The Victorian Naturalist The Magazine of the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA in which is incorporated THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA Vol. 98 January-December, 1981 COMPILED BY KENN. BELL @) JENKIN BUXTON PRINTERS PTY. LTD. 1-13 Abbotsford Street, West Melbourne, 3003 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY MEDALLION Trust fund, 45, 68, 119, 209, 265 AUTHORS Aston, H. I., 27 Backholer, J. R., Brunner, H. and Stevens, Bois 72 Baines, J. A., 83, 136, 169 Balmford, R., 96 Beauglehole, A. C., 53 Bird, P. R., 67 Boundy, K. A., Boyce, M. W., and Hanson, DADs Boyce, M. W., Boundy, K. A., and Hanson, D. D., 72 Brewster, E., 163 Brunner, H., Sievens, P. L., and Backholer, IR Burn, R. F. (book review), 215 Callanan, B. A., 109 Cheal, P. D. C., 58 Cheetham, R. J., and Wallis, R. L., 248 Clifford, H. T., 75 Cooper, R. J., Gifford, E. J., and Mcllroy, 2: C:,.60 Corrick, M. G., 42 Crichton, G. A., 64, 214 Czechura, G. V., 200 Davis, P., Rounsevell, O. E., and Pearce, R. J., 228 Dixon, J. M., 130 Doery, M. K., and Turner, E. K., 170 Douglas J. G., and Kenley, P. R., 65 Falkingham, C., 251 Gifford, E. J., McIlroy, J. C., and Cooper, R. J., 60 Gill, E. D., 156, 188 Gillam, N. W., 264 Hanson, D. D., Boyce, M. W., and Boundy, K. A., 72 Hawkeswood, T. J., 120, 146, 152, 210 Henshaw, C. H. 219 Isles, A. C., 52 Jackson, P. D., 18 Kenley, P. R., and Douglas, J. G., 65 Kuiter, R. H., 184 Lane, D., 28 Lester, M. J., 190 Loyn, R. H., 194 Marshall, K. J., 233 McClellan, E., (book review), 209 il McEvey, A. R., (book review), 175 Mellroy, J. C., Cooper, R. J., and Gifford, E. J., 60 Morse, J. C., (book review), 263 Neil, J. V., 204 Ollier, C. D., 195 O'Loughlin, M., (book review), 82 Panetta, F. D., 31 (book review) 177 Pearce, R. J., Davis, P., and Rounsevell, O. E., 228 Plant, R. J., and Smith, B. J., 257 Rounsevell, O. E., Pearce, R. J., and Davis, P., 228 Salkin, A. I., 69, 106, 160, 191, 254 Smales, I., 234 Smith, B. J., 24 (book review), 82 Smith, B. J., and Plant, R. J., 257 Stevens, P. L., Backholer, J. R., and Brun- ner, H., 5 Stuwe, J., 216 Taylor, G., (book review) 129 Townsend, S. E., 37 Turner, E. K., and Doery, M. K., 170 Wallis, R. L., (book review) 199; (book review) 246 Wallis, R. L., and Cheetham, R. J., 248 Walsh N. G., 144 Webb, G. A., 159 Whinray, J. S., 80 Willis, J. H., (book review) 262 BIRDS Australian Hobby, predation on Bats, 200 Cobaw State Forest, Birds and Mammals, 72 Early Introduction into Victoria, 96 BOOK REVIEWS Across Mountain and Plain, 129 Dinosaurs, 246 Field Guide, Nests and Eggs, Aust. Birds, 175 Field Guide, Non-Marine Mollusc, S.E. Aust., 215 Learning about Australian Birds, 177 Life on Pocky Shores, S.E. Aust., 82 Light and Plant Life, 209 Native Trees and Shrubs, S.E. Aust., 262 Proceedings, Melb. Herpetological Sym- posium, 177 Social Behaviour of Animals, 199 Tasmanian Caddis-flies, 263 Tasmanian Echinoderms, 82 Wild Animals of the World, 246 EXCURSIONS Flinders Island, 163 Mt Kosciusko, 170 BSLV. Annual Report, 85 Balance Sheet, 86 Excursion Reports, 163, 170 General Meetings, 45, 90, 138, 178, 221, 266 Victorian Conservation Prize, 4 FISHES Inshore fishes, Kent Group, 184 Introduced Trout, Interaction with Native fish, 18 FUNGI Cinnamon fungus, 251 Earth Stars (Geasteraceae), 214 Gasteromycete Genera, Key to S.E. Aust., 64 GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY Buried soil, Mt Eccles, and Date of Eruption, 195 Devonian fossils, Heathcote, palaeoecology, 204 Enigmatic Organic structures, Grampians, 65 K-A age, Basalt, Hopkins River, 188 Radiocarbon dates, Estuarine shells, Yarra River, 156 INSECTS Butterflies, Lists and Notes, Glenbrook, N.S.W., 210 Insect Pollination of Angophora woodsiana, 120 Jewel Beetles, Armidale, N.S.W., 152 Two Sympatric species (Buprestidae), N.S.W., 146 (also 253 for errata) MAMMALS Bats, predation by Aust. Hobby, 200 Cobaw State Forest, Mammals and Birds, 72 Introduced Mammals, Vict., 5 (also 84 for Omission) iii Little Red flying foxes, Collecting water in fur, 194 Neotype, Southern Shortnosed Bandicoot, 130 New Macropod for Grampians, 67 Pigs, Feral, in Victoria, 37 Wallaby Ck. Catchment, Mammals of, 109 Whale, Blue, stranding at Warrnambool, 52 Whale, Sperm, Strandings at Macquarie Har- bour, Tas., 228 Whitefooted Dunnart, Field Notes on, 248 Wombat, Burrow of Common, 60 MISCELLANEOUS Burbidge, N. T. memorial Lecture, 75 Meeting, Ornithological Research, 59 | Notes to Authors, 74 | Protection against Sunburn, Sweet Bursaria, | 190 V.F.N.C. Assoc., Report, 261 | MOLLUSCS Differentiating Left-handed Freshwater snails, 257 Introduced Non-marine Molluscs, 24 OMISSIONS AND ERRATA 84, 253 PLACES AND LOCALITIES Allansford, Hopkins R. V., K-A age of Basalt, 188 Armidale, N.S.W., Jewel Beetles, 152 Burbank, S.E. Qld., Insect pollination of Angophora woodsiana, 120 Cobaw State Forest, mammals and birds, 72 Flinders, Isl., excursion, 163 Glenbrook, N.S.W., Butterflies, 210 Grampians, Enigmatic Fossils, 65 Grampians, New Macropod for, 67 Kent Group, inshore fishes, 184 Macquarie Harbour, Tas., Whales stranded, 228 Mt Eccles, Buried soil and Eruption date, 195 Mt Koscuisko, excursion, 170 Wallaby Ck. Catchment, Mammals, 109 Warrnambool, Whale stranding, 52 Yarra R., Radiocarbon dates, 156 Yellingbo State Faunal Res., Herpetofauna, 234 PLANTS Acacia nobilis, First Vict. Record, 58 Additions, Alterations, Vict. Vascular flora, 53 Angophora woodsiana, Insect Pollination of, 120 Aquatic plants, Effects of Introduced, 27 Banksias, Discovery and Naming, 69, 106, 160, 191, 254 Blechum vulcanicum, New Aust. Mainland Record, 144 Boneseed, in Vict. Bushland, 28 Brachyome muelleroides, Rare & Endangered Plants, 216 Bushpeas of Vict., 42 Extra plant record, Tas., 80 Insect Pollination, Angophora woodsiana, 120 Mistletoe in Introduced Trees, 233 Orchids, Strange Native, 264 Origin, Generic Names, Vict. flora, 83, 136, 169 Seedlings and Aust. flora, 75 Weed dominated Communities, Rehabilita- tion of, 31 Why not look beyond the flowers, 219 REPTILES Herpetofauna, Yellingbo State Faunal Res., 234 Tiger snakes, climbing ability of, 159 iv —$ TL SIS Vol. 99, No. 1 Jan/Feb 1982 Published by the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA in which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria $2. 20 I 12 2 B4. ARA. Án ana Biakilczaetinen Ala VP BD 4429680 FNCV DIARY OF COMING EVENTS GENERAL MEETINGS At the National Herbarium, the Domain, South Yarra. Monday, 15 March, 8.00 p.m. Margaret Blakers. R.A.O.U. Atlas of Australian birds. Monday, 19 April, 8.00 p.m. Dr Elizabeth Turner. Blacksand and Pahoehoe (volcanoes of Hawaii). Monday, 10 May, 8.00 p.m. Dr Bill Birch, Curator of Mineralogy, National Museum of Victoria. Minerals of Victoria. New Members — January/February General Meetings. Ordinary J. L. Alston, 1/36 Margot St., Ferntree Gully. R. Clark, 19 Waratah St., South Oakleigh. L. Hemsley, P.O. Box 123, Bayswater. D. Staples, 86 Surrey Rd., Blackburn, Country C. J. Goudey, Lot 8, Cozens Rd., Lara. R. Loyn, 202 Monbulk Rd., Emerald. Joint Mr & Mrs D. C. Rogers, 57 Ardoyne St., Black Rock. FNCV EXCURSIONS Saturday, 6 — Monday. 8 March. Combined weekend at Morwell. This year the annual combined V.F.N.C.A. weekend gathering will be hosted by the Latrobe Valley F.N.C. Excursions on Saturday afternoon, Sunday and Monday will depart from the A.P.I. Hall in Hazelwood Rd opposite the Library where evening meetings will be held. Cost for coach and DBB accommodation will be $80.00. Deposit of $20.00 should be paid to the excursion secretary when booking. Coach departs from out- side the Gas and Fuel at 8.00 a.m. on Saturday. Bring a picnic lunch. Sunday, 4 April. Volcanoes. Leader: Graham Love. Coach will leave Batman Avenue at 9.30 a.m. Preliminary notices: Will members interested in an excursion to Western Australia in September/October 1982 please advise the excursion secretary as soon as possible. Programme: Friday, 24 September Perth to Jurien Bay; 25th Pinnacles National Park, over- night at Moora; 26th Moora to Merriden; 27th Mer- riden to Kalgoorlie; 28th Kalgoorlie area; 29th Kalgoorlie to Esperence; 1st Esperence; 2nd Esperence to Albury for 4 nights with day trips in- cluding Stirling Ranges; 6th Albany to Pemberton; 7th Pemberton to Augusta; 8th Augusta to Bussleton; 9th Bussleton to Perth. The night prior to the tour and the night we return to Perth would not be included but not transport between Perth and Melbourne. This will enable members to choose mode of transport and extend their time in Western Australia if they desired. Cost will depend on numbers going but are likely to be about $900 based ona party of 30. Accommodation will be DBB with a few lunches. A deposit of $100 should be paid when booking. GROUP MEETINGS FNCV members are invited to attend any Group meeting, no extra charge Day Group — Third Thursday. Thursday, 18 March. Port Authority harbour cruise. Booking necessary through the leader, D. Gillespie (578 1879). Thursday, 15 April. Williamstown. 578 1879. Herbarium, the Domain, at 8.00 p.m. First Tuesday — Mammal Survey Group. Third Wednesday — Microscopy Group. At the National Wednesday, 17 February. Memories of the Microscopical Society of Victoria. Speaker: Mr Des Wentworth. Second Thursday — Botany Group. Thursday, 11 March, Mistletoes and mistletoe mythology. Speaker: Dr Malcolm Calder, Universi- ty of Melbourne. Thursday, 8 April. Ms Vivien Turner, Monash University. The strange case of the banksia and the pygmy possum. GROUP EXCURSIONS All FNCV members are invited to attend Group excursions. Mammal Survey Group. Saturday, 6 — Monday, 8 March. Mt Alexander. Easter. Friday, 9 — Monday, 12 April. East Gippsland. Saturday, 8 — Sunday, 9 May. Strathbogies. The Victorian Naturalist Volume 99, Number 1 January/February, 1982 ISSN 0042-5184 Editor: Robert L. Wallis Assistant Editor: F. Dane Panetta Editorial Committee: H. Cohn, B. Smith Stigmodera (Themognatha) coronata, a New Jewel Beetle (Coleoptera : Buprestidae) from South-western Australia by M. 1 RELA CY TD, eg Ad ae i Y ETSI EE LR IY QS Tae, DET rT a 4 Tertiary Planktonic Foraminifera from Muddy Creek, Victoria by ENSHBHelbnc T Ve Noll... oS 2 restore tro e ieatin s Mort Saee Dietas a ri ote 9 Victorian Field Studies on the Broad-toothed Rat (Mastacomys fuscus Thomas) by R. L. Wallis, H. Brunner and P. W. Mica ad Veta La Rr EIE c Piet AW My ae ae EER grea ane o diae 12 Discovery of Leadbeater’s Possum in Gembrook State Forest by RoR LOTA eG MoNabbT 6 1 LEES Setia 21 The Humpback Whale, Megaptera novaeangliae (Borowski, 1781), a First Stranding For Port Phillip Bay, Victoria by J. M. Dixon... 24 Notes on Insect Pollination of Two Species of Eucalyptus (Myr- taceae) from South-west Western Australia by T. J. Hawkeswood. 28 F.N.C.V. Reports of Recent Club Activities ................4.. 37 The Centenary Expedition of the F.N.C.V. 1-8 Nov, 1980 ....... 39 Cover illustration: Stigmodera (Themognatha) mniszechi Saunders on flowers of Eucalyptus. Bar indicates 20 mm. (Photo by M. Peterson). Stigmodera (Themognatha) coronata, A New Jewel Beetle (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) From South-western Australia By MAGNUS PETERSON* Abstract Stigmodera (Themognatha) coronata sp. nov. is described from Yellowdine, Western Australia. Notes are provided on the habitat and adult food plant in the area. Relationships are discussed and species groups designated for S. cor- onata and some closely related taxa. Male genitalia of five species are il- lustrated. Introduction In late January 1979 Messrs M. Powell, M. Golding and T. M. S. Hanlon visited an area 34 km E of Southern Cross, in the immediate vicini- ty of Yellowdine, Western Australia (31°18’S, 119?39'E), to observe buprestid beetles for distributional data. The dominant vegetation in the area consists of cream flowered mallees (Eucalyptus redunca Schau.) with an understorey of porcupine grass (Triodia scariosa Burbidge), growing in a pink- white clay soil. Adults of 26 buprestid species were recorded on E. redunca flowers, from 1600-1930 hrs on the 27 Jan. 1979 and from 0645-1000 hrs and 1545-1830 hrs on the 28 Jan. 1979 (Western Standard Time). A small sample of each taxon was retained for identification and reference purposes; the remainder were released in situ. Six specimens of an undescribed species were amongst material retained. For these and 3 other specimens, the following nomenclature is proposed: Stigmodera (Themognatha) coronata sp. nov. (Figs 1-6A, 11) * 69 Alvah Street, St James, W.A, 6102. 4 Types Holotype: ð, Yellowdine, W. Aust., on Eucalyptus redunca, 28.i.1979, M. Powell, Western Australian Museum collection, 79/1617. Allotype: 9, Yellowdine, W. Aust., on Eucalyptus redunca, 28.i.1979, M. Golding, WAM 79/1618. Paratypes: 3 $ & 1 v, Yellowdine, W. Aust., on Eucalyptus redunca, 28.1.1979, T. M. S. Hanlon (Collection T. M. S. Hanlon). | cM Fig. 1. Dorsal view of male S. coronata. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Fig. 5. Hind leg of S. coronata. Figs 6-10. Outline diagram of male genitalia (dorsal view) of the following Stigmodera (Themognatha) species (Dotted line represents hidden outline of penis): 6 — coronata; 6A — coronata penis (ventral view); 7 — conspicillata; 8 — gloriosa; 9 — spencei; 10 — duboulayi. lmm same width as prothorax at base, sinuate pre-medially, then gradually rounded to each apex. Elytral disc punctate-striate; intervals mainly flat, becoming slightly rounded towards apex, and convex laterally; all inter- vals impunctate except for the following: the second and fourth intervals punctate at base; the sixth interval expanded at base, finely and 6 closely punctate for basal third; the eighth in- terval with a single row of punctures for its entire length; first striae bifurcate at basal ex- tremity; basal margin flat (not costate). Humeral epipleuron (Fig. 4) moderately ex- panded and inflexed. Elytral apices rounded. Undersurface with extremely close, fine and shallow punctures and a few, fine, short hairs Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Figs. 11-15. Outline diagram of male genitalia (ventral view) of the following Stigmodera (Themognatha) species: 11 — coronata; 12 — conspicillata; 13 — gloriosa; 14 — spencei; 15 — duboulayi. on the prosternum and metasternum. Legs (Fig. 5) with extremely close, fine and shallow punctures and a few, fine, short hairs at the base (proximal extremity) of the femora. First tarsal segment of hind leg not elongate, same length as remainder. Tarsal claws (Fig. 3) strongly lobed at base. Apical sternite arcuately excised (concave). Aedeagus (Fig. 6, 6A) elongate; inner margin of parameres angulate in dorsal view; penis slender and at- tenuate. Females Females differ in the following characters: larger size, less hirsute, apical sternite round- ed (convex), larger and more strongly defined bifurcate marking on prosternum and less punctate elytral intervals. Measurements Males 31.65 + 2.95 x 12.75 0.75 mm (6). Females 36.7 € 2.5 x 15.35 + 0.65 mm (3). Distribution Only known from two localities near Yellowdine, Western Australia. Etymology The specific epithet coronata alludes to the ‘crown’ of iridescent flecks on the pronotum, which contrast strongly with the uniform, matt colour of the remaining dorsal surface. Discussion The subgenus Themognatha Solier, last revised by Carter (1916, 1929, January/February 1931a, b), was recently redefined by Barker (1979) on the following characters: A. Elytra striate or punctate-striate, sometimes with costae. B. Tarsal claws usually lobed and toothed at base (Fig. 3). C. Hair on dorsal surface of head. D. Scutellum oval or round. E. Medium to large size. On the basis of these characters, S. coronata is a member of this subgenus. Within Themognatha, a number of discrete species assemblages can be recognized. S. spencei L. & G., S. conspicillata White, S. duboulayi Saunders, S. macfarlani Waterhouse and S. gloriosa Carter are here grouped on the basis of the following characters: A. Three elytral fasciae (including apical) in females (S. spencei mostly has three, occasionally two, fasciae in both sexes). B. Sexual dichromatism, with reduced number of elytral fasciae in males of most taxa. C. Morphology of male genitalia (Fig. 7-10, 12-15): shape of penis and outline of parameres. They are considered to form the S. spencei species group. S. coronata is most similar to this group, in body 7 shape in transverse section and outline of male genitalia (Fig. 6, 11), but may be differentiated on the following suite of characters: A. Absence of elytral pattern. B. Absence of sexual dichromatism. C. Angulate inner margin of parameres in dorsal view (Fig. 6). D. Attenuate slender penis (Fig. 6, 6A). E. Pronotal iridescence reduced to a series of flecks (Fig. 1). For these reasons I consider S. coronata to constitute a monotypic species group, most closely related to the S. spencei species group. The S. coronata species group differs from all other Themognatha taxa, in possessing characters C and D. S. conspicillata and S. gloriosa, of S. spencei species group members, are the most closely related to S. coronata on the basis of the following characters: A. Nature of reduction of pronotal iridescence. B. Rounded elytral apices. C. Non-explanate pronotal margins. D. Moderately expanded and inflex- ed humeral epipleuron. I consider S. coronata is closest to, and possibly derived from, S. gloriosa because of similarities in ground colour, pronotal shape, and length and propor- tions of male genitalia. In the field, S. coronata may be con- fused with four sympatric Themognatha taxa which are superficially similar but not closely related. These are S. chevrolati Gehin, S. brucki Thomson, S. lesoni L. & G. and S. yarrelli flavipennis Gehin. They differ as follows: S. chevrolati has explanate pro- notal margins, bispinose elytral apices, blue elytral suture, margins and fasciae, slender elongate body and narrowly ex- panded humeral epipleuron; S. brucki has explanate pronotal margins, wide flat green pronotum with cream lateral margins, no prosternal bifurcate mark- ing and narrowly expanded humeral epipleuron; S. /essoni has a green pro- 8 notum with cream lateral margins, slightly bidentate elytral apices and green elytral suture and margins; S. yar- relli flavipennis exhibits sexual dichromatism (elytral fasciae present in females, absent in males), blue pro- notum with cream lateral margins and narrowly expanded humeral epipleuron. All these taxa differ markedly from S. coronata in male genitalic structure. The colour pattern of S. coronata is possibly an adaptation for procrypsis on the cream flowered mallees, with the iridescent pronotal flecks approximating the sunlight reflecting on the nectar in the hypanthium and the cream ground colour blending in with the cream stamens of the mallee flowers. This is an unusual occurrence in Themognatha with most species being obvious even to the casual observer. Acknowledgements | would like to thank Mr T. J. Hawkeswood, Department of Botany, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld. and Mr D. Knowles (Perth, W.A.) for providing constructive comments on the manuscript, Messrs M. Powell and M. Golding for providing specimens, field data and other informa- tion given in this paper. The following kindly pro- vided access to collections in their care: Dr E. Mat- thews, South Australian Museum, Adelaide; Dr J. Lawrence, Division of Entomology, C.S.L R.O., Canberra; Dr G. Monteith and Mr E. C. Dahms, Queensland Museum, Brisbane; Mr M. de Baar, Queensland Forestry Dept., Brisbane; Ms M. Schneider, Queensland University, Brisbane; Queensland Dept. of Primary Industry, In- dooroopilly, Brisbane; Dr A. A. Calder and Dr A. Neboiss, National Museum of Victoria, Melbourne; Dr T. F. Houston, Western Australian Museum, Perth; Dr C, N. Smithers and Mr G. Holloway, Australian Museum, Sydney; Mr A. Sundholm, Sydney; Mr T. M. S. Hanlon, Perth. | am grateful to Dr A. E. Greer (Australian Museum) for the use of equipment and Mr D. Metcalfe, Ms M. Brady and Mr P. de Boer for typing the manuscript. REFERENCES Barker, S., 1979. New species and a catalogue of Stigmodera (Castiarina) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae). Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 103: 1-23, Carter, H. J., 1916. Revision of the genus Stigmodera, and descriptions of some new species of Buprestidae (Order Coleoptera). Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 40: 78-144, plates IX & X. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Carter, H. J., 1929, A check list of the Australian Buprestidae. Aust. Zool. 5: 265-304. Carter, H. J., 1931a. Checklist of the Australian Buprestidae, Corrigenda. Aust. Zool. 6: 107 Carter, H. J., 1931b. Notes on the genus Stigmodera (family Buprestidae), (together with descriptions of new species of and a retabulation of the subgenus Castiarina). Aust. Zool. 6: 337- 367. Tertiary Planktonic Foraminifera from Muddy Creek, Victoria By K. N. BELL* AND J. V. NEIL** In this paper we present data on the planktonic foraminiferal fauna of the Muddy Creek Marl from Clifton Bank, Muddy Ck., Hamilton, Vict. The foraminiferal fauna was first described by Howchin (1889). Since then further notes have been made by Chap- man (1923) and Parr (1926). More recently, in an unpublished thesis, Mallett (1977) made a brief comment on the fauna listing eight species of planktonic foraminifera. The samples studied here came from the Clifton Bank where the exposure was closely sampled (Fig. 1). The collec- ting party considered that the samples came from Prof. Ralph Tate's original collection site (A. R. Hutchinson in litt to R. Burn, 17 Aug. 1968). Of the samples, only three (9, 7b, and 5) had not been previously washed and so were suitable for foraminiferal determina- tions. From these a more detailed planktonic fauna was obtained than had previously been found. Each sample available was halved and independently prepared, with the faunas identified and cross-checked to overcome any bias in techniques. Fauna and Age A total of 20 species of planktonic forams was found (Table 1). Species marked * were rare occurring as less than 2% of the fauna (based on a count * Honorary Assoc., Invertebrate Dept., National Museum of Victoria. ** 23 Michael St., Bendigo, Victoria. January/February of at least 300 planktonic forams in each sample.) Samples 9 and 7b were dominated by Globigerinoides sicanus (25% and 17% respectively) with Globigerina woodi woodi also dominant (19% and 11%). The other main species each constitute from 6-10% of the faunas. Over the past decade or so there has been a great advance in the worldwide zonation of the Tertiary based upon the planktonic forams (e.g. see Berggren and Van Couvering, 1974). Fig. 2 shows that part of the zonation scheme which concerns us here, using ages adapted from Chaproniere (1980). The presence, in sample 9, of both G. sicanus and Praeorbulina glomerosa indicates an N8 age for this sample. With the entry of Orbulina suturalis in sample 7b, both this and sample 5 belong to zone N9. P. glomerosa extends just into the base of zone N9 (Stainforth et al 1975). The planktonic forams also enable us to make an estimate of the depth of deposition of the sediments at Clifton Bank. It is well known that the planktonic percentage of the total foram fauna increases with increasing depth of deposition. In the present samples the planktonic percentages range from 20% (sample 9) to 11% (7b) and 9% (5). These figures indicate a depth of deposition of about 60 metre for sample 9 with a shallowing to 40 metre or less for the other two samples. The benthonic forams indicate a similar depth range and will be discussed in a further note. Fig. 1. Columnar section at Clifton Bank showing sample sites and ages. O Top of Section. 122 cm Sample 5 152 €m ZONE N39 201 cm Sample 7b EPIS 244 cm Sample 9 ZONE N8 274 cm 300 cm Base of Section, Entry of Q. suturalis. ZONE N8 Entry of G. sicanus. ZONE N7 Fig. 2. International Tertiary Biostratigraphic Zones with time scale. 10 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Table 1. Globigerinoides triloba triloba triloba immatura sicanus apertasuturalis ruber * Praeorbulina transitoria glomerosa Orbulina suturalis Biorbulina bilobata Globoquadrina dehiscens * larmeui * Globigerina woodi woodi woodi connecta praebulloides eamesi * foliata * Globorotalia peripheroronda * praescitula * Globigerinella siphonifera * Acknowledgement We would like to thank Mr Robert Burn, Geelong, for allowing us to examine the material in his keeping. REFERENCES Berggren, W. A. and Van Couvering, J. A., 1974. The Late Neogene. Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol. 16: 1-216. Chaproniere, G. C. H., 1980. Biometrical studies of Early Neogene larger Foraminiferida from Australia and New Zealand. Alcheringa, 4 (3): 153-181. Sample 9 Sample 7b Sample 5 X x X X X x x x x X X cf. x X x X X X x X x x ar. x X X x x x x x a m X x X Chapman, F. 1923. The Fossiliferous Beds of Violet Ck., near Hamilton. Victorian Nat. 40: 148-151. Howchin, W., 1889. the Foraminifera of the Older Tertiary of Australia. No. 1, Muddy Ck, Vic- toria. Trans. Roy. Soc. Sth. Aust. 12: 1-20. Mallett, C. W., 1977. Studies in Victorian Tertiary foraminifera, Neogene planktonic faunas. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Melb. (unpub.). Parr, W. J. 1926. Some additional microzoa from the red limestone at Grange Burn, Victoria. Victorian Nat. 43: 17-20. Stainforth, R. M., Lamb, J. L., Luterbacher H., Beard, J. H., and Jeffords, R. M. 1975. Cenozoic Planktonic Foraminiferal Zonation and Characteristics of index forms. Univ. Kansas Paleont. Cont. 62. F.N.C.V. Calendar The programme of events for the first six months of 1982 is available on request from the Subscription Secretary, FNCV, National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141. January/February 11 Victorian Field Studies on the Broad-toothed Rat (Mastacomys fuscus Thomas) By ROBERT L. WALLIS*, HANS BRUNNER# AND PETER W. MENKHORST ft The Broad-toothed Rat Mastacomys fuscus is one of the ‘‘Old Endemic" species of rodents (Ride, 1970) which belong to the subfamily Hydromyinae (Lee et al., 1981). Although Mastacomys is genetically close to cer- tain Pseudomys species, Baverstock et al. (1981) believe the Broad-toothed Rat is sufficiently distinctive, both struc- turally and behaviourally, to warrant its maintenance as a separate genus. Mastacomys is stoutly built, thickly furred and compact, and characteristically has very broad molar teeth. Although fossil records show the species once had a wide distribution in south-eastern Australia (Wakefield, 1960, 1963a, 1963b, 1967, 1972; Calaby and Wimbush, 1964), M. fuscus now oc- curs in southern and eastern Victoria, eastern New South Wales and the western half of Tasmania (Watts and Aslin, 1980). For this reason the present distribution had been described as relict (Calaby and Wimbush, 1964), and Calaby (1963) noted that its survival in Australia was threatened. Recent work, however, has extended its known range in mainland Australia (Watts and Aslin, 1980; this paper) to the extent that it is not now considered threatened in Vic- toria (Ahern, in press) or New South Wales (Hermes, 1980). Distribution Mastacomys fuscus is restricted to the high rainfall areas of south-eastern Australia and Tasmania (Watts and * Department of Environmental Studies, Rusden CAE, 662 Blackburn Road, Clayton, Vic. 3168, # Department of Crown Lands and Survey, Keith Turnbull Research Institute, Vermin and Noxious Weeds Destruction Board, Frankston, Vic. 3199. 1 Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, Fisheries and Wildlife Division, Ministry for Conservation, Brown Street, Heidelberg, Vic. 3084. 12 Aslin, 1980). In Victoria it is confined to areas where the mean annual rainfall is greater than 1000 mm (Fig. 1). It is widespread in the Otway Ranges, South Gippsland Highlands, Central Highlands, Mt. Hotham-Bogong High Plains area and the Mt Kosciusko area, and has recently been found near Nar- ingal in western Victoria, on Wilson’s Promontory and near Cann River, East Gippsland. However, Seebeck’s (1971) prediction that M. fuscus may occur in heaths in south-western Victoria or in The Grampians has not yet eventuated despite extensive trapping surveys (Emison et al., 1978; FWD unpublished data). The mean annual rainfall in the highest parts of The Grampians exceeds 1000 mm, but in south-western Vic- torian heathlands it is less than 800 mm. Detection In most field studies reported to date, M. fuscus has proved difficult to live- trap. This may be related to the low population density of the rat in sub- optimal habitat; trap-shyness and com- petition for traps with other small mam- mals; or to the selective feeding habits of the species and its consequent disinterest in baits usually offered in traps. Higher population densities have recently been found above the winter snowline near Mt Kosciusko (Watts and Aslin, 1980) and below the snowline near Lake Mountain (Seebeck, pers. comm.). Predator scat analysis is a valuable survey tool which can reveal the presence of mammal species not detected by conventional techniques such as trapping and spotlighting (Brun- ner, Amor and Stevens, 1976; Friend, 1978). It has been particularly useful in locating populations of M. fuscus as the teeth and hair of this species are characteristic and easily distinguished Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Trapped post 1971 Trapped pre 1971 Predator scat record 5 grid surveyed by FWD 1000 mm isohyet 145? Figure 1. Distribution of Mastacomys fuscus in Victoria. from those of other rodents. At Nar- ingal, Cann River and in the South Gippsland Highlands, extensive trapp- ing failed to locate the species but its re- mains have been found in predator scats (Seebeck, 1978; M. MacFarlane, pers. comm.; Norris et al., 1979). The oc- currences of M. fuscus in predator scats collected over the last decade are listed in Table 1. e s UT Figure 2. Mastacomys fuscus. Photograph by E. R. Rotherham. January/February 200 km “Mt E 0s ^ x Anota oO : VM j 4 Wilsons Promontory TH 149° Figure 1 shows all latitude/longitude grid squares of 5’ resolution in which M. fuscus has been trapped or found in predator scats. It also indicates those grid squares surveyed to date by the Fisheries and Wildlife Division. Since 1971, 42% of the 52 new locality records of M. fuscus have been made by predator scat analysis (FWD unpublish- ed data). Habitat Mastacomys fuscus has been found in a range of environments from alpine herbfield to coastal tussock grassland. At altitudes greater than 1200 m it in- habits tall alpine herbfield, fen, valley bog, raised bog, heath and woodland (sensu Costin et al., 1979). Captures are usually along drainage lines where shrubs are absent or sparse and a dense cover of sedges, grasses, herbs and mosses is present. Common plant species in such situations include Poa 13 Year 1971 1972 1973 1973 TON 1973-81 14 Collectors J.M. Dixon Students/J.M. Dixon M. McCallum J. Backholer G. Suckling J. Lloyd, H. Brunner, I. Bertuch, A. Wallis, R. Wallis J. Seebeck G. Friend Stevens, H. Brunner Table | Occurrences of Mastacomys fuscus remains in predator scats Friend Brunner Brunner Brunner Brunner Anderson Brunner, MacFarlane MacFarlane Seebeck P. Voutier Location FalliscCreck Otway Ranges Mt. Howitt Mt. Feathertop Frica Sherbrooke Forest Park Naringal East Mt. Feathertop Dartmouth Dam Site Boola Boola Olsens Bridge English Corner Mt. Square Top Toolangi Cann River Camberville Savins Road, near Powellt Britannia Road, near Powelltown Sumner Spur, near Powelltown Number of Scats with M. fuscus remains n 3 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 australis, Carex breviculmis, Sphagnum cristatum, Stellaria pungens, Em- podisma minus and Helichrysum scorpioides. Mean annual precipitation is greater than 1400 mm. At lower altitudes ( 1300 m) in the Otway Ranges, South Gippsland Highlands and Great Dividing Range, M. fuscus inhabits areas with a dense, wet understorey within tall open-forest and open-forest communities. The understorey may be patches of sedgeland and fernland on creek flats where there is a gap in the forest canopy or thickets of Tetrarrhena juncea, Rubus spp. and ferns beneath the canopy. It has also been trapped in young Pinus radiata plantations where a similar dense ground-cover occurs (Warneke, 1960; P. Du Guesclin pers. comm.). Near the coast M. fuscus has been found in heath communities at Carlisle River (Seebeck, 1971), Moonlight Head (FWD unpublished data) and South Peak on Wilsons Promontory (Norris et al., 1979). Annual precipitation at these sites (1000-1200 mm) is lower than in the alpine areas but sedges such as Empodisma minus, Lepidosperma spp. and Calorophus spp. form dense ground cover on water-logged sites. At Parker Cove near Cape Otway the species oc- curs in dense tussock grassland of Poa spp. beside the Parker River and on dunes within 100 m of the sea (FWD un- published data). The diversity of environments in which the species occurs makes the definition of habitat requirements dif- ficult (Seebeck, 1971); however, two features are common to most sites: (i) the mean annual rainfall is greater than 1000 mm and is often greater than 1400 mm; the vegetation always includes a dense ground layer of grasses (Gramineae), sedges (Cyperaceae and Restionaceae) and herbs. As M. fuscus is herbivorous and (ii) January/February feeds mainly on the stems and leaves of grasses and sedges (Watts and Aslin, 1980) this feature is probably critical. Victorian Field Studies (a) Sherbrooke Forest Park In 1970 a population of M. fuscus was located at Sherbrooke Forest Park and subsequently studied by students at Rusden College of Advanced Education (then Monash Teachers College) under the direction of the late N. A. Wakefield. The following information has been taken from some unpublished project reports submitted by A. Brugman and P. Gallagher to that Col- lege's Biology Department. The study site was about one hectare and consisted of dense Tetrarrhena juncea and other understorey vegetation in wet sclerophyll forest dominated by Eucalyptus regnans. Floristics of the area have been more fully described by Gullan and Robinson (1980). Wire mesh cages were set in lines about 20 m apart and baited with rolled oats, peanut butter and honey for ten days in late July, 1970. Few Broad- toothed Rats were trapped so Rattus fuscipes, Antechinus stuartii and A. swainsonii were trapped and released elsewhere thus reducing competition for traps. Traps were checked three times daily (1730 hrs, 2200 hrs and 0800 hrs) and home ranges of individual M. fuscus recorded. Eleven males and nine females were originally marked, but recapture data were only obtained from eleven animals (three males, eight females). Mean body weight of male M. fuscus was 128 g (n — 11), and of females 111 g (8) Mean he." ^ lengths were 289 mm (9) and 279 mm (4) for males and females respec- tively, and mean head-body lengths were 172 mm (9) for males and 154 mm (4) for females. The average rate of recap- ture for both male and female (M. fuscus) was 1.5 recaptures per animal per day. One female was trapped 27 15 times over the ten days and its observed range length (Stickel, 1954) was about 75 m. The range lengths of the other females were smaller, but this may have been related to the fewer captures of these seven animals. Home ranges of females varied in shape and had little overlap; of the 33 trap sites where female M. fuscus were taken, at only eight sites were more than one individual trapped. Most male M. fuscus were found throughout the study site, sometimes entering traps at opposite ends of the area on successive days. Some males were trapped at **peripheral'" sites at which no female M. fuscus were trapped. The home ranges of the three males trapped most frequently showed considerable overlap, had no distinct shape and observed range lengths were about 100 m. Trapping recommenced in early Oc- tober, 1970 for two days. Three of the four females trapped were pregnant and one gave birth between 2200 hrs (10/ix/70) and 1000 hrs (11/ix/70). Three males were also trapped, two of which had not been previously found. The site was again trapped from 29/ii/71 to 6/iv/71. The female which had been trapped 27 times in the initial phase of the experiment was taken this time at sites also frequented by three juveniles, thought to be her offspring. Another adult female had extended its range into that previously occupied by another female killed in a trapping acci- dent. Five other females found previous- ly were not trapped in the 1971 program although three ‘tnew’’ juvenile females were found. Only two of the ‘‘original’’ males were trapped in the week's study, although five juvenile and two unmark- ed adult males were obtained. Over the eight months (August 1970 to April 1971) two females had increased their weight by 13 and 14 g and two males had increased in weight by 10 and 14 g. Mean body weight of adult males was 131 g (range 144-122 g) and of adult females was 118 g (130-110 g). 16 The study resumed in April 1972. Again, M. fuscus were only trapped after other mammals (Rattus fuscipes, R. rattus, Antechinus stuartii, A. swainsonii and Mus musculus) had been removed. Ten Broad-toothed Rats were trapped (six males, four females). There was considerable variation in weight of each male on successive captures. Thus M6 was taken six times over the 16 days and its weight varied from 141 to 150 g. The weight variation for M34 (weighed nine times) was 86 to 96 g and for M36 (three times) was 105 to 117 g. Two juv- enile males without obvious scrota were also trapped. As in 1970, males’ home ranges showed considerable overlap. The largest observed range length for a male M. fuscus (M34) was about 105 m. Weights of individual females also showed considerable variation, being minimal in late afternoon. F20 (trapped six times) weighed between 108 and 120 g and F24 (four times) weighed between 121 and 138 g. The mean weight of all females in the 1972 study was 107 g com- pared with that for male M. fuscus of 110 g. The four females had distinct home ranges with only one case of overlap. Maximum observed range length for a female (F21) was 45 m. In May 1972 the four females and six males were trapped and held in the laboratory while the area was sprayed for blackberry eradication. Two weeks later the rats were released (less one male that had died) back at the original site. Fifteen months later trapping on the same grid yielded only one M. fuscus (a female) (Reed and Wallis, 1975), but other species of small mammal were not removed after trapping to increase the likelihood of catching Broad-toothed Rats. This difficulty in trapping M. fuscus was probably best highlighted when Gullan and Robinson (1980) failed to capture any Broad-toothed Rats in 13,600 trap-nights from April 1971 to January 1974 in a nearby location at Sherbrooke Forest Park. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 EEE EE uan TTT pua Ga ——— E Table 2 Percentage occurrences* of specific mammals in predator scats collected from all over Sherbrooke Forest Park and which contained bones or hair of mammalian prey in three studies: A. Brunner, Lloyd and Coman, 1975. 1265 scats B. Bertuch, 1975. 263 scats C. This study, 1981. 94scats * The sum of each column may exceed 100 as some scats contained more than one prey species. Prey Species * Seu Oryctolagus cuniculus Rattus fuscipes dol 10 Antechinus stuartii US 19 Pseudocheirus peregrinus Mar 14 Trichosurus vulpecula 10 Mat Antechinus swainsonii 6 8 Rattus Spp. 6 3 Mus musculus 5 3 Antechinus spp. 4 4 Mastacomys fuscus Rattus rattus Possums Rattus lutreolus Perameles nasuta Petaurus breviceps Vulpes vulpes Wallabia bicolor Homo sapiens Others January/February 17 During 1973 and 1974, 1888 predator scats were collected from all parts of the Park and analysed. One thousand two hundred and sixty five scats contained the remains of mammals, and of these, 46 (4%) had M. fuscus. Some of the scats had been collected from the site of the original population studied from 1970-72 by Wakefield and his students (Brunner, Lloyd and Coman, 1975). In 1975, a further 71 predator scats con- taining hair were collected from the original study site and four (6%) con- tained hair of M. fuscus (Bertuch, 1975). As well, a carcas of M. fuscus was found on the original grid site (Brunner and Bertuch, 1976). R.W. and H.B. are continuing to monitor the presence of M. fuscus in Sherbrooke Forest Park. In 1981 a fur- ther 94 predator scats containing mam- mal remains were collected and of these, four (4%) contained hair and/or teeth of M. fuscus. The percentage oc- currences of specific mammals in predator scats collected from Sher- brooke Forest Park in the three studies (Brunner, Lloyd and Coman, 1975; Ber- tuch, 1975; our 1981 collection) are listed in Table 2. It should be noted that the percentage occurrences are only par- tial indications of the relative abundance of prey species in an area. Factors such as size of prey, its ease of capture and dietary preference of the predators are complicating factors. Despite recent at- tempts to do so (e.g., Green and Osborne, 1981), it is difficult to establish a relationship between the ap- parent density of M. fuscus as indicated by trapping data and its percentage oc- currence in carnivore scats. (b) Powelltown Trapping of small mammals was car- ried out over three years (1976-1978) around Sumner Spur, near Powelltown, 76 km east of Melbourne. The spur is flanked by steep gullies and mountain ranges at an altitude of 600-700 m and has a mean annual rainfall of 1400 mm. 18 The area is used mainly for Eucalyptus regnans regeneration. Elliott aluminium traps baited with a mixture of peanut butter, rolled oats and honey, were set at dusk and cleared at dawn. Some were kept open and checked during the day. Four thousand and twenty five traps were set over the three years, and 479 Rattus fuscipes, 15 Mastacomys fuscus and 281 other mammals (mainly Antechinus spp.) were caught. This represents a trapping ratio of 0.03:1 for M. fuscus: R. fuscipes (Brunner et al., 1977; Brunner, unpublished data; Lloyd, unpublished data; Warden, un- published data; Warden and Wallis, 1979). Of 359 carnivore scats collected in 1976/77 around Sumner Spur, 21% con- tained the remains of M. fuscus and 18% had R. fuscipes (a ratio of1:0.86 M. fuscus: R. fuscipes) (Brunner, et al., 1977). Subsequently, a technique was design- ed to increase the trapping rate of the Broad-toothed Rat. The area was pre- baited with free-feed pellets of pollard and bran, traps were then baited with these pellets as well as the conventional peanut butter, oat and honey mixture and all R. fuscipes trapped were held for several days to reduce competition for traps. Trapping success for M. fuscus improved from 0.7 to 4% using this technique. In 303 trap nights, 13 M. fuscus and 29 R. fuscipes were trapped (ratio 0.5:1) (Brunner et al., 1977; Warden, unpublished data). At Kosciusko National Park in New South Wales, low trapping ratios of M. fuscus to R. fuscipes have also been reported — 0.15:1 (Green and Osborne, 1981); 0.08:1 (Green and Osborne, 1979) and 0.06:1 (Happold, 1978). However, of 1159 fox scats collected in the Park, 9.3% contained remains of M. fuscus and 7.5% those of R. fuscipes (Green and Osborne, 1981). These authors, in comparing the ratio of occurrence in fox scats of M. fuscus: R. fuscipes (1:0.82) with the ratio of trapping (0.15:1) claim- Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 ed their data were evidence for the selec- tive predation of foxes on Mastacomys. In admitting that trapping data are unlikely to accurately reflect actual relative population densities of Mastacomys and Rattus their inference regarding selective predation remains highly speculative. Laboratory Studies In the laboratory M. fuscus, when of- fered different foods, has shown strong preference for carrot followed by bran pellets and finally rolled oats. We have also found they readily eat wire-grass, leafy greens and mealworms. In the field Broad-toothed Rats feed on the stems and leaves of grasses and sedges (Watts and Aslin, 1980). Braithwaite et al., (1978) have classified the species as a specialist herbivore, although a cockroach leg was found in a scat of a M. fuscus trapped at Sumner Spur (Lloyd, unpublished data). Laboratory studies have confirmed Green's (1967) finding that M. fuscus is active both day and night. Two Broad- toothed Rats were kept in separate glass tanks (60 x 30 cm) with wire grass and cardboard tubes for nests or refuges. Food and water were provided ad. lib. and observations were made by a team of people during day and night for three months (April to June). The tanks were kept in a quiet room under natural photoperiod. Maximum activity oc- curred in the early evening (1900-2300 hrs) and least activity during the after- noon (1400-1700 hrs). Braithwaite (1977) found a number of herbivorous Australian rodents had an even diel rhythm whereas the om- nivorous R. fuscipes was nocturnally ac- tive, Seebeck (pers. comm.) has trapped M. fuscus during the daytime as well as at night, although no daytime captures were reported for M. fuscus by Warden and Wallis (1979) during trapping at Sumner Spur. Ectoparasites collected fuscus near Powelltown from M. include the January/February mites Laelaps assimilis, Womersley, 1956, and L. cybiala, Domrow, 1963, and the louse Hoplopeura mastacomydis, Kuhn and Ludwig, 1966, All have been previously reported as ec- toparasites of M. fuscus (Green, 1968; Domrow, 1973). Conclusions Although the distribution of M. fuscus is more restricted today than in Pleistocene to Recent times (Calaby and Wimbush, 1964), it is not as discon- tinuous as was once commonly believed, and Dixon's (1971) prediction that gaps in distribution will be filled by further work has been confirmed. Predator scat analysis has proved a most useful techni- que in the detection of M. fuscus which has often proved difficult to live trap. There is difficulty, however, in deter- mining population densities of M. fuscus and Rattus spp. by consideration of both live trapping data and the relative occurrence of the mammals’ re- mains in predator scats. Acknowledgements Many of the data used in this paper have been adapted from biology research project reports submitted by students enrolled in the Department of Environmental Studies at Rusden CAE, We are most grateful to the students for the time and effort they put into their research and the quality of their final reports (which are held by the Department Secretary). The students who have under- taken research related to Mastacomys are: Alf Brugman, Peter Gallagher, Greg Reed, Peter Voutier, John Warden, Rosaria La Rocca, David Lloyd, Duncan Livingstone and Anne Wallis. We are grateful to the District Forester, Kallista, and to the Forests Commission of Victoria for permission to work in F,C.V, controlled land, In particular, we thank John Lloyd, Warden at Sherbrooke Forest Park, for his predator scat collections and con- tinued encouragement for research into mam- mals at Sherbrooke. We also acknowledge the numerous Fisheries and Wildlife Division staff who have helped carry out mammal surveys. We wish to thank Dr R. Domrow and Dr 19 K. Emerson for their identifications of mites and lice respectively, J. M. Dixon, who kind- ly allowed access to the National Museum of Victoria mammal register, and John Seebeck, Ian Norman and Leigh Ahern who provided constructive criticisms about the manuscript. Judy Nelson and Neita Langdon are thanked for typing the paper. Trapping was carried out under permits issued by Fisheries and Wildlife Division, Ministry for Conservation. REFERENCES Ahern, L. D. (in press). Threatened wildlife in Vic- toria and issues related to its conservation. Fish. Wildl. Pap., Vict. In press. Baverstock, P. R., Watts, C. H. S., Adams, M. and Cole, S. R. (1981). Genetical relationships among Australian rodents (Muridae). Aust. J. Zool. 29: 289-303. Braithwaite, R. W., (1977). 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(1981). The Rodents of Australia. Angus and Robertson. Sydney. Australian Discovery of Leadbeater's Possum in Gembrook State Forest By RICHARD H. LOYN! AND E. G. MCNABB? Introduction The observations were made on the northern edge of Gembrook State Forest, in mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) on the southern slopes of Mt Beenak (37° 53'S, 145° 41'E), at an altitude of 600 m above sea level. The site is in the headwaters of the Bunyip River, which flows into Westernport Bay. Gembrook State Forest covers about 19 000 ha, 65 km east of Melbourne. It contains a wide variety of forest types, with mountain ash confined to the higher slopes in the north. It was recognised that some of the mountain ash forest was similar to known habitat for Leadbeater's possum (Gym- nobelideus leadbeateri), elsewhere in the Central Highlands, with scattered dead trees (stags) and abundant silver wattle (Acacia dealbata). We examined one such area at dusk in April 1981, in the course of other studies on fauna and in co-operation with Miss D. Andrew and Miss L. Lumsden from the National Museum of Victoria, who were working on fauna of the Westernport Bay catch- ment. To our surprise, we were suc- cessful. 1. Forests Commission, Victoria; Mountain Research Station, Sherbrooke, 3789. 2. Marville Court, Boronia, 3155, January/February Observations On 8 April 1981 we each waited near a stag (400m apart) at dusk. Three Sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) emerged from one and nothing was seen to emerge from the other where visibility was more restricted. Forty minutes after sunset, EGM played recorded calls of Sugar glider (growling) and Leadbeater’s possum (chittering) at the second tree for three minutes. Five minutes later, soft noises were heard and movement was noticed in a live moun- tain ash; a Leadbeater’s possum ran down and jumped into a silver wattle tree. A spotlight was used and the possum was identified immediately by its distinctive shape and behaviour. The possum jumped onto the trunk of the silver wattle and froze with its head downwards and its tail held stiffly up- wards, looking like a stick. This gave time for EGM to set up a camera and photograph it there and as it moved away (Fig. 1). On 12 April 1981 RHL returned with D. Andrew, and again the Leadbeater’s possum appeared about an hour after sunset. They did not see it emerge from a hollow but it ran to the trunk of the same mountain ash tree where it began biting at hanging ash bark. A red spotlight was used and the possum 21 Fig 1. Gymnobelideus leadbeateri at Gembrook State Forest. Photo E. McNabb. showed no concern. It was watched biting at bark for three short periods (4 to 2 minutes) in two adjacent trees. Return visits were made on 30 April 1981 (with D. Hackett) and 14 September 1981 but we found no sign of the possum. Conditions were fine and calm on all four nights. Habitat The area contains lightly stocked mountain ash forest with a dense understorey of forest wire-grass (Tetrar- rhena juncea) and tall shrubs such as Olearia lirata, Polyscias sambucifolius and Pomaderris aspera, and a middle storey of silver wattle and an occasional blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon). Many of the eucalypts regenerated from a wildfire in 1932, though some younger trees are also present. The basal area of eucalypts was estimated at 17-25 m*/ha. The two mountain ash trees in which the possum was seen feeding were 35-40 m tall, probably of 1932 origin, with diameters at breast height of 68 cm and 48 cm. The old dead stag was about 33 m tall with a diameter at breast height of about 1.6 m. A large log on the ground was the only other conceivable source of nest hollows within 30 m of the observa- tion. The ground sloped at 24? with a southerly aspect. 22 The area lies on a small private block (170 ha) currently owned by APM Forests Pty. Ltd., below a road which marks the boundary of the Powelltown Forest District and Gembrook State Forest. Part was selectively logged in the mid 1960s but there are no plans for fur- ther logging. Adjacent forest above the road was planted with mountain ash in 1961 and the trees have reached a height of 23 m with diameters at breast height of 15-40 cm. Other animals observed nearby were Bobuck (Trichosurus caninus), Com- mon ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus peregrinus), Sugar glider and many of the common birds of mountain ash forest, notably Australian owlet- nightjar (Aegotheles cristatus), Pink robin (Petroica rodinogaster), Rose robin (P. rosea) and Lewin's honeyeater (Meliphaga lewinii). Significance Since their rediscovery near Marysville in 1961 (Wilkinson 1961), Leadbeater's possums have been found solely in the Central Highlands of Vic- toria (Smith 1978, Rawlinson & Brown 1977, Wilkinson 1963, Owen 1963, King 1963). Recently their ecology has been studied by Smith (1978 and unpublish- ed) and their known range has been ex- tended with records from Toolangi (Macfarlane pers. comm.) and Pioneer Creek near Powelltown (Hackett pers. comm.). The present observation is only 10 km from Pioneer Creek, but it is the first report this century from the Westernport Bay catchment, and is also the most southerly and one of the closest to Melbourne. As only one animal was seen and Leadbeater's possums usually live in family groups (Smith 1978), we have not yet established that the species is resident there. However, it is highly probable that more would be found with further searching in nearby suitable habitat. Four of the five early specimens of Leadbeater's possum were collected in Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 the catchment of Westernport Bay, and one of these was on the edge of the Kooweerup Swamp, three miles south of Tynong Railway Station (Wilkinson 1961). The latter is a perplexing record as it comes from lowland forest (now cleared) very different from habitats known to be used by the possum at pre- sent. Our observation is only 30 km north of the Tynong one; it is the closest geographically and should encourage further searching in a range of habitats between the two sites. So far mammal surveys in this area have revealed many species but not Leadbeater’s possum. Perhaps the Tynong animal could have moved into lowland forest in response to population pressures, or temporary habitat changes in the mountain ash forest. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Miss D, Andrew and Miss L. Lumsden of the National Museum, Victoria, for encouraging our interest in the area; Mr D. Hackett, for allowing EGM to record his captive animals and Mr R. Ferres and other Forests Commission staff for co-operation. REFERENCES King, W. 1963 Leadbeater’s Possum near Powelltown. Victorian Nat. 80: 148-9. Owen, W. H. 1963 Further sight records of Leadbeater's Possum. Victorian Nat. 79: 292-3, Rawlinson, P. A. and Brown, P. R. 1977 The fairy possum: early pessimism — recent optimism — future realism. Wildlife in Australia 14: 74-9. Smith, A. 1978 On the trail of the rare Leadbeater's Possum. Habitat 6: 3-5. Wilkinson, H. E. 1961 The rediscovery of Leadbeater's Possum Gymnobelideus leadbeateri McCoy. Victorian Nat. 78: 97-102, Wilkinson, H. E. 1963 Leadbeater's Possum at Warburton, Victorian Nat. 80; 147-8. Naturalist Review “The Rodents of Australia” By C. H. S. WATTS AND H. J. ASLIN Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1981. 321 pp. Rrp $35.00 ISBN 0 207 14235 1. Rodents comprise just under one quarter of Australia's mammals, yet there are few specialist books devoted to them. This book not only rectifies this deficiency, but does so very well. The book comprises several sections. The first deals with the origins of Australia's rodents and their relationships to those overseas. General aspects on former and cur- rent distributions and general rodent biology are then presented, as well as the characteristics used in identifying and naming rodents. Illustrated keys are provided in the January/February next section to help in this identification pro- cess. Each species (61 are covered) is then ful- ly described and accounts of distribution, habitat and biology provided. Distribution maps and skull drawings accompany each description. A third section deals with conserving, col- lecting, handling and keeping rodents. The book is scholarly, well-referenced (316 references used), and very up to date. There are 16 colour plates and many sketches. There are one or two minor mistakes (such as the old address being given for QNPWS and stating the National Parks Service is Vic- toria's fauna authority) but the book, overall, is excellent value for money and will doubtless serve as an authoritative and highly regarded reference work for years to come. R. L. Wallis 23 The Humpback Whale, Megaptera novaeangliae (Borowski, 1781), a First Stranding For Port Phillip Bay, Victoria. By JOAN M. DIXON* On 14 December, 1980 an immature female Humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae stranded at Bonbeach, Port Phillip Bay, Victoria (38° 04’ S, 145° 07' E). A bayside resident Mr R. Shipley reported to the National Museum of Victoria after the stranding that he had observed a single whale rub- bing itself under his boat in the Sand- ringham area 6 December. It is likely that this was the same animal. I visited the site 15 December with a team to assist in general observation and collection of biological material. The animal was badly decomposed, and ob- viously had been dead for some time. The skin was sloughing badly, altering the colour pattern considerably. It was readily identifiable as Megaptera novaeangliae by its elongated irregularly-bordered flippers, black above and white below (Plate 1). It is usual for animals frequenting the east coast of Australia to exhibit less pigmen- tation than those from other areas (Chit- tleborough, 1965). The specimen was photographed by the research team, and by the media, measurements made (Table 1) and ec- toparasites collected from the body. These were subsequently identified as whale lice Cyamus? balaenopterae. The skull and baleen were salvaged and the rest of the carcass removed and buried by local Council authorities. The fragmented skull and baleen are now lodged in the National Museum of Vic- toria, registered number C 24956. The Scientific Event Alert Network, Smithsonian Institution was notified and the event reported in SEAN (1981). *Curator, Department of Mammalogy National Museum of Victoria 24 Humpback whale records on Australian coasts Brazenor (1950) commented that there were several records of the species being stranded on the Victorian coast. The only known material to support his statement is a piece of baleen from Cape Woolamai, Phillip Island collected about 1940 (NMV registered number C24961). Wakefield (1967) commented that two "humpers" were caught in Portland Bay 30 June 1843 and 25 July 1844 and reported in the Portland Guardian. There is a report that a humpback was harpooned but escaped in Portland Bay 20 June 1859. Victorian sightings in recent years by R. M. Warneke include a specimen off Cape Conran in 1979, five specimens on the east coast in 1980, and a single specimen off Cape Conran in 1981. AII sightings were reported between June and November, and all located east of Port Phillip Bay. Wood Jones (1925) reported that a specimen was stranded at Corny Point, Yorke Peninsula and that its skeleton was preserved in the **'State Museum". This refers to the South Australian Museum, but Aitken (1971) mentioned that the species was represented by scapula and humerus only in that museum, registered M5120, and that it was collected prior to November 1943 on the west coast of South Australia. Strandings of the species in the Great Australian Bight were considered rare by Dawbin (1966), explained by the fact that the annual migratory route of these whales takes them from the Antarctic to Australia in autumn, and their return to the south in spring does not take them through the Bight. This is dealt with in detail by Chittleborough (1965). He Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 4 EM us z M e rtl € - zc. ER ue. - ae Plate 1. — Stranded Megaptera novaeangliae C 24956 at Bonbeach 15 December, 1981. Photo: D. Parsons. Plate 2. — Baleen plates from Megaptera novaeangliae C 24956. Photo: D. Parsons. January/February 25 Table 1 Measurements of Megaptera novaeangliae (modified from Baker, 1972). . Length, total . Length, tip of upper jaw to centre of eye . Length, tip of upper jaw to blowhole . Length, tip of upper jaw to centre of anus . Girth, maximum (2.4m from tip of snout) . Length, flipper (anterior insertion to tip) . Width, flipper (maximum) . Width of tail flukes (tip to tip) . Depth of notch between flukes — OG 06-0 U^ RU No . Length of gape (tip of upper jaw to corner of mouth) . Length, tip of upper jaw to anterior insertion of flipper 6.37m 1.38m 1.22m 1.96m 1.95m 4.48m 4.10m 2.05m 0.05m 2.1m 0.11m Other measurements given by Baker, the length from the tip of the upper jaw to the tip of the dorsal fin and the height of the dorsal fin were not made because of the position of the stranded animal. At the level of the dorsal fin, 21 ventral grooves were evident, and at the eye 26. recorded two sightings along the South Australian coast, one at the head of the Great Australian Bight in 1952 and a female with a newly born calf off St. Vincent Gulf in winter 1961. Guiler (1978) reported a number of Tasmanian records from Bass Strait by Lord and Scott (1924), Circular Head (Scott, 1942), sightings at Marion Bay October, 1953, Fortescue Bay January, 1958, and Darlington, Maria island 25- 26 April 1969, when a cow and calf were seen at sea. None of these records are substantiated by museum reference material. Bryden (1978) reported that hump- back whales are seen regularly off the coast of Queensland in winter, and once supported a commercial industry there. He observed four humpbacks including one calf at Point Danger in October 1976 and had notification of a group of fifteen animals from the air made by Mr R. Latham. There is a report that a humpback became entangled in a shark net in Southport Bay about 1972, and when released it slowly swam away. Bannister has reported (pers. comm.) that there have been two humpback strandings on the coast of Western Australia in the past fifteen years. Both occurred in 1977, one a male stranded at Cottesloe on 9 November, from which baleen was washed up and identified, the other about 11.9 m long was located 26 five miles east of Augusta on the south coast about 8 December. This specimen was stranded alive, but the location was inaccessible. No reference material other than baleen was obtained from either animal and this is now located in the Western Australian Museum. In the southern hemisphere, hump- backs assemble in warm waters for breeding during winter, and then move south to form summer feeding groups (Dawbin, 1966). Their tendency to travel along shore lines was exploited on the east coast when the Tangalooma and other whaling stations were established. Chittleborough (1965) reported that a total of 18,180 humpback whales were collected at Australian shore stations and Antarctic areas between 1949-62. He noted that despite the fact that most humpback whales have left the Australian coast by the end of October, some animals have been sighted in these waters during November and December. Three separate females which were migrating southwards along the coast in December had probably been late in making the northward migration. Each was accompanied by a calf. The Bonbeach specimen, obviously juvenile, may have been separated from its mother in their attempts to reach sum- mer feeding grounds in the Antarctic. There is a wealth of statistical in- formation available on the species, but Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 regrettably little biological material has been collected and lodged in museum reference collections. Acknowledgements Thanks are extended to the following per- sons who made collection of the specimen possible: Henrietta Kaye, who notified me of the event, Linda Huxley, Technical Officer, Department of Mammalogy, National Museum of Victoria, lan Gibbins, Ian Cooke, Peter Mosse and David Parsons University of Melbourne, and a Friend of the N.M.V. volunteer, Renata Officer. Mrs D. Peters kindly provided us with a film of the stranding. Gary Poure, Curator of Crustacea at the National Museum of Victoria iden- tified the ectoparasites. Lawrie Conole, a voluntary assistant in the Dept. of Mam- malogy assisted me with collation of data and records. Bob Warneke of the Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research kindly provided recent Victorian records for the species. REFERENCES Aitken, P. F. (1971). Whales from the coast of South Australia. Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 95: 95- 103. Baker, A. N. (1972). New Zealand Whales and Dolphins. Tuatara 20(1): 1-49. Brazenor, C. W. (1950), The Mammals of Victoria. National Museum of Victoria. Melbourne. Bryden, M. M. (1978). Whales and Whaling in Queensland Waters. Proc, R. Soc. Qd. 88: 5-18. Chittleborough, R. G. (1965). Dynamics of two populations of the humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae (Borowski). Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 16: 33-128. Dawbin, W. H. (1966). The seasonal migratory cy- cle of humpback whales, pp. 145-170. In Norris, J. S. (Ed.) Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises. (Univ. Calif, Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles). Guiler, E. R. (1978). Whale strandings in Tasmania since 1945 with notes on some seal reports. Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tasm. 112: 189-213. Lord, C. E. & Scott, H, H. (1924). The Vertebrate Animals of Tasmania. Oldham, Beddome & Meredith. Hobart. Scott, E.O.G. (1942). Records of Tasmanian Cetacea: No. 1. Notes on various strandings at or near Stanley, North Western Tasmania. Kec. Queen Vict. Mus. 1: 27-49, SEAN (1981). Sean Bulletin. Scientific Event Alert Network. Smithsonian Institution. 6(1): 21. Wakefield, N. A. (1967). Whales and dolphins recorded for Victoria. Victorian Nat. 84 (9) 273- 81. Wood Jones, F. (1925). The Mammals of South Australia. Part IIl: 273-285. (Government Printer: Adelaide). A Note to Prospective Authors Contributions to The Victorian Naturalist are sought which deal with any aspect of natural history, field biology or earth science, but which preferably have a Victorian em- phasis. Intending authors are requested to forward two copies of their manuscript, if possible typed and double spaced, to the editor. Acceptance is subject to approval by the referees and editor. Authors will receive galley proofs for checking; these should be returned promptly to ensure there are no delays in publication. Diagrams (in black ink on white card) and photographs (black and white) may also be included and the details should be of sufficient size and clarity to enable suitable reduction. Authors will receive 25 reprints gratis. If more are re- quired, then orders should be made directly with the printer when proofs are forwarded for correction. January/February Authors are also requested to forward nature notes describing interesting observa- tions, experiences or results of experiments which might not warrant inclusion in the journal as a full scientific paper because of their nature or size. Notes are usually refereed, but free reprints are not supplied. Reviews of books may also be sent to the editor. Another form of contribution sought from authors is that of the general or review natural history article, Unlike scientific ar- ticles, these need not present data from “new” observations or experiments; rather, such general articles could review current knowledge, discuss the historical bases or highlight some significant aspects of our natural history. Style of all contributions should follow that in current issues. 27 Notes on Insect Pollination of Two Species of Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) mom South-west Western Australia By T. J. HAWKESWOOD* Abstract Jewel beetles (Buprestidae) and flower chafers (Scarabaeidae) are recorded as pollinators of Eucalyptus foecunda Schau. and E. cylindriflora Maiden et Blakely (Myrtaceae) in the south-west mallee region of south-west Western Australia. Observations were under- taken in February, 1980. Introduction The following field observations on insects (mainly beetles) visiting the flowers of Eucalyptus foecunda Schau. and E. cylindriflora Maiden et Blakely, between Lake King (33°05’S, 119?40'E) and Peak Charles (32°23’S, 121?10'E) (Figs. 1 and 2) were made on 3 February, 1980. Flowering of both species was sporadic between these two localities. Apart from a few plants of Melaleuca pauperiflora F. Muell. (Myr- taceae) (which were poorly flowering) and the twiner, Billardiera bicolor (Put- terl. Bennett var. bicolor (Pit- tosporaceae) (which was profusely flowering), no other species of plant were in flower in the areas investigated. The weather conditions during the day were clear with little or no cloud and temperatures varied between 27°C to 3D9 C. Eucalyptus foecunda Schau. leaved Red Mallee) This species is usually a many-stemmed mallee growing from 2.0-4.5 m high or occa- sionally may be a tree to 8m high (Chippen- dale, 1973). The bark is smooth, grey and deciduous. The lower part of the trunks often possesses an accumulation of bark which is decorticated into ribbons. The glossy, light green, mature leaves are alternate, linear- (Narrow- * Department of Botany, James Cook University, Townsville, 4810. 28 lanceolate with a short, acuminate point, glandular, usually 4-7 cm long, 0.4-1.0 cm wide. The flowers (i.e. stamens) are cream, and there are up to 11 flowers/umbellate in- florescence. Chippendale (1973) states that the species flowers during December to March and is found in most of southern Western Australia and in the mallee dune areas of northern South Australia, north- western Victoria and the southern part of western New South Wales. According to Chippendale (1973) this eucalypt occurs in sand (which may be derived from lateritic parent material), or in sandy loam, and is sometimes found in areas near salt lakes. Eucalyptus cylindriflora Maiden et Blakely (White Mallee) This species is usually a slender, spreading mallee growing from 2.4-4.5 m high with usually smooth, white or grey bark shedding in ribbons. The shining, dark green, mature leaves are alternate, linear-lanceolate to nar- rowly oblanceolate or sometimes falcate and measure 5-7 cm long and 5-9 mm wide. The flowers (i.e. stamens) are creamy-yellow to white and there are up to 7 flowers/umbellate inflorescence. Chippendale (1973) states the species flowers during January to March. Chippendale (1973) also records the species from Bendering, southward to the Lake Grace and Lake King area, eastward to Balladonia (east of Peak Charles) and notes that it occurs on sandy loam in mallee scrub, sometimes in association with Melaleuca un- cinata and Eucalyptus oleosa (both Myr- taceae). Observations 1. 32 km E of Lake King (33°00’S, 120*?02'E) (Fig. 1). 930 hrs (WST). Several flowering plants of E. foecunda were examined by the roadside. The on- ly insect visitors to the flowers were numerous individuals of the large brown cetonid Diaphonia (Hemichnoodes) mniszechii (Janson) (Scarabaeidae) (Table 1). These beetles were actively Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 [4 7 above sea L ]0-1000 / Ay 1f level 1000-2000 / (feet) E3 m s / Ravensthorpe ,Peak Charles Fig. 1. Map showing the route taken on 3 February 1980, between Lake King and Peak Charles, Western Australia. (Numbered dots indicate stops at which observations were undertaken. Inset shows the area in relation to the remaining portion of south-west Western Australia). feeding on nectar and pollen and flying around the eucalypts. Examination of several individuals revealed large amounts of yellow pollen attached to the head, pronotum and on the hairy, posterior undersurface of the abdomen. (Diaphonia mniszechii measures 2-3 cm long and the whole undersurface of the body is covered in long, brown to buff hairs. It is most likely that pollen is largely transported by these hairs from flower to flower during feeding and as the beetles move over the flowers). 2. 72 km E of Lake King (32°52’S, January/February Fig. 2. Peak Charles, showing surrounding low vegetation consisting mainly of Eucalyptus, Acacia and Casuarina. (Photograph by T. Helder). 29 Table 1. List n Lake Xing and Peak Charles Coleoptera Scarabaecid Dia ac onia (Hemichnoodes) imigszechii (Janson) Metallesthes metallescens White Buprestidae tipmodera (Themognatha) tibialis (Themoymatha) mmiszechi Saunders tigmodera (Themognatha) chevrolati Gehin. tigmodera murrayi Gem. & Har. brucki Thomson (‘Themognatha) Stigmodera (Themognatha) Thomson (Themoynatha) cha era Stipmodera Stigmodera Cleridae See Ee OL Eleale aulicordes Gorh. Nymenoptera Scoliidae Campsomeris anthracina Burn. 120?25'E) (Fig. 1). 1025 hrs. Fifteen plants of E. cylindriflora were examined adjacent to the road and into nearby vegetation. Large numbers of D. mniszechii were present as was the black cetonid beetle Metallesthes metallescens White (Scarabaeidae). No other insects were observed on the flowers (Table 1). Individuals of both species carried a dusting of pollen on the head, pronotum and on the posterior undersurface of the body including the legs. 3. About 98 km E of Lake King (32?40'S, 120?40'E) (Fig. 1). c. 1100 hrs. One small flowering plant (2m high, the only one flowering in the immediate area) of E. foecunda was examined. Large numbers (c. 40-60) of M. metallescens were observed actively feeding on nectar and flying around the mallee bush. No H. mniszechii were seen (Table 1). 4. About 16 km E of 90 mile water tanks, towards Peak Charles (32?42'S, 30 ence of the insect visitors to Buc Waterhouse (Castiarina) mustelamajor Thomson and E. cylindriflora yptus foecunda Schau. (Feb. 120°50’E) (Fig. 1). 1120 hrs. Five plants of E. cylindriflora growing by the road- side were examined for insect visitors. Both the scarabs D. mniszechii and M. metallescens were present, as well as a small number of the jewel beetles Stigmodera (Themognatha) tibialis Waterhouse (Fig. 3), S. (T.) mniszechi Saunders (Fig. 4) and S. (T.) chevrolati Gehin (Buprestidae) (Table 1). Of the three buprestid species observed, S. chevrolati was the most common. (Ex- amination of randomly sampled beetles of all species revealed that S. chevrolati carried the largest pollen loads of the three, mostly on the head, pronotum and undersurface of the body). 5. 32 km E of 90 mile water tanks, towards Peak Charles (32?43'S, 121°00’E) (Fig. 1). 1230 hrs. Three plants of E. foecunda were flowering which attracted only the two species of Scarabaeidae in large numbers (i.e. c. 50-100 beetles/plant). No buprestids were observed (Table 1). 6. 51.2 km E of 90 mile water tanks, north Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 1980). (Numbers refer to sites shown in Fig» Fig. 3. Stigmodera (Themognatha) tibialis Waterhouse on flowers of Eucalyptus. Bar indicates 20 mm. (Photograph by T. Helder). Fig. 5. Stigmodera (Themognatha) murrayi Gem. & Har. on flowers of Eucalyptus. Bar indicates 15 mm. (Photograph by D. Knowles). of Peak Charles (32°44’S, 121°15’E) (c. 2 km W of t/off to Peak Charles) (Fig. 1). 1255 hrs. One plant of E. cylindriflora was ex- amined. Diaphonia mniszechii and M. metallescens were present on the flowers, the former species being more common. About 20 specimens of the small green clerid beetle Eleale aulicordes Gorh. (Cleridae) were active on the flowers (Table 1). Two specimens of the black wasp Campsomeris anthracina Burn. (Scoliidae) were additional visitors (Table 1). One jewel beetle Stigmodera (Castiarina) mustelamajor Thomson was resting on one of the flowers as well, but was not very active (Table 1). 7. 5 km NE of Peak Charles (32?50'S, 121°11’E) (Fig. 1). 1550 hrs. Thirty-five plants (2-3 m high) of E. foecunda were ex- January/February Fig. 4. Stigmodera (Themognatha) mniszechi Saunders on flowers of Eucalyptus. Bar indicates 20 mm. (Photograph by M. Peterson). Fig. 6. Stigmodera (Themognatha) heros Gehin on leaves of Eucalyptus. Bar indicates 20 (Photograph by M. Peterson). mm. amined. On almost every plant, the following beetles were common: D. mniszechii, M. metallescens, S. mniszechi, S. murrayi Gem & Har. (Fig. 5), S. brucki Thomson, S. chalcodera Thomson (Table 1). Of these S. mniszechi and S. chalcodera were the least common. Discussion (a) General comments on the pollina- tion of the two Eucalyptus species. It appears from my observations, that the large scarab and buprestid beetles (body length 2.5-5.0 cm) are the main pollinators of E. foecunda and E. cylindriflora in the areas and at the times investigated. Of the two beetle 31 groups, it is probable that the scarabs, as a whole, are more effective pollinators since they were present in greater numbers than the buprestids, spent more time feeding on nectar and moving over individual flowers than in flight, and carried larger amounts of pollen. The hairy undersurface of their bodies (in contrast to the * glabrous body surfaces of the buprestids), facilitates better attachment and transport of pollen which may be deposited on stigmas of flowers during feeding. In addition, pollen from the head would be deposited efficiently on the eucalypt stigma during feeding when a beetle places its head down into a flower to feed on the nectar. A high level of cross-pollination is probably effected in many areas (where more than one tree is flowering), by the scarabs, since they are strong fliers and individuals were observed actively flying from tree to tree, especially at the last observation site (7) near Peak Charles (Fig. 1). It is doubtful whether the small clerid beetle Eleale aulicordes effects pollina- tion of the eucalypts. Due to their small size (7-8 mm long) and their nervous ac- tivity, they are unlikely to contact the stigma of the eucalypt flower in order to facilitate pollen transfer from their bodies. Observations indicated that they were mainly pollen feeders. The large, black wasp Campsomeris anthracina (body length 2.5-3.0 cm), spent up to thirty seconds feeding from a single flower and in so doing, collected pollen grains onto the body. Wasps are efficient pollinators but probably play a small part in Eucalyptus pollination in this portion of south-west Western Australia, in comparison to the role played by scarabs and buprestids. (b) Flower-chafers (or cock-chafers or scarabs) (Scarabaeidae) as pollinators. Little has been recorded on pollina- tion by Australian Scarabaeidae (especially of the anthophilous sub- families Cetoniinae and Melolonthinae). 32 General text-books on Australian insects (e.g. Froggatt, 1907; Carter, 1933; McKeown, 1945; Britton, 1970) state that many insect species (including scarabs) visit flowers for food in the adult stage, but they do not usually men- tion the role of these insects in pollina- tion. Australia has probably 300-500 species of anthophilous Scarabaeidae, but most of them have been little studied, both taxonomically and ecologically. In a recent review on pollination of Australia plants, Arm- strong (1979) notes that some members of the Melolonthinae are ‘‘specifically adapted to feed on nectar and pollen’, while the Cetoniinae and Valginae are diurnal and ‘‘exclusively anthophilous’’. Alderson (1976) noted that Eupoecila australasiae (Donovan) and Diaphonia dorsalis (Donovan) (both Cetoniinae) were anthophilous; the former species was noted as a visitor to flowers of Xanthorrhoea australis (Xanthor- rhoeaceae), Bursaria spinosa (Pit- tosporaceae), Leptospermum juniperinum, Angophora and Eucalyptus species (Myrtaceae), while the latter was recorded on Eucalyptus species only. Hawkeswood (198 1a) first examined pollen loads of four species of Scarabaeidae — Fupoecila australasiae (Donovan), Polystigma punctata (Donovan), Glycyphana stolata (Fabricius) (Cetoniinae) and Phyllotocus macleayi (Fischer) (Melolonthinae) on Angophora woodsiana Bail. (Myrtaceae) in south- east Queensland and on the basis of behaviour and pollen loads, came to the conclusion that they were important pollinators of their food plant. Likewise, Metallesthes metallescens and Diaphonia mniszechii appear to be important in pollination. However, fur- ther observations on their general biology, distribution and food plant preferences are needed. (c) Jewel beetles (Buprestidae) as pollinators. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 It is well known amongst many amateur and professional entomologists interested in the Buprestidae, that many species frequent flowers in the adult stage. However, little has been documented on their food plants, both in Australia and overseas. H. J. Carter (1933, and other papers), the first resi- dent Australian authority on the family, recorded many buprestids from flowers of Leptospermum species (Myrtaceae) and other plants, but he did not under- take any systematic study of the food plants since he was preoccupied with the alpha taxonomy of the group, both at the specific and generic levels. Almost nothing was recorded on adult food plants of Australian buprestids until McMillan (1952) listed adult food plants of four species of Stigmodera (sub- genus Stigmodera) from Western Australia. In a report on the flora and fauna of an arid area of Western Australia (at Queen Victoria Spring, c. 40 miles north of Zanthus, 30°25’S, 123?34'E), Slater and Lindgren (1955) listed 14 sympatric species of Buprestidae feeding on flowers of Eucalyptus uncinata.* Hawkeswood (1981b) recorded various species of Buprestidae from flowers of the Western Australian Christmas tree, Nuytsia floribunda (Loranthaceae). Also recently, Williams (1977) and Hawkeswood (1978, 1981c, 1981d) have listed numerous food plants -of adult beetles in eastern Australia. Despite the data available on adult food plants, no studies have as yet been undertaken in Australia (or elsewhere) in order to ex- amine pollen loads using microscopic techniques. * It would appear that from my examination of specimens of E. uncinata in the Western Australian Herbarium during 1980, and the distribution and notes provided by Chippendale (1973) that this eucalypt does not occur in the Queen Victoria Spring area, and thus the species from there was misidentified. The most likely Eucalyptus in the area is the Black Marlock (E. redunca Schau.), a common species in south-west Western Australia (Chippendale, 1973). January/February The author of this paper was unable to microscopically examine pollen from the beetles observed in the field and to compare it with pollen from anthers of the food plants, during the field trip from Lake King to Peak Charles. However, all available evidence (e.g. (a) the observation that the jewel beetles were not visiting any other plants for food at the time and (b) jewel beetles were on the open flowers of the eucalypts frequently contacting the an- thers and stigmas) does suggest that the fine dustings of yellow pollen on many of the beetles examined, were that of the Eucalyptus species. Since further obser- vations and microscopic examination of pollen loads of anthophilous beetles in south-west Western Australia (and elsewhere) are clearly needed, these notes are provided here in' the hope they are a basis for further research on in- sect/plant relationships. (d) Notes on diversity of jewel beetles (Buprestidae) on Eucalyptus flowers. Perhaps the most interesting observa- tion recorded on the trip was the diversi- ty of buprestid species and their abun- dance. Of the 10 species of beetles recorded, 7 species belonged to Buprestidae, while only 2 belonged to Scarabaeidae and a single species to Cleridae (Table 1). Hawkeswood (1980) recorded the large jewel beetle, Stigmodera (Themognatha) heros Gehin (Fig. 6) as a pollinator of Melaleuca pauperiflora F. Muell. (Myrtaceae) and suggested that jewel beetles dominate the feeding niche (i.e. both in species and individuals) on many flowering myrtaceous plants through the low rainfall ( < 20 inches ( € 50cm)) areas of southern Australia. In contrast, this niche appears to be shared more equally with insects such as lycid beetles (Lycidae), click beetles (Elateridae), longicorn beetles (Ceram- bycidae), flies (e.g. Tachinidae), and native bees, wasps and butterflies in the montane areas of eastern Australia (see 33 Hawkeswood, 1978, p. 271, for a list of species belonging to many of the insect groups noted above, on Leptospermum flavescens Sm.). The suggestion that buprestids can be dominant members of the feeding niche on Myrtaceae in south Western Australia is supported by the observations of Slater and Lindgren (1955) and Hawkeswood (this paper). (e) Eucalyptus and pollination. Pryor (1976) has provided a brief but concise account of our present understanding of the breeding system of Eucalyptus. He notes (1976, p. 25) that the Eucalyptus flower is highly constant in morphology throughout the genus. (The typical Eucalyptus flower is characterized by (a) the presence of an operculum (formed from the fusion of perianth segments), a cap covering the reproductive structures, which falls away at anthesis, exposing the numerous, free stamens arranged in two or more whorls, and (b) a thick style with a large, prominent stigma). At an- thesis, the operculum falls from the flower, the stamens expand, and the an- thers dehisce (usually within 24 hours; Pryor, 1951), exposing pollen (in most species) in ‘‘irregular granular ag- gregates on the surface of the anther’’ (Pryor, 1976). Pryor (1976, p. 25) also notes that the stigma at this stage is neither expanded nor receptive to pollen, although the pollen is mature and is able to germinate if placed on a receptive stigma. Pryor (1951) noted that the stigma was usually not receptive until several days after operculum fall and then remained receptive for up to four or five days and sometimes up to 10 days in the species he examined. Thus it has been concluded that Eucalyptus flowers are usually protandrous (Pryor, Chattaway and Kloot, 1956; Pryor, 1951, 1976) and that ‘‘The stigma usual- ly becomes receptive on one or more days after the stamens are fully expand- ed, by which time much of the pollen is already removed from the anthers by 34 visiting insects". (Pryor, 1976, p. 25). Pryor (1976, p. 25) also stated that pollination of almost all the species is ef- fected by animal vectors, usually insects, although such a statement is surprising in the light of the fact that there have been no detailed and meaningful published studies on natural Eucalyptus pollination by insects. Ashton (1975) noted a wide array of insect visitors to E. regnans blossoms, including beetles, flies, bees and butterflies, but did not examine pollen loads, insect behaviour etc. Birds such as honeyeaters and brush-tongued parrots are also known to pollinate Eucalyptus flowers (e.g. Paton and Ford, 1977), although with most eucalypts, bird pollination is generally regarded as a secondary oc- currence with insects as the primary pollinators (Pryor, 1951, 1976). Pryor (1976) notes that results of a study by Cooling and Endean (1966) which found that wind pollination was indeed effec- tive, leads to the suggestion that the Eucalyptus flower structure permits in- sect pollination as well as wind pollina- tion. Sargent (1928), an earlier worker on Australian Pollination biology, believed that the genus Eucalyptus was exclusively pollinated by birds Sargent, 1928, p. 186; Parker, 1977. Sargent (1928) and even went to the extreme by stating ‘‘The author (Sargent) has found no trace of pollen on the body of any in- sect visitor of ‘gum’ blossoms so far ex- amined. As time rolls on evidence is steadily accumulating that birds are the chief, if not the only, efficient pollinators throughout the genus. If this be proved as a fact, it places Honeyeaters in the front rank of economic importance, for the contin- uance of our natural forests would be dependant upon them. If the eucalypt forests were to perish utterly the birds would merely turn for sustenance to flowers of other plants; but if honey- eating birds became extinct the eucalypts would probably speedily follow them’’! Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 It is most surprising that in the light of the observations presented in this paper on insects on flowers of Eucalyptus foecunda and E. cylindriflora, that Sargent did not observe insects pollinating any Eucalyptus species (especially E. foecunda) in Western Australia. In addition, it is surprising that Sargent did not observe any native insects on Nuytsia floribunda (Loran- thaceae) either (see Hawkeswood, 1981b, for comments). It is highly probable that Sargent did not venture into the arid regions of south-west Western Australia to witness the large populations of Buprestidae and Scarabaeidae on flowering Eucalyptus species, but concentrated his observa- tions in the Perth area where the beetle species listed in Table 1, do not occur or have been wiped out as a result of habitat destruction by man. (f) Eucalyptus and the syndrome of cantharophily. Hawkeswood (1981a) reviewed most of the information on insect pollination vectors of Eucalyptus species and noted that Eucalyptus (and Angophora) flowers possessed all the features of can- tharophily. Hawkeswood (1981a) found that beetles (Coleoptera) were the domi- nant diurnal pollinators of A. woodsiana Bail. during December, in the Burbank area of south-east Queensland, which led support to Faegri and Van der Pijl’s (1976) criteria for cantharophily. According to Faegri and Van der Pijl (1976), plants which possess the syn- drome of cantharophily (i.e. beetle pollination), have all (or most) of the following floral features — (a) flowers with no special or definite shape and few visual attractions; they are generally flat, cylindric or shallow, bowl-shaped and easy of access, (b) flowers which are dull, greenish or cream, and have open, easily accessible attractants such as nec- tar and pollen, (c) flowers with a strong, fruity or aminoid odour, (d) flowers January/February with exposed anthers and stigmas (i.e. above the level of the corolla or perianth) and (e) flowers with an epigynous ovary (ie. the ovary is situated below the attachment of the stamens, sepals and petals). Such flowers possess a structure considered to be adapted for protection against the biting jaws of beetles while the strong odour appears to be an adaptation for luring the beetles to the flowers (a beetle’s eyesight is usually poor for an insect but its olfactory senses are usually well developed). The flowers of E. foecunda and E. cylindriflora possess all the features of cantharophily as proposed by Faegri and Van der Pijl (1976). However, this does not necessarily suggest that these species are obligate cantharophiles since other vectors (viz. wind, birds and/or mammals) may also play a role at other times; e.g. at night or early morning, when perhaps beetles are not active. The observations made between Lake King and Peak Charles, do suggest that beetles are the dominant pollination vec- tors of these eucalypts in the areas and at the times investigated. (g) Biological notes on the insect species mentioned in this paper (A) Scarabaeidae (a) Diaphonia (Hemichnoodes) mniszechii (Janson) Lea (1914, p. 184) noted that this species occurred from the mallee district of north- western Victoria, through southern South Australia **to the coast of Western Australia as far north as Geraldton’’. Nothing more appears to have been written on the species since Lea, despite it being a common species, especially in south-west Western Australia. As far as the author is aware, this is the first time that the species has been recorded as a pollination vector. (b) Metallesthes metallescens White Lea (1914, p. 188) noted that '*This species is fairly common in many parts of South and Western Australia". Slater and Lindgren (1955, p. 18) record the species from Queen Victoria Spring in the southern desert area of Western Australia. Since then, nothing ap- pears to have been written on its biology. 35 (B) Buprestidae (a) Stigmodera (Themognatha) Waterhouse Carter (1929, p. 291) listed the distribution of this species as South Australia and Western Australia. Slater and Lindgren (1955, p. 18) list it from Eucalyptus flowers. Barker and Inns (1976) record an individual of this species as prey for a large robber fly (Asilidae). Little has been recorded on the biology of S. tibialis despite it being one of the most common species in south Western Australia. (b) S. (T.) mniszechi Saunders Carter (1929, p. 290) listed the species but did not state its distribution. It is presently known to occur in the arid mallee regions of south-west Western Australia across to South Australia (Hawkeswood and Peterson, 1979, unpub. data). It is not known whether the species extends into the mallee area of north- west Victoria. Slater and Lindgren (1955) also record it from Eucalyptus flowers. (c) S. (T). chevrolati Gehin Carter (1929, p. 290) listed the species but did not state its distribution. It is known to occur from the arid areas of south-west Western Australia into South Australia (Hawkeswood and Peterson, 1979, unpub. data). Slater and Lindgren (1955) record it on Eucalyptus flowers. (d) S. (T.) murrayi Gem. & Har., S. (T.) brucki Thomson and S. (T.) chalcodera Thomson Carter (1929, pp. 289-290) listed these three species from Western Australia only. Slater and Lindgren (1955) have recorded them on Eucalyptus flowers. tibialis (e) Stigmodera (Castiarina) mustelamajor Thomson Carter (1929, p. 296) records this species from New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, while Barker (1979, p. 19) extends the distribution to Queensland and Western Australia. Hawkeswood (1980) recorded the species on flowers of Melaleuca pauperiflora F. Muell. (Myrtaceae). (C) Cleridae (a) Eleale aulicordes Gorh. Western Australian Museum specimens in- dicate that this species has a widespread distribution in south-west Western Australia, although nothing appears to have been writ- ten on its biology. 36 (D) Scoliidae (a) Campsomeris anthracina Burn. The author has been unable to find any biological or taxonomic notes on the species. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Messrs, A. S. George and R. J. Cranfield (Western Australian Herbarium, Perth) for assistance in plant identifications, Dr. T. F. Houston (Western Australian Museum, Perth) for allowing access to collections of insects in his care, and Dr. N. G. Marchant (Western Australian Herbarium) and Messrs. G. Harold and M. Peter- son (Perth) for reading an earlier draft of the manuscript written in March 1980. I would also like to acknowledge the assistance given by Mr S. Wilson (in providing transport, identification of in- sects etc.) and Miss A, Kreger. The final draft of this paper was written at the Botany Department, James Cook University, Townsville, with the assistance of funds from Research Grant UC-127-M allocated to the author. REFERENCES Alderson, J. (1976). Behaviour and larvae of two rose chafer beetles Eupoecila australasiae (Don), Diaphonia dorsalis (Don) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae, Cetoniinae). Victorian Nat. 93, 86- 91. Armstrong, J. (1979). Biotic pollination mechanisms in the Australian flora — a review. N.Z. J. Bot. 17, 467-508. Ashton, D. H. (1975). Studies of flowering behaviour in Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. Aust. J. Bot. 23, 399-411. Barker, S. (1979). New species and a catalogue of Stigmodera (Castiarina) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae). Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 103, 1-23, Barker, S. and Inns, R. (1976). Predation on Stigmodera (Themognatha) tibialis by a fly. West. Aust. Nat. 13, 147-148. Britton, E. B. (1970). Coleoptera. Chapter 30. In: Insects of Australia. (Melb. Uni. Press, Carlton, Victoria). Carter, H. J. (1929). A check list of the Australian Buprestidae. Aust. Zool 5, 265-304. Carter, H. J. (1933). Gulliver in the Bush. (Angus and Robertson, Sydney). Chippendale, G. M. (1973). Eucalypts of the Western Australian goldfields. (Department of Primary Industry and Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra). Cooling, E. N. and Endean, F. (1966). Forest Development, Zambia. Forest Research Bulletin, 10. (Not seen; cited from Pryor, 1976). Faegri, K. and Van der Pijl, L. (1976). Principles of Pollination Ecology. (Permagon Press, London). Froggatt, W. W. (1907). Australian Insects. (W. Brooks and Co., Sydney). Hawkeswood, T. J. (1978). Observations on some Buprestidae (Coleoptera) from the Blue Moun- tains, N.S.W. Aust. Zool. 19, 257-275. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Hawkeswood, T. J. (1980). Jewel beetles as pollinators of Melaleuca pauperiflora F. Muell. between Eucla (W.A.) and Koonalda (S.A.) West. Aust. Nat. 14, 238-239, Hawkeswood, T. J. (1981a). Insect pollination of Angophora woodsiana F. M. Bail. (Myrtaceae) at Burbank, south-east Queensland. Victorian Nat. 98, 120-129. Hawkeswood, T. J. (1981b). Notes on the pollina- tion of Nuytsia floribunda (Labill.) R.Br. (Loran- thaceae) and some literature reviewed. West, Aust. Nat. 15, 17-21. Hawkeswood, T. J. (1981c). Observations on two sympatric species of Buprestidae (Coleoptera) from sand dunes on the north coast of New South Wales. Victorian Nat. 98, 146-151. Hawkeswood, T. J. (1981d). Observations on some jewel beetles (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) from the Armidale district, north-eastern New South Wales. Victorian Nat. 98, 152-155. Lea, A. M. (1914). Notes on Australian Cetonides; with a list of species and descriptions of some new ones. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 38, 132-218, + plates VI-XIII. McKeown, K. C. (1945). Australian Insects. (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Sydney). McMillan. R. P. (1952). Western Australian Stigmodera. West. Aust. Nat. 3, 145-147, + plate. Parker, S.A. (1977). Birds as pollinators. Aust. Bird Watcher 7, 124-133. Paton, D. C. and Ford H. A. (1977). Pollination by birds of native plants in South Australia. Ernu 77, 73-85. Pryor, L. D. (1951). Controlled pollination of Eucalyptus. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 77, 361- 363. Pryor, L. D. (1976). Biology of Eucalypts. (Institute of Biology's Studies in Biology No. 61, Edward Arnold, London). Pryor, L. D., Chattaway, M. M. and Kloot, H. N. (1956). The inheritance of wood and bark characters in Eucalyptus. Aust. J. Bot. 4, 216- 238. Sargent, O. H. (1928). Reactions between birds and plants. Emu 27, 185-192. Slater, P. and Lindgren, E. (1955). A visit to Queen Victoria Spring, January, 1955. West. Aust. Nat. 5, 10-18. Williams, G. A. (1977). A list of the Buprestidae (Coleoptera) collected from Leptospermum flavescens Sm. at East Minto, New South Wales. Aust. ent. Mag. 3, 81-82. Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Reports of recent Club activities General Meeting Monday 14 December New FNCV Secretary. President Miss Clark announced the appointment of Mr Dave Lee as Club Secretary. Dave brings with him great know-how and ex- perience for he was secretary some 10-15 years ago but had to retire due to health reasons. We welcome him back to his old job. Group in recess. At the meeting on Monday 7 December, members of the Entomology and Marine Biology Group decided that the Group should go into recess, Only about seven or eight attend each meeting and there are other specialist societies which members could join if they wish. Hawthorn Juniors. The programme January/February was provided by members of Hawthorn Junior FNC; their chairman, Mr Malcolm Turner, introduced each speaker and subject in turn. Axolotl. Andrew Pilskans (age about 13) told us about the axolotyl, the larva of a salamander from the lakes of Mex- ico, that breeds when still in the larval form. Orchids. With the aid of a large white exotic orchid, Tom Long (age about 10) showed the parts of an orchid. He spoke of the specialist adaptation for pollina- tion by insects and said that Australia has more than 400 species. Blue-tongue Lizards. Brian Glassen- bury (age about 15) said that Blue- tongues can grow to more than 50cm 37 (20") and one of his two specimens was very near that size. Sight and hearing are poor in Blue-tongues, knowledge of sur- roundings being gained mainly via the flickering tongue and by ground vibra- tions, They have up to 12 live young ina brood (not laying eggs as some lizards do) and the smaller specimen produced five young last year. The other one was sloughing its skin. Tasmanian National Parks. Malcolm Turner showed colour slides of National Parks in Tasmania. He said that the St Clair park was recommended for the World Heritage List, also much of the SW area. FNCV President thanked the Hawthorn Juniors for their varied, in- teresting and well-presented items. Exhibits. The living creatures and charts of the speakers formed a large part of the exhibits. Some plants of the Common Liverwort Lunularia cruciata were bearing ‘‘fruiting heads" — not often seen in this so-abundant species. There were the distinctive male and female flowers of Coast Spinifex Spinifex hirsutus. The most unusual exhibits pertained to the Gippsland Giant Earth-worm Megascolides australis — a model about 3 metres long (10') and preserved specimens about 1.20m long (4’) and about 10cm long (4^). We hoped to find one during the Mt Worth excursion on 6 December for Mt Worth is on the western fringe of its range, but luck was not with us. The Museum is making a survey and seeking information on distribution, etc. Our FNCV library has an excellent study by Baldwin Spencer on this creature. General Meeting Monday 11 January This was a Members' Night and there were five speakers. Fungi. Superb shots of fungi were shown by Mr Alan Morrison, fungi of various colours and various sizes. 38 Spiders and Insects. More superb shots were shown by Mr lan Morrison (Dick) of spiders in all sorts of curious forms and colours, and some minute in- sects. Mammals. Miss Wendy Clark showed photos of some of the creatures taken in traps during the Christmas Camp of the Mammal Survey Group in the Big Desert. And the Group obtained the third and fourth Victorian sightings of a Ninaugi, an animal only recently discovered in Victoria although known in other States. Whale model. Dr Brian Smith showed slides of the construction of a 25ft whale for display at the Museum. To save weight it was made of polyurethene foam and finished with a fibre glass sur- face. Galls on Cootamundra. Miss Madge Lester showed shots of the larvae, pupae and mature insect found in the globular galls so common on Cootamundra Wat- tles in Melbourne suburbs. She asked what happened after the 5mm (1/16") insects (wasps) escaped from the galls but no satisfactory answer was available. Predator Wasps. Mr Urwin Bates spoke of wasps including those that lay eggs in the pupae of White Fly and those that lay eggs in the caterpillars of Snout Moth. The full-grown wasp larvae break out from the host caterpillar before pupating. A jar contained several hun- dred of these 2mm white pupae, from some of which the mature insects had emerged. Exhibits. As well as the wasp exhibits, under microscopes were neat rows of moth eggs; an aquatic caterpillar about 8mm long (V4"), semi-transparent but with some short dark bristles; and white hydra on pond weed. A black beetle about 15mm long with an intriguing white pattern was probably a Fiddler Beetle. Calendar of Events Jan-June 1982 was available. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 The Centenary Expedition of the F.N.C.V. 1-8 Nov, 1980 1980 was the centenary year of the F.N.C.V. and a special expedition was plann- ed as part of the centenary activities. It was decided to make Wilsons Promontory the venue as the F.N.C.V. had played a con- siderable part in establishing this area as Vic- toria's first National Park. In this we were greatly assisted by the Director of the Na- tional Parks Service and his staff who permit- ted us to reserve all the pleasant modern cabins for our members, and made available the Information Centre for our evening meetings. So on Saturday November Ist about 160 people converged on the camp site at Tidal River on Wilsons Promontory. There were representatives of the F.N.C.V. Melbourne, and almost all the affiliated country clubs. They came with cars, caravans, tents and a bus and by mid-afternoon were busy explor- ing the immediate area. The following is a record of some of the outstanding features of the weeks’ activities. Flora list 355 native plant species were seen at Wilsons Promontory together with 50 alien species. The following plants have not previously been recorded there: Carex breviculmis Wahlenbergia quadrifida Levenhookia dubia Introduced: Euphorbia paralias Gnaphalium spicatum Rubus procerus Sisyrinchium iridifolium Trifolium striatum Lilly Pilly Gully It rained all Sunday morning, so the ranger Peter Thomas and F.N.C.V. member lan Morrison showed us slides in the information centre; in the afternoon the weather cleared and Dr Willis led a walk into Lilly Pilly Gul- ly. We went past shining peppermints, brown stringybarks and many heathland shrubs. We searched the cones of the silver banksias and were delighted to find the little trumpet- shaped fruiting bodies of the fungus Encoelia toomansis. This fungus grows only on January/February Banksia cones and the slaty-blue fruiting bodies can be found on all species of Banksia but had not been recorded previously on Wilsons Promontory. There were the golden flowers of four species of Guinea-flower along the track; the Prickly, Erect, and Silky Guinea — flowers which are all small shrubs, and the tangled mass of the taller shrub, Rough Guinea- flower. A few of us sat down to watch a pair of Spotted Pardalotes feeding their young in a hole in a low bank at the side of the track; others walked on and saw the Beautiful Firetail and in the Lilly Pilly area Rufus Fan- tails. Golden and Olive Whistlers were also seen. Dr Willis pushed through the thick scrub to see if any specimens of the Austral Cabbage Palm still existed. He was delighted to find one, the last relic of some planted by Sir Baldwin Spencer in 1912; they do not occur naturally here. Dr Willis and some of the party went on to Mt Bishop where they found a giant form of the Pink Finger orchid growing amongst Veined Spider-orchids, while on the upper track near the car park we found a patch of the little cream flowers of Hairy Mitrewort. Species in the order they occur in the text: Shining Peppermint Eucalyptus nitida Brown Stringybark E. baxteri Silver Banksia Banksia marginata Prickly Guinea Hibbertia acicularis flower Erect Guinea flower H. stricta Silky Guinea flower — H. sericea Rough Guinea H. aspera flower Austral Cabbage Livistona australis Palm Pink finger Orchid (giant form) Caladenia carnea var. gigantea Veined Spider C. reticulata Orchid Hairy Mitrewort Mitrasacme pilosa That Fabulous Fern Foray The trip to Chinaman’s Creek which Mrs Ellen Lyndon described as ‘‘That Fabulous Fern Foray’’. (Reprinted from the December 39 1980 issue of the Latrobe Valley Naturalist by the kind permission of the author and the editor.) For me the highlight of the week at ‘‘The Prom” was relocating the very rare Oval Wedge-fern, Lindsaea trichomanoides, on Chinaman’s Creek. We were very fortunate in being allowed access to this marvellous gul- ly some 9.6 kilometres in from the Vereker gate. The road was, on the whole, good, save for a few patches of rough gravel and some steep pinches. It seems a shame that it cuts a gap through this sub-tropical forest and that camping is allowed there. The Lilly-pillys and Blackwoods tower into the sky on straight limbless trunks. One has to gaze directly upwards to work out the iden- tity of the canopy far above the leaf strewn floor. Masses of Weeping spleenwort cascade from the high forks, reminiscent of the fern- hung jungles of the North. Most of the com- mon ferns are present as well as two of the much rarer Fork-ferns. Fieldia is plentiful. Lilly-pilly Gully must have looked like this before the great fires of 1951. I had never seen the Oval Wedge-fern but I knew what it should look like from pictures. Besides, I am familiar with all the others and knew what it was not by a simple process of elimination. It was a matter of cold search, as the birdoes say, keeping on the move to foil the bloodthirsty leeches. Two botanists were ahead, looking for Slender Treefern. The Brooks' as usual were not far away. All other followers had tailed off. Cries of joy came down the gully and I felt very downcast, for my prize still eluded me and time was running out. The men found a glorious specimen of Slender Treefern, fully nine metres high, and lovely against the sunlight. Nancy and I began to retrace our steps. The difficulty was that we didn't know ex- actly where the little fern grew, whether at the stream side or up on the drier slopes. But working back, one gets a different slant on the vegetation, a different light shall we say. All of a sudden there it was at the foot of a treefern in a rather dry situation, not a runn- ing fern as the text books describe it, but a distinctly tufted habit, like a small clump of Maidenhair. | must be forgiven those whoops of delight. When I could tear my eyes away there was another tuft on the neighbouring treefern, a few centimetres above the ground. A close search, however, revealed no more. Are they the last survivors? 40 L. trichomanoides is uncommon to rare up the east coast through N.S.W. to Queensland. It occurs on the Gordon River in Tasmania and is common on the North Island of New Zealand. Occurring as it does, in this one spot in Victoria, every effort should be made to safeguard this small gem in our wonderful Wilsons Promontory National Park. Other naturalists were also finding items of interest at Chinaman's Creek. Dr Brian Smith showed us a native snail Helicarion niger and we found growing on fallen logs, several fungi; one was the small red toadstool Mycena viscido-cruenta and another the little blue Mycena interrupta. There were two bracket fungi Trametes lilacinogilva and a group of Dictyopanus repidium which look like little table tennis bats about 1 cm across. Chinaman's Creek fern list: Osmundaceae Todea barbara Gleicheniaceae Gleichenia microphylla Scrambling Coral- fern Silky Fan-fern. King fern Sticherus tener Hymenophyllaceae Hymenophyllum australe Austral Filmy-fern (Mecodium austral) Hymenophyllum cupressiforme Common Filmy fern Macroglena caudata Jungle Bristle-fern Polyphlebium venosum Veined Bristle-fern. Cyatheaceae Cyathea australis Cyathea cunninghamii Rough Tree-fern Slender Tree-fern (very rare 40 ft high). Dicksoniaceae Dicksonia antarctica Culcita dubia Soft Tree-fern Common Ground- fern Dennstaeditaceae Histiopsis incisa Hypolepis rugosula Pteridium esculentum Austral bracken Batswing fern Ruddy ground fern Lindsayaceae Lindsaea trichomanoides Oval wedge fern (ex- tremely rare) Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Pteridaceae Pteris tremula Teadia brake Sinopteridaceae Pellaea falcata Sickle fern Grammitidaceae Ctenopteris heterophylla Gipsy fern Grammitis billardieri Finger fern Polypodiaceae Microsoruim diversifolium Kangaroo fern Microsorium scandens Fragrant fern Aspleniaceae Asplenium bulbiferum Mother spleenwort Asplenium flabellifolium Necklace fern Asplenium flaccidium Weeping spleenwort Aspidiaceae Polystichum profiferum Common Shield fern Davalliaceae Rumohra adiantiformis Shield Hare-foot fern Blechnaceae Blechnum cartilagineum Gristle Fern Blechnum nudum Fishbone Water-fern Blechnum wattsii (procerum) Hard Water-fern Tmesipteridaceae Tmesipteris billardieri Long Fork-fern Tmesipteris parva Small Fork-fern Tongue Point On Monday the sun shone and the whole Promontory was sparkling. We set off for Darby Saddle by bus and car, and as we drove along we could smell the honey scent of the White Kunzea that was in full bloom. We walked up a shady track through Messmate and Shining Peppermint and here we found many orchid species, Pink Fairies, Pink Fingers, Veined Spider-orchid, Plain Spider-orchid, Thick-lip Spider orchid and Green-comb Spider-orchid. This gave us a good opportunity to compare the different species of Caladenia. Here we also found the Dwarf, Tall and Slender Greenhoods the little brown flowers of the Common Bird-orchid January/February and leaves of the Autumn Bird-orchid. We climbed into sparser forest where we could see glimpses of the sea and islands as far as Rodondo Island. We lunched by Lookout rocks where we found lovely specimens of the Bearded Greenhood and the Luminous Fungus grow- ing on a dead tree. That night Dr Willis held up a piece of the fungus in the darkened hall and we could see it glowing dimly. We followed the track on into more open heathland and found the little Forked Comb- fern and the yellow flowers of the Twisted Sun-orchid beside the path. The heathland was full of flowers, Silky Tea-tree with pale pink flowers, the yellow flowers of Karalla, Smooth Parrot Pea and Guinea-flowers. There were large mauve daisies on the Fring- ed Daisy-bush, a heathland shrublet. We found Prickly Geebung but without fruit or flowers. Dr Willis and some other energetic members of the party climbed down the rocks and across onto the high tip of Tongue Point, which is an island barely separated from the point. There they found the Crimson Berry, a rare localised shrub occuring at only two other places in Victoria. It was growing almost to the water’s edge and one or two shrubs of it were found in the heathland. Some of us did not climb into this island but sat and watched a Peregrine Falcon and an immature White-breasted Sea Eagle soar- ing above us. We followed the track towards Darby River through silent glades of Drooping She- oak. We heard the call of Whip-birds in the creeks below the track and saw a Blue-tongue Lizard sunning itself. As we descended we found plants of the brilliant Purple Swainson-pea, the Coast Ballart and pink- tipped flowers of the Satin Everlasting. Tongue Point scientific names in the order they appear in the text: White Kunzea Kunzea ambigua Messmate Eucalyptus obligua Shining Peppermint Eucalyptus nitida Pink Fairies Caladenia latifolia Pink Fingers Caladenia carnea Veined Spider- Caladenia reticulata orchid Plain-lip Spider- Caladenia clavigera orchid Thick-lip Caladenia tesselata Spider-orchid Green-comb Caladenia dilatata 41 Spider-orchid Dwarf Greenhood Tall Greenhood Slender Greenhood Common Bird-orchid Autumn Bird-orchid Bearded Greenhood Luminous Fungus Forked Comb-fern Twisted Sun-orchid Silky Tea-tree Karalla Smooth Parrot-pea Fringed Daisy-bush Prickly Geebung Crimson Berry Drooping She-oak Purple Swainson-pea Pterostylis nana Pterostylis longifolia Pterostylis foliata Chiloglottis gunnii Chiloglottis reflexa Pterostylis plumosa (barbata) Pleurotus nidiformis Schizaea bifida Thelymitra flexuosa Leptospermum myrsinoides Compholobium heugelii Dillwynia glaber- rima Olearia ciliata Persoonia juniperina Cyathodes juniperina Casuarina stricta Swainsonia lessertifolia MILLERS LANDING TONGUE ^ CHINAMANS CREEK LIGHTHOUSE Fig. 1. Map of parts of Wilson’s Promontory. 42 Exocarpus syrticola Helichrysum leucopsidium Coast Ballart Satin Everlasting Millers Landing We followed the morning visit to Chinaman’s Creek with a walk from the Five Mile Road car park to Millers landing. The track was sandy and undulating and we saw large specimens of both Saw Banksia and Silver Banksia and an occasional bright clump of the Hairy Pink-bells. As we ap- proached the beach a few wallabies were seen in the dappled sunlight under a stand of messmate. The tide was receding and we were able to cross to a small island about 100 yards from the stunted white mangroves which grew along the shore. This is the most southerly oc- curance of mangroves in the world. In the shallow water were many of the bivalve Pipi (one of the family Donacidae) and lumps of sausage-shaped jelly with many minute yellow specks inside; this is the egg case of a small sand snail (one of the family Naticidae). We watched with amusement as the Soldier Crabs disappeared into holes in the sand as a shadow approached them. The small island was only a few feet above high tide line, but it had been colonised by a beautiful collection of plants. There were very large specimens of Bulbine Lily and the bright leaves and pale purple-veined flowers of Austral Storks-bill. Tussocks of a grass and a small crassula were also growing on the island; many of the rocks were encrusted with an orange lichen. We returned to the car park where we had a look at the delicate flowers of Slender Yellow-eye. Banksia serrata B. marginata Saw Banksia Silver Banksia Hairy Pink-bells Tetratheca pilosa Messmate Eucalyptus obliqua White Mangrove Avicenna marina Bulbine Lily Bulbine bulbosa Austral Stork’s bill Pelargonium australe Slender Yellow-eye Xyris gracilis. (To be continued) Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Established 1880 OBJECTS: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron: His Excellency the Honorable SIR HENRY WINNEKE, KCMG, KCVO, OBE, KStJ, QC. Key Office-Bearers 1981-1982 President: Miss WENDY CLARK, 27 Rangeview Grove, North Balwyn, 3104 (859 8091 A.H.) Secretary: Mr D. LEE, 1 Rylands Road, Dandenong West, 3175 (793 3954) Correspondence to: FNCV, National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Treasurer: Mr. D. DUNN, 3 Allfrey Street, East Brighton, 3187 (578 5753) Subscription-Secretary: Miss H. MALCOLM C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 314i Editor: Mr R. WALLIS, Victoria College — Rusden Campus, 662 Blackburn Road, North Clayton, 3168, (544 8544) Librarian: Mr. P. KELLY, C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Excursion Secretary: Miss M. ALLENDER, 19 Hawthorn Avenue, Caulfield, 3161 (527 2749) Book Sales Officer: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (211 2427) Group Secretaries Botany: Mr. MICHAEL McBAIN, 19 Foster St, St Kilda, 3182 (534 2293) Day Group: C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141. Geology: Mr. T. SAULT, C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Mammal Survey: Mr. A. FAITHFUL, 67 Athelstan Road, Camberwell, 3124 (29 5108 A.H.) Microscopical: Mr. M. H. MEYER, 36 Milroy Street, East Brighton (596 3268) Entomology and Marine Biology: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (211 2427) FNCV Kinglake Nature Reserve: McMahons Road, Kinglake. Bookings and keys: Mr. 1. F. MORRISON, 788 Elgar Road, Doncaster (848 1194) MEMBERSHIP Membership of the F.N.C.V. is open to any person interested in natural history. The Victorian Naturalist is distributed free to all members, the club’s reference and lending library is available and other activities are indicated in reports set out in the several preceding pages of this magazine. Wi s Subscription rates for 1982 LA isis Tod iC LS TTE RTI CITUR ST AERE TO DS DLORTITRURTS HRS TREE $15.00 Joint Metropolitan... us Country Members and Retired Persons, Overseas Subscription to Victorian Naturalist | LEI VIG AP JOl DEISS mr E resa rasenvaipiasie sce. E tanto dO E OH PETS ER «$2.20 All subscriptions should be made payable to the Field Naturalist Club of Victoria and posted to the Subscription Secretary. G9 JENKIN BUXTON PRINTERS PTY, LTD., WEST MELBOURNE Vol. 99, No. 2 March/April 1982 Published by the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA in which Is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria $2.20 Registered by Australia Post. Publication No. V.B.P. 1268 FNCV DIARY OF COMING EVENTS GENERAL MEETINGS Monday, 19 April, 8.00 p.m. Dr Elizabeth Turner. Balcksand and Pahoehoe (volcanoes of Hawaii). Monday, 10 May, 8.00 p.m. Dr Bill Birch, Curator of Mineralogy, National Museum of Victoria. Minerals of Victoria. New Members — March/April General Meetings. Ordinary R. Brown, 224 Wonga Rd, Warranwood. Lorna Grover, 7 Crown Rd, Ivanhoe. M. P. Havir, 45 Stanley Gve, Blackburn. Ros Kilgour, Lot 8, Haley's Gully Rd, Hurstbridge. Stephen Platt, 6 Morshead Ave, Mt Waverley. Stephen Tate, P.O. Box 361, Geelong. Country C. M. Bunn, c/o Dept. of Agriculture, Box 125, Bendigo. Peter Dingle, RMB 5100, Alexandra. Donald Franklin, Post Office, Mandurang South. Sandra Leighton, P.O. Box 277, Broken Hill. Geoff Williams, ‘‘Lorien'’, Newby's Lane, Lansdowne via Taree, Joint Cecil McQueen, 36 Swinden Ave, Cheltenham, FNCV EXCURSIONS Sunday. 2 May. ‘‘Tolcarne’’, Warburton. Mr G. Stringer has invited members to his property which is one of the former showplaces of Warburton and contains many fine old trees as well as new planta- tions of natives and bush. The coach will leave Bat- man Ave at 9.30 a.m. Fare $8.00. Bring a picnic lunch. Sunday, 6 June. Dr J. H. Willis will lead a fungi excursion probably to the Dandeongs, but the destination will be decided nearer the time depen- ding on the weather conditions. The coach will leave Batman Ave at 9.30 a.m. Bring a picnic lunch. Preliminary notices: Saturday, 28 — Sunday, 29 August. Bendigo. This will be a combined weekend with the VFNCA hosted by the Bendigo FNC. The weekend will in- clude an excursion to the Whipstick and a meeting on Saturday evening. A coach has been chartered and motel accommodation, DBB, booked. Cost will be about $55.00 or members may camp if they prefer. Thursday evening, 23 September — Sunday mor- ning, 10 October. Western Australia. Accommoda- tion, bed and breakfast has been booked at the Air- ways Hotel Apartments, 195 Adelaide Tec, Perth for Thursday night and the tour starts on Friday morning, travelling to Jurien Bay for the night. Saturday visit the Pinnacles National Park (lunch included), O/N Moora. Sunday O/N Merriden. Monday to Kalgoorlie via Southern Cross and Coolgardie visiting the Goldfields Hístorical Exhibi- tion at Fly Flat, Tuesday and Wednesday will be based on Kalgoorlie, and include a ghost town tour and a visit to the Hainault Tourist Mine, Boulder, etc. Thursday through Norseman to O/N Esperance. Friday Esperance district including a launch trip on the bay (weather permitting). Satur- day to Albany via Ravensthorpe, Hassell National Park, Many Peaks and Kalgan. Four nights in Albany with trips to the Stirling Range National Park, Porongurups, Bluff Knoll; to the south coast including The Gap, Natural Bridge, Jimmy Newhills Harbour and Frenchman's Bay; to the east coast visiting Lower King, Lower Kalgan, Nanarup, Two People Bay, Boulder Hill and Norma Beach. Wednesday O/N Pemberton. Thursday leave the coast at Alexandra Bay for a cruise downriver to Augusta, visit the lighthouse and waterwheel, O/N Augusta. Friday visit Jewel Cave and on to Busselton O/N via Margaret River, Canal Rocks, etc. Saturday to Perth with O/N accommodation, trip ending after breakfast on Sunday. Members ar- range their own transport to Perth so may extend the time. Those going by air can save by purchasing Apex fares at $329 compared with $506 normal economy return. Bookings for the tour should be made as soon as possible with the Excursion Secretary, accompanied by a $100 deposit. Ac- commodation is DBB, mostly in motels. GROUP MEETINGS FNCV members are invited to attend any Group meeting, no extra charge. Day Group — Third Thursday. Thursday, 15 April. Williamstown. 578 1879, For details of other excursions telephone 578 1879. At the National Herbarium, the Domain, at 8.00 p.m. First Tuesday — Mammal Survey Group. Third Wednesday — Microscopy Group. Wednesday, 21 April. Aquatic insects. Speaker: Mr Paul Genery. Wednesday, 19 May. Some microscopists of the past. Speaker: Mr Bob Graham. Wednesday, 16 June. Pond life. Exhibits and comments by members. Second Thursday — Botany Group. Thursday, 8 April. Ms Vivien Turner, Monash University. The strange case of the banksia and the pygmy possum. (Continued on page 80) The Victorian Naturalist Volume 99, Number 2 March/April, 1982 ISSN 0042-5184 Editor: Robert L. Wallis Assistant Editor: F. Dane Panetta Editorial Committee: H. Cohn, B. Smith Some Bird Records for Rum Island, Tasmania by J. S. Whinray .. 52 The Cape Gannet (Sula capensis), A New Record for Australia by «ogy lupe d rta ESS aq eere mignon v 56 Cup Day Outing to Chambers Park and Mt Cannibal by J. Willis . 58 Darwin: Naturalist, Scientist and Visionary by E. A. J. Duyker . .. 59 Rare and Endangered Victorian Plants 3. Acacia glandulicarpa by Ae SALA nu doe CPP c CL, re Mer e TT 62 Pitfall trapping of Reptiles in the Big Desert, Victoria by P. W. NRERUR OTE des uisi tuas ad uuo ask rd E reb e 66 A Note on the Warm Ponds, Lakes Entrance, Victoria by B. V. TIEN EA LEN ee Vince e ates SEIL TE RITE Ras OTI ta * 71 The Centenary Expedition of the F.N.C.V. 1-8 Nov., 1950.7. 525 75 Insert: The Victorian Naturalist. Index for J anuary-December, 1981. Cover illustration: Kellam's Rocks — Reflections. A series of articles on the Permian Derrinal Glacial Valley by F. Robbins, H. E. Wilkinson and J. Kellam will be published soon in The Victorian Naturalist (editor). Some Bird Records for Rum Island, Tasmania By J. S. WHINRAY* The Furneaux Group is in south- eastern Bass Strait and is the most numerous group of Tasmanian islands. Rum Island, which is about eight hec- tares in area, is one of its south-western islets. It is at the western end of Arm- strongs Channel and is about 100 metres south of Preservation Island (see Fig. 1). Rum Island is a granite islet and the coast is rocky except for five small sand beaches. The largest beach is the north- east one and it has a small sand spit. The granite outcrops of the north end, which include the summit of about eighteen metres in height, are separated from the southern outcrops by a low-lying flat. This flat has some shallow central depressions which contain water during the wetter months. The islet is part of the Sydney Cove Historic Site which was proclaimed on 29 March 1977 in order to protect the re- mains of the ship Sydney Cove which was run aground between Rum and Preservation Islands in 1797. My first visit, on 4 June 1976, was so hurried that I saw only about a quarter of the islet. I stayed for four hours on the second visit, on 20 April 1978, and walked over most of the islet. The third visit, on 15 December 1979, lasted for about two hours and allowed me to see two-thirds of the islet. Vegetation The main vegetation was shrubby Coast Saltbush Atriplex cinerea which grew to 0.9 of a metre high and covered about half of the islet (see Fig. 2). Variable Groundsel Senecio lautus ssp. dissectifolius was the next most abun- dant species. It grew in much of the flat but, as it is not a perennial, those areas have little live vegetation at times (see Fig. 3). A succulent mat formed by Rounded Noonflower Disphyma blackii * Flinders Island, Tasmania, 7255. 52 grew on parts of the southern rise and on a small area of the flat. There were two small patches of sand dune shrubs. The species in the patch behind the north-eastern beach included Coast Daisybush Olearia axillaris, Coast Beardheath Leucopogon parviflorus, and Thyme Riceflower Pimelea serpyllifolia. Unfortunately this patch is being cleared by visitors for campsites. The other vegetation types included a small area, towards the eastern end of the flat, where the dominant species was shrubby Australian Hollyhock Lavatera plebeia var. tomentosa. Bird List Tasmanian tenuirostris Muttonbirds were first mentioned in 1828 as a breeding species for the islet (Scott, 1828), and were mentioned again as such in 1908 (Lord, 1908). Recently the islet has been listed as a breeding area (Serventy, et al., 1971). I know neither when nor by whom any of those records were made. The birds were absent from the breeding islands at the time of my 1976 visit. In 1978 I found nineteen nestlings in burrows in the north-eastern quarter of the islet but most of the burrows there were empty. About three-quarters of the islet is muttonbird rookery but, despite being a reserve, it had been birded very heavily. Signs of this activity were very obvious throughout the rookery. Many burrows had been broken in completely. In some saltbush areas, bushes had been broken and pulled out. Patches of oil and gurry* were seen in much of the rookery. Muttonbird Puffinus * Gurry is a birding term for the partly-digested stomach contents, exclusive of the oil, of mut- tonbird nestlings. The killed nestlings are squeezed to empty their stomach contents through their bills. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 CAPE 148 BARREN Preservation Id. 5s Armstrongs Channel Rum Id? CLARKES Fig. 1. Southern part of the Furneaux Group. In 1979 there was no time to check more than one burrow. It contained an adult. Throughout the north-eastern rookery and the Groundsel sections of the flat could be seen dirt scratched freshly out of many burrows by the nesting birds. It seems likely that the species has nested annually on the islet since long before the European occupation of Tasmania. Australian Pelican Pelecanus spicillatus In 1976 there were fifteen on the north-eastern beach when I came in to land there. con- f \ 4O” 30 ISLAND Two flew off from the same beach when I approached it in 1978, and three in 1979. Blackfaced Cormorant Phalacrocorax fuscescens There were twelve on two small rocks just off the south-eastern point in 1978. No signs of rookeries of this species were noticed during any of the visits. Whitefaced Heron Ardea novaehollandiae In 1978 one flew off from the flat. Cape Barren Goose Cereopsis novaehollandiae In 1828 this species was said to “abound at times” on the islet (Scott, Fig. 2. The western end of the flat, Rum Island, April, 1978. Except for the Poa hassocks in the foreground, all the lighter coloured vegetation is Coast Saltbush. Photograph by J. S. Whinray. March/April Fig. 3. The central and south-eastern part of the flat, Rum Island, April, 1978. The Variable Groundsel has died and bared the white sandy areas. The latter are partly separated by the narrow, damp central section. Photograph by J. S. Whinray. 53 1828). I do not know to what date, or period of years, that comment refers. Maclaine (1908) recorded the species as laying ‘‘about three clutches’’ on the islet. This appears to have been the usual annual number and not just a record for one season. Nineteen adults flew off from amongst the low vegetation of the flat in 1976. In 1978 there were two on the north- west point, two on the north-east beach, and one on the flat. All of them were adults. This was a high number of birds for so dry a time of year, unless they were driven off Preservation Island by the shooters who were there that morn- ing. Five adults and four large goslings were seen on the islet in 1979. White-breasted Sea-eagle leucogaster There was one on an outcrop by the summit when I reached the islet in 1978. Sooty Oystercatcher Haematopus fuliginosus In 1978 there was a pair resting on rocks just off the eastern point and, at the same time, a pair resting on a rock just west of the north-western point. Masked Plover Vanellus miles novaehollandiae Two flew off from amongst the low vegetation of the flat in 1976. Towards the end of my 1978 visit a pair flew briefly over the flat and went south. Silver Gull Larus novaehollandiae In November 1907 Armstrong (1908) noted that, although this species had nests ‘‘in plenty" on the islet, there were no eggs and most of the nests had been robbed recently.* In 1976 a flock of twenty-five was seen above the main rocks off the south- eastern point and then it settled there. Haliaeetus * Armstrong called the islet '*Drum"' but, because of the details he gave, it appears to have been Rum Island. The non-existent Drum Island is even listed — without comment — in a recent bibliography (see Murray-Smith & Thompson, 1981). 54 Fifteen, including some immature birds, rose from the main rocks off the south-eastern point in 1978. Elsewhere on the islet the largest number recorded was eight birds (four adults and four fly- ing immature birds). These could have included part of the first flock. One adult flew up from the north- western point in 1979, Pacific Gull Larus pacificus In November 1907 Armstrong (1908) noted that, although this species had nests ‘‘in plenty" on the islet, there were no eggs and most of the nests had been robbed recently. Three mature and two immature birds were flying above the islet about half- way through the 1976 visit. In 1978 there were two sightings. The first was of three mature and two im- mature birds; the second was of two im- mature birds. All of the immature birds could fly. Only one mature bird was seen on the islet in 1979. It soon joined the four mature birds flying above the islet. Just before I left, there were six mature birds above it. One healthy, adult-sized, brown flightless chick was found on the southern rise. Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia There were two adults at the south end of the islet in 1979. Crested Tern Sterna bergii As I landed in 1976 there were at least thirty on the rocks off the eastern point. Richard's Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae There were two sightings in 1978. The first was of a single bird; the second was two birds. In 1979 two were seen in the low scrub on the southern slope of the summit. Grey Fantail RAipidura fuliginosa There was one briefly in the sand dune shrubs behind the north-eastern beach in 1976. Little Grassbird Megalurus gramineus In 1976 a bird of this species was heard calling once in the main Coast Saltbush patch at the western end of the flat. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 The species was seen or heard in every Coast Saltbush patch in 1978. Five was the largest number seen at any one time. I estimated the islet’s population as at least twenty birds. Two birds were heard during the 1979 visit. One was in the north-eastern beach dune scrub; the other was in the main Coast Saltbush patch at the western end of the flat. Whitefronted Chat albifrons One flew off from amongst the low vegetation of the flat in 1976. There were four sightings in 1978. One was of two birds; each of the others was of one bird. In 1979 there were four amongst the southern outcrops. Silvereye Zosterops lateralis There were three sightings in 1978. The first was of two birds in the Coast Saltbush behind the eastern beach. Next a party of small birds was seen in the north-eastern dune scrub and the one I could determine was a Silvereye. Finally one was seen feeding in a bush of the ex- otic African Boxthorn Lycium ferocissimum. Two were seen briefly in the north- eastern dune scrub in 1979. Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris In 1978 a flock of seven birds was seen flying north over the middle of the islet, probably heading for Preservation Island. Forest Raven Corvus tasmanicus One was heard calling near the southern end of the islet in 1976. In 1978 the highest number seen was eleven. Three of those were feeding ona dead Tasmanian Muttonbird nestling; the others were resting. Ephthianura Comments This list of nineteen species is the first published for Rum Island, and it in- cludes all the earlier records known to me. My records are not the result of periodic visits because, due to the state of the sea, it is often impossible to reach March/April the islet in the small borrowed boat that I use for island trips. From my limited information, it can be said that the Tasmanian Muttonbird is the most common breeding species of the islet. Pacific Gulls and Cape Barren Geese also breed there but their numbers are not known. The apparent absence of Little Penguins is unexpected, but some may yet be found there. Other species such as Sooty Oystercatchers and Silver Gulls may be found breeding on the islet if anyone can visit it at the right season. More frequent visits should result in fur- ther records of the species that I record- ed only once. As well, extra birds could be added to the list. The presence of so many Little Grassbirds in the shrubby areas is yet another local record of this species in an atypical habitat for Tasmania. Many of the prior Furneaux Group islet records of this species were made in similar habitat (Whinray, 1976). The Sydney Cove Historic Site is be- ing checked occasionally to protect the vessel's remains from robbers. However this work is hampered by the lack of a good sea-boat for the use of the Na- tional Parks and Wildlife Service ranger. In eleven years of visiting bir- ding islands, I have not seen such a bad- ly damaged rookery as that on Rum in 1978. A good boat would also allow the ranger to check the islet adequately dur- ing the birding season. Acknowledgements The first visit was made while I was stranded for fifteen days at Preservation Island by bad weather. Messrs R. & E. Ritchie kindly kept an eye on me and fetched me supplies on the several occasions when I ran out of food. The generous loan of Mr G. W. G. Goode's boat made the visits possible. Mr R. B. Filson made helpful comments on a late draft of this note. REFERENCES Armstrong, W. J. T., 1908. A Visit to the Furneaux Group, Bass Strait. The Emu, VII:181-184. Lord, J. E. C., 1908. Furneaux Islands ... Journals and Papers of Parliament, Tasmania, vol. 59, no. 57. 55 Maclaine, J. D., 1908. Letter to the Editors. The Emu, V111:48-50. Murray-Smith, S., & Thompson, J., 1981. Bass Strait Bibliography. Victorian Institute of Marine Sciences, Melbourne. Scott, T., 1828. Account of the ... Furneaux Islands ... from the information of James Campbell ... Library, Sydney. Serventy, D. L., Serventy, V., & Warham, J., 1971, The Handbook of Australian Sea-Birds, A. H. & A. W. Reed, Sydney. Whinray, J. S., 1976. The Little Grassbird in the Furneaux Group, Tasmania. The Australian Bird Watcher, 6:321-325. Manuscript in A606, Mitchell The Cape Gannet (Sula capensis), A New Record For Australia By D. R. VENN* In response to a request from Dr C. J. R. Robertson of the Wildlife Service of New Zealand to participate in a survey of known breeding colonies of the Australian Gannet (Sula serrator), Divi- sional officers visited the two known breeding locations in Victoria — Lawrence Rocks off Portland and Wedge Light in Port Phillip Bay. On 4 November 1980 I examined the breeding colony on Wedge Light, a small plat- form located south-west of Mud Island State Faunal Reserve (38° 16’ 30" S, 144° 42' 10” E). The platforn is about 4 metres above sea level, and a large craft was required to provide adequate viewing elevation so that nests on the platform could be observed, counted and photographed without disturbing nesting birds unduly. A series of photographs was taken from the bow of Fisheries Patrol Vessel Delphinus. From these photographs a plan of nest sites was prepared. The plan, interpreted information and photographs were forwarded to Dr Robertson. On New Year’s Eve a telegram re- questing urgent checks of the birds at Wedge Light was received from Dr Robertson. While examining the photographs Dr Robertson had noticed that one bird displayed a longer gular stripe than any of the others. A long gular stripe is peculiar to the Cape Gan- * Senior Field Management Officer North-West District Fisheries and Wildlife Division, 56 net which had not been recorded within Australia or New Zealand at that time. I carefully examined all the photographs I had taken and could then see the distinct difference in the gular stripe on one par- ticular bird (Fig. 1). Within two days I was able to arrange a visit to Wedge Light. Unfortunately, at such short notice the only boat available was a 5.0 m runabout which meant I could not take photographs or observe from above. However, the site previously identified as the nest of that particular bird was near the edge of the platform and hopefully the bird would be visible from a small craft. I stopped the boat about 50 metres from the nest site and using binoculars saw the distinct gular stripe on one bird. I approached cautionsly and noticed that in addition to the long gular stripe there was a fine line of black plumage above the periophthalmic ring which was not apparent on the other birds. This line shows up clearly in the close-up photograph. (Fig. 2). When I was about 10 metres away some birds, including the one under observation, took flight. All the tail feathers on the bird with the long gular stripe were black whereas the other gan- nets had black central tail feathers and white lateral tail feathers. I was now confident that the bird was in fact a Cape Gannet. I attempted to photograph these differences but un- fortunately was unsuccessful. During the next few weeks I revisited Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Fig. 1 The Cape Gannet, Sula capensis (left). Fig. 2 Closeup of Cape Gannet, showing fine line of black plumage above periophthalmic ring. March/April 57 the platform to check breeding progress. The Cape Gannet had paired off with an Australian Gannet and there was a young bird on the nest. The young bird appeared the same as the Young Australian Gannets. I had hoped to observe development of this young bird but adverse weather conditions prevented regular visits and on my return some weeks later I could not locate the Cape Gannet. The young bird, now free-flying, could not be distinguished from other young birds. The young birds on the platform were not banded, as banding under these cir- cumstances causes too much disturbance and young birds that leave the platform end up in the water and are unable to return. I hope that Divisional staff will visit the platform regularly during the com- ing months in an attempt to relocate the Cape Gannet and possibly the progeny from the last breeding. Cup-Day Outing to Chambers Park and Mt. Cannibal David and Ilma Dunn led an F.N.V.C. picnic-excursion to the nearer Gippsland bush on Tuesday, 3rd November (Melbourne Cup Day), participators assembling at the Emerald Hall by 11.45 a.m. Several members of our Society joined forces, as did three from the Latrobe Valley F.N.C. The first stop-over (and for lunch) was at R. J. Chambers Flora & Fauna Reserve near Upper Pakenham where the principal eucalyptus are brown stringybark, mealy stringybark, scent- bark and broad-leaf peppermint, the last be- ing white with massed honey-scented blossom. Most conspicuous native shrub was rusty bush-pea, billowing with small yellow flowers in pendant sprays. We walked around the short ‘Acacia Trail’, noting tall sun- orchid, red beard-orchid, long purple-flag, milkmaids and an abundance of the wiry spear-grass (Stipa muelleri) in flower; this tall-scrambling, almost leafless plant of poor hungry soils is locally known as ‘‘bayonet grass’’ and has only one to three large florets in each inflorescence (cf. other spear- grasses). Then it was down to the Prince’s Highway via Toomuc Creek Valley, eastward to North Garfield and north to Mt. Cannibal — a delightful knoll of granite, heavily forested with white stringybark (Eucalyptus globoidea). Orchids were there a-plenty, a dozen kinds being in bloom and five others identifiable from their foliage or withered flowers. Three sun-orchids were noted (Thelymitra ixioides, media and pauciflora), and there were many examples of cinnamon bells or potato orchid (Gastrodia) — one clump had 18 separate flowering heads! Two unusual finds came our way — scented col- onies of the little ivy-leaf violet (normally with odourless flowers), and a form of creamy stackhousia (‘‘candles’’) having distinctly mauve flowers. We ascended via the northern track and came down by the south-west route, both be- ing steep enough in their upper sections and with excellent panoramas from the two look- out points above great open slabs of granitic rock; the southern outlook is particularly im- pressive, with fine views to Western Port. A striking feature over much of this hill is the dense shrubbery of berry-flower heath (Erica baccans), an introduction from South Africa. It is a toughly twiggy bush to 3m tall, display- ing masses of tiny globular rose-pink bells earlier in springtime. Despite, its attrac- tiveness, the prevention of a complete ‘‘take- over" on this important reserve for native flora becomes an urgent desideratum — one recalls boneseed (another African) on the now damaged You Yangs. — J. Willis F.N.C.V. Calendar The programme of events for the first six months of 1982 is available on request from the Subscription Secretary, FNCV, National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141. 58 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Darwin: Naturalist, Scientist and Visionary BYE. A. J. DUYKER* 19 April, 1982 marks the one hun- dredth anniversary of the death of Charles Darwin — one of the greatest naturalists of all time. In this article, I wish to address myself to Charles Dar- win’s commitment to the naturalist’s discipline and to the enormous impact this commitment had on his work as a theoretical scientist. In 1831 Darwin ac- cepted a British Admiralty offer of a position as a naturalist, to accompany Capt. Robert Fitzroy on a voyage in H.M.S. Beagle, to survey the coasts of Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, Chile and Peru and to visit a number of Pacific islands. In order to uncover the for- mative significance of this voyage on Darwin, I have chosen to contrast his ac- count of it with the text of his most im- portant theoretical work — The Origin of Species. The Origin of Species and the Voyage of the Beagle were published some twen- ty years apart and provoked totally dif- ferent reactions from the public. While Darwin introduced the Voyage of the Beagle as a ‘‘journal, a history of our voyage'' and a sketch of **observations in natural history and geology’’, in the Origin of Species he is far from frank in his introduction (although he does state a conviction that species are not “‘im- mutable" and that ‘‘natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification"). While the Voyage of the Beagle re- mains a naturalist's travel book (upon the pages of which are splashed detailed descriptions, observations, impressions and manifold questions), the Origin of Species remains essentially a scientific argument which attempts to answer the questions which confronted the author during his travels. Despite their different qualities and characteristics — one an argument, the other a narrative — they exhibit a multitude of similarities. Both works are outstanding classics * Environment Section, Department of Defence, Canberra, A.C.T. March/ April among the major contributions to the development of modern thought. Their value, however, is not isolated to a con- tributory capacity, for both are extreme- ly rich works of literature. The first re- mains one of the finest works of travel ever written; the second is easily one of the most comprehensible works among the gallery of the great revolutionary products of the scientific mind. Neither work is infested with forbidding technical terms. In each work there is a huge scope and panorama of zoology, botany, geology and palaeontology. Although the Origin of Species elicits a sensitive realization of the natural equilibrium, the Voyage of the Beagle is fraught with questions. The turmoil in Darwin’s mind is revealed when we read, for example, of his demand to understand the differences between flora and fauna on the eastern and western sides of the Andes: *. . , unless we suppose the same species to have been created in two different countries, we ought not to expect any closer similarity between the organic be- ings on opposite sides of the Andes, than on shores separated by a broad strait of sea"', to which he added the footnote: “The whole reasoning of course, is founded on the assumption of im- mutability of species. Otherwise the changes might be considered as superin- duced by different circumstances in the two regions during a length of time”. This was a cryptic but obvious admis- sion that species might possibly be mutable. This same passage also reveals something of the author which is ob- vious throughout the Origin of Species. From both works we become aware of Darwin as a man of science — imper- vious to undisciplined lines of thought. We constantly encounter him insistent on objective evidence in so far as he could get it, for every step in induction and deduction by which he built up his 59 theories. In his efforts to remain within the bounds of this form of thought, both books reveal Darwin as a perfec- tionist at work. In the Voyage of the Beagle and the Origin of Species we also encounter descriptions of meticulous ex- periments and observations. There is an acute consciousness of each possible argumentative weakness and a desire to seal every hole. These logical patterns also accentuate the carefully planned and premeditated form of each book. The Voyage of the Beagle, as a narration of the experiences of a young naturalist, was written to fulfil the desires of a public hungry to learn details of far away places. Thus, in a sense, it was following in the footsteps of Alexander von Humboldt’s personal narrative and the works of Sir Joseph Banks; and its accomplishments were in- deed similar. Like the Origin of Species it has a noticeable absence of trivia and places visited more than once have their descriptions consolidated. Unlike the Origin of Species, the Voyage of the Beagle manifests a range of moral judgements basically in relation to human behaviour and the antiquity of man together with scattered references to a creator. Sensing the storm ahead of him, it is not surprising that Darwin avoided mention of human evolution when writing the Origin of Species! While Darwin’s early naturalist ex- periences may have led him to pose questions for which he would not pro- vide answers for another twenty years, he did, in a number of individual publications, provide answers to a number of questions in the fields of geology and zoology. As has already been mentioned, the Origin of Species is an argument (of ar- resting proportions); Darwin starts with what he believes to be fact, then spins a hypothesis from it by induction. This is done in the first four chapters by ex- plaining the operation of artificial selec- tion by man, and of natural selection as a consequence of the struggle for ex- istence. The fifth chapter deals with the laws of variation and causes of modification other than natural selec- tion. Darwin then employs deduction in considering the consequences that could 60 be tested for refutation or confirmation. In fact, the chapter devoted to ''Dif- ficulties on Theory’’ is so carefully thought out that practically no objection to the theory could be raised without him forseeing them, and providing an explanation. One such difficulty is to understand how initial and transitional stages might account for the production of electrical organs in certain fishes. Darwin’s defence was that '*we must own that we are far too ignorant to argue that no transition of any kind is possible". The theory which suggests the cause of evolution, therefore, is given the foremost place in the work, and the evidence for the fact of evolution is con- sidered in the last three chapters (ex- cluding the re-capitulation) which pro- vide palaeontological, geographical, anatomical and embryological evidence. Natural selection is employed in relation to these facts in a two-way process; previously inexplicable facts are explain- ed by it, and they are used to prove its reality. The argumentative impact of this work is thus constantly developing rather than immediate. Although both the Voyage of the Beagle and the Origin of Species display consistency with the notions of unifor- mitarian geology and many of the ideas of Lyell, in his earlier work Darwin states *'the Geology of La Plata and Patagonia leads to the belief that all features of the land result from slow and gradual change’”’ there is not a dogmatic adherence to these ideas. For example, quite contrary to the then prevailing and long accepted view of authorities such as Sedgewick and Lyell, Darwin concluded and expounded within the Voyage of the Beagle the notion that cleavage and foliation were not original phenomena dependent on the deposition of the strata, but that they had been subse- quently superimposed by pressure. When experiencing the Conception earthquake of 1835, he also made an original observation of the connection between earthquakes and volcanic ac- tivity. His argument that coral islands could only have been formed as a result of subsidence of the sea floor and subse- quent upward coral growth, was equally Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 original and has stood the test of time to be incorporated in standard teaching. Darwin’s notion of the gradual nature of change on the physical surface of the globe — that is obvious in the Voyage of the Beagle — is reflected in the Origin of Species with the author’s belief in the gradual change of the animal and plant world. All such change, however, is regarded within an ecological framework. Although more acutely ob- vious in the Origin of Species, the in- fluence of the Galapagos islands (with their distinctive tortoises, iguanas and finches adapted to live in harmony with each separate island environment) is evi- dent in both works. Again and again the reader is reminded of the flexibility of nature, introduced by the occurrence of variation in offspring. Thus, there is constant reference within the Origin of Species to those incidents of animal and plant observation which the author made on his voyage in H.M.S. Beagle. We must read Darwin, therefore, as a naturalist. Despite his logical stringency in the Origin of Species, he is a man writing to convince not to prove. He is a man attempting to convey an experience of the natural world and his own com- plex vision of how this world operates. Thus the reader is confronted with any metaphor and any analogy available which facilitates the articulate expres- sion of his vision — the vision of an in- spired naturalist. His perceptions of the mechanisms of change within nature have in most cases been substantiated by modern scientific research, but this research has in turn further illuminated the immensity of Darwin's perception, such that it would have been impossible to accommodate it within the logical categories of his time. If such argumen- tative forms had, in fact, been employed, his vision (the imaginative whole that it was) would have been rendered prosaic in our eyes. Naturalist Review By FRANK W. ORME **Cyclopaedia of Coldwater Fish and Pond Life” Saiga Publishing Co. Ltd., 1981. 136pp. $22.95. A successful compromise between inade- quate coverage and an overly large and ex- pensive publication is often elusive, and may be impossible for single volume en- cyclopaedias. At under 140 pages, this volume sets out to cover a wide range: from European native and exotic aquatic plants and animals to the construction and manage- ment of garden ponds. This book does not succeed as an en- cylopaedia — indeed it hardly could. Perhaps it will be welcomed by affluent aspiring aquarists unfamiliar with many of the terms and names used in the European literature, but it is hard to see any other market. More stringent editorial control over en- tries would have improved the book. Many of March/April the basic biological entries seem superfluous (for example ‘cell’ and Fig. 98 — ‘leaf types’); others are confused (e.g. ‘Gasterosteidae’). Generic entries do not seem appropriate to a book of this nature — where important they could have been cross- indexed. This has led to considerable duplica- tion (for example the Japanese Rush is entered under ‘Acorus’ and ‘plants’). Some illustrations are also duplicated (Smooth Newts on page 3, and colour plate 7; Arrowhead on p100 and Plate 1). Many of the illustrations are poor, and waste space. The colour plates are clear, if rather simple, but many of the authors own black and white pictures are very weak. Some good ones are unacknowledged. R. Gaymer. 61 Rare and Endangered Victorian Plants 3. Acacia glandulicarpa By J. STUWE* The present paper is the third of a series outlining results of recent research into the distribution and conservation status of plants thought to be rare or en- dangered within Victoria. The aim of the series is outlined by Stuwe (1980). The species dealt with here is Acacia glandulicarpa, Hairy-pod Wattle (Fig. 1); a species of relatively fertile soils in areas now largely cleared for agriculture, Range and abundance The species is restricted to an area of the Wimmera in Victoria (Fig. 2), and one small population in the Northern Lofty region of South Australia (Whibley, 1980). The largest popula- tions are in the Gerang Gerung/Kiata area. All Victorian records are within Major Grid C. A rough estimate of the total number of plants of this species in Victoria is between 4000 and 5000, including about 1000 in biological reserves (Little Desert National Park; John Smith Memorial Sanctuary). Two large populations are from blocks of Crown Land near Gerang Gerung. The land tenure of other stands is Crown Land (3 stands); roadside (8 remnant populations); unus- ed road easement (1 stand); and private (2 stands). Populations recorded from the railway line between Noradjuha and Jallumba, and from Nurrabiel Cemetery are presumed extinct. Acacia glandulicarpa has been classed as ‘Vulnerable’, both on an Australia- wide basis by Leigh et al. (1981) and on a Victoria-wide basis in the present work (see Appendix 1). Habitat and species' ecology A. glandulicarpa occurs under a varie- ty of dominant tree species — Eucalyptus dumosa, E. viridis/odorata, E. behriana, E. largiflorens, E. *Department of Botany La Trobe University Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia 62 microcarpa, E. leucoxylon, E. in- crassata and Casuarina leuhmannii; usually with a relatively open canopy. Lower strata, which are shrubby and/or herbaceous are also usually open in structure, often with a large proportion of bare ground. One population, however, extended a short distance into a mallee-broombush community. Topsoil textures range from sandy clay to sandy clay-loam, with ironstone gravel present at some sites. Several stands were on areas transitional bet- ween the better farming country and the non-arable land of the Little Desert. The species probably once extended throughout much of the intensively-utilized Eucalyptus microcarpa and Casuarina leuhmannii grassy woodlands and other plant associations from the heavier Wimmera soils, although sufficient examples of such vegetation are not now available to confirm this. Young plants occur in the absence of obvious soil disturbances or fire although more data are needed to deter- mine whether such factors are necessary for germination. Threats and recommended conservation measures Stock grazing and the associated in- gress of weeds are the major threats to the regeneration of this species on Crown Land. Frequent control burning potentially threatens populations on Crown Land adjoining farmland. Clear- ing of private land and roadworks are potential threats to other populations. It can often be extremely difficult to obtain adequate protection for species which exist as remnant populations in areas which are utilized for agricultural, or other, purposes. Acacia enterocarpa (see Stuwe, 1980), for example, has been further reduced in numbers in Victoria following roadside works and rail duplication, even though a proposed conservation strategy for the species was Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Fig 1. Acacia glandulicarpa. Photo by A. Gibb. sent to relevant bodies. Lack of funcing and/or interest has frustrated attempts to conserve other rare plant species. It is rather pleasing, therefore, to investigate a species such as A. glandulicarpa which, whilst inadequately reserved at March/April present, occurs on a number of poten- tially reservable areas of Crown Land. The conservation strategy proposed for this species depends upon (a) its con- tinued protection within the Little Desert National Park and the John 63 LAKE HINDMARSH * * NETHERBY |o Kilometers VICTORIA NG GERUNG DIMBOOLA LITTLE DESERT NATIONAL PARK HORSHAM (0) NORADJUHA JALLUMBA * NURRABIEL S — Main centre of abundance. S — Minor scattered occurrences. * — Isolated occurrences. Figure 2. The distribution of Acacia glandulicarpa in Victoria. Smith Memorial Sanctuary; (b) reserva- tion of blocks of Crown Land at Gerang Gerung and Winiam East and (c) addi- tion to the Little Desert National Park of Crown Land adjoining it to the north and south. Such reservation, with ap- propriate management, should afford adequate long-term protection for this species and attempts to conserve popula- tions on private land and small roadside remnants are considered unwarranted. The reservation of areas carrying populations of A. glandulicarpa will also act to conserve remnant plant com- munities which have been depleted 64 through intensive utilization for agricultural purposes. Recommendations sent to: Department of Crown Lands and Survey; Land Conservation Council; National Parks Service, Kiata. Acknowledgements I wish to thank Mr F.J.C. Rogers, Mr A. Gibb, Mr A.J. Hicks and Mr A.E. Lindner for supplying information on the distribution of this species. Special thanks are extended to Mr C. Brownsea, N.P.S., Kiata, and Mr A. McMahon for locating and mapping populations in and around the Little Desert National Park. The work is funded in part by a grant from the National Estate Programme of the Australian Department of Home Affairs. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 REFERENCES Leigh, J.H., Briggs, J. and Hartley, W. (1981). Rare or Threatened Australian Plants. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Special Publication No. 7. Stuwe, J. (1980). Rare and endangered Victorian plants. 1. Acacia enterocarpa. Victorian Nat, 97 157-8. Whibley, D.J.E. (1980). Acacias Australia. S.A. Govt. Printer: Adelaide. of South Appendix 1:Risk categories used in the present work. These score each taxon according to the degree of endangerment. The numbers 0-3 follow the system adopted in Lucas, G.L. and Synge, A.H.M. (1977). The IUCN threaten- ed plants committee and its work throughout the world. Environmental Conserva- tron, 3) 9 8792 875 Categories are defined as: 0 = EXTINCT. Taxa no longer known to exist in the wild after repeated searches of the type localities and other known or likely places. 1= ENDANGERED. Taxa in danger of extinction, and whose survival is unlikely if the causal factors con- tinue operating. Included are taxa whose numbers have been reduced to a critical level, or whose habitats have been so drastically reduced that they are deemed to be in im- mediate danger of extinction. 2 = VULNERABLE. Taxa believed to be likely to move into the En- dangered category in the near future if the causal factors continue operating. Included are taxa of which most or all the populations are decreasing because of over- exploitation, extensive destruction of habitat, or other environmental disturbance; also taxa with popula- tions that have been seriously depleted and whose ultimate securi- ty is not yet assured, and taxa with populations that are still abundant but under threat from serious adverse factors throughout their range. 3— RARE. Taxa with small world populations that are not at present Endangered or Vulnerable, but are at risk. These taxa are usually localized, with restricted geographical areas or habitats, or are thinly scattered over a more ex- tensive range. 4— LOCAL. Plants are not widely distributed although occurring over wide areas or in greater abundance than those of the categories above. Plants are not threatened although their local occurrence demands at least occasional monitoring. In practice, for a species to be regard- ed as rare than local, its range should include very few discrete localities — generally five or less. Australian Natural History Medallion Fund Amount on hand October 1981 The Western Australian Naturalists Club (2nd Donation) Queensland Naturalists Club Peninsula Field Naturalists Club (3rd Donation) Total amount February 1982 March/April $1643.50 10.00 20.00 10.00 $1683.50 65 Pitfall Trapping of Reptiles in the Big Desert, Victoria. By P. W. MENKHORST* Introduction Little information is available on the reptilian fauna of the Big Desert in north-western Victoria. Rawlinson’s (1966) review of existing data emphasis- ed the need for further surveys and Gilmore and McVicar's (1973) collation of literature and specimen records from the Victorian Mallee exposed many gaps. Recently, areas in the south and east of the Big Desert have been surveyed for reptiles (Mather 1979, A. J. Coventry, National Museum of Victoria pers. comm.) and incidental observa- tions have been made by workers primarily interested in other fauna (e.g. Cockburn et al. 1979). In this report, the results of drift fence pitfall trapping over eight days at White Spring and Ross Spring in the northern Big Desert are presented and compared with the results obtained in Wyperfeld National Park, 50 km to the SE (Mather 1979, Cheal et al. 1979). A reptile survey was not the primary aim of the visit and most time was spent observing birds. However, once installed, pitfall traps take little time to check and are an effi- cient method of sampling the reptilian fauna. The results indicate a range of habitats and diverse reptilian fauna exist in the area and emphasize the need for extensive fauna surveys before sound land use planning can be achieved. Methods Trapping took place between 4 and 12 November 1980 when seven lines of pit- falls and drift fences were set at the localities shown in Fig. 1. Drift fences consisted of strips of PVC Damp Course or fly screen 0.25m high held up by wire stakes. Six fences were 40m long and one (Line 3) was 20m. Pits consisted of metal tins (20cm diameter x 28cm deep) * Fisheries and Wildlife Division, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, 123 Brown Street, Heidelberg, Victoria. 3084. 66 or cylinders (15-25 diameter x 45cm deep) sunk into the soil so that the rim was flush with the soil surface. Ten to twelve pits were spaced evenly along each fence and were straddled by it (Line 3, being only 20m long, had five pits). Pits were not baited and were checked morning and evening. Lines 1-3 were set for eight days and nights, Lines 4 and 5 for seven days and nights and Lines 6 and 7 for six days and five nights. Voucher specimens were collected and lodged in the National Museum of Vic- toria (Nos. D52740-D52779). Trapping sites were selected to cover a range of substrates and vegetation com- munities. These are described below using the structural classification of Specht (1970) to describe each layer of vegetation rather than only the tallest. MINOR 3 r” NT r EN uuo wj) JI / aio | a j ROSS SPRING Ds F é/ 67, B \ \, \ ) WHITE SPRING or 4 MAJORLOCK \ SOAK Fig. 1, Location of traplines. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Line 1. Line 2. Line 3. Line 4. Line 5. Line 6. Line 7. Mallee eucalypt open-scrub to 4m over a low open-shrubland of Halgania cyanea and Lasiopetalum behrii over bare compacted calcareous red sand. Sand dune carrying Eucalyptus incrassata open-scrub to 3m over open-heath dominated by Acacia brachybotrya, A. mon- tana, Callitris verrucosa, Lep- tospermum coriaceum and Hibbertia stricta over sparse hummock grassland of Triodia sp. Sandy flat with Eucalyptus oleosa open-scrub to 4m over open-heath dominated by Acacia brachybotrya, A. mon- tana, Hakea muellerana and Callitris verrucosa over sparse hummock grassland of Triodia sp. Limestone plain with shallow (20cm) sandy topsoil carrying Eucalyptus porosa open-scrub to 4m over a tall shrubland of Melaleuca lanceolata and Acacia montana over bare soil. Sand dune carrying tall shrubland of Eucalyptus viridis to 3m over open-heath dominated by Callitris ver- rucosa, Leptospermum cor- iaceum, Hakea muellerana and Hibbertia spp. Sandy flat carrying a low shrubland of Callitris verrucosa and Leucopogon sp. over hummock grassland of Triodia sp. Sandy flat carrying Eucalyptus dumosa/E. foecunda open- scrub to 4m over low shrubland of Leptospermum coriaceum, Callitris verrucosa, Acacia rigens and Hibbertia stricta over open-herbland of Lomandra sp. Patches of Triodía hummock grassland Occurred nearby. March/April Results Trapping results are shown in Table 1; a total of 126 reptiles was captured com- prising 21 species from five families. Two other species, Varanus gouldii and Trachydosaurus rugosus, were observed in the general area. The most commonly captured family was Agamidae (55% of captures) followed by Scincidae (28%), Gekkonidae (9%), Pygopodidae (6%) and Typhlopidae (< 1%). Three species made up 60% of all captures; Amphibolurus fordi (39%), Morethia obscura (12%) and A. nobbi (9%). The remaining 19 species were captured in low numbers. Twenty percent of captures occurred during the night or early in the morning; these comprised the Typhlina, all gek- koes except one Diplodactylus intermedius, 16% of agamids, one Menetia greyi and two Morethia obscura. The first two taxa are generally considered to be nocturnal while the agamids and skinks are diurnal and were probably captured in the morning before the traps were cleared. Table 2 compares captures of diurnal and nocturnal species with daily max- imum and minimum temperatures from Murrayville, 30km NNW of Ross Spring. Capture rates increased with increasing maximum temperature up to 31°C but fell at higher temperatures. The few captures of nocturnal species did not correlate closely with minimum or maximum temperatures. The Ross Spring area contains a par- ticularly wide range of vegetation associations and a diverse vertebrate fauna. The Triodia hummock grassland to the south-east of the spring is an im- portant habitat for reptiles (Lines 6 and 7) and the small dasyurid marsupial Ningaui sp. was captured on Line 7. There is also evidence that the Night Parrot Geopsittacus occidentalis Oc- curred there during the 1950's (Menkhorst and Isles 1981). The area deserves reservation and management for fauna. 67 Table 1. Reptiles captured at each trapline. Nomenclature follows Cogger (1979) except that Ctenotus schomburgkii becomes C. brooksi (Storr 1981). Species Trapline Totals (%) 1 2 3 4 5 6 4 Gekkonidae 12(9) Diplodactylus intermedius 1 1 2 1 5(4) D. vittatus 1 1 2(2) Lucaseum damaeum 1 1(1) Phyllodactylus marmoratus 2 1 3(2) Underwoodisaurus millii 1 1(1) Pygopodidae 8(6) Aprasia inaurita 1 1(1) Delma inornata 6 6(5) Lialis burtonis 1 1(1) Agamidae 70(55) Amphibolurus fordi 3 1 IST ML T2 49(39) A. muricatus 2 2(2) A. nobbi 6 1 2 1 1 11(9) A. pictus 2 2 4(3) A. vitticeps 2 1 1 4(3) Varanidae Varanus gouldii 1 obs. Scincidae 35(28) Ctenotus brachyonyx 1 2 3(2) C. robustus 1 3 4(3) C. brooksi 1 1 3 5(4) Egernia inornata 1 1 2(2) Lerista bougainvillii 2 1 3(2) Menetia greyi 2 1 3(2) Morethia obscura 6 3 6 15(12) Trachydosaurus rugosus obs. Typhlopidae 1(1) Typhlina bituberculata 1 1(1) Total captures 18 14 4 13 Zi 28h Se 126 % of total (14) (11) (3 (10) (17) (18) (27) (100) Table 2. Comparison of daily maximum and minimum temperatures at Murrayville (Bureau of Meteorology figures) with captures of (a) diurnal species and (b) nocturnal species. Date 4 s 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Max. Temp.°C 22 21 23 21 21 23 26 31 35 37 41 Min. Temp.°C 4 12 13 10 7 7 9 13 14 21 18 Total Nos. Trapped (a) 1 1 13 11 28 32 15 11 (b) 1 5 0 1 1 i} 68 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Discussion Except for the abundance of A. fordi on lines 5,6 and 7, total captures were spread fairly evenly across the seven traplines. However, some habitat preferences were apparent. Traplines through Triodia hummock grassland (Lines 2,3,6 and 7) captured almost all pygopodids and Ctenotus and 71% of A. fordi. Mather (1979) also had high captures of these taxa in areas with Triodia and Pianka (1972) has noted the importance of Triodia hummocks as shelter for many species of Australian lizards. Triodia grows on sand, and traplines in loose sand (Lines 2,3,5,6 and 7) tended to produce more captures and greater species diversity than those on hard calcareous substrates (Lines 1 and 4), reflecting both the importance of Triodia as well as the fossorial habits of many species. Lines 1 and 4, which were characterised by a calcareous substrate and open-scrub with little ground cover, produced 50% of captures of A. nobbi and 80% of M. obscura. A. nobbi is usually associated with mallee or broombush vegetation (Cheal et al. 1979) and our results suggest a preference for open-scrub with bare ground and sparse low shrub cover. M. obscura was found in a range of heath and mallee formations at Wyperfeld Na- tional Park (Cheal et al. 1979) and reasons for its preponderance on Lines 1 and 4 are not clear. The two most commonly captured species were also abundant in Wyperfeld National Park (Mather 1979); A. fordi comprised 40% of captures in both areas and M. obscura comprised 12% in this survey and 9% at Wyperfeld. Two other species, Ctenotus brooksi and Lucaseum damaeum, were commonly captured at Wyperfeld but formed only a small percentage of captures in this survey. The two broad reptilian ‘‘com- munities’’ recognised by Mather (1979) were not apparent from results obtained in this survey although there was clearly March/April a difference between the reptilian faunas of areas with Triodia and those without. This may be partly due to the brevity and incomplete coverage of this survey which precludes a detailed analysis of habitat selection. Mather (1979) also found a greater species diversity; this is probably related to the longer sampling time and greater habitat coverage achieved in his study. Using similar techniques, he captured all species found in this survey except three (Underwoodisaurus millii, Delma inornata and Typhlina bituberculata) as well as seven extra species (Delma australis, Ctenotus uber, Tiliqua oc- cipitalis, Typhlina australis, Drysdalia mastersi, Pseudonaja textilis and Unechis brevicaudus). The lack of elapids captured is sur- prising as Unechis brevicaudus and Echiopsis curta have since been collected by hand from Ross Spring (J. Haywood, Mid Murray Field Naturalists Trust pers. comm.). The survey area is uncommitted Crown Land but is available for mobile military training (LCC 1977). The ef- fects of tracked vehicles being driven across country were evident around Ross and White Springs. Such activities can only exacerbate the already severe wind erosion hazard (LCC 1977) and may threaten populations of burrowing agamids, skinks and small mammals. Acknowledgements I am grateful to J. Davies, D. Hespe, G. Hor- rocks and A. Isles for field assistance and to T. Campbell of Boinka for his hospitality and assistance. C, Beardsell helped identify plant specimens. A. J. Coventry, W. B. Emison and F. I. Norman kindly improved drafts of this paper. REFERENCES Cheal, P. D., Day, J. C. and Meredith, C. W. 1979, Fire in the national parks of north-west Victoria. National Parks Service, Victoria. Cogger, H. G. 1979. Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia, revised ed, A. H. and A. W. Reed, Sydney. 69 Cockburn, A., Fleming, M. and Wainer, J. 1979. The comparative effectiveness of drift fence pit- fall trapping and conventional cage trapping of vertebrates in the Big Desert, north-western Vic- toria. Victorian Nat. 96: 92-5. Gilmore, A. M. and McVicar, J. M. 1973. Report on the reptiles of the Victorian Mallee from the collections and archives of the National Museum of Victoria. Unpublished report to Land Conser- vation Council of Victoria. Land Conservation Council of Victoria. 1977. Final recommendations, Mallee Study Area. Govern- ment Printer, Melbourne. Mather, P. B. 1979. An examination of the reptile fauna of Wyperfeld National Park using pitfall trapping. Victorian Nat. 96: 98-101. Menkhorst, P. W. and Isles, A. C. 1981. The Night Parrot Geopsittacus occidentalis; evidence of its presence in north-western Victoria during the 1950's. Emu 81: in press. Pianka, E. R. 1972. Zoogeography and speciation of Australian desert lizards: an ecological perspective. Copeia 1972 (1): 127-144. Rawlinson, P. A. (1966). Reptiles of the Victorian Mallee. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. 79: 605-619. Specht, R. L. 1970. Vegetation, in Leeper, G. W. (ed), The Australian Environment. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. Storr, G. M. 1981. Ten new Ctenotus (Lacer- tilia:Scincidae) from Australia. Rec. Wesr. Aust. Mus. 9: 125-146. Mr Jack Wheeler Wins ‘‘The Advance Australia Award" The Geelong newspaper The Courier reports that Mr Jack Wheeler of The Geelong Field Naturalists Club was presented with the award by the Mayor of South Barwon, Cr Fred Rossack, in Belmont, Geelong on Tues- day 10th November. The Advance Australia awards were in- troduced as part of the National Advance Australia Campaign to recognise the con- tributions made by Australians — either as individuals, groups or companies — to the Australian way of life. Jack Wheeler 72, who devoted his life to the preservation of Australian flora and fauna has written more than 1000 ‘‘Nature Notes" columns in The Courier on Saturdays over the past 24 years. Jack Wheeler was awarded The Australian Natural History Medallion for 1977 and a splendid tribute detailing the contribution that Jack has made for conservation and natural history was written by the Late J. A. Baines in The Victorian Naturalist Vol. 95, pages 33-34. D. McInnes Trees of Victoria Bv LEON F. COSTERMANS A New Edition. December, 1981. 84 pages. All descriptions and nomenclature revised and brought up to date. Ten extra tree species incorporated (including 5 more wattles). Many illustrations renewed to include more diagnostic detail. Fruit illustrations for 5 extra eucalypts. 70 Distribution maps revised and extended to include New South Wales and South Australia. Price $2.50 (Discount to members) Postage 45 cents. Order from F.N.C.V. Sales Officer. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 A Note on the Warm Ponds, Lakes Entrance, Victoria. By B. V. TIMMS* Abstract The Warm Ponds have formed since 1889 by the natural segmentation of the Cunninghame Arm of the Gippsland Lakes. The distal pond (No 1) is now almost fresh and contains a restricted freshwater fauna and a few species of estuarine affinities. The other ponds harbour a marine-estuarine fauna ap- propriate to their almost full strength sea water. Introduction Although almost all waterbodies in the sandy coastal lowlands of eastern and southern Australia have never had any contact with the sea, some apparent- ly have evolved from marine inlets, as indicated by their physiography and the continued presence of some estuarine species. Lake Barracoota in East Gipps- land is an example. Its environs indicate it has been cut-off from Mallacoota In- let (Williams, 1980) and at least four estuarine species survive in it (Timms, 1973). Other examples are known at Bridgewater Bay, western Victoria (Timms, 1977) and along the New South Wales coast (Timms 1982 and un- published). In each case the lake has been isolated from the sea for a few thousand years, but Blue Lagoon, nor- thern N.S.W. is still connected intermit- tently. A survey of the literature and a study of aerial photographs suggest that at least one of the Warm Ponds (alias Warm Holes, Bird, 1978) at the eastern end of the Cunninghame Arm at Lakes Entrance in Gippsland could be in the processing of developing from a marine to a freshwater pond. If so, then it is a further example of such a waterbody in Victoria, and more significantly, a site * Sciences Dept., Avondale College, Cooranbong, N.S.W. 2265 March/ April presently evolving from a marine to a freshwater ecosystem. It is the aim of the present note to document the major limnological features of the Warm Ponds in this context. Physiography of the Ponds The Warm Ponds lie in the former channel of the Reeves R. which used to be the natural outlet of the Gippsland Lakes (Bird, 1978). After the artificial entrance was cut at Lakes Entrance in 1889, the old mouth soon sealed natural- ly so that the channel became a backwater connected to the sea at its other end. It was renamed the Cunn- inghame Arm and soon began to seg- ment by the growth of triangular shaped spits along its length. By 1929 (or earlier) Warm Pond No 1 had been cut off and by 1977 (or earlier) Ponds No 2, 3 and 4 had been formed (Miles, 1977). These latter ponds are still connected by narrow channels to the Cunninghame Arm but Pond No 1 is now typically un- connected (Fig 1), except during ab- normally stormy weather when diluted sea water is backed up beyond Pond No 2, perhaps reaching it. Alternatively, during very wet weather the overflow of Pond No 1 may reach Pond No 2. Pond No 1 is about 20m wide and 50m long and up to 3m deep. Ponds 2 and 3 are 2-3 times larger and about 2m deep. Pond No 4 was not visited but is much larger than the others. Methods A few physicochemical parameters were measured, mainly in Ponds No 1 and 2. Total dissolved solids (TDS) was determined gravimetrically by evapora- tion at 105°C (accuracy +57), temperature was measured with a ther- mistor thermometer (accuracy+0.1°C), pH with a Lovibond Comparator (ac- curacy X-0.2 units) and light penetration with a 20cm Secchi disc. 71 Strait Figure 1: Sketch of the Warm Ponds taken from an oblique aerial photograph looking west over Lakes Entrance, Zooplankton was collected at night with a conical net 30cm in diameter and a mesh size of 159 um. and littoral in- vertebrates (and a few fish) were cap- tured with a pond net of mesh size Imm. A birge Ekman grab of 225 cm? gape was used to collect benthos in Pond No 1. All samples were preserved in 5% for- malin. Results (a) Physiochemical Features. Although each pond had similar warm alkaline surface waters, which transmit- ted light roughly similarly, their TDS's were quite different — Pond No 1 was almost fresh while Ponds 2 and 3 con- tained only slightly diluted sea water. (Table 1). Pond No 1 was also markedly thermal stratified whereas Pond No 2 was not stratified except perhaps tran- sitorily during warm afternoons. Bot- tom water of Pond No 1 smelt strongly of H,S, indicating a lack of oxygen. The TABLE 1 Some physicochemical features of the Warm Ponds Parameter Pond No 1 Pond No2 Pond No3 TDS (gl!) 3.1 32.5 32.0 pH 8.2 8.6 8.6 Secchi disc depth (cm) 105 170 = Surface Temperature °C 26.2* 28.3* 28.4? Bottom Temperature °C 18.5 26.9 — *at 11 am, + atl pm, ġat2 pm. 72 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 bottom mud of this pond was black and also had a distinct H,S odour. (b) Plants. Pond No 1 was surrounded by a thick sward of Scirpus validus Vahl. and Cladium procerum S. T. Blake in which there were patches of Phragmites australis (Car.) Littoral vegetation was much sparser in Ponds No 2 & 3 where Juncus kraussi Hockst. was the dominant emergent and Ruppia maritima L the dominant submergent species. (c) Littoral Animals. The littoral in- vertebrate fauna of Ponds No 1 and 2 was quite different (cf Table 2 and 3). The inhabitants of Pond No 1, except for the amphipod, are freshwater species while the inhabitants of Pond No 2 are marine or estuarine species. The TABLE2 Fauna of Warm Pond No 1 Littoral Invertebrates Crustacea: Amphipoda Insecta:Odonata Melita sp. unident Aeschnidae sp 1 unident Aeschnidae sp 2 unident Co- enagrionidae Insecta: Hemiptera Naucoris congrex Stal. Insecta:Trichoptera Oecetis sp. Insecta: Diptera Insecta:Coleoptera Chironomus sp. Antiporus femoralis (Boheman) Mollusca: Gastropoda Physastra gibbosa (Gould) Potamopyrgus niger (Quoy & Gaimard) Zooplankton Rotifera Brachionus plicalitis rotundiformis Tschugnoff Hexarthra oxyuris (Zernov) Keratella cochlearis (Gosse) Keratella procurva (Thorpe) Lecane bulla (Gosse) Gladioferens spinosus Henry (night only) Copepoda March/April zooplankton of the two ponds, although somewhat different, shared a dominant species, Brachionus plicalitis rotundiformis and one or perhaps two other species. No benthic animals were found in the bottom of Pond No 1. Two species of fish, Philypnodon grandiceps Krefft and Philypnodon sp nov, were captured in Pond No 1; fish were seen in pond No 2 but could not be caught with a pond net. Discussion It might be expected that a series of ponds formed by segmentation of an arm of an estuary would show a salinity gradient. Those formed in the Cunn- inghame Arm in the Gippsland Lakes hardly do so, since there is little freshwater inflow at the distal end and TABLE3 Fauna of Warm Pond No 2 Littoral Invertebrates Crustacea: Amphipoda Melita sp. Crustacea:Decapoda — Amarinus laevis (Targioni Tozzetti) Macrobrachium intermedium (Stimpson) Mollusca: Gastropoda Hydrobia buccinoides (Quoy and Gaimard) Parcanassa burchardi Phillippi Pyrazus ebeninus Bruguiere Salinator fragilis (Lamarck) Gari donacioides (Reeve) Xenostrobus securis (Lamark) Mollusca:Bivalva Zooplankton Rotifera Brachionus plicatilis rotundiformis Tschugunoff Keratella procurva (Thorpe) Acartia ''clausii" Giesbrecht Gippslandia estuarina Bayly & Arnott Gladioferens sp. juveniles Oithona brevicornis Gresbrecht Copepoda 73 most of the segments are still well con- nected. Ponds No 2 and 3 contain only slightly diluted sea water and it is only Pond No 1, which is normally uncon- nected with the series, where salinity is markedly reduced. In January 1981 it was almost fresh; probably during winter it is fresh (salinity < 3 gl! cf Williams, 1964) since rainfall is often more abundant and evaporation always less then. The biota of Ponds No 1 and 2 are distinctly different. The organisms in Pond 2 are almost all of marine or estuarine affinities while most of the organisms in Pond No 1 are of freshwater origin with just a few with estuarine affinities. Both ponds contain some cosmopolitan euryhaline rotifers eg. Brachionus plicalitis is a well-known inhabitant of coastal brackish waters and inland saline lakes (Walker, 1981). The affinities of organisms in Pond No 1 warrant closer examination. The most prominent group in the pond is of widely distributed and tolerant freshwater species eg. Scirpus validus, Naucoris congrex, Antiporus femoralis, Physastra gibbosa, Potamopyrgus niger, Hexarthra oxyuris,* Keratella cochlearis, Lecane bulla, Philypnodon grandiceps and Philypnodon sp. and probably also, if the species were known, the odonatans, Oecetis sp and Chironomus sp. The two plants, Cladium procerum and Phragmites communis, which can both tolerate mildly brackish water (Willis, 1970) are best placed in this group. The estuarine group consists of two species, the copepod Gladioferens spinosus and the amphipod Melita sp. G. spinosus is typically an estuarine species, but it is also known from some freshwaters (Bayly, 1963, Shiel, 1978; Timms, 1973), while Melita sp. is common in estuaries such as the Gippsland Lakes (A. Poore, personal communication). The presence of these two estuarine * This is the first Australian record for this species — see Shiel & Koste, 1979. 74 species is significant in a pond recently ( < 90 years ago) derived from an estuary. It strengthens previous conclu- sions on the marine ancestry of some coastal freshwater lakes such as L. Bar- racoota, L. Bong Bong and the Bridgewater Lakes which contain estuarine species (Timms, 1973, 1977). Warm Pond No 1 is still evolving from a marine to a freshwater ecosystem, for its shores are fringed with plants tolerant of brackish water and its fauna is depauperate (see earlier). The fauna is probably restricted by the high salinity which conceivably could be even higher during a rare connection to Pond No 2. However, habitat homogeneity (there is no macrobenthos and the littoral is clothed with a monotonous sward of emergent macrophytes) and insufficient time for colonization may be restricting the fauna. It is of note that estuarine animals found in freshwater ponds/lakes of marine ancestry are usually crustaceans. This could well be due to the general osmoregulatory abilities of the group vis-a-vis other marine taxa, though none of the species involved have yet been proved to osmoregulate. Estuarine crustaceans known to intrude into such freshwaters include anthurid (Cyathura sp.) and sphaeromatid isopods (Atkin- son et al 1981; Timms 1973), Am- phipods (Melita sp. in Warm Pond No 1 and an unidentified species at Myall Lakes (Timms, 1982) and the copepods Sulcanus conflictus Nicholls and par- ticularly Gladioferens spinosus (Bayly 1963; Timms, 1970, 1973, 1977; present data). Other taxa known so far from such freshwaters include the spionid polychaete Boccardiella limnicola (Blake and Woodward) and the mytilid bivalve Fluviolanatus amarus (Laserow) (Timms 1973, 1982). AII of these species are common inhabitants at the freshwater end of salinity gradients eg. as in the Myall Lakes (Atkinson et al, 1981), so their occasional intrusion into freshwaters is not surprising. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Acknowledgements The Lakes Entrance Golf Club is thanked for allowing access to the ponds, and Sue Boyer ably assisted in the field. The following taxonomists are thanked for their identifications: Dr M. Gamon (fish) Mr D. McKinnon (Copepoda in Pond No 2), Dr J. Martin (Chironomidae), The Director, National Herbarium, Melbourne (plants), Dr A. Nebois (Trichoptera), Dr G. Poore (Decapoda), Dr B. Smith (Mollusca), Dr M. Sudzuki (Rotifera) and Dr C. H, S. Watts (Coleoptera). REFERENCES Aitkinson, G., Hutchings, P., Johnson, M., Johnson, W. D., and Melville, M. D. 1981. An ecological investigation of the Myall Lakes region. Aust. J. Ecol. 6: 299-327. Bayly, I. A. E. 1963. A revision of the coastal water genus G/adioferens (Copepoda:Calanioda). Aust. J. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 14: 194-217. Bird, E. C. F. 1978. The Geomorphology of the Gippsland Lakes. Ministry for Conservation, Victoria. Environmental Studies Series, Publica- tion No 186. 158pp. Miles, N. B. 1977. ''Geomorphological and botanical change at Cunninghame Arm.” Un- published Honours thesis, Dept of Geography, University of Melbourne, Shiel, R. J. 1978. Zooplankton communities of the Murray-Darling system, a preliminary report. Pro. R. Soc. Vict, 90: 193-202, Shiel, R. J. and Koste, W. 1979. Rotifera recorded from Australia. Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. I03: 57-68. Timms, B. V. 1970. Chemical and zooplankton studies on lentic habitats in north-eastern New South Wales. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 21: 11-33. Timms, B. V. 1973, A limnological survey of the freshwater coastal lakes of East Gippsland, Vic- toria. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 24; 1-20. Timms, B. V. 1977. A study of some coastal dune lakes in western Victoria. Proc. R. Soc. Vic. 89: 167-172. Timms, B. V. 1982. Coastal dune waterbodies of north-eastern New South Wales. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwat. Res. In press, Walker, K. F. 1981. A synopsis of ecological in- formation on the saline lake rotifer Brachionus plicatilis Muller, 1786. Hydrobiologia 81: 159-167. Williams, M. S, 1980. Mallacoota Inlet: A Geomor- phological Assessment. Melbourne State College, Occasional Papers 1(4): 56pp. Williams, W. D, 1964. A contribution to lake typology in Victoria, Australia. Verh. Int. Ver. Limnol. 15: 158-168. Willis, J. M. 1970. A Handbook to Plants of Victoría. Vol 1 (Melbourne University Press: Melbourne). Appendix: The Odonatans have since been iden- tified by Dr J. A. L. Watson as Aeshna breristyla Ramb. and Ischnura heterostricta (Burm). The latter is known to breed in brackish water while the presence of the former in such waters is unusual. The Centenary Expedition of the F.N.C.V. 1-8 Nov, 1980 (Continued from page 42 in previous issue) The Walk to Waterloo Bay On the Thursday a group of us walked to Waterloo Bay. This is Miss Jean Galbraith's account of it. Miss Galbraith is the author of “Wildflowers of Victoria" and ‘‘Collin’s Field Guide to the Flowers of South-east Australia". Thanks to the rangers who drove us to where the walking track leaves the lighthouse road (and took those going to the lighthouse almost to their destination) the trip to Waterloo Bay and back was an easy walk of 5 kilometres, or it was easy except for the last "black mud waterfalls” as someone aptly described them. They were negotiated by most of the party, though a few of us, doubt- ful whether we could keep our footing in the steep mud were content with a view of the bay from a carpet of heathland flowers at the top of the first ‘‘waterfall’’. March/April Apart from that last part, the track was easy and well-graded. It traversed two distinct plant communities, first woodlands of either Drooping Sheoak or Coast Teatree, the first especially with no undergrowth, but a carpet of brown needles on which footsteps were silent. The gnarled branches of Coast Teatree with their blue-green roof of leaves allowed more light to filter through than the dense growth of Sheoak, so there was usually more undergrowth under the teatree. The woodland paths crossed several small creeks and their surrounding bogs by long wooden bridges. Ferns and mosses grew there; the small Fairies Aprons and tall fork- ed Sundew, and on some banks Bushy Club- moss grew, 30 cm high or more, like miniature pine trees with vivid green mossy foliage, and erect green ''tails"" of fruiting bodies. 75 A minor excitement was the sight of a small snake in the shallow water — a White-lipped Snake we thought, but no one was sure. Next came the higher ground of the wind pruned heaths, and we were reminded of the heathlands on the way to Miller’s Landing, though the composition of the two differs a little. Bright flowers grew amongst a 30-40 cm scrub of Silky Teatree (taller in hollows) with delicate white or pink flowers. There was some late Common Heath; primrose flowers of Karralla, and big red or apricot pea-flowers of Downy Wedge-pea; several species of bright yellow guinea flower and brown and yellow parrot-pea; magenta pink Hairy Pink-bell and Heath Milkwort, with occasional Blue-spike Milkwort, which so- meone described aptly (anyway when in bud) as “‘grape-hyacinth like’’. The dwarf Fringed Daisy-bush with its bright mauve flowers, and red Correa, so abundant toward Miller’s Landing, were rare in the Waterloo Bay heaths but added an occasional new colour to the rainbow of heathland flowers. There were few orchids — 4 species that I remember, but none abundant. Some of us negotiated the ‘‘mud falls” and pressed on towards the beach, across what was in many places a wet heathland with thickets of scented paperbark. In one place water was seeping across the track and we saw a large group of the yellow onion orchid growing in the shallow water. (HW). Scientific names in the order they appear in the text. Drooping Sheoak Casuarina stricta Coast Teatree Leptospermum juniperinum Small Fairies Aprons Uticularia lateriflora Forked Sundew Drosera binata Bushy Clubmoss Lycopodium deuterodensum Silky Teatree Leptospermum myr- sinoides Common Heath Epacris impressa Karalla Gompholobium heugelii G. ecoststum Olearia ciliata C. reflexa (Hibbertia) H. stric- ta, H. acicularis, H. sericea, H. fasciculata, H. pro- cumbens. Downy Wedge-pea Fringed Daisy-bush Correa Guinea Flowers Parrot-peas (Dillwynia) D. sericea, D. glaber- rima Hairy Pink-bell Tetratheca pilosa Heath milkwort Comesperma ericinum Blue-spike milkwort C. calymega Scented Paperbark Melaleuca squarrosa Yellow Onion Orchid Microlis atrata Fig. 2. Encoelia tumerensis fungi on cone of Banksia. Sealer’s Cove A small group walked from Oberon Saddle to Sealer’s Cove on Friday 7th. This is Margaret Corrick’s (Senior Botanist, Na- tional Herbarium of Vic.) account of it. The nine hours taken for the return trip enabled frequent stops to be made along the way, and over an hour was spent on the beach. Apart from one or two places along the last part leading to the camping ground the track was found to be well drained and well maintained. Cyathea cunninghamii (Slender Tree-fern) was seen in the gully at Ferny Glade on one of the headwaters of Sealer’s Creek. Nothofagus cunninghamii (Myrtle Beech) and Atherospermum moschatum (Southern Sassafras) were also found in this gully, as well as Lycopodium varium (Long Club- moss). The latter is uncommon in Victoria, occurring in only five very disjunct localities. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Dr Willis reported seeing the unusual eucalypt Eucalyptus obliqua var. disocarpa, sometimes known as ‘‘Howitt’s Puzzle". This has the appearance of a gum-topped str- ingy bark and is thought to be of hybrid origin. A few of the party made a detour up the hillside near the camping area to look at an unusual Banksia which is similar to B. integrifolia but may prove to be a distinct species. The track between the old bridge over Sealer's Creek and the camping area passes through a dense stand of very tall Gahnia clarkei (Tall Saw-sedge), and at the water's edge here patches of Callitriche (Water Starwort) were flourishing. Mammals The mammal survey team concen- trated their trapping areas in regions that had had little survey work done, viz Mt Oberon and the foothills behind Mt Oberon. There were three traps nights, with good success rates. The Dusty and the Brown Antechinus were found as well as the Bush Rat, Ringtail Possum, Wombat, Echidna, Eastern Grey Kangaroo, Black Wallaby, and Koala. The highlight of the trip was the capture of three Potoroos, one of which had a pouched young. All those present at the camp were thrilled to have the opportunity to see at first hand, the animals that were caught. These animals were afterwards returned to the capture points. Brown Antechinus Antechinus stuartii Dusty Antechinus Antechinus swainsonii Bush Rat Rattus fuscipes Potoroo Potorous tridactylus Ringtail Possum Pseudocheirus peregrinus Wombat Vombatus ursinus Echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus Black Wallaby Wallabia bicolor Koala Phascolarctus cinereus Non-marine molluscs The following account of non-marine molluscs found on the Promontory was provided by Dr. Brian J. Smith, then President of FNCV, and Senior Curator March/April Fig. 3. Caladenia gigantea carnea var. Sang 1m a n M 4 Fig. 4. Setting traps on Mt. Oberon. (Zoology) at the National Museum of Victoria. During the week 16 species of non-marine molluscs were taken from a wide variety of habitats including 5 introduced species (see below). The saltmarsh and estuarine creek area contained members of the Ellobiidae, Amphibolidae, Hydrococcidae and Hydrobiidae, while freshwater habitats yielded a planorbid, Physastra gibbosa and the hydrobiid Angrobia angasi. Around the Tidal River settlement area and in adjacent areas of high human use, two species of introduced slugs belonging to the families Limacidae and Milacidae and three species of helicid snails were found. Five species of native snails were found in the forest and bush areas. The punctid, Magilaoma was found in dry woodland and coastal heath, the remainder being in the wetter forest areas. Of particular interest 77 were the specimens of the large charopid, Mulathena fordei. The seemingly large and more fragile form found on the Promontory was described as a separate species by Gabriel (1934), Thalassohelix translucens. Gabriel, C. J., 1934. Thalassohelix translucens, a new Victorian land shell. Mem. natn. Mus. Vict., 8:157. Species list Family Hydrobiidae Angrobia angasi — freshwater. Hydrobia buccinoides — estuarine. Family Hydrococcidae Hydrococcus tasmanicus — saltmarsh. Family Ellobiidae Ophicardelus ornatus — saltmarsh. Family Amphibolidae Salinator solida — saltmarsh. Family Planorbidae Physastra gibbosa — freshwater. Family Punctidae Magilaoma penolensis — coastal scrub. Family Charopidae Pillomena dandenongensis — wet forest. Mulathena fordei — wet forest. Family Limacidae Deroceras reticulatum — introduced slug. Family Milacidae Milax gagates — introduced slug Family Helicarionidae Helicarion niger — forest. Family Camaenidae Chloritobadistes victoria — forest. Family Helicidae Theba pisana — introduced snail. Cochlicella ventrosa — introduced snail. Helix (Cryptomphalus) aspersa — introduced snail. Flora List List of Mosses Compiled by A. W. Thies, 25 Davies St., E. Malvern. 3145 Atrichum androgynum (syn. Ligulatum) Breutelia affinis e Bryum argenteum (junction Lighthouse & Waterloo Bay tracks) B. billardieri Camptochaete arbuscula (syn. ramulosa) Campylopus introflexus C. pallidus (syn. torquatus) Dicnemolome pallidum (syn. sieberianum) Dicranoloma billardierc 78 Ditrichum difficile (syn flexifolium) Fissidens pallidus Hedwigia integrifolia Hypnum cupressiforme Leucobryum candidum Mittenia plumula e Orthodontium lineare (Miller's Landing) e Pogonatum subulatum (Road to Mt. Oberon Summit) Polytrichadelphus magellanicus Poly trichum juniperinum Ptychomnion aciculare Rhacocarpus purpurescens (syn. humboldtii) Sematophyllum homomallum Tayloria octoblepharis Thuidium furfurosum e Tortula muralis (Tidal River settlement) T. princeps Zygodon menziesii e Not in checklist in ‘‘Wildflowers of Wilson's Promontory” by R. Garnet. List of Fungi Compiled by Hilary Weatherhead. Gilled Fungi Hypholoma fasciculare Mycena interrupta Mycena viscido-cruenta Pleurotus nidiformis Rhodophyllus virescens (previously Leptonia) Russula cyanothantha Others Cymatodeoma lamellatum Daldina concentrica Dictyopanus repidium Encoelia toomansis Polyporus arcularius Pycnoporus coccineus Stereum fasciatum Trametes lactinea Trametes lilacinogilva Tremella mesenterica Birds Key to locations: M — Millers Landing; D — Darby River Swamp; Y — Yanakie; T — Tongue Point; L — Lilly Pilly Gully; LT — Lighthouse Track; N — Norman Point; S — Squeaky Bay. Emu Common Bronze-wing M Brush Bronze-wing Eastern Swamphen Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Short-tailed Shearwater T Black Cormorant Little Black Cormorant Pied Cormorant Little Pied Cormorant Australian Gannet M Pelican M Crested Tern Caspian Tern Fairy Tern D Silver Gull Pacific Gull Sooty Oyster-catcher Spur-winged Plover D Hooded Dotterel White-faced Heron Black Swan M Black Duck Chestnut Teal D Swamp Harrier D Wedge-tailed Eagle White-breasted Sea Eagle T Black-shouldered Kite Peregrine Falcon T Nankeen Kestrel S Boobook Owl Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoo Gang-gang Cockatoo White Cockatoo Crimson Rosella Eastern Rosella M Laughing Kookaburra Fan-tailed Cuckoo Brush Cuckoo M Horsefield Bronze Cuckoo Golden Bronze Cuckoo Welcome Swallow Fairy Martin Grey Fantail Rufous Fantail L Satin Flycatcher Leadern Flycatcher Scarlet Robin Flame Robin T Southern Yellow Robin Golden Whistler Rufous Whistler Olive Whistler Grey Shrike-thrush Magpie-lark Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike Spotted Quail-thrust Striated Thornbill Brown Thornbill White-browed Scrub-wren Striated Field-Wren Pilot Bird Little Grassbird D Southern Emu-wren Superb Blue wren Ducky Wood Swallow White-throated tree creeper Spotted Pardalote Eastern Striated Pardalote March/April Grey-backed Silvereye Brown-headed Honeyeater Eastern Spinebill Tawny-crowned Honeyeater Yellow-faced Honeyeater White-eared Honeyeater Crescent Honeyeater Yellow-winged Honeyeater Little Wattle-bird Red Wattle-bird Australian Pipit Beautiful Firetail L Red-browed Finch Forest Raven Pied Currawong Grey Currawong Grey Butcher-bird White-backed Magpie Blackbird Starling Skylark Greenfinch D General notes Other walks were also arranged; a few members walked to the lighthouse after hav- ing been driven most of the way by National Parks Services staff. There was a walk to Norman Point where we saw the Dwarf Wedge-pea (Gompholobium ecostatum) with lovely apricot coloured flowers and a few tall spikes of the Scented Sun-orchid (Thelymitra aristata). We then walked on to Little Oberon Bay. Peter Thomas took a small party to look for birds on the Pillar Point walk where they watched two Olive Whistlers fly to and fro with nesting material. Each evening we met in the Information Centre where we reported to the group in- teresting items of natural history and listened to some most enjoyable talks given by guest speakers. These speakers were: Mr Peter Thomas (District Ranger) on ‘‘Early Visits to Wilson's Promontory”. Dr J. H. Willis the noted botanist on ‘‘Plants of Wilson's Pro- montory". Mr R. A. Jones (District Superintendant National Parks Service) on “Park Management". Mr J. Ros Garnet (author of ‘‘The Wildflowers of Wilson's Promontory National Park) on the History of the FNCV and Mr Malcolm Turner (Inter- pretations Officer, National Parks Service) who made wonderful use of three screens to show panoramic views of the Promontory. Some unusual items reported in the even- ings included an Octopus pallidus two feet across found on a beach. A Copper-head snake (Austrelaps superba) seen curled round a stick in Freshwater Creek and a white form 79 of the Golden Everlasting (Helichrysum bracteatum) seen near the lighthouse. Our thanks go to the Ranger Peter Thomas and to all those working for the National Parks Service who helped to make our Centenary Expedition such a success. We should not have been able to explore such places as Chinaman's Creek and Waterloo Bay without the assistance of park personnel, who helped plan our trips and opened padlocked gates to enable us to get to some less frequented parts of the promontory. They were also most helpful to the mammal survey group and drove them with their traps to the trapping sites. I would like to thank the editor of the Latrobe Valley Naturalist for permission to reprint two articles, and to their authors Miss Jean Galbraith (author of **Wildflowers of Victoria" and ''Collins Field Guide to the Wild Flowers of South-East Australia’) and Mrs Ellen Lyndon. H. Weatherhead Forthcoming Conferences Mountain Ecology in the Australian Region The Ecological Society of Australia symposuim for 1982 will be held on Saturday 8 and Sun- day 9 May at the Australian Academy of Science, adjacent to the Australian National Universi- ty. The timing of the symposium will allow delegates to attend the 52nd ANZAAS Congress beginning on May 10 in Sydney. Alternatively they may join the field excursion to the Snowy Mountains, which will take place on Monday 10 and Tuesday 11. The theme for the ESA symposium is directed towards ecological aspects of past and present upland environments, together with resource aspects such as inventory, conservation and management. The topics will be of interest to academics and researchers as well as those con- cerned with the management of natural areas. Registrations close soon. For information, please contact: Dr Rosemary Purdie, ESA Symposium, CSIRO Division of Land Use Research, P.O. Box 1666, CANBERRA CITY. A.C.T. 2601 The Australian Mammal Society The AMS will hold its 26th Scientific meeting at the Australian National University, Canberra, from 12-14 May, 1982. A number of interesting papers and poster displays will be presented covering a wide range of topics dealing with Australian mammals. Registration officer: W. E. Poole CSIRO Division of Wildlife Research P.O. Box 84 Lyneham. A.C.T. 2602, (Continued from page 50) GROUP EXCURSIONS All FNCV members are invited to attend Group excursions. Mammal Survey Group. Easter. Friday, 9 — Monday, 12 April. East Gippsland. Saturday, 8 — Sunday, 9 May. Strathbogies. Saturday, 12 — Monday, 14 June. Lake Tyers and Nowa Nowa. 80 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA Report by Executive Council The members of the Executive Council submit herewith balance sheet as at 31 December 1981 and income and expenditure account for the year ended on that date, and report as follows: — a s . The Net Surplus of the Club for the year ended 31 December 1981 was $3 which, added to the Surplus brought forward at 1 January 1981 of $11,133, together with a transfer of $661 from Club Improvement Account, resulted in an Ac- cumulated Surplus to be carried forward to next year of $11,797. . The members of the Executive Council took reasonable steps to ascertain, before the income and expenditure account and balance sheet were made out, that all known bad debts were written off and adequate provision was made for doubtful debts. . The members of the Executive Council took reasonable steps, before the income and expen- diture account and balance sheet were made out, to ascertain that the current assets, other than debtors, were shown in the accounting records of the company at a value equal to or below the value that would be expected to be realised in the ordinary course of business. . At the date of this report, the members of the Executive Council are not aware of any cir- cumstances which would render the values at- tributable to the current assets in the accounts misleading. . No charge on the assets has arisen, since the end of the financial year to the date of this report, to secure the liabilities of another person. No con- tingent liability has arisen since the end of the financial year to the date of this report. . No contingent or other liability has become en- forceable or is likely to become enforceable within the period of twelve months after the end of the financial year which in the opinion of the members of the Executive Council will or may affect the ability of the Club to meet its obliga- tions as and when they fall due. . At the date of this report the members of the Executive Council are not aware of any cir- cumstances not otherwise dealt with in the March/April report or accounts which would render any amount stated in the accounts misleading. . The results of the Club's operations during the financial year, in the opinion of the members of the Executive Council, were not affected by any item transaction or event of a material and unusual nature. . Since 31 December 1981, and to the date of this report, in the opinion of the members of the Ex- ecutive Council, no item transaction or event of a material and unusual nature has occurred, which would affect substantially the results of the Club's operations for the next succeeding financial year. . No member of the Executive Council, since the end of the previous financial year, has received or become entitled to receive a benefit by reason of a contract made by the Club with the member or with a firm of which he is a member or with à company in which he has a substantial financial interest. . The principal activities and objects of the Club are to stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian Fauna and Flora. No significant change in the nature of those activities occurred during that period. . The name of the members of the Executive Council in office at the date of this report are as follows: — Miss W. Clark Miss M. Allender Mr D. Dunn Mrs S. Houghton Mr D. Lee Miss M. Lester Miss L. Lumsden Mr J. Martindale Dr B. Smith Dr E. Turner Mrs H. Weatherhead Miss C. Zerbe This Report is made in accordance with a resolution of the Executive Council dated 30th day of March 1982. W, Clark President D. Dunn Treasurer 81 c8 66 '|OA YEN “SIA FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA BALANCE SHEET AT 31 DECEMBER, 1981 LIABILITIES Current Liabilities Subscriptions paid in advance.......... Sundry Creditors ......... M. A. Ingram Trust Grant in hand. ..... Treasury Grants in hand (Note 3)....... Special Funds & Accounts Building Fund ............ Publication Fund ......... Excursion Fund. .......... Centenary Excursion Fund . Marie Allender Excursion Fund . Library Fund. oon hs acd Club Improvement Account Estate M. Wright Legacy... Estate C. M. Walker Legacy Estate R. S. Chisholm ..... Estate I. F. Knox Legacy... Estate Ivy Dixon.......... Hatite L| Hanks os user - Wilfred C. Woollard Fund . N. A. Wakefield Memorial Fund P. F. Morris Gift Account. . Cedric Ralph Gift Account . Kinglake Project Fund..... Natural History Medallion Fund ....... Life Membership Fund .... Microscope Project Account $1,369 2,216 120 4,000 $7,705 $73,282 1980 $4,663 2,000 301 6 129 1,372 61 1,736 $10,268 $7,780 ASSETS Current Assets SuRHEPDEDEOLS A A AT F Stocks on Hand at cost— Badges ..... Microscope Project . Books for Sale...... Fixed Assets at cost Library Furniture & Equipment ........ Land— Cosstick Reserve, Maryborough........ Harold C. Frahm, Kinglake ........... Investment of Funds at cost Australian Government Bonds ......... Australian Gov't Savings Bonds........ MMBW Debentures...............-.- National Mutual Permanent Building Society — Deposits........... Building Fund Aust Gov't Savings Bonds at cost....... Esanda Ltd — Debentures at cost. . Cash at Bank 176 $16,396 $8,583 $19,782 $6,576 v8L'C6$ LC8'v$ Oc9'9t$ (871) £IT'I c9L 161 ** SIOPAO Á1pung ssaT **** no aureulapse 1isodaq cece hee rnt + queg Je USED) - -pung u, Inox AreuajuaD — 3,A0D Isny * ysodəq — 205 3p[g Wied [ENINW [IEN *******38s00 1? spuog SSUIAES 1,40) Isny pun uois1noXq eene" SIOIJIpolo Aipung $597 serene en nennen 3Ueg 18 USED sexe eene gIo)gaqg Apung eee * sSuouapueq 9?u JO SPI *K101uouloJd S,uOS[LAA SIOMOTJPTIM et ** BIUBUISR] 2? CHODIA JO SUIA —1s00 1? S201S xoog Denn 31odaq — Apos Surppng juoueuig [e1nin]A [eUONeN puny suope»rqnd "1861/7 1/1€ 1e o1njrpuadxo isure8e por[dde uəəq 10u peu 000‘p$ Sur[[e101 sjue18 jnq ‘peatedel waaq ALY 28/1861 PUL 18/0861 ‘08/6L6I 10} sjue1 Ámmseolp BIS `E "[Iuno;) sAnnoa -xg oy] JO Jaquieul Aue 01 qnj) aui Aq pred ərəm sjusum[ourd ON "C *QN[D ?u1 0} SIIAS ay} JO 12odso1 ut SIONPNY ay} Aq poAre281 219^ SUJUI 1970 ON "Kquo soorA1es 8unrpne oj SIJI Qp[$ JO uone1eunuleW ,SIONpnV `I IrL'v8$ v8L'C6 IrL'v8$ [430533 (€85°6) Ove $6t'6 000'7 000'7 000'I$ 008'I£$ (ct) Ose Scc 861 L Spit L6L'TIS ££€T'TI$ 006'c £ tenent Te9Á 10} (ssoT) snijdins 09 199 * pung 1uouroAo1dui] qO WO1} 19jsue1 EES OOT‘L7$ eel‘ md WT ` 1861/1/1 1e soured Orc'OI$ qunoddy snjdung 83 March/April 1980 $1,242 11,132 88 $12,462 357 $2,330 $75 68 15 956 66 '|OA “YEN “SLA $16,263 STATEMENT OF INCOME & EXPENDITURE FOR YEAR ENDED GENERAL ACCOUNT DECEMBER, 1981 FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA INCOME 1980 EXPENDITURE Subscriptions Received— Victorian Naturalist— Pe ie AROS Se S de ote ee $290 $11,071 ppc ond Pel AE Ge Oe OPERE d ral PIDE LIED Une. rrr 11,685 833 Db t LU TRI T. CIGTTE MANT MIS T S wiwe uc liu e PR MVP ig ale alate 4-4 E 324 1,342 Despatthin «exa orem oS. Socius Ae $12,299 46 BROWN TO A ah ea docs ri a eir kn: zi $13,292 Sales of ‘‘Victorian Naturalist” .......... 438 pe as Interest Received— ($1,660) Ingram Trust — 19 Grant. ....... $74 PIE PAETOS See ea rase $5 (1,000) Treasury (Note 3) ............. 3,500 GNU ASU. LOST. Caec n ne oye È $122 Se | Commonwealth Bonds................ 564 _ 310,632 Bonds — M. Wright Legacy ........... 421 Working Expenses — Bonds — C. M. Walker Legacy ........ 81 $385 Postage & Telephone ................. National Mutual Deposit.............. 795 222 Printing & Stationery ................. Life Membership Fund ............... 67 1,044 Bookkeeping & Typing ............... Natural History Medallion Fund ....... 186 670 Rent — Herbarium & Museum ......... n M $2.241 40 ee ee pene, PAR : Affiliation Fees, Subscriptions Profit — Victorian Naturalist 359 «DOS MEME MEER TREE ices sores aces thi ex due — 130 Auditors' Remuneration (Note 1)....... Profit — Tee Shirt Sales. ....-.2........ — 206 [ie ee EE i a P TRE SEMI DEOR C15 L1. orbe ace 204 4l Gentral PXnenses ori soap ethene. Profitob Book Sides. 77-2... 2,248 384 Natural History Medallion Expenses .... 120 Kinglake Expenses — Rates. ........... $3,601 $80. CHE YTERERNETT 55 F555 n e 453 Tee Shirt A/c — Loss written off ......... 301 Nature Show — Loss ................... — MEGN TP LONE CLE. eee pe eee — Subject Index — Loss. .................. Club Improvement Account — 956 Transfer of Profit on Book Sales ....... S. "Slot We 2025 st erie eee $17,430 — $16,263 —— 31 $11,549 599 1,357 $13,505 3,574 $9,931 FIELD NATURALIST CLUB OF VICTORIA BUILDING FUND Noto Puna 323 Doctor FOCI aie ea es ram s oh hens Hann bes Fr y 094 ei $6,000 Interest on Investments and Bank Account... ..4. aas esae ehh vodesteesghesurets va e 576 Amount of Fund at 31 December 1981 PUBLICATION FUND PATON OL Pun RECS DeCem bed GEE na ta aaa ege iu eaan oie O4 8473: R20 p a 0n $31,800 Interest on Investments and Bank Account G6 eito a posent me JT eoo E PET, 2,954 Surplus (Loss) for the year from — FielgeUR4cUsa Rut rini OPE VITRE TPTEPTITTRTEARTTTUEO D DOC $1,851 Wild Flowers of Wilson's Promontory National Park.........sseeee nnn 8 Birds Ol, he DRHOUHGDEE S 0. yet doc pha sigh OM USE 12574161142 1 F6 ge elaine 6 7 1,866 Amount of Fund at 31 December 1981 iie $36,620 AmauntorAccount ata] Denériber 1980... 1 aca seed uar GRIP a be iR, nse xp CEISICA IS) $5,404 Book DRIES ACCOQIUPTOIIC, 15071. LUI A QUESSVETA 43 bobs reset vba IE tant 2,248 Less — Sy, 1652 Purchase Library Books & Equipment transferred do Surplus ALCCOUME. Los Lo ener Cerea ca Fede antra dona re denn 661 Amountot'Accountat 3] December 1981. aa epera pa siecle ma neers rti rmm hs ER Rh no i $6,991 Amount of Fundat31 December 1980... nees eere sogh eti HELPE reta tn $5,152 Interest received on Investments and Bank Account .......ss nnn $1,021 Surplus OD TOUTE Su. E LAE Aeneis eden ites ied Wy vat OUR TOP RATE irae pases 654 1,675 $6,827 Less — Transfer of Centenary Excursion Rapare Marte ATéndev Ründ (eate eurer CIENTO e ha A Vit Pe rH S pet nant $2,000 Amauntot Eund ab 31 December 98] L5, tpn ec 0a 7 ap Ea cil am rk reor eins o P $4,827 Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Statement by the Members of the Executive Council In the opinion of the members of the Executive Council of the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA, the accompanying Balance Sheet is drawn up so as to give a true and fair view of the state of af- fairs of the Club as at 31 December 1981, and the accompanying Statement of Income and Expenditure is drawn up so as to give a true and fair view of the financial results of the Club for the year ended 31 December 1981. Signed in accordance with a resolution of the Executive Council on 30th March 1982. Wendy Clark President David G. Dunn Treasurer Statement by the Principal Accounting Officer I, David Dunn, being the officer in charge of the preparation of the accompanying accounts of the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA for the year ended 31 December 1981 state that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, such accounts give a true and fair view of the matters required by Section 162 of the Companies Act 1961, to be dealt with in the accounts. Signed at Melbourne on the 30th day of March 1981. David G. Dunn Auditors' Report to the Members of Field Naturalists Club of Victoria In our opinion — (a) The attached balance sheet and income and expenditure account are properly drawn up in accordance with the provisions of the Companies Act, 1961 of Victoria as amended and so as to give a true and fair view of:— (i) the state of affairs of the Club at 31 December 1981 and of the results of the Club for the year ended on that date; and (ii) the other matters required by Section 162 of that Act to be dealt with in the accounts. (b) The accounting records and other records, and the registers required by that Act to be kept by the Club have been properly kept in accordance with the provision of that Act. DANBY BLAND PROVAN & CO. Chartered Accountants Richmond R. M, Bland 31st March 1982 Partner Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Reports of recent Club activities Week at Portland January 16-22. 29 members, including four from country clubs, spent a rewarding week exploring the environs of Portland with the leadership of Mr and Mrs Woolcock of Portland FNC. This trip will be fully reported in a later issue. Merricks to Pt Leo Excursion. Sunday 7 February. The bus dropped most of us at Mer- ricks beach in the Mornington Peninsula opposite Phillip Island. Remaining passengers returned in the bus to Pt Leo, and the first party walked the 2km or so to join them for lunch. We walked mostly along the beach and collected an astonishing variety of creatures (no longer alive) that had been stranded by the tides. Some diversions were made inland. We went up a small estuary to see some decomposing basalt columns, and in other small valleys we came on Rough Tree-ferns Cyathea australis, the large Clematis Clematis aristata (not flowering) and mosses as well as expected coastal plants. After lunch we went to a member’s nearby home where all findings were displayed on the verandah. One of the leaders told us what the objects were and gave us some idea of how they function- ed when alive. The findings included numerous shells, both bivalves and gastropods, an intriguing leafy sea-horse Phyllopteryx, swim bladders of puffer-fish, ‘‘Mer- maids Purses" — egg cases of skates and the black cork-screw one about 15cm long (6") of the Port Jackson shark, horny skeletons of colonial Shertularia polyps, sea tulips Pyura, a cluster of dried up sea squirts or cun- jevoi, the exoskeltons of sea urchins, etc. The bead-like seaweed Neptunes Necklace Hormisira banksii had unusually small beads, and the marine 86 flowering plants Sea Nympth Amphibolis antarctica were fascinating: some had female flowers, some had fruit, and in a few cases the fruit had produced a seedling while still attached to the parent plant. All unwanted specimens were return- ed to the beach. The other leader told us about the geological formation of the area and of the aborigines who were living here when the white man arrived. The house bears the tribe’s name Bobanarring. We had hoped to go out on the reef to see some of our dead collection in the living state, but the tide moved out too slowly for our limited time. We thank our leaders, Mary Doery and Elizabeth Turner, for giving us such a stimulating and informative day. General Meeting Monday 8 February It is now requested that each person sign the attendance book on entering. Speaker for the evening was President Miss Wendy Clark who gave an in- troductory talk on Spiders. Miss Clark stated that all spiders have eight legs and usually eight eyes, the body has only two divisions (in contrast to the insect’s three divisions), that adult males have bulb- like palps, are usually slimmer with longer legs than females and are sometimes much smaller than females. Spiders are carnivorous and suck the body juices of prey as they have no chewing parts. All spiders produce silk, some only as life-lines, others for nests or for traps up to the orderly complexity of orb-webs. Colour slides were shown of several orb spinners and other spider species. Exhibitis. Under a microscope were three eggs of the Emperor Gum Moth (each 2-3mm long) and from them had emerged 40 tiny predatory wasps. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Victorian Field Naturalists Clubs Association Annual General Meeting and get-together Saturday-Monday 6,7,8 March 1982 About 50 people gathered outside the Australian Postal Institute hall in Morwell on Saturday afternoon and members of the host club, Latrobe Valley FNC, led us to Morwell National Park. The picnic clearing had a few superb old Mountain Grey Gums (complete with a sleeping koala) but the rest was re- growth. We followed the marked nature trail and saw plants (no flowers) of the Butterfly Orchid Sarcochilus australis perched on bran- ches of shrubs with the root easily visible win- ding along the branch. At the Annual General Meeting on Satur- day evening at the API hall, there were representatives from nine clubs and apologies from two. The Association’s financial posi- tion is satisfactory with $146.19 in hand. Member clubs which have not yet paid their annual subscription were urged to do so — $2.00. There was a resolution that the Ex- ecutive should investigate the logging situa- tion in the Otways and, if considered necessary, write to ministers and public bodies as named. Slides were shown, follow- ed by supper, but most people were able to leave by 10.15pm. On Sunday morning we set out for the Tarra Valley and Bulga National Parks. Empty seats in the FNCV bus were filled and several cars followed. The short walk to Cyathes Falls in Tarra Valley whetted the ap- petite for more, which was only partly satisfied by Bulga. From the latter's suspen- sion bridge, the unusual view of tree ferns and beeches of Macks Creek will always be remembered. One can't help wondering if any other country can offer so much lush loveliness and delicacy so easily accessible to ordinary people. It is sad that the area bet- ween the Parks has not been reserved to enable these two remarkable valleys to be more viable. The Association's executive body had a brief meeting that afternoon. The Executive consists of two representatives from the five divisions — NW, NE, SW, central, SE. The two officers were re-elected: Mr Alan Monger of NE division as president, and Dr Elizabeth Turner of Central as secretary/treasurer. There was another general gathering at the API hall on Sunday evening. Clubs reported on their activities, several conservation issues were raised, and a few successes reported. This airing of problems, opinions and achievements is one of the helpful aspects of the Association. Again the meeting closed at a reasonable time. On Monday morning there was a tour of the SEC open cut and power station at Hazelwood. We were told that, to date, only 1% of the brown coal beds has been ex- ploited! Some members stayed with friends in the area, some camped in the arboretum at Hazelwood pondage, some stayed at motels, but all agreed that the weekend was very en- joyable and worth while. The weather was kind to us — fine and very warm until it changed on Monday Morning. (Continued from page 86) Spider books and two live huntsman spiders were shown. A large grey moth with body 10cm long (4") and wings of similar length was probably a wood- boring species. Numerous exhibits from the previous day's excursion to Pt Leo enabled those who missed the trip to share some of its stimulation and, relevant to that trip, four colour slides were projected: the in- florescences and above-ground rhisomes of Coast Spinifex Spinifex hirsutus, a red sweaweed with vesicles, the black corkscrew egg-case of Port Jackson shark cut lengthwise to reveal the em- bryo inside, and the beautiful Argonaut egg-case with the grey leggy mass of the female alongside. Slides were shown from three angles of what looked like a gnarled bud or brown skull-like object on a stalk, but the fourth slide revealed it to be a spider with red legs! Miss Clark thought it was probably a species of Dolophones. The European Paper Wasp is estab- lishing itself in Melbourne suburbs and methods of getting rid of it were describ- ed. We were told the sting is not as severe as a bull-ant bite. Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Established 1880 OBJECTS: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron: His Excellency the Honorable SIR HENRY WINNEKE, KCMG, KCVO, OBE, KStJ, ac. Key Office-Bearers 1981-1982 President: Miss WENDY CLARK, 27 Rangeview Grove, North Balwyn, 3104 (859 8091 A.H.) Secretary: Mr D. LEE, 1 Rylands Road, Dandenong West, 3175 (793 3954) Correspondence to: FNCV, National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Treasurer: Mr. D. DUNN, 3 Allfrey Street, East Brighton, 3187 (578 5753) Subscription-Secretary: Miss H. MALCOLM C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 314: Editor: Mr R. WALLIS, Victoria College — Rusden Campus, 662 Blackburn Road, North Clayton, 3168, (544 8544) Librarian: Mr. P. KELLY, C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Excursion Secretary: Miss M. ALLENDER, 19 Hawthorn Avenue, Caulfield, 3161 (527 2749) Book Sales Officer: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (211 2427) Group Secretaries Botany: Mr. MICHAEL McBAIN, 19 Foster St, St Kilda, 3182 (534 2293) Day Group: C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141. Geology: Mr. T. SAULT, C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Mammal Survey: Mr. A. FAITHFUL, 67 Athelstan Road, Camberwell, 3124 (29 5108 A.H.) Microscopical: Mr. M. H. MEYER, 36 Milroy Street, East Brighton (596 3268) Entomology and Marine Biology: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (211 2427) FNCV Kinglake Nature Reserve: McMahons Road, Kinglake. Bookings and keys: Mr. I. F. MORRISON, 788 Elgar Road, Doncaster (848 1194) MEMBERSHIP Membership of the F.N.C.V. is open to any person interested in natural history. The Victorian Naturalist is distributed free to all members, the club's reference and lending library is available and other activities are indicated in reports set out in the several preceding pages of this magazine. Subscription rates for 1982 Metropol atta: ienris pigritia EC EN te Ais a REED DTE C ATO QUAIS TER DeAR irt dU EP P scenic $15.00 Joint Metropolitan, ..ccccsrcccsvercteccensecreenees $18.00 Country Members and Retired Persons,... $12.00 Joint Country and Joint Retlred......... $15.00 AREE penn EI EO EEPIPA DTE a E RTI TE RIRs a fe $3.00 Subscription to Victorian Naturalist................ses $13.00 Overseas Subscription to Victorian Naturalist... ona Individual Journals.............. tersvrvase di am All subscriptions should be made payable to the Field Naturalist Club o! Victoria and posted to the Subscription Secretary. @ JENKIN BUXTON PRINTERS PTY. LTD., WEST MELBOURNE Vol. 99, No. 3 May/June 1982 Published by the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA in which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria $2. 20 -— ro, . oo ma e Ln -ir eee ee, AM | eee eee AP WE.ES FW don FNCV DIARY OF COMING EVENTS GENERAL MEETINGS Monday, 24 May, 8.00 p.m. Michelle Barton. Plant communities in wetlands. Monday, 12 June, 8.00 p.m. Julie Raines and Alan Burbidge. Establishment of the Rotamah Island Bird Observatory. New Members — May/June General Meetings. Metropolitan Peter Cabena, 4/94 Lewisham Rd, North, Prahran. G. W. Carr, 31 Caroline St, Clifton Hill. Ian Faithful, 67 Athelston Rd, Camberwell. Yvonne Gray, 46 Albany Cres., Surrey Hills. Suzanne Jones, 267 Douglas Pde, Newport. Jenny Lilburn, 2 Woodland Ave, Croydon. Mrs S. Lindsay, 5 Laverton St, Williamstown. A. Wegener, P.O. Box 105, The Basin. Country Phil. Broadway. 7 Wheeler St, Castlemaine. Joint John & Paddy Percival, 68 Cummins Rd, Moorabbin. Sunday, 4 July. National Museum of Victoria. Meet at 2.00 p.m. in Kershaw Hall, through main entrance in Russell St. Arrangements have been made for us to see the casting room as well as the general exhibits. Sunday, 1 August. M.M.B.W. farm at Werribee. Birds and general. The coach will leave Batman Ave at 9.30 a.m. Fare $6.00. Bring a picnic lunch. Private cars should meet at the road leading to the new complex. Preliminary notices: Saturday, 28 — Sunday, 29 August. Combined weekend at Bendigo. See last Naturalist for details. FNCV EXCURSIONS The coach will leave Flinders St from outside the Gas and Fuel at 8.30 a.m. Cost of weekend $55.00 of which $10.00 deposit should be paid when book- ing, and the balance by the August General Meeting. Bring picnic lunches for 2 days. Thursday evening, 23 September — Sunday mor- ning, 10 October. Western Australia. Details in the last Naturalist except that Alexander Bay should read Alexander Bridge. Bookings should be made as soon as possible with the Excursion Secretary ac- companied by a $100.00 deposit. Sunday, 5 September. Cheltenham Park. Meet at Cheltenham Station at 11.30 a.m. Bring a picnic lunch. GROUP MEETINGS FNCV members are invited to attend any Group meeting, no extra charge. Day Group — Third Thursday. Thursday, 17 June. Melbourne University grounds. Main gate, Grattan St, 11.30 a.m. 578 1879, Thursday, 15 July. Como House, South Yarra. At gate, 11.30 a.m. 89 2850. Thursday, 19 August. Darebin Parklands Details — A. Blackburn. 379 8960 or 578 1879. At the National Herbarium, the Domain, South Yarra, at 8.00 p.m. First Tuesday — Mammal Survey Group. Third Wednesday — Microscopy Group. Wednesday, 16 June. Pond life. Speaker: D. McInnes. Wednesday, 21 July. Cells of the human body. Speaker: Dr E. S. Peters. Wednesday, 18 August. Basic use of optics in microscopy. Speaker: Dr E. Hammond. Second Thursday — Botany Group. Thursday, 10 June. Ms Vivien Turner. The strange case of the banksia and the pygmy possum. Thursday, 8 July. Ranger from the A. Wilkie Nature Reserve at Springvale. GROUP EXCURSIONS AII FNCV members are invited to attend Group excursions. Mammal Survey Group. Saturday, 12 — Monday, 14 June. Lake Tyers and Nowa Nowa. Botany Group — Last Saturday. Saturday, 26 June. Warrandyte — fungi. Leader: Gary Cheers. The Victorian Naturalist Volume 99, Number 3 May/June, 1982 ISSN 0042-5184 Editor: Robert L. Wallis Assistant Editor: F. Dane Panetta Editorial Committee: H. Cohn, B. Smith Notes on the Life History of Aspidomorpha maculatissima Boheman (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) at Townsville, North Queensland by T. J. Hawkeswood.............--0.00000- 92 A Field Identification Key of Some Victorian Species of the Genus Mycena by C. A. Grgurinovic and A. A. Holland............... 102 ASropot;Waterby/D:WentWODLlt qose Sess ctv qa eS bee Ras 107 The Southeastern Highlands: a Geological and Environmental History from 100 Million Years Ago to the Present by P. Wellman 110 Will Construction of a New Harbour at Lorne Destroy the Beach? yaks D Anand N HS MONS Os pia etae ME UY TIS s ade eu ele n 121 Notes on the Range Extension of the Alpine Water Skink (Spenomorphus kosciuskoi) in Victoria by I. Mansergh.......... 123 Skin Sloughing by Pseudechis porphyriacus by P. E. Hornsby.... 127 A New Record of the New Holland Mouse (Pseudomys novae hollandiae) from Anglesea, Victoria by K. M. Kentish........... 128 F.N.C.V. Reports of Recent Club Activities ........... ea a oaaae 130 Cover illustration: Mycena subgalericulata (photograph by B. A. Fuhrer). Notes on the life history of Aspidomorpha maculatissima Boheman (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) at Townsville, North Queensland. By T. J. HAWKESWOOD* Abstract The life history and general biology of Aspidomorpha maculatissima Boheman (Chrysomelidae) was examined at Townsville (and to a lesser extent, at Herveys Range), north Queensland, during January to May, 1981. All life stages are described, a discussion on food plants is given, and the distribution of the species (based mainly on museum specimens) is provided. Introduction The Cassidinae, a sub-group of the large Coleopteran family Chrysomelidae, to which the genus Aspidomorpha belongs, are commonly known as ''tortoise beetles” (Froggatt, 1907; McKeown, 1945; Britton, 1970; Richards and Davies, 1977). These beetles are so-named because they have the lateral margins of the body (i.e. elytra and pronotum) greatly expanded which consequently gives them a flatten- ed shield-like appearance somewhat analogous to the broad carapace of tor- toises and turtles. Many species are noted for their extremely brilliant col- oration, which usually fades, un- fortunately, very quickly after death. Muir and Sharp (1904) first recorded the remarkable nature of the metamor- phoses of some South African species of Aspidomorpha, Basipta, Cassida and Laccopterus. They found that in certain species, the eggs are enclosed in an ootheca, often of complex structure. The ootheca is of various degrees of complexity in accordance with the species that forms it. For instance, Muir and Sharp (1904) found in Aspidomorpha puncticosta that the * Department of Botany, James Cook University, Townsville, 4810. Queensland. 92 structure of the ootheca was more elaborate than the comb formed by bees and wasps. However, in other species, the oothecae were found to be very small and imperfect, with a layer of excrement placed over them (Muir and Sharp, 1904). The larvae of Cassidinae are usually short and oval, somewhat flattened and spiny, often assuming bizarre forms (Muir and Sharp, 1904; Richards and Davies, 1977). They usually cover the apical (posterior) area of their bodies with black or brown excrement which is supported by and attached to, a forked caudal process (Muir and Sharp, 1904). The cast skins also form part of this augmentative covering and the excre- ment may form a solid pad, attached to the exuviae, or assume the condition of long filaments. No life history studies have been undertaken previously on Australian Aspidomorpha species. During a survey of the beetle fauna of the Townsville area (by the author) dur- ing the summer of 1980-81, adults and first, second and third instar larvae of Aspidomorpha maculatissima Boheman were observed feeding on the leaves of Ipomoea abrupta R. Br. on the James Cook University campus, Townsville, on 8 January, 1981. Field observations and collections of eggs, larvae, pupae and adults were made from 8 January to 5 May 1981. Descriptions of the life stages of A. maculatissima Boheman A. Eggs and ootheca (Fig. 1, A-C). The eggs are laid in an ootheca (Fig. 1A) in two or three distinct rows. Each row is separated by one or two thin, oothecal mem- branes. There are 6-9 eggs in each ootheca (i.e. 2 or 3 eggs in each row, Fig. 1B). The ootheca measures 2.8-3.2 mm wide (Mean— Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Fig. 1A. Ootheca of Aspidomorpha maculatissima Boheman (ms = marginal spaces). B. Plan of ootheca showing arrangement of eggs. (Note — oothecal membranes over top row of eggs have been removed). C. Side view of ootheca showing position of eggs (e) and marginal spaces (ms). 3.0 mm, N=5), 2.6-3.1 mm long (Mean= 2.85 mm, N=5), 1.5-2.5 mm high (Mean= 1.9 mm, N=5) (Fig. LA-C), is orange-brown or reddish-brown when young and becomes grey to grey-brown in colour by the time the eggs have reached (or almost reached) maturity. The ootheca is usually attached at both ex- tremities to a leaf of the food plant, by one or two eggless membranes and has bilateral sym- metry (Fig. 1A. All 5 oothecae examined on 4 April 1981, on the James Cook University campus, Townsville, were attached singly to the lower (abaxial) surface of large, healthy leaves at the tops of plants. Similarly, on 18 April 1981, at Herveys Range, about 38 km W of Townsville, 8 oothecae were examined on Ipomoea velutina R. Br. The eggs are flat, with rounded apices and parallel sides (Fig. 1B), yellowish in colour and possess a thin, transparent membrane. They take 6-10 days to hatch. The eggs measure 1.5-1.7 mm long (Mean- 1.6, N— 4) and 0.8-1.2 mm wide (Mean — 0.9, N —4). The oothecal membranes project at one of the sides (Fig. 1A) and exhibit an irregular set of marginal spaces (Fig. 1C) through which the larvae emerge. B. Larvae (Figs. 2, A: 3, A). (i) First instar Dimensions: (Body length, not including length of lateral processes) 1.2-1.6 mm long (Mean= 1.4 mm, N=4), 0.8-1.0 mm wide (Mean= 0.9 mm, N=4), when newly hatched; 1.8-2.0 mm long (Mean= 1.9 mm, N=3) and 1.2-1.4 mm wide (Mean= 1.3 mm, N=3), after 1-2 days, finally reaching 2.5-2.8 mm long (Mean= 2.7 mm, N=3) and 1.5-1.8 mm wide (Mean= 1.7 mm, N=3) after 4-5 days before undergoing ecdysis. Morphology: Body elongate, depressed, narrowly oval in shape, broader in thoracic region. Eyes 10, simple, 5 on each side of the head capsule, ag- gregated into a small cluster. Head capsule smooth, without punctures, glabrous. All segments bear long, spiny, lateral processes (and anteriorly also on the pronotum) (these are shown in the fourth instar larvae, Figs. 2A, 3A); two long caudal processes arise from the eighth tergite upon which the ex- uviae of previous instars and faeces are borne Table 1. Co-ordinates for localities from where Aspidomorpha maculatissima has been collected, State and Locality Co- Ordinates Western Australia Kings Sound c. 17?00'S, 123°30'E Northern Territory Melville Island 11?30'8, 131*00'E 12"28'8, 130°50'D 12?23!8, 131°10'E 13915'S, 131°O5'E Darwin Koolpinyeh Adelaide River Queensland 14?05!8, 143°35'E Stewart River c. Note: Collections from all these localities are listed in the text. May/June State and Locality Co- Ordinates Queensland (cont'd) Cooktown 145*07 3 15?28!8, Gordonvale 17°05'S, 145°48'E Innisfail 17?3218, 146?01'E Mt. Garnet 17°4218, 145°071E Palm Island 18?45'S, 146°36'E Magnetic Island 19°09'S, 146°50'E Townsville 19?15'8, 146°48'E Herveys Range 19?22'8, 146?30'E Bowen 20*01'8, 148°14'E Whitsunday Island 20?151!8, 149*00'E 93 Fig. 2. A. — Two fourth instar larvae resting on an Ipomoea leaf. Most of their faecal shields have been removed. Note lateral processes (Ip) and the long, black faeces which one of the larva (right) has ex- truded, B. — Dorsal view of a pupa about 1-2 days before hatching into the adult beetle. C. — Adult beetle resting on the underside (abaxial surface) of an /pomoea leaf. Note elytral flange (f). in a mass; lateral processes (16 pairs) acute, spinose, of varying length and thickness (Fig. 3A). Body + glabrous, sparsely covered in very short, white, glistening hairs; hairs on undersurface of body slightly longer than the dorsal ones. Colour: (When alive). Head cap- sule buff-brown. Eyes black. Body usually entirely yellow (or brownish-yellow with yellow lateral margins); lateral spinose pro- cesses yellow, tipped in black (or entirely yellow when larva first hatches). Legs short, stumpy, yellow with short, brown claws. (ii) Second instar Similar in morphology and colour to the first instar larva. Dimensions: Attains a size of 3.3-3.5 mm long (Mean = 3.4 mm, N=4), 2.2-2.5 mm wide (Mean —2.4, N=4), before undergoing the next ecdysis. (iit) Third instar Similar in morphology and colour to previous instars, although live specimens often darker yellow with broad grey or grey- brown central markings on dorsal body sur- 94 face; two + triangular-shaped grey or grey- brown marks on the dorsal thoracic region. Black portion of spinose, lateral processes more extensive than in previous instars. Dimensions: Attains a size of 3.6-4.2 mm long (Mean —3.8 mm, N=5), 2.8-3.5 mm wide (Mean= 3.2 mm, N=5), before undergoing the next ecdysis. (iv) Fourth instar (Figs. 2, A; 3, A). Similar in colour and morphology to previous instars but slightly more pubescent with more extensive grey or grey-brown, longitudinal markings on the dorsal body sur- face (Fig. 3A). A dark grey postmedial to apical, longitudinal lateral stripe towards the margin on both sides of the body, usually present. Two, irregular, central, grey, longitudinal marks usually extend from the apex of the body and each ends in a grey- brown, + triangular blotch on the dorsal thoracic region towards the head. Occa- sionally, darker grey marks extend to the lateral margins of the body (Fig. 3A). The grey marks are variable and may be absent in some larvae, but the two grey-brown marks near the head are always present. Dimen- sions: Attains a size of 6.5-8.5 mm long (Mean= 7.8, N=4), 4.5-5.5 mm wide (Mean— 5.2, N=4) before undergoing pupation. C. Pupa (Fig. 2, B). Pupa dorso — ventrally flattened, + glabrous, orange or red-brown to grey-brown in general coloration. First 5 pairs of lateral processes dorso-ventrally flattened, pale yellow-brown, pale orange-yellow, or pale buff in colour, translucent, bearing short, pale, buff-coloured spines on the margins; re- maining lateral processes spinose,+ cylin- drical to slightly flattened dorso-ventrally, buff brown to cream with white, + spirally arranged spines. Pronotum broad, flat, margins with short spines of varying lengths towards base of elytra; usually with a pair of longer spines at each side of median line; pro- notum pale brown usually with basal region dark brown. Thoracic region reddish to orange-brown with irregular buff horizontal marks. Remaining dorsal surface (tergites) orange to reddish-brown, usually lighter in colour on margins; spiracles small, cream. Under surface glabrous, pale-yellow to buff- brown. Length (tip of pronotum to apex of last tergite) 7.5-9.7 mm (Mean= 8.5mm, N=7) and 4.8-6.0 mm wide (Mean= 5.3mm, N=7). D. Adult (Figs. 2, C; 3, B-D) Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Fig. 3. A. — Dorsal view of a fourth instar larva showing the lateral processes (Ip). Note that the head capsule is hidden by the thoracic tissue. B. — Dorsal view of an adult beetle showing the typical markings on the pronotum and elytra. (Note: (a) Head (dashed line) hidden by the pro- notum and the pronotal flange (pf) and (b) Elytral flange (ef)). Form convex, in elevation (Length/height ratio-3.20 (Mean) 2.74-3.57 (Range), N=8), broadly oval to almost circular in plan, (Length/width ratio=1.21 (Mean), 1.11-1.33 (Range), N—8). Head small, frons smooth, without punctures, buried in thorax. Eyes large, black. Antennae (Fig. 3D) 3.0-3.2 mm long (Mean= 3.1 mm, N=6), sub- incrassate; segments I-VI yellow to yellow- brown, smooth, sub-glabrous, with a few, sparse, white hairs; segments VII-VIII dark yellow smooth, with denser covering of yellow-brown hairs; segments IX-XI black, densely covered with yellow-brown hairs. Pronotum smooth, glabrous, about twice as wide as long, without punctures; yellow or orange-yellow with a median broad, shallow Y-shaped, black mark narrowly extending towards apex into another black, usually blob-shaped, smaller mark; pronotal flange broader at sides of pronotum than at apex, yellow with a prominent reticulate pattern (Fig. 3C) and with a broad black mark on both sides of pronotum extending and nar- May/June C. — High power diagrammatic representation of an outer portion of the elytral flange showing the reticulate pattern. D. — Antenna showing the distribution of hairs. (Antennal segments are numbered in Roman numerals and these correspond to segment numbers used in the text). rowing to the scutellum. Scutellum smooth, black, triangular in shape. Elytra irregularly punctate-striate; intervals broad, smooth, glabrous; punctures circular, deep, black, mainly occurring in short, dense series (longitudinal bands) on black regions of elytra, (sparsely distributed in loose bands on yellow portion of elytra); elytra laterally angl- ed from base, rounded at shoulder, slightly concave towards middle, then rounded to apex; elytral ground colour pale yellow or pale orange-yellow to metallic, irridescent aquamarine-yellow, with irregular and variable black markings (Fig. 3B), usually comprised of a series of small, irregular marks along suture and extending outwards; larger black markings arising from sides of elytra extending towards suture, occasionally anastomosing with sutural markings; elytral flanges broad, yellow, translucent, each with a large humeral and post-medial black patch and a small, apical black mark; reticulate pat- tern similar to that of pronotal flanges. Undersurface of body mostly black or dark 95 brown, sub-glabrous, sparsely covered in microtrichiae; coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus orange-yellow to yellow-brown, regularly but sparsely covered in short, ap- pressed, yellow hairs, distal end of tibia with tuft of longer, orange-yellow hairs; claws dark brown. Sternites predominantly black or dark brown in the centre, orange-yellow to yellow-brown on the margins for about % the width of the sternites, sparsely covered in microtrichiae; terminal and sub-terminal ster- nites with 2 or 3 rows of hairs on the apical margins. Body length (from apex of pro- notum to elytral apices) 8.85-10.0 mm long (Range), 9.50 (Mean, N=8, 200, 699) and 7.5-9.0 mm wide (Range), 7.84 (Mean, N=8) (Males similar in dimensions to females). General biology (a) Notes on the life stages Oothecae are usually placed on the undersurface of mature, healthy leaves of the food plants. The larvae when first hatched, feed together near the discard- ed ootheca and begin to radiate out- wards after 1-1.5 days, feeding on epidermal and mesophyll tissue (im- mediately below the epidermis). As they grow older, larvae either disperse and feed on different leaves or may form cm Fig. 4. Silhouette of the underside of an /pomoea abrupta leaf, showing the shot-holes resulting from the feeding by larvae and adults of A. maculatissima. (1 = lamina of leaf, p = petiole). 96 small groups of up to five larvae together on the one large leaf. Feeding results in small holes being formed be- tween the major veins (Fig. 4). Despite such destructive feeding, no leaves were killed by the larvae (or adults). Defolia- tion of Ipomoea abrupta did not occur. The amount of leaf material consumed was usually 5-10% of the total leaf area (Fig. 4) by the time individual larvae had pupated (no adults were found on leaves occupied by larvae). The duration of the life-stages is as follows:- (a) Eggs — 6-10 days to hatch after being laid, (b) First instar larva — 4-5 days, (c) Second instar — 3-5 days, (d) Third instar — 3-5 days, (e) Fourth instar — 2-4 days, (f) Pupae — 3-7 days, (g) Adults — —5 days (adults in the laboratory have lived up to 3 weeks before dying of unknown causes). (b) Notes on the larval faecal shield and predators The larvae of various members of the sub-family Cassidinae (Chrysomelidae) (especially Cassida, a predominantly North American genus), have long been known to naturalists for their odd habit of carrying their faeces in various ways by the use of a forked caudal process (e.g. Muir and Sharp, 1904; Eisner, Tassell and Carrel, 1967). The function of the faecal shield (or pad) (Eisner, Tassell and Carrel, 1967) has been a matter for dispute. It has been suggested (e.g. Weise, 1893 (cited in Eisner, Tassell and Carrel, 1967)), that the shield serves for camouflage, for protec- tion against desiccation or rain and for defense. The faecal shield possessed by Cassida rubiginosa for instance, appears to act mainly for defense (Eisner, Tassell and Carrell, 1967). These authors observed that the faecal shield of this cassidine species is a highly manoeuvrable device which is capable of being orientated by the larva in virtually any direction through flexion and rotation of the ab- domen. The manoeuvrability of the Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Fig. 5. maculatissima Boheman in Australia. (Based on museum collections). Distribution of Aspidomorpha shield and its adaptation for defense was made apparent when these authors sub- jected the larval body to localized stimulation by prodding with a small, blunt probe or by pinching with fine forceps. They found that no matter where the stimulus was applied, the par- ticular larva responded by pressing the shield against the offending instrument. Stimulation at or near the head caused the larva to uplift its rear and to bring the shield forward and downwards over the head region. Stimuli applied to the lateral margins of the body induced a sharp tilting of the shield toward the af- fected side while disturbance to the posterior end, caused erection and par- tial backward deflection of the shield. Stimuli that were applied consecutively at different sites caused the shield to be shifted equally from one appropriate defensive posture to the next. After cessation of stimulation, the shield was always returned promptly to its resting position above the body (Eisner, Tassell and Carrel, 1967, p. 1472). Stimuli ap- plied to the bodies of various instars of Aspidomorpha maculatissima resulted in similar responses to those noted in Cassida rubiginosa by Eisner, Tassell and Carrel (1967). The first and second instar larvae of A. maculatissima appear to be more adept and sensitive to body contact (stimulation) than the third and fourth instar larvae. The first instar lar- vae often congregate on one side of an Ipomoea leaf in groups of 4-9 and usual- ly lift their faecal shields simultaneously at the approach of danger, an intruder (e.g. the author lifting a leaf upon which May/June the larvae are feeding or resting) or some other disturbance. Although some observations on responses by fourth in- star larvae to body stimulation were made between 22-25 April, 1981, it is hoped that further observations will be undertaken in the near future. If probed with a blunt pointer on one side of the dorsal region of the body, the fourth instar larva does move the shield towards the offending instrument, but not as vigorously as in Cassida rubiginosa (see Eisner, Tassell and Car- rel, 1967). However, if both sides of the body are probed simultaneously, the shield is merely tilted over the body in a central position parallel to the mid- dorsal line. If the offending instruments are removed, the shield usually remains parallel to the body for some time before being moved into the usual upright position (i.e. perpendicular to the body). This usually occurs as soon as the larva commences feeding again or begins to move to another position on a leaf. It appears then that, although the faecal shield movements of A. maculatissima in response to stimuli to the dorsal body surface, are generally similar to that of C. rubiginosa, there are some differing behavioural traits between the two species. Projecting outwards from the flatten- ed body of the typical cassidine larva, is a marginal fringe of branched spines (see illustrations in, for example, Muir and Sharp, 1904 and Eisner, Tassell and Carrel, 1967) or lateral processes (Hawkeswood, this paper). These spinose processes appear to be par- ticularly sensitive to contact stimulation and are evidently well adapted to alert the larva to the initial probings of an in- sect predator (e.g. ants; Eisner, Tassell and Carrel, 1967). These authors found that stimulation of a single spine and sometimes a mere prodding of one of its branches (was sufficient to ellicit an im- mediate defensive positioning of the faecal shield. This was also generally 97 noticed in the larvae of A. maculatissima. Contact with the spines gave better responses than body stimula- tion, Eisner, Tassell and Carrel (1967) ex- posed individual larvae to attack by ants in order to determine how effectively the shield was employed in defense against actual predators. No ants were observed on Ipomoea abrupta at James Cook University, nor on /. velutina at Herveys Range. The possibility of ants as predators of A. maculatissima larvae cannot be disregarded. The green tree ant, Oecophylla smaragdina Linnaeaus, is common on the James Cook Universi- ty grounds and is widely distributed in the Townsville area and would be the most likely predator of larvae. Ex- periments on ant and other predator in- teractions with larvae will be undertaken in the future. Despite being a deterrent to some predators, the faecal shield of cassidine larvae appears not to protect against all arthropod predators. Vulnerability to spiders has been reported for the larvae of C. rubiginosa (Eisner, Tassell and Carrel, 1967). It has been suggested that the faecal shield protects against en- tomophagus parasites. However, Muir and Sharp (1904) noted that parasitism of Aspidomorpha puncticosta was very severe. Muir had bred a species of Chalcis and other unidentified Chalcididae from the larvae and noted that broods which were produced at cer- tain seasons, were more affected by the parasites than those produced at other seasons. Eisner, Tassell and Carrel (1967) noted that larvae of Cassida rubiginosa were heavily parasitized by a chalcidoid wasp of the genus Tetrastichus. On 28 April 1981, during a brief ex- amination of /pomoea abrupta growing on the James Cook University grounds, two small, black wasps were observed resting on one side of a fourth instar lar- va (i.e. on the dorsal body region). The 98 larva was feeding on the upper surface of an Ipomoea leaf. The two wasps were presumably seeking a suitable site on the larva for laying eggs. The wasps took flight when disturbed and did not return during the ensuing period of observation totalling fifteen minutes. Four pupae and the fourth instar larva were col- lected and placed in glass petri-dishes in the laboratory at 23°-25°C. Three days later (1 May 1981) two adult beetles hat- ched and another beetle hatched after 4 days (on 2 May). On 5 May, the fourth instar larva pupated. Nine days later (14 May), sixteen small, black wasps (ap- parently identical to those seen on the larva on 28 April) hatched from this pupa. On 19 May, ten wasps of the same species hatched from eggs which had been deposited in another pupa (i.e. one of those collected on 28 April). The first group of wasps (16) were sent to Dr L Naumann, Division of Entomology, C.S.LR.O., Canberra, who identified them as Pediobius sp. (Eulophidae; Hymenoptera). (The second batch of wasps are in the author’s private collection of insects). These small, parasitic wasps are prob- ably effective in reducing the numbers of pupae (and hence the number of adults produced) in this population of A. maculatissima. However, it is also likely that environmental conditions, such as the high diurnal temperatures experienced in Townsville during January to April (i.e. 28°-35°C) (and hence strong sunlight on clear days) and heavy monsoonal rains, probably also have a detrimental effect. (b) Food plants The genus Aspidomorpha appears to have strong preferences for /pomoea species (Convolvulaceae) as food or host plants (e.g. Muir and Sharp, 1904). In- deed, the whole sub-family Cassidinae appears to be strongly (but not ex- clusively) associated with members of the Convolvulaceae, and in particular Ipomoea. However, much more in- Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 formation on beetle/plant relationships is yet to be gathered. Carroll (1978) undertook a study of an undescribed cassidine, Stolas sp., a common leaf- eating insect on Ipomoea asarifolia Roem et Schult in South America (Brazil. He noted (p. 80) that the cassidine beetles which infested J. asarifolia appeared restricted in their feeding on the vine although, less com- monly, could be found on other members of the Convolvulaceae such as Merremia. Carroll (1978) notes that the Convolvulaceae are well represented in the Amazon region and of these, ten species belong to the genus Ipomoea. Carroll (1978) also notes (as is the case in Australia) that knowledge of the foliage-feeding fauna of Brazil is meagre, despite the fact that the sweet potato (/pomoea batatas Poir.) is an im- portant crop in the region and is attack- ed by numerous species of foliage- feeding Coleoptera. Carroll (1978) fur- ther notes that cassidine beetles are not limited in their feeding on Con- volvulaceae but herbaceous species of the family form the largest number of host records. Six species of Ipomoea occur on the James Cook University grounds and ad- jacent areas, but none of them appear common. These are Ipomoea dissecta Willd., J. angustifolia Jacq., I. hederacea Jacq., I. reptans Poir (=I. aquatica Forsk.), I. abrupta R. Br. and Ipomoea species (unknown). Another species, I. quamoclit Linn., is not known at present from the University grounds but occurs elsewhere in the Townsville area. It is a slender, glabrous twiner with sessile, deeply pinnatifid leaves with linear-subulate segments. The species is distinctive in having slender, scarlet, tubular flowers. Ipomoea quamoclit is believed to have been introduced from India and has long been extensively cultivated in many of the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world and appears to be common in Queensland (Bailey, 1901, p. 1067). May/June Ipomoea reptans Poir. (=I. aquatica Forsk.) occurs in swampy habitats on the Townsville common and in a small creek on the University grounds. This species is a glabrous perennial with long, prostrate, trailing or floating hollow stems which are adaptations for living in marshy or wet sandy places. It is also found in tropical Asia and Africa (Bailey, 1901, p. 1062). Another species, I. pes-caprae Roth. (= I. brasiliensis (L.) Mey) is restricted to sand dunes along the north Queensland coast and is com- mon on beaches at Townsville. A further species, I. velutina R.Br. grows uncommonly at Herveys Range. It is a pubescent twining plant, woody at the base and is usually covered in reflex- ed hairs on the branches and the leaves. The broadly ovate-cordate leaves measure 5-10 cm long and are covered in short hairs. I. velutina grows over rocks and was early recorded from the Gulf of Carpentaria (Bailey, 1901, p. 1062). Ipomoea dissecta is an annual, glabrous twiner with slender, trailing stems and small, digitate leaves with usually 3 or 5 narrow, linear segments. Early records are from the Burdekin and Einasleigh Rivers (north Queensland) (Bailey, 1901, p. 1058). 7. hederacea is a tall, pubescent twiner with broadly cor- date, 3-or-5- lobed leaves, 3-10 cm long. The species appears to have a widespread distribution in north Queensland and is common in most tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world (Bailey, 1901, p. 1058). J. angustifolia is also a twining creeper with sessile, linear or lanceolate leaves 2-6 cm long. The species appears to be widely distributed in Queensland (Bailey, 1901, p. 1065). T. abrupta is a tall, more or less glabrous, woody plant, with cordate-ovate leaves 5-12 cm long. The flowers are large and dark pink to mauve in colour. The species is known from the Burdekin River and Rock- ingham Bay (Bailey, 1901, P. 1062). Ipomoea dissecta, I. angustifolia, I. hederacea and I. quamoclit are all 99 slender twiners with small leaves. It is unlikely that Aspidomorpha maculatissima utilizes these four species as food plants, since they possess leaves too small to sustain populations of the beetle. Aspidomorpha maculatissima has only been collected from /. abrupta and /. velutina in the Townsville area by the author. Although /. pes-caprae, I. reptans and Ipomea sp. possess relative- ly large broadly cordate-ovate leaves, which could be a suitable food source for A. maculatíssima, there does not ap- pear to be any utilization of these plants by this cassidine. Observations indicate that Aspidomorpha deusta (Fabricius) utilizes (and is restricted to) J. pes- caprae on the sand dunes, while an unidentified species of Metriona (another cassidine) appears confined to Ipomoea sp. No chrysomelid beetles are known to feed on J, reptans. Three other species of Con- volvulaceae are known from the Townsville area. These are Bonamia (Breweria) deitrichiana, Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. and Merremia triden- tata Roth. ssp. hastata Forsk. Again, these species have small leaves and do not appear to be utilized by A. maculatissima. Evidence at hand suggests that A. maculatissima is restricted to the in- digenous species Ipomoea abrupta (Townsville) and J, velutina (Herveys Range) but may utilize the introduced J. batatas Poir. (c) Distribution The Cassidinae appear to be predominantly tropical and sub-tropical in their distribution. Froggatt (1907) in- ferred that most of the Australian species of the sub-family were found in tropical areas of northern Queensland, but noted that one species, Aspidomor- pha deusta (Fabricius) came into the rainforests of northern New South Wales. (Recent research by the author suggests that the species referred to by Froggatt was not A. deusta, but an unidentified species of Metriona 100 (another cassidine); Aspidomorpha deusta appears to be host-specific on Ipomoea pes-caprae Roth. on north Queensland sand dunes, Hawkeswood, 1981, pers. obs.). The collections of A. maculatissima in the various Australian museums are somewhat small. In most cases, specimens are old, discoloured and worn, while the collection data ac- companying them are usually meagre. However, the data that is available, does suggest that the species has a northern distribution in tropical Australia. The distribution is shown in Fig. 5 and the co-ordinates (i.e. long./lat. data) for each locality known are provided in Table 1. (Abbreviations for institutions and collections are as follows:— ANIC — Australian National Insect Collec- tion, CSIRO, Canberra; QM — Queensland Museum, Brisbane; DPIQ — Department of Primary Industries In- sect Collection, Indooroopilly, Brisbane; SAM — South Australian Museum, Adelaide). (No specimens of A. maculatissima are lodged at UQIC (University of Queensland Insect Collec- tion, Brisbane) except for the author’s collection (see below) or the DPIM (Department of Primary Industries In- sect Collection, Mareeba). (In the specimens listed below, in addition to the locality, the collector, dates and number of specimens are provided wherever known). Specimens:— Western Australia — Kings Sound (1)(ANIC), Northern Ter- ritory — Darwin, G. F. Hill (4)(SAM); Darwin, W. K. Hunt (7) (SAM); Port Darwin, 1884 (1)(ANIC); Adelaide River, H. W. Brown (2)(SAM); Melville Island, G. F. Hill (3)(SAM); Koolpinyah, G. F. Hill (1)(SAM). Queensland — Stewart River, W. D. Dodd (2)(SAM); Cooktown, C. French (DPIQ); Mt. Garnet, 18. ii. 1959, “in grass”, G. E. (DPIQ); Gordonvale, 22. xii. 1930, (on sweet potato, Ipomoea Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 batatas) (DPIQ); Innisfail, Mission Beach, 12. v. 1948, W.A.S(aunders) (DPIQ); Palm Island, T. Bancroft (2(QM); Palm Island, G. F. Hill (2)(SAM); Palm Island, A. M. Lea (1I(SAM); Palm Island, 23/30. v. 1925, W.A.T.S.(aunders) (DPIQ); Whitsun- day Island, 1934, N. Geary (3) (QM); Townsville, 1. vi. 1900 (DPIQ); Townsville, 9. xi. 1901 (3(SAM) and (D(ANIC); Magnetic Island, A. M. Lea (14(SAM); Magnetic Island, 14. iii. 1926 (1)(QM); Magnetic Island, 16. xi. 1947, S. R. Brock (3(ANIC); Bowen, A. Simson (2)(SAM). Author's collec- tions — James Cook University campus, Townsville, 8. ii. 81 (I(UQIC); Same locality, 10. ii. 81 (2)(ANIC); Same locality, 22. iv. 81 (1)(SAM); Same locality, 5. v. 81, (3(TJH); Herveys Range, 35 km W of Townsville, 18. iv. 81 (2)(TJH). Concluding remarks Little is known about the biology and taxonomy of Australian Cassidinae or their food plants. Masters (1887) lists 22 species of ''Cassidides" (Cassidinae) from Australia; 13 of these from the genus Aspidomorpha, 4 from Cassida, 4 from Coptocycla, and 1 from Hoplionota. Since the original descrip- tions of these beetles were published in the scientific literature, nothing has been written on their general biology in Australia. Further basic field work should reveal a great deal more about these interesting insects and their food plants. May/June Acknowledgements I would like to thank Alan Dartnall, Department of Zoology, lames Cook University, Townsville, for reading through the manuscript and providing helpful suggestions, Thanks are also expressed to Dr. E. G. Matthews (South Australian Museum, Adelaide), Ms. M. A. Schneider (University of Queensland, Brisbane), Dr. G. B, Monteith (Queensland Museum, Brisbane) and Dr. T. A. Weir and Dr. J. F. Lawrence (Australian National Insect Collection, Canberra) for providing locality data from specimens of Aspidomorpha maculatissima housed in the various collections of Chrysomelidae in their care. 1 would also like to thank Dr. Ll. Naumann (Australian National Insect Collection, Canberra) for identifying specimens of Pediobius. Thanks are also expressed to Mr R. L Storey (DPI, Mareeba) for allowing me to examine the Chrysomelidae collections in his care during à visit to the Atherton Tablelands in May, 1981, I also thank Mr T. Helder for taking the photographs in Fig. 2. Finally, I would like to acknowledge a James Cook University Special Research Grant (UC-127) which supported the research for this paper. REFERENCES Bailey, F. M. (1901). The Queensland Flora. (Volume 4), Diddams & Co., Brisbane, Britton, E. B, (1970). Coleoptera. Chapter 30. In: The Insects of Australia, C, S.T. R.O., Melb, Uni, Press, Carlton, Victoria. 1029pp. Carroll, C. R. (1978). Beetles, parasitoids and tropical morning glories: a study in host discrimination. Ecological Ent. 3, 79-85, Eisner, T., Tassell, E. van, and Carrel, J. E. (1967). Defensive use of a “fecal shield’? by a beetle larva. Science 158, 1471-1473, Froggatt, W. W. (1907). Australian Insects. W. Brooks and Co., Sydney, 449pp. Masters, O. (1887). Catalogue of the described Col- eoptera of Australia. (Part VII). Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. W, (2nd Series) 2, 13-94. McKeown, K. C, (1945). Australian Insects. Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Sydney, 303pp. Muir, F. and Sharp, D. (1904), On the egg-cases and early stages of some Cassididae, Trans. Ent, Soc. Lond, 58, 1-23, + plates I-V, figs, 1-27, Richards, O. W. and Davies, R. G. (1977), Imms — A General Textbook of Entomology. 1977 ELBS Edition. 101 A Field Identification Key of some Victorian Species of the Genus Mycena. By C. A. GRGURINOVIC* AND A. A. HOLLAND* The Genus Mycena is one of the most common fungal genera to be seen in mountain gullies during autumn and winter. Its members are generally small and fragile plants which often exhibit bright colours. This key is an attempt to characterize using only macroscopic features, some of the more common species of the genus as well as some rare and as yet undescribed species. Differentiation between species in a true botanical key is based on micro- scopic characteristics, such as the size and shape of spores, cystidia** and the nature of the hyphae making up the cap’s cuticle. Since a microscope is need- ed to see these structures, they are of lit- tle use in the field. This has led to the construction of this field key, which uses characteristics easily seen by the naked eye or a handlens. The reliability of such a key can only be tested by use in the field. It is hoped that specimens which do not fit those characteristics listed will be preserved t , preferably with spore prints and growth habit notes and sent to the senior author for further study. An idea of the distribution of species listed in the key would also be ap- preciated, as some of those listed here as rare may prove to be more common than at first believed. This information would also need to be accompanied by specimens, preferably with some substrate material, for positive iden- tification. As yet, the key pertains only to Vic- torian members of the genus, although it ** Refer to glossary t Fruiting bodies can be preserved by drying in a warm draught, * Department of Botany Monash University Clayton, Vic. 3168 102 is certain that a number of the species extend into other states and are of world-wide distribution. Some groups, such as the numerous small, white species have been excluded, as they have not yet been studied in detail. In general, mycenas are often easily recognizable by their appearance and habit, or manner in which numbers of fruiting bodies grow in an area. The genus is characterized by its fruiting bodies being small, slender and delicate. Caps (fig. 1A) are usually conic or cam- panulate (bell-shaped) and furnished with an umbo, or bump at the apex. A translucent-striate condition is common, a situation where the gill outlines show through the moist, somewhat translu- cent flesh of the cap as radially arranged lines. The hollow stipe (fig. 1B) is cen- trally attached to the cap and has a car- tilaginous consistency, meaning the stipe is thin and breaks with a firm split when bent in two. Gill attachment (fig. 1C) is generally adnate, that is the gills are more or less squarely attached to the stipe. Members of the genus always have white spores which can easily be seen ‘ten masse” in a spore print. Pl.1: M. austrororida (photograph by B. A. Fuhrer) Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 P1.2: M. epipterygia (photograph by B. A. Fuhrer) Cap or stipe or both viscid* or glutinous* when fresh Cap and stipe not viscid or glutinous Cap and stipe viscid Cap dry, convex; light hazel at apex. Stipe white with a thick, glutinous layer. Gills white, broadly adnate to subdecurrent*. Fruiting bodies up to 3.5 cm in height. Common P1.3: M. viscido-cruenta (photograph by B. A. Fuhrer) aad s: Y P1.4: M. sanguinolenta (Photograph by B. A. Fuhrer) M. austrororida pl.1 Stipe yellow. Cap pale. Cucumber-like odour. Fruiting bodies up to 7 cm in height. Widespread Fruiting bodies bright red in colour and up to 4 cm in height. Widespread May/June M. epipterygia pl.2 M. viscido-cruenta pl.3 103 104 Supe Witkhlaten when fresh. cru NUNG cs eda be ds erts Catania COR se eee ane CIE te 5 Stipe svithont laters. sn asa en CER iare tec cash px £a 139 rre Qe SERIE UR TE toe LIRE ITE e G 6 Stipe and cap exude a prune-coloured latex when broken. Gills with red edge. WV ICNP PREU vr EE arra terius OP OU TS M. sanguinolenta pl.4 Stipe exudes a white-coloured latex when BrokenvürecNeernmnESSPO weer A + ote de ee cee eee a r EET TET M. galopus Pristine bodies WIE DrowTLEORSE raa. Leisure. std Stele ea IR. ba oie ah oe EE 7 Brüitingbodies without Drow TONGS a o> ey o aa uteri E a hasta d. AA a E NS 16 Fruiting bodies tall, up to 14 cm in height. Cap up to 2 cm in diameter. Generally TOAT OLNE: a a danae ata aai ON aia aaae ala e a IAA aA ER citat 8 On litter, gregarious* habit. Cap apex blackish, rest dark hazel to hazel. Gills white, spacing* subdistant to distant. Edges smooth*, sides pubescent*. Stipe concolorous with cap. Widespread naei imiraa disias M. hispida (new species) p1.5 On litter, occasionally on wood, gregarious habit. Cap and stipe with greyish-brown tones. Gills pallid, spacing close to subdistant. Edges smooth, sides pruinose*. WAGES DICA, Sark rore PET rs o Rae SERES tS M. austrofilopes (new species) Gil auachmentsubdecurrent El, caes. «a EU eee o dcos M LR 10 Culbatidoitmentadtate- 2256. TAs a RAE TE | PELO BAUER TORO ences 11 Fruiting bodies up to 3.5 cm in height. Cap shallowly convex to convex. Colour hazel, margin pallid. Gills subdecurrent to decurrent, spacing distant. Stipe concolorous with cap, surface lubricous*. Rate: Black Sours tae Me QUIS vu lt YT EM ET ME M. sublucida (new species) Fruiting bodies up to 4.5 cm in height. Cap convex, obtusely umbonate. Colour honey, rest pallid. Gills broadly adnate * decurrent tooth or subdecurrent, spacing distant to subdistant. Stipe concolorous with cap. Rare: Granya Gap, Tallangatta................ M. isabellina (new species) tXillédgénot niargingte* aajma aa 1:27. ys N a alg gee sta ERE 12 Gill edge marginate; blackish-brown in colour. Cap and stipe blackish-brown. Fruiting bodies up to 6 cm in height. Cap up to 2.5 cm in diameter. Gill attachment adnate + small decurrent tooth. Habit closely gregarious to caespitose*. Rare: : Narbethong aod Neerim Bastasi isean aE TED TTES M. atrata (new species) Gl sides.pruirio8E ERE OT hp ad ab Ne on ee Qe Quel TRE ELO e E 13 Gill sides pubescent. On wood, gregarious or caespitose habit. Height up to 4.5 cm. Cap Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 14. 16. 17. 18. up to 1.5 cm in diameter. Cap and stipe dark hazel to hazel. Gill attachment narrowly adnate. Often with numerous anastomoses. Rare: Upper Thompson Gill edge minutely denticulate*.............. LAO Ube a Pr A Oa cue 14 Gill edge smooth. Gills often with numerous anastomoses. Height up to 6.5 cm. Cap up to 3 cm in diameter. Cap and stipe blackish-brown to brown. On wood, in burnt areas may be found on charcoal. Widespread ............... M. subgalericulata p1.6 Gill attachment adnate to stipe... 1... 6... ccc eee cee teen nn nnn. 15 Gill attachment adnate or free to circular descent of tissue from cap. Cap convex, depressed at apex. Blackish-brown at button stage, with age honey or hazel at apex, margin pallid. Height up to 2.5 cm. Attachment to substrate via white pruinose disc. Rare: Tonimbuk; Fernshaw Reserve..... M. interrupta var. fumosa (new variety) On wood, gregarious or caespitose habit. Height up to 3 cm. Cap up to 4 mm in diameter. Cap and stipe blackish-brown to brown. Rare: Otway Ranges .........seeee n seers M. lageniformis (new species) On wood, gregarious or caespitose habit. Height up to 3 cm. Cap up to 4 cm in diameter. Cap and stipe concolorous. Honey to isabelline. Rare: Black Spur .......... eee M. melcula (new species) Fruiting body with vinaceous* tones ....... NET IRE T HR a PER » uir SAER T Fruiting body without vinaceous tones ...... sie nne 18 Cap and stipe pink-vinaceous. Lamellae subdecurrent, edge red. On wood, gregarious or caespitose habit. Height up to 7.5 cm. Cap up to 2.5 cm in diameter .........- M. erythromyces (new species) p1.7 Cap and stipe vinaceous. Lamellae adnate to broadly adnate, edge smooth, occasionally minutely denticulate, face pruinose. Height up to 7.5 cm. Cap up to 2.6 cm in diameter. On wood or tree fern litter, caespitose or gregarious in habit ...... ise n nn M. vinacea Cap dark blue at apex, lighter towards margin. Stipe white, attached to substrate via white pruinose disc borne in flattened dark blue base. Gills white, edge blue. On wood, gregarious in habit. Height up to 2.5 cm. Cap up to 1.2 cm in diameter. Common ........ eet pe FOOLER EE: M. interrupta p1.8 Cap and stipe white, buff or honey tinge with age. Lamellae subdecurrent to decurrent, colour white; edge minutely denticulate, face pruinose. On litter, caespitose or gregarious habit. Height up to 4.5 cm. Cap up to 1.1 cm in diameter. Rare: Victoria Valley Rd, near Moora Track, the Grampianss ere r-ea nonis $4 M. candidissima p1.9 (new species) May/June 105 P1.8: M. interrupta (photograph by B. A. Fuhrer) (Printed with permission of Inkata Press) MU P1.6: M. subgalericulata (photograph by B. A. P1.9: M. candidissima (photograph by B. A. Fuhrer) Fuhrer) Glossary o: caespitose: where the fruiting bodies grow ex- tremely close together, apparently out of the same mass. cystidia: differentiated terminal cells of the hyphae in the hymenium (fertile layer) which do not produce basidiospores i.e. sterile cells; or differentiated terminal cells of the hyphae which compose the surfaces of the fruiting body. decurrent: where the gills run down the stipe. glutinous: where the surface of the cap or stipe is like liquid glue. gregarious: a growth habit where the fruiting bodies are grouped close together. P1.7: M. erythromyces (photograph by B. A. growth habit: the manner in which numbers Fuhrer) of fruiting bodies grow in an area. 106 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 latex: a milk-like juice. lubricous: where the surface feels slippery, as if covered with a layer of oil. marginate: where the gill edge is coloured dif- ferently to the side. minutely denticulate: where the gill edge is minutely fringed. pruinose: where the gill sides are powdery in appearance. pubescent: where the gill sides have a minute- ly hairy appearance. smooth: where the gill edge is uninterrupted. spacing: measured by counting the number of gills that extend from the margin to the stipe in a quarter turn of the cap. close: if there are more than eight gills per quarter turn of the cap. subdistant: if there are between five and eight gills per quarter turn of the cap, distant: if there are up to five gills per quarter turn of the cap. subdecurrent: where the gills run down the stipe for a relatively short distance, vinaceous: wine-coloured. viscid: where the surface of the cap or stipe feels sticky to the touch. A Drop Of Water By D. WENTWORTH* When one hears the words ‘‘Microscope’”’ and ‘‘Drop of Water’’ mentioned together, one tends to think of some sinister germs lurking around to upset our stomachs or worse. The truth of course is that our drinking water generally is very pure and free from such contamination. It would be most unlike- ly that any such harmful organism would be found in fresh tap water when examined with even a high powered microscope. The case is quite different when one is *looking" for living animals in water and when the conditions are favourable for their growth. The creatures we will refer to are broadly termed **Pond Life”. This term can of course include a very wide range of animal (and plant) life which in- habit ponds, pools, and in some instances slow running streams. To narrow the field down to the microscopic world, we would like to discuss those creatures which are nor- mally invisible to the naked eye. We will not, however, consider bacteria or similar micro- organisms as these constitute an entirely dif- ferent field of study. That is to say the creatures we will be looking at can be seen with a medium powered microscope, coupled with a certain amount of ‘‘know-how’”’ as to where to look for these specimens. A useful item for the observation of what * 218 Melville Rd., Pascoe Vale South, Vic. 3044. May/June we collect is what is known as a ‘‘trough’’. It consists basically of a microscope slide to which is cemented a small piece of glass separated from the slide by a spacer-piece of material in the shape of a half ring. This forms a miniature aquarium to contain our specimens. If a pond is found that looks to be a likely source, then one should look for small pond weeds growing close to the water's edge. With a bit of luck some of our specimens will be found growing on and living around these weeds. Small pieces of this weed can then be placed in the trough and examined under a medium power and using a suitable light with the microscope. An important piece of equipment is a collecting-net. This consists essentially of a piece of fine gauze material attached to a metal ring with a handle attached. The small end of the net should be secured to a small glass jar or bottle. This is then used to sweep through the water to obtain free swimming specimens. Assuming we have been successful in our collection of material, we can expect to find a variety of creatures including single celled as well as multi-celled types. These can range in the first instance from the simple Amoeba and other protozoans, to rather complex animals, which in some respects are almost sophisticated in their way of life. 'The amoeba is essentially a minute blob of 107 jelly-like protoplasm and is regarded as a very primitive form of life. It simply engulfs its food, which generally consists of minute organisms, and digests it while slowly moving around searching for more. The other single- celled animalculea or protozoans can be found in a very wide range of shapes and sizes, and are mostly all free swimming, using small vibrating hairs or ‘‘cilia’’ as a means of locomotion. The cilia are also used to direct food into the mouth or food vacuole. Proto- zoans are often referred to as ''/nfusoria'' as they are frequently found in water into which an infusion of hay has been placed and allow- ed to stand for several days. A common member of the protozoan group is a trumpet-like shaped animal known as a Stentor which may be found attached to a piece of weed or debris. A row of cilia sur- rounds its outer edge and the motion of these cilia creates a flow of water directing food particles towards its mouth. Another protozoan which is generally found attached to weeds etc., is known col- lectively as Vorticella, although similar species of other genera are often included in this group. The body section of Vorticella is generally bell-shaped and has a ring of cilia on its outer edge, the “‘hairs’’ of which vibrate at high speed, creating a strong current flow towards the animal. At the rear end of the *'bell'' is a fine thread which anchors it to weeds etc. this thread has the ability to contract to such an extent that the animal, when disturbed can retract at high speed from its extended posi- tion to go right back to its anchor point. Some protozoans are known as ‘“Flagellates’’ as they possess a very flexible whip-like appendage on the front end of their body. This serves as a means of locomotion and also as a way of obtaining food. One well known example is the Euglena which is generally of a green colour, due to the presence of chlorophyll, and has a red *teye’’. These features make it easy to identify. One of the most beautiful of the proto- zoans to observe is one called Volvox and is generally regarded as a colony of individual animals grouped together to form a perfect sphere. This ''ball'" has a vast number of flagella protruding through the surface and the movement of these allow the colony to ‘roll’? through the water. The presence of chlorophyll within the sphere produces a beautiful green appearance and when condi- 108 tions are favourable Volvox may be seen in great numbers, even to the extent of produc- ing of green tint to the water. Both Volvox and Euglena have been claimed by some authorities as plants, though this claim has never been finally resolved. There are of course many hundreds of species of protozoans and we have only just mentioned a few representative types as a guide as to what may be seen if the observer is keen and reasonably equipped with collecting gear. So far we have only spoken of single-celled animals, but these of course constitute but a small sample of what one may come across in the observation of pond life. Among the many other groups of pond creatures, perhaps the most interesting is that group known as the Rotatoria and the in- dividuals simply as Rotifers. They could almost be regarded as the Microscopist's pets, as they have been studied and observed by both scientists and amateurs over the last two hundred years. These multi-celled animals come in a wide range of shapes and sizes, but generally have one feature in com- mon. This is the possession of a pair of jaw- like organs called the trophi which are used to break-up or pulverise the food prior to it entering the stomach. the outstanding feature of many species is a formation of cilia at the head part of the body, which when working normally gives the appearance of a rotating wheel, or in some cases two or four wheels, It was this feature which gave the group its original name of ‘‘Rotatoria’’ or ''wheel Animalculae'"" although in some species this characteristic is not present. We could divide the Rotifer class into roughly two groups — firstly the free-swimming and secondly the non-swimming or sedentary group. The free swimming rotifers use their cilia as a means of locomotion and also for obtaining food. In most of these species the cilia is in the form of a crown which is generally refer- red to as the ''Corona". By a rhythmic beating action of the cilia a rotary effect is produced which in turn creates a strong cur- rent when the animal is stationary, or a very effective swimming action when on the move. Most have an appendage or foot terminating in two or more “‘toes’’ which enable it to re- main stationary when feeding. Some species have what is known as a cement gland in- corporated in the foot and exuding a small amount of this enables the animal to attach to weed or debris whilst feeding. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 The second group include some very in- teresting species, nearly all of which build a tube around themselves into which they can retract when disturbed. These tubes are generally of a gelatinous nature, and may be reinforced with debris etc. There is one species which is distinctive from the others in the manner in which the tube is made. This has the appearance of a brick chimney and is constructed of pellets which the rotifer forms and **lays"' as required to build the tube up to the desired height. The result is a perfect ex- ample of the skill of this miniature ‘‘brick- layer’’. The corona of this rotifer consists of four lobes of cilia and when in full operation give the appearance of four wheels, all rotating in perfect unison. Another species which also builds a tube is one in which the cilia is absent, but this is replaced by four or five lobes bearing very fine hairs or “*floscules’’ which extend quite a distance out from each lobe. These floscules act in trap- ping small protozons and other food par- ticles. A third but rarer species is one similar to that just mentioned except that the lobes are extended to form long petal-like structures extending above the head of the animal, giv- ing the appearance of an exotic flower. There are of course variations of these dif- ferent forms and each species have characteristics of their own, and it is the possibility of finding something new in this field which makes the study of pond life so absorbing. Another large group of pond dwellers is the “Crustacea”, which embraces such creatures as Water Fleas and copepods. These are relatively large animals but require low to medium magnification to observe them pro- perly. Most types in this group have a com- mon feature, that is a protective outer cover- ing similar to shrimps. The water flea gets its name from its ap- pearance and its manner of movement through the water. They often appear in vast numbers and make excellent food for fish. Two main points of interest to the observer are the structure of the eye and also the beating of the heart, which can be seen quite clearly. The copepod, like the water flea, is often found in most ponds in large numbers. Many Northern hemisphere copepods belong to the genus Cyclops, a name supposedly given due to the fact that it appears to have only one eye May/June beautiful green appearance and when condi- in the centre of its head. It also bears two large antennae stretching out on each side of the head. The general shape of this animal is that of a minute shrimp. It is often seen with two egg sacs, one attached to each side of the body. A further group of animals well worth observing are known as ''Hydras'", some species of which are relatively large, some be- ing up to 3 to 4 mm length (fully extended) and are members of the jelly-fish family, but are found only in fresh water. The body is in the form of a central trunk with several (from 5 to 8) tentacles extending outwards from the top end, the lower end of which is generally anchored to a piece of weed, etc. Each of the tentacles is equipped with a large number of ‘*buds’’ each containing an elaborate ‘‘fir- ing" device, enabling a barbed projectile, containing poison, to be fired into a potential prey which comes close enough to trigger off one of these buds. The action is similar to an under-water spear gun, the *'spear'' being at- tached to the tentacle by a fine thread. Once the prey is paralysed the other tentacles come round to direct it to the hydra's mouth. It is fascinating to watch a water flea falling prey to a hydra after fighting a losing battle. A final mention should be made of a class of minute plants, which are divided into two groups, namely **Diatoms"' and **Desmids"'. Diatoms are found in both salt and fresh water and their fossil deposits exist in nearly every part of the world. All have a skeleton of pure silica and it is mainly in this form that they are used as a specimen for microscopic examination. They may be found in fresh water collection samples, but the best ones are generally found in fossil deposits or prepared slides. Most diatoms have very in- tricate and fine markings, and display beautiful patterns. Desmids are almost exclusively fresh water dwellers and are more likely to be present in a collecting sample than diatoms. They exist in a very wide range of shapes and designs, some of which are remarkable in their sym- metry and colour patterns, being mainly green due to the presence of chlorophyll. We have only very briefly touched on some of the wonders of nature in the world of its microscopic dwellers. We hope to have arous- ed a little interest in some of our readers who may appreciate what may be found in “A Drop of Water”. 109 The Southeastern Highlands: a Geological and Environmental History From 100 Million Years ago to the Present By PETER WELLMAN* Introduction There is good evidence that during the past 100 million years (m.y.) the southeastern highlands differed from the present highlands in altitude, latitude, temperature, and rainfall. A knowledge of the changes and their causes leads to a greater understanding of physiography, soils, and sediments on the floors of river valleys and lakes. In addition, changes in the physical en- vironment with time would have at- fected biological evolution in the area. Until twenty years ago our understan- ding of the geological and climatic history of southeastern Australia was based on visual observations of the land- scape and exposed rocks, and the use of macrofossils to date sedimentary rocks and estimate past climate. The results of this early work were summarised by Hills (1960) and Browne (1969) for Vic- torian and NSW landscape history respectively, and Gill (196la) for climate. More recently there have been major advances in the understanding of this region. A more detailed evolutionary history of the highlands has been deter- mined using the distribution of precisely dated volcanic rocks to determine the uplift and erosional history, the magnetisation of the rocks to measure past latitude, and palaeontology and stable isotope geochemistry to infer past climate. The present structure of the Earth under the highlands has been determin- ed using seismic waves to establish the distribution of rock layers, and varia- tions in gravity to determine the strength of the outer part of the Earth. The * Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, P.O. Box 378, Canberra City, A.C.T. 2601. 110 chemical and mineral composition of the rocks below the surface has been determined using the chemistry and mineral composition of outcropping volcanic lava flows, and of blocks of other rocks within the lava flows. This paper describes southeast Australia's present geological structure and its history during the last 100 m.y. The description applies strictly only to eastern Victoria and southeastern NSW, but much of it is valid also for Tasmania, western Victoria, New England, and to a lesser extent the Flinders Ranges and eastern Queensland. History of the area surrounding the highlands Continents are not fixed relative to one another, but move by continental drift. Before 80 m.y. ago (mid- Cretaceous) Australia was in the interior of a larger continent called Gond- wanaland. To the east of southeast Australia was a wide continental shelf containing the present New Zealand and New Caledonia, and to the south was the Antarctic landmass (Fig. la). The present southeast highlands were a low- altitude drainage divide. To the north- west in the Murray Basin the older rocks had been eroded flat and were near sea level. To the south and east, at the edge of the present Australian landmass, Gondwanaland had begun to fracture. The rocks over this fracture were sub- siding rapidly because they were poorly supported from below. this subsidence formed a depression which was quickly filled with sediments. Between 80 and 60 m.y. ago (during the late Cretaceous and earliest Cainozoic) that part of the continent to Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION SOCIETY Patron in Chief H.R.H. The Prince of Wales Applications for EXPEDITION LEADERS. ANZSES organizes an annual 5 week long scientific Expedition into rugged and interesting areas of Australia and New Zealand for youth aged 17 - 23. Expeditions are led by highly qualified and motivated leaders. The 1982-3 Expedition is scheduled for the catchment of the Gordon/ Franklin rivers in S.W. Tasmania. Outline planning indicates the need for solid geological studies overlaid by studies in Zoology, Botany, Anthropology (and possibly Ornithology, Entomology, and Freshwater Ecology). We are now actively looking for men and women 24 — 40 (roughly) to lead our Expeditioners and to plan and guide observations and reporting in these disciplines. 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K8u4 adoy pue SJSZNY 40 SiIeque, ejt] weyy a»eu am ungaa UT 0Sz$ 9S3ngri3uoo O03 siepe8] ino ose em *yoea g09$ punoie 104 dn eq TTITm sieuora3rpadx3 6unoÁ ayy pue Kem ir8u3 Áed o} aney suorjrpedxj eseyl *uequ3 uesm3eq syaam g 8u3 Bura3rIds sio320g jo ited e asn 03 peiedeid eq pinom em *ÁT8AT38UI84T8 $wry asn uea am feieds 03 s»x8em g u4rm 10320Q eB purj ueo ƏM JI *uoraeorunuuoo—aieQ,ur eznsue pue 5 Kcesmmeooceu—*xrF————— pope pup MJ q^. 1-i-i-i-i- mm i-i Teu QM mit m Tnm OP IPODII Ee o cal Boxscore anna m Ed n [or - MS a > prs > vo N "NEW / CALEDONIA C | 1 e A v N b, : SENS EI CS NEW ^ : ‘| ZEALAND i ~l of NEW vi *. ZEALAND | summ OCEAN ift * ! d p 18/N/5. Fig. 1 Geography. (a) 80 m.y. ago before formation of the Tasman Sea; (b) 60 m.y. ago when the Tasman Sea was its present width, but before the southern Ocean began to form; (c) 20 m.y. ago. The dashed line shows the continental shelf. (b & c after Kemp, 1978). May/June the east of present Australia moved away (Weissel & Hayes, 1977) by con- tinental drift. A new ocean floor was created, the Tasman Sea basin. The break between the two continental masses was on the Australian side of the subsiding zone (Jongsma & Mutter, 1978), so that today the eastern side of the Australian continent has only a nar- row continental shelf (Fig. 1b). The next major event to affect the highlands took place about 55 m.y. ago (late Paleocene), when Australia began to move northward away from Antarc- tica (Weissel & Hayes, 1972). This movement continues today. The new oceanic sea-floor created between the two continents forms the Southern Ocean (Fig. lc). The early subsiding zones are on the Australian side of the initial fracture; in part they form the Gippsland and Otway sedimentary basins in the southern Victoria lowlands. The central Murray Basin and southern Victorian lowlands were covered by shallow seas during part of this period. These seas had their greatest extent about 20 m.y. ago. Igneous rocks Igneous activity is the upward move- ment of molten rock from deep in the Earth. The molten rock may crystallize and cool below the surface to form an intrusion, or it may rise to the Earth's surface, and then crystallize and cool as a lava flow. In the southern highlands there was a major period of igneous ac- tivity extending from 80 m.y. ago to the present day (Wellman & McDougall, 1974). This is thought to have been trig- gered by the formation of the Tasman sea starting about this time. The volume of intrusions within 20 km of the Earth's surface was probably about equal to about twice the volume of flows ac- cording to studies of acceleration due to gravity (Wellman & McDougall, 1974); however, the flows have now been partly removed by erosion. The total volume of flows before erosion is such that they 111 would have had an average thickness over the highland of approximately 70 m, but their distribution is irregular. Ages have been determined for most lava flows in eastern Australia using the natural radioactive decay of an isotope of potassium (K-40). These ages show that the overall rate of igneous activity has been approximately constant for the last 80 m.y. The older igneous activity is generally near the coast, and the younger activity inland. Lava flows can be grouped into provinces from 50 to 200 km across. Within each province the range in age of the lava generally is less than 5 m.y.; adjacent provinces have a different age. The molten rock comes originally from depths of 50 to 130 km below the surface (Green, 1972; Frey et al., 1978). At these depths the temperature of the rock is high enough to melt those minerals with the lowest melting points and give a fluid component comprising 4-25% of the total rock. Igneous activity occurs when the molten fraction of this rock rises towards the Earth’s surface along a fissure to form intrusions and lava flows. The composition of such ig- neous rocks depends mainly on the pro- portion and depth of melting and the amount of crystallization on the way towards the Earth’s surface. Most of the igneous rocks formed during this period of activity were of basaltic composition. Dissection and uplits of the highlands When basaltic lava reaches the surface of the Earth it has a low viscosity, so on plains it spreads out as an extensive, flat sheet filling shallow river valleys, and then crystallizes. Where there is con- siderable topographic relief (Fig. 2a) it flows downhill to the riverbed, and then flows down this riverbed (Fig. 2b) before crystallizing. Subsequent erosion changes the volcanic landscape. Basalts formerly covering plains are generally preserved as wide flat surfaces standing slightly above the surrounding countryside. 112 a Fig. 2: Relationship of basaltic flows to landscape. Landscapes are — (a) pre-basalt; (b) immediately post-basalt, and (c) present-day. h gives the pre- basalt relief, and h + h’ gives the present relief. Basalts originally covering valley floors in areas of considerable topographic relief are generally preserved as discon- nected ribbons of basalt overlying coarse river gravels. The present-day gravelly stream bed is commonly at a lower level on one side of the lava flow, with the original higher ground on the other side (Fig. 2c). The topographic relief at the time of the basalt flow can be estimated from the height difference between the base of the basalt where it rests on gravels and the highest land in the local area (h of Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Fig. 2c). The amount of river downcut- ting since the basalt flow filled the stream is given by the height difference between the base of the basalt and the present lowest stream bed in the area (h'). The present local relief is the sum of these two heights (h-- h^). By com- bining the results for basalts of different ages it can be shown that local relief in the highlands has increased to the pre- sent (Fig. 3). Local relief 45 m.y. ago was one half the present local relief, and by extrapolating back in time, it can be inferred that local relief was very low about 90 m.y. ago. Near the margins of the highlands the major rivers can cut down rapidly if the gradients of the rivers steepen. Many of the localities used in Figure 3 are close to the margin of the highland, and therefore the increase in local relief with time measures indirectly the highland uplift with time. From this argument it follows that the eastern highlands had a low altitude and a low relief 90 m.y. ago, and were pro- bably similar to the western ‘highlands’ of Victoria today. During the last 90 m.y. the eastern highlands have been uplifted at an approximately constant rate at any one place. This gives a mean uplift rate for the axis of the highlands 100 8 e a e i bs Percent of present local relief Bre b > e t=] eet | is x 100 80 60 40 20 0 Million years ago Fig. 3: Increase of local relief in the highland to the present. Local relief 45 m.y. ago was about one-half that of today (after Wellman, 1979a). May/June of about 1 km in 90 m.y., or about 0.01 mm per year. As an example, consider the Gelan- tipy area of eastern Victoria. In this area the Snowy River is at about 200 m altitude in a gorge, and there is an exten- sive area of 40 m.y. old basalt forming an extensive plateau at about 900 m altitude. The present local relief is therefore 700 m. Some basalts of the same age are preserved on the side of the Snowy River Gorge at about 600 m altitude. They overlie river gravels that were the bed of the Snowy river at the time the basalts flowed. The bed of the Snowy River was probably then at about its present level of 200 m altitude, so at that time, the plateau would be at about 500 m altitude, and local relief 300 m. At 40 m.y. ago at this location the per- cent of the present local relief would therefore be about 57% (Fig. 3). This location provides good evidence for about 400 m of uplift during the last 40 m.y. Uplift is not necessarily matched by immediate dissection of the highlands. Where there are major rivers, or soft rock, the highlands have been deeply dissected. However, in some areas of hard rock with no rivers (e.g. Victorian High Plains), the present surface is of low relief, and is little changed since 90 m.y. ago except for the considerable uplift. In the upper parts of present-day river valleys there are often steps in the river profile, or the valley sides have areas of flat ground above the valley bottom and below the summits. These steps are thought to be due to harder rock having locally restricted the downcutting of the river or valley side, and not to periods of rapid uplift equal to the amount of the step (King, 1959). Adjacent parts of the highland may not be uplifted by the same amount. Places of relatively low uplift within the highland often have swamps, lakes, and thick sediments (e.g. Lake George and Omeo areas); places of relatively high 113 uplift are often areas of river gorges. The present-day relative movement of adjacent parts of the highland can be measured by geodetic survey techniques (Wellman, 1981), and by means of earth- quake records (Gibson, 1981). Structure of the highland and the cause of uplift The Earth can be considered to be composed of concentric shells (like an onion), the shells having different chemical compositions and density. The outermost shell is the Earth’s crust. It varies in thickness from 5 to 60 km and is relatively strong, but brittle. This crust is underlain by weaker shells that are collectively called the mantle. In eastern Australia the upper surface of the crust ranges from 2 km above sea level in the highlands down to 6 km below sea level in the adjacent deep oceans. The Earth’s surface tends to re- main reasonably flat because the mantle is not sufficiently strong to support greater topographic relief. The situation is like that of logs of wood of similar density floating in water; their top sur- face is only slightly above water level, Southeast highland and variations in this top level depend mainly on variations in log thickness. Some idea of the crustal structure under the eastern highlands of Australia can be found by explosion seismic studies. In this method seismic waves are generated by explosions. The time these waves take to travel through rock is determined for a range of distances. These measurements can be used to determine the variation of seismic wave velocity with increasing depth in the Earth. The results (Fig. 4) show the ex- pected pattern of increasing crustal thickness with increasing surface altitude. Under the Tasman Sea where the surface of the Earth is 5 km below sea level the crust is only about 5 km thick, in the Murray Basin where the surface is near sea level it is about 35 km thick, and in the eastern Highlands where the surface averages 1 km above sea level the crust is over 50 km thick in some places. The chemical composition and mineralogy of the Earth's crust and up- per mantle have been determined from study of igneous rocks. Many lava flows contain blocks of crust and mantle = Hæ- - g © E 3 E F m S á E § Ds » ee ee ee N, TASMAN SEA T ——————— — — T ESO. E N Water J aes e ——60—o vir T IP EL CS EAE ne acm M—65—5 CRUST UY? / -———————..- PSOE EL or Z á = vt zs Er ieee tt iE Sr a $^ a a 40 60 0 200 400 600 Distance (km) Fig. 4: Section of the Earth's crust under the southeastern highlands, The numbers give the seismic velocity in rock (kilometres per second); this is roughly proportional to rock density (data from Finlayson et al., 1979). 114 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 (xenoliths) that have been ripped off the walls of the deep fissure as the lava rush- ed upward from the mantle to the sur- face. The depth of origin of these xenoliths can be determined by chemically analysing the xenolith as a whole, and the minerals that they con- tain, and comparing these compositions with those of minerals crystallized in the laboratory at known temperatures and pressures. It has been found that with increasing depth there is a change in the composition of rocks and a change in the type and composition of minerals found. For continental land masses the mean rock composition near the surface is close to that of granite or quartz-rich sediments, while in the bottom half of the crust the rocks are somewhat denser and are similar to basalt in composition and mineral assemblage (Ferguson et al., 1979). The mantle beneath the crust is denser still and consists mainly of olivine and pyroxene crystals, plus a lit- tle basalt-like material. The minerals garnet and spinel replace the plagioclase found in basalt. Studies by Ewart et al., (1980) of the chemistry of the more common eastern Australian igneous rocks suggest that the molten rock from which they crystallized did not rise quickly from the source region in the mantle. The molten fraction of the mantle rose to the crust/mantle interface region and partly crystallized to form a basaltic intrusion, adding to the base of the crust (‘underplating’). The fluid that did not crystallize later rose quickly to the sur- face to form a lava flow. The uplift of the eastern highlands is thought to be due to an increase in crustal thickness by underplating with subsequent buoyant upward movement (isostatic movement). The uplift is unlikely to have been caused by upward bending of the crust without underplating, because there is good seismic evidence that the crust under the highland is thick (45-50 km). Also crustal thickening by such decreasing of May/June the horizontal extent of the crust is also unlikely to have caused the uplift, because thís would require a shortening of about 25 percent and there is no evidence for this on the surface. Shape of the eastern highlands The location of the highlands suggests that they were formed adjacent to, and caused by, the major continental breaks that caused the eastern and southern margins of the Australian continent. The highlands along the eastern coast of Australia are just west of the Tasman Sea basin, and the highlands in southern Victoria are just north of areas of sub- sidence in the Gippsland and Otway Ranges that were associated with the formation of the Southern Ocean basin. The present highlands are generally steepest on their eastern and southern margins. This is probably due mainly to the uplift mechanism having been stronger in the vicinity of the break in the crust. It could also be that the highland in this vicinity was already somewhat steeper 90 m.y. ago before uplift began. The width of the highland depends on the extent of the uplift forces, and also whether or not the crust has sufficient strength to spread the uplift forces and produce a wider and lower highland with the same mass above sea level. The evidence from gravity anomalies sug- gests that the crust in this area is relatively weak (Wellman, 1979b). Because the crust is weak the extent of the uplift is likely to have been almost solely controlled by, and therefore coin- cides with, the extent of the excess crustal thickness (Fig. 4). The amount of uplift in the last 80 m.y. varies both along the length of the highland, and across a section of the highland. Before uplift, it is likely that local relief was low and the streams had a low gradient, so the higher parts of the highlands would have had an altitude of only about 300 m, like the present western Victorian highlands. Many of 115 the higher parts of the present-day highlands are relatively flat (New England plateau, Blue Mountains, cen- tral Kosciusko National Park, Dargo High Plains), and where lava flows 40 m.y. old are at present associated with this relatively flat surface, they are only slightly above the present average topographic height, hence it is inferred that there has not been much erosion of the higher parts of the highland during the last 80 m.y. Assuming negligible ero- sion, the amount of uplift along the axis of the highlands would be between zero in the Hunter Valley and 1.5 km in the Snowy Mountains, and be generally bet- ween 0.7 and 1.0 km. Latitude: an indicator of yearly varia- tion in temperature The latitude of a landmass in the past can be determined from the magnetisa- tion of rocks. As a basalt flow cools, or sediments are deposited, tiny magnetic particles in the rock are preferentially aligned in the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field at that time. This original direction of magnetisation is often still preserved and can be measured. After correcting for later tilting of the rock, this direction can be used to calculate the distance and direc- tion from the Earth’s magnetic pole at the time the rocks were formed. The average position of this pole is the same as that of the spin axis of the Earth (the geographic pole), so the magnetisation of rocks can be used to determine the latitude in the past. By measuring rocks with a range of ages the change in the position of the pole relative to Australia has been Weter- mined. Figure 5 shows that the south pole has been moving southward relative to eastern Australia since about 100 m.y. ago. The latitude of Victoria has changed from about 70°S 100 m.y. ago to its present latitude of 38°S. We can account for most of the movement by the known drift of Australia north from 116 Antarctica at a rate of 67 mm per year starting 55 m.y. ago. The spin axis of the Earth is at present tilted at 23° relative to the axis of rota- tion around the sun. This angle was pro- bably the same 100 m.y. ago, so at that time Victoria (which was about 20° from the pole) had very short days in the winter, and very long days in the sum- mer. However, this may not have resulted in a large annual temperature range at places with high latitudes because heat was transferred between the low and high latitudes more rapidly in the past than at present (Truswell, 1981). Fig. 5: Movement of the south pole during the last 95 m. y. relative to Australia and the present latitude and longitude lines, The dots and triangles give estimated pole positions; dots give pole positions of known age but with a lower positional accuracy (after Idnurm and Senior, 1978). Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Mean annual temperatures Estimates of the mean annual temperature during the Cainozoic (since 65 m.y. ago) have been made by com- paring the distribution of fossil plants and animals with their present distribu- tion, and also, independently, by measuring the ratios of the two isotopes of oxygen (0-16 and 0-18) in the calcium carbonate from marine animals. This ratio is directly related to the temperature of the water in which the animals lived. Inferred New Zealand temperatures are extremely important because New Zealand had a latitude similar to that of Australia during the Cainozoic and its fossil flora and fauna are better known. The shallow marine fossils and oxygen isotope measure- ments for both southeast Australia and Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C) 65 54 38 New Zealand (Fig. 6; Gill, 1961a & b) show a warming during the period 65 to 55 m.y. ago (Paleocene), and then high temperatures from 55 to 15 m.y. ago (late Paleocene to middle Miocene) broken by lower temperatures during the early Oligocene (38 to 30 m.y. ago). These high temperatures were followed by a rapid cooling that started about 15 m.y. ago. Southern Ocean temperatures measured by Shackleton & Kennett (1975) indicate that the cooling of oceanic water started in the early Eocene (about 54 m.y. ago), but this pattern may not have applied to, and is not con- sistent with, the shallow marine inferred temperatures. The floral history of southeast Australia (Kemp, 1978) is similar to that of New Zealand (McQueen et al., 1968; AGE (m.y.) 23 7 2 0 Fig. 6: Cainozoic temperature changes in shallow marine seas (a) for New Zealand and (b) for southeastern Australia. Continuous and almost continuous lines are oxygen isotope results, for New Zealand from Devereux (1967), and for Australia from Dorman (1966) using Deveraux's method of calculating mean temperatures. The dotted line is inferred from palaeontology (Hornibrook, 1971). The stars show the times of short invasions of ‘tropical’ larger foraminifera (McGowran, 1979). May/June 117 Mildenhall, 1980). Podocarps were dominant 65 to 54 m.y. ago, and plants with tropical affinities became impor- tant about 50 m.y. ago, but many species had disappeared by 40 m.y. ago. The Nothofagus brassi group pollens (today forming high-altitude tropical forests) were important from 38 to 15 m.y. ago. There is strong floral evidence for rapid cooling starting about 15 m.y. ago. This floral history was interpreted by Kemp (1978) as indicating a warm- ing, followed by high temperatures in the Eocene (54 to 38 m.y. ago) and lower temperatures in the Oligocene (38 to 23 m.y. ago). In New Zealand the very similar floral history was interpreted by McQueen et al. (1968) and Mildenhall (1980) as indicating relatively high temperatures during the whole middle Cainozoic (54 to 10 m.y. ago) in agree- ment with the temperatures inferred from, and measured on, shallow marine fossils. Southeastern Australia was almost surrounded by water during part of the middle Cainozoic, and it had a lower altitude than at present. Consequently land temperatures are likely to have been similar to shallow marine temperatures, and to have had only a small annual temperature range. It is therefore likely that in southeast Australia the land temperatures were relatively high during the whole of the middle Cainozoic. The middle Cainozoic floras suggest closed rain- forest — forests with leaves intercepting most of the sunlight. Closed rainforests are thought to be restricted to humid climates. These inferred Cainozoic temperature changes are likely to have been due to a combination of the following two fac- tors. (1) Southeast Australia drifted north from high to middle latitudes star- ting 55 m.y. ago. This had a tendency to increase temperatures. (2) Polar temperatures decreased slightly during the early and middle Cainozoic, and then rapidly during the late Cainozoic 118 after the Antarctic ice cap started to form 20 m.y. ago. This greatly decreas- ed polar temperatures, but only slightly decreased equatorial temperatures. The fairly constant mean annual temper- atures inferred for southeast Australia during the middle Cainozoic could result from the above two factors cancelling each other. The decreasing temperatures for southeast Australia in the late Cainozoic were due to the very rapid decrease in polar temperatures at this time, only slightly offset by warming due to northward drift. Soils The soils of the Cainozoic would have differed from those of today, mainly because rainfall, temperature, and humidity would have been higher, and because the main vegetation was of clos- ed rainforest type. On the granites and old sediments there is scattered evidence for considerable chemical weathering of the soils to form leached, iron-rich and silica-rich deposits. This suggests that the soils were more weathered in the past than at present. However the closed rainforest would have been very effi- cient in recycling nutrients, so leached soils may not have limited plant growth. In the past, topographic relief would have been lower in the highlands, so there would have been few steepland soils of relatively high natural fertility, and less variation in microclimate. River flows would have been more regular, with a lower sediment load and higher amounts of organic matter in solution. In the mid-Cainozoic, basalts were much more extensive than today, but not continuous (cf. Galloway, 1967). Basalts are higher in plant nutrients than granites and old sediments. Consequent- ly with high rainfall, and therefore high watertables, basalts would probably have supported a high-mass, diverse rainforest. Conclusion This paper shows that studies of the geology, geophysics and geochemistry in Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 the southeastern highlands have made important advances during the last twenty years, and that some conclusions can be reached on the area’s present-day structure and its environmental history during the last 100 m.y. Topics that are at present being studied, but so far without conclusion, include the following: (1) The climatic and weathering history is being deter- mined by studying Cainozoic lake and river sediments and their spores and pollens, and by studying weathered soil profiles that have been dated by their magnetisation; (2) The mean heat flow through the upper layers of the highlands is being measured to deter- mine any regional heating of the crust by volcanic activity; (3) The lower crust under southeast Australia is being studied to determine whether Precam- brian (older than 600 m.y.) sediments underlie the area, and if so at what depth. Sediments of this age are thought to have melted at depth to provide the source of some of the granites in the area (Wyborn & Chappell, 1979). Acknowledgements I am grateful for discussion with E. M. Truswell, A. L. Jacques, G. C. H. Chaproniere and R. E. Barwick, and for comments on the draft paper by D. M. Finlayson, J. Lock, A. E. Wellman, A. M. Wheeler, and an anonymous reviewer. 1 wish to thank B. J. Pashley for drafting most of the figures. The paper is published by permission of the Director, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology & Geophysics, Canberra. REFERENCES Browne, W. R. 1969, Geomorphology of New South Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust. 16:559-569. Devereaux, 1. 1967. Oxygen isotope temperature measurements on New Zealand Tertiary fossils. N.Z. J. Science, 10:988-1011. Dorman, F. H. 1966. Australian Tertiary palaeotemperatures. J. Geol., 74:49-61. Ewart, A., Baxter, K. and Ross, J. A. 1980. The petrology and petrogenesis of the Tertiary anorogenic mafic lavas of southern and central Queensland, Australia — possible implications for crustal thickening. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 75:129-152. Ferguson, J., Arculus, R. J. and Joyce, J. 1979, Kimberlite and kimberlitic intrusives of southeastern Australia: a review. BMR J. Aust. Geol. Geophy., 4:227-241, May/June Finlayson, D, M., Prodehl, C. and Collins, C. D. N. 1979. Explosion seismic profiles, and implica- tions for crustal evolution, in southeastern Australia. BMR J. Aust. Geol. Geophy., 4:243-252. Frey, F. A., Green, D. H. and Roy, S. D. 1978. In- tegrated models of basaltic petrogenesis: A study of quartz tholeiites to olivine melilites from southeast Australia utilizing geochemical and petrological data. J. Petrol., 19:463-513. Galloway, R. W. 1967. Pre-basalt, sub-basalt, and post-basalt surfaces of the Hunter Valley, New South Wales. In Jennings, J. N. & Mabutt, J. A. (Eds), Landform studies in Australia and New Guinea, pp 293-414, Australian National Univer- sity Press, Canberra. Gibson, G. 1981. Victorian earthquakes 1976- 1981. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 28:341-356. Gill, E. D. 1971a. The climates of Gondwanaland in Cainozoic times. In Nairn, A. E. M. (Edit.) Descriptive Palaeoclimatology, pp. 332-353, In- terscience, New York. Gill, E. D. 1961b. Cainozoic climates of Australia. Ann. New York Acad, Science, 95:461-464. Green, D. H. 1972, Experimental melting studies on a model upper mantle composition at high pressure under water saturated and under- saturated conditions. Earth Planet. Sci. Letters 19:37-53. Hills, E. S. 1960. The physiography of Victoria. Whitcombe & Tombs, Melbourne. Hornibrook, N. de B. 1971. New Zealand Tertiary climate. N.Z. Geol. Surv. Rep. 47. Idnurm, M. and Senior, B. R. 1978, Palaeomagnetic ages of late Cretaceous and Ter- tiary weathered profiles in the Eromanga Basin, Queensland. Palaeogeog., Palaeoclim. Palaeoecol., 24:263-277. Jongsma, D. and Mutter, J. C. 1978. Non-axial breaching of a rift valley: evidence from the Lord Howe Rise and the southeastern Australian margin. Earth. Planet. Science Letters, 39:226-34. Kemp, E. M. 1978. Tertiary climatic evolution and vegetation history in the southeast Indian Ocean region. Palaeogeog. Palaeoclim. & Palaeoecol., 24:169-208. King, L. C. 1959. Denudation and tectonic relief of southeastern Australia. Trans. Proc. Geol. Soc. S. Africa, 62:113-38. McGowran, B. 1979, The Tertiary of Australia: Foraminiferal overview. Marine Micropalaeon- tology, 4:235-264. McQueen, D. R., Mildenhall, D. C. and Bell, C. J. E. 1968. Palaeobotanical evidence for changes in the Tertiary climates of New Zealand. Tuatara, 16:49-56. Mildenhall, D. C. 1980. New Zealand late Cretaceous and Cainozoic plant biogeography: a contribution. Palaeogeog. Palaeoclim. Palaeoecol. 31:197-233. 119 Shackleton, N. J. and Kennett, J. P. 1975. Palaeotemperature history of the Cainozoic and the initiation of Antarctic glaciation: oxygen and carbon isotope analyses in DSDP sites 277, 279, 281. In: /nitial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 29. pp. 743-755. U.S. Government Prin- ting Office, Washington. Truswell, E. M. 1981. Antarctica: The vegetation of the past and its climatic implications. Antarctica: weather & climate, 11-13 May 1981, Melbourne Australia. Conference preprints edited by N. W. Young. Weissel, J. K. and Hayes, D. E. 1972. Magnetic anomalies in the southeast Indian Ocean. In: D. E. Hayes (Edit.), Antarctic Oceanography, II: the Australian-New Zealand sector. pp. 165-196. An- tar. Res. Ser. 19, Am. Geophy. Union, Washington. Weissel, J. K. and Hayes, D. E. 1977. Evolution of the Tasman Sea reappraised. Earth Plan. Sci. Lett., 36:77-84. Wellman, P. 1979a. On the Cainozoic uplift of the southeastern Australian highland. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 26:1-9. Wellman, P. 1979b. On the isostatic compensation of Australian topography. BMR J. Aust. Geol. Geophy., 4:373-382. Wellman, P. 1981. Crustal movement from repeat surveying: results from southeastern and southwestern Australia. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 28: 311-321. Wellman, P. and McDougall, I. 1974. Cainozoic igneous activity in eastern Australia. Tectonophysics, 23:49-65. Wyborn, L. A. and Chappell, B. W. 1979. Geochemical evidence for the existence of a pre- Ordovician sedimentary layer in south-eastern Australia (Abstract). Bur. Miner. Resour. Aust. Record 1979/2, 104. Australian Natural History Medallion Fund Amount on hand February 1982 $1683.50 Society for Growing Australian Plants (Melbourne) (2nd Donation) Gosford District Wildlife Conservation Society Malacological Society Victoria Royal Society of Victoria. (3rd Donation) Total amount April 1982 100.00 10.00 10.00 50.00 $1853.50 The Victorian Naturalist — Back Issues Available One set only Volume 58 to Volume 98. Other sets available from Vol. 60. Issues of back numbers available (incomplete) start from Volume 12. Enquire from Sales Officer F.N.C.V. 120 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Will the Construction of A New Harbour at Lorne Destory the Beach? By EDMUND D. GILL* AND N. H. MCNEILL** Lorne, on Loutit Bay, Otway coast of Victoria, is famous as a holiday resort because it combines a beautiful beach with forested hills. Small fishing boats operate from Lorne, but after use they have to be lifted on to the pier for pro- tection against the strong swell waves. The fishermen wish to use larger vessels, but this would necessitate a more pro- tected harbour. A very important ques- tion is what environmental changes would result, Will the beach, a basic resource for this holiday resort, be modified or lost? This is a relevant ques- tion because unexpected and undesirable changes to the coast have accompanied the construction of Victorian outer ports. For example, at Apollo Bay, S.W. of Lorne, the harbour has sanded up considerably, an unwanted dune has grown between the main street and the beach, and erosion has occurred further round the bay. Anatomy of Loutit Bay The only way to forecast what effect a new harbour will have on Lorne beach is to define the present shoreline processes, then calculate how the new structure will affect them. No amount of computing and modelling will provide the answer until it is known what factors need com- puting and modelling. Although Loutit Bay is open, the high hills on the south side shelter the beach from the strong cool south and southwest winds. Both shores are rocky with varying amounts of backshore sand. The west shore follows the strike of the strata, while the strike on the south shore is oblique. On both shores the strata dip gently seawards. This * 1/47 Wattle Valley Road, Canterbury, Victoria 3126. ** 23 Dorman Street, Lorne, Victoria 3232. May/June geological structure accounts in part for the presence of the bay (Medwell 1971). Where the two shores meet, the Er- skine River debouches. Lorne's excellent beach is the shore face of a sand spit that deflects the river to the north, hard against the rocky limits of the bay. When sea level was low during the Ice Age, the Erskine River cut a valley across what is now Loutit Bay. This also contributed to the forming of the bay. Fig. 1. The beach at Lorne at low tide. Note the groyne in the distance (which see in Figure 2). A cur- rent flowing towards the groyne maintains the sand supply higher on the viewer's side. Photo by N. H. McNeill. Fig. 2. Telephoto of the north end of Lorne beach, showing the groyne and the mouth of the Erskine river deflected against the rocky limit of the bay. The purpose of the groyne is to increase the amount of sand on Lorne beach. It shows that the longshore current is moving north away from the viewer. In the background is North Lorne. Photo by N. H. McNeill. 121 As the sea rose, this valley was filled with sand brought down the river, and sand brought in by longshore currents. Sand still moves along the coast, and the question of the effect of a new harbour is to what extent it will interrupt this natural sand movement that nourishes the beach. River of Sand Most beaches are rivers of sand, ever on the move. This year’s Lorne beach has different sand from last year’s. Sand has drifted away and new sand has taken its place. A beach is a dynamic struc- ture, with a budget of sand arriving and sand departing. There are two processes whereby sand is propelled alongshore. Firstly, waves oblique to the shore push the sand along. This is normal in England, for example, where short period waves generated by local storms push the sand along. By contrast, the waves on open beaches in southern Australia are long period ones generated in the very energetic Southern Ocean. They ‘‘feel’’ the seafloor far out on the continental shelf and align themselves so as to arrive parallel to the shore. They do not propel sand alongshore. A professor from the United Kingdom skilled in shoreline studies was asked what impressed him most about the Victorian coast. **That the waves ar- rive parallel to the shore,’’ he said. On most Victorian beaches sand is lifted from the seafloor by the waves, but wind-generated currents keep the river of sand moving alongshore. At Warr- nambool this type of sand movement has been studied in detail and quantified (Gill 1978), because it is important for coastal engineering ànd conservation (Gill 1979, 1980). Wind-generated cur- rents move at about 2% of the wind speed. Tidal currents also occur, but as the tidal range is small the currents are weak. Where the sand moving longshore is of a unique color or grade, its movement is easy to follow, but this does not hap- 122 pen often. Where clayey river waters enter the ocean then move parallel to the shore, they show the presence of a longshore current and its direction. A sand spit does the same. Thus the spit at Lorne that deflects the Erskine River to the north tells us there is a northerly cur- rent there. The piling of sand on the south side of the groyne (Fig. 2) tells us the same thing. Thus a degree of sand starvation on the north side of the groyne has led to some erosion there, countered by the emplacement of some large rock masses. Sand Movement in Loutit Bay The south shore of Loutit Bay is too protected for wind-generated currents to be effective, but surprisingly (for Vic- toria) there are oblique waves to propel the sand. Point Grey (see air photo in Gill 1977) juts into the sea and the waves coming round it do not have time to align themselves to the south shore, so pass at an angle to it. These waves pro- vide the energy that keeps sand arriving at Lorne beach. But the oblique waves end at the Life Saving Club, and so this system does not extend very far. At the outer edge of the shore platform at Doble Street the top of the sand is at about mean sea level, down to near mean low water at Doble Street (so that the sea squirt Pyura is present), and beyond that it drops below low water level so that kelp (Durvillea) is present. In connection with a micro-erosion meter measurement of rock wear on this coast (Gill and Lang 1982), a survey was made from Jump Rock to Albert Street near Lorne Hospital. During this survey, the sand levels were accurately checked. Danger to Lorne Beach Having learnt the nature of the rele- vant coastal processes, we can answer the question whether harbour construc- tion will harm Lorne beach. If such con- struction interrupts the flow of sand along the south shore of Loutit Bay that Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 nourishes the beach, then the beach will suffer. Any harbour works must be planned so that the feeder stream of sand is not interrupted. REFERENCES GILL, E. D., 1977. Evolution of the Otway coast from the Last Interglacial to the present. Proc. R, Soc. Vict. 89: 7-18. GILL, E. D., 1978, Quantification of coastal pro- cesses as a basis for coastal management and engineering, 4th Aust. Conf. Coast. Ocean Engin, pp. 213-216. GILL, E. D., 1979, Coastal erosion S.W., Portland Bay, Victoria. CSIRO Div, Appl. Geomechanics Tech. Rep. 94: 18 pp. GILL, E. D., 1980, Coastal processes and harbour development — an example from Warrnambool, S.E, Australia, 17th. Internat, Coast, Engin. Conf. pp. 40-42, GILL, E. D., and LANG, J. G. In preparation. MEDWELL, G. J., 1971. Structures of the Otway Ranges. Spec. Bull, Geol, Surv. S. Aust, & Vict. pp. 339-359, Notes on the Range Extension of the Alpine Water Skink (Sphenomorphus kosciuskoi) in Victoria By IAN MANSERGH* The Alpine Water Skink (Sphenomorphus kosciuskoi) was first discovered in Victoria at Davies Plain, East Gippsland, in January 1975, by staff of the National Museum of Victoria (NMV) (Coventry and Robertson 1980). Despite extensive searching by Coven- try and Robertson (1980) in other suitable areas (e.g. Bogong High Plains), all subse- quent records were within 15 km of the N.S.W.-Victorian border and they suggested that the Victorian population represented merely a small southward extension of the known range in N.S.W. In February, 1981, I captured a specimen 1 km N of Mt Cope, on the Bogong High Plains (36° 55' S, 147° 17' E; NMV D55111; Fig. 1). Thus this record extends the known range of the Alpine Water Skink 80 km WSW, but since there have been no extensive searches in the intervening areas it is not known whether the range is continous, or dis- junct as in N.S.W. (Cogger 1979). All Vic- torian specimens have been taken from areas above 1400 m although in N.S.W. the skink occurs in areas above 1000 m (Jenkins and Bartell 1980). The habitat where the Mt Cope specimen was taken was a sphagnum bog, similar to that described at other Victorian * Fisheries and Wildlife Division, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, 123 Brown Street, Heidelberg, Victoria, 3084. May/June localities (Coventry and Robertson 1980). The Alpine Water Skink was the only skink observed at the Mt Cope site although the cool temperate form of S. tympanum was noted in apparently similar habitat 4 km N, around the Rocky Valley Storage Dam. Coventry and Robertson (1980) noted that the known habitat of the Alpine Water Skink in East Gippsland was being threatened by trampling and grazing. Similar conditions were evidenced at the Mt Cope site, and these factors should be considered in the future management of the species. Acknowledgements Thanks are due to Ken Norris (Fisheries and Wildlife) and John Coventry (NMV) for their assistance in positively identifying the specimen, J. Cooper (F&W) reproduced the photograph, REFERENCES Cogger, H. G., 1979. Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia, revised ed., A. H. and A. W. Reed, Sydney. Coventry, A. J. and P. Robertson, 1980. New records of Scincid lizards from Victoria. Victorian Nat, 97: 190-193, Jenkins, R. and R. Bartell, 1980. A field guide to reptiles of the Australian high country. Inkata, Melbourne. 123 . Fig. 1. The Alpine Water Skink (Sphenomorphus kosciuskoi) in situ one km N of Mt Cope, Victoria. Errata Vol. 99 (1) Vol. 99 (2) P.40, Col. 1, Par. 4 — for ‘‘nine metres’’ read 12 P.53 — the captions for the two figures should be metres high. exchanged. P.40, Col. 2, Par. 2 — for ‘‘repidium’’ read P.67 — the final paragraph should appear at the rhipidium end of the discussion on p.69. P.40, Col. 2, Line 9 from bottom — for ''Denn- staeditaceae’’ read Dennstaedtiaceae P.40, Col. 2, Line 8 from bottom — for **Histiopsis'' read Histiopteris P.40, Col. 2, Line 4 from bottom — for ‘‘Lind- sayaceae"' read Lindsaeaceae P.41, Col. 1, Line 2 — for ''Teadia'' read Tender brake P.41, Col. 2, Line 11 from bottom — for ‘‘obligua’’ read obliqua P.4, Col 2, Dine 11] “tesselata” read tessellata P.42, Col. 1, Line 15 — for **Compholobium"' read Gompholobium P.42, Col. 1, Line 16 — for ‘‘heugelii’’ read huegelii P.42, Col. 1, Line 25 — for ‘‘Swainsonia’’ read Swainsona P.42, Col. 1, Line 26 — for ‘‘lessertifolia’’ read lessertiifolia from bottom — for P.42, Col. 2, Line 1 — for ''Exocarpus" read Exocarpos P.42, Col. 2, Line 5 from bottom — for “Avicenna” read Avicennia 124 P.76, Col. 1, Line 17 from bottom — for *Uticularia'' read Utricularia P.76, Col. 1, Line 9 from bottom — for ''heugelii'* read huegelii P.76, Col. 1, Line 8 from bottom — for "'ecoststum"' read ecostatum P.76, Col. 2, caption under “tumerensis’’ read toomansis P.77, Col. 1, Line 2 — for ‘‘disocarpa’’ read discocarpa P.78, Col. 1, Line 3 from bottom — for “Dicnemolome’’ read Dicnemoloma P.78, Col. 1, Last line — for *'billardierc'' read photo. — for billardieri P.78, Col. 2, under List of Fungi — for “cyanothantha” read cyanoxantha P.78, Col. 2, under List of Fungi — for “Cymatodeoma"’ read Cymatoderma P.78, Col. 2, under List of Fungi — for ‘‘Daldina"’ read Daldinia P.78, Col. 2, under List of Fungi — for ‘‘repidium’’ read rhipidium P.76, Col. 1, Line 38 — for ‘‘juniperinum"’ read “laevigatum” P.77, Fig. 3 caption — read Calacdenia carnea var. gigantea. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Book Review “Flora of Australia", Volume 1 (Introduction) Bureau of Flora and Fauna, Canberra (Griffin Press, Netley, S. Aust.) 25.5 x 18 cm, 200 pp., 5 col. plates, 26 fig. ISBN 0-642-06652-3 (case bound) Price $12.50 There is only one modern taxonomic treat- ment of all the vascular plants in a contiment, viz Flora Europaea Vols. 1-5 (1964-1980). Australian botanists are still using the text of George Bentham's Flora Australiensis, in seven volumes (1863-1878); this very useful standard work contains descriptions of 8125 species, about half of the vascular flora known to occur in Australia at the present time. The need for a new continental flora becomes increasingly urgent, so one welcomes the initial book in a series of at least 48 volumes that will systematically cover all Australian flowering plants, cycads, con- ifers and ferns, both indigenous and naturalized. This first volume is purely introductory, but should be followed early in 1982 by a monograph on the Solanaceae (Vol. 29). Five contributors to the present book have written on: the ‘‘Background to the Flora of Australia’’ (22 pages by Mr Alex S. George); “The Australian Flora: its Origin and Evolu- tion” (42 pp. by Dr Bryan A. Barlow); ‘‘An Introduction to the System of Classification'" (29 pp. by Dr Andrew Kanis) ''Key to Families of Flowering Plants” (56 pp. by Dr H. T. Clifford); and '*Glossary'' (29 pp., in- cl. 4 with illustrations, by Dr Alison Mc- Cusker). All of these chapters are pertinent and excellently presented. Alex George's ‘“‘Background’’ admirably sets out the history of sundry endeavours to up-date last century's Flora Australiensis by Bentham — a remarkable achievement by one man in 16 years. A brief summary of the last significant years of that history seems ap- propriate. At the instigation of Dr Hansjoerg Eichler and Professor Joseph G. Wood (then practis- ing botanists in South Australia), the subject of a National Flora was placed on the agenda at the 33rd ANZAAS Congress held in Adelaide during August 1958. After extensive discussion, ANZAAS set up a seven-man Flora of Australia Committee to prepare May/June detailed plans, with estimates, for presenta- tion to its next meeting in Perth (August 1959). The Committee worked hard, and adoption of its report by ANZAAS resulted in an approach to the Prime Minister’s Department which, in turn, referred the mat- ter for further study and recommendations to the Australian Academy of Science. The Academy tied the Flora of Australia project to a much wider biological survey (including fauna) of the continent; but the Government in 1960 expressed inability to finance such a scheme. So the matter rested until April 1967, when ANZAAS again contacted the Prime Minister, urging support for a new National Flora, and once more the proposal was thrown into the lap of the Academy of Science. A Flora and Fauna Committee was immediately appointed by the Academy to examine this new proposal — the present reviewer was a member of this committee, also of the succeeding Standing Committee for a Flora of Australia established by the Academy in November 1971. In 1973, with formation by the Govern- ment of an Interim Council of the Australian Biological Resources Study (‘‘ABRS’’), a small trickle of financial support became available for botanical taxonomic and ecological studies (including the curation of collections). Finally, in March 1979, the ABRS Advisory Committee was appointed by the Minister for Science and it recom- mended that work on a consise Flora of Australia begin at once and be completed within the next 30 years. The consolidating administrative step was taken in November 1979, with establishment of a Bureau of Flora and Fauna under the federal Department of Science and Environment. Thus, after more than two decades of uncertainty and frustra- tion, a modern flora of our continent was at last under way, having experienced in the words of A. S. George ‘‘a long gestation and a difficult birth." Dr Bryan Barlow’s biogeographical story of the Australian flora is equally fascinating and informative. With a series of maps he ex- plains the disposition of land and sea from the disintegration of the large continental mass, Gondwanaland, beginning in the Cretaccous period (65-135 million years before present), to recent time. At least 125 throughout and since the Miocene epoch (10- 27 million years BP), Australia has been drif- ting northward at rates as much as 7.4 cm per year, and the high endemism of its existing flora can only be explained by a long develop- ment in geographical isolation on fairly stable land surfaces. The fluctuations of climate (particularly wet and successively very arid periods) have undoubtedly sifted and modified the flora and dependent fauna. Barlow refers to previous writers, and their theories, on plant migration routes; he believes that undue importance has been at- tached to land bridges. Torres and Bass Straits are seen more as ecological boundaries than geographical barriers to more recent migration. ‘‘The absence from Tasmania of so many families which occur elsewhere in south-eastern australia is probably due main- ly to the small area of the island and its limited habitat diversity; most of the families now absent probably never occurred there.” From the artificial system of Linnaeus (1751-54) to natural phylogenetic schemes of the 19th century, Dr Andrew Kanis provides an outline of plant classifications by leading taxonomists. In greater detail he explains the systems used by seven modern 20th century authors (A. Engler, J. Hutchinson, H. K. Airy Shaw, A. Takhtajan, A. Cronquist, R. F. Thorne and R. M. T. Dahlgren), sum- marising their agreements and differences in treating taxa above the rank of family. The 1981 edition of Arthur Cronquist's The Evolution and Classification of Flowering Plants has been adopted as the framework for the new Flora of Australia. The simple, numbered key to plant families by Dr Trevor Clifford (University of Queensland) is a model of its kind and will prove increasingly useful as the Flora of Australia proceeds toward completion. For instance, if a leafless parasitic twiner of lucerne paddocks keys to the family Cuscutaceae (true dodders), the alphabetical index to families on the rear end-covers in each volume will show that Vol. 30 contains an account of this small group. Clifford's key has stood the test of repeated trial identifica- tions, but there are a few sections where one may strike difficulty. Thus on page 162, sec- tion 826, ‘‘Leaves alternate" should be ex- panded to read “Leaves alternate or in whorls", leading to Casuarinaceae and Haloragraceae; while on page 163, section 838, *'Plants of marine or brackish habitats” leads to six families which do not include Juncaginaceae, yet several juncaginaceous species (of Triglochin) grow habitually in or around salt-marshes. The concluding Glossary by Dr Alison Mc- Cusker affords crisp definitions of every con- ceivable botanic term in common use, as they apply to vascular plants — even such unusual adjectives as didynamous and quincuncial are there. The first two colour plates attrac- tively portray the floral emblems of Com- monwealth and seven States, while the historical section is enhanced by full-page black-and-white portraits of five important 19th century workers on Australian plants — G. Bentham, R. Brown, J. Lindley, J. D. Hooker and F. J. H. Mueller. For any serious student of floristics or plant ecology, access to this and subsequent volumes of the new Flora is a ‘sine qua non’. — J. H. Willis Books on Eucalypts Two publications on Eucalypts have been issued by Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service (P.O, Box 636, Canberra City, A.C.T., 2601). They are Special Pub- lication 5 “Australian Endangered Species: Eucalypts" by L. D. Pryor, and Special Publication 6 ''The Natural Distribution of Eucalyptus in Australia" by George M. Chip- pendale and Ludek Wolf. In Special Publication 5, Pryor lists 62 species which are considered endangered in their natural state because of their very restricted occurrence or changes in land use threatening their habitat. Some, however, are 126 reasonably safeguarded in national parks or reserves. (I cannot agree that E. yarraensis is "one of most threatened of eucalypt species.’’ Certainly the odd trees surviving on farms have little chance of regeneration but it is far wider-spread than has been generally recognized.) Each species is described with an accompanying photo and map of Australia showing major grid in which it has been found. Special Publication 6, after a few pages of introductory information, lists every known eucalyptus species under the name of each of the over 500 maps of the Australian National Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 1:250,000 grids (each 1° latitude x 1%° longitude), on centre pages is a map of Australia showing each grid, and the latter half of book consists of smaller maps show- ing on which grids each species occurs. This all combines an immense amount of work and should be a great aid in extending knowledge of distribution and provide the basis for more detailed mapping within major grids. The computer data for this mammoth col- lection is based on records in Australian and British herbaria, and unfortunately, for Vic- toria, this has resulted in a number of ob- vious errors, possibly because some facts of distribution are so well known they have never been recorded. Examples of important omissions are: St Arnaud — E. melliodorea; Colac — E. regnans, E. radiata; Tallangatta — E. camaldulensis. Also some errors may have arisen from lack of awareness of the geographic boundaries of the major grids, e.g. maybe the inclusion of E. perriniana and E. stellulata on the Melbourne grid has resulted from confusion with the larger Melbourne Study Area of the Land Conser- vation Council. Therefore, for this State, the data should be compared with Costermans) maps and Beauglehole's?) checklists. Pat Carolan (1/92 Were St., Brighton) REFERENCES 1. Costermans, L. 1981. Native Trees and Shrubs of South Eastern Australia. Rigby. 2. Beauglehole, A. C. 1980. Victorian Vascular Plant Checklists. Western Victorian Naturalists Clubs Association — Portland. E. Davis & Sons Pty. Ltd. (Major Grid maps can be purchased from National Mapping Division and numerous map sellers.) Skin-sloughing by Pseudechis porphyriacus By P. E. HORNSBY* During a recent visit to the Adelaide Zoo, my son and I were able to watch the complete process of a Red-bellied Black Snake Pseudechis porphyriacus shedding its skin. The movements of the snake when first seen suggested the sequence was about to com- mence, with the snake running its head through the grass with repeated corkscrew movements. After about ten such movements, it had succeeded in loosening the skin from the front of its head. What follow- ed may be categorised in three discrete stages. For the first stage, it continued to work its head and foreparts through the tough dry basal stems of the couch grass in the enclosure, with the skin gradually peeling back. This lasted until about 15 cm of the skin had been removed. It then began instead to remove the skin by rhythmical movements of its own body. It would contract itself about the last section where the old skin had been folded back, and then distend its body ahead of the fold, at the same time pressing down so as to ‘‘hold’”’ the old skin. This se- quence was repeated in rapid succession, gradually easing itself forward and out of the * Nent Oura Research Unit, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, S.A. 5000. May/June old skin, which in turn was being slid back in- side out over its body, like removing a glove. The position of these muscular movements showed that it had fine control over the siting of the distal part of the actions, since these were concentrated at precisely the point where the skin was being removed. However this was not a localised action as the movements were occurring over a length of the snake well to the fore of the sloughing point. This suggests that the snake is capable of accumulative muscular activities, but not localised ones. In other words, if it wants to flex its muscles in one part of its length, it achieves this by gross movement up to and in- cluding the desired spot, but not necessarily beyond it. The process of shedding its skin became increasingly difficult as it reached the point of greatest girth and this was the only point at which the skin started splitting as it passed over. In the full sunlight, with a shade temperature of 36°C, the snake seemed to find this an exhausting exercise and it stopped for a drink just before, and just after, the sec- tion of greatest girth. After the second drink, it unsuccessfully attempted to crawl under another snake. It was then onto the third stage for removing its skin. At this juncture, it ceased the muscular 127 movements and instead looped itself about so that its forward end was lying across the lower part just beyond the point the slough had reached. It then pressed down with its foreparts while easing the end part out from underneath. It repeated this sequence about three times, repositioning itself for a better grip after each sequence. The shedding became progressively easier towards the end, with the reduction in the snake's girth. The final 10 cm was easily removed, with the snake merely lying on the old skin, now well beyond its body. The action took place in the early after- noon in mid-November, and lasted approxi- mately 13 minutes. The unbroken skin was subsequently measured at 142 cm. It was also interesting to note that the dark pigmentation was visible throughout the length of the sloughed skin and particularly on the skull, but none of the pink underbody colour could be seen. A new record of the New Holland Mouse (Pseudomys novaehollandiae) from Anglesea, Victoria. By KATHRYN M. KENTISH* The New Holland mouse (Pseudomys novaehollandiae Waterhouse, 1843), a species of native rodent endemic to Australia, was recorded in the Anglesea district during May, 1981. This is now the western-most record for this species, which previously had not been captured further west than Langwarrin on the Mornington Peninsula (Dixon, 1975). Fossil evidence indicates that the distribution of P. novaehollandiae once extended into areas of western Victoria (Mahoney and Marlow, 1968). However, recent Victorian records have been restricted to coastal areas of eastern Victoria between Melbourne and Lakes Entrance (Watts and Aslin, 1981). The species also occurs widely, though patchily, from the northern coast of New South Wales to just south of Sydney, and is also found in the north- east of Tasmania (Watts and Aslin, 1981), The récent discovery of 2; novaehollandiae in the Anglesea district was made during a small-mammal trap- ping survey, which was part of a general ecological study of the area being under- taken by our research group at Deakin University. The 4 ha. grid was trapped * Division of Biological and Health Sciences School of Science Deakin University Waurn Ponds, 3217. 128 for 4-day periods in May, August, September, and October (1981). A total of 9 individuals has been caught (7 males, 2 females). One male, caught on 23 May, is lodged at the National Museum of Victoria, Melbourne (Registration No. C24995); all others were released at their point of capture. The trapping site occurs on a well- drained slope down from a stony ridge. The dominant habitat type is open woodland (Specht, 1970) of Brown Str- ingybark Eucalyptus baxteri, with a low (25-40cm.), generally dense understorey of heath plants. (Dominant species are Common Heath Epacris impressa, Myr- tle Wattle Acacia myrtifolia, Dwarf She- Oak Cassuarina pusilla, Silver Banksia Banksia marginata, Meath Tea-tree Leptospermum myrsinoides, Showy Parrot-pea Dillwynia sericea, Smooth Parrot-pea D. glaberrima, Honey-pots Acrotriche serrulata, Common Flat-pea Platylobium obtusangulum, and Wire Rapier-sedge Lepídosperma semiteres.) Occasional dense stands of taller (1-4m) shrubs (Sweet Wattle Acacia suaveolens and a stunted, many-stemmed form of the Narrow-leaf Peppermint Eucalyptus radiata) also occur. This type of vegeta- tion corresponds to descriptions of the preferred habitat of P. novaehollandiae recorded from previous studies (Keith and Calaby, 1968; Posamentier and Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Recher, 1974; Braithwaite and Gullan, 1978). Other small mammal species captured in this trapping area include the mar- supial mice Brown Antechinus Antechinus stuartii and White-footed Dunnart Sminthopsis leucopus and the introduced rodent House Mouse Mus musculus. Swamp Rat Rattus lutreolus lutreolus and Swamp Antechinus Antechinus minimus have also been caught here in a wetter, more densely- vegetated patch. Further trials are being conducted, both on this grid and in other areas of similar habitat, in order to determine more precisely the distribution and abundance of P. novaehollandiae in the Anglesea district. Acknowledgements I should like to acknowledge with gratitude the assistance of ALCOA of Australia Ltd., which is funding this research; Joan Dixon, Curator of the Department of Mammalogy, National Museum of (Continued from inside back cover) Naturalist. A grant from the Victorian Government and from the Ingram Trust, and interest from investments, have enabled all accounts to be met leav- ing a surplus of $3.00! Nevertheless, the Club is in a sound financial position. The remarkable profit from book sales conducted by Mr Dan McInnes cannot be used for general expenses because it is earmarked for Club im- provements. As well as augmenting the Club Improvement Fund by $2248, this service saved members a similar amount in the books they bought. Election of Officers and Council Members. Officers elected: President Miss Wendy Clark, Vice-President Dr Brian Smith, Secretary Mrs Sheila Houghton, Treasurer Mr David Dunn, Editor Mr Robert Wallis, Assistant Editor Mr Dane Panetta, Excursion Secretary Miss Marie Allender, Pro- gramme Secretary Miss Cathie Zerbe, Assistant Librarian Miss Madge Lester. Offices vacant: Assistant Secretary, Assistant Treasurer, Librarian. May/June Victoria, for identifying the mouse; and Dr A, Bourne, for helpful comments on the manuscript. REFERENCES Braithwaite, R. W. and Gullan, P. K. 1978. Habitat selection by small mammals in a Victorian heathland. Aust J. Ecol. 3: 109-27. Dixon, J. M. 1975, Notes on the New Holland Mouse, Pseudomys novaehollandiae. In Langwarrin Military Reserve: Ecological Evalua- tion for the Shire of Cranbourne. Winty Calder Centre for Environmental Studies. Keith, K. and Calaby, J. H. 1968. The New Holland mouse, Pseudomys novaehollandiae (Waterhouse), in the Port Stephens district, New South Wales C.S.I. R.O. Wildlife Research. 13: 45-58. Mahoney, J. A. and Marlow, B. J. 1968. The rediscovery of the New Holland mouse. Aust. J. Sci. 31, (6): 221-3. Posamentier, H. J. and Recner, H. F. 1974, The status of Pseudomys novaehollandiae (the New Holland mouse). Aust, Zool. 18, (2): 66-71. Specht, R. L. 1970. Vegetation. In Leeper, G. W. (ed.) The Australian Environment .C.S.I.R.O., Melbourne. Watts, C. H. S. and Aslin, H. J. 1981, The Rodents of Australia. Angus and Robertson, Melbourne. members elected: P.Carardine, D.Dunn, J.Grusovin, S.Houghton, D.Lee, J.Scott, E.Turner, H.Weatherhead, C.Zerbe, plus the President (W.Clark) and Vice-President (B.Smith). Other appointments were: Minutes Secretary A.Walker, Conservation Co- ordinator M.Turner, Club Reporter M.Lester, CCV Representative D.Lee. Speaker for the evening was Dr Bill Birch, Curator of Mineralogy at the Na- tional Museum. Speaking on minerals in Victoria, Dr Birch said that Victoria has only about 10% of the 3000 species of world minerals. He defined minerals as natural-occurring chemical compounds and usually occurring as crystals. He showed a geological map of Victoria and directed our attention to five main zones — the granites, basalts, old sedimen- tary, young sedimentary, and the oldest rocks Cambrian. Then followed slides of representative minerals obtained from those five types of rocks. The shapes of crystals and variety of colours are quite astonishing to a novice. Council M.Allender, 129 Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Reports of recent activities General Meeting Monday 15 March Mr Ros Garnet received the Order of Australia at the Australia Day honours. We congratulate Ros that his work for conservation and natural history has been recognised in this manner. Speaker for the evening was Miss Margaret Blakers of the RAOU on the Bird Atlas. The project was started in 1976 working on a grid system to plot the distribution and breeding distribu- tion of birds in Australia. Some 2600 observers, mostly from bird groups, contributed information to nine regional directors, from whence data was passed to HQ and stored in a computer data bank. The project was closed in 1981 and is now bieng prepared for publica- tion next year. The atlas will also include comparison with records of three earlier periods: before 1901, 1901-50, 1951-76. During the project special expeditions were made to several regions beyond the usual observation areas. Miss Blakers showed slides of such a trip to the Great Sandy Desert south of the Kimberleys in Western Australia, a region not visited by white men since Dale Carnegie’s trip of 1896. 23 people with 11 vehicles took part, all voluntary and all at their own expense. Surveyors in the party marked the grid divisions as they went along. Exhibits. There were several large maps etc. relevant to the Bird Atlas. A toadstool about 18cm across (7") with a stalk almost as long was probably Lepiota gracilenta. A specimen of the NSW Pink Tea-tree Leptospermum squarossum displayed its large pink flowers which occur in autumn and winter, A sprig of Black Wattle carried a bulky gall, cause not known. Under microscopes were some beetles and various stages of a leaf-eating beetle Paropsis atomaria — a frill of eggs round a stalk at base of leaf, a larva (about 3mm) feeding on a leaf, and the adult beetle (about 1cm). 130 Volcanoes Excursion Sunday 4 April With Graham Love as leader, we went to Broadmeadows, then turned north along Mickleham Road — the old road to Sydney. Before reaching Mickleham we took a road to the left for a short distance. With Mt Crowes behind us, we had a wide view to the south. Immediately ahead was Mt Fairbank with Aitkin Hill to the left. They are little more than rounded hillocks although Mt Crowes is larger and higher. But from one million to 20 million years ago one or other of them was actively volcanic, and their lava flows filled valleys and caused streams to alter direction more than once. They are three of the many small volcanoes that created the great basalt plain of western Victoria. A blue-tongue lizard by the roadside added further interest to this stop. We continued along Old Sydney Road — the route used by horse vehicles for it follows ridges while the present Sydney road (Hume Highway) is in valleys and was often swampy and difficult for horse-drawn traffic. Somewhere north of Mickleham the terrain changed — no longer flattish with gentle rounded hills, but less rounded hills with erosion and gullying; we had left the lava and were on silurian soils. We continued around the west side of Pretty Sally, still on silurian, and lun- ched at Kilmore. As we entered the town several bluestone buildings caught the eye. Bluestone, of course, is the builders’ term for basalt or lava. We returned via the Hume Highway, and shortly after passing the peak of Pretty Sally we were again on lava. At Beveridge we took an easterly road to see the quarry at Mt Frazer (Mt Bland). The quarried material is dark reddish brown with a somewhat foamy (Continued on inside back cover) Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 texture — scoria emitted by explosive action instead of the viscous lava flows of the other volcanoes. Returning to the Highway we paused at Kalkallo. Now it consists of a garage and a few houses but was a substantial town in the coaching days of the 1850s. The bluestone shell of a church is the only sign of its former importance. Like all excursions led by Graham Love, this was full of geological and historical information, only a fraction of which can be reported here. But we each received pages to be read at leisure. We thank Graham for a very interesting day, supplemented by sunny mild weather. General Meeting Monday 19 April Speaker for the evening was Dr Elizabeth Turner on Volcanoes of Hawaii. First Dr Turner spoke briefly of the structure of our planet, of plate tec- tonics, and the different kinds of volcanoes. The string of islands forming the Hawaii archipelago has arisen by volcanic action. There has been no volcanic activity in the extreme north- west islands for 6 million years, but the period of inactivity is progressively reduced as one moves down the string to Hawaii at the south-east end. Here is one of the largest active volcanoes in the world — Mauna Loa. There was an eruption in 1976 and Dr Turner visited the area in 1981 when the lava was still hot. Dr Turner showed a film of the volcano during its eruption, a film taken by herself of the strenuous activities of the 1981 tourist party, and spoke of the facilities of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory situated almost on the rim of Kilauea crater. Our Kinglake property now costs $165 in annual rates and it is proposed to form a ‘‘Friends of Kinglake” group to raise money. Queensland Fruit Bats are again in the Botanic Gardens — 300-400. They have also been reported at Patterson Lakes and at Leongatha. Annual General Meeting Monday 10 May Annual Report for 1981 was read by President Miss Wendy Clark. The main points were: The die of the Natural History Medallion had worn out and lengthy in- vestigations resulted in commissioning Mr Macham Skipper to design a new one. Our spare medallion of the original design will remain in our archives. Club property is dispersed among several members' houses and garages so there is a pressing need to find premises to house all such property and for use for meetings. Application for the old Canterbury Library failed, but the search continues. Five major submissions and several minor ones regarding conservation were made to government and other bodies. Four honorary memberships were conferred during the year. General excursions and Group excur- sions continued, but the Special Study Trips lapsed without a leader to organise them. The Mammal Survey Group and the Botany Group made useful contribu- tions in their respective spheres. The Geology Group, Microscopy Group and Day Group continue, but the Marine Biology and Entomology Group has gone into recess due to lack of atten- dance. The bookstall run by Mr Dan McIn- nes continued to provide cheaper books for members and revenue for the Club Improvement Fund. 1981 Australian Natural History Medallion was presented to Dr Elizabeth Marks — the first to receive the new design. Treasurer's Report for 1981. Finan- cial statements were printed in full in March/April Naturalist. Treasurer Mr David Dunn reported there was a heavy cost in replacing the Natural History Medallion but only a moderate increase to cost of printing the (Continued on page 129) Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Established 1880 OBJECTS: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron: His Excellency Rear Admiral Sir Brian S. Murray, KCMG, AO. Key Office-Bearers 1981-1982 President: Miss WENDY CLARK, 27 Rangeview Grove, North Balwyn, 3104 (859 8091 A.H.) Vice-President: Dr. B. Smith, C/- The National Museum, Russell Street, Melbourne Secretary: Mrs. Sheila Houghton, 30 Golf Links Crescent, Dingley, 3172 (551 2708) Correspondence to: FNCV, National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Treasurer: Mr. D. DUNN, 3 Allfrey Street, East Brighton, 3187 (578 5753) Subscription-Secretary: Miss H. MALCOLM C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Editor: Mr. R. WALLIS, Victoria College — Rusden Campus, 662 Blackburn Road, North Clayton, 3168 (544 8544) Librarian: Excursion Secretary: Miss M. ALLENDER, 19 Hawthorn Avenue, Caulfield, 3161 (527 2749) Book Sales Officer: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (211 2427) Group Secretaries Botany: Mr. MICHAEL McBAIN, 19 Foster Street, St. Kilda, 3182 (534 2293) Day Group: C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Geology: Mr. T. SAULT, C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Mammal Survey: Mr. A. FAITHFUL, 67 Athelstan Road, Camberwell, 3124 (29 5108 A.H.) Microscopical: Mr. M. H. MEYER, 36 Milroy Street, East Brighton (596 3268) FNCY Kinglake Nature Reserve: McMahons Road, Kinglake Booking and keys: Mr. I. F. MORRISON, 788 Elgar Road, Doncaster (848 1194) MEMBERSHIP Membership of the F.N.C.V. is open to any person interested in natural history. The Victorian Naturalist is distributed free to all members, the club's reference and lending library is available and other activities are indicated in reports set out in the several preceding pages of is magazine. m g Subscription rates for 1982 NIBU DDOLHEBTL ciere erege irren tesa ri eee erre e tasche anete t Eec AINE TRE TOR A A $15.00 JOIUMBEIrODDITESD es harens 0e d rema ERA $18,00 Country Members and Retired Persons., 9$ 12:00 Joint Country and Joint Retlred......... $15.00 Overseas Subscription to Victorian Naturalist, Individual AQUA BIS ^ PE AA A ee Vis Celer erar eis eo Pto UR EN OT $2.20 All subscriptions should be made payable to the Field Naturalist Club of Victoria and posted to the Subscription Secretary. G) JENKIN BUXTON PRINTERS PTY. LTD., WEST MELBOURNE [he Victorian Naturalist | FNCY DIARY OF COMING EVENTS GENERAL MEETINGS Monday, 9th August, 8.00 p.m. Mr David Staples: Pycnogonidis — sea spiders. Dr George Thomas and Mr J. L. Provan will be awarded Honorary Membership. Monday, 13th September, 8.00 p.m. "Dry forest’’. FNCV Groups. Monday, 11th October, 8.00 p.m. John Beumah. Eels. New Members — July/August General Meetings. Metropolitan Tony Faithful, 107 Cardigan St, Carlton South. Geoff Linnell, 11/10 Larbert Rd, Noble Park Dennis Marsh, 11/59-61 Athelston Rd, Camberwell. Pamela Murray, 7 Agnes St, Beaumaris, (Mosses, ferns) Carl Rayner, 13 Judith St, East Keilor. (Botany) Andrew Read, 2 Bluehills Ave, Mt Waverley. (Botany, birds) Kathy Spence, 18 Wewak Rd, Ashburton. (Botany, microscopy) Betty Trueman, 3/136 Windsor Cres., Mont Albert. Myra White, R. S. D., Arthur's Creek. Joint J. L. & IJ. M. Barnett, P.O. Box 51, Yarra Glen. Richard & Jane Crow, 24 Diana St, Croydon. M. Green & family, 17 Jannali Drive, Dingley. Nicholas & Marilyn Olliff, 7/241 Burke Rd, Glen Iris. Cheryl & Andrew Wellington, 35 Kenilworth Rd, Ivanhoe, (Mammals) FNCV EXCURSIONS Sunday, 8th August, 10.30 a.m. to 4.30 p.m. Boneseed blitz at Studley Park. FNCV members are invited to join the Yarra Bend Park Trust and Kew Garden Club in removing boneseed from the Park. Our work in past years has had a marked effect and it is hoped as many as possible will assist even if they can only spare an hour. Meet at Hane's Bridge at 10.30 a.m. Bring a picnic lunch. Saturday, 28th to Sunday, 29th August. Bendigo. This is a combined weekend with the VFNCA hosted by Bendigo FNC. Saturday afternoon there will be an excursion to the Whipstick. Saturday evening a meeting at the Department of Agriculture Regional Veterinary Laboratories, Echuca Rd, Ep- som, about 5km out on the Epsom Rd. Sunday there will be a morning excursion. Members going in the coach party leave from the Gas and Fuel building in Flinders St at 8.30 a.m. and stay at A.N.A. Uptown Motel D.B.B. Cost for coach and accommodation $55.00 and should be paid to the Excursion Secretary by August 16th. Members go- ing by private cars should meet at 12.45 p.m. at the Bendigo Post Office or 1.00 p.m. at the Veterinary Laboratories. The Ascot Lodge Caravan Park, Hine St, White Hill is closest to the meeting place for those who wish to camp. Mr William Perry will be awarded Honorary Membership. Sunday, 5th September. Botanic Gardens, Note change of venue. Meet at 10.45 a.m. at Gate D near the corner of Anderson St and Birdwood Avenue or after lunch by the kiosk at 1.00 p.m. This walk will be led by Miss M. Lester. Thursday evening, 23rd September — Sunday morning, 10th, October. Western Australia. Meet at Airways Hotel Apartments, 195 Adelaide Terrace, Perth on Thursday evening where B & B ac- commodation has been booked. Details of the itinerary are in the March/April Naturalist but change Moora for Wongan and note most lunches are now included. Balance of $900.00 less deposit already paid should reach the Excursion Secretary by Monday, 9th August and bookings will be ac- cepted until then. Sunday. 3rd October. National Rhododendron Gardens at Olinda. The coach will leave Batman Ave at 9.30 a.m. Fare $7.50 plus entrance fee. Bring a picnic lunch. Saturday, 13th — Sunday, 14th November. Ballarat. This weekend will include a ride in a horse- drawn cart to the Lal Lal area, limit 24 but a few horses are available at an extra cost if anyone wants to ride. Accommodation will be in a motel D.B.B. details later. January, 15-21, 1983. Falls Creek. GROUP MEETINGS FNCV members are invited to attend any Group meeting, no extra charge. Day Group — Third Thursday. Thursday, 19th August. Darebin Parklands. Meet at Darebin Station, 11.30 a.m. Eltham-Hurstbridge train departs Princess Bridge 10.55 a.m. Leader: A. Blackburn 379 8960. Sunday 5 September. Cheltenham Park. Meet at Botanic Gardens (cnr Park St and Domain Rd.) at 11.30 a.m. or outside kiosk at Cheltenham Park at 1.15 p.m. Leader M. Lester. (continued on inside back cover) The Victorian Naturalist Volume 99, Number 4 July/August, 1982 ISSN 0042-5184 Editor: Robert L. Wallis Assistant Editor: F. Dane Panetta Editorial Committee: H. Cohn, B. Smith. A Short History of the Discovery and Naming of Banksias in astern Austratia. Part VIE by Awl Salkine socks. meme eres 136 A Record of Thomisus spectabilis Dolesch 1859 (Araneida: Thomisidae) Feeding on a Scarab Beetle by T. J. Hawkeswood ... 140 Density Estimates of Three Herbivores on Rotamah Island, Gap psta MCD EA RASTA TER Uer ris tzep tr EE A a 142 Notes on Winter-active Invertebrates Beneath the Snow by TE OS ate ne Ag LS cor BCs coc cots ea ele ETE Rat ca bees Pape tre n 144 A Checklist for Studley Park and Yarra Bend Reserves by S» Melntyreand J. KUSOV Ca «ers une ce eee tee hr 147 The Derrinal Permian Glacial Valley. Part 1 by F. Robbins ...... 153 Some Observations on Hydroids at Black Rock (Port Phillip Bay, "Au sfralid)iby:D E McInBeS sunt a. ie ects eee esr RES 159 Studies on the Giant Gippsland Earthworm Megascolides australis McCoy, 1878 by B. J. Smith and J. A. Peterson............+++ 164 F.N.C.V. — Reports of Club Activities... n 174 Cover illustration: Excavation of Dunn's Rock — see ‘‘The Derrinal Permian Glacial Valley" by F. Rob- bins. This photo was taken from the same position looking south as that of Howitis’ photo of Dunns Rock in Dunn (1892). A Short History of the Discovery and Naming of Banksias in Eastern Australia Part VI James Hamlyn Willis and Alexander S. George By A. I. SALKIN* James Willis was Assistant Govern- ment Botanist in November 1962 when William Cane, a Maffra apiarist, and very well known naturalist drew his at- tention to a Banksia sp. growing in the upper Wellington River, East Gipps- land. This proved to be a species that had not previously been described even though it had been collected on two previous occasions. It had been dismiss- ed as an aberrant mountain form of B. marginata. Whilst B. marginata does have many forms and wide ecological tolerance the new species is distinct from B. marginata in two important ways. Firstly the cone is larger, no perianth parts are retained, and the follicles have a woolly tomentum. Secondly, the seed requires a cold period before it will ger- minate. It is probably because of the size of the cone that it was either not col- lected or not mounted on the herbarium sheet. The first collection was the one of Mueller’s already mentioned. The second collection was made from Kydra Peak in the Kybean Range in the vicinity of Cooma, New South Wales, and was made by R. H. Cambage in 1980. This collection contains both juvenile and adult leaves as well as an open flower spike and is held by the National Her- barium of New South Wales (n 77820). A small piece with leaves only is held at Melbourne. Once the species had been confirmed as a distinct entity it was found to be * Science Department, Brentwood High School, Heath Street, Glen Waverley 3150. 136 much more widespread than had previously been thought. The species is also recorded in Willis (1973) as possibly occurring in Tasmania. The Collection from Mt Fulton has been examined as well as other collections made from south-west Tasmania and it would appear that B. canei is now located only in the subalpine area east of Jamieson, Vic- toria, and south of Tumut in the Snowy Mountains, New South Wales. It should, however, be noted that there is considerable variation between these isolated colonies and this variation is described in Salkin & Hallam (1978). Banksia canei was not the last species to be named in eastern Australia. In 1974 a project to produce a definitive work on the whole Banksia genus was begun. The first volume of this impor- tant work has now been published with full size water colour paintings of the flowers, foliage and fruits reproduced in colour. The extraordinary painstaking work of painting the intricacies of banksia flowers has been done by Mrs Celia Rosser who has been employed by Monash University as a botanical illustrator since 1970. The text is by Mr Alex George a botanist from the Western Australian Herbarium who is now the executive editor of the new "Flora of Australia" (George 1981 b). The first volume of ‘The Banksias’’ (Rosser & George 1981) contains the twenty-four Banksia spp, that were first discovered and two other volumes, one for 1985 and another for 1989 are to be published. The edition is limited to 720 copies and the size is 720 mm by 550 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 mm. The cost is Australian (stg £ 965). Whilst the work was proceeding with **The Banksias’’ Alex George published in Nuytsia, the journal of the Western Australian Herbarium, his long awaited revision of the genus Banksia (George 1981 a). Three new species are described for eastern Australia and variation in a number of named species is given varietal status. nearly $2,000 Like Banksia canei all the species and varieties had. been collected previously but what the revision does is to establish Sound taxonomic reasons for the new classification. The first of the newly described species is Banksia saxicola. This species is found only in two very widely dif- ferent localities; the Grampians and Wilsons Promontory. The species had been collected on numerous occasions and described as Banksia integrifolia. Indeed Mueller himself had made collec- tions from both the Grampians and Wilsons Promontory, the later collec- tion he ascribed to Banksia verticillata indicating that he was aware of its unusual properties. Banksia saxicolia is in fact more closely related to Banksia canei than to the two above, the seed re- quiring a period of cold (stratification) before dormancy is broken and the seed will germinate. The flowering period is also the same as for B. canei. The second new species is Banksia conferta and like Banksia canei was col- lected as early as the 15th of August 1906 by that indefatigable collector R. H. Cambage at the Walgan River in the Blue Mountains. Two varieties of this species occur, the ones from Queensland where collections have been made in the Glasshouse Mountains and the Lamington Plateau have been named Banksia conferta var. conferta, and those from the Blue Mountains Banksia conferta var. penicillata. July/August George Althofer (pers. comm.) recalls his first encounter with B. conferta var penicillata: **In 1961 I saw it when I first ascended Mt Darcy — I saw a remarkable plum coloured brush on a banksia, height of plant about 6' ."* He saw it again in the early 1970's on the Newnes Track near Glen Davis while searching for Prostanthera cryptandroides, The last new species to be described appears as an addendum to the main body of the revision. This is the ‘‘lost’’ species discussed in part five under Mueller, and is the species that Mueller did not describe sent by John Dallachy from Rockingham Bay. It was thought to be yet another species that had been eliminated from the Australian flora. The species was rediscovered by F. D. Hocking on the upper slopes of Mt Bowen on Hitchinbrook Island in August 1979. A collection with leaves, flowers and a cone is in the Brisbane Herbarium. In June 1981, Alex George received more material collected by Arthur and Margaret Thorsborne of Cardwell and M. Goodwin of the National Parks and Wildlife Service from Cairns. The species is closely related to Banksia oblongifolia Cav. (B. asplenüfolia Salisb.), but is distinguished by the obli- quely triangular follicles and the bluish limb to the flower noted by Dallachy. The species is called Banksia plagiocarpa. This completes as far as can be seen the discovery and naming of Banksia spp. in eastern Australia. One thing only remains and that is the changes from what were considered species to varieties. It will be recalled that the first On- costylis Banksia sp. to be described was Banksia ericifolia. This was collected by Banks and Solander at Botany Bay. This form differs markedly from the form 137 that is found in northern N.S.W. in coastal areas from the Tweed River just south of the Queensland border to the McLeay River just north of Kempsey. The form has larger flowers with deep red styles. Seedling leaves are smaller and have few if any separations, This form has been given the varietal status of Banksia ericifolia var macrantha. Banksia ericifolia war. ericifolia is confined to coastal areas south of the McLeay River to as far south as Jervis Bay and inland in the Blue Mountains and the Budawang Range. The so called Banksia spinulosa com- plex has been split into three varieties. The first described by Smith with a lignotuber and very revolute leaves is now known as Banksia spinulosa var. spinulosa. The form described by Robert Brown as Banksia collina from north of the Hawkesbury River with flat entire or serrated leaves will be known as Banksia spinulosa var. collina. The form that grows in Victoria which Mueller named and Meissner published as Banksia prinophylla has been included with Banksia cunninghamii and the name that Sieber used to commemorate Alan Cunningham has been retained as the variety Banksia spinulosa var cunninghamii. This is the only variety of the B. spinulosa complex that grows in Victoria. The last species where changes have been made is Banksia integrifolia, The coastal form that grows from Point Lonsdale in Victoria to Fraser Island in Southern Queensland is Banksia integrifolia var. integrifolia. Robert Brown described and named a Banksia sp. he collected at Keppel Bay in north Queensland as Banksia compar, Bentham (1870) in his revision of the genus included it in B. integrifolia. The form has glossy undulate leaves and, unlike the coastal form in Victoria and N.S.W., the follicles invariably re- main closed. The form occurs in nor- 138 thern Queensland as a coastal plant and is also found in southern Queensland and northern N.S.W. in the highlands. The variety was common on the New England Tablelands before clearing and is now mainly restricted to National Parks such as that in the Gibraltar Range. Brown's original name has been retained as a variety and the form will be known as Banksia integrifolia var. compar. The last variety was originally col- lected by Dallachy and a specimen in the Melbourne Herbarium has a note from Dallachy to Mueller that reads ‘‘Mount Macalister; 3 April 1867; does this Banksia differ from the coast one (?); there is one that grows down somewhere here on the coast; if I can get it I will send it in flower”. Mueller thought it sufficiently dif- ferent to name it as a new species, Banksia caerulescens but took no steps farther than placing slips with the two specimens sent by Dallachy. The form which has long narrow leaves, which are scattered rather than whorled, is given the varietal name of aquilonia meaning northern: Banksia integrifolia var. acquilonia. It is now just over 200 years since the first Banksia species were named and 212 years since the first ones were discovered. Alex George’s monograph resolves many of the complex problems of nomenclature but I suspect that this may not be the last word, I have recently heard of seed from Banksia integrifolia producing seedlings with very deep in- dentations and William Cane, that noser-out of new species, has recently shown me a plant with a lignotuber and leaves like Banksia integrifolia from southern Queensland. Graeme O’ Neil of C.S.L. R.O. Canberra reports a similar plant from northern Queensland, but this, after all, is the nature of science; everything that is published is sooner or later out of date and all we can do is record the milestones along the way. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Table 1 Eastern Banksia Species in order of Publication Location 1. 1781 B.serrata L.f. Tas. Vic. N.S.W. Q. 2. 1781 B. integrifolia, L.f. var. integrifolia A. S. George Vic. N.S.W. Q. 3. 1781 B.ericifolia, L.f. var. ericifolia, A. S. George S. N:S;W 4. 1781 B.dentata, L.f. OF 5. 1793 B. spinulosa, Smith var. spinulosa, A. S. George N.S.W. Q. 6. 1800 B. oblongifolia, Cav. syn. B. aspleniifolia Salisb. N.S.W.Q. 7. 1800 Bi robur, Cav. N.S.W.Q. 8. 1800 B. marginata, Cav. S.A. Tas. Vic. N.S.W 9. 1810 B.aemula, R. Br syn. B. serratifolia, Salisb. N.S.W. Q. 10. 1810 B. collina, R. Br. B. spinulosa var. collina A. S. George N.S.W. Q. 11. 1810 B. compar, R. Br. B. integrifolia var compar A. S. George N.S.W. Q. 12. 1810 B. palludosa, R. Br Vic.* N.S.W. 13. 1827 B. cunninghamii, Sieber ex Reichb B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii A. S. George Vic. N.S.W 14. 1853 B. ornata, F. Meier ex Meissner S.A. Vic 15. 1967 B canei, J. H. Willis Vic. N.S.W 16. 1981 B.conferta var. conferta, A. S. George QE 17. 1981 B. conferta var. penicillata, A. S. George N.S.W 18. 1981 B. saxicola, A. S. George Vic. (Grampians, Wilsons Promontory) 19. 1981 B.ericifolia var. macrantha, A. S. George N. N.S.W. 20. 1981 B. integrifolia var. aquilonia, A. S. George N. Q. 21. 1981 B. plagiocarpa, A. S. George Mt Bowen Hinchin- * Howe Range Vic., W. Cane. REFERENCES Bentham, G. 1870, Flora Australiensis Vol. 5. Reeve. London. George, A. S. 1981a. The Genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae). Nuytsia. Vol. 3 (3). George, A. S. 1981b (ed.). Flora of Australia. Australian Government Publishing Service Canberra. brook Island. Rosser, C. and George, A. S. 1981. The Banksias. Academic Press. London. Salkin, A. I. and Hallam, N. D. 1978. The Topodemes of Banksia canei. J. H. Willis (Proteaceae) Aust. J. Bot. 26: 707-721. Willis, J. H. 1973. A Handbook to Plants in Victoria 2. Oicotyledons Melbourne University Press. Australian Natural History Medallion Fund Amount on hand April 1982 Mr Garnet Johnson (2nd donation) Total May 1982 July/August $1853.50 15.00 $1868.50 139 A Record of Thomisus spectabilis Dolesch 1859 (Araneida: Thomisidae) Feeding on a Scarab Beetle. By T. J. HAWKESWOOD* Little has been documented on the food of Australian spiders, although it is generally known that many native spiders commonly feed on other spiders, soft-bodied insects (including flies, but- terflies and moths), while some large spiders (e.g. Theraphosidae) may attack and feed on small reptiles, amphibians and birds. This note records one observation of a thomisid spider, Thomisus spectabilis Dolesch (Araneida: Thomisidae) feeding on the fluids of a cetonid beetle, Cacochroa decorticata (Macleay) (Scarabaeidae: Cetoniinae) at Townsville, north Queensland on 23 November, 1981. The Thomisidae are a large group of spiders occurring throughout the world. Australia has about 112 species (Musgrave, 1965, p. 239), although the number of known species will probably be higher when the tropical species are fully studied. A majority of spiders belonging to this family are characteriz- ed by having legs (the first two pairs of which possess ventrally paired spines), which are able to move forwards or sideways (i.e. laterigrade), in a manner similar to that of crabs; hence the popular vernacular name of ‘‘crab spider’’ for the group. Thomisid spiders do not construct a web, but rely on con- cealment, attractive coloration or resemblance (mimicry) to their prey, in order to capture their prey (Clyne, 1969). This has resulted in a myriad of forms and colours amongst the Thomisidae. A majority of the light- coloured species await in ambush at the centres of flowers, below petals and whole inflorescences, tips of leaves etc., with their anterior legs extended typical- * 23 Luya Street, Fairfield, Brisbane, Queensland, 4103, 140 ly sideways and forward to form a half circle (Clyne, 1969). The sub-family Misumeninae, to which most of the Australian species belong, are characterized by having legs I and IJ much longer and thicker than the two posterior pairs with leg II being slightly longer than leg I. These are adaptations for capturing prey whilst resting on their ambush sites. There is only one species of Thomisus Walckenaer in Australia (Clyne, 1969, p. 59; Mascord, 1970. p. 48). namely T. spectabilis Dolesch. The genus is found in warmer latitudes of the world and also occurs from India to New Guinea (Clyne, 1969, p. $59) Thomisus spectabilis (Fig. 1) is a slow-moving, medium-sized spider which prefers to wait in ambush on pale yellow or white flowers. It is characterized by having a triangular abdomen which is broadly truncate behind and a broad cephalothorax extended laterally above the clypeus into two horns (Clyne, 1969). Musgrave (1965, p. 232a) il- lustrates the species in colour (as T. pustulosus). Clyne (1969, p. 112) and Fig. 1. Thomisus spectabilis Dolesch (Araneida: Thomisidae). Bar indicates 5 mm. (Photograph by P. Finch). Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Mascord (1970, p. 49) also illustrate in colour, females of T. spectabilis. Mascord (1970, p. 48) notes that the males are smaller than the females ( 4, c. 6.2 mm, Y, c. 10 mm, body length) and that the species feeds on other spiders and other small insects. Whilst observing insects feeding on open flowers of Acacia bidwillii Benth. (Mimosaceae) on 23 November 1981, I noticed a large female of T. spectabilis which had captured a male of the cetonid beetle Cacochroa decorticata (Macleay). The spider was clinging to the top of an Acacia inflorescence, 1.5 m above the ground, by the two posterior pairs of legs and was grasping the beetle around the head and pro- notum with the two pairs of anterior legs. The beetle was dead and dangling, abdomen downwards, with the func- tional wings unfolded beneath the elytra. The spider was apparently feeding on the muscular tissue between the head and thorax. Unfortunately I did not have a camera in order to take a field photograph, so the predator and prey were captured for later identifica- tion and photographed in the laboratory. Cacochroa decorticata (Macleay) (Fig. 2) is one of the more common species of beetle visiting the flowers of Acacia bidwillii at Townsville (Hawkeswood, pers. obs.). It is a wary beetle and usually flies away rapidly at the least disturbance. C. decorticata is a distinctive black beetle, measuring 1.2- 1.5 cm in body length, with the sides of the pronotum in the male white and with pale yellow to cream blotches on the elytra. Macleay (1862, p. 17) first described this insect from Port Denison (Bowen) in north Queensland. Lea (1914, p. 140) recorded the species from Queensland only. Nothing has been written on its biology. It is remarkable that the spider was able to capture and kill such a large and strong flying beetle as C. decorticata July/August Tope | E ctl ms Fig. 2. Cacochroa decorticata (Macleay) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Bar indicates 5 mm. (Photograph by P. Finch). without allowing the beetle to escape. I have recorded the jewel beetles (Buprestidae) Stigmodera (Castiarina) picta L. & G. (Hawkeswood, 1980) and Cisseis scabrosula Kerremans (Hawkeswood, 1981) as prey for two spiders (Araneus sp., Araneidae and Uloborus sp., Uloboridae, respectively), but in these cases, the prey was smaller than the spiders. REFERENCES Clyne, D., (1969). A Guide to Australian Spiders. (Nelson, Melbourne). 168 pp. Hawkeswood, T. J., (1980). A spider feeding on a jewel beetle. West. Aust. Nat. 14, 236, Hawkeswood, T. J., (1981). Observations on two sympatric species of Buprestidae (Coleoptera) from sand dunes on the north coast of New South Wales. Victorian Nat. 98, 146-151. Macleay, W. J., (1862). Description of twenty new species of Australian Coleoptera, belonging to the families Cicindelidae and Cetoniidae. Trans. Ent. Soc. N.S.W. 1, 9-21. Mascord, R. E. (1970). Australian Spiders in Colour. (A. H. & A. W. Reed & Co., Sydney). 112 pp. Musgrave, A., (1965). Spiders; In, Australian Encyclopaedia. Vol. 8, pp. 232-240. (Grolier, Sydney). 141 Density Estimates of Three Herbivores on Rotamah Island, Gippsland. By J. A. RAINES* Introduction Rotamah Island is a 260 hectare island within the Lakes National Park, Gipp- sland Lakes, Victoria. It is connected to the Ninety Mile Beach dune system by a 30 metre long, vehicular causeway. Sheep and cattle were grazed on the island up until February 1975. During this period much of the area was cleared and several pasture plants, including Trifolium, Dactylis and Bromus were established. In 1975, Rotamah was pur- chased by the National Parks Service of Victoria. Domestic stock were removed and farming practices discontinued. In consequence, the vegetation is changing and now comprises 53% open woodland, including open grassy areas, 23% BankKsia-Eucalyptus forest, 6% samphire flats and 12% Melaleuca scrub (Buchenroth, unpub.; Burbidge and Raines, 1982). In 1980 Rotamah Island Bird Observatory was established by the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, for teaching and research pur- poses. Swamp Wallabies (Wallabia bicolor) and Hog Deer (Axis porcinus) are often sighted on the island, but their popula- tions are much smaller than that of the Eastern. Grey Kangaroo (Macropus giganteus). Large numbers of kangaroos are seen every day, particularly in the open woodlands where they feed in the morning and late afternoon (Burbidge and Raines, 1982). It is not known if the kangaroo population is increasing. If this population does increase it may (1) effect changes in the structure of the plant community, (2) cause a loss of * Rotamah Island Bird Observatory. Box 75, Paynesville, Vic. 3880, 142 condition amongst the kangaroos themselves, by competing with each other for food, space and other resources, or (3) compete more strongly with the other herbivores on the island. Clearly it would be of interest to monitor the composition of both the vegetation and the herbivore popula- tions over a period of time. In October 1981 à survey was con- ducted to determine the size of the populations of large herbivores on Rotamah Island. The aim of this count was to provide some data against which future counts can be compared. Methods A straight line was formed by 30 peo- ple approximately 20 metres apart at the western end of the island. This line slow- ly advanced along the island and all the Hog Deer, Swamp Wallabies and Grey Kangaroos were counted. Each person recorded the animals on his or her right hand side as they passed behind the line. Verbal contact between adjacent per- sons facilitated the detection of all animals, even in dense vegetation, and enabled a straight line to be maintained. The count took 4.5 hrs. During this time the line halted at two points on the island so that the group could visually realign themselves. One person stood at the causeway to count the animals which passed across it. Results Rotamah Island is supporting a very large population of Grey Kangaroos and smaller numbers of Hog Deer and Swamp Wallabies (Table 1.). Although most observers were able to accurately Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Species Grey Kangaroo* Swamp Wallaby* Hog Deer Total » Not including pouch young. Number Number per counted hectare 438 11 1.6 27 11 0.1 50 2 515 2.0 Table 1: Number of individuals and densities of three large herbivores on Rotamah Island, October 1981, distinguish wallabies and kangaroos a few were less confident with some of their identifications. By talking to each observer this source of error was taken into account. The estimation of wallabies and kangaroos may have had an error of up to 11 individuals. This count did not include pouch young. Discussion The presence of ‘‘improved’’ pasture and the availability of artificial fresh water supplies, has probably favoured the kangaroo population of Rotamah Island, leading to a high density of in- dividuals. Since kangaroos feed almost entirely in the open woodlands (Gaines, unpub.) and this habitat constitutes only 53% of the island's vegetation, this large population is being supported by 138 ha of feeding area (3.2 kangaroos/‘‘feeding hectare"). The kangaroo population may not necessarily be static, since in- cidental sightings and tracks indicate that there is movement across the causeway. One large herbivore not included in this count was the Common Wombat (Vombatus ursinus), but a population survey is planned for 1982. Another species which will also need to be con- sidered in the future is the Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). The introduc- tion of myxomatosis by the National Parks Service in nearby areas is thought to have reduced the rabbit population of Rotamah Island. However, over the past two years the population has grown as indicated by the increasing number of July/August incidental comm.). sightings (Burbidge, pers. The effect that the kangaroo popula- tion is presently having on the other her- bivores is unknown. The preferences and quantities of foods consumed by the herbivores on Rotamah have not been investigated, However, competition is not so severe as to be causing a lack of condition in any of these species as judg- ed by their general appearance, the con- dition of their coats and the number of young born this year. In the future, counts will be combined with an assess- ment of movement across the causeway, in order to follow any changes that may occur in the composition of the her- bivore populations. It would also be of interest to monitor any vegetative changes to determine whether the kangaroos are affecting the regenerating vegetation, Acknowledgements I wish to thank the members of Lewis and Clark College, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A., who took part in this survey, my colleague Allan Burbidge for criticism and advice and Ed Slater and Graeme Caughley for helpful comments on the manuscript. This project was supported by the Rotamah Island Bird Observatory (Royal Australasian Or- nithologists Union), and conducted under a research permit granted to the Observatory by the National Parks Service of Victoria. REFERENCES Burbidge, A. H. and J. A. Raines, (1982), Rotamah Island Bird Observatory Report 1980-81, Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, Melbourne, 143 Notes on Winter-active Invertebrates Beneath the Snow By K. GREEN* Summary Two subnivean (below snow) pitfall traps were examined in August 1981 in the alpine region of Kosciusko National Park. Thirteen invertebrate specimens were obtained from four classes: Insec- ta, Collembola, Arachnida and Sym- phyla. One class, Symphyla, is an addi- tion to previously known active subni- vean fauna, along with two insect orders, Lepidoptera and Blattodea, and two families of Coleoptera (Leiodidae and Melandryidae). Introduction It is commonly believed in Australia and elsewhere that where snow lies throughout winter, invertebrates enter diapause and only become active again when the snow thaws. In the past 20 years, however, techniques have been developed to study subnivean (below snow) activity of invertebrates and a number of studies have shown that many invertebrates are active beneath the snow (Aitchison 1974). These in- clude spiders (Araneida), mites (Acari), springtales (Collembola), bugs (Homoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), flies (Diptera) and wasps (Hymenoptera). In Australia prolonged periods of snow cover are restricted to subalpine and alpine altitudes which, in New South Wales, occur above altitudes of about 1530 m and 1830 m respectively and cover approximately 2500 sq km (Costin et al. 1979). Methods The results presented here were ob- tained during a study of small mammal Department of Zoology Australian National University PO Box 4 Canberra, ACT, 2600 144 predation on invertebrates. The study area was in the vicinity of South Rams- head, Kosciusko National Park. Two study sites were investigated, one just below the treeline at 1850 m and the other above the treeline at 2000 m. Twenty pitfall traps of 7 cm diameter were set at each site in January and February 1981. The fixative used in the pitfall traps was composed of 5 parts propylene phenoxytol, 4.5 parts pro- pylene glycol and 50 parts formalin in 900 parts of water (Upton and Norris 1980). Delays in erecting vertical pipes to allow continued winter access through the snow to the pitfall traps, coupled with heavy snow in the winter of 1981, made it impossible to regularly monitor the traps. In early August when the snow was approximately 130 cm deep in the subalpine site and 100 cm deep in the alpine site, 5 pitfall traps were ex- cavated. Of these, 3 were in the subalpine site and 2 were in the alpine site. Special care was taken as the excavation approached the subnivean space (a space between the soil and the snow), and digging at this stage proceed- ed by hand. The 5 pitfall traps were emptied and reset. Snow blocks were used to seal the shaft into the subnivean space, and the hole was filled with loose snow. By late August a further 50 cm of snow had accumulated on the subalpine site, burying the pegs that marked the pitfall traps. Snow depth in the alpine site, however, did not increase markedly as wind kept extra snow from accumulating, Only two pitfall traps were therefore recovered, and the results represent the accumulation in these two alpine pitfall traps over a 4 week period. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Table 1. Invertebrates collected from subni- vean pitfall traps. Insecta Coleoptera Carabidae Pterocyrtus sp. nr traucaticollis Sloane Leiodidae Austronemadus sp. Melandryidae Orchesia sp. Hemiptera: Homoptera Cicadellidae Austrolopa sp. Lepidoptera Psychidae Narycia sp. (larva) Blattodea Blattellidae Genus and species unknown Collembola Neanuridae Womersleymeria sp. n. nr. bicornis Arachnida Oribatidae Genus and species unknown Symphyla Scutigerellidae Hanseniella sp. Results Due to the very small number of pit- fall traps examined the results presented here can only be considered as indicative of a possible wider range of active sub- nivean invertebrates. Thirteen specimens were collected from the pitfall traps. These were from 4 classes: Insecta (10 specimens), Collem- bola (1), Arachnida (1) and Symphyla (1) (Table 1). Discussion Aitchison (1979b) found represen- tatives of five families of Coleoptera ac- tive in winter beneath the snow. In order of abundance these were Staphylinidae, Carabidae, Lathridiidae, Cantharidae and Erotylidae. Staphylinidae were also the most numerous of the subnivean Coleoptera fauna in Germany (Heydemann 1956). This study failed to show the presence of Staphylinidae, due possibly to the extremely small sample July/August size; however, the Carabidae were represented by one species. Two families, Leiodidae and Melandryidae, have been added to the list of winter- active subnivean Coleoptera. The Cicadellid Austrolopa sp was found swimming in a pitfall trap when it was first excavated on August 1. Leafhoppers are well known for their ability to remain active at temperatures below 0°C in unfrozen leaves (Holm- quist 1926). Aitchison (1978) collected 2 species of Cicadellidae from sub- nivean pitfall traps in Manitoba. To my knowledge, the capture of Narycia sp is the first record of sub- nivean activity by Lepidoptera and the Blatellid is the first capture of a subnivean cockroach. This cockroach is very active beneath the snow commonly occurring in and around subnivean mammal traps throughout winter. Although activity of Acari at low temperatures has not been well documented, Aitchison (1979c) found mites of 8 families to be the most abun- dant winter active subnivean group in Manitoba over two winters. Collembola are generally abundant and species rich in alpine habitats (Agrell 1941; Fjellberg 1975), and Ait- chison (1979a) stated that they may form the base of the food chain for sub- nivean invertebrate predation. Collem- bolans were commonly trapped in both the alpine and subalpine sites during the summer and autumn. The finding of on- ly one specimen in winter traps probably reflects the small sample size. The specimen of Symphyla also represents the first subnivean capture of a member of this class. The finding of active subnivean in- vertebrates in the Australian high coun- try poses many questions regarding behavioural, physiological and especial- ly metabolic adaptations to subnivean conditions and whether these adapta- tions are similar to those possessed by 145 invertebrates in the northern hemisphere. Future work in the winters of 1982 and 1983 involving monthly monitoring of subnivean pitfall traps should add to the list presented here of Australian ac- tive subnivean invertebrates and give a better indication of abundance and the role these invertebrates play in the diet of the marsupial insectivores of the genus Antechinus at high altitudes. Acknowledgements Thanks to the following for identification of specimens: Dr I. F. B. Common, CSIRO (Lepidoptera), Ms P. Greenslade, Adelaide Museum (Collembola), Dr E. Holm, CSIRO (Arachnida), Dr I. Naumann, CSIRO (Sym- phyla) and Dr T. Weir, CSIRO (Coleoptera and Homoptera). C. W. Aitchison, Universi- ty of Manitoba and M. G. Green, Canberra CAE commented critically on the manuscript. REFERENCES Agrell 1., (1941). Zur Okologie der Collembolen. Untersuchungen in Swedisch Lappland. Opuscula ent. (Lund) Suppl. 3, 236 pp. (cited in Aitchison 1979a). Aitchison, C. W., (1974). A sampling technique for active subnivean invertebrates in Southern Manitoba. Manitoba Entomologist 8, 32-6. Aitchison, C. W. (1978). Notes on low temperature and winter activity of Homoptera in Manitoba. Manitoba Entomologist 12, 58-60. Aitchison, C. W., (1979a). Winter-active subnivean invertebrates in Southern Canada. | Collembola. Pedobiologia 19, 113-120. Aitchison, C. W., (1979b). Winter-active in- vertebrates in Southern Canada. II Coleoptera. Pedobiologia 19, 121-8, Aitchison, C. W., (1979c), Winter active subnivean invertebrates in Southern Canada. III Acari, Pedobiologia 19, 153-160. Costin, A. B., Gray, M., Totterdell, C. J. and Wim- bush, D. J., (1979). “Kosciusko Alpine Flora'', CSIRO/Collins, Melbourne/Sydney. Fjellberg, A., (1975). Organisation and dynamics of Collembola populations on Hardangevidda. In: Wielgolaski, F. E., (ed.) ‘‘Fennoscandinavian Tundra Ecosystems. Part 2: Animals and Systems Analysis”, pp. 73-79. Berling, Springer (cited in Aitchison 19792). Heydemann, V. B., (1956). Untersuchungen Uber die Winteraktivat von Staphyliniden auf Feldern. Entom, Blatter 52, 138-50. (cited in Aitchison 1979). Holmquist, A. M. (1926). Studies in Arthropod hibernation. I. Ecological survey of hibernating species from forest environments of the Chicago region. Ann. Ent. Soc. Am. 19, 395-426. Upton, M. S. and Norris, K. R. (1980) **The Collec- tion and Preservation of Insects’. Australian En- tomological Society, Brisbane. F.N.C.V. Council Meeting 29 June 1982 Amendment of By-laws. By resolution of Council the By-laws were amended as follows: By-law 10. Deleted. By-law 11. Reprints of any papers or articles contri- buted to The Victorian Naturalist may be requested by the author, who shall be required to contribute to the cost of production; the amount to be set by the Council. Applications shall be made to the editor. 146 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 A Checklist for Studley Park and Yarra Bend Reserves By SUE MCINTYRE* AND JEFFREY YUGOVIC! Studley Park is situated on the east bank of the Yarra River at Kew, four kilometres north-east of the Melbourne GPO. It encompasses a series of steep spurs of folded Paleozoic sediments overlooking the meandering river. An extensive Newer Basalt plain lies to the west. Reserved in 1877, the park was unusual in its day as little modification of the original vegetation was attemp- ted. This was partly in order to preserve the local bush scenery and partly because the steep infertile terrain discouraged development. As a venue for recreational pursuits and as a place of considerable scientific interest, the park gained immense popularity with the Melbourne citizenry. The adjacent Yarra Bend Reserve, situated on the basalt plain, was extended to include Studley Park in 1934 and the total area of over 120 ha. officially became the Yarra Bend Park. Thus the area was never raised to formal national park status, despite it being known as the “Yarra Bend National Park’’ since the early part of this century. Today, several areas of the Yarra Bend Park retain something of their former character despite the encroach- ment of a motor boulevard, a major arterial road, two golf courses and a freeway. The park still supports eucalypt woodland formations similar to those described by Hardy in 1911, with River Red Gum growing on the river banks and lower slopes and Yellow Gum on the spur tops and slopes. Yellow Box is occasional on the upper slopes whilst Manna Gum has restricted occurrences on the moister southern aspects. * CSIRO Div. of Irrigation Research, Griffith, NSW 2680, 17 Kingston St., Hampton, Vic. 3188. July/August The floristics of the understory have changed dramatically in over one hun- dred years of weed invasion. More than 130 exotic species have been recorded within the park (J. H. Willis, unpublish- ed), including many aggressive weeds e.g., Veldt Grasses (Ehrharta longifolia and ŒE. erecta), Blackberry and Boneseed. There are a number of factors contributing to the establishment of ex- otics in the park: grazing by stock (long ceased), rabbit infestations, dumping of garden refuse, soil disturbance and damage to existing vegetation. Understandably the native flora has suf- fered and only small areas of relatively intact vegetation persist. The understory is best preserved in those areas fur- therest from human disturbance on the drier aspects of the spurs. Moist southern slopes as well as river banks and flats have largely succumbed to vigorous invasion by exotic herbs, shrubs and trees. A checklist of the flora of the Yarra Bend Park was compiled by J. H. Willis in 1973 (unpublished), being a collation of surveys made by S. Hannaford (1856), F. Reader (1885 a, b), J. H. Willis (1943) and others. A total of 205 native vascular species have been record- ed in the park since 1856. The checklist presented here is based on a survey con- ducted by the authors in 1978-81 and comprises 118 indigenous vascular species. It is regrettable that so many of the original species could not be relocated and that among the survivors are species known only from one or a few specimens. Some of the species now absent were representatives of vegeta- tion types which no longer exist in the area. A heath woodland outlier of the Sandringham Flora occurred on the Brighton Group sands and gravels which cap the broad hill to the east and which 147 are included in the park at two localities. The basalt plain to the west of the river supported grassland flora. Landworks and buildings have rendered these areas unrecognizable. Of interest, are several new records for the park. Acianthus reniformis and Thelmyitra pauciflora are the first or- chids to be recorded since 1885 when Diuris maculata and Pterostylis curta were last observed. Pomaderris racemosa is known from only one specimen growing near the river and may have recently become established from seed washed downstream by flood- waters. Burchardia umbellata, Acacia longifolia (one specimen, possibly planted), Soianum laciniatum, Dan- thonia setacea and Wahlenbergia quadrifida were either overlooked by earlier observers, are new to the park or records of their discovery have been lost. The Studley Park Red Gum (Eucalyptus studleyensis Maiden) was previously recorded only from a group of four trees growing near the former police station in Studley Park. Progeny trials have established the hybrid origin of these trees (E. camaldulensis X E. ovata) and herbarium specimens show characters which are intermediate bet- ween the parental species. Efforts to relocate the original trees have been un- successful (J. H. Willis, pers. comm.) so it is pleasing to report the discovery of a single specimen growing on the 9-Hole Golf Course. Also of note is the record of Lissanthe strigosa (Peach Heath). The isolated occurrence of this plant at- tracted the attention of members of the F.N.C.V. early this century. Their in- terest lead to the construction of a fence to protect the only known specimens in the park (Hardy 1911). The single patch of heath remains today, although no remnants of the fence can be found. Management for the Future The deterioration of the Yarra Bend Park highlights the problems facing all urban bushland reserves. The combina- tion of small size and heavy usage makes them especially vulnerable to weed inva- sion and subsequent displacement of the native flora. Without sensitive manage- Fig. 1. Yarra River and fringing reserves. 148 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 ment, these reserves have little chance of remaining viable. Hand pulling of weeds is an effective method of control for certain species. The authors have experienced some suc- cess in controlling Ehrharta longifolia using this method at Studley Park. Eradication of Boneseed is possible if hand pulling is undertaken following a fire as burning promotes almost 100% germination of soil seed Lane (1976). Such labour intensive activity calls for community involvement along the lines of the annual ‘‘Boneseeding’’ days organised by members of the F.N.C.V. and the Kew Garden Club. Another important feature of management is the choice of species for restoration of damaged areas. It is im- possible to retain the authentic character of local vegetation if *'exotic natives" are planted i.e. species not growing naturally in an area. Ideally, specimens growing on, or near, the reserve would be used as sources of propagating material, thus promoting the survival of ecotypes adapted to the particular locality. Urban bushland reserves are valuable public assets with a significance as museums of local natural history that is all too often unrecognized by the com- munity. The once famous Sandringham Flora and extensive basaltic grasslands are now reduced to very small pockets with their accompanying hazards. We cannot allow these isolated reserves to become wastelands of neglect. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Mr Bruce Muir of the National Herbarium for his encourage- ment in writing this article, and for his help with the identification of plants. We would also like to thank Dr J. H. Willis for his free- ly given assistance. REFERENCES Hannaford, S., (1856). Jottings in Australia. r Hardy, A. B., (1911). Excursion to Kew Victorian Nat. 27: 183. July/August Lane, D. W. A., (1976). Boneseed (Chysanthemoides Monilifera L.) Vermin and Noxious Weeds Destruction Board, Dept. of Crown Lands and Survey, Victoria, Pamphlet No. 60. Reader, F., (1885a). Phanerogamous Plants of Studley Park. Pt. I. Victorian Nat. 1: 172-176. Reader, F., (1885b). Phanerogamous Plants of Studley Park. Pt. II & HI. Victorian Nat. 2: 24-28 (pt.1I) 36-40 (pt. IHI). Willis, J. H., (1943). The Yarra Bend Public Park. Victorian Nat. 60: 14-15. INDIGENOUS VASCULAR PLANTS FOUND IN THE YARRA BEND PARK 1978-1981 PTERIDOPHYTA DENNSTAEDTIACEAE Pteridium esculentum Austral Bracken ADIANTACEAE Cheilanthes tenuifolia Rock Fern SPERMATOPHYTA MONOCOTYLEDONS JUNCAGINACEAE Triglochin procera Water Ribbons ALISMATACEAE Alisma plantago-aquatica Water Plantain POACEAE Microlaena stipoides Weeping Grass Agrostis avenacea Blown Grass Poa australis Tussock Grass Phragmites australis Common Reed Cynodon dactylon Couch Grass Danthonia caespitosa Bristly Wallaby-grass D. geniculata Kneed Wallaby-grass D. purpurascens Wallaby-grass D. setacea Common Wallaby-grass D. racemosa Wallaby-grass 149 Stipa elegantissima Feather Spear-grass S. semibarbata Fibrous Spear-grass S. variabilis Variable Spear-grass Echinopogon ovatus Hedgehog Grass Themeda australis Kangaroo Grass CYPERACEAE Scirpus nodosus Knobby Club-rush Schoenus apogon Common Bog-rush Lepidosperma laterale Variable Sword-sedge JUNCACEAE Juncus subsecundus Finger Rush Luzula flaccida Field Woodrush LILIACEAE Lomandra filiformis Wattle Mat-rush L. longifolia Spiny-headed Mat-rush Dichopogon strictus Chocolate Lily Tricoryne elatior Yellow Rush-lily Dianella laevis Pale Flax-lily D. revoluta Black-anther Flax-lily Wurmbea dioica Early Nancy Burchardia umbellata Milkmaids ORCHIDACEAE Thelymitra pauciflora Slender Sun-orchid Acianthus reniformis Mosquito Orchid DICOTYLEDONS CASUARINACEA Casuarina littoralis Black She-oak C. stricta Drooping She-oak SANTALACEAE Exocarpus cupressiformis Cherry Ballart E. strictus Pale-fruit Ballart 150 LORANTHACEAE Muellerina eucalyptoides Creeping Mistletoe POLYGONACEAE Rumex brownii Slender Dock R. bidens Mud Dock Polygonum minus Slender Knotweed P. subsessile Hairy Knotweed CHENOPODIACEAE Rhangodia hastata Saltbush R. nutans Nodding Saltbush Atriplex semibaccata Berry Saltbush Enchylaena tomentosa Barrier Saltbush AIZOACEAE Carpobrotus modestus Inland Pigface Disphyma clavellatum Rounded Noon-flower CARYOPHYLLACEAE Spergularia rubra Red Sand-spurry Stellaria pungens Prickly Starwort Sagina procumbens Spreading Pearlwort RUNUNCULACEAE Clematis microphylla Small-leaved Clematis LAURACEAE Cassytha melantha Coarse Dodder-laurel BRASSICACEAE Lepidium hyssopifolium Common Pepper-cress Rorippa palustris Yellow Marsh-cress CRASSULACEAE Crassula macrantha Spreading Crassula C. sieberiana Sieber Crassula PITTOSPORACEAE Bursaria spinosa Sweet Bursaria ROSACEAE Rubus parvifolius Small-leaved Bramble Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Acaena anserinifolia THYMELACEAE Bidgee-widgee Pimelea curviflora A. ovina Curved Rice-flower Sheep’s Burr P. humilis MIMOSACEAE Common Rice-flower MYRTACEAE Eucalyptus camaldulensis River Red Gum E. leucoxylon Yellow Gum E. melliodora Yellow Box E. ovata Swamp Gum E. viminalis Manna Gum E. X studleyensis Studley Park Red Gum Leptospermum obovatum River Tea-tree Melaleuca ericifolia Swamp Paperbark HALORAGACEAE Gonocarpus tetragynus Common Raspwort Acacia acinacea Gold-dust Wattle A. paradoxa Hedge Wattle A. dealbata Silver Wattle A. implexa Lightwood A. longifolia var. sophorae Coast Wattle A. melanoxylon Blackwood A. phycnantha Golden Wattle FABACEAE Platylobium obtusangulum Common Flat-pea Bossiaea prostrata Creeping Bossiaea Indigofera australis Austral Indigo Kennedia prostrata EPACRIDACEAE Running Postman Lissanthe strigosa Hardenbergia violacea Peach Heath Purple Coral-pea CONVULVULACEAE GERANIACEAE Convulvulus erubescens Geranium solanderi Blushing Bindweed Austral Crane’s-bill Dichondra repens OXALIDACEAE Kidney-weed Oxalis corniculata SOLANACEAE Yellow Wood-sorrel Solanum laciniatum Kangaroo Apple Nicotiana suaveolens Austral Tobacco LINACEAE Linum marginale Native Flax SAPINDACEAE Dodonea cuneata MYOPORACEAE Myoporum viscosum EH Bé Dorm Sticky Boobialla SCROPHULARIACEAE Pomaderris aspera Hazel Pomaderris P. racemosa Veronica gracilis Slender Speed well Pomaderris PLANTAGINACEAE MALVACEAE Plantago varia Gynatrix pulchella Variable Plantain Hemp Bush RUBIACEAE HYPERICACEAE Coprosma quadrifida Hypericum gramineum Prickly Currant-bush Small St. John’s Wort Asperula conferta VIOLACEAE Common Woodruff Hymenanthera dentata Galium gaudichaudii Tree Violet Rough Bedstraw July/August 151 CAMPANULACEAE Wahlenbergia communis Tufted Bluebell W. quadrifida Sprawling Bluebell GOODENIACEAE Goodenia ovata Hop Goodenia ASTERACEAE Vittadinia triloba New Holland Daisy Olearia ramulosa C. longifolia Shiny Cassinia Helichrysum bracteatum Golden Everlasting H. semipapposum Clustered Everlasting Helipterum australe Common Sunray Cotula australis Common Cotula C. coronopifolia Water Buttons Senecio hispidulus Twiggy Daisy-bush Fireweed Cassinia arcuata S. quadridentatus Drooping Cassinia Cotton Fireweed List compiled by Jeffrey Yugovic and Sue McIntyre Names used as in; J. H. Willis, A Handbook to Plants in Victoria Vol. 1 (1970) Vol. 11 (1972) with modifications in accordance with Todd, M. A. (1979) A Conspectus of New Records and Nomenclature for Vascular Plants in Victoria dur- ing the Period 1970-1977, Muelleria 4(2) pp. 173-199, Day Group Celebrates a Decade of Activities Ninety-five outings to fifty-eight different places of interest — and only one cancellation following some days of rain! The Day Group celebrated ten years of activity on 18 March, by courtesy of the Authority, aboard the launch m.v. ‘‘Commissioner’’ for our third tour of the Port of Melbourne, a popular outing. The party included two of the thirteen Club members who attended the in- augural meeting on 22 March, 1972 — president Alf Fairhall and vice president Dan McInnes — and six other regulars from the first year of the Group. Average attendance over the period has been 17 — the largest outing 35 and the smallest five; and approximately 160 Club members have been involved. A number of visitors have ac- companied us, quite a few from overseas, and new members for the F.N.C.V. have resulted. The formation of this Group for retired, leisured members and those unable to attend even- ing meetings was the idea of our president, and much of its success is due to his enthusiasm and to the support and planning of the late Mrs Peg Strong, secretary for the first four years. Most outings are within the metropolitan area and accessible by public transport, and some new areas are visited each year. New members are welcome. 152 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 The Derrinal Permian Glacial Valley Part 1 By FRANK ROBBINS* Foreword. This is the beginning of a series recording recent discoveries by F. Robbins, H. E. Wilkinson, and J. Kellam of the Ben- digo Field Naturalist Club since 1957 in the Permian Glacial area between Bendigo and Heathcote. The only previously published accounts of our work were two articles in the Bendigo Naturalist (Vol. 6.1, 1973; Vol. 6.2 1973) on Kellams?* Rock and Dunns Rock, brief references in Geology of Victoria (1976) (Geol. Soc. of Australia — Permian chapter), and an abstract in Gondwana Five (5th Inter- national Gondwana Symposium in Well- ington N.Z. 1980). The author attended this symposium, and maps, diagrams and photos to be shown in this series were displayed there. This series is complementary to the original Gondwana Five abstract, and is intended to give future workers some precise details of the numerous features discovered, notably the numerous glacial pavements. E. J. Dunn (1892) had represented the glacial deposits as filling a N-S glacial valley in the Ordovician rocks which form the base- ment between Bendigo and Heathcote. Subsequent mapping of these indicated a series of N-S faults based mainly on fossil evidence. As these rocks are tightly folded on N-S axes, it would be natural to infer that the glacial deposits were preserved by down- faulting i.e. ina graben. Our discovery of numerous glacial pavements along both E and W boundaries, and on Ordovician inliers indicates that this was not so. Our conclusion is that the Per- mian glacials are in a long wide glacial valley, which we have called The Derrinal Permian Glacial Valley. This gives a new picture of a wonderful ex- humed Permian subglacial topography, especially along the E-W edges and on the Or- dovician inliers. The N-S faults are thus push- ed back into pre-Permian times. * 87 MacKenzie St Bendigo, Vic. 3550 , {The following sites are now written without the apostrophe — Dunns, Kellams, Days, Allens, McNutts, Sheedys, Edmunds. July/August Introduction Our special interest in thís glacial area arose in the formation in 1945 of the Bendigo Field Naturalist Club (BFNC), which includ- ed it in its field trips. Information available was limited to Parish Plan geology maps of:— Weston (1930), Knowsley (1930 — published 1956) by J. J. Caldwell; Heathcote (1940), Crosbie (1940), Knowsley East (1941), Langworner (1941) by D. E. Thomas. No ex- planatory notes were published with these maps. E. J. Dunn — Special Report Dept. of Mines — notes on the Glacial Conglomerate, Wild Duck Ck. (1892) — was the only general paper on this glacial area. R. L. Bowen, a Fulbright scholar, spent some time in the area in the 1950's, and left a detailed unpublished thesis dated May 1959 in the Melbourne University Baillieu library, but I did not learn about Bowen and his paper till late 1967. It was natural to assume that, after 60 years, there would be little left to be discovered in the area, but two events were soon to alter this. In the 1950's, a new lake was to be created right across the central glacial area (Lake Eppalock), and D. E. Thomas had expressed an opinion that the “famous” glacial pavement of Dunn was not such, but a slickenside on an anticlinal axis. The latter was widely quoted, and accepted in subsequent literature. I disagreed with this opinion. I checked that Dunns Rock would not be inundated, but, that a second large glacial pavement (which we called Kellams Rock) would be inundated several metres below F.S.L. (Full Supply Level — 194.2m or 637 feet A.S.L.), so also would be much of the lower Moorabbee glacial sandstone cliffs area. 1 photographed both Dunns and Kellams Rocks in Jan. 1957, and meanwhile the Eppalock Dam and Reservoir were under construction. The water began rising and | again photographed small excavations on both Dunns and Kellams Rocks on 27.5.62 showing the extent of ice-scratched surfaces. I regret that I did not traverse the full length of the Wild Duck — Mt. Ida Ck, to be inun- dated for evidence of glacial beds or base- ment Ordovician rocks, since the published 153 Bore or 2 inane Carisbrook [i | Derrinal e + Keete buc E i i ' i L i ] 1 i i t 40° SE AUSTRALIA ICE DIRECTIONS "n PERMIAN AGE A Glacial Pavements g Glacial Outcrap " Subsurface Permian \ GRANITE 9 PERMIAN malen 3 d | ] 4 | "E YCIAN Hn ORDOV na N vyvv Basalt - we cas g P PERMIAN laci od " R tre wet HE Me abo glacial Y Q&A Erratics, A granite | or igneous o * erratic gbriat ite eo "Q^ or dovician basement striated 4. Mes PERMIAN- ORDOVICIAN BOUNDARY ası À AGD DYKE - post- ardovtcian ORDOVICIAN 8 " SANDSTONE prominent V \ EsL - Full Supply Level -194-2 m (631) A DUNNS 2 i —Es- StA- Soil Conservati rit m ib»: NU Aes Fi 9. 2. EIE) cds penne ity EAM INL ER O J ip v dam on water-course S o 69 BO 100 AKLLLÁÉÁ LL ——ÓÁÁ——Á—Áá— DEUM MEE x tree 1980 METRES Fiat SCALE in KI LO ME TRES Cs ERE. Boundary Perm^-Ordov maps showed nothing but hill-wash and gravel there. | thus missed the important glacial-Ordovician junction at the Meadow Valley Fault, on which Bowen had made im- portant comments. The lake filled by December 1963, and thus began the story of our discoveries, which form the basis of the following papers. The Carboniferous-Permian Ice Age It is generally accepted now that in the Car- boniferous and Permian Ages, Antarctica, New Zealand, Australia, Africa, South America and India were all joined together in one super-continent called Gondwanaland, There was an ice-age lasting 100 million years or so covering much of it in one or more vast ice-sheets. That was 250 million years ago or more. Gondwanaland broke up into smaller continents about 100 million years or so ago, and these are now wandering further apart as **plates'', which collide causing earthquakes, volcanic phenomena, mountain building, ocean ridges and trenches. Fig. 1 shows the general directions of the ice-scratches in S.E. Australia in the Permian age, and where other Permian glacial deposits are found. Note the Derrinal arrow and another at Carisbrook, which we actually found. Does it not look as if the ice came from somewhere south of Australia where there is now deep sea, as if Antarctica could have been joined there once? The Derrinal Glacial Valley Fig. 2 shows our whole glacial area, and the insets or areas of interest, which will ap- pear in this and future issues. Notice that all (except one) of the glacial pavements on base- ment Ordovician rocks cease just north of Lake Eppalock, where the whole glacial valley seems to be filled with thick glacial deposits (morainic?). This would suggest that the glacier ice ended here, and the melt-water fanned out as wide outwash plains further north. Ordovician inliers projecting up through the glacial area deposits suggest that the ice moved in a wide open shallow valley, not a deep U-shaped valley, around and over the tops of these inliers, rounding, shaping, scratching them, as will be shown for Dunns Inlier in this issue. This agrees with the pic- ture presented by Dunn and David at the end of last century. It was not till the 1930's that the *graben' interpretation arose. 156 The presence of sub-surface Permian glacial deposits further west at Marong, Leichardt, the Loddon valley at Newbridge, Tarnagulla, and further north widespread sub-surface Permian mudstones in the Cam- paspe, Goulburn and Ovens river valleys to far beyond the Murray river into N.S.W., suggests either a great northern Permian sea, or a great outwash plain from a great ice- sheet to the south. We have no marine evidence at present. Again in Fig. 2, note the 8 tongues or fingers of glacial deposits, which represent ice feeding in along glacial valleys from the S.E. from what is now Ordovician country i.e. high land in Permian times. As the strike of the tightly folded Ordovician beds coincides with the direction of these feeder valleys, it is obvious that the bottom-ice direction was controlled here by the axes of the anticlines and synclines, which actually form the small glacial valleys here. Again in Fig. 2, note the two or three lines of high-level gravels and ironstones, which represent former high-level ancestors of the Mt. Ida Ck. — Wild Duck Ck. drainage system. Obviously, after all the ice had melted 250 million years ago, the whole Per- mian deposit was buried by material derived from the higher Ordovician to the south, Such deposits are today characterized by rounded water-worn quartz pebbles, Erratics, which could have been expected from Per- mian glacials left further south are con- spicuously absent. The stripping of this former Tertiary cover has uncovered the former Permian valley deposits only recently, exposing much of the original Permian glacial topography, as it must have appeared along the boundaries and tops of the inliers. Thus. the striated pavements, when exposed, would soon lose their striations by weathering, but by digging down a little, we should expose perfectly preserved striations, which was just what we found by searching. Many such pavements, having lost their tell-tale striations, would still often show the roundness, smoothness and shape of glacially eroded rocks, We recognized many of these, and recorded them on our maps. We developed our own technique of search — we always carried digging equipment, water, brushes etc. for cleaning and washing surfaces, camera with stereo accessories, two Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 large mirrors to reflect sunlight obliquely in a desired direction for viewing the surfaces, compass mounted on a one metre arm for measuring bearings of glacial striae, strike etc., golf ball to find direction of surface dip (10° was always added to get true bearings for our area), and a complete set of aerial photographs of the entire glacial area. (1967, 1971). From the aerial photographs, I con- structed a complete map of our glacial area at photograph scale. All figures in this series of papers are reductions of this large scale map. We now begin descriptions of the pavements etc. discovered in the Cenrral Western inset (or Fig. 3), which shows ex- cellent glacial evidence on Dunns Inlier and along the Western Boundary in McNutts and Sheedys properties. Fig. 4 is an enlargement of Dunns Inlier. The reader is referred to the labelled diagrams to save verbal description. Dunns Inlier — a narrow hard west- dipping meta-sandstone Ordovician outcrop striking close to north — about 0.55 Km long with 3 Dunns Rocks at the N end at 214 m (702 ft.) A.S.L., and with a long succession pavements (Kellams Rocks) at the S end reaching down to about 182 m (598 ft.) A.S.L. i.e. perhaps 12 m (40 ft.) below the F.S.L. A main glacial advance from S to N is indicated close to 000° T, followed later by a shorter one at about 343° T at least at the lower S end. Two large spectacular grooves were carved at 337° T by the former advance on Kellams main rock, where the ice was climbing uphill at about 10? on a remarkable W-dipping face. The second shorter phase still climbing uphill at about 5° intersected the main striae, but there is no evidence of such on Dunns No, 1 rock, which is characterized by absence of intersecting striae. Note the five Robbins Rocks on the same W-dipping stratum as the original Dunns No. 1 pavement, and also another pavement, Days Rock, on the E side. The reader is referred to The Bendigo Naturalist March 1972 V6.1 and August 1973 V6.2 for information on Kellams Rock (3 photos), and the final excavation of Dunns Rock (2 photos) in May 1973. Another photo of the excavated Dunns Rock appears on p136 of Geology of Victoria (Geol. Soc. of Australia). We called it Dunns No. | Rock. Dunns No 2 is the large somewhat rounded sandstone rock on the E side nearby, which failed to show any evidence of striae, but did July/August show at the extreme N end evidence of plan- ing and polishing of its quartz crystals below soil level. 1 have no doubt that ice had over- flowed the whole of Dunns Inlier at one stage of glaciation. Long exposure evidently would have removed other striae by weathering. Dunns No. 3 Rock, about 15 m further N.E., had excellent glacial striae at 000° T below soil level, The Dunns Rock photo in Dunn (1892) shows clearly the striae, yet now 90 years later, they still show up well if viewed in favourable oblique light. Similarly, the clean washed and dried surface of the excavated rock in oblique morning light showed clearly by reflection its glacial polish, which 1 photographed. Kellams Rocks — | think Dr D. E. Thomas before 1940 must have seen the main rock — "down near the fence" (pers. comm. — BFNC lecture — 12.7.61) — which I have shown in Fig. 4 below F.S.L. Every year dur- ing the irrigation season, the lake level falls exposing Kellams Rock to wave damage. During the 1968 drought, it fell to its lowest (185.5 m or 608,63 ft. A.S.L.) exposing a long line of 5 more glacial pavements (we called them Kellams A.B.C.D.E), and we made excavations on A and B uncovering a similar two sets of strong and weak intersec- ting striae as on the original pavement. Later, a Kellams F was uncovered above F.S.L., which showed excellent striae plus very good examples of ''crescentic gouges’ They are plucked out by the ice, especially at joints, and are common on glaciated basement rocks. Several are still visible on the S end of the main rock — 1981 — 18 years after first uncovered. The cover-picture of the March/April issue shows abundance of erratics on McNutts Beach in the foreground. Kellams Rock is in the shade under the L.H. red-gum tree reflected in the Lake, and the other Kellam pavements E ... A extend down-hill to below the water-surface to the right. (On 8.7.77, the lake-level shown would be well down to 189.3 m (621.2 ft) A.S.L. i.e. 4,83 m (15.8 ft) below F.S.L.) (See Figs. 3 and 4 Part 1). The Moorabbee Caravan Park is in the distance on R.H.S. (See Fig. 7 of Part 3 — not printed yet.) Robbins Rocks — the central large one of the five had a rough lichen-covered plane sur- face with what appears to be a very large undercut groove on the W side (like Kellams Rock grooves). Digging on the W side con- 157 firmed the existence of well preserved striae at 357° T. Digging further south uncovered two more striated surfaces, while the two smaller ones further north resembled the groove on the central rock. The Western Boundary — this was originally shown on Caldwell’s map of Knowsley (1930) as Meadows Valley Fault with an acid dyke in the Mt. Ida Ck. Thomas (1941) in his Langworner map continued it as an un-named fault with acid dykes at 3 places, but not shown in the Mt. Ida Ck. Our observations disagree (see Fig. 3). The acid dyke is noted on the old road with Or- dovician on both sides of it, and at least two parallel acid dykes in Langworner on the op- posite side of Mt. Ida Ck. within the Ordovi- cian in the Victorian Speed Boat area. Bowen (1959) had inspected the Ordovician-Permian junction in the bed of the Mt. Ida Ck. (we un- fortunately missed seeing it) before inunda- tion by the rising lake-water, and concluded that the Permian was down-faulted here about 61 m (200 ft.). I question this (a) as it would have taken Dunns Inlier down out of sight, whereas today Dunns Inlier is as high, if not higher, than the Ordovician western boundary (b) the acid dyke is not a Permian boundary anywhere (c) we have discovered numerous striated basement Ordovician rocks along the boundary (6 behind McNutts house and 11 more in Sheedys) — something we would not have expected, if this were a post-Permian fault. Later, we discovered an unpublished geology map by Whitelaw (1904) in the Bendigo Dept. of Minerals and Energy, which showed striated pavements in Sheedys property where I had found them. Obviously, this map had not been noticed by later workers. It covered the area from Dunns In- lier to Toolleen in the far north. Of course, the above does not necessarily dispose of the Meadows Valley Fault. It could have been pre-Permian and post- Ordovician as are so many other N-S faults shown on our N-Victorian maps between Heathcote and Leichardt based largely on fossil evidence. McNutts and Sheedys Rocks — see Fig. 3. I have detailed plans and drawings of these — obviously remnants of scratched and polished harder sandstones on the western bank of a glacial valley, now largely filled up with glacial debris. In general, many show uphill striae on the S, S.E, or E faces below soil level (especially McNutts No. 1) giving strik- 158 ing proof that the ice moved S to N — more easterly at Sheedys end. There were good ex- amples of polished and microscopically Striated quartz vein surfaces, which could only be seen in obliquely reflected light. McNutts Beach — occupies the narrow glacial valley between Dunns Inlier and their house. It is a wonderful museum of diverse erratic types, far travelled, not local deriva- tion, washed out of the tillite since late 1963. Large and small sedimentary, metamorphic, igneous, granites (numerous types), por- phyries, rhyolite, quartzites, beautifully facetted and striated erratics abound. Two very large embedded sandstone erratics, ap- parently striated in situe at 357° T (Allens Rock) and 344° T (Edmunds Rock) — see Fig. 3 — agree so closely with Kellams Rock striae, that | am tempted to suggest that Allens Rock was ‘‘lodged’’ from the bottom of the earlier advane, and striated in its new position (357° T), and Edmunds Rock similarly **lodged'' and striated from the se- cond phase at 344* T at the higher level. Since 1944, Edmunds Rock has split and the top half is sliding down-hill. I have not noticed any clear evidence of the two phases of glacial deposition on this beach. The beach on the east side of Kellams Rock is somewhat similar, but further on, glacial sandstone and conglomerate become abundant upper units. Note in Fig. 3, glacial sandstone and tillite oc- cur in a higher unit on the Knowsley road cut- ting. REFERENCES Bowen, R. L., 1959. Late Palaeozoic glaciation of Eastern Australia: Univ, of Melbourne, Ph.D Thesis (unpublished), Baillieu Library. Bowen, R. L. & Thomas, G. A. 1976 in Geol. of Victoria, Permian chapter pp. 133-137, Caldwell, J. J., 1956. Geological plan of Parish of Knowsley. surveyed 1930, Crowell, J. C., & Frakes, L. A., 1971. Late palaeozoic glaciation of Australia, J. Geol. Soc. Aust. 17(2) pp. 115-115. (esp. p. 127). Dunn, E. J., 1892. Notes on the Glacial Con- glomerate of Wild Duck Ck. and plan. Spec. Rept. Dept. of Mines, Vict. Robbins, F., 1973, Can we save Kellams Rock? Bendigo Naturalist 6(1): 13-17. Robbins, F., 1973. Dunns Rock; is it a glacial pave- ment? Bendigo Naturalist 6(2): 30-32. Thomas, D. E., 194]. Geological plan Parish of Langworner, Whitelaw, H. S., 1904, Geological Quarter Sheet 54 SE (unpublished). (In Bendigo Minerals and Energy office). Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Some observations on Hydroids at Black Rock (Port Phillip Bay, Australia) By D. E. MCINNES* Introduction Giving a talk on Hydrozoa at the July 1981 meeting of the F.N.C.V. Marine Group made me interested to see whether I could once again find some of the Walking Jellyfish on the Fourth Street reef at Black Rock (see map, fig. 1), where I had found them several years ago. I also hoped that the hydroid stage of this species, and perhaps other kinds of hydroids as well, might be found there. 7th August, 1981, was a lovely sunny day with a very low tide at 4.30 p.m. and a perfectly calm sea. About an hour before extreme low water, I arrived at the seaward end of Fourth Street, where there are steps leading straight down to the reef; this is composed of clean rock stretching out in the form of a narrow strip to about 30 metres from the beach, and surrounded on all sides by clean sand, My collecting-gear (all **marine- clean", that is to say, carefully scrubbed and rinsed in tapwater until it was clean enough to keep seashore animals alive for a reasonable length of time) con- sisted of a plastic bucket, a 4-litre ice- cream container, and two reserve con- tainers each capable of holding 5 litres of clean seawater with which to fill my aquaria on returning home. Pulling up a stem of the brown seaweed Ecklonia sp., I could see with the naked eye a fine lacework on the lower parts of the ‘‘leaves’’ (=thalli); under a handlens and in seawater in the icecream container, I could see that the lacework was in fact a network of hydroid stolons from which branches of the hydroid arose at intervals, so into the bucket it went, well covered with clean seawater. Thus encouraged I *F.N.C.V. Microscopical Group July/August gathered further samples of red, brown, and green seaweeds, and the bucket was soon filled to be examined at home, partly with the weeds but mostly with enough clean seawater to cover them and thus ensure their survival on the return journey. Next, I filled the icecream container with clumps of cor- alline seaweed picked exclusively from pools that were never above the low- water mark, because it was on this seaweed and in this habitat that I had previously found the Walking Jellyfish. Topping up the icecream container and filling the reserves, both with clean seawater, I set off for home. The Walk- ing Jellyfish cannot be seen in its natural habitat even with a x10 handlens; it must be searched for by scrutinising the weed bit by bit under a stereomicroscope, which normally cannot be done on the shore, but only in some kind of laboratory or at any rate indoors. Care of the Hydroids and Medusae On arriving home with the collection (after about 20 minutes' driving from the shore), I put the icecream container with the corallines on one end of a shelf, and next to it in a row along the shelf I put four more similar marine-clean con- tainers, into each of which I put some of the weeds from the bucket with enough seawater to cover them (fig. 2); prompt, continuous, but not violent, aeration was set up as shown, and is essential because otherwise the organisms in the samples quickly begin to decay, and the hydroids and medusae are among the first to die. One must also be very careful not to include in any marine- clean container sponges, molluscs, or sea-urchins, because these are among the first to foul the water, either with 159 their excretions or with the products of their decay. Aeration as described (and the topping-up of the icecream containers to a constant level as required, with filtered pondwater) was kept going for about the next week, being the time it took me to examine all the seaweeds bit by bit under the stereomicroscope; only the branches actually bearing hydroids were kept, the rest being thrown away. Each tuft of weed was examined to begin with in a large petri-dish under about x20, and bits of weed bearing hydroids or other items of interest were examined under a research microscope using overall magnifications of x20 to x100 (the most usual overall magnifica- tion was x50, produced by a x5 objective in conjunction with paired x10 eyepieces). The water containing the weeds waiting to be examined, or those selected because they bore hydroids, developed large numbers of actively moving ciliates and numerous har- pacticoid copepods (apparently a species of Tisbe); what Tisbe feeds on I have not yet discovered, but it is in turn an ex- cellent food for the hydroids. In general, the smaller polyps eat the young stages of Tisbe and the bigger polyps eat the adults, but this is be no means always true, and on occasion it is quite incredi- ble to see how an apparently small and feeble polyp can first sting to death, and then gradually wrap itself around, a Tisbe or other small crustacean much bigger than itself, leaving the polyp grossly bloated for some hours (up to a couple of days or so) between swallow- ing the prey and regurgitating the cleaned-out exoskeleton via the mouth. The Walking Jellyfish is equally voracious; one, about fullgrown (body diameter 0.37 mm), ate an isopod 1.9 mm long at 11.30 a.m., and regurgitated the exoskeleton at 9.00 p.m. the same day. Because hydroids are so delicate, it is very important to give them a safe and 160 Fig.3.Maps. y^ Port Phillip AS) ^ fo D 7 “Fourth Street Keef; KPeRicketts Point. Main Map;MOCeMelbourne City Centre; MSS STRAIT G-Gan long; ?=Frankaton, YS inexpensive, yet certain, culture-system in which to grow and (with luck) reproduce. They quickly die and decay if merely kept in a petri-dish full of seawater, but the following system costs hardly anything and has proved very satisfactory for the maintenance of the hydroids up to and including the libera- tion of the young medusae, although some other method (which I have not yet devised) would probably be better for keeping the newly liberated medusae un- til they grow to maturity. For the hydroids, further similar marine-clean icecream containers were taken (fig. 3A) and the rims of the snap-on lids were carefully cut off (fig. 1B), so that the re- mainder of the lid formed a flat plate that would drop into the container while leaving a narrow space all round, bet- ween the plate and the container wall. A hammer and punch were then used to make a number of holes in the lid, many of them marginal (the number and size of the holes are not critical), as shown in side view and in perspective in fig. 3C, the result being called the perforated plate. The support is formed by pun- ching similar holes all over the walls but not the floor, of a suitable-sized plastic tub (figs. 3E and 3F), which is then stood in the middle of the icecream con- tainer so as to carry the perforated plate; the air pipe was led (fig. 3D) through a marginal hole in the perforated plate, and a hole low down in the wall of the support, to an airstone resting on the floor of the latter and emitting a stream of tiny bubbles which caused the water to circulate as shown by the heavy ar- Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 rows. Petri-dishes without lids stood on the perforated plate, and contained the hydroids, which thus had clean cool water about 2 cm deep flowing steadily over them the whole time. Up to the time of writing (mid-December, 1981) only one medusa had been budded off, from the hydroid listed below as Stauridiosarsia producta; this medusa is being kept in a petri-dish (covered with fine gauze to prevent its escape) in the above culture-system, but as mentioned above a more suitable system needs to be devised specifically for medusae. Looking at hydroids Under the stereomicroscope the lacy Corallines Weeds awaiting sorti ng ~ network on Ecklonia thalli was once again found to consist of a network of hydroid stolons, but the upright bran- ches were now seen to consist each of a single polyp in a hydrotheca (fig. 4A), rather like a transparent flower in a wineglass; the tentacles of the polyp are studded with tiny (=nematocysts), by means of which the polyp renders helpless any small animal brushing against it, and then crams the prey into its mouth with its tentacles, ex- actly as does its wellknown relation, the freshwater Hydra. However, there is one significant difference, in that the colonial hydroids (such as this species on Ecklonia) have all their digestive cavities Main air pipe -Branch air pipe i «Level of shelf ^piffuser stone stinging-cells: Fig.5.The culture system. (cut round here) Icecream container / T Support Culture System Fig.4.Parts of hydroids(not accurate,nor to scale;soft parts dotted). MOUTH P ex. NES INGING gJ- CELLS lypROTHECA TENTACLES YD ROCAYLUS]]. July/August GoNOTHECA — ME DUSA -BUDS > ME DUSA P ie. —— GONOPHORE 161 ra Plastic Tub connected together through the stolons so that, when one polyp catches and digests a food-item, the benefit is even- tually shared by all the polyps connected to it, and by the colony as a whole which uses the food-reserves thus gained to promote further growth of the colony and the construction of new polyps as well as the renovation (and ultimate destruction) of existing ones. When the colony is big enough it begins to pro- duce, not merely more feeding-polyps, but also the reproductive polyps or gonophores (fig. 4B); in some instances the feeding-polyp itself becomes the gonophore as well, as in fig. 4C. The female gonophores either fertilise their eggs on the spot by sperm swimming from a male gonophore nearby, or both sexes produce medusae (miniature Jellyfish) which, having been loaded before liberation with a supply of gametes, swim and grow in the plankton before shedding their gametes, perhaps many weeks later and far from the parent colonies. The fertilised egg develops into a tiny swimming larva, the planula (fig. 4D), whose sole object is to glue itself onto a suitable support and grow into the stolon from which an en- tire colony develops in due course, thus completing the life-cycle. The reproduc- tive process varies quite a bit in different kinds of hydroids, and only an outline is given here (see Barnes, 1974; Hincks, 1868; and Marshall & Williams, 1971, pp. 104-137); the hydroid stages of many medusae, and the medusae of many hydroids, are still not known, while in many other hydroids the medusa has been shortcircuited out of existence, as explained above. Hydroids and medusae are most closely related to sea-anemones and corals; all are put together in the Phylum Coelenterata (=Cnidaria), whose members are all of a very simple structure and have stinging-cells; certain non-stinging jellyfishes, the comb-jellies, were at one time included in the coelenterates, but are now put by themselves in the 162 Phylum Ctenophora which does not concern us here. Notes on the species found To my gratification, the very first bit of coralline examined under the stereomicroscope had one Walking Jellyfish (which gets its name from the fact, that, unlike most medusae, it creeps on the bottom instead of swimm- ing; see Bishop, 1972), and several more were found during further search of the sample. The present species was first found by Mr Bishop at Ricketts Point, not quite 2 km south of Black Rock, and from his very good description as well as from more recent observations it ap- pears to be very close to, if not identical with, the British species Eleutheria dichotoma Quatrefages, described and superbly figured by Russell (1953). Clavatella prolifera Hincks, the name used by Mr Bishop for this medusa, is in fact an obsolete synonym applied to the hydroid stage before the relationship between it and the medusa was realised. Whereas the Walking Jellyfish may sometimes be found in large numbers on suitable shores, the hydroid stage is very small and hard to find, and has thus not yet been seen for certain even by Mr Bishop, who regularly keeps the Walk- ing Jellyfish in a small aquarium through whose walls he surveys the in- terior and floor of the tank through a stereomicroscope mounted for the pur- pose. I have also found the hydroids in the following list at Black Rock; all the Athecata have been assigned to their nearest British equivalents in Hincks (1868), and all the Thecata have been identified from Ralph’s Papers (see references). Papers dealing with hydroids from Port Phillip are still very few (Ralph, 1966; Watson, 1978 & 1980), and do not cover all of the species found by me. The first three species of Athecata in the following list have been Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 recorded on movie film by Mr Paul Genery. Acknowledgements I am very grateful to Mr Bishop and to Mr Paul Genery (both of the F.N.C.V.) for sharing their records and observations with me, and to Dr R. Ha- mond (Zoology Department, Melbourne Universi- ty) for helping me to prepare this paper for publica- tion. REFERENCES Barnes, R. D., (1974). Invertebrate Zoology, 3rd edn. W. B. Saunders Co. Bishop, H. H., (1972). The ambulatory medusa or walking bud of Clavatella prolifera. Victorian Nat. 89(1), pp. 16-19. Hincks, T. H., (1868). A history of the British hydroid zoophytes. London. Marshall. A. J. and Williams, W. D., (1971, eds.). Textbook of Zoology: Invertebrates. Macmillan. Ralph, P. M., (1953). A guide to the Athecate (Gymnoblastic) Hydroids and Medusae of New Zealand. Tuatara 5(2), pp. 59-75. List of Black Rock hydroids to date ATHECATA Ralph, P. M., (1956). Variation in Obelia geniculata (Linnaeus, 1758) and Silicularia bilabiata (Coughtrey, 1875) (Hydroida, family Cam- panulariidae). Trans. Roy. Soc. New Zealand 84(2), pp. 279-296. Ralph, P. M., (1957). New Zealand Thecate Hydroids, part I. Campanulariidae and Cam- panulinidae. Ibid. 84(4), pp. 811-854. Ralph, P. M., (1958). New Zealand Thecate Hydroids, part II. Families Lafoeidae, Lineolariidae, Haleciidae, and Syntheciidae. Ibid. 85(2), pp. 301-356. Ralph, P. M., (1960) New Zealand thecate hydroids, part III. Family Sertulariidae. Ibid. 88(4), pp. 749-838. Ralph, P. M., (1966). Port Phillip Survey; Hydroids. Mem. Natl. Mus. Vict. no. 27, pp. 157-166. Watson, J. E., (1978). New species and new records of Australian athecate hydroids. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 902), pp. 301-314. Watson, J. E., (1980). The identity of two tubularian hydroids from Australia, with a description and observations on the reproduction of Ralpharia magnifica gen. et sp. nov. Mem. Natl. Mus. Vict. no. 41, pp. 53-64. Stauridiosarsia producta (Wright). On the holdfast of Ecklonia. Cladonema sp. Hydroid growing in Mr Bishop's tank. Eleutheria dichotoma Quatrefages. On coralline. Eudendrium capillare Alder. On Brown seaweed. Turris neglecta Lesson. On stem of brown seaweed. Perigonimus sp. (very like several of the alleged spp in Hincks, 1868). On coralline in December 1981; grows well in culture-system. THECATA Silicularia bilabiata (Coughtrey), forma subtropica Ralph (1956, p. 286). On Ecklonia. Orthopyxis caliculata (Hincks). On brown seaweed. Clytia johnstoni (Alder). On red and brown seaweeds. Undetermined campanulinid (I could not detect any webbing at the base of the tentacles, but am still unable to choose between Opercularella humilis and Phialella quadrata). On coralline. Amphisbetia minima (Thompson). On Ecklonia holdfasts. Halecium corrugatissimum Trebilcock. On Ecklonia holdfasts. Sertularella sp. or spp., not yet closely identified. On Ecklonia holdfasts. Monotheca flexiosa Bale. On Ecklonia holdfasts. Aglaophenia plumosa Bale. On Ecklonia holdfasts. July/August 163 Studies of the Giant Gippsland Earthworm Megascolides australis McCoy, 1878. By BRIAN J. SMITH! AND J. A. PETERSON®) The Giant Gippsland Earthworm (Megascolides australis McCoy 1878) is probably one of the most famous of Vic- toria's endemic animal species, Quoted as the largest species of earthworm in the world in such basic zoological texts as Barnes (1980), and many others, the Earthworm has been known as a scien- tific oddity by generations of Australian school children (e.g. Barrett, 1935, p.38; Mackness, 1981, p.43) and biology students (e.g. Buchsbaum, 1951 and later editions), in many parts of the world. Visiting scientists, and biological supply houses from overseas have been interested in acquiring specimens for museum display and teaching purposes, sustaining a small trade in the preserved specimens over many years. Historians (e.g. Hartnell, 1974, p.107) have pointed out that the worm has given South Gipp- sland a measure of national and interna- tional fame, which helped to reduce in- sularity, especially during the first fifty years of settlement. Regard for the worm among the people of South Gipp- sland is now manifest through the Kar- mai (local aborignal word for the Worm) Festival in Korumburra and the children's book ‘‘Karmai the Giant Ear- thworm"' by local author Frank Smith (1980). A **float"' of the Earthworm has appeared in Melbourne's Moomba pro- cession and the species has been used in various ways for local tourist promotion in South Gippsland. Early Interest and Studies Since discovery of the giant worm a little over a century ago in the Brandy Creek-Warragul area it was subsequent- (1) Division of Zoology, National Museum of Victoria (2) Department of Geography, Monash University, Victoria 164 ly recorded as a common South Gipr sland species. Reports came from th upper Bass Valley and from aroun Loch, Korumburra and Poowong dur ing the extensive land-clearing activitie whereby so much of the original fores of South Gippsland was to disappear ii the process of converting large areas o pasture land for dairy production (e.g see South Gippsland Pioneers Associa tion, 1966). The worm was first describ ed scientifically by McCoy (1978) who regarding its discovery, states . . . “Or the first entry of the surveyors into that paradise of land selectors, the Brandy Creek district on the new Gippsland line of railway I received from them numerous specimens ..." (op. cit. p.24). The railway mentioned would have been the Moe to Bunyip section (opened 1/3/1878, Harrigan, 1962) of the Melbourne to Sale railway. This was the last section to be opened except for the link between Oakleigh and Melbourne, all sections being open by April 1879. Work began on the Melbourne-Sale railway (the Gippsland line) following passage of the Railway Construction Act Number 475 through the Parliament in Melbourne in November 1873 (Beardsell, 1979, p.6). It would appear from this that the first specimens were despatched to McCoy sometime in 1877. Apparently McCoy, at that time professor of Natural Sciences at the University of Melbourne and Director of the National Museum of Victoria, received specimens from a number of people. The sending of one early specimen to Melbourne was described as follows: (Copeland, 1934, p.141) "Some days after he had gone, a worm came to hand, which measured up to re- quirements. It was packed in a tin, with damp Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Fig. 1. Giant Gippsland Earthworm, photographed about 80 years ago by Mr Perret of Kongwak. (Photograph kindly lent by Mr H. Grimshaw of Arawata.) July/August 165 moss, and sent to his firm (Garrard and Nunn, Queen Street) and a wire sent announ- cing despatch, His description of result was somewhat as follows: “Got tin, opened it on Mr Nunn's table, and we measured it, slack and stretched. It came up to standard quoted. While measuring it, Mr Garrard opened the door, but seeing the worm on the table quick- ly got out again, Being assured it was not a live snake, he came back to study the worm, For two days it was exhibited to many legal men, and then it was sent to Professor Me- Coy." Besides its large size McCoy recorded that the worm lays curious large cocoon- like egg-capsules, and may emit an odour resembling creosote. McCoy's description in the Prodromus of Zoology of Victoria (1878) erected both the genus Megascolides and the new species Megascolides australis, the latter being the type species by monotypy. In a review of the megascolecoid earthworm genera, Jamieson (1971) characterizes the genus as having eight setae per seg- ment, clitellum over four segments bet- ween XII and XIX, male pores 1 pair XVIII combined with the pores of a pair of prostate glands, female pores on XIV, spermathecal pores 1-5 pairs, calciferous glands present or (typically) absent, spermathecae diverticulate, The members of the genus are known from Australia including Tasmania, the North Island of New Zealand and North America. The most wide-ranging and authoritative work on the worm is that of Spencer (1888). Besides offering a brilliant, detailed description of the creature’s anatomy, including details of the microstructure and histology for all its main organ systems, Spencer gives a variety of interesting facts and observa- tions on its biology and habitat re- quirements. He records the worm as having 300 to 500 segments and reaching a length of 6 ft. (about 2m.) (e.g. see Fig. 1). It is mainly found in moist sloping country 166 on the sides of creeks. No casts are left on the surface by the worm, though some early reports to the contrary were probably based on the nearby presence of burrows of ‘‘land crabs’’ (yabbies — family Parastacidae). The most reliable way of detecting the presence of the worm is to listen for the gurgling sound it makes as it travels through the bur- rows underground. Worms held in the hand contract and jet out a milky fluid to a height of several inches from dorsal pores. It is thought that the primary role of this fluid is to moisten and lubricate the wall of the burrows to make the passage of the worm easier. It is reported that old ‘‘natives’’ say that the secretion is good for rheumatism. The strong smell of creosote referred to above, may be why either living or dead, it is said to be repulsive to domestic fowls, (McCoy, p.25), and probably most other birds (see Barrett, 1951, p.722), although the kookaburra is known to eat them (see below). The worm is reported to move very fast along its burrow system. Setae are very short and thought to be of little use in burrowing. The worm appears to move down its burrows by alternating strong body contractions and extensions between alternative swelling of the anterior and posterior ends of its body. Burrows are reported to be about 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter and are found to contain masses of faecal soil material and, occasionally, the cocoons. The co- coons (see Fig. 2) are about 2 inches (50 mm) long, light yellow to dark brown in colour, depending on age, and are tough and leathery with a stalk at each end. They each contain one embryo. Since this work by Spencer nothing further of note appears to have been published about the biology of the worm apart from a description by Eve (1974) of field observations of habitat re- quirements in the Lillico area north of Warragul. The writers know of several people who have claimed to have suc- Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 $ E ae Fig, 2. Giant Gippsland Earthworm cocoon (probably mature) photographed during worm col lecting excursion about 80 years ago by Mr Perret ol Kongwak, Montage printed and lent by Mr H. Grimshaw of Arawata. cessfully bred the worm in captivity but so far none of these experiments are recorded in the literature. One brief reference in a popular book of the area, (South Gippsland Pioneers Association 1966) is as follows: “One curiosity of the soft deep soil were the gigantic earthworms. Stretched out, they measured fully six feet and as thick as one's thumb. A person walking over their holes would cause them to recede rapidly deeper down, making a queer, subterranean noise or gurgle sufficient to scare anyone, Often being flooded out, they would lie stretehed out on the mud in the tracks and prove an easy prey to the jackass or the naturalist.” Present Study Most of our present knowledge of the worm can be divided into two main categories. Firstly the ‘‘scientific”’ knowledge, recorded in books and scien- tific journals and largely confined to species anatomy and taxonomy. Little or nothing has been recorded in the scientific literature about its biology, distribution or ecological requirements. On the other hand there is a great deal of local or anecdotal knowledge about the worm scattered amongst the community of South Gippsland. Some of this is recorded in the many reports that have appeared regularly over many years in the local newspapers. There is a need for July/August a more detailed understanding of the distributional ecology of the Giant Gip- psland Earthworm now that a call has been made for a review of its conserva- tion status (Land Conservation Council Report on the Melbourne Study Area, 1973). The present study arose out of this need and is an attempt to elucidate the current status of the species in this context, Zoogeographical distributions cannot be mapped satisfactorily until à survey technique has been found that is related to the habits and ecology of the par- ticular animals under study. Birds are best surveyed by travelling through their area observing with binoculars or listen- ing for the song. Frogs can also be surveyed by voice, but cryptic animals like snails must be surveyed by spot col- lecting under logs or in streams, Survey- ing a large earthworm which reportedly spends its whole life deep underground seemingly presents significant problems, The technique employed for this study was to attempt to tap the wealth of knowledge about the worm in the com- munity of South Gippsland, A questionnaire was drawn up asking for details of records or sightings of the worm, either first-hand by the respon- dent or second-hand as a report, ine cluding an exact locality description, a detailed description of the habitat and the circumstances of the sighting. In ad dition the respondents were encouraged to make additional observations about their understanding of the worm, These questionnaires, with a reply-paid envelope, were sent to about 2000 peo ple from within the supposed distribu- tional range of the worm and a further 1000 people in a buffer zone immediate- ly surrounding this area, Potential respondents were chosen from the latest electoral roles with an emphasis on those listed as having occupations connected with the land. Printing and postage was inet from a research grant from Monash University. 167 From the 3000 or so questionnaires sent out about 600 replies were received. Localities where the worms were record- ed were plotted on county maps. The distribution pattern was compared with that of topography, soils and rock types. The detailed results of this study will be presented elsewhere. Preliminary fin- dings are given here in a generalized map (Fig. 3). Results and Observations The distribution of the worm given by the survey reinforces the previously-held notional distribution of the species, It is largely confined to the hilly areas of the western Strzelecki Ranges of South Gip- psland and the undulating country around Warragul. The worm is found mainly within areas characterized by zonal or azonal soils derived from the weathering of Tertiary basalt (Older Volcanics — Geological Survey of Vic- toria, 1971) and Cretaceous sediments, loc. cit. 1t favours deeper organic-rich soils in pockets and along riparian tracts within the more sloping well-drained country with higher rainfall (1000 mm) and abundant soil moisture above the watertable. A closer assessment of habitat requirements and the limiting factors of distribution must await more detailed ecological studies. The replies to the questionnaire also contained a wealth of anecdotal obser- vations on the biology and ecological re- quirements of the worm. These are sum- marised below under a variety of headings: Habitat. Nearly all the respondents agreed that the worms are found in the deep dark grey clay soil. Several said that the species was rarely to never found in the red soils of the basalt areas. Worms have been found from close to the surface to as deep às 3 to 4 metres. Several people referred to the territory in which the worms were found as *'blue gum country". However, some stated that while the blue gum was the domi- 168 nant tree of the high ground, the lower slopes and gullies were characterized by paperbarks, blackbut, blackwood and treeferns. Most worms were to be found in these gully areas on the banks of creeks or associated with springs or soak areas. The habitat must be constantly damp but situations where the water- table comes to the surface for long periods of time are unfavourable. Many said that the worms were sometimes found in areas also populated by yab- bies. Worms are more commonly found on slopes with a southerly or westerly aspect and are rarely found on north- facing slopes. The country where the worms are found was first subject to clearing and settlement from the 1870s. Extensive ploughing of the land had been under- taken by the 1930s and most of it is used for dairy farming, sown down to perma- nent pasture. Much of the land receives a regular light dressing of super- phosphate. Opinion was divided amongst the respondents as to whether the worm populations are declining. Some are of the opinion that draining and application of ‘‘super’’ has diminished the populations while many others stated that the worm is still wide- spread and common. Circumstances of Sightings. The most widely reported evidence of the presence of the worm is the gurgling or sucking noises made if you walk on ground in which the worms are living, particularly if the ground is wet. A few people reported seeing the heads of worms pro- truding from holes in the ground. One description of this and of the sucking noise phenomenon is as follows: “We saw the heads of worms sometimes sticking out a couple of inches above ground. The worm sensed footsteps and would withdraw down the hole making a sucking, gurgling noise as does a bath tub when water drains out and causes airlocks in the pipes” (pers. comm. S. Hobley, Korrumburra). However, apart from the gurgling and Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 145°30'E t TS- 20: 25 — Kilometres (ft D stra ra A PHILLIP ISLAND Worm distribution main area outlying area Quaternary sediments n Pliocene sediments Cretaceous sediments (Strzeiecki Group) Lower Devonian sediments 145'30'E Fig. 3. Distribution map of Giant Gippsland Earthworm also showing relative extent of lithological types upon which soils harbouring the worm are found. July/August 169 sucking sounds, no other indications are present to demonstrate the presence of the worm. The circumstances of sighting from the respondents fall into two main categories, Firstly, specimens are expos- ed or brought to the surface by processes which disturb the ground. Such ac- tivities as digging up rabbit burrows, ploughing, excavating for dams, road or rail cuttings or digging post-holes or stumps, bring worms to the surface. On some occasions these activities have revealed large populations of worms, with reports of specimens becoming en- tangled in dozer tracks and pieces hang- ing from them like streamers. The other category of sighting is for worms forced out onto the surface of the ground by complete water-logging. Several people report that flooding, after heavy rain or as a result of natural or artificial damm- ing of streams, has brought worms to the surface and has drowned some in- dividual specimens. In one case it was reported that the overflowing of pigs skim-milk feed had caused several worms to surface. Predation. Several of the respondents reported the worm being taken by kookaburras. A number of these events are described as follows: “I saw what I thought was a jackass with snake. On getting closer I discovered it was a live worm about 5 ft. long. The bird would fly into a large dead tree, then drop the worm, a thing I have seen many times with snakes." (pers. comm. A, Jackson, Loch). “During the ploughing, quite a number of the worms would be sliced by the plough. It used to be a real bonanza for the kookabur- ras as they used to tug and pull at the severed pieces of the worms. It was rather amusing at times to watch these birds when they flew to a nearby tree trailing a 2-3ft. length of worm. Sometimes the worm would get snagged on a branch and they would swing to and fro on the length of worm trying to dislodge it.” (pers. comm. M. Hillberg, Bena). “My attention was drawn to a kookaburra 170 sitting on the road. I thought it had been in- jured and stopped with the idea of moving it off the road. I noticed that it had about 4 in- ches of the large worm protruding from its beak and obviously would not be able to fly for sometime. I therefore took the bird with me to Korumburra and placed it in an aviary for safe keeping. It was 36 hours later before the bird was able to fly. It was then released and I hope returned to its territory. When the bird was picked up it appeared to be in some sort of stupor; maybe just from being over fed, or perhaps the worms contain some substance which causes that effect." (pers. comm. A. Stubington, Korumburra), Many other observations were given of instances where kookaburras were seen feeding on the worm, There was also one observation of a magpie trying to pull a worm out of the ground. General Observations. The size of the worm is always of interest and while some replies quoted worms of 7, 10 and 11 feet, most quoted lengths of from 4 to 6 ft. (1-2m). Several replies were scornful of reports of very long specimens with one warning of a trick of holding three worms to look like one 10 ft. specimen. A number of replies men- tioned the trade in specimens with several reports of sending specimens to many parts of the world or assisting overseas visitors to find and preserve specimens to take away. Many of the replies said that the worm is still locally very common, one quoting a density of 1 worm per 100 sq. ft. in parts of the Bass Valley. Local landslides have been attributed to the ac- tivities of the worm while several respondents quoted instances of dam walls being weakened or undermined by the burrows of the worm. The egg capsules were frequently mentioned, being accurately described as like a large sausage-shaped chrysalis, transparent and amber in colour, about 2-3 inches (50-75 mm) long containing one developing embryo in a milky fluid. These eggs were commonly dug up with Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 the worms close to the surface in damp ground, some being said to be laid around the root systems of rushes. It was suggested (pers. comm. J. T. Clark, Nyora) that a breeding season could be detected for the worm. Freshly layed capsules are seen in early winter after the soil becomes cool and moist after the summer, and worms hatch in late winter and early spring when the ground is wet. A number of respondents reported seeing the worm protrude its ‘‘head’’ from the hole and one went as far as to speculate that the anterior tip of the worm was usually a dark purple colour in order to camouflage it while at the surface. Several people commented on the fluid the worm exudes from its skin but only one person specifically men- tioned any sort of oily or creosote-like smell. One or two respondents speculated on the possibility of more than one species of giant earthworm be- ing present in the area, stating that a size difference occurs between those worms found on flats to those found in hills. Discussion From these preliminary studies it is plain that the Giant Gippsland Ear- thworm is not only widely known about and highly thought of in the local com- munity, but has almost entered the folk- mythology of South Gippsland. There are strong indications that the species is held to be an important part of the “‘make-up”’ of the area and that most people would react positively to any reasonable move towards its conserva- tion. This study has presented substantive evidence on the distribution of the worm. It appears that the worm is con- fined to the deep grey soil, formed main- ly from Cretaceous rocks, in the western Strzelecki Ranges, and to the alluvial areas derived from this soil to the north and south-west. A great deal of observa- tional evidence has been collected from which many aspects of the ecology of July/August the worm can be inferred pending fur- ther study. This includes habitat re- quirements, some aspects of the reproductive cycle and some of the fac- tors which might control the population, such as flooding and predation by kookaburras and magpies. The only area reserved for nature con- servation by the State Government in the distribution area of the worm is 164 hectares representing the last forested areas of the Western Strzelecki Ranges and known as the Mount Worth State Park. It is on the extreme western boun- dary of the range as shown in Fig. 3. Worms have been reported in parts of this park but nothing is known of their numbers or status there. Any future discussion about setting aside further land for the conservation of the species should include consideration of an area close to the centre of its distribution. The information and anecdotal obser- vations documented here should be used as a baseline from which more detailed and controlled observations and ex- periments can be constructed. It is hoped in the near future to undertake more detailed field-studies on specific populations to determine their composi- tion, the breeding cycles and to characterize more precisely the habitat requirements of the Giant Gippsland Earthworm. Acknowledgements We could like to express our gratitude to all the people of South Gippsland who took the time and trouble to respond to the question- naire. We would like to thank the Monash University Special Research Grants Commit- tee for the research grant which made the sen- ding of the questionnaire possible. Thanks are due to Ms Helen Malcolm for preparing and addressing most of the questionnaires, to Messrs Jack Missen, Gary Swinton and Ms Jenny Pascoe of the Geography Department for preparing the distribution map, and to Mesdames Lyn Anderson, H. MacDonald and C. Battersby for typing the manuscript. 171 REFERENCES Barnes, R. D., (1980), Invertebrate Zoology. 4th edition. Holt-Saunders. Tokyo. Barrett, C., (1935). Australia's Wonder Animals. Sun News-Pictorial, Melbourne, 44 pp. Barrett, C. (editor), (1951). The Australian Junior Encyclopaedia. Australian Junior Encyclopaedia Pty. Ltd., Melbourne. Beardsell, D., (1979). The Outer Circle, Australian Railway Historical Society, (Victorian Division), Melbourne. 125 pp. Buchsbaum, R., (1951). Animals without backbones. Vol. 2, Penguin Books, Middlesex. Copeland, H., (1934). Path of progress: opening up of South Gippsland. Warragul. Eve, J. E., (1974), Gippsland worms. Victorian Nat. 91(2): 36-38. Geological Survey of Victoria (1971), Warragul Geological Map Sheet, 1:250,000, Mines Depart- ment, Melbourne. Harrigan, L. J., (1962). Victorian Railways to '62, Victorian Railways, Melbourne. Hartnell, R., (1974). Pack-tracks to Pastures, Poowong Centenary Committee, Poowong, 207 pp. Jamieson, B. G. M., (1971). A review of the megascolecoid earthworm genera (Oligochaeta) of Australia. Part lll — the subfamily Megascolecinae. Mem. Qd. Mus., 16(1): 69-102. Land Conservation Council, Victoria, 1973. Report on the Melbourne Study Area. Melbourne. L.G.G. Mackness, B., (1981). Earthwatch, Golden Press, Gladesville. McCoy, F., (1878). Prodromus to the Zoology of Victoria, 1: 21-25, p. 7. Smith, F. M., (1980). Karmai the Giant Earthworm. Korumburra. 26 pp. South Gippsland Pioneer's Associaton, (1966). The land of the lyrebird: a story of early settlement in the great forest of South Gippsland. Korum- burra, Victoria, The Shire of Korumburra for the South Gippsland Development League. Spencer, W. B., (1888) The anatomy of Megascolides australis (The giant earthworm of Gippsland). Trans. R. Soc. Vict., 1(1): 3-60. Are You a Bird Caller? If so, you could possibly be Australia's champion! The Maryborough Field Naturalists’ Club is calling all **bird callers” to enter their Second Australian Bird Call Imitation Championship at Maryborough on Saturday, 28th August. The Club presents this unique and entertaining Championship as part of the city's Golden Wattle Festival. Each contestant MUST imitate the Laughing Kookaburra and at least three other Australian native birds, within a time slot of five minutes. No whistles, artificial (Continued from page 174) Rotamah, the RAOU has another obser- vatory at Eyre and is establishing a third at Barren Grounds in NSW, Rotamah is an old farm house and slides were shown of the environment and some of the mammals and reptiles that can be seen there. The bird projects include mist netting and breeding studies. Exhibits. Coral Gum Eucalyptus torquata that was growing in Hopetoun streets; rust fungus gall on black wattle that also attacks 48 other Acacias; co- 172 aids or backing permitted! All entrants will combine in a Kookaburra Chorus after the judges have made their decisions. Judging will be done by two well-known Victorian ornithologists. Total prize money of $500 will be awarded at the Judges' ab- solute discretion. There is a valuable trophy for the winner as well as a perpetual trophy. Entry forms are available now from Mrs Eileen Courtney, 45 Carrick Street, Maryborough, 3465. Closing date for entries is 25th August, coons or hairy caterpillars that had been parasitised; snails Cernuella virgata from western wheat areas where they are damaging crops; a marsupial mouse Antechinus flavipes(?) that a cat had brought in at Tallarook. Conservation. Malcolm Turner tabled LCC recommendations for South Gippsland and for Hill End to be cleared for pines, and literature on ''Conserva- tion Strategy" and ‘‘Endangered Species’’. Editors. A vote of thanks was passed in appreciation of our editors. Serve-yourself-Supper was available. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Naturalist Review “A Field Guide to the Tracks and Traces of Australian Animals” By R. G., B. MORRISON Rigby, Adelaide. Field Guide Series, 1981. ISBN 0 7270 1489 7. Rrp $14.95 (discount to F.N.C.V. members). Biologists have long recognized the validity of animal survey techniques which are not based on direct observation or trapping, but rather on the identification of animal re- mains, droppings, tracks and scratchings. However, a difficulty is that it takes a great deal of field experience and knowledge of the possible animals responsible for the signs for such techniques to be of any use. This field guide certainly help in overcoming a deficien- cy in such experience. Morrison's book is first-class. It begins with a chapter on classifying and naming animals. It is so refreshing to see his tax- onomy is based on the recent works contain- ed in Stonehouse and Gilmour (The Biology of Marsupials, MacMillan, 1977) and not on now more outmoded, but still often cited reference works. It is also pleasing to see his common names of mammals are those sug- gested as standard book names by the Australian Mammal Society (AMS Bulletin 6: 13-23). Hyett and Shaw’s failure to use these names represents a serious disadvantage of their otherwise good field guide to our mam- mals (Hyett, J. and Shaw, N. Australian Mammals: A Field Guide for New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. Nelson 1980). The second chapter in Morrison’s book provides a very good methodology for identi- July/August fying skulls. A user with only an elementary knowledge of biology should be able to classify a skull as either reptile, bird or mam- mal; if the latter, decide if it is a monotreme, marsupial or eutherian, its likely diet and even its order. 170 photographs of skulls assist in this task. The next chapter, **Dropp- ings and Owl Pellets” also uses photographs (48) and useful notes to assist in identifying the scat depositor. Then follow chapters on “Tracks and Trails’’ (including scaled sket- ches of hind and fore feet of representatives of the marsupials, 126 photographs and diagnostically useful notes), ''Scratchings and Diggings"' (‘‘Lavatories’’ seems a strange subtitle to describe places where cats cover their scats) and an interesting (but somewhat irrelevant) chapter on how aborigines record and reproduce animal tracks. A final chapter (‘Collecting and Storage Techniques") in- cludes a most useful description of how to make a plaster cast of a footprint. Morrison's field guide has a glossary, is well indexed and the use of photographs (all with scales) is excellent. It is not only a must for naturalists and bushwalkers who would like to know what vertebrates could have left their signs in an area — it is also an essential aid for those undertaking a more serious survey of fauna in a particular habitat. R.L.W. 173 Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Reports of recent activities Fungus Excursion at Kinglake Sunday 6 June On such a bitter morning it was heartening to be welcomed by two roar- ing fires; Keith and Joan Risinen had ar- rived early and got things going. Dr Jim Willis spoke briefly about fungi, what we might expect to find here and where to look. It was not until after lunch that we scattered and began to col- lect. It is astonishing what our little Kinglake property can produce — more than 60 different species! They were all spread out in an orderly manner, Jim Willis was kept busy naming the various species, and everybody was able to ex- amine them or photograph them. It was an exciting collection and, to mention a few of its riches, there were 6 different Cortinarius, a fascinating pineapple Boletus B. pallescens, and a bracket fungus Paxillus panuoides with unusual sculptured frills. Our thanks go to Jim Willis for his en- thusiasm and knowledge, and to the Risinens for their fires, etc. General Meeting Monday 21 June The speaker was Mr David Robertson who is researching various aspects of Gellibrand Hill, 1500 acres near Tullamarine Airport recently declared a national park. It is open grassy woodland that was previously grazed by stock and little native vegetation is left. Mr Robertson hopes to find out what regeneration, if any, can occur when lightly grazed by kangaroos only, and the effect of burning and frequency of burning. He has sundry fenced plots for the various projects but the undertaking is still young. Exhibits. There was a fine display of photos and pressed plant specimens from Gellibrand Hill. The skull of an albatross, about 22cm long (9"), had 174 been found on the beach. Another skull about 3cm long (11⁄4 ") was the bush rat Rattus fuscipes. Preserved in a bottle was a baby bandicoot that had been evicted from the pouch; it was about 5cm long (2") with large head and large eyes. Tall plants of native blady grass Imperata cylindrica had several nesting shelters of skipper moth larvae. One had been eaten by a wasp and the shelter now contained wasp cocoons. Conservation. Our new conservation co-ordinator Malcolm Turner said he saw his job as a funnel — to funnel members ideas to the proper quarters and to funnel back their reception. He read a letter protesting against forest logging in the Grampians and a submis- sion concerning Mt Eccles. Objectives of the new Council stated by President Wendy Clark included a more active role in conservation, more member participation at general meetings with exhibits and nature notes, continued search for new premises, and other items. Coffee and tea was available after the meeting and many members stayed longer in the relaxed atmosphere. General Meeting Monday 12 July Speakers were Alan Burbidge and Julie Raines, rangers in charge of the RAOU Rotamah Island Bird Obser- vatory. Situated in the Gippsland Lakes National Park, Rotamah is à narrow island of about 260 hectares. As well as researching sundry aspects of birds, mammals and reptiles, one of the ob- jects of the observatory is to enable or- dinary people to partake in such ac- tivities. Several courses have been run, of 3 or 4 days duration, at $14 each night. Anyone can go. As well as (Continued on page 172) Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 (from inside front cover) Thursday, 16th September. Ringwood Lake etc. Meet at barbecue area 11.30 a.m. Train leaves Flinders St 10.30 a.m. Leader: Gwyneth Taylor 878 3415. Thursday, 21 October. George Pentland Botanical Gardens, Frankston. Leader: A. Fairhall 578 2009. At the National Herbarium, the Domain, at 8.00 p.m. First Tuesday — Mammal Survey Group. Tuesday, 7th September. Glider Speaker: Stephen Henry. Tuesday, 5th October. MSGV activities. Speaker: Jill Poynton. ecology. Third Wednesday — Microscopy Group. Wednesday, 18th August. Basic use of optics. Wednesday, 15th September. Hydroids of Black Rock. Speaker: Dan McInnes. Wednesday, 21st October. 35mm slides — Club members. Second Thursday — Botany Group. Thursday, 12th August. Some peas of Victoria. Speaker: Mrs M. Corrick. Thursday, 9th September. To be announced. Thursday, 14th October. Pollination in native plants. Speaker: Mr P. Lumley. GROUP EXCURSIONS All FNCV members are invited to attend Group excursions. Mammal Survey. Saturday, 14th — Sunday, 15th August. Mt Worth. Saturday, 11th — Sunday, 12th September. Big River. Saturday, 9th — Sunday, 10th October. Buxton. Botany Group. Saturday, 26th September. Rushworth. Saturday, 30th October. Kinglake National Park. Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Established 1880 OBJECTS: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron: His Excellency Rear Admiral Sir Brian S. Murray, KCMG, AO. Key Office-Bearers 1982-1983 President: Miss WENDY CLARK, 27 Rangeview Grove, North Balwyn, 3104 (859 8091 A.H.) Vice-President: Dr. B. Smith, C/- The National Museum, Russell Street, Melbourne Secretary: Mrs. Sheila Houghton, 30 Golf Links Crescent, Dingley, 3172 (551 2708) Correspondence to: FNCV, National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Treasurer: Mr. D. DUNN, 3 Allfrey Street, East Brighton, 3187 (578 5753) Subscription-Secretary: Miss H. MALCOLM C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Editor: Mr. R. WALLIS, Victoria College — Rusden Campus, 662 Blackburn Road, North Clayton, 3168 (544 8544) Librarian: Excursion Secretary: Miss M. ALLENDER, 19 Hawthorn Avenue, Caulfield, 3161 (527 2749) Book Sales Officer: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (211 2427) Group Secretaries Botany: Mr. MICHAEL McBAIN, 19 Foster Street, St. Kilda, 3182 (534 2293) Day Group: C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Geology: Mr. T. SAULT, C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Mammal Survey: Mr. A. FAITHFUL, 67 Athelstan Road, Camberwell, 3124 (29 5108 A.H.) Microscopical: Mr. M. H. MEYER, 36 Milroy Street, East Brighton (596 3268) FNCV Kinglake Nature Reserve: McMahons Road, Kinglake Booking and keys: Mr. I. F. MORRISON, 788 Elgar Road, Doncaster (848 1194) MEMBERSHIP Membership of the F.N.C.V. is open to any person interested in natural history. The Victorian Naturalist is distributed free to all members, the club's reference and lending library is available and other activities are indicated in reports set out in the several preceding pages of this magazine. a Subscription rates for 1982 COUPLE OS Tp MONS INTE ERSISTET ORB UR on 40h 0s0zs Yr PRAEC tigi ps E E E E A: $15.00 Sea RCM Mra CSE DUI UU EU rss SEE JE e EEREMEM AA LIE 22K E EEIN À C deoram quse 6d a recette Mel $18.00 Country Members and Retired Persons,.... $12.00 ean aa A TET ostade T eus ep nbn nt atr cto r3) usSaeeien 1)NrA 9o reali since 30-310 Fosa E $15.00 $13.00 Subscription to Victorian Naturalist............ Overseas Subscription to Victorian Naturalist A RA A A DDR MTM T — e PEE NOAE TEE E E E T $2.20 All subscriptions should be made payable to the Field Naturalist Club of Victoria and posted to the Subscription Secretary. @ JENKIN BUXTON PRINTERS PTY, LTD., WEST MELBOURNE Vol. 99, No. 5 Sept./Oct. 1982 Published by the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA in which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria $2. 20 Reaistered bv Australia Post. Publication No. V.B.P. 1268 FNCV DIARY OF COMING EVENTS GENERAL MEETINGS Monday, 8th November, at 8,00 p.m. Presentation of the Australian Natural History Medallion 1982, awarded to the late Howard Jarman, Mrs Beryl Jarman will receive the Medallion on her husband's behalf, Mr Jack Hyett will speak on Howard Jarman’s work as an ornithologist, Monday, 11th October, 8.00 p.m. Mr John Beumah: Eels, Tuesday, 9th November, 8.00 p.m. Presentation of the Natural History Medallion, Monday, 12th December, 8.00 p.m. Microscopical film ‘Wonders of pond life", Mr Paul Genery, New Members Metropolitan Robin Adair, 17 Fairmont Ave, Camberwell September/October General Meetings, Valerie Curtis, 71 MeComb Avd., Frankston, (Mammals and birds) Margaret Fahroendin, | Fricker Ave., Greensborough John James, 27 McArthur Sr, Malvern Kath Lithgow, Department of Physiology, Monash University Mis A. B, Nuttall, 15 Koolkuna Ave., Doncaster, (Botany) Sonia White, 2/1 Balcombe SC, Frankston Jeffrey Yuguvic, 1/14 Hrougham St, North Melbourne Joint Moira Devane, K10 Drummond Sc, Carlton North kate Gowland, 16 Kumala Rd., Bayswater Country Timothy Enfwisle, W.5.D, Yapeen FNCV EXCL Tuesday, 2nd November, Cup Day, Vallarook/Mt Piper area, Leader: Peter Kelly, The coach will leave Batman Ave., at 9,00 a.m. Fare $8.00, Bring a pienie lunch and a snack, Saturday, Ith — Sunday, Idth November, Ballarat and Lal-Lal, This weekend includes a ride in horsedrawn carts through the bush around Lal Lal where we could not take the coach to see some of the historie sites in the district as well as native plants ete, The vehicles will take about 24 but some horses are also available at extra cost if anyone wishes to ride, Lunch is included on this day and motel accommodation has been booked in Ballarat on a D.B.B, basis at the Miners Rest Motel, The SIONS coach will leave Flinders St., from the Gas and Fuel at 8.20 on Saturday morning. Bring one picnic lunch. Cost for the weekend is $60,00 which should be paid to the Excursion Secretary by 31st October. Sunday, Sth December, Marysville, The couch will leave Batman Avenue at 9,30 a.m. Fare $9.00, Bring one meal and a snack, Saturday, 15th January-Friday, 21st January, Falls Creek, Accommodation has been booked at a motel D.B.B, for the period and a coach chartered, Cost $290; a deposit of $20.00 should be paid to the Excursion Secretary when booking and the balance by the December General Meeting. GROUP MEETINGS PNCV members are invited to attend any Group meeting, Day Group — Third Thursday, Thursday, 2st October, George Pentland Botanical Garden, Frankston, (Melway 120 D4). Meet at Victoria Parade gate, 11,30 acm, Train from Flinders St., 10,00 a.m. Leader: Alf Fairhall S78 2009, Thursday, 18th November, Edwardes Lake Park, Reservoir, (Melway 18 D5) Meet at Reservoir station 11,15 a.m, Epping train from Princes Bridge 10.47 a.m. Leader: E. Graham 469 2509. No meeting in December, At the National Herbarium, the Domain, at 8,00 p.m. First Tuesday — Mammal Survey Group. Tuesday 7th December, Members night, Third Wednesday — Microscopy Group. Wednesday, 20th October. 35 mm slides — Club members, Wednesday, 17th November. Film — Insects", Paul Genery. Second Thursday — Botany Group. Thursday, 14th October, Pollination in native flowers, Mr Peter Lumley, Thursday, 11th November. Hawaiian flowers and fruits, Dr Elizabeth Turner, Thursday, 9th December. To be announced. (continued page 219) The Victorian Naturalist Volume 99, Number 5 September/October, 1982 ISSN 0042-5184 Editor: Robert L, Wallis Editorial Committee: H, Cohn, B, Smith Some Bird Records for Beagle Reef, Tasmania by J, 5S, Whinray 180 Notes on Inland Samphires of Victoria by J, H, Browne 186 New Victorian Records: Soliva (Compositae) by H, L Aston 190 The Early Devonian Fauna at the Mt Ida Formation in the Heathcote District by J, V, Neil, , 195 The Derrinal Permian Glacial Valley Part 2 by FP; Robbins 202 Aboriginal Hatchet from Cape Paterson, South Gippsland, Victoria by E, D, Gill and E, R, Segnit 206 A Possible Tri-hybrid Eucalypt near the Cathedral Range, Victoria by S. Yorke and D. H, Ashton 208 Robert Brown and the Cell Nucleus by J, Fimson 215 F.N.C.V. Reports of Club Activities i | 216 Cover illustration: Sclerostegía tenuis, a samphire from a river floodplain west of Merbein Some Bird Records for Beagle Reef, Tasmania By J. S. WHINRAY* Beagle Reef is in south-eastern Bass Strait, about eight kilometres north-west of Cape Barren Island (see Fig. 1). As its area is about one hectare, this islet is one of the smallest in the Furneaux Group. Beagle is a granite islet and has two small beaches. The eastern one is a boulder beach, and the western one is a sand beach behind a very rough coast. These beaches, and the bare rocky coast, are about a quarter of a hectare in area. About two-thirds of the islet’s surface is flat or gently-sloping land about two metres above high water level. The sum- mit, which is 6.5 metres above high water level, is a granite outcrop at the south end. The north-east reef runs from about 100 to about 250 metres off the north- eastern point. The north-west reef is about 600 metres north-north-west of the islet. Both these outlying reefs are granite. My first visit, on 6 February 1979, lasted for five hours. The second visit, on 15 December 1979, lasted but two hours as the wind was freshening. Vegetation The main species was Seaberry Saltbush Rhagodia baccata which covered about three-eighths of the vegetated part of the islet. Coast Saltbush Atriplex cinerea, which was about a quarter of the cover, was the other major species. Both these shrubs grew to 0.6 of a metre high (see Fig. 2). The vegetation of a coastal strip along much of the north, east and south- eastern coasts had been modified by nesting of the Blackfaced Cormorant, On both visits, there were few plants in * Flinders Island, Tasmania, 7255. 180 the most recently used areas. In the guano-rich strip of the east and south- eastern coasts, and of the south-eastern point, the main dominant was the Berry Saltbush Atriplex semibaccata which grew to 0.3 of a metre high (see Fig. 3). The main grass was Prickly Speargrass Stipa stipoides, the hassocks of which formed a broken belt of vary- ing width along the west coast. There were also a few on the north-eastern point. The native tussockgrass Poa sp. was much less common and its main oc- currence was a small patch near the north coast, The islet’s vegetation was in very good condition and only one plant of each of two exotic species was seen. Both of the outlying reefs had no vegetation. Bird List Little Penguin Eudyptula minor In February an adult was found moulting in a hollow under Seaberry Saltbush on the north-west point. CHAPPELL f) ISLANDS * ` Goose Id ` Beagle Rf CAPE BARREN ISLAND Part of the south-western section of the Furneaux Group. Fig. 1. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Fig. 2. The southern part of Beagle Reef, February 1979. Prickly Speargrass hassocks rise above a main cover of Coast Saltbush. The small darker patches in the latter are Seaberry Saltbush, The summit is in the distance, Photograph by J. 5. Whinray, ^ downy chick was found in a nesting hollow just west of the summit in December. No other signs of this species were noticed during the visits, Tasmanian Muttonbird tenuirostris In February about 100 burrows were occupied by this species. The smaller rookery was behind the north coast and extended a little way on to the north- west point. Three nestlings and four adults were found in some checked bur- rOWS. The larger rookery was at the south end. It began at the northern end of the summit outcrop and extended about for- ty metres to the north-west. It was up to twenty metres wide. One nestling, an egg and an adult were found in a few check- ed burrows. The most intensively burrowed part of the islet’s rookeries was at the northern Puffinus September/ October base of the summit outcrop. There the Coast Saltbush had been given a brown coating by dirt scratched out recently from the burrows, No burrows were checked in December but I noticed that those in the rookery just north of the summit had been scratched out, discolouring the Saltbush again. Whitefaced Stormpetrel marina On 15 November 1907, Armstrong (1908) found many burrows of this species ‘‘situated in sandy grounds (sic) amongst tussocks"' and, with his compa- nion, took several fresh eggs. ''In each case" he added, ‘‘where there was an egy the bird was in the hole’’. In February | found only one burrow which could have been made by this species. It was at the southern edge of the northern tussockgrass patch. Although empty, it was in good condi- Pelagodroma 181 z * o ae cree EET mm Fig. 3, The south-eastern coast and point of Beagle Reef, February 1979, Unmodified shrub vegetation on the left gives way to Berry Saltbush in the guano-rich, rocky central strip which then slopes to the bare coastal rocks. The north-eastern point is in the background. Photograph by J. S. Whinray. tion, and might have been used during the recent breeding season. The burrow found in February was not in use in December. No other bur- rows of that size were seen. Blackfaced Cormorant Phalacrocorax fuscescens On 15 November 1907, Armstrong (1908) found a large rookery ‘‘in pro- gress, containing, I should say, 200 nests”. [t was ''On the rocks’’ and this probably meant on the rocky coastal area. The islet was listed as a rookery by Serventy et al. (1971).* They indicated neither when this record was made nor by whom. At the time of my February visit the most recently used rookery on the islet * While the islet is entered on their list as Beagle Reef, it is lumped in their index with two Western Australian islands under the single name of "Beagle Island''. 182 was on the western part of the north coast and the adjacent part of the north- west point. The latter part was very rocky and the rookery finished about thirty metres from the tip of the point. In the rookery were about 200 nests that seemed to have been used in late 1978. A few dead adults and dead nestl- ings were found amongst them. Some nests along the southern edge of the rookery had been built amongst Coast Saltbush, most of which had been killed, presumably by the birds' droppings and trampling. All but two small sections of the coastal strip running from this rookery around the east and south-eastern coasts to just south-east of the summit had been used previously as rookery by this species. The exceptions were part of the eastern side of the north-eastern point and a short piece of the rocky coast at the southern end of the eastern beach. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 The species was present throughout this visit and the larger count was made just after landing. At that time there were eight adults in sight on the islet, one on the north-east reef and eighteen on the north-west reef. Later there were fifteen at the southern end of the islet but the north-west reef was too far away to be checked from there. In December the first sighting was of one mature and four large immature birds. The largest count after that was nine adults and two immature birds for the islet and an adjacent rock. At the same time there were eighteen on the north-west reef but it was impossible to tell how many of the latter were mature birds. All the immature birds recorded during this visit could fly. A strip of coastal land from about thirty-five metres north-west of the south-eastern point to about twenty metres north-east of the summit had been used as a rookery since February. The most recent nests were those fur- thest to the north-west of the point. They numbered about sixty and seemed to have been used late in the year. One dead nestling was found at them. There had been about 350 nests in the rest of the rookery, and they seemed to have been built soon after my February visit. Cape Barren Goose Cereopsis novaehollandiae Guiler (1967) listed Beagle as one of the islands that ‘‘may be used occa- sionally by geese for feeding but general- ly are little utilized by the birds and were not studied in any detail’’ during his Furneaux Group survey from 1957 to 1965. No birds were present in February but a large nest, with the typical down of this species, was found amongst some Prickly Speargrass hassocks about forty metres north-north-west of the summit. It would have been built by the species during the 1978 season. There were no birds in December but a few droppings were found. September/October Sooty Oystercatcher fuliginosus Just after landing in February I notic- ed one on the north-east reef and another on a bared rock off the west coast. In December one was seen on the bared rocks of the south-eastern point. Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria interpres An adult rose from the very rough, bouldery north coast when I landed there in February. One, which might have been the same bird, was flushed later from the bared rocky coast east of the summit. In December one bird rose from the bared boulders of the eastern beach. Later four were seen on a bared south- eastern point rock. All the birds of both visits had non- breeding plumage. Silver Gull Larus novaehollandiae This species was one of those which Armstrong (1908) listed as ‘‘flying about” the islet when he recorded birds there ‘‘in great numbers" on 15 November 1907. My sighting in February was one bird on the north-west reef just after I landed on the islet. The sole December record was two mature and three immature birds which landed on the sea near the eastern beach. Later they flew north away from the islet. Pacific Gull Larus pacificus This species was also one of those which Armstrong (1908) listed as ‘‘fly- ing about" the islet when he recorded birds there ‘‘in great numbers" on 15 November 1907. It was present throughout the February visit and the count taken just after my arrival was the larger one. At that time there were one mature and two immature birds on the north-east reef. Fourteen mature and eight immature birds were on the islet and its adjacent bared rocks. A later count from the summit record- Haematopus 183 ed six mature and two immature birds for the islet, All the immature birds seen during the visit were brown and could fly. There were many mature birds on and flying above the islet in December. The largest count was thirty-nine and there could have been more out of sight. Seven nests were found. Five were emp- ty and two had one addled egg each. A dead chick 150 mm long was found beside one empty nest; two live chicks of about the same size were found near another empty nest. Caspian Tern Hydroporgne caspia On 15 November 1907, Armstrong (1908) recorded a pair flying about the islet and he found a fresh egg. During the early part of my February visit an adult flew around occasionally over the islet but did not dive at me. A little later there were two adults on the north-east reef. There was a pair of adults at the islet in December and they dived at me twice. Fairy Tern Sterna nereis In December there were eight nests of this species in sand at high water level amongst driftwood near the northern end of the western beach. Eighteen adults were present when my count was taken. There were two nests with two eggs each; one nest with one egg; one nest with two chicks about 75 mm long; one nest with a chick and an egg; one empty nest with broken egg shells nearby, and two more empty nests. All the nests were shallow depressions in the sand. Crested Tern Sterna bergii In 1893 Campbell (1900) was *'in- formed that these Terns bred in number on a rock (Bramble?) lying to the south of Goose Island"'. For several reasons | consider that this report refers to Beagle Reef. There are neither islands nor reefs due south of Goose Island but Beagle is southwards of it, On the Admiralty Bass * Chart 1695A, 1921 edition, with corrections to 1964, 184 Strait chart it is called ‘Beagle Rock’’* and its small size makes that name reasonable. In addition, ‘‘Bramble’’ is closer to its name than it is to the name of any other south-western islet or reef of the Furneaux Group. This species was another of those which Armstrong (1908) listed as ‘‘fly- ing about’’ the islet when he recorded birds there ‘‘in great numbers" on 15 November 1907. Little Grassbird Megalurus gramineus Grassbirds were recorded in most of the shrubby parts of the islet in February and were heard calling during most of the visit. The largest number seen at the one time was six. (The locality of that sighting is the foreground area of Fig. 2.) I estimated the islet’s population as about twelve birds. Only two were seen in December. Both were in low shrubs near the north coast. Comments This list of thirteen species is the se- cond set of records published for the islet and includes all the prior records known to me. Beagle Reef is a very important Blackfaced Cormorant rookery because the one recorded there in December 1979 is the fifth largest I have found, to December 1981, during visits to sixty islands, islets and reefs in the Furneaux Group. The area of modified vegetation is the largest 1 have seen in the Group and suggests long, frequent usage by this species. But of course I cannot say if it breeds on the islet every year. It seems that some listings in Serventy et al. (1971) should be used with cau- tion. In the Blackfaced Cormorant list, for example, they give no indication of the sources nor any dates for the records. The unstated assumption of this, and their other lists, is that the species concerned continue to breed on the listed islands. This is an arguable assumption for those species which are Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 known to change their breeding sites. For such species, the present lists merely indicate that the birds have bred on the named islands. The years when the records were made, and the sources, should be given in future lists of that sort. On both visits | walked over most of the islet and consider that few burrows could have been missed. So I conclude that the Whitefaced Stormpetrel numbers have decreased considerably since 1907, Armstrong’s account of his 1907 Furneaux Group visit made no mention of Tasmanian Muttonbirds (Armstrong, 1908) and so his failure to record the species for Beagle Reef is not an indication of the absence then of rookeries of that species. Either he might not have bothered to record so common a species, or the birds might not have returned by then to the rookeries for their annual egg laying. Because of its distance from my home, and the small size of the borrow- ed boat which is used for my trips, it was not possible to check the islet regularly for breeding birds. Cape Barren Geese, Fairy Penguins, Tasmanian Mut- tonbirds, Caspian Terns, Pacific Gulls and Sooty Oystercatchers are likely to breed there regularly. Silver Gulls, Crested Terns and Fairy Terns are likely to breed there from time to time. The record of the Little Grassbird is yet another local one of this species in an atypical Tasmanian habitat. Some prior local records were given in an earlier paper (Whinray, 1976). Because of its use by cormorants, and because the vegetation was in such good condition, I suggested in mid 1979 to the National Parks and Wildlife Service that the islet should be made a reserve. They told me that it had been so declared in 1976 as part of the Chappell Islands Nature Reserve, and added that it was done without any knowledge on their part of either its vegetation or its birds. So I am pleased to have shown that it is a very worthwhile addition to Tasmania’s reserves, and to be able to add that the National Parks and Wildlife Service carries out investiga- tions of local areas nowadays before making them into reserves. However the Service has only two officers to do such work for the entire State, and their in- vestigations are hampered by the lack of money. Acknowledgements The generous loan of Mr G. W. G. Goode's boat made the visits possible. Mr R. H. Filson com- mented helpfully on an early draft of this note, REFERENCES Armstrong, W. J. T., (1908). A Visit to the Furneaux Group, Bass Strait. The Emu, VI: 181- 184, Campbell, A. JL, (1900). Nest and Epes of Australian Birds . , , Published privately, Shef- field. Guiler, E, R., (1967), The Cape Barren Goose, its Environment, Numbers and Breeding The Emu, 66: 211-235, Serventy, D, L., Serventy, V., & Warham, J., (1971). The Handbook of Australian Sea-Birds, A. H, & A, W. Reed, Sydney, Whinray, J. S., (1976). The Little Grassbird in the Furneaux Group, Tasmania. The Australian Bird Watcher, 6:321-325. Old Photos of Wilsons Promontory By December 1982, Wilsons Promotory National Park, or “The Prom” as it is af- fectionately known, will have a new information and Education Centre at Tidal River. To inject human interest into the visitor displays and slide programmes featuring different aspects of the park, the National Parks Service is keen to look at photos taken by the general public in and around ‘‘The Prom" up to the early 1950s. If members of the public have photographs which they feel may be interesting, please contact Barbara Cameron-Smith (03) 651 4152 or Sandra Bardwell (03) 651 4473. The original would be returned. September/October 185 Notes on Inland Samphires of Victoria By J. H. BROWNE* Those members of the plant family Chenopodiaceae generally called sam- phires, beadbushes or glassworts (sub- family Salicornioideae) in Victoria have recently been taxonomically revised (P. G. Wilson 1980 Nuytsia 3: 3-154). With satisfactory taxonomy now available for the first time, this paper provides notes on the ecology and distribution of samphires in parts of NW Victoria be- tween Mildura and the Natimuk area. This includes parts of the plant distribu- tion grid squares A, B, C, F and G (the boundaries of these grids are shown in ‘A Handbook to Plants in Victoria’ Vol. II by J. H. Willis. Melbourne Univ. Press). A. Halosarcias 1. Halosarcia flabelliformis This species is found in Grid A (small stand on W edge of Raak Plain, and Grid C (large stand on E side of Mitre Lake, small stand on S end of unnamed lake just NE of Lake Wyn Wyn). This species occurs on its own in a dif- ferent habitat to the others in the genus, in that it is found on the lowest ground which is subject to flooding. With the rise in the water table, this would most likely occur every winter. The soil in all stands that I have found is sandy with a high kopi (flour gypsum) content. There is no sign of salt when it is dry in the Raak Plain stand. Surface salinity may not become high, even in summer, if in dry periods the water table sinks down through the sand rather than water re- maining on the surface till evaporation raises the salinity. Some other Halosarcias are also winter-flooded, but possibly for a shorter period, the water is shallower *Fitzroy Ave., Red Cliffs, Victoria. Australia. 3496, 186 (about 5 cm) and the soil clayey. Such soils are often firm enough to walk on but in the Raak H. flabelliformis stand, I sink past my ankles when it is flooded. 2. H. halocnemoides In Grid A, this species has been seen just W of Nowingi and in the Raak Plain proper, and at Hattah Lakes National Park. In Grid B it has been seen in Pink Lakes State Park; in Grid F at Lake Myall; in Grid G at Towan Plains, Lake Wahpool and Lake Tyrrell. The species is a complex with many variants differing in the size of the plant, the articles and fruiting spikes. Sometimes even the size and markings on the seed differ. It is not known to what extent this variation is genetic. All individuals I have found have been around the margin of salt lakes or pans, mostly in the Raak and Pink Lake areas. A tall variant (1 m) with 1 cm spikes is found in the red loam on the samphire zone around some of the Raak salt lakes and the species grades to a small variant along the seepage lines. One variant extends into the strongly saline area and looks like H. nitida, another is close to and in similar soil to the Raak H. flabelliformis. Most are in the moderately saline area. The main samphires with them are H. per- granulata, H. indica, H. pruinosa and Sclerostegia moniliformis. 3. H. indica subsp. leiostachya This is a common plant in the sam- phire areas in Grids A, B, F and G. It is much rarer in Grid C. During a recent field trip, one stand was found near Pic- nic Point at Lake Hindmarsh and another around a salt lake just E of the highway a few km N of Jeparit (both in C6). However, only a single fruiting plant was seen further south, despite ex- Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 tensive searching. This species forms part of the outer zone in some samphire flats and around salt lakes but constitutes the next zone in, in areas where H. pterygosperma is present. It is never or seldom on its own, usually growing with H. pergranulata and, where they occur, H. pruinosa and Sclerostegia moniliformis. It occupies the moderately saline zone. It does not vary as much as some Halosarcias although some with small spikes are hard to distinguish from some H. pruinosa without checking the seed. 4. H. lylei In Grid A, it has been seen just W of Nowingi and in the Raak Plain proper, and at Hattah Lakes NP. In Grid G it occurs at Towan Plains and Lake Tyrrell. It is found along the seepage line of some salt lakes and samphire flats, usually where there is high ground behind them. These are seasonally wet areas that would have a thin salt crust when dry. Sometimes it occurs as a nar- row band on its own, at other times with H. pergranulata. 5. H. nitida In Grid A it has been seen just W of Nowingi and in the Raak Plain proper, and at Hattah Lakes NP. In Grid G it occurs at Lake Wahpool. It is found on strongly saline and gypseous soil. It forms the innermost zone before the unvegetated part of the lake or occupies the centre of pans where there is often seasonally shallow water. Sometimes it is found on its own, at other times with H. halocnemoides and H. pergranulata. Both of the last two in this situation are stunted, red, and have very few fruiting spikes. 6. H. pruinosa In Grid A it has been seen at Lake Ranfurley near Mildura, just W of Now- ingi and in the Raak Plain proper, and at Hattah Lakes NP. In Grid G it occurs September/October P1, 1; Halosarcia pruinosa from a large salt lake just west of Nowingi. at Pink Lakes State Park and salt flats N of Boinka, in Grid C on flats SW of Jeparit and in Grid G at Lakes Tim- boram, Wahpool, Tyrrell and at Towan Plains. It occupies much the same zone as H.. indica subsp. leiostachya but when the samphire flat is moderately saline, it ex- tends further into it. 7. H. pergranulata This is the most common Halosarcia in all areas. Plants vary from 1 m high to prostrate. The seed morphology and the shape but not the size of the fruiting spike are always the same. It is seldom found in the outer zone where there are other Halosarcias. In some of the Raak and Pink Lake salt pans, the species ex- tends into the strongly saline area as red and stunted plants. 187 8. H. pterygosperma It occurs in the outer zone of most samphire areas in Grids A and B. It is found in Grid G at Towan Plains and Lakes Timboram, Wahpool and Tyrrell. It occurs in possibly the least saline soil of all Halosarcias. It always constitutes the outer zone on samphire flats. It is also found on higher, almost pure, kopi areas away from salt lakes. 9. H. syncarpa It is found only in Grid C S of Jeparit and W of the Wimmera River. The main stands are on flats SW of Jeparit. Others are at Pink Lake near Dimboola and an unnamed lake 7 km N of there; also in the Natimuk area at Mitre Lake and the unnamed lake just NE of Lake Wyn Wyn. It is found in the outer zone of sam- phire flats and also on rises with H. pergranulata in the next zone inwards. When the Halosarcias are ranked in order from least saline zone to most saline zone for the area north of Jeparit, the likely order is: H. pterygosperma H. indica subsp. leiostachya H. pruinosa H. halocnemoides H. pergranulata H. nitida while south of Jeparit the likely order is: H. syncarpa H. pruinosa and (rarely occurring) H. indica H. pergranulata. It seems likely that in general on going north from Jeparit, the place of H. syncarpa is taken by H. indica subsp. leiostachya. B. Other samphires 10. Sclerostegia tenuis My knowledge of this plant is confin- ed to those along the road between the 142° Meridian Road west of Merbein and then west to Lake Wallawalla. The 188 P1. 2: Scleroskgia tenuis from river floodplain west of Merbein. area is open, flat, old river flood plain. Dominant plants are Atriplex and Maireana with a few scattered Eucalyptus largiflorens. The soil is clayey, heavy in places and only slightly saline. S. tenuis is found in small, scat- tered stands and is not a common plant. A likely spot would be around the road- side pools where earth had been remov- ed to form the crown on the road. Distribution: Grid A (Merbein to Lake Wallawalla) but also recorded for Grid G. 11. Sclerostegia moniliformis This species was previously only known from 9 locations in Western Australia. Searches made in NW Vic- toria during 1981 resulted in 5 locations for this state. It is possible that in some areas it could have been confused with the rather different-looking S. tenuis in the past. It is not a widespread plant, Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 but where found it is usually dominant amongst the mixed Halosarcias around the margin of salt lakes. It is also on the small ridges of reddish sandy clay loams around these lakes but 6 km north of Boinka it occupies darker-coloured clay flat. Distribution: Grid A: Raak Plain, private property west of Nowingi and Hattah Lakes National Park. Grid G: Pink Lakes State Park and N of Boinka. 12. Pachycornia triandra The prominently-lobed articles (stem segments) make this an easy plant to recognize. With the exception of a few small stands, its occurrence in Victoria is confined to the same area and the same slightly saline clays as Sclerostegia tenuis. It is a common plant there. It is not as palatable to sheep as the Atriplex and Maireana occurring with it and where these have been heavily grazed by sheep, it becomes the dominant plant. Distribution: Grid A: Road from Merbein to Lake Wallawalla, Lake Cullulleraine and Abbotsford Bridge, Merbein. 13. Sarcocornia quinqueflora This is a common plant in southern Victoria. Although there is a vouchered record for Grid A, I do not known its location, so it is a rare plant this far north. In NW Victoria, I only know it from where it forms a thick mat along the seepage line of several salt lakes in the Pink Lakes State Park. It is a com- mon plant around the salt lakes in the Natimuk and Mount Arapiles areas. Distribution: Grid B: Pink Lakes State Park. Grid C: most salt lakes. Grid G: Lake Tyrrell. Acknowledgements I gratefully acknowledge the assistance of P. G. Wilson for checking the identification of many specimens. New F.N.C.V. Conservation Committee Conservation has become a major concern for the public in general and Field Naturalists in particular. The appreciation of our natural environment by naturalists naturally leads to the urge to conserve it. To facilitate the exchange of views and in- formation between naturalists and relevant authorities a conservation committee has been set up by the FNCV. Issues we are currently concerned with include South Gippsland, Gippsland Hinterland and Hills End LCC Study Areas, The Grampians, The Otways, East Gippsland Woodchipping, The Alps, proposals to mine within national parks, pro- tection of the habitat of threatened species and SW Tasmania. If you have issues which require action, information which may be useful, or would like to help please contact the Conservation Co-ordinator, Malcolm Turner, 63 Laurel Gve, Blackburn, 3130 (Tel. 877 2835). September/October 189 New Victorian Records: Soliva (Compositae) By HELEN I. ASTON* Abstract Until recently, Soliva pterosperma was the only species of Soliva recognised as naturalized in Victoria (Willis, 1973). Now an additional three species, S. an- themifolia, S. stolonifera and S. valdiviana, together with a fifth Soliva taxon which is not yet satisfactorily identified, are known from this State. An account of the distribution and distinctions of all five is given here. Records are documented by specimens held at the National Herbarium of Vic- toria (MEL). Introduction When revising the genus in 1949, Cabrera distinguished nine species. AII are small annuals in the family Com- positae (Asteraceae) and all are native to South America. Several have become weed species in various countries in- cluding Australia and New Zealand (Healy, 1953) where they occupy disturbed sites, pastures, or open bushland and are particularly prevalent in lawns and city parklands. In the latter situations they are unwelcome because unsightly brown patches form when the plants die off in summer and because the sharp-spined fruits are uncomfortable for bare feet. Johnson and Lovell (1980) report that fruit production by S. valdiviana and S. pterosperma in New Zealand is mostly from mid-November to the end of January, with germination being delayed until the first heavy rain in autumn. From collections in the Na- tional Herbarium of Victoria it appears that the fruiting period of S. pterosperma in Victoria is about one month ahead of that in New Zealand, as * National Herbarium of Victoria, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, Victoria 3141. 190 most fruiting plants are dated from mid- October to mid-December. With their finely-divided foliage resembling that of our native Cotula australis, all species except S. anthemifolia and S. stolonifera can be overlooked in the vegetative condition. The latter two have leaves which are a little more distinctive (fig. 1). However, when flowering or fruiting all species are readily distinguished from Cotula or other genera, the achenes (fruits) being particularly distinctive. The achene of all species has an apical spine formed from the hardened style. In addition there are other achene characters which are distinctive for the particular species. These are described below and illus- trated in fig. 2. Soliva anthemifolia (Juss.) R.Br. ex Less. This is known in Victoria from only one location, near the Murray River about 3 km south-west of Tocumwal, N.S.W., where it was found and col- lected on 4 June 1979 by A. C. Beauglehole (ACB 63962; MEL 597465). Plants were 10-20 cm in width and about 4 cm high. About a dozen plants occupied each of several isolated depressions which had held water earlier. It is surprising that this adventive has not reached Victoria before as it has been long-established in both New South Wales and southern Queensland, e.g. MEL holds collections from the Brisbane River, 1855; from Port Jackson, pre-1867; Clarence River, 1875 and Wagga Wagga, 1886. The present distribution in New South Wales (Jacobs & Pickard, 1981) is extensive, including the whole coastal and western plains regions, and therefore it is very Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Fig. 1. Representative leaves of a, S. anthemifolia; b, S. pterosperma, S. valdiviana, and Soliva sp., c, S. stolonifera. All natural size. probable that other occurrences will be located in northern Victoria. Each mature fruiting head is crammed with numerous fruits and forms a near- globular, burr-like mass up to 1 cm across. A few heads may be clustered at the plant base and are then quite con- spicuous. The leaves are irregularly bipinnate with acute segments, moderately densely arranged, up to 9-13 cm long and usually overtop and more or less hide the short basal stems, The achene has a solitary apical spine and lacks membranous wings. Its body is compressed-oblanceoloid, the upper portion being obtuse to truncate with no lateral appendages and with long fine hairs at the summit. The lower portion of the body has thick transverse wrinkles encircling both edges. September/ October Soliva pterosperma (Juss.) Less. This is the most widespread, com- mon, and oldest-established species in Victoria. The earliest collections at MEL are from Hawkesdale, north of Port Fairy, 1893 and from near Coburg, Melbourne, 1895, with the next oldest collections being from the Bruthen area about 1937, Black Rock 1939 and Kelvin View, near Euroa, 1942. Present-day distribution in the State is widespread south and east of a Nelson-Grampians- Chiltern line, excluding the Otways, Wilsons Promontory and the eastern highlands. There are no specimens at MEL to authenticate any records north of this line. S. pterosperma apparently became established in New South Wales at about the same time as it did in Victoria, i.e. in the 1890’s. It was not recorded by Moore (1884) but was present in at least the Port Jackson district by 1899 (specimen at MEL). Today it is distributed through eastern New South Wales from the western slopes to coastal areas, avoiding the north and central tablelands (Jacobs & Pickard, 1981). Establishment in Queensland was somewhat later as Bailey (1900 and 1913) did not record S. pterosperma for that State although it is now present through coastal areas from Rockhamp- ton south to the border (Kleinschmidt & Johnson, 1977). It is also recorded for Western Australia (Green, 1981) and South Australia (Black, 1957, as S. sessilis). In Australia, the name S. pterosperma has been applied to this species only since about 1960. Prior to that it was wrongly referred to as S. sessilis Ruiz & Pav. The usual vernacular name is Jo-Jo but in suburban Melbourne, where the species is particularly prevalent in lawns, the spiny fruits have led to public usage of Bindii or Bindy-eye. Adoption of this alternative name is unfortunate as it is already applied to a number of unrelated, sharp-fruited plants. 191 Fig. 2. Fruits of Soliva spp. a, S. pterosperma (from MEL 76153, Mallacoota). b, Soliva sp. (from MEL 76148, Strathewen). c, S. anthemifolia (from MEL 591938, Warialda, N.S.W.). d, S. stolonifera (from MEL n.n., Santiago, ? S. America). e, S. valdiviana (from MEL 76167, Valdivia, S. America). Leaves arise from the plant base and the stem nodes and are mostly 1-3 cm long, with each pinna divided into 3-5 short, fine, acute segments. Mature fruiting heads are flattish, perhaps 6 mm or less across, sessile and solitary in the leaf axils and usually hidden by the foliage until the plant is examined. The achene has three terminal spines, of which the central stylar one is the longest. The two lateral spines are pro- jections from the apical portions of the achene wings. The wings themselves are broad, stiffly membranous, lateral pro- jections from the achene body, each wing having a moderately to strongly pronounced basal lobe as well as its apical spine. Soliva stolonifera (Brot.) Loudon This species is recorded in Victoria from only two collections, both gathered recently by E. Chesterfield of 192 the Forests Commission of Victoria. The first is from Long Plain, Barmah State Forest, 31 September 1979 (MEL 600361) and the second from Killawarra Forest, about 5 km north to NNE. of Mt Killawarra, Wangaratta district, 13 Oc- tober 1981 (MEL 591828). The species also occurs in New South Wales, in the central and southern portions of the western slopes (Jacobs & Pickard, 1981). Mature fruiting heads are small and relatively inconspicuous, sessile at the leaf bases. Leaves are short, only 2.5 cm long on the few collections seen, and dif- fer from those of the other Soliva species discussed in being simply pinnate with the pinnae remaining undivided and short. The achene has a solitary apical spine. Its body is more or less narrow-ellipsoid with lateral wings, each wing being broader above than below and mem- Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 branous with transverse ridges con- spicuously raised on one side of the membrane. The upper corner of each wing is extended laterally into an acute, horizontal projection and the summit of the achene has long fine hairs. Soliva valdiviana Phil. There are only two Victorian records, one from lawns in the Queen Victoria Gardens, Melbourne, 29 November 1981 (MEL 595183-4) and the other from lawns beside the Camberwell City Hall, Camberwell Road, Camberwell, 1 February 1982 (MEL 600362). Both records were made by the author, who found plants spread over an area of a few square metres at each site. The species also occurs in Tasmania where it was considered new for that State in 1956 when a collection (MEL 76152) was made from plants infesting sports grounds in Hobart. Unfortunately at that time it was thought to be S. sessilis and this misidentification remains in the present *'Student's Flora of Tasmania" (W. M. Curtis, 1963). More recent Tasmanian collections of S. valdiviana from lawns in Lindisfarne, November 1979, Parliament House Hobart, December 1981 and Rose Bay, December 1981, have been forwarded to MEL by D. I. Morris who reports (in litt., December 1981) that the species is apparently the only one in Tasmania and that it is not rare as a lawn weed, although not excessively common. Mature fruiting heads and foliage of S. valdiviana are very similar to those of S. pterosperma and the two species are apparently indistinguishable except for their different achenes. The achene has a solitary terminal spine and lacks wings. Its body is obovate in outline but flattened ventral- ly and mildly-keeled dorsally. Soliva sp. This is recorded in Victoria from only three collections, "viz. Strathewen, Kinglake district, 1910 (MEL 76148); September/October Lake Corringle area, Orbost district, 1970 (MEL 521158); South Yarra, Melbourne, 1981 (MEL 595178-182). It is not known whether this entity occurs in other States. The achene is similar to that of S. pterosperma q.v. except that the achene wings are usually narrower and are en- tire, the basal lobes being absent. A slight indentation or nick may be present in the wing edge at the position where, in S. pterosperma, the basal lobe is separated from the major part of the wing. The achenes agree with descriptions of those of S. sessilis Ruiz & Pav., a name which prior to about 1960 was wrongly applied in mainland Australia to S. pterosperma. The entity may prove to be the genuine S. sessilis but in- vestigation of this point is not complete. It is possible instead that the entity is a form of S. pterosperma in which the basal lobes of the achene wings are not differentiated from the remainder of the wing. Certainly the degree of lobing at the achene wing-base in S. pterosperma is variable, and the lobes can be reduced to about half the size shown in the figure. Apart from the achenes, collec- tions of Soliva sp. and S. pterosperma appear identical. Current investigations on S. pterosperma in New Zealand may pro- vide information which will solve the identity of the Victorian Soliva sp. Further collections of all species, par- ticularly from country areas and with mature achenes, could readily extend the distribution ranges outlined here and would be appreciated. Acknowledgements I wish to thank Dennis I. Morris, Weeds Officer, Tasmanian Department of Agriculture, Hobart for supplying recent Tasmanian collections of S. valdiviana and information on the species in that State; Evan Chesterfield and A. Cliff Beauglehole for their collections and new discoveries of S. stolonifera and S. anthemifolia respectively; Walter Stebbing, Katunga for his response to 193 my enquiries, Anita Podwyszynski for preparation of the figures and Prof. P. H. Lovell, Department of Botany, University of Auckland, New Zealand for preliminary in- formation on work in progress there. REFERENCES Bailey, F. M. (1900). The Queensland Flora. Part 3, (Queensland Government, Brisbane). Bailey, F. M. (1913). Comprehensive Catalogue of Queensland Plants (Government Printer, Brisbane). Black, J. M. (1957). Flora of South Australía Pt 4, edn 2. (Government Printer, Adelaide). Cabrera, A. L. (1949). Sinopsis del genero Soliva (Compositae). Univ. Nac. de la Plata. Notas del Museo de la Plata 14: Bot. 70., 123-39, Green, J. W. (1981), “Census of the Vascular Plants of Western Australia". (W. A. Her- barium, Perth). Healy, A. J. (1953). Contributions to a knowledge of the naturalized flora of New Zealand. No. 3. Trans. Roy. Soc. N. Zeal. 81:23-26, Jacobs, S. W. L., and Pickard, J. (1981). Plants of New South Wales. A Census of the Cycads, Con- ifers and Angiosperms. (Government Printer, Sydney). Johnson, C. F., and Lovell, P. H. (1980). Germina- tion, establishment and spread of Soliva valdiviana (Compositae). N. Zeal. J. Bot. 18:487-93, Kleinschmidt, H. E. and Johnson, R. W. (1977). Weeds of Queensland. (Government Printer, Brisbane). Moore, C. (1884). A Census of the Plants of New South Wales. (Government Printer, Sydney). Willis, J. H. (1973 not 1972). A Handbook to Plants in Victoria 2, Dicotyledons. (Melb. Univ. Press, Melbourne). Naturalist Review * Frogs" By MICHAEL J. TYLER The Australian Naturalist Library, Collins, Sydney. Second edition, 1982. ISBN 0 00 216450 7. Rrp $9.95, There are few changes in this new edition of Michael Tyler’s “Frogs”. The author states in his preface to this edition that ‘*The body of the text remains the same’’. This is certainly true, even the errors remain from the first edition, although these are few and trivial. Consequently a review of this edition would be very similar to that of the first edi- tion. Michael Tyler is one of Australia’s foremost authorities on amphibia and this book does much to stimulate interest in Australian frogs, a long neglected element of our fauna. The book is well written, well laid out and entertaining to read. It starts with five chapters describing the four families of Australian frogs and the introduced Cane Toad. These chapters are then followed by a consideration of frog biology which includes anatomy, prey, predators, parasites, disper- sal and distribution. The book concludes with a brief history of herpetology in Australia and guidelines for further study. One criticism which could be aimed at the book is that the author too often digresses 194 away from the Australian fauna into other parts of the Australasian region. This em- phasis is often too heavy considering that the book is part of “The Australian Naturalist Library", In addition, there are a number of signifi- cant changes to this edition. Since the first edition the field guides of Cogger and Barker and Grigg have been published. These along with a number of other references have been added to the chapter on the “Study of Frogs". Furthermore, the Appendix "Changes in Frog Names” has been brought up to date, as has the lists of frog fauna from each state. One superficial change is in the format. The book is now limpback or has a laminated soft cover which ‘‘is ideal for home or field use". 1 don't see that this offers any advantage (the book is not a field guide anyway) except that this version is cheaper than the original hardback edition. Overall there have been few substantial changes from the first edition. If you already own the first edition, I cannot see much point in buying the second edition, however, if you don't own the first edition I would recom- mend that you buy this new edition, if you have any interest in Australian frogs. Geoff Duke Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 The Early Devonian Fauna of the Mt. Ida Formation in the Heathcote District By J. V. Introduction This paper is intended to update the faunal lists for the youngest and most fossiliferous beds in the important Palaeozoic sequence of rocks in the Heathcote District of Central Victoria. Detailed taxonomic work on the trilobites is in preparation, and the bivalve molluscs will be the subject of further study by a New Zealand worker. It is, however, believed that detailed faunal lists based on the latest informa- tion will be of assistance to palaeon- tologists and others interested in the Early Devonian rocks of Australia, and may be valuable in refining stratigraphical correlation of such sequ- ences. Previous Work The mapping and collecting under- taken in the Heathcote district more than forty years ago by Thomas (1937) and the monograph by Talent (1965) based on Thomas’s collections represents the foundation on which knowledge of the faunas of this richly fossiliferous area has been established. In the words of Talent (1965): “Without Dr Thomas's labours this important suc- cession would not have been known in such detail, for most workers would have been disheartened by the poorly preserved material forming such a large part of the collections made in the Heathcote district," In 1951, Gill described two new species of brachiopod from the fauna. Together with Talent’s memoir, and a brief paper by the writer (Neil, 1981), this is all that has been published on the faunas. However, since 1973, the writer has collected extensively from Thomas’s original localities, and along the strike of the fossiliferous beds. * 23 Michael St., Bendigo, 3550, Victoria. September/October NEIL* Stratigraphy of the Heathcote Succession In the Heathcote-Costerfield- Redcastle area almost 7500 m of sand stones, siltstones, mudstones and, at the top of the sequence, conglomerate, represent a lengthy period of marine deposition from the Silurian into the Devonian, The Early Silurian Coster- field Formation crops out in the east, and successively younger rocks occur until the Mt Ida Fault and the Melvor Fault truncate the succession where it is faulted against the Cambrian “‘sreenstones’’ in the west, Thomas and Talent have used formation names which have become established by usage, and they are used here. Above the Costerfield Formation | (Costerfield siltstone of Vandenberg, Garratt and Spencer-Jones, 1976) is the Wapentake Formation which includes the fossiliferous ‘‘Illaenus Band”’ monographed by Opik in 1953. There follows the Dargile Formation, in- cluding Thomas’s ‘‘Aegiria En- crinurus Beds’’, the Melvor Formation (‘Sandstone”’ of Vandenberg et al ) and finally the Mt Ida Formation. This last has been informally divided into four "units", of which Unit 3 the Pleurodictyum Beds, is the major sub- ject of this paper. (See Fip.1). Correlation of the sequence is the sub- ject of continuing discussion, largely on palacontological grounds, though it is agreed that the total range is from earliest Silurian to Early Devonian, A fuller discussion will be found in Holloway and Neil (in prep.), par- ticularly in relation to the Siluro- Devonian boundary. The accompanying stratigraphical column is based on that of Vandenberg in Vandenberg, Garratt and Spencer-Jones (1976). (See Fig.1) 195 196 EMSIAN YA RS OVIAN rž < Se fi; E 3 SIEGEN- DHT w m IAN ES UNIT 3 M'T IDA ue < u > UNIT 2 P. (a ó FORMATION x UNIT | O GEDINN- e lower MCIVOR E JAN E FORMATION HEEN BE E Es ul IAN Regiria - Encrinurus Beds D < | LUDLOV- RN DARGILE 4 Lu FORMATION « A | WENKOCK vc A JAN = Iz Ki 2 " WAPENTAKE FORMATION {I E LLANDO- LUE aw * 4 VERIAN COSTERFIELD FORMATION Q0 [eme Nor eroso ~ Z AStG\LL- ^N ERE us IAN BOLIND - QO J r JAN Os S| CARADOC-+ Y? | EASTON- S IAN IAN RHENISH BOHEMIAN ACA fe sales ra HEATHCOTE | STAGES FIGURE 1 After AHM Vandenberg Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Fig. 1. Stratigraphic column for the Heathcote succession SS ze A The Unit 3 of the Mt Ida Formation is thus referred to the Early Devonian. Area, Outcrop and Lithology Although the Mt Ida Formation crops out most conspicuously in the parishes of Dargile and Heathcote, where a strike ridge of resistant sandstone culminates in Mt Ida itself, the localities yielding the most abundant and diverse faunas occur in the parish of Redcastle, im- mediately to the north. Additional ex- posures in this area were revealed in 1977, by extensive bulldozing and rip- ping during subdivision. Many gullies were filled in, resulting in the temporary loss of some of the best localities, though subsequent erosion has re- exposed the fossiliferous beds in the vicinity. The area is one of gently undulating topography lying to the east of the Mt Camel Range (Cambrian *Greenstones"). The strata strike North-South, and have dips ranging from 65° to 75°. Occasional outcrops occur on the hillsides, but the best ex- posures are found in the gullies of a number of tributaries of Cornella Creek. Floaters in the creek beds and on the hillsides have provided a significant proportion of the specimens. The beds consist of sandstones rang- ing in colour from grey, through orange and yellow to purplish tones together with brown, reddish and olive-green siltstones and mudstones. The degree of induration varies markedly in outcrop, sometimes within a few metres. For in- stance, at Thomas’s locality 25, soft, richly fossiliferous, reddish siltstones are associated with hard, grey sand- stones showing some evidence of recrystallization. With one exception, it has not been possible to identify thin, marker beds, which could be used for correlation. The exception is the grey, indurated sandstone, mentioned above, September/October lg MT CAMEL a | dla Tkm 1 Parish of Redcastle Fig. 2. Fossil localities referred to in the text. which is characterised by an unusually large number of gastropods. This bed can be identified at localities 25 and 31, about 1.1 km apart. The Localities (See Fig. 2 — part of the parish of Redcastle) Most of the localities shown occur in Unit 3 (‘‘Pleurodictyum Beds’’) of the Mt Ida Formation. New localities 197 were discovered south of 31 (31S); along the strike (25-30); east of 25 (25E and 25SE) and south of 20 (20S). All of these are in Unit 3, with the possible exception of 25E, which is very close to the boun- dary between Units 2 and 3 on Thomas’s map. Localities 28, 38, 46, 47 and 52 are in Unit 2 (‘‘Pentamerus Beds’’). No specimens at all were obtained from some of Thomas’s localities (10, 55) because the intervening years of grazing and cultivation have removed all trace of outcrop. The most prolific sites are in the area bounded by 25, 25E, 30 and 31; at 54 and at 52 (for Unit 2). Factors Influencing the Collections Made Since 1973 (1) The collections began with Thomas’s localities, and the search was for the forms identified in Talent’s memoir. (2) Brachiopods were more numerous and varied than other elements in the fauna and hence more of them were pro- bably collected than would be propor- tionate to their importance. Expert ad- vice was available from Drs Garratt and Mackinnon. (3) Bivalve molluscs were not as numerous or varied, but since sending specimens to Dr Bradshaw and receiving word of new species present, it seems reasonable to assume that further work will extend the fauna. (4) Gastropods, like bivalves, were not numerous. Expert advice was not readily available, hence knowledge of the fauna remains incomplete. (5) Trilobites were of particular in- terest to the writer and hence the collec- tions are probably more representative than for any other group except brachiopods. As a consequence of this special interest, and expert advice from Drs Campbell, Holloway and Shergold, there was a high ‘‘success’’ rate in the collecting of trilobites. (6) Fresh material was available because of bulldozing. Collecting was 198 intensive and carried out over a long period of time. In the circumstances it is not surprising that the stratigraphic ranges of certain taxa were extended, and better preserved specimens of many of the characteristic forms that Talent had worked on were collected. (7) The collections benefited from the increased knowledge and expertise of the writer, accumulated over the nine- year period. The Fauna No distinction will be drawn between those elements of the fauna from Unit 2 and those from Unit 3, except to note that Notoconchidium thomasi, Meristella sp. and Encrinurus sp. are confined to Unit 2. In the list which follows, those taxa marked * are not in- cluded in Talent's memoir. BRACHIOPODA — Isorthis Spp., Salopina sp., Sowerbyella plebia, Plec- todonta bipartita, ‘‘Chonetes’’ spp., *Notanoplia australis, Leptaena sp., Stropheodonta limbimura, Strophonella manta, Nadiastrophia sp., *Leptostrophia plateai, Maoristrophia banksi, Schellwienella sp., *"Camarotoechia" sp., Stegerhynchus sp., Lanceomyonia sp., Phoenicitoechia sp., Straelenia sp., Notoconchidium thomasi, Molongia aff. elegans, Atrypa spp., Lissatrypa lenticulata, Lissatrypa sp., Macropleura corvus, *Eospirifer parahentius, Howellella spp., Meristella sp., Nucleospira sp., *Cyrtina Sp., *Hysterolites lilydalensis, *Gypidula sp., ?Schizophoria sp., ?Leptocoelia sp., *?Megakozlowskiella sp., *Delthyris sp., Dalmanellidae indet., Rhipidomellidae indet., Stropheodontidae indet., *Athyrididae indet., Schuchertellidae indet., Strophomenidae indet., Rhynchonellidae indet., Orthidae indet. BIVALVIA: Actinopteria Sp., Modiomorpha sp., Nuculites sp., Nuculana sp., Ctenodonta victoriae, Palaeoneilo sp., *Nuculoidea sp., Cypricardinia crenestria, Eoschizodus Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Fig. 3. Looking east towards locality 25E Parish of Redcastle. Fig. 4. Locality 25 Parish of Redcastle. Glossites Paracyclas * Pterinea sp., *Phestia sp., *Sphenotus Sp., Sp., Sp., sp., Modiolopsis * Cosmo- goniophora sp. A number of indeterminate forms. TRILOBITA: (Detailed taxonomic work on the Mt Ida trilobites is in preparation as part of a study of the Sp., September/October Early Devonian trilobite faunas of the Melbourne Trough, being carried out by Dr D. J. Holloway of the National Museum of Victoria.) Proetus (Coniproetus) sp., *Cheirurus (Crotalocephalina) sp., *Encrinurinae indet., Homalonotinae indet., Ananaspis sp., JDalmanites sù., ?Odontochile sp., *?Acastella sp., *Scutellum sp., Sthenarocalymene sp., Acanthopyge (Lobopyge) sp., Harpidella sp., *Tropidocoryphinae indet. *Leonaspis sp. GASTROPODA: *Machurites Murchisonia sp., Stylonema *Stragarolus (Eucomphalus) Bellerophontidae sp. indet., emafidae indet. COELENTERATA: Sp., Sp., northi, Loxon- Pleurodictyum megastoma, Pleurodictyum selcaum, Cladopora sp., ?Favosites Sp., Auloporidae indet., solitary rugose corals. OTHER INVERTEBRATE PHYLA: *Crotalocrinites pulcher, Crinoid col- umnals, Fenestella sp., *Allonema sp. , Bryozoa indet., Tentaculites spp., ?Lentitheca sp., Conulariinae spp., ?Plumulites sp., *Blastoidea indet., *Cystoid plates, Michelinoceras sp., Or- thoconic nautiloidea indet., Ostracoda spp. VERTEBRATA: Some large, poorly pre-served plates with a tuberculate or- nament have been examined by Drs K. S. W. Campbell and P. A. Jell; the former believes they may be from an agnathan ostracoderm, the latter that they are from an echinoderm. The ques- tion clearly remains an open one. *? Acanthodian spines. COMMENTS ON FAUNA: In very general terms the fauna is clearly in- dicative of an Early Devonian shallow- water community (Old World Province, Rhenish Community) in the sense defin- ed by Boucot, Johnson and Talent (1969). (See also Gill, 1951). Those taxa occurring in large numbers at any given locality are listed, and of these, those 199 Fig. 5. Sthenarocalymenc sp., Mt Ida Formation. Fig. 6. Ananaspis sp., Mt Ida Formation. marked * occur at ten or more localities and may be regarded as ubiquitous. *Salopina, * Isorthis, *Schellwienella, *Stropheodonta, Meristella, "Chonetes", Cyrtina, Maoristrophia, *Straelenia, Howellella, — Eospirifer, * Lissatrypa, *Atrypa, Notoconchidium, Ctenodonta, Actinopteria, * Pleurodictyum, Orthoconic nautiloids, Tentaculites, solitary rugose corals, Ostracoda, *Crinoid columnals, "Odontochile, Coniproetus, Sthenarocalymene, Ananaspis, Homalonotids, Gastropoda indet., *Rhynchonellids indet., *Rhipidomellids indet. Some ubiquitous species do not occur in large numbers at any locality — "Camarotoechia", Stegerhynchus, and some indeterminate bivalves and gastropods. 200 The localities which yielded the widest range of taxa were Locality 25, with 75 taxa; 25-30 (44); 31S (38); 54 (36); 30 (30); 52 (29); 30-31 (26) and 31 (25). These can be grouped into three areas — the northern section of the parish, with the greatest diversity; Locality 54, with a characteristic coral and Eospirifer fauna, and Locality 52, with a Notoconchidium-dominated fauna. The following points can be made: (1) The assemblages are brachiopod dominated. (2) The assemblages are of consistent- ly shallow-water types and consequently it is not possible to draw distinctions between them on the basis of ecological adjustment to differing environments. Instead, current research with living benthic communities suggests that species tend to adapt to each other at least as much as they do to the environ- ment, and that communities are often characterised by the same genera, even though different species of those genera may occur in different places and at dif- ferent times. (Gray, 1981). (3) Trilobites are not a major consti- tuent of the fauna, except locally, but they are ubiquitous, except where corals donimate. (4) Crinoid remains are common and widespread, but articulated remains are extremely rare, reflecting the conditions in a high-energy, shallow-water environ- ment. (5) Some characteristic forms are abundant only at one locality and these Fig. 7. Schellwienella sp. Vic. Nat, Vol. 99 Fig. 8. Pleurodictyum megastoma. include MNotoconchidium thomasi at Locality 52; Ananaspis sp. at Locality 25E; Homalonotids (one species) at Locality 25ES, and Atrypa sp. at Locali- ty 25E. Conclusion These extensive collections of fossils from the Mt Ida Formation could be the basis for a wide range of studies in the various fields of palaeontology: tax- onomic studies of bivalves and gastropods; palaeoecological studies; studies of the communities and their diversity; evolutionary studies through measurements of populations of species; correlations with faunas of similar age, and so on. That so much palaeon- tological work remains to be done on one of the most fossiliferous sequences of beds of Palaeozoic rocks in Victoria is a clear indication that the fossil record has still a great deal to tell us about the history and evolution of early forms of life. It might even be suggested that the gaps in the fossil record, which are so often quoted in the literature, are still worthy of exploration, despite Eldredge and Gould's (1972, 1977) increasingly plausible suggestion that '*stasis is data" — that is, that the gaps are real and not artefacts of the history of fossil collec- ting. So many elements of a typically Early Devonian shallow-water fauna (Plectodonta bipartita, Notanoplia australis, Megakozlowskiella sp., Cyrtina sp., Gypidula sp.) turned up because they were looked for, that one September/October can only surmise how much more will turn up from further studies. Acknowledgements I have received great assistance in the field and in discussions with K. N. Bell, A. Jenkin and Geological Survey of Victoria — Bendigo Regional Geologist H. E. Wilkinson, En- couragement and guidance have been most Generously given by Prof. K. S. W. Camp- bell (A.N.U.), Drs M. J. Garratt (Geol. Surv. Vict.), and D. J. Holloway (National Museum of Victoria), In addition further help with identifications has been given by Drs P. A. Jell (National Museum of Vic- toria), J. H. Shergold (B. M. R. Canberra), M. Bradshaw (Canterbury Museum, Christchurch, N.Z.) and D. I. Mackinnon (University of Canterbury, N.Z.). REFERENCES Boucot, A. J. Johnson, J. G, and Talent, J. A. (1969), Early Devonian Brachiopod Zoogeography, Geol, Soc. Amer, Special Paper 119, 113 pp. Eldredge, N, and Gould, S, J, (1972), '*Punctuated Equilibria: an Alternative to Phyletic Gradualism" in Schopf, T. J, M. (Ed.) Models in Paleobiology, Freeman, Cooper & Co., San Francisco, Gill, E. D. (1951). “Two new brachiopod genera from Devonian rocks in Victoria" Mem, Nat, Mus. Vict. 17: 187-205. Gould, S. J, and Eldredge, N. (1977). '*Punetuated equilibria: the tempo and mode of evolution reconsidered." Paleobiology 3: 115-151 Gray, J. S. (1981). The Ecology of Marine Sediments; An Introduction to the Structure and Function of Benthic Communities Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Neil, J. V., (1981). “A Slab of Devonian Fossils from Heathcote and a Little Palaeoecology'" Vict. Nat. 98: 204-209, Opik, A. A. (1953). Lower Silurian Fossils from the "Hlaenus Band'' Heathcote, Victoria Mem. geol. Surv. Vict. 19, 42pp. Talent, J. A. (1965). The Silurian and Early Devo- nian Faunas of the Heathcote District, Victoria Mem. geol. Surv. Vict. 26, 55 pp. Thomas, D. E, (1937) “Some notes on the Silurian rocks of the Heathcote area’’ Min. geol. Jl, Vict. 1(1): 64-67, Vandenberg, A. H, M., Garratt, J. J. and Spencer- Jones, D. 1976 “Silurian — Middle Devonian’. Ch.4 in Douglas, J. G. and Ferguson, J. A. (Eds.) Geology of Victoria, Spec, Publ. € jeol, Soc, Aust. 5. 201 The Derrinal Permian Glacial Valley Part 2 BY FRANK ROBBINS* The Central East Boundary of the Permian Glacial Valley — Fig. 5. The main features are;(a) a series of glacial pavements in areas numbered 1 to 6 on the east Boundary in Farleys property; (b) abun- dance of large erratics at both high and low levels, especially granites; (c) steep rise of about 60 m (200 ft.) in glacial terrain along the N bank of the Mt. Ida Ck., contrasted with the gently rising alluvium covered Per- mian terrain on the S side; (d) glacial beds ex- posed in the new Mclvor highway cutting and in Mt. Ida Ck., Precipice Gully, Salt Gully, and Hollingsworth Ck., (e) the Ordovician-Permian contact in the railway cutting. The East Boundary Glacial Pavements — Thomas' (1940) Heathcote map shows a fault contact in the old railway cutting, but not in the adjacent Mt. Ida Ck. bed, which looks very obviously like a fault contact with tillite and a granite erratic close to a prominent ver- tical Ordovician sandstone bar. Also he had a fault boundary where we have a long line of pavements. This throws doubt on an eastern boundary fault, which I question on the following grounds. (i) Railway fault? — the rudely stratified tillite dipping westerly away from the steeply W-dipping Ordovician sand- stone stratum, could be due to slumping in- stead of fault drag. The adjacent road cutting shows no clear cut junction. (ii) Mt. Ida Ck. junction — the actual contact is so obscured by big sandstone boulders, that I could not excavate its west face for evidence of glacial striae to disprove the fault idea. Farleys No. 1 pavements (Farleys la, 1b, 1c, 1d) — these are on off-set continuations of the creek-bed strata, and almost obliterated glacial striae on the west face of la indicate a post-Permian fault conclusion untenable. la and Ib were excavated on top for a distance of 12 m (12 yd.) with very clear striae at 11°-13°T indicating unusual spread of ice easterly from the valley on the west side. Farleys No. 2 — sandstone with smooth polished quartz face with microscopic striae RS T. * 81 MacKiwni St., Bendigo, Vic. 202 Farleys Inlier — see Fig. 5 — a low round- ed W-dipping Ordovician outcrop elongated in the strike and ice direction i.e. S to N — as if shaped by over-riding ice. We failed to find any evidence of glacial striae along its edges, which could be explained since it is surround- ed by recent alluvium deposited by the Mt. Ida Ck., and we didn't dig down far enough to reach the glacial deposits only a few metres down. As this inlier is at almost the same elevation as Farleys No. 1 rocks, a post- Permian fault here is untenable, unless it was of very small throw. Farleys No. 3 — near the gate — contorted bedding striated at 15?-18* T — obviously ice had overflowed over all the prominent Or- dovician rocks to the south of here. Farleys No. 4 — an outstanding example of ice colliding with a meta-sandstone bar striating it on top and all along its west side at Fig. 1. Cutting through horizontal Permian beds, Melvor Highway, Derrinal, (7. 9. 61). Fig. 2. Farley's No. 4 rock, showing ice-shaped South end as excavated on 14. 5. 71. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 SEIT LEGEND CU = ANAS sw" GEOLOGICAL BOUNDARY, Ue : 5 Tert! av igh-\evel gravels p ae : Y de ; PERMIA LACIAL: / =| ScAJÓÀ En es A sro ne 7 P 2: c " O— ST " "i TILLITE i Peby YE Yellow clay > {sca » 3 ebble = », 5% : E ARS poA ESSA UIC? DEM: large & ly ot A e 5 ^ granites “hs —— EH LI " HEAP ney E E 3 E i n Pavement on basement arge P laci XE MEI CONGLOMERATE =~ Wepho, e a gate T ihe = s AT “ERRATIC striated in situe ERRATICS & ur 6 ORDOV|CIANI-basement |^. g proar T Cutting - road sr railway \ at EP przez — Fence EAS Tels I min Raab — —-— Highway "NY 4 “ESCA Sail Conservot? Authority S NA Crowell's €nclé Sure_ omitted Salt Gell AN À Boulder Alluvium boundaries omitted. Ahh Pavemen AY - dam € House =, o DW. SI. HOLLINGSWORTH SANDSTONE, T (RA. BOWEN EEA Brut ! x c . c It. ald N E e Pe] Ke za Ro NA A FARLEY S AREA SLE S J.FARLEY Pg at DERRINAL| A RES AEST i i» readings \ P ae "EN. iar L ei. ES Y 2 | ke, 8 5 Ò 200 890 1000 | E pud : TE SCALE IN METRES Ne CEN $ ee * 203 September/October 2*-5*T, while grinding off the south end with striae radiating conspicuously from 347° to 035°T — striking evidence that the ice moved StoN, Farleys No. 5 rocks — two small sandstone domes shaped by ice on which we found by excavalion etc. striations 352°-356°T on Or- dovician Strata striking at 337°T. Farleys No. 6 rock — one sandstone bar striking at about 323°T with its northern end bevelled off and striated at 352°T almost on top of the highest Permian hill at over 260 m (850 ft.) A.S.L. Note how this line of striated rocks runs at about 45° E of N, but the actual contact is quite irregular since the strike of the outcrops E» A : P] Fig. 3. Close up of South end of Farleys No. 4 showing radiating striae, spectacular proof that the Permian ice moved S to N. varies from 2°T in the south to 337°T further to the N.E. Note also the ice must have come from the south where today there is only Or- dovician or lowland alluvial flats of the Mt. Ida Ck. This would indicate at least 91 m (300 ft.) thickness of ice, since large granite er- ratics on the highest parts of the boundary up to 274 m (900 ft.) A.S.L. in Farleys N.E. cor- ner occur. The big erratics — | have marked big granite erratics with large triangles and a dot. Note three near Farleys No. 6 rock. Two of these have broken up into pieces indicating long exposure obviously belonging to glacial beds much higher up but now washed away. The third is still almost buried, but quite fresh looking. All three would be rivals in size of the famous Srranger Rock now sign-posted and visible from the observation platform on the Melvor highway. Three more at the heads of Salt and Precipice gullies. 18 and 3 (por- phyritie) in two groups of granites in the bed of Mt. Ida Ck., and about 12 near the junc- 204 tion of Precipice Gully and Hollingsworth Ck., 2 more on the Mclvor Highway cutting roadside specially left there at my request. Finally, the famous Stranger Rock with its top planed and grooved at O°T alleged to weigh 30 tons (or tonnes), Dunn (1892) show- ed a photo of it (by A. W. Howitt), and thought it must have been dropped from the base of an iceberg, and landed upside down, Today, the opposite idea is considered more likely, Rocks gradually sink through moving ice, and sooner or later can **lodge" firmly in the glacial deposits below (preferentially with longer axes parallel to the ice motion). Thus the over-riding ice charged with fine and coarse rock fragments could polish or grind grooves and striations parallel to the ice movement as seen on the top surface of The Stranger, It is noticeable that the large quartz and the unweathered felspar crystals are plan- ed and polished so evenly, and fresh-looking, in spite of long exposure to weathering. I looked for microscopic scratches on these crystals, but failed to detect any. Nearby, another large sandstone erratic (photo in Dunn 1892) beautifully striated at about 340^ T could have been striated in situe, but since toppled backwards a little down the sloping surface due to removal of under-lying soil (tillite). A third very large sandstone erratic well striated on one side nearby has apparently rolled downhill as the underlying tillite wash- ed away, I suggest it might have been also originally striated in situ, I have shown 2 of these 3 on Fig. 5, using ‘‘arrowed triangles''. Finally, in the six nearby Mclvor Highway cuttings, I have also shown (using triangles with arrows) three more erratic features most likely striated in situ. A large porphyry striated at 347°T on its longer axis, a pebble pavement with one large pebble striated at O*T, and Prof. J. Crowell's "boulder pave- ment'' with a number of sandstone boulders striated on top at various bearings from 335°T to 020°T. He noted these during the ANZAAS field trip in 1967, and assumed they were once all striated on top in one direc- tion, but disturbed since then (see Jour. Geol. Soc. Aust. Vol. 17 Pt. 2. p.127). A typical un- disturbed parellel striated embedded boulder bed in an interglacial pavement will be described in Part 3 issue. Two other large er- ratics striated in situ were described in Part 1, p.158. Vic. Nat, Vol. 99 E $ 3 4— to Bendigo or Fig. O n FE Pebble. i Upper Tillite Tian £ on =~ avemen i y eathcote Road or RAN fo Trtertill Unit Mt Tda Lt 30 igo : Lower Tillite Creek m rt LÀ deri d eles Boulder z : Y Brid 30 l5 i eae shee Te Pavement ao iii Hor, Scale 1200 = | (3. Crowell) LAKE EPFALOCK MV igot 420 Vert. Seale ipo! = 1" VE = 12 3357-010 IQ 1 m. = G37 ft ASL i 00 A Section through cuttings in glacial Sediments- Meivor Highway -Derr mal - Victoria B «—Joint ș direction — of N ice movement S vw. n Crescentic Gouge common on pavements oF Derrinal Valley Fig.be Other Highway cuttings are mud-clots, abundance of rounded facetted striated erratics of ig- glacial features of the Mcelvor neous, sedimentary and metamorphic origins, flatlying interbeds of glacial sand- stone, conglomerate, etc. indicating our Der- rinal Valley area has been tectonically stable ever since Permian times. Fig. 6 shows a sec- tion along AB of the Highway cuttings. These were freshly cut before 1963 when the old highway (see Fig. 5) was inundated by the lake, and, in time, many interesting features may be obscured by plant growth e.g. Pigface (Carpobrotus) and Galenia pubescens, which has mysteriously appeared here. A large beautifully smoothed and striated grey quart- zite erratic is below the Observation Point, and the largest unbroken erratic so far discovered, a grey quartzite, is marked just below F.S.L. in the bed of Mt. Ida Ck. (R. L. Bowen 1959). Erratic heaps (marked E.H.) or Museum Heaps are good places to inspect the variety of erratics originally collected by the farmers long ago when clearing the land. A lone tree is often a good place to find them. A full day's outing would be needed to cover Farleys area of Fig. 5 with permissions from Messrs Farley and Hollingworth. Un- fortunately Farley's bridge has now been washed out, but you can wade across a nice concrete ford in the Mt. Ida Ck. bed at the Ordovician-Permian contact. Dunn (1892) mapped the positions of 45 of the biggest erractics, a copy of which would September/October be needed to locate and identify each one, especially the large number near Holl- ingsworth Ck. In addition, 1 have added all the outcrops of glacial tillite (t), con- glomerate (c), sandstone (s) etc, as observed by me in the beds of Mt. Ida Ck., Precipice Gully, Salt Gully gorge, Hollingsworth Ck. and elsewhere, for any future worker in- terested in trying to work out the sequence of the units here. Bowen (1959) made a special study of these in Precipice Gully, but I was unable to clearly follow him. The Salt Gully gorge is a wonderful example of what hap- pens in unconsolidated glacial beds, and that is why the S.C.A. (Soil Conservation Authority) has constructed so many erosion control enclosures on every water course in the Lake Eppalock catchment. Many signifi- cant Permian exposures, which Bowen was able to examine, were thus hidden from me. Dunn (1892) showed a photo of a large glacial sandstone outcrop with a Banksia marginata growing on top near Precipice Gully mouth. It was still alive there in 1962 when | first led an excursion there to see the Hollingsworth erratic field, but I think it has since died of old age. Note what appears to be a prominent interbedded glacial sandstone unit near the Salt Gully course. Finally, note from the rose showing the 23 readings of pavements on basement, that the ice was spreading out more easterly than on the western side of the Derrinal Glacial Valley. The next issue will be on the interesting Moorabbee area in between the E and W sides. REFERENCES (in addition to those in part I) Thomas, D. E., (1940), Geological plan Parish of Heathcote, Thomas, D. E., (1941). Geological plan Parish of Knowsley East. 205 Aboriginal Hatchet From Cape Paterson, South Gippsland, Victoria By EDMUND D. GILL* ANDE. R. SEGNIT** The Rock Chosen for Manufacture Many years ago a small Aboriginal hatchet was collected from an eroded midden on the coast at Cape Paterson, south of Wonthaggi. It measures 9.2 by 6.4 cm, and is 2 cm thick. It consists of a greyish fine-grained quartz andesite, an acid volcanic rock, and has a ground cutting edge (Fig. 1). The opposite end from the cutting edge has two straight sides. One is a natural joint of the rock mass from which it came, while the short one is where a sample was taken for chemical analysis and the prepara- tion of a microscope slide. The main mineral of the rock is feldspar, but it has an appreciable amount of quartz. The rock has a greenish tinge, which is due to two of the constituent minerals. One is a greenish pyroxene (showing some alteration), and the other is a serpentine-like mineral filling the spaces between the other minerals. Because the unground natural edges are rounded, the piece of rock used pro- bably originated as a pebble in a river bed. Analysis of the Rock A chemical analysis of the rock from which the hatchet was manufactured was carried out at the CSIRO Division of Mineral Chemistry, with the follow- ing result: SiO2 52.94% TiO? 2.12 Al0O3 13.02 *Fe203 13.50 * 1/47 Wattle Valley Road, Canterbury, Victoria 3126. ** CSIRO Division of Mineral Chemistry, P.O, Box 124, Port Melbourne, Victoria 3207. 206 CaO 7.03 MgO 2.99 K20 1.26 Na20 2.40 P205 0.75 SOs 0.05 Loss on ignition 2.66 TOTAL 99.32% * Total iron as Fe2O3. Analysis by XRF; analyst I. Madsen. The thin section of the rock (Fig. 2) reveals a lath-like texture. These laths are plagioclase feldspar crystals about 0.1 mm in length. This information enables us to consider why the Aboriginal chose this rock for the manufacture of his hatchet. Why this Rock was Chosen A great deal of work is involved in the manufacture of an axe, so the Aboriginals by experience learned to choose a rock that was not too soft for the required work, but at the same time not too brittle. A hatchet that shattered was a waste of the considerable time and effort of manufacture. The fine-grained quartz andesite from which this axe is made is not particularly hard, and not brittle, but it is very tough. Being of moderate hardness, it was not too dif- ficult to grind, and because tough not too brittle in use. The interlocking lath- like texture imparts strength to the rock, and the serpentine-like mineral con- tributes to the toughness. Origin Aboriginal hatchets of andesite, rhyolite and basalt are found in Gipp- sland. Andesite is clearly a suitable rock and was apparently readily available. Quartz andesites are widely available in Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Quartz andesite Aboriginal ground-edge hatchet with anvil scars from Cape Paterson, South Gippsland. 1. Fig. 207 September/October Fig. 2. Section of the rock used in hatchet manufacture, X 220. Western Victoria also, but the diabases and basalts there were preferred. Sand- stone and quartzite were used, but are second class materials because brittle. Calcrete was rarely employed because, although tough, is far too soft. The published descriptions of andesites in Victoria have been examin- ed, and also the rocks illustrated by McBryde (1979), but none correspon- ding to that in the hatchet from Cape Paterson has been found, so the source of the rock is unknown. Wherever the rock came from, it is certainly a long way from where it was found, because no rocks of that type occur near Cape Paterson. Hatchet Use Miniature chips from the cutting edge of the Cape Paterson hatchet show that it has been well used. On one side of the hatchet is a rough, slightly depressed area (Fig. 1) with scars that show it has 208 been used as an anvil. The hatchet would also have been used as a hammer stone. The hatchet has been donated to the National Museum of Victoria, where its registered number is X84135. Acknowledgements Dr Isabel McBryde of the Australian National University pointed out that there appears to be some indication of waisting — “less common but not unusual'"'. “Near the position of the waisting there seems to be a roughening of the surface of the blade to assist keying in of the resins used in hafting."’ Dr W. Birch of the National Museum of Vic- toria provided information on the quartz andesites of Victoria. REFERENCE McBryde, I. (1979), Petrology and prehistory: lithic evidence for exploitation of stone resources and exchange systems in Australia. In Clough, T. and Cummins, W. (Eds.) Stone Axe Studies. Council for British Archaeology, London. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 A Possible Tri-hybrid Eucalypt near the Cathedral Range, Victoria By STEPHEN YORKE* AND DAVID H. ASHTON + In 1979 two gum-topped stringy-bark trees were found by one of us (S. Y.) in the midst of a stand of Eucalyptus macrorhyncha at Bisset’s Pinnacles 300 m above the Little River gorge (Fig. 1) at latitude 37?15' longitude 145?46'. The Pinnacles consist of a set of huge rhyodacite tors on an otherwise steep, but smooth slope at an altitude of 670 m a.s.l. (Fig. 2). The trees were suspected of being hybrids between E. macrorhyncha and a gum-barked member of the Monocalyp- tus breeding group (Pryor and Johnston, 1971). The only feasible gum- barked species in the region are E. regnans and E. pauciflora. The latter species occurs at Mt. Sugarloaf (910 m a.s.1.) 4 km to the SW, and at Lake Mt. (1310 m a.s.l.) 12 km to SE. Trees of E. regnans however, occur in gullies within 400 m of the site. The putative hybrid trees were about 25 m tall, and were stringy-barked to about 18 m (Fig. 3.). The fruits were broad-turbinate with a decided raised rim and resembled features of both of the putative parent species, E. regnans and E. macrorhyncha ( Fig. 4). The general eucalypt distribution in this area is typical for this section of the Great Dividing Range; aspect, slope and altitude being important controlling fac- tors. Species occur in descending altitude zonation from E. pauciflora, to E. delegatensis, E. nitens, E. regnans, E. cypellocarpa, E. obliqua, E. radiata, E. dives, E. goniocalyx, E. macrorhyncha and E. polyanthemos. On the northern * National Parks Service, East Melbourne 3002 + Botany School, University of Melbourne 3052. September/October aspect, the E. macrohyncha-E. dives community at Bisset's Pinnacles is sur- rounded by E. radiata-E. cypellocarpa forest. E. obliqua is found nearer the river and further upslope. E. regnans oc- curs 0.6 km from the Pinnacles directly across the valley or upsteam at the same altitude (Fig.1). In the gorge, an at- tenuated rainforest community occurs, containing sporadic trees of Nothofagus cunninghamii, Hybrid intermediates between E. regnans and E. obliqua oc- cur in the ecotone in this area, in com- mon with many other similar boundaries in Victoria and Tasmania (Ashton 1958, 1981). Such intermediates extend down the gorge of the Little River to a point directly below Bisset’s Pinnacles. Seed from one of the gum-topped stringybark trees was collected by climb- ing to the top of one of the tallest tors. Seedlings were raised in a glasshouse for 6 months and compared with those of E. regnans, E. obliqua and E. macrorhyncha. The results of the study of seedling leaf morphology at the 3rd to the 5th node confirms the suggestion of the hybrid origin. None of the progeny revealed the E. pauciflora characteristics of glaucousness and prominent longitudinal venation. Variability of seedlings however, was great; some resembled E. regnans, some E. macrorhyncha, some the features of both. The assessment of shape, hairiness, colour, oil odour, the number of juvenile nodes and lignotuber development are illustrated in Table 1. However, the leaf shapes of E. regnans and E. obliqua at the 3rd node, are sometimes difficult to distinguish, and the oil odour of E. obliqua and E. macrorhyncha are likewise similar. The 209 egnans x E.obliqua hybrids E: Le] i SPUR RD. ! ^ 210 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Fig. 2. An oblique aerial photograph of the Little River Gorge. The large rock outcrops to the lower left are Bisset’s Pinnacles. microscopic examination of the oil glands by direct light transmission through the whole leaf was therefore us- ed to assist discrimination. The results of a scatter diagram of gland density against gland diameter is shown in Fig. 5. These results show clearly the rela- tionship of the hybrid tree progeny with Table 1 both E. regnans and E. obliqua. The raised rim of the fruit and the tough stringyness of the bark are characters of E. macrorhyncha. dt is therefore postulated that these trees are the pro- duct of hybridization between an in- termediate E. regnans x E. obliqua and E. macrorhyncha. lt is most likely that if Selected features of seedling morphology — mean quantitative and qualitative values from 8 plants 6 months old. Hairs stellate to absent (1-3). Scent sweet to sharp. (1-3). Lignotuber absent to present (0-3). Height length Species (cm) (cm) E. regnans 15.3 7.2 E. obliqua PIE 8.1 E. macrorhyncha 11.9 6.8 Gum-topped Hybrid 20.7 6.6 No. leaf Lignotuber Leaf at third node pairs score width tip hair- oil angle iness — scent (cm)(degrees) (1-3) (1-3) (mean) (0-3) 9 60 1.0 1.0 4.2 0 3.1 65 1.2 3.0 4.0 2.0 3.3 106 3.0 3.0 6.8 3.0 2.8 "7 1.4 2.0 4.0 1.0 Fig. 1. Map of Little River Gorge area showing the distribution of the major eucalypt types and the oc- currences of hybrid trees. The large black star indicates the position of the two tri-hybrid trees at Bisset's Pinnacles, Spot altitudes are indicated. September/October 211 Fig. 3. A composite photograph of one of the hybrid trees at Bisset’s Pinnacles showing the gum- topped crown. The figure (K. Clayton-Greene) on the rhyodacite tor is 1.9 m tall. this were so, the early pollen of the in- termediate were transferred to the stigmas of an E. macrorhyncha parent in the years immediately prior to the last bushfires. From this regeneration an even-aged stand arose containing, after 40-50 years, two interesting hybrid in- dividuals. The possibility of important segregates arising from such rare crosses is considerable. Trees combining high 212 Fig. 4. Fruit shapes of E. regnans (left), Hybrid (lower) and E. macrorhyncha (right). growth rate with timber quality and fire and drought resistance may thus be found. Recorded tri-hybrids in eucalypts are uncommon. The possibility of a population being so derived in southern western Australia was discussed by Hop- per et al (1978). Such natural oc- currences as these may increase the variability of populations and provide the material available for selection by the variations of the natural environ- ment. With the permission of the Forests Commission of Victoria five progeny have been planted in the R. J. Hamer Arboretum at Olinda, Victoria so that their potential development may be observed for future decades. REFERENCES Ashton, D. H. (1958). The ecology of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell: the species and its Frost Resistance. Aust. J. Bot. 6, 154-176. Ashton, D. H. (1981). The ecology of the boundary between Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell and E. obliqua L'Herit in Victoria. Proc Ecol Soc Aust 11, 75-94. Pryor, L. D. and Johnson, L. A. S. (1971). A classification of the eucalypts. Australian Na- tional University, Canberra. Hopper, S. D., Coates D. J. and Burbidge A. H, (1978). Natural hybridization and morphometric relationships between Three Mallee Eucalypts in the Fitzgerald River National Park W.A. Aust. J. Bot. 26, 319-33. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 p W E macrorhyncha l AI © E. regnans 160 l N l x * E obliqua i^n . % HYBRID (Bisset's Pinnacles ) m ae " |. ^ \ E | \ n . ie A E 120p : i y. | - | c . to \ y E i ü \ . - y4 " < V j z AM \ o as o t i ` x! © 80 " 4 yy om m . \ aye it “So i & o 40r 0 " L A " ph = " " d 4 " 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 OIL GLAND DENSITY / cm? Fig. 5. Oil gland diameter/density relationships from leaves of the third node of progeny raised under glasshouse conditions. Obituary — John Cecil LeSouef J. C. LeSouef was born on 5th November, 1905 at the Melbourne Zoological Gardens where his father was curator, following on from his grand-father who had established them. Whilst his two brothers took no in- terest in animals John did, and was encourag- ed in his early years by the keepers at the Gardens. Even before schooling he had earn- ed the nickname ‘‘Zoo’’ which remained with his throughout his life, as did his deep interest in natural history and a wide range of other subjects. After attending Melbourne Grammar School he joined Dalgety's and later became a jackaroo in Queensland and New South Wales. A series of jobs followed, including a spell with the old Australian Broadcasting September/October Company in Melbourne where he was respon- sible for obtaining speakers, arranging venues and later included giving nature talks on the Children’s radio session. In 1938, when he was selling radios in Warragul, Vic- toria, and working for radio 3UL, he met his future wife — a nursing sister. They were married in 1941. Just before the war he met Llew Gooding in Warragul and was invited to see his wonderful insect collection. He was so impressed that he decided to collect insects himself and was soon in the field with Gooding. In 1940 ‘‘Zoo’’ moved back to Melbourne to assist the Army in horse training for its Re- mount Squadron. With his new interest in in- sects he joined the Entomology Club in 213 Melbourne in 1941, to associate with such collectors as, Ras Wilson (a friend of his father), Alex Burns, Clarrie Borch, John Clarke, Alex Brown and others. Un- fortunately, due to the War, the Club was disbanded in 1942, the last meeting being held in ‘‘Zoo’s’’ home. At the end of the War, ‘‘Zoo”’ and his wife Mary purchased a cordial factory at Kyabram, Victoria, which they ran till 1953 when they bought the local store at Blairgowrie on the Mornington Peninsula. “Zoo” felt there was potential in the growing interest in natural history and that this could be developed among the throngs of holiday- makers on the Peninsula. After many bureaucratic hitches he ultimately obtained a foreshore site at Rosebud and built the Aquarium/Museum which opened in 1960, with its remarkable range of live and historical exhibits. These he continued to ex- pand and improve over the years. During the off-peak seasons at the aquarium, ‘‘Zoo’’ and Mary travelled throughout Australia, collecting specimens for the museum and his private collection. He amassed a valuable collection, mainly in but- terflies, moths and beetles, discovering many new localities and new varieties, some of which were named after him. He became very well known to and respected by the resident naturalists and entomologists throughout Australia, but particularly on the east coast. He was an excellent entomologist but in the field had the most disconcerting habit of picking up live snakes and putting them in sacks in the back of his car for subsequent display at the aquarium. The results of his collecting trips made fascinating articles, as he had been a freelance journalist since the Depression. In 1960 he was approached by several Melbourne entomologists with the idea of re- establishing the old Entomological Club to cater for the increasing interest in insects. This he agreed to do and the Entomological Society of Victoria was re-born at a well- attended meeting in 1961 at which he was elected President, a position he held till 1965 and on several occasions since. He has always been a Councillor and until recently was Editor. At all times he was an enthusiastic driving force in that Society. “Zoo” had many interests. He joined the Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria in 1944 and wrote articles for the Club magazine. He was an active member of the Frankston Field Naturalists’ Club which he joined in 1957, and was its President. He had been a dedicated member of Rosebud Rotary Club since 1960, and its President also, and was made a Paul Harris Fellow. His humor, vitality, anecdotes and, above all, his ever-ready willingness to help others, particularly youngsters, will be greatly missed by his wide circle of friends. He is survived by his wife, son and three grandchildren. D. F. Crosby 74 Gipps Street East Melbourne ——E ss ___.._.___ ite Naturalist Review **The Distribution and Conservation of Vascular Plants in the North Central area, Victoria” Bv A. C. BEAUGLEHOLE The Western Victorian Field Naturalists Clubs Association. Portland 1982 106 pp. + sheet map ISBN 0 9595293 5 7 Available from The Portland Field Naturalists Club, P.O. Box 470, Portland, Victoria 3305 for $6 a copy including postage. 214 This is the fifth in a series of reports which will eventually cover the whole thirteen study areas into which Victoria is divided. The North Central study area with which this report deals stretches from Glenorchy to the Waranga Basin, and includes the St Arnaud, Maryborough and Bendigo districts. The style of the report follows the pattern Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 of the earlier publications, which began with the Mallee area in 1979. Then followed Corangamite-Otway in 1980, and the Alpine area and East Gippsland, both in 1981. In essence, the reports provide a complete and up-to-date inventory of all vascular plants, both natives and naturalized aliens, with em- phasis on plant records from public land, as this carries almost all the significant remnants of native vegetation. To record the distribution of plants, Mr Beauglehole has devised a system of Sectors (13, in the case of the North Central area) which he has divided into Blocks and Sub- blocks. This is more suitable than rectangular grid systems for this purpose because of the irregular outlines of the areas of public land, most of which are, in any case, far smaller than even the minor ten-minute grids. The excellent map (110 x 60 cm), which is part of the report, indicates not only boun- daries of the sectors, blocks and sub-blocks, but also the ten-minute grid lines. As all roads and streams are clearly marked too, the locating of the various reserves and other areas of public land is quite straightforward. The checklist of the area, which gives both botanical and common name for each species, arranges the plants in alphabetical order within their families. Opposite each name columns indicate in which of the 13 sec- tors the plant is found. About 435 species of native plants have a very limited distribution within this study area. These Mr Beauglehole designates as ‘‘Rare-Interesting-Restricted”’ species, and he gives particulars of where they are found, indicating sector, block, sub- block, minor grid and land status for each. Land status is categorized under a number of headings such as State Parks, Wildlife Reserves, Uncommitted Land, Education Areas, Hardwood Production etc. The question of land status is closely allied to that of conservation. The author is con- cerned not only that many of the rarer species are not found within any reserve, but also that even within some reserved areas grazing and timber production are allowed, which makes the future of rare species even more uncertain. The production of these publications has obviously required a tremendous amount of time and effort, chiefly of course by the author, both in field work and in clerical ac- tivities. Their value is not only in the present. In future years too, conservationists, foresters, botanists and many others concern- ed with the vegetation of this state from various aspects, will have cause to be grateful to Cliff Beauglehole for his untiring labors during these years. E. G. Errey ————— ——UnnnnÓ—— OE—— —————— “Islands of South West Tasmania" **A natural history study of Tasmania's offshore South West" By GARY WHITE Retail Price $3.95 Enlarged 2nd edition published by the author in 1981. 92 pages (16cm x 22 cm) 13 black and white photographs plus map. Available from G. White P.O. Box N308 Grosvenor St., Sydney. N.S.W. 2000. Twenty islands offshore of the south west coast of Tasmania are included in this book, six in a wealth of detail. The author is to be congratulated in cramming as much as he has in the 92 pages available and for taking on the additional roles of publisher and distributor. All available space is utilised and the detail includes fauna and flora lists, of particular interest are the birds. Pedra Branca, the southern most island, provides a nesting place for both albatross September/October and gannet, the only place in Australia where the two species nest together, it is also a home for a species of lizard found nowhere else in the world. Little is known of the islands in the way of records and the author has faced considerable problems in obtaining first hand experience, they are remote, difficult of access and in- hospitable. In the seas around, swells travel uninterrupted by land from Macquarie Island in the south and from South America in the west. The full force of frequent westerly wind storms can hit with gusts that exceed 150 kilomtres an hour, and this is not unusual. Small wonder then that these islands previously visited only by fishermen looking for bait and something for the pot are now at- tracting scientific interest. As more and more 215 man made development takes away the breeding habitats on the main land, the islands become the last frontier for major breeding grounds for birds and seals alike. Over a million mutton birds nest on the 53 hectares of Flat Island, together with penguins, prions cormorants, gulls and oyster catchers. This book was first published in 1980 and this second edition is larger and updated and in future editions I would like to see a little on physiography of each island and something of the topography, but I appreciate the dif- ficulties involved. One small thing caught my imagination, would anyone other than an Australian naturalist know what a pademelon is, perhaps some other clue should be given; even ‘‘joeys left the pouch" may not mean much to the uninformed. D. J. Lee Se CA ee Robert Brown and the cell nucleus* By JOHN TIMSON Everyone who has even a passing ac- quaintance with modern biology knows that each living cell contains a nucleus. Yet it was only 150 years ago, in 1831, that a British botanist, Robert Brown, realised that all the cells he saw under his microscope contained a small, spherical object which he named the nucleus from the Latin for a **small nut’’. His obser- vations were published in the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London for 1833 (vol 16, p 685). Brown, who is probably better known for his discovery, in 1827, of the strange random motion that minute particles ex- hibit under the microscope (Brownian movement), did not regard the nucleus as being of particular importance. His main interest was plant classification and his discovery of the nucleus did not arouse widespread interest at the time. It was not until many years after Brown's death that its functions in cell division and reproduction were established. It was while he was studying medicine at Edinburgh University that Brown met John Walker, the professor of natural history, who introduced him to field botany. After qualifying, Brown became an army surgeon in the Fifeshire Regiment of Infantry in 1795. Three years later while on a recruiting mission in London he met Sir Joseph Banks, who was president of the Royal Society and a man of considerable influence in scientific circles. 216 In 1801 Brown abandoned his military career and sailed as a naturalist on a Ad- miralty expedition to explore the coasts of Australia. This appointment he ow- ed to Banks's influence. The expedition under the command of Captain Mat- thew Flinders was provided with a leaky ship, /nvestigator, which was condemn- ed at Port Jackson in 1803 before the survey was completed. While returning to England for a new ship Flinders was captured by the French who held him until 1810, Brown was more fortunate. After waiting in vain for Flinders he returned to England in 1805 with 4000 specimens of Australian plants many of which were new species. This collection formed the basis of a massive work on Australian plants and of Brown's botanical career. When Banks died in 1820 he left his extensive collections to Brown who transferred them to the British Museum in 1827. At the same time he was ap- pointed keeper of the Botany Depart- ment at the museum, a post which he held until his death in 1858. Brown was certainly one of the pioneer members of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, and is viewed by many as the greatest botanist of his time. Within his work is found the basis of much fine work of later years in the classification of plants which replaced the Linnaean system. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 To Brown's contemporaries the cell nucleus, like the Brownian movement, was just an interesting observation. To them his important work was in plant classification especially in his studies of the orchids where he established 40 genera. He was also the first to divide the seed plants into gymnosperms and angiosperms. Robert Brown saw and recorded things which others had previously seen but not noticed. He was one of the first taxonomists to use a microscope in his work. Because of this he was the first person to realise that different types of living cells all had one thing in common — à nucleus. * This article appeared in New Scientist, London, the weekly review of science and technology. It is reproduced here with the kind permission from that journal's editor. Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Reports of recent activities General Meeting Monday 9 August Honorary Membership was awarded to Dr George A. Thomas and to Mr J, Laurie Provan. This month each com- pleted 40 years in the FNCV. Speaker for the evening was Dr David Staples. He spoke about pycnogonids, or sea spiders as the layman would call them for that's what they look like. However, although they superficially resemble spiders, pycnogonids are not related to them, but their classification is still uncertain. Pycnogonids are wholly marine and occur in all waters from tropical to polar, intertidal or at depths. There are about 1000 species, about 100 in Australian waters. They vary from 3 or 4mm to 40cm long (16") but most are well within those extremes. All pycno- gonids have at least four pairs of very long, jointed walking legs and a long snout; in addition, most have a pair of palps, a pair of food claspers and, on underside of the body, a pair of egg- carrying legs. The body is so slim that internal organs extend into the legs. In mating, the male receives the eggs on his “egg legs" and carries them long after they have hatched. We saw photos of males with two large white masses of eggs as big as the parent's body. Other photos showed various species. Many were camouflaged to match their food September/October substrate (polyzoans or hydroids) but others were yellow, red, blue, or banded in bright colours across the legs. Although not common, pycnogonids are not rare and they move very slug- gishly on the ocean floor or under coastal rocks so more of us will be eager- ly alert for them in future. Exhibits. A large model showed a typical pycnogonid, and bottles contain- ed preserved specimens of Colossendeis robusta about 9cm long (3%") and Parapallene challengeri about 4cm (15 ") with young. Four microscopes purchased from the Latrobe University showed cross sec- tions of various plants. A glass tube con- tained the radula of a limpet that looked like a white thread about 18cm long (7") and a piece under a microscope revealed the fine teeth. General Meeting Monday 13 September Dr Barrie Cooper and his wife were given a warm welcome. Dr Cooper was previously a vice-president of this club. Dry Forests, subject for the evening, was introduced by Miss Cathy Zerbe. Miss Zerbe stated that lack of moisture was the dominating factor in dry forests so that trees were shorter and wider spaced to allow more light for smaller plants. Aspect, exposure to wind and soil contributed to a lesser degree. She 217 spoke of the ironbark forests of the goldfield areas north of the Divide and the foothills forests of peppermints and stringybarks as at Warrandyte. Miss Zerbe introduced the speakers in turn. Mrs Hilary Weatherhead showed beautiful colour slides of wildflowers to be found in dry forests. They included several orchids. Mr Peter Carwardine talked about a group of butterflies, the ‘‘browns’’, which inhabit dry forests but also occur in wet forests. We heard about their habits, caterpillars, pupa and eggs. Dr Brian Smith said that dry leaf litter was not favourable to invertebrates but a few small snails manage to survive in dry forests. He showed slides and ended with a greatly magnified shot of the shell sculpture of a small snail that is con- sidered a survival factor. Miss Wendy Clark spoke of spiders sheltering under bark and logs in dry forest. Amongst others, she talked of the fast moving Suppunna, of jumping spiders that will obligingly jump from one finger to another, and of the out- size web-building Nephila. Mr Charlie Silveira showed slides of a wonderful variety of birds to be seen in dry forests — birds of the ground, of the trees, of the canopy, and night birds. Then followed some taped calls. Miss Lindy Lumsden showed slides and gave some fascinating comments on the habits of several dry forest mam- mals. She began with gliders and possums, then ground-dwellers and end- ed with bats. Exhibits included some wildflowers some typical of dry forests, books on butterflies showing a variety of “‘browns’’, and a pink-orange flatworm about 2cm long that later became active and extended to about 6cm (2/2). It was richly full programme which ended late, but people still stayed to chat over acup of tea or coffee. Birdwatching For The Disabled Seabirds Need Your Help These are two leaflets recently printed by the Bird Observers Club for free distribution to any person or group interested in either of these two worthy aims. Write to The Bird Observers Club P.O. Box 185, Nunawading, Vic. 3131 Flora Of Central Australia The Australian Systematic Botany Society 537 pages, 648 illustrations. Price $35.00 (discount to members) Postage Victoria $2.00. Other States at 2 kg rate. Order from Sales Officer F.N.C.V. 218 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 GROUP EXCURSIONS All ENCV members are invited to attend Group excursions, Mammal Survey. and FNVC block, Saturday, 30th — Tuesday, 2nd November. Cup Saturday, 27th November, Starlings Gap, Leader: weekend, Chiltern. A. Thies. Sunday, 26th — Ist January, East Gippsland, Invertebrate camp to Mt Elizabeth (Gippsland) Botany Group. October 30 — November 2, Details contact Wendy Saturday, 30th October. Kinglake National Park Clark A.H.: 859 8091, Bus.: 377 2336, Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Established 1880 OBJECTS: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron: His Excellency Rear Admiral Sir Brian S. Murray, KCMG, AO. Key Office-Bearers 1982-1983 President: Miss WENDY CLARK, 27 Rangeview Grove, North Balwyn, 3104 (859 8091 A.H.) Vice-President: Dr. B. Smith, C/- The National Museum, Russell Street, Melbourne Secretary: Mrs. Sheila Houghton, 30 Golf Links Crescent, Dingley, 3172 (551 2708) Correspondence to; FNCV, National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Treasurer: Mr. D. DUNN, 3 Allfrey Street, East Brighton, 3187 (578 5753) Subscription-Secretary: Miss H. MALCOLM C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Editor: Mr. R. WALLIS, Victoria College — Rusden Campus, 662 Blackburn Road, North Clayton, 3168 (544 8544) Librarian: Excursion Secretary: Miss M. ALLENDER, 19 Hawthorn Avenue, Caulfield, 3161 (527 2749) Book Sales Officer: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (211 2427) Group Secretaries Botany: Mr. MICHAEL McBAIN, 19 Foster Street, St. Kilda, 3182 (534 2293) Day Group: C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Geology: Mr. T. SAULT, C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Mammal Survey: Mr. A. FAITHFUL, 67 Athelstan Road, Camberwell, 3124 (29 5108 A.H.) Microscopical: Mr. M. H. MEYER, 36 Milroy Street, East Brighton (596 3268) FNCV Kinglake Nature Reserve: McMahons Road, Kinglake Booking and keys: Mr. 1. F. MORRISON, 788 Elgar Road, Doncaster (848 1194) MEMBERSHIP Membership of the F.N.C.V. is open to any person interested in natural history. The Victorian Naturalist is distributed free to all members, the club's reference and lending library is available and other activities are indicated in reports set out in the several preceding pages of this magazine. £ Subscription rates for 1982 MISE ODOM EAM i cs caccncscasasdctsnbascavesatvasevcasdatenseseshsseesechdovtadecessonsvseceuisbesvessececeseensetecsossesecess $15.00 Joint Matrópolltaniz, csicceesteseasssteys.csvovesver A Country Members and Retired Persons... $12.00 COUR UTE aod arent DEOR EEUU UR IANHITa eaan suey we 9y 2uo vH quv 0s » cecbdvunassvstbsessencagover’ $15.00 JUAN DES rieeerereo opio Y 09544049» (9462 (99 9» 491 pAYA $3.00 Subscription to Victorian Naturalist.............. $13.00 Overseas Subscription to Victorian Naturalist.. .$15.00 PPA eB) JOUINAS hake den cas ec se cadeira yatunvagagenasctan rush cbappoencangsec encase ssdarapcacnnecednansacercecactions coed $2.20 All subscriptions should be made payable to the Field Naturalist Club of Victoria and posted to the Subscription Secretary. G JENKIN BUXTON PRINTERS PTY. LTD., WEST MELBOURNE Vol. 99, No. 6 Nov./Dec. 1982 | Published by the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA in which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria $2. 2 eee ek in ee aes 0 --— B o FNCV DIARY OF COMING EVENTS GENERAL MEETINGS Monday, 10th November, 8.00 p.m. Members night. Monday, I4 February, 8.00 p.m. Mr Peter Brown: the role of zoos, New Members — Metropolitan Mrs E; V. Crohn, 1 Durham Rd, Surrey Hills Dorothy Palmer, 28 Princess St, Kew Country Magnus Peterson, 49 Venner Rd, Annerley, Qld Joint John & Valerie Milligan, 4/18 Buckingham Ave, Bentleigh (Botany & geology) November/ December General Meetings. FNCV EXCURSIONS Saturday, 15th — Friday, 21st January. Falls Creek, A coach has been chartered and motel ac- commodation booked on a D.B.B. basis. The coach will leave Flinders St from the Gas and Fuel at 8.00 a.m, Bring a picnic lunch, Payment of $290.00 less deposit paid is due by the December General Meeting. Sunday, 6th February, Marine biology excursion to be led by Dr Brian Smith, probably to Western- port, The coach will leave Batman Avenue at 9.30 a.m. Bring one meal and a snack. Sunday, 6th March. Entomology excursion to be led by Peter Carwardine. Details in the next Naturalist, Saturday, 12th — Monday, 14th March, Combined weekend, This will be hosted by the Mid- Murray F.N.C. and based at Kerang. This is an area with many lakes which are noted for water birds, A coach will be chartered if numbers warrant it; other- wise transport will be by private car. Please let the excursion secretary know if you are interested. GROUP MEETINGS FNCV members are invited to attend any Group Meeting. Day Group — Third Thursday. Thursday, 17th February. Polly Woodside and the maritime museum. Meet at the entrance at 11,30 a.m, Leader: E. Gillespie 578 1879, At the National Herbarium, the Domain, at 8.00 p.m. First Tuesday — Mammal Survey Group. Third Wednesday — Microscopy Group. Wednesday, 19th January. Members exhibits night. Wednesday, l6th February. Plankton. Mr H. Bishop. Second Thursday — Botany Group. GROUP EXCURSIONS All FNCV members are invited to attend Group Excursions. Mammal Survey, Sunday, 26th December — January, East Gippsland. Saturday, lst Saturday, 29 — Monday, 31 January. East Gipp- sland river survey, Contact Wendy Clark AH 859 8091; bus, 377 2336. = = A C2 EI Un = Volume 99, Number 6 November/ December, 1982 ISSN 0042-5184 Editor: Robert L, Wallis Editorial Committee: H. Cohn, B, Smith Root fusion between Eucalyptus regnans F, Muell and E. obliqua L'Herit in the Cathedral Range Area, Victoria by T. J, Dess and DM. AINON. ee a EEEa aT FEI COE High t 224 The Mammals of the Woolsthorpe Area, Western Victoria: And The Changes That Have Occurred Since European Settlement by A.FOBsnrett SI S FAO TE Pee er dh da era ear Y ed ut 229 A Review of Larval Host Records for Australian Jewel Beetles (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) by T. J, Hawkeswood and M, Peterson 240 Actinotus forsythii Maiden et Betche (APIACEAE): A Flannel Flower for Victoria by N. G., Walsh «... sss yi^ om 252 F.N.C. V, Excursion to Portland, Victoria (16/1/82-22/1/82) .... 254 Koalas Feeding on Monterey Pine by K, A. Lithgow vise eens 259 Migration of an Ichneumonid Wasp over à Subalpine Pass by K, fa litrTT TT Ravan Prete ey: i Eh) Cerrar ne ate One st 260 F.N.C.V. Reports of recent activities ««.. seen 261 Cover illustration: Limestone columns at Cape Bridgewater, See report on FNCV Excursion Root Fusion between Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell and E. obliqua L’ Herit in the Cathedral Range Area, Victoria. By TREVOR J. DESS* AND DAVID H. ASHTONT Abstract Root fusion between major laterals of pole stage E. regnans and E. obliqua oc- curs in ecotone regions in Sugarloaf Saddle between the Cathedral and Mt Margaret Ranges, Victoria. In some cases, fusion involves E. obliqua in- trogressants with E. regnans. It is sug- gested that such fusions may prove to be important in determining stand develop- ment and local tree survival. Introduction Root fusion between roots of in- dividuals of the same species and intra- tree root fusion is well known for both conifers (Adams, 1940; Bormann, 1966; Graham, 1960; Lanner, 1961; Stone, 1974) and angiosperms (Beddie, 1941; Jacobs, 1955; Leroy-Deval, 1973). However, interspecific root fusion is rare (Beddie, 1941). Root fusion between trees of E. regnans is known to occur in dense sap- ling stages as young as 6 years of age (In- coll, 1979). It is also recorded for mature trees (Ashton, 1975). Fusion bet- ween roots of the same tree is quite com- mon. It would be surprising if similar in- traspecific grafting did not also occur in the closely related E. obliqua. The phenomenon of root grafting is not fully understood. Various patterns of fusion occur and the commonest range from the ‘X’ type where fusion oc- curs at the point of root cross-over to the ‘Y’ or 'T' type where the less vigorous root may abort beyond the point of fusion (Beddie, 1941). * 4h year Student, Melbourne. 1 Botany School, University of Melbourne. Forestry University of 224 The frequency ‘of root grafts is in- versely related to the distance between trees (Pawsey, 1962). Where initial spac- ing is compact, grafts may occur at any time after the root becomes woody. Natural root grafts, which may occur very early among dense stands of young trees, probably influence the pattern of spacing and the establishment of dominance in forest stands (Graham and Bormann, 1966). Root grafting often occurs between trees of markedly different vigour (Leroy-Deval, 1973; Incoll 1979). Kozlowski and Cooley (1961) consider that some form of growth pressure is necessary for grafting. Thus the phenomenon may be promoted by the pressure of one root on another, or where they are lodged against a large stone. Millner (1932) concluded from experimental work that grafting was in- itiated if callus tissue was induced by slight wounding and bark rupture at the point of contact. Thinning of stands tends to increase the frequency of grafting due to the in- creased diameter growth of remaining roots and the consequent increase in pressure points of root contact (La Rue, 1934). Many grafts enable the translocation of photosynthates, minerals such as phosphorus (Kabashnikova 1972), and water (Bormann and Graham, 1959; In- coll, 1979; Stone and Stone, 1976). They may also permit transference of fungal disease (Boyce, 1962) and silvicides (Bormann and Graham 1960). Description of the site Sugarloaf Saddle, at an altitude of Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 762m, (latitude 37?25'S; 145?47'E longitude) lies precisely on the geological boundary of massive Silurian sandstones in the west and upper Devo- nian dacites to the east. The soils range from skeletal red or yellow podzolics to deep krasnozems. On the lower slopes they are deeper due to greater weather- ing and to accumulated hillwash. The annual precipitation in this area is about 1100-1200 mm. Mature E. regnans with Pomaderris aspera, Olearia argophylla, tree ferns and ground ferns occupies the head of the south facing gully. A zonation of younger forest occurs on the slopes. About 90 m up the western slope of sandstones, E. regnans gives way to E. obliqua and E. cypellocarpa. This zone in turn is replaced by E. macrorhyncha, E. radiata and E. cypellocarpa a further 50 m upslope. In the E. regnans-E. obliqua ecotone the understorey consists of scat- tered shrubs, such as Lomatia fraseri, Coprosma quadrifida and Olearia E. REGNANS phlogopappa and occasional bracken fronds. Pole stage E. regnans almost in- variably exhibits superior height growth compared to associated E. obliqua. The latter therefore tends to represent the suppressed and intermediate crown classes. Patches of hybrid individuals are common in this general ecotone and are recognizable by their recombinations of bark and fruit characteristics (Ashton, 1981). Root Fusions Closely spaced pairs or groups of pole stage trees are frequent in the E. regnans — E, obliqua ecotone (Fig. 1). Where trees butts are contiguous, root fusion can be demonstrated by excavation and exposure of the common cambium. In Fig. 2, the compressed X shaped fusion pattern is shown, which demonstrates the fusion of large laterals from each species within 5-15 cm of the trunk and at a depth of 0-12 cm. Although the E. obliqua trees closely associated with E. regnans appeared -30 M -20 = -0 FUSION F ys MEY Fig. 1. Profile diagrams of four species pairs at the Sugarloaf Saddle. F = fusion, A = avoidance, I = in- compatible, November/December 225 typical, most were suppressed and bore no buds or fruits. Since the characters of the oil gland discriminate between these species, they were assessed microscopically according to the method previously employed (Ashton, 1958; Ashton and Williams, 1973). Mean gland densities and diameters obtained from canopy foliage are shown in Table 1. One of the E. obliqua trees root fused to E. regnans appears typical (4b in Fig. 1), the other (1a) appears to be an introgressant with E. regnans because of its less fibrous bark and the higher density of its foliar oil glands. Apparent incompatibility occurs where no fusion takes place, even though strong contact pressures exist between adjacent roots. In Fig. 3, the root of E. obliqua has been arched up by the expansion of E. regnans roots below. The integrity of the root has been maintained by a thin separation of bark and sometimes by plaques of exuded kino. In some juxtaposed trees no root con- tact has been made due to divergent lateral root growth or the failure to pro- duce laterals on the mutually opposing sides of the trunks. This has been termed 'avoidance' in Table 1, Fig. 1. Discussion The excavation of seven E. obliqua trees growing in close contact with E. regnans revealed two instances of fusion and two of ‘incompatibility’. One fused E. obliqua tree showed evidence of hybridity which may have ameliorated any incompatability bet- ween the species. Although the other fused E. obliqua tree appeared typical it may have been likewise affected, although in a more subtle, physiological fashion. Experimental grafting would be Fig. 2. Photograph of X-shaped fusion of laterals of E. regnans (above) E. obliqua (below) — see 1 in fig. 1. 226 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Oil gland characters of (See Fig. 1) Tree pairs or groups. (E. obliqua only) Lateral root Oil gland association jo gh $ 2 Density/cm foliaye at the Sugarloaf Saddle, 1 a fusion 1130 (x type) 2 a incompatible 632 b avoidance (no contact) 3 a incompatible b avoidance 4 a avoidance 400 b fusion 447 (y type) Isolated trees,typical of the species. E. regnans. 1634-1840 E. obliqua. 540- 575 Oil gland Tree status Diameter ym 123 Intermediate crown Introgressive features 143 suppressed, typical E. obliqua recently dead EX SUMUS RE E n " n 167 suppressed, typical E. obliqua 175 Co-Dominant typical E. obliqua 86-123 1:62:77 0 Table 1. Oil gland characteristics of tree foliage at the Sugarloaf Saddle. necessary to test any hypotheses of in- compatibility. The *avoidance' of con- tact between adjacent trees may be due to chance or to an active inhibitory effect of one tree upon the other. If root fusions are efficient and com- mon, it is possible that a stand may act not so much as an assemblage of com- peting individuals but as symbiotic units. Competition within the unit may still be an important factor shaping the structure and floristics of the ecosystem (Bormann, 1966). If so, one result may November/December be an extension of species ranges in local habitats, at least in the short term. Survival of E. regnans on relatively stressful sites on the mid-west and lower eastern slopes of the Sugarloaf Saddle may be related to the ability of groups of individuals to obtain moisture from these sandy loam soils in critical periods. Root fusions with a more xeric species such as E. obliqua therefore could be an advantage. To what extent this is mitigated by introgression is not yet known. Clearly much physiological and 227 Fig. 3. Photograph of an incompatible root contact between E. regnans and E. obliqua (up-arched) — see tree 2a in fig. 1. genetical work remains to be done to ex- plain the role of root fusion in stand development and tree survival. REFERENCES Adams, A. J. S. (1940). Observation on Root Fu- sions in Monterey Pine. Aust. For. 5(2), 78-80. Ashton, D. H. (1958). The Ecology of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. 1. The species and its frost resistance. Aust. J. Bot. 6, 154-176. Ashton, D. H. (1975). The Root and Shoot Development of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. Aust. J. Bot. 23, 867-887. Ashton, D. H. (1981). The ecology of the boundary between Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell and E. obliqua L'Herit in Victoria. Proc. Ecol. Soc. Aust. 11, 75-94. Ashton, D. H. and Williams, G. (1973). The Oc- currence of gum-topped stringybarks in the Tren- tham forest. Victorian Nat. 90, 90-92. Beddie, A. D. (1941). Natural Root Grafts in New Zealand Trees. Trans. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.Z. 71, 199-203. Bormann, F. H. (1966). The Structure and Ecological Significance of Root Grafts in Pinus strobus L. Ecological Monographs 36, 1-26. Bormann, F. H. and Graham, B. F. Jr. (1959), The occurrence of natural root grafting in Eastern White Pine, Pinus strobus L, and its ecological implications. Ecology 40(4), 677-691. 228 Bormann, F. H. and Graham, B. F. Jr. (1960). Translocation of silvicides through root grafts. J. For. 58(5), 402-403. Boyce, J. S. Jr. (1962). Fomes annosus in white pine in North Carolina. J. For. 608), 553-557. Graham, B. F. (1960). Transfer of dye through natural root grafts of Pinus strobus L. Ecology 41(1), 56-64. Graham, B. F. Jr. and Bormann, F. H. (1966) Natural Root Grafts. Bot. Rev. 32, 255-292. Incoll, W. D. (1979). Root system Investigations in Stands of Eucalyptus regnans. For. Technical Paper No. 27, Forestry Commission of Victoria, pp.23-32. Jacobs, M. R. (1955). Growth Habits of the Eucalypt. For. Timb. Bur. Canberra, 262 pp. Kabashnikova, G. I. (1972). Migration of labelled phosphorus between pine and birch trees in pure and mixed stands. Abstract Bulletin of the In- stitute of Paper Chemistry 44 1144sLTP Vesti Akaal NAVUK BSSR, B17AL Navuk #6 102-104. Kozlowski, T. T. and Cooley, H. J. (1961). Natural root grafting in Northern Wisconsin. J. For. 59, 105-107. Lanner, R. M. (1961). Living stumps in the Sierra Nevada. Ecol. 42, 140-173. La Rue, C. D. (1934) Root grafting in trees. Am. J. Bot., 21, 121-126. Leroy-Deval, J. (1973). Root connections and root grafts. Bois et Forets des Tropiques. No. 152, 37-49, Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Millner, M. E. (1932). Natural Grafting in Hedera helix. New Phytol. 31, 1-25. Pawsey, C. K. (1962). Root grafting in Monterey Pine at Mt Burr. Leafl. For. Timb. Bur. Aust. No. 86, pp.8. Stone, E. L. (1974). The Communal Root System of Red Pine. Growth of Girdled Trees. Forest Science 204), 294-305. Stone, J. E., Stone, E. L. (1976). The Communal Root System of Red Pine: Water conduction through root grafts. For. Sci. 21(3), 255-261. The Mammals of the Woolsthorpe Area, Western Victoria: And The Changes That Have Occurred Since European Settlement By A. F. BENNETT* Introduction Most of the sites now reserved for wildlife conservation in Australia are areas that were originally found to be unsuitable, or of marginal value, for agriculture. Those areas best suited for agriculture were rapidly taken up for settlement in the 19th century. Grazing by large herds of domestic stock, and clearing and burning of natural vegeta- tion to form improved pastures, brought about marked changes to the natural landscape. Marlow (1958), in a survey of the marsupials of New South Wales, found that the greatest changes to the marsupial fauna had taken place in the woodland and open plains formations comprising the principal pastoral areas of that state. He attributed these changes primarily to modification and destruction of the original natural habitats occurring in these areas. This paper examines the changes that have taken place in the mammalian fauna (excluding bats) of the Woolsthorpe area, a long-established agricultural community in Western Vic- toria, by comparing the contemporary fauna with those species believed to have been present at the time of first Euro- pean settlement in the 1840's. *Department of Zoology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia November/December Study Area Woolsthorpe (38°11’ N, 142?27' E) (Fig. 1) is a small township situated on the flat basalt plains which extend across south-western Victoria. The farming land surrounding Woolsthorpe has long been cleared of the original vegetation, and now supports improved pastures, chiefly of rye grass (Lolium perenne) and clover (Trifolium sp.) Windbreaks of pine (Pinus radiata), cypress (Macrocarpus sp.) and the introduced sugar gum (Eucalyptus cladocalyx) are widespread. The climate is temperate with warm dry summers and cool winter months when the majority of the annual rainfall of 650-700 mm falls. Spring Creek, a small but perennial water- course, passes through Woolsthorpe and flows into the Merri River, which in turn opens to the sea at Warrnambool, some 25 km to the south. Numerous peat swamps, many of which drain into Spr- ing Creek by way of its tributaries, occur throughout the area. Sources of Information As conventional mammal survey techniques could not practicably be used in open farmland, the survey of the con- temporary fauna has relied primarily on observations and incidental sightings of mammals occurring around farm dwell- ings and in open paddocks throughout the area. Limited amounts of trapping 229 LI i = Penshurst | | t | | A m, Mortlake Howkesdale ° . Woolsthorpe . Korort LI Port mJ aM e e n e ~ 9 0 5 1) 46 20 Ec [km] NS Fig. 1. Locality map. (122 trap-nights) and spot-lighting (several hours) were carried out in the single remaining forest fragment. Most contemporary records apply to an area within a radius of 10 km of the Woolsthorpe township. There are no formal historical records concerning mammals of the Woolsthorpe area; hence, to reconstruct the fauna originally present, informa- tion was gathered from local residents who have lived in the area for many years. This was supplemented by literature reports and museum records of specimens collected from localities close to Woolsthorpe. Agricultural Settlement and Changes to the Vegetation Following the overland exploration of Major Thomas Mitchell in 1836, the basalt plains of western Victoria were rapidly taken up for agricultural settle- ment by settlers moving out from Port Phillip (Melbourne) and Portland Bay (Peel, 1974). These men grazed large herds of cattle and sheep, by squatting on huge runs of land. By the early 1840’s, most of western Victoria was set- ued in this way. The Woolsthorpe area was typical of this pattern of settlement, with ‘Minjah’ station originally of 230 35,000 acres, ‘Union’ of 15,000 acres and ‘Quamby’ of 25,000 acres, being the principal stock runs. Together these holdings occupied much of the land around Woolsthorpe, which by the 1870's was described as “a grazing township on Spring Creek, surrounded by large land holders with a few selec- tors; wool the staple product.” (Sayers, 1972, p.78). The original vegetation as observed by these pioneer settlers was greatly dif- ferent from the improved pastures and open paddocks seen today. Quamby sta- tion was described as ‘‘heavily timbered, rough country, much of it swampy, a characteristic of the district.’’ (Sayers, 1972, p.13). The banks of Spring Creek on which Quamby was situated carried heavy manna gum (Eucalyptus viminalis), and blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) forest, with swamp gum (E. ovata) growing in wetter areas. There were large swampy marshes along the course of the creek, and elsewhere numerous shallow swamps in low-lying areas. These swamps were covered with dense reed beds and flanked by stands of tea-tree (Leptospermum sp.). Away from the creek the country was drier and less heavily timbered, supporting open forest of manna gum, blackwood, black wattle (Acacia mearnsii), silver banksia (Banksia marginata) growing to tree form, wild cherry (Exocarpus cupressiformis), and occasionally she- oak (Casuarina stricta). Bonwick (1857), commenting on the area to the north- east around Mortlake (see Fig. 1), noted that **Travellers . . . enthused about the park like appearance of the country, with its lush grass, abundant wildlife, scattered lightwood (A. melanoxylon), she-oak (Casuarina) and honeysuckle (Banksia) trees." Kangaroo grass (Themeda australis) apparently provid- ed an abundant source of food for the settlers’ stock. Boldrewood (1884, p.139) when describing ‘Kangatong’ sta- tion at Hawkesdale (see Fig.1) noted Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Table 1: Occurrence and status of mammals of the Woolsthorpe area. Occurrence Species Present Status Echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus very rare Platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus rare Tiger Quoll, Dasyurus maculatus extinct Eastern Quoll, Dasyurus viverrinus extinct Brush-tailed Phascogale, i Phascogale tapoatafa Ñ baia Fat-tailed Dunnart, Sminthopsis crassicaudata if y MD non Eastern Barred Bandicoot, ; Perameles gunnii È Saranat i Brushtail Possum, Trichosurus vulpecula + + common i Feathertail Glider, Acrobates pygmaeus + extinct Sugar Glider, Petaurus breviceps + extinct Ringtail Possum, Pseudocheirus peregrinus E Mt heed ag = 45 Sha A + + common/restricted Red-necked Wallaby, Macropus rufogriseus + + uncommon/restricted Koala, Phascolarctos cinereus + extinct Wombat, Vombatus ursinus + extinct Water-rat, Hydromys chrysogaster + 5 uncommon *House Mouse, Mus musculus * very common Swamp Rat, Rattus lutreolus * extinct *Brown Rat, Rattus norvegicus * rare *Black Rat, Rattus rattus * common Dingo, Canis familiaris * extinct *Fox, Vulpes vulpes * common f *Cat, Felis catus + common *Brown Hare, Lepus capensis 2 common *European Rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculue i common * introduced species November/December 231 that ‘*. .. the whole countryside was covered with a sward of kangaroo grass two or three feet high and as thick as a field of barley’’. By the turn of the century much of the original vegetation had disappeared. Forests and woodlands were burnt and cleared, swamps ploughed, and Spring Creek, described in 1880 as a shallow drain passing through a sea of head high rushes (J. Bennett, pers. comm.), was ploughed by station bullock teams allowing winter floods to wash down and carve a deeper course. Numerous subdivisions of the large properties took place, and the smaller holdings were in- creasingly farmed more intensively. The last of the native grasses were lost with the widespread use of superphosphate and the introduction of exotic pasture grasses. Pines, cypress and the introduc- ed sugar gum became the prominent farm trees, planted as windbreaks around houses and as plantations to shelter stock. Other than scattered blackwoods and black wattles regenerating along road verges, only a single isolated remnant of natural vegetation remains of the original vegetation of the Woolsthorpe area. ‘Wickham Park’, reduced from hundreds of hectares in the 1940’s, to less than 100 ha today, is a regrowth forest of manna gum, swamp gum, blackwood and black wattle. Prickly tea-tree (Leptospermum juniperum), prickly moses (Acacia verticillata), and tree everlasting (Helichrysum dendroideum) are prominent shrub species, with bracken (Pteridium esculentum), sword sedge (Lepidosperma laterale), maidenhair (Adiantum aethiopicum), mat-rush (Lomandra longifolia), rushes (Juncus sp.) and grasses occurring in the field layer. This forest remnant has been heavily logged over the years and is still grazed intermittently by cattle. Mammals The present day occurrence and status 232 of mammals in the Woolsthorpe area, together with those believed to be pre- sent at the time of settlement, are shown in Table 1 and discussed in the following annotated list. Echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) Echidnas were probably widespread and common in the original forest and grassy woodland habitats. On very rare occasions individuals are still observed crossing open paddocks, possibly having dispersed over large distances from natural habitat. Platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) Platypus have always been present in Spring Creek. In 1946 several platypuses were Observed washed up on the bank of the creek after a severe flood (Miss C. Lindsay, pers. comm.). Individuals have been sighted on a number of occasions since (J. Bennett, pers. comm. ), and are believed to be still present though shy and rarely seen. Tiger Quoll (Dasyurus maculatus) and Eastern Quoll (Dasyurus viverrinus) These two dasyurids are discussed together as it is not certain which species of ‘native cat’ occurred in the Woolsthorpe area until the early 1900's. However, it is likely that both species were present throughout the area. James Dawson, a squatter who settled on "Kangatong'" station at Hawkesdale, described the aboriginal tribes of south- western Victoria in a book published in 1881 (Dawson, 1881). He listed the aboriginal names for many mammal species, including names for ‘Dasyure, tiger cat’, ‘Dasyure, brown and spotted native cat’, and for ‘Dasyure, black and spotted native cat’. Not only were both Species apparently present, but the aboriginals distinguished between the darker and lighter forms of the Eastern Quoll (see Fleay, 1932). A remnant population of the Tiger Quoll still oc- curs in the manna gum woodland of the Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Table 2: Changes to the native mammal fauna of the Woolsthorpe area. Species Change Probable Causes Critical Period of Time Echidna Platypus Tiger Quoll Eastern Quoll Brush-tailed Phascogale Fat-tailed Dunnart Eastern Barred Bandicoot Brushtail Possum Feathertail Glider Sugar Glider Ringtail Possum Eastern Grey Kangaroo Red-necked Wallaby Koala Wombat Water-rat Swamp Rat Dingo November/December decline/extinction? decline local extinction local extinction local extinction decline local extinction increase local extinction local extinction decline decline decline local extinction local extinction decline/no change? local extinction local extinction habitat destruction| early 1900's habitat modification| early 1900's killing/habitat destruction? killing/habitat destruction? habitat destruction habitat modificatio predation habitat modification predation adaptation to exotic habitats habitat destruction habitat destruction habitat destruction/ killing killing destruction habitat habitat destruction/ hunting?/epidemic? before 1900 before 1900 'v 1900 'v 1900's onwards 'v 1946 early 1900's early 1900's early 1900's ù 1900-1930 before 1900 before 1900 killing before 1900 hunting? habitat modification| early 1900's killing before 1880 = A Je ee 233 Stones State Faunal Reserve, some 40 km to the west of the Woolsthorpe area (Emison et al., 1977). Brush-tailed Phascogale (Phascogale tapoatafa) Miss C. Lindsay, a long-time resident of Woolsthorpe, described an animal last seen 75 years ago (i.e. ~ 1906) as be- ing the size and colour of a rat and hav- ing a long tail with a black brush on the end. This animal, also described as eating meat, was undoubtedly a Brush- tailed Phascogale. These animals were apparently ‘quite common’ in earlier years according to her uncle. Emison et al. (1976) suggested that this species oc- curred widely in woodlands and open forests on the plains, and subfossils have been found at several localities (Wakefield, 1964). Fat-tailed Dunnart crassicaudata) These small marsupials still occur in open grassy farmland, particularly where there are boulders to provide shelter. On occasions individuals are discovered sheltering under old posts or abandoned farm implements. Several specimens from Woolsthorpe are hous- ed in the National Museum of Victoria (NMV, Nos. C2317 and C2663). (Sminthopsis Eastern Barred Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii) Bandicoots were common before the 1940’s, often occurring in farm gardens where they constructed nests of grass and leaves in small depressions in the ground. Their disappearance from the Woolsthorpe area coincided with a locally severe flood in 1946, which may have contributed to their final extinc- tion. However, other factors, including predation by foxes, cats and farm dogs, and the gradual loss of suitable habitat associated with the increased use of superphosphate and the development of 234 improved pastures, were probably more important factors (see Seebeck, 1979). Closely grazed pastures of ryegrass and clover replaced the last areas of long native grasses, tussocks and bracken in which the bandicoots sheltered and foraged. Brushtail Possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) Brushtail Possums may have increas- ed greatly in number since settlement. Dawson (1881) describes them as un- common before European settlement, when their skins were highly prized by the aboriginals for making fur rugs. To- day they commonly occur around most farm dwellings and gardens, and are often considered pests due to their habits of clambering over roofs, shelter- ing in ceilings and damaging fruit on trees. Brushtails are occasionally seen feeding on grassy roadside verges adja- cent to plantations, and are often killed on roads by passing traffic. Feathertail Glider (Acrobates pygmaeus) and Sugar Glider (Petaurus breviceps) Neither of these species occurs in the Woolsthorpe area today, but it is most likely that both species, certainly at least Sugar Gliders, were originally present. Miss C, Lindsay recalled ‘flying squir- rels’ she saw on the property ‘Kilmorey South’ at Woolsthorpe many years ago, and gave a good description fitting that of a Sugar Glider. Mr H. Quiney, an amateur naturalist from Mortlake wrote, in a letter (November 1910) to the Director of the National Museum of Victoria regarding collection of mar- supials, that “l can get possums (2 kinds), bandicoots, and might by a fluke get some of the pygmy squirrels’’. Both Sugar Gliders and Feathertail Gliders have been described as occurring throughout all native woodland and forest communities in this part of Western Victoria (Emison et al., 1975). Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Ringtail peregrinus) Small numbers of Ringtails have per- sisted in the plantations and gardens sur- rounding some farm dwellings, but such populations are now rare. This species has not adapted well to an environment that has changed dramatically from con- tinuous forest, to small isolated groups of exotic tree species. Ringtails are also present in the remnant natural habitat at ‘Wickham Park’. Possum (Pseudocheirus Eastern Grey giganteus Kangaroos increased rapidly in number shortly after settlement to the point that shooting drives were held to reduce their numbers. Sayers (1972) quotes from the notes of a former resi- dent of ‘Goodwood’ station (15 km north of Woolsthorpe) who describes a kangaroo drive in 1865. “My father decided to try what could be done by yarding them, so he built yards with wings about a mile long . . . When it was decided to have a hunt notice was sent around and sixty to a hundred peo- ple would turn up ... They would spread across a paddock about a hun- dred yards apart and drive the kangaroos into the wings of the yard ... At the first hunt in the Lochaber yard there were 3,700 killed in one day. Later there were three yards on Good- wood, which soon got rid of the pest”. Despite these efforts, kangaroos were common in the Woolsthorpe area into the 1900’s, until by the 1930’s they were reduced to a small population facing complete extinction. These animals were protected by the Douglas family on their property ‘Quamby East’, and today a protected population of several hundred animals shares the open paddocks with sheep and cattle. Kangaroo (Macropus Red-necked Wallaby rufogriseus) A population of Red-necked Wallabies has survived at Wickham (Macropus November/December Park, sheltering in the denser vegetation and feeding in the surrounding grassy woodland and open paddock. However, with the decline in the area of this habitat over the last 50 years, the population is now small, probably numbering less than 30 animals. The long-term survival of this population is doubtful. Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) Koalas were present at the time of set- tlement, but became locally extinct before 1900 (J. Bennett, pers. comm.). Little is known concerning their original occurrence or abundance in this area. Wombat ( Vombatus ursinus) Before settlement Wombats were con- sidered ‘excellent eating’ by the aboriginal tribes of western Victoria (Dawson, 1881). After settlement they were rapidly exterminated as ‘pests’ due to the damage they caused to fences. Skeletal remains of Wombats have been recorded from Mortlake (NMV, C6714) and from Penshurt (NMV, C7477). Water-Rat (Hydromys chrysogaster) Water-rats have always been present in Spring Creek, and on occasions are still seen swimming along the surface on summer evenings (J. Bennett, pers. comm.). Small collections of cracked shells found on rocks along the creek in- dicate where water rats have been feeding on freshwater molluscs. House Mouse (Mus musculus) This species is widespread and com- mon, occurring around and within houses, sheds and haystacks, as well as in open paddocks. There is often a marked increase in the number of mice observed inside houses and sheds at the onset of cold winter weather; apparently resulting from the migration of in- dividuals from open habitats to more sheltered sites. 235 Swamp Rat (Rattus lutreolus) Specimens of Swamp Rats from Mortlake (NMV, C137), and Hawkesdale (NMV, C166), both col- lected before 1910, are held in the Na- tional Museum of Victoria. This species was probably common at the time of set- tlement as swamps, with their surroun- ding habitats of thick grasses and sedges, were widespread. No contem- porary records or observations of the swamp rat within this area are known. Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus) Single occurrence of the Brown Rat is known from a specimen lodged in the National Museum of Victoria (NMV, C7006) in 1966, from a property near Hawkesdale. This species is most com- mon in urban situations, but popula- tions can become established in farming areas (Watts and Aslin, 1981). Black Rat (Rattus rattus) Black Rats are widespread in this area. They occur irregularly around farm dwellings, sheds and fodder stores, occasionally increasing to large numbers while at other times seldom observed, A substantial population exists in the native vegetation at Wickham Park, where 19 captures were recorded from 122 trapnights. No native rodents or dasyurids were trapped. Dingo (Canis familiaris dingo) Before European settlement Dingoes ran wild throughout western Victoria as well as being kept in a semi- domesticated state by aboriginals (Dawson, 1881). They were rapidly ex- terminated by squatters as they were considered a threat to stock. Boldrewood (1884) notes (p.106), ‘* With the help of our kangaroo dogs, and an occasional murder of puppies, we pretty well cleaned them out’’. However, with the demise of their natural predators the kangaroo population greatly increased. Boldrewood (1884) continues: ‘‘Though 236 he killed an occasional calf, the wild hound did good service in keeping down the kangaroo, which after his extinction, proved a much more expensive and for- midable antagonist’’. Fox ( Vulpes vulpes) The introduced Fox is common and widespread throughout the Woolsthorpe area. In open farming country rabbits probably form the main component of their diet, but poultry and new-born lambs are both vulnerable to predation by foxes. Twelve fox scats were collected from Wickham Park in February, 1982, and hair samples were identified in the manner described by Brunner and Com- an (1974). Four scats contained hair from rabbits, two contained hair iden- tified as Black Rat, and samples of Ringtail Possum and Brushtail Possum hair were present in one scat each. Nine of the scats consisted wholly or partly of exoskeletal material from the black cricket ( Teleogryllus commodus). Cat (Felis catus) Many farms possess household cats which live in a free-ranging situation. Feral cats also occur throughout the area, being seen around farm buildings, haystacks and often along roadsides. Brown Hare (Lepus capensis) Sayers (1972) notes that in the late 1800's the boast was made that, ''the country around Woolsthorpe is not to be surpassed in Victoria for hares, snipe, etc.". Hares are common throughout the area today, although usually seen singly on grassy roadsides or in open paddocks. European Rabbit cuniculus) The history of the introduction and rapid spread of the European Rabbit in Australia is well documented by Rolls (1969). In the Woolsthorpe area in the early years of the 1900's, stations (Oryctolagus Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 employed rabbiters with large packs of dogs to keep the rabbit population under control. By the 1940’s, rabbits in- creased to plague proportions and many ‘rabbit drives’ were held to reduce the numbers. On these occasions thousands of rabbits were driven into fenced enclosures and killed. Later, the in- troduction of myxamatosis and the use of 1080 poison (sodium monofluoroacetate) allowed a balance to be achieved, but rabbits remain com- mon throughout this farming communi- ty. Other Species Possibly Present at Settle- ment The early settlement of the western plains of Victoria and the associated widespread changes to the natural habitat may have caused the extinction of a number of species before any for- mal records or collections of specimens were made. For example, the only evidence for the historical occurrence of the Brush-tailed Phascogale in the Woolsthorpe area is the clear recollec- tion and description of an animal last seen 75 years ago, by a resident more than 90 years old. There may well have been a number of other species which disappeared without notice before the time of any contemporary residents. The following species also may have oc- curred in the Woolsthorpe area: Red-Bellied Pademelon billardieri) Red-bellied Pademelons originally oc- curred along the coastal regions of southern Victoria (Calaby, 1971), but the species has not been recorded in the State this century. As Woolsthorpe is less than 20 km from the coast it is quite likely that Red-bellied Pademelons originally occurred in this area, in- habiting dense undergrowth along the creek or around swamps. Mr H. Quiney of Mortlake, in a letter of November 1910 to the Director of the National (Thylogale November/December Museum of Victoria regarding the col- lection of marsupials (as previously quoted), writes, “I am trying to see Mrs Lindsay, Quamby [a property at Woolsthorpe! and see if she or her brother can get some joyes [sic] for the park, also some of the red-bellied wallaby''. This reference to 'red-bellied wallaby’ may refer to Red-bellied Pademelons, but Miss C. Lindsay, daughter of the above Mrs Lindsay, had no recollections of these wallabies being present in the Woolsthorpe area within her memory. Broad-Toothed Rat fuscus) A single specimen of the Broad- toothed Rat, collected 11/4/1919 at Mortlake by Mr H. Quiney, is lodged at the National Museum of Victoria (NMV, C134). Warneke (1960) con- siders that this specimen was collected in the Otways and implies that the species is unlikely to have occurred at Mortlake. However, from correspondence held at the National Museum of Victoria, Quiney appears to be a regular collector, sending a variety of material to the Museum from the Mortlake area over at least 20 years. Broad-toothed Rats have been col- lected from a variety of habitats in southern Victoria (Seebeck, 1971), and are represented as subfossils from several locations on the basalt plains (Mastacomys "(Wakefield, 1964). They may well have inhabited the wet swampland vegetation located throughout much of the Woolsthorpe area. Rabbit-eared Tree-rat albipes) Dawson (1881) lists the names given by the aboriginal tribes of south-western Victoria for ‘rabbit-rat’, implying the presence of this species in western Vic- toria. Watts and Aslin (1981) suggest that Rabbit-eared Tree-rats were distributed widely throughout Victoria (Conilurus 237 at the time of settlement, although live specimens have not been collected from Victoria during this century, The species has also been recorded from subfossil deposits at several sites in western Vic- toria (Wakefield, 1964). Rabbit-eared Tree-rats are thought to have inhabited woodland and open forest habitats (Watts and Aslin, 1981). Pseudomys sp. Wakefield (1974) suggests that four species of Pseudomys recorded as sub- fossils in western Victoria were probably present in parts of western Victoria at the time of settlement. The paucity of the small terrestrial mammal fauna known to have been pre- sent in the Woolsthorpe area at the time of settlement (Table 1) makes it quite likely that at least one or two small mammals were also present, but became locally extinct before any specimens were collected. Changes to the Fauna The mammalian fauna of the Woolsthorpe area has changed dramatically between 1840 and the pre- sent day. Of at least 18 species of native mammals believed to have originally oc- curred in the area (Table 1), at least 10 species have become locally extinct and most of the remaining eight species oc- cur in limited numbers, or in restricted habitats. For example, Eastern Grey Kangaroos and Red-necked Wallabies both survive as remnant populations confined to protected habitats, owing their survival to the goodwill and favourable land management practices of the respective property owners. Elsewhere in the district populations of these species became locally extinct more than 50 years ago (Table 2). Echidnas are very rarely seen, and Ringtail Possums presently survive in limited numbers at a few isolated sites. Only one native species, the Brushtail Possum, can still be considered common in this area. 238 In contrast to the changes that oc- curred to native mammals, introduced mammals have flourished since their in- troduction to this area. Six of the seven recorded species (see Table 1) now have firmly established populations despite persistent attempts to eradicate them by shooting, poisoning or trapping over at least fifty years. Causes of Change There are three factors associated with European settlement which appear responsible for most of the changes to the mammalian fauna of the Woolsthorpe area: direct killing by humans, habitat modification or destruction, and the impact of introduc- ed mammals on the native fauna (see Table 2). Shooting, trapping, poisoning and other forms of direct destruction were vigorously carried out by the early set- tlers against those species considered *pests', posing a threat to livestock or to agricultural practices. Dingoes occa- sionally killed stock and consequently were rapidly eliminated. Quolls were also considered a menace so they too were shot, apparently in large numbers in some localities in western Victoria. Rolls (1971), p.26) quotes a sporting magazine of 1867 which lists '*... native cats, 622; ..." as part of the previous years shooting tally for a single property, ‘Barwon Park’, in western Victoria. Wombats caused damage to fences, and the greatly increased numbers of Grey Kangaroos grazed pastures reserv- ed for the settlers’ sheep and cattle. Both of these species were also destroyed. The natural forest habitat was pro- gressively cleared from the time of set- tlement, but the greatest changes toox place in the late 1800's and early 1900's when ring-barking, burning and clearing removed large belts of forest. These changes meant a direct loss of habitat for the arboreal gliders, possums and Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Koala, and severe modification of the terrestrial habitat for ground dwelling mammals such as the Eastern Barred Bandicoot, Red-necked Wallaby and Echidna. Draining and ploughing swamps, erosion of the creek and the loss of riparian vegetation severely modified these habitats for species such as Swamp Rat, Platypus and Water-rat. Undoubtedly, habitat modification and destruction has been the most important factor causing the decline and extinction of native mammals in the Woolsthorpe area. Indeed, when one considers that the original habitat has been transform- ed from forest to open pasture land, and from native vegetation to introduced pasture grasses and trees, together with the invasion and spread of introduced mammals and the introduction of huge numbers of domestic stock, it is surpris- ing that any native mammals remain at all! It is difficult to evaluate the impact of introduced species on the native fauna. Both Foxes and Cats are known to prey on native fauna (Brunner et al., 1981) and have probably had some impact on the terrestrial small mammals, par- ticularly the Eastern Barred Bandicoot (Seebeck, 1979). Heavy grazing by rab- bits and domestic stock may have reduc- ed the ground cover for small terrestrial species such as the Fat-tailed Dunnart, and Seebeck (1979) has suggested that compaction of the soil by stock may have reduced the availability of soil arthropods for bandicoots. There are also suggestions of widespread epidemics decimating populations of Koalas (Frith, 1973) and Eastern Quolls (Fleay, 1932) in eastern Australia around the turn of the cen- tury, and both Koalas and Water-rats were hunted and slaughtered for their fur in the early 20th Century (Frith, 1973). Implications Calaby (1966), after recording 45 native and seven introduced species of November/December mammal from a region on northern New South Wales, concluded that despite 120 years of European occupation the area retained an abundant and diversified mammal fauna. He attributed the sur- vival of such great diversity to the large amount of natural habitat preserved on mountain ranges and in State Forests within the area, and considered that the mammal fauna should retain its present diversity provided there were no impor- tant changes in land management prac- tices. By contrast, after 140 years of European occupation and intensive land use in the Woolsthorpe area, few original native mammal species remain. Only a single species, the Brushtail Possum, remains widespread and com- mon throughout the area. Clearly, few native mammals can per- sist in the face of sustained and intensive agricultural practices involving the loss or modification of the original natural habitat. If wildlife conservation and agriculture are to successfully co-exist in the same region, it is essential that substantial areas of natural habitat be reserved and maintained as reservoirs for faunal populations. These natural reserves must be complemented by plan- ned and ecologically sound farm- management practices within the agricultural community. Acknowledgements I particularly wish to thank Mr J. Bennett, Mr F. Bennett, Miss L. Bennett and Miss C. Lindsay of Woolsthorpe for their important contributions of historical information about the Woolsthorpe area; without their interest and assistance this paper could not have been written. I also thank Miss J. Dixon for helpful assistance in obtaining information from the records of the National Museum of Victoria. Dr M. J. Littlejohn kindly read and commented on the paper. REFERENCES Boldrewood, R. (1884). Old Melbourne Memories. (Macmillan & Co., London). 239 Bonwick, J, (1858), Western Victoria: Its Geography, Geology and Social Condition, (Thomas Brown: Geelong), Brunner, H., and Coman, B, J. (1974). The Iden- tification of Mammalian Hair, Inkata Press, Melbourne, Brunner, H., Stevens, P. I (1981), Introduced Victorian Nat, 98:5-17. Calaby, J. H., (1966). Mammals of the upper Rich- mond and Clarence Rivers, New South Wales, Div. of Wildl, Res. Tech, Paper No. 10, CSIRO, Aust. Calaby, J. H. (1971). The current status of Australian macropodidae, Aust, Zool. 16:17-29, Dawson, J. (1881). Australian Aborigines: The Languages and Customs of Several Tribes of Aborigines in the Western District of Victoria, Australia, (George Robertson: Melbourne), Emison, W. B., Porter, J. W., Norris, K, C., and Apps, G. J. (1975), Ecological distribution of the vertebrate animals of the volcanic plains — Ot- way range area of Victoria. Fisheries and Wildl, Pap., Vic. No. 6. Emison, W., B., Porter, J. W., Norris, K. C., and Apps, G. J, (1977), Survey of the vertebrate fauna in the Grampians-Edenhope area of south- western Victoria, Mem, Nat, Mus. Vic. 19:281-363. Frith, H. J, (1973). Wildlife Conservation, (Angus and Robertson Publishers Australia), Marlow, B. J. (1958). A survey of the marsupials of New South Wales, CSIRO Wildl. Res. 3:71-114. , and Backholer, J. R, mammals in Victoria, Peel, L. J. (1974), The first hundred years of agricultural development in Western Victoria, In: The Natural History of Western Victoria, eds, M. H. Douglas and L. O'Brien. (Aust. Inst. Agric. Sci.). Rolls, E. C. (1969). They All Ran Wild. (Angus and Robertson Publishers, Australia). Sayers, C. E. (1972), Of Many Things: A History of the Warrnambool Shire, (Griffin Press: Adelaide.) Seebeck, J. H. (1971), Distribution and habitat of the broad-toothed rat, Mastacomys fuscus Thomas (Rodentia, Muridae) in Victoria, Victorian Nat, 88:310-323, Seebeck, J. H. (1979), Status of the barred ban- dicoot, Perameles gunnii, in Victoria, with a note on husbandry of a captive colony, Aust. Wildl. Res, 6:255-264, Wakefield, N. A. (1964). Recent mammalian sub- fossils of the basalt plains of Victoria. Proc. Roy. Soe, Vic. 77:419-425, Wakefield, N. A. (1974). Mammals of Western Vic- toria, In: The Natural History of Western Victoria, eds. M. H. Douglas and L. O'Brien. (Aust, Inst, Agric. Sci.). Warneke, R, M. (1960). Re-discovery of the broad- toothed rat in Gippsland, Victorian Nat. 77:195-196. Watts, C. H, S., and Aslin, H. J. (1981). The Rodents of Australia, Publishers, Australia.) (Angus and Robertson A Review of Larval Host Records for Australian Jewel Beetles (Coleoptera: Buprestidae). By T. J. HAWKESWOOD* AND MAGNUS PETERSON + Abstract Larval food plant records for 37 Species in 15 genera of Australian Buprestidae are summarized from the literature and previously unpublished in- formation. Observations on ovipositing females of 2 species in 2 genera are also recorded. Photographs of the adults of Araucariana queenslandica Levey, Pseudotaenia waterhousei (Van de Poll, Stigmodera (Stigmodera) goryi Laporte & Gory, 5. (S.) roei Saunders, Stigmodera (Themognatha) heros * 49 Venner Road, Annerley, Brisbane, Qld., 4103 + 69 Alvah Street, 5t James, Perth, W.A., 6102. 240 Gehin, S. (T.) imperialis Carter and S. (1.) martini Saunders, and larvae of P. waterhousei and S. (T.) heros, are pro- vided. Although much information is yet to be gained on larval hosts, some trends are apparent, Most buprestid genera breed in one or two plant genera. A majority of the plant species utilized are primitive members of the Australian flora (as presently recognized by botanists) having undergone speciation from Gondwanaland before or shortly after the breakup of the continents, Introduction Very little information is available on Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 the larval food plants of Australian Buprestidae, Froggatt (1892) first recorded the unusual behaviour ol Ethon and Cissets larvae which breed in galls of Dullwynta and Pulteniteca (Fabaceae) in the Sydney area, Froggatt (18931, 1894, 1895) furthered work on the life-histories of some Australian Coleoptera and mentioned their food plants, including records for some Buprestidae, but unfortunately, did not continue work on larval buprestid biology Little attention was paid to breeding biology of jewel beetles until. MeMillan (195042, b, 1951, 1952) recorded observa Hons on several Western Australian Buprestidae, Both Progpatts and MeMillan's work however, is of limited value to present-day studies on larval taxonomy and morphology. Hadlington and Gardner (1959) pro vided the only extensive work on the biology of an Australian buprestid when they examined. Diadoxus ervthrurus (White) in western New South Wales However, the eggs, larva and pupae of this species, remain to be deseribed in detail, Levey (19788) has provided the only detailed deseription of an Australian buprestid larva and provided brief notes on the biology of Prospheres aurantiopicta (Laporte & Gory), The present paper summarizes all the published information on larval food plants of Australian Buprestidae and adds a number of previously unpublish ed records, It is hoped that this work will be a basis for further work since so little is known about buprestid biology, Some information has been taken from specimens in the following institu tions: Queensland Museum (QM); Queensland Dept, of Forestry (ODE); Queensland Dept, of Primary Industries (QDPI); Australian Museum (AM); South Australian Museum (SAM); and the Western Australian Museum (WAM), Other unpublished data from November/Decembor the authors" personal observations and those of Mr M. Powell and Mr M. De Baar are ineluded, The remaining records are taken from the seant and scattered literature and. from H. W Brown's private diary. The distribution on A state basis, follows ench species name im parentheses, Species and genera are arranged according to the most re cent nomenclature Larval food plants. are recognized as those from whieh larvale) ands ot pupace) have been extracted. or plants from which adulta) lass have emerged or been collected List of species nnd larval Food plants Sub family Polycestinae, Tribe Polyetesmi |, Prospheres aurantiopieta. (Laporte & Gory) (O, NSW, SA, NI) (19784) records \rauearia cunmnineliamir Don (Araucariaceae) as a larval Food plant from Imbil, southeast: Queensland) larvae and adults were collected trom log billets on 14 April 1972 by R. A. Yule) Another record is Pinus patula Sehlet & Cham, (Pinaceae) adults were collected at Glastonbury, Queensland. on 24. Nov, 1967, by IN, W Sheather (Levey, 19782). Levey (1978n, pp 122-725) has described the larva of P aurantiopieta in detail Sub Family € haleophorinae, Tribo b pistomentint 2o Araucarana queenslandica Levey (0) (Vig. 1) Levey (1978b) records single Females from Araucaria cunnmineliani Don. from hinmys Serb, south east Queensland on J30 Dec. 1971 and mbil State Forest, south-east Queensland on 21 Dee, 1971, both records collected by R. A. Yule V. Diadosus eryihrurus (White) (Australia wide), Hadlington. and Gardner (1959) recorded Callitris huegelii (Cari) Franco and C, endlleheri (Purl) I M Wil (Cupressaceae) As the main larval hosts French (1911). and Peseott (1912). have recorded the introduced. (ee C upressis macrocarpa VAT lambertiana Gordon (C upressaceae) as n host in the Melbourne aron, French (1911) also believed that Acacia aneura P. Muell. (Mimosaeeae) was A host plant since he collected. specimens. From an aren where no specles ol Callitris ot Cupressus occurred, There since have been Levey 241 no verifications of French's record; it is possible that the specimens emerged from processed timber or bred in Pinus or other conifers in the area where French collected. Recently, M. De Baar, M. Hockey and R. A. Yule have collected larvae and adults from Callitris columellaris F. Muell. in the Dun- more State Forest, south-east Queensland in March 1981. 4, Diadoxus scalaris (Laporte & Gory) (NSW, V, SA, WA). Hadlington and Gard- ner (1959) recorded Callitris huegelii (Carr.) Franco and C. endlicheri (Parl.) F. M. Bail, (Cupressaceae) as the main larval hosts. Sub-family Chalcophorinae, Tribe Chalcophorini. 5. Pseudotaenia waterhousei (Van de Poll) (NSW, Q.). (Fig. 2). Mr M. De Baar is presently investigating some aspects of the biology of the species which breeds in living stems of Acacia leiocalyx (Domin) Pedley (Mimosaceae) in central south-east Queensland. 6. Pseudotaenia spilota Carter (WA). Breeds in Acacia grasbyi Maiden (Mimosaceae) on Yarlarweelor Station, north-west of Meekatharra, Western Australia (M. Powell, 1981, pers. comm.). Sub-family Chalcophorinae, Tribe Julodimorphini. 7, Julodimorpha bakewelli (White) (WA, SA, V). Carter (1929) recorded the species as breeding in roots and trunks of mallee trees (Eucalyptus sp.) in inland Australia. Data on one female in the WAM, collected by A. M. Douglas on 3 Sept. 1978, 12 km E of Greenhead, W.A., records the beetle ovipositing 2.5 cm below the ground in damp sand near the base of an unidentified Calothamnus plant (Myrtaceae). Sub-family Chrysobothrinae, Chrysobothrini. 8. Chrysobothris sp. (Q). One of us (T.J.H.) found larvae, pupae and adults of an undescribed Chrysobothris sp. breeding in the dead stems of Acacia bidwillii Benth. (Mimosaceae) on 5 Dec, 1981, at Townsville, north Queensland. A paper describing the species biology in detail will be published separately. 9. Merimna atrata (Hope) (Australia wide). One of us (M.P.) observed adults laying eggs into smouldering bark at the base of a Eucalyptus (Cormybia) calophylla R.Br. ex Lindl. (Myrtaceae) at Cannington, Perth, M. atrata is commonly known as the fire-beetle Tribe 242 because of its habit of flying into camp fires, bush fires and to bright lights (Poulton, 1915). Fires appear to be an important part of its biology. As the species is widespread, it probably breeds in numerous native plants throughout Australia. Sub-family Buprestinae, Tribe Agrilini. 10, Ethon affine Laporte & Gory (Q, NSW, V) Froggatt (1892) recorded this species breeding in galls on the stems of Pultenaea stipularis Sm. (Fabaceae) in May 1891 in the Sydney area. Frogatt noted "The galls containing the perfect insect, which were in the majority, were more soft and spongy than those containing the larvae; as the beetles do not emerge until the early summer months they must stay à considerable time in these galls after having undergone their metamorphoses". Ethon affine adults are present in Sept, — Oct., in the Sydney district on Pultenaea and flowering Jacksonia scoparia R.Br. (Fabaceae). 11, Ethon corpulentum Boheman (NSW, V, SA). Froggatt (1892) recorded this species breeding in galls in the roots of Dillwynia retorta (Wendl.) Druce (as D, ericifolia Sm.) (Fabaceae) in the Sydney area. Nothing fur- ther has been recorded on its biology. 12. Cisseis acuducta (Kirby) (Q, NSW, V, SA). Froggatt (1892) recorded this species breeding in galls in the roots of Dillwynia retorta (as D. ericifolia) in the Sydney area, Hawkeswood (1978) and M. Peterson (pers. obs.) have found adults on non-flowering and flowering Jacksonia scoparia in the Lapstone Hill area of the lower Blue Moun- tains from late Sept, — Dec. 13. Cisseis maculata Laporte & Gory (NSW, V, Tas, SA). Froggatt (1895) recorded this species breeding in dead branches of Acacia longifolia (Andrews) Willd, (Mimosaceae) at Rose Bay, Sydney and noted adults feeding on leaves of the plant. 14. Cisseis semiscabrosa Laporte & Gory? (C. scabrosula Kerremans?) (NSW, V). Frog- gatt (1895) recorded this species breeding in Acacia longifolia at Rose Bay, Sydney. Carter (1929) does not list C. semiscabrosa neither as a valid species nor a synonym. We suspect Froggatt may have found C. seabrosula Kerremans, which is found in coastal N.S.W. (Hawkeswood, 1981a) and Victoria. 15, Paracephala cyaneipennis Blackburn (NSW). Froggatt (1894) recorded this species breeding in small, rounded galls on the bran- Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 ches of Casuarina distyla Vent. (Casuarinaceae) at Rose Bay in Sydney, The beetle is rare in museum collections and little is known of its biology. Hawkeswood (1978) found an adult on C. torulosa Ait. in the Blue Mountains. 16, Agrilus mastersi Macleay (Q). Specimens have emerged from log billets of Acacia leiocalyx (Domin) Pedley (Mimosaceae) which were collected from the Dunmore State Forest, central south-eastern Queensland in Nov. 1980 by M, De Baar. Sub-lamily Buprestinae, Tribe Buprestini, 17. Nascio simillima Van de Poll (Q). One of us (TJ. H.) found a dead adult under the bark of the Grey Ironbark Eucalyptus (Sym- phyomyrtus) drepanophylla F. Muell, ex Benth. (Myrtaceae) on 10 April 1981 at Townsville, north Queensland, This species has been rarely recorded, 18. Nascio vetusta (Boisduval) (NSW, V), Ihe following larval host records are known for this species from adult specimens lodged in the N.S,W, Forestry Commission Collec tion, Sydney: Berowra, Sydney, 1 Dee. 1970, J. English; Middle Cove, Sydney, 28 May 1973, G. Dougherty (adult emerged 26 Oct, 1973); Pymble, Sydney, 4 Nov, 1964, K. G, Campbell (in main trunk), (All the above specimens in Eucalyptus (Monocalyptus) haemastoma Sm,); Lisarow, N.S.W., 21 Aug. 1954, K. M. Moore (in old fallen branch of Eucalyptus (Symphyomyrtus) saligna Sm. ; Beecroft, Sydney, 22 Nov, 1981, E. E. Taylor, in Eucalyptus (Symphyomyrtus) sp. (Ironbark); Willoughby, Sydney, 17 Oct. 1980, E, E, Taylor (heavy infestation), in Metrosideros sp. All food plants are from the family Myrtaceae, 19. Melobasis cupriceps (Kirby) (NSW, Q, V, Tas). Froggatt (1895) recorded this species (as M. iridescens Laporte & Gory) breeding in branches of Acacia longifolia (Mimosaceae) at Rose Bay, Sydney and noted adults fed on Viminaria denudata Sm, (now known as V. juncea (Schrad. Hoff,) (Fabaceae), 20. Melobasis purpurascens (Fabricius) (Australia wide), Froggatt (1895) also record ed this species (as M. splendida (Donovan)) breeding in Acacia longifolia at Rose Bay, Sydney. Fricke (1964) records adults emery ing from an unknown fruit tree at Ashfield, Sydney. 21. Melobasis sexplagiata Laporte & Gory (SA, WA, V). McMillan (1950 a, b) recorded notes on the general biology of this rare November/December species Which breeds in trunks of Eucalvptus (Svmphyvomyrtus) rudis Endl. in southewest Western Australia, 22, Anilara sp, (near A. obscura (Macleay) (NSW), An unidentified Anthira species has been recorded breeding in, and causing exten sive damage to, Plindersia maculosa (Lindl) Benth, (Rutaceac) on 23 March 1966, at Moree, N.S.W. by K., M. Moore (NSW Forestry Commission). Sub-family Buprestinae, Tribe Acherusini, 23. Astraeus irregularis Van de Poll (WA, SA, V, Q) Goudie (1920) records this taxon breeding in the branches of Casuarina levimanniana R, T, Baker (as C, lewhmanni) at Birchip, Victoria, Like most species of Astraeus it is found, as adults, on the leaves and branches of Casuarina species (Peterson, unpub, data). 24, Astraeus prothoracicus Van de Poll (WA, NSW, Q). Females of this species have been observed ovipositing on the cones of Banksia prionotes Lindl, (Proteaceae) at Jurien Bay, W.A. (M. Powell, pers, comm.) in November. Adults are usually recorded oc curring on this plant (W.A. only). Sub-family Stigmoderinae, 5Stigmoderini. 25, Curis intercribrata Fairmaire (W.A.). MeMillan (1951) provided brief notes on the species breeding in Casuarina glauca Sieb, ex Spreng. (Casuarinaceae) in Western Australia. 26. Stigmodera (Stigmodera) cancellata (Donovan) (W.A.). Whitlock (1947) recorded the species breeding in Agonis flexuosa (Spreng.) Schau. (Myrtaceae), while McMillan (1952) recorded “Peppermints” (Agonis) as host. 27, Stigmodera (Stigmodera) gory! Laporte & Gory (NSW, Q). (Fig. 4). (a) On 3 Feb, 1981, Mrs N. Gawthorne of Toongabbie, Sydney, N.S.W, found an adult female which had died after attempting to emerge head first from the trunk of a Eucalyptus (Sym phyomyrtus) tereticornis Sm. (Myrtaceae) after being trapped in small square mesh chicken wire which was tightly wrapped around the base of the tree, (The specimen was later lodged in the AM). One of us (M.P.) visited Toongabbie and examined the tree and emergence holes. The most recent hole, about Im above ground level, measured 1.5 em wide, 1.25 em high and at least 7,0 em deep. Other emergence holes ranged from 1-6 m above ground level on the main trunk Tribe 243 only. Despite the number of bore holes the tree was alive and healthy. (b) Two adults which emerged from Eucalyptus (Sym- phyomyrtus) amplifolia Naud, in Feb. 1969, at Stanthorpe, south-east Queensland, were collected by Mrs J. Harslett and are housed in her collection. (c) One female emerged from an unknown Eucalyptus sp. on 16 Dec, 1929 and was collected by H. Hacker at Kinkin, Queensland and is housed in the QM. (d) One male cut from an unknown Eucalyptus sp. on 19 Dec. 1963 at Fletcher, south Queensland is in the E. Sutton collection of the QM. (e) H. W. Brown recorded specimens cut from ‘‘liv- ing grey gums", (Eucalyptus sp.), on 12 Dec. 1912 at One Tree Hill (now Mt Coot-tha), Brisbane, south-east Queensland. 28. Stigmodera (Stigmodera) gratiosa Chevrolat (WA). McMillan (1952) recorded Melaleuca and Leptospermum (both Myr- taceae) as ‘‘breeding plants’’ for this Western Australian species. 29. Stigmodera (Stigmodera) roei Saunders (WA). (Fig. 5). McMillan (1952) noted that in coastal areas of south-west Western Australia the species breeds in Agonis flexuosa (Spreng.) Schau. (Myrtaceae). 30. Stigmodera ( Themognatha) excisicollis Macleay (NSW, Q). An adult female from Sunnybank (Brisbane), Queensland, was “chopped out of dead grey gum" (Eucalyptus Symphyomyrtus) propinqua Deane et Maiden (Myrtaceae) and is housed at QDPI. 31. Stigmodera ( Themognatha) flavocincta Laporte & Gory (SA, WA, V). Goudie (1923) recorded the species breeding in Eucalyptus (Svmphyomyrtus) leucoxylon F. Muell. in north-western Victoria. 32. Stigmodera (Themognatha) heros Gehin (NSW, V, SA, WA). (Fig. 6). A specimen in SAM collection, collected on 28 June 1895, by A. B. Barrand, emerged from the trunk of an unidentified mallee, Eucalyptus sp., at Streaky Bay, South Australia. 33. Stigmodera (Themognatha) imperialis Carter (WA). (Fig. 7). On 25 Jan. 1938, H. W. Brown cut adults of this species from Eucalyptus (Symphyomyrtus) striaticalyx W. V. Fitz. at Milly Soak (Lake Austin-Cue district), Western Australia. 34. Stigmodera (Themognatha) martini Saunders (WA). (Fig. 8). One collection in the WAM, collected on 18 Jan. 1958 by R. P. MeMillan records a male cut from a root of 244 Fig. 1. Araucariana queenslandica Levey. Bar in- dicates 10 mm. (Photograph by M. Peterson). Fig. 2. Pseudotaenia waterhousei (Van de Poll). Bar indicates 20 mm. (Photograph by M. Peterson). Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 larva of Pseudotaenia instar waterhousei (Van de Poll). Bar indicates 30 mm. (Photograph by M. Peterson). Fig... 32 “Last Casuarina corniculata F. Muell. (Casuarinaceae). 35. Stigmodera (Themognatha) similis Saunders (NSW, Q). H. W. Brown recorded this species breeding in Casuarina sp, at Gladstone, Queensland. 36. Stigmodera (Themognatha) suturalis (Donovan) (NSW). K. M. Moore collected larvae on 12 Jan. 1965, from Casuarina torulosa Ait. at Lisarow (near Gosford), N.S.W. 37. Stigmodera (Castiarina) rufipennis (Kirby) (NSW, V, SA, WA). Froggatt (1893) recorded Acacia brownii (Poir.) Steud (Mimosaceae) (as Acacia juniperina Willd.), as a larval host from the Bendigo district, Victoria. Froggatt (1893) noted the larva fed on the stems of the Acacia hollowing out the majority of wood from the stems. November/December Fig. 4. Stigmodera (Stigmodera) goryi Laporte & Gory. Bar indicates 20 mm. (Photograph by M. Peterson). Fig. 5. Stigmodera (Stigmodera) roei Saunders, Bar indicates 20 mm. (Photograph by M. Peterson). 245 Fig. 6. Adult and last instar larva of Stigmodera (Themognatha) heros Gehin. Bar indicates 40 mm, (Photograph by M. Peterson). 38. Stigmodera (Castiarina) verdiceps Barker (WA). H. W. Brown bred a male bee- tle from an unidentified Acacia sp. on 23 Dec. 1946, from Port Samson, north-west Western Australia (Barker, 1979). 39. Stigmodera (Castiarina) producta Saunders (NSW, Q). A specimen in the NSW Dept. of Forestry Collection collected at Lisarow, near Gosford, N.S.W., on 13 Aug. 1954 by K. M. Moore, records “M. eucalyptifolia'' as a larval host, We consider “M. eucalyptifolia" to be Muellerina eucalyptifolia, which is a synonym for the mistletoe Muellerina eucalyptoides (DC.) Barlow (Loranthaceae) (Barlow, 1966; Barlow and Weins, 1973). Discussion Of a total of about 800 species of Buprestidae recorded from Australia, only 37 (or c. 5%) of this total have food plants listed for them. The lack of knowledge of larval biology is further exemplified in the fact that the larva of 246 Fig. 7. Stigmodera imperialis ( Themognatha) Carter. Holotype, National Museum of Victoria (NMV). Bar indicates 15 mm. (Photograph by M. Peterson). only one species, Prospheres aurantiopicta Laporte & Gory, has been described in detail (Levey, 1978a). Although the larval food plant data listed in the present paper is somewhat scanty and many of the records need further verification (i.e. some of the earlier records may have listed misiden- tified plant species) and relatively few host records have been made, some trends seem apparent and worthy of comment. Levey (1978a) noted that the sub- family Polycestinae (Tribe Polyctesini) to which Prospheres belongs, appeared to be a relict group of the Buprestidae although some genera such as Sponsor (non-Australian) appeared to have undergone a period of recent speciation. Levey (1978a) also noted that the distribution, host associations and distinctiveness of the Prospheres species Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 suggests that the genus is an archaic one, which originated in the, middle Cretaceous (c. 100 million years B.P.) or earlier. The association between the pine Araucaria (Araucariaceae) and Prospheres is probably therefore an an- cient one, and the general association between conifers and other Polyctesini similarly may be ancient (Levey, 1978a). Levey (1978b) erected a new tribe Epistomentini but did not state the sub- family to which it belonged. The present authors have assumed that it belongs to the sub-family Chalcophorinae. The new tribe now contains Epistomentis Solier (non-Australian), Cyria Solier (Australian), Diadoxus Thomson (Australian), Cyrioxus Hoschek (non- Australian) and the new genus Araucariana (Australian). As with Prospheres and the other Polyctesini, the members of the Epistomentini, especially Araucariana, Diadoxus and Cyria breed in softwood timbers, usual- ly conifers (Pinaceae and Araucariaceae). Levey (1978b) noting the relict distribution of the Epistomentini (i.e. Epistomentis in Chile and Argentina, Cyrioxus in New Caledonia and Diadoxus and Araucariana in Australia), suggested that, as with the Fig. 8. Two adults of Stigmodera (Themognatha) martini Saunders. Bar indicates 20 mm. (Photograph by M, Peterson). November/December Polyctesini, the group originated in the southern hemisphere and their present distribution is the result of the breakup of Gondwanaland. Like Prospheres aurantiopicta Laporte & Gory, Araucariana queenslandica Levey is known to breed in Araucaria cunninghamii G. Don and is probably also a primitive buprestid. Diadoxus species are definitely known to breed in softwood conifers (i.e. Callitris and Cupressus, both Cupressaceae, and may also breed in introduced Pinus, Pinaceae). Likewise, Diadoxus must be considered archaic members of the Buprestidae although evolved more recently than Prospheres and Araucariana since the distribution of the Australian genus Callitris tends to be in the arid and semi-arid areas of Australia and these plants presumably evolved during the drying of the central Australian land mass around 40 million years B.P., well after the breakup of Gondwanaland. Cyria has been sug- gested to breed in Banksia (Proteaceae) although the authors have been unable to obtain any published records or museum specimens bred from Banksia species. Cyria imperialis (Fabricius) however, is known to feed on Banksia spinulosa Sm. leaves in the Blue Moun- tains, N.S.W. (Hawkeswood, 1978) and do not visit flowers for food (Hawkeswood and Peterson, unpub. data). Levey (1978b) noted the plant taxa associated with these three genera, 1.e. Araucaria (Araucariana), Callitris (and Cupressus) (Diadoxus) and Banksia (Cyria), probably originated in the southern hemisphere and suggests an evolution from Gondwanaland. However, we feel that Diadoxus may have evolved during the time when Central Australia was drying out after the Gondwanaland breakup. The utilization of Callitris and Cupressus is unlikely to be a recent event in the evolution of Diadoxus. On the basis of 247 the host plant association, Cyria would not appear to be as old as Diadoxus, since Banksia is one of the most recent groups evolved in the Proteaceae (Johnson and Briggs, 1963, 1975). The earliest. fossils of Banksia-like plants have been found in rocks dating back to the early Tertiary (Oligocene), c. 35 million years B.P. (Cookson and Duigan, 1950), compared to c. 100 million years B.P, when Prospheres and Araucaniana probably began evolving from buprestid ancestors, and at least 40-50 million years B.P. for Diadoxus. However, on the basis of Cyria’s similarity to the South American genus Epistomentis, both these genera probably originated in Gondwanaland and therefore Cyria would be of similar age as Prospheres and Araucariana and older than Diadoxus. It is possible that Cyvria originally bred in a more primitive Proteaceous genus than Banksia, but changed to Banksia as the southern areas of Australia dried out. The majority of Australian Buprestidae with known larval hosts, breed in hardwoods, i.e. Acacia (Mimosaceae) and Eucalyptus (Myr- taceae), The apparent close association between many genera of Buprestidae and Acacia (i.e, Melobasis, Chrysobothris, Pseudotaenia, Agrilus, Cisseis) as well as Eucalyptus (i.e. Merimna, Julodimorpha, Nascio, Melobasis, Sugmodera (Themognatha)) suggests a long period of co-evolution, since Australian Acacia appears to have speciated at about the same time as the Eucalyptus in the late Cretaceous, about 80-90 million years B.P. (L. Pedley, 1982, pers. comm.). The genus Pseudotaenia appears to have a strong relationship with Acacia — the larvae breed and feed in the wood and adults probably feed on the leaves. Pseudotaenia waterhousei (Van de Poll) breeds in Acacia leiocalyx (Domin) Pedley (a member of the Juliflorae, a 248 sub-group of Acacia considered to be primitive and originating in northern Australia; L, Pedley, 1982, pers. comm.). The association with primitive Acacias of northern Australia may ex- plain the northern distribution of Pseudotaenia and other members of the sub-family Chalcophorinae in Australia. Chrysobothris, Agrilus and Cisseis also appear to have a strong association with Acacia, with the larvae breeding in the stems and adults usually feeding on the leaves only. Some members of Cisseis (i.e. C. acuducta (Kirby)) and Ethon (i.e. E. affine Laporte & Gory and E. corpulentum Boheman) (con- sidered by some to be a sub-genus of Cisseis), have diverged to breed in members of the Fabaceae. These taxa have been recorded to produce galls, in which the larvae feed and grow, on their food plants, an unusual habit for beetles. This specialization probably in- dicates a much more recent evolution than the other related species of Cisseis and Melobasis, which breed in Acacia and do not produce galls as far as we are aware, Two species of Stigmodera (Castiarina) breed in Acacia (i.e. S. verdiceps Barker and S. rufipennis (Kir- by)). Since this sub-genus is the largest of Stigmodera with over 300 species (many of which are widespread and oc- cur in a number of habitats), numerous food plants from a range of families are probably utilized, Some Castiarina species may utilize only one food plant while others may breed in one species with adults feeding on two or more. For instance, adults of Stigmodera (Casuarina) scalaris (Boisduval) are known to have an association with Cassinia uncata A. Cunn., ex DC. (Asteraceae) flowers, but also may visit flowers of Angophora bakeri C. Hall and Leptospermum flavescens Sm. (both Myrtaceae) in one area of the lower Blue Mountains, N.S.W. (Hawkeswood, 1978, pp. 260-261). Whether or not this beetle breeds in all Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 these food plants, two or one only, re: mains to be determined. Many buprestids have been recorded breeding in Eucalyptus, one of the largest genera in Australia with over 600 species. Johnson (1972) divided the genus into $8 subegenera, with Monoealyptus and Symphyomyrtus the largest, with 91 and 285 species, respec- tively (from a total of 443 species he ex amined). Corymbia is next with 33 species (Johnson, 1972). It is therefore interesting to note that a majority of Australian Buprestidae which breed in Eucalyptus, (i.e. Julodimorpha, Merim na, Nascio and Stigmodera) breed in Svmphyomyrtus | species Nüscio simillima Van de Poll (BH. drepanophylla); N. vetusta (Boisduval) (E. saligna); Stigmodera (S.) goryi Laporte & Gory (E. amplifolia, E, tereticornis); S. (T.) excisicollis Macleay (E. propinqua) S. (T. flavocincta Laporte & Gory (E, leucoxylon); S. (T.) imperialis Carter. (E, striaticalyx) and Melobasis sexplagiata Laporte & Gory (E. rudis). Only one record, that of N. vetusta breeding in E. haemastoma, is known for Monocalvptus, while M. atrata was observed laying in the bark of E. calophylla, a Corymbia species. The remaining records are of unidentified Eucalyptus species, Johnson (1972) suggested a polyphyletic evolution for Eucalyptus. There can be little doubt that Eucalyptus is of ancient Australian origin and although the fossil record does not show the appearance of. Eucalyptus until the mid-Tertiary (Oligocene) (e. 30-35 million years B.P.), the genus was pro- bably well advanced by the late Cretaceous (c. 80 million years B.P.). Therefore, the association between the species of Nascio, Stigmodera, Julodimorpha, Merimna and Melobasis and Eucalyptus appears to be an ancient one and probably co-evolutionary. Symphyomyrtus has radiated more widely than the other groups of November/December LE ucalvptus and therefore the probability of buprestids breeding in Symphyomyvrtus species is greater than in other sub-genera which have fewer species. The record of Stigmodera (Castiarina) producta Saunders breeding in Muellerina eucalyptoides (DC.) Barlow (Loranthaceae) is of much interest, We are unaware of any published reports of beetles breeding in Australian mistletoes or any overseas species of Loranthaceae or Viscaceae, (Several Buprestidae are known to visit flowers of Nuvisia fforigunds CLEIT I- RBIS (Hawkeswood, 19815), à Western Australian relict penus of the Loran thaceae, but itis not known whether any of these breed in the mistletoe), Barlow (1966) noted that Muellerina is a primitive genus and suggested that the early development and diversification of the Loranthaceae occurred in the late Mesozoic (e, 65-70 million years B.P.) when the geography and climate allowed more extensive distribution across the southern land masses (Barlow, 1963), Ihe association between S. (C) producta is possibly an ancient one (unless the record is erroneous, or the larva tunnelled into the mistletoe from the eucalypt on which the mistletoe was parasitic). Whatever is the case, further research is needed before a better understanding of the beetle/mistletoe relationship is gained, The genus Casuarina (Casuarinaceae) contains about 70 species, distributed in Madagascar, Malaysia, Polynesia and Australia (which has 30 species). The present disjunct distribution of Casuarina can be partly explained by the break up of Gondwanaland where the genus probably originated c. 100 million years B.P. Further speciation of Casuarina occurred during the drying of the Australian land mass in the mid- Tertiary, probably at about the same time as Eucalyptus and Acacia were radiating, c. 30-35 million years B.P. 249 Casuarina species are important hosts to a number of Australian Buprestidae — Paracephala cyaneipennis Blackburn (Casuarina distyla); Astraeus irregularis Van de Poll (€. Jeulhimanniana); Curis intereribrata Fairmaire (C. glauca); Stigmodera (Themognatha) suturalis (Donovan) (C. torulosa); S. (T.) martini Saunders (C. corniculata) and S. (T.) similis Saunders (Casuarina sp.). None of these buprestids are known to breed in any other plants, Astraeus is regarded as a primitive genus of the Polycestinae (Levey, 19782) (although is probably not as ancient as Prospheres and Araucariana) and Paracephala appears to be à primitive member of the Buprestinae, Curis, one of the most primitive genera of the Stigmoderinae, is also known to occur in South America (Carter, 1929) and probably originated in Gondwanaland before the breakup occurred, Later speciation of Curis oc- curred throughout many dry areas of Australia, especially in Western Australia where the genus is well developed (Carter, 1929). Similar speciation appears to have occurred also in, for example, Diadoxus,, Chrysobothris, Pseudotaenia and Stigmodera (Themognatha), Species of Astraeus, Curis and Stigmodera (Themognatha) have probably undergone a long period of co-evolution with Casuarina (i.e. 80 million years), although Astraeus is regarded by Levey (1978a) to have undergone a more recent speciation. The genus Flindersia (Rutaceae) con- tains about 16 species of small to large trees distributed throughout eastern Australia, the Moluceas, New Guinea and New Caledonia (Armstrong, 1975). Australia has 14 species and 10 of these are restricted to the rainforests of eastern Australia, although none occurs in Tasmania, Flindersia maculosa (Lindl) F. Muell is one of four Australian species not confined to rain- forests but grows in the dry open areas of central New South Wales and 250 Queensland, It is likely that the genus originated in the southern hemisphere and that the rainforest species are more primitive than the arid-adapted ones. Little is known of the biology and tax- onomic relationships of Aniara, but the Anilara species (near A. obscura Macleay) recorded breeding in F. maculosa, is likely to be a recently evolv- ed species. lo conclude, in most cases, the rela- tionships between Australian Buprestidae and their larval food plants, appear to be ancient ones, with many probably originating in Gondwanaland before or after the breakup, c. 80-100 million years B.P. or even later, This view is based on the available larval food plant records which, although fragmentary, show that some primitive genera c.g. Prospheres and Araucariana, breed in Araucaria pines. Other genera e.g. Diadoxus, Chrysobothris, Pseudotaenia, Melobasis and Stigmodera, breed in relatively primitive plants such as Eucalvptus, Acacia and Casuarina, (which although not as primitive as Araucaria, probably originated in Gondwanaland or evolved from Gond- wanaland ancestors). Many buprestid genera probably co-evolved with these plant genera. Much information is yet to be gathered on food plants of Australian Buprestidae, With the disappearance of habitats as a result of land-clearing prac- tises by man, it is imperative that further records are made in order that a better understanding of the biology, distribu- tion and ecology of Australian Buprestidae can be gained. Acknowledgements Thanks are expressed to the following people for assistance: Mr P, W. Hadlington, New South Wales Department of Forestry, Sydney; Mr Fred Fricke, Sydney, for allowing access to H. W. Brown's private collecting notes; Mr A. Sundholm, Sydney; Mr M. Powell and Mr M, Golding, Perth; Mrs N, Gawthorne, Sydney; Mrs J. Harslett, Amiens, Queensland; staff of the Herbarium of the Royal Vic. Nat. Vol, 99 Botanie Gardens, Sydney, for identifications of some food plants; and the Curators of Entomology of the following institutions for allowing access to collections in. their care: Dr E, G, Matthews (SAM); Mr J. F, Donaldson (QDPD; Dr G. B Montieth (QM); Dr €. N, Smithers (AM); and Dr T. F. Houston (WAM), Special thanks are express ed to Mr M. De Baar, Queensland Department of Forestry, Brisbane for helpful discussions and pro viding material of Buprestidae and facilities in order that some of this work could be written; Mr G Shea, Sydney, provided many helpful comments and corrections on an earlier drait Dr G. b; Hein sohn, Department of Zoology, James Cook Univer- sity, Townsville, is acknowledged for assistance with the photographs, The research for this paper was undertaken on private funds and final thanks are also expressed to Mrs D, E, Hawkeswood for facilities enabling this work to be completed. REFERENCES Armstrong, J, A. (1975), The current status of the subfamily Aurantioideae, Aust, Plants 8; 226- 236. Barker, 5. (1979), New species and à catalogue of Stigmodera (Castiarina) (Cole optera: Buprestidae), rans, Roy, Soe, S. 103; 1-23 Barlow, B, A. (1963), Studies in Australian Loran thaceae, IV, Chromosome numbers and their relationships. Proc, Linn, Soc, NiS. W, NN: 151 160. Barlow, B, A, (1966), A revision of the Loran thaceae of Australia and New Zealand, Aust, J Hot, 14, 421-499, Barlow, B. A. and Weins, D. (1973). The classifica tion of the generic segregates of Phrygilanthus ( Notanthera) of the Loranthaceae. Brittonia 25: 26-39, Carter, H. J, (1929), A check list of the Australian Buprestidae, Aust, Zool, 5) 265-304, Cookson, I, C. and Duigan, S. L. (1950), Fossil Banksieae from Yallourn, Victoria, with notes on the morphology and anatomy of living species. Aust. J, Sci, Res, 3: 133-165 French, ©, (1911). Handbook of Destructive Insects of Victoria. (Government Printer, Melbourne). Fricke, F. (1964). A note on Melobasis purpurascens F, (Col.; Buprestidae). J, Ent. Soe, Aust, (N.S, W,) 2: 9, Froggatt, W. W. (1892), Gall-making buprestids, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S, W, 7: 323-326, Froggatt, W. W. (1893), On the life-histories of Australian Coleoptera, Part 1, Proc, Linn, Soc, N.S, W. 18; 27-42, Froggatt, W. W. (1894), On the life-histories of Australian Coleoptera (Part 11). Proe. Linn, Soe, N.S. W. 19: 113-125. Aust. November/December Froggatt, W. W. (1895), Life-histories of Australian Coleoptera, Part HE, Proe, Linn, Soe, N.S. M 20; 125-316, Goudie, J, €, (1920), Notes on the Coleoptera of north-western Victoria, Part VIEL Voronin Nat. 17: 28-34 Goudie, J. ©, (1924), A beetle note — Srremodera flavoeineta C&C, Victorian Nat, 11: 14a Hadlington, P. and Gardner, M. J. (1959), Diadoxus erythrurus (White) (Coleoptera Buprestidae), attack. ol Hiresdamaged.— Ca/fitris spp. Proc, Linn, Soe, NSW, B4; 325-1332, plate XVI Hawkeswood, EF. J, (1978), Observations on some Buprestidae (Coleoptera) from the Blue Moun tains, NSW, Aust, Zool, 19: 257-278 Hawkeswood, T, J, (19818). Observations on (wo sympatric species Of Buprestidae (Coleoptera) from sand dunes on the north coast of New South Wales, Vietorian Nat, 98: 146-150, Hawkeswood, T, J, (1981b). Notes on the pollina tion of Nuyista Horibunda (Labill) R.Br. (Loran Ihaeeae) and some literature reviewed, West. Aust, Nat, 15: 17-21 Johnson, L, A. 5. (1972), Presidential Address, Evolution and elassifieation in Puealyptus, Proc, Linn, Soc, N.S. W., 97: 11-29 Tohnson, L. A, S. and Briggs, B. G. (1964), Evolu ton in the Proteaceae. Aust, J, Roi, I1 21-4061 Johnson, L. A. 5. and Briggs, B. G, (1975), On the Proteaceae the evolution and classification of a southern family, J, Lina, Soe, Rot. (Lond. ) 70; 83-182 Levey, B, (1978a), A taxonomie revision of the genus Prospheres (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) Aust. J. Zool, 20; 713-726, Levey, B, (1978b), A new tribe, E pistomentini, of Buprestidae (Coleoptera) with a redefinition of the tribe Chrysochroini, Svat, bntomol A: 153 148, MeMillan, R. P. (19500). A jewel beetle of the flooded gum (Melobasis sexplagiata), West, Aust, Nat, 2: 57-58 MeMillan, R, P. (1950b). Life history notes on the jewel beetle (Melobasis sexplagiata), West, Aust, Nat, 2: 166, MeMillan, R. P. (1951), A jewel beetle, Curis intereribrata, of the she-oak. West, Aust, Nat d 40-41 MeMillan, R. P, (1952). Western Australian Sugmodera, West, Aust, Nat, 3: 145-147 + plate, Pescott, R, T. M. (1932), The eypress pine girdler J, Dept, Agr, (Vic, ) J0: 396-397. Poulton, K. B. (1915). The habits of the Australian buprestid "fire beetle", Merimna atrata Lap, et Gory, Trans, bnt, Soe, Lond, Part 1, (Proc) V4. Whitlock, FE. L. (1947), West Australian Jewel beetles, West, Aust, Nar, 1:919, 251 Actinotus forsythii Maiden et Betche (APIACEAE): A Flannel Flower for Victoria. By NEVILLE G. WALSH* Actinotus in Victoria Actinotus, the ‘‘Flannel Flower" genus was first added to the Victorian list of genera on the basis of one collec- tion of the diminutive A. bellidiodes near Mt Baw Baw in 1940. This species has eluded collectors since and its status as a Victorian plant is presently in ques- tion. This article reports the discovery of another species of Actinotus in Victoria. The genus consists of some fifteen species, four of which, including A. bellidioides, are variously included in the Tasmanian and New Zealand endemic genus Hemiphues. These four species are diminutive plants with in- conspicuous involucral bracts and few- flowered compound heads, unlike the more familiar flannel flowers of Actinotus. The inflorescence of Actinotus con- sists of many small individual flowers clustered into a single head or capitulum and surrounded by a series of radiating involucral bracts. It is these bracts which generally bear a dense indumentum of silky or felted hairs and give rise to the common name. Although the plants resemble true daisies (family Asteraceae), they belong in the Apiaceae (or Umbellifereae) — the parsley family. Description of A. forsythii A small herbaceous species with flowering branchlets growing out from a central rosette of compound leaves. Flower heads 12-25mm. diameter. Bracts bearing white to pale pink silky hairs on the upper surface, the lower surface nearly glabrous, green with mauve margins or wholly mauve-pink in * 38 Paxton St., East Malvern 3145. older plants. Flowers are unisexual. Within an inflorescence a single outer ring of smaller male flowers encircles up to 60 female flowers. Male flowers have 5 stamens, 5 minute (ca 0.3mm. long) papery petals and 5 smaller blunt sepals which are fused to form a conical tube. Female flowers consist of a single, 5- ribbed ovary bearing copious silky hairs on ribs and intervening faces. The 2 styles are inarched and the sepals fused into a 5-lobed ‘‘skirt’’ on the summit of the ovary; petals are absent. The ovary matures to a single, dark ovate seed (ca 2.5 x 1.5mm.). Leaves compound with 3-7 lobes, glabrous or nearly so, approx. 10mm. broad and 10-20mm. long, tapering to a longer patiole which may attain 30mm. on mature leaves. Bran- ches are procumbent, up to 20 cm. long and bear the inflorescences on peduncles which elongate with age (up to 50mm.). Peduncles of new inflorescences are short, giving the impression that the flower heads spring directly from the soil. There is a single slender taproot with relatively few lateral rootlets toward the tip. Habitat The plants were collected in early flower on a recently burnt, exposed, subalpine spur in the Eastern Highlands. The substrate was a fine shaly material with no top-soil. A trip three weeks later to the same locality revealed that the plants had rapidly passed into fruit and were withering or dead. This rapid development suggests that the plants are ephemeral and appear only after fires, a feature noted also by several N.S.W. collectors (J. Thompson pers. comm. ). Fig. |. a. single head orcapitulum. b. entire plant. c. male flower, note minute petals between stamens. d. female flower. e. mature seed. 252 Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 o 5 domm November/ December 253 Many species of regularly burned mallee-woodlands share this life habit but the wetter forests of eastern Victoria are presumably less regularly burnt, a factor which poses an interesting pro- blem regarding the future of this presumably rare Victorian species. The species is otherwise known from only about a dozen collections, all from ex- posed situations in central and southern New South Wales (e.g. Upper Blue Mts., Kanangra Walls and Budawang Range). The Victorian locality is a fur- ther disjunct occurrence added to an already discontinous distribution. Acknowledgements I am grateful to Joy Thompson of Sydney Herbarium for confirming the identification and supplying information on Actinotus forsythii in N.S.W, REFERENCES Beadle, N. C. W., Evans, O. P., Carolin, R. C. (1972). Flora of the Sydney Region. Reed, Sydney. Allan, H. H. (1961). Flora of New Zealand. N.Z. Govt, Printer, Wellington. Curtis, W. C. (1956). A Students Flora of Tasmania. Govt, Printer, Hobart. Willis, J. H. (1972). A Handbook to Plants in Victoria. Voll 11 (1972). Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. F.N.C.V. Excursion to Portland, Victoria. (16/1/82 — 22/1/82.) At 8 a.m. on a Saturday morning under a clear sky and the promise of a hot day (in the mid thirties), 27 members of the F.N.C.V. led by Marie Allender left Melbourne by bus for Portland, We travelled via Geelong, Colac, Warrnambool — where the Fletcher Jones garden was glimpsed from the bus — and then on via the winding roads through the Ot- way forest where between Weeaproinah and Gellibrand masses of the lilac coloured flowers of Prostanthera lasianthos — the Vic- torian Christmas Bush gave a welcome splash of colour, Also the botanists noted the Satin- wood Phebalium squameum which is confin- ed in Victoria to the Southern Otways. Along the Ocean Road we stopped to observe the Twelve Apostles, the Loch Ard Gorge, the Graves site and London Bridge where the fernlike Silky Wilsonia Wilsonia humilis and creeping Brookweed Samolus repens were surviving a harsh environment. Lunch was taken on the attractive foreshore at Port Campbell where some of our party cooled off in the sea. Various birds were noted during our journey namely the Magpie, Raven, Welcome Swallow, Pipit, White-fronted Chat, Singing Honeyeater, Brown Hawk, Swamp Harrier, Egret, White- fronted Heron, White-necked Heron, Straw- necked Ibis, White Ibis, Little Pied Cor- morant, Black Swan, Yellow-tailed Thorn- * Nicholls, W. H. (1940) Two New Varieties of Orchids. Victorian Nat: 58. 115-116. 254 bill, Mudlark, Galah, Wood Duck. At Portland, two more F.N.C. members from Bendigo were welcomed. At the Motel, the evening meal became a most leisurely affair. After waiting one and one half hours, one of the desperate members passed around his bananas. But the meals were worth waiting for and the delay was soon forgotten. Sunday 17th January. Mr and Mrs Colin Woolcock led the group and during the drive through the town of Portland many historic buildings such as the old Court House were admired. We were soon jolted back to the twentieth century by a short trip to the wharves where a ship with high rise sheep pens was waiting to be loaded with sheep for Saudi Arabia. Later in the day in the Cape Nelson area sheep by the thousands were seen in holding paddocks. A further reminder of man's will to power over the Earth was a visit to the Alcoa site of 70.5 ha. at Point Danger where fifty four (54) hec- tares of wet heathland have been cleared and made into a sandy wasteland surrounded by a great wire fence. In the clearing process was destroyed the habitat of a rare orchid — Mellblom's Spider Orchid Caladenia hastata* which is similar to Caladenia patersonii ex- cept the sepals and petals are heavily clubbed. (See plate.) The orchid originally grew bet- ween stands of Shining Peppermint Eucalyptus nitida and Brown Stringybark Eucalyptus baxteri. Seeds from the orchid Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 have been collected and have germinated but the survival of this orchid is uncertain. It seems that successful conservation of en- dangered terrestrial orchids like Caladenia hastata will depend on a proper understan- ding of the pollination agent and the sym- biotic germination of these natives BEFORE they are destroyed in their natural habitat. The group inspected a small adjacent area of the original heathland which is wet in winter and subject to strong coastal winds and consequently the shrubs are low growing to almost horizontal. The botanists found the red Correa Correa reflexa, Dodda Laurel Cassytha glabella, the yellow-flowered Scented Paper-bark Melaleuca squarrosa, Small Boronia Boronia nana, creeping Bassiaea Bossiaea prostrata, Hop Goodenia Goodenia ovata, Coastal Wattle Acacia longifolia, var. sophorae, Black Sheaok Casuarina littoralis, Bundled Guinea-flower Hibbertia fasciculata, with its thread-like leaves, Austral Grass-Tree Xanthorrhoea australis, Sea Celery Apium prostratum, Prickly Tea Tree Leptospermum juniperinum, Woolly Everlasting Helichrysum blandowskianum, Heath Parrot-pea Dillwynia glaberrima, Horny Cone-Bush Isopogon ceratophyllus, Rigid Fig, I. Caladenia hasta. From the drawings by Colin Woolcock. November/December Bush-Pea Pultanea stricta, Dotted Sun Or- chid Thelymitra ixioides (seed heads only), Brown Stringybark Eucalyptus baxteri, Twisted Beard-heath Leucopogon glacialis. Blue-winged parrots were noticed whilst walking on the roadside to Blacknose Point and the botanists noted Ixodia Jxodia achilleoides with its clumps of white daisy flowers (where was the Achilles heel?), Angl- ed Lobelia Lobelia alata, Love Creeper Comesperma volubile, Short Purple-Flag Patersonia fragilis, Mitchell Wattle Acacia mitchellii, Twiggy Daisy Bush Olearia ramulosa, Moonah Melaleuca lanceolata, Tall Daisy Brachycome diversifolia, Austral Stork’s-bill Pelargonium australe, and the in- troduced Angular Noonflower Carpobrotus aequilaterus of the Pigface family, Coast Daisy Bush Elearia axillaris (in flower), Small-leaved Clematis Clematis microphylla (in the Old Man's Beard stage), Seaberry Salt-bush Rhagodia baccata, Coast Everlasting Helichrysum paralium, Coast Beard-Heath Leucopogon parviflorus with its attractive white berries, Silver Banksia Banksia marginata. At the Point, the group had an excellent view of the Gannet rookery — one of the five known breeding colonies of Gannets in Australian waters — on Lawrence Rocks. The remains of several dead Mutton birds which probably had been killed by foxes were seen amongst many nesting burrows. For lunch the group visited Cape Nelson Park (210 hectares) 12 km south of Portland, which was established to protect some unusual plants particularly the Soap Mallee — Eucalyptus diversifolia which grows nowhere else in Victoria. A walk was taken near the Lighthouse, then another longer walk of three km — the Sea Cliff Walk — followed by a scenic drive along the coast. During their rambles through Port Nelson Park the botanists noted, apart from the Soap Mallee, the Feather Bush Apalochlamys spectablis, Variable Groundsel Senecia lautus, Cherry Ballart Exocarpus strictus, Winged Spyridium Spyridium vexilliferum, Pale Turpentine Bush Beyeria leschenaultii — where the male and female flowers are on separate bushes, Climbing Lignum Muehlenbeckia adpressa, Prickly Moses Acacia verticillata, Flame Heath Astroloma conostephioides, Drooping Velvet Bush Lasiopetalum schulzenii which grows in South Australia and in Victoria only in the south west of the state, Coast Swainson Pea 255 Fig. 2. The Ink Pot. Swainsona lessertiifolia, Boobialla Myoporum insulare, White Correa Correa alba var. panosum, Forest Pomaderis Pomaderris oraria, Silver Banksia Banksia marginata, Coast Twin Leaf Zygophyllum billardieri, Otway Bush Pea Pultanea prolifera, Soft Bush Pea Pultanea mollis, Coast Bush Pea Pultanea canaliculata, Sweet Bursaria Bursaria spinosa, Sticky Daisy Bush Olcarea glutinosa, Morning Flag Orthrosanthus multiflorus and the rare maroon Leak Orchid Prasophyllum hartii. On our return a stop was made at a large lagoon at Portland where there were spur- winged plovers, swans, chestnut teals and silver gulls. The birds listed for the day were the Tree Martin, Dusky Wood Swallow, Singing Honeyeater, Pipit, Gannets, Pied Cormorant, Crested Tern, Magpie, Spur- winged Plover, Grey Thrush, Grey Fantails, Yellow-winged Honeyeater, Tawny-crowned Honeyeater, Blue-winged Parrot, Brush Bronzewing Pigeon, White-browed Scrub- wren, Striated Field Wren, Red Wattle Bird, Silvereye, Swamp Harrier, Nankeen Kestrel, Blue Wren, Yellow-winged Honeyeater, Yellow-faced Honeyeater, Swans, Chestnut l'eals, Silver Gulls. Monday 18th January Another warm day, max 26C. and the group led by Colin Woolcock headed for Mt Clay (620ft.) approximately 20km north-east of Portland, At the turn off near Narrawong cemetery, a stop was made to remember Cap- (ain Dutton, the whaler, who in 1828 landed near Portland and made his permanent home there before the Hentys who settled in 1834. Hyacinth orchids Dipodium punctatum were common along the roadside. At a stop near a soak a coral fern grew in abundance. 256 On the way botanists noted Acacia mit- chellii, Pultanea stricta, Pultanea canaliculata, Boronia nana, and new friends in the Grooved Bush Pea Pultanea teretifolia, Furze Hakea hakea ulcina, Beaked Hakea Hakea rostrata, Shining Peppermint Eucalyptus nitida, Tall Saw-Sedge Gahnia clarkei, Goodenia blackii(?) (a new species not properly named), Hairy Boronia Boronia pilosa, Leafless Globe Pea Sphaerolobium vimineun, Downy Wedge Pea Gompholobium ecostatum and the Large Duck Orchid Caleana major which was found growing in the middle of a vehicle bush track. After lunch at the Picnic Area on Mt Clay, a walk was made to Whalers’ Lookout where there was a very fine vista of the ocean. Hyacinth orchids were numerous and it was noticed that some of the blooms were not spotted. Early in the afternoon the party moved to the Fitzroy River Coastal Reserve where refreshing river and surf swimming was enjoyed by many. A large patch of orange-brown algae* was noticed floating on the breaking surf. From the river's edge we watched Gannets, Silver Gulls, Crested Terns, Spur-winged Plovers showing their mastery of the air whilst a lone white egret rested on the opposite bank. Amongst the bushes a jewel spider was greatly admired. The last stop was at Narrawong beach, a popular resort only 14 km east from Portland. For the day the bird observers listed Crimson Rosella, Golden Whistler, Yellow Robin, Striated Thornbill, Brown Thornbill, Yellow-winged Honeyeater, Yellow-faced Honeyeater, Grey Fantail, White-throated Tree Creeper, Pied Cur- rawong, Eastern Spinebill, Sulphur-crested Cockatoo, Magpie, Mudlark, Blue Wren, White Egret, White-faced Heron, Pelican, Goldfinch, Red-necked Stint, Red-capped Dotterel, Greenfinch. At dinner the members led by Elizabeth Turner offered congratulations to Alan and Win. Morrison on their 52nd wedding an- niversary. Win, was presented with a bouquet of ‘exotics’? from the bush and Alan was presented with a small souvenir spoon. A celebration cake was shared by all. Later, al the Portland Library, a showing of slides of orchids of the Portland district was enjoyed, Of particular interest were the slides of * reproductive cells of a seaweed. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Caladenia hastata with its clubbed sepals and petals and the Swamp Greenhood Pterostylis tenuissima. Colin also brought along some of his drawings of native plants which were greatly admired. Tuesday 19th January Led by Colin, the group travelled through State Forest to a bridge over the dried-up bed of the Surrey River. Many of the party walk- ed along the river bed where nearby on the banks were the dried-up flower heads of the Sickle Greenhood Prerostylis falcata. On the river bed were found two species of blue- flowered Pratia which are related to the Lobelias, Water Buttons Cotula coronopilifolia and Ivy-leafed Violet Viola Hederacea. Also noted was the wiry Bossiaea Bossiaea cordigera and Brooklime Gratiola peruviana. Fluttering amongst the bushes were grey and rufus fantails and overhead im- mature crimson rosellas chattered in the trees, At Surrey Ridge, the group walked along a moist fern gully where were seen the Fishbone Water Fern Blechnam nudum and the golden striped Tender Bracken Fern (also called the False Bracken) Pteris tremula, River Mint Mentha australis, Maiden Hair Fern Adiatum althropicum, Sweet Bursaria — Bursaría spinosa, Vanilla Lily Auguillaria minus, Blue Pin Cushion Brunonia australis, and Prickly Currant Bush Coprosma quadrifida with its masses of edible berries, Squawking in the trees were Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoos. Also listed for the morning rambles were Spiky Blue Devil Eryngium rostratum, the foreigner Paterson's Curse Echima, the mauve Swamp Mazus Mazus pumilio, Swamp Daisy Bush Olearia glandulosa, Rough Daisy Bush Olearia asterotricha, Woolley Tea Tree Leptospermum lanigerum, Prickly Geebung Personia juniperina. Along the roadside were seen one of the Saw-Sedges Gahnia and the Tassel Cord Rush Restio tetraphyllus. During the afternoon a visit was made to Cape Bridgewater where unusual columns of limestone bore witness to the remnants of a petrified forest. Out at sea could be seen a large number of Short-tailed Shearwaters floating like rafts on the water. Near the Blow Hole were massive basalt blocks — evidence of volcanic action. Bridgewater Bay, a popular place for swimming, was an ex- cellent place to cool off on the very hot day November/December (35° max at Portland) but many of the party were not prepared for the icy waters, Pros bably the north wind blowing off the shore caused à circulation of the deeper colder water to well up towards the surface. The town of Bridgewater is no more but apparent- ly it was a prosperous town during the eighteen-eighties. It was close to a fresh water supply but the soils were quickly depleted, rabbits became a pest, and the town died. Two km away were the scenic. Bridgewater Lakes which were areas of fresh water as a result of the limestone springs, The Bird Observers list for the day was the Spine-tailed Swift, Eastern Swamp Hen, White Ibis, Staw-necked Ibis, Spur-winged Plover, Welcome Swallow, White-faced Heron, Magpie, Grey Fantail, Rufus Fantail, Eastern Spinebill, Rufus Bristle Bird, Crimson Rosella, Crescent Honeyeater, Spotted Par- dalote, Grey Currawong, Yellow-tailed Cockatoo, Pied Currawong, Blue Wren, Grey Currawong, Yellow-faced Honeyeater, Kookaburra, Golden Whistler, White- fronted Chat, Brown Hawk, Nankeen Kestrel, Short-tailed Shearwaters, White- browed Scrub Wren. During the evening many beautiful bird slides taken by Ina Watson and Maurice Streeter were shown to an appreciative au- dience at the Portland Public Library. Wednesday 20th January The day was much cooler and our destina» tion was Richmond National Park, During the journey were seen several Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoos and a flock of Straw-necked Ibis were feeding in a paddock. At a stop along a fire-break the Brown Stringybark Eucalyptus baxteri was in flower and by the track there were some attractive specimens of Pussy Tails Prilotus spathulatus, Further along the track where the ground was more swampy were found the Small Fairies Aprons Utricularia dichotoma and the even smaller Violet Bladderwort Utricularia violacea, the orchids Austral Ladies Tresses Spiranthes sinensis with the delicate pink flowers spirall- ing around the stem, and the Swamp Onion Orchid Microtis orbicularis. The botanists also listed Beaked Hakea Hakea rostrata, Apple Berry Billiardiera scandens, Cudweed Gnaphalium sp., and new on the list Moun- tain Conosperm Conospermum mitchellii, Angled Lobelia Lobelia alata, yellow Hakea Hakea nodosa, Wattle birds, grey fantails and yellow-winged honeyeaters were seen and 257 a small snake approximately 18 inches long. At the Mt Richmond summit were noted Olearia speciosa and Olearia asterotricha and a Brooklime Gratiola. Mt Richmond is an extinct voleano which is covered with a layer of sand blown long ago from Discovery Bay. Under the sand is the tuff — the hardened volcanic ash. On the Ocean Walk, Blackwood often lined the path as did the Sweet Bursaria. The yellow-faced honeyeaters, wattle birds, crimson rosellas, silver-eyes, blue wrens and yellow-winged honeyeaters were seen on this walk. A lookout provided views of Cape Bridgewater and Discovery Bay. Noel’s Walk descended through a tall stringybark to peppermint and swamp gum forest at the base of the mount. After lunch the group travelled to the Pipe Clay Picnic Area — a swamp area where Austral Ladies Tresses were abundant. One measured flower stalk was 13! inches — the flower head being 5 inches. A pair of Gang Gang Cockatoos was seen — the male with the red head and the less colourful female. The Bird Observers supplied their list for the day; Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoos, Straw- necked Ibis, White-eared Honeyeater, White- naped Honeyeater, Yellow-faced Honeyeater, Little Wattle Bird, Buff-tailed Thornbill, Red-browed Finch, Grey Thrush, Yellow Robin, Crimson Rosella, Red Wattle Bird, Eastern Spinebill, White-throated Tree Creeper, Mistletoe Bird, Spine-tailed Swift, Gang Gang Cockatoo, Swamp Harrier, Kookaburra, Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoo, Black Duck, Silver-eyes, Martins. In the evening, Colin Woolcock showed many fine slides of Western Australian Orchids. Thursday 21st January The destination was the Moleside Creek Picnic Area where the party had lunch beside a permanent stream fed by the water stored in the wet Kentbruck Heathlands. Close by was the Glenelg River and the botanists found growing in the area Pink Bindweed Convolvulus erubescens, Wirilda Acacia retinodes which has flowers all the year, Kangaroo Grass Themeda australis, Com- mon Hemp Bush Gynatrix pulchella (with fruit), Rusty Bush Pea Pultanea hispidula, Small Daisy Brachycome parvula, Coast Beard Heath Leucopogon parviflorus and species previously noted Leucopogon 258 lanceolatus, and one of the wild forget-me- nots Cynoglossum. After lunch the group visited the Ink Pot, a very deep soak with a high tannin content. The still water looked like a black mirror reflecting the tree-lined perimeter. Noted was the Tassel Cord-Rush Restio tetraphyllus. Then on to the Kentbruck Heathe — many hectares of wetlands where many wild flowers flourished. Noted for the first time for the week were the small red flower of the Wiry Bauera Bauera rubioides, the small-leaf Pomaderris Pomaderris elachophylla and once again were seen Boronia nana, Acacia verticillata and a Veronica sp. At a creek stop were seen for the first time the Long Purple- flag Patersonia longiscapa and a sweet scented Austral Leek Orchid Prasophyllum australe. Also noted was Bossiaea cinerea. From the windows of the bus several emus were seen feeding in the fields. At the next stop several Horned Orchids Orthoceras strictum delighted the orchid fanciers and found nearby were Prasophyllum australe, the dried flower of the Large Tongued Orchid Cryptostylis subulata, Swamp Boronia Boronia parviflora (a first) and Boronia nana. A snake, a leech and sulphur-crested cockatoos were also noted, the leech getting a warm reception. A red-necked wallaby was seen from the travelling bus. Birds seen were the Black-shouldered Kite, Wedge-tailed Eagle, Swamp Harrier, Black- faced Cuckoo Shrike, Martins, White-eared Honeyeater, Yellow-winged X Honeyeater, Kookaburra, Emus, Blue-winged Parrots, Crimson Rosellas, White-throated Treecreeper, Crescent Honeyeater, Yellow- faced Honeyeater, Grey Fantail, Pied Cur- rawong, Blue Wren, Brown Thornbill, Silver- eyes, Brown Hawk and Magpies. Later on, two Black-shouldered Kites were seen at the Motel area. On this our last evening Mr and Woolcock honoured the F.N.C.V. members by accepting their invitation to have dinner with them. The only regret was that we could not meet Mr Cliff Beauglehole who was in- disposed. Friday 22nd January On Friday we travelled to Tower Hill, the site of an extinct volcano. Emus and many varieties of water birds including swans, ducks, pelicans were seen. The area has been reclaimed from neglect and is an example of Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 enlightened government policy which has been responsible for the making of a delightful area. We arrived back in Melbourne at 4 p.m. Special thanks is given to Marie Allender who organised the excur- sion, to Elizabeth Turner and Mary Doery who supplied the plant lists, Dorothy Dawson and Pat Glancy who supplied the bird lists, Colin and Dorothy Woolcock who gave their time and knowledge unsparingly and the driver of the bus, Jim Church, who all helped to make our trip an enjoyable and instructive one. Reuben Kent. Koalas Feeding on Monterey Pine By KATHRINE A. LITHGOW* It is generally accepted that the koala, Phascolarctos cinereus, feeds exclusively on foliage of Eucalyptus spp. and utilizes only a few species of this genus as staple dietary items. These include E, viminalis and E. ovata in Victoria (Eberhard 1978, Warneke 1978, Hindell, Lithgow and Lee, in press, Martin and Lee, ín press), and E. tereticornis and E. punctata in New South Wales and Queensland (Eberhard, 1978). However, koalas have been reported feeding on Bambax malabrica (Degabriele 1973), Tristania conferta and T. suaveolens (Pearse and Eberhard, 1978), but do not survive sole- ly on these species, nor use them as a substan- tial portion of the diet. This note reports two further species utiliz- ed by koalas as food trees. First, at Phillip Island, Victoria, | have observed koalas feeding on Acacia melanoxylon, but the in- cidence is rare in comparison to the frequency of feeding on eucalypts (Hindell, Lithgow and Lee, in press). Second, and of particular interest, are the frequent sightings of koalas in the exotic Monterey pine, Pinus radiata. On French Island, Victoria, koalas have been observed in P. radiata at three separate sites, one sup- porting a mixture of P. radiata and E. viminalis, one a mixture of P. radiata, E. ovata and a few E, radiata, and the third con- sisting of a mixed stand of P. radiata, E. viminalis and E. ovata. Records of tree use by koalas at the P. radiata/E. viminalis site on French Island showed that 31% of koala sightings, (N = 122) were in P. radiata. This probably underestimates usage, as koalas were difficult to locate in the dense foliage of this species, and pine trees were not regularly checked for the presence of animals. * Department of Zoology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3168 November/December Koalas were not simply using pines for resting sites. On one occasion, masticated material taken from the mouth of a koala captured in a pine tree consisted of P. radiata foliage. At all three sites, faecal pellets col- lected beneath pine trees in which koalas were sighted showed large amounts of partially digested pine needles, indicating that the koalas were eating a substantial amount of P. radiata foliage. Koalas have subsequently been sighted in P. radiata at the F. Oswin Roberts Koala Reserve, the David Forrest Reserve and the Ventnor Koala Reserve on Phillip Island. Ex- amination of faeces confirmed that koalas feed on P. radiata at these sites. REFERENCES Degabriele, R. (1973). Koalas thrive in a tropic haven. Habitat 1: 8-11. Eberhard, I. H. (1978). Ecology of the koala, Phascolarctos cinereus (Goldfuss) Marsupialia: Phascolarctidae, in Australia. In: Ecology of Ar- boreal Folivores. (Ed. G. G. Montgomery). Smithsonian Institution Press: Washington, D.C. Hindell, M. A., Lithgow, K. A. and Lee, A. K. (in press). Diet selectivity of three free ranging koala populations in Victoria. In **Proceedings of the Lone Pine Koala Symposium''. Martin, R. W. and Lee, A. K. (in press). Over- browsing and the decline of a natural koala population in Victoria. /n ''Proceedings of the Lone Pine Koala Symposium". Pearse, R. J. and Eberhard, I. H. (1978). Conserva- tion of koalas, In: The koala: Proceedings of the Taronga Symposium (Ed. T. J. Bergin). Zool. Parks Bd. N.S.W.: Sydney. Robbins, M. and Russell, E. (1978). Observations of the movements and feeding activity of the koala in a semi-natural situation. In; The Koala; Proceedings of the Taronga Symposium (Ed. T. J. Bergin). Zool. Parks Bd., N.S.W., Sydney. Warneke, R. M. (1978). The status of the koala in Victoria, In; The Koala: Proceedings of the Taronga Symposium. (Ed. T. J. Bergin). Zool. Parks Bd. N.S.W.: Sydney. 259 Migration of an Ichneumonid Wasp Over A Subalpine Pass By K. GREEN* Migration of insects of different orders through mountain passes is a well known phenomenon in the northern hemisphere. In the Pyrenees such migrations occur regularly each year in autumn (Johnson 1969). As far as I am aware no similar migrations have been recorded in Australia. In the case of the bogong moth, Agrotis infusa (Boisduval) the mountains are an objective of the migration rather than an obstacle to it. In the Pyrenees small numbers of Ichneumonid wasps have been observed migrating across the Port de Gavarnie (2290 m) (Williams et al. 1956). However, migration of hymenoptera general- ly is poorly documented (Johnson 1969). On 19 November 1981 in Kosciusko Na- tional Park, I observed a stream of wasps which began crossing Dead Horse Gap at ap- proximately 10.30 am eastern standard time. The day was warm and overcast with a strong wind blowing across the Gap from the S-W. These conditions preceded a thunderstorm later in the afternoon. Wasps were observed flying to the S-W, over the Gap directly into the wind. During a 6 minute period I counted 256 wasps crossing the Gap (ie. 2560 per hour). This count was probably an underestimate as I could only observe about 20 m of the treeless area of the Gap. When I left the Gap at 11.00 am the steam of wasps was continuing undiminished. I returned to the Gap on 22 November 1981 with Mr W. S. Osborne and observed the wasps crossing in the same direction as before but at the reduced rate of about 5 to 10 per minute. The wind was not as strong but was again from the S-W. We collected two specimens of the wasp which were identified by Mr I. D. Gauld, BM(NH), as Lissopimpla excelsa (Costa) (Ichneumonidae: Pimplinae). Dead Horse Gap at 1580 m above sea level, lies on the Crackenback fault which extends along the Thredbo River, through the Gap and down almost to the Murray River in the west (Browne 1967). To the north of the Gap lies the whole of the alpine country in New South Wales, with unbroken subalpine coun- * Department of Zoology, Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, A.C.T, 2601. 260 try extending 75 km N-E to the vicinity of Kiandra. To the south the subalpine tract reaches a maximum elevation of 1817 m and extends 18 km S-E to beyond Stockwhip Hill. Dead Horse Gap is the lowest point of the subalpine country between Purgatory Hill in the south and the northern limit of the Munyang Range in the north, a distance of 57 km. The unidirectional flight may therefore have been caused by the topography of a large area, coupled with any funneling effect of the Thredbo Valley. Johnson (1969) stated that the narrow con- fines of mountain passes, especially where there is a cleft on a skyline, might impose directional flight upon non-migrants or migrants, whether they fly directionally in open country or not. In the case of L. excelsa there is some evidence of directional flight in non-mountainous country. Common (1954) recorded this species as flying in a WSW direction near Braidwood in NSW. The migration of L. excelsa over Dead Horse Gap may be part of a general migration, as sear- ches in the vicinity of Dead Horse Gap over the ensuing two months did not reveal a high incidence of L. excelsa. Acknowledgements I thank Mr I. D. Gauld, BM(NH), for identifica- tion of specimens, Dr J. R. T. Short (ANU) and Mr W. S. Osborne for critical comment on the manuscript. REFERENCES Browne, W. R. (1967). Geomorphology of the Kosciusko block and its north and south exten- sions. Proc. Linn. Soc. NSW 92: 117-144, Common, I. F. B. (1954). A study of the ecology of the adult bogong moth Agrotis infusa (Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), with special reference to its behaviour during migration and aestivation. Aust. J. Zool. 2: 223-263. Johnson, C. G. (1969), ''Migration and Dispersal of Insects by Flight". Methuen, London, pp. 618- 621 and 576-579, Williams, C. B., Common, I. F. B., French, R. A., Muspratt, V. and Williams, M. C, (1956). Obser- vations on the migration of insects in the Pyrenees in the autumn of 1953. Trans. R. Ent. Soc. Lond. 108: 385-407. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Reports of recent activities General Meeting Monday 11 October Speaker for the evening was Mr John Beumer of Fisheries and Wildlife Divi- sion. He spoke about eels, a large group of fish which includes wholly marine forms such as conger and moray eels, and some that spend all of their life in fresh water. Freshwater eels, Anguilla, occur mostly on eastern seaboards of continents and reflect the current system of oceans. Australia has four species of Anguilla, three short-finned and one long-finned species. Those of eastern and southern Australia breed in the Cor- al Sea; West Australian species come from the Sumatra area. The larval forms are flat and leaf-like; they drift on cur- rents and, when nearing the coast, metamorphose to the characteristic eel shape but are colourless and called glass eels. After entering estuaries, the young eels develop pigmentation and are known as brown elvers. They resemble adults except in size. They move upstream, their life span being estimated at 15 to 25 years, are nocturnal feeders and live on small fish, frogs, ducklings or sometimes each other. At maturity they become silver eels and move downstream. Great numbers of silver eels are in estuaries from January to May and migrate to the ocean on darkest nights. They stop eating. They are a mass of sperm or eggs (up to 5 million eggs per female) and take two to three months to reach the spawning grounds in the Coral Sea. It is assumed that they die after breeding. Eels can move overland through damp grass during wet nights, and can survive for two or three years in the bot- tom mud of dried up lakes. Sometimes they block pipes. Very occasionally they occur in the Murray River. Much has November/December yet to be learned about eels and 7! thousand have been tagged. The eel fishery in Victoria is worth about $1 million annually. Exhibits. Bottles of preserved specimens showed glass eels, brown elvers, and silver eels of short-finned and long-finned species. Under a microscope was an egg string of a nudibranch (identified by Mr Robert Burns as Doto pita, family Dotidae) of which some had hatched and the free-swimming veligers looked like tiny snails. There were two kinds of hydroids — some with a single hydranth (feeding polyp) like a knob at the top of the vertical thread-like stem, others with opposite pairs of hydranths all the way up the stem that looked like inverted arrow-heads; the vertical ‘‘stems’’ arise from the stolon which links the colony together and carries food from one polyp to another. Under another microscope a group of foraminifera (x 20) from South Molle Island Queensland looked like tiny white snails. A skull and leg bone found near Rushworth was readily identified by our expert to be from a grey kangaroo. A fat grey moth about 3cm long (11⁄4 "), with the cocoon from which it had emerged before expected, had been unable to develop its wings properly due to the limited space of its container. New Librarian. We welcome Mrs Margaret Fahroedin as FNCV Librarian. FNCV Honorary Membership awarded at WVFNCA meeting, 23 October FNCV President and Secretary at- tended the annual general meeting of the Western Victorian Field Naturalists Clubs Association hosted by Creswick FNC. They went to Creswick to present 261 Mr Cliff Beauglehole with honorary membership as he had completed 40 years in the FNCV this month. Of the several people awarded honorary membership for 40 years in the Club, few could have contributed as much as Cliff Beauglehole to the cause of natural history and the aims of FNCV. His con- tributions on insects, birds, botany, na- tional parks and conservation are remarkable. He received the Australian Natural History Medallion in 1971, and more can be learned about our latest honorary member from Victorian Nat. volume 88 page 344. General Meeting Monday 8 November 1982 Medallionist. The 1982 Aust- ralian Natural History Medallion was awarded to the late Mr Howard Jarman and was presented by Dr Churchill to his widow Mrs Beryl Jarman. Harold Jarman died earlier this year. In accep- ting the medallion Mrs Jarman said how very delighted her husband would have been by such a prestigious award although he had known he was nominated, and she thanked those who prepared his dossier and spoke in ap- preciation of the work carried out each year by the medallion selection commit- tee. Speaker for the evening was Mr Jack Hyett. He said that Howard Jarman had published much material about bird life 262 and showed slides of birds as reported in one of Howard's first articles about Bar- row Creek in the Northern Territory. Then followed slides of Mr Jarman's survey of gulls breeding at Altona, slides relevant to his paper on parrots, and more birds relevant to other articles. Howard Jarman ran bird study classes at the CAE, led many excursions, and was always eager to help others in understanding and enjoying birds. Exhibits & Nature Notes. There were two large volumes from FNCV archives that enclosed photos of FNCV excur- sions in the Bass Strait islands — 1887 at King Island, 1893 in the Furneaux Group, and some excursions of the early 1900s. FNCV archives are now stored at the National Museum and are available to researchers. Photographic records of the mid 1900s and of recent activities are meagre. Under a microscope was the larva of a caddis fly that looked like a tiny snail. During the Mammal Survey camp at Mt Elizabeth 57 birds were listed, many reptiles and frogs, and 16 molluscs. One member reported an echidna sit- ting in a little pool in the middle of a dried up dam and, when disturbed, it burrowed into the mud. Before this meeting, the traditional dinner at Botanic Hotel in honour of the Medallionist was attended by council members and other FNCV people as well as the guests Mrs Jarman, Dr Chur- chill and Mr Hyett. Vic. Nat. Vol. 99 T p ej ese B Wc re " un Aci gt sent uns d pA —— a mairia chap’ Ai dett Ta "d Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Established 1880 OBJECTS: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron: His Excellency Rear Admiral Sir Brian S. Murray, KCMG, AO. Key Office-Bearers 1982-1983 President: Miss WENDY CLARK, 27 Rangeview Grove, North Balwyn, 3104 (859 8091 A.H.) Vice-President: Dr. B. Smith, C/- The National Museum, Russell Street, Melbourne Secretary: Mrs. Sheila Houghton, 30 Golf Links Crescent, Dingley, 3172 (551 2708) Correspondence to: FNCV, National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Treasurer: Mr. D. DUNN, 3 Allfrey Street, East Brighton, 3187 (578 5753) Subscription-Secretary: Miss H. MALCOLM C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Editor: Mr. R. WALLIS, Victoria College — Rusden Campus, 662 Blackburn Road, North Clayton, 3168 (544 8544) Librarian: Excursion Secretary: Miss M. ALLENDER, 19 Hawthorn Avenue, Caulfield, 3161 (527 2749) Book Sales Officer: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (21! 7427) Group Secretaries Botany: Mr. MICHAEL McBAIN, 19 Foster Street, St. Kilda, 3182 (534 2293) Day Group: C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Geology: Mr. T. SAULT, C/- National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141 Mammal Survey: Mr. A. FAITHFUL, 67 Athelstan Road, Camberwell, 3124 (29 5108 A.H.) Microscopical: Mr. M. H. MEYER, 36 Milroy Street, East Brighton (596 3268) FNCV Kinglake Nature Reserve: McMahons Road, Kinglake Booking and keys: Mr. 1. F. MORRISON, 788 Elgar Road, Doncaster (848 1194) MEMBERSHIP Membership of the EN C.V. is open to any person interested in natural history. The Victorian Naturalist is distributed free to all members, the club’s reference and lending library is available and other activities are indicated in reports set out in the several preceding pages of this magazine. Subscription rates for 1982 Metropolitan.. .ssssesessese d Joint Metropolitan.. Country Members and Re e POMEGOUMEY and Joint Ret OG. re dee derererer AES I N ERRORES DILE DEAE ERINEES $15.00 Subser[pHarrto victorian Naturallst, 2o socutsncvasea etr TOL Ne ears ita Esas ECHTE ERES $13.00 Overseas Subscription to Victorian Na - ictoria and posted to the Subscription Secretary. Leadbeaters Possum. Already in trouble, Leadbeater's Possum is now under grave threat of extinction due to logging operations which threaten to destroy much of its remaining habitat, Until more can be learnt about the distribution and ecological requirements of this species its whole area of occurrance must be protected from logging, as existing reserves are totally inadequate. Unless action is taken promptly the State Government and community will be first in the State's history to knowingly condemn a species to extinction. = ~ ge io The Tet Lona-footed Po: toroo. Action form. PLEASE TICK o | have enclosed a cheque or money order for $ to support the campaign to give flora and fauna a right to exist. o I wish to become an individual supporter of the C.C.V., and enclose a cheque for ordinary membership of $10, or $5 for students, pensioners or unemployed. | am willing to become a volunteer to help with the campaign. My skills or interests are: NAME ADDRESS: PHONE NO: SEND TO: Conservation Council of Victoria, Box 845J, G.P.O. Melbourne, 3001 Endangered plants. The natural vegetation of the Western district has been almost completely cleared, the alpine highplains grazed and burnt and the wet mountain forests of the Central Highlands, the alps and East Gippsland been heavily logged. The same is true for many more of Victoria's plant communities. Overall in Australia we have lost 78 species of plant since European occupation, largely due to clearing for agriculture The law can prevent a person picking a wildflower but it may not prevent the demise of Mellbloms Spider-orchid. Once this lovely rare orchid graced the appropriately named Point Danger near Portland. Though found nowhere else in the world, most of the known natural occurrance was bulidozed and the remainder will be cleared in the future, if present plans go ahead for further stages in the construction of an aluminium smelter. This disaster demonstrates the need for laws to protect species or important populations from all activities or agents that may affect their survival. Endangered animals. Since European settlement in Victoria 20 species of mammals and birds have become extinct. Today there are grounds for concern about 47 species of animals, 17 of which are either endangered or vulnerable. Top of the list is Leadbeater's Possum which lives in mixed age Mountain Ash forest in the Central Highlands. Tree hollows are crucial for nesting, but they do not develop in eucalypts until they are at least 80 — 100 years old. Unfortunately these old trees are now falling over with age and the regrowth from the 1939 fires is not yet suitable. Endangered species: aworld- wide crisis. | | | ee Brush-tailed Rat Kangaroo: now extinct in Victoria. It is estimated that worldwide one plant or animal species is becoming extinct every day. Within 10 years we could be losing one every hour. In the last 25 years of the century one million species will have been eliminated. Overall the whole history of evolution this is unpredented, Why Does It Matter? e The most important reason is surely that existence in nature carries with it the un- questionable right to continued existence. e A species cannot be removed from an environment without a chain reaction through the whole ecosystem. A disappearing plant can take with it 10 — 30 species of dependent wildlife. Extinctions often signal the general ill health of the whole ecosystem. Unless we do something promptly, humans may soon start to feel the direct effects of these ex- tinctions. e Extinctions mean losing the diversity of genetic resources to respond to new problems E and fight old ones — a cure for cancer, a new breed of crop or a new source of fuel, may exist unrecognised in our forests, Habitat destruction. Habitat destruction is the alteration of an animal's living environment. Without a suitable place to shelter, feed and breed an animal will perish. Often these requirements are quite precise and unless the animal has just the right set of conditions it will not survive. Habitats are destroyed by forestry opera- tions, clearing for agriculture, pine planting, mining, and alteration of wetlands and alpine areas for tourist facilities. They are also disrupted in more insidious ways by pollution of underground water and streams, salinization, and the introduction of pesticides and heavy metals. Disruption also occurs when exotic species such as blackberries, carp, trout, feral cats or pigs are introduced. It is not enough to protect an animal from shooters or a wildflower from collection. These laws are only the beginning, as forestry operations and other exploitation cause the destruction of unique ecosystems, crucial -—- , ` ~ 7730431101 NI102 Mo Clearfelling native forest for pine planting. habitat and numerous rare species, on a frightening scale. If we are to protect our living natural inheritance we must give full legal protection to all threatened species, to their habitats and to significant plant communities, from direct and indirect threats to their survival. A guarantee for survival. Species of flora and fauna and significant plant communities need legal protection to guarantee their continued existence, The Conservation Council of Victoria plans the following action: e Assess the extent of protection of Victoria's significant plant communities and threatened species of flora and fauna. e Apply pressure for the reservation of ecosystems and habitats not currently adequately preserved. e Change the Wildlife Act to protect all the threatened wildlife from habitat destruction and indirect threats to their survival. e Change the Wildflowers and Native Plants Protection Act and the Forests Act to protect plant species and ecosystems from damage or extinction by environmental destruction. What you can do. e Send a letter to the Premier Mr John Cain, the Hon Evan Walker (Minister for Conservation, 240 Victoria Parade, East Melbourne), and your local member of parliament supporting the ALP's policy on habitat protection and calling for the adoption of the measures outlined above. e Become a volunteer helper with the Conservation Council of Victoria. e Donate funds to the Conservation Council of Victoria to allow us to continue our work on this campaign. e Become an individual supporter of the CCV ($10 per year or $5 concession). As an individual supporter you will receive Environment Victoria bi-monthly and be entitled to a discount of 10% on all books sold at the Victoria Environment Centre. “The ultimate resource is the biota — there is no other; and we are destroying it”. George M. Woodwell, Biologist.