ‘Checklist of Australian Lichens' 2nd. Edition. (National Herbarium of Victoria). Gilbert, O.L. (1990). The Lichen Flora of Urban Wasteland. Lichenologist 22, 87-101. Leigh, J., Boden, R. and Briggs, J. (1984). ‘Extinct and Endangered Plants of Australia’, (Macmillan Co, Aust. Pty Ltd.; Melbourne). Mazimpaka,V., Lara, F. and Lopez-Garcia, C. (1993), Donnees ecologiques sur la bryoflora de la ville de Cuenca (Espagne). Nova Hedwigia 56, 113-129. Muyt A.(1991), Royal Park West, a new Friends group, Indigenotes 4, 2-4. Sago, J. (1994). The Cryptogams of Yarra Bend: Part I Indigenotes. 7, 14-15. Sammy, N. (1992). Thysanathecium. In ‘Flora of Australia’ vol 54. Sanderson, W.A. (1932), The Alienation of Melbourne Parks. Victorian Historical Magazine 14, 41-165. Scarlett, N.H. (1994). Soil Crusts, Germination and Weeds-Issuies to Consider, The Victorian Naturalist 111, 125-130. Scott, G,A.M. (1985). ‘Southern Australian Liverworts’. (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra). Scott, G.A.M., and Stone 1.G, (1976). ‘The Mosses of Southern Australia’. ( Acedemic Press: London), Willis J.H. (1955). Systematic notes on Victorian mosses - 5. The Victorian Naturalist 72, 73-78. The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports 4 European Management of Remnant Grassy Forests and Woodlands in South-eastern Australia - Past, Present and Future? Tan D. Lunt’ Abstract ; The impact of European management practices on grassy forests and woodlands is discussed, and six conclusions are drawn: (1) On the Gippsland Plain in Victoria, the exclusive use of either grazin or burning, coupled with the effects of changing tree densities, has led to an ecological segregation of many plant species. Many species have been depleted in one class of reserves only to survive in another Similar patterns occur in other grassy forests and woodlands in south-eastern Australia. (2) The tiny rail-line and cemetery remnants that tenuously survive in woodland regions protect a suite of species that have been systematically depleted or eliminated from the larger, secure grassy forest and woodland remnants. (3) In order to conserve the small rail-line remnants and their species, the traditional rail-line management of tree removal, grazing exclusion and frequent burning should be continued, (4) The species that repeatedly occur in rail-line or cemetery remnants were presumably common and wide- spread in the region originally, and most probably also occurred in grassy forest and woodland remnants that occur on similar soils. (5) Species conservation, in some cases, may be hindered at present by policies which prevent species from being introduced to secure reserves unless there are accurate records from the particular reserves. This is a problem since many species were undoubtedly eliminated from some reserves before records were made. (6) Most Victorian remnants of grassy forests and woodlands are being managed as ‘grazing ecosystems’ with no burning. Consequently, small-scale trials are ur- gently required to determine the effects on endangered species of grassy forest and woodland management regimes that are characterised by grazing exclusion and frequent burning. Introduction The management requirements of rem- nant grasslands dominated by Kangaroo Grass Themeda triandra have received con- siderable attention lately (e.g. Stuwe and Parsons 1977; McDougall 1989; Lunt 1991; Scarlett et al. 1992). By comparison, little attention has been given to grassy forests and woodlands. It is now widely recognised that most Themeda grasslands need regular man- agement, usually in the form of burning, to maintain plant diversity. By contrast, man- agement of lowland grassy forests and woodlands in south-eastern Australia is typi- cally a process of benign (and malign) neglect, in which diversity is assumed, rightly or wrongly, to be maintained by in- ternal ‘natural’ processes. This article concerns the impact of Euro- pean management practices on remnant grassy forests and woodlands in south-east- ern Australia. It deals with three aspects. Firstly, I summarise findings from a recent study of remnants in Gippsland. This article 1 School of Botany, LaTrobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083. Vol. 112 (6) 1995 provides an overview of these results and discusses their implications for conserva- tion, The detailed results will be presented elsewhere. Secondly, I present a broader in- terpretation of these results to include grassy forest and woodland remnants throughout Victoria, and finally I present some thoughts on how such remnants might be managed in the future. The terms ‘grassy forest’ and ‘grassy woodland’ refer to lowland (non-alpine) eco- systems on relatively fertile soils, in which the understorey is dominated by native grasses and herbs with relatively few species of shrubs (Lunt 1991), Grassy forests have a higher density of trees than grassy wood- lands (Specht 1981). The term ‘grassland’ refers to treeless sites in which native grasses and herbs dominate the ground layer; trees are either naturally absent or may have been removed since European settlement. The- meda grasslands are dominated by the perennial, native tussock-grass, Kangaroo Grass Themeda triandra. Plant names follow Ross (1993). 239 Research Reports Fig, 1, Location of the study area: the lowland Gippsland Plain. The lowland Gippsland Plain The lowland Gippsland Plain occupies about 2000 sq km in eastern Victoria, from Traralgon east to Johnsonville (Fig. 1). At the time of European settlement, the alluvial plains probably supported about 600 sq km of native grassland and 1200 sq km of grassy forests and woodlands. The native grass- lands have since been totally destroyed for agriculture and nota single remnant is known to survive (Lunt 1994). The grassy forests and woodlands have fared slightly better. The largest and most intact remnant is the nationally significant Moormurng Flora and Fauna Reserve near Bairnsdale, which in- cludes about 400 ha of grassy forest dominated by Forest Red Gum Eucalyptus tereticornis, The second largest remnant, the Briagolong Forest Reserve, includes about 120 ha of Forest Red Gum forest, and there are many other smaller remnants, most of which are quite degraded. Collectively all of these remnants add up to about 0.3% of the region. Most of the region supports grazed pastures. In first visiting the Gippsland region, I was puzzled by the presence of Themeda grass- lands along rail-lines and in some cemeteries. These small grassland patches are in areas that were mapped in the 1860’s as grassy forest and woodland, not grassland, and they often occurred in close proximity to larger remnants supporting Forest Red Gum grassy forest. However, the grassland patches appeared to have a very different 240 floristic composition from the grassy forest remnants, even though both seemed to occur on the same soils. The rail-line grasslands and the nearby grassy forest remnants have different management histories. The grassy forest remnants have been selectively logged and most have rarely been burnt. All have been grazed by stock with varying intensi- ties, and many are now grazed by Grey Kangaroos. Judging from the density of stumps at some sites, tree density is probably considerably greater now than at the time of European settlement. Conversely, the trees have been removed from the rail-lines and cemeteries, and these sites have not been grazed by stock or kangaroos since the rail- line was built last century. Instead, they have been burnt about every 2-4 years. Recently, I undertook a vegetation and seedbank survey to see how distinct the grassland and grassy forest floras were, and to attempt to identify the physical and man- agement determinants of the two floras. Only intact remnants with few weeds were sam- pled, not obviously degraded sites. I asked three questions: (1) Do the grassland patches on rail-lines and in cemeteries have a differ- ent floristic composition from the grassy forest remnants, or do they just have different dominant species, with the subordinate spe- cies being common to all sites? (2) Do the rail-line grasslands occur on different soil textures from the grassy forest remnants? (3) Is it possible to identify which factors are primarily responsible for any differences in floristic composition, e.g. different grazing or burning histories, or differences in tree cover? The results of the survey were quite sur- prising. Firstly, grassland and grassy forest remnants both occurred across a wide range of soil textures, from heavy clays to sandy loams. Some grassland and grassy forest patches of dramatically different plant com- position were separated only by a fence-line, with both communities growing on similar soils. Furthermore, the composition of grassy forest remnants on sandy soils was more similar to that of distant grassy forest patches on clay soils than it was to nearby grasslands on sandy or clay soils. The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports ‘ Thus, the differences between the two communities were not due to large-scale dif- ferences in ‘natural’ soil texture. Instead, plant composition was directly correlated with the long-term site management. Grass- land remnants on the rail-lines and in ceme- teries shared a similar floristic composition, regardless of the location of the remnant or the soil texture, while the grassy forest rem- nants shared another distinct group of species. Many species were common in both communities, but many more only occurred commonly in one community, and some spe- cies were totally restricted to one community (Table 1). Furthermore, neither community could be called a ‘degraded’ or ‘depauper- ate’ form of the other, as both had a similar richness of native species and relatively few exotics. The magnitude of the floristic dif- ferences between the two communities was Table 1. Common grassland, grassy forest and widespread species on the Gippsland Plain, Grassland species are uncommon or absent in grassy forest remnants, and grassy forest species are uncommon or absent in grassland remnants. Widespread species are common in both communities. Taxonomy follows Ross (1993), and asterisks (*) denote exotic species. Grassland species Grassy forest species Widespread species Allocasuarina verticillata Briza maxima * Bulbine bulbosa Burchardia umbellata Caesia calliantha Chamaescilla corymbosa Acacia implexa Asperula conferta Astroloma humifusum Comesperma volubile Cotula australis Crassula decumbens Aira spp.* Agrostis avenacea Anagailis arvensis * Arthropodium strictum Bossiaea prostrata Briza minor * Carex breviculmis Chrysocephalum apiculatum Craspedia variabilis Diuris punctata Drosera peltata ssp. peltata Eragrostis trachycarpa Haloragis heterophylla Helichrysum scorpioides Hemarthria uncinata Holcus lanatus * Juncus capitatus * Leptorhynchos squamatus Lomandra nana Pentapogon quadrifidus Poa clelandii Romulea rosea * Thelymitra spp. Vol. 112 (6) 1995 Danthonia geniculata Danthonia racemosa Dichondra repens Elymus scabrus Eucalyptus tereticornis Gahnia radula Galium murale * Geranium potentilloides Glycine microphylla Gnaphalium involucratum s.1. Hydrocotyle foveolata Hydrocotyle hirta Lagenifera gracilis Leptorhynchos linearis Microlaena stipoides Opercularia varia Poa sieberiana Poranthera microphylla Ranunculus sessiliflorus Senecio tenuiflorus Solenogyne dominii Soliva sessilis * Stipa rudis Taraxacum sp. aff. brakellii Veronica plebeia Viola betonicifolia Vulpia myuros * Wahlenbergia gracilis Xanthorrhoea minor * Centaurium erythraea * Cerastium glomeratum * Crassula sieberiana Danthonia setacea Danthonia tenuior Dichelachne crinita Dillwynia cinerascens Eragrostis brownti Gnaphalium purpureum * Gonocarpus tetragynus Hypericum gramineum Hypochoeris glabra * Hypochoeris radicata * Hypoxis hygrometrica Juncus subsecundus Leontodon taraxacoides * Lomandra filiformis Microtis unifolia Oxalis perennans Pimelea humilis Plantago gaudichaudii Schoenus apogen Sonchus oleraceus * Stipa mollis Themeda triandra Thysanotus patersonit Tricoryne elatior 241 Research Reports also surprising. The rail-line grasslands and the grassy forest remnants clearly formed two ‘communities’ rather than minor ‘sub- communities’ under the classification scheme that is widely used in Victoria (e.g. Gullan et al, 1981; Opie er al. 1984; Lobert et al. 1991; Frood 1992). The Gippsland data do not reveal the causal factors for these differences — whether species are abundant on rail-lines because they require fire, or because they can’t persist under dense trees or stock grazing. Different species may be affected by different factors. Unfortunately, these factors cannot easily be determined since regularly burnt, ungrazed, grassy forest remnants, or regularly grazed and burnt rail-line sites, simply do not exist. Nevertheless, the patterns of land-use on the Gippsland Plain are common throughout south-eastern Australia: intact, regularly burnt rail-line and cemetery sites tend not to be grazed and grassy forest and woodland remnants tend to have a history of frequent stock grazing but infrequent burning (see be- low). ‘Original’ vegetation Before European settlement the grassy forests and woodlands of the Gippsland Plain formed a continuous ecosystem (Lunt 1994), not a series of tiny, isolated remnants, and the rail-line obviously didn’t exist. Pre- sumably, the species that I recorded in grassy forest remnants and in rail-line grasslands all existed in the one community originally; they could not have formed two discrete communities as they do now. Rail-line spe- cies, like the Purple Donkey-orchid Diuris punctata, Blue Grass-lily Caesia calliantha and Common Everlasting Chrysocephalum apiculatum (Table 1), are most likely to have occurred in the same sites as the species that are now restricted to the forested remnants, like Love Creeper Com esperma volubile, Creeping Speedwell Veronica plebeia and Small Poranthera Poranthera microphylla. Presumably there were small-scale patterns within the original grassy forests and wood- lands, with some species being more abundant under trees and others in gaps, and some being common in dry areas and others 242 in damp sites. But ona broader scale, the sites that now support rail-line grasslands and the sites that now support grassy forest remnants presumably all contained much the same flora 150 years ago. Over the past 150 years the original grassy forests and woodlands have been fragmented and most have been converted to agriculture. In addition to these obvious changes, an extraordinary process of ‘ecological segre- gation’ has taken place in the most intact remnants that remain (Fig. 2). Many species have been depleted or eliminated from the grassy forest remnants and large popula- tions of these species now only survive in sites such as rail-line verges and cemeter- ies. Simultaneously, another group of species has been depleted or eliminated from the rail-line and cemetery sites, only to survive in the grassy forest patches. In destroying the one original grassy ecosys- tem, we have created two very different plant communities: the present grassy for- ests and the present grasslands. We now have to conserve two communities to save the remnants of the one original commu- nity. Future management needs To save large populations of all native spe- cies on the lowland Gippsland Plain, the rail-line grasslands and the grassy forest rem- nants will both have to be protected, as many species are largely restricted to just one of the two communities. Furthermore, based on our present understanding of the manage- ment requirements of both communities, the most prudent way to conserve both will be to continue the traditional management (al- though the importance of marsupial grazing in grassy forest remnants remains unknown). Thus, in order to maintain the distinctive rail- line flora, rail-line remnants should continue to be regularly burnt, have large grazing ani- mals excluded, and regenerating trees continually removed. In another analysis, I found that most of the species that occur in both rail-line grass- lands and grassy forest remnants occur pre- dominantly in forest gaps, not beneath dense trees. Presumably, therefore, if trees are The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports original ecosystem rail-line grassland remnant grassy forest remnant Fig. 2. Simple model of species segregation, with examples from the Gippsland Plain. The original ecosystem contained four, co-occurring groups of species (1 - 4), which suffered various fates following European settlement. Species in group | were depleted or eliminated from frequently burnt, ungrazed rail reserves, and now survive in unburnt, intermittently grazed grassy forest remnants (e.g. Hydrocotyle hirta, Leptorhynchos linearis and Veronica plebeia). Group 2 species were depleted or eliminated from unburnt, intermittently grazed, grassy forest remnants, and now survive in treeless, frequently burnt, ungrazed rail reserves (e.g, Caesia calliantha, Chrysocephalum apiculatum and Diuris punctata). Group 3 species remained common in rail-line grasslands and grassy forest remnants (e.g. Arthropodium strictum, Bossiaea prostrata, Hypericum gramineum and Plantago gaudichaudii), and Group 4 species became extinct in the region (e.g. Goodenia pinnatifida, Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides and Thesium australe; Lunt 1994). Some species remain common in grazed native pastures in the region, especially many of the widespread species in Group 3. do not survive in the soil beneath the rail-line grasslands (Lunt, unpubl. data, August allowed to recolonise the small rail-line grassland sites, then these gap-requiring spe- cies may be lost. Many ecologists suspect that many grassland and woodland species do not form persistent, long-term seed banks in the soil (DeKock and Taube 1991; J. Mor- gan and A. Pyrke, pers. comm., September 1992; Lunt, unpubl. data, August 1995). This pattern also occurs in many grasslands overseas (Thompson 1992). If this is so, such species will completely disappear from the rail-line sites when existing plants die, as there will be no seeds for future regeneration. Furthermore, there will not be a succession to a typical grassy forest flora under dense stands of regenerating trees in rail-line grass- lands, as seeds of the grassy forest species Vol. 112 (6) 1995 1995). Dense tree regeneration on rail-lines results in an impoverished mix of wide- spread, shade-tolerant natives and exotics, To preserve the rail-line flora, rail-line man- agement should continue the past activities of gap creation (i.e. tree removal), regular burning and grazing exclusion. Broader implications The above case study clearly demon- strates the dramatic impact of European management practices on grassy remnants onthe lowland Gippsland Plain. Itis difficult to determine the extent or magnitude of eco- logical segregation in other regions, as 243 Research Reports similar surveys have not been undertaken elsewhere. However, from personal observa- tions and discussions with other botanists, I believe that these patterns will be found in many regions, from the southern tablelands of NSW to the northern and western plains of Victoria. Unfortunately, much of the evi- dence for this claim is anecdotal. However, grassy forest remnants in Gippsland have a similar composition to many woodlands dominated by River Red Gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Yellow Box E. melliodora and Yellow Gum E. leucoxylon throughout Victoria, and the land management practices that occur in Gippsland (i.e. of grazing some sites and burning others) occur throughout the state, Site-specific examples of ecological seg- regation are known from western Victoria, e.g. Themeda grassland on the Melbourne - Ararat rail-line south of Mt Langi Ghiran versus River Red Gum and Yellow Box woodland in the adjacent State Park (Lunt, pers. observ.); central Victoria, e.g. Themeda grassland on the Woodend racecourse versus nearby Narrow-leaf Peppermint forest (Lunt, pers. obsery.), and Themeda grasslands on rail-lines in the Clunes - Maryborough area versus nearby remnant Grey Box woodlands (N. Scarlett, pers. comm., September 1992); the northern plains, e.g. Themeda grassland in Mitiamo cemetery versus woodlands in Terrick Terrick Park (Morcom 1990); and north-east Victoria, e.g. rail-line remnants containing Diuris cuneata, versus nearby open-forests (Johnson 1992). These and other known examples include grassy forests and woodlands dominated by River Red Gum E. camaldulensis, Yellow Box E. mel- liodora, Grey Box E. microcarpa, Long- leaved Box E. goniocalyx, Narrow-leaf Pep- permint E, radiata, Candlebark E. rubida, and Snow Gum E. pauciflora. Assuming that such patterns will one day be properly documented in many grassy forests and woodlands throughout Victoria, the follow- ing framework can be developed: 1. Throughout Victoria, there are no un- altered remnants of the ‘original’ grassy forests and woodlands, Even the most intact remnants have changed dramatically, and 244 many species have disappeared or been grossly depleted, while others have in- creased in abundance. Few people would debate this claim, since the ubiquitous utili- sation of grassy forest and woodland remnants for timber production and grazing has caused significant changes in tree density and plant composition. 2. In most regions, small remnants on roadsides, rail-lines, cemeteries and race- courses are the only places where many of the original grassy forest and woodland spe- cies survive (Frood 1985; Stuwe 1986; Scarlett and Parsons 1982, 1992). Most of these remnants and many of these species are now threatened with extinction. 3. Because there are many ‘big’ grassy forest and woodland remnants throughout the state, many observers have uncon- sciously assumed that these large remnants are unchanged, intact remnants of the ‘original’ ecosystem. They have therefore invoked a lower status for the rail-line and cemetery remnants, that are described as ‘disclimax’ communities or unnatural ‘artefacts’ of doubtful conservation sig- nificance, The interpretation in number 3 above is too simplistic and, at least in Gippsland, is factually wrong, The Gippsland rail-line remnants are no more a disclimax or an artefact than are the ‘big’ grassy forest remnants; both communities contain only a portion of the species that occurred in the original grassy forest and woodland eco- system. The original grassy forests or woodlands of every region presumably contained the species that now survive in the forest and woodland remnants plus the species in the rail-lines and cemeteries. Whether that species is Caesia calliantha in Gippsland, Diuris punctata or Podolepis Jaceoides in any grassland and woodland re- gion of Victoria, or any of many other threatened species (See Scarlett and Parsons 1982), for one reason or another, these spe- cies have all been dramatically depleted, or completely eradicated, from most grassy for- est and woodland remnants. They have survived in the tiny rail-line and cemetery sites owing to the unique management of The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports those sites; tree removal, no grazing and regular burning. The rail-line remnants, and their attendant management regimes, are no more ‘unnatural’ than the nearby forest or woodland patches. They are just consider- ably rarer. Rare species? Species without wind dispersed seeds that occur in many small and isolated rail-line and cemetery remnants could not have been rare originally. Instead, they must have been common and widespread, and probably oc- curred in many of the sites that now support remnant grassy forests and woodlands, even | regional boundary e e plant populations | fail-line though there are no records from those sites. Ifa species was rare ina region prior to Euro- pean settlement, then the probability that a number of populations would occur on the narrow strip of land that was later to became a rail-line is exceedingly low (Fig. 3a). Only those species that were originally abundant in the region are likely to be repeatedly found in rail-line remnants (Fig. 3d). Many species have probably increased in abundance within individual rail-line rem- nants owing to favourable conditions for regeneration (e.g. regular burning), and some species with wind-blown seeds may have dispersed along the rail-line between Fig. 3. Pictorial example of randomly located plant ili okey a pte ee a hae Pe ope i é > bisected by a rail-line. If plants were : European settlement. The region was later to be ie the mae then the probability that populations would repeatedly occur Me es nanan gee : which was later to become a rail-line is exceedingly low (Fig. ga): As plant densi a a a Oi 3b-d), the probability of numerous populations occurring on the rail-line Lie ee ah ie or uentl any species which is repeatedly found on rail-line remnants, an eis Rew rene wind iiendeahd seeds, must have beencommonin the region fe Bhar ot ese “es bisa frecetire rall-line ; ation. In reality, over 90% of most rall-lines Suppo ire rail-line supports remnant vegetation 0% a3 ona Dc onctanien in which the likelihood of finding many native species sam iieana Hy _ fae density in the region. Consequently, the original densities of species whic hi p numerous small remnants on rail-lines must have been considerably greater again. 245 Vol, 112 (6) 1995 Research Reports nearby remnants. However, the majority of the rail-line flora is unlikely to have migrated along the line to fill previously unoccupied sites. Most species are small and have seeds that are not distributed over long distances in the wind. The rate of migration without wind dispersal is probably extremely slow. For instance, Caesia seeds are about the size of a mustard seed, with no adaptations for wind dispersal. Most plants are less than 30 cm tall, and most seeds probably fall within 50 cm of adult plants, from where they might then be transported by water across the soil surface. However, even if we assume that at least one seed in every gen- eration travels for 2 m in the same direction as the rail-line, and that this seed always grows (inreality, mortality probably exceeds 90%), and that it takes only two years for the second plant to set seed (probably 3-5 years in the wild), and that one seed from the sec- ond plant then produces another seed which travels 2 m, and so on; even under such ideal, hypothetical conditions, it would still take 1,000 years for Caesia to migrate over just 1 km. Clearly, the present distribution of Caesia, and other species, is unlikely to be the result of large scale dispersal, as the rail- lines were only built 150 years ago, Furthermore, it seems extremely unlikely that rail-line and cemetery species could have been inadvertently introduced to all of these sites by humans, on clothing, boots or vehicles. Many cemeteries, in particular, are far isolated from rail-lines, and are not man- aged by rail-line workers. It is far more plausible to assume that most rail-line spe- cies must have occurred in or near existing sites when the rail-line was built last century. Species that are restricted to rail-lines and cemeteries are rare now, not because they were originally rare, but simply because they are intolerant of the typical farmland and for- est and woodland management, whether that be sustained stock grazing, no burning, dense trees, weed invasions or some other associated factor. The inevitable corollary to this argument is that, in Gippsland at least, most Gf not all) of the species that are now common on rail- lines may have occurred in perhaps every 246 large grassy forest remnant in the region, even though there are no records of some of these species from most grassy forest rem- nants. Conversely, the species that are now common in grassy forest remnants must once have occurred in areas that are now cemeter- ies and rail-lines. This seems beyond debate: from soil data; from the close proximity of some grassy forest remnants to rail-line sites and from the improbability of finding these species time after time in small rail-line rem- nants, Species re-introductions Recently I suggested that regionally rare species should be introduced into secure re- serves in order to save these species from extinction in the wild, regardless of whether or not there are records of these species oc- curring naturally in the sites (Lunt 1992), In response, Yugovic (1992) cogently argued that whilst we shouldn't necessarily require a record of a species from the exact re-plant- ing site, we do need to have, ‘a strong and reasonable expectation that the species origi- nally occurred on the site.’ I believe that this criterion may prove to be too restrictive, and suggest that we should only require that the species once occurred in a similar habitat in the region. Nevertheless, if the criterion is followed it does beg the question, what evi- dence do we need to form a ‘strong and reasonable expectation’? One of the strong- est sources of evidence that is available is the frequency with which species occur in intact refugia such as rail-lines, racecourses and cemeteries. If a species repeatedly occurs in such sites within a region, and these sites encompass a range of soil textures, then we can be confi- dent that the species must once have been widespread and common in the region. If other grassy forest, woodland or grassland reserves occur in the same region on similar soils, then we can also be reasonably confi- dent that the rail-line species probably once occurred in those reserves also, If one wishes to know which extra species originally oc- curred in our few ‘big’ grassland reserves, all of which were once grazed by stock (e.g. Derrimut and Laverton North reserves), then The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports the most valuable information may be ob- tained, not by sampling nearby paddocks with the same management history, but by sampling other more-distant remnants with different management histories, such as rail- lines and cemeteries, Unfortunately even if we do know that a species once occurred in a particular rem- nant, the species won’t necessarily prosper there if it is re-introduced, as the present con- ditions may no longer be suitable. There is little point in re-introducing a species like Purple Donkey-orchid Diuris punctata to an area dominated by dense, young Red Gums or a thick grove of Prickly Moses Acacia verticillata, as the orchid is unlikely to grow under such conditions. Nevertheless, the species might perhaps prosper there if site conditions or management were altered, per- haps by thinning the trees and re-introducing regular burning. Conversely, examples will probably be found whereby endangered rail- line species actually grow better in grassy forest or woodland remnants (where they are currently absent) than.in their present rail- line habitats. This scenario is likely to occur for palatable species which are poor com- petitors, as such species could easily be grazed out of grassy forests and woodlands, only to tenuously survive beneath dense Themeda on ungrazed rail-lines. Governmental policies may provide bu- reaucratic impediments to the successful introduction of threatened species to secure reserves, and these impediments may be as restrictive as ecological impediments. The National Parks Division of the Victorian De- partment of Conservation and Naturai Res ources (DCNR) does not permit threatened species to be introduced to any park unless there is a prior record of the species from within the park boundaries. This, of course, is a superb policy for managing large intact pa rks such as Croajingolong and Errinun- dra National Parks, and is a refreshing antidote to the Anglophile introductions of the Acclimatisation Societies. But the policy can also be viewed as being counter-productive for the conservation of threatened species in fragmented grasslands and grassy forests and woodlands, All rem- Vol. 112 (6) 1995 nant grassy forests and woodlands have been grazed by stock, so at best the policy can only maintain the impoverished remnants of 150 years of stock grazing. Few people collected plant lists in parks last century. Most wood- land parks didn’t exist until 20 years ago, and most species were probably eliminated from those sites 50 to 100 years ago. If we want to save all species in remnant ecosystems in all regions, I believe we will have to stop viewing species introductions as being in- trinsically undesirabie. Instead, we might acknowledge them as a means of saving many species from regional or total extinc- tion in the wild, while perhaps simultaneously restoring an original ecologi- cal diversity to the site in question. I don’t propose that every regionally threatened spe- cies has to be planted into every reserve in the region; or that this policy should be ex- tended to reserves in other less fragmented, secure ecosystems; or that introductions should occur across the entire area of any park. Instead, small areas in particular re- serves in each region could be devoted to the introduction of species which are now threat- ened, or perhaps even extinct (Scarlett 1993), within that region. These areas would need to include the full range of micro-habitats needed for all prospective introductions. Fire exclusion The rarity of many grassland and wood- land species is undeniably due to habitat loss; over 99% of indigenous vegetation has been destroyed in most grassland and grassy forest and woodland regions in south-eastern Australia. However, the Gippsland data clearly demonstrate that the rarity of many species in the region is not due solely to habitat loss. Instead itis due also to the imposition of management regimes which are unsuitable for those species. Why are so many species so rare in our larger grassy forest and woodland remnants, many of which are now protected in National or State Parks? Past stock grazing is probably the reason in many instances, and this can be tested simply by introducing plants to remnants. If the plants grow and reproduce, then the sites provide suitable habitat. But 247 Contributions past stock grazing does not seem to be the only determining factor. For instance, the Grampians National Park has one of the larg- est areas of non-riverine River Red Gum and Yellow Box woodlands in a reserve in Vic- toria: about 10,000 ha, with another 14,000 ha in the adjacent State Forest. Five popula- tions of Diuris punctata are known from the park, In 1991, no plants were recorded at four of these populations, and there were only five plants at the fifth (D. Venn, September 1992, pers. comm. to G. Earl). There is noth- ing obviously distinctive about the five spots where the orchids survive, and large areas of seemingly suitable, unoccupied habitat ex- ist. The species appears to be extremely rare in what could be (and perhaps once was) a large area of eminently suitable habitat. In Gippsland, Diuris punctata is abundant in many intact remnants on regularly burnt rail- lines, even though it is absent from nearly all nearby grassy forest remnants. Perhaps a major reason that species like Diuris punctata are now so rare in secure, reserved, remnant grassy forests and wood- lands is because hardly any grassy forests and woodlands in south-eastern Australia are regularly burnt: most are virtually never burnt (Victorian Government 1983). Fuel loads in grassy forests and woodlands are either naturally low or are reduced by graz- ing. Our best grassy forest and woodland remnants are essentially ‘unburnt, grazing ecosystems’, grazed by stock, kangaroos or rabbits. By contrast, most of our best grass- land remnants are ‘burning ecosystems’ without any grazing. Some National Park management plans specifically forbid burn- ing in Red Gum woodlands because of the ‘fire sensitivity of the red gums’ (e.g. De- partment of Conservation and Environment 1990), Ground fires can kill Red Gum sap- lings and promote the formation of gum veins in mature trees, which reduces their timber value (Dexter 1978; Robertson 1985; Meredith 1988), but ground fires will not kill large trees (Robertson 1985). Prior to Euro- pean settlement, lowland grassy forests and woodlands were frequently burnt by Abo- nmigines and lightning strikes (Nicholson 1981), and Robertson (1985) noted that fre- 248 quent burning can be a valuable tool for pre- venting dense regeneration of Red Gums, thereby maintaining an open woodland structure. Across Victoria, management of grassy forests and woodlands has fallen into two schools (exemplified by the Gippsland scene): ‘ungrazed burning ecosystems’ (in the few rail-line and roadside remnants that survive) and ‘unburnt grazing ecosystems’ (most of the larger reserves). As a conse- quence, our grassy forest and woodland flora has been partially segregated into two groups: those species that are best repres- ented on rail-lines and cemeteries, and those species that are common in secure reserves, I suggest that, as a long-term aim, if we want to save all of the species in grassy forest and woodland regions, we might consider re-in- tegrating these two floras, and one means of doing that may be to re-integrate the major processes of burning and grazing, so that some parts of our big, intact reserves are regularly burnt and grazed (by kangaroos, not stock). I must emphasise that I am nor proposing that all of our grassy forests and woodlands be regularly burnt. The ideas presented in this paper are intended to encourage readers to compare the composition of remnants with different management histories, and to seri- ously question current managementregimes. 1 suggest that if we want to save all of the species in remnant grassy forests and wood- lands, we simply have no choice but to adopt amore flexible approach to reserve manage- ment and to species and ecosystem conservation. Acknowledgments This paper was first presented in October 1992 at the ‘Great Plains Crash’ conference on grassland conservation, organised by the Victorian National Parks Association and the Indigenous Flora and Fauna Association. Kind thanks are due to Gill Earl, Jodie Hoey, John Morgan, Bob Parsons, Adrian Pyrke and Neville Scarlett and anonymous referees for comments on drafts of the manuscript. 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Noble, (Australian Academy of Science: Canberra). Opie, A.M., Gullan, P.K., van Berkel, S.C. and van Rees, H. (1984), Vegetation of the Western Port catchment, Muelleria 5: 289-346. Robertson, D. (1985). Interrelationships between Kangaroos, Fire and Vegetation Dynamics at Gellibrand Hill Park, Victoria. (Ph.D. Thesis, Botany Department, University of Melbourne: Melbourne). Ross, J.H. (1993), ‘A Census of the Vascular Plants of Victoria’. 4th ed. (Royal Botanic Gardens: Melbourne). Scarlett, N.H. (1993). The plains wanderer. The metaphorical grassland: museum, ark or lifeboat? Indigenotes 6(1): 2-3. Scarlett, N.H. and Parsons, RF. (1982), Rare plants of the Victorian plains. /n ‘Species at Risk: Research in Australia’, Eds R.H. Groves and W.D.L. Ride. (Australian Academy of Science: Canberra), Scarlett, N.H. and Parsons, R.F. (1992). “Project 45: Propagation of Threatened Australian Plants in Victorian Reserves.’ (Unpublished report to World Wide Fund for Nature Australia), Scarlett, N.H., Wallbrink, S.T. and McDougall, K. (1992). ‘Field Guide to Native Grasslands’, (Victoria Press: Melboume). Specht, R.L. (1981). Foliage projective cover and standing biomass. Jn ‘Vegetation Classification in Australia’. Eds A.N. Gillison and DJ. Anderson. (CSIRO and Australian National University Press: Canberra). Stuwe, J. (1986). ‘An Assessment of the Conservation Status of Native Grasslands on the Western Plains, Victoria and Sites of Botanical Significance’. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series No. 48. (Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands: Melbourne). Stuwe, J. and Parsons, R.F. (1977). Themeda australis grasslands on the Basalt Plains, Victoria: floristics and management effects. Australian Journal of Ecology 2: 467-476. Thompson, K. (1992). The functional ecology of seed banks. Jn ‘Seeds: The Ecology of Regeneration in Plant Communities’, Ed. M. Fenner. (C.A.B. International: Wallingford UK), Victorian Government (1983). Submission for Inquiry into Environmental Impact of Bushfires by the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Conservation (Unpublished submission). Yugovic, J. (1992). The plains wanderer. Saving regional provenances, Part 2 - Another point of view. Indigenotes 5(9): 2-3. 249 Contributions A Trip to the Victorian Alps RJ. Fletcher An article, in the form of a paper read to The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria on the 10th July 1899, appeared under this title (and printed in The Victorian Naturalist 16, 1899). The paper was read by Charles French Jnr, close friend and colleague of Charles Walter. Charles Walter was born in Germany in 1831 and migrated to Australia when he was about 25 years old. Soon after his arrival he began collecting seeds of native plants to send home to his sister, It was through this activity that he came under the notice of the then Dr Mueller, who sent him off on collect- ing trips in various parts of Victoria, and honoured him by naming Prostanthera wal- teri, especially for his work in East Gippsland. Walter also made several excur- sions to the high country and made extensive collections which were in part purchased by Mueller. It was on one of these trips that he reported in some detail as mentioned above. The journey was made in two sections. The first to the Mt. Hotham area and the second to Mt. Buffalo (Fig. 1). Considering the modes of transport, he covered an astonishing amount of territory. Train and horse-drawn carriage were used for longer journeys, but at the age of 68, when he made this trip, he was still walking considerable distances, For instance the return trip from Harrietville to Mt. St. Bernard and Mt, Ho- tham was all done on foot. At the May meet- ing of the FNCV following this January 1899 excursion, he exhibited about 100 speci- mens, some half of which were named in his presentation. For the Harrietville/Mt, St. Bernard/Mt, Hotham section, those named are listed in Table 1 (with current names fol- lowing an equals symbol), However, as stated, this is not a complete list of Walter’s collection. In a recent (Janu- ary 1995) retracing of his steps the following additional species were observed (Table 2), In contrast to Walter’s hike up the moun- tain, this 1995 trip was done in air-conditioned comfort on a bitumen road, but stopping regularly to look at things. On arrival at Mt. St. Bernard there was no wel- coming. Hospice as in Charles Walter’s day, this having been destroyed in the 1939 bush- fires. It had stood ‘since 1863, being ‘4/48 Newport Road,, Clayton South, Victoria 3169, 250 Table 1. Some of the specimens exhibited by Charles Walter at the May 1899 FNCV Meeting. Acacia alpina A, penninervis Hickory Wattle Aciphyilla glacialis Snow Aciphyll Aster celmisia= Celmisia spp. Silver Daisy A, exul (sic)= Olearia frostii Bogong Daisy Boronia algida Alpine Boronia Eriostemon correifolius= Asterolasia asteriscophora E. myoporoides Alpine Wattle Lemon Star-bush Long-leaf Wax flower Eucalyptus gunnii#? E. glaucescens E. pauciflora Gaultiera (sic) hispida= Gaultheria appressa Goadenia hederacea var. cordifolias var. clpestris Grevillea victoriae Helichrysum lucidum= Bracteantha bracteata Tingiringi Gum Snow Gum Waxberry Ivy Goodenia Royal Grevillea Golden Everlasting H. rosmarinifolium= Ozothamnus rosmarinifolius Rosemary Everlasung H, stirlingii= Ozothamnus Mirlingti Ovens Everlasting Helipterum anthemoides= Rhodanthe anthemoides Chamomile Sunray H. incanum var. auriceps= L.albicans ssp, albicans H, incanum= Leucochrysum albicans Kunzea muelleri= Kunzea erivifolia Leotopedium catipes= Ewartia nubigena Lomaria alpina= Blechnum penna-marina Yellow Sunray Hoary Sunray Yellow Kunzea Silver Ewartia Alpine Water-fern Mountain Shaggy -pea Oxylobium alpestre Persoonia chamoepeuce (sic)= PR. chamaepeuce P. confertiflora Dwarf Geebung Cluster-flower Geebung Richea gunnii= Richea continentis Scleranthus biflorus Candle Heath Twin-flower Knawel Stackhousia pulvinaris Alpine Stachousia Westringiacuneata= Prostanthera cuneata Alpine Mint-bush The Victorian Naturalist Contributions ‘ A_TRIP_TO_THE VICTORIAN ALPS ] cme ++.. areas referred to; Harrietville to Mt.Hotham Mount Buffalo Fig. 1. Maps showing locations 251 Vol. 112 (6) 1995 Contributions Table 2. Some of the plants observed on the January 1995 trip. * indicates exotic species. + indicates flowering. Silver Wattle Pale Vanilla-lily+ Fishbone Water-fern Shiny Cassinia+ Rough Coprosma Acacia dealbata Arthropodium milleflorum Blechnum nudum Cassinia longifolia Coprosma hirtella Daviesia latifolia Hop Bitter-pea D. ulicifolia Gorse Bilter-pea Derwentia derwentiana Derwent Speedwell+ Tasman Flax-lily Hyacinth Orchid+ Patersons Curse+ Dianella tasmanica Dipodium roseum Echium plantagineum* Eucalyptus delegatensis Alpine Ash E. rubida Candlebark E. viminalis Manna Gum Exocarpus cupressiformis Cherry Ballart Kunzea ericoides Burgant+ Lomatia fraseri Tree Lomatia+ Oreomyrrhis eriopoda Australian Carraway Ozothamnus secundiflorus Cascade Everlasting+ O. stirlingii Ovens Everlasting+ Platylobium formosum Handsome Flat-pea Polystichum proliferum Mother Shield-fern Pomaderris aspera Hazel Pomaderris Ranunculus lappaceus Australian Buttercup+ Stellaria pungens Prickly Starwort+ Stylidium graminifolium Trigger Plant+ Wahlenbergia gloriosa Royal Bluebell+ W. gracilenta Bluebell+ established to serve travellers between the Grant Diggings and the Ovens Valley. For our trip, a camp was set up between Mt, St. Bernard and The Twins just off the track, There are still signs of the old track that Wal- ter would have walked, but the current tracks have less steep grades, On the morning fol- lowing his arrival, Walter walked up to Mt. Hotham. Once again signs of the old road are Still visible, but we used the bitumen and a vehicle, stopping regularly to add to the plant list. Walter remarked that ‘it would be tiring if I enumerated all the different species I could have collected...the grassy slopes appeared in many places like a carpet dotted with flowers of various colours... However tiring, here is a list (Table 3) of the plants seen between Mt. St. Bernard and Mt. Hotham which do not appear on Walter’s printed list. It shows that the carpet is still “dotted with flowers’, but of course, a large expanse is now covered by ski lodges, ski- 252 tows and lifts, parking areas and other ancil- lary structures. On his way back down the track, Walter noted new accommodation at the Diamantina Springs, where refreshments were available, This is now the site of a ref- uge hut, but it was disappointing to see that vandals have been at work and that the emer- gency telephone has been pulled from the wall, One wonders why people in such places commit such acts, The ‘bridle track’ from Diamantina Springs referred to in Char- les Walter’s article is now the walking track to Mt. Feathertop, and nearby is the hut of the Mildura Ski Club. On the day after he arrived, Walter walked over The Twins in the morning and in the afternoon visited Mt. Smythe. From below here he stated that he ‘followed the source of the Dargo River downwards, returning by the Grant or Crooked River Road’. Being about the same age as he wasat the time, one can only admire his energy! The country is very steep with a very dense understorey of Tasmannia xero- phyla, Oxylobium alpestre and Acacia alpina beneath closely spaced Eucalyptus pauciflora. No attempt was made to emulate Table 3. Plants seen in 1995, in addition to those listed by Walter. + indicating in flower. _* indicates exotic species. Asperula pusilla Alpine Woodruff+ Brachyscome angustifolia Daisy+ B. rigidula Leafy Daisy+ Bracteantha subundulata Orange Everlasting+ Craspedia spp. Drosera arcturi Epilobium sp. Billy Buttons+ Alpine Sundew+ Willow Herb + Euphrasia collina Glacial Eyebright+ Hovea montana Alpine Hovea Leptospermum myrtifolium Myrtle Tea-tree Leucopogon gelidus Beard Heath Microseris lan ceolata Yam Daisy+ Olearia frostii Bogong Daisy + Orites lancifolia Pimelea axiflora var. alpina Polyscias sambucifolia Alpine Orites + Bootlace Bush Elderberry Panax Prasophyllum alpinum Alpine Leek-orchid + Prasophyllum suttonii Mauve Leek-orchid + Rubus parvifolius Small-leaf Bramble + Senecio spp. Groundsel + Taraxacum sp.* Dandelion + Tasmannia xerophyla Alpine Pepper Trachymene humilis Alpine Trachymene+ Viola betonicifolia Showy Violet+ The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Table 4. Some plants mentioned in Walter's paper, Acacia penninervis Hickory Wattle Baeckea crenatifolia Fern-leaf Baeckea Bauera rubioides Wiry Bauera Gaulteria (sic) hispida = Gaultheria appressa Waxberry Grevillea parviflora Small-flowered Grevillea Kunzea corifolia (sic) = Kunzea ericifolia Yellow Kunzea Leptospermum spp. Tea Tree Logania floribunda = Logania albiflora Narrow-leaf Logania Micrantheum hexandrum Box Micrantheum Mirbelia oxylobivides Mountain Mirbelia Pultenaea mollis Bush Pea Pultenaea. spp. Bush Peas Trachymene billardiert = Platysace lanceolata Shrubby Platysace Walter at this point. It would appear from Vicmap 8323-N that the Dargo River begins below Mt. Hotham and what Charles Walter referred to is a tributary. On the other hand the RACV map of the area shows the tribu- tary below Mt. Smythe as the Dargo River. One presumes that the Vicmap is correct. On the following day, Walter walked back to Harrietville, collecting specimens that he had missed two days earlier because of ‘two severe thunderstorms, hail and steady rain, which made the roads very muddy’. Because of this it had taken him seven hours to make the trip up, On the way back it took only six! Not really bad for someone carrying his lug- gage, including press and specimens. It’s only 20 kilometres! One similarity between the two excursions was a day of foul weather. Following the trip to Mt. Hotham, we also had a violent thunderstorm, which passed and settled down to steady rain for the next 24 hours. While Walter walked back to Har- tietville to take a coach to Bright and then a train to Porepunkah, we returne d to Pore- punkah by way of The Twins Track, Selwyn Creek Road. and the Buckland Valley Road. Walter had used as his base here Manfield’s Buffalo Falls Temperance Hotel, about 6.5 km from Porepunkah, from where he had walked ‘arriving in good time for breakfast after having taken the 5 a.m, train from Bright. We camped at the Buffalo Caravan Park at the junction of the Ovens and Buck- Vol. 112 (6) 1995 land Rivers. The building known as Man- field s Temperance Hotel still stands, but not for long. For many years it has been called Buffalo Lodge and has served a variety of purposes. It is ina sorry state of disrepair and the present owners are about to demolish it and rebuild, but with a sense of history in mind. We did the same as Charles Walter and botanised along the Eurobin Creek’ as far as the Eurobin Falls for the rest of the day. Among the plants he collected, the following are listed in Table 4, Walter complained that there was no proper track up to the Falls , but there is one now, within the National Park, and for the use of which there is an entry fee of $6. Ad- ditonal plants found in 1995 are listed in Table 5. This table list indicates that January is too late for the peak of the flowering sea- son, There had been recent heavy rains so the Falls were in good shape, as were the Buffalo Falls, of which there is a good view from below the Eurobin Falls. From Charles Wal- ter’s description of the track he took nextday to the Plateau, it may well have followed fairly well along the existing winding road. Certainly one of the early promoters of the area, in 1887, was a W.A. Staker, and there is a Staker’s Lookout on the track. Walter walked up here with one of the Manfield sons, We drove up in comfort, stopping on many occasions. He would have walked from what is now the Hospice Plain along “a small stream’ which is Crystal Brook, and which provides the water for the Buffalo Falls not far away. Nearby is a carpark from which there is a circuit leading to various points of interest around the Gorge. Walter's plant list for this area included those in Table 6. To Walter’s list in Table 6 may be added the following plants from January 1995 (Table 7). Apart from the botanising, the rewards for these walks include the fantastic views from the Gorge area, and of course from other places all over the Buffalo Plateau. The pur- pose of this part of the trip was to follow as far as possible in the footsteps of Charles Walter, so other parts of the area had to be left for another time. ; It is a great pity that the collection Walter made and left with the Manfield family no longer exists. The specimens he collected for Mueller are no doubt safely housed in the National Herbarium at Melbourne. Walter had also donated a pressed collection to the 253 Contributions Table 5. 1995 additions to Walter’s Table 4. + indicating in flower. Acacia dallachiana A, keitlewelliae A, melanoxylon A. obliquinervia A. phlebophylla Billardiera scandens Bursaria spinosa Calochlaena dubia Calytrix tetragona Carex appressa Cassinia aculeata C. longifolia Daviesia latifolia Dianella tasmanica Dicksonia antarctica Dodonaea viscosa Eucalyptus mannifera E. radiata Gleichenia dicarpa Grevillea alpina G. victoriae Hedycarya angustifolia Hymenanthera dentata Kunzea ericoides K, parvifolia Lomandra longifolia Lomatia ilicifolia Mentha laxiflora Pandorea pandorana Parsonsia brownii Platylobium formosum Pomaderris sp. Rubus parvifolius Spyridium parvifolium Todea barbara Catkin Wattle Buffalo Wattle Blackwood Mountain Hickory Wattle Buffalo Sallow Wattle Apple Berry Sweet Bursaria + Ground Frern Fringe Myrtle Tall Sedge + Dogwood + Shiny Cassinia + Hop Bitter -pea Tasman Flax-lily Soft Tree-fern Wedge-leaf Hopbush Brittle Gum Narrow-leaf Peppermint Pouched Coral-fern Cat’s Claws Royal Grevillea Austral Mulberry Tree Violet Burgan+ Violet Kunzea Mat Rush + Holly Lomatia Forest Mint Wonga Vine ‘Twining Silkpod Handsome Flat-pea Pomaderris Small-leaf Bramble+ Dusty Miller Austral King-fern St. Bernard Hospice, but that piece of history would also have disappeared. After enjoying the hospitality of the Man- field Buffalo Falls Temperance Hotel, Walter took the train back to Melbourne, having accomplished all he had done in the space of a week. Rumour has it that the hop- beer served at the Temperance Hotel rather stretched the meaning of the word ‘temper- ance’, but we’ll never know. References and Further Reading Anon. (1907), Obiturary for Charles Walter. The Victorian Naturalist XXTV, 110. Brooker, I, and Kleinig, D. (1993). ‘Field Guide to Eucalypts', Vol.I, (Inkata Press), Costermans, L (1 983), ‘Native Trees and Shrubs of South Eastern Australia’. (Weldon Publishing: Sydney), Duncan, B and Isaac, G, (1994). ‘Ferns and Allied Plants. (Melbourne University Press). Johnson, Dick (1974). ‘The Alps at the Crossroads’, (Victorian National Parks Association), 254 Table 6. Walter’s plant list. Epacris mucronulata ? Epacris microphylla Kunzea muelleri = Kunzea ericifolia Podolepis longipedata = Podolepis robusta Ranunculus anemoneus #? Coral Heath Yellow Kunzea Alpine Podolepis erroneus record (Willis, Vol. I, 156) Alpine Buttercup Australian Buttercup Ranunculus gunnianus R. lappaceus Richea gunnii = Richea continentis Candle Heath Table 7. 1995 additions to Walter’s Table 6. + indicating in flower. Mountain Hickory Wattle Buffalo Sallow Wattle Pale Vanilla-lily + Sweet Bursaria + Gorse Bitter-pea Tasman Flax-lily + Alpine Ash + Buffalo Sallee Snow Gum Ivy Goodenia + Violet Kunzea Button Tea-tree+ Hoary Sunray + Mat Rush Mountain Shaggy-pea + Dwarf Rice-flower + Shrubby Platysace + Elderberry Panax Mother Shield-fern Trigger Plant + Mountain Pepper Acacia obliquinervia A. phlebophylla Arthropodium milleflorum Bursaria spinosa Daviesia ulicifolia Dianella tasmanica Eucalyptus delegatensis E, mitchelliana E, pauciflora Goodenia hederacea Kunzea parvifolia Leptospermum micromyrtus Leucochrysum albicans Lomandra longifolia Oxylobium alpestre Pimelea humilis Platysace lanceolata Polyscias sambucifolia Polystichum proliferum Stylidium graminifolium Tasmannia lanceolata Ross, J.H. (1993). A Census of the Vascular Plants of Victoria, 4th Edition (National Herbarium of Victoria: Melbourne). Walsh, N.G, and Entwisle, T.J. (editors) (1994) ‘Flora of Victoria’ Vol.II (Inkata Press). Walter, C (1899). A Trip to the Victorian Alps. The Victorian Naturalist XVI, 81-87. Willis, J.H. (1972), *A Handbook to Plants in Victoria’. Vol, II. (Melbourne University Press). Woolcock, Dorothy (1990). ‘Field Guide to Native Pea Flowers’. (Kangaroo Press, Kenthurst). The Victorian Naturalist Naturalist Notes + Mountain Ducks Tadorna tadornoides - Tragedy of Instinct One bright morning, in late spring, the lady at the farm where I was staying, in far East Gippsland (on the Numeralla side of the Orbost Flats), drew the attention of her hus- band and myself to a pair of Mountain Ducks and their numerous brood, which she had had under observation for about an hour. The birds were on the opposite side of the gully from the house and under easy obser- vation from the kitchen window. They were on their way from the adjoining bush, where the chicks had been hatched, to the wetlands on the flats below. They had come up against a netted fence, not one to prevent them from going down to the flats but one preventing them from going further along the cliff tops which happened to be the particular place they had in mind (or whatever it is that actu- ates such birds). The adult birds were unable to get through but the amazing thing was that the netting fence offered no obstruction whatever to the chicks who ran freely back and forth through it, seeming to float like a single splash of brilliant colour against the deep green of the pasture, while their parents moved stolidly back and forth looking for a way through, all the time calling loudly to their chicks. At our approach the adult quickly took to the air and landed on the opposite side of the fence and headed, not down the cliff face to the water below, but along to the next fence which barred their way and the same per- formance again took place. Again we moved and the adults flew over but just at that mo- ment a hawk appeared on the scene intent upon some of those chicks for its breakfast. Immediatedly the drake was in the air hurl- ing himself at the hawk. While the hawk had the speed and turning ability, the drake cer- tainly had the weight. We assisted by shouting and whirling our hats into the air. Altogether this was too much for the hawk and it just as quickly disappeared. All this time the duck was hurrying the chicks ever closer to the safety of the cliff face with its trees and shrubs which offered easy access to the lagoons and connecting channels below. The only other fence was now a long way along the cliff face, where the road snaked up at an angle to the higher ground above. So we left them, well satisfied with our good deed for the day. The next afternoon [had occasion to travel up that road and there in the paddock was the drake with one chick, bothrunning away from the fence at my approach. I soon found the duck, minus its head and much of its breast, a typical victim of a hungry fox. I put the drake and its solitary chick across the two road fences where the chick promptly disappeared down an under- ground water course but as the drake landed nearby he would soon call it out. I had to leave them again, hoping the cleared gully ahead would divert them, at last, to the safety of the water. G.A. Crichton 6 Ainslie Park Avenue, Croydon, Victoria 3136. FNCV New Home in Blackburn Work is proceeding with internal chan ges to 1 Gardenia Street, Blackburn. The library has now been partitioned off and the kitchen and laboratory area is taking shape. The library is expected to be installed completely by mid December and we are on track to have everything completed by the New Year, From January 1996 Club meetings an You are welcome to come and see the progress on any d activities will take place in the hall. Wednesday or Thursday. Vol. 112 (6) 1995 255 How to be a Field Naturalist Pond Hunting DE. McInnes: Most people look at a lake or pond and justsceasheet of waterand think, “T suppose there are some fish there and they cat the things in the water”, and that is all, but to the POND HUNTER there is another world of life below the surface of the water» both plant and animal life as well as other remarkable forms of life that are actually plants but look like very active animals swimming around, The larger forms such as fish, crayfish and yabbies we will leave to the fishermen, There is the life we can see with the naked eye the larger forms of algae, and the many aquatic insects and their various larvae, even aquatic spiders as well as a variety of snails. Next is that wonderful world of micro secopie aquatic tile, Many ean be seen with a hand lens but most need to be examined un der a microscope which reveals a third world of living creatures all rushing around to ‘pet a bite tocar, To obtain samples, different methods are used: First Aquatic insects and their larvae, To catch these you need a shallow net 20 to 30 em wide (made of old, fine mesh curtain ma terkal) with a long handle, It needs to be strong so that you ean draw it along under the surface among the weeds in the shallow water, ‘Tip the contents of the net, usually a mix of broken weed, onto a white plastic sheet and examine the catch. Among the weed will be various insects or larvae, per haps a brilliant-colored red or blue water mite that will race around, some aquatic snails, tadpoles and small fish, Now Tift them out with a plastic spoon, not Iweezers, and place them into a white saucer or shallow dish filled with pond water, Then you can examine them carefully with a hand lens and put then into jars to take home, Be careful to place each kind in a separate jar because some will cat others. At home, place into shallow containers, White margarine containers are ideal, White \ 129 Waverley Road, Hast Malvern, Vietora alds 256 ice-cream containers cut down to 3 cm deep with scissors also make good observation dishes. Second - Vor the forms of life that require at least a good hand lens to see, or are so small that a microscope is needed to see them properly, for these we require a different net to catch them, as well as a special trough for a first examination with your hand lens, This net needs to be 15 em wide sloping down as a cone to fit a glass jar about 4 cm wide. The lid of the jar has holes bored into il, and the net is attached to the lid, The jar can be 6 to 8 cm long. The top of the net is sewn to a circle of strong wire which is at- tached to a good strong handle a metre or more long. The material of the net must be a very fine mesh, Examine the mesh with the hand lens or with 100 magnification under the microscope, this will give you some idea of what size catch will slip through your net, A glass trough is needed to examine the cateh with the hand lens, To make the trough you need two pieces of thin window glass cut into 8 em square and some thick (5 mm or more) plastic, | em wide, Stuck the glass and plastic together with Selley’s glass sealant. One more handy item is a plastic tea- strainer, This allows you to strain off the larger forms such as water boatmen when putting your catch into the containers to take home, The pond life can be considered as three seculons!- 1) The free swimmers - those near the edge of the pond among the weeds will be differs ent from those in the clear water well away from the edge, 2) The forms attached to weeds - many of which are the most interesting animals to observe under the microscope. 3) The life that lives just on top of the mud surface, Now let us catch the free swimmers. Sweep your net through the water near the surface and also deeper down with just The Victorian Naturalist How to be a Field Naturalist ‘ enough speed to strain the water through the net several times then lift it up slowly allow- ing the forms to sink into the jar. Unscrew the jar from the cover and pour the contents into the trough. Now you can examine the catch with your hand lens. If you want to retain it, strain through the tea-strainer to re- move unwanted large forms and place into your container to take home. Make other sweeps near the edge and also out in the deeper water. Remember to number all your containers and label with the date and loca- tion. Also make notes in a field notebook. Use a waterproof marker (e.g. lead pencil). The attached forms cannot be caught with the net, it is necessary to pick many samples of weed and place them in the trough and carefully examine to see if there is anything of interest. If a good find is seen on a weed, place it in a separate container to avoid losing it. It is a good idea to take plenty of weed sam p_ les to examine at home with the mi- croscope. The forms that live near the mud surface can only be obtained by sucking up or scoop- ing the top layer of mud, this results in a lot of dirty muddy water. However, just place it in a container to look at when you get home. When you arrive home remove the covers from the containers and if possible place in a series of shallow wide dishes, Number _ these the same as your containers How to look at the material when you have got it home Place the insect larvae material in your observation dishes under a strong desk lamp and just watch for movement. To examine a specimen lift it out with a plastic spoon that has small holes bored in it and place it in the trough filled with clear pond water and ex- amine with the hand lens or place ina small petri dish and examine with a low power microscope (15x to 20x). Now to examine the free swimmers. Place contents of jar in an 8 cm petri dish (make your own petri dishes with glass squares 2 mm thick if possible, and circles cut from plastic down-pipe, stick with Selley’s glass sealant). Examine with hand lens or the lowest power of the microscope. Vol. 112 (6) 1995 This will give you an idea of all the catch. For closer examination select a specimen with a pipette and place in a smaller petri dish, If you want to look at, say a ‘Water Flea’ or a Rotifer in a single drop of water, obtain a piece of thick clear plastic about 2.5 cm by 7,5 cm, Why? Because a drop of water will remain a circular drop on the plastic but will spread flat out on glass. Place 3 small pieces of Plasticene around the postion that the drop will cover, place the drop of water, with the specimen, on the plastic and then cover with a glass cover slip or a clear plastic cover. Press down until the specimen is caught be- tween the slide and cover (note - any thin clear plastic stuck to a glass slide will do, even just sticky tape stuck to the slide will do in a pinch). Now examine the slide under the higher powers of the microscope. To examine the attached forms, place some of the weed in the trough or in a wide petri dish and check with the hand lens or under the lowest power microscope. Pick out any specimen with the tweezers, cut off ex- cess weed and place in a small petri dish. If it projects above the water, cover witha glass cover. Examine with the higher powers of the microscope. Remember that the lower powers of magnification give the best depth of focus. The muddy water collection should be put in a wide dish until the mud settles, then, with a pipette, draw off the layer just above the mud. Place this in a smaller dish and let settle. If the mud layer is opaque draw off some of the mud until open spaces are seen. Again select specimens and put in a drop of water for further examination. Now, when you see something interesting, how will you know what it is? Well, the best book, one that covers all the things you are likely to see ina freshwater lake or pond is the one below: Australian Freshwater Life. The Inver- tebrates of Australian Inland Waters - W.D. Williams. This book was reprinted in 1985 and you will probably have to go to your local library to obtain a copy. The FNCYV library has acopy members can bor- row. 257 Naturalist Notes A book that is available and is a must for any pond hunter with any interest in rotifers or ‘water fleas’ is: A Guide to Identification of Rotifers, Cladocerans and Copepods from Australian Inland Waters - R.J, Shiel. This book has over 500 illustrations of ro- tifers and explains in detail methods of catching, preservation and mounting speci- mens. There is also a pictorial reference to key out the species of ‘Water Fleas’, Clado- cerans and Copepods. Price is $33.00 (posted). Obtainable from The Murray-Dar- ling Freshwater Research Centre, PO. Box 921 Albury, N.S.W.2640. Another excellent book to look up in the library is The Natural History of Aquatic Insects. (1903) - Prof. L.C. Miall, It has nearly 400 pages of the interesting life stories of the aquatic insects you will catch in your net. Some overseas books to obtain from your library. Freshwater Biology - Ward and Whipple. A Guide to the study of Fresh-water Biology - J.G. Needham and PR. Needham. The FNCV Microscopical Group is will- ing to help anyone with pond hunting or the use of a microscope. Your contact is Ray Power, telephone (03) 9717 3511. From our Naturalist in Residence, Cecily Falkingham White-winged Choughs Corcorax melanorhamphos and Bird Behaviour From the early days of my childhood when the Gould League of Bird Lovers (Gould League of Victoria Inc.) visited my Primary school, I was hooked on birds. I enthusiasti- cally signed the pledge, promising to protect native birds and not to collect their eggs. I must have been one of thousands of chil- dren whose first introduction to birds was through the Gould League. Subsequently, for many years, the League has embraced all aspects of natural history, The great and late Crosbie Morrison with his 6.00-6.15 p.m. 3DB Sunday broadcasts fanned the flame of my enthusiasm as I lis- tened to that wonderful voice of quiet authority. Then followed TAFE and Council of Adult Education courses and eventually, two decades ago, becoming a member of The Bird Observers Club. For most nature lovers or naturalists, birds are only one small, but fascinating part, of the whole picture. My curiosity about bird behaviour is the driving force behind an in- 258 terest in birds. It has never been important to me how many bird species I see in one day (I would fail dismally as a twitcher). What interests me is the quality of the observation, what I have learned about the species and what the bird was doing at the time. My first experience with a flock of White- winged Choughs Corcorax melanorh- amphos was within cycling or walking dis- tance from my home. In January 1981, I discovered an enormous mud nest, 20 cm wide, overflowing with two fat, lively chicks. I had previously observed the nest in November 1980. The area was open Manna Gum bushland beside the Mullum Mullum Creek. A place where Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoos Calyptorhynchus _funereus looped lazily through the trees in winter and where Little Falcons (Australian Hobby) Falco longipennis nested in the old disused Ravens nests. The inevitable soon happened and houses pressed further down onto the edge of this have, the owners bringing with them their The Victorian Naturalist Naturalist Notes 4 domestic pets. In less than one decade the Chough no longer entertains me with its som- bre wailing and enchanting whistles. We had, and still have, a high population of foxes which also played a part in their demise. In the past twenty years I have observed White-winged Choughs at Rushworth For- est, Bendigo Whipstick Forest, Gembrook State Forest, Inglewood, Little Desert Na- tional Park, Pink Lakes State Park, Hattah-Kulkyne National Park, Chiltern State Park, Macedon Ranges (Mt Teneriffe area), Wychitella Forest, Warby Ranges Na- tional Park, Warrandyte State Park, and, closer to home, Currawong Bush Park in Templestowe. Their preferred habitat is open woodland, Mallee of south-eastern Austra- lian and new crops and pastures. White-winged Choughs are usually heard long before they are seen, their miaowing, wailing, whistling, mournful call being like no other bird. The birds are usually sighted when disturbed, flapping lazily through the middle canopy. A flock, unaware of your presence, is usually found feeding on the ground. They can be confused with Ravens until they take flight exposing the white un- derwing patches. Their eyes are a bright ruby-red, unlike Raven Corvus spp. with their white eyes or Pied Currawongs Strepera graculina with yellow eyes. Choughs feed on invertebrates and larvae, seeds (their liking for seed does not endear them to farmers) and berries. They probe the ground vigorously with their strong, sickle- shaped beaks, flipping sticks, stones and leaf litter up to 30 cm in the air. Their stout, heavy bodies sway from side to side as they stride along on the ground on strong thick-set legs. They control a territory of about 50 ha and are not aggressive birds, living peacefully in their large groups. Groups range between 10- 30 birds in a family gathering. On rare occasions when conflict is unavoidable, the battle takes the form of whistling matches with elaborate tail and wing wagging. Dis- plays of aggression are rare and usually end in a few minutes. : The aggressive nature of nesting Magptes and their excellent flying ability make the Choughs’ life quite hectic when their terrl- Vol. 112 (6) 1995 | tory overlaps into Magpie territory. Several umes a day the Magpies will dive-bomb the Choughs and have been seen to tilt at a Chough’s tail in mid-air flying battles, tip- ping the Chough a nd unbalancing it so that it crashes to the ground. Choughs breed sometimes as early as June but usually between July and December, and not normally until their fifth year. Choughs have been known to live ten years, The nest can take anything from one week to several months to build if a dry spell intervenes. All the birds, apart from the very young, help build the nest and all help in incubating, brooding, nest sanitation and nestling feed- ing. The nest can be from 10-20 m or more high, usually in a Eucalypt species, I have observed them on forked or single horizontal branches. The nest is lined with soft material such as grass, wool or bark. Old nests are frequently used again and again and have proved to be of asolid well-built construction - when one came down attached to the branch after a storm, it remained intact. It has been recorded that cattle dung and Emu dung have been used and mixed with the mud. The fibre content makes up at least 7% of the whole. Eggs take 19 days to hatch, and then for 25 Days the older birds in the group, male or female, tend the young. Although as many as eight or nine eggs can be laid by several females in the group in the one nest, only abut two birds on average are successfully raised to maturity. The birds have very weak flight for the first couple of days after leaving the nest and in these early days they are at most risk from predators; foxes, feral cats, roaming dogs and, to a lesser extent, the oc- casional shooter find them and their nests easy targets. Sometimes farmers kill Choughs in country areas because of their grain-eating habits, quite forgetting that they consume armies of insects. When insects are scarce, in winter, the birds depend on seed and berries, and, being a large bird, their food intake is quite considerable.Once the young birds have fledged and learned to travel, they leave their breeding grounds travelling and foraging for food over an area of 500-1,000 ha. As open woodland is rapidly being re- placed by sheep and wheat farms, the birds 259 Naturalist Notes are becoming less common and, as the urban sprawl reaches out even further into suitable Chough habitat, they are becoming rare in southern Victoria, Mallee scrub, the pre- ferred habitat, and watercourses are also areas that are fast-dwindling! One of the most exciting bird-watching activities I have experienced concerns the White-winged Choughs’ behaviour. As I rounded a corner on thé flats beside the Mul- lum Mullum Creek I accidentally walked into a flock of ground-feeding Choughs. They were intent on feeding and I was look- ing up, binoculars to my eyes, when we stumbled into each other. At once the group of about seven Choughs joined forces, bunched up together and with much over- head flapping of wings and snapping of bills, a screaming mass of black and then white with large red engorged eyes completed this very impressive display of aggression. It was sometime later that from Ian Rowley’s book ‘Bird Life’ I learned that I had witnessed one of their rare displays of aggression called ‘plum pudding display’ , so-called because of the round shape of the mass of birds and the black, white and red colours scrambled together. Recently, whilst walking with a group, I was able to observe a Chough’s nest at War- randyte. The nest was overflowing with two large nestlings and a third youngster was be- ing fed on the ground. A tuft of fine grey to buff feathers on the bird's crown facilitates camouflage, making the bird difficult to see in the nest and on the ground. Their head feathers resembled the colour of the nest rim, the red eye of the adult bird is not obtained until one year old, All chicks were exactly the same size and five adult birds danced attendance on them. Then one member of my group noticed a sub-adult who raised its wings and fluttered and quivered begging for food imitating the new chicks, This bird was obviously reluctant to be forced out from the number one position. : These large sedentary or locally nomadic birds of mainly peaceful disposition are a species about which we stil] could learn a lot more. Their complicated social structure and food requirements are being stretched to the 260 limit with habitat loss. lan Rowley has this to say: ‘Choughs, rather than being an ag- gressive, expanding species, are a mild, slow maturing, slow breeding, weak- flying bird, ill adapted to coping with the new predators such as the fox and feral cat. Their extinction is probably only a matter of time, that may well be delayed by the abundance of grain in- troduced to their native environment. However, Choughs seem to be one of the few species that have taken to Pine Plantations so there may be hope for them yet as specialists feeders amongst the pine needles’, I wonder how much closer to that predic- tion we are, two decades after Ian Rowley wrote those words? References Cayley, Nevill, (1970). ‘What Bird is That?" (Angus & Robertson). Gould League of Victoria , (1983). ‘Birds of South- Eastern Australia - Farmlands’. Hill, Robin, (1970). ‘Australian Birds’. (Nelson), Pizzey, Graham, (1982). ‘A Field Guide to the Birds of Australia’. (Collins), ‘Readers Digest Complete Book of Australian Birds’. (1977). (Readers Digest Services Pty Ltd). Rowley, Ian, (1975). ‘Bird Life’. The Australian Natualists Library, (Collins). Simpson, K. and Day, N. (1993). ‘Field ‘Guide to the Birds of Australia. A Book of Identifica tion’, (Lifetime Distributors). Cecily Falkingham 27 Chippewa Avenue, Mitcham, Victoria 3132, The Victorian Naturalist Naturalist Notes Northern Pacific Seastar Tim O’ Hara! Asterias amurensis, or the Northern Pa- cific Seastar, is an exotic seastar that now occurs in very high numbers along the south- east coast of Tasmania. It was probably introduced via ship’s ballast water in the 1980’s. Each female can produce up to 19 million eggs each season and spawning oc- curs in early spring. The seastar’s impact on native marine life appears to be considerable and it also poses a threat to aquaculture ven- tures. In August 1995 a single female was reputedly found off Point Cook in Port Phil- lip Bay. Asterias amurensis has five elongate arms, with slightly swollen bases tapering to a pointed tip. Each arm can grow up to 20 em in length. There are small, sharp spines scattered over the central disc and arms. Un- derneath the animal in the furrow that runs along each arm, there are four longitudinal rows of tube feet, Tube feet are fleshy tube- like organs with suckers at each end that enable the seastar to grasp its prey, With a hand lens or microscope you can see a single series of sharp spines running along the mar- gin of the arm furrow. Tiny pincer-like structures called pedicellariae are densely spread over the body and spines. The colour is a mottled purple, yellow or orange. Pre- served specimens lose their original colour and become uniform orange. Some native seastars with five arms are regularly mistaken for Asterias. However, they can be distinguished by their blunt, round-tipped arms, their thick, rounded spines on the upper surface and their two longitudinal rows of tube feet or two longi- ‘tudinal rows of spines on the margin of the arm furrow. The colour of these native seas- fars can be a mottled red (Smilasterias - irregularis), black and white (Smilasterias _ multipara), or mottled red, orange and pur- ple (Uniophora granifera). If FNCV members think they have nd a Northern Pacific Seastar it should be sent to an appropriate institution as oon as possible to verify the identifica- n. The animal is not poisonous and can ‘dried in the sun or preserved in methylated irits. Specimens can be sent toa local De- ment of Conservation and Natural 2 St James Avenue, Mont Albert, Victoria 3167. . 112 (6) 1995 Resources office or to the Museum of Vic- toria, It is crucial that the exact locality and date of the find is sent with the specimen. Despite the high fecundity of this species, the most likely method of dispersion to other Australian ports remains human transloca- tion of sea-water. This can be via ballast water, bilge water or through the transpor- tation of live marine animals or plants. Most southern Australian ports now have some introduced species. In the long run the design of boats and ports will have to be modified to treat ballast water. In the meantime, how- ever, all boat owners have a responsibility to avoid spreading marine pests by keeping their hulls and fishing equipment clean, and ensuring that water from one port is not released into another. a ae i» eA cn Ss Fig 2. Detailed view of the mouth and base of the arms, Photographs are courtesy of T. Bogue. 261 Book Reviews The Bush (A Guide to the Vegetated Landscapes of Australia) Second edition by Ian G. Read Publisher: University of New South Wales Press, Sydney, 1994. 184 pages. RRP $22.95 The alluringly simple main title of this guide invites the lover of Australia’s unset- tled areas to browse through its 184 pages of text and photographs, both colour and black and white. However, this is not a homage to the world of Banjo Patterson or Bob Brown, but an attempt to teach the reader how to recognise and describe the vegetative land- scapes of this large and varied country. A comprehensive, yet widely accessible, method of vegetation description has been an elusive goal for many writers in this coun- try and elsewhere. While descriptions of plant communities and associations have been successfully produced for defined, usu- ally relatively small areas (e.g. pre-logging surveys, and vegetation surveys of the mallee to the alps), attempts to extrapolate to large areas (states or countries) have usu- ally foundered simply because of the scale of the task and the number of variables (plant species, soils, climates, land-use), Tan Read’s book sets out to address that problem. Following a relatively brief intro- duction as to why plants may be where they are, through sections on climate, soils, geol- ogy, topography, and land use by native and colonising peoples, we are introduced to the method favoured by the author to classify ‘the bush’, By concentrating on structure - height and density of vegetated canopy, shrub and ground layers - similar structural formations in Australia, once recognised, can be pigeon-holed into a named formation, The framework for Read’s guide is based onthe classification first presented by Specht in 1970. This valuable system has been fairly inaccessible to the general public, so ‘The Bush’ has done aservicein bringing Specht’s work into greater prominence, Specht’s original matrix of ‘projective foliar cover’ 262 and height of the dominant stratum to de- scribe the 50 or so vegetation formations (e.g. closed forest, open forest, woodland, scrub, shrubland, heath etc.) is augmented by line-drawing profiles of relevant stands. To this existing classification, Read has added qualifications such as ‘shrubby’, ‘grassy’, ‘layered’, sometimes an environ- mental description ‘subalpine’, ‘northern’, ‘coastal’ and sometimes an indication of the dominant plant group ‘Acacia’, ‘Banksia’, ‘Themeda’ etc. Hence, the next 100 or so pages are given over to the various permu- tations and combinations (I estimate 300) of these possibilities such as ‘Vine-fern closed forests’ (pp. 40, 41) and ‘north-eastern Aca- cia shrubby and grassy tall open shrublands’ (p. 106). Alternative ‘common’ names (such as ‘warm temperate rainforests’ for the first example above) are offered for some of the better known types of vegetation. Each formation is summarised giving its distribution around the country, the most likely habitat(s), substrate(s), an indication of the 10 or so plant genera or species that are likely to be encountered, and a comment on the likely fate of the formation since white settlement (termed “Transformations’). Fol- lowing the formation descriptions are some notes of interest on the principle genera and/or families encountered in “The Bush’, and a glossary of terms used through the work. If all of this seems to answer your needs when describing or appreciating ‘the bush’, then this is probably the book for you. Some caveats and quibbles, however. The cover- age of eastern, northern and central Australia appears reasonably comprehensive, but Western Australia, particularly the florally rich south-west, rarely rates a mention. One The Victorian Naturalist Book Reviews + gets the impression that it is the areas most familiar to the author which get the ‘full treat- ment’. Read has preferred to use common names throughout the book (although this is an inconsistently applied preference). Most (but not all) are given their botanical bino- . mials in the Index, but for one with some familiarity of the commonest genera in this broad country, it is a frustration to constantly refer to the index to query “Crows Ash’, ‘Queensland Maple’ ‘Rhodes Grass’ etc., and which of the multitude of Australian ‘lawyer vines’ is being referred to. Inevita- bly, with the incomplete vocabulary for common names of Australian plants, the same common name has occasionally been applied to two different species, or in the case of ‘Iron- wood’, three. The problem of com- mon names is exemplified in illustrations of 2 different grasses captioned as ‘Spinifex’ (p. 163). The name is used for coastal Spinifex (the genus) and unrelated inland Tri- odia without any indication of the true identity of either. The identification of illus- trated species through the book is unfortunately very patchy (many of the pho- tographs a_ re however quite beautiful). Most are apparently accurately identified to at least genus, some queried. ( e.g. “?briga- low’, p. 64), some not attempted, and some plain wrong (e.g. ‘Poa tussock’ for what is surely Stipa stipoides, p. 141, ‘Millstream Fan Palm’ Livistona alfredi for what is nota Livistona, (p. 139). Podocarpus alpina (p. 42) presumably refers to P. lawrencei. Spell- ing errors are unfortunately common - ‘phyllum’ for phylum (throughout), ‘kuari’ for kauri (p. 39), ‘schlerophyll’ for sclero- phyll (p.45), Trioda for Triodia (throughout), Erythropleum and Erythrophloeum (several) for Erythrophleum and many others. They are perhaps nothing more than an annoyance to the pedant, but better proof-reading would have eliminated most of these. A number of comments or claims are made which some- times surprised me, and although I’m in no position to doubt their veracity, I would have appreciated the opportunity to follow these up through a referenced source. Examples are ‘heaths are home to 20 species of birds (3 must live here) and 22 species of mam- mals, all of which can live elsewhere’ (p. 83) - the New Holland Mouse and Heath Rat might dispute this - and, that most eucalypt hybrids ‘seem to result from human interfer- ence as most occur on margins of cleared land’ (p. 157). In the author’s words ‘to be able to put a name to something greatly assists in inter- preting what is being seen while to actually discover that named “something” is areward- ing experience in itself’. Although the sentiment in this quote is admirable, and summarises the aims of “The Bush’, its ex- pression may seem a trifle unclear. A less than straightforward style of prose and a ten- dency to state that which might be left unstated (‘open woodlands can be thought of as an extension of woodlands. ...the trees are further spaced) detracts from what is otherwise a useful primer on the descrip- tion of vegetation. In summary, “The Bush’ achieves its goal of enabling enthusiasts to construct struc- tural descriptions of plant communities, and for that I warmly recommend it and con- gratulate the author. Its wider applicability is however jeopardised by problems such as those outlined above. Neville Walsh National Herbarium of Victoria, Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne. FNCV FEES DUE 1 JANUARY 1996 Renewal form in the December Field Nats News Vol. 112 (6) 1995 263 Book Reviews The Orchids of Victoria by Gary Backhouse and Jeffrey Jeanes Publisher: The Miegunyah Press: Melbourne University Press, 1995. RRP $59.95 Orchids have a magnetic fascination for both field naturalists and conservationists, as well as for those with even just a passing interest in bush plants. The interest in orchids is not at all surprising when one realises the fascination of the complex flower structure and coloration, the biological dependence of orchids on fungi, and what appear to be the strict ecological requirements of each spe- cies. Gary Backhouse and Jeffrey Jeanes as authors and photographers have produced, with Melbourne University Press, a really comprehensive and informative account of the currently described 270 orchids of Vic- toria. I like this book and I think it will carry into the next century as the definitive account of our understanding of the Victorian orchid flora at the end of the 20th Century. The book is substantial, 1,350 g, 388 pages, firmly bound, resulting in a high quality production characteristic of the Miegunyah Press im- print of M.U.P. Dr Jim Willis, unchallenged as Victoria’s Botanist Emeritus, has written a thoughtful foreword tracing the 120-year history of or- chid publication since Bentham’s ‘Flora Australiensis’ (1873) which, incidentally, included only 61 orchid species at that time. The main aims of this book are to provide information for the professional botanist and field naturalist and ‘to enable identification of all the currently known or chid taxa in Victoria, and to provide an up-to-date review of the information available on each, includ- ing its natural history and conservation Status’. Notes on cultivation and propagation have not been included and I, for one, am happy to endorse this approach and to ap- plaud the emphasis on conservation. The first 30 pages cover a range of topics which bring to the fore the essential nature of orchids; their floral and growth charac- teristics and ecological requirements, especially their dependence on fire and 264 fungi. A short section on taxonomy and no- menclature is included and there is a discussion of orchid habitats. Finally, in this introductory section there is an important discussion of orchid conservation and the role of the ‘Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act, 1988’. All these topics are important as back- ground to the descriptive parts that follow. My review has been written during one of the wettest and coldest winters we personally have experienced in the Yarra Valley and, for lack of material, [have not been able to work through any of the binary identification keys. These keys, I’m sure, will be great contribu- tions and help in the use of this book. The key to genera is clear and for each genus the page, on which it can be found, is given. The genera, and species within them, are pre- sented alphabetically and each species is described in a standard form at, one page to each, From its size and quality of production, it is not intended as a field pocket book, al- though laws against orchid collecting will almost certainly see it taken into the field for working through the keys. Herein lies a con- flict of purpose and the Publishers might well consider printing the keys as a supplement for field use. I estimate that this would come to a total of around 25 pages. For each species the botanical name and authority is given, followed by at least one common name. The dynamic and evolving situation regarding the description and char- acterisation of orchid species is recognised by the inclusion for many species of a list of recent synonyms and similar or confusing taxa. Then follows a standard and complete botanical description of the plant. Months when the species can be found in flower are listed and there is a small map based on Chur- chill and Corona’s 1972 map with known distribution indicated on the ten-minute grid basis. Next is a short statement of habitat and notes relating to any particular problems of The Victorian Naturalist Book Reviews identification and regional variation, Finally, there is a statement of the conservation status of the species. Each species is accompanied by a colour photograph (10x 6.5 cm) and in general these are of the highest quality and will be of great assistance in identification. On their own the photographs represent a major contribution to orchidology and a lot of hard work by the authors! Some presumed extinct species are represented with colour plates by W.H. Nicholls held in the collections of the library of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne. Identification and naming is clearly the main thrust of the book. A legitimate question to be asked of orchid taxonomists is whether there is justification in splitting the Victorian representatives of the family into 270 species. Sometimes the differences between so-called sp ecies are most obscure and hard to recognise. Back- house and Jeanes discuss this problem briefly on page 9. They draw attention to the existence of two main schools of thought re- garding the, definition of species; the ‘lumpers’ and the ‘splitters’. They point out that the splitters tend to concentrate on the differences between the different taxa while the lumpers emphasise the similarities, The effect of these two approaches is for the split- ters to recognise a larger number of species while the lumpers usually end up with sig- nificantly fewer species. I must admit to a natural tendency to side with the lumpers. Biologists have been debating the nature of species since before the time of Linneus and currently there is a broad, but not universal, acceptance of the concept of the ‘biological species’, viz. individuals of a morphological group whichare capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. Even if we ac- cept the application of the biological species concept to the orchid flora of Victoria, the authors of this publication would still be faced with two substantial problems. Firstly, there is insufficient detailed information on the breeding biology of most of our orchid taxa to be able to determine their breeding compatibilities. Secondly, the authors, in this comprehensive account of the orchid flora of Victoria, recognise the need to include all the Vol. 112 (6) 1995 work done by systematists, both splitters and lumpers and including all the taxa which have been validly described, Individual or- chidologists will need to apply their own criteria regarding the validity of any particu- lar species. As with all plants, pollination is a critical function in the life-cycle and most orchids have evolved very special floral structures and behaviour to attract insects in order to achieve pollination. There is, in my view, one Serious sin of omission in this otherwise great book. On the dust-jacket it is claimed that the authors have included the most up-to-date review of the information on the biology and ecology of orchids and the authors repeat a similar claim in the Preface, viz. ‘to provide an up-to-date review of the information available on each [species], including its natural history’. This, I must say, they have not done. I am aware of information in sev- eral publications covering research on Victorian orchids and published over the last decade which is not included in this work. There is no reference to the pollination stud- ies of Dafni (on Thelymitra antennifera); the ecological and flowering studies by Cropper (on Thelymitra epipactoides) nor the com- parative floral studies of Sydes (on Thelymitra circumsepta and T. ixioides). Slater has published fully on the floral biol- ogy and breeding system of Dendrobium speciosum, but there is no reference to this work, Adams and Lawson are regular and distinguished authors on the biology and flowering of the genus Dendrobium and there is little evidence of the inclusion of their work. Had these and other publications been included in the text there would have been a much stronger basis to support the claims made. Notwithstanding these deficiencies, I be- lieve this book will be a great success and will stand as a significant contribution to the taxonomic and conservation literature of the orchids of south-eastern Australia. Malcolm Calder, Botanist Blackwood Hill, Pinnacle Lane, Steels Creek, Victoria 3775, 265 Book Reviews Australian Beetles by John F. Lawrence and E.B. Britton Publisher: Melbourne University Press 1994; 192 pages, 15 colour and black & white plates; RRP $44,95 The first comprehensive book on Austra- lian entomology was that of W.W. Froggatt in 1907. In 1926, R.J. Tillyard published his splendid ‘Insects of Australia and New Zea- land’ and, with the exception of K.C. McKeown’s wartime ‘Australian Insects’, this has served as the standard work for 45 years, In 1970, C.S.I.R.O. published the massive ‘The Insects of Australia’ providing a badly needed, authoritative text-book for professional entomologists and students alike. This has been updated and largely re-written in the second edition of 1991, Unlike butterfly enthusiasts, who have been well catered for with a range of special- ist books, coleopterists have had to make do with the appropriate chapter from the above mentioned texts until relatively recently. In 1980, B.P. Moore began ‘A Guide to the Beetles of South-eastern Australia’ as a se- ries of fascicles issued from time to time with the Australian Entomological Magazine. Unfortunately, this seems to have petered out about half way through. Also in 1980, E.G. Matthews began publication of ‘A guide to the Genera of Beetles of South Australia’ which is expected to appear in 10 or 11 parts and is now about half way through. This work is profusely illustrated with clear line drawings and photographs and with easy to follow figured keys and is a jcy to use. In 1987, T. Hawkeswood produced the handy field guide ‘Beetles of Australia’. The difficulty of producing a useful book about beetles lies in the enormous number of species, about 30,000 in Australia, The hope of finding a ‘What Beetle is that’ type of book whereby the reader hopes to identify any beetle down to species level is quite un- realistic. The best that can be hoped for is one that allows identification down to Fam- 266 ily level and the book under review does this in the most comprehensive and authoritative way possible. This book, which is based on the Coleop- tera chapter of the C.S.I.R.O. ‘The Insects of Australia’, consists of three main parts:- 1. Introduction, covering Fossil History, Habitats, Collection. Anatomy, Immature stages and Biology. This excellent summary is entirely new and forms an up to date and succinct review of beetle biology. 2. Classification and Keys. This gives the latest classification of the family relation- ships listing 117 families occurring in Australia, Then follows a rather daunting set of keys to family orin many cases sub-family level for both adults (pp.38-57) and for lar- vae (pp. 57-78). 3. Treatments of each family individ- ually. This is followed by a considerably up- dated list of references and a comprehensive index. The book is fully illustrated throughout with first class line drawings and six plates of scanning electron micrographs have been added to more clearly illustrate diagnostic characters. Two plates of coloured illustra- tions of some of the more striking beetles taken from ‘Insects of Australia’ and eight colour plates of photographs of living beetles add to the attractiveness of this book. The inclusion of a glossary of technical terms may have made this book more accessible to a wider range of readers. It is, at $45, good value and will be a boon to professional entomologists and advanced amateurs alike. P. Kelly 16 Roberts Street, East Brunswick, Victoria 3057. The Victorian Naturalist Marie Allender A Last Excursion Marie Allender, aged 79, died on 27 September 1995 at a nursing home in Rosanna. A funeral service was held at St Kilda on Friday, 29 September and many members of The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria were present at the service to show their appre- ciation of Marie as a friend and a Club member who had given so many years of service to the FNCV. With the passing away of Marie Allender the Club has lost a member known for 34 years to Field Naturalists all around Victoria as the Excursion Secretary of the FNCV. Under her guidance excursions were conducted to areas of natural history interest throughout Victoria, every State of Australia, even to Norfolk Island, and to New Zea- land. Over 500 excursions, from monthly day trips to extended annual tours, were arranged by her for the enjoyment of very many members. Marie joined the FNCV in 1947 and became Excursion Secretrary in 1954, As an office bearer she also became a member of the Council and the two posts were carries out with zeal and regular attendance until her retirement as Excursion Secretary in 1989 and Councillor in 1994. In 1967 the Club Treasurer decided to leave all the financial side of excursions to the Excursion Secretary and for nearly ten years Marie bore the total responsibility for arranging the finance as well as the excursions. When the Club again took over the financial position, Marie presented the Club with a bank balance of over $4,000. In recognition of her efforts for the Club, the Council established the ‘Marie Allender Excursion Fund’. Marie was made an Honorary Member of the Club for her work as Excursion Sec- retary in 1965 and, in 1985, a Presentation of a Silver Tray was made to Marie for THIRTY YEARS as Excursion Secretary, a remarkable achievement. Many members would not know that Marie suffered the loss of a kidney in her younger days and in her later years, while Excursion Secretary, lost the sight of one eye. Marie was employed at the National Herbarium as a technical assistant until her retirement, and this gave her a very active interest in the Botany Group, in arranging the Group excursions and in the displays of botanical specimens at Group meetings and Nature Shows. The name of Allender will live forever in the name ofa plant, Olearia Allenderae J.H. Willis spec. nov., found only in a small tract of land on Wilsons Promontary. Dr J.H. Willis wrote that he had pleasure in naming this graceful plant after its discoverer Miss Marie Allender (of the Melbourne Herbarium staff) who has advanced our knowl- edge of the Victorian flora by several other noteworthy discoveries. D.E. McInnes 267 Vol. 112 (6) 1995 The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria In which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria Established 1880 Registered Office: FNCV, | Gardenia Street, Blackburn, Victoria 3130. (03) 9877 9860. OBJECTIVES: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron His Excellency, The Honourable Richard E. McGarvie, The Governor of Victoria. Key Office-Bearers June 1995 President: Associate Prof, ROBERT WALLIS, School of Aquatic Science and Natural Resources Management, Deakin University (Rusden), Clayton, 3168. (03) 9244 7278 (Fax) (03) 9244 7403. Hon. Secretary: Mr. GEOFFREY PATERSON, 11 Olive Street, South Caulfield, 3162. (A.H. 9571 6436). Hon. Treasurer: Mr. ARNIS DZEDINS, P.O. Box 1000, Blind Bight, 3980 (059) 987 996). Subscription-Secretary: FNCV, Locked Bag 3, P.O. Blackburn, 3130. (9877 9860). Editors: ED and PAT GREY, 8 Woona Court, Yallambia, 3085 (9435 9019). Librarian: Mrs. SHEILA HOUGHTON, FNCV, Locked Bag 3, P.O, Blackburn, 3130. (A.H. (054) 928 4097). Excursion Secretary: DOROTHY MAHLER (9435 8408 A.H.) Sales Officer (Victorian Naturalist only): Mr. D.E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (9571 2427). ' Publicity Officer: Miss MARGARET POTTER, 1/249 Highfield Road, Burwood, 3125 (9889 2779). Book Sales Officer: Dr. ALAN PARKIN, FNCV, Locked Bag 3, P.O. Blackburn, 3130. (9850 2617 A.H.). Programme Secretary: Dr. NOEL SCHLEIGER, | Astley Street, Montmorency, 3094 (9435 8408). Group Secretaries Botany; Mr. JOHN EICHLER, 18 Bayview Crescent, Black Rock, 3143 (9598 9492). Geology: Mr. DOUG HARPER, 33 Victoria Crescent, Mont Albert, 3127 (9890 0913). Fauna Survey; Miss FELICITY GARDE, 18 College Parade, Kew, 3101 (9818 4684). Microscopical: Mr. RAY POWER, 36 Schotters Road, Mernda, 3754 (9717 3511). The Victorian Naturalist All material for publication to be sent to FNCV, Locked Bag 3, P.O. Blackburn, Victoria 3130. MEMBERSHIP Members receive The Victorian Naturalist and the monthly Field Nat News free. The Club organises several monthly meetings (free to all) and excursions (transport costs may be charged). Research work, including both botanical and fauna surveys, is being done at a number of locations in Victoria and all members are encouraged to participate. Subscription Rates for 1996 First Member Metropolitan Concessional (pensioner/student/unemployed) Country (more than 50 km from G.P.O.).......00 Junior (under 18) Additional Members Institutional Australian Institutions Overseas Institutions Schools/Clubs Printed by: Sands & McDougall Printing Pty. Ltd. 91-97 Boundary Road, North Melbourne, 3051. Telephone (03) 9329 0166 Contributions mS “fms Orrmston 37s. 9 Glen Helen ' Nes of ce Ge § KRICHAUFE !4) Areyonga RA Palin’ Native Valley Settlement Chalet heLro a oat RA NGE Co Ene Hamilton Downs H.S Simpson Gap EwaningaQ RS. 4 Missi Fig. 1. Map showing location of popular places in the Western MacDonnell Ranges. fold in the Heavitree Quartzite can be seen, produced by the intense lateral pressure that occurred during the ancient period of moun- tain-building. Thompson (1991) considers that Ellery Creek Gorge may lie along a north-south fault line which has slightly dis- placed the quartzite. From Ellery Creek Gorge downstream for about 8 km one can see a very interesting sequence of sedimentary rocks exposed along the banks and in the bed of Ellery Creek. Indeed, a thickness of about 6,000 m of sedimentary rocks can be inspected, in- cluding sediments laid down beneath the sea during the Cambrian period, the Ordovician period and later periods of geological time. The rocks, which include sandstones, shales, limestones and conglomerates, are fos- siliferous, and the various fossils found in them have been of use in dating the sedi- ments. Serpentine Gorge is approximately 20 km to the west of Ellery Creek Gorge. In fact, it has been formed by a stream that is a tributary of Ellery Creek. Two gorges ac- tually occur here where the south-flowing creek cuts through two ridges of Heavitree Quartzite. There is a prominent fold in the strata between the two ridges. At the upstream site at this locality, the very narrow gap indicates that the creek has eroded along a nearly straight, vertical joint. At Ormiston Gorge, about 24 km north- Vol. 112 (3) 1995 west of Serpentine Gorge, there are sheer 200 m cliffs of pinkish quartzite. The deep, narrow gorge has been eroded by Ormiston Creek, a tributary of the Finke River. The geology here is very complex with much folding and overthrusting of the rock strata. Glen Helen Gorge has been eroded by the Finke River through a sandstone of Cambrian age known as the Pacoota Sandstone. The shape of the Gorge has been controlled quite markedly by jointing in the rock, the joints (parting-planes) having acted as zones of weakness to erosional for- ces. The layers of sandstone that were originally horizontal have been turned up on end during the upheavals that produced the MacDonnell Ranges. This popular place is approximately 125 km west of Alice Springs. Standley Chasm is a narrow chasm which has been formed by erosion in quartzite known geologically as the Chewings Range Quartzite (Fig, 3). This quartzite is of early Precambrian age and is probably about 2,000 million years old. A vertical dyke of an igneous rock called dolerite here was intruded into Chewings Range Quartzite. Dolerite is much less resistant to weathering and erosion than quartzite and a south-flow- ing creek has almost completely eroded away this dolerite dyke leaving vertical quartzite walls; this is now Standley Chasm. The relatively narrow, parallel-sided ig- 127 The Victorian Naturalist Index to Volume 111, 1994 Compiled by K.N. Bell Amphibians Anecdotes of nature or Nature of anecdotes, 235 Frogs declining, 233 Litoria spenceri, addition for A.C.T., 60 Spotted Tree Frog, 60,182 Australian Natural History Medallion Address: Exploring local seasonality (A.J. Reid), 35 Awardee, J.W. Cribb, 171,212 A.N.H.Medallion, 248 A.N.H.Trust Fund, 33 Authors Aberton, J., Wilson, B. and Chenery, K.., 135 Albrecht, D., Walsh, N. and Entwisle, T., 80 Appleby, G. ,235 Braby, M.F. ,109 Cavanagh, A.K., 25 Chenery, K., Aberton, J. and Wilson, B., 135 Conran, J.G., 205 Costello, R. and Tonkinson D., 120 Daniell, A., 218 Douglas, J., 246 (book review) Dufty, A.C., 54 Editors (Vict. Nat.), 38 (book review) Endersby, I., 242 Entwisle, T.J., 154 Entwisle, T.J., Albrecht D, and Walsh. N., 80 Faithful, I., 31 Falkingham, C., 241 Farnsworth,A.J., 34 Gillespie, G.R., Kukolic, K, and Osborne, W:S., 60 Gillespie, G.R. and Osborne, W.S., 182 Harry, J., 39 (obituary for W. Lock) Hill, S.M., 184 Hill, S.M. and Joyce, E.B., 96 Houghton, S., 38 (book review), 153 (book review), 212, 247 (obituary for A.N. Burns), 248 Howie, G.L., 44 (letter) Irwin, P., 139 Joyce, E.B. and Hill, S.M., 96 Korzniak, N., McPhee, C. and Story, D., 70 Kukolic, K., Osborne, W.S. and Gillispie G.R., 60 Kutt, A. and Larwill, S., 233 Larwill, S. and Kutt, A., 233 Lumsden, L.F., 4 Lunt, I.D. and Morgan, J.W., 10 McAlley, P., 243 McInnes, D.E., 32 McNabb, E., 190 McPhee, C., Story, D. and Korzniak, N., 70 May, T., 244 (book review) Morgan, J.W., 87 Morgan, J.W. and Lunt, I.D., 10 Osborne, W. and Gillispie, G., 182 Osborne, W., Gillispie, G. and Kukolic, K., 60 Poiani, A., 102 Rawlings, J., 169 Reid, A.J., 35 Robinson, K., 223 Scarlett, N., 125 Schnackenberg, S., 227 Scott, G.A.M., 112 See, M., 172 Seebeck, J., 74 Silveira, C., 202 (book review) Sluiter, I., 164 Smales, I., 178 Smith, J.M.B., 196 Stuwe, J., 93 Story, D., Korzniak, N. and McPhee, c, 70 Sydes, M., 213 Wallis, R., 151 Walsh, N., Entwisle, T. and Albrecht, D., 80 Watson, J.E., 65 Williams, K.L., 18 Willis, J.H., 144 (Book review) Wilson, B.A., 46 Wilson, B.A., Chenery, K. and Aberton J., 135 Thompson, R., 152, 152 Tonkinson, D. and Costello, R., 120 Birds Beachwashed Little Penguin, 243 Bell Miner, host/parasite interactions, 102 Butchered by a bird, 34 Crested Tern recovery, 153 Manorina melanophrys, parasite interac- tions, 102 Predator calls, prey response, 190 Rainbow Bee-eater, eating butterfly, 31 Raven and Leaf-case Moth, 241 Sterna bergii, recovery, 153 Book Reviews ‘After the Greening’, M. White (J. Douglas), 246 ‘Collecting and Preserving Herbarium Specimens’, D, Albrecht (Editors, Vict. Nat.), 38 ‘Common Australian Fungi’, T. Young (T. May), 244 ‘Door to the Forest’, E. Lyndon (S. Houghton), 38 ‘Encyclopaedia of Australian Animals: Reptiles, Frogs, Mammals, Birds’, 38 ‘Field Guide to the Birds of Australia’, K.G. Simpson and N. Day (G. Silveira), 202 ‘Kangaroo Island Native Plants’, I, Hol- liday, B. and D. Overton (J.H. Willis), 144 ‘The story of Mossvale Park’, E. Lyndon (S. Houghton), 153 Botany Banksia, recent literature, 25 Blackthorn, insects on, 238 Bryophytes, biology of, 112 Bursaria spinosa, insects on, 238 Census of Vict. vascular plants, Bull. 4.3, 154 Grasses and grassland ecology, 87 Ground flora diversity, 80 Germination of grass-,wood-land forbs, 10 Native vegetation, terrestrial mollusc im- pact on, 218 Orchids, management indicators, 213 Slime moulds, 18, 75 (erratum) Soil crusts, germination and weeds, 125 Soil microflora, 131 Tradescantia virginiana in Australia, 205 Tropical seeds, fruit on Victorian beaches, 196 Volvox at Albert Park Lake, 32 Weed control on ground flora, 223 Your Longyfolia, 145 Entomology Australian spiders, publicity worse than bite?, 70 Butterflies eaten by Dragon Lizard and Rainbow Bee-eater, 31 Butterflies, bird predation on, 109 Insects found on Blackthorn, 238 Geology Beaumaris cliffs, a review, 139 Buried soil in ash sequences, Bullen- merri/Gnotuk Maars, 96 Granite landforms, Wilsons Promontory, 184 Invertebrates Hydroids of eastern Bass Strait, 65 Terrestrial molluscs, impact on native vegetation, 218 Localities Albert Park Lake, volvox at, 32 Bass Strait, hydroids, 65 Beaumaris cliffs, 139 Bullenmerri/Cnotuk maars, buried soils, 96 Cradle Mt., Kate Weindorfer of, 227 Hamilton, Eastern Barred Bandicoots, 54 Otway Ra., New Holland Mouse in, 46 Wilsons Promontory, granite landforms, 184 Mammals Antechinus minimus maritimus behaviour, 135 Brushtailed Phascogale, antipredator be- haviour, 22 Eastern Barred Bandicoot at Hamilton, 54 Greater Long-eared Bat, ecology of, 4 Leadbeater’s Possum in lowland swamp woodland, 178 New Holland Mouse in eastern Otway Ran- ges, 46 Nyctophylus timotiensis, ecology of, 4 Perameles gunnii at Hamilton, 54 Possum spp., dual use of tree, 157 Predator calls, prey response, 190 Pseudomys novaehollandiae in eastern Miscellaneous Otway Ranges, 46 Horn Expedition, centenary, 86 Urban wombats, 74 How to be a Field Naturalist: Birdwatching, fi 242 Management/Restoration Kaic Weindoatee. 027 Ecology, grasses and grasslands, 87 Li 2 i f ee pe ghtning strikes again, 44 (letter) Ground flora, diversity and associations, 80 M.A. Ingram Trust, 222 Orchids, success indicators, 213 Planning a restoration project, 164 Rapid growth in Brisbane, 172 Obituaries Role of fire in ground flora ecology, 93 A.N. Burns (S.Houghton), 247 Soil conditions, treatment and disturbance, W. Lock (J. Harry), 39 120 Soil crusts, germination and weeds, 125 Soil microflora, 131 Reptiles Sydney ground flora?, 169 Dermochelys Coriacea, 152 Terrestrial molluscs, impact on native Dragon Lizard eating butterflies, 31 vegetation, 218 Leathery Turtle (Luth), 152 Weed control in ground flora, 223