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U.B.C. LIBRARY

THE LIBRARY

I HE UNIVERSITY OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA *

ACCOUNT

OF THE

SYSTEMS OF HUSBANDRY

ADOPTED IN THE MORE IMPROVED DISTRICTS
OP

SCOTLAND.

Digitized by tine Internet Archive

in 2010 witin funding from

University of British Columbia Library

http://www.archive.org/details/accountofsystemsOOsinc

ACCOUNT

Oi? THE

SYSTEMS OF HUSBANDRY

ADOPTED IN THE MORE IMPROVED DISTRICTS

OF

SCOTLAND;

WITH

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE IMPROVEMENTS OF
WHICH THEY ARE SUSCEPTIBLE.

DRAWN UP FOR THE CONSIDERATION OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, WITH A

VIEW OF EXPLAINING HOW FAR THOSE SYSTEMS ARE APPLICABLE TO

THE LESS CULTIVATED PARTS IN ENGLAND, AND SCOTLAND.

BT THE RIGHT HONOURABLE

Sir JOHN SINCLAIR, Bart.

PRESIDENT OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

" Knowledge is poxver." Bacon.

EDINBURGH :

I'lUNTED FOR ARCH. CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH ;

C. St W. NICOL, BOOKSELLERS TO HIS MAJESTY, PALL-MALL, AND

LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME & BROWN, LONDON ;

AND JOHN GUMMING, DUBLIN,

By Abernethy & Walker.

ISl'J.

ADVERTISEMENT.

I HAVE at length the satisfaction of laying before
the Public, an Account of the Systems of Husban-
dry adopted in the more improved districts of
Scotland. It was drawn up at the request of a
most respectable friend, (Sir Joseph Banks), who
thought, that such an investigation, would be bene-
ficial to the agricultural interests of the united king-
dom ; and he urged, that it was incumbent upon a
native of Scotland, while presiding at the Board
of Agriculture, and possessing all the means of in-
formation which that situation afforded, to under-
take the task. Being occupied with many other
avocations, nothing but the respect which I enter-
tain for the opinion of so zealous a friend to im-
provement, could have induced me to engage in
so arduous an attempt. Indeed the labour and dif-
ficulties attending it, have gone far beyond every
idea I could have formed of them. To execute

VI ADVERTISEMENT.

the task in a satisfactory manner, it seemed to me
necessary, personally to examine several of the more
iinproved districts in Scotland, to converse with the
farmers in their own fields, to explain to them dis-
tinctly, not only the general objects I had in view,
but also the particular facts I wished to ascertain ;
and to obtain from them, not hasty answers, to ques-
tions suddenly put, but details, maturely consider-
ed, and carefully drawn up. The reader has now an
opportunity of examining the result of the whole
investigation. The Author claims the merit only of
collecting, condensing, and digesting, the impor-
tant information which was most liberally furnish-
ed. The credit of the knowledge which this Work
may contain, belongs entirely to the intelligent
and public-spirited Farmers from whom that infor-
mation has been derived.

I trust that there are several observations con-
tained in this Work, which will prove of service in
those districts of England, where the cultivation of
arable land, owing to the attention of the farmer ha-
ving been principally directed to the management
of grass land, to the profits of the dairy, and to
the breeding of stock, has hitherto been but a se-
condary object. At the same time, it has been my
wish, to make this Treatise useful also to the far-

ADVERTISEMENT. VII

mers of Scotland ; and for that purpose, I have in-
corporated a variety of hints, which attention to
EngUsh Husbandr}^, and the communications of
many respectable correspondents in the southern
part of the united kingdom, liave enabled me to
suggest.

I cannot submit this work to the consideration
of the Public, without congratulating my country,
on the anxious desire to obtain agricultural know-
ledge, which now so universally prevails in every
part of the united kingdom. Indeed, when I con-
sider that zeal for improvement, and that thirst
for useful information, by which the British Isles,
are, at this period of time, so peculiarly distin-
guished, I cannot entertain a doubt, that Agricul-
ture will soon reach a degree of excellence in this
country, which it has never hitherto attained in
any other ; and that the merit of discovering the
most effectual m.eans, " of providing food for mariy''
the first of all political objects, will, in future ages,
be attributed, to the skill, the abilities, and the
enterprise of British Farmers.

JOHN SINCLAIR.

Charlotte
2ith

Square. Edinburgh, \
February 1812. >

CONTENTS.

Page.
Iniroduction. — Of the various circumstances which have

contributed to the excellence of Scottish Hiisbandri/, and

an explanation of the plan of the xwrk, » . 1

PART I.

Chap. I. — On the points which require attention,

PREVIOUS TO the COMMENCEMENT OF ARABLE CUL-
TURE, .-.---

9

Sect. 1. Position of the farm-house and offices, - ib.

— — 2. The best construx^tion of a farm-house and offices^ 12

3. Size and shape offields^ - - - 26

4. Offences, . ... 40

I 5. Of draining, _ - - - 47

i 6. Of the roads on a farm, and its neighbourhood, - 58

7. Of instruments of husbandry, - - 66

8. Of live stock, . . - - 97

9. Of the soil, the climate, the elevation and exposure,

and the situation of a farm in regard to markets, 136

Conclusion of the chapter, - •* - - 139

X CO>: TENTS.

Page.
Ghap II Of the particulars connected with the

ACTUAL CULTIVATION OF AN ARABLE FARM, AND THE
MOST ADVANTAGEOUS MEANS OF MAINTAINING ITS
STOCK, . - - , . 141

Sect. 1. Ofridgingy . , _ . 14,2

2. Manuring, - - - - IST

3. Ploughingy - - _ - . 195

4;. Fallowing, - - - - 215

5. Crops usually cultivated in Scotland, - 239

6. Rotation qfcropSf - . - 287

7. Smvingy - - - - 318

8. Weeding, - - - - 326

9. Harvesting grain, . - . 328

10. Preparing the grain for the market, - S40

11. Soiling or feeding stock 'with cut green food, 342

— — 12. On the propriety of having part of a farm in per-
manent padure, _ - - 368

1 3. On the best mode of making hay, - - 395

CONCLUSION OF PART I.

1. General view of the improved system cf husbandry in
Scotland, ... - - 408

2. Improvements of ivhich the husbandry of Scotland is suS'
ceptibh, ' - - - ' 421

3. On the means of disseminating the Scotch system of hus-
bandry, in the less iynproved districts of England and
Scotland, a?id on the public and private advantages thence

I0 be derived, . _ . . 423

CONTENTS. XI

ADDENDA.

Paga,
No. I. On the advantages of feeding cattle xmtk potatoes

and turnipSf - . _ {

II. Oti the cidture of rape^ instead of a naked faU

loiK, . - , . 3

III. On folding sheep, and feeding them tvith turnips, 4>
IV. Particular description of Mx C. Alexander's

dung-pit, - . _ 6

V. On the destruction of grubs and caterpillars, 9

VI. On the advantages of a reapiyig machine, - 13

VII. Account of Mr Hunter of Tynefield^ s system of

farming, .... 14.

PART IL

Dissertation I. — On the size of farms, and on the

VARIOUS MODES OF OCCUPYING ALLOTMENTS OF LAND,
FOR FARMING, AND OTHER PURPOSES OF A SIMILAR

NATURE, - ~ - - - S

1. Small farms or inferior occupations, - - 5

2. Dairy farms, - - - - - IG

3. Farms adjoining to totvns, - - - 22

4. Clay-land arable farms, - - - 29

5. Turnip-land arable farrtis, - - » 32

6. Commercialfarms, - - . - SS

7. Pasture farms, - - - - - ib.

8. Farms for occujyation or amusement, - - 34<
©. Farms of experiment arid picblic utility, - - ih.

Xll CONTiNXS.

Page.
Dissertation II. — Of the circumstances connect-
ed WITH the establishment OF A LIBERAL SYSTEM
OF CONNEXION BETWEEN THE LANDLORD AND TE-
NANT, - - - - . . 59

1. On the capital necessary to carry on Jarming opera-

tionSy - - - - - 61

2. On the expence and profit qfjarming^ - - 71

3. On the proportion of produce to be exacted as rent, and

on the mode of payment, _ _" . 82

i. On the advantages of leases, their duration, and the

covenants to be inserted in them, - - 92

Dissertation III. — Of the various description of

PERSONS employed IN AGRICULTURAL LABOUR, IN

THE more improved districts OF SCOTLAND, - IIS

1. The farmers, - - - - - ib.

2. Farm-servants^ - - - - Hg

3. Apprentices in husbandry, - - - 1 49

4. Day-labourers, - - . - . j^q

APPENDIX.

No. I. Oj various circumstances which have indirectly
contributed to the excellence of Scotch husban-
dry, - - - . i
II. Hints regarding the improvement of xmste lands, 6

CONTENTS. XIU

Page.

No. III. Letter Jrom George Frederick Stratton, Esq. to
Sir John Sinclair^ Bart, explaining the origin
and progress of the introduction of the Scotch
system of husbandry on his estates in Oxford-
shire, - - - - - 15

IV. On the necessity of an act of parliament to encou-

rage draining, - - - 32

V. Proofs of the unfavourable idea entertained by

British statesmen, of the ability of this country
to raise a sufp.ciency of grain for its ovon con-
sumption, Sfc. - - - - 35

VI. Account of James Small, and of his improve-

ments in the construction of agricultural im-
plements, - - - - Si

VII. Descriptio7i of a machine for dressing (hum-

bling) barley or bear, - - 48

VIII. On the manufacture of pot or pearl barley, ,^Q

IX. Account of sea-voeed being exhibited to cotvs by

xvay of condiment, - - 53

X. Account of a simple steaming apparatusfor cook-

ing roots or other fodder, foor live stock, 54-

XI. List of the intelligent formers from uchose com-

munications this work has been principally
drawn up, - - - - 57

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

1. The Berwickshire hammels, ' - • 65

2' Explanation of the engraving of the steaming apparatus, ib.

3. Description (f an iron jilough, - - 66

Index, .-.-,, 67

AN ACCOUNT

OF THE

HUSBANDRY OF SCOTLAND,

MORE ESPECIALLY AS PRACTISED

IN

ITS BEST CULTIVATED DISTRICTS.

INTRODUCTION

Of the various circumstances "johich have contributed to the
excellence of Scottish Husbandry/, and an explanation of
the Plan of the Work.

~0 EFORE giving any explanation of the plan of the fol-
lowing work, it may not be improper, briefly to point
out those causes, which have principally contributed to the
excellence of Scottish Husbandry, as practised in its more
improved districts, several of which, however, are not to be
considered as applicable only to the northern part of the
kingdom.

1. Though the climate of Scotland,- is in general rather
unfavourable to cultivation, (a disadvantage which the
Scotcii farmers have assiduously, and often successfully en-
deavoured to counteract), yet the country, on the whole,
enjoys several natural advantages of considerable import-
fince. Its maritime situation, and its numerous bays and

r. I. A

Z INTKODUCTIOX.

arms of the sea, togetlicr with the lakes aiid streams with
which it is so amply provided, not only tend to promote its
commerce, but are also favourable to its agriculture. It is
also largely furnished with those essential requisites for im-
provement, limestone and marie ; and it possesses, in most
of its districts, that most important article, fuel, in consider-
able quantities.

2. Owing to the establishment of parochial schools, the
farmers of Scotland had, in general, all the advantages of
a good education, and having acquired a taste for reading,
were not only fond of perusing works on agriculture, but
were anxious to avail themselves of any information they
might thus obtain. Hence the culture of artificial grasses,
and the best mode of applying them by means of soiling,
with various other useful practices, spread rapidly over the
whole country. Numbei^ of Scotch farmers also, were ac-
customed to travel, with a view of acquiring useful infor-
mation, and of comparing their own practices with those of
other districts *.

3. Many of the proprietors of land in Scotland, who
were distinguished by the acquisition of useful, rather than
of showy accomplishments, took a delight in rural occupa-
tions ; and, in various districts, now under a complete sys-
tem of husbandry, they either improved their estates them-
selves, or encouraged their tenants to exertion, estabhshing
for that purpose a most liberal system of connexion between
the two classes.

* An intelligent farmer once remarked to me, tliat lie de-
rived more advantage, by travelling about to see tbe improvements
of others, than by attempting to make discoveries of his own. Al-
most every Scotch farmer has travelled through his own county,
and some of the neighbouring ones ; many have visited England,
and some have even penetrated into Flanders, for the express pur-
pose of obtaining agricultural information.

INTRODUCTION. vg

4. It became a custom in Scotland, at an early period,
to grant leases for an adequate term of years, without the
possession of which, no material improvement, 07i the part
of the tenant, can possibly be expected ; and to that circum-
stance, perhaps more than to any other, is the excellence
of Scottish husbandry to be attributed. Indeed, extensive
improvements, have not taken place in any part of England,
but where the same custom has prevailed. In regard to
the granting of leases, nothing can be more ill judged, than
for a landlord, both to neglect his immediate interests, and
to prevent the future improvement of his estate, in order to
procure a little political influence, which a generous proprie-
tor can always command, when he may have occasion for it,
without keeping his tenants in a state of slavish dependence.

5. In many parts of England, where estates are possess-
ed by tenants for life, or under the fetters of a trust, it is
questionable, whether leases of a considerable endurance
can be granted, or whether old pastures, though in extent
beyond any real advantage to the estate, can be broken up :
whereas in Scotland, even when land is under a perpetual
and strict entail, leases may be granted for thirty-one years,
and upwards, without any unnecessary restrictions against
arable cultivation, and the tenant is enabled to do every
thing that the proprietor could have done himself, had he
retained possession of the land *.

* The act 10. Geo. Ill, c. 51, A. D. 1770, introduced by the
late Sir James Montgomery, is favourable to the improvement of
entailed property. By that statute it is enacted, that every pro-
prietor of an entailed estate, who shall lay out money in inclosing,
planting, draining, or in erecting farm-houses and offices for the
same, shall be a creditor to the succeeding heirs of entail, for
three-fourths of the money laid out, provided that the amount
claimed, shall not exceed four years' free rent of the estate, at the
first term of Whitsunday, after the demise of the heir who ex-

a2

4< INTRODUCTION.

6. The inferioi* capitals of the Scotch farmers, when
their improved s^^stem of husbandry commenced, rendered
it necessary for them, to study economy in the management
of their farms, to cultivate their lands with fewer horses,
with cheaper implements, and with a smaller number of
servants j and hence originated a system of management,
distinguished by two important advantages, economi/ and
simplicity.

7. In the more improved districts of Scotland, the farms
are in general of a pi'oper size for arable culture. Small
lots are beneath the attention of an opulent and intelligent
farmer. Much time is lost in the cultivation of small farms,
and the comparative expence is much greater, where the
servants and cattle have not constant occupation ; whereas,
with a farm of a proper size, (the extent of which will be
the subject of future discussion *), every hour may be ad-
vantageously employed.

8. Soon after improvements began, the rents of lands
were progressively increased, without the spur of which,

pended the money. The expence of building or repairing the
mansion-house or offices, becomes also a debt against the heir of
entail, to the amount of three-fourths of the money expended, if
the claim does not exceed two years' free rent. It may, however,
be necessary to observe, that certain formalities are required i&
be attended to, in expending the money, and constituting it a debt
against the heirs of entail. By this statute, which is entitled, an
act " for encouraging the improvement of land in Scotland, held
under settlements of strict entail," it is lawful for the proprietor
to let leases for 31 years, or for 14 years and one existing life, or
for two existing lives, under certain conditions as to inclosing, if
let for longer than 19 years; and proprietors may let building
leases, of not more than five acres' extent, under certain conditions^,
for any period not exceeding £)9 years.

* See Dissertation I, Part II, On the Size of Farms.

INTRODUCTION. 0

neither industry in cultivation, nor economy in manage-
ment, can be generally expected. Oppressive and sudden
additions ought certainly to be avoided ; but without a fair
income for his land, no proprietor ought to part with a
control over his estate, more especially for so long a period
as nineteen or thirty-one years. A tenant, on the other
hand, who obtains a lease of some duration, and on liberal
terms in regard to covenants, can well afford a reasonable
augmentation, either at once, or at different periods of his
lease, on a rent that was previously moderate.

9. It was a circumstance peculiarly favourable to the
improvement of Scotland, that the farmers in general,
were liable to no material burden, but their rent to the
landlord, by whom the land-tax, and the stipend to the
clergyman, since 1633, have been generally paid *. Where-
ever there is any uncertainty in regard to the sums to be
exacted, (more especially if tlie burden increases with the
industry exerted), no farmer will attempt any expensive
improvement. Hence one of the advantages of a recent
law', by which the servitude of thirlagef or bondage to any
particular mill, may be legally commuted. The personal
services also, to which the Scotch peasantry were, at one
time, subjected, and which were often indefinite, are now
almost entirely exploded.

10. A considerable proportion of the most fertile land
in England, until bills of division and inclosure were in-

* One half of the parochial schoolmaster's salary is paid by
the tenantry, together with one-half of the expence of maintain-
ing the poor. This, however, is a trifling object, as the expence
of supporting the poor is chiefly defrayed by vokintary collec-
tions at church on Sundays. The Scotch farmers are also liable
in payment of the property tax, and either to statute labour, or
road assessmertts.

§ INTRODUCTION.

troduced, (which have in some degree alleviated the eviJ,
though not to the extent that could be wished for), was
actually debarred from improvement, by the common-field
system ; whereas in the more improved districts of Scot-
land, owing to a general Bill of Inclosure passed by the
Scotch Parliament in 1695, every farm, for many years
past, has been a distinct possession, or been held in seve-
ralty.

1 1 . The expence of labour in Scotland, does not differ
materially from that of several extensive districts in Eng-
land ; and the day-labourers in that country, certainly
execute as much work, within the same period of time, as
those in Scotland ; but the servarits employed in husbandry
in Scotland, are in general more tractable, are satisfied
with homelier fare, have fewer perquisites, are less accus-
tomed to waste their time and their wages unprofitably,
are more regular and constant in their hours of labour,
have commonly received a better education, and thence
are less addicted to debauchery, or to any irregularity of
conduct.

12. In Scotland, the laws are favourable to cultivation
and improvement, a circumstance to which the excellence
of the Scotch husbandry is greatly to be attributed. Re-
gulations exist, which facilitate the division of commons
and of common fields ; fences erected between two dis-
tinct estates, are made at the joint expence of the owners ;
the value of the tithes of any estate, can be fixed by the de-
cision of the supreme court of justice, and when once fixed
by a legal valuation, and converted into what may be called
fl corn-rcntj the amount cannot afterwards be increased.
The possessor of any estate can, in general, exone-
rate his property, from all indefinite demands upon it, of
a feudal nature ; leases are interpreted, by the courts of
law, favourably to the tenant ; and the occupiers of land,

INTRODUCTION. T

in general, are not subjected to any arbitrary burdens, un-
der the name of Poor-rates *.

13. The establishment of banks, and the extension of
paper money, have certainly materially contributed to the
improvement of Scotland f . Enterprising farmers have
thus been supplied, when necessary, with aid to carry on
their operations, and have obtained a better price, and a
readier payment, for their commodities j — no small in-
ducements to exertion. Where the public banks, or
their branches, also, are established, the savings of the
prudent and economical farmer, have not only been safely
deposited, and borne an interest of from 3 to 4? per cent.f
but were always ready at his command.

14. In the last place, the character of the Scots, indus-
trious, economical, intelligent, and persevering, and their
habits of life suited to their national character, would na-
turally enable them to reach a considerable degree of ex-
cellence, in any art or science, to which their attention
might be pecuharly directed.

Other causes, as will appear in the course of the follow-
ing investigation, may have also contributed to the im-
proved state of Scotch Husbandry ; but these circumstan-
ces combined, will, it is believed, sufficiently explain, why
that system should have reached a considerable degree of
perfection, aud may, in various respects, be accounted a
pattern for other districts, similarly situated, in so far as
regards arable cultivation.

In regard to the plan proposed to be adopted in the

* I say in general, for there are exceptions to this rule in seve-
ral of the southern counties.

t The celebrated Sir James Steuart, in his Political Economy,
(last edit. vol. iii, p. 197), says, " To the banks of Scotland the
improvement of that country is entirely owing,*' Without going
so far, it may be safely asserted, that to the improvement of Scot-
land they have materially contributed.

INTRODUCTION.

prosecution of this important inquiry, it is intended to di-
vide the -work into two parts.

Piirt I. will be purely practical, detailing,^rs^, the best
practices of the most distinguished Scotch farmers, regard-
ing those points which require attention, previous to the
commencement of arable culture ; and, secondly^ those par-
ticulars will be discussed, which are connected with the ac^
tual cultivation of an arable farm, and the most profitable
means of maintaining its stock. It is proposed to conclude
this part of the work with, 1. A general view of the im-
proved Systems of Husbandry adopted in Scotland ; 2. An
account of the improvements of which those systems are
susceptible; and, 3. Some observations on the means by
which the useful practices of the best Scotch farmers, may
be most advantageously disseminated throughout the less
improved districts of England and Scotland ; together with
a general view, of the public and private advantages which
may be derived from their more general adoption.

There are some questions, however, connected with the
husbandry of Scotland, and with the improvement of that
country, which are rather of a more abstruse nature, the
explanation of which requires a good deal of research,
and much reflection thoroughly to comprehend -, in par-
ticular, the size of farms, and the establishment of a liberal
system of connexion between the landlord and tenant.
These are points, therefore, (together with the characters
of those who are employed in agricultural labour, in the
more improved districts of Scotland), which it is thought
more advisable to place in a distinct division of the work,
(Part II.), and to discuss in separate dissertations.

In an Appendix will be stated, some particulars connect-
ed with the improvement of Waste Lands in Scotland,
(a subject to which the public attention cannot be too fre-
quently called), and several other points, respecting which,
the author trusted, that the information he had to com-
municate, would be acceptable to tlie public.

PART I.

CHAPTER I.

ON THE POINTS WHICH REQUIRE ATTENTION, PREVIOUS
TO THE COMMENCEMENT OF ARABLE CULTURE.

T> EFORE a farmer commences the actual cultivation of
an arable farm, there are several particulars which
will require his attention, as, 1. The position of the Farm-
House and Offices j 2. Their Construction; 3. The Size of
the Fields j 4<. The mode of Fencing ; 5. The Draining
necessary ; 6. The Roads on the Farm ; 7. The Instru-
ments of Husbandry ; 8. The Live Stock ; and, 9. The
Soil, the elevation and exposure, the climate, and the si-
tuation of the farm in regard to markets. It is propos-
ed to discuss each of these points, as briefly as their im-
portance will admit of, in separate sections.

Sect. I. — Position of the Fann-Hotise and Offices.-

The first point that any judicious farmer would resolve
to ascertain, in regard to any farm he would wish to oc-
cupy, (more especially if it were of considerable extent,
namely, from 300 to 500, or 1000 acres), would be, whe-
ther the farm-house and offices were properly situateil.

10 POSITION OF THE FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES.

and erected as nearly as possible in the centre of the farm.
In many cases this would make a difference in point of
rent of from 1 s. to even 5 s. per acre, according to the
size of the farm, and various local circumstances therewith
connected. The difference is calculated, by some intelligent
farmers, at the expencc of a plough, or L. 100, and on very
extensive farms at nearly L. 200 pei- atmtim *. If the house
and offices are placed in the comer of a large farm, a part
of the land will often be neglected by the farmer j less ma-
nure will be sent to it ; the expence of cultivation is ma-
terially increased ; the horses have their strength uselessly
wasted in going backwards and forwards, and the remote
part of the farm is left in what in Scotland is called an
outfield or after-itall state, that is to say, in miserable pas-
turage occasionally broken up.

In the improved districts of Scotlaml, this is a point as
much attended to as the circumstances of the case admit
of, more especially when any new buildings are construct-
ed t- How different from that state of feudal barbarism.

* Mr Walker of Mellendean states, that the old farm-boildings
on his farm of Rutherford, before he got possession of it, were plac-
ed on the very extremities of the ground, and the acclivity from
them being considerable, the upper part of the land of course got a
very small share (if any) of the manure. The principal buildings
are now nearly central, for 800 acres, and another set of offices
equally so for the remainder; by which means the corn iscarried
a much shorter distance to the barn-yard, and the dung to the
fields at much less expence. These, and other conveniences, he
calculates are equal to a saving of nearly L. 200 per annum.

f It is remarked by an intelligent correspondent, that the farm-
buildin"S in the more improved districts of Scotland are in gene-
ral much more convenient than those to be met in almost any
other country ; and that in a large farm ihere is the difference
of at least the labour of one man throughout the year, between
a convenient and inconvenient set of offices.

POSITION OF THE FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 1 I

(which may still be found in some districts in England),
where all the farm-houses of a parish were collected into a
village, originally for the sake of mutual protection and
defence, and where all the neighbouring fields were culti-
vated in common.

There can only be one reason for not having the farm-
house and offices in a central position, and that is, when a
better command of water, for family use, for the farm
stock, or for driving a threshing-mill, can be had else-
where. Sometimes, also, wind cannot be commanded in
the centre for the use of a threshing-mill, by which a gi'eat
saving in the labour of horses might be obtained. These,
however, are only exceptions to the general rule j for it
may be laid down as an axiom in agriculture, ** That the
farm-house and offices ought to be placed, as nearly as iws"
sible, VI the centre of afarm^

Wliere the ch-cumstances of the case will admit of it, the
farm-house and offices should front the south, should be
sheltered from piercing winds, and the fold-yard should
enjoy the benefit of the morning sun in winter. The farm-
stead should be placed on an elevated situation. It is not
only healthier for the farmer, his family, and his servants,
but carts will bring home the corn in harvest time, with
least waste, when going up hill, and when empty they can
return to the harvest field, in very urgent cases, with a quick-
er step, which will much expedite the getting home and
securing the farm produce. The manure from tlie farm-
yard so situated, will all be conveyed down-hill to the fields
in the cheapest and most expeditious manner *.

* Remark by an intelligent correspondent. It must be ob-
served, that when the house is built on an elevated situation, the
farmer will have it in his power to see what i§ going on all afound
him.

12 CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES.

Sect. II. — The best Construction of a Farm-House and
Offices.

This is a most material point for the consideration both
of the farmer and of the landlord, and the rent to be paid
ought certainly in some measure to depend on the good-
ness of the accommodations with which the occupier is
provided. With convenient offices, it is evident that the
grain produced on the farm can be better preserved, and
more advantageously separated from the straw, and pre-
pared for market. The hve-stock also on the farm, can
be more easily and regularly fed ; and being thus kept in
better order, must consequently be fitter for their work,
or for the market. The propriety also of having suitable
accommodations for the farmer, his family and his ser-
vants, need not be dwelt upon. The expence of erecting
such buildings must be considerable when first laid out,
but no liberal landlord who has the sura requisite at his
command, will grudge to lay it out for the comfort and
advantage of an industrious tenant, who pays an adequate
rent *. Every convenience afforded to the farmer, for

* Even minutice may be of great consequence to a tenant ; for
instance, in the erection of barns, more especially if the walls are
rough, it is of importance to have a projecting stone or brick at
every aperture for the admission of air, to prevent the access of
vermin ; and in laying the foundation of barns, that material ob-
ject, the exclusion of vermin, ought ahvays to be kept in view.
If the foundation stones were regularly cut like bricks, and joint-
ed, it would prevent the possibility of vermin getting in at that
part of the building. But where it is the custom to have barns.

CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 13

enabling liitn to carry on his business with as little expence
and to as much advantage as possible, must indeed greatly
enhance the value of the farm, and will insure to the land-
lord, should he have occasion to seek for a new tenant,
abundance of competitors for a situation in these respects
so eligible.

Where convenience and utility are the objects princi-
pally attended to, it is recommended by an intelligent
agriculturist in Roxburghshire, who has had great ex-
perience in the erecting of such buildings, (Mr Walker of
Wooden,) to have the farm-house of three stories, the
kitchen-story half sunk. This makes the house itself
drier, as it is necessary to take such peculiar precautions
against dampness in the foundation, and less roofing will
furnish the farmer with the accommodations he may re-
quire. He adds, that he has made plans of farm-
houses, both of that construction, and with only two sto-
ries, having the kitchen and dairy behind ; but he
knows that the house of three stories gives most satisfac-
tion to the occupier. Others object to this plan, main-
taining, that though a half-sunk story may tend to make
the upper floor drier, yet that it is very apt to be damp
itself; that it likewise gives much more trouble to the mis-
tress of the house in superintendence ; and that the noise
from the kitchen is often disagreeable, more especially
when a number of servants assemble together in the even-
ing. Hence a wing or back jamb (or lesm-to, as it is called
in England), is preferred by many farmers *.

with floors of board, iiito which loaded waggons are admitted,
the exclusion of vermin is impossible.

* Opinions vary much regarding the proper construction of farm-
offices. JVlr Stewart of Hillhead is of opinion, that farmers who
occupy from 200 to 300 acres, or who have capitals from L. 1000
to L. 2000, ought to be satisfied with a double house of one

14) CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES'.

In regard to the expence of erecting new farm-steads, it
cannot be properly estimated, as the price of building, and
the expence of materials, vary in every district. In some
publications it is stated at from two and a half to three
years* rent of the farm. It is evident, that this can only
refer to farms of a small size. In larger occupations, when
the landlord receives a considerable rent, the allowance
must be higher.

Regarding farm-houses and offices, the following prin-
ciples ought to be kept in view, when such buildings are
to be erected.

1- The house and offices should be on a scale propor-
tionate to the si25e and produce of the farm, having utihty,
and not ornament, principally in view; though at the same
time, every landlord of taste, in fixing on the site and plan
of a new farm-house and offices, will certainly not totally

story, with garrets for various apartments ; which will afford con-
venient accommodation at a moderate expence. Captain Hender-
son of Aimster in Caithness, on the other hand, recommends a lean-
to back-jamb, or to-fall, as it is called in some parts of Scotland,
which furnishes as much accommodation, in the two lower flats,
as a double house, and at less expence. But Mr Wight of Or-
miston greatly prefers Mr Walker's plan of three stories, as bet-
ter than a house with a wing and back-jamb, which is neither $o
neat nor handsome, besides requiring a greater extent of building
and roofing in the first erection, and a greater extent of roofing to
keep up ever after. In the half sunk story, dampness can cer-
tainly be excluded, and the noise of the kitchen can also be shut
out, either by proper deafening, or by removing the kitchen to that
end of the house least occupied by the family. Mr Walker of
]&Iellendean is decidedly of opinion, that in a dry situation, the
same conveniences can be had at much less expence in a house
with a sunk story, than in one with wings, and he has accord-
ingly erected of that construction one on his farm at Ruther-
ford.

CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 15

overlook the embellishment of the country. Not only the
original cost, but the very expence of keeping unnecessary
buildings in repair, is a heavy burden upon any property,
which it is for the interest both of the landlord and of the
tenant to avoid. The house and offices should afford am-
ple convenience to the farmer in carrying on his business*
On the other hand, all superfluous buildings, and useless
decorations, ougijt to be avoided •, for, as Dr Coventry
has well observed, durable economy should be preferred to
shifting taste *. Nothing can be more absurd than the
enormous barns usually attached to all the great flirms in
England. Grain in the straw keeps infinite^ better in the
open air than in close barns -, it is less apt to be destroyed
by vermin, and saves the enormous expence of construct-
ing and repairing great barns. Threshing-mills, when ge-
nerally introduced, will soon prove the absurdity of erect-
ing such unnecessary buildings.

2. The accommodations necessary for preparing the grain
for market ought never to be too scrimp. The threshing-
barn, for instance, must be sufficiently spacious to contain
one stack of grain in the straw, in case of an unfavourable
season. In good weather, it is the common practice to
take in the corn when it is threshed, in which case no more
room is necessary than to hold the machineiy, and the peo-
ple employed to manage it. The straw-barn, as recom-
mended by Mr Walker of Wooden, should be so large as
to pile up the straw of two stacks when threshed, so tliat a
considerable quantity of straw may always be kept in good
order for fodder. Indeed, the straw-barn ought to be so
contrived, as to keep different kinds of straw^ separate,
at least separately accessible, for fodder, and for litter, as
bean or pease haulm, the straw of white corn, &c. Where
cattle are fed on straw, (which it would be better to dis-

* Si;e Discourses on Agriculture, p. ,5.

Id CONSTRUCTION ot A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFItES.

pense with, if richer food, as will afterwards be explained,
could be provided for them), the farmer would otherwise
bo obliged to thresh more frequently than he would wish
to do. There ought to be a granary adjacent to the barn,
in which the grain, when threshed, may be put, the lower
part of which will furnish space for a cart-shed, which
ought to be large enough to hold two carts for every
plough.

3. In regard to the size of the stables, cow-houses, and
feeding-sheds, much must depend on the manner in which
the farm is occupied ; as to the feeding-sheds, in particu-
lar, whether it is most advantageous to rear young cattle
for the grazier, or to fatten older stock for the butcher ;
but it is a rule that ought never to be departed from, not
to stint them in point of space, but to give the stock ample
accommodation *. Where horses are kept in stalls, Mr

* Mr Shirreft's observations upon this subject are well entitled
to attention. He thinks that all horses so heavy and large that
two are capable of drawing a plough, ought to have divided stalls,
at least five feet wide each, that they may lie at ease ; and every
horse feed separately, and, if he choose, that he may feed leisurely^
whatever be his provender. The stalls may slope, say one-eighth
of an inch to the foot ; from the bottom of the wall, below the
manger to the gutter, which may be ten feet from that wall, and
two feet from the back part of the division. There ought to be
five feet for'a thoroughfare between the gutter, and the other side-
wall, behind the horses. The length of the stall will admit of a
hroad-bottomcd manger, for holding clover and other green her-
bage for soiling. Tlie racks will not hold enough of this fodder,
and its weight compresses it so much, that the horses cannot,
without difficirlty, draw it out. Green herbage should be divided
between the manger and lack, when working horses are foddered
xjp for the night. Stables in which horses are soiled, ought to
have openings in the roof, for allowing the heated air to escape

CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 17

Brown of Markle is of opinion that five feet of room in
breadth is required, to give each hoi'se comfortable ac-
commodation, and that the stable ought not to be less
than eighteen feet wide, upon the supposition that the
horses all stand with their heads to the wall, which is the

in hot weather, and which can be shut in cold. The width will
allow of shelves and pins for the furniture of each pair of horses,
immediately behind their stalls.

Cattle in general have by far too little room. Working oxen,
large feeding cattle stalled, and milch cows, should have stalls
four feet wide, or even more, and as long as those of horses.
Were all these animals fed separately, they would no doubt thrive
much better than when they are fed in common. Cattle should be
foddered at the head, and littered and cleaned from behind. They
should stand single, unless they are of the same age, and have
been bred together. Cattle suffer much from being huddled to-
getlier, and stewed close up in a low-roofed cow-house in winter,
particularly milch cows, more especially if sent out to drink cold
water in frosty weather when in a heated state. The urine of
both cattle and horses should be carefully collected, by means of
retentive gutters, into reservoirs, and carried out and regularly-
sprinkled over the surface of the dunghill. Much valuble manure
is lost by neglecting to have these accommodations erected along
with the buildings in which the stock is to be kept.

Where economy must be attended to, separate stalls may be
objected to on account of the ex pence : in that case a pair of
work-horses mai/ be accommodated in a space of sixteen feet by
eight, leaving room for bringing them their food and litter, and
carrying away the dung. Cows require nearly the same room
in the breadth of the cow-house, but usually stand much closer
together j so that on the average six feet may serve two cows for
the above purposes, where the breed is not large. In many feed-
ing houses for cattle, for the convenience of feeding at the head,
there are holes left in the wall, with shutters, to allow of putting
in the food.

r. I. B

18 CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES.

custom for farm-horses in all stables recently built. In this
way the access is easy in the longest stable, both for remo-
ving the dung, and supplying the horses with provender.
With respect to cattle, he adds, that it requires three feet
eight inches to give due room to a bullock of 45 stone
Amsterdam weight ; and if the house is fifteen feet in
breadth, or at the most sixteen feet, cattle may not only
be comfortably accommodated, but full access permitted
to supply them with food, and remove their dung. Many
cattle houses are not made more than fourteen feet in wide-
ness, some of them even less ; but fifteen feet may, on the
whole, be considered as a very proper size.

4. It is maintained by some, that the farmer should have
a view, from a window in that room where he usually
sits, of what is going forward in the farm-yard*, the very
idea of which, it is said, keeps the servants in awe, and
may often prevent negligence and depredations. It is cer-
tainly desirable, that the farmer should be able to com-
mand a view of the other parts of the farm from the win-
dows of his house, if a situation sufficiently elevated for
that purpose can be obtained.

5. The house should be situated at a moderate distance
from the offices, say from twenty to forty yards. "When
in the line of the square, the farmer and his family are dis-
tressed with the unwholesome vapours of the dunghill,
which arc also extremely unfavourable to the keeping of
provisions.

6. It is of great importance to have cither a pavement,
or a good road, all around the farm-yard and dung-pit.
Farmers sufier more than is commonly imagined, by Iia-

• It is known thai a Jai nicr has ou every door a. large patcli,
painted of a diflerent colour, as while upon black, or black upon
wbitp, that he may see ut a distance when any of them happen to
he open.

CONSTRUCTION OF A FAnM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 19

ving their carts and cattle straggling in farm-yards through
piles of straw and dung, where this is neglected.

7. It is highly expedient to raise the party walls above
the roofs of the offices, to prevent the communication of
fire, more especially where the offices are thatched.

8. It is also desirable to have two reservoirs for urine. As
soon as one is ftill, it should remain in that state till it becomes
putrid, previous to its being taken away, and the other in
the mean time may be filling. This plan is strongly recom-
mended by Mr Allan of Craigcrook, near Edinburgh. It
is likewise proper, in order that the urine may be as strong
as possible *, and to prevent an accumulation of wet, that
the buildings should not admit water to go inwards from
the roof, at least in wet climates, but that where water is
likely to be too abundant, it should be taken away by spouts
and drains f .

8. It is evident that the access to the house and offices
should be as commodious as possible. The road should be

* It has been remarked, that urine may be too strong, unless
it is diluted ; and that if it is kept too stale, some of the most
valuable parts of it may evaporate. There is certainly no better
mode of applying urine, than to mix it, as soon as possible, with
peat, or if that cannot be had, with fine earth, or straw, tanners
bark, or saw-dust.

t It is said, that where abundance of litter is given in the yards,
it hardly ever happens that too much wet gets to thera, and that
there is sometimes a want of moisture in dry winters. There
must, in this respect, be a diversity in practice, between tlie east-
ern and the western districts of the kingdom. On the eastern
coasts, the water that falls from the roofs may be required for the
litter, though it would be much better to saturate it with urine, ami
to take great pains in collecting it for that purj)ose. In dry sea-
sons, on the coast, sea-water may be used with great advantage.

b2

20 CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES.

kept in good order. The corners of the garden and in-
closures to be rounded instead of square, by which, owing
to the great facility of turning, many accidents may be pre-
vented, injurious both to the carts and to the cattle.

9. A command of water is essential ; it is desirable,
therefore, that the house should be situated near some
river or stream-, but if that cannot be obtained, ponds and
wells, and the means of conveying water by troughs to the
feeding-houses, both for horses and cattle, and to the dairy,
should be constructed. Nothing can be more injurious to
stock, than to compel them to drink at ponds, the water of
which is not perfectly salubrious A bore, made according
to Elkington's plan, would in general raise water to supply
any part of the offices.

11. As an appendage to farm-houses, a kitchen garden
is of infinite importance, and may be more profitable to
the occupier, than any part of his farm of the same size.
This is certainly less essential, since potatoes, turnips, and
other articles have been cultivated in the fields; but still it
\s expedient for a farmer, to have a garden for other arti-
cles ; to enable him also to try experiments, with new
plants, on a small scale; to train up his rising family to an
attention to such objects, and to furnish his table with
small domestic luxuries, which no farmer would be willing
to purchase, if he can procure them at home.

In conformity to these principles, the annexed sketch
has been drawn up, pointing out the proper position of a
farm-house and offices, accompanied by the plan of a farm,
whether the soil be of a strong or of a light description ;
and explaining the rotations adopted, according to the
most improved systems of Scotch husbandry.

It would be entering into too wide a field to dwell on
the various offices necessary for the accommodation of a
large farmer, more especially as that subject is very fully
detailed in a valuable paper, printed in the Communica-

I

'I,MIM H't)0^:&i ^Yu OTTl^'S^ .

Fnrm j^onri

WS.\

■iSJ

1 riff S'tifs tiiu/ Tard.

2 Foultrt'JIoiise euid Tm-d

S> /he- r/.nt>h;i,/'<Ufr ?.

IT:'!

.T^«^^,i^<^*A«A>L

r/ir nbmr are tlu- nmst /mMtiMi- Svjtnm- ot'rnli:llmi riMui-ii: Sf,mo£,UN/ ,ir in Tmm/tZimd IWin.^, Iwl it/im llir L ,iml i.! mil /v. // //. v
j imghlwiirhoocfot'tlimi,, it n-ill he neee/s,iry to linve one or lu',\ veiirs paslw-e ii/ler f/ir Cloiei: to iiimie an aJ>imi/ant erop of Oi,l,<.

, the iiiimeit,,,/,

CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 21

tions to the Board of Affriculture *, and will be fully ex-
plained in the General Report on the Agricultural State
of Scotland, now preparing to be laid by the Board of
Agriculture before his Majesty, and both Houses of Par-
liament. But it may be necessary to dwell on two points :
1. The construction of convenient places for feeding cat-
tle, for the purpose both of consuming the turnips and the
straw raised on the farm, and for converting the surplus
straw into dung •, and, 2. On the best plan of a stack-yard.

In regard to the feeding cattle, three plans have been
suggested for that purpose : The first is to feed them in
large open yards ; the second, in feeding-houses ; and the
third, in small open sheds, or what, in Berwickshire, are
called Hammels or HemmelSi with separate straw-yards at-
tached to each.

The plan of fold-yards is certainly the cheapest, being
in general formed by the offices which afford shelter to the
cattle J but where a number of animals, of all sorts and
ages, are suffered to mingle together, many accidents must
happen, and the cattle must often be injured, by going
through a yard full of straw and dung, and often very deep,
in which they are apt to sink f , and by master cattle pre-

* See a paper on Farm-buildings in general, bj' Robert Beat-
son, Esq. Communications to the Board of Agriculture, v. i. p. 3.
But by far tbe best plan of a farm-house and offices hitherto pu-
blished, is to be found in Mr Kerr's valuable report of Berwick-
shire. It is founded on actual experience, and comprehends every
convenience essential to the accommodation of a large farmer.

t This is often the case, though in well-regulated farms the duns
is never suffered to remain in the court or fold-yard, but is carried
out before it becomes so rotten that the cattle can sink in it.
This is sometimes done in wet weather, that the dung may have,
sufficient moisture to make it ferment, but is better done in frosty
weather, when more can be carried in each cart, and the lields
are less liable to be poached.

22 CONSTRUCTION OF A FAHM-HOUSE AND OFFICES.

venting the others from feeding. Though this plan might
answer for young cattle, where divisions are made by walls
or hurdles, yet it would never answer for feeding valuable
cattle for the butcher.

Feeding-houses are, in some resjiccts, well calculated for
fattening cattle, and are less objectionable in the immediate
neighbourhood of a market. The animals are kept warm
and quiet, and each can have the due portion of food al-
lotted to him 5 but the animals having no exercise when
thus stall-fed, cannot be so healthy, nor the meat so whole-
some, as when kept in fold-yards or open sheds. The
legs of cattle also, more especially in the case of heavy oxen,
when confined to one spot, are so apt to swell *, that they
are hardly able to go to any distance. Where a less con-
fined mode of feeding is adopted, the cattle not only thrive
better, but the expence is considerably less.

On the whole, the third plan seems to me the best;
namely, that of hammels, which I first had the satisfaction
of seeing, at Mr Robertson's of Ladykirk, in Berwickshire.
An engraving of this excellent plan is annexed, which will
give an idea of the form of the construction. The advan-
tages of it are described by Mr Robertson in the following
terms : " I have found these hammels or cattle-sheds much
** better than any large or open court and yard. Cattle
" kept in great numbers waste more straw, they fight, and
*< hurt one another with their horns. All this is prevented
*' when they are kept in separate divisions; and, above all,
" in these hammels we can give them what meat we choose,
*' and in what proportion we think proper; and can sepa-
*< rate those of different ages, which ought not to be asso-
" ciatcd together."

* It is remarked, that the logs of catlle fed in stalls on yams,
or exclusivelv on raw potatoes, are particiilaily apt to swell.

l«

Si

CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 23

This plan, however, is not confined to cattle ; a spirited
fei*mer on the estate of Ladykirk, having long used exactly
the same buildings for his horses, and with very great success.
He had lost none by death for a number of years, and they
seldom have colds or any other disease *. His horses lie
in these open hammels in winter, and it is remarked, that
in frosty weather, when snow is falling, and lying on the
ground, the animals do not go under cover, but prefer to
lie out, with their backs and sides covered with snow. It
is well known, that if a horse is kept out in winter he will
have no grease, nor swelled legs, and perhaps no other
disease. These hammels seem to have all these advan-
tages, at the same time that they protect the animal from
damp, and prevent his back from being kept wet by heavy or
long continued rains. Every farmer who keeps a large stock
of horses, occasionally loses one by inflammation brought
on by coughs and colds; but the horses of the farmer alluded
to, become aged, and he has not had occasion to purchase
a young horse for several years. It is evident, that horses
taken out of a warm stable, perhaps with some degree of
perspiration on them, when they stand behind a hedge in
a cold day, either to have their corn given them, or when
the servants are taking their dinner, must be much more
liable to catch cold, than if they had been hardened by
being kept in open sheds in the manner above describ-
ed.

The proper arrangement of a stack-yard is of more
consequence than is commonly imagined, and is capable of

* Mr Kerr fully confirms the advantages of this plan, having
repeatedly seen these open-horse hammels at Mr John Herriot's,
tenant at Ladykirk farm ; each shed holds two horses, with a
niche for their harness. To each there is an open small straw
yard. Each has a water trough, and each a gate large enough to
admit a cart to take out the muck.

24- CONSTRUCTION OF A FAEM-HOUSE AND OFFICES.

much improvement *. It is a common practice to begin
building the stacks at the corner opposite to the entering
gate from the farm, packing them as close as possible, by
which they are deprived of air, and if any of them shoidd
shew a tendency to heat, it is extremely difficult to get
them turned over, or put into the threshing mill. Mr
Mitchell of Balquharn near Alloa, has arranged his stack-
yard on principles peculiarly well planned and judicious.
His stacks are divided into regular rows, and there is a
road on each side of every double row, besides a road
round the whole yard f . This plan is attended with the
following advantages: 1. By these parallel roads there is a
greater degree of ventilation ; 2. He can remove any stack
he pleases, as necessity or markets may require ; 3. In the
hurry of harvest, there is no confusion or loss of time
whatever may be the number of men or horses employed ;
and, 4. By having the rows and the stacks regularly num-
bered, there is no difficulty in ascertaining what each field
of the farni produces. This plan was originally suggested
by Mr Erskinc of Mar.

Two points on the subject of farm-houses and offices in
general, remain to be discussed : 1 . By whom they ought
to be erected ; and, 2. By whom they ought to be kept in
repair.

In regard to the first point, it is certainly desirable, that
the landlord, who has a permanent interest in the soil,

* In the Berwickshire Report, p. S6, tlie rick-yard is directed
to be ploughed into twice-gathered ridges 21 feet broad. By
this means, as the ricks seldom exceed 12 feet diameter, there
are 9 feet free between the rows for air and carrying in sheaves.
No allowance for heating, as a good farmer has no heated stacks.

+ As four rows, if the stacks are pretty large, will in general
be sufficient, two roads will be enough, one through the middle
of the longitudinal direction, and one round the whole yard.

CONSTRUCTION OF A FARM-HOUSE AND OFFICES. 25

should, if he can afford it, be at the expence of all sub-
stantial improvements *. But how can that be expected
in the case of entailed estates, where the proprietor has on-
ly a life-interest in the property, and cannot borrow money
for expensive erections, notwithstanding the provisions of
an act for promoting the improvement of such estates ? Fre-
quently, also, the tenant has a greater command of ready
money than the landlord, and will lay it out with more
economy, and to more advantage. In that case it may be
most advisable for both parties to arrange a plan, by which
the buildings are to be erected by the tenant, the farm be-
ing let proportionally, at a lower rent, and he receiving a
certain sum for those buildings, according to their value,
at the termination of his lease f . Tliis is particularly ne-
cessary in the case of entailed estates.

* Mr Church of Hitchill in Dumfries-shire, observes, that the
farm-house and offices ought to be erected free of expence to the
tenant. Many an industrious individual has got the character of
a bad farmer by having been unguardedly led to exhaust his capi-
tal on buildings, so much so as to disable him from bestowing a
proper proportion of it on the cultivation of the soil. Inclosing
ought to be done at the expence of the landlord, and the fences
reared or maintained at the mutual expence of landlord and te-
nant. In short, all great permanent improvements on a farm,
should be executed by the landlord, and in consideration of these,
let the tenant pay a higher rent.

t Mr Milne of Alvah, near Banff, remarks on the subject of
farm-buildings, that few farmers have capital sufficient for a farm
of 200 acres, the expence of stocking which, at a moderate com-
putation, costs L. 2000 Sterling ; and if new houses are required,
which very often happens, a great deal more is necessarij. Any
allowance the proprietor gives for building, is seldom or ever paid
until the end of the lease ; the tenant's capital is thereby very
much drained, before the fields can receive much benefit. It also
often happens, that the outgoing tenant has a considerable claim

26 SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS.

As to repairs, the farm-houses and offices in the more
improved districts of Scotland, are usually built in a sub-
stantial manner, and it is in general the practice, that the
tenant shall keep the house in repair. It is a great addi-
tion to the landlord's income, to be exonerated from so
heavy a charge, and in Scotland it is rarely found to be
attended with any material loss.

On the whole, it can hardly be questioned, that it would
make the difference of the labour of one, and in some cases
even two farm-servants, that is fi*om L. 50 to L. 100 per
annum^ where the particulars above mentioned, regarding
the construction of farm houses and offices, have been pro-
perly attended to, or have unfortunately been neglected.

S^CT. III. — Size and Shape of Fields.

This is a point, which, in so far as regards arable cul-
ture, has been brought to a considerable degree of perfec-
tion, according to the system of husbandry adopted in the

for houses, and in many instances they are so ruinous, that the
farmer can neither trust himself or cattle with any degree of
safety, but he must be at a great expence in repairing them. In
such cases, the landlord should certainly give every assistance he
can afford. In regard to the plan of valuing the whole premises
at a tenant's entry, and again when he removes, it is remarked by
an intelligent correspondent, that such a system is rather hazard-
ous. The price of wood, its workmanship, and other materials,
vary so much in the course of a lease of even nineteen years, that he
fcas known a tenant to receive a great surplus sum at his removal,
without his having laid out a single shilling, the value of buiid-
injl materials haviiio so much increased.

SIZE AND gHAPE OF FIELDS. 27

more improved districts of Scotland. Nothing can be
more absurd, with a view to the culture of grain, than to
have a number of small inclosures, irregularly shaped, sur-
rounded with high hedges and trees * j and such a system
perhaps general in a flat country, where so much shelter is
unnecessary. Such a plan is peculiarly reprehensible, where
horses and cattle are the principal objects of attention, as
soiling, (or giving them cut green food in yards, or houses),
is greatly preferable to pasturage : yet so inveterate is the
prejudice for small fields, that though the expence of in-
closures has now become enormous, they are still perse-
vered in, even in new inclosures, under the authority of
acts of Parliament, by which the charges of that important
branch of agricultural improvement are greatly increased,
to the great detriment of the property inclosed. We shall
proceed, therefore, to state, what in Scotland is considered
to be the best size of fields, in an improved arable district,
and the principles on which the system is founded.

The circumstances on which the size of fields ought to
depend, are principally the following :

1. The extent of the farm in which they are situated j
2. The nature of the soil or subsoil ; 3. The rotations
adopted ; 4-. The number of ploughs in the farm ; 5. The
command of water ; 6. Access to roads ; 7. The elevation
of the ground ; 8. Its being in pasturage or otherwise ;
and, 9. The nature of the climate.

1. Extent of the 'Farm. — The size of fields ought cer-
tainly, in some measure, to depend, on the extent of the
possession. In small farms near towns, from six to twelve
acres may be sufficient j but where farms are of a proper
eize, fields from twenty to even fifty acres, and in some in-

* Fields thus sheltered must be liable to the rust in wheat, as
the exclusion of air encourages the growth of/ww^?.

28 SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS.

stances as high as sixty, is the size that has been riecom-
mended, and that in no case they should be under twenty
Scotch or twenty-five English acres, if it can be avoided.
One of my correspondents indeed states, that his inclosures
are about twenty Scotch, or twenty-five English acres
each, and that he would certainly enlarge them, were he
not restricted to that size by his lease. Mr Brown of
Markle, whose knowledge in every branch of agriculture
is so well known, considers a field of thirty Scotch, or
thirty-eight English acres, to be a proper medium size,
when permitted by local circumstances, for large farms.

2. TJie nature of the Soil and Subsoil. — The best size of
fields for arable cultivation, must always depend upon the
nature of the soil and subsoil. When the soil is chiefly dry,
it is of consequence to have the fields large, as it tends to ac-
celerate the ploughing, harrowing, reaping, &c. j but when
it happens to be strong clay, it then becomes a matter of pru-
dence to contract the size of the fields, chiefly for the pur-
pose of keeping them as dry as possible *. In dividing a
farm, however, it is proper to separate the light and the
heavy soil. They are not only better calculated for different
crops and different rotations, but are fit to be wrought at dif-
ferent seasons. It is a fortunate circumstance when a farmer
possesses as much ground of each kind as will make a full
rotation, so that both may be carried on at the same time.
In turnip soils, the following plan has been recommended
by Mr Carnegie of Dry law-hill, in East Lothian. Where
the farm would admit of it, he would divide the whole
into eight fields of thirty acres each, under a rotation of,
1. Turnip ; 2. Wheat and Barley ; 3. Grass, and 4. Oats :
and he would have two breaks or divisions in each field,
one half, (or fifteen acres), of the inclosure in turnips, and

* Piemaiks by Mr Rennie of Kiubletbmont.

SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS. 29

the other in grass ; and when ready to consume the turnijjs,
he would strip one half of them, and give tlieni to the
sheep on the grass : He would then move back the flakes
or hurdles, and would allow the remaining half to be con-
sumed on the ground, with liberty to the sheep to pasture
over the whole grass while eating the turnips, taking care
never to give the stock more than a certain number of days'
turnips at a time. Thus there would be four fields with
white crops, after turnip and grass. Others recommend
giving the sheep as much fresh turnips each day as they
can eat, as the turni[)s, when not consumed on the day
given, are often damaged by the wet and frost, or destroy-
ed by the sheep going over them. Mr Walker of Mellen-
dean concurs in opinion, that on turnip soils, where it is
necessary to consume the turnips upon the ground, the
fields should never much exceed thirty acres, if the situa-
tion will admit them to be made of that size. "When they
are larger it becomes difficult to give the sheep the quan-
tity necessary at a time, without confining them all round
with nets or hurdles, which is always attended with much
loss. When one division is done, and a new one taken in,
the sheep should always have hberty to fall back, and rest
upon the cleared ground, which they naturally do, by
which means the turnips are kept much cleaner, and a
great deal of meat saved ; and he has always found, that a
field of the above dimensions will contain as much stock,
of any kind, as can be fed together with advantage.

3. The notation adopted. — It is considered to be a pro-
per rule, that whatever is thought to be the rotation the
most suitable to the soil, the field should be neither more
nor less than the proper division that the rotation of crop.s
requires, that is to say, a farm with a rotation of eight
courses, should be divided iuto eight fields ; six courses
into six fields j five courses into five fields, and four course"*;

30 SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS.

into four fields or inclosures *. That rule is laid down by
Mr Murray, (Kirkland-hill), with a view of having thewhole
field under one crop. At the same time, on a farm of 4-00
acres under a four years' rotation, instead of having four
fields of 100 acres each, it would be better to have the
farm divided into eight fields of 50 acres each, and having
two of these fields under one kind of crop. It is proper,
however, to observe, that where the climate is uncertain,
and the soil various, the following judicious practice has
been adopted, that of having a proportion of every kind of
grain cultivated in the strong part of the farm, and another
portion in the lighter part. This gives the tenant a fair
chance to have an equal crop, whether the seasons are dry
or wet, and whether they are favourable to the one species
of soil or crop, or to another.

4. Stock on the Farm. — It has also been observed, that
the size of the fields should be somewhat in proportion
to the number of horses and ploughs on the farm ;
for instance, where six two-horse ploughs are kept, and
where it is difficult, from the nature of the soil, to keep
fields of a larger extent sufficiently diy, fields of fi'om

* The size, it is said, should be equal to the fallow-break, or
the portion of the farm under fallow. The fields under fallow
should be of the average quantity of the farm, and the other crops
will become so of course. Every farmer of experience endea-
vours to have, and knows the comfort of having, the produce of
the farm, as equal every year, as the soil and circumstances will
admit of. On this subject, Mr Stewart of Hillhead remarks, that
though it may ans\Ver the farmer in possession, to have the farm
divided according to the rotation he practises, yet that it will be
found generally advantageous for the proprielor, to have it divi-
ded into double the number of fields that may be required for a
four or a five years' rotation, in case any alteration of system
should become necessary.

SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS. 31

eighteen to twenty-two English acres are considered to be
a convenient size : there is less risk, in that case, of being
overtaken by bad weather, and prevented from completing
the preparation of the land for the intended crop ; for with
twelve horses in the spring season, a field of that size can
always be finished in four days *. In regard to the hvc
stock not employed in the separation of the fjirm, it is well
known, that cattle, and sheep more especially, feed better
in small numbers together, than in great herds or flocks.

5. JVater. — It is is necessary in every field actually to be-
pastured, to have a supply of water, the command of which
is more likely to be obtained in large, than in small inclo-
sures. A correspondent, whose fields are small, com-
plains of their being so ill-watered, that the stock when
pastured in some of them cannot get a supply, even in
v/inter.

* Remarks by Mr Peter Mitchell in Stirlingshire, and Mr
James Cuthbertson in East Lothian. On this subject, Dr Youn<T
of Stonehaven justly observes, that the fields should be of such a
size, as to adiiiit the operations going on upon them to be finished
in a short time by the stock on the farm. If the fields are of too
great an extent, in proportion to the stock kept, a considerable
interval must occur between the sowing of the first and last part,
especially of barley and big, where generally the last ploughing
and sowing take place together ; and it will in general be desira-
ble, to have the whole fields cleared at once, in harvest. There
will also be a saving of labour, particularly in the instance of har-
rowing a crop in seed-time ; as, in ordinary sizes of fields, the sow-
ing can be soon accomplished; by which the frequent turnings is
avoided, that would otherwise take place, if it were necessary to
sow the field in several portions. 'Whenever rolling is required,
whether for grass seeds, for reducing the ground, or any other
purpose, much of its benefit may be lost in an extensive field, be-
cause, being usually done across, it cannot well be accomplisluH
till the field is completed.

oL' SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS.

6. lioads. — It is essential that each field should have
convenient access to the farm-road ; so ob\aous a point
need not be dwelt upon.

7. Elevation of the Grmmd. — It is also evident, that the
size of the field must in some respects depend on the flat-
ness or elevation of the ground. Even on dry land, if
there is a rise on the ground, from fifteen to twenty chains
is length sufficient ; for where the ridge is longer, the
horses are too much fatigued, if compelled to plough a
sti'ong furrow, up-hill, farther in one direction.

8. Pasturage. — Where the system of grazing and tillage
is alternately followed, (more especially where the fields are
pastured for two or three years or more), it is convenient
to have the fields about twentj'-two Scotch, or twenty-se-
ven English acres ; because the farmer generally wishes to
have his stock divided, which cannot well be done with
larger fields, and if they are of a smaller size, too much
ground is occupied with fences. Besides, if grass fields
are let for pasture, such a size suits graziers best, and con-
sequently they rent considerably higher, than fields would do
of a larger, and consequently a more inconvenient descrip-
tion. Unless where there are small fields near the house,
it is desirable to have some part of the green-crops near
the farm-offices. For if the fields are all large, the whole
lot of turnips or clover might be removed to the outward
boundary of the farm ; whereas if fields are of a moderate
size, it is possible to have a part of these crops at a con-
venient distance *.

* Remarks by Mr Brown, Conons)tli, by Arbroath, Another
correspondent observes, that some extent is desirable for fields in
pasture, to attend the stock pasturing over its surface. Fields
JVoni ten to twenty acres, however, are large enough for grazing.
^Vhen few cattle are put together, they remain more quiet, than
when there are many, which is very desirable for fattening

SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS. 53

9. Climate. — The last circumstance to be considered iu
determining the proper size of fields, is the nature of the
climate. In dry and cold climates, small inclosures are
desirable, on account of shelter : whereas, in wet countries,
the fields under culture cannot be too open and aiiy, for
the purpose of drying the ground, of bringing forward and
ripening the grain, and of enabling the farmer more easily
to secure it, during any unfavourable harvest, by a free
circulation of the air.

We shall now proceed to make some observations on
the shape of fields, the form of which should be square,
or oblong, and the soil, if possible, uniform.

Square form.— It is evident, that it is advantageous to
have the fences in straight lines, and that fields when large,
shoidd be square *, and when small, of an oblong square,
in order that the ploughing may be dispatched with as few
turnings as possible. Some people, whose farms are of a
waving or uneven surface, and who inclose with hedge and
ditch, carry their ditch through the hollows or best sdil,
with a view of raising a good hedge ; thus, often sacrifi-
cing, for the sake of the fence, the form of their field. A
straight line, however, is preferable, even though it should
be necessary to take some particular pains to enrich the soil
for the thorns, when it is thin and poor, on any eleva«-

stock. In a wet autumn, much grass is destroyed by treading,
and in large fields more grass is destroyed by the feet of the
cattle, than consumed by theif mouths.

* Mr Kerr justly remarks, that in hanging grounds the ridges
and furrows ought always to have so much obliquity, as to reduce
the field nearly to the circumstances of one situated on a plain.
The operations of ploughing, harrowing, carting, &c. are thus ma-
terially facilitated, and the filling up, or sanding nf the fnrrow*
eflectually prevented.

P. I. C

'Si SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS.

tion *. By means of the square form, an opportunity is
afforded, of ploughing in every direction, when neces-
sary, and less time is lost in carry mg on all the operations
of husbandry in a field of that form, than of any other
shape. Where the waving form is necessary to secure
proper water-runs, plantations may be so disposed, as to re-
duce the fields to squares or oblongs, and the fences to
straight hues.

Oblong FORM.-^-An intelligent correspondent is deci-
dedly of opinion, that all farms are best divided into ob-
long fields, because, should they ever be converted either
into a grazing, or a breeding farm, oblong fields are so easi-
ly and simply subdivided, and water can almost in every
case be got, by making proper ponds, in the meeting or
joining of three or four fields, the gutters or ditches of
which fields will convey water to the ponds. This ought
more especially to be attended to upon all turnip soils, for
the obvious advantage of cutting ofi^, or chviding the tur-
nips with hurdles or flakes, or nets, &c., and for the con-
venience of feeding them off with sheep, always keeping in
mind to take off a certain proportion of drills, for giving to
the feeding cattle in the sheds or folds, &c., or to sheep
upon the adjoining stubbles or pastures, in proportion to
the state the ground is in j land in a rich state having the
greater proportion taken off. Nor is it any objection to
the oblong shape, that the ridges may be too long, as that
can be easily obviated by cross head-lands or head-ridges,
which in any soils can be made at any place, according to
tlie length of ridge most agreeable to the taste or opinion
of the proprietor or occupier f. If the land has a wet,

* Remark by INIr Cliiircli, llitcliell, near Annan,
f On this* subject it is leniaiked, that head-lands are never ad-
niissiblo, except to get rid of wet, or in consequence ol" deviatioirs

SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS. 31

damp or retentive subsoil, the head-ridges can be made in
those parts most suitable for taking off' the water, as well
as to suit the proper length of the ridges, with gutters or
gi'ipes where necessary.

Uniformity of soil.^ — An intelligent farmer laments,
that the inclosures on his farm are laid out more with a
view to beauty than utility, and that regularity and unifor-
mity of appearance have been chiefly attended to, whilst
little regard has been paid to a point infinitely more es-
sential, that of having the several fields of the same sort of
soil ; hence soils of the nature most heterogeneous are thus
unfortunately mingled in the same field. Another farmer
complains, that this principle has been so little attended to on
his farm, that he has ridges, one half consisting of a stronsf
wet clay, and the other half of a sandy soil, fit for turnips.
A spirited correspondent proposes to obviate this objection,
by altering the texture of the soil. He observes, that there
are fields, partly consisting of strong soils, and partly of
light, where probably there are not above one or two acres
of the latter, for ten or twenty of the former ; and where
almost every year the culmiferous crops fail on the light
soils from drought. He therefore suggests, that at any
slack time, whether in winter or summer, when the field is
under fallow, it would be proper to employ two carts and
horses, with four fillers, and to cover the acre or two of
hght soil, with the strong soil contiguous. Draining perhaps
would, in the first place, be necessary ; but the soil in the
field would ever after be uniform. In fields where lio-ht
soils predominate, the same plan reversed might be adopted.
The principal objections to this plan, are, 1 . The expence.

of soil, and hence a difl'erence of culture ; and that ridges cannot
be too long, where land is inclosed, as it gives occasion to fewer
turnings, and is ploughed at less expence of time and labpur.

c 2

%$ SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELSSt

and 2. That the subsoil remains the same ; but the idea is
certainly excellent wherever it is practicable.

We shall now proceed to state the advantages of attend-
ing, as much as the circumstances of the case will admit
of, to the principles above laid down.

1. Every intelligent farmer will admit, that it is a ma-
terial drawback to the cultivation of the farm, if the fields,
instead of being regular in size or form, are laid out arbi-
trarily, without attention to any judicious system ; and
where the whole fann is divided into fields of various sizes,
from 5 to 10, and thence to 20 or 30 acres each, it is ex-
tremely difiicult to equalize them, so as to suit any judi-
cious rotation of crops ; whereas, by having fields of a pro-
per size, the whole strength of the farm, and the whole at-
tention of the farmer, is directed to one point, and there
is also an emulation among the ploughmen, when they are
assembled together *.

2. It is evident, that small fields are liable to many ob-
jections. Besides the original expence of the inclosures,
and the injury to grain crops produced by want of circu-
lation of air, and the shelter given to numerous small
birds, the very site of numerous hedges, with their at-
tendant ditches, and the uncultivated slips of land on
both sides of them, rob the farm of a much greater quan-
tity of arable land, in proportion,- than when divided into
large fields. Hedges and ditches also, more especially if
accompanied with hedge-rows, exhaust the gi'ound near
them of its fertility -, they nourish weeds, tlie seeds of

* Rectangular fields of considerable size are advantageous, as
it may be tliereby known whether the ploughmen have done their
duty ; that is, if there is one man in the whole who can be de-
pended on. Indeed, in fields of this shape, the work done, is
known by the length of the ridges, and number of furrowi^, of n
certain breadth ploughed.

SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS. 37

which may be widely disseminated, or exclude the wind
and drought after the crop is cut down, keeping it longer
from bein": stacked. Even for meadows, these small inclo-
sures are injurious, by preventing the circulation of air for
making or drying the hay. Where fields, on the other hand,
are of a proper size, less gi'ound is wasted, there are fewer
fences to uphold, and fewer birds to destroy ; the crops of
grain can be more eai'ly harvested, being more exposed to
wind, and they are less apt to suffer in dry and clear weather;
and thouo-h small inclosures are better sheltered in winter,
yet the opener they are in summer the better; for in hot
weather the cattle and sheep always go to the airiest
places *. But the principal argument in favour of large
fields is this, that in small fields, much time and labour is
wasted by short turnings, &c. ; hence an intelligent far-
mer, (Mr Mitchell of Balquharn), has well observed, that
ifjields are of a regular shape, and the ridges, of a -proper
length, five ploughs "vcill do as much tmric as six ploughs in
fields of a small size, aiid of an irreg2dar shape ; and every
other part of the business to be performed, as dunging, sow-
ing, harrcming, reaping and leading, ikHI be executed,
though not altogether, yet nearly in the same proportion.

Some general remarks on this important point, (the
size and shape of fields), still remain to be stated f.

* Remarks by Mr Robertson of Almon,
■\ On tbis subject tbe following hints merit consideration :
In regard to the proper size of inclosures for a iarni of 200
acres, I think there should be eight of 20 acres, and four of 10 ;
and the best rotation in my opinion is, upon the 20 acre fields,
turnips, or a plain fallow, after which any kind of white crop the
tenant thinks will pay him most, and to sow along with that crop
8 lb. of white, 6 lb. of red clover-seed, and one bushel of perma-
nent rye-grass seed, to remain in pasture for four years, and whea

SIZE AXD SHAPE OF FIELDS.

1. Though fields, on the whole, should be of a large
size, j'ct there is a great convenience in having a few
smaller fields near the farm-house ; for the family cows -, for
rams, on farms where sheep are kept ; for trying on a small
scale, useful experiments; also for raising tares, clover, lu-
cern, sainfoin, &c. and for various other purposes *.

broken up, to take oats ; then to follow the same rotation as at
first. The four small inclosures should be made upon the best
and strongest part of the farm, and the rotation I would follow,
would be a plain fallow, wheat, lb. 12 or 14 lb. of red clover,
and two pecks of annual rye-grass per acre sown along with it ;
then to cut green what is necessary for soiling the work horses,
and the remainder made into hay for them in the spring ; then
oats, and tlie same rotation as at first. If this plan of manage-
ment is followed upon a soil that will improve itself in pasture, I
am certain a good crop may always be depended upon, and with
little expence.

For a farm of 300 acres, the same number of fields as the one
of 200, only larger, that is to say, eight of 30 acres, and the four
small inclosures, 15 acres, and the same rotation followed. For a
farm of 700 acres, I would say eight inclosures of 50 acres, and
twelve of 25. ^Vith throse of 50 acres, I would follow the same
rotation as what I propose upon the other two farms, and with
the twelve inclosures of 25 acres, an eight or four course shift can
be adopted ; but with the eight-course always to remain four
years in grass. This plan of management is only for good soils
that will improve by being in pasture, as there are thin clay soils,
that the longer they remain in grass, they ahvays get worse, and
for which a four-course shift is the best; and the farm should be
divided in eight, twelve, sixteen, or twenty inclosures, according
to its extent. One or two of the fields could be cut green for
soiling the horses, or made hay for them in the spring ; but if the
tenant chooses, he can take one year's pasture.

* Remarks by Mr Robert Kerr, the intelligent Reporter of
Berwickshire; Mr Wilson of Simprin, and others. Mr Stewart

SIZE AND SHAPE OF FIELDS. 39

2. Where inclosures are found too large for particular
purposes, the field may be effectually subdivided by sheep-
flakes, or hurdles, a sort of portable fence, well known to
every turnip grower. When carefully set, tiiey have been
found a complete fence, at least for sheep. By this means
ffreat advantage is derived, from the constant use of the
land that would otherwise have been occupied by station-
ary fences, and the expence of subdivisions, which, on a
lai'ge farm, would necessarily have been numerous, is there-
by avoided *.

Of such importance does it seem to Scotch farmers, to
enlarge the size of fields, and to put them into as regular a
shape as circumstances will admit of, that it is one of the
first circumstances attended to, wherever the Scotch sys-
tem of husbandry has been introduced into any part of
Enjjland. A striking instance of this observation will be
found in the appendix, where an account is given by Mr
Stratton of the origin and progress of the introduction of
the Scotch system of husbandry by him into his estate
in Oxfordshire. Engravings are given of that estate, ac-
cording to the English and the Scotch systems, for the

of Hillside also observes, that it is often found convenient to have
some small inclosed fields upon extensive farms, where the gene-
ral plan of management is calculated for large fields. Besides
the purposes mentioned in the text, it may sometimes be neces-
sary to turn out young horses, mares and foals, and old horses,
and to have small fields of ruta baga, and other winter and
spring vegetables conveniently situated for the farm-offices, and
distinct from the large fields. It might not answer the purpose,
to have divisions for these in large fields separated by sheep
Hakes. Besides the expence and inefficacy of that plan, the suc-
ceeding crop might not suit that of the large fields.

* Hints from Mr Hunter of Tynefield, and IMr Cuthbertson,
aear Prestonpans.

40 OF FENCES.

purpose of enabling the reader to compare them together.
The number of fields, according to the English system,
was 201 ; according to the Scotch, from 95 to 100. By
means of which reduction, a considerable extent of ground
has been obtained, and the land is rendered better calcu-
lated for the production of corn.

I have been led to dwell longer, than otherwise would
have been necessarvj on the interesting subject of this sec-
tion, as it is a topic which has not hitherto been so much
attended to as its importance deserves.

Sect. IV. — Of Fences.

If the fields are of a proper size, it will add greatly to
the value of a farm, to have them judiciously fenced.
Hedges of a proper construction, with trees regularly
planted in the corners of the fields, (see the engi-aving of
the plan of a clay-land, and turnip-land farm), not only
beautify a country, and improve the temperature of the at-
mosphere, but actually increase, perhaps from 2 to 5 shil»-
hngs^er acre, the intrinsic value of the land.

In the more improved districts of Scotland, the farmers
are not partial to small inclosurcs. They are of opinion, that
the fences take up a great deal of land which might be
employed to much better purpose j that they are extreme-
ly injurious to the roads along which they may be carried ;
that hedges furnish a shelter for birds, which do much
mischief to the crops of corn, when they are sown or ripen-
ing*;, that the want of air is extremely prejudicial to

* Others contend, that though sparrows, and other small hirds,
do harm, yet, on the whole, that they arc hcneficial, hy destroy-

OF FENCES. 41

grain, in all the stages of its growth, and in particular that
near hedges, its qxiality is greatly inferior ; above all, that
when the crops are cut down, the produce of an open field
must be ready much sooner for being brought in, than in
the case of small inclosurcs, to which scared}^ a breath of
air has access. There is certainly much justice in these
observations.

It is admitted, that inclosurcs are of some use to stock,
as they require, if pastured in the fields, shelter from heat,
as well as from cold j but where the practice of soiling is
adopted, sheep is the only species of stock that ought in
general to be fed out of doors, and they prefer airy situa-
tions. Where there is any old turf, or permanent pas-
ture, on a farm, a high fence is desirable, for the sake of
promoting moisture, which is favourable to the growth of
grass J and hedges, and hedge-rows, as Mr Kerr well ob-
serves, give a rich and sheltered appearance to a countiy,
while the want of that ornament occasions many fertile
and highly cultivated districts to appear neglected, cold,
and desolate*.

The sort of fences chiefly known in Scotland, arc:
1. Open drains; 2. Stone walls ; and, 3. Tliorn hedges.

1. Open drains sometimes answer the double purpose of
dividing fields, and of freeing them from superfluous wa-

ing caterpillars and the various sorts of moths, butterflies and in-
sects, which attack the ears of corn. Small inclosurcs, however,
first nourish these vermin by the warmth and shelter they aft'ord,
and then it is proposed that other vermin should be protected to
destroy them !

* Berwickshire Report, p. 132. Others contend, that a farmer
is not bound to attend to appearances, but to the real advantages
of a system; and that where sheep are pastured as stock, move-
able fences of hurdles or flakes might supersede hedges on dry
soils, in the four-course husbandry.

42 OF FENCES.

ter ; and they are not liable to several objections, which
have been urged against other sorts of fences. Where
stock, however, are pastured in fields thus separated, un-
less accustomed to that sort of fence, as in Carse-lands, they
sometimes fall into the ditches, and are killed or material-
ly injured ; and if any paling is erected to prevent such
accidents, it seldom lasts long.

2. Stone walls are of various descriptions. They have
one advantage, that, according to a common saying,
" ThcT/ are major from their birth;" or, in other words,
are m their greatest perfection as soon as made. They
have, however, this disadvantage, that they are getting
worse every day. The propriety of erecting such a fence,
depends much upon the nature and quality of the stone,
the vicinity ,of the quarry where it is dug, and the possibi-
lity of obtaining lime at a moderate expence, by which the
construction of the wall can be so much improved, and
rendered much more durable. Where all these advan-
tages are combined, stone walls, though not so ornamen-
tal as hedges, yet are preferable in point of utility j for
the benefit of the inclosure is immediate.

Among the various sorts of stone wall usual in Scotland,
there is one, known under the name of the Galloway or
snap dike, of which it may be proper to give some ac-
count. It was invented in that district, and thence has
spread over various other parts of the kingdom. Mr Smith,
in his very able survey of Galloway, has given the following
description of this species of wall. It is built for the most
part two-thirds or three-fourths of their height double,
i. e. the two sides arc formed of two different sets of stones,
resting against each other, and connected together by
stones, which from time to time are laid across the dike.
On the top of this double dike, a set of long stones arc
laid liorizontally across the dike, projecting a little on each
side J and above those the ri;mainder is built single, w hidi,

OF FENCES. 43

from the irregular figure of tlic stones, leaves apertures
tln'ough which the liglit appears *. There was a great im-
provement on this mode of fencing invented by the late
John Macadam, Esq. of Craigengillan, by putting on the
top of the dike, as close as they can be laid together,
stones placed edgewise j and when a considerable extent
has been thus laid, thin stones are driven in, like wedges,
at small intervals, which bind the whole so firmly together,
that, when well built, a stone can hardly be taken out of
the top without an iron-crow f .

3. The white thorn is consitlered to be preferable to
every other plant for a fence, being, when placed in a pro-
per soil, a quick grower, becoming strong by age and at-
tention, not running at the root as the black thorn does,
and having prickles for its defence |. It certahily requires
continued care for a number of years, in order to be ren-
dered a good and permanent fence ; but when properly
trained, and occasionally cut over, or di'essed in the wedge-
shape, it will last for ages §. If suffered to grow too tall,
it always makes a bad fence, becoming open below, and
from its height, the crops around must be injured. When
hedges therefore come to a proper height and strength as
fences, they ought to be cut into the shape of what is call-
ed a hog-main^ i. e. brought to a point along the top, and

* General View of Agriculture of Galloway by the Reverend
Samuel Smith, p. 33.
. t Ditto, p. 8?.

X See Kames' Gentleman Farmer, p. 272.

§ See Kerr's Berwickshire, p. 1 86. There is some reason to
hope, that the Cockspur thorn of America, may in some respects
be preferable even to the white thorn ; and for trying that expe-
riment, considerable quantities of seed have been commissioned
from America, by the Board of Agriciilturt-.

44* OF FENCES.

preserved in that form by yearly switching *. This can gifiw
nerally be done for a farthing per rood of six yards six
inches each. Tliis plan ought always to be adopted along
the sides of roads, as it keeps them dry, and preserves
them from being broken up.

Hedges are often accompanied with hedge-rows, and
sometimes by what are called belts of planting.

As to hedge-rows, Mr Wight of Ormiston very justly
obsen^es, that he considers them destructive t© the fences
themselves, as thorns never thrive near the tree-roots,
nor under the drop of the tree. The roots, running
into the field in all directions, never fail to break and
damage the plough, and to interrupt the operations of
the field. The corn growing under the shade and drop
of the trees, is ahnost universally laid down, of course not
fillcil, unequally ripened, and not so soon ready for the
stack-yard as the other parts of the field. In late and wet
seasons the com is never harvested in proper condition,
and in many instances it is totally lost. The gi'ass under
the drop is also of inferior quality, compared to the other
parts of the field, and is unwholesome to cattle and
horses f .

* The only objection to this is, that the fanner has frequent
occasion for the cuttings of strong hedges to form temporary
fences.

t A respectable correspondent farther remarks, tl)at hedge-row
timber, especiaHy ash, is a fatal enemy to corn. The influence of
the roots, m attracting moisture and fertility, may be seen in a
circuliir form, on every arable spot in their immediate neighbour-
hood. 'J hey are in fact the landlord's thieves, who steal from the
teiKuit'b crop every year, ten times the value of their own improve-
ment. The same disadvantage is felt from trees in gardens.
When trees also are cut down from hedge-rows, the thorns which
grow among their dead roots generally die, especially if the trees
cut down are of the fir tribe.

To ftuf OiapcrTi /'age 4 J

0

(J' / ^

/A

OF FENCES. 4.>

In regard to belts of planting, they are peculiai'ly useful
in liilly countries, from the warmth and shelter they afford.
There is every reason to believe, that in such situations
beech is the best liedge, the old leaves remaining till
the new ones sprout out, and shelter being thus given to
the adjoining fields, even in the midst of winter. They
must be strong or woody, however, to turn hoi'ses or cat-
tle.

In flat countries, however, it is by far the best system,
to plant the corners of fields which are not accessible to
the plough, and where a great deal of useful timber may
be raised. In the engravings of the plans of farms, that
system is explained.

It is well known how expensive it is found in England,
to make fences in new inclosures, owing to the price of
posts and palings. That difiiculty, however, is complete-
ly obviated by a plan adopttnl by William Forbes, Esq..
of Callander, in the county of Stirling, of which he gives
the following account.

Mr Forbes first causes a ditch to be cast five feet wide, and
three feet deep. The mound is between four and five feet broad
at the base, and of the same height. In this mound, with a
margin of one foot back from the ditch, the hedge is planted.
Beyond the mound a second ditch is cut three feet wide and two
feet deep, or as deep as the bank can be made to stand. The whole
fence, including the two ditches, occupies the space of about four-
teen feet. By the time the hedge becomes a fence, the ditches are
filled up completely by the earth of the mound, so that no ground
is lost.

Mr Forbes also sometimes incloses the face of the mound, in
which the Ledge is planted, with turf on both sides, the height
being four feet and a half, which in the course of a year settles at
four feet. This mound is soon covered over with a swaz-fl of
grass, and at the same time that it is most efficient, it forms the
most beautiful fence. The width of this mound at hottom, is l]\(-

46 OF FENCES.

feet; at lop it is from 12 to li inches. By the time that the
hedge has become a fence, the mound forms an excellent top-
dressing, the ditches are filled up, and no more ground is occu-
pied, than that which is taken up by the hedge.

These hedges are planted in single rows at the distance of four
inches from each other ; and at every three yards' distance, a
plant of oak, elm, beech, or other valuable wood is inserted, for a
hedge row. The thorns are purchased when seedlings, and train-
ed up in a nursery upon the estate, for two or three years before
they are transplanted into the fences. By this process they are
naturalized to the soil and the climate *.

By this means the expence of a paling, for defending
the hedges, and the vexation of having that paling destroy-
ed or stolen, which must often happen in populous dis-
tricts, where wood is scarce, are prevented.

These modes of fencing adopted by Mr Forbes, have
been carried on, not on a trifling or unimportant, but up-
on a great scale ; for constructing the fences on the Cal-
lander estate, no less a number than six millions of thorns
have been planted, and the line of these fences measures
about four hundred miles in length. The trees of va-
rious kinds planted in the hedge-rows, amount to above
200,000.

If a farm is inclosed by thorn-hedges, and under the alter-
nate husbandry of tillage and pasturage, it is an excellent
rule, when the fields are broken up, to cut down the hedges,
in order to admit the wind. In this case they may be cut
down according to circumstances, either to about six inches
from the ground, or to between three to four feet, the for-
mer if the hedge is thin, the latter if of sufficient thickness.
In the former case, all grips ought to be carefully filled up

* See Dr Graham's most valuable Survey of the County of
Stirlwig, p. 1C3.

OF DRAINING^ 4..Y

by planting. In the latter case, the breast or face is shorn
to the stem. Gaps are best filled up, not by planting, but
by laying down branches in the gap, which take root.

It is unnecessary to dwell on the importance of disco-
vering some plant capable of being used as a fence, that
would not be materially affected by the sea breeze. It is
said that the Tamarisca Gallica, of which there is a hardier
sort called the Tamarisca Gei^nanica, would answer that
purpose. It is propagated by cuttings, and takes root with-
out any difficulty. It is of quick growth, and rises rapidly
in situations most exposed to the spray of the sea, even at
the Lizard Point in Cornwall *.

S£cT. V. — Of Draining,

There is hardly any point to which an industrious and
skilful farmer would be more incHned to direct his atten-
tion, when he commences the occupation of a farm, than
to the state of its drainage -, for on that the success of liis
future operations must essentially depend. " Lay your
** land dry, whatever may be the method pursued, or the

* See Worgan's General View of the Agriculture of Cornwall,,
p. 4-9) where the use of this plant for fences is recommended. It
is apt to be injured by frost, at least the Gallica ; but the Tama-
risca Gcrmanica is not so likely to be affected by it, from the
greater severity of the climate to which it has been accustomed.
Though rather a feeble plant for a fence, if not affected by frost
or the sea-spray, it would be of use from the shelter it afforded.
Withering mentions a thorny shrub that grows on the coast of
Lincolnshire, which stands the sea-spray.

48 OF DRAINIKG.

** expence to be incurred, before you attempt any thing
** else," was the maxim of the celebrated Ai'buthnott, and
is the basis of good husbandry.

Mr Robertson of Ladykirk is of opinion, that with the
exception of a few districts of dry loam, the greater part
of the counties, both in England *, and Scotland, stand
more in need of draining, than of manuring ; and that
there are very few districts in either kingdom, where a
perfect knowledge of this essential source of improvement,
is at all general. The difference it would make, were
draining in Scotland carried to the extent it might be, is
bevond all calculation.

* In Essex, draining is found to be so essential for land under
a regular system of cultivation, or even in pasture, that they will
go to the expence of making small ditches over a whole field,
filled with small stones, brush-wood, straw, &c. so as to collect
the surface-water into what may be called veins or small reser-
voirs, though it costs from L. 15 to even L. 20 per acre; and
though the effects will not last above twenty or thirty years.
This system, however, is often carried to excess, and the enor-
mous expence attending it may be prevented, by adopting the prin*
cjples which I believe were originally discovered by the celebrat-
ed Elkington. He ascertained, that in fields where the strata
are not regular, there are often masses or pots of sandy soil,
wbich absorb great quantities of water, and which, when over-
Jull, occasion what are called land-springs, which, though only
occasional and temporary, yet cause much damage to the fields
in which they take place. With uncommon sagacity, Elkingtoi.
discovered, by the herbage and other outward appearances, where
any pots or strata lay ; and by making ditches from one to another,
bo as to connect them together, he drained the field at a trifling
expence, as effectually as it was done by the laborious and ex-
pensive method adopted in Kbicx.

OF DRAINING. 49

In discussing this important subject, it is proposed briefly
to touch upon the following points : 1. The nature of the
open drains made in Scotland ; 2. Of under-drains ; 3. Of
Elkington's mode of draining, as practised in Scotland ;
4. Of ponds made from drains j 5. Of the obstacles to
drainage in Scotland ; and, 6. Of the advantages which
have been derived from it, at least in so far as these parti-
culars have been explained in the course of my recent cor-
respondence.

1 . It rarely happens, that any clay district can be culti-
vated to advantage, without open drains, of various de-
scriptions, lu the Carse of Gowrie, the large drains, near
the river, are from fifteen to twenty feet deep, and that
valuable district has thus been rendered completely dry.
In the summer season, it is necessary to clear all these large
drains every year, so that the passage of the water may
meet with no j'esistance ; for there are miles of drains so
connected, that an obstruction of six inches above the level
will impede the whole. It is necessary also to employ spode-
men every day the ploughs are in the field, to clear out the
small drains as soon as the ridge is ploughed ; for in that
flat country, in a ridge of ten or twelve chains in breadth,
there are perhaps three or four small drains, which go
across the whole field, to carry off the surface-water, and
these must be cleared every time the field is ploughed.

On the subject of clay lands, Dr Coventry has well ob-
served, that a complete di'ainage is absolutely essential, as
the first and fundamental step to their improvement. For
that purjDose, it is necessary to make proper ditches, open
drains or water-courses, and to keep them clear. It is
eVident, that unless the water collected from the diffe-
rent *' buts" or " ridges," can easily get away, it will be
to no purpose to facilitate its passage from these, or the ge-
neral syrface of the ground, by *' water- furrows," or small
cuts made by the plough or spade ; and the state of the

P. I. D

50 OF DRAIXING.

larger ditches or open drains, with their best direction, is
among the first things to be attended to by a cultivator *.

2. On the subject of under-drains, I have received an
interesting communication from Mr James Andrew, far-
mer at Tillyhmib near Perth, who has invented a plan
which seemed to him a new one, though it will appear,
that it afterwards has been tried in foreign countries with
success ; but that does not lessen the merit of the inge-
nious cultivator who first attempted it in Scotland.

Mr Andrew states, that the ridges on his farm had for-
merly been broad, and much raised. His predecessor
had levelled them by the plough, and when he entered in-
to the farm, almost all the good earth had been thrown
into the old fiirrows, and completely buried 5 the crowns
of the old ridges were at the same time so much stript of
soil, that they were scarcely fit to carry any thing. It was
absolutely necessary, however, to do something to bring
the ground into a better state. As it lay on a gentle slope.

* An intelligent correspondent informs me, that above twenty
years ago, in making drains for carrying off the water from springs
in the upper part of a field which appeared to require to be taken
in hollow drains, for a great distance, he observed, that the wa-
ter had a tendency to disappear about the middle of the field.
He caused a pit to be dug at that' place, six feet deep, and equal-
ly wide. Here the water got a vent. He led the hollow drain
into it, and iille^i the pit witb field stones, which were covered
with twenty inches of earth. The springs or water have never
since appeared. He has since done the same in various situations,
by carrying a hollow drain, only so far as the water appeared.
Sometimes a gravel, and at other times a rocky bottom might
be found, at five or six feet deep, which absorbed the water, and
rendered farther draining unnecessary.

lliis is a good plan, where the water does not again burst out,
which often happens where the stratum does not end cither is
the bottom of a river, or iu the sea.

OF DRAINING. 51

Gross draining was attempted, but ineffectually. He had
then resolved to gather up the ground to the old ridges,
by as many ploughings as might be necessary to raise
them nearly to their former height, and to throxv a dram
into evety/wToiVy thus designing, by one operation, to dry
the ground, to equalize the soil, and to give it a fallow.
When these operations were completed, he gathered up a
small ridge into the furrows above the drains, to protect
them from the surface water. The foUowinff sketch wilJ
give some idea of the nature of this operation :

Ridge. I D I Ridge. | Q I Ri^ge. | Q | Ridge. ] Q I ^^^Z^-

Small Small Small Small

ridge & ridge & ridge & ridge &

drain. drain. drain. drain.

The breadth of the large ridges depends entirely upon
the size of the original ridges, which varies considerably.
As to the small ridges above the drains, they are about
two yards each, and they are fully as productive as the
large ones, and rather more so. Thus, it may be said,
that not an inch of ground is lost by the drains, and the
whole is rendered more fertile and valuable.

The drains are generally about two feet and a half deep *,

* They are cut so deep, as to have what may be called a case
in the till, or bard clay, for the stones ; and to obtain that advan-
tage, a considerably greater depth was sometimes required. When
this could be obtained at two feet and a lialf, Mr Andrew did not
think it necessary to go deeper, as he found that the laud was
completely drained by such means. Shallowness can only be ob-
jected to in regard to durability ; but the duration of drains does
not so much depend upon their depth, as that the water in them
has a proper run, and tliat they are protected from too much wa-
ter from above. The natural slope of Mr Andrew's farm gave a
(lulck run tg the water ; and the second object was obtained by

P2

52 OT DRAlNINer.-

and as narrow in the bottom as an ordinary spade caiJ
conveniently work them. He always thought it necessary
to go down until a solid tilly bottom was found, in order
that the water might always run immediately above the
till. The drain was filled to the depth of a foot, or rather
more, with small stones, the undermost being always care-
fully laid in by the hand, and the rest thrown in promis-
cuously above them. The stones were then covered with
a little straw, and earth above all. The expence, on an ave-
rage, cannot be calculated at less than fi'om L. 8 to L. 10
p^/- Scotch acre j but the outlay has been amply repaid, for
every object Mr Andrew had in view has been accompUsh-
ed- In its former state, the gi'ound could only be ploughed
at certain times. The farmer was at the mercy of every
season, and found none so dry, that in a certain degree he
did not suffer some injury -, but novo, he can plough almost at
any time, the seed can be put in if there is but a single dry day,
and in the ordinary course oj things, he can alvcays rely up-
on a crop ; the soil also being equalized, the crop is aVjoays
equal. Mr Andrew expresses his regret, at seeing the
mischief that has been done, almost in every corner of
Scotland, by the attempts which have been made to level
high ridges by the plough ; and I certainly think, that
before any proprietor or tenant resolves to carry any plan
of that sort into effect, he ought to examine the result of
i\\e measures which have been adopted on tlie farm of
Tillylumb *.

It is singular, that this plan, which ISIr Andrew thought
was a new discovery, should be the conmion system of
Flanders, and should have been introduced into England
by John Arbuthnot, Esq. of Mitcham in Suriy, who is

the small ridges, as the walef chiclly run in the lurrows between
the large tuid small ridges.

• Slraighting the ridges, however, as will afterwards be cxpiaia-

C(l, Sect. It Chaj). '2, is a most cs^ivnlial improvement.

OF DRAINING. 53

•considered by Mr Arthur Young as the 'best cultivator of
strong arable land, and, indeed, the best general farmer,
that he ever met with, in the course of his long experience.
Mr Arbuthnot was convinced of the necessity of complete
draining preparatory to every other exertion. After exa-
mining the Essex plan of three feet ridges, as a remedy
against wetness, which he found well enough adapted to
loams through which the water freely percolates, he was
convinced that it was not at all adapted for soils so tena-
cious as to merit the appellation of Clay, and that broad
Tido-es, not exceedinn; two feet or two feet and a half
•in height, was the preferable system. The breadth he most
approved of, was that of two perches or thirty- three feet;
and in each furrow, he du<j and filled a well-executed hoi-
low drain, in the manner recommended by Mr Andrew.
Under this system, the cleanness and magnitude of his
crops formed a spectacle highly satisfactory to those who
viewed them. The loss of ground also was triflinfj com-
pared to the Essex mode, by which, out of three feet six
inches, one-seventh part was lost in the furrow *.

There are few objects of greater importance, than to
have this system extended over all the tenacious soils in
the kingdom.

In regard to light soils, under-draining is a common
practice. When artificial grasses are cultivated, it is usual
to gather the stones upon the young grass into heaps, im-
mediately after harvest, and to cart them off during the first
winter frosts. If there is any appearance of a spout or
land-spring in the field, the stones are applied to drain it
off: where there is no spout or land-spring, if there is any
hollow or flat place through which a cross water-furrow

* See Mr Arthur Young's Letter to the Bo-ard of Agricuhure,
on the husbandry of three celebrated farmers, (Bakewell, Arbutii-
not and Ducket), printed aJino 1811, j". IS.

54 PF DRAINING.

runs, a drain is made very near, and in the same direction,
for it is of the greatest consequence never to allow any
water to remain upon the field.

In regard to modes of draining, Mr Pringle of Ballen-
crief informs me, that in his neighbourhood, common pan-
tiles have lately been used in the making of drains. After
they are dug in the ordinary way, a small hollow is made
in the middle of the bottom of the drain, taking care to
leave a piece of firm ground on either side for the tiles to
rest upon. They are laid with their convex side upper-
most, and the earth is thrown in. The tiles hitherto use4
have been those thrown aside, on account of some flaw ren-
dering them unfit to be employed in the roofing of houses,
and they are sold at the kiln at 2 s. per hundred, instead
of 8 s. 4d., the price of sound ones. A cart carries 400,
which cost 8 s., and are sufficient to cover twenty-two
roods of eighteen feet and a half each. The tiles are four-
teen inches in length, but allowing for breaking and over-
laying, the average may be reckoned about twelve inches.

In the few instances which have come under Mr
Pringle's observation, the water runs freely ; and he has
no doubt, that in many places they would be Icis expen-
sive than stones, but they could not answer where the bot-
tom of the drain is soft and muddy. It is a pity they were
pot ejcempted from duty, when employed solely for drain-
ing purposes, as some description of bricks are by a recent
act of parliament.

3. Mr Newton of Currie-hjll, near Edinburgh, informs,
me, that the soil of one-half of li is farm lies on a ridge,
sloping both south and north ; the subsoil is a strong blue
clay in the liighcst part of the land; but towards the north,
the clay is nearer the surface, and of a worse quality, sub-
ject to spouts, which have occasioned mucli cxpcncc, and
still require draining; but the materials are becoming
scarce. The under half of the farm, in regard to

OF DRAINING. So

soil, is various : there are some spots of a few acres, of tur-
nip land, upon a gravelly bottom ; but the greatest part of
the low lands are a heavy soil, upon a clay bottom for two
or three feet, and then sand. A great deal of this soil has
been redeemed from bogs and pools by draining. Elking-
ton's mode of draining was practised forty years ago by the
late Mr Newton, not by boring, but by filtering.

In regard to Elkington's system for draining boggy
land, it has answered completely in various parts of Scot-
land. Mr Wilson, near Cullcn, in Banffshire, informs
me, that he has had some boggy land drained effectually
by means of that process ; and Mr Church of Hitchill, in
Dumfries-shire, has drained the mossy or springy ground
on his farm, according to the Elkington system, with such
success, that he has brought it to nearly the same rotation,
as the land to which it is contiguous. Thus, by the exer-
tions made by the Board of Agriculture, the principles
adopted by Elkington have been successfully carried into
eflPect, in remote parts of the kingdom.

4. Mr Robertson of Ladykirk has adopted an excellent
plan in can-ying on his draining operations ; that of making
ponds of pure and excellent water from the conductors in
every field, entering and leaving the ponds continually,
and very far preferable to any standing pool.

5. Mr Wilson in Simprin, in Berwickshire, sti*ongly
inculcates, the advantage of draining, and laments that so
essential an improvement should still be much wanted in
Berwickshire, not from the want of spirit in the farmers,
but for two reasons : 1. The want of stones in the low dis-
trict, as there is not a sufficient quantity even to make the
roads, which, in his opinion, is the first of all improve-
ments ; 2. The shortness of leases. To remedy the first
obstacle, thorns or brushwood should be used ; as he has
already had such drains running for above nine years. A^

56 OF DRAINING.

to leases, if they are not to be lengthened, the proprietor
should cut the drains, and the tenants should fill them up.
Ei'eestone may be got at some situations at the cxpence
of quarrying, as has been done in Berwickshire, by that
eminent improver and breeder, Mr Robertson of Lady-
kirk.

6. The advantages of draining are thus explained by
IVIr Jack of Moncur. His farm principally consists of a
fine deep loam soil, of a brown colour. Its subsoil is a
mixed clay of different colours, with some strata of very
quick sand ; and in the sand there were great runs of
water, forcing itself up through the soil at all seasons,
which very much injured the ground, as it stopped the la-
bour in the early part of the season, encouraged the growth
of natural grass, and kept the surface in a sour state,
which in time of great drought became very hard and un-
productive. But when this kind of soil is properly drain-
ed, it soon appears what can be effected by this first and
greatest of all improvements: it makes the land so free and
tender, that half the labour prepares the gi'ound for the
crop ; less seed and manure is necessary ; and a more
abundant crop may be depended upon in all seasons, as
npitlicr drought nor damp have any effect upon it.

Mr Allan of Craigcrook, also, considers draining to be
the first improvement in agriculture, and that a large pro-
portion of the land in Scotland, is ruined for want of
it. He has drained land completely, where it was thought
quite impossible, and has improved land, b}' tliat opera-
lion, tliat was not valued at 5%. 2>cr acre, so as to be worth
from I>. !■ to L.5. Could money, labour, skill, or indus-
try, be more usefully cmi)loyed .''

Mr Allan farther observes, tliat many people do not
make the tlrains so deep as they ought to be : wlure the
levels will admit of it, dranis ought to be at least four fcU

OF DRAINING. 57

deep, two feet wide at the bottom, and three feet wide at
the top, and filled up with three feet of stones. Many, how-
ever, would object to such a drain, as too large and expen-
sive. He affirms, that he has derived more benefit from
draining a field, than he would have from both dunging
and liming it j that is to say, the field carried more grain
for two years, by being well drained, than it would have
done with both lime and dung, without being drained : —
After being drained, half the manure was sufficient.

Mr Andrew of Tillylumb also informs me, that though
his draining cost from L. 8 to L. 10 per Scotch, or from
L. 6, 8 s. to L. 8 per English acre ; yet the whole expencc
was in a great measure repaid, in several places, by the be-
nefit derived from the drains, in the course of the last
crop alone. The spring and beginning of summer 1811,
was a very trying one for land, and more especially for
the crop of wheat. For about nine weeks, during the
end of April, the whole of May, and the first part of
June, there were incessant falls of rain which greatly af-
fected the crop, which in general had contracted a yel-
lowish sicldy hue, from which it never recovered ; but all
this time, such was the effect of draining, that the crop on
Tillylumb preserved its verdure, in so much, that several ju-
dicious farmers declared, that it was not in the smallest de-
gree affected by all the rain that had fallen.

On the subject of draining, Mr Bruce of Grangemuir
obsei'ves, that the farmers north of the Tweed labour un-
der great difficulties, in carrying on that essential improve-
ment, for want of a law, obliging neighbouring proprietors
to join in an operation of that sort. And it frequently oc-
curs, that the only outlet to extensive swamps, is through
the lands of others, who, from various causes, prefer keep-
ing a neighbour under water. A law similar to that re-
garding fences, might be made, that would be of infinite
gcrvicc. From another respectable quarter, I am also inr

58 OF KGADS.

formed, that much land in his neighbourhood remains un-
drained, owing to the same circumstances *.

Sect. VI. — Of the Roads on a Famti and in its N^igh'
hourhood.

The advantages resulting from good roads need not
be dwelt upon, as no country can be improved without
these essential aids to cultivation. In various instances, the
foundation of the improvement of several districts in Scot-
land has been justly attributed to them. For instance, in
that fertile tract of country, the Carse of Gowrie, prior
to the year 1790, there was no road, that could admit of
carting through the winter or spring months •, every thing
was to be carried to market on horseback, and the horses
often sunk to their bellies. So great was the slavery of
threshing the grain, and carrying it to market along such
roads, that many men, possessed of an active spirit, quitted
the farming line, or went to places better situated in re-
gard to roads. But now the turnpike-roads in that dis»
trict are as good as any in the kingdom, and by the
judicious application of tlie statute service mpney, the
greater part of the farmers have been enabled to make
good private roads to their own doors, by means of which,
32 cwt. of coal may be carried upon a two-hprse cart,
from the harbours; and 150 to 200 stone of hay, trone
weiffht, is carried bv each two-horse cart, to the towns of
Perth and Dundee. By these means, the expence of con-

* See this point nidrc fully explained in Appendix NO. 4. It
is to be hoped, that this measure will be taken up by the High-
land Society of Scotland,

OF ROADJ. 59

vcyance has been materially diminished, and the rent of
land has been prodigiously advanced.

In another district, that of Clackmannanshire, tlie roads
have also been much improved, by which the operations
of the farmer have been greatly facilitated ; a greater pro-
portion of work is performed at much less expence, the la-
bour of the horses is much easier, a double quantity can
be carried to mill and market, a greater quantity of
manure conveyed, from the nearest town, or farm-yard,
in a shorter period, and wear and tear of every sort great-
ly reduced. There is indeed no county in Scotland where
the landed gentlemen have studied the improvement of
their estates in this particular, more than in Clackmannan-
shire, both as to public and private roads ; and, of conse-
quence, there is hardly a district in the kingdom so much im-
proved in so short a period ; land which let ten years ago at
50s. will now average L. 5 per acre; the farms in general
enlarged, much better cultivated, the farmers more com-
fortable i and it seems to be the greatest pleasure that the
proprietors can enjoy, to add to the happiness and comfort
of their tenants, bj/ good roads, convenient farm-house
and offices, good fences, and leases of a proper duration.

It is to be lamented, that in several districts, where the
great roads are attended to, the private roads should be
neglected. Every farmer, however, ought to lay it down
as a rule, completely to repair a certain extent of road
each year, say from fifty to five hundred yards, in propor-
tion to the extent of his possession, and a stipulation to
that effect might be no improper clause in his lease. The
roads on a large farm would thus be almost insensibly gone
over, and its value would thus be materially increased.

It is impossible, however, that any improvement can be
made on the roads of the kingdom, unless broad wheels
are atloptcd •, and it will appear from the following commur

€0 OP ROADS.

nications, that they are as well calculated for fanning, as
for other purposes.

The Honourable Baron Hepburn informs me, that he
has tried broad wheels in East-Lothian, and that he has
been able to introduce them in that district, though the
husbandly servants of East-Lothian are> like their bre-
thren in other counties, attached to ancient habits and
usages, and averse to the introduction of new improve-
ments. The Baron had first used them for drawing tur-
nips, and leading off stones from new sown cut grass,
but he had lately occasion to send his carts for some
flags from the sea-shore, and as these flags were heavy
and unwieldy, all his carts, including his broad-wheeled
ones, were sent, to give a sufficient power of men to
load them ; and as the road up the beach was steep,
and through a dry and deep sand, it required three
horses to bring up each cart to the top of that beacb,
although two horses brought the loaded cart home from
that point. It was soon found, that the broad wheels
rolled, and did not sink in the sand, and the loaded carts
with broad wheels were brought up with infinitely less
fatigue or exertion to the horses. The servants imm^
diatcly became converts to the utility and advantage of
bi'oad wheels, insomuch that those who generally workr
cd these broad-wheeled carts, resisted and reluctantly yield-
ed the use of those carts to their fellow-servants, when or-
dered to use them in carrying potatoes from the field.
The result was, that the Baron has been obliged to pur-
chase a pair of broad wheels for each of his carts.

The Baron adds, he has no doubt that broad wheels will
gradually creep into general use among the wealthy 1ms-
banthnen, but a statuiory eiactment may be necessary to
comjK'l earners of every description, (a numerous class), to
adopt them, as broad wlicc i>, by having more wood nn J
iron, are ratiier more expensive. Five years, however.

or ROADS. 61

bliould be allowed to wear out the narrow wheels now iu
use. Tlie sheriffs of counties should be directed to be pa«-
ticularly attentive in regularly intimating these statutory
enactments, the first year, the third and the fifth years, at
their several commencements, as the above description of
people are generally very illiterate, and, indeed, inattentive
to statutory enactments of any kind, as very few ever reach
them, or awake their attention.

An intelligent farmer on the borders, Mr Walker of
Wooden, is of opinion, that if broad wheels could be
brought into general use, it would be attended with a very
great saving of expence upon the public roads ; at any rate,
he is convinced that they are on many occasions of much
importance to the farmer. In wet seasons the}"^ are pecu-
liarly useful in leading home the crop from wet or soft
lands, which have been sown down with grass-seeds ; in
taking the stones from the same lands in the spring, when
they are to be cut for hay ; and in leading turnips off wet
lands. On such grass lands, while the ordinary wheels
sink very deep, and greatly injure the ensuing crop, wheels
of only double the ordinary breadth, make almost no im-
pression whatever. He always keeps, therefore, three or
four pair of these wheels for the purposes above mention-
ed. They are made at hardly any additional expence.
Each wheel is covered with two old iron rings of the common
wheel, after they have become too thin for use upon the
road ; and as the broad wheels are seldom used but upon
soft ground, these old rings last a long time, and they are
attended with no trouble or inconvenience, as they are
made to fit the axle-tree of the common wheels.

But if it be possible, by any means, to impress tlic public
mind with a deep conviction of the advantage of broad
wheels, the following observations, from an intelligent and
respectable country gentleman, William Cunningham, Esq.
of Lainshaw, will probably have that effect. lie states liis

62 or ROADS.

full conviction, that no person whose mhid is open to con-
viction, can make atrial of these wheeh^foi' farming pu7'pO'
ses, without at once perceiving their very gi*eat superiority
over the old wheels. He is satisfied, that his farm roads
will, in time coming, be maintained at one-fourth of the
expence hitlierto incurred for that purpose ; and, as he is
draining his own farm to an extent not yet practised in
this part of the kingdom, which necessarily requires a pro-
portionate carriage of materials, he expects very soon to be
repaid the cost of his new wheels.

He informs me, that he got one pair of broad wheels in
the month of May 1811 •, and that after a very short ex-
perience of their effects upon the roads of his farm, he or-
dered three pair more to complete the regular establish-
ment of his farm, which consists of four single horse-carts.
His wheels are five inches broad, and four feet six inches
in height. They cost at Morton's manufacture, Leith
Walk, near Edinburgh, about L. 11, 18 s. cash price.
Common wheels of the same height, and about two in-
ches and a half broad, cost, in Ayrshire, about L. 8, 10s.
Cylindrical wheels, he affii-nis, are equally well adapted to
evenj imrpose^ whether of road carriage, or agriculture.
In farming operations, their superiority is so great, that
he thinks it would be for the interest of every extensive
farmer to adopt them immediately, even if he should be
obliged to break up, and bum his old narrow wheels. He
docs not think that they will do where roads have been
deeply rutted by old narrow wheels, unless great care is
taken to avoid the ruts. But he is satisfied that equal
weights can be carried with them, and probably greater.
They do not shake the horses on rough roads like the
wheels Willi bent axles, and consequently arc easier drawn.
The weight of the wheels and axle is about .5 cwt. 32 lb.
Common wheels, with iron axles, weigh six or seven stones
K'ss. The bodv of the cart weighs 3 cwt. 16 lb. With

OF ROADS. G3

these wheels, he carries about fifteen cwt. in single-horse
carts, but if the roads were without pulls, a greater weight
might be taken. He is determined that all his farm wheels
shall be of that description j he considers them to be the
greatest improvement in agricultural machinery, since the
invention of the threshing-mill j and he conceives that every
month's delay, that takes place in the general adoption of
them, produces a great national loss.

Mr Morton states, that the broad cylindrical wheel, be-
sides the advantages it possesses upon a good road, or
causeway, is also more easily drawn over a new metalled or
gravelled road, than the common narrow wheel, in conse-
quence of its having no tendency to remove, or disturb, the
materials, having only the effect of levelling those stones
which stand highest, and thereby rendering the whole more
compact and smooth ; whereas, the narrow wheel presses
the stones it bears upon, aside, and thereby forms a rut, into
which it sinks, — consequently increases the obstacles it has
to encounter. He also observes, that a small additional
weight to the wheels, (say one-half cwt. per pair,) is of
much less consequence tlian the same additional load to the
body of the cart *.

Perhaps the most striking fact in favour of the use of
broad wheels is this, that the carts of the London and
Edinburgh Shipping Company have cylindrical wheels
of five inches in breadth, and yet, with a single horse-cart,
they frequently draw, (the weight of the cart and the
wheels included), no less than forty c>\'t. or two tons, though

• It is proper likewise to remark, that a cart with broad wheels
goes more solid and regular, and with less agitation than with
narrow wheels, and consequently the machine, as well as the
horses and the roads, would last much longer, by which the ex-
pence of ibe additional orioinal cost would be anaply repaid.

64' OF ROADS.

there is a considerable ascent from Leith to Edinburgh,
and the road in some places is not in the best state of
repair. The Edinburgh and Leith Shipping Company
use the same sort of wheels with equal success.

In regard to the encouragement that ought to be given
to broad cylindrical wheels ; Mr Cunningham is of opi-
nion, that if cylindrical wheels were to come into general
use, and were the toll rates much lessened in their favour,
great inconveniences might result from the diminution of
the revenues of the tolls, which are in many cases mort-
gaged in security for sums advanced to make and repair
the roads, and in other cases there .ire contracts in exist-
ence for maintaining the roads for a term of years. — It is
obvious, that till the existing debts are paid, and the cur-
rent contracts have expired, no general diminution of toll-
rates can take place ; but were these objects once attained,
he thinks, that the roads might be kept up, by levying
one-half, or one-third, of the tolls now exacted.

The advantages which the nation would derive by a due
attention to the important objects of roads and carriages,
are not easily calculated.

Before the subject of roads is dismissed, it is necessaiy
to observe, that in many districts, some plan should be
adopted, for enforcing a more impartial distribution of the
road funds * ; and that, when new turnpike roads are form-
ed, more care should be taken in the expenditure of the
money laid out. No sum should be expended, nor any
debt incurred, without accurately examining the ultimate

* The joLs in the management of turnpike trusts ought to he
regulated by a general law. To carry a particular object, meet-
ings are sometimes held in one district, while they ought to have
been held in the other, and other mancEUVres of a simihir nature
are perpetually going forward. Is it then to l-e woiid(Med at,
that our loads should get into die r< I'air '

OF ROADS. G">

expcnce, otherwise the wliole funds will soon be exhausted,
and the produce of the tolls will not clear the interest due
by the trust. The business then becomes more and more
troublesome to attend to, and the road is neglected.

It may be proper also to add, the substance of Mr
Loudon M' Adam's directions for repairing roads, extract-
ed from a valuable communication, which I had the plea-
sure of receiving from him, regarding that interesting par-
ticular.

He is of opinion, that where there is a quantity of clear
stone, equal to a foot thick, there is no occasion for any
additional materials when a road is to be repaired. The
stones, to the depth of a foot, should be taken up, (one
half of the road at a time to prevent the communication
from being interrupted), and then broken, so as to
pass through a screen or harp, through which no stone,
above an inch in any of its dimensions, can be admit-
ted *. The road should be laid as flat as possible ; the
less it is rounded the better, provided it is not hollow in
the middle. The broken stone should be laid evenly on
the road, a coat of six inches at a time, that the materials
may be consolidated. Any ruts, that may at first be form-
ed, should be immediately filled up. Every road should
be made of broken stone, without any mixture of earth,
or any other matter ; no large stones to be employed, on

* In regard to breaking stones, Mr M'Adam is of opinion,
that the best mode, both for effect and economy, is, by persons
sitting. The stones are to be gathered in small heaps when
picked up, and men or women past hard labour must sit down,
upon straw mats, and break them so small as to pass through a
screen or harp of an inch in the opening. This method of break-
ing stones by persons sitting, is practised in Westmoreland and in
Somersetshire, near Bridgewater ; and in these two neighboiii-
boods they have the best roads, and at the smallest e.vpcnre.

P. I. E

%

66 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

pretence of hoUoming^ nor sand, earth, or other matter,
on pretence of blinding. A road made of stone effectually
broken, wiU be a smooth, hard, even surface, which cannot
be much affected by the weather, and will be nearly equally
good at ail seasons of the year.

Sect. VII. — Instruments of Husbandry.

It is of peculiar importance, to adopt the best and most
economical implements of husbandly, and in general not
to incur an unnecessary expence in purchasing them, nor
to have more than are truly requisite. In these respects
the Scotch Farmers furnish an example which ought to
be more generally followed than is commonly the case ;
for the number of the implements they use, are not only
few, but they are distinguished by the simpUcity of their
construction, their efficiency, and their cheapness. A far-
mer is thus enabled to do the same work, at less expence,
and he can afford to pay more rent, without even raising
more produce.

In treating of this subject, we shall consider the nature
and construction of the following instruments ; 1. Ploughs;
2. Harrows ; 3. Carts ; 4. Fanners ; 5. The Threshing-
Mill; and 6. Miscellaneous Articles.

1. Ploughs. — Ploughs with wheels arc in general too
complicated, and their weight so great, as to require an
additional horse, or pair of oxen, to pull them along. In
Scotland, the swing jilougli is almost universally adopted,
and rarely jnoro than two horses are now made use ol.
The horses also ai'c yoked a-brcast, by which the advan-

#

INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. ,67

tage of their full strength can best be obtained, animal
power being most advantageously exerted, when cmjiloyed
separately, and close to the work. Indeed, when horses
are yoked one before the other, or harnessed at length, it
is hardly possible that tliey can pull equally. The power
of the fore horses must be exerted, to reduce the traces to
a straight line, which cannot bo done without pressing on
tlie back of the hindmost horse, where the angle is form-
ed, and consequently greatly distressing him : hence the
superiority of ploughs drawn by two horses a-breast, and
of single-horse carts. In regard to the operation of
ploughing, also, it is to be observed, that less time is lost
in turning, more especially in small fields, insomuch that
with equal ease, two liorses a-breast will do at least one-
tenth more work, than the same horses will perform when
placed in a line.

The plough generally used in Scotland, is known under
the name of Small's plough. But in some of the western
counties, as in Ayrshire, Renfrewshire, and Clydesdale, a
plough made by Mr Wilkie of Uddiiigton is very common,
and much approved of *. The same artist has lately intro-
duced an iron plough f . In the neighbourhood of Jed-
burgh, Veitch's construction is justly celebrated, though the
sources whence its merits are derived are disputed. But as
James Small is the artist to whom hitherto Scotland has
been most indebted, I }iropose, in the Appendix J, to explain
the origin, nature and advantages of his improvements.

The ploughs in Scotland are now almost universally
worked by horses; but some intelligent formers on the bor-
ders, think it of advantage to have some ploughs worked by
oxen also, as they are not so high priced, and more chcap-

* See Alton's Report of Ayrshire, p. 214.
+ Ditto, Addenda, p.7'23.

+ See an account of James Small, Appendix, NO. VI.
F. 2

68 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

\y maintained j they are of opinion, therefore, that any
extraordinary stock, not constantly required, should be of
that description.

For cleaning green crops, a double plough, which takes
a furrow from each side of the row, is reckoned to be a
great improvement, and if properly used, renders the
mould as fine as that of a garden.

In general, the horses are yoked a-breast, and never in
a line, excepting to take up the last furrow in a wet wheat
seed-time, to prevent poaching *.

In some parts of Scotland, it is necessaiy to have strong
ploughs, calculated for breaking up marshy ground, or old
ley, where furze perhaps may abound, and, in such cases,
four horses are necessary j and farmers make it a rule to
have a spare plough or two, so that the horses may not be
kept idle, in case one of the ploughs should accidentally
break.

2. Harrows. — The harrows used in Scotland are made
partly of wood, and partly of iron ; but of late, harrows
have been made entirely of iron, which are reckoned far
superior to the common sort, particularly when harrowing
deep lands, as from the narrowness of the bulls or bars, the
earth docs not clog them f . The construction of harrows
must depend on the nature of the soil. Those which are
best calculated for strong clay, cannot be suited to light
sands and loams.

3. Carts. — It is a general rule with Scotch farmers, that
every man-servant shall have a cart, a plough, and a set of
harrows, for each pair of horses, so that whether the wca-

* Comniiiiiiciilloii from Mr C'ray ot Cioigiemoor.
f Couimuuicalioii fiom Mr Robert Hope ot IVntoii.

INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 69

ther answers for carting, ploughing, or harrowing, the
whole horses and servants are always employed.

Single-horse carts are commonly preferred ; but when
the land is deep, the roads bad, the ascent great, or
the load heavj', two horses are generally made use of *.
A most intelligent farmer on the borders observes, that
when two horses are yoked one after the other, unless the
driver is very attentive, they seldom draw together, some-
times one drawing the whole, and sometimes the other.
He has only used single carts for twelve or fourteen
months ; but from the trial he has made, he is convinced
that two horses in single carts, will, with equal ease to
themselves, draw at least one-fourth more than in a double
cart when yoked one after the other. Another great ad-

* Some farmers think, that where six ploughs are kept, there
ought to be twelve carts ; though by having a cart for each horse,
the expence of that article is increased, yet the waste of a cart
that carries a ton, is greatly more than where only half that
weight is carried. Two horses, however, must be occasionally
used. The steady horse, in that case, should be put in the tram?,
and the spirited horse as leader, as he is apt to do more work than
he should. Others are of opinion, that two carts for each pair of
horses are an unnecessary expence upon an extensive scale of
farming ; and, in particular, that at a distance from large towns,
twelve carts are quite sufficient for twenty horses, in all the ope*
rations of the farm. In winter, horses can be changed forenoon
and afternoon, by being wrought in single carts, and the horses
are the better occasionally of easy work. But it is proper that each
horse should have a cart saddle to fit his back, and that each
man take care of his own harness. It is much the more correct
plan, upon a great concern, that four or six men be intrusted with
the delivery of all the grain. It is needless, therefore, to give
each man the charge of two carts ; for though no requisite out-
lay on a farm ought to be withheld, yet no requisite expence ought
to be avoided.

70 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

vantage attends single carts ; the carters cannot run races
when going for lime and coals, by which the horses are of-
ten rendered lame, and sometimes destroyed outright.
This is a practice that too much prevails, notwithstanding
the frequent punishments inflicted, and examples made,
for that offence.

In summer, more especially, single-horse carts are pre-
ferred by intelligent farmers, as the roads arc then good,
and the horses wull bring home more Hme to the farm, or
carry more produce to market, in two carts than one. By
dividing the load also, both carts and harness will last
much longer. What weighs much with many sensible
men is, their observing, that the people who drive their
own horses, ahvays yoke them in single carts. Others
contend, that though persons driving their own horses,
with great care, may adopt such a plan, that is no reason
why the same system should be adopted by the farmer,
who must trust his horses to the discretion of every com-
mon servant. They admit, that coal and lime, and grain
to the market, may be advantageously driven, on good and
level roads, by single-horse carts ; but they affirm, that
they cannot be depended on for leading home the crop,
nor for carrying out the dung, as the wheels will sink in
pulverised flillows, or turnip land, even if drj', and still
more so after rain.

If, however, two horses are to be used, (though after a
full trial there is every reason to believe that single-horse
carts would be found more effective, and less injurious to
the horses), curricle carts, or yoking horses a-breast might
be tried, more especially where the roads are broad, so as
to quarter with ease : In that way both horses can employ
their whole strength, and it is a likely mode of making
a powerful niul effective draught*.

• Mr W ilson t)t Sim|>rin states, that horses going a-bicast were
tried in his ueiglibuuihoud twenty yciirs aqo, and did not answer;

INSTRUMENTS OF IIUSBANnUV. 71

In time of harvest, the common box or cart is removed
from the axle and wheels, and large frames are put there-
on, for the purpose of bringing home the crops of hay or
corn from the fields, or for carrying hay or straw to mar-
ket. Indeed, where the carriage of hay or straw is to a
distance, two long carts are sometimes kept, made uncom-
monly strong, and stayed with iron bars.

In regard to waggons, there are not above six in the
whole kingdom of Scotland. In the words of an intelli-
gent farmer, this cumbrous and expensive machine is but
little esteemed, and hardly any where to be met with.
Every farmer is now thoroughly convinced, that the cart
in common use answers every agricultural purpose infinite-
ly better.

4. Fanners — This excellent instrument is more general-
ly to be found in Scotland than even the threshing-mill.
By using it, with the aid of riddles in some part of the
operation, all dust, chaff, and other refuse are blown away,
and the grain separated into divisions according to its
quality, by which it is rendered intrinsically more valuable,
than if the good and the bad were mixed together -, in the
same manner as a fleece of wool is more valuable, when
broken or sorted by the w^ool-stapler *. The threshing-

the horses fought, or jammed upon one another. He also tried
them in a roller, and it had the same effect. But this might
have been owing to mismanagement. The cart ought to have only
a pole, as in a coach or curricle, whicli would obviate the difficul-
ty.

* There is an excellent account of the fanning process in Kerr's
Berwickshire. It is said that the machine was invented by Dr
Papin, was introduced by the Dutch into the barn, and brought
to Scotland by Meikle, the father of the inventor of the threshing
machine. Others contend, that the idea originated in China,
though it has been greatly improved since its introduction into
this country.

72 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

mill has generally one set of fanners attached to it, driven
by a belt from the end of the axle of the threshing drum ;
but where the machine is driven by horses, the working of
a second pair, for cleaning the grain completely, is rather
found to be severe upon them : the second pah* of fanners
is therefore generally driven by hand. Some recom-
mend a small watei'-wheel, totally unconnected with the
threshing macliinery, for driving the second fanner, which,
by affording a steady equable motion, would separate com-
pletely the light grain fi-om the heavy *. By some im-
provements in the late erected machinery, it is said, that
hand fanners are rendered unnecessary, and that the clean-
ing of the grain is completed, at the same time that it is
threshed, so that the grain may be measured into the sacks.
This would indeed be an essential improvement. At the
same time, owing to the inequality of motion necessarily
attendant on the operation of threshing, the second fanner,
for separating the light grain from the good, will not ac-
complish the purpose intended, in a perfect manner, if it
goes at the same time with the mill. Perhaps it would be
expedient, that the threshing and fanning processes should
go at different times, when horses are employed, at least
in threshing of wheat.

5. The Threshing-mill. —But the great glory of the
Scotch instruments of husbandry is " the threshing-mill,"
by means of which, these important operations, the sepa-
ration of the grain from the straw, and in some measure
the cleaning of it afterwards, have been carried to a de-
grce of perfection and extent in Scotland, altogether un-

* Mr Ciitlibcrtson finds, that the two pair of fanners attached
to his water threshing-mill, perform their work so well, that oats
or beans arc completely finished for market ; wheat and barley,
however, require an additional dressing by the hand-fanners.

INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 73

rivalled in any other country *. There is no doubt, that
many attempts had been made, at various times, for con-
structing machines competent to the task of threshing j
but I am fully convinced, that had it not been for the su-
perior ingenuity of Andrew Meikle, no threshing-mill
would have been brought to any high degree of perfection
in our time. To him may be justly attributed the merit
of the feeding-rollers, and the drum ; the plan of the flax-
mill having been adopted in other cases. Every fi-iend to
merit, must rejoice to hear, that the inventor of so impor-
tant a machine, was rendered comfortable in his old age,
and enabled to provide for his family after his death, by
the voluntary donations of his grateful countrymen f .

It is not intended, in this place, to give any description
of the nature of the machinery ; but it may be proper
shortly to lay before the reader, 1 . An account of the dif-
ferent powers used in driving the machine •, 2. A short
view of the advantages resulting from the invention ; and,
3. Some hints regarding the improvements of which it is
susceptible.

* As a proof of the greai number of threshing-mills and fan«
ners erected in Scotland, I am informed that in the Carse of
Gowrie district alone, which is a tract of about fourteen miles
long and four miles broad, there are no less than 120 threshing-
mills driven by horses, and ten by water. In other parts of Scot-
land, threshing-mills are so general, that it is very difficult to
find a man who will thresh with the flail. A mill-wright also has
now become a separate trade or opcupation from other branches
of mechanism, in places where that was not formerly the case.

•\ The history of the origin of the threshing-mill is very ably
explained in the Farmer's Magazine, and in Brown's Treatise on
Rural Affairs. It is certain that skutch mills had been previously
invented, and mills of that description are capable of threshing
oats. That, however, does not detract from the merits of Mr
Meikle, whose mills are capable of threshing all sorts of grain
equally well.

^i INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

Threshing-mi]ls are driven, 1. By horses ; 2. By oxen ;
3. By wind j 4. By wind or horses j 5. By water ; 6. By
water or horses ; or, 7. By steam. Some small machines
of this sort are driven by manual labour, but they do not
merit any particular notice, and in general it is observed,
that unless machines are of a strong and powerful con-
stmction, they are constantly going wrong, and require
perpetual reparation *.

1. Where a command of water cannot be obtained,
which is certainty the least expensive power that can be
employed, horses arc commonly made use of; and when
the farms are rather of a moderate size, and where the
horses are rarely employed in that labour, some farmers
are of opinion, that the exercise they receive is not pre-
judicial to their health. Indeed, as they are principally
worked m bad weather, when other business out of doors
could not be attempted, they consider the threshing by
horses as attended with little or no expcnce ; but where
the crop is large, and in particular where a considerable
proportion of it consists of wheat, and where the machine
is heavy, the labour must be severe. This additional la-
bour, however, where no other power can be applied, far-
mers consider to be indispensable.

* Mr Neil Ballingal states, that the advantage of a mill, strong
and well constructed, well managed, and with fanners, is of the
greatest importance. But a slight mill, constantly breaking, and
with no fanners, no farmer would accept as a present. At the
san)e lime, it is remarked by Mr Stewart of Hillside, that in mo-
derate-sized farms in his neighbourhood, where the principal crop
is oats, a snialler kincf of thresh;ng-mill, without fanners, will suf-
fice, as the farmers lind time in the evenings of winter and spring
to dress the corn by hand-fauncrs.

INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 75

An intelligent farmer, Mr Blackie of Holydown, gives
the following calculation of the number of horses required
for the different crops. A four-horse mill he thinks is
quite sufficient for oats or barley ; but where there is much
wheat, a six-horse power is required. A three-horse
power does very well for potatoe-oats, when the com is
fed in by a careful hand j the mill then threshes much
cleaner than a flail : But when the corn is put in faster
than the mill is ready for it, the horses are oppressed, and
the work not well done.

2. It is said that working threshing-mills by horses, is
a power so unsteady, and attended with so much destruc-
tion to them, and hence so expensive, that some farmers
still prefer the flail, to the erection and keeping up of the
machinery and horses. Though such an idea is far from
being general, yet it certainly would be desirable, to
exempt the horses, regularly working on the farm, fi'om
so laborious a task, and oxen have been recommended for
that puipose.

A gentleman on the borders, who rents about L. 4000
per a7mu}n, informs me, that before he had collected water
sufficient to thresh his crop, (which may be done much
oftener than people are commonly aware of), he was ac-
customed, for many years, to thresh his crop by oxen ;
and he adds, that wherever there is a necessity for using
animal power, he would recommend oxen, as they are
more steady in the machine than horses. His oxen, when
employed in the threshing-mill, were fed in the usual
way ; only from being so near the shed, or court, they
were unyoked in the middle of the day in winter, and got
a few turnips, in lieu of the hay they were accustomed to
get at mid-day, when employed in the field. A piece of
wood was fixed to the beam, or what is commonly called
the start of the mill, and the oxen were yoked to it by
chains, in the same way as in the plough. For six or ?;e-

7G INSTRUr.IENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

vcn years, he never had a horse in the mill, and each ox
was employed nearly three years, one out of three being
annually selected for feeding, and a young one trained in
its place. When not employed in the threshing-mill, the
oxen ploughed or harrowed as usual, and sometimes were
employed in carting dung, turnips, &c.

The advantages of using oxen in threshing-mills, are re-
presented in the strongest point of view by Mr Wood of
Mill-Rig in Linhthgowshire.

In a communication to a useful institution, the Salton
Agricultural Society, he observes, that threshing-maclunes
are so much connected with the farming business, that it
cannot be carried on without them. They are in general
di'awn by horses, and are found to be very injurious to that
valuable animal ; for which reason, he advertised some
time ago, to have one made, to be driven by oxen, so as
to suit their natural step. This he happily effected. For
two seasons he threshed with oxen, and found, upon trial,
both the mill and oxen to answer particularly well. It was
thus in his power to have his threshing carried on, without
interrupting any work wherein his horses are engaged, be-
sides exempting them from the severe labour of threshing
about 100 acres of wheat annually, which proved destruc-
tive to his horses, though they were vei*y high fed *. The
use of oxen, therefore, in this operation, may certainly be
looked upon, in some degree, as an improvement in agricul-
ture. It is but fair to add, that for the first four or five
times, the oxen are very awkward in the mill, and great

* It is said, that on the greatest part of farms, bands for thresh-
ing cannot be got, independent of the ploughmen ; the exemption
of horses, therefore, is an object of less consequence. Labourers,
however, may be hired, and in bad weather the horses will be re-
freshed by rest. Besides, the tliroshiiig may go on during part
of the day only.

INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 77

care is then necessary to teach them ; but after that, they
go more steadily than horses. When once a niill also is
constructed for the slow motion of oxen, which must go
with more velocity on account of the slower pace of the ox
than of the horse, it is necessary to employ oxen constantly
for the sake of the machinery.

Mr Andrew Gray makes the following observations on
this interesting subject. Some persons are of opinion,
that as oxen in general move very slow, hence much time
and labour would be lost in working them. That, however,
can be obviated, by altering the velocity of the machine.
It is also doubted whether oxen are as well adapted
as horses for walking in a circle. A farmer in the county
of Moray, however, informs me, that he has used four
oxen in a threshing-mill, at one of his farms, and that he
found they did equally well as horses ; by which his plough-
horses were relieved, and the oxen he worked were kept
in good condition, by turnips and straw : and as it has
been found from long experience, that oxen, if properly
trained, will work equally fair and pleasant with horses,
either in the plough, the wain, or any other machine in
which they move straight forwards *, it may therefore be
presumed, that if taught, they will work equally fair when
walking in the same circle, and though oxen in general
move slower than horses, the threshing machine can easily
be so calculated, as to answer with their slower pace. It

* Horses will carry as well as draw ; hence some of the load
may be put on their back, and the horse is the better for it, more
especially going up hill. Oxen, on the other hand, will draw,
but cannot curry ; tumbril carts, therefore, having three wheels,
are the best for them. If oxen are apt to be giddy in a threshing
machine, they should be blindfolded, as horses sometimes are.
Giddiness may be occasioned by the smallness of the diameter of
the course.

78 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

would therefore seem, that oxen are at least equal, if not
superior to horses, for working threshing-machines.

These are considerations which merit well the attention
of every farmer in the kingdom, more especially as the
price of horses is constantly inci-easing, and as it can hard-
ly now be doubted, that for working in the threshing-
mills, and other extra labour, a few oxen on a farm might
be attended with infinite advantage.

3. The next power is wind; and if water cannot be got,
it is contended, that a wind-mill is greatly superior to one
wrought by horses. Wind-mills are now so nicely con-
structed, that the sails contract and dilate, according as
the wind increases or decreases ; so that now the motion
is much more uniform than that of a horse-mill driven by
the most careful driver. The next great advantage of the
wind-mUl is its gi*eat power, which permits more work to
be done in the same time, and at less expence ; as the
ordinarj'^ servants on the farm, if the wind is favourable,
may thresh a sufficient quantity, after having finished
their daily labour at either cart or plough ; besides,
the expence of tear and wear of horses employed at
the threshing-mill is very great, as no work upon
the farm is half so expensive *. Mr Rennie of Oxwell
Mains considers, that a wind threshing-mill, equal to the
power of eight horses, will annually save, when compared
to horses, besides the saving that would be made by the
horses, £. 4:0 per anmini, deducting the sinking of .^. 200
additional expence, in the erection of the machine ; and
Mr Wilson of Simprin in Berwickshire is of opinion,
that wherever a great quantity of wheat is grown, the re-
sistance is so great, and to overcome it is so destructive to
horses, that a threshing-mill ought to be driven cither by
wind or water.

Communication from Mr Rennie of Kinblethniont,

INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 79

Others object to wind macliincs, on account of the
expence of the construction, the certainty of their not foinir
in cahn weather, and the danger attending them when the
wind blows hard. Mr Brodic of Garwald, in particular,
observes, that in hilly situations, the wind is apt to rise in
such sudden squalls, as frequently to make tliat power in-
convenient, and not unaccompanied by danger.

Mr Neil of Kelso informs me, that the expence of a
good wind tln-eshing-mill will be about L. 550, and that
when a horse power is annexed to it, the additional ex-
pence, according to the present price of timber, will be
about L. 120 more, or L. 670 in all.

4. Aware of these objections to the power of wind
alone, Mr Rennie of Phantassie, Mr Brown of Markle,
and other respectable farmers, have erected threshing-
machines, so constructed, as to be worked either bt/ 'wind
or hy horseSi as may be found necessary. They consider
the power of wind to be so uncertain, that without the
addition of horses, a great inconvenience would often be
sustained. Mr Hume of East Barns has a machine of the
same description, but owing to the vicinity of the sea, he
has hardly ever had occasion for the horse power. He
considers threshing-machines of great advantage, even
with horses ; but when wind or water can be obtained, it
is worth, he states, on a farm of about 250 Scotch, or
316 English acres of arable land, from L. 100 to L. 200
per annum.

5. Water is by far the cheapest and tlie best power to
be applied to threshing-mills. From the equality and
the gentleness of the motion, the machine will last twice
as lonff as one drav/n bv horses : and as water-mills aene-
rally do much more work when in motion, they do not
require to be so frequently used. It is calculated, that in
threshing a crop of any extent, a pair of horses may be

so INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

saved upon the farm, by the use of a water-mill, which
cannot be calculated at less than L. 100 per annum.

Mr Stewart of Hillside has a threshing-mill driven by
water collected from the springs in the upper part of his
farm, and gathered in a dam. It has seldom been stopt
for want of water, and then only in extreme frosts, when
the ploughmen thresh, having little other work to do.
Mr Stewart adds, that the barley is cleared of aisonSi by
putting it through the mill with a grater upon it, which is
done at the rate of three bushels in the minute. This
seems to be a useful appendage to the threshing-mill.

6. Mr Hunter of Tynefield, and many other farmers in
the improved districts of Scotland, have threshing-mills
wrought hy 'watery or by horses, when the water is scarce.
About half Mr Hunter's crop is threshed by the water,
which saves about \0 per cent, on the expence, whereas, by
the labour of horses only, about 5 per cent, is gained. I con-
sider this to be a very useful suggestion. There are many
situations, where, by collecting springs, and forming dams,
lialf the labour of threshing might be done by water, with-
out much additional expence of machinery.

7. The last power that has been lately applied for the
purpose of impelling tln'eshing-machines is steam, and
there is one of these machines in East Lothian. It is
said, that on some new plan, steam-engines have been in-
vented at Hull, which would cost about L. 200, which
would furnish power sufficient to drive a threshing-
machine *. But there has not hitherto been sufficient ex-
perience to determine the comparative advantages and
disadvantages of the plan. It is said that 12 cwt. of coals
are required to thresh 50 Berwickshire bolls, or 300 bush-
els of wheat. It is probable, however, that the alterna-
tion of heating and cooling the steam api)aratus, may oc-

Communicatiuu frouj Mr Brown wl Cononsylb.

lySlRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 81

Caslon much loss and expence in repairing the furnace
and boiler ; and there is Httle chance, in districts merely
rural, of being readily able to procure work-people Avho
are sufficiently conversant in steam-engines, for keeping
the valves, leathers, and other parts of such nice machi-
nery in order. Wliere coal can be had at a moderate ex-
pence, some would reckon steam superior even to water ;
but as fire is always a dangerous enemy to straw, and farm-
servants often careless, it may be sometimes attended with
risk.

On the whole, the remarks made by Mr Kerr, on these
various powers, seem to be just. The greatest objection
to horse-machines, he observes, is the severity of labour
which they require, besides often necessarily occupying
the time of the farm-horses when much wanted for other
purposes. The capital defect of the threshing-mills which
are driven by wind, is the extreme uncertainty of that
power. During the long continued frosts of winter,
when there is hardly any wind, they are often altogether
useless for weeks, when straw for litter and fodder cannot
be dispensed with ; and the snme thing sometimes hap-
pens during harvest, when straw is much wanted for
thatch *. Water-mi^s, where that power can be had, are

* Wind-mills also are extremely apt to have their arms broken
by high winds, more especially under the management of farm-
servants, who can never be supposed intimately conversant with
their nature, and the mode of working them. This has given
rise to so much trouble, disappointment, and expence, that some
farmers in Berwickshire are tired of their wind-mills, and propose
returning to horse-wheels in their stead. As wind-mills are so
common both in England and Holland, this must be owing to
some defect in the construction, to misniimagement, or to higher
winds being more prevalent in Scotland than in those countries.

P. I. r

82 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

certainly the best in every respect ; being more economi-
cal and steadier in their operation, than when driven ei-
ther by horses or wind. But water is very apt to fail in
autumn, and during long frosts. On these accounts,
both wind and water machines, except when the latter
have an ample and regular supply of the moving power,
ought to be provided with horse-wheels.

Advantages of threshing-mills. — It is impossible to fonn
an adequate idea of the advantages which have been de-
rived from this important invention, without considering
the manner in which threshing had been previously per-
formed. There were two methods adopted for that pur-
pose. The first was by a person who contracted to thresh
the grain, giving twenty -four parts to the farmer, and
reserving one twenty-fifth part to himself: the second me-
thod was, to hire a man to thresh the gi'ain, at 1 s. S d.
per boll. Both these modes evidently furnished an in-
ducement to thresh the grain in a slovenly, rather than in
a perfect manner ; for the more labour that was bestowed
on the threshing, the less was the profit derived from it.
The mischief was, that by these methods, every part of
the business was a distinct process. In the first place, as
many hands were collected to bring in the stack, and to
build it into one end of the barn, as would, with the ad-
vantage of a mill, bring in, thresh, and clean the one
half of it, in the same time j next, the tasker, (or thresher
who worked by tasked work), had to take it from the
heap, (as it is called), to lay it on the floor, to shake it
well, and then to thresh it ; and when each floor is thresh-
ed, he must put the straw out of his way ; twice every
day at least, he had to gather what corn he had threshed
from every corner of the barn, and to separate it distinct-
ly from tlie straw ; women had to attend twice a-day to
shake the straw, and men to carry it away ; and, last of

INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. S$

all, hands were collected to clean and prepare it for mar-
ket, after lying perhaps fourteen days on a cold clay floor.
Instead of all this, with the mill, and at most nine hands,
often with only six or seven, and from four to six horses,
the farmer can bring in, thresh, and partly clean, on an
average, twenty-four bolls in four hours, at the same time,
shaking and disposing of the straw ; and in the course of a
few hours, the grain may be ready for the market, the
door locked, and the key in his possession. What a dif-
ference, instead of being a sort of slave to taskers, for at
least nine months in the year ! A baker also, will, in
some particular cases, give 2 s. per boll more for wheat
threshed by a mill, than by the flail *.

The specific advantages resulting from this invention
maybe thus stated: 1. The threshing and shaking are
so much better performed than they were by the flail, and
by the hand, as to justify the opinion that there is an ad-
vantage derived, equal to one boll in twenty, over the
old-fashioned methods f. The quantity of grain left
in the straw by the flail, was formerly so great,
that a respectable fanner in the Carse of Gowrie calcu-
lates, that, to his certain knowledge, it was equal to the
expence of keeping all the work-horses on his farm f , and

* Communication from Mr Richard Somner of Gilchriston.

•)■ Communication from Mr George Farme, Braidwood, near
Dalkeith, and Mr Brown of Cononsyth.

I There is now no risk from foul threshing, as every farmer can
distinguish, in a few minutes, whether the work is properly done
or not ; but by the flail, he was almost always at the mercy of
the thresher, who grew so weary of so tedious an employment,
that it is not to be wondered at he should execute it in a sloven-
ly manner. Besides, the labour was an unwholesome employ-
ment, from the dust it was apt to raise, and thos« who worked
Sit it seldom lived long.

f2

84 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

the loss was so insufferable, that the farmer was afraid to
go from home, for the eight months in the year during
which the threshing lasted *. It is not only of importance,
its being done in a much more perfect manner, but also,
that it can be executed much more expeditiously f , in so
much, that advantage may be taken of any sudden de-
mand ; a scarce market may be supplied ; a stack of from
30 to 40 bolls may v.ith case be threshed in a day, and
sent to market, or to the miller ; and all this may be done
during weather when the other farming operations must
be at a stand. 3. It has been well observed by Mr
Brown of ^.larkle, that if in the large farms of this coun-
try, hand labour were to be used for separating corn
from the straw, a farmer's whole attention would be taken
up by barn-work, otherwise the work would be imperfect-
ly executed ; whilst much pilfering would go on, unless
he was constantly on the watch 4. At a threshing-ma-
chine, any thing of that kind can rarely happen, so many
people being employed together when the machine is at
work, constantly under the eye of the master, or of some
confidential servant ; and when the work is finished, every
door is instantly locked. 4. One important advantage
attending the threshing-machine, worked by any power,
is the superior value of the grain ; as the speedy way in

* A tasker (IbreDlier) being once severely threatened (or foul
threshing, very cahuly answered, " I'm sure ye'l nae find hail
slieaves among the strae," — a poor consolation to the unfortunate
farmer, whose interests were thus so deeply afVccted.

t Once putting it through the hand-fanners, completes it either
for the mill, or the merchant, and a stack can be threshed out,
cleaned, sacked, delivered, and might almost be ground, and baked
into bread, in one and the same day.

♦ Tlie doors of the barns formeily were almost constantly open.

INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 85

which the work is executed, prevents that waste and
damp, which was produced from the Ion.<T continuance of
tlie corn among the chaff, tliercby rendering it not so fit
for meeting the market, and of inferior quality to the
consumer *. Hence, as Mr John Shirreff well observes,
the corn, instead of lying during one, two, or even three
weeks, amidst the chaff and other rubbish, in the corner
of a barn, till it become s quite raw to the touch, and mus-
ty to the smell, or, if the floor is damp, sometimes in part
springs, grain when threshed by the machine is instan-
taneously separated from both straw and chaff, as well as
every other extraneous substance, and can be immediate-
ly measured up into bags, to be disposed of as may best
suit the owner's interest. So great is the difference be-
tween grain threshed by the flail and the machine, that
any person acquainted with the article, may go through a
corn-market, blindfolded, and note every bag. This I am as-
sured by several intel'-gent farmers cannot be questioned. 3.
Another gre^^t advantage is, th?t the farmer can thresh
his seed-wheat when in a soft state, recently cut, and taken
off the field, and without any injury whatever f , which, be-

* Communication by Mr James Cuthbertson. Mr Peter Jack
of Moncur observes, that when grain was threshed by the flail, it
lay for ten or twelve days on the floor. The first part of the grain
lying on the floor so long, became danip and swelled, that though
put to a proper granary, yet it soon became musty, from the damp
that it carried from the cold floor, and on that account never had
the fine flavour in flour, that meal of all kinds now has, never
being suftered to lie on the barn floor. North country oats and
meal often lose a market in the south, on account of the musty
taste it is so apt to imbibe from damp floors.

t On the same system corn might be threshed in hazardous
seasons, as soon as reaped, and either immediately kiln-dried or
frequently dressed by fanners, attached to a threshing-mill.

86 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

fore the invention of mills, it was hardly possible to get
executed, in the harvest time, without the greatest difficulty,
and at a heavy loss. He is thus also enabled to provide
seed-corn in the spring, which formex'ly was not always an
easy operation. When threshing for seed was done in a
hurry, it may easily be supposed in how slovenly a man-
ner the operation would be performed. In the busiest
time of harvest also, straw can be got for covering stacks,
which formerly could hardly be obtained. 6. It is found
that strong wheat-straw is more useful for cattle when
threshed in a mill, it is so much more softened than by
the flail *. 7. If a stack of corn is brought from the field
into the yard too soon, and is heated, it is threshed in
one day, goes to the kiln and suffers no loss ; but before
the invention of mills, when threshed by the flail, it was
so soured that it was almost unsaleable, and a loss of per-
haps 20 per cent, was thereby sustained. 8. It is observed
by Mr Kerr, that smut balls are not so apt to be crushed
by the threshing-mill as by the flail, and that the grain is
consequently less apt to be blackened f . 9. Mr John
ShirrefF remarks, that by the threshing-mill, the separa-
tion of the grain from the straw is not only more complete,
than by any other known means, but the separation of
the straw from the grain and the chaff, by the rake, and
of the chaff and small seeds from the grain by the fan-
ners and skreens, all driven by the same machinery, ai'c
advantiiges not inferior, perhaps, to the separation of the
grain from the straw in the first instance. — Taking all
these circumstances into consideration, and that prior to
tlic invention of threshing-mills, drudgery, it may be said,

• C'ominiiiiicalit)ii from Mr Peter Jack of Muncur.
f Berwickbliiie Report, p. 231.

instrump:nts of husbandry. 87

stared tlic farmer in the face ; and that besides hcaN'y
losses, it was the source of endless trouble and vexation to
every occupier of land, it is not to be wondered at, that
the threshing-mill should be considered the most useful
and profitable instrument belonging to a farm, and that
its advantages should be accounted incalculable.

Some estimates, however, have been made of the speci-
fic advantiiges to be derived from this invention, which one
farmer calculates at the rate of 5 s. per acre * on lands un-
der crops of grain, whilst others state it 5 s. per acre with
horse mills, but at full 10 s. per acre upon the whole lands
under crop, when the machine is driven by water, by wind,
or by oxen f . Mr Dudgeon, Primrose Hill, from gene-
ral observation, without entering into minute calculations,
is of opinion, that the aggregate advantage derived from a
well-constructed threshing-mill, wrought by water, and un-
der proper management, (when compared with the old
mode of threshing), will be about 8 per cent, upon the corn
threshed, including labour alone, but without making any
allowance for money sunk in erecting the mill, or repair-
ing the machinery. It is calculated by an intelligent far-
mer, that a threshing-mill saves, on an average, the ex-
pence of three men for nine months, which, on a farm pro-
ducing 1000 bolls, is equal to about L.70, or 1 s. 3 d. per
boll. Mr Dudgeon, Prora, has made a comparative es-
timate of the expence of threshing wheat by the mill and
the flail ; from which it appears, that the saving of charges
in threshing alone, independent of other advantages,
though the work be performed by horses, and not by any

* Communication from Mr Charles Alexander of Easter Ilap-
rew.

t Communication from Mr Wood of Milrig.

BS INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

cheaper power, is equal to 47 s. per 50 bolls, or lid. per
boll, increasing with the prices of grain. Mr Robert Kerr
gives the following estimate of the expence of threshing and
dressing 50 bolls of wheat :

Three pair of horses at 6 s. per pair,
Four men at 2 s. 6 d. each.
Four women at 1 s. each.

Incidents, as oil, &c.

which is at the rate of 7^ d. per boll.

L.0

18

0

0

10

0

0

4

0

L.1

12

0

0

0

3|

L. 1 12 34

In the wind or water machine, the expence of the
horses is saved, by which the cost per boll is reduced^ to
less than 3| d. By means of the steam power, the cost is
restored to nearly the same with horses.

As to threshing by the flail, it was so irksome a task,
that as labourers became scarce, the expence would have
so much increased, as greatly to have diminished the pro-
fit of the farmer, and consequently the value of land *.

Mr Brown, Markle, in his valuable treatise on rural
affairs, has drawn up the following estimate of the profit
that might be derived by the public, from the universal
adoption of threshing-mills. He calculates,

1. The number of acres producing grain in

Great Britain, at - - - 8 millions.

2. The average produce in quarters at 3

quarters /><';• acre at - - - 24 millions.

Brown's Treatise on Rural Afl'uirs, vol. i, [>. 515.

INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 8j>

3. The increased quantity of grain produced
by threshing, instead of using the flail, at
one-twentieth part of the produce, or in
quarters at - - - 1,200,000

■i. The value of that increased quantity at

40 s. per quarter, - - - L. 2,400,000

5. The saving in the expence of labour at 1 s.

per quarter, - - - L. 1,200,000

6. The total possible profit per annum to be

obtained, at - - - L. 3,600,000

7. The actual profit, on the supposition that
only one-half of the grain produced, vs^ere

ihre&h.ed per annum at - _ - L. 1,800,000

Is it then to be virondered at, that he should pronounce
the threshing-mill to be the most valuable implement in
the farmer's possession ; contending, that it adds more to
the produce of the country than any invention hitherto
devised ; and that it ought to be accounted -the greatest
improvement that has been introduced into Great Britain,
during the present age ?

It is much to be lamented, however, that the process of
threshing by the mill cannot be carried on to the same ad-
vantage, unless where the ears are regularly exposed-to the
stroke of the beaters ; reaping by the sickle, therefore, is
much to be preferred ; at the same time, if the grain is
passed twice through the mill, it will be threshed effectual-
ly, in whatever mode it may be reaped.

Improvements in the threshing-mill. — It is probable that
several improvements will still be made on this machine *.

• Mr Robert Kerr states, that Mr Dun, a very ingenious mill-
wright at Coldstream in Berwickshire, has made many useful iia-

90 IKSTIIUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY*

Amongst these, diminishing the size of the drum is cer-
tainly amongst the most important. The drum should not
exceed from two feet eight inches to three feet, or three
feet and a quarter. Mr Sked, mill-wright at Dunbar, has
made a machine of six horse power, with a drum of only
three feet and a-half long, and three feet and a quarter dia-
meter. This machine, which has a large outer wheel,
threshes with uncommon ease, and very clean, and with so
small a drum it can thresh from 10 to 12 bolls of wheat in an
hour, whilist the horses are so cool, that they can be watered
with safety after working five hours. That able mechanic,
Mr Andrew Gray, is decidedly of opinion, that a small
drum, with few beaters, is preferable to the larger one with
a great number, the small drum making better work, not
being so severe on the cattle, and less straining to the ma-
chinery. Although it is obvious that a drum, three feet
diameter, having four beaters, must take two revolutions,
for one of the drum six feet diameter, with eight beaters,
it is evident, that the circumferencq of the one will move

provements on threshing-mills, in particular on those which go
by wind ; more especially by causing the machinery to regulate
the sails in proportion to the wind and work, in a most efiective
manner, with no trouble whatever to the people who feed the
mill. He has likewise adapted a scries of buckets, resembling the
chain-pump, wbicli continually return all ill-threshed grain, par-
ticularly ill-dressed barley, to the threshing stage ; and has, be-
sides, added an ingeniously-devised shaker, beyond the rake, for
clearing all the loose grain from among the straw. On the whole,
the nmchines erected by INIr Dun have been carried to very great
perfection; always supposing, however, that they possess suflicient
moving power of water or wind ; for they are rather too much
loaded to be driven with any tolerable ease by horses.

INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 91

Mearly at the same rate as the other, because one turn of
the large drum, is equal to two turns of the small one,
they will give therefore an equal number of strokes in the
same time ; but it is found by experience, that the small
drum threshes much cleaner, or makes better work, than
the larger one. The small drum is therefore to be prefer-
red ; being easier driven, it must be less severe on the cat-
tle, and by its striking the corn at a more acute angle, of
course strips off the grain much cleaner from the straw *.

Another improvement is, instead of two fluted rollers,
to have one of them plain, but chipt cross-wise, about half
an inch deep in various places. This prevents the straw
from rolling around the fluted roller ; in which case the
straw must be immediately cut, otherwise much mischief
may be done. This is supposed to be a Scotch invention^
for it was only introduced into Northumberland in the year
1 807. When chipped, the straw adheres to the roller, with-
out rolling or lapping round it, which it is apt to do, when
the roller is fluted, if the straw is damp. On this subject, how-
ever, there is a great diversity of opinion. One respectable
correspondent affirms, that a plain roller, instead of being
an improvement, is, on the contrary, detrimental to the

* Mr Wood of Milrig remarks, that he has always found tha
moderate-sized threshing-mill by far the most useful, and less
destructive to the animals which drive it, and sufficiently expedi-
tious for the purpose of any farm ; and by employing a certain
number of day-labourers, which a farm of proper size has always
at command, and by employing the ox for threshing, the horses,
and the men who work them, are never taken from other agri-
cultural purposes, very necessary peihaps to be carrying on at
the same time.

92 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

work ; fluted rollers being, in his opinion, necessary to re-
tain the corn for a length of time sufficient to thresh it.
Another intelligent farmer, on the other hand, considers
the plain ro^'er, chipt cross-wise, a great improvement.
He adds, that damp straw is threshed with much inconve-
nience by fluted rollers. They are not only troublesome,
but dangerous. Indeed he had a man who lost his hfe by
being entangled in the rollers, whilst attempting to cut the
rolled or lapped straw from the roller. A chipped roller
also, is well calculated, not only for threshing oats in a damp
day, or the wet bottom of a stack, but also for tlu'eshine:
rank pease, a point of considerable importance. Mr
Dudgeon, Prora, informs me, that many farmers were so
much convinced of *^he waste of the straw of pulse crops of
all soi ts, that they continued the use of the flail, when the
fodder of pease, &c. was required. Indeed the mill broke
off the chaff so much as to render the straw much less nu-
tritive ; this the flail corrected by preserving it more entire,
and of course making it to last longer. This object may
be obtained now by means of the plain and chipped roller.
Mr Dudgeon uses three hands to feed the machine, if the
pease or beans pass through to any degree of thickness be-
tween the rol'ers, and they receive only that degree of
threshing which is necessary for separating the corn fiom
ihe sliaw.

It is well known, that accidents have ofi;en happened
from the difficulty of informin-r the driver of the horses,
that the machine should be stopt. Mr Erskine of Marr
Las obviated every difficulty of that ooi t, by hanging a bell,
the ailing of which is within the reach of the feeder of the
mi'l, and by tcrching the horses to stop immediately when
the bell rings. The horses are also taught to proceed
again, when the bell rings a second time.

INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY 9S

Wlien horses are yoked in threshing-mills, they ought
either to have goggles, or to be blinded, as they are so apt
to look back. All horses should have breechings to enable
them to stop the machine, and many have been killed, and
much mischief done, owing to the want of so essential an
article. The lever, by which the mill is wrought, ought
always to be placed above the horse's back.

It would be a most essential improvement to make the
horses work equally. To obtain that object, a plan has lately
been invented by Mr Walter Samuel, a smith near Edin-
burgh, the apparatus of which is simple and cherp, not
exceeding 20 s. per horse, by means of which, it is con-
tended, that not only the horses are comparatively greatly
^ased in the most severe labour in which these useild ani-
mals are employed, but that a great saving results in the
wear and tear of the machine, from the regularity and uni-
formity of the movements.

Mr Scott at Ormiston has constructed an improvement,
by which that resistance which is so great and oppressive
to the horses, when wheat, or corn of strong growth is
threshed, can be easily removed or lessened by the foot of
the person who feeds the machine, pressing upon a bar or
treddle, which has the instant effect of raising the upper
roller in such a degree, as to allow the bottom of the sheaf
to escape with more ease, and thereby lessening the draught
of the horses. This plan has been put in practice by Mr
Park of Windymains, and jnay answer, when the person
who feeds the machine is carefid and attentive. The ex-
pence is only about fifteen shillings *.

* Fur a plate and description of tliis improvement, see The
Farmer's Jhigazine, NO. XLA'II.

94i INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

Mr George Mitchell, at Bishop Mill, near Elgin, in
Moray, has discovered a mode for dressing barley in a su-
perior manner, by means of cheap machinery annexed to
the threshing-mill, an account of which will be given in the
appendix.

Some farmers think it an improvement to yoke their
horses in pairs, in the same manner as they do the plough ;
but this is attended with a loss of the power applied, the
one horse being compelled to travel over more ground
than the other.

Great diversity of opinion is entertained regarding the
kind of threshing-mill that is easiest wrought, some con-
tending for two movements, some for three, and others for
four. Mr Rennie of Phantassie recommends a mode of
trial, which he thinks would set that matter to rest, that of
having three or four models of different movements, but
of equal power, to be constructed by an able mechanic,
and these to be wrought by means of weights, which he
thinks would at once ascertain which of them had the
easiest draught ; at the same time, it would be difficult to
say, with any degree of correctness, which ought to be pre-
ferred. If, instead of models, real machines were to be
made use of, it would be necessary, in order to make the
comparison complete, that the machine should be all new,
and that the same horses, the same sort of grain, if possi-
ble from the same field, and the same driver and feeder,
should be employed to the machines driven by the different
movements. The great object, however, is, clca7i thresh-
ing* without which facility in movement is no advantage.

As to the cost of electing a house, the cxpcncc, on an
average, may be calculated at L. 200 for each ma-
chine, including the horse-shed, the fanners, and the loft
connected with the framing of the machinery, but cxclm-

INSTRLMENTS OF HUSBANDnV. ^5

sivc of tlie barn, the burn lofting, &c. Tins expencc,
owing to the higher price of wood, is not hkcly to be di-
minished. Mr John Shirrcff" at the same time remarks,
that that must in some degree he counterbalanced, by the
present more general introduction and employment of cast-
metal segments and pinions, in the construction of which
much labour is saved, and consequently wages to the ope-
rative mill-wright.

Upon the whole, after the experienced advantage of
powerful threshing-mills on large farms, they have now
become not only most useful, but almost indispensably ne-
cessary ; and farmers who have been accustomed to
the dispatch, security, and economy, which they con-
tribute to the management of extensive concerns, would
find themselves reduced to most unpleasant inconvenience,
should any circumstances oblige them to have again re-
course to the flail.

6. Miscellaneous Articles. — The other implements
used in Scotland are not numerous, consisting principally
of bean and turnip drills, (drill-machines for corn are not
frequent), stone, wood, or cast-metal rollers *, and scrapers.

* One of my correspondents has tried a roller made of Aber-
deenshire granite, with which he is much pleased. Eve;y person,
he observes, knows how imperfectly the large wooden roller acts
in the pulverising process, and in many districts it has generally
given place to the smaller metal roller. But the granite roller is
greatly superior ; it is cheaper ; it will last for years ; and is so
weighty, that it may be made of as small a diameter as is neces-
sary. It is said bv tliDse who have tried rollers, that they should
not be less than twelve inches in diameter, nor more than tl)irty,
because, if too small, they are apt to puih the hard clods before

96 INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.

or shovel-ploughs, none of which are either expensive or
complicated. A horse-rake for gathering corn stubbles af-
ter the scythe, has lately been introduced into some parts
of Scotland, and has given satisfaction.

On the whole, it may be safely asserted, that there Is no
country in Europe, where farming is at all understood,
where the implements of husbandry are so few, so simple,
so cheap *, or so effective as those in Scotland — a cir-
cumstance of infinite moment to the industrious hus-
bandman.

them, and if too large, to force the clods into the soil, or to rest
upon them instead of breaking them. Some recommend hollow
cast-iron rollers ; but in that case, it would be advisable to have
a machine for conveying them from one field to another, to pre-
vent their breaking. Jt might be set on low wheels, and an
inclined plane of stout plank used for dratving it by a horse, or
two if necessary.

• The threshing-mill, though it costs a considerable sum, yet is;
the cheapest of any, considering the work it performs.

OF LIVE STOCK. 97

Sect. Ylll.-^O/Live Stock.

It is a common remark, that the farmers of Scotland, in
general, seldom think of bringing their sheep, their cattle,
or their hogs, to that extraordinary degree of fatness,
which is the pride of the English breeders and graziers ;
for which, indeed, the former have no inducement, except
when they are within reach of the Moi*peth market, as they
would find but few purchasers in their own country. With-
out discussing the propriety of fattening animals to such a
pitch, or the refinements of modern breeding, it may be
sufficient to observe, that the breeds of Uve stock in Scot-
land are, on the whole, well calculated for the soil and
climate of that country ; and that many of them are dis-
tinguished by most valuable properties, which are not to be
surpassed, and indeed are rarely equalled, by those of any
other country.

Our observations on this subject shall be confined to the
four principal sorts of live stock j 1. Cattle ; 2. Sheep j 3.
Horses ; and 4-. Hogs.

1. Cattle. — In the General Report of Scotland, a par-
ticular account will be given of the Various breeds of cat-
tle in that part of the kingdom. It may be observed ia
general, on the authority of a most respectable correspon-
dent, (Mr Trevelyan of Netherwitton, near Morpeth),
that the farmers of Scotland are too apt to overlook and un-
dervalue their own breeds of cattle. In regard both to
beauty of form, and quickness of feeding, they are equal to
any, and they would improve still more, were the same care

V. r. *i

98 OF LIVE STOCK.

taken of" the calves as in the southern districts. Even as
matters are now conducted, for deHcacy of eating, and ex-
cellence of form, nothing can surpass the small breeds in
the northern parts of the island, the Kyloes, or the cattle
of the Isle of Sky, and other islands in the Hebrides, and
the west country Highlanders, or cattle of Argyll. It is
supposed, indeed, that the best of the short-horned breed,
or Collins's celebrated stock, has a mixture of Kyloe blood
in it ; and I am informed by a gentleman, eminent for
his skill in breeding, that a mixture of the Kyloe blood,
in a small proportion, and done with judgment, in a pro-
per manner, and at a proper time, would do good. He
adds, that there is not any other breed but the Kyloe,
that would admit even of a small mixture with the short-
horned.

Of a larger description than the Kyloe, and from their
form admirably calculated for fattening, are the breeds of
Galloway, Fife, Angus, and Buchan.

In regard to the dairy, the cows bred in several districts
of Ayrshire, Cunningham in particular, which have since
spread into the counties of Renfrew and Lanark, and other
places, are justly celebrated.

In discussing the subject of cattle, it is proposed to make
some observations, 1. On the feeding of cattle, and the
profit attending that practice, more especially when com-
pared with sheep ; 2. On dairy cows, and their manage-
ment ; and 3. On the working of oxen ; concludhig with
some additional particulars, which it is necessary to ex-
plain in regard to this branch of the inquiry.

Feeding cattle. — As the farmers in the more improved
districts of Scotland, arc not partial to old turf, and rarely
have any extent, either of permanent pasture or of meadow
land, it is usual for them, instead of breeding stock, to

OF LIVE STOCK. 99

purchase cattle or sheep froip tlie breeding districts, and
to fatten them for the market.

This is certainly an advantageous plan for them to fol-
low. The expence, and the risk of breeding great num-
bers of animals, are thus avoided. The attention of the
farmer is not distracted by a diversity of objects. He can
alter his system, from cattle to sheep, or from sheep to cat-
tle, as is likely to be the most profitable ; and the capital
he lays out, is speedily returned. The division of profes-
sions between breeding and feeding, though they may be
united in peculiar favourable circumstances, yet, on the
whole, is a most important link in the progress of agricul-
tural improvement.

Cattle may be fed, in pastures, in fold yards, in
open sheds or hammels, or in stalls. These points have
been already discussed, (See Sect II.) ; but some observa-
tions still remain to be made on stall-feeding.

By some, feeding cattle in stalls is objected to, as ren-
dering the animals unhealthy. An experienced farmer,
however, affirms, that in the space of twenty years, during
which he fattened several hundred head of cattle^ he ne-
ver knew one unhealthy animal feed to perfection. He
has tried feeding cattle of the same sort, some loose in a
warm shade, some in the open court yards, and some in a
stall. The last, by his experience, was the preferable sys-
tem. It is proper to observe, that those fed in the stalls
were well curried, kept very clean, to which, probably,
this farmer's success in stall-feeding was owing. And
here it may not be improper to observe, that though the
general principles and practices of husbandry are already
sufficiently understood, yet that much information is still
wanting regarding the minutiae of the art of agriculture,
on a due attention to which the success of the farmer must
necessarily depend.

o 2

100 OF LIVE STOCK.

As an additional proof of the justness of that remark, I
am led to state the particulars of an experiment made by
a respectable farmer in East Lothian, (Mr Dudgeon of
Prora), which proves how much depends upon supplying
cattle, fed in winter, on dry food, with a sufficient quantity
of water, and the necessity of sparing no expence in fiir-
nishins them with that essential article in abundance.

Mr Dudgeon having a number of Highland cattle con-
suming straw and chaff on a farm unfit for turnips, an
old man was appointed to discover, how often they went to
a watering trough, within the close, in a short cold win-
ter day. That he might not be confused in the execution
of his orders, one particular bullock was pointed out, on
which he was to make his report. According to that re-
port, which there is every reason to believe may be relied
on, he drank eight tiines in the course of the day, and the
man was convinced, that all the rest of the cattle drank as
often as the one fixed on. How then is it possible that they
can be properly supplied when they are sent out to drink ?
Twice a-day is as often as cattle are driven out to water,
and some of them do not get one drink. The strongest or
most forward, first supply themselves, always abuse the wa-
ter, and, (especially in a pond), render it unfit for the rest,
and even for themselves during the rest of the day. Their
shivering attendant, glad togetthemdonewith their drinking,
hurries them back to the close. Indeed cattle are not able,
at one or two opportunities, to drink a sufficient quantity
of water, in cold weather, to moisten and digest coarse food.
Mr Dudgeon, aware of this circiunstance, brought in wa-
ter by a lead pipe to a cistern, about seventy yards distant
from a dam head. The cistern consists of common rough
building. A stone or trough is placed within the farm-yard,
communicating with the cistern by a pipe of two inch bore,
suid the trough, being upon a level with the cistern, it

OF LIVE STOCK. 101

stands always full, being regularly supplied as it is made
use of. This is a most valuable acquisition. Mr Dudgeon
is convinced, that a moderate-sized ox will, by an abun-
dant supply of water, improve much more rapidly during
the course of a winter, if he is supplied with water when
he requires it, than when he is only occasionally driven
to it.

The profit to be derived from feeding cattle, compared
to sheep, has been a subject of dispute. Mr Kerr calcu-
lates, that an acre of good feeding land in Berwickshire
will support a sizeable ox, or five full sized Leicester sheep *.
The ox, he states, will increase in the course of the season
to the amount of 16 stone, 14 lb. to the stone, or 224 lb.
in all, and the five Leicester sheep will produce, besides
the wool, on an average about 12| stone of mutton, or
168 lbs. In the county of Durham, however, Mr Bailey
of Chillingham estimates, that an acre of such land as
will feed an ox of 60 or 70 stone, will feed from seven to
eight sheep per acre. Such an ox, feeding on turnips, will
consume from 20 to 22 stone per day. By experiments
recorded in the Northumberland Report, tups of 12| live
weight, eat 2j stones of turnips per day, which is at the
rate of eight to one, comparing cattle to sheep. Hence, if
they eat grass in the same proportion, and if, as is the case
in the INIorpeth market, when beef sells at 8 s. per stone,
sinking the offal, mutton fetches 9 s. the calculation of
comparative profit from these data will be as follows :

* See Kerr's Report of Berwickshire, p. 320. Mr Kerr make-;
the winter proportion on turnips, ten sheep to one moderate sized
fattening ox, with the addition of straw. Ditto, p. ^79.

102 OF LIVE STOCK.

1. Eight sheep, gaining 2^ stones each, or 20
stone in all, at 9 s. per stone, or L. 1 : 2 : 6

per sheep, - - - L. 9 0 0

2. An ox gaining 1 6 stone at 8 s. per stone, 6 8 0

Difference in favour of the sheep, L. 2 12 0

If seven sheep are taken, the balance would be L. 1 : 9 : 6.
If six sheep, the difference is 7 s. in their favour; but at
five sheep, the balance is 15 s. 6 d. in favour of the ox.

It is necessar}', however, to take into consideration the
hide, on the one hand, and the skins and fleeces on the
other ; also the value of the manure they respectively
produce. The latter is evidently in favour of the sheep j
for it can hardly be doubted, that two years' pastur-
age with sheep, will improve land as much as three with
cattle.

This, however, is not the only point of view in which
this subject is to be considered. A Berwickshire farmer
informs me, that he usually purchases in October, at the
Falkirk tryst or market, about eighty Highland bullocks ;
he winters them on straw and meadow hay, and feeds them
off for the butcher the following season, in grass inclosures
taken for that puq^ose. They are bought, on an average,
at about L. 9 per head, and will fetch, when fattened,
from L. 1 1- to L. 15 each. Is any plan more likely to be
profitable, more especially if the grass fields are not taken
too high ? Any other sort of breeding or feeding can
hardly stand a comparison with such a system, when the
lean stock are purchased at a reasonable price, and the
lUt find a ready market.

, The most intelligent graziers arc of opinion, that a mix-
ed stock of cattle and sheep always pay better, than when
1 hoy are ]iastured separatcl}'. They improve the ground

OT 1,1 VE STOCK. 103

more, and are fattened with more economy *. Mr George
CulJey states that to be tlie result of his experience as a
grazier, for no less a period than sixty years. Mr Robert-
son of Ladykirk, who concurs in the same opinion, cal-
culates, that an acre of ordinary grazing land in Ber-
wickshire will feed well three shearling Leicester sheep,
and that an acre and a half of such land will feed a bul-
lock of 60 stone weight. Two acres and a half, therefore,
will, (when the stock is mixed, which it ought to be), pro-
duce the following sums ;

3 sheep at 15 s. each, - - L. 2 5 0

1 bullock of 60 stone, - - 3 10 0

L. 5 15 0

Consequently the produce of two and a half acres of
English measure, of middling pasture, is only at the rate
of L. 2, 6 s. per English acre. In rich land the profit
must be still greater.

It has been justly observed, that there is not much stock
that will pay the expence of grazing from the acquired
weight solely. The profit of the grazier must arise, from
the improvement of the whole carcase, in consequence of
which, the value of the lean is increased, from perhaps 4 d.
to 6 d. per lb., or in that proportion, whilst the acquired
weight sells at the higher rate. This is a point which
should always be attended to in the sale, or the purchase
of lean stock.

• It is objected to mixed pasturage, that cattle require a full
bite, and sheep a close one.

104 OF LIVE STOCK.

Dairy Cows. — There is nothing of peculiar importance
in the dairy management of Scotland, except in Ayrshire,
and in the neighbourhood of Glasgow and Edinburgh.
Though much attention has been paid to the breeding of
cattle for the shambles, yet, in many parts of Scotland,
the quantity of milk produced by the cows, (with the ex-?
ceptions above mentioned), is very inconsiderable. In-
deed, nothing else could be expected, from the miserable
manner in which the cows were formerly maintained,
more especially in the winter season, when they had no-
thing but straw to live on. This is the more to be regret-
ted, because the dairy is perhaps the most pleasing of aU
the departments of husbandry, and as there is reason to
believe, that converting herbage into milk, by means of a
dairy stock, is the most profitable mode of employing it,
and the most productive of human food. The herbage is
immediately converted into milk, which is drained off
without loss, and as soon as it is prepared ; whereas,
when herbage is converted into flesh, a part of it is con-
stantly wasted, which must be constantly supplied. It
is supposed, that the same quantity of herbage, that
would add, as above calculated, 16 stone or 224 lb. to the
weight of an ox, would produce 1800 Scotch pints, or
900 English gallons of milk, which, even converted into
cheese, (not the most advantageous mode of consuming
milk), would produce 36 Ayrshire stones, at 24 lb. per
stone, or 860 lb. of cheese, besides the flesh that might
be obtained by feeding pigs with the whey. In point of
profit also, there is no comparison, as the beef is only
worth 8 s. per stone, of 1 4 lb. each, whereas the cheese
sells for 1 2 s. and sometimes as high as 14 s. or 15 s. ])cr
stone of 24 lb. each. More valuable produce, however, is
necessary, as the dairy system is attended with more ex-
pence.

OF LIVE STOCK. 105

The profits of the dairy must necessarily be extremely
various, according to the (juality of the pasture, the age
and size of the cows, the mode of feeding, &c. ; yet, under
proper management, they are very considerable. An eminent
dairy farmer, Mr James Ralston in Galloway, states, that
every cow on his farm, about two years ago, yielded an-
nuaUy her own weight in Dunlop cheese, then sold at Hs.
or 15s. ^er stone, county weight; and that he would not
keep a milch cow, that did not yield cheese, in the course
of the year, equal to her weight, and which would sell at
the price of the cow. Under less careful treatment, an in-
ferior return may be expected. Wlien cows are fiirnished,
and the food provided by one man, and when they are
taken care of, and their produce sold by another, from
L. 12 to L. 15 is paid for each covf per annum.

A farmer in the western parts of Scotland informs me,
that he keeps some cows of the Ayrshire breed, and that
they will yield, on an average, when the milk can be sold
sweet, as taken from the cow, from L. 1 8 to L. 20 pe7- an-
num each cow; when the milk is churned, and sold in
Glasgow, from L. 15 to L. 17; and when made into
cheese, from L. 12 to L. 14, according to the quality of
the cow, her condition, the manner in which she is fed,
and her produce is managed.

The Ayrshire cows, though generally of a moderate
size, (from 30 to 50 stone hve weight), yield a consider-
able quantity of milk. Some have produced from 18 to
20 Scotch pints, or from 9 to 10 English gallons jd^ day,
for two or three months after calving ; these instances,
however, are by no means common, and the milk of such
cows generally contains more serum, than those who give
a less quantity.. ,

The following estimate of the produce of Ayrshire cow.<,
at an average, is by no means overrated :

lOS or LIVE STOCK.

S<otcli Ttigiiii

PinU. GaUoiu.

1. Produce for 90 days after calving, at 10
Scotch pints, or 5 English gallons per

day, - . - _ 900 450

2. Produce for 90 days after, at 6 Scotch

pints, or 3 English gallons, - 540 270

3. Produce for 120 days, at 3 Scotch pints,

or H EngUsh gallons, - 360 180

Total, 1800 900

Mr Ralston's dairy farms in Galloway are certainly the
largest concern of the sort in Scotland. He kept, some
time ago, about 120 milch cows, and he is making ar-
ranoements for adding about 100 more to the number.
The mode he pursues of feeding his dairy stock, is as fol-
lows :

They arc never fed out of doors until the grass has
risen to afford them a full bite : when the wcatlier is
dry and hot, they are housed, and fed on cut grass, from
six in the morning tiU six at night, when they are turned
out to pasture for the other twelve hours. During bad
weather, they are housed both night and day, and fed plenti-
fully with turnips, potatoes, &c. Chaff, oats, and potatoes
are boiled for the cows after calving, and they are gene-
rally fed on rye-grass hay, during the latter part of the
spring.

It is much to be regretted, that in many parts of Scot-
land, the farmers arc not sufficiently attentive to the pro-
fits of the duirj'. The late Mr Scott of Craiglockhart
lamented that his dairy, owing to peculiar circumstances,
was muih circumscribed, being convinced, from expe-
rience and observation, that if properly attended to, it is

OF LIVE STOCK. 107

the most profitable branch of agriculture. The drudgery
is certainly great, and it is only a particular class that will
give the attention necessary to ensure profit. Milking
thoroughly, and feeding regularly, are first-rate objects.
Green crops are now to be had in abundance at all sea-
sons of the year ; and cattle thrive as well in a stall or
fold-yard, as when roaming in the fields. As a proof of
the advantage of the dairy to an industrious farmer, I am
informed, on the most respectable authority, that a farmer
in the Carse of Gowrie, who occupies 200 Scotch acres
of rich land, keeps six cows to furnish milk for his family
and servants, and for breeding young stock. They arc
kept upon a small patch of pasture in good weather, but
their principal feeding is cut grass in summer; straw,
chaff, turnips, potatoes, and sometimes a little hay, in
winter. The sale of the produce of these cows, in cheese
and butter, besides serving the family in milk, goes a con-
siderable way in maintaining the farmer's family, or de-
fraying his household expences, all the year round.

In the neighbourhood of Glasgow and Paisley, the far-
mers are particularly attentive to the profits of the dairy.
The Ayrshire cows generally prevail, and they have in their
possession some of the most perfect of that excellent breed.
Such farmers as live within two miles of Glasgow or Paisley,
sell their milk in these towns, when newly taken from the
cow. Those who are from two, and thence even to ten
miles distance from town, generally churn their whole
milk, and sell it, and the butter, in Glasgow or Paisley ;
and all who live at still greater distance, make the milk in-
to cheese. The produce of these different modes will be
in the proportions of 3 d. per Scotch pint when made into
cheese j 4 d. when churned and sold in butter and but-
ter-milk ; and 6 d. when sold as newly taken from the
cow.

iOlJ OF LIVE STOCK.

A very spii'ited attempt in the dairy line, has been late-
ly undertaken by Mr Ilarley of Glasgow, who, after ha-
ving visited all the principal dairies in the north of Eng-
land, those of Mr Cunven, at Workington, in particular,
resolved to establish a plan for supplying, on a great scale,
the inhabitants of Glasgow with milk of a quality they
might rely on. He has erected houses, on a most inge-
nious construction, for feeding his cows; and the mea-.'
sures he has adopted, for keeping his dairy implements in
good order, for conveying the milk to different parts of
the city, and for preserving it from adulteration, will ren-
der his undertaking, not only highly useful to the city of
Glasgow, but will furnish a model that ought to be follow-
ed in other places ; as, by such means, large towns may be
«upplied with an article so essential for the health and
comfort of the inhabitants, in its greatest purity.

The following is the substance of the information I have
received, regarding the expence of maintaining milch
cows in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and the profit
Attending it.

The cows were for some time gi'azed in the Marquis
of Abcrcorn's park at Duddingston ; they were afterwards
pastured, and occasionally soiled, at Fillyside near Edin-
burgh. The expence of keeping them in summer and
autumn, was at the rate of 1 s. 3 d. per day, or 8 s. 9 d. per
week ; but in winter ajid spring, was necessarily higher.
Tlic milk was sold to retailers, and the net profit was
J^, 23 per annum.

The most important imj^rovemcnt that has recently ta-
ken place in regard to the management of the dairy, is
the invention of cast-iron milk dishes, by Mr Baird of the
Shotts Ironworks, near Whitburn in West-Lothian.
These dishes are made of cast-iron, softened by annealing
in charcoal, turned smooth inside, then laid over with a

OF LIVE STOCK. 10.i>

coat of tin, to prevent the iron coming in contact with the
milk, the rust from which might injure it. The outside of
the dish is painted over, to prevent rust also. The ad-
vantages they possess over wooden milk dishes, are, 1.
That they preserve that proper degree of coolness neces-
sary to cause the milk throw up the cream, in which re-
spect they are so preferable to wooden dishes, that the far-
mers' wives who have given them a fair trial, afiirm, that
they throw up one-third more cream, from an equal quan-
tity of milk ; and, 2. Tlicy are very easily kept clean, by
waslilhg them, and giving the inside a rub with beat chalk,
on a httle flax, or a pieceof woollen cloth. It is well known the
great labour that wooden dishes require to keep them clean ;
and should the dairy-maid allow milk to sour in them, it
requires much time, and severe scrubbing, to make them
sweet and fit for use again : but should milk be allowed to
sour in the iron dishes, if they are washed clean, and rub-
bed all over with chalk, they become as fit for holding milk
as ever. These milk dishes are softened by the annealino*
to such a degree, that althougli they should fall on a stone,
they will not break, imless let fall from a great height. They
will retain their coat of tin for many years ; and should the
tin wear off, from much usage, they can easily be retinnetl
at small expence. They were invented by Mr Baird, and
first made at the Shotts Ironworks, about the becrinnin"-
of the year 1806. Several farmers in that neighbourhood
soon tried them ; and the demand for them is now so sfreat,
that the company can with difficulty make a sufficicn*^
quantity to supply the sales during the season.

110

OF LIVE STOCK.

Table of Milk Dishes ^ as made at the Shotts Irofvworksy near
Whitburn, West Lothian.

Numbers.

Contents in
Scotch pints,

Contents in En-
glish Quarts,

Price of each,

00

0

1

2

3

4

'

6

"7

8[ 9

10

11

i

4

i

1

H

2

H^i

5

6

7

H

lOi

12

X

1

2

2i

4

5

4s

7

%/S

10

12

14

7s

17
,7s. 6d.

21

24

Is.

Is. 2d

ls.9d-

2s. 6d.

3s. 3d.

5s. 6d. 6s.

8s. 6d.

9s. 6d.

Mr Baird has also made a cheese shape, measuring 17^
inches diameter in the inside ; the price nine shillings. The
same article, (cast-iron), will probably be also extended to
churns.

Chi -iVorking oxen. — The propriety of working oxen has
long been a subject of dispute. There can hardly be a doubt
of the advantage of employing them in threshing-mills, a
point which has been already sufficiently explained, (See
Sect. 7.) ; but how far they are calculated for ploughs, and
still more for carts, has not yet been decisively ascertained.
The observations which have been transmitted to me by
two most respectable practical fai-mers in Roxburghshire,
(Mr Walker of Wooden, and Mr Walker of MeUen-
dcaii), arc so strongly in favour of the partial use of oxen,
that I cannot but submit them to the reader, as justly en-
titled to peculiar attention.

On the farms occupied by these gentlemen, there arc
licpt fifty working-horses*, and twenty-eight working oxen.

♦ The horses are kepi lor road work, and distant carriages.

OF LIVE STOCK. IH

The oxen are broke in when three years and an half old.
Two are used in a plough or cart, in leather collars and
harness, in every respect the same as horses. They are
laid off to be fed for the butcher, when six years and an
lialf old, and consequently are only worked three years.
During the summer months they are fed on grass ; but
from the end of harvest to the end of May, if the Swedish
turnips hold out so long, their constant food is turnips and
straw. They never taste any other food, except a small
quantity of hay in the field while the ploughman eats his
dinner. Upon this food, they keep in excellent condition,
and are capable of doing a great deal of work ; and when
along with the horse-ploughs, they never lose a turn. In
the winter months, when the days are short, their whole
work is taken at once ; in spring, they come home in the
middle of the day, and gefc as many turnips as they ain
eat. They are peculiarly calculated for breaking up coarse
ground.

Mr Walker of Mellendean has three oxen to every
plough, and by working only two at a time, and constant-
ly changing them, every ox works only four days in the
week. The saving, even on that system, is considerable.
Each horse he calculates costs L. 32 : 7 : 6, consequently a
pair L. 64, 15s.; each ox L. 14j three oxen, therefore,
cost L. 42. There is thus a saving of L. 22, 15s. per
plough. Where the expence of keeping horses is higher,
the profit by the use of oxen is proportionably more. Be-
sides, while the horse (as Mr Walker of Wooden well
observes), is yearly diminishing in value, the ox improves
till he is six or seven years old, and is then easily fed, and
brought to market at a greatly increased weight and value ;
and in case of death by accident or disease, to which, how-
ever, he is far less liable than the horse, even then the loss
upon the ox is for the most part trifling ; while, in the

112 OF LIVE STOCK.

same circumstances, the loss upon the horse amounts to
his whole value.

After the experience of upwards of twenty years, these
gentlemen are of opinion, that oxen are fit for every agri-
cultural purpose, travelling upon hard turnpike-roads ex-
cepted ; that when employed in the plough, or indeed in
almost any of the home labours of the farm, they perform
nearly the same quantity of work as horses ; and that where
any extra stock is necessary for emergencies when a great
pressure of work may be required, oxen ought to be pre-
ferred; that they are peculiarly calculated for any farm
where turnips are culti^^ted, and where there is no way of
disposing of that crop, but by consuming it upon the farm
itself. Where turnips cannot be raised, it is more doubt-
ful whether they can be used with equal advantage ; but
the fact is ascertained, that one ox, fed with turnips and
straw, will do more work, than two oxen fed with the best
hay; and that with turnips, particularly the Swedes, there
is no occasion to give any corn to oxen.

Several other intelligent correspondents concur in fe-
commending the partial use of oxen.

Mr Dudgeon, Prora, had a pair of oxen which worked
the plough, without a driver, and never lost one step
when compared to a pair of horses. It was owing to the
difficulty of getting others as well broke, and of procuring
hands to work them, that they were given up.

Mr Wilson of Simprin, in Berwickshire, approve*
much of some oxen ploughs being kept on large farms ;
as the oxen must improve greatly, when the weather is
unfavourable for ploughing. On turnip farms they may
be put to grass for fattening, as soon as the important sea-
son of turnips is over.

Mr Stewart of Hillside is of opinion, that bullocks will
t\ot only answer well for working a thrcshing-mill, but

OF LIVE STOCK. 113

that they may be used to advantage in other work about a
farm, provided that two or more pair of horses are kept
for performing distant carriages. He breaks his bullocks
at two years old, giving them only light work, and so
moderately, as not to prevent their growth. It is easier
at that early age to correct their faults, and to get the
better of any bad habits into which some of them are apt
to fall, than afterwards. At three year old, they wiU draw
half a ton of potatoes, for two or three miles j at four
years old, Mr Stewart has tried a pair of them, in compe-
tition with twenty horse ploughs, greatly to the credit of
the oxen. They are in all respects yoked and driven as
horses, both in ploughs and carts.

Mr John Shirreff states, that in several parts of Aber-
deenshire, he saw oxen ploughs do as much work as horse
ones, a pair in each ; and he is convinced, that they will
be found ecjual to horses in the plough, provided they be
allowed a sufficient space of time, between their yokingg
or journeys, when they are worked twice a-day, to rumi-
nate. This might easily be obtained, by going out very
early in the morning, which would admit of a consider-
able interval between the yokings. If the same work
could be done by oxen as by horses, why should not the
same food be allowed them, if it is found really necessa-
ry * ?

Another intelligent correspondent expresses his convic-
tion, that where twenty horses are required, it would be
preferable to have sixteen horses and eight oxen. He al-
ways works his oxen with their collars reversed, that is>
the broadest part upwards. In ploughing and rolling
they are very useful. Horses are better in harrows, from

' * It is recommended by an intelligent correspondent, to give
working oxen in mid-day some oat or barley meal. The o\
would probably go to rest as soon as be had eat it.
r. I. II

114- OF LIVE STOCK.

their quick step, by which the puh^erization of the soil is
accelerated. In harvest likewise, when expedition is ne-
cessary, horses are to be preferred. In breaking up old
turf land, however, oxen are better in the plough, their
motion being more steady than that of horses j the flag is
less broken in turning over, which is a great advantage,
more especially where the drill system is practised. For
short carriages, as in carting dung, turnips, Sec. the ad-
vantage of using oxen must be very great j and they may
occasionally be used in the plough, when the carts are
sent for lime, or to the market with grain *.

It is contended, that where oxen from 70 to 80 stone
weight, (as is the case on the Borders), can be sold
completely fat at three years old, that the farmer will find
it more profitable to feed his oxen, than to work them ;
but were that even the case, it is evident, that if the price
of horses, and the expence of maintaining them, should
increase, the partial use of oxen may become necessary,
and from the facts above detailed, is at present, to a cer-
tain degree, advantageous. Besides, as the oxen grew
older, their weight would increase, and the quality of the
beef would improve.

2. Sheep. — Tliere arc some of the finer breeds of sheep,
as the Leicester, the South Down, and even the Merino, to
be met with in Scotland ; but, in general, the sheep in that
part of the kingdom arc more distinguished for hardiness,
than for fineness of fleece, or early maturity. They are
improving, however, in both these respects, and the Che-
viot breed in particular has nearly become, both for form
and fleece, a perfect stock for a mountainous district.

* The j)rincipal objection to the use of oxen, is the difficulty
of shoein" th<m. Any improvement in the art of shoeing oxen,
would be well entitled to a premium. Perhaps the shoes should
"0 over, as well as under the hoof.

OF LlVi: STOCK. 1 15

Where the flocks are numerous (from 5000 to 10,000 of-
ten belonging to one farmer), it is impossible to pay such
minute attention to such multitudes, that they can possi-
bly unite all the properties necessary for a perfect stock,
namely, 1. Form; 2. Fleece; 3. Flesh; 4. Fat, and 5.
Flavour : but I am persuaded that the Cheviot breed will
soon possess the most essential of these important requi-
sites.

Mr Robertson of Lady kirk states it as his opinion, that
at a distance from manure, in a tolerable climate, and
with sound land, nothing will pay the farmer better, than
plenty of good grass, occupied bt/ good Leicester sheep,
and by good West Highland cattle, or by well-bred short-
horned oxen and heifers.

It is recommended as a useful plan, 'instead of permit-
ting sheep to range over an extensive pasture, or even a
large inclosure, to confine them to a seven days' shift.
This limited range of exercise, it is said, fits them sooner
for the butcher ; and when the sheep are at all of a wild
or active disposition, it is calculated that one-third more
stock may be kept by this expedient.

Mr Church of Hitch ill keeps a breeding stock of
Leicester sheep, which he seems to manage with great
judgment, following the example of the great English
breeders in that line, which being well known, it is unne-
cessary to detail in this place. Mr Church considers
the Leicester breed to be the best adapted of any, for in-
closed arable farms, or for those in low situations indiffer-
ently inclosed, as they are easily confined. He conceives
it more advantageous to stock his farm with sheep than
cattle, as they are perhaps more profitable in themselves,
and certainly conduce more to the enriching of the ground
by their manure, in particular from their resorting to the
high grounds of any farm, which are commonly the thin-
nest and poorest soil. In a dry season also, upon even a

II 2

116 OF LIVE STOCK.

bare pasture, they will thrive where black cattle would
starve. An annual stock of sheep may often be consider-
ed preferable to a breeding one, in low warm situations, by
rearing lambs for the butcher, and feeding their dams after-
wards. But in any part of the country, remote from any
good market for fat lamb, or for buying in a proper ewe
stock for that purpose, the breeding plan, he observes, is
the most convenient.

Having already given to the public my sentiments on
the subject of the breeding and management of sheep *, it
is unnecessary to resume that subject in this work. It i«
only necessary therefore to add, that where the carcase is
the object, every prudent farmer will breed his sheep, free
from that extra refinement, which tends to diminish the
natural si2e of the animal, prevents them from feeding to
the greatest perfection, renders their constitution too ten-
der, and in some measure destroys their fecundity.

3. Horses. — A gentleman who is carrying on agricul-
tural improvements with great spirit, in the neighbourhood
of Penrith, is of opinion, that the breed of horses in Scot-
land, is infinitely preferable, for the labours of husbandry,
to any he has ever seen ^ in England; combining action
and strength in a greater degree than any of the English
breeds ; and he is convinced, that, on an average, they
may be kept at much less expence. They certairt^ly pos-
sess greater physical weight than blood horses, or those
crossed by them, and consequently are fitter for drawing.
Their make is sti'ong, and as they go through their work
Steadily, they are less hkely to waste their strength than
others are apt to do.

♦ See address to the Society for the improvement of British
Wool, inserted in u volume of Miscellaneous Kssuys, printed ir
I vol. 8vo. anno 180::.

OF LIVE STOCK. 1 17

In considering this important branch of the inquiry, it
may be proper to explain the following particulars, viz.
1. The food given to farm-horses in Scotland ; 2. The to-
tal expence pet- pair; 3. The advantages of working them
abreast instead ©f lengthwise ; 4'. The quantity of work
they are fit to execute ; 5. The manner in which farmer*:
in Scotland supply themselves with horses; and 6. Any
articles of a miscellaneous nature.

1. Food. — With a view of diminishing the expence of
feeding horses, besides oats, hay and straw, made use of
so universally in other countries, the Scotch farmers have
tried a variety of other productions, as 1. Potatoes; 2.
Yams J 3. Carrots; 4. Yellow turnips; 5, Swedes; 6.
Boiled barley ; and 7. Whins ; and not without success.
They may at least be considered as useful, by diminishing
the consumption of dearer articles.

Potatoes were tried for horses by Mr John Mackenzie
of Glasgow, above forty years ago, sometimes raw, and
sometimes boiled. The practice of steaming was not
known in those days *. Mr Stewart of Hillside, in Dum-
frieshire, has given potatoes to his horses for above thirty
years. The quantity he gave was about 12 lb. at night,
raw and washed clean, having given them a feed of corn
in the morning. He thinks it a great improvement to
have them prepared by steam ; and he is convinced, that

* It is supposed to have been first introduced Into Lancashire,
by Mr Wakefield, and Mr Eccleston of Scarsbrick-hall. In the
first volume of the Communications to the Board of Agriculture,
printed anno 1797 1 there is an excellent account of their steam
boilers, with a very accurate engraving of them, by Robert Beat-
son, Esq. They have since been brought to very great perfec-
tion, and carried on to a very great extent, by Mr Curwen of
Workington-hall, in Cumberland. *

118 OF LIVE STOCK.

when so given, the horses will do full work v/ithout corn,
and will consume half less hay. His experience of this
being recent, it is chiefly on the practice of one, whose
account may be depended on, that he states it. The
quantity of potatoes which serves a horse for twenty-four
hours is 42 lb. About the 10th of June, the horses
are begun to be fed on cut clover, and continue to be so
till Michaelmas : they get no corn during that time, un-
less a feed when sent for lime, coals, &c.

Mr Robertson of Ahnon, with a peck of potatoes, pre-
pared by steam, mixes chaff; and Mr Cuthbertson, a
most intelligent farmer in East Lothian, observes, that if
a feed of potatoes is given once a-day to work-horses, in-
stead of one of the feeds of corn *, which must otherwise
be given them in the months of March, April and May,
it not only diminishes the expence of their maintenance,
but is also extremely conducive to their health.

If potatoes at all answer the purpose, it is evident that
yams, being much more productive, must be a still more
profitable article to cultivate. It is well observed by a
farmer, who did credit to his profession, (Mr Tliomas
Scott of Craiglockhart), that of late years yams have been
by many substituted for the evening feed. He adds, that
if work-horses can be subsisted with equal advantage on
yams and Swedish turnips, what a promising prospect for
increasing the growth of wheat, and bringing fields to a
high state of cultivation, without losing a crop ! One acre
of yams or Swedish turnips will afl()rd more subsistence
to cattle, and he maintained, to horses also, than two of
oats, or any other grain. By some, potatoes are preferred
to the Swedes, being of a more laxative nature, and con-

* Much depends upon the quality of the oats. Two feeds of
oals of good quality is equal to three of light corn.

OF LIVE STOCK. 119

scqucntly better for horses when they are chiefly fed on drj-
meat.

Mr Gray of Gorgiemoor, on such soils as have too
great a proportion of clay for growing potatoes to advan-
tage, plants yams for his horses, and always keeps the
land in open drills, from the time they are planted,
till the crop is taken up, that is to say, without harrow-
ing them down, as is done with the other drills ; and, if
it is not a very wet season, he has from thirty to forty bolls
per acre.

In regard to the objection, that raw potatoes or yams,
are narcotic and deleterious, and give the gripes to horses,
that is easily prevented, by giving them w hen the horses arc
cool, and at first in small quantities, increasing them gra-
dually for some days. They will then do no harm. If
horses get, at the beginning, a full feed of them, more
especially if they have not before been accustomed to po-
tatoes, they are very apt to be griped, and sometimes fa-
tally.

Mr Paterson of Castle-Huntly states, that he is prepa-
ring to steam yams and potatoes, which is coming much
into practice in the Carse of Gowrie. He has no doubt
that it will be a great saving in feeding beasts of every
description, and, when deprived of their pernicious juices,
abundantly wholesome. If given raw, to horses especially,
they are one great cause of the tinge or gripes, which of-
ten proves very fatal, if not early attended to ; bleeding,
emptying the bowels, and laudanum, as far as half an
ounce, however, never fails to cure that complaint.

Mr Alexander Maclaurin of Edinburgh strongly re-
commends steamed potatoes as food for horses, but the
price has of late years been commonly too high. Mr Mac-
laurin received a letter in June 1795, stating, that steam-
ed potatoes, mixed with chopped straw, were then the con-
stant food for horses at Liverpool, and answered well.

120 Ol LIVE STOCK.

Carrots are not much cultivated in Scotland ; but it U
admitted, that they are an excellent food for horses. Mr
Alexander Guthrie, who cultivates them near Edinburgh,
states, that for working horses, he knows no food equal to
the carrot, and of this he has had complete experience.
Were the growth of caiTots general over the country, and
used as food for working horses, he is of opinion, that
two-thirds of the oats consumed for that purpose might be
saved. In years of scarcity, this would be of great advan-
tage to the nation, and a blessing to the poor.

The yellcrjo turnip has long been cultivated in the north-
em parts of Scotland, particularly in Aberdeenshire and
the neighbouring districts, where it is boiled with chaff,
and inferior barley, and is given to horses at night.

It is well knovm that the Swedish turnip is a hearty food
tor horses, either given raw, or boiled, or steamed ; and
that horses are peculiarly fond of them. The following
particulars, transmitted to me by Mr Hope of Fenton, in
East Lothian, are not only decidedly in their favour, but
worthy of parti culai' notice.

For the three last years, Mr Hope has been in the prac-
tice of feeding his horses with Swedish turnips. In thespring
months, when the horses begin to go two yokings a-day,
he allows to each pair about one hvmdred weight, or se-
ven stones. He has found, from actual weighing, that his
average crops are about 25 tons per Scotch acre; thus,
one acre, at the above rate of feeding, serves five pair of
horses fifty days. When his horses receive Swedish tur-
nip in that proportion, they always get a feed of corn less
2Jer day, which, at 6 d. jjcr feed, or 1 s. per pair of horses
a-day, gives L. 12, 10 s. per acre, for the value of the
Swedes, at the same time fully one-third less of hay is suf-
ficient. This saving, in the first instance, is not the only
advantage •, for he has uniformly found these valuable roots,
arc nearly equal to the finest grass in the month of June,

OF LTVE STOCK. 121

for putting horses into the highest condition for performing
the severe labour common during the spring. Indeed, by
substituting the Swedes for a feed of oats, his horses have
been, for the last two years, in a better condition than he
could ever make them before, although they had corn and
hay in any quantity they chose to eat.

Some fanners also give to their horses boiled barley. This
practice is very strongly recommended by Mr Rennie of Kin-
blethmont, near Arbroath, who gives his horses one feed
or lippie * of oats, and one lippie of boiled barley per day.
He was for a long time prevented from doing it, having
formed an idea, that the high price of fuel would counter-
balance any advantage attending the plan ; but by using a
considerable quantity of the refuse of great coal, which
burns perfectly well in a well-constructed furnace, he can
safely assert, that the expence of coals, for boiling one feed
of barley per day, for eight months, will not exceed 5 s. for
each horse ; a sum never to be taken into consideration,
compared to the difference in point of condition in which
he has always found his horses under that system, compa-
red to that of former seasons, when they had a feed of
oats in lieu of the feed of boiled barley. Although he is
clearly of opinion, that one lippie of boiled barley per day,
is of great use to cart or plough horses, still he would not
recommend more, it being well known that barley is very
apt to scour horses too much ; but the feed of oats com-
pletely corrects too great a tendency that way. The bar-
ley that is used for boiling, is all the inferior sort produced
on the farm f . Mr Wilson of Simprin, who has had con-

* A lippie is the fourth part of a Scotch peck, and weighs from
3 lb. 7 oz. to 4 lb. according to the quality of the oats.

+ Mr Maclaurin has also used many bolls of barley for horses,
never altogether by itself, for hard-wrought horses, but mixed with

122 OF LIVE STOCK.

siderable experience in the feeding of horses, has always
found oats, beans, and hay, with a mash of hoilcd barley in
the evenings the best feeding, when he wanted work done.
Swedish turnips, or steamed potatoes, he found not only
a cheap food, but sufficiently nutritive for young horses,
and full grown horses, when doing little work.

The use of furz or whins has also been tried, and found
to answer. Mr Allan of Craigcrook gives his horses, in-
stead of hay, two stones of bruised whins, with three feeds
of oats ^er day j and he affirmsj that horses will be in bet-
ter condition with that feeding, than any other that can
be given them.

The soiling of horses, however, or giving them cut green
food, (the nature and expence of which will be afterwards
more fully detailed), has been found the greatest improve-
ment hitherto tried in the feeding of horses ; and, indeed,
it is justly accounted one of the most important discoveries
that has been made in agriculture.

2. Expence of Icecping. — This varies according to the
gize and value of the horse, and the work required of him.
In Caithness, the average expence is computed at L. 20
•per annum ,- in the Mearns at L. 24' j a respectable far-
mer, near Arbroath, makes the expence L. 27. Mr Blaii*

oats and beans, when it answered well. He has very frequently
also boiled it with beans, as mash for hard-wrought horses, mixed
with bran, which is exceedingly salutary for them. He observes,
that there is great nourishment contained in barley ; it is very
weighty, but it is thought too laxative for horses at quick bard
work, to be used entirely by itself. A judicious mixture of it,
however, among their oats, would im]>rove that food exceeding-
ly, and no doubt that horses wt)uld be able to stand their work
better. But the price of barley, for these some years past, has
precluded the general use of that grain in that way.

OF LIVE STOCK. 12a

of Montague, near Perth, keeps his horses on cut grass,
from 4th June until about the mitidle of October •, an oc-
casional feed ofoats is given when driving lime : for other
two months hay and a feed of potatoes are given. During
the short days in winter, good oat straw is substituted for
hay ; and as the days begin to lengthen in spring, hay is
again allowed. Potatoes are then given, and one feed of
oats ; and when oat seed and two yokings are begun, two
feeds of oats are given with potatoes, as before. The a-
bove feeding he estimates at lis. per week, or L. 28, 12s.
per annum. In the county of Wigton, the expence of keep-
ing horses has been estimated so low as L. 1 5 ; but it is
admitted, that a good farm-horse, properly kept, and fully
wrought, will cost about L. 25 yearly. Mr Stewart of
Hillside, in Dumfries-shire, calculates the expence at
L. 1 7 : 1 5 : 2 per horse *.

Mr Newton of Currie-hill, near Edinburgh, states the
expence as follows :

Half an acre cut grass, first and second crop, L. 6 0 0
Thirteen bolls and a half oats, at 22 s., 14 17 0

-120 stones of hay in the spring months, at 15 d. 7 10 0

L.28 7 0

* It would require too much room, to enter into the details of
all these estimates ; at the same time, as Mr SliirrelT well ob-
serves, it is not the price or total amount which deserves atten-
tion, but the quantities of grain, herbage and roots, which labour-
ing animals actually consume, and which, if given to other ani-
mals in the same proportion, and of the same weights and powers,
would probably preserve them in fair and working condition.

12 h OF LIVE STOCK.

He puts no value on the straw the horse consumes du-
ring the winter months, as he conceives the dung to be an
equivalent.

Mr Cuthbertson, who gives a very particular detail
of the expence of maintaining a horse, estimates it at
L. 39 : 0 ; 7i.

1. Soiling from the end of May to the 1st of
November, - - - - L. 1200

2. Hay 1^ stone j^er day, 30 days, 3*7^ stones,
at 1 s.,

5. Corn, a ipeck per day for 30 days, 1 boll,
3 firlots, 2 pecks, at 30 s.,

i. Corn for December, January, and Febru-
ary, half a peck per day, 2 bolls, 3 firlots,
1 peck, _ _ _ .

.'). Straw for ditto, at 10 d. per day,

6. Corn for March, April, and May, 1 peck
per day, 5 bolls, 3 firlots,

7. Hay for that period, 115 stone, at Is. per
stone, - - - -

L.39 0 74-

The corn usually given, and upon which this calculation
is made, consists of oats and beans ; when bi'oken barley
and beans are substituted, a trifling abatement may be
made in the expence of feeding.

Mr Brown of Markle keeps twenty work-horses on his
farm, besides two supernumeraries, in case of accidents.
He has transmitted to me the following important calcula-
tion of the expence of a plough and pair of horses.

1 17

6

2 16

5

4 4

H

3 15

0

8 12

6

5 15

0

OF LIVE stock.. i^o

1. Expence of each horse when regularly fed, and con-
stantly worked, at the prices afterwards stated :

L.35 0 10

2. Interest of money, and wear and tear of

each, - - - 7 10 0

For one horse, - - L. 42 10 10

Ditto, - * 42 10 10

Consequently for a pair of horses, L. 85 1 8

5. Horse tax, smith's account, and expence
of keeping up the harness and implements
which belong to a pair of horses, - 12 0 0

4. The ploughman, including all emoluments, 38 0 0

Total expence of a plough, L. 135 1 8

The following are the particulars of the above expence
of maintaining each horse :

174- bolls of oats per horse at 25 s., - L. 21 l7 6

100 stone of hay ^c-r ditto at 10 d., - 4 3 4

Pease and bean straw, - - 3 0 0

^ acre of clover and tares, - - 6 0 0

L.35 0 10

The antiual expence of a horse depends much upon the
circumstance, whether corn is given him through the sum-
mer months. In Mr Brown's case, each of his horses con-
sumes about 4 bolls of oats, between the end of May and
the commencement of harvest. The prices are stated at
the rates of the year 1810.

126 OF- LIVE STOCK.

In Roxburghshire, Mr Walker of Wooden, and hi«
brother Mr Walker of Mellendean, who keep in all no less
a number than fifty working-horses, calculate the annual
expence of maintaining a horse, at L. 34? : 1 1 : 10^, ac-
cording to the following estimate :

Tin-ee feeds of oats per day, for 34 weeks ; and two feeds
per day for 18 weeks, is 16 bolls 2 pecks Teviotdale mea-
sure, or 2 1 bolls 6 firlots of Linlithgow measure, (6 Win-
chester bushels each), — -at 20 %. per Linlithgow boll,

L.21 1 lOi

Three-fourths of an acre of clover and tares,

at L. 5 per statute acre, - - 3 15 0

One-fourth of an acre of Swedish turnips or
potatoes, at L. 6 per acre,

Hay at mid- day, in spring.

Straw, _ - -

Shoeing, _ _ -

Literest on price at L. 40, and casualties.

This is independent of the expence of the implements in.
the working of which the animal is employed.

In explanation of the above statement, it is proper to ob-
serve, that these charges proceed upon the average prices of
the different articles vi an inland part of the country) where
the value of many of them must be very considerably lower
than in the neighbourhood of any large town, or sea-
port. Straw, for instance, is charged only at 30 s., which
must appear extremely low, when compared with the cost
of that article near Edinburgh, and yet it could not be
fairly stated at more, 30 s. beiug as much as can be got for
wintering »-three year old ox in Roxburghshire. A great
difference will also be found on comparing the charges for
cut clover, tares, turnips and potatoes, with the prices of

1 10

0

1 10

0

1 10

0

1 0

0

4 5

0

L. 34 11

lOi

OF LIVE STOCK. 127

the same articles elsewhere ; but tlie prices above stated,
are a fair average value of these articles in the neighbour-
hood of Kelso, excepting perhaps in regard to a few fields,
immediately adjoining to that town. Even oats are worth
at least 2 s. per boll less there than at a sea-port, or near a
great market. These circumstances will sufficiently account
for a very material difference in this statement, from those
received from other quarters, which must always depend
upon situation and a variety of other circumstances.

Such estimates throw much light on a most important
subject ; for, it is evident, that the rent of land, and the va-
lue of its produce, must in a great measure depend on the
expence at which that produce can be raised. The calcula-
tions, however, must necessarily vary, according to the
different values at which their food is estimated, and whe-
ther the price is charged at the rate of home consumption,
or at the price which the articles would fetch at any ad-
joining market.

3. Working lengthwise.'— Uorses when working a plough
in Scotland, are almost uniformly yoked a-breast. It is well
known that animal power is more advantageously exerted",
when employed separately, and near to the work ; and that
it is hardly possible, when horses are yoked one before
the other, or harnessed at length, that they will pull
equally. The line of draught of the fore-horses, indeed,
being horizontal, and not at right angles to their shoulders,
their full strength cannot be exerted, and a considerable
portion of the power employed tends to act against, and
to distress the horse next the plough or carriage ; or, as
Dr Coventry observes, a part of the power of the first horse
is exerted, to press down the back of the one behind liim,
and a part of the strength of the latter to resist that pres-
sure. More time also is lost, particularly in turning; in

128 OF LIVE STOCK.

short, it may be reckoned, that with equal ease, the two
horses abreast, will do at least one-tenth more work, than
the same horses will go through when placed in a line.

4. Quantity of "door Jc done. — This varies in different pla-
ces, according to the soU and the nature of the work to be
executed. In the Carse of Gowrie, it is calculated by Mr
Peter Jack of Moncur, that ten horses are absolutely ne-
cessary for 161 acres of that strong land, which is only
at the rate of 32 Scotch, or about 40 English acres per
plough ; but these horses, as is usual indeed in other cases,
have various sorts of work to perform, as threshing, driving
lime, &c. The land in fallow must be ploughed in general
six times for wheat ; for pease and beans t%vice -, for oats
after pease two or three times, and for barley three or
four times ; and they have to haiTow about the same ex-
tent of land they plough. In wet weather none can be
ploughed J otherwise, instead of cleaning or preparing the
ground, it would increase its strength and toughness.

Mr Brown of Markle informs me, that in East Lothian
the quantity of land usually ploughed by a pair of horses is,
upon clay soils, about 40 acres Scotch measure, say eight
acres summer-fallowed, eight acres under wheat, (succeed-
ed by grass), eight acres oats, eight acres beans, and eight
acres of wheat after the beans. Tliis is a fair average,
though, in particular cases, more acres have been cultiva-
ted by a plough than the number mentioned ; yet, in many
more cases, less is done : Hence 40 Scotch, or 50 English
acres, is supposed a fair medium. On light land more may
be done, though it is believed seldom more is executed,
on account of the extra labour necessary at turnip seed-
time. A farm with a variety of soils, partly clay, and
partly light, has this advantage, that it may be possible to
cultivate tlie latter, when tlu> former could not be attempt-
ed.

OF LIVE STOCK. 129

.. Mr Dudgeon, Primrose-hill, in Berwickshire, states, that
on an average, for six years past, the proportion of tillage,
(that is, of land under corn and fallow), to each plough, on
liis farm, is at the rate of 52 English acres ^;<?r a/rnuni, and
that he expects to increase that proportion, when his in-
closures and other improvements are completed. Mr Wal-
ker of Wooden calculates, that one pair of horses will
work 50 English acres, besides their proportion of the
other necessary business of the farm. Mr Nisbett of Mer-
sington, on his farm at Stodridge, near Kelso, which is a
light turnip soil, with six horses, or three ploughs, keeps in
tillage ISO English acres, or 60 acres J5^r plough.

The following is an abstract of the manner in which Mr
Nisbett's farm of Stodridge is cultivated :

Rotation.

ilcres.

Turnips or fallow, - - > 60

Barley or spring sown wheat, - 60

Hay and cut grass, - - 60

Pasture, - . - . 60

Oats, 60

Total, - -^ 300

Tliis rotation of Mr Nisbett's is perhaps the best that
can be followed. It divides the labour throughout the year,
in a regular manner, which is partly the cause of his being
enabled to do so much work with his horses beyond what
is generally done. When lime for the land is to be led
from ten to fifteen miles, the produce carried as far to mar-
ket, and firing brought from a distance for a farmer's fa-
mily and servants; such a proportion of land in tillage,
however, could not be cultivated with that stock.

In order to ascertain the nature, and the quantity of
work capable of being done by a pair of horses, Mr Hope

p. I. I

ISO OF LIVE STOCK.

of Fenton, in East Lotliiaii, drew up two diaries, one for a
clay, the other for a light soil. The clay soil was supposed
to contain 250 Scotch, or 318 English acres j the rotation
as follows : 1. Fallow; 2. Wheat or barley; 3. Grass; 4.
Oats; 5. Beans; and 6. Wiieat; and, in that rotation, he
calculated that it would be possible for one pair of horses to
keep in cultivation 42 Scotch, or 53 EngHsh acres. The
following gives a general view of the nature of the labour
they might perform.

Days.

1. Ploughing, harrowing, and rolling, - 165

2. Threshing, . - - - 47

3. Various works, as driving dung and fiiel, market-

ing grain, corn and hay harvest, road works &c. 90

4. Sundays, - - - - - 52

354
Days without work, owing to bad weather, holidays,

&c. 11

Total, - - - - 365

In regard to the light soil, it would appear from Mr
Hope's diary, that a pair of horses, on such a soil, may
keep in cultivation about 50 Scotch, or 62 EngUsh acres
j)er plough. Much, at the same time, must depend, on the
nature of the soil ; for a dry sandy loam requires more at-
tention to keep it clean of root-weeds, than a dry gravelly
soil.

In many parts of the country, however, the number of
idle days, as stated by Mr Hope, are considered to be too
few; and it is stated by a farmer who has long paid attri-
tion to these matters, that uistead of eleven days in a year,
one day ^Jcr week, besides Sundays, on the average of sea-
sons, would be nearer the mark ; as there are many days
and half days, equal on the whole to one in the week, du-

OF LIVE STOCK. 131

ring which the farmer derives but Httle benefit from his
servants and horses. There must also be a difference of
several days in the year, between the eastern ami the wes-
tern coast of the kingdom, owing- to the greater humidity
of the climate of the latter, and some acres less work will
be performed by a pair of horses *.

5. Mode of Supply.— Vvom the high price of horses, a
number of farmers in Scotland endeavour to rear, on their
own farms, a considerable proportion of the stock they re-
quire, though in many districts they depend on the western
counties of Scotland, and the northern counties of England,
for a supply. In the Carse of Gowrie, it is usual to keep a
spare horse on every farm, in case any accident should hap-
pen to the other horses, and to assist a mare or mares with
foal, one or two of which are kept on each farm ; by whose
protluce, the stock of horses is for the most part kept up.
The farmer, therefore, has seldom any occasion to go to
market for any other supply, excepting when he loses horses
by accident, which often happens. In othei* parts of Scot-
land, farmers keep breeding mares with the same view j
and when attentive to their business, they find an advan-
tage in it. This plan, however, requires more attention
than every farmer can pay to it ; and, above all, it is ne-
cessarj', that both the mare and the stallion should be of
the best cart-horse breeds, crossing with half-bred stallions
producing a very inferior stock.

Some farmers object to the plan of breeding, because
they lose the work of the mare wholly for five or six weeks,
but this is fully made up by the work of the young horses
when two or three years old ; and in this way they not
oj ly supply themselves, but they are also enabled to sell

* Mr Ciirwen thinks, that thirty English acres are sufficient, on
strong clay, fur a pair of liorses, on the coast of Cumberland.

I 2

132 OF LIVE STOCK.

their work horses, when at a high value, and sometimes an
extra young one, which thus becomes a regular part of the
return of a farmer.

Aware of this objection, Mr Allan of Craigcrook has be-
gun to try young horses with cows' milk, which he thinks
a great advantage, indeed he has thus reared the best foal
he ever had *. It is a great saving, as the mare can be
worked a few days after she foals. One cow is sufficient
for a foal. The foal and cow should go together j for the
first fortnight, the foal should be fed four or five times
a-day, afterwards three times a-day is sufficient; the
milk to be given warm from the cow. If tljis system
be carried on attentively for four or five months, tliere
is no doubt but the foal will be fully stronger than by
suckling the mother. A great risk is also avoided, namely,
that of purchasing a bad substitute for the mare. It might
likewise be a good plan, on a farm where two brood mares
are kept, to let one of them alternately suckle the foal her-
self, while the other was brought up by a cow. By that
means the mares would get a rest ever}' two years by suck-
ling the foal themselves, and the work of one of them would
always be saved.

Some farmers in Wigtonshirc, accustomed to import
horses from Ireland, are in the habit of frequently changing,
(at least a part of them), by which means they in some degree
exempt themselves from the article of wear and tear, by a
judicious mode of buying and selling. Wiiere marcs arc
chiefly purchased, and occasionally bred from, this may be
done with some profit. The best farmers, however, avoid
this practice, as incompatible with regular farming j for
though breeding of horses to supply the farm is in many

* Tliis practice is, I understand, known in Vorksliirc. hi
many cases, however, the cow's milk nuist be as valuable as tlie
mare's labi.nr.

, OF LIVE STOCK.. 13.'i

cases a proper plan to adopt, since the prices of horses
liave become so high, yet frequent change of horses, or, in
other words, horse-deal ing, is not to be recommended.

6. Miscellaneoiis Articles. — An intelhgent farmer in tlie
Mearns has adopted a mode, by which he is of opinion
that a considerable deal of labour may be saved. He keeps
five horses ; and by them nearly as much labour is done,
as by six, according to the usual mode of employing them.
One horse is employed in carting turnips during whiter, or
in other necessary farm-work at other seasons, without the
necessity of reducing the number of ploughs. In carting
dung from the straw-yard, three carts are used, one al-
ways filling in t^ie yard, to meet the return of another
empty ; when the leading horse of the empty cart is un-
yoked, and put to the full one, by which means five hor-
ses may be said to do the work of six. In the same man-
ner, while one pair of horses is drilling for turnips, the
other three are employed in putting the dung upon the
land, either with two or three carts, as the situation of the
ground shall require *. By extending the same manage-
ment to other farm operations, he conjectures that a con-
siderable savinu of labour mifjht be effected.

The grinding of corn or beans for horses, more espe-
cially when they get aged, and begin to lose their teeth, de-
serves to be recommended as a most excellent practice. The
horses thus receive the whole nourishment j whereas, when
given whole, many devour their corn entire, and it is seen
to pass through them as they swallow it. Cutting straw
into chaflP may also be adopted with advantage.

It is more the practice in Scotland than in England, for
the farmers to give straw to their horses, though it is said

* It is necessary that tlie diilU sliDuld be formed up. immo-
diutely after the dung is spread, that the sap may be retained.

ISd* OF LIVE STOCK.

that wheat straw is better fodder in England than in
Scotland ; the English cutting it knee high, and only
giving the slender succulent part of the stalk to the
cattle *. A large proportion of the farm- horses in East-
Lothian, and other districts, are maintained on pease and
bean straw, during the winter months ; but as that spe-
cies of food loses its juices in the spring, hay must then
be introduced. In regard to straw, the following obser-
vations have been transmitted to me by an intelligent cor-
respondent who resides near Edinburgh. He makes it a
rule to sell all his straw, excepting what is ate by his
own horses, and to buy dung. He gets for oat straw from
10s. to 15s. a kemple, and for wheat from 8s. to 10s. per
kemple, or from 5d. to 6d. per stone. A kemple weighs
about 18 or 19 stone, although the regulations in Edin-
burgh market require that it should be only 16 stone. He
never sells any barley straw, as he thinks it a better food
for horses and cows than oat straw, although it does not
bring so high a price by 3s. or 4s. a kemple : indeed, from
experience he finds, that when he runs short of bai'ley or
wheat straw, his horses do not eat the oat straw for a night
or two; and he is convinced, that the preference given
to oat straw, is not from its intrinsic value, but from the
practice of our forefathers in doing so, and very properly
at that time, as the oat crop was always the worst cleaned
land, and full of couch and other natural grasses, which
made the fodder better.

On the whole, the best and most economical mode of
maintaining and of working horses, and the utility of em-
ploying oxen pariialli) in the cultivation of land, are points
of infinite consequence to the farmer and to the public. It

• It is also said, tliat the tanners in I'"n!;laiiil cut their wheat
somewhat ;;rceiier than those in Scotland, which preserves more
of the natural juices, and of course makes the fodder better.

or LIVE STOCK. 135

cannot be questioned, that the more cheaply produce can
be raised, at a lower price it can be furnished to the pub-
lic, without injuring the interests of those by whose exer-
tions it is raised. At present, we arc under the neccssitv,
for want of attention to the cultivation of our wastes, to
import great quantities of oats from foreign countries, which
has contributed to render the rate of exchange unfavour-
able ; but such an importation would be rendered perfect-
ly unnecessary, if, either by an universal employment of
two-horse ploughs, or single- horse carts, every third horse
might be saved ; or if horses could have one feed per day
of potatoes, yams, carrots, &c. instead of oats ; or if the
partial use of oxen were adopted.

4. Hogs — The breeding of hogs was formerly but lit-
tle attended to in Scotland. In the counties bordering
with England, however, and in all the more improved
districts in Scotland, the prejudices which were formerly
entertained against this species of stock have in a great
measure died away. One farmer in Roxburghshire in-
forms me, that he keeps six or seven breechng swine ; and
in Dumfriesshire, and the western counties, a considerable
number of hogs is kept, by which the quantity of West-
moreland hams, so celebrated in the London market, is
said to be considerably augmented. On the whole, it
may be accounted one of the defects in Scottish agi'icul-
ture, that so profitable an animal as the hog, which
thrives upon refuse which no other animal would consume,
and the value of which is in a maimer all clear gain, should
not be more attended to.

An intelligent farmer informs me, that he keeps from
five to seven breeding swine, and disposes of most of their
produce, when from six weeks to three months old ; con-
sidering this system full}' as profitable as fattening them
for sale. He generally has a good demand for them at

136 OF LIVE STOCK.

these ages, as many people, such as tradesmen, villagers,
&c. wish to fatten a pig or pigs, that could not conveniently
keep a breeding sow. Having this advantage, there is scarce-
ly a cottager or weaver's family in the neighbourhood, who
have not their fat pig killed, after being fed on the refuse
of their potatoes, and the offals of their kitchen, to the
weight of from eight to twelve stone.

Another correspondent states, that on a small farm, of
twenty-two Scotch acres, hehas often fed from sixtotenhogs,
besides rearing a number of pigs, which he annually dis-
poses of. In addition to the profit thence to be derived,
the quantity of excellent manure he raises, is the wonder
of all the neighbourhood.

There is reason to believe, that the scarcity of pigs in
Scotland, is partly owing to the want of information upon
the subject. That obstacle, however, is now removed, a
very valuable treatise on the breeding and management of
swine, having lately issued from the Scotch press *•

Sect. IX. — On the Soil, the Climate, the Elevation and
Exposure, and the Situation of a Farm in irgard to
Markets.

Besides all the particulars above enumerated, there are
several objects of a miscellaneous nature, which will re-
quire the attention of tiie farmer, before he commences
his arable operations, on any particular farm. Tiiese arc,

• See Treatise on the Breeding of Suine and Curcing of Ba-
con, with Hints on Agricultural Subjects. By Robert Henderson,
Z'aruier, Bioonihlll, near Annan. Printed an, 1811.

OF THE SOIL, kc. 137

the soil of the farm, its elevation and exposure, i^s climate,
and its situation in regard to markets. It is evident that
there must be such a diversity regarding these points, that
it is hardly possible to lay down any general rules that can
be applied to all cases ; and yet the system to be adopted
by the farmer must, in a great measure, depend on a due
consideration of these circumstances combined. In point
of fact, it is by his attention to these circumstances, that
the jjood fai'mer is distinguished from the bad one.

Soils may be considered under the two great divisions
of strong and light landa^ though there are many inter-
mediate shades between them. The crops to be cultivated
in each, as well as the mode of management, must differ
materially ; for instance, it is a general rule, that wheat
ought to be the basis of profitable husbandry in strong,
and barley in light lands. In the latter species of soil,
there is no difficulty in keeping the land free from weeds,
by means of fallow crops ; in the former, a summer fal-
low, once every six years, is considered by all the most in-
teUigent farmers in Scotland, as essentially necessary to keep
the land clean.

The importance of climate to a farmer need not be
dwelt upon. In many parts of Scotland, wheat cannot be
raised to advantage, and in some cultivated districts it has
never been attempted. In some districts it is also neces-
sary to sow, instead of the two-rowed barley, the inferior
sort called bear or big j and oats, from the hardy quality
of that grain, is found to be the most profitable article.
In others, pease or beans cannot be cultivated, from the
periodical wetness of the autumn. In short, without great
attention to the nature of the climate, no profitable system
can be laid down by any occupier of land *.

* Oh this subject I\Ir Stc-wart of Hillside observes, that w^
ought to do more justice to the industry of our forefathers, who

138 OF THE SOIL, &C.

The farmer must also suit his system to the elevation,
and even the exposure of his farm. The same plan vdU
not answer at forty and at four hundred feet above the
level of the sea ; nay, much may even depend on the
exposure of a farm, when situated in a hilly district.
WTiere the soil, the climate, and the elevation is similar, the
same crops cannot be cultivated with equal advantage on
the northern, as on the southern side of the same hill.

The farmer must also take into his consideration, the
articles most likely to suit the markets in hrs neighbour-
hood, or any others to which tke produce of his ftu'm can
be sent ; for instance, if there is no demand for fat cattle
in the vicinity, he must employ his turnips in feeding
young cattle, to be sent to other districts where they can.
be prepared for the butcher. On farms in the interior of
Scotland, where wheat is not much in demand for bread,
and where markets for that article are not accessible, either
by good roads or water carriage, the culture of wheat is not
to be recommended, and oats will be found, not only less
exhausting to the land, but also more profitable.

grew corn in such situations, and high climates, as we see were
cultivated by thera. Our modern farmers would think it labour
lost to attempt ploughing, where we see theie were ridges and
furrows some centuries ago, and crops raised, without the aid of
lime, which would now be considered impracticable. To ac-
count for this, and for the necessity of ascending so high with
cultivation, is not easy. The lower grounds may have been too
much wooded, which might occasion mildews, and these woods
approaching the high grounds, would moderate the climate there.
Certain it is, that for the two or three last year^, the crops raised
on the highest grounds of Dumfriesshire, have been more produc-
tive than on the holms of the dales.

OF THE SOIL, &C. 139

CONCLUSION OF THIS CHAPTER.

What a field of reflection presents itself, on consider-
ing the various topics discussed in the preceding Sections ;
and what advantages would redound to the public, from
their being properly attended to, in every part of the unit-
ed kingdom ? The judicious position of the houses and
offices of a farm, — their construction, — the proper arrange-
ment of fields, — and inclosures judiciously planned, as ap-
pears from the preceding observations, add much more to
the value of a farm, than on a transient view of the sub-
ject could be imagined. By a judicious system of drain-
ing -, by good roads ; by well- constructed instruments of
husbandry j by the choice of proper live stock, and a due
attention to their maintenance, the profit of the farmer
must also be considerably augmented : and by combining,
with a proper attention to all these particulars, a due i-egard
to the soil, the climate, the elevation and exposure, and
the situation of a farm in respect of markets, the farmer
is enabled, to lay the foundation of a system, which will
prove the source of his future prosperity.

Fanners have been too often ridiculed as a stupid and
ignorant race ; whilst, on the contrary, they are, in the
more improved districts of Scotland at least, so well versed
in the details of their profession, that there is scarcely a
class in the community distinguished by a greater variety of
knowledge. Instead of considering a realjarmer, indeed,
as an ignorant clown, he ought to be accounted, not only
the mobt valuable, but also one of the best-informed indi-
viduals, regarding all those useftd artSy on which must de-
pend the pro'^perity and happiness of a great country.

140 OF THE SOIL, &C.

It is now proper to explain the means, by which the
knowledge a farmer may acquire, can be made use of to
the best advantage, in the cultivation of arable land.

CHAPTER N.

OF THE PARTICULARS CONNECTED WITH THE ACTUAL CUL-
TIVATION OF AN ARABLE FARM, AND THE MOST ADVAN-
TAGEOUS MEANS OF MAINTAINING ITS STOCK.

\ FTER an attentive and intelligent farmer has arran-
ged the system he is to adopt, regarding the various
particulars discussed in the preceding Chapter, he will
next have to consider, the plan he ought to pursue, regard-
ing the actual cultivation of his farm, and the most advan-
tageous means of maintaining his stock. The following

are the points which require his attention 1. Ridging

his fields; 2. Manuring; 3. Ploughing; 4. Fallowing;
5. The Crops to be cultivated ; 6. The Rotations to be
adopted ; 7. Sowing and covering the seed ; 8. Weed-
ing; 9. The harvesting of the grain; 10. The prepa-
ring it for market ; 11. Soiling or feeding his stock with
cut green food ; 12. Whether it is proper to have any
part of his farm in permanent pasture; and 13. The
best mode of making hay.

In discussmg these particulars, the most important
points, connected with the Scotch System of Husbandry,
will be explained.

14-2 OF RIDGING.

Sect. I. — Of Ridging.

The general advantages to be derived from ridges, have
been very ably stated by Lord Karnes, in his Gentleman
Farmer, (Chap. IV. Sect. 3.) It is only necessary, there-
fore, in this place, to explain those more minute particu-
lars, v,'hich have not hitherto been so much dwelt on, and
which, without the assistance of a number of practical far-
mers, it would not have been in my power suflBciently to
have elucidated.

On dry Boils, ridges are of use merely as lines for
marking out the operations of the plough, and the sowing
and reaping ; the nature of the soil, which is apt to suffer
by want of moisture, rendering any sort of draining, which
the furrows might afford, prejudicial rather than advanta-
geous. Indeed, where grain is sown by drill-machines,
ridges are not required for sowing the grain, as the drill
itself, or a marker attached to it, regulates the operation :
lines, however, may be of use in sowing the grass- seeds af-
terwards. But ridges are essential in wet soils, operating
as open drains, without tlie assistance of which, the crops
would rarely be productive in rainy seasons. It is of in-
finite importance, therefore, to the farmer, to be fully mas-
ter of the rules by which ridges can be formed to the best
advantage. This subject may be considered under the fol-
lowing heads : 1. The proper length of ridges ; 2. Their
breadth ; 3. Their straightness, and the best mode of al-
tering the shape of crooked ridges ; 4. Their height ; and
S, The advantage of ridging diagonally wlicrc the gi'ound
is steep.

OF RIDGING. J4S

1. The p'oper length of ridges. — The length of a ridge
must vary, according to the size of the enclosures, the ac-
clivity of the ground, and the nature of the soil, whether
wet or dry.

On fields which have much acclivity, a long ridge is
hurtful, not only as tending to fatigue the horses, and to
overstrain them in their wind, but also because, after the
ground is ploughed in winter, if much rain or snow falls,
the surface of the ridge will be injured, more especially in
the furrows, by the long-run, and large collection of water,
by means of which the finer particles of the soil are washed
away, and either carried off the field, or lodged on the
head-land at the bottom. In such situations, ridges of a*
bout 1 50 yards are found to be most convenient *.

In regard to wet soils, where the ground is flat, from
240 to 300 yards is considered to be the proper length :
If it should exceed 300 yards, the water might not easily
get away ; and if the field is longer, it is necessary, either
to make a head-ridge across the hollow of the field, so as
to form a level for carrying off the extra moisture, or,
what is still better, without a head-ridge, to have trans-
verse gripes or small open cuts, to conduct the accumu-
lated water to the ditch, on one side or other of the field.

In dry soils, and where the land is level, the ridge may
be still longer, and indeed some recommend from 700 to
800 yards ; but, on the whole, fi'om 350 to 400 yards
seems to be preferable : When it much exceeds the latter
size, the horses are apt to be fatigued, and with such a
length, as little time is lost in ploughing and turning as-
could well be desired. Besides, when the ridge is very long,
it becomes more difficult to sow, and it has a tendency td
discourage the reapers.

• Remarks by Mr Stewart of Hillside, and iSlr diaries Alex-
ander of Easterliaprew.

144 OF RIDGIKG.

2. TJie breadth of ridges. — This is a subject on which
there is a great diversity of opinion, in some cases only
four, in others thirty feet and upwards, being recommend-
ed. As the question is of great importance, it may not be
improper to state the reasons urged in favour of the diffe-
rent sizes, leaving the reader to judge, from the statements
laid before him, which ought to be preferred.

It is maintained by one intelligent correspondent, that
when land cannot be drilled or sown before the 20th of Oc-
tober, it is better to plough in the wheat on four feet ridges.
On wet soils, this is advisable, because small ridges keep the
seed dry * ; and in thin soils, because it increases the staple;
for by this system, the soil of five feet is put on four ; and
from many years' experience, it is contended, that the pro-
duce is as great, as if the whole land had been under crop.

Others contend, that in the case of poor clayey wet
soils, the ridges should be made six, or at the most se-
ven feet broad. It leaves the soil equally distributed,
and the grain is equally healthful, from the furrow to the
middle of the ridge ; nor does it matter what is the direc-
tion of the declivity, for the grain, having all the benefit
which the sun can give, will rijien equally, which is not the
case in high gathered ridges, lying from east to west. In-
deed plants are invariably more healthful upon narrow,
than broad ridges ; and whoever will be at the trouble to
examine a field of corn much lodged, will always find the
most standing corn next to the open furrows, and the
most laid or lodged towards the middle of the ridge. This
plan is affirmed to be the best in every respect, except for
sowing broad-cast, which, however, can be done very well
by a careful and cxporicncotl seedsman. In drilling, a
machine can be made of the required breadth. In reap-

•• The idea of |/loii<;liiiig wlicut in, or uinltr, upmi wet soils, is
strongly objected to, as tlie land iniit.1 be gieully poached by the
operation of plonj^hing, more especially wlicre llie ridgos arc small.

OF KIUGINO. J 4-,'")

ing, it has a great advantage, that each reaper may have
a separate ridge.

On wet land, a correspondent recommends ridges
8 feet broad, to be ploughed crown and lurrow. It is not
necessary, he contends, in that breadth, to clean out the
furrow ; for there may be left, without any loss, a narrow
slice, which would require another bout of the plough to
finish. This is easily torn asunder by the harrow. There
is a certain loss in cleaning out every furrow in the finish-
ing ridges, on wet land, unless one horse is yoked before
the other, as the horses must unavoidably trample the land
on each side the furrow, and water lodges in their foot-
steps. No loss has ever been sustained by leavino- that
slice, as has been fully exemplified, by the practice of some
eminent agriculturists in East Lothian *.

Others maintain the superiority of 12 feet ridges, even
in dry soils, whilst under tillage, for on them an able seeds-
man can always command the seed, even in a strono-
wind : such a size also, is well calculated for the drill
system of husbandry.

In some parts of Roxburghshire, 14 feet ridges are pre-
ferred, both for expedition in reaping, and regularity of
sowing j and a most respectable farmer in that country
states, that when a young man, he was accustomed, for
many years, to sow a great part of his own farm, and if
there happened to be any wind, (particularly a check-
wind), neither he, nor any one employed M-ith him, could
ever sow a ridge of 18 feet, going once about, so as to
give satisfaction ; hence he was induced to adopt ridges of

• I am informed, however, that it is not uncommon to take up
the last furrow with one horse. The utiUty of clearing out the
furrows, on wet soils, is self-evident. Indeed, what is the use of
a furrow between ridges in xccl soil, if it be not cleaned out, to al-
low the water to escape ?

P. I. K

146 OF RIDGING.

14 feet, to prevent the seed from being unequally laid
down. In Roxburghshire, however, they are more apt to
be troubled by wind, than in the flat districts ^on the sea-
coast.

Mr Wight of Ormiston, on wet soils, particularly thin
wet clays, upon a retentive subsoil, has always found a
ridge of 1 5 feet preferable to all other breadths. He is of
opinion, that it is as easy to keep it dry as one of 10 feet,
and easier than one of 18 ; that the furrows are not more
bared than the 10 feet, and not so much as those of an 18
feet ridge. The 15 feet can be sown at all times with
once going about, even when there happens to be a check-
wind, which is not the case with an 18 feet ridge. The
narrower one of 10 feet, will also require once going about,
or up and down, which is a considerable loss of time ; as
the seedsman will sow equally well, in two-thirds of the time,
a space of 30 feet, contained in two 1 5 feet ridges, than is
necessary for sowing the same breadth contained in three 10
feet ridges. An 18 feet ridge sometimes requires three casts,
which the 15 feet one never does. Two harrows com-
pletely cover the 15 feet ridge, once about. If a field of
40 ridges, 15 feet broad each, require ten hours to sow
and harrow it, the same field, of 60 ridges, at 10 feet
broad, will require fifteen hours for the same operations.
The 40 ridges will require 79 turnings of the sower and
harrows, and 41 turnings of the Avatcr-fur plough. The
60 ridges will require 119 turnings of the sower and har-
rows, and 60 turnings of the water-fur plough. Besides,
in all the other operations of the plough, one-third fewer
feermgs * arc reciuired for the one than the other. Three

* Peering is a provincial term, meaning that part of ploughing
given in forming the ridges ; in short, tlie first two bouts of the
plough, whether the work is given along or across the (ield. The
ploughmen iire much valued, who are the hest at this operation.

OF RIDGIXG. 147

reapers are sufficient for the 15 feet ridge, the propor-
tion of breadth not being wider than these can easily take.
The 18 feet ridge is always oppressive to three reapers,
and three reapers, on a 1 5 feet ridge, will seldom be behind
four reapers on an 18 feet ridge, from each reaper in the
latter case being obliged to stretch over 6, in place of 5
feet, to accomplish the proportion. On these grounds, Mr
Wight is of opinion, that in wet soils and climates, the
15 feet ridges are preferable to all others.

Where land is of a loamy quality, but not wet, Mr
Rennie of Oxwell Mains also prefers ridges 1 5 feet broad,
as three reapers can easily work them, and they can be
ploughed as described in the plan of 8 feet ridges. On
land that is ploughed crown and furrow, the grain is equal-
ly good on every part of the ridge; but when rounded, and
gathered up from the furrow, the grain is not only of in-
ferior quality, not getting the sun equally, but owing to
the thinness of the crop, is with difficulty taken up.

Another intelligent farmer, gives the preference to 16
feet ridges, which, he contends, can be more correctly sown
with two casts than the 1 8 ; besides, two gatherings from
the level, lays them in a safe dry position ; whereas, with
1 8 feet ridges, on flat strong clays, in a moist climate, two
gatherings and a half are absolutely necessary.

Others prefer a ridge of 1 7 feet in breadth, as the best
size for any soil. They urge, that in narrow ridges, upon
wet land, much damage is done, when taking up the furrows,
by the horse travelling so much upon the ploughed land,
as they are compelled to do, when the ridges are made 10,
12, or even 14- feet broad, and much time is lost in so
many turnings and finishings : That if the land is wot, and
requires to be laid dry in winter, two gatherings, if judi-
ciously ploughed, will lay the ridge high enough for throw-
ing off the water: That when sown, it can be accurately
done with two casts, even in windy weather, and that three

K 2

148 OF RIDGING.

reapers, one man, and two women, can work on it with-
out interruption : Indeed, where only two men are employ-
ed by the piece, they universally agree in this particular,
that they work with more freedom, and can perform,
they affirm, more work, than if three men were upon a
ridge, as each man cuts the precise half of it. In short,
whether upon a wet or a dry soil, it is maintained, that a
17 feet ridge, is by far the best for plougliing, haiTowing,
sowing and reaping.

Farmers, however, in general, on soils of a strong or
clayey nature, prefer ridges of 18 feet. This breadth
they consider to be the most advantageous for pre\'ent-
ing wet, and for dunging, sowing, harrowing and reap-
ing. In regard to wet, there is a sufficient width
to admit of a gentle slope on each side, effected by
twice gathering the soil when ploughed, by means of which
the surface water soon gets down into the furrow. The
dung also can be easily spread over the surface of such a
ridge. As to sowing, it may be done by two casts of the
seedsman, unless in high winds. A pair of well-made har-
rows cover the ridge at a bout *, or once up and down the
ridge, and three reapers are found a sufficient number to
cut the grain, the centre one making ropes or bands for all
the three, and none of them having far to go to lay in the
com they cut down : at the same time, where the crop is
abundant, it is the most approved custom in East Lothian,
to put four reapers upon such a ridge, and to cause two of

* A farmer in Roxburghshire states, that his harrows will not
completely cover more than 13, or at the utmost 14 feet, at once
about; and that when he harrows ridges of 14 feet, he is under
the necessity of putting on five harrows, otherwise the work wouKi
not bo done to his mind. The si/c of the harrows, tit the same
time, might certainly be enlarged.

OF UIDGING. 14f)

them to lay tlic corn into one band, or, in otlier words, to
liave two rows of bands upon one ridge. In no other way
will sheaves be made of a small size, and small sheaves are
an important matter, especially in a wet harvest. It is a
circumstance strongly in favour of an 18 feet ridge, that
a farmer, near Dalkeith, who had been induced to tr}', on
two different fields of 12 acres each, ridges of 10, and even
of 15 feet, was convinced, he said, by dear-bought expe-
rience of his eiroVi and had them all made up again into
18 feet ridges, twice gathered, and with his former good
success. A neighbour of his, after several years' trial, was
obliged to adopt the same practice.

But, though Mr Brown of Markle concurs with other
eminent agriculturists, in preferring 1 8 feet ridges in wet
or clayey soils, yet where the soil is deep enough to bear
three gatherings from the flat, without sustaining injury,
he is of opinion that a breadth of 24< feet may be adopt-
ed with advantage. Indeed, a great many of the ridges
straighted by Mr Brown, are of that size.

On very dry porous turnip soils, it is of little importance,
as has been already observed, whether ridges are formed
at all, unless to regulate the sowing and cutting down in
harvest *. An intelligent farmer in Dumfries -shire, (Mr
Church of Hitchill), when the soil is dry, has his ridges in
general 30 feet wide ; and Mr Rennie of Oxwell Mains
considers 30 feet to be the proper width in such soils, as
it saves time in ploughing, having fewer furrows to clean
out in the finishing the ridge ; it also saves time in the
forming the ridges, when the land has been ci'oss-ploufhed;
and it keeps more moisture in the land than ridges of a
less width.

• llemaik by Mr Hunter of Tynofield.

ISO OF RIDGING.

In regard to ridges of still wider dimensions, namely,
from 30 to 33 feet, as recommended by the celebrated Ar-
buthnot, that subject, in so far as regards strong lands,
has been already discussed in a former part of this work,
(See Chap. I. Sect. V. p. 52, 53), to which the reader is
referred.

It is objected to broad ridges, that a ridge twenty-four
paces wide cannot be ploughed so soon by an hour as two
ridges twelve paces wide, because much loss of time is ex-
perienced, at each end of the field, from the plough ha-
ving to move so many yards out of its work, before it ar-
rives at its proper situation for re-entering again the land,
whilst'little or no loss of time is experienced, in the plough
and horses swinging about to enter their work again, in a
ridge twelve paces wide. But Mr Kerr obviates this ob-
jection by the following simple expedient : Supposing two
broad lands, say of 60 feet, marked out by the furrows
ABC. One ploughman begins along A, and ploughs the
land, always turning round the points AA, keeping his
right hand constantly to A A till he has ploughed 15 feet
on each side of the furrow to aaaa. The second plough-
man has been doing the same round BB, and the third
round C C. All now change their stations. The first takes
the space between a a and bb, keeping his right hand al-
ternately to B B and to A A. The second does the same
between b'b' and cc in the same way ; and so of the rest.
In this manner, there is no more travel in a 60 feet ridge
than in one of smaller dimensions.

i' A a

OF RIDGING.

b r. b'

151

c C c

It is evident, in addition to every other considera-
tion, that the breadth of ridges must also depend up-
on the mode of culture. Where the broad-cast system
is followed, the size must be calculated for enabling the
sovi^er to scatter the seed, in the manner the most like-
ly to yield a productive crop *. Whereas, when the drill
system is adopted, the breadth must be adjusted to the size
of the machine. In wet or tenacious soils, it is an excel-
lent plan, to have the horses walking in the furrows of a
ridge, and drilling the whole at once.

The only other point that remains to be mentioned is,
the method of ploughing wet land, where the ridges have
been gathered high for the preceding crop. Some cross
the ridges, and open the old furrows afterwards, but that is
not so good a plan as cleaving the ridges, and opening the
old furrows, after going a round or two, which leaves the
old ridges divided in the middle. This method keeps the

* It is said, that a good sower will scatter the seed sufficiently
correct in ridges of any breadth ; but they are not always to be
met with.

152 OF RIDGING.

field equally dry, levels the land better, and gives an op-
portunity for crossing in the spring if necessary. But if
the land is wet, it would not be advisable to risk cross
ploughing, unless when the land is summer fallowed. I am
informed, however, that few good farmers ever hazard the
clearing of clay soil, except in the summer months.

3. Straighfness of ridge. — It is extremely material to
have the ridge as straight as possible. Mr Curwen justly
remarks, that it is the very essence of good ploughing to
hold the plough even, which it never can be, if it has to
work in a curve. It is calculated that ridges, when much
crooked, measure one-fifth more in the serpentine direc-
tion, than when taken in a straight line, and consequently
they must take one-fifth more labour in ploughing, har-
rowing, &c. than if they had been perfectly straight. That
does not imply that there is more land in the field. No
form of lidgcs can alter the quantity within the same boun-
dary J but their form tends to impede the operations of the
plough as much as that addition to the land. In plough-
ing such ridges, every farmer who has had a plough in his
hand, knows how awkwardly the plough moves in them.
In the convex side it constantly inclines to take too nar-
row a furrow, and in the concave side the reverse, owing to
the direction of the draft being different from the direc-
tion of these sides.

In regard to crooked ridges, many ridges, in the best
cultivated parts of Scotland, were formerly very broad,
much raised, and greatly curved. Levelling such ridges,
in very still' wet clays, was a very difficult operation, and
unless executed with considerable skill and judgment, pro-
ductive of loss. It should never be attempted but in a
year of fallow, and the straightened land should get a full
dose of calcareous manure, and nmch cross ploughing, to
mix the old and new staple, and to rouze the fertility of
the new soil.

OF RIDGING. 153

i. Height. — It is highly necessary that ridfrcs, on wet
land, should be well rounded, so as to form the segment
of a circle. This is effected by gathering the soil once or
twice, according to its dryness or wetness, in the course
of ploughing the ridge. Indeed, Mr Rennic of Phantas-
sie has often gathered the soil thrice, with much success,
especially for a spring crop, as it not only lays the land
dry through the winter, but enables the farmer to get
sooner at it in the spring. The height, however, should
not be too great, only sufficient to furnish a declivity to
let off the water ; for when the crown is raised too high,
one half of the ridge is always covered from the sun, (a
disadvantage which is far from being slight in a cold cli-
mate), and the crop, which is always best on the crown,
is more easily shaken by the wind, than where the whole
crop is of an equal height *. In arable culture, the more
the equality of the soil, (which cannot happen where the
ridges are high raised), the more equal will be the crop,
and the more abundant will be the produce f .

5. Line of direction — The last point regarding ridges,
which it is necessary to consider, is, the line of direction,
more especially in steep grounds. In such situations, it
has been found a great advantage, both for the facility of
ploughing and for draining, to plough diagonally from
left to right : the furrow going up the hill, falls off from the
plough, the horse has better footing, and less pull, and
the furrow catches the running springs \. This is parti-
cularly to be attended to in the case of drilled turnips j for

* Gentleman Farmer, p. 74.

+ Remark by Mr Charles Alexander, Easterhaprew. It is a
great disadvantage, when ridges are too much rounded, that the
sun cannot act equally upon the crop.

J Remarks by Mr Stewart of Hillside.

154)

OF RIDGING.

owing to the many furrows between the drills, when the
turnips are eaten off by sheep, not only the soil, but their
dung and urine, are carried off, which greatly augments
the evil. Besides, where the field is steep, the dung for
the turnips can be much easier carted on diagonal ridges *.
In regard to steep banks or declivities, there are four
modes in which the ridges may be laid out.

1. When they are planned on the same line or levels thus :

This is done partly with a view of preventing the soil
and manure from being washed down, and partly from the
idea, that it is easier for the cattle to work it. But it
keeps up the water in the furrows, and is an awkward
mode of ploughing. Sometimes this sort of ridge is car-
ried all round a small hill in a spiral form, begiiming at
the bottom.

2. Whe7i the ridges are straight up ajid doi!on.

Tills is a very improper mode. The soil and manure
are both apt to be washed down, and when the plough
is going up, the earth makes such a resistance, that it is
extremely difficult for the cattle to cleave the ground with-
out the utmost exertions.

3. From the top of the bank sloping to the left.

• Remark bv Mi Cljarkr Akxaiidcr.

OF RIDGING.

\5l

This mode also does not answer, for when the plough
is going up, the ploughman is obliged to force the earth
against the bank, which makes but very indilfercut work ;
and it cannot be done without injury to the cattle.

4. From the to]} of the hanlc sloping to the right.

This is the proper plan to be adopted, for when the
ridges are laid m this manner, the ground always falls
from the plough, as it goes upwards, without any great
exertions on the part either of the ploughman or cattle.
The ground is not forced against the bank, until the plough
is coming down, and then it is done with so much more
ease, that one-third less strength of cattle wiU plough an
equal quantity of land.

Some farmers, however, when a field is very steep,
plough only down hill, the plough being drawn up hill
empty. By this method the horses travel up hill in less
than half the time they could go with a furrow, and by
being quite fresh at the top, they come down with spirit ;
and by giving the direction a little to the left in going
down, the furrow falls away from the plough fi'eely, every
inch of the soil is perfectly raised, and Hes so close toge-
ther, that lying in that state for one year in some soils,
and in others for two years, the sod rots, and being all
laid one way, cuts easily by the plough ; whereas, when
attempting to })lough against hill, the ploughing is not
half done, grows up in grass, and, when cross ploughed,
makes a bad appearance. The fighting against the hill al-
so, hurts a horse, in one day, more than three days' plough-
ing in the way pointed out. Only one-fourth of the time
is lost, but that is doubly repaid, by getting the work pro-
perly done, and the advantage in the after ploughing. Mr

156 OF RIDGING.

Blackie of Holydean in Roxburghshire, who makes this
remark, states, that he has cultivated a great deal of ground
on this principle, and that he is never afraid of any land,
however steep, if there is soil enough ; and that by this
mode la7id may be ploughed, tsohich 'woidd othej-^ocise be im-
'practicahle. In similar situations other judicious husband-
men prefer ploughing in diagonal ridges, so consti'ucted
as to admit of ploughing up hill without material injury to
the horses ; and in this way the furrows are much less apt
to be run away or sanded by heaA'y rains. Where the
land is excessively steep, it is often necessary to plough
directly across, throwing the plits or furrow slices all down
hill ; and, with the ordinary plough, going back empty.
But where there is much land of this excessive steepness
to cultivate, a plough with a shifting mould-board, usually
called a turn-<so7-est plough, admits of ploughing both back-
wards and forwards, shifting the mould-board in such a
manner as always to throw the furrow-slice down hill.
These two last methods have been suggested by Mr Kerr of
Ayton, in his Berwickshire Report, who has seen both
practised, and executed the latter himself *.

Another rule regarding this point is, to direct the rid-
ges north and south, if the ground will permit. In this
direction, the east and west sides of a ridge divide the
sun equally between them, and will ripen at the same
timef. In clay soils, however, ridges must be regulated
by the run of the water, so that no rule can be applicable
to that particular case.

• The Turn-wrest Plough, with a shifting nioiild-lniard, is cer-
tainly adapted to ploughing across the slope of hills, as it en-
nbles the farmer to turn the furrow always downwards. It is,
however, attended with this disadvantage, that it brings, lower
and lO'Wer, the staple of the soil.

•f Gentlenuin Farmer, p. 79-

OF MANURE.

Sect. II. — On Manures.

It is impossible, in a work of this nature, to enter much
at length into the great subject of manures, on which so
many volumes have been written. It may be sufficient
for our present purpose, to point out the sorts of manure
generally used in Scotland, and the mode of applying
them generally recommended ; together with any useful
practices or improvements in the management of manure,
peculiar to that part of the kingdom.

The manures principally made use of are, 1. Dung;
2. Urine ; 3. Lime ; 4. Marie ; 5. Sea-ware ; and 6. Com-
posts.

1. Dung. — This great source of fertility is hardly any
where so much attended to as it ought to be, though of
late years, more care has been paid in Scotland, both to
increase the quantity, and to employ it to more advantage.

In considering this important branch of the subject, it
is proposed to explain the following particulars : 1 . The
quantity raised from the different crops usually cultivated
in Scotland; 2. The mode of making dunghills; 3. Whe-
ther dung should be employed fresh or rotten ; 4. The
mode and time of application ; 5. The depth at which it
ought to be put ; and 6. Its price in the neighbourhood of
the metropolis.

1. Dr Coventry has given the following estimate of the
quantity of dung that may be procured from different
crops, on land that will produce seven Scotch bolls, or
twenty-eight Winchester bushels of wheat, per English,
acre.

158 or MANURE.

By turnips, cabbages, and fallow crops when applied to

the feeding of cattle, _ - - 6

By clover, grass, or herbage, hay, &c. first year, 6

By ditto, if mowed, second do. - 5|

By ditto, if pastured, second and third do. 5

By pulse crops, as beans, &c. part of their seed being

used on the possession by live stock, - - 5^

By pulse crops, when the seed is sold, - 5

By white or corn crops, as wheat, barley, &c^ on an a-
verage of the whole, _ _ _ 4

It is no wonder, therefore, that gi'een crops should be
recommended as sources of fertility, producing propor-
tionally much more manure ; at the same time, the
dung procured from the herbage, pulse and hoed crops,
is stated in the above table rather under the mark, and
that from the straw of the corn crops fiilly high, in pro-
portion to the other ; the object being, to shew the com-
parative advantages of the different kinds of crops, in re-
spect of the manure they respectively afford.

2. Mr Rennie of Kinblcthmont proposes, that dung,
when taken fi'om the dung-court, should be carried to the
field intended to be dunged, and then laid into dunghills,
in order to promote fermentation ; that a person should
attend for the purpose of throwing up the dung ; and that
no cart be suffered to go upon the dunghill. Great care,
however, should be taken, when the rank dung is thrown
up, that it be sufficiently wet. With a view also of pre-
venting the escape of the volatile alkali, it becomes very
necessary, to cover up the dunghill with a light covering of
finely-powdered earth, which tends greatly to increase the
quantity of those oily and saline substances, which, in fact,
constitute the value of every dunghill. If the dung is in-

OF MANURE. 159

tended for wheat, he only gives the dunghill one turn j if
intended for turnips, two turns are necessary *.

It perhaps may be here proper to mention, of what im-
portance it is, to have the dung spread and ploughed in
immediately, so that none of the most valuable parts may
be suffered to evaporate ; and it is the constant practice,
of all the best farmers in Scotland, to dung, spread, and
plough in the manure at the same time, so that none of
the dung is ever left exposed to the air.

On the subject of dunghills, the following very useful
suggestions are transmitted to me by Mr Dudgeon of
Prim-erosehill, in Berwickshire, regarding the means of
facilitating the fermentation of dung, when carried out in
heaps to the field. The first is, never to allow the carts
to drive on to the dunghill or heap when unloading, as the
condensation occasioned by the pressure of the carts and
horses, tends to retard the fermentation, by excluding
the external air. The second is, not to build the dung in
leets, or upright sections, one by the side of another, as
these never thoroughly coalesce, and allow the rain and
moisture to drain oiF through the intermediate fissures ;
but in building the dunghill, let the surface built on, be al-
ways kept in a sloping direction from the top of the
dunghill to the ground, which makes the dung settle into
one uniform mass, thereby enabling it to retain the mois-
ture ; and for this purpose a slight covering of earth, (peat-
earth, where it can be got), along the top, when the dung-
hill is finished, will greatly contribute : And the third is,
if dunghills are formed in the field during winter, it has

* This covering with finely powdered earth, as Mr John Shii-
reff remarks, is highly necessary, for if dung be turned twice after
being deposited, and shaken up loosely, it will be of very little vt.-
lue, unless it be instantly covered at every turning. At all events,
moving putrescent matter intended for manure, must necessarily be
attended with the loss of some of its finer and most valuable parts.

160 OF MANURE.

been found a good practice, when opportunity offers, to
heap up snow on the top of them ; for snow water, being
divested of its fixed air in the process of freezing, is there-
by rendered a more powerful agent in promoting putre-
faction, than either rain or river water, and from the snow
melting gradually, the absorption is more complete, than
when voater is artificially applied *.

3. It is not yet decisively ascertained, which is the best
mode of using stable dung, whether in a fresh or rotten state.
An intelligent farmer near Perth, (Mr Andrew of Tillilumb),
states, that he has sometimes seen it used successfully fresh,
as, for instance, put on forpotatoes, or ploughed down in the
end of the year for beans ; but he woidd rather incline to
have it a little rotten : care, however, should be taken,
that in rotting, it do not heat too much ; for if it turns dry
and white, it certainly hurts it much. On the other hand,
Mr Walker of Mellendean condemns the practice of using
fresh dung, in so far as regards at least the turnip crop. For
upwards of thirty years, he has found, in every year, that a
small quantity of rotten dung is sufficient for that crop, and
if the soil and season are suitable, will almost always ensure
a good crop of turnips, and the succeeding crops, accoi'd-
ing to the common rotation. But he never yet could
raise a full crop, with long fresh dung, however thick
laid on j on this account, he is always at a considerable
expence, about the end of April or beginning of May, in
leading out, turning, and watering the dunghills, so that
the dung may be in a putrid state when laid on the land

* Mr John Shirrefl' is of opinion, that stable-yard manure, ought
never to be stirred, after it is deposited in the dung pit, till
finally carted on the field, and deposited in the soil. For every
time it is stirred, its finest parts escape into the atmosphere. In
the way some people manage dunghills, more than one half of
their most valuable jiarts are lust in steam, wlien shaken up as a
i;ardener's hotbed.

OF MANURE. IGl

ill June ; and after all, he is obliged every year to manure
a part of his turnip land with fresh dung, and wherever it
is laid on, the crop is invariably very much inferior. It
is contended indeed, that until the mass is heated, it cannot
properly be called dung, and that though fresh or long
dung will go farther, so will straw, but that is no proof of
its beinsf more valuable.

Mr Brodie of Garvald, who has had so much experience
in raising turnips, is decidedly of opinion, that the dung
of cattle and horses should be properly blended, and well
digested, before it is applied to turnips ; and, indeed, he
maintains, that turnips in drills would be better without
dung altogether, than to have it applied in a long, half
rotten state, as it tends to admit the drought, instead of
affording moisture and nourishment to the plants, while
they are young and tender. Whereas, if the dung is of a
good quality, a very small quantity generally insures a good
crop, especially if the grounds have been previously limed,
and are otherwise in a good state of preparation.

Mr Jolm SliirrefF observes, that the stable-yard dung
can be most advantageously applied, when it is in a sapo-
naceous state, heavy, moist, and compact, when it can be
cut with a spade, and when it emits a strong steam, and
pungent odour. This state is very different from that to
which dung is reduced by repeated turnings, which inva-
riably leaves it open, light, and spongj^, (much resembling
muirish earth, or peaty soil), when its value must be con-
siderably diminished.

The fact seems to be, that rotten dung is preferable,
where drilling turnips is practised, and where a small
quantity of manure is inserted in the heart of the drill *.

* This oljection to long dung, it is sail', may, even in this
case, be ubvialed, by ir.;4 ing the hollows deej er.
P. I. L

162 OF JVIANUllE.

In regard to broad-cast crops of grain or turnips, however,
fi-esh dung, (or the dung of stables, &c. applied as soon as
made), will go, it is contended, over a greater quantity of
ground ; nothing is lost in the preparation, and it may
be sooner applied.

4. In Scotland, dung is principally appHed, 1. To
green crops, as turnips, potatoes, and beans ; and, 2. To
fallows.

When applied to tiu'nips, it is put in the heart of the
drill, by which not one particle of it is either lost, or seen a*
bove ground f . Dung is generally applied to potatoes in
the same way ; but is sometimes laid on in autumn, and
mixed with the soil. When in drills, it is recommended
by an intelligent farmer, (Mr Laing of Campend, near
Dalkeith), to make the drills across the field, if the
ground is so dry as to admit of it, as by ploughing for the
succeeding crop, the way the ridges he across the drills,
the dung is mixed with the soil ; on the other hand, when
the dung is put in drills as the ridges lie, (particularly in
poor soils), in ploughing for the next crop, the dung is
turned over in a body, and the crop grows very unequal;
for where the dung is, it is very strong, and the other part,
which is probably two-thirds, is very indifferent. It an-
swers much the same purpose, if the lines are diagonally
drawn. Dung, when given to beans, is generally applied
upon the stubble of the preceding crop, and sometimes in the

* In a dry season, some recommend that tbe dunghill ought to
be well saturated with water at the time it is put into the drill,
and the earth immediately after turned upon it, in order to secure
the turnip crop. Others contend, that dung, if attentively made,
will always be moist, and that the process of fermentatinn and
putrefaction will go on. Cold water would check these, and
would prove adverse to vegetation, particularly of turnips, which
ought to be promoted with all jiossible rapidity.

I

OF MANURE. 163

«pring, immediately before the seed furrow is given them.
As to the time of carrying out and laying on dung, it saves
expence if it can be carried out after harvest, but is most
advantageously applied when the crops are sown. If ap-
plied to naked fallows, which is a disputed point, it may be
laid on in the month of July, and it should be ploughetl
in immediately after.

5. On strong soils, dung is generally mixed \Vith the
fallow, after frequent ploughings ; and it is recommended,
that the furrow, after it is laid on, should not exceed six
inches in depth. Other farmers, however, contend, that
as calcareous matter has a tendency to sink in the ground,
and dung to rise to the surface, the former should be kept
near the surface, and the latter 'well covered in the soil *.
When dung is lodged near the surface, it promotes too
rapid a vegetation in the foliage, which rarely fails to dimi-
nish the produce of grain ; a circumstance that necessarily
cii'curascribes surface-dressing veiy much. If the ingredient
is volatile, great part of it evaporates, and is lost. Top-
dressings, therefore, except with composts, or lune alone,
and on grass land, is not practised in Scotland, though
not unusual in some parts of England, for young wheat,
to give a fillip to the plant.

The propriety of employing dung as a top-dressing to
meadow land, is much disputed. It is usual in some parts
of the kingdom, to lay on from fifteen to twenty double cart
loads ^er English acre, every three or four years; taking one
crop of hay, and pasturing the land afterwards. The
same quantity of manure would suffice for an arable sys-
tem, on a succession of four crops j namely, 1. Turnips fed
with sheep ; 2. Spring sown wheat or barley ; 3. Clover ;

* Communication from Captain John Henderson of Aimster ip
Caithness.

l2

164 Ot MANURE.

and 4. Oats. In favour of the grazing system, it is con-
tended, that old grass lands let for more rent per acre,
than the adjoining fields under the plough, which is
one reason why the proprietors endeavour to keep them
in that state : That such lands, if of the best quality^ when
in hay, will produce from one and a half to two tons per
acre, and foggage worth 30s. pe?- acre more; or, when in
pasture, each acre will graze an ox, producing, in the space
of twenty weeks, fifteen stone of beef, worth 8 s. per stone,
or L. 6, to which, if the value of the after-eating is added,
the whole will not be much less than L. 7, 10 s. of produce
per English acre, from which there are no other expences to
be deducted, than rent and taxes, and the interest of the
capital invested, nor is there that risk of losses, by wind, mil-
dew, &c. as in arable crops : That farmers who are in
possession of those old rich grazing pastures, find it their
interest to keep them so, as essential for a breeding and
grazinff stock : That if all such lands were under a four-
course system, in a few years the clover crops would
become small and uncertain, and the quantity of hve
stock would be considerably reduced ; and that in many
parts of the north of England, these old grass lands con-
tinue in verdure throughout the whole season, if the wea-
ther is open, and upon them, in a great mcasiu'c, depends
the maintenance of many thousand head of Scotch cattle.
On the other hand, it is contended, that if the farmers
were not compelled to lay their liome-mado dung on the
old grass lands, which are thereby much enriched, whilst
the adjoining arable land is excessively impoverished, and
robbed of the dung it has been the means of producing, the
latter would afford the highest rent : That if the farmers
were not constrained to adhere to the grazing plan, they
would soon discover, that it was more for their interest to
pursue the arable system : That under the convertible system
of husbandry, properly managed, (if necessary, pasturing

QF MANUHE.

165

the clover the second year), the crops of clover are not small
and uncertain ; and that the arable S3'stem would certainly
produce the greatest quantity of human food.

6. The following is the most accurate information that
I have been able to procure, regarding the price of dung
at Edinburgh.

Nature of the
Dung.

Size of the Cm.

Weight of Dung.

Price.

Horse dung

Single horse cart.

From 14 to 16 cwt

Froii 3 s. 6d. to 4 s.

Do. do

Double do. do.

From 24 to 2.5 cwt.

From 6 s. to 7 s.

Cow dung,

Single-horse cart,

From 14 to 16 cwt.

From 3 s. 6 d to 4 s.

Do do.

Double do. do.

From 20 to 24 cwt

From 5 s to 6 s. 6 d.

Street dung,

Sing e-horse cart,

From 16 to 20 cwt.

2 s. 6d,

Do. do.

Double do. do.

From 23 to ao cwt.

From 3 s. 3 d, to 4 s.

There is a eood deal of tanners' -exhausted bark used bv
farmers for compound dunghills, the price of which is only
6d,/?^ single-horse cart.

It is to be observed, that no certain data can be formed,
as to the exact weight of dung pe?- cart, without actual
weighing, as the weiglit depends on many circumstances,
such as the state of the dung in regard to putrefaction, its
being in a dry state, or more moist, the size of the cart,
and the dexterity of the carter in heaping more on, or
tramping, or neglecting to do so.

It is usual to mix all the sorts of town dunor into one

o

compost, thirty single-cart-loads of which is necessary for a
potatoe crop per Scotch acre, in consideration of the fu-
ture crops. The value of each cart-load may be estimated
at 4 s., and consequently the expcnce of manure is, at the
rate of L. 6 per Scotch, or L. l, 16 s. per English acre, be-
sides the carriage, which in many cases equals the prime-
cost.

Even ordinary farm-yard dung, before it is moved from
the fold-yard, or the cow-houses and stables, ought to be
carefully mixed, otherwise it can never be of equal quality.

166 OF MANURE.

Mr John ShirrejQP is of opinion, that if the dung of cows
and horses be spread over each other regularly as dropped,
the whole mass will very soon be in a state sufficiently rot-
ten for use. As straw, if rotted without a mixture of the
excrement of cattle, makes a very weak manure, it is there-
fore proper to mix all the superfluous straw, with what
comes from the cattle.

It is much disputed, whether it is for the advantage of
the farmer to give straw for dung, it being always under-
stood, that the straw should be taken good care of, and
not wasted. It is supposed, however, that unless the straw
should happen to be very high priced, it is greatly for the
farmer's interest to give straw for the dung, except he is un-
der the necessity of canning it to a great distance, for in
this way he gets all the straw back again, made into good
dung, with this great addition, that he also gets the dung
arising from the hay and corn which the horses have made
use of The generality of farmers, however, afi'aid of be-
ing imposed on, sell their straw, and buy their dung at the
market price.

On the whole, dung is the most essential ingredient for
promoting fertility. Calcareous and other manures, in par-
ticular cases, are necessary, especially for reclaiming land in
high situations, or stiff soils; but animal and vegetable sub-
stances, when reduced to a putrid state, arc peculiarly well
calculated for recruiting exhausted land ; and, if a sufficient
quantity for that purpose could be procured, the arable land
in this island, might be made to produce, triple the quantity
it now does. How loudly does not this call for attention, not
only to promote its increase, but to prevent its abuse, (both
of which, in too many instances, are greatly overlooked),
and to improve its quality. In some cases too much is ap-
plied, to the detriment of the crop, for luxuriance docs
not always insure a plentiful increase of grain, and niucli

OF MANURE. IGT

gain Is seldom ultimately obtained by forcing crops *. The
loss generally sustained, however, is not from the appli-
cation of too much, but of too little manure, as farmers
are too apt to fritter away a quantity of dung over four-
score acres, without producing any sensible effect, which
would have produced a valuable crop if confined to twen-
ty. Improving the quality of manure, is another most
material object to be attended to. It is well known, that
when cattle are fed and kept in a house, when they receive
the same food in quantity and quality, that their dung be-
comes a more valuable manure, than what is made from
cattle kept in a large open court. This arises, no doubt,
fi'om the cattle treading so constantly upon the dunghill,
which consolidates it to such a degree, as to prevent the
proper effects of fermentation. The latter mode, however,
from requiring fewer houses, and giving less trouble, is very
generally practised, though the dung is inferior in qua-
lity.

2. Urine. — Tliis important article to the farmer, has
only of late received that attention to which it is so justly
entitled. It is calculated that the urine of a horse, from
its being so much hghter, is more valuable than the dung
he produces, more especially if both were to be conveyed
to any distance. It is said that the urine of twelve cows
is sufficient to top-dress two English acres of meadow :
on the supposition, that an acre would require twenty cart-
loads of dung at 5 s. per cart-load, or L. 5 per acre, the
urine of each cow would thus be worth above 18 s. pet
annum. Urine is advantageously employed, either by

* Baron Hepburn dungs lightly, and repeats it frequently.
Virgil said long ago, that a large allowance of dung forced a
great growth of straw ; but he adds—" Vanis iilusit avistis—Si-
lifiuisfallacibus."

168 OF MANURE.

pumping it over the dunghill, or as a compost with peat,
fine earth, or the refuse of the tan-pit. A plan has been
adopted by an intelligent farmer, (Mr Charles Alexander
near Peebles), for collecting urine, and preparing it for
use, which it is proper to describe. He has made a
pit, about twelve yards square, and four feet deep,
which he fills with fat earth, carted from headlands, or
wherever it can be got most conveniently, and levelled on
the surface, so that the urme of the cattle he feeds, which
is conveyed to the pit by a sewer, may spread equally over
it. The edges are raised about six inches high, by a pa-
rapet of puddled earth, for preventing the urine from
running over. The earth is carted to the compost pit in
the summer, immediately after its former contents are ap-
plied to the turnips. The drier the earth is, when laid in,
the better, as it imbibes more of the urine. After the com-
post has received the greatest part of the urine, which is
about the latter end of April, (as at tliat time the feeding
cattle are sold off), it is carefully turned over, when it
shows symptoms of complete saturation. While the urine
is applying, and the mass in a drenched state, there is little
fermentation ; but when turned over and laid dry, the fer-
mentatioji ol the mass is brisk, visible by its heat, and it is
completely mellowed for laying on the turnips in June. In
this way Mr Alexander raises above 100 square yards of
rich manure, and when apphed to the ground, finds its ef-
fect to be equal, if not superior to his best dung. It is sug-
gested, that covering the pit, so as to exclude the access of
rain-water, and to prevent tlie exhalation by the rays of
the sun in hot weather, would be an improvement on this
plan *.

• liy faoine, this curling of the earth into a pit, ami llien out
again, is objected to as likel)' to be attended willi too much tx-

OF MANURE. 160

It is said that bones sprinkled with urine are dissolved
by the fermentation thereby excited, and if the same plan
would answer with sea-shells, it would render that species of
manure much more valuable, and more speedily effica-
cious.

3. Lwie. — There is perhaps no country in Europe,
where calcined lime is used to so great an extent, and
in such quantities, as in the more improved, and impro-
ving parts of Scotland. This may be partly owing to the
total absence of chalk, which abounds in so many parts of
England, and which renders calcined lime less necessary
there j but it is principally to be attributed, to the great
benefit that has been derived from its use. In bringing
in new or maiden soils, the use of lime is found to be so
essential, that little good could be done without it. Its first
application in particular, gives a degree of permanent fer-
tility to the soil, which can be imparted by no other manure.
Its effects, indeed, are hardly to be credited, but their cor-
rectness cannot be disputed. Maiden soils, in Lamraer-
muir, of a tolerable quality, will, with the force of sheeps'
dung, or other animal manures, produce a middling crop
of oats ; but the richest animal dung does not enable

pence, and, at any rate, as practicable only to a small extent.
It is therefore proposed, after ploughing the headlands, to cart
the urine upon them, and then to remove the soil to the field as
a top-dressing, or for turnip drills. JNIr John Shirreft' thinks that
it would be a better plan to run the collected urine weekly over
the surface of the dung-heap. Nothing tends more to promote
the preparation of duDg, or to make it richer, than urine. The
whole mass n)ight thus be brought, at an early period, into a
state completely prepared for use, which cannot be expected so
soon, if it ever arrives at such a stute, when deprived of so essen-
tial an intrredient.

ITP or MANL'RE.

them to bring any other gniin to maturity. Pease, bar-
ley, or wheat, will set out with every appearance of suc-
cess, but when the pease are in bloom, and the other
grains axe putting forth the ear, they proceed no farther,
and dwindle away in fruitless abortion *. The same soils,
after getting a sufficient quantity of lime, will produce
every species of grain, and in good seasons bring them
tp maturity, in all future times, always supposing the
ground to be under proper culture, and the climate a^-
dapted to the crop. This fact proves, that oats require
less calcareous matter than what is necessaiy for other
grains ; that lime acts as an alterative, as well as an
active medicine, and that the defects in the constitu-
tion of the soil are cured, even after the stimulant and
fertilizing effects of the hme have long ceased to operate.
Lime is also pecuUarly beneficial in improving muirish
soils, by making them produce good herbage, where no-
thing but heath and other unpalatable grasses grew for-
merly. The expence of this article in Aberdeenshire is
stated to be enormous, very little of it being produced
m that country ; yet lime is there considered to be abso-
lutely necessary, and, indeed, the foundation of all sub-
stantial improvements f . It is supposed, however, not to

* Marie, although containing calcareous matter, is not so effec-
tive. It will produce oats, barley, and early pease in abundance,
and in some favourable situations will also produce wheat, when
the season is favourable, but wheat crops cannot be depended up->
on from marie alone.

■f- Communication from Mr Barclay, Mill of Knockleith. It
has been observed, that lime has sometimes been withheld both
from low lands after fallow, -and from hilly lands after turnips ;
but in all these cases, with an evident loss to the occupant, by a
decrease of produce throughout the whole course.

OF MANURE. 171

be SO useful on the sea-shore, as in the more inland dis-
tricts, from the soil being perhaps mixed with sea-shells.

The importance of lime as a manure, is strikingly ex-
emplified by the following information from Mr Walker of
Mellendean : He entered into the possession of that farm
twenty-five years ago, and then gave the whole farm, (with
the exception of a few acres of the richest soil, in different
fields, which had for ages been manured as infield), a good
dose of lime. From the newly limed land, his returns were
fiilly equal to his expectations, and greatly superior to
those from the richest spots that had received no lime.
Being very desirous to ascertain how long the limed land
would maintain its superiority, he kept both the limed and
unlimed, under the same management in every respect, du-
ring his first lease of twenty-one years ; and he can affirm,
that at the end of that period, his crops upon the limed
land were equally good, and as much superior to those of
the unlimed land, as they were at the commencement
thereof. Having got a new lease of that farm, he proposes
laying lime upon every spot of ground that was not limed
formerly, being convinced that he has been a considerable
loser by his experiment. How long therefore the effects of
lime may last, he will not take upon himself to foresee ; but
he can safely say, that there is land upon his brother's pro-
perty at Wooden, that was limed by his father upwards of
thirty years ago, where the effects of the lime, upon every
crop, are still as apparent, as when it was first laid on the
land.

It is proposed, in discussing this subject, very shortly to
explain the following particulars: 1. The soils to which
lime is applicable 5 2. The distance from which it has been
carried ; 3. The quantity used j 4. The best mode of
slacking ; 5. The common modes of applications ; 6. The
plan of top-dressing the surface ; 7. The price ; 8. The

172 OF MANURE.

use of pounded limestone; and 9. The causes which may
occasion its failure.

1. This manure is certainly well calculated for clay
lands. Some recommend laying on a certain quantity of
itj to the amount of 20 bolls of shells, or 60 bushels to the
Scotch, or 48 to the English acre, and as hot as possible,
every time the land is fallowed. This plan, however, is
objected to from respectable authority, and it is contend-
ed, that so small a quantity of hme shells is quite unfit for
stimulating any kind of soil, except where it is of a dry
niuirish nature, and not formerly limed. To lime land
ever}' time it is in fallow seems unnecessary, more espe-
cially if a sufficient quantity were applied in the first in-
stance *. From 60 to 70 barley boUs per Scotch acre, or
from 360 to 465 bushels j^er Scotch, that is, from 288 to
365 bushels j3^r English acre, are quantities frequently gi-
ven in East Lothian. In regard to loams, if they are in
good condition, and in good heart, perhaps liming once in
the course of two rotations will be sufficient f. It is a rule,
however, in regard to the application of lime, and other
calcareous manures, that they should only be applied to
land in a dry state, and well drained.

2. It is astonishing the distance from which lime is car-
ried in some parts of Scotland. Mr Blackie of Holydean,
in Roxburghshire, drives it twenty-two miles, and the car-
riage, when hired, is 7 s. -6 d. jJ£?>' boll of shells. In all the
parish of Moffat, where of late considerable improvements
have been carried on, and corn, turnips, and clover, i-aised

• Mr John SLintfl' remarks, that to specify a quantity for all
lands is impossible, so much di^pends upon the depth and quality
of the soil ; also on tliC quantity of calcareous matter either pre-
viously applied, or originally in the soil.

f Communication from George Palerson, Esq. of Castlc-Ilunt-

or MANURE. J 73

in great perfection, 1000 feet above the level oftlicsea, the
lime is carried from Douglas, at twenty-seven and thirty
miles distance. It is sometimes carried on the borders, but in
no great quantity, about thirty, or even thirty-two miles * ;
and in Aberdeenshire, they are said to drive it that dis-
tance inland, after being imported from Sunderland.

3. The quantity used varies much. It is evident, that
strong deep soils require a greater quantity than those
which are light and shallow. Baron Hepburn is of opi-
nion, that it should be applied frequently, and in small
quantities at a time, especially on gravelly bottomed loams,
which are apt to become too open and pliable by an over
dose of lime : by following this practice, he finds his crops
wonderfldly improved, both in regard to quantity and qua-
lity. Mr Robertson of Ladykirk informs me, that he has
never seen hme used in too great a quantity, if the land is
judiciously cropped ; if otherwise, it will ultimately hurt
the soil. He has laid on no less a quantity than 100 bolls
of shells, 4 Winchester bushels each, per English acre, and
frequently with much success. On dry land a less quanti-
ty will do. Mr Blackie of Holydean considers IG bolls
of shells, on such land, a sufficient dressing. Dr Coventry
is of opinion, that in general, about 6 tons of unslacked or
newly-burnt hme, of ninety or ninety-five per cent, of pu-
rity, may be sufficient for the statute acre of land that has
never been limed ; but if the lime be impure, a greater pro-
portion will be requisite.

The information transmitted to me by Mr Walker of
Mellendean upon this subject, is of pecidiar importance,
as he has limed perhaps more land than any individual
in the whole island, and in the course of thirty years
has tried various experiments in regard to the quan-

• Communication from Mr Walker of ^it]kMldean.

•l^is OF MANURE.

tity that should be applied per acre. On newly bro-
ken up land from old turf, he has laid on from 20 and
25 to 40 and 45 bolls of shells, of 4 Winchester bushels
each, per English acre. On light and thin (outfield)
soils, tlie crop on that part of the field that was limed
at the rate of 20 and 26 bolls per acre, was as rough, and
appeared equally good, with the crop on the land that had
received 40 bolls per acre ; but when it came to be thresh-
ed out, the grain was found very inferior in quantity, and
still more so in quality. Upon clay soils, the effects of th^
lime, where a small quantit}' was laid, were hardly discern-
ible ; while that part of the field that received 40 and 45
bolls, produced an abundant crop. Finding the produce
of the land that was hmed with a small quantity so very
inferior, he laid on, (when the land came to be re-fallow-
ed), 20 or 25 bolls more, the effects of which were never
perceptible. He is therefore decidedly of opinion, that
every kind of soil should have a good dose at once, in
which case he considers no repetition to be necessar}^ for
a long time after •, but if repeated at all, the second lim-
ing should be considerably greater than the first, which
seems to be the general opinion of the Scotch farmers. As
to repeated liming in small quantities, Mr Walker is convin-
ced, that whatever is laid out in that way, after the first dose,
is so much money thrown away. He can give no strongei*
proof of his conviction in that respect, than his practice
upon the farm of Rutherford. He entered to that farmr
in June 1808, and since that time he has gone over about
eight hundred and Jiffy acres ; and though a great part of
it consists of a light dry soil, and the lime has to be car-
ried twenty-four or twenty-five miles, consequently at a
great cxpcuce, yet on no part of the farm has he laid less
than 40 bolls of shells, or 240 Winchester bushels per
English acre, and on many places fully 50 bolls. Nothing,
in his opinion, assimilates the produce of outfield, to that

OF MANURE. 175

of infield land so much, as a good dose of lime laid on at
once. The consequence of tliis liming has been, the most
productive crops, of every description, to be seen in all
that neighbourhood.

Mr Aitchison of Clements Wells also has found that
lime answers every purpose he could wish, in promoting
the improvement of his estate in Peebles-shire, where the
climate is cold and moist. He began to improve that pro-
perty in 1806, and in October 1811 he had laid on it,
10,386 boils, or 62,316 Winchester bushels. His ridges
are 18 feet broad, and according to the quantity he wishes
to put on ])er acre, his overseer has the following table to
conduct tlie operation.

If it is proposed to lay on 25 bolls per acre, betwixt each
heap, of one iii'lot each, there ought to be a dis-
tance of - - _ _ 30 feet.
If 30 boUs, - - - - 25t
35 do. - - - - 22
40 do. - - - - 19
45 do. - - - - 17

And in the same proportion as high as 50 bolls. He ne-
ver puts on less than 25 bolls, or 150 bushels of sheik
pel' Scotch, (130 bushels js^r English acre), and on heavy
land he has gone the length of 70 bolls. The day the
lime comes to the field, a man follows the carts, and covers
it up immediately with earth, by which generally in a few
days it is reduced to powder. When in that state, it is
spread on the land. After trying several other methods
this was found to be the best. The improvement effected
by lime on that property has been very great.

4. The slacking of lime completely is a most important
operation. The common mode is, to lay it in heaps from
the kiln upon the ground intended to be limed ; but this,
although the most expeditious, is by no means the most

176 OF MANUIIE.

advantageous method. In the first place, if the lime is not
all of the same quality, (which is seldom the case), the best
lime commonly dissolves first, and the inferior quahty con-
tinues unslacked ; so that it must either be spread in that
state, or the good lime must be allowed to receive too much
moisture, or again to re-absorb its fixed air, both of which
should be prevented. The best mode of slacking, is to lay
down the shells in a heap near to water, and by once turning
and watering the whole mass, it is reduced to a comulete
powder ; in which state it should be applied to the soil, and
ploughed in immediately with a shallow furrow, when there
is no doubt but it will mix more intimately with the soil,
than by the former method *.

The necessity of slacking calcined lime, as soon after it
is burnt as possible, is obvious. If any sudden rain should
fall, it would be converted into mortar ; no art can then
separate it, and mix it equally with the soil ; nor would
double the quantity have the same good effect. Even af-
ter it has been reduced to powder, if any rain should hap-
pen to fall, or if by any means it receive too much mois-
ture, while it lies thin spread on the surface of the field,
it will partly be formed into hard insoluble cakes, and
may remain in that state for years, without mixing with,
or beinff of the least benefit to the soil. In the course
of repeated ploughings, Mr Paterson of Casde-Huntly has
observed pieces of hard lime come up, as insoluble, as if
they had been pieces of an old building.

Considering these circumstances, I was much pleased to
find, that a mode had been discovered by ^Ir Nicl Ballin-
gal in Fife, which obviates these difficulties. His j)lan
is, to lay the calcined lime down on any thick head- ridge

♦ Cv,mniii!iii'itU m fnini Mr Kciiiiie ot Kmllcllaiioiit.

OF MANURE. 177

of good earth, witliin the field where it is to be applied,
and the instant it is so, two men are ready to make up a
compost of the limc-shclls and earth ; three cart-loads of
earth to one cart of shells, raised to a ridge long and narrow,
five feet high, that rain may not enter it. The moisture
in the earth slacks or reduces it to a powder ; it swells to a
considerable bulk, and then all cracks and openings are
closed with a spade, and a little more earth put over the
whole. In this way he has had it frequently mixed up
for six months, and in one particular instance fifteen
months before it was carted away ; and yet when carried
on to the land and spread, the whole mass put on the ap-
pearance of white lime, flying with the wind, as if newly
from the kiln. This mode he means always to follow, be-
inij certain of its advantafje. It can be mixed as intimate-
]y with the soil as if new from the kiln, and he has had
crops from it in this way, superior to an equal quantity of
hot lime *, both tried without dung. The application com-
monly is to the summer-fallow ; but he has also applied it
to pasture, quite hot, and in compost as above, and found
both answer well ; but the time of application was July,
and he soon found that it ought to lie at least one year or
more before the field was ploughed.

Mr Ballingal having used from 500 to 1000 bolls per
annum, for several years, his experience may be confident-
ly relied on. He remarks, that lime, if exposed to rain,
or even to frost, and slacked like mortar, loses half its ef-
fect 5 no care can then mix it intimately with the soil.

* This is an important fact, it being generally supposed that
when inserted in the form of hot lime, in a state of perfect pow-
der, its effects are greater and more immediate than in any other
way. By Mr Ballingars plan the lime can be carried to the field in
autumn, or even in winter, which, though an old practice, could nut
be done with equal safety, ;is under tlie proposed system.

P. I. M

17S OF MANURE.

His land is wet, and often wlian the lime is drrvdn, . un-
fit for carting upon the field, nor ai*e the ridges pre-
pared for spreadmg the lime j without having fallen upon
such a plan, therefore, he could never have used lime to
eaual advantage. He adds, that an intelligent neighbour
of his brings his^ Ume from the kiln, lays it in small heaps,
about a firlot of shells in each heap, or four heaps per
boll, on the fallow ; covers these instantly with earth, which
slacks the lime, and when it is completely so, he spreads
it in powder, quite hot, on the fallows, and ploughs it in
with a light furrow. This saves labour and expence. He-
never uses water in slacking lime, and the effects of his
practice are very good ; the earth, or z'ather the moisture
in it, slacks the hme most completely, and no water is ne^
eessary *. This is an excellent practice, and very com-
mon in many counties : and many intelligent farmers pre-
fer it to the other plan, which they think would be attended
with too much expence to be generally imitated. At the
same time, an intimate mixture with the soil is of the ut-
most importance in the application of Ume, any plan that
contributes to that object merits attention.

Having often heard farmers complain of the difficulty
they experienced, in procuring water, in sufficient quanti-
ties, thoroughly to slack their lime, in some districts, and
in others, of the loss they sustained in carrying on their
lime husbandry, by unexpected rains, I have procured

* An intelligent correspondent contends, that lime is best laid
on the land in small heaps, and immediately covered with earth,
wliich in a damp or moist season slacks or falls it ; but he fre-
quently puts on water from a water-cart, which slacks it directly,
and it is imni(;diatcly spread in that quick state, liarrowed, and
ploughed in, when il mixes most mlimatcly with the soil. Lime
should be in powder, and the land iu a powder-like slate when it
is laid on.

OF MANURE.

179

from Mr Ballingal, the following sketch, which, with the
references thereto, will fully explain his system.

Plan of a hcnp of Earth and Lime^ in alternate strata, as
practised by Mr Niel Ballingal in Fife,

\

\^

NO. 1.

'.iZ

Zif^

/^Jbm

anMBMHlK

?R??^U* \

NO. 1.

2.

A

3.

4.

5.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Reference to the Plan and Scciiun of the Compost Midden,

NO. 1. 1 — Surface of the ground.

NO, 2. — A small trench made under the surface, afterwards filled with lime
4 inches deep.

NO. 3. — First space dug out equally deep as NO. 2. the earth of which is
thrown back, and left to cover up the end of the heap when com-
pleted.

NO. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10— Similar trenches, 8 feet by 3^.

m2

180 OF MANURE.

Section.
A — First bed of lime, 4 inches thick,

B B — Earth 6 inches thick alternately with C C lime, until about 5 feet
high ; but the height depends on the depth of soil where the lime is
laid down.
D D D — Expansion of the heap after lying about 48 hours.

When expanded to the utmost, it is smoothed again with a spade, all
cracks filled up, and the rain does not penetrate but runs off.

The proportion of earth to lime most advantageous is 3 to 1 of lime-
shells. Each cart then carries out when full 1 boll lime. Forty carts of
the composition is sufficient for an acre of strong soil ; 30 carts if gravelly
or sandy.

The compost heap may be of any length ; but 150 or 200 bolls is enough
for one. If proper earth can be got in different places of a field, it saves
carriage.

4. Mr Dudgeon of Primrose-Hill considers it to be the
most advantageous mode of applying lime, to lay it on in a
powdery state, upon ground when under summer-follow, be-
fore the fallow receives the last furrow, and then to mix it in-
timately with the soil, by harrowing, before it is ploughed
in. In regard to liming fallows, Mr Rennie of Phantassie
observes, that it is the most profitable mode of apphcation,
if it is laid on at a proper season. He has been in the
practice, for these ten years past, of laying lime on his fal-
lows, from the 1st of April to the 1st of October, and
always found, that the first laid on produced the best crops,
which he ascribes to its being more minutely mixed with
the soil by the more numerous ploughings and harrowings,
and of course the fermentation more complete, than wliat
is laid on late in the season : June and July, therefore,
are to be preferred, so that the lime may be completely
mixed with the soil before the crop is sown j and as it is
both a valuable and expensive manure, too much attention
cannot be given it.

Applying lime to green crops is attended with more
dilliculty. I'rom observation and practice, Mr Ronnie re-
commends, that, for a crop of turnips, limu should be laid

OF MANURE. 181

on so early in the spring as to admit of two, if not three
ploughin<j;s, and as many harrowings, after it is laid on, so
as both to mix it properly with the soil, and also to let it
have time to cool in the land, otherwise it will be very apt
to cause the loss of the turnip ci-op.

Mr Park of Windy- Mains is accustomed to lay lime on
the land intended for turnips, immediately after harvest,
when the land has got the first furrow. He first makes a
pair of harrows go backward and forward on each ridge to
smooth it, then lays down the shells in huts about 60 or 80
hoUs per acre Scotch; as soon as it is powdered, he spreads
the huts, and harrows the field, and lets it remain till May,
when it may be prepared for receiving the dung.

Mr Brodie of Garvald, who has long paid peculiar and
successful attention to the management of lime, adopts the
following plan in applying lime to his turnip land.
After the ground intended for turnips has got a win-
tor and a spring furrow, the lime is laid on, and well
harrowed in : it then gets another fiirrow before making
up the drills, and is again well harrowed, for the double
purpose of getting the lime intimately mixed with the soil,
and taking out any quickens, or other weeds, by which the
field is infested. The turnips are sown in drills, both as
being better for the turnip crop than when sown broad-
cast, and the lands are got better cleaned either from annual
or perennial weeds. It is reckoned an advantage, to have
the lime got forward during the former summer, previous
to its being laid on for turnips ; for on a turnip farm, there
is so much spring labour, that it is hardly possible to drive
any considerable quantity of lime, from any distance, at
that season of the year. When it is new from the kiln, it
is so hot, that it is apt to dry up the moisture necessary for
bringing the turnips into leaf; in this case, the lime ought
to be laid on a piece of very dry ground, in lai'ge heaps,
and thrown up to a considerable thickness, which will

182 OF MANURE.

make it in a fine state for laying on in the spring, that is,
neither in a wet or in a very hot state.

In regard to green crops, Mr Paterson of Castle-Hunt-
ly thinks it better to lay on the lime after the green crop,
rather than before it, so as it may be well mixed with the
soil, before it comes in contact with potatoes or other
roots, it being apt to burn and blister their skins, and to
spoil their appearance, if it does no more mischief Some
farmers, however, have put lime upon the ground after it
is planted with potatoes, and harrowed it in. But this
practice cannot be recommended.

The application of lime to grass, particularly on light
or dry soils, and where the land has been long pastured,
is a most advantageous system. It may be applied after
the land has been a summer in pasture, or cut for hay ;
but the ground should be made as bare as possible, other-
wise it will be difficult to spread it equally over the sward
or surface. Tlie lime should be laid on in autumn, and
the land fchould remain in grass for another season, till it
is absorbed. If intended to be applied to old ley, ei-
ther lay the lime on one year before cropping, letting it
lie upon the surface, or lay it on about Martinmas, and
let it lie on the surface till February, then plough it
down, and sow the ground when the weather is suit-
able. Suflcring ground to remain for some years in
grass, is ceitainly the best preparation for lime, as it has
then fresh mould, and vegetable matter, to act upon.

Mr Cuthbertson recommends, that no lime should be
laid on high ridges that are intended to be flattened ; the
ridire should be brought to the same round in which it is
intended to remain, before that operation is accomplished,
because, in performing it, there is a great risk of burying
the linio. Mr Barclay remarks, that when the ap-
phcalion is made, tlic land shoukl not be too wet ; and it

OF MANURE. 18S

is necessary at all times to have the lime brought to such
order, as neither to fly off witli the wind, nor go into clods
in the spreading.

Mr Brodie of Garvald observes, that some speculative
agriculturists recommend Jiniing upon the surface, to extir-
pate the heath and improve the pasturage, without attempt-
ing to bring ground under the plough, as the soil and cli-
mate may be unfit for the raising of grain. If the lime is
at any considerable distance, there is reason to suspect that
this would not turn out a profitable concern. At the distance
of eight or ten miles, a good liming would not cost less
than L. 10 or L. 12 the Scotch acre. It cannot be ex-
pected that this improvement, on such hiUs as those of Lam-
mermuir, would even pay the interest of the money. Gen-
tlemen proprietors may improve at this rate, but a tenant
would be extremely imprudent were he to throw away his
capital, without a prospect of being repaid. It is surely bet-
ter to lime land worth the improving, to bring it under
the plough, and then to take a few corn crops to refund
the expence. The tenant is thus reimbursed, and has an
ameliorated pasture, as the reward of his industry and su-
perior management.

6. Mr Kerr, the intelligent Reporter of the Husbandry
of Berwickshire, has transmitted to me the following cal-
culation of die expence of liming. The hme he used was
brought by sea to Eyemouth ; and the price, besides car-
riage, amounted to 25 d. j^cr boll, in shells, each boll con-
taining 4 Winchester bushels ; hence to lime an acre of
land with 35 bolls will cost about L. 3, 15 s. besides car-
riage and spreading, which the distance being short, may
amount to 10 s. more, or L. -!•, 5 s. ^^rr acre •, and as this
operation is usually repeated twice during a lease of nine-
teen years, liming, in his situation, may be considered as
a yearly charge of 10 s.per acre.

18}- OP MANURE.

How astonished would not many farmers be in other
countries, when they hear that Scotch farmers subject them-
seh'cs to an expence of 10 s. j9<77- acre jier annum for lime
alone, a sum not much inferior to the average rent of
much land even in some English counties. But the
expence is well bestowed, were it only from the benefit
thence to be derived in the cultivation of green crops
of every description. For though such crops can be
raised by large quantities of dung, yet where calcareous
substances are applied, as Mr BrodieofGarvald has found
by long experience, a less quantity of animal manure will
ans^ver the purpose. This is making the farm-yard dung
go farther, with more powerful and more permanent ef-
fects ; and from weightier crops being thus raised, the
quantity of manure on a farm will be most materially aug-
mented.

7. Tliat ingenious and intelligent wi'iter. Lord Kames,
strongly recommended the use of pounded limestone,
where fuel is scarce or dear. He observes, that three
pounds of raw lime is, by burning, reduced 'to two
pounds of shell lime, though nothing is expelled by the
fire but the air that was in the limestone, the calcareous
earth remaining entire. Two pounds of shell lime, there-
fore, contain as much calcareous earth, as three pounds
of raw limestone. Shell lime of the best quality, when
slaked with water, will measure out thrice the quantity :
but as limestone loses none of its bulk by being burnt into
shells, it follows, that three bushels of raw limestone con-
tain as much calcareous earth, as six bushels of powdered
lime -, and consequently, if powdered lime possess not some
virtue above raw limestone, three bushels of the latter,
heat small y should equal, as a manure, six bushels of the
former. Those suggestions, however, have not boon acted
upon, probably owing to (ho difliculty and expence of boat-
ing the limestone sufficiently small. At the same time tlic

OF MANURE. 185

advantage derived from the use of limestone gravel in Ire-
land, is, however, highly favourable to Lord Kames's doo
trine*.

8. It is an ascertained fact, that lime is of no advantage
in the neighbourhootl of Edinburgh, where the land has
been long accustomed to aration and city manure. Mr
Allan of Craigrook, near Edinburgh, has given lime the
fairest trial, by liming one ridge, the whole field over, at
the rate of 60 bolls j^cr acre, and leaving the other unlimed,
and he has uniformly found, that the liming has had no
eflfect. The reason, probably, is this, that the land having
been so often manured with Edinburgh street-dung, which
frequently contains a proportion of shells, the use of stone
lime is thereby superseded. Indeed, some arc of opinion,
that the land in the immediate vicinity of Edinburgh had
been abundantly limed at some former period, which, in
addition to the calcareous matter mixed with the street-
dung, renders any additional liming unavailing.

Mr Hume of East Barns finds, that lime does not an-
swer on his farm near Dunbar, which he attributes to the
great quantities of sea- ware, mixed with shells, which have
been laid on these lands from time immemorial, and their
having been formerly under constant crops of corn, and
never in grass till lately, and even now only one year at a
time. It is well known, he adds, that lime acts best on
land that has been much in grass. Any local circumstan^-
ces of that sort, however, cannot diminish the credit of a
manure, of such essential importance to the improvement
of the countiy f .

* It would be extremely desirable to ascertain,- whether lime-
stone gravel might not be found in Scotland ; to the discovery of
which, I hope the attention of that public-spirited institution, the
Highland Society of Scotland, will soon be directed.

t Jt is an interesting object of inquiry, whether lime is equally
efficacious on the soa-shore, as in the inland districts ? It is well

ISC OF MANURE.

4. Mark. — In the improved districts of Scotland, lime is
much more in use than marie, and hardly any observations
have been transmitted to me regarding this branch of the
inquiiy. One intelligent correspondent, (Captain John
Henderson), recommends it as a good mode, to apply it
upon the hay-stubble, after the fiist crop ; if the marie
is thus used, the land should be pastured the next season,
and afterwards ploughed down either for oats, or for wheat,
in districts where that grain thrives. At any rate, it should
be allowed to batter on the surface, previous to its being
ploughed doMTi, to prevent its falling down to the bottom,
of the furrow, as the land falls from the plough. Dr Co-
ventry remarks, that the value of most marles is nearly in
proportion to the quantity of hme or calcareous earth in
their composition, taken in conjunction with their distri-
butability, or the ease and completeness with which they
may be mixed with the soil. Hence it happens, that
though nine tons of the carbonate of lime in marie would
be much the same with six tons of unmixed lime, yet the
impure marie, when fully broken, being more distributable
than lime, especially if it be imperfectly slacked or at all
dotted, perhaps a quantity of that marie, containing seven
tons of the carbonate of lime, may be of equal value as a
manure with the other — the six tons of hme. Clay marles,
however, are often very weak and impure ; hence it often
requires sixty, and, in some cases, even eighty tons of
marie, to supply seven or eight tons of the carbonate of
lime. Where that happfcns, lime itself is undoubtedly, in
many respects, the cheaper and preferable article.

5. Sea-'icarc. — The importance of this manure, when it
can be had near at hand, and in considerable quantities,

known that gypsum is not. Seaware contains kelp, which, Ironi
the alkuh it possesses, may act as a substitute for hnie.

OF MANURE. 187

is very great. It is calculated, that land possessing this
advantage, is worth more rent to the amount of from 10 s.
to even 1 5 §. per acre, for the land that possesses it. Tan-
gle, or drifted sca-vvare, has been spread on old grazing
pastures, and has had a wonderful effect in increasing the
quantity of herbage, and in making the land cat cleaner.
It acts as a condiment, for both cattle and sheep not only eat
the grass on which it hadbeen spread with avidity, but throve
well, and were made sooner fat *. Mr Newton of Cartland-
hill, near Inverkeithing, mixes it with long dung, and finds
that it makes a most excellent compost. The ware, however,
in that part of the frith, is of a weaker sort, and has less sa-
Dne substances in it. When of a more powerful descrip-
tion, it should never be used as a compost, but laid fresh
on the land. If there is no land under the plough ready
for it, let it be put on grass lands, but in that case great
care should be taken to lay it thin, otherwise it will kill
the clover plants.

On some farms near Dunbar, the land is covered with
sea-weed every second year, which enables it to go through
that severe rotation, 1. Turnips; 2. Spring sown winter
wheat J 3. Clover, either cut or made into hay ; and, 4.
Wheat again. It is only, however, by the farmers having
such a command of manure, eatingthetnrnips on the ground,
and drilhng and hand-hoeing the wheat crops, that such a
system could be persevered in. For the second wheat ci'op
it answers extremely well, to apply the sea-weed early in
spring, on the grass to be cut, if it is laid on in dry wea-
thec. Sea-weed should never be applied on ground for

* Another of my correspondents states, that be has had sea-
ware spread on old pastures ; that it produced a great quantity of
grass, but tbe cattle, be observed, were not fond of eating it.
Perhaps it bad grown too rank before tbe cattle were put in, and
it ought to have been cut for hay.

188 OF MANURE.

turnips after March, as it seldom incorporates with the
soil in such a way as to insure a good crop, and if the wea-
ther is not moist in the summer, it is probably one cause
of breeding the fly, so destructive to turnips.

G. Composts. — Some farmers condemn the use of com-
posts of earth, with either lime or dung, as too expensive ;
requiring much time before they can be applied \ trouble-
some to cany and to spread ; and where the price of la-
bour is high, not likely to pay. They prefer, therefore,
putting on any good earth by itself, that may be found a-
bout the farm. Such compounds, however, when proper-
ly applied, have their advantages, in particular, when they
are laid on, 1. muirish lands, and 2. fallows or glass
fields.

1. Mr Hope of Fenton informs mc, that lie had on his
farm fifty- two acres of muir land. His system was, to
summer- fallow, to dress it as much as possible with a com-
pound, made with the scourings of ditches, high hcad-
lidges, and any spare earth he could find on other parts of
his farm ; by which means he has gone over nearly the
whole fifty-two acres twice during the last eight years, sA.
the rate of sixtj' double cart-loads each time pei' acre ; and
now, as the nature of the soil is much improved, he finds that
farm-yard dung can be applied with far greater advantage,
than before the application of the compound dunghills ;
the soil having become much firmer, therefore stands the
summer's drought better, which frequently before burnt up
the crops, although well manured. After the summer-
fallow, he never sows wheat in winter, as he has repeated-
ly experienced, that after this nuiirish kind of soil has
been wrought very fine in summer, from its being incum-
bent upon a bottom so extremely retentive of moisture, a
frrcat part of the plants were completely destroyed in tlie
spring •, he now, therefore, always sows in the spring, ei-

OF MANURE. 189

ther wheat, barley, or oats, as circumstances permit ; a-
long with this crop he sows grass seeds ; allows the grass
to remain one, two, or three years, then oats after the grass,
wliich finishes the rotation.

This is evidently a most material improvement, altoge-
ther founded on the use of compound dung-hillsy by which
a soil was in a manner created or manufactured, so as to
render it fit, from its texture, io retain moisture and ma»
nure, two of the principal sources of fertility.

2. Many farmers apply composts to fallows, more espe*
cially when the soil consists of thin clay, (in which case
the effort it makes is very great), or when the quantity of
lime or dung is inconsiderable. The compost should be
well mixed and broken, spread on the ploughed surface of
the fallow, and ploughed in. The fallow should get two
ploughings, besides harrowings, after the compost is laid
on, that it may be well mixed with the soil before the crop
is sown.

3. Composts are peculiarly calculated for top-dressing
grass fields, if to remain in that state for some time, for
pure dung is apt to evaporate and to lose all its substance.
When composts are put on grass fields, at the rate of a-
bout sixty cart-loads per acre, about the month of Febru-
ary, their effects are very great.

On the subject of composts, the following additional par-
ticulars remain to be explained.

Where no moss or peat earth can be procured, it is an
excellent practice, when the head-ridges, (on which the
plough turns, and where of course much rich earth must
be deposited), get high, to take off about a spade deep,
and to lay it up with dung and lime during the winter, to
be used in spring as manure for the barley or oats intend-
ed to be laid down with grass seeds. Mr Hunter of Tyne-
field, however, is of opinion, that hand labour, in every
erase of tui'ning and preparing composts, is too expensive.

190 OF MANURE.

and thinks it better, where any depth of soil has accumu-
lated on the head ridges, to turn it with the plough, after
harvest, and to mix about sixteen bolls of lime shells, with
about 1 50 yards of earth, which is sufficient to manure an
acre.

An intelligent farmer, (Mr Laing of Campend, near
Dalkeith), is of opinion, that by making composts judi-
ciously, the fertilizing powers of dung or lime may be in-
creased, in the ratio of one-fourth, or that instead of
twenty, by judicious management, twenty-five acres may
be manured with the same quantity of dung -, for that pur-
pose he proposes to collect cleanings of the road, scourings
of the ditches, or accumulated earth on head lands, with
as much dung as will raise a fermentation or heat in the
dunghill, turning it over for a few weeks before driving,
that it may be thoroughly incoi'porated *.

Mr Dudgeon of Prora observes, that compounds of all
kinds are valuable ; they so act upon one another in the
mass, that the chemical properties of the whole are
changed so as to render it efficient as a manure. Eartli
and lime make a good compost, and when the lime is ap-
plied in its ordinary quantity, in addition to the earth, the

* Mr Laing very strongly recommends, when wheat is sown with
one furrow after grass, (which in most soils is a very precarious
and uncertain crop), manuring it with dung or lime compost, after
being ploughed, as it would derive great benefit from the carting
consolidating the soil ; for in ley wheat, very often there is a va-
cancy between the furrows, from which the plants die when they
are extending their roots for food, which the carting and treading
of the horses would in a great measure prevent. The advantage
of treading wheat land has long been known in England, and should
be secured, as often as the circumstances of the case, and the
pressure of labour, at the busy seasons of the year, will admit of
it.

or AiANunj;. l^l

effects are truly astonishing. It even produces good crops^
though but the one half lime is applied.

Recent improvements in manures. — Three improvements
iiave recently been discovered in Scotland, in the art of
preparing manures, of which it may be proper to give
some account in this place; namely, 1. Lord Meadow-
bank's J 2. Dr Rennie's ; and 3. Mr Mitchell's.

1. In various parts of the Highlands and islands of Scot-
land, it was not unusual to bed the cattle with moss or
peat earth, for the purpose of increasing the quantity of
manure ; but Lord Meadowbaiik certainly was the first,
who investigated that species of manure, on scientific prin-
ciples, and communicated the result to the public. By his
plan, one ton of dung will ferment three tons of moss
earth, which is certainly one of the most valuable disco-
veries that has been made in agriculture, and must, if duly
attended to, greatly enrich many hitherto neglected dis-
tricts *. Mr Thomson of Bewlie, in Roxburghsliire, in*

• See Mr Alton's Treatise on Moss Earth, printed in 1809.
The following is the process recommended by Lord Meadow-
bank:

The moss and dung must be thrown up in alternate strata inta
a compost midden, about four feet and a half high. Moss may
be laid six inches deep, dung ten inches ; moss six inches, dung
four inches ; moss six inches, and then a thin bed of dung ; and.
cover the whole with what remains of the moss. The heap should
be put loosely together, and made smooth on the outside.

The conapost, after it is made up, gets into a general heat,
sooner or later, according to the weather, and the condition o£
the dung ; in summer in ten days or sooner ; in winter not per-
haps for many weeks, if the cold is severe. It always, however,
has been found to come on at last ; and in summer it sometimes
rises so high as to be mischievous, by consuming the materials
(firefanging.) In that season, a stick should be kept in it in

192 OF MANURE.

forms me, that he has had the experience of this compost for
five years, to a very considerable extent, and has found it
to answer. In making compost dunghills, he has, as
nearly as possible, followed Lord Meadowbank's direc-
tions J but when he has plenty of dung, he puts only two'
or two and a half cart-loads of moss, instead of three to
one cart-load of dung. From this compost, he has raised

different parts, to pull out and feel now and then ; for if it ap-
proaches to blood-heat, it should either be watered or turned
over ; and, on such an occasion, advantage may be taken to mix
it with a little fresh moss. The heat subsides after a time, and
with great variety, according to the weather, the dung, and the
perfection of making up the compost, which then may be allowed
to remain untouched, till within three weeks of using, when it
should be turned over, upside down, and outside in, and all the
lumps broken ; then it comes into a second heat, but soon cools,
and is taken out for use. hi this state, the whole, except bits of
old decayed wood, appears a black free mass, and spreads like
garden mould. Use it weight for weight like farm«yard dung,
and it will be found, in a course of cropping, fully to stand the
comparison.

Let it bt observed, that the object of making up the compost
is to form as large a hot-bed, as the quantity of dung employed
admits of, and then to surround it on all sides, so as to have the
whole benefit of the heat and effluvia. Peat nearly as dry as
garden mould in seed time, may be mixed with the dung, so as
to double the volume and more, and nearly triple the weight,
and instead of hurting the heat, prolong it. Prize Essay, by Lord
Mcadoubank, pages 14.9, 150, and 151. — This manure succeeded
with Mr Dudgeon, Prora, beyond expectation on fallow for wheat ;
and with twenty carts per acre, in place of twelve of farm-yard
dung, has been completely equal to it. Kut there is reason to
believe, that merely for want of attention, and allowing it to be
too much lieated, the plan has sometimes failed, and in such
cases has got a character it did not merit.

OP MANURE. 193

as good turnips as from dung alone, and from it has raised
as good crops of wheat after fallow, to the extent of forty
or fifty acres per annunif as from dung. He has on his
farms plenty of moss, and when it is within reach of arable
land, he can from experience recommend the moss com-
post as a great acquisition to farmers.

2. Dr Rennie of Kilsyth has paid particular attention
to moss earth as a manure, and has discovered a very sim-
ple process by which it can be rendered valuable. Ho
proposes, that it shall be laid alongside of a pool formed
for receiving the juice of the dunghill. For ten days it
ought to be saturated with that liquid, occasionally turning
it dui'ing the process of watering ; it should then be allow-
ed to lie in a thick heap, and to acquire a very gentle, almost
an imperceptible degree of fermentation, after which it is fit
for application. By the abstraction of its juices, however, it
is evident that the dunghill would be greatly deteriorated.
As connected with the subject of peat as a manure, it
may be proper to remark, that Mr Church of Hitchill
strongly recommends what may be considered as a recent
improvement in Scotland, namely, the use of peat ashes
as a manure for turnips. They should be burnt in the
Berkshire mode, and though thg ashes are said to be a ma-
nure of only short duration, yet Mr Church has had satisfac-
tory experience of the advantage to be derived from them.
If by their means a good crop of turnips can be obtained,
and afterwards eaten off by sheep, the land will thus be as
much enriched, as if the turnips were grown from farm-
yard manure. Putting on as many ashes as just to cover
the surface, will secure a good crop. When peat is plen-
tiful, this is an object well worth attention.

4. One other improvement in the preparation of ma-
nure remains to be described. It is a discovery made by
Mr Mitchell, surgeon at Ayr, which both the inventor and
others in his neighbourhood have tried with the most be-
p. I. N

19i OF MANURE.

neficial effects. The following description of the process
is given by Mr Mitchell : " Take tliirty-two Winchester
bushels of lime, and slack it with sea-water, previously
boiled to the saturated state, or to the state of brine, to
the consistency of soapers' waste. This quantity is suffi-
cient for an acre of land, and may either be thrown out of
the carts, with a shovel, over the land in the above state,
or made into compost, with forty carts of moss or earth,
in which state it will be found to pay fully for the addi-
tional labour, and is sufficient for an acre of fallow ground,
though ever so reduced before. Its component parts are
muriate and sulphate of lime, mineral alkali in an uncom-
bined state, also muriate and carbonate of soda. All the
experiments have done well with it, but especially wheat
and beans, and it has not been behind any manure, with
which it has been compared. There is one instance, in
which it was tried, in comparison with seventy-two cart-
loads of soapers' waste and dung, and although this was
an extraordinary dressing, nevertheless, that, with the new
manure, was fully above the average of the field. The
experiments this year are more extensive, and as far as the
season has gone, look well, and promise a good crop *.'*
This species of manure, however, could only be prepared
near the sea, or in the neighbourhood of the salt springs
in Cheshire ; but as a sufficient dressing, for an acre, can
be transported in four single-horse carts, it may be carried
twenty or thirty miles inland to advantage.

Mr Mitchell calculates, that 3000 gallons of sea-water,
boiled down to about 600 gallons, will slack 64: bushels of
lime-shells, a quantity sufficient for two acres. The ex-
pence of carrying the water from the sea, the evaporation
and slackening, will cost 20 s. ; the 64 bushels of lime-
shells cost him 40 s., or L. 3 in all ; lience the total price
of this manure is only at the rate of 30 s. /j^/' acre, and the

* Alton's A}isliiiT, \» 3SJ.

or BIANURE. 195

cxpence of carriage must be trifling, owing to the smallness
of tlie bulk. The price, liovvever, must depend upon the
strength of the sea-water, the price of tlie coals and of the
lime-shells. In situations where the sea-water is strong,
double the quantity of lime, slackened at the sea-side,
would answer the purpose equally well, and it is in the
power of every one to make it. Indeed brine might be pre-
pared, by making pits in the neighbourhood of the sea,
where the soil is retentive, or reservoirs in the rocks, and
filling them in the summer months with sea-water, the heat
of the sun would soon make the water of the strength re-
quired at very little expence. Mr Mitchell has also made
some experiments with urine and lime, which he has found
a good manure. He gets the urine at the Barracks at
Ayr in considerable quantities. He has likewise used as
much lime as dried up the whole night soil, in cleaning the
privies at the barracks, and found it not only useful as a
manure, but that it prevented a nuisance which formerly
used to annoy much both the town of Ayr and the garri-
son. The lime made the contents of the privy so easy to
work, that the price of the night soil and ashes, which for-
merly used to sell for L. 6, now fetches L. 40. The pcr-r
sons who have the sale of barrack dung, ought to be com-
pelled to mix the night soil with Ume, all over the kingdom.

Sect. III. — Of Ploughing^ and the most Advantageous
Modes of conducting that operation.

The swing plough now commonly used in Scotland, as
improved by James Small, from the simplicity and the excel-
lence of its construction, is perhaps the most useful instru-
ment ever invented. It is cheap, is applicable to all soils

N 'J

196 OF PLOUGHING.

and situations, can he worked by two horses or two oxen
without a driver, and is calculated either for deep or shallow
ploughing, as the case may demand. It requires more
skill in the management than wheeled ploughs, which the
farmer may set to any particular depth, and which the
ploughman cannot vary from at pleasure ; but the dexte-
rity which the Scotch ploughmen attain by practice, can-
not be surpassed, and such a check is therefore unnecessa-
ry. Bad ploughmen, at the same time, may certainly be
met with in Scotland, as well as m other countries, but
not -so frequently. To this perfection, the premiums given
to the best ploughmen, at annual competitions in various
districts of the country, have greatly contributed *.

* It is perhaps but a just tribute to the first promoters of this
scheme of ploughing matches, to make mention of them in this
work. There may have prcNiously been incidental meetings of this
sort, but tliey seem to have been first established, under a proper
system, in the county of Clackmannan, when Mr Reocb, from
Long-Niddry in East- Lothian, became occupier of the farm of Hil-
ton, about the year J 780. Mr James Stein, distiller at Kilbagie,
who farmed extensively in the same county, (and who employed
the late George Miekle to erect the first threshing-machine iu
Scotland, on an improved system), together with Mr Reoch, were
accidentally led to appoint a competition of ploughs upon a cer-
tain field, where judges, after a strict examination of the work,
awarded small marks of distinction to the victors. Other similar
jiieetings succeeded, and honorary medals to the best ploughman,
and small pecuniary rewards for the exertions of those who were
unsuccessful competitors, were distributed. In short, the exam-
ple had a wonderful eflect, and since, under the patronage of the
Highland Society of Scotland, the same plan has been introduced
into almost every county in that part of the united kingdom.
The original ploughing matches were warmly patronized by Mr
Erskine of Mar, who has uniformly displayed an ardent zeal for
jironioling agricultural improvement of every description, nuich to
the credit of his own character, ai.d the benefit of the public.

OF rLOUCIIING. 197

The importance of good }ilougliing is such, that an in-
telligent farmer remarks, lie has often observed a diffe-
rence in the crop of some ridges where he has had a bad
ploughman, when compared to the rest of the field, where
the operation had been judiciously performed. Indeed, if
one field is ploughed only four and a half inches deep, and
another nine inches, the latter becomes capable of giving
room and nourishment to twice the length of roots the for-
mer can maintain, consequently becomes more productive,
and can afford a higher rent. Besides, the horses of a
good ploughman suffer less from the work, than those in-
trusted to an awkward, and unskilful hand.

The great difficulty in ploughing is, to determine the width
and depth of the furrow slice, which must vaiy according to
the object the farmer has in view, and the nature of the pre-
ceding and succeeding crop, &c. The following table will
give some idea of what is considered to be a proper size,
in different circumstances, though it must be regulated, in
almost every case, according to the nature of the soil that
is to be worked.

TABLE OF PLOUGHING.

Nature of the Ploughing,

First fallow furrow.

Second furrow ditto,

Third furrow,

Fourth furrow,

Seed furrow.

Oat crop from turnips,

Oat crop from clover ley.

Beans, when on one furrow.

Beans, if with a second furrow,

Barley, first furrow, « •

Barley, second furrow,

Width.

Depth.

Inctiet,

Incbcs.

10

6-8-10

9

6-7

8

51

7

5

7

4

9

6-7

9

5-G

9

6-7

9

5

9

6

S

r,

19S OF PLOUGHING.

Barley, last furrow, - - 8 4

Potatoes, first furrow, - - 9 4-6

Potatoes, second furrow, -85

The depth of ploughing, as already observed, must, in a
great measure, be regulated by the soil there is to work upon.
On thin soils, more especially on a rocky substratum, tlie
ploughing must necessarily be shallow j but where the soil
is of a depth sufficient, it is material to plough deep at the
commencement of a rotation, and afterwards to vary the
depth, according to the different crops intended to be rai-
sed. If summer fallows are not ploughed deep enough,
when they receive the first fiirrow, it is impracticable, in a
dry season, to go to a sufficient depth afterwards, though
it is desirable not to go deeper, than it is practicable to
clear the soil turned up, of every description of root weeds.

It is said, that when the soil is incumbent on sand,
coarse clay (till) or gravel, it is much better to rest con-
tented with the depth of soil you already have, than at-
tempt to increase it, at the hazard of bringing up such un-
productive substances. But such an idea is condemned
by many intelligent practical farmers^ It is observed by
them, that though deep ploughing without manure, or fre-
quent exposure after it is brought up, may be unprofitable,
(as the subsoil is less productive than the surface in its na-
tural state), yet where these are properly applied, the soil,
its thickness being increased, becomes more impervious
to wet, and less so to drought, and of course more fer-
tile ; nor where the land is shidlow, is the turning up of
a little till or coarse clay to be apprehended, if the till is
not of a poisonous quality; as by that means you deepen
the soil, which, when the new earth is mixed with lime and
dung, will be found a great improvement *. Where sca-

• B;iron Hepburn sayS, that tliougli deep ploughing shall bring
to the iurface a sour-iookinjj, obdurate, pale yellow coloured f>

OF PLOUGHINa. 199

sand, abounding with shells, can be had in considerable
quantities, that will be a sufficient corrector.

The following general rules regarding the depth of
ploughing, have been recommended from various respect-
able quarters, and as the subject is of infinite importance,
it cannot well be too much inculcated, nor represented in
too many points of view.

Maxims as to deep Ploughing.

1. The depth which land ought to be ploughed, must
be regulated, 1, by the depth of soil, and 2, by the means of
improving it ; when the soil is deep, whether hght or clay,
it ought to be ploughed as deep as a pair of horses can go,
and at some seasons, perhaps, it might be advantageous to
plough it with four horses ; but where the land is thin
and poor, and the means of enriching it scanty, the
depth of ploughing ought to be in proportion to the
quantity of manure. — 2. Deep ploughing is highly ad-
vantageous upon every soil, and for all crops, except on
those soils where the substratum is of an ochry sand,
which soils, in fact, are scarce worthy of being cultivated,
unless in situations, where much alluvial compost, or short
town manure, can be procured. — 3. It is a general nile,
never to plough so deep as to go through the soil that was
formerly manured and cultivated, excepting upon fallow,
and then only wlien you have plenty of lime or dung to
add to the new soil. — 4. Deep ploughing is liable to this
objection, that it requires more manure to enrich a great
body of cultivated soil, than it would do to enrich a small-
er quantity. It is, however, to be remarked, that whilst
lime sinks in the ground, putrescent manures ascend. In

or coarse clay, I care not, experto crede, the manure given to tlie
fallow mellows it sufficiently.

2Q0 OF PLOUGHING.

a burying ground, tlie soil is never meliorated below the
erave, whilst it is enriched to the very surface. There is
no great danger therefore in putting dung deep. If laid
on shallow, it is not only dried up, but actually volatilizes
and is lost. — 5. Farmers who foUow the practice of deep
ploughing, find a great advantage from it, both in dry
and in wet seasons. The extreme of either is not so pre-
judicial as if the crop had been ploughed with a shallow fur-
row.—6. Many farmers recommend, when fallowing land,
to go as deep as possible the first furrow, by which the
subsequent furrows will be more easily done, and to
expose the soil to the winter's frost and to the summer's
heat •, but when land is ploughed in spring for beans or
oats, a strong soil cannot be ploughed with safety, above
five or six inches, and when lime or dung has been mixed
with the soil, a shallow furrow, not exceeding four or five
inches in depth is advisable *.

Deep ploughing is not to be recommended : 1 . Accord-
ing to some, when rich old leys are broken up for crop-
ping, though many respectable farmers are decidedly of
opinion, that old grass land should be ploughed with a
strong furrow- at first, so as the harrowing process, upon
which the crop materially depends, may be sufficiently
executed. 2. When grass only two or three years old

* When Mr Wood commenced his operations on the Great
Tew estate in Oxfordshire, he began Avith a deep ploughing,^
though the farmers in the neighbourhood assured him, that it
would spoil the staple of the lands ; but when they saw 54 Win-
chester bushels of oats, and other crops in proportion per acre,
their ideas were soon altered, and the valuator of tlie crops said,
" '1 liat lliey must now all try to spoil the staple of the land to
get good crops." Tiicir ploughing had formerly been so shallow
that It hardl)) covered the dung, which they considered an ad-
vantage.

OF PLOUGHING. i'Ol

is broken up, more especially where it has been pas-
tured with sheep -, a system to be particularly attend-
ed to in ploughing land that is much infested with an-
nual Avecds, as, from the extreme condensation of the
soil by the trampling of the sheep, a furrow, even of
a moderate depth to appcarancey will make the plough
penetrate below the staple that had been cleared by the
culture given during the previous fallow j jGrom which cir-
cumstance, myriads of the seeds of annuals are raised to
the surface, where they vegetate, and materially injure the
crop cultivated, besides ieplenishing the soil with afresh
supply of their own seeds. 3. When lime has been re-
cently applied, as it has such a tendency to sink from it§
own weight, and the moisture which it imbibes. 4. Where
turnips have been eaten off by sheep on the land where
they gi-ew. In all these cases, from four to five inches
deep will be found sufficient. And, 5. If land is infested
with grass, which generally runs much on the surface, th<;
first ploughing should not be deep.

In the following cases, deep ploughing is advisable.
1. Where the first furrow is given to land intended to be
fallowed in the end of autumn or beginning of winter, and
where grass or root-weeds do not abound, the soil is thus
pulverized and sweetened by the frost ; and, 2. In muir-
ish or cold soils, as it affords a greater scope for the roots
of plants to procure nourishment, admits the superabun-
dant moisture to subside from their roots, and prevents
the summer drought from making aH injurious impression
on the growing crops : for it may be remarked, that on
such land, shallow ploughing exposes vegetation to be
stai-vcd or drowned in wet weather, and to be scorched or
withered in dry.

We shall now proceed to give a general view of the ad-
vantages of deep ploughing, a practice which cannot be
too frequently recommended. Some of my corrcspon-

202 OF PLOUGHING.

dents complain, that it is likely to get into disuse with slo-
venly farmers, and to be too much neglected by many who
merit a different character. To prevent the introduction
of so injurious a system as shallow ploughing, it would be
advisable, in some cases, to have one or two strong ploughs,
calculated even for four horses, by which the strongest and
stifFest land may be cultivated to the proper depth, whenever
it was necessary.

Advantages of deep PloitgJiing.

1. Bringing up of new mould is peculiarly favourable to
clover, turnips, beans, and potatoes ; and indeed, without
that advantage, these crops must diminish in quantity,
quality, and value. 2. Deep ploughing is of infinite con-
sequence, not only by furnishing more pasture to the
roots of the plants, but, above all, by preventing the in-
jurious consequences of either too wet or too diy a sea-
son. This is a most important consideration, as, if the
season is wet, there is a greater depth of soil for ab-
sorbing the moisture, so that the plants are not likely
to have their roots immersed in water; and in a dry
season, it is still more useful, for in the lower part of the
cultivated soil, there is a reservoir of moisture, which is
brouo-ht up to the roots of the plants by the evaporation
which the heat of the sun occasions. 3. By deep plough-
m<ry also, the ground may be more eifectually cleared of
roots and weeds of every description : at the same time^
where they abound, it is a good rule, not to buiy them by
the first ploughing, otherwise it becomes iliflicuit after-
wards to clean the land : But after the land is cleaned by
hand picking, and by the instruments employed for that
purpose, it is then proper to raise fresh mould, to incor-
porate with the manure to be afterwards ajiplicd. 4. By
deep ploughing, animal and vegetable manures may be

OF pi.ouGjiixa. 203

covered, which is not the case with shallow ploughing, in
consequence of which, much of the value of such manures
is lost *. 5. An intelligent farmer, after pointing out that
deep ploughing increases the staple of the soil, keeps the
roots of the corn from being injured by wetness, and also
enables the crop longer to resist drought, adds : *' I how-
ever found deep ploughing attended with good crops, rvhen
ridges, shallow ploughed, in the same field, were but indif-
ferent. A decisive proof in favour of deep ploughing f .'*

* It is hardly possible to bury animal manures, every atom of
it rises to the surface j but fossil manures have a tendency to
sink.

t The Norfolk farmers, generally possessing a thin light soil,
with a poor and barren subsoil, prefer shallow ploughing at all
times, and argue that it is easier to keep a small quantity of soil
in good heart, than a greater quantity, which would be formed by
deep ploughing, and also that it is easier to keep it clean of root-
weeds ; nay some imagine that the /?««, as it is called, retains
moisture, though it is evident that a thin soil must soou
have all the moisture in it much more speedily evaporated
than a deep one. Mr Church has heard the farmers in that
county say, that the land was always injured when the pa«, or
top of the subsoil, was broken by deep ploughing, which was ne-
ver done but by a careless or bad ploughman. There may be
some ground for their partiality in favour of their mode of plough-
ing thin and light soils ; and it would not be advisable for tbern
to alter their system, unless they fallowed their lands, gradually
deepened them, and limed and dunged the new soil. But if oa
these principles they were to increase the depth and quantity of
the surface soil, their crops would be more certain and abundant
more especially in dry seasons. The following valuable hints on
this subject, are drawn up by one of the most intelligent far-
mers in Scotland, whose name, if he had permitted me to use it,
would have done credit to any publication.

" After shallow ploughing, the crop, in heavy rains, is very
apt to be socked about the roots, in consequence of which the

JOi OF PLOUGHING.

It is another important advantage resulting from deep
ploughing, that it has a material effect in improving the
climate of any district, where too much moisture may a-
bound, which would be retained by the imperviousness of

straw is whitened prematurely, and the grain does not come to
perfection ; hence the necessity, when the surface is thin, of
thickening it by oeep ploughing. I have seen deep ploughing
this kind of land, for the first, and even the second year, after
ploughing up the under-soil, produce a teazing crop of thistles,
which was hurtful to the corn crop ; but after the cold soil is well
mixed with the old surface-soil, and after the lime and dung ap-
plied to it, "when sum7ner-fallcwed, has begun to operate on the
new soil, I have found great benefit from this operation ; but it
is the winter furrow before the summer fallow that should b(j
ploughed deep ; the lime and dung applied to the fallow, as I
have already mentioned, operate strongly on the fresh soil. I
would recommend ploughing even light lands, although thin, to
a proper depth, though gravel or stones may be turned up and
mixed with the surface-soil. I have found no inconveniency by
it. Both turnips and corn crops, as well as pasture grass, stand
out better, both in wet and dry seasons, when a shallow surface-
soil is deepened, even by an under stratum that may appear very
worthless. As proof of the utility of deepening surface-soils, both
wet and dry bottoms, look at the patches of gardens that have
received deep digging or shallow trenching, belonging to the cot-
tages placed on the skirts of the muirs all over Scotland, and you
will observe the additional verduie and luxuriance of crop upon
these patches, more than upon the lands adjoining, the surface of
which is often very little more than scratched by the plough, and
the idung and other manure applied to it has not deepness of soil
to operate upon, so as to produce a good crop." — It is to be ob-
served, however, that the quantity of dung usually applied to
patches of garden ground, so far exceeds what any farmer can
afford to give his corn fields, particularly in a muirland district,
that the comparison here adduced, cannot, in that respect, be re-
lied on.

OF PLOUGHING. 205

die soil. Of this fact there h most satisfactory evidence.
Dr Moir of Lcckie, in Stirlingshire, had an estate of a-
boiit 1000 Scotch acres, in the Carses, or lower parts of
that county, which had been ploughed to the depth of on-
ly two inches or two and a half. That small portion of
the soil had, accordingly, by continued cultivation, be-
come much pulverized ; whilst the subjacent stratum had,
on the other hand, becoziie hardened and compacted by
the same process, so as to become totally impervious to wa-
ter. The water consequently stagnated between the soil
that was held in cultivation, and that which lay immedi-
ately beneath it, as if the latter had been clay or rock. He
was accidentally led to try the effect of a double depth,
and chrains \vere at the same time constructed, to carry off
the superfluous moisture. By these means, the ground
has been rendered dry and fertile. The water, which was
formerly lodged two and a half inches below the surface,
now finds room to diffuse itself, and any superfluous quan-
tity is carried off" by proper drains. The result also has
been, that since this improved mode of cultivation has
been introduced, intermittent fevers, which were formerly
epidemic in these Carses, are now altogether unknown in
that neighbourhood *.

But although deep ploughing, to a certain extent, is ad-
visable, yet there is a medium in this as well as in other
things. Mr Hope of Fenton, an intelligent farmer in East
Lothian, states, that he has tried the experiment of
ploughing very deep with four horses, the result of which
was far from encouraging a continuance of the practice.
In one case, where he ploughed part of a fallow field

* See Dr Graham's valuable Report of Sliilingsliire, p. 24,6
and 247. More cleanliness, and belter living among the lower
orders, have also contributed to the great diinitiulion which has
taken place in fevers of an intermittent sort.

206 OF PLOUGHING.

with four horses, at fourteen inches deep, the crop of wheat
was evidently worse than upon the rest of the field, that
was ploughed in the usual manner -, the land at the same
time was of good quality, sufficient to have admitted a fur-
row much deeper than what was given. The reason of
the inferiority of the crop upon the deep ploughed part,
appeared to be, in consequence of that part of the soil,
which had for ages been regularly manured, being turned
down below the reach of the roots of the plants, and soil
of a poorer quality brought up in its place. He is there-
fore inclined to think, that it is unnecessary to plough
deeper, than where there is a fair probability of the differ-
ent kinds of plants sending their roots ; and as beans, clo-
ver, and turnips, the only tap rooted kinds usually cultiva-
ted in this country, seldom send their shoots above seven
or eight inches down into the soil, and the culmiferous spe-
cies not so far, it is probable, from these circumstances,
that from seven to nine inches may be deep enough for all
the purposes of ordinary culture. Occasionally, however,
ploughing even a little deeper, in the course of a rotation,
for the reasons formerly assigned, is advisable.

The following points remain to be touched upon, re-
garding ploughing. 1. The angle at which the furrow
slice should be laid in particular cases; 2. The proper
time for ploughing wet and dry soils ; 3. The advantages
of water-furrowing ; and, 4. The rate of ploughing with
a pair of horses.

1. As one principal object in ploughing is, to lay the
land so that the harrows may, in the most effectual man-
ner, raise mould to cover the seed, this object is most ef-
fectually accomplished by ploughing land of every descrip-
tion, with a furrow-slice about seven inches deep, and
which, if about ten inches and a lialf broad, raises the fur-
row-slice witii a proper shoukler ; thus endeavouring to
form, by the shoulder of each furrow, the angle 45, the

OF PLOUGH ING. 207

point which ought to be referred to, when determining be-
tween the merits of different specimens of ploughing. That
is best obtained, by allowing the plough to incline a little
upon the left side, and making the breadth of the furrow
always bear a due proportion to its depth, which is about
two-thirds, or as six deep and nine broad *.

2. In regard to the proper time for ploughing either
light or clay soils, it is a proper maxim, that light land
should be ploughed when it is in a moist state, but clays
in a medium state neither wet nor dry. Wlien perfectly
dry, they will not plough at all, being so hard and tena-
cious, and they ought not to be ploughed when wet, as the
land would be ruined by poaching. This circumstance
renders the cultivation of clayey soils so extremely difficult.

3. In preparing land for a crop, water-furrowing is a
very important operation, more especially in wet soils and
climates ; indeed not only are these water-furrows, or sur-
face-drains made and dressed by the plough, but a spade-
man is also employed, in all the well-cultivated districts of
Scotland, to clear them out, as soon as the ridge is plough-
ed : the land is thus never injured by surface-water f .

4. An intelligent farmer, (Mr Blackie of Holydean),
has sent me the following statement of the number of miles

* Remarks by Mr Hope of Fenton. This is the general, if
not the universal opinion of the Scotch farmers. Jn Norfolk they
think that the soil should be completely reversed, without a
shoulder, and perfectly flat. The angle 45 is strongly recom-
mended in Bailey's Kssay on the Construction of tlie Plough, and
in his Durham Report; and in Brown of Markle's Treatise on
Rural Affairs.

t Hints from Mr Peter Jack of Moncur, It is very strongly
inculcated, and minutely described, in the Berwickshire report.

208 OF PLOUGHING.

his ploughs travel in a day. An English acre of land, he
observes, is ten chains long, and one broad ; one chain is
66 feet : divide that into 80 lurrows, which is as narrow
as any body ploughs, — the whole furrows in one acre mea-
sure no more than ten miles*. An acre in one day is very
good work for two horses, yet is a very slow pace when
divided into eight hours' work. Turning at the ends of
the land takes up one-tenth of the time. In a dry fine
soil, and on level ground, a pair of good horses will plough
twelve chains ; on wet heavy land, nine, sometimes not
more than eight chains ; in crossing or stirring turnip land
in summer or spring they will do sixteen chains, and in
some very fine free land two acres. It must be remarked,
Iiowcver, that these things must greatly depend on the na-
ture of the soil cultivated, and the season of the year in
which the work is performed.

Mr Erskine of Mar, who has paid much successfiil at-
tention to many branches of husbandry, calculates, that
the number of yards travelled in ploughing an acre and a
half with a sixteen inch furrow-slice, is - 16,320 yds.
And with a furrow-slice of IS inches, - 14-,4-00
The fiu'row-slice of 8 inches, - - 32,64<0
9 - - . 29,040

* Mr Jubn Sbineff remarks, that the distance travelled by the
horses ploughing an English statute acre, with SO furrow slices
to the chain of 66 feet, is certainly ten miles, exclusive of turn-
ings. But there are 88 furrow slices, nine inches wide each, in
CO" feet, 60 that the horses ploughing a furrow slice of that width,
travel eleven miles in ploughing a statute acre, exclusive of turn-
ings. And, admitting the turnings to be one-teiilh, the horses ac-
tually travel twelve miles aiul 176 yards, in ploughing a statute
English acre.

OF PLOUGHING.

209

To the same intelligent correspondent, I am also indebt-
ed for the following tables :

Tables, shoning the Quantity of Ground ploughed, according to
the different breadths of the Furrow-ilices, and the rates nj the
Horses icalking.

'f

^

J,

o

>

•o

o

i-i

> ,

•o

2 to

i

>-

3

j^r
>»^

a
o

Xi

P

^ M

0

.d

3

« M

O

o

•^ C

o

? o

QJ

-3-2

IT'S,

4-1

^1

01

a

n

oi

>-(

ex

«

Pi

>-)

o»

'Eo,

oi

.• ^

■a

V

<£ °

JZ

JS

J '^ (2 Yards. Roods.

Poles.

c

i,£:Yards.

1

Roods. Poles.

8

l'— 14,144

2

24

8

2| — 28,168

5

7

9

— 14,157

2

37

9

— ' — 28,193

5

33

10

14,148

14,157

S

11

10

—■—,28,188

6 -

21

11

^

22

11

— — j28,215

7

5

The Rate of walking, being one

The rate of walking, being

Mile and half a Furlong.

three Miles.

8

1

i

14,960

2

30

8

3 — 42,296

7

31

9

—

15,004

3

4

9

— 42,350

1

30

!0

—

—

15,012

3

19

10

— — 42,336

9

32

11

—

—

15,048 I 3

32

11

—'—42,273

i

10

27

The rate of walking, being one

The Rate of walking, being

Mile four Furlongs.

four Miles.

8 ij 421,216

3

36

8 4 —

56,336 10

14

9 21,120

4

14

9 — —

56,386 ! 1 1

26

10 21,168

4

35

10 ;

56,376

13

2

U i_|_21,186

5

14

11 1—56,430

14

10*

* It is supposed that in England in general, the common
breadth of the furrow-slice is about nine inches ; but the gene-
rality of the farmers in Norfolk, for various reasons, prefer ha-
ving their furrow-slicfs full eleven inches broad ; 8o that the quan-

P. I. O

210

OF TLOUGHINfr.

Tlie effect of short ridges, and consequently of frequelit
turnings, is most strikingly exemplified in the following
table, drawn up by Mr Erskine of Mar, from actual ex-
periment.

c

1.4

3

^

Is

rt

tH

o

3

•S .-= ' 2 ^

5

>

'So
o

3

Names of Fields.

o

•5 ■

o ^

n

bo

-a SJ

■^ ^

Be

1) be

a •-

-s «

C

0) re

S £

S-S

£ s

§ •£

if

t-i

U

>-i

cq

05

Z

'l^

H

/;

Yards.

Feet.

Inches.

H. M.

H. M.

H. M.

7. South Gubber,

78

186

8

279

4 S9

3 21

8

S. East Loch,

149

98

147

2 27

5 33

8

11. Harperhill,

f200

7S

109

1 49

6 11

8

2. South Muir,

212

69

103

1 43

5 17

8

17. Long Bog Croft,

274

53

79

1 19

6 41

8

Thus it appears, when ridges are 78 yards in length, that
no less a space of time than four hours and thirty-nine
minutes is spent in turnings, in a journey of eight hours ;
whereas, when ridges are 274 yards long, one hour nineteen
minutes is sufficient, in the same length of time. What then
must not the waste of time be in small paddocks, and when
four or perhaps five horses are yoked one after the other ?

It may be proper also to observe, that some farmers,
convinced of the advantages of frequent ploughing, keep
an extra stock for that purpose. Mr Andrew of TilUlumb
states, that he constantly keeps four pair of work-horses.

tity of tlio ground stirred in the same number of hours worked by
tbem, must be considerably more than farmers in^ other districts
can do, where the nature of the soil requires to have the furrow-
slice of a narrower breadth. I understand that it is the practice
in Norfolk to allow four horses for each plough, two for a journey
of five liours in the forenoon, and the others for five hours in the
afternoon. Iliis must greatly increase the expence of cultivation.

OF PLOUGHING. 211

and generally in spring and autumn has been in tlie
custom of making up a fifth pair for harrowing, by yoking
a saddle-horse and young colt. This is rather more than
is usually kept on farms of such an extent, (112 Scotch or
142 English acres), but he has an advantage by it, being
thus enabled to dress his land more completely j and the
frequent plough ings, he finds, effectually prevent the de-
predations of the slug-snail.

Here it may not be ij«proper to take notice of a system,
which was practised in East Lothian forty years ago, that
of spring sowing, without spring ploughing, and which is
still occasionally adopted. Lord Kames, in his Gentle-
man Farmer, first printed anno 1776, has strongly recom-
mended it, even though the scarificator or scuffler was then
unknown *. Mr Wight of Ormiston, for twenty-five years
past, has been in the practice of sowing barley and oats
upon the winter furrow, and with much advantage, the
crops being always more certain and more abundant. In-
dependent of the increase of spring labour, by ploughing
lands sufficiently clean and prepared before the winter, it
is a dangerous and precarious operation turning up clay
soils in the spring, more especially for barley, besides bury-

* " The preferable method for sowing oats, and especially in a
clay soil, is to turn the field over after harvest, and to lay it open
to the influences of frost and air, which lessens the tenacity of
clay, and reduces it to a fine mould. The surface-soil by this
means is finely mellowed for the reception of the seed ; which it
would be a pity to bury by a second ploughing before sowing. We
are taught by experience, that this soil ploughed before winter,
is sooner dry than when the ploughing is delayed till spring ;
and as early sowing is a great advantage, any objection on ac-
count of the superficial crusting is easily removed by a strong
harrow, which would produce abundance of mould for covering
the seed." Karnes's (Gentleman Farmer, p. f)5 and 96.

o2

212 OF PLOUGHING.

ing and losing tlie advantage of a fine mellow surface,
which cannot be regained after a spring ploughing. There
is also the risk of rain during the operation, which in many
instances sours the land so completely, as to render the
chance of a crop very precarious. Mr Fletcher of Balin-
shawj in Forfarshire, was accustomed to sow barley on a
winter furrow, above twenty years ago. A respectable
farmer in the Mearns observes, that if too great an accu-
mulation of work was hkely to be apprehended in the early
summer months, an additional ploughing might be saved,
by sowing oats on the winter furrow ; and another intelli-
gent farmer near Dalkeith, (Mr Mylne of Smeaton), re-
marks, that ploughing for barley in spring is unnecessary *,
imless in a very bad seasouj "dohen the land could not be
ivroughtf as it should have been, before winier. Mr Yea-
man of Murie, near Dundee, also tried barley on a winter
furrow J and it was observed, on the crowns of the ridges^
and as low down as the middle, between that and the fur-
rows on each side, the barley was more luxuriant, and ap-
peared richer than that sown in the common way j but
towards the furrows, probably owing to the ridges being
too much gathered, it was thinner and shorter, so that on
the whole the difference of produce would not be material.
A ploughing, however, was saved. Mr Stewart of Hill-
side states, that in his neighbourhood a second furrow is
not given for oats, however early in the winter the land
has been ploughed ; nor is there any difficulty observed on
that account : and Mr Thomson of Bewlic, in Roxburgh-
shire observes, that it is a common practice in that part of
the country, to sow oats after both the winter and spring
furrows. From his own experience, he certainly prefers
the winter furrow for oats, particularly when a dry spring

* It is said, lliiit without ploughing in the sprinj^, the weeds
would soon be master ; but that is prevented by the use of the

scullUfr.

OF PLOUGHING. 2l:'>

and summer takes place. Old ploughed land keeps in the
sap, and brings forward the young plants equally ; whereas
the corn sown in the spring furrow, in a dry season, does
not come half away at first, and is full of aftershots, hence
does not produce nearly so good a crop as the winter
ploughed lands. It must be remarked, however, that a
great part of the ground which carried turnips, must in
every year be ploughed in the spring months ; also, that in
all backward seasons, much of the grass land intended for
oats cannot be got ploughed sooner than Febniaiy or
March.

On a point not yet finally settled, it is proper to state
the arguments on both sides, leaving the question to be ul-
timately decided by future experiments. The farmers in
the Carse of Gowrie do not think it would answer their
strong soil. When they have spare time in the beginning
of winter, to plough part of their clover leys before Christ-
mas, (which is sometimes the case), they think the mould
or soil is too close, and on that account the oats are a
more stinted crop, than when the ley is ploughed in Ja-
nuary or February ; and Mr Dudgeon, Prova, maintains,
that clover ley ploughed soon in February, upon soft land,
and upon all deep light loam for oats, will generally pro-
duce from one to two bolls per acre more, than if it had
been ploughed about Christmas or early in January. The
early ploughed land is also more apt to carry couch grass
among the oats *. Mr Paterson of Castle-Huntly is de-
cidedly of the same opinion. He admits, that barley might
be sown on the winter furrow, where the soil is loamy, with
a better chance of success, for that particular crop ; but he

* Remarks by Mr Jack of Moncur. This is a great argument
against too early ploughing for oats, as it sets the couch-grass
roots in motion, and greatly increases their quantity in the soil ;
thereby both injuring the immediate crop, and adding greatly to
the trouble and expence of the subsequent fallow.

214- OF PLOUGHING.

contends, that repeated ploughings, both in clay and loam,
during the driest season of the year, before the barley seed-
time, is so necessary for perfectly cleaning the land *, that
no saving of labour could compensate the want of them,
which saving of labour is supposed to be the best, if not the
only reason, that can be given for sov)ing barley 07i a "jointer
fwroiso. As to the absurdity of burying that part of the
surface after being prepared and meliorated by the influ-
ence of a vi^inter atmosphere, and bringing up a soil less
prepared, he asks, may not this be rather more speculative
than solid f ? He is much inclined to think, that it would
be much better to give the land another ploughing, as it
would mix and soften the soils, render them more capable
of receiving and covering the seeds, and enable them to
spread their roots to greater advantage, by which a more
certain crop would be insured. Upon the whole, he is
clearly of opinion, that it would be impossible to keep the

* On this subject, Mr John Shirreff remarks, that the ground
on which barley is to be sown, is always supposed cleaned preiz-
ously by summer fallow, by turnips, potatoes, or some other clean-
ing crop, and never to depend on cleaning to be administered that
very spring on which the barley or other grain crop is to be sown.
So far from destroying, annual weeds at least, spring ploughing
promotes their vegetation and increase.

t Mr Wight of Ormiston cannot concur with Mr Paterson in
the idea, that buryin:^ the surface, prepared and meliorated by
the influence of a winter atmospliere, and bringing up a soil less
prepared, is more speculative than solid. The soils can never be
more softened, or rendered more capable of receiving the seeds,
than after a winter's frost ; and he has always observed, that the
seeds were abundantly covered, and enabled to spread their roots
to sufficient advantage, so much so, that tlie barleys are in ge-
neral rather too luxuriant than otherwise. He agrees, however*
with Mr Paterson, that it is too o;irlv to plough clover leys be-
fore Christmas, and that ploughing them in January or February
will insure a better crop, and a clearer one.

OF PLOUGHING. Sl.j

ground clean, and in such good order for a succession ol"
crops, without sowing barley, or sonietliing of the same
kind, after having gone through all these operations.

On the other hand, it is contended by a number of in-
telligent English farmers, that spring crops may be suc-
cessfully sown without spring ploughing : Tliat the land
can be effectually cleaned from root weeds by a couch-rake,
and may bo sufficiently stirred and pulverized by the cul-
tivator or scuffler : That it is of infinite consequence to
expose strong clay soils to the winter frosts, (which can
only be done by early ploughing), but that the benefit of
that practice is lost, if that part of the soil is ploughed
down, that has been meliorated by the frost and the at-
mosphere. Can any thing, it is said, be more absurd, than
to bury tliat dry friable porous surface, which the frosts
have left in so favourable a state, and upon which, if lain
falls, no plastering ensues, as it dries speedily, and remains
in a porous state ; whereas, if ploughed in spring, any rain
that falls, so impregnates the soil with moisture, that if
worked, it plasters, and the north-east winds harden it like
stone.

As the practice above alluded to is of such peculiar mo-
ment, I thought it necessary to insert these observations,
though not peculiarly connected with the husbandry of
Scotland.

Sect. IV. — On Fallo'jcins:,

Summer fallowing of land, or the practice of working it
during the summer months, has undoubtedly been the
chief source of improvement in the clay soils of Scotland ;

216 OF FALLOWING.

for the ground in cultivation, having been kept in constant
tillage for ages, was infested with weeds of various descrip-
tions, which by no other means could have been kept down
or eradicated. In dry soils, since the introduction of the tur-
nip husbandry, fallowing has no longer become necessary* ;
but in strong lands, it is still accounted the foundation of
their fertility, by the most intelligent practical farmers that
Scotland boasts of. Indeed, the peculiar correctness and
attention with which the fallowing process in strong soils
is executed in Scotland, is considered to be one of the most
important and distinguishing features of the Scotch sys-
tem. It is not repeated so frequently as it is in many dis-
tricts in England, occurring in general but once in the
course of six years •, the soil of the field subjected to this
operation, however, by frequent ploughings, though con-
sisting of the strongest and most stubborn clay, is thus
completely pulverised, weeds are extirpated, insects are de-
stroyed, and fertility insured during the whole course. It
is evident, at the same time, that a large proportion of the
richest land in the country is annually subjected to this
process. Could tlie practice be dispensed with, therefore,
and the same weight of crops raised both as to quantity

* A respectable farmer in Angus, (Mr Brown of Cononsytb),
recommends tallows even in dry soils. He states, in a communi-
cation to the author, that one-seventh of the dry land of his farm
is in fallow or turnips, but in general he only sows about ten
acres of it turnips, as he finds that he has much better grass,
when sown among wheat after fallow, than with oats after tur-
nips; and when broke up from ley, the difference of the oat crop,
in favour of bare fallow, is also discernible. A crop of wheat is
obtained at less expence than turnips and oats, and on an average
of years, is as valuable ; the manure produced by wheat straw
may not be so rich as when many turnips are raised, but a great-
er quantity is procured, and if driven out into a large dunghill
in the winter months, will answer perfectly well for fallows.

OF VAI.LOWING. 217

and quality, as wlicn tallowing was practised, there cannot
be a doubt but a saving of a prodigious magnitude would
arise to the public.

In considering this subject, it is proposed to give, 1 . An
account of the manner in which the fallowing process is
performed ; 2. The expences attending it ; 3. A statement
of the advantages derived from the practice, as transmit-
ted to me by a number of the most intelligent practical
farmers in Scotland j 4. An account of some cases where
fallowing strong lands is not adopted in Scotland ; and
5. Some miscellaneous particulars connected with tills
branch of the inquiry.

1. Of the manner in "^hich fallo'wing is performed. — As
the most intelligent farmers in Scotland are convinced, that
their after-crops are good, in proportion to the correctness
with which the summer fallowing process is executed, they
bestow the greatest possible attention on that operation.
They commence the ploughing, if the season will admit of
it, as soon as the sowing of the winter wheat is finished. Mr
Brown of Markle recommends, that this should be done
by gathering up the ridge, which both lays the ground drj',
and rips up the furrows. The second ploughing should
be given as early as possible after seed-time, and the ridge
should be cloven down, by a strong furrow, preparatory
to cross ploughing, which is a most essential part of the
process, and one that ought to be carefully executed. A-
gainst the end of June the land should be so completely
reduced by harrowing and rolling, as may permit couch-
grass and other root weeds to be completely gathered by
the hand. It should then be ridged up, when, if sufficient-
ly cleaned, dung may be applied ; but if not in that state,
another ploughing must be given, previous to the aj^plica-
tion of manure, after which it ought to be seed furrowed,
by the end of August, and of course be ready for sowing

218 OF FALLOWING.

any time after the middle of September. It has been found,
that b}' allowing land to lie for several weeks between seed-
furrowing and sowing, it gets consoKdated before the roots
of the plant strike in the ground, in which way the plants
are not so apt to be thrown out of the soil by the spring
frosts *.

The process of fallowing, therefore, according to the
Scotch system, is both laborious and expensive, but it is the
pivot on which depends the proper cultivation of clay
lands in Scotland. The number of ploughings, (including
one or more cross-ploughings), where the soil is stubborn,
must be as many as from six to seven. Rolling is also ne-
cessary to break the clods, in order that access may be had
to the root-weeds mixed with the soil, and the land must be
harrowed for the purpose of bringing those weeds to the
surface. There is reason however to believe, after every so-
lid clod has been crushed and reduced by the roller, that
this object may be attained by the scuffler, when the irons
are bent. After han-owing, it is a most essential part of
tlie process to collect the weeds by hand-picking, the
expence attending which is well bestowed. Mr Brown
justly observes, that more root weeds are taken off by one
gathering, than can be destroyed by a couple of plough-
ings, allowing the season to be ever so favourable ;
and if hand gathering will save one single ploughing,
(wliich cannot be stated at less than 12 s.), tlie expence is
amply repaid. Some burn the roots that are gathered up-
on the field, and spread the ashes, whilst others accumu-
late them into a heap, frequently turning it over, till the
weeds rot, and by mixing the whole with lime, a most
excellent compost is made, by means of which an enemy is
converted into a friend f .

• Comrnunication lioin Mr Hope of Fentoii.

I Sec Brown's Treatise on Rural Affuus, vol. i, p. '20'2.

OF FAIXOAVING. 2 I i9

2. Of the expence attending the process. — Nothing but
the deepest conviction of the advantages to be derived from
that operation, could induce such multitudes of skilful and
intelligent farmers, to incur the numerous and heavy char-
ges attendant upon the summer fallowing process. It is
evident, however, that the expence must depend upon the
amount of the rent, the number of ploughings, &c. and the
value of manure applied. Indeed, the crop of wheat suc-
ceeding the fallow, must pay the rent and exjiences of two
years ; of the amount of which, the following calculation
will give some idea.

Fer Scotch »cre. Per Eng(i«h »cre.

1. Six ploughings, harrowings,

&c. - - - L. 4 0 0 L. 3 3 0

2. For the rent of two years at
L. 3 per amium per Scotch,
or L. 2 : 7 : 3 per English

acre, - - 600* 14- 6

Total, L. 10 0 OL.7 17 6

Mr Somner of Gilchriston, however, estimates, that in~
eluding lime as well as rent and labour, the expence can-
not be less than 1^.15 per Scotch, orL. 11, 16?,. per Eng-
lish acre. Nay, L. 20 and upwards have in many cases
been so expended ; but the whole of that sum cannot be
charged against the fallow crop, as the lime remains pro-
ductive for many years afterwards.

3. Advantages offalloxcing claij soils. — Nothing could
justify such an expence but advantages of a superior de-
scription; and the returns which I have received in favour
of the fallowing system, are so extremely important and
satisfactory, that though it may appear tiresome to some
readers, I think it incumbent upon me to give extracts

220 GF FALLOWING.

from a number of most interesting communications which
I have received, explaining the advantages of the system.
1. These benefits are very ably stated by one of the
first farmers in East-Lothian, (Mr Hunter of TjTiefield).
That gentleman observes, that he has always experienced,
a naked fallow necessary, once during a rotation of six,
(1. Fallow; 2. Wheat; 3. Clover; 4. Oats; 5. Beans;
6. Wheat) ; and he is persuaded, that it will be found
the case, in every soil not of the tmnip sort. Clay soils
become hard when constantly cropped, by being always
ploughed in winter, or early in spring, and as in so
moist a climate as that of Scotland, they must be often
wet during the operation of ploughing and harrowing,
they lose their fertility, becoming as it were impervious
to the sun and air, as well as to the root of plants, &c.
Summer ploughing is necessary to rectify this ; besides
giving opportunity to take out all sorts of root wee;ds, to
put in lime, &c. &c. Other drilled crops, as beans, pease,
or tares, must be sown early in spring. Potatoes also
must be planted in April to have a full crop, and cannot
be substituted for a fallow to any tolerable extent ; even
the ruta baga seems to Mr Hunter unfit for the purpose in
our northern situations, as it is long of coming to its
growth, and ought to be sown early in May, otherwise it
will seldom be a full crop. The grand object with the
skilful agriculturist will be, to keep his land clear of weeds
of all sorts, and summer fallow has ever been found the
only sure method of doing so. Hitherto no plant has
been found so well fitted to permit that as the field turnip,
which may be drilled, with the best prospect of success,
from the first week of Jane, to the second week t)f July
inclusive, giving full time to clean and prepare the land
properly, which, together with the ploughiiigs in the rows
among the turnips, completes the I'allow in the most perfect
manner. This, however, is only applicable to soils of »
light description.

OF FALLOWING. 22 i

In the Carsc of Gowrie also, fallowing is considered to
be indispensable. That operation, it is said, is necessary
to meliorate the ground, to make it of a kindly texture, to
clean it of weeds, &c. It likewise gives an opportunity to
repair all the small drains in the field ; enables the manure
to be applied at a proper time, and the land to be sown at
a favourable season ; by which means the successive crops
are greatly encouraged, (the ground being in complete or-
der to yield its produce), and less dung answers the same
purpose for a succession of crops *. A most respectable
correspondent assures mc, that one-fourth less dung may
be used to a fallow field, than to one in a constant course
of cropping, and that the effects will be more discernible
in the first than in the latter case.

Mr George Robertson remarks, that in other countries,
fallows often take place once every three or four years,
and the land is so imperfectly worked, that it has an equal
tendency to promote the growth of weeds, as to destroy
them. The Scotch husbandman, on the other hand, is
more energetic, for he cultivates his fallows thoroughly,
with five or six or seven ploughings, and thus converts the
soil of a field into the soil of a garden. This insures fer-
tility throughout a whole rotation of six years, with a cer-
tainty not otherwise attainable.

Another correspondent maintains, that naked fallows
upon a strong clay, incumbent upon a retentive bottom,
can alone enable the farmer to pay a high rent. And he
contends, that upon strong stubborn clays, nctdy brought
into culturcy it is for the interest of the farmer to fallow^
every fourth ycar^ instead of every sixth. Deep plough-
ing, naked fallow, lime and every other species of manure
that can be procured, are indeed the groundwork of that
system, which enables our farmers to pay such high rents.

* Communication from Mr Drummond of Westback...

222 OF FALLOWING.

with an inferior soil and a precarious climate. As a proof
of the advantages of fallows on clay soils, Me refers to the in-
ferior produce of land in the Carses of Gowrie and Falkirk,
before the introduction of summer fallow ; and to the pre-
sent state of clay land in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh)
where the great command of manure induces the fai'mers
to follow the system of constant cropping, though on farms
but a few miles distant from their own, better crops are
raised, upon the same description of soil, without the aid
of the dung of Edinburgh, but with a fallow.

Mr Rennie of Kinblethmont is decidedly of opinion,
that fallow upon wet-bottomed land is quite indispensa-
ble every sixth year, and that any attempt to get quit of
that useful and necessary operation, upon strong clay soils,
must always be attended with ruinous consequences. The
only effectual substitute for fallow is turnips, but that crop
cannot be introduced upon soils such as above described,
and wherever turnips cannot be grown to advantage, fal-
lows are absolutely necessary.

Mr BrowTi of Cononsyth states, that considering the
short period of dry weather which is to be found in spring,
even on the eastern parts of Scotland, the foulness con-
tracted by many fields, in spite of the exertions of the
most active farmer, and the difficulty of rendering them
clean, even by a whole summer's work, any expectations
of success, in clearing the land during the spring alone,
and thereby abolishing summer fallows, cannot be well
founded ; and, although summer fallow may possibly be
removed to a greater distance, yet he is convinced that the
process 'a of such importance to agriculture, that it must
be continued.

Mr Spears of Dysart is also decidedly of opinion, that on
strong soils, no management will turn out so advantageous,
as having ohvays about one-sixth of the farm under sum-
mer-fallow. A heavy strong soil, he is convinced, cannot be

I

OF FALLOWI>^0. 22iJ.

kept clean and in good order, without this system, and to
tliis lie has paid particular attention, both in his own prac-
tice, and in that of others. A farmer cannot depend on get-
ting his strong soil sufficiently cleaned throughout the sum-
mer, under green crops, so as to insure a full crop of wheat j
whereas, under a properly managed summer-fallow, it hard-
ly ever fails of producing a large crop, of the best quality,
and, on an average, at least 13 bushels j^^t' Scotch, or
about 10 bushels J9tfr English acre more, than when after
any crop, with this great additional advantage also, that of
requiring little more than one-half the manure that must
have been used in raising wheat on any other system, and
also having a greater bulk of straw for being again con-
verted into manure. Besides, the land is left in infinitely
superior condition, and which will show itself for several
successive crops ; the beans also, or other green crop after
the fallow wheat, will be easily cleaned, and if the soil be
good, the beans or green crop may be followed with ano-
ther crop of wheat, at least in part. On a dry loamy soil,
a great deal no doubt may be done without summer-fallow,
by preparing for the wheat crop with beans, potatoes, tur-
nips, &c. J because on this soil, you can, in general, de-
pend on ha>ing these crops sufficiently cleaned, and taken
from the ground in a proper time for sowing wheat, though
in such cases, much must depend upon the season. Mr
Spears long ago endeavoured to do away the necessity of
fallow, by sowing the whole of his wheat after beans and
other green crops ; but as his farm consisted of a heavy
loam mixed with clay, and upon a retentive bottom, he
could neither depend on getting his wheat sown in proper
time, nor the land kept in good order. In fact, had he.
persevered in that system, notwithstanding a great com-
mand of manure from his distilleries, he should have failed
in raising the quantity of wheat for which his farm was
adopted, wliiJat th(i soil would have got quite foul, in spite

224- or FALLOWING.

of every exertion to prevent it, which is uniformly said to
be the case, in every instance, where the process of sum-
mer fallowing, on clay soils, has been neglected.

Mr Rennie of Oxweil Mains observes, that it is next to
impossible to clean land so well with green crops, but that
there may remain a great many root-weeds, so very preju-
dicial to the soil. The proper time for doing this effec-
tually, is in July or August, and it must be accompanied
yAth deep ploughing, which can never be performed if the
land is under a crop.

Another intelligent correspondent remarks, that wheat
sown after fallow, stands a better chance of escaping the
effects of the mildew, in consequence of the crop being
brought earlier in the season, to that state of maturity,
which renders it unassailable by that destructive disease.
This will be more especially the case, if the crop is laid
down without dung, as rich manuring is very apt to occa-
sion that disease. Upon the best soils, however, many a-
griculturists refrain Irom dunging dieir fallows, reserving
the manure to the year when the land is either under clo-
ver or beans, though at that time it cannot be so frugally
applied.

As fallows are the surest foundation for growing wheat,
and as bread corn is the only article of which this country
is in danger of being in want, it is an additional reason
why the fallowing system should be continued upon clay
and heavy soils, especially as these soils can, by no manage-
ment, be fit for sowing wheat on them in the spring •, and
it is uniformly observed, that the grain of wheat crops sown
upon regular fallows in Sei)tember or early in October, is
of tlic best quality, owing probably to their reaching ma-
turity earlier, and receiving the greatest heat of the sun.

IVIr Cuthbertson of Seton Mains informs me, that on
consulting with several very intelligent farmers, it was their
universal opinion, that there could be no mode of manage-
ment introduced upon a strong clay soil, so proper or so

OF TALLOWING. 225

profitable as fallow. Where land is improper for the
growth of turnip, how is the soil to be kept clear of all the
noxious substances which infest such soils, but by fallow ?
It is certainly true, that beans are a crop well calculated
for strong soils, after they are put in good order, and an
excellent preparation for wheat j but at the time when
beans are required to be sown upon strong soils, no op-
portunity whatever is afforded the farmer, of effectually
cleaning the land of couch grass, and other weeds,
which will always be propagated in abundance, where
summer-fallow forms no part of the system. Were pease
or beans to be sown even so late as the end of May or
the beginning of June, still it would be impossible, in
the short space of dry weather which may usually be cal-
culated on, previous to that period of the year, to clean
the land in such a way as to supersede the necessity of a
summer-fallow *.

To cultivate beans for winter fodder, would be procu-
ring that article at a great expence indeed. They could
never, to whatever pui'pose they might be applied, indem-
nify the farmer for the expence of working the land, and
sowing a crop, which requires to be seeded at the rate of
six firlots per acre when sown in drills. No abatement in
that quantity of seed could be made, for if the crop is to be
cut early for fodder, thick sowing would become the more
necessary to hurry it on, so as to enable the farmer to cut
it down, before the period of the regular corn harvest takes
place. The best rotation for a clay soil, Mr Cuthbertson
considers to be, 1. Fallow; 2. Wheat; 3. Clover and rye
grass for hay ; 4. Oats ; 5. Beans, or yams with dung ;
6. Wheat, and then to return to fallow : a full crop of rye

* Mr Kerr remarks, that it is possible to sow beans as late,
but they will never ripen, unless sown at least as early as March,
The partridge pea may be sown in May, but no other tield variety.

V. I. E

226 OF FALLOWING.

»

grass and broad clover, either for soiling or hay, would
go much farther in feeding horses or cattle, than any of
the green crops that can be raised on a clay soil : Clover
and rye grass is always a sure crop upon such a soil,
when the land has been previously prepared by a weU-raa^
naged summer-fallow, and the sowing and labour are not
nearly so expensive.

Mr ShirrefF states, that a greater quantity of straw, and
consequently of putrescent manure, will be obtained in six
years, with a fallow year, than in seven with no fallow,
owing to the superior state of fertihty in which the land is
put, by the operations of the fallow year.

Mr Somner of Gilchriston maintains, that fallowing clay
land, places it, not in an unproductive state, but quite the
reverse. Wlien land of that description is properly fal-
lowed, it wiU produce, under a rotation of six crops, one-
fourth more of corn, straw, or grass, with the same quanti-
ty of manure, than the same land would have done if no
fallow had taken place. Mr Somner farther thinks, that
when the land is in grass, stock is so much fonder of it,
that in the same field, the land that has been fallowed
will be eat bare, when the other is neglected ; an opinion
which I understand is a very general one with Scotch fjir-
mers. The land also is much easier kept clean, and easier
ploughed and harrowed during the rest of the rotation.
Clay soils in general are wet : ploughing such lands there-
fore, a second furrow in spring, (which nmst be the case oc-
casionally where fallowing is neglected), is often attended
with very injurious consecjucnccs ; whereas, after a pro-
per fallow, one furrow, judiciously given, is much safer,
and in most cases will be suificicnt for each crop in the
rotation. Fallowing seems to have the property of ma-
king clay land tender and mellow, juid of improving
rather than exliausting it. On such soils, a well-prepared
fallow may be justly callpd •* the growuhwrk of good
JiusbaiidtJj"

OF FALLOAVING. 227

On the subject of fallows, the lat e Mr Scott of Craig-
lockhiirt, one of the most intelligent and experienced farmers
in Scotland, was decidedly of opinion, that naked fallows,
in many cases, were indispensably necessary. He asserted,
that stiff stubborn tilly land, intended for a wheat crop, ne-
ver could be sufficiently pulverized, without undergoing
that process, and that the manure applied could not ope-
rate with the same effect, when under a di'illed crop, as
when under a fallow. The consequences frequently were,
that the crop of wheat, after the fallow, more than
equalled, both the drilled crop, and the one that succeed-
ed it ; and what is of great importance, the land which had
been summer-fallowed, was in better order, and in a higher
state of productiveness, than the land which had carried a
drilled crop. He contended, therefore, that moist or stiff
soils, overrun with weeds, which propagate from the roots,
could be effectually cleared of them, solely by a naked fal-
low. Indeed, I have seldom seen a Scotch farmer who en-
tertained a different opinion.

Mr Kerr considers the grand objection to all substitutions
for a naked fallow on clay soil, to be, the impossibility of
eating the crop on the land, or carting it off during win-
ter, without totally subverting the whole benefit of the fal-
low work, which had been given to that substituted fallow
crop.

Another intelligent correspondent, (^r Wood of Mill-
rig), states in the most decided terms, that naked fallow has
paid him much better than drilled crops, the bean in
particular, the roots of which take away the nourishment
of the earth where the clover-root is fed. The bean is also
a great encouragsi' of the white snail, a determined ene-
my to red clover *.

* Mr Wood, in another communication, contradicts the doc-
trine, that clovers will not continue to thrive well in rotations of

p2

228 OF FALLOWING.

Mr Wight of Ormiston is likewise of opinion, that a
naked fallow pays better than a drilled crop. He has had
frequent occasion, in the course of fallowing, to plant some
potatoes upon some part of the fallow field more adapted
for drill crops than the rest. The ground thus planted,
was always dunged with stronger, and a greater allowance
of manure, than the naked fallows. The wheat crop after
the naked fallow was much heavier, and more luxuriant,
than that after the potatoe, although the wheat after the
potatoe was superior in quality. The after crops of the
rotation upon the naked fallow, were throughout superior
in every respect to those after the potatoe, and the land
much cleaner in the end.

Nor is it the least important advantage of a fallow, that
less dvmg is necessary, to produce the same efiect, whilst
hme may be apphed, and with a gi-eater probability of suc-
cess, than in any other stage of the rotation. If dung is
laid on a fallow, and well mixed with the soil, its operation

four or five crops. He declares, from many years' experience, that
there is little or no danger of clover succeeding every fourth or
fifth year, provided a complete summer-fallow intervenes betwixt
the clovers ; but if green crops are to serve as a substitute for a
fallow, he has found, in that case, in the same field, the clovers
give way, when they succeeded on the fallow part of the ground,
the green crop roots taking away that nourishment which is ne-
cessary for the support of the clover plant, and perhaps, being of
the same nature, that may have some effect. He could clearly see
it is the farpier's interest to make almost any sacrifice to in-
sure red clover, as it can easily be reduced into calculation, that
it is the best crop, when pastured judiciously, for nourishing the
earth, the roots being upon an acre more weighty than the weight
of beef or mutton fed from it, consequentlv it is great gain, when
the roots make up for wliat is taken from the surface. It is pro-
bably the new earth turned up in the operation of fallowing.,
which renders the clover plant so successful.

OF FALLOWING. 229

is instantaneous, as the whole pores of the soil are then
open to receive the nourishment that is administered. I
must, at the same time, remark, that in those districts of
England, where fallowing is pi'actised, the application of
dung to the crop of beans is becoming a favourite sys-
tem. Tliat experienced and respectable border farmer,
Mr George CuUey, is of opinion, that dunging naked fal-
low is totally unnecessary, (except on very lean hungry
clays), and most commonly injures the succeeding crop
of wheat by making it too luxuriant. On the dunged
land, there may be more stooks in the field, but there will be
fewer bushels in the barn, than if the land had been limed
and no dung given. This is also the opinion of some
Scotch farmers. Mr Andrew of Tillilumb near Perth,
when he fallows, gives ?20 manurey as he finds that fallow
wheat with manure is apt to be too luxuriant. Mr Allan
of Craigrook, near Edinburgh, also prefers fallow without
dung. Where land is of a good quality, Mr Wight of
Ormiston has frequently experienced, that a well-prepared
fallow will produce a superior crop of barley, without dung,
to that produced with it, both upon naked fallow and after
potatoe. Mr Dudgeon of Prora likewise contends, that if
the land is of very good quality, a well-prepared fallow will
often produce better wheat, without dung, than with it.
It is proper however, to add, that in general this can rare-
ly happen, unless an over-doze of manure is bestowed j —
a practice v.liich every good farmer studiously avoids.

Besides these advantages, fallowing is supposed to con-
tribute materially to the destruction of snails and other
vermin in the ground, not only by destroying them and
their eggs in the course of the operation, but also by ex-
posing them to the attacks of rooks and other birds.

In addition to all these authorities, it may be proper to
add that of Mr Brown of Markle, to whom I am particu-
larly indebted for many useful observations on the several

230 OF FALLOWING.

sections of this work, and on the subject of fallows in par-
ticular. In his valuable Treatise on Rural Affairs, he de-
clares it as his opinion, that without summer-fallow, con-
ducted in the manner already described, perfect husbandry
is unattainable on all heavy or cold soils, and upon every
variety incumbent on a close or retentive bottom * j and
Dr Coventry, after considering the objections which
have been urged against summer-fallo\ving, the abuses to
which it is Uable, and the advantages attending it, very
justly observes, that the discordance of practice and opi-
nion respecting it, is principally owing to circumstances
not having been correctly discriminated, or to differences
in respect of soils, seasons, chmates, &c. He adds, " that
there are certain situations^ in "iSohich it cannot he advanta-
geously relinquished for any other pvcess of tillage what'
ever f ."

* See Brown's Treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. i, p. 191'
+ Introductory Discourses, p. 70. Dr Coventry has more fully
explained his sentiments on this important subject in the follow-
ing words : — " A summer-fallow," he observes, " may, in most
instances, be employed in the commencement of a course of good
culture, and in several cases, it may even be occasionally nitro-
duccd during its continuance. In the former, it may be found
requisite for the following purposes ; to have a better opportuni-
ty than otherwise, of removing all wetness, stones, or other ob-
structions to perfect tillage ; to render the land to a due degree
clean of weeds, and of a proper texture ; and to get the surface
60 adjusted, as to have no injurious inequalities, or any thing that
can prevent the ready discharge of water from' it, and the em-
ployment of the best mode of raising and collecting the crops
from it. In the latter, it may be had recourse to where fallow
crops could not, in comparison with it, be advantageously retain-
ed, from whatever cause. The circumstances that chiefly render
it necessary or proper to retain summer-fallowing in the course
of management, are those which arise from the character of the

OF FALLOWING. 231

It may be proper also to add, that Mr Curwen, who, at
one time, was strongly prejudiced against naked fallows,

climate, and the nature of the 50j7, jointly. Wherever it is a dry,
free soil, on a sound under-ground or bottom, as a loam well re-
plenished with mould, or a sandy loam, or a gravel or sandy soil,
or any other of a description suited to bear turnips or potatoes,
then, after having been once made clean, it may, by fallow crops,
seasonably employed and well conducted, be afterwards preserved
in good condition, and fallows become unnecessary. But, on the
other hand, wherever it is a loamy or clayey soil, or a retentive
subsoil, or one apt to be wet, some difficulty occurs as to its ap-
plication and management. There are two things which especial-
ly merit attention in such kind of land. These are, the climate,
and the degree of fertility in the soil itself. If the situation be
high-lying and cold, then the only species beans, and perhaps
cabbages too, might be found unfit for cultivation. The unfa-
vourableness of the climate might not permit beans to ripen or be-
come of much value as a crop ; and cabbages, in a late, cold si-
tuation, whatever may be the degree of fertility in the soil, may
not be eligible for culture ; inasmuch as they may not continue
through winter in good condition, and at any rate might then
be with difliculty removed from the ground ; and, if they were at
all of any material benefit, they would require to be made use of
in the beginning of winter, a period so limited, as greatly to di-
minish their value to the cultivator. Probably, therefore, in niiost
clayey lands, situated 400 feet or upwards above the level of the
sea, vfhere the climate is cold, and the harvest late, fallow crops
will be found unsuitable. In lower lying grounds, again, it will
be found that the soil must possess a certain degree oi fertility, be-
fore fallow crops of beans, or any other species adapted for a clayey
toil, will so far answer as to admit of being raised on a large
scale, and to become preferable to a summer-fallow, with the to-
tal loss of a crop for the year. Where the land is poor, or the
means of rendering it duly productive, manure namely, is not at
hand, the bean or cabbage crop, or any other such, might prove

2S2 OF FALLOWING.

when he saw the crops which resulted from that process,
and heard the arguments in its favour, from individuals, se-
cond to none for intelligence, and skill in their profession.

comparatively of no great value; and on such land, the seed of
the wheat crop that succeeds them would require to be earlier
■sown, to insure success from it as a crop. A fallow well conducted,
will be more favourable for the timely sowing of the wheat-seed,
than tillage with and after beans, poor crops of which might not
compensate for the injury that might be produced by the delay
in the wheat sowing, — a consideration which will be admitted by
those who understand the advantage derived fiom a summer-
fallow, in giving a superior tilth to the land above what can be
done with a fallow crop. Most probably, wherever a clayey or
loamy soil is so poor as not to yield five Lothian bolls of beans
(20 Winchester bushels) per English or statute acre, it had much
better be cultivated by a summer-fallow than by any such fallow
crop. If it possess such a degree of productiveness as to yield
seven bolls, or 28 bushels, of beans per acre, then that fallow
crop may take the place of a summer-fallow, either occasionally
or more constantly ; and it might do so almost constantly, on
land that has been once rendered to a full degree clean, if the
fallow crop be employed at proper intervals, not at too distant
periods, and if its culture be properly managrd. Again, should
the fertility of the land be above the degree mentioned, so as to beiir
nine or more bolls, or about 36 bushels of beans, or a produce of
cabbages corresponding to that amount of beans, then such fallow
crops, correctly managed, and not otherwise, may with advantage
totally supersede the employment of any summer-fallow. ISlany
husbandmen have relinquished, with great benefit, on clay soils,
naked fallows for fallow crops, namely such as are raised in rows
and capable of being properly cleaned by horse-hoeing ; and o-
tbers have done so witliout any gain, and some with direct loss ;
and both the errors in practice, and the discordance in opinion on
this matter, must be referred to a want of due discrimination in th
difference of cases."

OF FALLOWING. 233

could not but question his own judgment, and to doubt
it rather than theirs. He confesses himself therefore
much shaken in his opinions. His practice has been
to make the intervals of his green crop so wide, as to
admit of a great deal of cleaning ; but yet he candidly
acknowledges that he cannot shew his land, in equal
order, with what he observed in East-Lothian and Ber-
wickshire. Fallows, he observes, are generally done in so
slovenly a manner as not to deserve the name. Before
deciding on their utility, Mr Curwen with great proprie-
ty urges their being attended to with the same care and
attention that is practised in East-Lothian. Indeed, in a
district where such rents are paid, (the greatest in the
imited kingdom), whilst summer-fallow is steadily main-
tained and judiciously executed, the boldest theorist should
pause, before he pronounces decidedly against a practice,
the beneficial consequences of which are thus strikingly
demonstrated *.

4. Cases 'oohere faUo'doing stroyig lands is not practised in
Scotland. — Near towns, where manure abounds, and rents
are high, the fallowing process is avoided as much as pos-
sible. In the neighbourhood of Glasgow, where rents
are from L.6 to L. 7 per Scotch acre, (from L. 4, 15 s. to
L. 5, 10s. per English acre), several thousand acres of
land, even of a clayey quality, are cultivated under the
following rotation, namely, 1. Potatoes; 2. Wheat; 3.
Clover ; and 4. Oats. The potatoes get from thirty to
forty tons of dung^cr acre ; but the wheat gets only a mo-
derate dressing of hot lime. Under this, and other rota-
tions of a similar nature, it is admitted that the land is
apt to get foul, and to require a naked fallow, but

* See Report of the Workington Society, lor the year 1810,
p. 88, kc.

234- OF FALLOWING.

the farmers have an aversion to that mode of improve-
ment, substituting in its stead, what they call a bastard
Jailor's, that is, three furrows after the clover has been har-
vested J the land is then sown with wheat, after getting a
small quantity of dung.

An intelligent farmer near Edinburgh, (Mr Gray of
Gorgiemuir), adopts the following rotation on his strong
lands : 1. Potatoes, after being well cleaned by repeated
ploughings, &c. and manuretl with from forty to fifty
cart-loads of Edinburgh street dung, thoroughly mixed
with his farm-yard dung ; the produce from forty to sixty
bolls of potatoes * ^JCT- acre, (from 860 to 540 Winchester
bushels per Scotch, or 288 to 432 per English acre).
Where there is too great a proportion of clay in the
soil, to grow potatoes with advantage, then yams for horses
are planted, and the land is always kept in open drills,
from the planting to their being taken up j that is to
say, without harrowing them down, as the others are done j
if it is not a very wet season, the produce is from thirty
to forty bolls per acre, equal to from 270 to 360 Win-
chester bushels per Scotch, or from 176 to 288 per Eng-
lish acre. This he considers to be preferable to the
crops of beans he used to have on tlie same land : 2.
After potatoes or yams, then wheat, (drilled, where the
soil is light, by Cook's machine), and sown with grass seeds
in the end of March, or beginning of Apiul : 3. Clover,
twice cut; and 4. Oatsf.

* Tlie Edinburgh potatoe bull is 400 cwt. ; consequently fivt?
bolls make a ton.

f This idea of cultivating yams instead of Leans, on very
strong lands, merits particular attention in this part of the king-
dom, as a bean crop fails so often. Regarduig the culture of
yams, the late Mr Scott of Craiglockhart observed, that of file
years yami have been by many substituted for the evcnuig feed of

OF FALLOWING. 235

5. Miscellaneous partiadars. — Tlie crops which may
be cultivated on strong lands, instead of a naked tallow,
are, 1. Beans -, 2. Pease ; 3. Tares ; 4. Potatoes or yams ;
5. Swedish turnips •, 6. Cabbages ; and 7. Rape or Cole
seed. The question is, whether any of these crops
will be more profitable to a farmer, than three bolls of
wheat, or twelve Winchester bushels of additional produce
per Scotch acre, (about nine and a half bushels per Eng-
lish acre), together with those other advantages attend-
ing fallow, in the course of five successive crops, which
have been already pointed out ?

1. Beans are certainly calculated for strong soils, being
an excellent preparation for wheat, and when drilled, they
also enable the farmerto keep his lands clean ; but the crop is
seldom sufficiently early in Scotland, to be safely harvested
in wet seasons. Mr Robertson of Ladykirk justly observes,
that our southern neighbours have much the advantage of
us in the bean husbandry. The great source of distress
attending bean crops with us, in their lateness. In passing
through the country near Aylesbury, he saw their beans
covering the ground, and all in bloom on the 1 1'th of June.
Our wet weather generally commences about the 20th of
October. Before that period, the winter wheat in Scotland
should all be sown, but the beans are often in the fields.
There can be no doubt, that fallows might be reduced in
number, were drilled beans more carefullv cultivated ;

horses. If work-horses can subsist to equal advantage, partly on
yarns and Swedish turnips, what a promising prospect for in-
creasing the growth of wheat, and bringing fields to a Ingh state
of cultivation without losing a crop ? One acre of yams or Swe-
dish turnips will afford more subsistence for either horses or cat-
tle, than two of oats or any other grain. On the other hand, it
is said, that, generally speaking, one-fourth more wheat wdl be
grown on strong land, after fallow, than after Swedish turnip.

23& ©F FALLOWING.

but the climate of Scotland will not admit of it, at
least to any great extent. It is contended, however, that
the straw of an English acre of beans, if cut down merely
as fodder, would be worth L. 5, and that if used as litter
merely, it would produce at least 120 stone, which, con-
verted into dung, would manure half an English acre. It
is questionable, however, whether it would be advisable,
to run the risk of losing the benefit of a weU-prepared fal-
low for such advantages.

2. Pease might be cultivated on strong land, either for
the seed, for fodder, or for htter ; but if the crop should
not answer, (which often happens), there would not only
be no profit, but the ground would be instantly filled with
all kinds of weeds.

3. Tares are liable to the same objection, and, unfor-
tunately, the winter tares are not calculated for the chmate
of Scotland, otherwise they might be cut so early for soiling,
as to furnish an opportunity, in the end of summer, or
beginning of autumn, to clean the land *.

4. Potatoes or yams might be raised on strong land,
but not to any great extent. They require to be sown so
early, that not one year in ten will the season admit of
root weeds being completely eradicated ; and in wet au-
tumns, how are they to be taken up ? It is the opinion also
of the most intelligent farmers, that it is impossible to
make foul ground clean, with a crop of potatoes or yams,
though if once thoroughly cleaned, it may be preserved in
that state, by crops of potatoes and yams for many years.

5. Ruta baga or Swedish turijips may be raised to

* Mr John Shirreff states, that he h.is raised winter tares with
success. The crop ought to he sown us eaily in the month »»f
September as possible. Farther experiments on this plan of early
sowing are wt-U worth trying.

OF FALLOWING. 237

advantage on strong soils. They may be sown In tlio
end of May, and taken off the field in September.
They are also easily preserved till wanted ; but if taken off
early in the season, the crop will not be abundant, and
tliere is great risk when the crop of wheat is after-
wards laid down, that the land will be in bad order. If
barley, however, were to follow Swedish turnip, that ob-
jection would be removed, as the land might, in that case,
have both winter and spring ploughing. The following
rotation might in that case be tried : 1 . Ruta baga j 2.
Barley ; 3. Beans ; 4. Wheat ; 5. Clover ; and 6. Oats^
It is objected, however, to this rotation, that ruta baga in-
creases considerably in size, till checked by the strong
frosts in December'; consequently that if it were taken up
in September, it would occasion a great loss of weight and
value in the crop ; and that tlie wheat crop would proba-
bly exceed in value, both the ruta baga and the barley : a
loss rather than a benefit would therefore arise from orait-

tinff summer-fallow,
o

6. Cabbages, properly cultivated, yield a great quan-
tity of food for cattle ; but they are not calculated for
an extensive scale of farming. With cabbages, a certain
proportion of ground might be appropriated to the cul-
tivation of green kale ; the one for food in autumn, and
the other in March and April, which are the most hazar-
dous months of the year to the farmer, and the most diffi-
cult to provide for. Some maintain, that cabbages do
not exhaust the soil, if drawn before the white fibres slioot
out from the roots in spring, that is so long as they can be
pulled up with case j but by others they are regarded as
the most scourging grcGfi crop that can be cultivated.

7. A most intelligent correspondent on the borders, in-
forms me, that the best way he ever knew of treating clay
soils is, instead of a naked fallow, to sow rape or cole (as it is
called in the southern counties of Ejigland) in drills, with a

238 OF FALLOWING.

little dung in tlie drills. Tlie crop may be eat off in August,
or the beginning of September, and then wheat may be
sown. This is the method he generally prefers with clays,
instead of a naked fallow, and he never saw more benefi-
cial crops of red wheat, than he has thus obtained upon
poor clays. The rape was fed where it grew, and after
making cast or culled eires as fat as bacon, (indeed nothing
of the vegetable tribe will feed sheep so quick as rape in
autumn), he immediately ploughed it, and sowed invaria-
bly red -dc/ieat, as being the hardiest sort for poor clays,
and he never missed a fair crop, and much safer and bet-
ter than he got on naked fallows ; namely, from 23 to near
32 Winchester bushels per English acre. He well re-
members a crop of red wheat upon one of these poor clay
fields, got in the year 1795, after rape fed on, which crop
was fully worth the value of the land it grew upon, wheat
indeed being very dear that year. The circumstances of
this statement, coming from such respectable authority,
cannot be questioned ; at the same time it is hardly possi-
ble, that the ground could be placed in that husbandman -
like condition, by the culture given to the rape crop, as by
a naked fallow. To decide the question, it would be ne-
cessary to fallow a pait of the same field, and to compare
the future produce of the part that grew rape, with that
which was fallowed.

These hints are submitted to the consideration of intel-
ligent farmers, who may be of opinion, that notwithstand-
ing the great improvements that have been made in agri-
culture, it is still capable of amendment, and that it can-
not be brought to the pci'fcction of which it is capable,
without ample discussion, and repeated experiments. It
must be admitted, that though fallows are now in a man-
ner exploded by many of the ablest farmers in England,
more especially in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk,
yet the greater moisture of tlic Scotch cUmate, seems to

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. f59

render them so necessary in our wet and tenacious days,
that Mr Rennie of Phantassie emphatically calls them " the
main spring of the husbandry of Scotland." But though
fallows seem to be necessary in this country, yet, in pro-
cess of time, their ficquency may be diminished. The cli-
mate may improve as cultivation is extended : By perpe-
tual accessions of lime and dung, the texture of our strong
soils must be altered, and will bec(mie more of a loamy
nature : By repeated cleanings, the quantity of weeds of
all descriptions must be greatly lessened : Instruments
also may be invented, which may prove more effectual for
cleaning and pulverizing the soil, than those at present in
use : New plants may likewise be discovered, or a more ad-
vantageous mode of cultivating old ones : Nor is it possible
to foresee, what improvements may be effected in draining,
in consequence of which, the cultivation of wet soils may
be facilitated, and either stock may be fed upon the ground,
<5r its produce may be removed without injury.]

Sect. V. — Of the Crops usually cultivated in Scotland.

The crops principally cultivated in Scotland, are, 1.
Wheat; 2. Barley, including bear or big; 3. Oats; 4, Pease;
5, Beans ; 6. Tares ; 7. Turnips ; 8. Potatoes ; and 9. A
mixture of Clover and Rye grass. Some carrots, and in
particular instances, cabbages, kale, rye and flax are also
occasionally cultivated ; but none of these articles find a
place in the general husbandry of Scotland. As this work
is not intended to be a treatise regarding everv point con-
nected with agriculture, but, in a great measure, a con-
densed statement of the information transmitted to me by

240 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

the farmers in the more improved districts of Scotland, re-
garding the system of husbandry pursued by them, it is
proposed, in general, to take notice only of such par-
ticulars, communicated to me in the course of my in-
quiries, as seem to be entitled to attention, unless where
it may be necessary to add some remarks regarding the
practices of England, by way of illustration.

1. Wheat. — The growth of wheat has gi*eatly increased in
Scotland. It is not only more frequently introduced into
rotations, but is also cultivated in many districts where it
was formerly unknown ; and in situations, where, from
their elevation, it was formerly thought impossible to raise
it. In the parish of Temple in Mid-Lothian, for instance,
it has already been grown, from 500 to 600 feet above the
level of the sea, and some are trying it, and it is said with
success, even in higher situations *.

There is nothing that seems more hkely to promote the
successful culture of wheat in Scotland, in districts where
the soil is cold, or the climate unfavourable, than to sow
it early in autumn. In a farm, which a tenant had de-
clared, would not carry wheat, that he had tried it often,
■without success, a new possessor resolved to sow it on the
12th of August, and he had the satisfaction of cutting down
his crop on the 10th of August in the following year, and
it would have been cut earlier, had the weather permitted.
As it was, there was no farmer in Scotland, and few farmers
in the northern counties of England, who had such a quan-
tity, as 300 bolls of wheat, cut down so early. It proved of
tmcommon good qualify, and sold at a high price, for scedf.

* Comiiiuiiication from Mr George Farme of Braidwood, near
Diilkeilli.

t Comniunicalion from Mi' Allan regarding his farm of Oldli'-:-
toii.

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 211

In regard to tlic more fertile districts of Scotland, tlic
fjencral opinion of Scotch fanners is against sowing wheat
so early as the month of August. By one of them who has
sown wheat to a great extent for thirty years, I am inform-
ed, that he has tried every period of the year from the mid-
dle of August, to the middle of March ; and the result is,
that he is firmly convinced, that the latter end of Septem-
ber is the most appropriate time for sowing wheat on clay
soils- if the weather will admit of it. But good crops may
be got sown long after that time, if the weather is fa-
vourable.

An intelligent farmer strongly recommends kiln-drying
seed -wheat, as a better means of preserving the crop from
smut, than the usual practice of pickling or steeping. From
eight or nine years' experience, he states, that it has been
found at least an etjual preventive against the loss produ-
ced by that disease ; and allowing it had no superiority
o>ver the method more generally in use, in respect to that
property, still it would be entitled to a preference, because
it can be kept without injury, should the weather turn out
luifavourable for sowing at the time intended, which is not
the case with wheat prepared in the other way ; for unless
it be sown almost immediately after pickling, it becomes
unfit for seed *, and can scarcely be applied to any other
purpose. Wheat, to be prepared for seed by kiln-drying,
ought to be completel}' driedj but not subjected to a heat
which might in any degree scorch it f. This information
is strongly corroborated by the evidence of Mr Fowler of
Prestonpans, who has in one year prepared 40 bolls of
wheat in this way for seed, and who has no doubt of its

* This point will afterwards be more fully discussed.

t Communication from Mr James Cuthbertsouof Seton-Mains.
This plan is mentioned in the original report sent to the Uoaid of
Agriculture, regarding the county of Clackmannan.

r. I. Q

242 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

answering effectually. The process, however, requires so
much attention and skill, that it is not hkely to become ge-
neral, and the usual plan, when properly executed, is found
to be effectual.

An important particular connected with the culture of
wheat in Scotland, is the practice of sowing winter wheat
in the spring months. The late Mr Shirreff sowed winter
wheat in spring, with success, about the year 1773. Mr
Brown of Markle states, that he commenced this prac-
tice as far back as the year 1779*, as did his neigh-
bour Mr Rennie of Phantassie, about the same period.
Above thirty years ago, Mr Wight of Ormiston success-
fiilly tried the practice upon clay soils. The same plan
had been adopted by several people before, but not to
any considerable extent, and only in seasons when, owing
to the wetness of October, it could not be sown at the cus-
tomary time. It is of great importance to be able to sow
wheat after turnips, for the month of March is not found
too late when the season is favourable. Mr Rennie of Ox-
well Mains, in East Lothian, who possesses a farm of an
excellent soil, and in a favourable climate, informs mc, that
his March sown winter wheat, aniio 1809, was as good,
both in respect to quality and produce, as what was sown
in November and December. He adds, that wheat sown

* Mr Brown farther informs me, lliat in 1800 he had above
140 English acres of land sown with wheat m the months of
February and March, all of which yielded grain of the finest
quality. This was completely ascertained, in consequence of his
having been a candidate for a premium oft'ered tiiat year, by the
Society of Arts, to tlie cultivators of spring wheat, which pre-
mium was adjudged to him. lie adds, that the sunmier of 1800
was particularly dr\ and warm, and that to these circumstances
must in a great measuie be attributed the goodness of the crop.

or CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 243

in autumn very frequently lodges in moist seasons *, and
on that account is deficient both in quantity and quality.
Tliis, however, only happens on rich soils. On wet soils,
the farmer often sows early in autumn, not from choice,
but lest he should lose an opportunity of doing it. In re-
gard to the difference of produce between autumn wheat,
and the same kind sown in spring, Mr Ilennie thinks,
that in ordinary seasons, the spring sown is equal in quan-
tity on light dry land, but is not to be depended on where
the soil is wet, or the climate unfavourable, nor is it so
early ripe as that raised from seed sown in autumn f .

* The lodging of the autumn sown wheat may be owing to the
crop being too thick. Three bushels fer Scotch acre, sown in Oc-
tober, is equal to four bushels sown in March, on account of the
latter not stocking, and the straw, from the thickness of the crop,
proving weak.

■\ Tliough not strictly connected with the subject of Scotch
husbandry, I cannot deny myself the pleasure of inserting the fol-
lowing note, containing some particulars transmitted to me by
that celebrated farmer, George Culley, regarding the spring cul-
ture of winter wheat,

• " Respecting the sowing of winter wheat in the spring, after
turnips, I can speak in a very fuH manner, as I am persuaded very
few farmers in this island have had more experience of that prac-
tice. I believe that spring sown winter wheat had not been much
tried in this county liefore my late brother and I settled in Northum-
berland in the year 1767« ^Ve had made some small trials of it
in the county of Durham before coming north; immediately on our
taking Fenton farm, however, we tried it upon a pretty large scale,
namely, from 100 to 200 acres in the year. But for many years after,
having extended our farming concerns, we seldom grew fewer than
500 acres and upwards annually, and with never-faihng success,
one year excepted, when a partial mildew took place, and uqtil
those last three fatal years, when most of the wheal in these
northern parts of the island have been more or less artected with

o 2

24)4 OF CItOPS USUALLY CULTIVATED-

The real spring or summer wheat, has been of late in-
troduced in various districts in Scotland, It possesses

that dreadful malady ! Not that spring sowu wheat was more
hurt than the winter sown, but perhaps less injured upon the
whole. Nevertheless, 1 do not know whether I ought to recom-
mend it to be much sown m the southern counties or not, because,
in the trials we made in the county of Durham, we had nothing
like such plentiful crops as we produce here.

" Besides, in the county of Durham, and all the way from
thence to the southward, they can grow more barley in quantity,
and better in quality, than we can by much, and it is also always
much higher sold ; consequently the growing of spring sown win-
ter wheat after turnips, becomes not so much a matter of conse-
quence to them. Allow me to remark one thing, which I cannot
account for; we can perhaps produce the best oats of any in
Great Britain, and yet we grow very indifferent barley. Perhaps,
not only the friable fertility of our turnip soils in Glendale Ward,
but the vicinity of the mountains, may be favourable to the pro-
duction of spring sown wheat. Perhaps a more rapid vegetation
takes place in the vales adjoining mountainous districts, than at a
distance from them. It is very proper in you to say, ' winter
wheat sown in spring,* because a discrimination is highly neces-
sary between winter wheat sown in the spring, and the Siberian,
or real spring wheat. We tried the real spring wheat several
years ; but in both quantity and quality, it was invariably much
inferior to the winter wheat sown in spring.

" Prior to our coming into this district, no wheat was grown
in Glendale, except in the haughs by the river sides, or some
particular pieces of strong land, unfit for turnips. But now, and
for many years, thousands of acres of spring sown wheat have
been grown with the greatest success, which had nevor produced
any wheat before ; and until these last unfortunate years, we sel-
dom produced less than from three to four quarters per acre af-
ter turnips, and frequently more. Upon the weaker turnip soils,
we ourselves sow a red wheat, the seed of which we got several

OF CHOPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 245

some advantages, being for a much shorter period in the
ground ; and though sown in the end of April, or the be-
ginning of May, will ripen as early as winter sown wheat.
It is certainly, however, not so productive as wheat sown
in winter, or even winter wheat sown in spring ; and the
ear being shorter, the crop cannot be equally productive.
It will probably, however, be a great acquisition in dis-
tricts, where sowing winter wheat does not answer, and
more especially where the vegetation is rapid.

It is of great importance to try new varieties of wheat,
at first on a small scale, but to be extended afterwards if
found to answer. Mr Wight of Ormiston informs me,
that he had lately occasion to see a very fine close luxuriant
crop of wheat growing in a field of high exposure, and
thin land. He was informed that this wheat was early,
could be cultivated on fallow without dung, and that it
possessed a quality which no other wheats had, that of not
beinjy liable to be thrown out of the ground during the
winter by frost. Hence it had acquired the name of" the
creeping wheat." It will produce at the rate of 8 Linlith-
gow bolls per Scotch, or 26 Winchester bushels per Eng-
lish acre. Such a sort of wheat may be of infinite conse-
quence in our more northern districts. In the southern
counties, it would be well worth while to try the best sorts
of the celebrated Dantzick wheat, which sells at so high a

years since from a village called Burwell, in Cambridgeshire, an
excellent and productive kind."

Mr CuUey adds, that he has known winter wlieat do pretty
well when sown even in the beginning of April, but he does not ap-
prove of it. There is no fear of a plentiful crop, but it is so Jate
in ripening, that six times in seven it suffers from the equinoxial
gales ; and he is decidedly of opinion, from long experience, that
the best time, or season for sowing autumnal wheat in the spring.
is February, and the first ten days in March.

24-6 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

price, and which is probably hardy enough to be cultivated
in favourable situations. It may be difficult, however, to
procure it, in a state capable of vegetation, as it is gene-
rally old whe^t that comes to our mai'ket ; it is sometimes
kiln-dried, and at other times, previous to its being shipped
on board the craft in the Vistula, spread out on sails, and
dried hard in the sun. The excellence of Dantzick is pro-
bably owing to the heat of the climate, but still a change
of seed, from a better climate, may prove highly useful.

In regard to the culture of wheat in general, many in-
telligent agriculturists begin to be apprehensive, that from
the high price of that article, fanners have been tempted
to sow it too often, and that it comes round too frequently
in the rotation> which may contribute to those diseases
which have of late affected that species of crop, to an extent
never formerly known in Scotland. It is remarked at the
same time by Mr Pringle of Ballencrieff, that in East Lo-
thian he does not observe the crops of that grain falling
off, though tliey are more frequently introduced than for-
merly j in many instances, once in three years. The fail-
ure for four years past was entirely owing to the coldness
and wetness of the weather.

2. Barley. — This species of grain was formerly the great
favourite of the Scotch farmers, but is hot so much run up-
on as formerly, since crops of wheat, by the introduction
of fallows, have become more certain and productive. By
some barley is condemned, as the least profitable of any of
the M-liite crops, as not being so prolific as oats, nor so
profitable as wheat. It is remarked, that all crops ex-
haust the soil, in proportion as they arc heavy in grain
upon the acre, and produce the least weight of straw, to
be converted into manure. Hence barley ought, in gene-
ral, to be accounted a more severe crop than cither wheat
or oats, because the straw gives neither equal food to the

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 247

animal, nor clung to the earth, and of course is not so pro-
fitable to the farmer, unless upon particular soils. It is al-
so contentled, that land is not more exhausted by wheat than
by barley, if these crops are raised either after fallow or
turnips. On the other hand, it is maintained, that though
on very strong or very rich land, a greater quantity of oats
than oi barley may be grown, yet upon good dry land, and
after turnips, as much, and in many seasons more barley
will be grown than oats ; and on such soils, that barley is
found to be more profitable than even wheat, producing
from 40 to 50, and in some cases even 60 bushels per
English acre. It is also to be observed, that as great quan-
tities of turnips are left growing in the field, both for cattle
and sheep, in the spring, no other grain but barley can
with propriety be sown at that advanced period of the sea-
son *. In late harvests also, which so often happen in
Scotland, barley will ripen sooner than any other grain.
The principal objection, therefore, to the growth of bar-
ey, is the uncertainty of the demand, arising from the un-
fortunate circumstance of its distillation being so frequent-
ly prohibited.

In many parts of Scotland, more especially in the nor-
thern districts, the culture of that species, called beay- or
big, is recommended instead of the two rowed barley. An
intelligent farmer in the Mearns assigns the following rea-
ons for preferring bear : The crop of grass, he observes,
is almost constantly good or bad, in proportion as the
ground is more or less pulverised ; and as bear may he
sown three, or perhaps four weeks later than barley, it
may be done, even in a northern climate, at a season when

• The real spring wheat is certainly an exception, as it should
be sown in the end of April or beginning of .May. It is a singular
circumstance, that in . many parts of Scotland, barley was tlie
latest ready of all the crops of grain last season, {anno ISl 1).

'i^S OF CHOPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

the land can be brought to a finer tilth. If the grain crop
should happen to lodge, as bear will be sooner ripe than
barley, and consequently earlier taken off the ground, the
danger of rotting the young grass is less. In northern
districts, the earliest grains ought to be cultivated; and
barley is not only later than bear, but it requires to
stand longer in the stook before it be fit for stack-
ing. No doubt barley is the more valuable grain of
the two ; but that cannot be put in competition with the
risk of a late and precarious harvest, and perhaps the loss,
or at least the deterioration, of the two following crops of
grass, by which, not only the food for cattle is lessened, but
the land becomes fouler ; since weeds will vegetate, if the
land be not better occupied. The produce also from bear, will
be found to be greater than from barley, though this circum-
stance is probably overlooked by the farmer, as he generally
sows the latter on his best land. On tolerable farms, the infe-
rior land will yield nearly as much bear, as the best will bar-
ley ; and had bear been substituted on the latter, the produce
would have been much greater. But on ordinary land,
yielding a tolerable crop of bear, there will be a consider-
able deficiency of barley *. How unfortunate it is, diat

* Mr Grierson, late corn-merchant in Leilb, who had mucU
experience and knowledge in the corn-trade, transn»ilted to me
some observations on the subject of feeding of horses with bear.
He was of opinion, tliat bear was better for feeding horses than
barley, and better than oats for horses, not much wrought, in dry
countries, but not so good as oats in wet countries, or in wet
roads, where horses require more heating food*. Horses, how-
ever, are fed to most advantage with beans and oats, ground

• According to tliis remark, big would be tbc best food for horses in
England and Scotland, during the summer seasoi, which would be a gresr
point to ebtabliidi.

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 249

the culture of so useful a crop should be checked by iiu-
provideut enactments, imposing a higher duty on bear, in
proportion to its value, than on barley.

When bai'ley was sown under the old system of manage-
ment, without fallow, it was found necessary to sow it late
in the season, for destroying a greater quantity of weeds ;
but now when the land is cleaned so much both of seed
and root weeds, barley can seldom be sown too early in
dry lands. Sowing it in the beginning of March is the
best means of securing an abundant crop, and of superior
quality. Mr Wight of Orniiston has often seen barley
sown in the winter furrow, early in March, and it never
failed to produce an abundant crop, particularly upon clays.
It is remarked, however, that with early sowing there is
less straw. Some farmers contend, that clover succeeds
better after wheat than after barley, owing to the straw

as small as malt. It is hardly to be conceived, the difference of
the ease to a hard-wrought horse who has ground meal to eat,
and oi;e that has his oats to eat whole, as he has not half the
time to rest as the one that lias ground corn, and cannot perform.
the same labour, or last so long. This is a most important con-
sideration where so many horses are necessary for agriculture ;
and a very triflinj^ expence would add a grinding machine to the
threshing-mills, for all the corn necessary for feeding the horses
and pigs on a farm. That bear is not more cultivated and in
iiigher request, he was convinced was owing more to prejudice
than any thing else ; for it is well-known, that it produces more
seeds than barley, and is less injurious to the ground ; and may
be sown for twenty years on the same ground in succession,
without either lessening the produce, or impairing the quality,
provided the land is fallowed before winter, and twice ploughed
before sowing, with a sprinkling of dung or sea-ware. It is very
seldom more than ten weeks on the ground in favourable situa-
tions, and barley never less than fourteen.

250 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

being stronger ; but that opinion is contradicted by Ae
experience of many respectable practitioners, who state,
that in a dry spring it is abnost impossible to make grass
seeds vegetate among winter sown wheat. Clover always
succeeds best with spring ploughing, and hardly ever fails
after barley.

3. Oats. — There is no species of grain that succeeds
better in Scotland than the oat, and it is the crop for which
by far the greatest part of that country is the best calcula-
ted ; indeed, taking the after crops into consideration, it
will, on the whole, be found the most profitable. Convin-
ced of the superior advantages of this crop, some farmers
have given up sowing barley, as from two to three bolls
more of oats may be expected per acre *, as the straw of it
is rnuch inferior, either for feeding live stock, or for pro^
ducing manure, and as the sale of it is uncertain. Oats
are also preferred, in some cases even to wheat, as it has
been found that sowing oats after grass is more advanta-
geous than sowing wheat, however profitable that article
may be f . Oats also are a better crop after pease, than
even after grass \.

It is well-known that various sorts of oats are cultivated
in Scotland. Mr Thomson of Bewlie greatly prefers the
potatoc oat. Either after turnips, or after clover ley in
good condition, there is almost a certainty of having a

* Dr Young, near Stonehaven, informs me, tlial lie lias had
15 bolls of oats per Scotch acre, or 72 bushels /irr English acre,
on a held of seventeen acres, though two of these acres had never
before been under crop.

t Remarks by Mr Trotter of Newton in Linlithgowshire.

X Remark by Mr Charles Alexander, Kasterha))rcw, near Pee-
bles. It is proper to observe, that when a held is fallowed, any
mossy part of it bhould be sown with oats instead of wheal.

OF CnOPS USUALLY CULTIVATLD. 2,51

goStl crop of that sort ; they ripen and fill very well even
when lodged, being strong in the straw, and they sell at
3 s. per boll (Teviotdale measure), higher than other oats.
They will grow very well even in high inland situations and
cold climates, and if cut down in time, there is little risk of
their shaking. In exposetl and elevated situations^ however,
Mr Brodie of Garvald greatly prefers the red oat. They
unite the advantages of eai'liness, good grain, and a power
of resistisig the wind, superior to any other ; and by grow'ing
them, farmers are enabled to cultivate higher grounds,
than otherwise they could venture to do, with every pro-
spect of reaping the fruits of their labour. Church's oats
are recommended for ripening early, ten days or a fort-
night sooner then the potatoe oats. They are sown at the
rate of about 6 Winchester bushels per acre, have yielded
from 60 to SO Winchester bushels per English acre, and
in some instances even more. It would be very in)portant
to raise a species of oats without a bosom pickle, as the
grain would then be more equal in point of size and qua-
lity, and less hable to shake ; and it is said, that a large
plump oat of that sort is to be found in Lincolnshire *.

4. Pease. — For some years past pease have been a pre-
carious crop in Scotland, principally owing to the conti-
nual rains in the month of August, which kept the pease
constantly in a growing state, in consequence of which
the pods did not fill till the frost came on. Had there been
dry weather in the months of July and August, the crops
would probably have been abundant f . It is contended,

* Mr John Shirreft" informs me, that the potatoe-oat, when
first introduced, was of lliut description, and might have been pre-
served so, by accurate selection, and separate culture. By the
same means it might be restored to that state.

I Observations by Mr Neil BaUingal in Fife.

202 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

however, that even in drier climates, a crop of pease will
not succeed, if sown on the same land, above once in ten
years.

Some farmers who find that clean pease will not answer,
sow pease and beans mixed, with a hand drill, the ix)ws
at twenty-seven inches distance, so as to admit the horse
and the hand hoe at discretion. Mr Hope of Fenton finds,
that this plan answers better than sowing these crops se-
parately. Mr Kerr is of opinion, that mixing the two
sorts gives very material aid in harvest, as the pease serve
to bind the beans. Besides, it considerably improves the
quantity and quahty of the fodder, which is a circumstance
of great importance.

It is surprising that the farmers near Edinburgh have
not attempted to raise early pease, an article which sells at
so high a price, in the Edinburgh market, during the
month of July, though considerable quantities are supplied
by the numerous gardeners in the vicinity. About twelve
years ago, a gentleman sowed two acres with white pease,
and sold the whole, by the middle of July, at L. 85 per
acre. Immediately afterwards, he prepared the gi'ound
for turnips, which were sown by the end of that month,
but unluckily the seed was bad, and tl.e turnip crop al-
most totally failed. lie had no doubt of his making from
L. 40 to L. 50 pa' acre of the two crops, had the turnip-
seed been sound ; and he would have persevered in that
plan, had he not unfortunately died. To take a crop of
turnips, after early potatoes, is a common practice in the
neighbourhood of Aberdeen.

6. Brans. — It would be a ijreat advantage to hus-
bandry, were an early bean discovered, which would
bear to the common bean, the same qualities that the hot
seed does to the cold seed pea, as this would remove the
principal obstacle to the bean lui^bandiy in Scotland, the

OF CKOPS USUALLY CULIIVATED. 25^

lateness of the crop. It is certainly lamentable, to see the
bean crop out in the fields, while, with a better climate,
the land ought to have been sown with wheat. Some im-
provements might be made in the harvesting of beans,
which would lessen that obstacle to their culture. Mr
Mitchell of Balquharn has, for that purpose, successfully
adopted the following plan. When the beans are ready
for binding and stooking, he carts them off to an adja-
cent stubble field, if nearer to the stack-yard so much the
better. The beans are kept there till they are ready to be
stacked, and the farmer's anxiety in regard to his wheat
seed, can be no excuse for harvesting his beans too early.
It may be objected to this plan, that it is a great additional
labour, and that there must be a certain loss in loading
and unloading. To the first of these, the answer is, that
ten hands, with four horses, if the fields are at a mode-
rate distance, will shift ten acres in a day ; no great sacri-
fice, considering the motive ; and, with regard to the se-
cond objection, beans recently cut are not very apt to
husk out, and, with ordinary attention, the damage is in-
considerable *. This plan is strongly recommended by the
experience of Mr Brown of Markle, who informs me, that
in the bad harvest of 1799, he had 75 Scotch acres of
beans and pease in drills, few of which were harvested till
the middle of December. He removed a considerable
part to an open stubble field, and by employing a servant
to keep the sheaves on their feet, the whole were safely

* That excellent plan of drilling beans was, it is said, begun
at North Berwick about the year 1770, in the neighbourhood
of which place weighty crops of this article are still cultivated.
Some farmers, however, still prefer the broad-cast system, upon
very strong stubborn clays, but erroneously. It is remarked, that
beans cannot be planted too near the surface ; if merely covered
it is suflicient.

251 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

Stacked a few days before Christmas, in excellent condi-
tion.

Mr Blane of Blanefield, in Ayrshire, tried a most suc-
cessful experiment with the cultm-e of beans in 1810. He
was prevailed upon by a new ploughman, who had lived
in a district where beans were much cultivated, to try
two acres and seven falls Scotch measure, with that crop.
The seed was sown in drills, distant from each other from
twenty-eight to thirty inches, on the Hth, 12th and ISth
of April. The quantity sown was twelve Wincliestcr
bushels, and both horse -hoeing and hand-hoeing were du-
ly attended to. The months of May and June were dry,
but the rain fortunately came on about the end of July,
the blossoming became universal, exhibiting a uniform
surface of stalks ; in general upwards of six feet in height,
many nine, and some even ten feet high. Many of the
stalks had from 40 to 55 pods. The whole exhibited
a sight, equally beautiful to the eye, and agreeable to
the smell. Many fields in different parts of the coun-
ty, (the season in general proving unfavourable to the
bean crop), had been mown down for green food to
horses, where there was not the smallest indication of
beans. This crop, however, turned out very different, a
rich and luxuriant crop having been cut down on the itli of
October, and safely secured in the stack-yard upon the 2d
of November. The produce from the two acres and seven
falls of clean marketable beans, was rather above 25i- bolls
or 102-'- Winchester bushels; he had paid for the seed 9 s.
]-)ey bushel ; and if he had sold the produce at the same
price, instead of using the greater part of them in the sta-
ble, his crop would liavc yielded L. 46, 16 s., besides the
benefit of the straw, which could not be calculated at less
ihnn L 10 more. The crop \\:is raised without the aid of
dung, and after two crops oi oats.

OF CHOPS rSUALLY CULTIVATF.D. 255

6. Tares. — This article is not much cultivated in Scot-
land, a few acres only on everj' farm being raised for soiling
horses, between the cuttings of clover ; but Mr Allan of
Craigrook has carried it to a still greater extent, as he consi-
ders tares one of the most valuable and profitable crops he can
cultivate. The proper time for sowing tarca for seed is about
the second week of March *, in drills about thirty inches
wide ; and three firlots of tares is, in that case, a sufficient
quantity of seed, but it is thought better to sow rows of beans
and tares alternately, as the beans keep up the tares ; in that
case, half a boll of tares, and the same quantity of beans,
is sufficient for seed. On this subject, ^Ir Dudgeon of
Prora remarks, that as tares are much earlier than beans,
they should be sown on the surface, when the beans are
harrowed ; this should not be done till the drilled crop is

• Mr Kerr observes, that the time mentioned is very proper
for a crop of tares intended for seed. Hut what are wanted for
cutting or soiling, ought to be sown at two or three times, to
give a succession. The first as early in February as the season
will allow, to come in immediately after the first cuttmg of clo-
ver. A second crop in the beginning or middle of March, to
stand for seed. And a thud sowing in the end of March or be-
ginning of April, to cut green for the horses during harvest.
Beans answer excellently, to stake the tares intended for seed ;
but those which are meant to be cut green, ought to have a small
admixture of oats ; which both serves to hold them up, admits
the air, aids the scythe, and increases the food.

It is a pity our Scotch climate does not answer for winter
tares. Mr Kerr tried them twice ineffectually ; but was told
they sometimes come forward to cut before clover, but very rare-
ly. The earliest sown tares in spring, should, however, be of the
winter sort, being the hardiest. Winter tares, it appears would an-
swer if sown in September. That plan, however, can rarely be
adopted, as it is seldom possible to get the land cleared from the
former crop, and ploughed for the tares, so early in the season.

256 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

near breaking the surface *. Without this precaution, he
has \dtnessed a great loss of tares in reaping. If they
could be kept late enough for the bean, no method can
be devised, by which a greater crop could be procured.

7. Turnips. — Drilled turnips is one of the great boasts
of Scottish agriculture, and though the idea of drilling
them was originally taken from the celebrated Tuil, yet
the precise mode of conducting this operation, now uni-
versal in this country, certainly originated in North Bri-
tain. Other attempts of a similar nature may have been
previously made, both in England and Scotland, but Mr
Dawson of Frogden is the individual, who first brought
that practice to its present state of excellence.

In discussing this subject, it is proposed briefly to con-
sider the following particulars : 1 . The process of drill-
ing ; 2. The different sorts of turnips cultivated in Scot-
land °, 3. The produce of each sort; 4. The manner of
consuming them ; 5. The mode of preserving them j and
lastly. Any miscellaneous particulars which may be enti-
tled to notice.

1. The process of drilling turnips, is very ably described
in the Berwickshire Report, and in other publications f ,
and the annexed plan, taken from that report, will give a
gener^ idea of the system.

«

Mr John Shirreft" is of opinion, that beans should nut hf.
harrowed till they have broke the surfaco, and got several green
leaves, when they become pliant, and bend to llu- harrow ; where-
as, if you harrow them when about to hurfl forth, you break
them o^'er, for the embryo plant is very brittle.

t In the year 1797, Mr Alexander Low of Woodcnd, in par-
ticular, drew up, with great clearnebs and ability, for Uie iut«
Duke of Bedford, a short account of the Iki wicksliirc mode of
turnip culture, as then practised.

1 ! ^ t^iffi

r 1 t I » I ^ !

%,^

Fig. 3.

■^^ .lA^'^^i^^'.^^^sy te^^f^f"^.

Jxg:.4

J^^aAa, ^Af^AS^A^

Fie b

SaUtef difl'ffvrFunarj " ' *

rig: ". T/i/' .Cuilf i>n^ Ifuarttr t</'ihf I'fpfr/'iffttrfs

y.T./vl >^.,*

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 257

It is not proposed, in this work, to enter into all the minu-
tiit of the culture of drilled turnips, which it would be diffi-
cult to imitate from description merely. It would be advisa-
ble indeed, for those who wish to try the plan, to procure a
person, experienced in the process, to conduct it ; it may
otherwise fail, owing to want of attention to some minute
particular, which may be of more importance than is com-
monly imagined. The annexed plate, and the subjoined
explanation, will give a general idea of a system, which
cannot be too strongly recommended to the attention of
those, who may wish to introduce the culture of turnips,
on the most improved system, in other districts.

Explanation of the Plate.

Fig. 1. is a section of the drills, as first formed, and having
the muck or dung spread out in the hollow drills, with a line
pointing out where the ridglcts are afterwards split.

Fig. 2. represents these drills, as split open, to cover the
muck ; what was formerly the hollow drills is converted by this
operation into the ridgltts. and vice versa.

Fio. 3. gives an idea of the figure of the drills or ridglets, af-
ter having been rolled by the drill machine at the time of sow-
ing the seed. The seed cannot be sown too soon after the land
is thus prepared fcjr its reception.

Fig. 4.. is a representation of the appearance of the field, after
the earth has been gathered into the intervals between the tur-
nip drills, as formerly practised, but which has now given way
to the use of the horse-hoe.

Fio. 5- shews the situation of the drills, on finishing off the
field, in the older method, by splitting open the gathered ridg-
lets in Fig. 4, but which practice is not now generally followed.
P. I. R

258 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

. Fig. 6. gives an idea of the situation of a field of drilled tur-
nips, as now generally finished off; the furrows or bellow
drills not being opened out, the shavvs or tops of the plants
being removed for the use of the young stock, previously to
the feeding flock being laid on.

Fig. 7- gives a plan upon a smaller scale than the preceding
sections, of a turnip field in regular drills, in which the drills
are laid off obliquely to the usual direction of the ridges, to
facilitate the more equal distribution of the muck, which had
been covered up in the drills, when afterwards ploughed for a
grain crop,

2. Tlie sorts commonly cultivated iii Scotland, are
knovvTi under the name of the common Globe Turnip,
the Yellow Turnip, and the Swedes ; the Tankard and
White Norfolk have also been successfully raised for early
consumption by sheep. The Globes, and the Swedes, how-
ever, are the most prevailing varieties.

Some experiments have been tried by Mr Blaikie, a
native of Roxburghshire, who is now bailiff to the Earl of
Chesterfield, with the three first sorts.' The globe turnip
producctl the largest crop, but was the most tender ; the
yellow proved a fine crop, was more nutritious than the
globe, and stood the winter better; the Swedish turnips
"maintained their superiority for hardiness ; and the yel-
low Scotch was next in regard to that very essential quality.

llie yellow Scotch field turnip, to a certain extent,
jnay be considered as a valuable acquisition, for the fol-
lowing reasons : — 1. It is more hardy than the globe, tan-
kard, red top, green top, or any variety of the Norfolk
turnip — 2. It does not draw more nourishment from
the ground than any of those varieties, consequently
does not require that any extra preparation should be
made for it — 3. It is not so hardy as the Swedish, but
lias the advantage, in not requiring so much maiuirc ;

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. ^^9

docs not exhaust the ground so much, nor does it require'
to be sown so early by a month ; this gives time for
cleaning and preparing the fallows, which are too often
but imperfectly cleaned when the Swedish are sown. — l-.
The yellow Scotch is also a good table vegetable, being
palatable, more nutritious, and not so watery as the Nor-
folk varieties.

When Swedish, yellow Scotch, and Norfolk turnips'
were strewed indiscriminately over a field, and cattle and
sheep turned to them, it was observed tliat the stock set-
lected the yellow Scotch, after being used to them. This,
however, depends much upon the particular period of the
season when the trial is made.

It is also maintained, though not ascertained by deci-
sive experiments, that the yellow is by far the best turnips
for milch cows, and that they thrive much better than the
Swedes in light soils.

Mr Walker of Mellendean finds that the Scotch yellow
turnip stands the frost as well as the Swedish, and he
thinks that horses prefer them to any other. If they are
found to stand the variations of the weather in spring e-
qually with the Swedish, they appear to him to deserve
the preference in other respects.

Mr Culley finds, that neither the yellow, nor any other
turnip, the Swedish excepted, will retain its juices in the
spring, and he considers the Swedish, on that account,
as entitled to a decided preference. Mr Rcnnie of Phan-
tassie also considers them, as without exception, the most
useful plant of the whole species, and without them, there
is no safety or security, cither for feeding or breeding
stock. He recommends, therefore, tliat one-third of this
species, in so far as turnips are cultivated, should be sown
on every farm. The only objections to them are, their
being of so hard a nature, as to be very pernicious to the
teeth of stock, particularly the very young when shedding

Ii2

260 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

their teeth, or the very old; and that they require rich
land, or a great deal of manure. They may be transplant-
ed, but in that case do not come to the same size as
those which grow upon the spot where they were original-
ly raised.

Mr Gray of Gorgiemuir, near Edinburgh, finds Swe-
dish turnips more profitable on his clayey soils, than beans
or yams, and he gets them off without poaching the land,
though of a wet description, by the following method.
Wlien he can spare hands, and the weather will permit,
the turnips arc pulled, the roots cleaned, and laid in heaps
with the tops on, ail lying one way. When frost comes
that will bear the carts, he sends the turnips, in this state,
to the cowfeeders in Edinburgh, and sells them readily at
a shilling per cwt. when common turnips will only fetch
ninepence per cwL The portion proposed to be kept for
the horses till spring, are brought home and stored up in
any spare corner, ^fter the tops are cut off, which are gi-
ven to the cows. Mr John Shirreif recommends it as a
more advantageous plan, to draw and store the whole,
w hen they could be disposed of at convenience.

Mr Aitchison of Clement's Wells commonly sows about
30 acres of turnips yearly, of which, from 15 to 20 acres
consist of the Swedish sort. These serve his cattle and
diecp till the gi'ass gives a good bite. If his sheep are
young, he cuts the turnips for them with a machine. He
adds, that in his opinion, a greater quantity of good food
for stock, is got from the two sorts of turnips, and at less
expence, than what is procured from any other article he
has ever tried. Mr Kerr observes, that the Swedish tur-
nip is perhaps the best winter vegetable we have except the
potatoe. Five pounds weight of beef or mutton will make
richer Scotch brotli, along with Swedisli turnips, than
seven pounds along with an ecjual quantity of any other

or ROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 261

turnips. It is fully equal to a mixture of carrots and tur-
nips in that respect, and much sweeter.

A new plant of the turnip sort has been lately introdu-
ced into Scotland, called noll-kholl. It rises like a cab-
bage plant till it is about three inches high, then forms
like a Swedish turnip, and appears to be much of the na-
ture with that useful plant. They were first raised in East
Lothian by Mr Alexander Johnston, surgeon in Dunbar,
who some years ago received a few seeds from General Sir
David Baird, on his return fi'om the Cape of Good Hope.
I have seen them in great perfection at Lord Lauder-
dale's, near Dunbar. A correspondent informs me, that
they are cultivated in Strathearn, and that the sheep pre-
ferred them much to turnips.

3. The produce of the turnip crop necessarily varies.
Mr Paterson of Castle-Huntly found that his globe or
common turnip weighed fifty tons^^ Scotch, or forty p^
English acre, when entire, but only forty-six tons when
the tops and tails were cut off. Mr Allan of Craig-
rook states, that on his farm at Oldliston, the common
white turnip weighed from forty to fifty tons per Scotch
acre. The Swede turnips also, when properly cultivated,
produce a heavy crop. I am informed from undoubted
authority, that a Scotch acre of that sort, in East-Lothian,
weighed no less than forty-four tons, which is at the rate
of about thirty-seven tons per English acre. Tlie crop ap-
peared so great, that several respectable farmers in the
neighbourhood attended to see it weighed. r

In regard to the weight of turnips on the different soils,
Mr llcnnie of Phantassie states, that in the best land,
worth L. 5 per Scotch acre, the produce may be forty
tons, which is at the rate of about thirty-two tons per
English acre. Where the land is of inferior quality, the
produce must necessarily be less. The profit to be de-
rived from such a crop, must depend upon various circuni-

262 or CROPS usually cultivateO;

stances ; the value is generally calculated at 5 s. per ton
to the grower, when sold on the ground, but the person
who buys them ought to have a profit of from Is. to 2s.
per ton, to indemnify him for his outlay on the stock fed,
and his risk, labour, &c. In regard to the question, whe-
ther it is most profitable to feed sheep or cattle with them,
that must depend upon soil, situation, markets, &c. Sheep
are generally preferred on dry soils, and in good situations,
but cattle in the colder and higher climates *.

4. The mode of consuming turnips, by feeding cattle
and sheep, is well known ; but there is one mode of
giving them to sheep, adopted by Mr Hunter of Tyne-
field in East-Lothian, which seems to merit particular at-
tention.

He states, that he has been in use, for several years
past, to convert part of his straw into manure in winter, by
folding sheep, and giving them turnip on the top of the
straw. In 1808, he had 300 sheep, mostly black-faced
wedders, three years old, from the Highlands, at h. 20 per
score, fed on turnip in the following manner. A fold>
containing an English acre, was made in the corner of a
field on a southern exposure, sheltered from the north and
west by a strong thorn-hedge: the whole fold was then
covered with straw a foot thick. The sheep were turned
in, and turnips carted and laid on half of the fold upon
the straw, and a daily supply was continued on the same
half till the straw under them was a little wet : the turnip
was then laid on the other half, covering that part where

* Mr Curwen states, that an acre of turnips will feed sixteea
bheep for six months or a hundred and eighty days, allowing
28 lb. to each sheep per day, and 4 lb. for waste of tops, &c.
This gives some little more than W tons /)fr acre. Mr Logan
lets his turnips at Cd, ycr week, and made L. 9 of them prr acre.
This gives JS tons.

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 263

the turnip had been first laid, with fresh straw, and he
continued to change, from side to side, once in two or three
days, always giving fresh straw the whole season. The
sheep lay very diy, the straw serving as a drain to receive
moisture. As the palm or chaff upon the straw was eaten
by the sheep, they fatted apace, and were sold in March
at L. 42 per score. The quantity of manure produced
was very great, (no doubt partly depending on the quan-
tity of straw used), in one year not less than 800 tons of
the best manure he ever saw on his farm. The particulars
of this important experiment, and other interesting parti-
culars therewith connected, will be given in the Addenda.

Another intelligent correspondent informs me, that for
some years, he has adopted a similar practice of feeding
sheep, by keeping them confined in a standing fold during
the winter months, and giving them turnips thrice a-day
upon the straw. It requires, however, a considerable quan-
tity of straw, as they must always get some evei-y second
or third day, and in wet weather every day : but it is cer-
tainly an excellent method of making manure where there
is plenty of straw.

Several intelligent farmers have of late years grown nita
laga or Swedish turnips, for the use of the horses and other
stock, during that critical period when the common tur-
nips fail, and grass has not yet become abundant, and for
these purposes this esculent is invaluable. But Mr Church
of Hitchill observes, that where the soil is thin and dry,
it is impossible to raise a good crop of Swedes under any
management. He therefore begins to entertain an idea of
substituting potatoes in their room *.

* Mr Kerr observes, that potatoes, he understands, are now
very extensively applied to the use of cuttle and horses in Lanark-
shire. If this is ultimately found to answer, and the practice
become universal, it will secure the country against the possibility

264' OF CROPS tJS ALLY CULTIVATED,

5. Ml" Blair of Montague, near Perth, on the first ap-
pearance of severe frost, has been accustomed, for thirty
years past, to store up turnips, cutting off their tops and
tails, and thus preserving them sound and good for three
months, much to the advantage of his farm : and the cow-
feeders near Edinburgh have long followed the same prac-
tice. Mr John ShirrefF received thirty guineas from the
Society of Arts, for communicating to that public- spirit-
ed institution, a simple mode of drawing and stacking,
either the whole, or the greatest part of his turnip crop
for several years in autumn, intended to be consumed du-
ring the following winter and spring, a practice which he
found attended with much convenience, economy and emo-
lument *.

6. The celebrated George Culley has communicated to
me a fact, which, though perhaps known to many intelli-
gent farmers, may not be so universally propagated as it
deserves to be. It is this. That all crude soils, or even
such soils as have been cultivated, but which have had lit-
tle or no calcareous matter mixed with them, will produce
better turnips, with a plentiful application of lime or shell
niarle only, without any dung whatever, than with dung
without any lime or other calcareous substance. This he
finds from long and repeated experience.

of famine in the very worst of years. It will become a source of
tangible human food, usually applied to animals, who may be sup-
plied from other sources calculated for their subsistence, hi a
year of dearth, the high price of potatoes will naturally induce
ihe farmers to stint their cattle, for the supply of the people, and
to replenish tlieir own pockets.

* 'I'his useful communication is printed in the !2C!d vol. of the
Transactions of the Society of Arts, p. 118. 'Jhis experiment
took phice annu 1803.

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 265

It is said that the turnips in Berwickshire are seldom in-
jured by the fly. lliis may perhaps be uLtributod to the
superior culture tor which that district is so much distin-
guished, by means of which the young plants are enabled
to push away at the beginning with more vigour than
wlien the management is less perfect ; for it is a general
observation, that the more rapid the vegetation of the
plant, the better is it able to withstand the effect of the in-
sects' depredations. The Berwickshu'e and Roxburghshire
farmers, have a great advantage in the culture of their tur-
nips, from the freshness in which their lands are preserved^
by the system of two years' pasture in their rotation.

It has been remarked in Banffshire, that mixing eartli,
or moss with the offals of fish, makes an excellent compost,
particularly for turnips, and that the best turnips are al«
ways after fish dung. This should be attended to on the
sea-coast, where such quantities of fish, and of fish offal,
may be had.

The late Mr Barclay of Ury, whose authority as an
agriculturist ranks so high, always dunged for turnips in
the jyreceding year ; that is, the turnip was the second crop
after the dung, the muck ia this case being completely in-
coi-porated with the soil, before the seed is sown. This
practice has been followed by some farmers in the Meams,
and it is said with success. Mr Kerr, however, on this
head remarks, that this plan, though frequently tried, has
never answered in Berwickshire, where recent dunging is
found, by experience, quite necessary to insure a' good crop
of turnips. He knew a farmer who lost his turnip crop; in
a great measure by dunging before winter, to savo spring
labour.

Though the process of drilling turnips in Scotland is
well known, it would be a great object gained to the far-
mer, if some moans could be devised, for making them ve-
gota:e equolly in a dry season. The seed is sometimes

266 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

Steeped, to make it spring readily, and even the drills wa-
tered after the seed is deposited ; all these are known and
occasionally practised in Scotland. But by the foUowing
accident last summer, Mr Church of Hitchill has been led
to conclude, that sowing the seed on the moist dung, as
spread in the drills, would secure a certain and regular ve-
getation, and afterwards ploughing down the dung in the
usual manner, but perhaps not covering it quite so deep,
would be a practice well worth adopting in a dry season.
Mr Church having prepared liis ground for sowing Swe-
dish turnips, some seeds of the globe turnip were deposited
by accident on the dung spread for the Swedish before
it was ploughed in, which was sown in the usual man-
ner. On the same day, about an acre of the globe
turnip was sown on land of the same quahty, and dunged
in the same way. From the dryness of the season, neither
the Swedish nor the globe turnips vegetated till a month
after sowing, and these crops turned out moderate. But
the seed which had accidentally fallen on the dung as above
stated, vegetated rapidly, and the turnips attaii^d a great
size, indeed they could not get larger for want of room in
the drills ; many of them weighed from 15 to 28 lbs. with
tops and tails. This practice iuay prove highly useful in
dry seasons, and indeed should always be tried, as the cx-
pcnce of the seed Is but trifling. The great difficulty will
be, to lay the soil sufficiently thin and regular over the
small seeds.

On the whole, there is certainly no branch of husband-
dry more desirable to bring to perfection, than the culture
of turnips. The connnon sorts can be sown with advan-
tage from the tenth to the end of June, giving the farmer
ample time to clean his ground. It is, besides, a fact well
known, that the close deep shade of the turnip leaves lias a
Icndcncy to rot all below them. There is perhaps no ar-
ticle that produces, at so cheap a rate, such a quantity of

O:^ CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 207'

food for stock, or that is the means of raising so much
vahiiibie manure. Experiments, however, are still wanting,
re«'ardingthe culture of this root, before it can be brought
to perfection ; in particular, it would be necessary to ascer-
tain, the specific weights of each sort per acre ; the quan-
tities of beef and mutton produced by equal weights of each
sort of root , the quantities of manure required for each
sort ; and the effects of each on the following crops in the
rotation.

8. Potatoes. — The culture of potatoes has greatly in-
creased in Scotland, owing to the following circumstances :
1» The excellent mode in which they, are raised ; 2. The
demand for them at market -, 3. Their proving so valua-
ble a preparation for crops of wheat ; and, 4. The custom
adopted by farmers, of giving portions of land for raising
potatoes, both to their own servants, and to the inhabitants
of any neighbouring town or village.

1. Nothing can be superior to the mode of raising pota*
toes by the plougli, and in drills. The following account
of that process, though peculiarly applicable to the neigh-
bourhood of Glasgow, does not vary materially from the
practice usually adopted in other parts of the kingdom.

The ground is prepared for a potatoe crop by ploughing
in winter, or rather in autumn; and to keep it dry, during
winter, the ridges are gathered, and the furrows kept clear.
It is sometimes ploughed once, and sometimes twice, and
well harrowed during the spring, and the drills being form-
ed, the dung and cuttings are put in and covered with the
plough. In sandy ground the cuttings are put below, and
in heavy soil above the dung. Tlie potatoes are dressed in
summer in the ordinary way, the drills being pared or
sliccii, horse-hoed, hand-hoed, weeded, &c. as in other
parts of the country.

In regard to the produce and value, that must vary ac-
cording to»the condition of the groniid, the time and man-

268 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

ner of culture and cropping, the season, and other relative
circumstances. A potatoe crop will average from 40 to 50
bolls per acre. They will sometimes fall short of 40, but
many have reaped more than 60 bolls from one acre. Ge-
neral Spence sold last year a potatoe crop, for part of which
he was paid L. 29 per acre, and potatoes were raised from
part of the field, at the rate of 80 bolls per acre. Andrew
Moodie, Esq. reaped, for a first crop, upon deep mossj
near Paisley, fi-om \1\ acres, near one acre of which was
occupied with roads, ditches, &c. 774 bolls of potatoes,
which he sold at L. 418 : 6 : 2. Robert Cameron, in East
Walkingshaw, near Paisley, raised 60 boUs per acre, frona
moss-ground. Potatoes are usually sold at from L. 18 to
L. 28 per Scotch, or L. 24 : 7 : 8 pici' English acre, the
purchaser digging up and removing the crop. In a field,
near Elderslee-house, potatoes, planted without dung, after
a crop of oats, from old pasture, to which no manure had
been given, sold at L. 27 per Scotch acre.

Mr Andrew of TiUilumb, near Perth, adopts the follow-
ing plan in the cultivation of potatoes : 1 . He cross-ploughs j
2. Puts in the dung ; 3. Ploughs a second time ; and, 4.
The ground is either drilled for potatoes, or another plough-
ing given, and the potatoes planted after the plough in
every third furrow. He usually follows the last mode, as
he thinks it best calculated to do justice to the ground, and
generally brings a good crop. Repeated ploughings after
the manure is applied, cannot liowevcr be recommended.
The expences, besides rent and dung, may be stated as
follows :

Seed j3cr acre, 2| bolls, (32 stone Amsterdam, 17§ lbs.) at
12 s. pn- boll, - - - - L. 1 10 0

Cutting the seed, - - - - 0 2 6

Planting, - - - - 0 4 0

Clcanuig, after being horsc-liocd, - - 0 12 0

L. 2 8 6

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 269

Potatoes at Pertli sold this year at about L. 15 or 15
guijieas^;^ Scotch acre ; and if L. 5 is supposed for icnt,
and L. 5 for dung, it will appear that there is not too much
profit for so much labour, and that the chief profit lies in
the state of preparation the ground is brought into for the
succeeding crop. In a wet season, potatoes do not answer
upon heavy land *.

The average produce of potatoes near Edinburgh, is
from 40 to 60 bolls per Scotch acre, and the value from
L. 20 to L. 30, average L. 25.

2. The consumption of potatoes is annually increasing
in Scotland, every prejudice against the wholesomeness of
that root having been long ago exploded. The simple
modes in which they can be prepai-ed for the tabic, is of
the utmost advantage to the poor ; and by the addition of
salted herring, both the taste, and the nourishment afford-
ed by that useful articje, may be improved. It is difficult
to conceive how the people of this country could have sub-
sisted, had it not been for the fortunate introduction, and

* The following is the expence of cultivating one acre of pota-
toes near Dalkeith.

Dung, 40 single-horse carts, at 5s.
Three ploiighings and harrowings,
Seed, cleaning with horse and hand-hoe,
Taking up and housing,
Rent, - - - -

L. 10 0

0

2 0

0

3 10

0

2 10

0

5 5

0

L.23 5 0

Hence at the avejage value of the produce near Edinburgh,
(L. 25,) the profit is trifling, and there must sometimes be a loss.
But Mr John Shirreff remarks, that they save the expence of
preparing the i/iicc following crops in the rotation, and thence
their profit arises.

270 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

extensive culture of this most valuable plant. Indeed, the
same numbers could not have been maintained.

3. Potatoes are found an excellent preparation for. crops
of wheat. The frequent ploughings necessary for raising
that article ; the quantity of dung allotted for it ; the fre-
quent hooings, the stirring which the ground receives when
they are gathered, (sometimes perhaps more than is neces-
sary), and the favourable period of the year when they are
taken up, are excellent prepai'ations for the culture of that
important grain. Wheat after potatoes, therefore, is al-
most universal, wherever both are cultivated. But this
plan can only be followed near gi'eat towns, where alone
potatoes can be used in great quantities, and sufficient
muck purchased to raise them.

4. The culture of potatoes is very much increased by
two practices : 1 . That of farmers giving a certain por^
tion of land for raising potatoes to their servants ; and,
2. By a practice of farmers in the neighbourhood of
towns and villages letting land to the inhabitants for
the same purpose, they furnishing both dung and labour,
at least in so far as regards the cleaning processes. Near
Cullen, in Banffshire, they get a fall of ground for a load
of dung, which the farmer puts on his turnip field, as the
people consider the potatoes of a better quality when raised
without dung. Mr Stewart of Hillside, by letting an acre
for potatoes, gets the labour of 120 reapers *. They give

♦ An acit of potatoes gives 120 days reaping, (shearing,) at
55 yards for each day, the drill being 34 inches wide. The acre
thus pays L. y, lliC reaper furnishing seed; the wages, reckoned
at Is. (5d. besides victuals, which together make C s. '2d. per
day. The reaper (nhcarcr) has his potatoes at nearly CH)s. per
ton, oftpn much less: tlie advantage of tliej^arnier is, having these
reapers at his call, and only on the days when leouired.

1*

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 271

the seed only, and take up the crop. Tlie land is let to
labourers and tradesmen in a neighbouring village. The
value of the potatoes is above the ordinary wages, and the
reapers besides receive maintenance when they are employ-
ed J but it is a great advantage to have a number of labour-
ers at command, more especially during a critical harvest.
The culture of potatoes is likely to be materially increa-
sed by the following circumstance. Mr Spears of- Dysart
informs me, that within these three or four years past, the
farmers occupying a dry loamy soil, in place of raising only
turnips for feeding, now raise nearly half potatoes *, and
half turnips. In this way they find, that by giving their
cattle as many potatoes as they can eat, the one half of the
day, and turnips the other half, they become fat in httle
more than half the time requisite to feed them with turnips
alone. They likewise find, that an acre of potatoes, will go
farther in feeding, than an acre of turnips, with this great
additional advantage, that no weather can affect the feeding
of the cattle, when they have potatoes always at command f ;
whereas formerly, during severe storms, the turnips were
often so much hurt by the frost, as to do the cattle no good,
while it continued. They are also thus enabled to keep
them on much longer in the spring, as potatoes may be
used two months after common turnips are quite useless,
though this argument does not apply to the Swedes. This
plan seems to be gaining ground, and is likely to answer
in the western districts, where they prefer the culture of
potatoes to that of turnips. By turnips an ox may be fat-
tened in five months. By this new mode of feeding alter-
nately with turnips and potatoes, three months, or even

* It is a pity, that these farmers do not get the Patagoniari, or
bullock potatoe, from Mr Church of Hitchill, in Dumfries-sbire.

+ It is said that by storing turnips, the same object may be
attained.

272 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATEB.

less may be sufficient, the cattle being probably tempted to
eat more from a change of food. It is not Hkely, however,
that an acre of potatoes will go farther than an acre of
even common tuimips. The same land that will produce 12
or 13 tons of potatoes *, would yield 40 tons of turnips.
It is probable the latter would go farther in point of fatten-
ing, and at any rate would produce the most manure.
It is a most important circumstance, at the same time, in
favour of potatoes, that when they are produced, they tan
easily be converted, if necessary, from the food of stock, to
that of man, and consequently, in times of scarcit}', would
prove an invaluable resource. They do not require also
such strong land as the Swedes.

9. Clover and Rye-grass. — Red clover, with a mixture
of rye-grass, mid sometimes with some white and yellow
clover, and perhaps rib-grass, are the grasses almost uni-
versally sown in Scotland. Some experiments Jiave been
tried with lucern f , sainfoin, chicory, &c. but not to an ex-
tent entitled to any particular notice.

• Mr John Shirreflf is convinced, that from the first of Octo-
lier, till Christmas, raw turnips will feed faster than raw pota-
toes,

t Two expenments have been reported to me of the culture of
lurern in Scotland, one by a proprietor near Edinburgh, who has
about three acres of this plant, with which he maintains ten or
twelve hoi-ses during the summer season. The other is by Mr
Dnflin, vinegar merchant at tlie Abbey. He has had it for seve-
ral years growing in a plot of his garden ; the plot is not near a
rood, and it maintains one horse to him during the suniniur months:
lie has three luxuriant cuttings, and an after-cutting m the end of
autumn. From the first sowing it grows annually; it lasts from
ten to fourteen }ears, yielding good crops, and perhaps may re-
main in vigour much longer. He has tried transplantation, and

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 275

Tlie introduction of red clover was one of tlic most for-
tunate circumstances that could have happened to the
husbandry of Scotland, more especially since the mode of
cutting it green for stock, or soiling, has been adopted ;
the produce is immense, whilst from the size of its root,
which remains in the ground, it does not exhaust, 9»
otherwise would be the case. It is also an excellent pre-
paration for other crops. It is said, that land soon grows
tired of clover, but, where that is the case, to any extent,
it is to be attributed to the want of deep ploughing, one
of the principal advantages attending summer-fallow. Clo-
ver delights in new soil, in so much that when it is at first
tried, m any ground tolerably fertile, the produce is hardly
to be credited.

The propriety of cultivating rye-grass, is an important
subject of discussion. It is certain, that many English
farmers, who are eminent in their business, abhor rye-
grass on strong lands, from a multitude of observations on
the wheat which follows it j for the cases are many, in
which fields, partly sown with clover alone, and partly with
clover and rye-grass, where the superiority of the wheat
after the clover alone, induced them to resoh^e on the
omission of rye-grass in future. Mr Rennie of Phantassie
concurs in that opinion. He observes, there can be little
doubt that rye-grass is very hurtful to wheat, and when
wheat is intended, no rye-grass ought to be sown. But
wheat after grass, or even after clover alone, being now
almost totaUy given up, oats paying better, the observation

it answers to bis wish, for lucern throws out a number of fr<sh
shoots from its root. It requires to be hoed clean from any other
grass or weeds. There cannot be a doubt of its thriving \^ell in
Scotland, in rich deep soils, which it requires, as its shoots go
far into the ground ; hence a tilly or rocky bottom is improper
for it.
r. I. s

274; OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

does not apply to the system of husbandry practised in
Scotland.

Some maintain, that cocksfoot answers all the pur-
poses of rye-gi'ass, particularly as a mixture with clo-
ver ; that it supports more stock, and does not equally ex-
haust *, but this is a circumstance not yet full}' ascertain-
ed, and rye-grass, if properly cultivated, is certainly a
valuable plant, either sown by itself or mixed with clo-
ver. In regard to rye-grass, either cut green, or con-
verted into hay, a person of much experience in the ma-
nagement of horses, (Mr Alexander Maclaurin of Edin-
burgh), considers rye-grass mixed with clover, as a strongs
pleasant and substantial food for horses, even at hard
Vrork, and every season he has given it green, even to
post-horses, in the stable, and it has answered well. He
is also of opinion, that hay made of clover and rye-grass,
if cut at a proper season, (before the plants are too ripe),
if safely got in, and properly thatched, so as to prevent its
being injured by the winter rains, instead of becoming dry
and husky, as some people imagine, improves by time, and
is much fitter for the use and benefit of horses, than if used
some months before, and indeed will retain this perfection all
the ensuing summer, autumn, and next winter ; on the
supposition, always, that it is preserved from rain. Good
old hay, for that reason, always gives a higher price than
new. . In a comparative view of rye-grass mixed with
clover, and meadow hay, the former is to be accounted much
preferable to the other, on account of its strength and sub-
stance, by which horses are enabled the better to stand
hard work. The fibres of meadow-hay are soft and small,
and according to Mr Maclaurin's opinion, dissolve sooner
in a horse's stomach, consequently not so proper it>r hard
working horses as the other. Mr Jolm SiurrelF remarks.

• All d: ' .•twiti) corkbroul iiiid iNC'-iias^, iiiUbt depend

on Ua' woiLiil. i** Uie cm^b, and (]iuiilit) ol' seed laiiitd by lmcIl

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 275

that every cultivated vegetable is more nutritious than a
natural and wild one of the same sort. The hay of a na-
tmal meadow cannot possibly be obtained in a state equal-
ly perfect as that of cultivated herbage, because, being
composed of many plants, some of which are faded, some
too young, some wiry and run to seed, and some fresh and
in flower, they cannot assimilate into a homogeneous
fragrant mass, so readily as the other. Clover hay, there-
fore, always sells higher than natural meadow hay, whether
low or upland.

Mr Robertson of Lady kirk states, that from long ex-
perience, they find, in Berwickshire, perennial rye-grass to
be peculiarly valuable. It is the earliest and latest gi'ass
they have, but it should he fed close^ and not allowed to go
to seed, otherwise it will exhaust the land *. Mr Andrew
of Tillylumb observes, that he has never found a mixture
of rye-grass among clov'er prejudicial to the ground, pro-
vided it was cut in due time, just when the bloom is faUing
from the rye-grass ; but, if allowed to ripen, he believes
it may be nearly as exhausting as a crop of grain. In shorty
clover and rye-grass hay, if cut in due time, is a most nou-
rishing and wholesome food, either for cattle or horses^
and will keep good for several years, if properly stacked
and thatched.

In regard to the value of clever and rve-grass, even at
a distance from large towns, Dr Young, near Stonehaven,
informs me, that the common price, when sold in very small
villages to cowfeeders, is from L. 10 to L. 12 j)er Scotch
acre, when milk is sold at 2^_d. per Scotch pint.

The cultivation of artificial grasses in Scotland, is al-
ready so generally known, and will be so fully detailed, in
the General Report now drawing up, of the Husbandry

* Mr Joliu SLirretT is of opinion, that annual rye-grass ^ more
relished by slock, and carries a heavier crop.

s2

276 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

of Scotland, that it does not seem necessary to dwell upon
rt longer in this place. It is only necessary to add a maxim
regarding the culture of clover and rye-grass, that ought
never to be deviated from, namely, that they should never
be sown but when the land is in the very best condition,
and, if possible, vvith the crop immediately after a summer
fallow or after turnips.

10. Miscellaneous articles. — It is evident, that in various
parts of an extensive kingdom, a number of articles must
be cultivated, to a small or a moderate extent, which do not
form a part of the general husbandry of a countiy In
Scotland, the most important of these are, carrots, cab-
bages, kale, rye, and flax.

Carrots.— Thxs species of crop is not so much cultivated
in Scotland as it ou£;ht to be. Its culture seems to be at-
tended with no more difficulty than that of cabbage, pota-
toes, or turnips, and if properly managed, with little, or
perhaps no more expence. An active improver, (Mr
Alexander Guthrie), states, that in his attempts to raise
the carrot, with hardly any exception, he has succeeded
beyond expectation. For working-horses, he knows no
food equal to carrot, and of this he has had complete ex-
perience. Were the growth of carrots general over the
country, and used as food for working-horses, he is of opi-
nion, that two-thirds of the oats consumed for that purpose
might be saved. In years of scarcity, this would be of
great advantage to the nation, and a blessing to the poor*

M; Butterworth, who rented somelantl near Edinburgh,
to carry on the cultivation of carrots, informs me, that he
trie<l tliat root for seven years upon the siune gi-ound, with-
out dunging, and with gi-eat success, and had one year twen-
ty acres, which he sold at 5 d. per stone, and two acres and a
hail for L.60 ^Sterling, without being at the expence of draw-

OF CHOPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 277

ing them. — He ploughed the ground in October *, in the
common and ordinary way i in Marcli he ploughed it
again in the same manner, and harrowed it well, and where
it was slieltered, he sowed the seed immediately after the
iarrowing, that the weeds might not get a start of the seed,
which is of great consequence. The drills f were made at
.one foot asunder. He then rolled the ground with a heavy
roller, drawn by two horses; when the rows appeared, he
nui the Dutch hoe betwixt the rows, and hand-weeded
the rows, leaving the plants four inches asunder ; in about
three weeks after, he weeded a second time, and kept them
very clean. In October, he cut off the tops with a scythe,
and raised the carrots by ploughing the ground in the ordi^
nary way, as many as were required ; but where the ground
"was dr\', he let tliem remain with their tops on, to guard
them from the frost, and raised them as he had occasion :
frost destroys them, if left in wet ground, during the win-:
ter ; but in dry ground they keep best till the spring, when
they begin to grow, and should be raised in March. Mr
Butterworth sowed about 7 lb. of seed :}: jyei' Scotch acre ;
they yielded a profit equal to wheats and improved the soil
till he had the best crops of barley and wheat after, that
could be imagined; the ground was very indifferent before
it was improved by the cultivation of carrots. He sold the
spot, whick was at Burnhead and Stonehouse, near Liber-
ton, twelve years ago, at more than double the price paid
for it, without any improvement, except by cultivating it
with carrots. On an average the produce was about 2200

• hi other parts of the kingdom, autumnal ploughing is found
much to increase weeds, and to add to the expence of hoeing.

t Drilling has been tried in Suflolk, but did not succeed.

J Never more than 5 lbs. of seed sown in Suffolk broad cast
by the best farmers ; the seed being good, that is to say new.
rhis is nearly the same as 7 lbs. per Scotch acre.

27'8 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

stones or 1 3f tons per Scotch acre. Where the ground
was cold, and not sheltered, the ground was not sown til
April,

Mr Guthrie states, that in the attempts he made to steep
the seed, he partly succeeded, and partly failed, the seed
being bad ; it was steeped in pure water twenty-four
hours *. He has tried to transplant carrots, but did not
find it to answer. He does not think it a good plan to cut
off the tops, the second growth commg too late to protect
the carrots from the frost, as he allowed them to remain in
the ground during the winter. He has given them to his
horses during the whole of April quite sound and fresh,
and they eat the tops as well as the root.

Mr Paterson of Castle- Huntly also cultivates carrots.
He cuts the tops as required, and gives them to the cows ;
the produce of one acre of which, served to support nine
milch-cows for a fortnight ; after which the carrots were
taken up with the plough ; the remainder of the tops were
cut quite close to the body before housing.

Mr John Shirreff has made an interesting experiment,
on a small scale, to ascertain, whether carrots are deterio-
rated, or othei-wise, by cutting off their tops in summer,
and converting them into hay.
Weight of the roots of the carrots, grown on a small

piece of ground, drawn and weighed on the lb. oz.

30th November 1810, - - - 16 4

Ditto of the leaves, _ - - 8 0

24 4
Ditto of the leaves cut on the 7 th of August, 7 8

Total, 31 12

• In SulTolk this is reckoned a most important part of the sys-
tem. ,

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. '279

Weight of the roots and leaves of carrots trrown on an
Cfjiuil extent of land, and of similar quality, drawn and
weigheil on the i30th of November lb. oz.

1810, _ - _ - 46 2

Weight of the leaves alone, - - 13 1*2

Weight of the roots alone, 32 6

Thus it appears, that the roots alone of the carrots, the
leaves of which wera not cut till they were drawn in No-
vember, amount to a greater weight, than both the leaves
and the roots of the carrots that were trimmed over on the
7th August, and that the difference on the whole was
nearly 50 per cent, on the one produce, and to 30 per cent.
on the other. This agrees with the idea, that the sap pre-
pared by the leaves, add size to the roots.

It is also proper to observe, that the weight of root,
which is the most valuable part of the plant, is nearly
double in what was uncut in summer, whereas the extra
growth of leaf in consequence of summer-cutting, is only
about 12 per cetit. at the utmost.

In regard to the culture of carrots in Scotland, it has
been ascertained, in the most satisfactory manner, that
they can be raised on peaty soils with the greatest suc-
cess *.

• The following uccount of this important fact I have received
from a respectable proj)rictor in the county of Fife ; and though
already published, it may not be improper to reprint it in this
place.

It is well known, that carrots delight in a soil where they tlnd
no difficulty in striking their roots downwards Deep sitndy soils
were therefore recommended for that valiutble article but there
is reason to believe that peaty soils will be found greatly prefer-
able.

280 OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

There are difficulties, however, in establishing a more
extensive culture of this plant in Scotland, at least in the

A gentleman in the north of Scotland, being desirous of culti-
vating that root, and understanding that celery throve well on
peat, he resolved to try whether carrots also might not answer ;
and he pitched on an acre of low meadow-ground for thai pur-
pose, which might have been converted into peats for fuel. It was
trenched in November 1805, and a crop of oats taken in 1S06.
After the oats were removed, a moderate quantity of rotten dung,
and some lime, were laid on the ground ; it was then dug over
•with the spade, and in spring 1807 sown with carrots in drills.

In the beginning of the year 1808, the ground got a small
quantity of dung, and was again dug over with the spade, and
sown with carrots. The crop was very abundant, and some of the
carrots measured eighteen inches in length, although the ground
was only trenched to the depth of a foot.

The quantity per acre was from thirteen to fourteen tons, which
was sold, when delivered at Leith, for 7s. 6d. per cwt. or L. 7,
10s. per ton. The produce of an acre, therefore, when the crop
answers, is immense, L. 101, 5s. fer Scotch acre. The value of
carrots, as food for cattle, is well known, and it must be of pecu-
liar consequence, therefore, in the Highland districts of the coun-
try, to cultivate that root.

From l6S to 200 carrots weighed one cwt., and, when sold in
the Edinburgh market, fetched, even the small sized, 1 d. each,
and the larger sorts 1| d. and even 2 d. each.

The principal difficulty is to get good seed. If that can be ob-
tained, no crop will repay so well the expence of cultivation on a
peaty soil. Suffolk is the best county for obtaining it.

The quantity of good, seed required per English acre, is from
5 lbs. to 8 lbs. As farm-servants are not well acquainted with the
culture, it is best to sow the larger quantity. The price varies,
according to the season, from Is. 6d. to 2 3. per lb. The proper
season for sowing field carrots, is from the middle to the end of
March. They should be sown in drills, but not in raised ridges
like turnips, and not rolled. The drills should be eighteen inches

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 28 I

western parts of it. A respectable correspondent re-
marks, that it rccjuires a very favourable season, dry land,
and in full condition, to produce a good cro[), and un-
less it is also very clean from weeds, it requires very mi-
nute attention, and too much time, for persons not ac-
quainted with their exceUencies, to risk the chance of rais-
ing them in such quantities as might prove useful for
stock. Parsnips are not only easier raised, but preserved,
and have more nourishment in them than any other vege-
table, as he has ascertained by feeding with them for
many years, and distilling them.

The most satisfactory information which I have recei-
ved, regarding the culture of carrots in Scotland, was from
Mr William Scott, who had been land-steward for many
years to Admiral Elliot of Mount Teviot, in Roxburghshire,
and to General Robertson of Lawers in Perthshire.

In the course of twenty-seven years' experience in the
culture of carrots, he has found all kinds of soil nearly e-
qually good for raising that root, provided it was old well-
fertilized land. Such he always chose out of the green
crop or fallow plot, and the extent of ground he destined
for carrots, was never less than three or four acres, and
sometimes more. »

apart, if drilled on level ground ; but if done with a plough as
turnips, they would require two feet.

To those who have peaty soils already in cultivation f , a trial
of so promising an experiment is earnestly recommended, and
that they would be pleased to communicate the result to the
President of the Board of Agriculture,

■)• When peaty soils are first cultivated, they ought always to be trenched
in the beginning of winter, and exposed to frost. Jf dug in summer, the
heat of the ?un hardens them, and converts them into peat for fueL But
«ld peaty soils may be trenched for carrots in spring. The produce has a-
nounted even to 16 tons/irr Scotch acre.

282 OP CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

The crop which preceded them was generally oats, ibr
several reasons, 1. The carrots formed a part of the same
field with other green crops , and, 2. They were more cer-
tain not to be cut down, or injured by the worm, when
they were taken after a corn crop, than after the ley or
grass one.

The ground was turned by means of a trench ploughing,
as soon after harvest as the oats were carried off the field)
and lay in that state till the end of February ; then it was
worked with the plough and harrows to a loose mould,
and was afterwards formed into ridges, 30 inches wide,
and from 16 to 18 deep. Tliese were formed by going
twice round in the same direction somewhat similar to
trench ploughing, which raises the top to the above height
from the bottom ; by this method all the surface mould is
accumulated.

The manure Mr Scott used for the first seventeen years,
was rotted dung, turned over and prepared for the pur^
pose; but since that period, he has always preferred a well-
prepared compost of peat-moss and dung. About ten
tons or double cart-loads were given per English acre, re-
gularly spread in the bottom of the drills. In doing this,
care should be taken, not to break down the ridges ; for if
this is done, the dung may be left too near the top of the
ridges or surface, and the carrots would grow short, and
full of fingers or divided roots ; whereas, when the dung
is laid full 16 or 17 inches deep, not a single fork-rooted
carrot will be seen. A singular proof of the advantage of
laying dung deep, at least for carrots.

After the dung is spread according to the above-men-
tioned direction, the drills are split down, and raised up
the same way as before, going twice round every ridge,
in order that there may be fully IG inches from the dung
all of good mould.

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 283

The dung being at the bottom, makes the tap root of
the carrot push immediately down, and swell to an enor-
mous size, the roots being often 16 inches in <nrth, and
18 or 20 inches in length. Mr Scott has frequently had
cart-loads of them picked out, and shewn as a curiosity,
and not one of them of less dimensions.

Before sowing the seed, a rut is made along the top, a-
bout four or five inches wide, and three deep, by means of a
hoe, to allow room to the plants to stand in this shape,

along the top of the ridge or drills,

_ o

similar to double rows.

Many crops of carrots are lost by bad seed. The best
and cheapest Mr Scott ever got was from Messrs Dick-
sons, Shakcspear Square, Edinbm-gh. As the quality of seed
varies in different seasons, he always tried it in a hot-
bed, or something similar, on purpose to see how it spruno-.
This trial at once showed, what was the proper quantity
to sow. Six, seven, or eight pounds, per English acre,
sometimes produced a greater number of plants, than six-
teen pound at other times, which quantity has been sown,
and the plants were far frcMn being too thick *.

Mr Scott has steeped the seed in brew^ers' draff or re-
fuse, in wet sand, and in a wet bag, which several modes
all answered the same purpose. When the seed is too late
of being sown, many think steeping necessary ; but he docs
not approve of steeping in earli^ sowing, as the sudden tran-
sition from a warm, to a cold situation, checks the giowth
of the young plants. When the season is warm, the seed
so\yn springs of itself, if the soil has moisture in it ; if it
has not, the seed had much better lie dry, till rain come,

* It is the (lifTiculty of procuring good seed, and Use minute at-
tention rrquiicd iii the culture of carrots, that renders them so
rare in our fields.

2S4< OP- CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED.

for half-sprung seed, sown in mould, without moisture, will
dry up, and never again revive,

After the above-mentioned ruts are made, girls employ-
ed in the farm-work, got a proper portion of seed in their
aprons, and turning their backs to the wind, they sqw it
of the proper thickness, walking gently down the furrows
a certain number of steps to a handHil, and causing their
fingers and thumb to move so that the seed might drop
equally along in the rut.

This mode of management has answered equally well in
Stratheam, as in Roxburghshire. At Lawers, the crop in
1810, was 33 tons and 70 stones Dutch, produced from
less than a Scotch acre and a half of ground, of as fine, large,
and clean carrots as could be wished for, which were used
for horses, milch-cows, young calves, swine, poultry, &c.
Several persons near Lawers, tried to raise that root, but
did not succeed, owing entirely to improper management,
and no fault of either soil or climate.

The tops make excellent green food for cattle, and could
"be made into hay, if at that time a season could be had to
dry them.

Mr Scott has tried the seed which was got the summer
following, from those which had been left in the field all
winter, and it answered equally well as any other.

The best way to preserve carrots is, to top them close
by the head of the root, and lay them gently down in a
heap within a house. It must be done gently, for when
a person throws them from him at a distance when toping,
they are bruised by the fall, and are so damaged, that they
soon spoil, in the same way as an apple, when bruised on
one side. They should be turned over once a month,
picking out the spoiled ones, which attention will make
them keep sound till the end of April.

From the end of February to the first of April, carrot-
seed may be sown •, but carK' sowing is preferable.

OF CROPS USUALLY CULTIVATED. 285

The second thinnings of carrots afford great relief to
young pigs, as at that time no potatoes can be had. Up-
on the whole, no food is so good for young animals of all
sorts as carrots.

About nine English pounds will serve for a feed to an
ordinary' work-horse, a milch cow, or a bullock of from
35 to 4-0 stones. A barley firlot, which contains four
pecks, will weigh from 70 to 72 English pounds.

When the ground is properly cleaned, an English acre of
carrots cannot be raised and stored into their winter quar-
ters under L. 5, 5 s,; but the value of the root, when the
crop proves a good one, is immense.

Cabbages and Kale. — I am informed, that cabbages, when
properly cultivated, yield more food for cattle than any other
crop whatever *. Mr Waddel at Dockenyfauld, near Glas-
gow, raised cabbages on his fann, at the rate of fifty tons
per acre, and putting them up to the neck in earth, and
covering them with straw, he thus preserves them for his
cows till the month of February. This plan, however,
cannot be adopted on a great scale.

The late Mr Scott of Craiglockhart recommended the
cultivation of cabbages, as green food for cattle in autumn,
and green kale for the same purpose during the months
of March and April, which last is certainly the scarcest
period of the year for food to stock, more especially in high
situations. The kale, (greens or coleworts), however, are
not found to be above two-thirds the value of cabbages,
and often not half so valuable j and Mr John Shirreff is of

* U is said, that as the roots of cabbages weigh from one to
two jiounds each, and are of no use, they must occasion a loss to
that extent. On the other hand, it is contended, that the roots
both of kale and cabbage are much liked by stock, if sliced down
for them.

286 OF cnors usually cqltivated.

opinion, tliat both kale and cabbage are infinitely inferior
to turnip. They require much more expensive manipula-
tion, and must be earlier put in, otherwise they do not
arrive at any size. Tlius, there is not the same oppojtunity
for cleaning and preparing the land for the following crops
in the rotation. They are not likely, therefore, to become
prominent articles in the husbandry of Scotland.

IR^ye. — This species of grain is not very extensively cul-
tivated in Scotland, and the winter sort, without which the
countries on the coasts of the Baltic could hardly be sub-
sisted, is almost unknown. My principal reason for men-
tioning it at all is, that in the opinion of a most intelli-
gent practical farmer in Roxburghshire, i-j'e, on muirish
grounds, is a more certain crop than oats ; a fact httle
known, but of infinite importance in carrying on the im-
provement of our barren districts. Mr George Culley re-
marks, that rye, like oats, will answer on crude soils, with-
out the application of calcareous manures, which renders
that crop pecuharly calculated for waste lands, when first
brought into cultivation. The principal objection, how-
ever, to the culture of rye in Scotland is, that there is lit-
tle demand for it at home, but it might be exported.

Tlax. — Tliis is an article that miuht be more cultivated
in some parts of Scotland than hitherto has been the case,
but it is far from being an unimportant one, even in its pre-
sent state. It is supposed, that there arc at least 5000 acres
of flax raised in the country, producing above L. 20 "per
acre, and consequently worth at least L. 100,000, besides
furnii-hing the raw material for a most valuable manufac-
ture. The board of Trustees at Edinburgh have print-
ed and circulated very useful directions for the culture and
management ol flax, with some observations also on the cul-
ture of hemp. This last article might be raised, witli much

(

OF ROTATION OF CROPS. 287

advantage, on peaty soils, in the Hebrides, wliere there is
such a command of sea-ware as manure, and where the
people, more especially in the winter season, want oniploy-
nient.

Sect. XJ. — Rotation of Crops.

Of all the subjects included in the present inquiry, this/
perhaps, is the most important, and the most difficult to
discuss *. The returns transmitted to me regarding this
single point, exceed eighty in number, and would form a
moderate volume. It is my duty to endeavour to compress
that mass of useful information, within a moderate com-
pass. With that view, I propose briefly to point out the
vanous modes of cropping suggested in the conrse of the
inquiry. It must depend upon the judgment of the fur-*
mer, to adopt those which are best suited to the climate
where he resides, the nature of the soil he cultivates, the
size and situation of his farm, and a variety of other cir-
cumstances which will necessarily require his attention, in
determining which ought to be preferred.

Every farmer must be aware, in fixing on his rotations,
that it is necessary for him to ascertain, not only the va-
rious articles for the production of which his farm is calcu-
lated, and which are likely to yield him the greatest profit ;
but also the succession in which these articles ought to be
raised, so as not to diminish the fertility of his soil ; or, as"
Lord Kames has well observed, so to intermix his crops,

* Even in gaideninu a rotation of crops is adv>snlile. Sec
Nicol's GardeiiL-r'b Kaleudur, p, '21.

288 OF ROTATION OF CROPS.

as to make the greatest possible profit, consistently witJi
keeping his land in order *.

The subject of judicious rotations, has been very ably
touched upon in one of the first reports drawn up for the
Board of Agriculture, by Mr Maxwell of Fletton. That
intelligent farmer justly remarks, that after all the vo-
lumes that have been written on farming, a ratio?ial syS'
iem is the only true groundwork of general improvement,
and that those who carry into execution a profitable sys-
tem of management, or, in other words, a judicious rotation
of crops, bid fair to engage the notice of the neighbour-
hood, in spite of the impression of those habits which at-
tach to unlettered farmers, and thus may be the source of
essential service, both to the cause of agriculture, and to
their country.

On this part of the subject it may be sufficient to add,
that almost the same crops, which, under one system, would
be extremely miprofitable to the farmer, and injurious to
his land, under another rotation, with an intervening green
crop or fallow, might not only be profitable, but might
promote its fertility f .

• Mr Church of Hitcbill remarks, that to adopt a judicious
mode of cropping, requires a degree of judgment in the occupier,
which can only be obtained by experience and observation. ^Vhere
the different processes are properly executed, (on which the pro-
fit of the farmer must greatly depend), the difference between a
good and a bad system, will be found greater, than could have
been imagined by those who have attended but little to the sub-
ject.

+ Compare, for instance, the old course in the Carse of Gowrie,
1. Wheat ; 2. Barley ; 3. Oats ; 4. Pease and beans, when the
crops were trifling, — with the new system, 1. Fallow; 2. Wheat;
3. Beans ; 4. Barley ; 5. Grass ; 6. Oats. Under the first course
the rent was only from 25 s. to 30 s. ptr Scotch acre. Under the
second it has in many cases risen to L. 5 or L. Gft-r Scotch acre;

or nOTATION OF CROPS. 289

In considering this important subject, it is proposed
shortly to discuss the following particulars : 1. The princi-
ples or maxims on which rotations ought to be arranged :
2. The various sorts of rotations which have been adopted
in Scotland, for various periods of two, three, four, five, or
for a longer period of years: 3. Of double rotations, where
two systems are in a manner blended together, and carried
on at the same time : And 4. Any miscellaneous particulars
connected with this branch of the inquiry.

1. or THE PRINCIPLES ON WHICH ROTATIONS OUGHT
TO BE ARRANGED.

I have endeavoured, in the preceding section, to point
out the various articles which are principally cultivated in
Scotland. These articles must be raised, either constantly
on the same ground, or one year must be appropriated for
the growth of one sort of crop, and the next for the pro-
duction of another. There are few cases where the same
land will constantly yield one and the same plant, or where
a repetition of the same crop, or indeed of the same spe-
cies of grain, without some interval, is not found to be in-
jurious. Hemp is one exception to that general rule ; for
in Russia, the same ground invariably produces it, without
either fallow or any intermixture of crops, but in conse-
quence of great quantities of putrescent manure being an-
nually applied. It appears from Mr Butterworth's expe-
riments already mentioned, that carrots have been success-
fully cultivated for seven years, on tlie same ground. In
some instances, bear or big has been sown for years on the

and upwards. The latter rotation, Mr John Shirreff remarks,
would be improved, by having the clover after the wheat, instead
of the bailey,

P. I. T

290 OF ROTATION OF CROPS.

same ground in succession. But in general, a change, or
rotation of crops, has been found not only expedient, but
necessarj'. Indeed every farmer who conducts bis opera-
tions on rational principles, will be attentive to such a
change.

The propriety of adopting any particular rotation must
depend on a variety of circumstances, more especially the
following : 1 . On the climate y whether it is wet or dry.
Wet cHmates, for instance, are favourable to the production
of oats, dry climates for pease, and for the harvesting of
beans * ; and the rotations to be adopted in each chmate
ought to be formed accordingly. 2. On the soil ; for clay,
loam, or sand, have each various crops best calculated for
them. 3. A rotation must also depend upon the situation
of afarm, in regard to the probable sale of its productions:
for instance, a large field of potatoes, which might be worth
L. 25 per acre, near a great town, might not be worth L. 5
in a remote part of the countryf . 4. On the means of improve-
ment by extra manure y as lime, marie, sea- ware, town dung-,
&c. — The celebrated Dunbar rotation, of, 1. Turnips ; 2.
Wheat ; 3. Clover ; and, 4. Wheat, could not be possibly
carried on, without the command of sea-ware, which that
neighbourhood possesses : and, 5. The rotation must also
depend on the state or co?idition of the soil, whether it be

* Mr llennie of Phantassie observes, that beans require mois-
ture, and they never produce a full crop, on dry land, but in a
wet season.

+ Tliat abit reporter, Mr Kerr, in his account of the Berwick-
shire husbandry, remarks, that unless near large towns, where
potatoes are substituted for fallow or turnips, they never consti-
tute a complete part of any rotation, because unsaleable, unless at
prices inferior to the expence of their cultivation, and if universal,
or even but a little more extendt d, they would be unsaleable al-
most at any price. Berwickshire Report, p. '-J 14,

OF ROTATION OF CROPS. 291

old cultivated land, or a new improvement •, whether it be
land which has been cropped judiciously, or by exhaust-
ino- management ; whether it is in good heart, or the re-
verse ; whether it is foul or clean.

We shall now proceed to state the maxims, which have
been recommended, as the best calculated to lay the foun-
dations of judicious systems of rotation.

1. A farmer must have more than one kind of crop upon
his farm ; indeed he could not otherwise carry on his bu-
siness. For instance, had he nothing but wheat, he might
not be able to procure hay and oats for his horses, and so
on. By having various articles also, he does not run so
much risk, either in regard to the season, or to the sale of
the produce afterwards. Besides, if a farmer were to cul-
tivate but one crop, he might often be materially injured
by one unfavourable season ; or if the article which he
raised was not saleable, the land had better have remained
unploughed.

2. To have the crops so arranged, that the labour of
ploughing for each, of sowing, weeding, reaping, &c. shall
proceed in a regular succession, and that the labour or
business be not too much crowded on the farmer, at any
one season of the year, nor any quantity of extra stock
rendered necessary -, but that the crops produced on the
farm, shall be cultivated by the same hands, and with the
same cattle. To this general rule, hand-hoers in spring
and summer, and reapers in autumn, must form an excep-
tion.

3. To avoid forcing crops, or frequent repetitions of the
same articles or species* j as a diminution both in quantity

* The celebrated (ieorge Cullcy is of opinion, that the groater
distance the repetition of any sort of crop can be kept tho better,

T 2

292 OF ROTATION OF CROPS.

and quality, except in very rare instances, never fails to be the
consequence. By fi'equent repetitions of the same crops (as
Mr Scott of Craiglockhart remarks), the soil loses stamina,
which neither manure nor cultivation can renovate. Great
luxuriance in vegetation can be made to take place, with-
out much real productiveness^ as we see where grain is
sown on the sites of dunghills *.

4. To avoid two white crops in succession, but alternate-
ly to have white and green crops. On this head, it is con-
tended, that it is impossible to lay down general rules, with-
out modifying them by such circumstances as are often only
to be known by real practitioners : and though the system
of alternate green and corn crops, is,, beyond question, an
excellent one in general, deviations from it may sometimes
be admitted ; for instance, when old rich leys are broken
up, two crops of oats in succession may be permitted.
This, however, is objected to by one of the ablest farmers
in the kingdom, who maintains, that on dry lands, the se-
cond crop should be either turnips or potatoes, as the si-
tuation answers, and on clays either beans or fallow, which
in general will pay better than a second crop of oats.

5. To avoid crops likely to encourage weeds ; and,
founded on this principle. Lord Kames objects to the cul-
ture of pease, which, if not an extraordinary crop, are apt
to foster weeds. If the land has been previously fallowed
for wheat, and thus cleared of weeds, pease, after wheat, he

and that the rule holds good in regard to leguminous, as well as
white crops. It would seem, however, from Mr Butterworlh's
experiments, that carrots are an exception.

* Mr Andrew of TiUilunib, near Perth, finds, that if clover is
cultivated only once in eight years, the produce is not only about
double, but that the succeeding crop of Oats is better by two bolls
■per acre.

OF DOTATION or CROPS. 29?>

tlimks, may be liazardetl *. Tliis doctrine, however, is in
a great measure superseded by modern improvements.

6. To raise those crops the most hkely to be productive
of manure ; hence green crops are to be recommended, and
barley is to be avoided, producing, when compared to other
crops, the smallest quantity of straw f .

7. To arrange the crops so as to keep the land in good
condition, and increasing, rather than diminishing in point
of fertility |. This is best accomplished by the alternate
husbandry, (or white and green crops in succession), and
giving every part of a farm the advantage of being occa-
sicmaliy pastured.

8. To commence a lease with a meliorating system, but
during the remainder of the term, to crop the land in such
a manner, as to reap, m moderation^ the advantage of the
improvement that has been made. In forming a rotation,
therefore, those articles should be included, which are the
most likely to afford a profitable return to the farmer.

* Gentleman Farmer, p. 143. Mr Robertson of Ladykirk con-
siders pease to be a good crop previous to a fallow, to bring about
land that has been smartly cropped, and lime has a good effect
■after pease.

t \ fair average of straw produced by the different crops, in
the way they are generally cut, according to Air Brown of Mar-
kle's calculation, is, Wheat, 180 stones ; Beans and pease, 150;
Oats, l60 ; and Barley only 120 per Scotch acre, all Scotch
weight, containing 22 lbs. avoirdupois, per stone.

X Mr Andrew of Tillilumb remarks, that it ought to be a lead-
ing maxim with all farmers, never to take a crop but when their
ground is in good condition. Hence their first care and chief
studv ought to be, how they may bring their ground into, and
keep it in the best order, and not what they ca'.^. draw or take
foi the season. If thev are kind ind generous, the grateful earth
certainly will give, under proper management.

294' OF ROTATION OF CROPS.

Keeping these maxims in view, we shall now proceed to
consider, the various rotations which have either been
adopted by, or recommended to, the attention of the far-
mers in Scotland.

2. OF THE VARIOUS SORTS OF ROTATIONS.

It is not unusual, in treating of this part of the subject,
to consider rotations as they are apphcable to different soils,
for instance, clay, loam, &c. ; but I think it on the whole
more expedient, to tliscuss the different courses of crops,
according to the number of years they respectively require
t(* finish the rotation j some occupying two years, some
three, some four, some five, &c. Under each head it will
be proper to explain, for what description of soil each ro-
tation is best calculated.

Tisoo years' Rotation. — In particular cases, some farmers
have adopted a rotation of two crops. A field belonging
to the Honourable George Abercromby, embanked from
the Forth, carried, for several years, beans and wheat al-
ternately. Upon his best loams, Mr Brown of Markle
also takes wheat and beans alternately, summer-fallowing
the ground, when its condition requires that process. Mr
Fairie of Farme, near Glasgow, has adopted the same sys-
tem, giving a moderate dressing of dung every fourth year.
Dr Charles Stuart, on his farm near Edinburgh, has tried
a similar system on four acres and a half of loam, the ro-
tation being wheat and green crops alternately ; but the
latter were alternate potatoes and beans, both drilled. In
the course of fourteen years, he has had, on this field, four
crops of potatoes, three of beans, and seven of wheat. To
every green crop, putrescent manure was applied ; thirty
tons at least to potatoes, and twenty-five to beans. The

OF nOTATION' OF CROPS. 295

potatoe crops were all good : The two first crops of beans
were very good : The third, inditterent. The crops of
wheat were large, producing from ten to thirteen bolls,
Linlithgow measure, per Scotch acre, or from 32 to 41
bushels per English acre. The only deficiency was in
crop 1789, which averaged but nine bolls j:jer acre j that
might be ascribed, however, to a season peculiarly un-
favourable. There is no evidence of diminished fertility
in the field, for in August 1810 it was covered with a
luxuriant crop of turnips. It was perfectly free from
couch-grass, and rooted perennial weeds, which are now in
a great measure extirpated by hoeing and weeding, but it
is still much infested with annual weeds, particularly the
wild mustard and radish, which may be imputed to the ne-
glect of the farmers in the neighbourhood, who rarely di'ill
or hand hoe their crops, and to the use of Edinburgh dung,
stored, from that neglect, with the seeds of these, and other
injurious plants, which the richness of the soil brings both
speedily and universally to vegetate. Dr Stuart adds, that
the quantity of produce from the above rotation has not
diminished, but that both the wheat and beans have de-
generated in quality; and on this account, though the
result might not be thought unfavourable by many, he
would not adopt it, if he had a larger space of land on his
farm calculated for wheat.

It is evident, that it is only in the richest loams, or
most fertile soils, or where n^anure is plentiful, that such a
rotation is at all practicable.

Three years' Rotation. — We shall next proceed to con-
sider a rotation of three crops, and finding no instance of
the sort in Scotland, it may not be improper to give an ex-
ample practised by a native of Scotland, Mr Arbuthnot,
who farmed in Surry. That respectable gentleman, and
most intelligent farmer, practised, for nine years, a throe

296 OF ROTATION OF CROPS.

course system, viz. 1. Beans; 2. Wheat; 3. Clover, and
when he quitted the farm where that plan was adopted, he
was fully persuaded, that he could have continued the same
rotation for many years longer. This, however, was ef-
fected by means of London dung, which he had at com-
mand, and which he gave to the bean crop. He also
ploughed nine inches deep, with a swing plough, the con-
struction of which has been justly celebrated.

Other farmers have followed a similar system ; for in-
stance, 1. Potatoes, cabbages, or hoed crops, with ma-
nure; 2. Wheat; and 3, Clover or grass : Or, 1. Hoed
crop, with manure ; 2. Half oats, and half barley ; 3. Clo-
ver or grass.

Dr Coventry has made some observations upon these
courses, to which he urges the following objections : 1.
That there is rather too large a proportion of fallow or
cleansing crop, more than what can be wanted in ordinary
situations, to preserve the land free of weeds. 2. By there
being but one-third bearing corn, it is Jess profitable than
it might be. 3. There are two species of crops in the first
example ; which circumstance does not permit the labour
to be sufficiently divided and extended over the year, and
leaves too much to be risked on the success of a particular
crop. 4. The quantity of straw obtained for food or lit-
ter, to live stock, must be rather scanty, or in a deficient
proportion to what will in general be wanted.

The advantages of such a system, he states, in the fol-
lowing terms : 1. From the great proportion of green crops
in this course, much manure will be procured, for all the
straw will be converted into dung. 2. This scheme is cal-
culated to render or preserve the land very clean of weeds.
It may therefore answer as a beginning course, in situations
where the groimd is foul, and manure wanted ; but it may
be relinquished afterwards for a better one- It is not in-
deed in general use in any district, and has only been fol-

©F ROTATION OF CROPS. 297

lowed by some individuals, who have found it of benefit in
the respects above mentioned.

Four years' Rotation. — Rotations o^four cropsy however,
are by far more general, and will require more ample dis-
cussion. The first to be pointed out, is the celebrated
Norfolk system, namely, 1. Turnips; 2. Barley; 3. Clo-
ver ; and, 4. Wheat, which has been adopted in several
parts of Scotland. Even in Norfolk, however, this course
is no longer so generally recommended. It is considered
prejudicial to the landlo» d ; and, on a lease of twenty-one
years, if constantly persevered in, it would not be found pro-
fitable to the tenant. Half the firm has annually a white
straw crop, which, from the frequency of the repetition,
would not be productive ; besides which, the number of
sheep and cattle kept under this system is comparatively
trifling*. It is also much doubted, whether wheat will
prosper so near the barley crop j and it can hardly be ques-
tioned, that without a plentiful supply of extra manure,
both the turnip and the clover crop will fail, unless the
land is refreshed by grass for at least two or three years.

It may be proper to compare this rotation, with others
on a similar principle, for dry soils.

In Roxburghshire, Mr Walker of Mellendean's rotation
is one-fourth in turnip and drilled beans ; one-fourth in
wheat and barley after turnips and beans, and sown dovra
with grass-seeds ; one-fourth in hay, soiling, and pasture-
grass J and one-fourth in wheat or oats, after hay and pas-

* Dr Coventry remarks, on the Norfolk system, that though
the land on which this scheme is pursued, seldom, if ever, be-
comes by it less fertile ; yet for poor ground it seems not to be
sufficiently meliorating, or fitted soon to raise land to that degree
of productiveness in which it is found to be the most valuable to
the cultivator*

298 OF ROTATION OF CROPS.

ture. In the light soils of Norfolk, neither beans or oats
are cultivated, and beans are certainly not suitable to very
light turnip land.

Mr Rennie of Phantassie, and Mr Brown of Markle,
generally adopt, in their turnip soils, the followang rota-
tion: 1. Turnips; 2. Winter wheat, sown in spring*, or
barley; 3. Clover; and, 4. Oats. This is certainly a pro-
ductive rotation, and it is strongly in its favour that it ia
recommended by such eminent farmers, who are justly ac-
counted at the head of their profession.

Mr Hunter of Tynefield's rotation is, 1 . Turnips ; 2.
Wheat ; 3. Grass, (mostly sheep fed) ; 4. Four-fifths winter
wheat sown in spring, and one-fifth oats. He adds, that
under this rotation, the produce of his farm has been im-
proved, both in quality and in quantity, since its com-
mencement to the present time, and continues to improve.
The additional quantity is to the amount of no less than
'•i\ bolls per Scotch acre, or 4 bushels per English acre.

I have now to state a course of cropping still more se-
vere, which I think may be called the lyunbar Rotation^
<as hitherto it has only prevailed in that neighbourhoods

* In regard to winter wheat sown in spring, offer turnips, an
experienced farmer, (Mr Dudgeon of Prora), observes, that it may
be safeiy sown as late as the middle of March, and it has suc-
ceeded even later, and that ou fine land it may be safely taken in
preference either to barley or oats, if sheep have eat the turnips
upon the ground. This is the most valuable, and the least ex-
pensive method of using them. But fine land, by this scheme,
would be over dunged, were it not for the practice adopted of
stripping out a part of the turnips, to the amount of one-fourth,
one third, or even one-half, (leaving the alternate rows), and
carrving those drawn out to the cattle. When a certain breadth
is ihtih. stripped, the sheep-flakes can be set upon the drills whicl;
r^ninu), and the stripping be carried on as they need more ground.

OF ROTATION OF CROPS. 299

Tlie course is, 1. Turnips; 2. Drilled wheat; 3. Clover;
4>. Drilled wheat. Being extremely anxious to ascertain,
not only the details of this system, but also whether the
plan, when persevered in, continued to be productive, I
procured tlie following particulars regarding it, from Mr
Hume of East Barns, and Mr Rennie of Oxwell Mains,
two respectable farmers, by whom it is adopted. They
informed me, that some deviations were occasionally made
from the plan, (but not such as to alter the general system),
by cultivating, on rich spots, pease, or beans, or potatoes,
in lieu of turnips, and by having three green crops in suc-
cession, when the soil is much subjected to the growth of
annual weeds, or requires to be refreshed. It would ap-
pear, however, that without a good climate, such as they
enjoy in the lower part of East-Lothian, and great quan-
tities of sea-ware, or other adventitious manure, it would
be perfectly impossible to continue such a rotation. The
quantity and sorts of dung iisually applied, is, to the
amount of about thirty double horse cart-loads per Scotch
acre, to the land intended for turnips, whereas not more
than one-half that quantity is given by the majority of far?-
mers, and in many instances not more than twelve such
carts. The turnips are always eaten on the ground by sheep,
which is, (where the situation will admit of it), by far the
best and cheapest method. The same quantity of dung or
sea-weed is also applied on the grass land before plough-
ing. It is found, that applying the sea-weed early in
spring, on the clover to be cut, if laid on in dry weather,
answers well for the succeeding crop of wheat. Notwith-
standing, however, all these advantages, Mr Hume, in a
recent communication, informs me, that he is now fully sa-
tisfied that wheat will not grow with success, on light
lands, every other year, for any length of time. After
practising it for fourteen years, though by the force of ma-
nure he could grow abundance of straw every otjicr year,

SOO OF ROTATION OF CROPS.

yet the grain at length turned out liker rye than wheat.
He proposed, therefore, trying oats, instead of the se-
cond crop of wheat.

The soil where this rotation prevails is of a dry quahly.
If such a rotation were attempted on wet soils, it would be
advisable to sow oats after the grass, instead of wheat *,

* Upon the trial of a small piece of grass, partly wheat, and
partly oats, both close together, Mr Dudgeon of Prora actually
had thirteen bolls of oats, and only seven of wheat per Scotch
acre, or 62 bushels of oats, and only 22 of wheat per English
acre, The wheat and oats were both sown near the middle of
February, both equally well harrowed, and covered with the
mould ; but the tornier, besides being deficient in quantity, was
much interior to good wheat, while other spring-sown wheat, on
such land, but not sown after pasture, was as fine as usual.

I am infiirmed by Mr Brown of Markle, that a great many
years ago. he made a trial of wheat and oats after clover, the re-
sult of which was clearlv in favour of oats. He measured one
acre of the clover land, and sowed the remainder of the field with
wheat, and in the spring sowed the reserved acre with oats. Each
acre of the wheat produced 8 bolls, which he sold at ? 1 s. j»pr
boll, or L. 8, 8 s. per acre, whereas the oats yielded 14 bolls of
saleable grain, for which he obtained 14 s. per boll, or L. 9. l6s.
Besides, the land which carried oats was m far better condition
than the other.

Other mielligent farmers, also, object to wheat after grass. Mr
Andrew of Tillilumb, near Perth, states, that if only one plough-
ing is g.ven to wheat after grass, the slug-snail eats it up. This
is also partly the case, though ^t gets several ploughings, unless
they are given very early in the season, as thus he apprehends
the giound does not yet get time to rot and pulverize, so as to
gather that firmness and closeness which would prevent their
lodging therein ; and besides, he thinks that there is a something
about the ground after grass, which is not congenial to wheat :

OF ROTATION OF CROPS, SOI

(and that is in general the preferable system), but in land
of a very dry quality, the drought is frequently very preju-
dicial to the crop of oats, which require moisture, and con-
sequently should be sown early in dry climates.

The principal objection to this system, according to Dr
Coventry, is, that too much labour comes to be performed
at one period of the year, and that too much is risked, or
left dependent on the success of a single species of crop.

One most important observation on this subject has been
made by Mr Rennle of Oxwell Mains, namely, that wheat
sown after grass, early in autumn, often fails j but if sown
in spring, it generally succeeds. It is never at the same

hence, though the snail may not devour it about this time or in
winter, it dies away in the spring, or blights in summer.

Another farmer remarks, that he sometimes sows a few acres
of wheat, by preparing it with rag-fullow ; that is, by giving the
ley two or three furrows, and proper harrovvings, to reduce the
turf. However, if the loss of winter pasture, extra work beyond
what an oat^crop requires, and the foul state the land is common-
ly left in, by this practice for fallow, is put to the debtor side of
the wheat account, perhaps this method of growing wheat does
not prove more profitable than an oat crop. He has tried, be
adds, wheat after grass, but never found it answer with only one
furrow.

Mr Wight of Ormiston is perfectly satisfied, that oats in place
of wheat after grass three years old, or upon chA'er ley, is by far
the most sure, profitable, and advantageous crop to the farmer,
independent of leaving the land in much cleaner order ; and that
wheat upon a rag-fallow is a bad system, not equal to oats upon
one furrow, and never fails to leave the land very dirty, besides
the extra labour required.

In short, almost the whole evidence decidedly proves, that oats
after clover is of greater value than a wheat crop, aiul it is much
more consistent with the rules of an improved system of husbandry.

802 "OF ROTATION OF CROPS.

time so good in quality, or so productive in quantity, ad
wheat after turnips, or even after pease and beans.

Mr Church of Hitchill recommends a plan for cultiva-
ting wheat on a clover ley, which has been found to an-
swer, and which seems to merit particular attention. He
proposes breaking up the grass in the beginning of July
immediately after the crop of hay is taken off, or the land
is out of pasture, then sowing it with rape or cole, after
one furrow, and eating it down with sheep in September
and October. As soon as that is done, the land should
receive only one furrow, and should then be sown with
wheat. This method reduces the land to a fine state,
and at less expence than by a bastard fallow ; and though
the summer pasture is partly lost, yet the feed in September
and October amply compensates for it. The ground is more
sensibly enriched than by the summer pasturing, and ren-
dered so fine, that the wheat crop could easily be drilled.
By this method the soil is not only put into a rich and
mellow state, but that something is removed which makes
wheat after grass otherwise unsuccessful.

Mr Hume of East Barns observes, that it is more in the
rotation, than in the mode of ploughing, that most farmers
are deficient. He is convinced from experience, that pease
are not calculated for East-Lothian to any extent : if his
lands therefore were unfit to carry beans, and were dry
enough for turnips, he would consider the four-course shift
of 1. Turnips j 2. Oats, Barley, or Wheat ; 3. Grass ; and
4. Oats, as the best mode; and if the farm were so situated,
as not to be able to give a thin dunging cveiy fourth year,
in the turnip drills, in that case let the grass remain two, or
even three years old, so as to require only a fiftli or sixth
part annually duiigcd. If the lands were clay, consequent-
ly unfit for turnips, he would take fallow, wheat, grass,
and oats ; the grass to remain one, two, or three years, as
above. The grass, after the first year, would pay little on

OF ROTATION OP CROPS. 3(1^.

day lands, but when in grass, there is no expence, and all
the otlier crops must be good ; but on land that will carry
beans, he thinks, a six-course shift the best, which will af-
terwards be described.

On land calculated for that system, 1 . Fallow or fallow
crops; 2. Wheat; 3. Clover; and 4<. Oats; is peculiarly
advantageous; and from the profits resulting from the adop-
tion of that rotation, an active and intelligent farmer, (John
Tennant, Esq. of Girvan Mains in Ayrshire), has gradual-
ly been enabled to stock three different farms ; and begin-
ning with a rent of only L. 50 per annwriy he now annual-
ly pays L. 2700 ox Jifty-Jour times the suhi he originally
paid when he commenced his professional business. There
can hardly be a stronger argument in favour of that sys-
tem.

Mr Brodie of Garvald, in an upland farm, where the
fixing of a proper rotation is of peculiar importance, a-
dopts the following course: 1. Turnips; 2. Barley; 3.
Grass ; 4. Oats. He recommends the red oat in particu-
lar for such situations, and in the more northern or higher,
situations and districts, it is probable that bear or big
would be better than barley.

Tlie rotation of four crops adopted near Edinburgh,
namely, I. Potatoes; 2. Wheat; 3. Clover; and 4. Oats,
is a very productive one, but unfortunately is only calcula-
ted for the neighbourhood of great towns, where there i5,
a great command of manure.

There cannot be a better preparation for wheat than po'
tatoes *, nor one more valuable, in respect of produce, but

• This is certainly couslstent with the experience of ScotlancT,
and yet in the neighbouring county of Northumberland, ()ne ot
its most intelligent farmers, Mr Bailey of Chillingham, informs,
me, tbiit ou llie strong lands of that county, clover ahuost iini-

304- OF ROTATION OF CROPS.

they require a great quantity of dung, and are not always
marketable, their value in the feeding of stock not being
yet generally known, nor equal to ruta baga.

We shall now proceed to state rotations of four in clayey
soils.

In thin clays, a four course shift is recommended, as, 1,
Fallow ; 2 Bear, or Barley ; 3. Clover 5 and 4. Oats ; be-
cause such soils become worse the longer they remain in
grass. It is thought, however, by many respectable far-
mers, that the clover should be pastured, not only for one,
but for two years, and that the rotation should be extend-
ed to five years.

On the estate of Monorgan, in the Carse of Gowrie,
the foliov ing rotation was adopted on a fine friable dry
clay, and lias been for many years followed with much suc-
cess : 1. Fallow i 2. Wheat; 3. Drilled beans; and 4.
Wheat.

A farmer, who has taken about 300 acres in that dis-
trict, at the rent of about L. 6, 10 s. per Scotch acre, pro-
poses to adopt the following course : i. Beans ; 2. Wheat;
3. Clover ; 4. Wheat.

This rotation, however, is strongly objected to from a
number of respectable quarters. It is said that clover never
answers after wheat and beans, and that wheat after clo-
ver is very precarious on the best of soils, and cannot there-
fore be depended upon during a long lease, as a source of
profit. The crops of beans and clover cannot afford that
rent ; and no allowance is made for summer fallow, though
the practice cannot be dispensed with in the Carse of
Gowrie. The idea of havinor one-fourth of a farm under

versally falls after wheat luid polutocs. Perhaps they do not
plough so deep in Northmnbeiland, which is essential for the fre-
quent succesbful repetition of clover, or the land may be injured
when tin; crop is taken off.

OF ROTATION OF CROPS. S05

beans, as a preparation for wheat, in so moist and cliange-
able a climate as that of Scotland, would never answer, as
it is very difficult, even in favourable seasons, to sow any
quantity of wheat after beans. Oats, instead of the second
crop of wheat, would be a great improvement on this ro-
tation.

Five year^ Rotation. — Rotations of Jive crops have in
many cases been recommended both for strong and light
lands.

Mr Rennie of Oxwell Mains thinks, that a rotation of
five, 1 . Turnips or plain fallow ; 2. Wheat ; 3. Grass ;
4. Pease or beans drilled ; and 5. Wheat, would, if well
executed, answer well on light soils, having a powerful
tendency to exterminate weeds. He does not think that
there can be any loss in having a plain fallow, even on the
driest soils, it being almost next to an impossibility to clean
land so well with green crops, but that there will remain a
great many root weeds, so very prejudicial to the soil. The
proper time for doing this effectually is in July or August,
and must be accomphshetl by deep ploughing, which can
nev^er be performed if the land is under a crop. The rota-
tion of five, above detailed, is what he means to adopt, if
his land tires of wheat every other year j but while the
wheat turns out in the manner it has hitherto done for
these some years past, he will certainly continue his pre-
sent system of 1. Turnips; 2. Drilled wheat; 3. Clover;
and 4. Drilled wheat, the most advantageous rotation that
can well be adopted.

Above forty-t^\o years ago, John Mackenzie, Esq. of
Glasgow, adopted the following system: 1. Potatoes; 2.
Wheat ; 3. Grass ; 4. Pasture ; 5. Oats ; — a plan which, he
maintains, has not yet been improved upon. On the sub-
ject of cropping, Mr Mackenzie observes, that whenever
the farmer discovers that he can be as well paid by culti-

r. I. u

306 OF ROTATION OF CROPS.

rating food for the use of cattle, as for man, from the in-
creased quantity of manure procured under that system,
Britain will cease to find it necessary to import corn.
Grain, he adds, should in general never be sown, but when
the ground is laid down to grass, or ploughed from it *.

On light soils, of moderate quality, a five field course is
adopted by that intelligent farmer Mr Charles Alexander,
viz. 1. Tinnips J 2. Grain •, 3. Grass ; 4. Grass; 5. Grain.

Upon moss or peaty soils, after effectual draining, the
following course is recommended : 1. Potatoes or turnips -,
2. Barley or bear ; 3. Clover ; 4. Pasture ; and, 5. Potatoe
oats, which would prove a most advantageous crop. Peaty
soils, however, are apt to^et puffy by tillage, and require,
in general, more pasture to consolidate them.

^Ir Maxwell considers the following course of crops, for
five years, as preferable to every other : 1. A chsansing
crop of whatever kind is best suited to the soil, as turnips,
tares, or cole-seed, to be hoed, but not to stand for seed ;
2. A crop of white corn of the kind best suited to the soil,
to be laid down with clover ; 3. Clover, either grazed or
mowed ; ^. Beans, where suited to the soil, sheep-fed and
hoed, or some such meliorating crop adapted to the soil ;
5. White corn suited to the soil f : and he contends, that

* Mr Curwen concurs in these sentiments. He remarks, in his
Report to the Workington Society, anno 1810, p. 103, that the fi.st
ietson in modern husbandry is, to correct and control too extensive
))l()Utj,hnig, which is eti'ectually done by confining the tenant to
alternate wJute and green crops. The proportion of green crops,
with few exceptions, is too little, even in the best ciiftivated
farms in this cduntiy. When this shall be fully understood, a
great and Cisenti.il point will be gained, and the jjrogrcss of good
nubbandry will become very rapid.

f It is remarked, on this system, that some corn-crop, as oats,
ought to follow the clover, and not beans.

OF ROTATION OF CROrs. 307

however various our soils, and however different in their
nature, the same order or course of cropping ought to be
pursued, (fen lands always excepted), changing only the
species of our corn and vegetables, and adapting them to
the nature of the soil we have to work upon, and the de-
mand in the market for the articles that are cultivated.

It is certain, that by such state of cropping, a soil of
tolerable natural fertility, might not only be supported
without foreign aid, but might increase in fertility; but Dr
Coventry on this subject has well observed, that when
crops, intended to ripen their sced^ are objects of culture,
there is only wanted a degree of vigour and luxuriance in
the plants, sufficient for that parpose ; and if the fertility
of the soil be raised to a higher pitch than is necessary, or
consistent with that object, injurious, rather than beneficial
effects, may be the consequence. Land may be too rich
for corn crops, and it is better to keep it in a "well-balanced
condition^ or in a medium state of productiveness, than in
too fertile a condition ; besides the climate may be unfa-
vourable for pulse crops, in which case a second year of
herbage would be preferable to beans or pease *.

* It may not be improper to state, in a note, the improved
systems of cropping in Norfolk, a district from which Scotland
has derived so much valuable information. The courses, as re-
commended by that eminent agriculturist Mr Coke, consist (either
of five or six crops. The five course is, 1. Wheat; 2. Turnips;
3. Barley; 4. Clover; 5. Grass. The six course is, 1. Pease;
2. Wheat; 3. Turnips; 4. Barley; 5. Clover; 6. Grass. It is
now ascertained, that for a district possessing a soil and climate
similar to that in the neighbourhood of Holkham, the alternate
use of the five and six course system is the best husbandry, be-
cause pease will not succeed above once in ten years.

u2

;)08 OF UOTATION OF CROPS.

We shall now proceed to consider the rotation of six
crops, which is deservedly a favourite system in Scotland.

Six years^ Rotation. — In a light soil near Alloa, Mr Kerr
of Lome's Hill has adopted the following rotation: 1.
One-half potatoes, one-half turnips ; 2. One-half wheat
after potatoes, one-half oats after turnips ; 3. Hay; ^. Pas-
ture ; 5. Oats •, 6. Barley. Here, however, there are two
white crops in succession. Perhaps it would be advisable
to convert it into a rotation of five, leaving out the barley
or the sixth crop, and putting barley instead of oats after
turnips the second year. Nothing can succeed barley with
so much advantage, as clover and grass-seeds. Mr Ren-
nie of Phantassie likewise observes, that in good lands,,
pasture ought never to succeed hay, which ought to be
taken as a crop and ploughed after.

Mr Robertson of Ladykirk pioposes the following rota-
tions on a good soil, 1. Potatoes or turnips; 2. Barley;

3. Grass ; ^. Potatoe oats ; 5. Beans ; 6. Wheat. On in-
ferior soils, 1. Turnips or fallow; 2. Wheat; 3. Clover;

4. Pasture ; 5. Pasture ; 6. Angus oats.

On all the strong lands in the Carse of Gowrie, and in
other fertile districts in Scotland, the following rotation of
six crops, with some variations, is considered as preferable
to every otlier : 1. Fallow ; 2. Wheat ; 3. Beans ; 4. Bar-
ley; 5. Grass; 6. Oats; and, as it seems to be admitted,
that on strong lands in Scotland, fallow is necessary once
in six years, there cannot, on the whole, be a better sys-
tem for such soils. Where wheat can be taken the fourth
year instead of barley, the produce is still more valuable.
By some farmers, the course is altered in the following
manner: 1. Fallow; 2. Wheat; 3. Clover; 4. Oats; 5.
Beans ; 6. Wheat. This seems to be on the whole the
best system, for the clover will produce a more abundant

OP KOTATION' OP CKOPS. 309

crop when it succeeds wheat after fallow, than when it is
the second crop after beans -, and Mr llcnnie of Phantassie
observes, that this system will be less expensive in llie cul-
ture than the preceding one. All these rotations, however
varied, are founded on the acknowledged principle, that
the alternate husbandry is the most advantageous.

Since the decrease of the value of barley, and the great
demand for wheat, they have, in the Carse of Gowrie, in
some degree, deviated from the regular system above
pointed out, by sowing about one-half of the fourth divi-
sion with wheat and grass-seeds, to bring the grounds
again into a proper rotation, in order that the whole fifth
division may be under grass ; and still farther to increase
the quantity of wheat, a great part of the sixth division is
often sown with wheat instead of oats. By thus stealing
from the barley and oat divisions, which is done only in
favourable seasons^ there is often one-third part of the farm
in wheat, instead of one-sixth part, as the rotation before
points out. Such practices, however, cannot be recom-
mended.

On the subject of this rotation, it is only necessary to
add, that some intelligent farmers disapprove much of sow-
ing wheat on limed fallows, bting so frequently thrown out
of the soil, the lime opening the soil, and admitting the
frost; the consequence frequently is, little more than half a
crop of inferior wheat. Some change, therefore, in the
rotation in this respect, or some other mode of application
for the time, would be advisable. Mr Dudgeon of Prora
very properly suggests, that perhaps barley on the fallow,
having been so little sown for many years past, would be
extremely productive ; and Mr Wight of Ormiston has no
hesitation in declaring, that barley, instead of wheat, on
limed fallows, without dung, if sown on the winter furrow,
would be a very productive, and not a precarious crop. Some-

310 OF ROTATION OF CHOPS.

farmers have, it is said, found by long experience, that
barley is a better crop after fallow, than wheat, the great
pulverization that the soil receives during the fallow being
admirably calculated for that crop. About thirty years
ago indeed, barley used to be the first crop after fallow in
Scotland. But the price of wheat is so much better, that
it is extremely hostile to any change of system.

Sex^en ycar^ 'Rotation. — Some farmers have tried a rota-
tion of seven crops. Mr Cunninghame, near Perth, who
rents about L. 1200 jper annum^ has adopted the following
course: 1. One-seventh potatoe and naked fallow; 2.
Wheat; 3. Beans; 4. Wheat, when the season admits;
5. Barley ; 6. Clover ; 7. Oats, or sometimes a few acres
after grass sown with wheat, after three furrows and a lit-
tle dung. This rotation is highly exceptionable, as barley
after wheat cannot possibly be recommended ; besides,
clover, after two such crops, can never answer in a succes-
sion of years.

3. OF DOUBLE ROTATION.

There is a mode of cropping to which I think the name
of a double rotation may be given. It is where a particular
course has been laid down, but where part of the farm is
alternately put under different crops, so as to prevent too
frequent a repetition of the same sort of grain, on the
same spot. Mi' Wood of Milrig proposed, on that prin-
ciple, to cultivate 1000 acres of convertible land, in Ox-
fordshire, under the following system :

OF ROTATION OF CROPS. 311

Acre,. ^"°"^ ^°""^
of Cropping.

1. Sammer-fallow, turnips")

, , C 1st division, 200 2d divis.

and beans, - J

2. Wheat, - 2d, — 200 3d, —

3. Clover, one year old, 3d, — 200 4th, —

4. Clover, two years old, 4th, — 200 5th, —

5. Wheat and oats, 5th, — 200 1st, —

Total, 1000

It is intended to shift the turnip and the bean allotments
every time to different ground.

By sowing down with clover the second division annual-
ly, and breaking up annually the fourth, it comes into
the place of the fifth, which is taken off regularly for sum-
mer-fallow after the wheat and oats. It is thus placed in-
to the first division, and of course changes all the divisions
round, as often as that mode of agriculture is followed.
By this means the farm is always kept under the same
crops, only the different divisions are changed alternately.
Mr Wood considers this system as peculiarly calculated
for farms at a distance from large towns, as all the divi-
sions would be maintained in a high state of cultivation
and fertility.

Another sort of double rotation is one which is fre-
quently practised in Berwickshire, where a part of a farm
is preserved in grass for three, four or five years, then
brought into the regular rotation, and another field taken
out of it. An intelligent farmer, Mr Thomson at Bewlie in
Roxburghshire, has adopted this plan with much success.
His rotation upon the dry soil division of his farm is, 1.
Turnips or fallow J 2. Wheat, barley or oats ; 3. Clover,
partly cut and partly pastured ; and, 4. Partly wheat, but
princi|)ally potatoe oats ; but he has a fifth division which

312 OF ROTATION OF CHOPS.

is kept in grass, and which is thrown out of the rotation
for three, four or five years, and then brought in again ;
so tliat in the course of a twenty-one years' lease, each di-
vision, in its turn, remains in grass for that period of
time. In lands which are not naturally fertile and pro-
ductive, this plan must be attended with very advanta-
geous consequences. Every part of a farm thus derives a
proportional share of the advantage of being kept in grass,
which is infinitely preferable to the plan of preserving one
part of a farm constantly in grass, and the remainder un-
der a rotation of crops.

On the whole, however, unless in situations peculiarly
favourable, or in the neighbourhood of towns, the six
course shift seems to be the preferable system, and I shall
briefly lay before the reader the rotations, which, in the
opinion of my most intelligent correspondents, seem, gene-
rally speaking, to be the best, varying according to the na-
ture of the soil under cultivation.

If, in addition to these systems, one-seventh part of a
farm were thrown into grass, for three, four, or five years,
in the manner above described, agriculture, on good soils,
in so far as regarded the rotation of productive crops, and
the preservation of the land in a state of permanent ferti-
lity, would be brought to all the perfection of wliich it was
capable.

1. Oil clay land.— r-l. Fallow ; 2. Wheat ; 3. Clover j 4.
Oats ; 5. Drilled beans and pease ; 6. Wlicat.

Barley is excluded from this rotation, not being very
favourable to the growth of wheat, and the latter being so
much more valuable. Pease should be mixed with the
beans, and som'u at the same time, in the proportion of a-
bout one-fourth, l-'ivc fnlots of the two sorts, or twenty
^ccks2>er Scotch acre.

OP ROTATION OF CHjOPS. 315

2. On Loams. — 1. Turnips or lallow, 2. Wheat and
barley j 3. Clover j 4. Oats ; 5. Pease or beans •, 6.
Wheat.

This, on its proper soil, is a most productive rotation ;
and lands, to which it is adaptedj will pay the highest
rent. It can hardly, however, be long persevered in, ex-
cept in very fertile land, assisted by foreign manure. The
winter wheat may be sown in spring, after turnips, till the
1st of March, and barley afterwards.

A most intelligent farmer on the borders, recommends
the following rotation on such a soil : 1 . Turnips ; 2.
Winter wheat sown in spring till the middle of March,
and, after the late eat turnips, barley ; S. Seeds, either
clover alone, or clover and rye grass with a httle yellow or
hop clover amongst it ; 4-. Oats ; 5. Beans ; 6. Barley or
wheat. As wheat after beans, though bulky, is very apt
to be coarse in the grain, he thinks that barley ought to
be preferred *, giving the ground two or three furi'ows,
which leaves the land in an excellent state for turnips.
He finds, that early oats after clover, is invariably, on all
friable soils, the most beneficial crop, producing seldom less
than 60 Winchester bushels per English acre, and much
more profitable than wheat, which is so apt to be mildewed.
This course divides the crops in a most advantageous man-
ner ; all the most valuable grains are grovni without any
two in the same course, except a little barley twice, owing
to a part being sown after the late eaten turnips. Some
people sow oats after turnips ; as, in the northern districts,
barley is frequently so cheap, and sometimes lower in
price than oats. But barley, to a certainty, answers best

* Others prefer wlieat, as the crop is a sure u\u\ if the beans
have answered ; and it is only on particular soils that the grain is
worse.

31 4- OF ROTATION OF CROPS.

to SOW late after turnips, and oats are found, by long
experience, to do worse after turnips than any grain.
Besides, clover seldom does well amongst oats, rather better
among barley, but invariably the best with spring sown
wheat. Amongst barley, if not lodged, they will succeed ;
but from the rich state the land is in, barley is apt to lodge,
which ruins the seeds, except sprat or battie-door barley
is sown, which seldom lodges. Grass seeds never fail a-
mong spring sown wheat, which is not so apt to lodge as
winter and autumnal sown wheat, or perhaps any other
grain. Mr John ShirrefF also remarks, that as the wheat
is sown earlier than the barley or oats, so is the clover, and
this early sowing secures moisture, and promotes vegeta-
tion.

Many respectable farmers, however, prefer potatoes to
turnips, as a preparation for wheat j and Mr Aitchison of
Clements Wells informs me, that in 1809 he planted seven
acres of potatoes, and seven acres of turnips in the same
field, and in a good soil and climate. After the potatoes,
he reaped 40 bushels per Scotch acre, and after the turnips
pnly 20. The first was sown in November, the last in
February. He is positive in regard to the produce, as it
was threshed from the field *.

S. On light sails. — 1. Turnips or potatoes ; 2. Oats or
barley i 3. Grass; 4. Grass j 5. Grass; 6. Oats, liven

* On this experiment, it is remarked, that the result of this
trial does not prove that potatoes are prelerable to turnips as a
preparation for wheat ; but only that wheat sown in November, is
a surer crop than what is sown in rcbruary. Had the turnips
been removed in November, or at the same time with the potatoes,
the experiment would have been decisive.

or TiOTATION OF CROPS. 315

light soils, under such a rotation, would be productive,
and, instead of being exhausted, would improve in fertili-
ty. The grass, if it can be avoided, shoidd not be made
into hay, unless where sheep have been fed on it, with
turnips.

4-. Miscellaneous particulars. — Some particulars still re-
main, which it was difficult to compi*ehend under any
of the preceding heads.

1. When any farm or district begins to be improved,
it is necessary to commence with what may be called gen,"
tie rotations ; that is to say, with crops not hkely to ex-
haust the soil. When the late Earl of Findlatcr began
his improvements in the county of Banff, every field was
kept for four or five years in grass, before any white crops
were taken from it. The soil was thus enriched, and is
now enabled to undergo more severe cropping. Fair-
lie's rotation in Ajnrshire was of the same description :
the land was pastured with dairy stock yor six or nine
years'; lime was then applied, and three successive
crops of oats were taken j then a crop of hay, and after-
wards the land was pastured as formerly. This system,
though now justly reprobated, was probably suited to the
times when it was established, and laid the foundation of
the present fertility of Ayrshire. Mr Church of Hitchill
observes, that for moderate soils, having no other manure
than what they produce, the rotations must at first be
extremely gentle, if ever they are intended to be put in a
progressive st^te of improvement. Mr Park of Windy
Mains, near Dalkeith, observes, that he is also under the
necessity of adopting a gentle rotation, as his land is of
very weak quality, originally all ouijieldy being mostly co-
vered with whins and heath not many years ago.

SJ5 OP ROTATION OF CROrS.

2. It is remarked, that near towns, where adventitious
manure may be obtained at pleasure, any fixed rotation,
to be invariably followed, is not so necessary •, on the con-
trary, that farmers, in surh situations, ought to charge the
particular articles they cultivate, according as a demand ig
likely to arise for each.

S. Mr Drummond of West Bank, in the Carse of
Gowrie, has tried flax on strong lands as a preparation fo?
wheat, but he found that flax is by no means a sure .crop
in that description of soil, and that the succeeding crops
were very deficient, although the ground got more manure.
He found, at the same time, that the wheat after flax, was
better in quality than after any other crop, but it was de-
ficient in quantity about one-fourth, compared to wheat
after fallow, and the after crops were still more so, in prc^
portion.

4. It may be proper to conclude with observing, that in
the opinion of a most intelligent agriculturist, (Mr Logan
of Fishwick), farmers have been induced, in many pai'ts of
Scotland, from the high prices of corn, to plough too
much ; and there is reason to apprehend, that the great
source of manure, namely stock, being neglected, sold off,
or almost given up, that the soil will be exhausted by the
severity and weight of cropping, — a circumstance which,
in the course of a few years, must produce serious mischiefs.
Importation being permitted, grain cannot rise in price in
proportion to the decrease of the produce on the fields, in
consequence of the land not l>eing refreshed, and enriched
by grass and stock. The result must be, that the price of
stock will rise enormously on account of its scarcity, a cir-
cumstance which cannot be remedied under a succession
of years : for, first, the lands worn out must be fallowed,
and laid down to grass, which would be improi)cr pasture
for sheep for a few years ; and next, stock must be bred
for pasturing tlie land after it is laid down. The supply

OF ROTATION OV CUOPS. illt

of Hifflilantl cattle has been of late rather less than for-
mcrly, of course the prices higher, which also will raise
the price of other breeds. Another difficulty will also oc-
cur ; farmers, who had excellent flocks of sheep of the Lei-
cestexshire breed, have rashly parted with them, for the
purpose of turning their farms into tillage, and cannot get
such flocks again, but at great expence, and after a lapse of
years.

On the whole, the convertible system of husbandry,
where one-half of a farm is in grain, and the other half in
grass and green O'ops, is in general to be recommended.
By the grain crops, a sufficient quantity of straw is provided
as food for cattle, where that mode of feeding is adopted,
or for being converted into dung, in addition to a reason-
able profit to be derived from the grain. By the grass
and green crops, a number of cattle are well kept both in
summer and winter ; and when they are well littered as
well as fed, a regular and sufficient supply of valuable ma-
nure is secured. By this means also, the cattle are so well
keptr during the winter, that should a late spring ensue, or
a scarcity of grass be apprehended, and consequently an
overstocking, (an event which cannot be too anxiously
guarded against by the farmer), a ready market will be in-
sured for them *.

It is to be hoped, that with the assistance of the facts
and observations above detailed, no farmer will find any
difficulty in arranging his crops, so as to produce profit
to himself, without injuring the fertility of his land, or di-
minishing that great source of national prosperity and sub-
sistence.

* Remark by a fanner in the Mearns.

31H OF THE SOWING OF SEED.

Sect. VII. — On the So>wing of Seed.

The points which it is proposed briefly to discuss in this
section, are, 1. The important subject of sowing crops
drilled or broad-cast ; 2. On the advantage of sowing ear-
ly ; 3. On sowing old wheat seed or new ; and, 4. On the
pickling of wheat seed.

1. It has long been a subject of dispute, whether it is
most advisable to sow the different crops usually cultivated
on arable land, drilled or broad-cast. Without entering
into so wide a controversy, I shall endeavour shortly to
state the opinions entertained by the intelligent farmers,
with whom I have lately corresponded, on the subject of
Scottish Husbandry.

It seems to be universally admitted, that it is the most
advantageous system, to drill turnips and potatoes, and
that drilling, in regard to these articles, is greatly prefer-
able to the broad-cast mode, for the following reasons : 1 .
As it carries off the extra moisture in wet soils : 2. As it
exposes more surface to atmospheric influence, by which
the soil is meliorated ; and, 3. Afe it gives an additional
opportunity for the vegetation and the destruction of
weeds *.

It would appear likewise, from the experiments of Mr
Buttcrworth and others, that drilling carrots is an advan-

* Remarks by Captain John Henderson of Ainister in Cailli-
ness. Some prefer turnips broad-cast, imagining that they arf
better protected from the frost, by the earth, than when raised in
tidges ; in which case the earth is apt lo fall from th«ra.

OF THE SOWING OF SEED. 3 1 Ji

ifagcous system, as the plant can thus be cultivated on
soils, where otherwise it would hardly be practicable, tiie
drills furnishing an artificial depth of soil in which they
can be raised.

The most intelligent Scotch farmers approve of the sys-
tem of drilling beans, as the pods of beans are placed oa
the stem from the root upward, and of course derive essen-
tial benefit, when filling, from the admission of air by tlie
open space left between the drills. This is universally
admitted on light or loamy lands; but where the soil is
of a strong and stubborn nature, the broad-cast system
is in a few cases preferred, more especially in the Carse
of Gowrie, it being found difficult, it is said, in a rainy
season, to perform the necessary drilling operations in
clay, which renders the crop uncertain and precarious,
and not a cleaning one *. As there is no comparison
between the two systems, any doubt on the subject can
only arise from differences of climate. Besides, as Mr
Robertson of Ladykirk observes, every season is not wet j
a smothering crop may always be obtained by drilling, in^
wet seasons. In a dry one, by that process, the land may
be fully cleaned.

Many fanners also drill their pease, more especially in
light and pliable lands ; but on strong clays, it is maintain-
ed that pease sown broad-cast succeed better. Mr Wight
of Ormiston observes, that upon clay soils, and more es-
pecially in high situations, the broad-cast system can be
sooner got at than the drilling one, and in a rainy sea-

• Observations by Mr Peter Jack of Moncur. These reasonSj
J^owever, are objected to. Mr John Shirreft" remarks, tjiat even
in the wettest seasons, a certain portion of cleaning can certainly
be exhibited by hand-hoeing and hand-weeding, besides the re-
gular admission of air, which is peculiarly wanted in a rainy sea-
son.

329 OF THE SOWING OF SEED.

son or backward spring, the latter operation cannot be
^ily performed, the crop consequently must be preca-
rious and late. It is remai'ked by Mr Stuart of Hill-
side, that pease sown in drills may be calculated for
cleaning the land, but not for obtaining a crop ; and Mr
Charles Alexander observes, that he has several times at-
tempted the drilling of pease, but never with success j the
slender nature of that plant not admitting of horse-hoeing,
except when young ; and as it is not of upright growth, not
well even then. As that plant supports its^elf by the plants
taking hold of one another, the interstices prevent the ten-
drills from getting hold, except in the row, when the wind
blowing across the drills lays them over on one side, and
retards their podding. This may be the case when crops
are drilled at wide intervals, but the rows should not be
above from twelve to fifteen or eighteen inches from each
other. Pease, when drilled, should always be fiilly hoed,
cleaned and finished, before the 10th of June. It is con^
tended, that they may always be drilled by a proper ma-
chine, when the land can be harrowed.

In regard to white crops, some eminent farmers, Mr
Brown of Markle in particular, consider the advantages of
the drill system to be at best but problematical*. The intel-
ligent farmers, however, in the neighbourhood of Dunbar,
whose lands are subject to annual weeds, and who sow a
great deal of wheat in spring, have adopted the drilling

* One of my correspondents remarks, that in regard to the
drilling of white or culmiferous crops, he has had no experience ;
but it appears to him that the operation is tedious and minute,
without any adequate benefit. The drilHng of these can never be
meant for cleaning the ground ; a very good farmer will have it
clean before they are sown in it. It is not so easy, however, t»»
net the better of annual weeds.

OF THE SOWING OF SEED. 321

sjrstem with much success, and consider it essential for the
culture of their land.

Some experiments made by Mr Hope of Fenton, East
Lothian, are among the most satisfactory and decisive I
have met with, on the subject of drilling. From them, he
is inclined to draw the following conclusions : 1. That it is
of no advantage to drill winter sown wheat, as the crop is
rarely injured by annual weeds, and where the soil is in-
fested with root weeds, as the crop, in ordinary cases, wiU
completely meet in the rows, before the root weeds make
much appearance, it is impossible, without injuring the
crop, to render much benefit to the land with the hoe. 2.
On all land, however, where annual weeds are abundant,
he considers it of great importance, to use the drill for
white crops of every description spwn in the spring, it
being understood at the time, that plenty of hands can
at all times be obtained for using the hoe -, for it is bet-
ter to sow in the common method broad-cast, than to drill
without hoehig.

Mr Hope adds, that an experiment was tried in his
neighbourhood, which places the advantage of drilling in a
very favourable point of view. A field of grass land, of good
quality, which, in consequence of imperfect cultivation, was
fuU of annuals, was all drilled, with the exception of six ridges
in different parts of the field, which were sown broad-cast,
that the difference of produce between the two might be as-
certained. The drills were made at a foot distance between
the rows, and the drilled part of the field was hand-hoed,
during the summer, at the expence of one guinea per
acre *, The difference of produce was very great, for the

* Mr Scott of Craiglockhart recommended the Dutch hoe as the
best, for the operator proceeds backward, leaving the wrought
ground and cut weeds untrod ; the work is also much lighter, as
less force is requisite, and stooping unnecessary.

P. I. X

322 OF THE SOWIN'G OF SEED.

broa<l-cast yielded only 9 bolls per Scotch acre, whereas
not less than 15 bolls was the produce of the other.

Among the advantages of drilling, Mr Hope states, that
he has uniformly found the expence of cutting a drilled
crop in harv^est less than what was sown broad-cast ; the
difference being in this proportion, that three reapers will
do as much Avork in the former case, as four in the latter.
Mr Church of HitchiU i-ecommends drilhng wheat
crops, not only for the purpose of having an opportunity
to eradicate weeds by hoeing, but to give the grain a good
hold of the ground*, which may prevent the frost throwing
it so easily out in the spring, and the wind loosening the
roots of it so readily when it is in ear and beginning to fill.
On light land, he has sometimes observed the grain make
no farther progress towards perfection, after a high wind
at this period, which he presumes is principally owing to
the roots being loosened, the ascension of nutriBient to the
ear being thereby prevented.

Mr Robertson of Ladykirk is of opinion, that the pro-
priety of drilling beans, turnips, and potatoes, cannot be
doubted, and that the more labour and hoeing bestowed
on the bean and turnip crops, with judgment, and in dry
weather, the better will be the returns. In regard to po-
tatoes, Mr John Shirrcff remarks, that, if the soil conti-
nues to be stirred, and the fibres which nourish the plants
are continually disturbed, the stems will be puny, and
the bulbs few and small. Potatoes should not be disturb-
ed after being considerably advanced. Any annuals which

* It is a great advantage, as Mr John Sliirreff remarks, to be
able to regulate tliis hold of the ground, and to give all the seed
at the san.e tune the same hold. This advantage drilling af-
ords ; whereas, in the broad-cast mode, the seed must be deposit-
ed at vefv irregular depths; and as there can only be one best dejilh,
all others must be faulty.

OF THF. SOWING OF SEED. 323

xnay appear, should be drawn by the hand. Mr Ro-
bertson obsci-vcs, that drilled crops of white corns are less
apt to be beat down in wet seasons.

It is remarked, from the highest authority in tlie Carse
of Gowrie, that the culture of white corn crops by the
drill, might be a beueficial mode of husbandry in that va-
luable district, as it would be the means of extirpating the
gi'owth of annual weeds, which are so destructive to the
spring crops in the Carse, particularly the beans, the
pease, and the oats sown early upon well frosted land,
which are often rendered not half a crop by the growth of
wild mustard.

An intelligent farmer near Arbroath, (Mr Ronnie of
Kinblethmont), states it as his opinion, that the drill sys-
tem ought to be adopted, wherever turnips, potatoes,
beans, or even pease, are sown ; the intervals not less than
twenty-seven inches, regularly horse-hoed, and the rows
hand-weeded by women ; which, if properly executed,
leaves the jn'ound in as fjood order as if it had undergone
a naked fallow. None of the above-mentioned crops can
be cultivated to advantage broad-cast ; for in case of its
failure, the ground is sure to be left in a wretched state in-
deed. In case of the soil being hght, and much infested
with annual weeds, the drill system may with great pro-
priety be adopted with wheat, barley, and oats ; but in
that case the intervals should not exceed from nine to
twelve inches, to be either hand-hoed, or done with a ma-
chine made for the purpose. The seed to be deposited by
a sowing-machine, and the grass- seeds covered in with the
last hoeing, which answers perfectly well.

The following, on the whole, seems to be the result that
may be drawn from this important discussion.

That turnips and potatoes ought to be drilled in all
cases. In regard to turnips, Mr Shirreff remarks, that
the greater facility afforded by the drill mode of culture

X 2

321' OF THE SOWING OF SEED.

of simplifying and expediting hand-labour, the more re-
gular and correct adjustment of the number of plants to be
left on a given surface j and the more equable admission
and circulation of air among the plants in the drilled, than
in the broad-cast mode of culture, gives the former a de-
cided preference.

That drilling carrots is advisable, more especially where
there is not a great depth of soil.

That beans should be drilled, not only on light and
loamy soils, but also on harsh, strong, and stubborn clays,
otherwise they would in a manner be excluded from a soil
which cannot be profitably cultivated without them.

That pease ought to be drilled in dry soils and climates,
where the object is to clean the land j but in clays, if the
land is clean, sowing broad-cast, or in narrow drills whick
prevent the bad effects of wind, suits better the nature of
that plant, in a windy climate.

That autumn or winter sown wheat may be cultivated
broad-cast, but that spring sown crops, whether wheat, bar-
ley or oats, are most likely to be productive upon light soils,
where annual weeds abound, when cultivated in drills*.

2. In a precarious cUmate, it is necessary, not only to culti-
vate early sorts of grain, but to sow early, in order to secure,
if possible, an early harvest. This is particularly the case
with oats upon strong and wet soils. They should be sown,
therefore, as soon as the season answers, and the land is in
good order to receive the seed, at least any time after the
first of March. It is of advantage to sow even light soils
early, that the crop may get forward, before the drought
sets in.

• It may be proper at ihe same time to observe, that in seve-
ral districts in FLngland, particularly in some parts of Norfolk and
Suffolk, they cart}' their ideas in favour of the drilling sjstero, in
80 far as regards crops of grain, still farther.

OF THE SOWING OF SEED. S2'j

3. I am informed by an experienced farmer, that old
wheat, if kept in the stack unthreshed till 'wanted^ is greatly
sHpcrior to new seed. The former springs immediately
when sown, whereas the latter will not vegetate well till it
gets rain, which may not happen for some time, more es-
pecially if the wheat is sown early. There is reason also
to believe, that old seed wheat is not so liable to the smut,
as the new seed, and that it produces straw of a stronger
quality, and not so apt to lodge. Many intelligent farmers
doubt these advantages, and contend, that keeping old seed
in the straw must amount at least to 25 per cent, on all the
quantities used.

4. The plan of kiln-drying seed wheat has been already
alluded to, (see p. 239), and the suggestion of such a sys-
tem has led to some important observations from Mr Wal-
ker of Mellendean. He remarks, that having frequently
lost his crop by getting kiln-dr3'ed wheat from the London
market, he thinks that such an operation should be adopt-
ed with the greatest caution. He is convinced, at the same
time, that if care is bestowed on die ordinary way of pick-
ling, there is no surer remedy against smut. For several
years, he has always pickled as much as will sow a field,
a day or two before he begins to sow, and has often,
when bad weather came on, kept it for some time in
that state, without its being injured ; he is convinced
indeed, that unless the wheat has full time to dry, be-
fore sowing, the cure is not completed. He has long
been in the practice of sowing considerable quantities of
wheat, both in autumn and spring, and was led to draw
this conclusion, from having often observed in his wheat
fields, a few ridges alternately clean and smutted, and he
knew of no difference that had taken place in the pickling,
on the contrary, he had attended to that operation himself,
and sent the wheat to the field in quantities of one, two or
three bolls at a time as wanted by the sowers. He could

326 OF THE SOWING OF SEED.

find no reason for a part of the crop being clean and a
part smutted, but that a part of the seed had been used too
soon after pickling. This led him to make the experiment
of preparing a whole day's sowing a day before it was used j
and he can only say, that since he begun that practice,
which he has alm(;st invariably followed, he has never been
troubled with smut. It is proper to observe, that the wheat
must have as much lime put upon it, as soon as it comes
out of the pickling tub, as will dry it quickly ; for if it is al-
lowed to continue long wet, the germinating power will be
altogether destroyed. It is remarked, however, by some
farmers of considerable experience, that where urine is
used, there is an absolute necessity of using the seed imme-
diately *.

In regard to harrowing the ground, or rolling it, these
operations, however important, are so well known, and so
similar, according to the Scotch and Enghsh systems of
husbandry, that it seems unnecessary to dwell upon them
in this place.

Sect. VllL—Of Weeding.

It docs not seem necessary to dwell at any length on the
subject of Weeding, as it is a point which has been so fre-
quently discussed, and respecting which there is nothing
peculiar in the Husbandry of Scotland. The fallowing of
strong soils is certainly favourable to the cxtiipation of

* Mr John Shlrreft" observes, that if wheat has been pickled
•with stale chamber-ley, dried with qiiirklime, and put close to-
gether, to lie for a day, not a grain will vegetate. 1 1 ought to
be spread abroad, as thin as possible, to dry and get air.

OF THi; SOWING OF SEED. 527

weeds in land of that description. The practice of drilling
turnips, potatoes, and beans, materially tends to keep those
crops clear of weeds; but until the practice is established,
of drilling all crops sx)wn in spring, as wheat, barley, and
oats, annual weeds cannot be altogether extirpated ; for
spring culture is favourable to their growth, more espe-
cially when the land is dunged for a crop of grain, or when
the preceding crop consists of turnips fed off by sheep,
and the ground is afterwards ploughed so deep as to raise
the seed of annual weeds that had not been exposed to the
turnip culture, and the hoeings which accompany it.

It is almost incredible how long seeds of an oily quality,
as those of wild mustard, wild radish, wild marygold,
broom, &c. will remain in the ground, and yet when acted
upon by moisture, the warmth of the sun, and the force of
manure, they will vegetate, and become strong plants.
Soil dug from the bottom of deep ditches, will produce
these weeds. A most intelligent correspondent informs
me, that he has seen ground originally a field of broom,
which had been in tillage for thirty years, yet when fallow-
ed, limed and dunged, and sown with wheat, on the wheat
being cut, the young broom was found to be thicker on the
ground than the ^^^leat stubble. This was probably owing
to the fallow, which turned up soil containing these seeds,
which till then had been buried below the vegetative in-
fluences of the sun and air.

Some conjecture, that the seeds of weeds are often mix-
ed with clover •, but I am informed from respectable
authority, that such an idea has rarely any foundation,
though he has known pernicious seeds of weeds imported
amongst the Riga lintseed ; also another sort of bad seed,
called gripgrass, amongst the English lintseed, but he never
saw any amongst the clover seeel that ever was in the least
troublesome. With rye-grass, liowevcr, the seeds of weeds
are often imported.

328 OF HARVESTING GRAIN-

Sect. IX. — Of harvesting Grain and preparing it
for the Miller.

This is a point on which it is not proposed to insist at
any considerable length, but merely to detail any peculiari-
ties in the Husbandry of Scotland, in regard, 1. To cutting
down ; 2. To carrying in j or, 3. To stacking the crop ;
and 4. How wheat, injured by a bad harvest, is prepared
for use.

1. In Scotland, the crop is almost universally cut down
by the sickle or hook, the scythe being very rarely used ;
and notwithstanding the liberal premiums offered by a re-
pectable and public- spirited Institution, the Dalkeith
Farming Society, no reaping machine has yet been in-
vented, that will answer the object they had in view.
Many suppose, that it is almost necessary to cut down corn
with the sickle, if threshing-mills are in use; because,
where these machines are employed, the grain must either
be regularly placed and bound, or it must pass twice through
the mill. But that intelligent border farmer (Mr George
CuUey) informs me, that he mows his barley almost every
year, except what is lodged; and that he finds no difficulty
in threshing it by the threshing-mill, passing it only once
through the machine *. The men mow the corn in the

* On this head, that experienced and intelligent farmer Mr
John Shirreff observes, that more ears would probably escape un-

^'^^i' e;^?'>^ vy>^/^ 'y'f'^/ _^/^X > .

'y/- a". Sek>.i/// ^ ^^/f7f^'

OF HARVESTING GRAIN. 329

same manner as if they were mowing grass for hay; but by
usin- what they call a bow, fixed at the heel of the scythe,
they\re enabled to lay the barley almost as straight as if
cut with the sickle, so as to tie it up into sheaves very
neatly. He considers this as the cheapest, and m every
respect the completest mode of harvesting barley.

To many of the more fertile districts, great numbers of
Hi-hlanders, both male and female, annually resort, to
reap the crops, and receive a certain sum per day, and
their victuals, for the work they perform. In the Carse
of Gowrie, the harvest was formerly performed by men
and women hired expressly for that purpose ; the men at
a guinea, and the women at 15 s. for the harvest ; durmg
which time they got a breakfast and dinner of bread and
beer, and a small quantity of oatmeal for supper. At that
time the harvest used to cost about 5 s. per acre, mcludmg
all expences. Some time after that, the harvest wages rose
to 30 s. for the men, and 20 s. for the women, varying, as
the farmer and they could agree ; but the expence altered
according to the price of meal, and the length of the har-
vest, from a favourable season, or the contrary, and it has
been as high as 9 s. or 10 s. per acre. About fifteen or
sixteen years ago, some men came to the Carse as con-
tractors, and agreed to cut down the crops at a certain sum
pa- acre, but that plan did not continue long.

About six years ago, another practice took place in that
district, which continues to this day. It is called threavingy

threshed, than would pay the difference between cutting by the
scythe and the sickle. At the same time, he admits, that a great
benefit arises from mowing grain crops, by the additional quanti-
ty of straw obtained. That advantage, however, may be got by
mowing the stubble.

3S0 OF HARVESTING GRAIX.

and now almost universally prevails. By this plan the
reapers are paid in money, without victuals, so much for
eveiy threave they cut down. For a threave of wheat,
consisting of twenty-eight sheaves, each sheaf measuring
thirty inches round, they receive 4 d. ; and for a threave of
barley, oats, or pease, of twenty-four sheaves, each thirty
inches round, 3 d. Mr John Shirreff remarks, that this is
certainly on the whole the fairest mode of paying reapers,
the reward being exactly in the ratio of the work done. It
is evident, this can never be the case when a field is cut
down either by the day* or the acre.

This mode of harvesting is certainly of very great ad-
vantage to the country in general ; for thus whole famiUes,
men, women, and children, obtain employment ; they bring
their provisions with them, remain in the field the whole
day ; the old teach the young to cut down •, every one
does something-, and according to what they perform, '
they ai'e paid. A hundred, or a hundred and fifty persons,
young and old, may frequently be seen in a field at the
same time, and besides the advantage of getting such a
quantity of ripe corn cut down in a day, perhaps it is an
excellent school to fill the whole corn field with good reap*
ers or shearers *.

• Communication from George Pateison, Esq. of Castlc-Hunlly.
Another respectable correspondont from that district observes,
that the growing crops of corn art now cut down by the threave.
The wheat-threave consists of twenty-eight sheaves, each sheaf
measuring thirty-six inches in girth, at the band ; for cutting and
binding of which is paid, in his neighbourhood, 6' d. per threave.
The barley, oats, and pease, or bean ihreave, consists of twenty-
four sheaves, of thirty inches girth, for cutting and binding of
vhich is paid 4cl. each ihreave. These dimensions of the sheaves

OF HARVESTING GRAIN. 331

Mr Blaikie has sent me the following detailed account
of the mode of harvesting in Roxburghshire, part of Ber-
wick and Selkirk shires. The reapers are mostly bespoke,
or hired in the public markets, for that purpose, in the
month of August. They are engaged for the harvest, which,
at an average, continues about four weeks, but they arc
still paid for every day according to the above wages. The
now common wages are, women, 12 s. 6 d. per week, men
15 s., with victuals. Two men and four women, with a
bindster, make what is technically called a Band-wind.
These, upon a field where the corn is not strong, and lying
fair to the sickle, will cut two English acres, and sometimes
two Scotch acres per day. But where the corn is cross lodg-
ed and very strong, they will not do more than one acre
and a-half Englisli. Two English acres, however, per day,
may be an average when the work is properly performed.

are varied according to the fancy of the farmer, and the price is
either more or less according as the size of the sheaf is increased
or diminished. Hence what may cost 6 d. and 4 d. in one part
of the district, may be charged only 4d. and 3d, in another.
On this subject Mr John Shirreff remarks, that it is not material
to the reaper, unless in regard to the time required for making the
bands and the additional sheaves, what the circumference of these
sheaves are, provided the same number of sheaves is reckoned to
a threave, and the 'price paid in the ratio of the squares of their
diameters. As to the sums paid, circles being to each other as
the squares of their diameters, if f)00, the square of thirty inches
costs 4d. ; so 1296, the square of thirty-six, should cost 5.648,
&c. &c. Where 6d. therefore is paid, a threave costs more in
proportion than it ought to do.

332

OF HARVESTING GRAIN.

3 men at 1 5 s. L. 2 5

4 women at 12 s. 6 d. 2 10

J- L. 4 15 0 per week.

Victuals for seven days per week, as they get victuals on Sundays.
Oatmeal pottage and milk for breakfast, at~]

2 d. each, - - L. 0 1 2

To dinner 1 bottle of ale, at

2d. each, - - 0 12-^

18 oz. of good wheat bread, at r L. 0 5 10 per day.

4d. each, - - 0 2 4

Supper same as breakfast, at

2 d. each, - - 0 1 2J

For one week, L. 2 0 10

Victuals for seven people for four weeks, L. 8 3 4

Money wages as above, L. 4 1 5 0 per week,

4

L. 19 0 0

L.19 0 0

Meat and wages for seven labourers, for

four weeks, - - . L. 2734

According to the above statement, seven reapers should
cut 48 English acres in four weeks, the common duration
of harvest, and the expence would be II s. 4 d. per English
acre to a fraction. Some give the reapers more liberty
than others ; where that is the case, they may cut 50 acres
in place of 48, but the loss will be double the expcnccs sa-
ved. In wtt seasons, where it is necessarv to open out corn
to dry, &c. the cxpcucc per acre must be higher.

On the oxpcncc of reaping, Mr Brown of Markle ob-
serves, that besides the maintenance of reapers in bad
weather, (wliich often amounts to a considerable sum),

OF HARVESTING GRAIN. 333

there is to be added, the expence of salt for seasoning their
pottage, and fuel for cooking it, together with the wages
and victuals of the overseer who attends the reapers, all
which articles will not a little increase Mr Bluikie's esti-
mate. In short, the reaping process, taking every expence
into consideration, cannot be duly and sufficiently executed
under fifteen shillings pa- English acre ; and when it can
be done at that rate, the farmer may be satisfied.

In order to train up reapers or shearex's, an intelligent
farmer, Mr Mitchell of Balquharn, puts four or five, ac-
cording to their ability, on a separate ridge, and gives
them, as an awkward squad, a sum in proportioii to three
on a common ridge. At the same time, it is a good rule,
in general, to have as few reapers as possible on a ridge
when they understand their business, for the more there
are the less work wall be done. The lazy and idle, as Mr
John ShirrefF remarks, will take every opportunity of sa-
ving themselves, and it will be difficult to ascertain who is
to blame.

Attentive farmers take particular care to cut the crop
very low ; for by high cutting, besides the unavoidable
waste, a great deal of manure is lost. By attending to this,
and converting the straw into dung at a proper season, a
sufficient quantity may be procured, to raise good crops of
turnips, the gi'eatest part of which being eat up on the
ground by sheep, insures a succession of good crops of
grain, until another crop of turnips is taken.

2. Grain is sometimes caiTied in by single-horse, but
generally by two-horse carts, to which frames are fix-
ed, in order that the cart may convey a greater quanti-
ty of grain at a time. Carts in this way will easily carry
at once from ten to twcntv stocks, accordinjj to the size of
the sheaves. In a note will be found the different modes

334' OF HARVESTING GRAIN.

of making and fixing these frames *, which are found high-
ly advantageous.

It is certain that carts are more easily managed than
waggons; and that by using them, the carrying of com in
harvest goes on with the greatest expedition. The ordi-
nary mode of disloading these carts is for the driver to
stand upon the top of his load and fork the sheaves up to
the builder, in which way the sheaves are kept more secure
and fima than if the whole load was upset, and left to
be forked by another person, as recommended by Lord
Kames.

3. It is well known, with the exception of the ce-
lebrated barns at Inverary, where the Duke of Argjle is
obliged, from the unceasing wetness of the chmate, not
only to preserve, but actually to dry his corn in large

* There are three difl'erent modes of fitting up the carts for
harvesting grain or carrying hay. 1. By the first the hmbers or
shafts are fixed together by cross spars, and the upper framing
mortised into the limbers. 2. Another method is to fix the lim-
bers together by cross spars, but the upper framing is fixed to-
gether separate from the limbers, and fixed upon them by screws.
Both these plans are thought preferalle to the first, because the
shafts are not so much weakened by so many mortises cut in
them, besides the advantage of the upper framing being easily
taken off, so that the cart can, at any time, be made use of for
carrying wood, large stpnes, &c. Tiiis frame will cost from L. 2
to L. 3, according to the quality of niatcMials, and goodness of the
workmanship. 3. A frame, called a hay-top, is occasionally fixed
npon the common cart, either with small ropes or iron chains.
'Jhese frames will cost from 15 8. to I i. 1, 10 s. or L. 1, 13 s., ac»
cording to the uiaterials and quantity of iron-bolts made use of Ir
fixing Ihem together.— Communication from iMr Andrew Gray.

OF HARVESTING GRAIN. 33.5

buildings erected for that special purpose, that the corn in
Scotland is almost universally kept in stacks.

At Lord Haddington's scat at Tynninghame, the stacks
arc built on stone pillars, which is found to be a very ad-
vantageous system. It takes nine pillars witli capes to a
stack. The price of these depends very much on the con-
venience of getting the stones. There they can be quar-
ried, carted home, wrought, and put up, for about 3 s.
each. It will require about twenty feet of timber to make
the frame that goes on the pillars ; the price of which also
depends on the situation, and whether it can be got by
short carriage. From the present high price of timber
even there, including every expence, a complete set of nine
pillars, and the timber necessary for a stack, cannot cost
less than L. 3. The advantages resulting from this me-
thod, when the object is to be kept free from vermin, may
be about two bolls in thirty ; but in a wet season, such as
the last (1809), they are found very useful for (hying the
corn, when not put into the stack in the best condition,
as they allow a free circulation of the air under, and
the corn is not injured by imbibing moisture, as it must
necessarily do, when set down on the ground in a wet
state *.

Near Alloa, they have invented cast-iron pillars for
stacks, (an engraving of which is annexed), which seems
to be a useful invention where stone cannot be had.
These pillars are two and a half feet long, and theround cape
or bonnet at the top, as well as the foundation, is one foot
in diameter. After levelling the ground intended for the
stack, so that all the seven pillars may stand plumb or

* Communication from Mr David Buist, overseer at Tynning-
hame.

336 OF HARVESTING GRAIN.

perpendicular, and level on the top, they are placed on
the level surface, and require neither building nor flag.
Being placed in this way, they can be removed with very
little trouble or expence. Vermin have also no way of get-
ting up cast-iron pillars of the above description ; and
neither rats nor mice have been found in any stack pro-
perly standing upon cast-iron pillars. The price of seven
pillars is 50 s. and the frame, which is made of the very
coarsest of timber, may be valued, (including workman-
ship and nails), at 8 s. ; so that one stack costs 58 s *.

There is another invention, which I believe is pecuUar
to Scotland, called bosses^ the nature of which the annex-
ed engraving will explain. These, with cast-iron pillars,
are admirably calculated for harvesting beans in wet seasons.
The process is thus described. A triangle is first erected
on the middle of the fi'ame, which forms a boss of about
three feet wide j raihng must be nailed across the boss so
close as to preserve the sheaves from falling into it ; but
when railing is not at hand, a strong straw rope is com-
monly used in its stead. After the builder has reached the
top of the boss, he places therein a sack filled with straw,
which, when he builds round, he pulls up until he reaches
the top of the stack j so that by the vent left by the sack,
the air reaches even to the top of the stack. As to the

* Communication from Mr John Laing, overseer at Tullibody.
Rlr George Culley informs me, that on his side of the Tweed they
prefer oblong stacks to round ones, because the}' can add one eke
or leet (as they are provincially culled) to another, always to be
set east to west, for he has seen them blow over when set north
to south. He is also of opinion, that oblong frames are simpler
made, and cheaper timbered than round ones. But they do not
seem to be so well calculated kn any exposed situation.

OF TIARVESTINr, GRAIN. 337

question, how soon beans can be put. iji, by means of bos-
ses, that depends upon what state the beans were in when
cut. It is therefore necessary to mention three different
cases in which beans are cut : First, before either leaves or
pods have changed their colour ; if cut in this green state,
they will require a long time, especially in a bad season,
even with bosses, and it is hardly practicable to preserve
green cut beans, in any season without them. Secondly,
when above half of the pods have turned yellow, and part
of the leaves have fallen offj when cut in this state, (which
is thought much the best), they will require from seven
to eight days with bosses, and fourteen without them,
if the weather is dry. And, thirdly, when the pods have
all turned blackish, and the leaves fallen off, in this state
three or four days may do with bosses, and seven or eight
without them, provided no rain fall in the interval. On
the whole, it may be affirmed, that beans, by this mode,
may be harvested in half the usual time, and be preserved
in much better condition. It is supposed that the beans
grown upon strong clay, or carse land, require longer
time to fit them for the stack, than those produced upon
dry land *.

* In a wet season, white grain is often stacked in the manner
here recommended for beans, with this addition, (if the state of
the grain seem to require it), of having vents left also across the
stack in two opposite directions, at different heights. These af-
ford a great additional circulation of air. Some make a vent in
the middle of the stack, but very improperly leave no opening at
either top or bottom. — Remark by Mr Church of Hitchill. It
may be proper to add, that by moans of the invention of bosses,
one row of sheaves of corn, in very bad harvests, may be put on
the sVdcks from the sickle, placing the heads of the sheaves to the
centre. This may be of use in uncommon bad harvests, such as
in the latter end of the year 1811.

P. I. Y

338 OF HARVESTING GRAIN.

Any thing that would tend so materially to improve our
mode of harvesting beans and pease, (for the latter crop
might be treated in the same manner), the culture of both
of which is so desirable, is of the most essential conse-
quence to Scottish Husbandry.

A very simple but effectual mode of preserving beans in
the stack, is to have two or three funnels as long as to
reach near its centre, to communicate with a vacuity
prepared by drawing up a sheaf of thatch while building.
Each funnel has two ends, generally triangular, about eigh-
teen inches each outside. These are covered with any sort of
coarse timber on all sides, so as to prevent their being filled
with the bean sheaves pressing into the opening. They may
be pkccd at different heights from the bottom of the stack,
and they will create such a suction as to keep both corn
and straw safe *.

4. In regard to the management of wheat injured by a
bad harvest, and preparing it for consumption ; it is cer-
tain, that though wheat as well as other grain, if put up
when in proper condition, will keep better in a large than
in a small stack •, yet, in damp seasons, it will dry sooner
in small stacks, and consequently will be sooner fit for
orinding into flour and baking. Wheat that is stacked in
a damp condition, should never be threshed sooner than
the summer afterwards.

When wheat is sprouted, it improves much by being
kept long in the straw, and mixed with sound old wheat.

* Mr John Sbirrefif explains the operation of the funnel, in the
following manner. The air in the funnel being heated by the
eviip<ir;ition from the raw beans, the Imiilm ascciuU, and is sup-
plied by cool iVesh air from the atmosphere froni below, from the
opening in the middle of the slack.

OF HARVESTIKG GRAIN. 339

Good bread, in general, cannot be made without a mix-
ture of old wheat, (unless the season has been uncommon-
ly good), for at least two or three months after har\'cst.
In common years, one-fifth part is necessary till the month
of March for loaf-bread, but not so necessary for rolls.

Wheat, if not in good condition, is improved by kiln-
drying. There are two kilns belonging to the Corporation
of Bakers of Perth, for that sole purpose ; but this does
not render a mixture of old wheat unnecessary, although
it improves the grain that was damp when threshed. The
wheat should not be used until some time after it is kiln-
dried. It will then improve the colour of the bread.

The Corporation of Bakers at Perth, have a wooden
tub for cleaning smutted wheat, which it does effectually
in the course of three washings, however black it may have
been. It resembles a potatoe-mill. The wheat is after-
wards kiln-dried. More attention on the part of the far-
mers, to the pickling of their seed wheat, might surely ren-
der such an operation unnecessary.

It may not be improper to add, that formerly, and even
within these twenty-seven years past, it was thought neces-
sary to mix some English flour with the Scotch, in baking
bread of superior quality; but though Scotch wheat is still
inferior to the English, and will probably remain so, from
the defects of the climate of Scotland, yet the wheat even
of the Carse of Gowrie and of Strathearn is so much im-
proved in quality, that such a mixture is no longer re-
quired, and the bread of Perth in particular, where those
M'heats are alone used, equals any in the united kingdom.

y2

3*0 OF THRESHING GRAIi!T^

Sect. X. — On Threshing Grain.

Having already given a very particular detail of the
advantages of a threshing-mill, (See Chap. I, Sect. 7,
p. 72), it is not necessary to trouble the reader with many
additional observations on this branch of the subject. It
may be proper, however, to state the expence of a machine
to go by steam erected by a respectable farmer on the bor-
ders, (Mr Thompson of Chillingham Barns), as communi-
cated to me by Mr Bailey, as it is desirable that those,
who propose having threshing-mills, should be able to com-
pare the expence attending the diiferent sorts.

Expence of the engine and house, - L. 325 0 O
The threshing part, - - - 100 0 0

Total, L. 425 0 0

The drum and rollers are six feet long each. It has two
rakes, and two winnowing machines : The quantity of coals
sufficient to keep the engine going six hours, is from 20
to 24 bushels } the work performed is from 1000 to 1200
sheaves jjj^'r hour.

It requires one man to attend the engine in addition to
those usually employed, where water or wind is the power.
The expence of coals will vary according to circumstances ;
in this instance, 24 bushels cost al)out 10 s.

This engine was calculated to be equal to a five horse
power, but will do more business tlian six horses, which.

OF TIlIir.SIIING GI!.VIX. 34 1

requiring a driver, will balance the man attending the en-
gine, and of course the (inference of daily expence will be
between the value of 24 bushels of cop.ls and six horses.

Mr Thompson's was made by a steam-engine maker
at Newcastle : any steam-engine wright can make them.
There is little difficulty in managing them, no more than
for a colliery, and Mr Bailey thinks much less than those
driven by wind. Steam also is a much steadier and a
more certain power than wind or horses. The annual ex-
pence of repairs, it is supposed, will be nearly the same, at
any rate will not much exceed that of a wind machine. I
am informetl, however, that a greater quantity of oil and
grease is required for a steam machine, than any other.

In regard to horse machines, Mr Brown of Markle cal-
culates, that a six horse-macliine, without interfering ma-
terially with the other business of the farm, will, in two
days p(T week, thresh the produce of 600 Scotch or "62
English acres, whatever the nature of the grain may be ;
but if the crops are either oats or barley, or the wheat
straw short, the produce of 900 Scotch, or 1143 Enghsh
acres, may be threshed, and dressed for market, by such
a machine.

It is observed, that where threshing-machines are wrought
by horses, and only the same number of horses kept as
before the erection of the mill, it will be necessary to give
the work- horses hay instead of straw ; as the mill causes
additional labour to the horses, perhaps for five months in
winter, to the amount of from one-sixth to one-eighth
more.

342 OF SOILING.

Sect. XL—Of Soiling.

By soilings is meant, the feeding of stock with cut greeii
food, instead of pasturing them.

The origin of the word soihno- is unknown. Mr Younjj

o o o

supposes it to be a mere farming barbarism *.

The introduction of soihng into England is also un-
known. Hartlib mentions it, as a practice in Kent about
the middle of the seventeenth century. It was very gene-
ral in Hertfordshire about seventy years ago. It was pro-
bably derived, like many other useful practices, from the
Flemings f. It certainly has been long known abroad,
and several mteresting communications regarding it, will
be found from its foreign correspondents, in the earliest
publications of the Board of Agriculture %.

The soiling of horses was known in Scotland about fifty
years ago. It was. practised, however, but by a few, and
it was not till about the year 1778, as Mr Brown of Mar-
kle informs me, that the system of regular soiling took
place in East Lothian §. Before that time horses generally

* Some imagine that soiling means making soil, that is, ac-
cording to Johnson, ^'^ filth or dung."

■j- Cromwell gave L. 100, a great sum in those days, to esta-
blish the husbandry of Flanders in Hertfordshire.

X See Baron D'Alton's Letter, annexed to the Middlesex Re-
port, and Dr Thaer's paper printed in the second volume of the
Communications to the Board.

§ Lord Kamc3 has given a curious description of the old modi-
of feeding horses in the summer season, in Scotland. He de-

OF SOILING. 3t3

received a small quantity of clover diiriiifT tlie night, but
were herded in the forenoon and tlie evening on the pas-
ture lands, by the boys then employed as plough drivers.
After two-horse ploughs were introduced, soiling was ge-
nerally resorted to, and has been more or less followed
ever since the introduction of clover into general hus-
bandry. A few fai'mers, however, still think it beneficial
to run their horses in an inclosed field through the
night.

Lord Kames, in his Gentleman Farmer, published in
1776, has strongly inculcated the advantages of soiling,
and boldly declares, " I de^air not to see all the corn-far-
mers in Scotland depending on red clover for the summer
food of their cattle *." His hopes are fortunately now in a
sreat measure realized.

scribes liiem as being fed in balks between ridges of corn, and of-
ten reduced to thistles, the time of the men being consumed in
collecting, and that of the horses m eating them. This was a
kind of soilmg. Sometimes, vhat was called kaincd grass was
reserved for them : but how often did it happen, that the man
appointed to attend them fell asleep ? and the horses then tres-
passed on the corn ; — dogs were employed to chase them from
it ; the horses were driven about, and their fatigue was lutle less
than when they were at Avork. If they were tethered on tlte
hained grass, the half of the produce was lost, being trodden un-
der foot ; the horses also often broke loose, and destroyed the
standing corn. Even in inclosures much of the produce was trod-
den under foot ; the horses were pestered with flies in hot wea-
ther ; they could not feed with ease ; they had no time for rest-
ing ; and much time was lost in laying hold of them for the yoke.
Besides, few inclosures were then in sufficient good order to keep
in horses when they saw corn ; and, if they once broke out, it was
in vain to think of imprisoning them afterwards. — Ka?Hes's Gen-
tleman Fanner, p. 172.

* Gentleman Farmer, part 1, chap. 9, sect. 1.

34.'4) or SOILING.

I propose to explain this important subject under the
following general heads : 1. On the articles used; 2. On
the different sorts of stock thus fed; 3. On the advantages
of the practice ; and 4. On its disadvantages.

1. The articles principally used for soiling are, red clo-
ver, (with a mixture of r3'e-grass), and tares. Sometimes
lucern, barley, oats and beans, are resorted to ; but sain-
foin, though cultivated in many parts of England, is un-
known in Scotland *.

Red clover, with a mixture of rye-grass, is the article by
far the most generally cultivated in Scotland for soiling ;
nor is that to be wondered at, considering the facility with
which it is raised, and the luxuriance of its produce. Lord
Karnes calculates that a horse of a middling size will eat
ten Dutch stones of clover and rye-grass daily ; some, how-
ever, wiU go the lengtli of sixteen nr seventeen stones. An
ox or cow will eat about eight stones f . Even at these
rates, a good crop of red clover will feed a number of ani-
mals.

White clover is but a small plant, and not easily collect-
ed in heaps for food, but it is astonishing the quantity it
has produced, when frequently cut, and manured with coal
ashes.

* One of my correspondents states, that he thinks soiling with
rye might turn out well, as the surest and earliest growth known
in this country, more especially if cut with the sap, before it
shoots. But this idea has not been justified by experiments.

t Gentleman Farmer, p. 17S. INlr John Shirreff remarks, that'
no conclusion can be drawn, as to quantities of herbage necessary
to support the difl'erent animals, unless their weights be specified.
An ox of eighty stones will eat as much as two of forty stones
each ; and a London drag horse would probably consume as
much clover as ten Shetland ponies.

OF SOIT.lN(i. 815

Lord Karnes strongly recommends sowing a mixture of
yellow clover with rye-grass and rib-gi-ass, but cocksfoot
would probably answer better. These plants are earlier by
a fortnight than red clover, may be cut about the middle
of May, and if the season is favourable, they may be agaui
cut as late as even tlie middle of November.

Lucern has been tried in Scotland, on a small scale, and
has completely answered. An account has been already
given of the success attending the culture of tares. It may
be proper to add in this place, that it has been found high-
ly useful to mix some oats among the tares, to keep them
from the ground in wet seasons.

One of my respectable correspondents, (George Culley,
Esq.) informs me, that he has known barley and seedsy (that
is ck)ver and rye-grass), frequently sown together and cut
before the barley shoots, when it produces a great crop,
and afterwards a good second cutting, affording an excej-
lent food when soiled, either for horses or cattle. Winter
barley may be cut once, and will afterwards produce a crop
of grain.

Some cow-keepers near Edinburgh soil their cows with
cut barley. Finding that clover was apt to fail on the rich
lands near Edinburgh, owing to the heavy crops of barley
which these lands produced, they resolved, instead of
keeping the barley to be ripened, to cut it for their cat-
tle young, a practice that has been found to answer. The
first crop is equal to clover, and the cows are as fond of it;
the second crop is not so good as the second crop of clo-
ver, but is far from being deficient, and would be more a-
bundant if they would only cut the first crop earlier. At
the same time, tlie greater the proportion of clover the
better, as grain crops cut green are harsher than clover,
tares, and other legiuninous crops, and have not so feed-
ing a quality.

346 OF SOILING.

Instead of tares," an intelligent correspondent soils
four or five acres of Tartarian oats, commencing about
a fortnight after Midsummer. He finds this plan lo an-
swer uncommonly well, but he begins soiling with clover
and rye-grass. The oats should be sown at diflferent pe-
riods, to come in succession.

In Ayrshire, whenever the crop of beans is not likely to
he productive of pods, Mr Blane of Blanefield informs
me, that they are mown down as green food for horses,
who are fond of that food, after being a little accustomed
to it. This, however, at least, is but a rare practice. It
has been tried with stall-fed oxen, and they throve, it is
Said, better on that food, than on any other.

2. We shall next proceed to consider the different kinds
of stock soiled: 1. Horses; 2. Cattle; and 3. Pigs; and
the manner in which thej' ought to be respectively treated.

1 . Horses. — There cannot be a doubt of the advantage
of soiling working horses, a practice which Mr Rcnnie of
Phantassie considers to be almost indispensable, upon all
corn farms, as it enables the farmer to make his summer-
threshed straw into dung, and to procure a greater quan-
tity' of work from his servants and horses. It is thus
indeed that a large quantity of valuable and rich manure
is produced, by which alone he is enabled to carry on his
rotation of cropping to the same advantage. The fol-
lowing is a short sketch of Mr Ronnie's practice of feed-
ing horses through the year He generally gives them
cut grass about the 10th of June, or when the grass is
forward for cutting. He employs one man during the
summer season to cut and bundle the grass, which he will
do for twenty to twenty-four horses, with a little assistance
occasionally ; and having an interest in making as little

or SOILING. :51.7

waste as possible, be takes care to give no more tban wbat
is absolutely necessary. Tbe borscs are kept on tbc first
crop until it begins to get hard and dry, when, if the se-
cond crop of clover is not ready for cutting, they get tares,
of which be always takes care to have a plentiful supply,
with which, and the second crop of clover, they are carried
on until the end of October, a week or two sooner or later,
according to the season. During all this time they get
corn, more or less, accoi'ding as they are wrought. When
the second crop of clover and tares is consumed, he then
begins to feed with his best hay and corn. Good feeding,
at that season, he finds of the greatest importance : as
much of the horses' future health and strength, for the
next year, depend on the good management of them
when taken from green to dry food. After a month's good
feeding with corn and hay, by which time the hardest of
the labour is generally over, he puts them on pease and
bean straw, with a feed of boiled beans mashed up with
a little ground barley, and which they get every evening ;
this keeps their belly open, and in a great measure prevciUs
the bad consequences that often arise from damp pease or
bean straw. In this way he feeds them, until the first or
second, or perhaps third week in April, according to the
quality of the bean straw, and then puts his horses again
on hay, on which they continue until they get cut gi*ass.
Besides the advantages already mentioned, he remarks,
that if his twenty plough horses w^ere to be grazed, it would
require a field of at least thirty to forty acres of extent, in
order that the grass might be sufficiently good to allow the
horses time to fill themselves, and to have time to rest.
Think of the waste that must be occasioned by these hor-
ses trampling over it, besides what must also be wasted in
the pursuit of catching them for the yoke. Mr llennic has
jio doubt that one half the ([uantity of ground, when soil-

SIS «F SOILING.

ed, will feed the same number of horses. He adds, that a
horse that is fi'om nine tp ten hours a-day in the yoke, has
no time to gather his meat ; he therefore ought to have it
laid down ready for him in the stall, to begin to eat when
he comes in from his work, so that he may instantly fill hi§
belly, and retii*e to rest.

An intelligent correspondent informs me, that he keep$
for the cultivation of his farm twelve horses, and for their
maintenance he appropriates twelve acres of broad clover,
with a mixture of rye-grass : this, when a full crop, he cal-
culates will serve them five months, and will admit of four
acres of the first crop being made into hay : the whole of
the second crop they will be able to use green, even al-
though twelve double cart-loads of good stable-dung per
acre should be appUed immediately after the first cutting,
which will always secure a good second crop, and in a
moist season wiU produce a very heavy one. The dung
so applied, however, ought to be very short, and well
made, otherwise, it will be liable to mix with the clover,
in cutting and raking *. My correspondent reckons it al-
so one of the best preparations for a wheat crop with one
furrow after the clover : much nicety, however, is re-
quired in spreading the dung, and a heavy stone-roller,
drawn by two horses, will be applied with great advantage,
as st)on as the dung becomes dry after spreading ; for
without having recourse to this expedient, much of the
dung would be raised in the second cutting, and a consi-
derable quantity of the grass would be lost, from the ine-

• It is said, that the clover produced by new dung, must be
rank and unpalatable, and that it would be nu)re advanl>n;iinihly
applied to tlic turnip crop. IJuL wijere there is no land 111 tor
turnip, llial ol^jectioii ib obviated.

OF SOILING. 5^9

qualities formed by it on the surface, which would prevent
the application of the rake ; and it also has the advantage
of incorporating much sooner with the soil, without any
waste. He generally commences cutting broad clover for
the stable, in the last week of May or first days of June,
and continues until about the end of October ; after that
time the horses are put on hard food.

The principal objection to the practice of soiling horses
is, that it is difficult to provide them with young grass * ;
but that is completely obviated by the practice adopted in
Roxburghshire. The clover that is intended to be cut early,
is always saved in the winter and spring months ; but such
as is meant to be cut in the last half of July, and the second
and third weeks of August, is always eaten down by the

* Mr SomerviHe states, that among the disadvantages attend-
ing soiling, one is, that before the second crop is fit for cutting,
the first gets often so tough, stock do not eat it well. Tbe
objection, however, is easily removed by the cultivation of as
many tares as will supply tbe interval between the first and
eecond cutting ; a practice now very generally followed. In-
deed, Mr Hume of East Barns informs me, that he is accus-
tomed to cut down five or six acres of his young crop on which
he pastures 14 horses from the 15th of April to the 1st of June,
when the other grass is ready for cutting, and it never fails to
give a good crop v;hen the first crop begins to turn too hard for
the horses. This plan saves many liorses' lives, and a great deal
of more work will be got from horses thus fed, with two feeds of
corn, than fiom the same horses that get three feeds and the best
bay. There cannot be therefore a greater improvement, as with-
out following it, or sowing a considerable quantity of tares, no
farmer can be sure of having green food for his working stock ia
August and Septemljcr, if severe drought occurs during thes€
months.

SSO OF SOILING.

sheep in the spring, by which means it is in a good state
when the other becomes hard and unpalatable. This me-
thod is also followed by Mr Brown of Markle, who there-
by seldom fails of obtaining green food of the best quality
for his working stock, not only at the critical period here
alluded to, but also to the very conclusion of the grass sea-
son.

Mr Nisbett of Mersington, in the spring, puts in ewes
and lambs on the new grass, in the proportion of two pair
per acre, and sometimes more. He occasionally also eats
the herbage of a part of his hay land *, in the spring,
with his fattening sheep, when he wishes to keep them
back for a good market ; and that part he cuts for the
horses before the second crop can be ready. This insures
to the hoi*SGS a succession of young gi-ass, on which they
thrive much better than when it gets dry and stalky.

It is certainly desirable, by following this practice, to
keep the clover young and nourishing, even though a
greater quantity of ground should thereby be rendered ne-
cessary.

In regard to soiling, a respectable correspondent makes
this distinction, that where tliere is grazing land of good
quality annexed to the farm, it is, in point of convenience,
of less consequence ; where that docs not take place, it
seems both profitable and necessaiy to soil with red clover

* It is remarked, that there is certainly a risk in spring, eating
a part of the herbage of the Umd inlended for hay ; as in propor-
tion as it is eaten, so in proportion is it exposed to the influence
of the sun and cutting winds, and more liable to tlic injury of
drought. It EG seldom happens, however, but there is a power-
ful supply of moisture at or about \Vhitsunday, Old Style, that the
injury dreaded can rarely happen. At all events, it is desiruLle
not to cat the young gr isses too bare.

OF SOILING, 351

and tares. If the rich grazing land, however, can be cut
for soiling, would it not be desirable to adopt the soiling
system, if one acre will go as far as two ?

Mr fcJomerville of Athelstonford Mains, is decidedly in fa-
vour of soiling, thinking it scarcely possible that the labour
of a farm, according to the present system, could be well
carried on, if horses were fed otherwise ; besides, in that
way, one acre of grass will go as far as two eaten on the
field, whilst the straw threshed in spring and summer is
tliereby rapidly converted into rich dung.

Mr Somcrville gives the following estimate of the ex-
pence of soiling horses, and of the manner in which it
ought to be conducted. He estimates, that a Scotch acre,
is, in usual seasons, consumed by a pair of horses.

Two horses nine weeks, first cutting at 10 s.

per week, - - - L. 9 0 0

Two ditto four ditto, second cutting, at 10 s. 4 0 0

Total value of the produce, - - L. 1 3 0 0

Deduct for cutting and carrying home, - 2 0 0

Clear profit per acre, after paying expences, L. 11 0 0

Such a crop, if made to hay, will rather exceed 200
stones ^er acre Scotch, of 22 lb. avoirdupois to the stone. If
the same were depastured and allowed to get well up, an
acre would keep one horse for thirteen weeks ; hence Mr
Somcrville considers, that one acre of clover and rye gi'ass,
according to the soiling system, will feed the same num-
ber of animals that two will do, when the soil is depastur-
ed.

He generally begins cutting for soiling in the first week
of Jime, though at first he goes over nmch more ground
than afterwards, yet the second crop is mucli better, and

352 OF SOILING.

what is early cut, comes in succession when the first crop
gets old and tough. He never has grass that will cut a
third time with advantage. His horses get water twice a-
day, w hich he thinks indispensably necessary for working
stock * ; if water is in the court, where they can take it at
pleasure, so much the better.

Milch cows give more milk when soiled than when
pastured, provided due attention is bestowed in furnishing
them with a regular supply of grass at stated periods, say-
six times each day, and keeping them clean and free from
nastinpss. Tlie very trouble that is saved by milking the
animals in a byre or cow-house at hand, instead of going
to a distant field, is of considerable importance.

Lord Kames stated, that many a summer, for seven or
eight weeks running, his horses had been daily employed in
bringing lime firom a quarry fifteen English miles distant,
fed on red clover only ; and at the end of the season they
were as plump and hearty as at the beginning : but all in-
telligent farmers are now of opinion, that it is necessary to
give horses a feed of oats pei' day, when they are carrying
lime, coals, or other heavy articles to or from any consider-
able distance.

Mr Wilson of Simprin, in Berwickshire, approves of
soiling in the middle of the day, in hot weather ; but he
states, that it is not generally practised in Berwickshire,
where the work-horses are accustomed to move quicker
than in the Lothians. He does not think that it would
answer in every situation ; and is of opinion, that cut grass
is too soft a food for horses used in driving lime. By

• It is found by expeiience, that even posting horses do well
aoilfd, but then they must get no water. When htl on moist and
succulent herbage, the less water, in general, the better.

OF SOILING. 3.53

giving a feed of oats, however, that objection would be re-
moved.

It is also contended, that horses are much better to be
out a few hours on pasturage every day, instead of being
kept constantly in a stable, in consequence of which, they
are apt to turn stiff, and never thrive so well. But this
objection is obviated by the practice of a number of re-
spectable farmers, who, when they soil their horses, give
them their green food in binns in the yard, instead of feed-
ing them in a stable ; and Mr John Shirreff remarks, in
regard to the idea that horses, when soiled, are hable to be-
come greased, it is not well founded. Thei'e are few greas-
ed horses in East-Lothian, where cut clover is constantly
used for soiling. Indeed, the idea of horses becoming
greased when regularly fed, and wrought with moderation
every day, is absurd. Exercise is the surest preventive.
It is in winter that draught horses are most apt to become
greased, from wet roads, and want of exercise.

Mr Somervilie of Athelstonford Mains is convinced,
that young draught horses may be reared much cheaper
by soihng, than in open pastures j — a point of considerable
moment to industrious farmers.

2. Cattle *. — Though many are of opinion, that it is
profitable to soil horses, yet this practice is not so general-
ly approved of in regard to cattle. Mr Brown of Markle,
however, has with his usual ability given a very satisfac-
tory account of an experiment he tried, which seems deci-

* Mr Cur wen strongly recommends soiling milcb cows. He
says, that a cow of the sliort-horned breed will require eight stone,
(14 lb. each), of cut clover, in the twenty-four iiours ; but with
smaller breeds, I have no doubt, that u less quantity will suffice.
Report to the Workington Society, anno 1810.

P. u z

;i54 OF SOILING.

sive of the question *. In 18(^5, he soiled twenty-foar
Aberdeenshire cattle, and after giving a full detail of the
expence and profit, computes the gain to be fully 50 per
cent.f when grass is consumed in that manner, even when
no additional sum is stated as the value of the large quan-
tity of fine dung thereby manufactured. From his account,
it appears, that these twenty-four cattle were completely
fed, from the first of June to the first of October, upon
eleven acres of clover and tares ; and he now informs me,
that he is quite satisfied, it would have required eighteen or
twenty acres of the same grass to have fed them had they
been pastured upon the field. This is a decisive fact in fa-
vour of the system, especially as Mr Brown had an equal
number of cattle in an adjoining field, which did not sell one
halfpenny higher than the soiled ones, though they con-
sumed or destroyed a great deal of more grass. With the
exception of one season, when his clover field was at a
great distance from the farm-yard, Mr Brown has regularly
soiled cattle since the above period.

It is contended, that the soiling ©f cattle is of more im-
portance upon clay-knd farms, than where the turnip soil
prevails, as in the former it is difficult to use the straw
to advantage in any other way ; whereas upon a turnip
farm, it is hardly possible to reserve straw for the purpose
of soiling, and it cannot be done without straw, or some
other substitute. On the other hand, it is maintained,
that sometimes half the turnips may be eaten on the
field, without any straw being used ; that a considerable
saving of straw may be effected, by bottoming the yard with
moss, earth, ashes, and other such articles; and that if
straw be cconoraitally applied in littering tiirnip-fetl stock,
there will be abundance to litter a good many soiled i-n

• See FiMiDer's !\rag:\zine, vol. vi, p. l6o.

OF SOILING. 35j

summer, where good and luxuriant crops of grain are
raised.

A detailed account has been transmitted to me, regard-
ing the proper mode of soiling cattle, by Mr James Cuth-
bertson of Seton Mains in East-Lothian. He recom-
mends, that cattle, intended to be kept in this way du-
rinsr the summer, ought to have some succulent food
given them, at least four weeks before they are entirely
confined to eat green clover, and for the first fortnight,
a flake with oat straw, or a little hay, should be kept in
the court, because at that season of the year, the grass
being strong, its laxative effects are so powerful as to pre-
vent feeding. Plenty of water ought to be constantly
kept in the court ; an open shed also for the cattle to re-
the to, in hot weather, would be a great comfort to them,
and very materially aid their feeding ; and if it is found that
they do not frequent it, he would recommend keeping them
at the stake during the heat of the day : recourse likewise
ought to be had to the hyre or cow-house, during any
continuance of wet weather. Their food ought to be given
them four or five different times a-day, so that it may be al-
ways fresh, and new cut, which will prevent the waste that
would otherwise be occasioned by giving them large sup-
plies at a time, and will also induce them to eat more plen-
tifully. Regular litter should be given them, and the court
kept as smooth as possible, in order to preserve them from
being overheated when they lie, which they ought to be
encouraged to do as much as possible.

It is also of much consequence, that regular attention
should be given to keep tliem clean, so as to prevent a
foulness of the skin, which may happen if the weather
is warm, and litter not plentifully and regularly supplied.
When the soiling of cattle is intended to any extent, it
ought to be adverted to, in sowing the grass for them, that
less rj'e-grass than is commonly used for hay should be

z 2

356 OF SOILING.

sawn with the clover ; likewise, that when the clover begins
to get hard, some tares, sown early in the spring, ought
to be substituted in its place. In East-Lothian, it rarely
happens that the weather will permit the cattle to lie out
after the month of September ; but as this in general is
too eariy for commencing feeding with turnips, unless the
weather is dry amd warm, it would be better to feetl them
at the stake, upon the second crop of clover, which at this
time will be in its best state for feeding. Some recommend
a few oats on the straw to be given, for the first month after
the cattle are changed from the clover to turnips -, but in
my opinion that €xpence is not necessary.

Mr Hope of 'Fenton found that young cattle, tied to the
stake, improved much to his satisfaction. From their age
he could not expect them to fatten for the butcher. He
would prefer, at the same time, allowing them liberty to feed
in an open yard, with a proper shed into which they might
retire when they thought proper, to the stake. He thinks,
however, that cattle will thrive better constantly tied up in a
well-aired house, than confined in an open yard, without
haxang an opportunity to take refuge from the heat of a sum-
mer's sun, and the vermin that harass cattle at that season of
the year. Water was brought into two yards, where he tried
his experiments, for the use of the cattle; those in the house
were let out once or twice a-day, according to the nature
of their food, to drink, upon doing which they were im-
medirtely tied up again. He found it of the utmost con-
sequence to have them always well supplied with water,
especially when the grass begins to turn hard, as he obser-
ved once or twice, when the ser\'ant had neglected to sup-
ply tiieni in proper time, (although \\h- a very shoit jieiiod
only), that scarcely a beast thought of putting liis mouth to
the grass, but all stood looking with the greatest cnrnost-
nesfi till relieved liy a proper supj^ly of that necessary ele-
ment ; wlierevcr soiling, therefore, is to be practii^'d, he

OF SOlLINtt.

holds it of the first importance, that a plentiful supply of
water should constantly be at hand, completely indepen-
dent of a servant to supply the yard, eitlier by a pump or
other manual operation *.

Some farmers in Berwickshu'e, who long persisted in the
system of soiling their young cattle, have now abandoned
k, from the idea of its insufficiency to raise stock, to the
same weight and size as they would have been raised to, had
they been grazed in the common manner. They admit,
however, that beasts, by being soiled, may be well prepared
for being laid on turnips in October ; and they ought to
consider, that it is not the weight or size of any individual
animal, but whether more value can be raised on an acre
soiled, compared to one of a similar nature pastured, that
must determuie the question.

An intelligent correspondent, (Mr Stewart of Hillside),
informs me, that he has been in the use of giving cut clo-

• Mr Low observes, that though an ahiitidant supply of wa-
ter is, in general, proper for cattle, yet that less is necessary, when
fed on such moist and succulent food as cut grass. He has learn-
ed from good authority, that young horses and cattle have been
known to thrive very well in a pasture field, without a drop of
moisture more than they obtained from the dew on the grass
in damp mornings. This, however, is not to be imitated ;
and where the water is not conveyed to the court by troughs
or otherwise, the cattle must be driven to it at leiist once a
day, and allowed ample time to drink. If the water be near at
hand, it may perhaps be advisable to water them twice a day.
It is remarked, that calves should never be allowed any water
during the first six mon'.hs they are turned out to pasture ; for
when they are allowed to drink much water at an early age, they
will become big-bellied, and otherwise mishapen. Grown cattle,
however, cannot do without a siiliiciency of water, more especial-
ly when living on dry and coarse food.

358 OF SOILING.

ver to milch cows in the months of July and August, when
the weather is hot. At that season they come in from their
pastures between eight and nine in the morning, and are not
put out again till four in the afternoon ; in that interval they
get a full feed of clover. The advantages of this, to the
pasture, the cattle, and their produce, are evident. He
reckons, that an acre of ordinary clover, will serve fifteen
cows for this purpose, for two months. Others have tried
giving cows clover in the yard, but found that they did not
give so much milk as when they were at pasture. That,
however, is not inconsistent with the advantage of soiling
them in the middle of the day.

Mr Park is of opinion, that a supply of water is very re-
quisite when cattle are put on clover j and if a running
stream cannot be obtained where they are kept, a pump-
well, with attention, may supply its place. On the whole,
he is of opinion, that there is more advantage to be deri-
ved from soiling horses, than cows. That, however, is a
point that has not yet been so fully ascertained as, I trust,
wiU soon be the case.

Mr John Shiri'eif has suggested the following practices in
regard to soiling, which seem to me peculiarly valuable : 1.
That in hot weather the herbage shoukl always bo given
them in sheds ; and, 2. That a supply of the best old hay
sliould be given them in wet weather, else the stock must
full off much in their condition, for thei'e is only a certahi
quantity of moisture, which an animal can take into its
stomach with safety, and if that is exceeded, the conse-
quences must be fatal.

8. Pigs Mr Church of Hitchill also soils pigs on clover,

and finds it an advantageous practice. Where cottagers
have gardens, and keep pigs, it might be expedient lo have
a small spot of ckncr in their gardens to cut for them.
In regard to soiling pigs, a discovery has been made of

OF SOIMNG. 3.39

considerable moment. It is, that pigs may be soiled on
cut green beans, witli great profit, and that tliey are ra-
venously iond of them. The Windsor sort is preferred,
and the beans should be planted at three tliff'erent times,
for the sajce -of a regular succession. The feeding may
commence in the beginning of, July, and may terminate
about the end of September. When pork is worth l^d.per
jx)und, the profit, besides a quantity of most valuable ma-
nure, is calculated to be about L. 10 per English acre.

We shall now proceed to state the advantages of soiling,
and the profit to be derived from it.

1. Soiling is peculiarly calculated for clay-landfarmSi more
especially if they are situated at a distance from any town
where thei'e is a demand for straw. By means of soiling,
that straw can be converted into rich dung, which other-
wise would hardly be of much value. Upon turnip land
farms, where cattle are fed, tjie straw is consumed during
the winter, and little, if any, can be reserved for soiling.

2. Another circumstance strongly in favour of soiling,
is mentioned by Mr Hurae of East Barns. He states it
as a positive fact, (though it may seem extraordinary), that
all the lands in his neighbourhood will produce a better
crop of oats, the year after the grass is taken up, if the
grass was cut for hay, or for soiling, even twice in one sea-
son, than if the grass had been pastured, even with sheep;
and that this takes place, not only on land full of manure,
but even where inland districts are managed in the four-
course shift of turnips, white crops, grass, and oats, and
receive no manure but a thin dunging in the turnip drills.
The same circumstance is stated by Mr Brown of Markle,
who has made trials of the cutting and pasturing processes
upon soils of almost every description, and uniformly found
that oats taken after cutting grass, were superior to those
taken upon the pastured field. The produce of the land,

360 OF SOILING.

however, must be consumed upon it, and not sold off, un-
less a fair proportion of putrescent manure is purchased
back.

3. Tlie saving of land is a most important consideration.
Mr Walker of Wooden is of opinion, that one acre of
cut grass soiled, is equal to three used as pasture. But
in turnip land farms, where sheep are partly fed in the
fields, much straw, as has been already noticed, may be
reserved for summer soiling. Mr Somerville states, that
one acre of cut clover is equal to two pastured, even of
the same field, and sown with the same grass, the clover
not being trampled upon, and growing so much faster than
if it were often corroded by the teeth of an animal : and
another correspondent is of opinion, that 16 acres of clo-
ver and tares, will feed as many horses and cattle, as 36
acres of the same kind of grass would do if used in pastu-
rage.

4. There is also a great saving of food ; for animals,
when pastured, destroy a great deal of keep in various
ways, not only corroding the herbage by their teeth, but
bjr trampling upon it, poaching it, particularly in wet wea-
ther, lying down upon it, dunging, and staling. All
these ai'c prevented by cutting the herbage, and carrying
it from the field.

5. It has been justly observed, that by soiling, a great
quantity of rich and valuable dung is produced, when lume
could otherwise have been procured *, which may be used

* It is said, on the subject of the imick produced by soiling,
(hat it is not perfectly correct to state all the profit derived from
that article to the acres soiled, as the land producing the straw
must likewise be taken into consideration. This, however, can-
not be curried to the full extent, as without soiling the straw
might not be convertible into dung ; at least into dung one half
30 valuable as when it is niamifacturcd by that process.

OF SOILING. 361

upon the cultivated fields, with far greater advantage than
<ould be obtained from the portion of dung left by the ani-
mals upon the same field, in the event of its having been
depastured ; for in this case, much of it would have been
scattered on the grass land ; much of it wasted by evapora-
tion, dissipated by the sun and air ; and much of it carried
away by insects. This advantage alone is sufficient to
compensate for any trouble or expence attending the prac-
tice, more especially on farms lying at a distance from
towns, arffi where manure cannot by any other means be
obtained : besides, as the dung and urine of cattle are much
stronger in summer than in winter, it is possible, by this
means, to procure a species of manure of a very superior
quality. Before soiling was introduced, a large quantity of
straw always remained after the cattle were turned out to
grass, which never could be made half so valuable as under
this system *. Under the old system, horse dung, in a
pasture field, was almost totally lost, for it was soon eaten
by flies, or dried, and withered away. Indeed, by its heat,
it burnt the grass it fell upon, instead of improving it.

6. Another advantage is, that cattle and horses are not
liable to the same accidents as under the pasturing system.
They are not so apt to be hove or hlcnxui^ — a misfortune by
which many farmers have suffered considerably f . When

• Communication from Mr Brown of Cononsyth, by Ar-
broath.

+ A beast that chews the cud, takes in at once a large quanti-
ty of green food, especially of red clover, which is extremely pa-
latable when young. So large a quantity is apt to ferment with
the heat of the stomach, so as sometimes to make the creature
burst. This is considered as a formidable objection to the feed-
ing horned cattle on red clover ; but it is easily obviated by feed-
ing them in the house : servants will not readily give more than
sufficient, when culling and carrying is a work of labour, —
Karnes' Gentleman Farmer, p. 1 7^.

362 or SOILING.

milch cows are soiled, it is remarked that they escape the
gripeSf which is a great enemy to them when out, more
especially in wet seasons. In the fields also, cows, when
pasturing, are often frightened, when in a thriving state,
and prematurely slip their calves, to the great loss of the
proprietor. Besides, it is well known, that pasturing
horses and sheep together is extremely injurious to the
sheep stock going on the same land, which, by the process
of soiling, may be obviated *»

7. This practice is also of great use in preventing da-
mage, not only to fences, but to underwood, corn, &;c. by
breachy cattle; and it prevents all the danger of cattle
being staked, or otherwise hurt by breaking fences f .

8. It is hkewise contended, that the practice is advan-
tageous to cattle in a feeding state, as they require that a
sufficient quantity of food, to satisfy their wants, should
be given them in a short space of time, and they fatten
quicker by lying much at rest J.

9. Workin<j horses or cattle arc saved all the fatigue of
collecting their food after their work is over ; they can fill
themselves consequently much sooner, have more time to
rest, are protected from the heat of the sun and the attacks
of insects, can be kept in higher condition, and are able to
<Jo much more work. In regard to horses, in particular,
after having worked nine or ten hours each day, they
must stand in need of rest during the cessation of their
labour, and this can be better obtained in a cool stable,
or open shed, with plenty of litter, than in an open fie^d,
where they are exposed to the weather.

* Kerr's Berwirks-hire, ji. C72.

•f See Sir C. M. liuriell's pajjtr in the Ci)mrmiiiicrt(ioiis to the
lii»ard of A;;r;cuUii!e, vol. vi, p. 2.

I Adiiii's Now S\stt'ni of Agriculture, p. 11 and 1'2.

OF SOILING. 3G3

Lastly, Working animals aie rendered much more trac-
table, take a liking to those who furnish thcni with food,
and, instead of being sought for in the fields, and being
caught with great difficult}', they are always ready for their
work. Besides, in the stable, they are not tormented with
flies as in the fields, nor are they induced to stand in brooks,
or ponds of water, nor under the shade of spreading trees
or hedges, by which much valuable manure is lost.

It is likewise to be observed, in the words of Mr Brown
of Markle, that the real test of the utility of soiling is not,
whether cattle can in that way be so completely fattened
as by pasturage, but whether or not an acre of clover grass,
can be consumed with more profit to the farmer, by soiling,
than if cattle were allowed the liberty of pasturage upon it.
This is the true view which ought to be taken of such a
question.

We shall now proceed to state the profit derived from
this practice.

Profit from soiling. — There, is certainly no mode by
which artificial grasses will pay so well, as by soiling. In
the neighbourhood of towns, from the necessity that cow-
feeders and carters are under for such food, the value of
clover is immense. Indeed, according to a communication
from Mr Low, L. 25 or L. 30 per Scotch acre, are no
uncommon prices, for the produce of land cut for soiling,
which, if it had been let for pasture, instead of being cut,
would not have brought more then L. 9 or L. 10 per
acre. Mr Bruce of Grangerauir in Fife, makes the
value of cut grass per Scotch acre, deducting the ex-
pence of cutting and leading, L. 9, and the profit from
dung L. 3, 10s.; consequently the total value of one
Scotch acre he calculates to be L. 12, 10 s. Mr So-
merville states the produce at L. 13, the expences L. 2,
leaving the value per acre, where the produce is consumed

364 OP SOILING.

by soiling horses, L. 1 1 per acre, besides the dung. Mr
Kerr, in his Report of Berwickshire, p. 262, states, that
fin English acre is worth from six to eight guineas, (besides
the dung,) according to soil and seasons, which does not
differ materially from Mr Bruce's statement, whose calca-
lation refers to the Scotch acre. It is said, that an acre of
clover and rye-grass, cut and used green, is of equal value
with the produce of the same acre made into hay ; and that
there is much less risk, whilst at the same time a great
quantity of excellent muck is procured *. But Mr John
Shirreff remarks, that this point must depend upon various
circumstances ; as the price which the various articles will
fetch, or the purposes to which they can be applied. This
must vary in different situations and districts.

It must not bo imagined, however, that this practice,
liowever excellent, is not liable to some objections. These
2 shall endeavour to enumerate.

1 . It is first objected, by those who disapprove of soiling
horned cattle, that in close, coverts, the benefit of good air

♦ Mr SofcnerVille calculates, that a crop of clover and rye-
grass, when made into hay, will rather exceed 2U0 stones per
Scotch acre, of 22 lb. avoirdupois to the stone. If the same were
pastured, and allowed to get well up, an acre would keep one,
horse for thirteen weeks. This produce, however, Mr Curwen
considers to be very low for land in condition. It may be regard-
ed, however, as a full average of the hoy crops of Scotland in ge-
neral seasons. It is to be remarked, at the same time, that the
crops of clover will be much gi eater, when first introduced into
any district, as thai of Cumberland, than they will prove after-
wards. In the expermient made by Sir Charles Merrick BurrelJ,
the produce of nineteen acrey and three quarters was saved by
soiling fiftern acres and a half, or L. 8}<, 10 s. in all, which was
additional pr(>/it on the extent soiled, of L. 6 : 14 : Ql per acre.

OF SOILING, ;iC5

and coolincr breezes is exchanged for putrid effluvia, and
a noxious heat from different sources ; and that the annoy-
ance from insects and vermin, in such a situation, must be
irreater than in tlie fields. Here I must however remark,
that where proper sheds are erected, the latter part of the
objection is altogether groundless. I may also add, tliat
the daily experience of cattle thriving, though confined,
sets aside the whole of this objection. Besides, horses or
cattle might be kept in hammels (as they are called in Ber-
wickshire), or small folds, with covered sheds to resort to
in hot or in bad weather, where they would not suffer from
confinement. Indeed, covered sheds alone, when proper-
ly constructed, are much cooler in hot weather than the
open atmosphere, and are not infested with insects or ver-
min. By the same plan of hammels, another objection is
obviated, namely, that if animals of different strength are
confined together, the weaker cannot obtain an equal share
of food with the stronger ; for by the hammel system, the
weak and the strong may be separated.

2. The second objection is, that the chances of accident
and disease are greater^ than when the cattle are allowed
the natural way of seeking their own nourishment : but it
is evident, that they are liable to many more accidents
without doors, than within, and, besides, are exposed to
the inclemency of the seasons.

3. It is also objected, that in wet soils .or seasons, fields
are much injured by carts and horses going upon them, to
take away the cut grass. They cannot, however, do so
much injury, as a number of horses pasturing upon the
field ; and by adopting the plan recommended by Mr
•W^kcr of Wooden, that of using broad wheels, (sec
page 6 1 ), the objection is completely obviated.

4- Another objection to soiling is, that in thin dry land,
especially in a dry season, it does not produce grass, of
weight and quantity suificicnt, as to render it worth while

366 OP SOILING.

to cut it for soiling. The answer to that is obvious, that
in such a case the land must be pastured, and that it is
impossible to make any arrangement that M'ill suit every
soil and every season.

5. Another objection is, that it is difficult to know what
to do with a large wintering stock, from the middle of April
till, some years, the 10th of June ; cattle, during that
period, if living on dry straw, would be so much reduc-
ed, as that it would be dangerous to give them any thing
like a full supply of new grass, for several weeks, and be-
fore the constitutions of the animals have undergone the
requisite change, the best part of the feeding season is ex-
pired. But there are few farms on which some ruta baga
or yellow turnips may not be grown to a sufficient extent
for supplying an ordinary stock of cattle for six months ;
but if these do fail, the alternative remains of pasturing for
a week or two a part of the grass land till the forwardest
fields are fit for cutting.

6. The only material objection to the soiling system is,
the expence of erecting and keeping in repair the necessary
buildings, and the care, trouble and expence, which are
required for the due supply of food and water * : expences^
however, which are amply compensated by the numerous
advantages already detailed. In regard to covered sheds
indeed, which Mr John ShirrefF considers to be indispen-
sable where soiling is attempted, he remarks, that this extra
expence is imaginary where winter-stall feeding is practised,
because the same sheds will answer for soiling, that serve for
the consumption of turnip. Where milch cows or fattening
cattle arc soiled, an additional servant and horse may be ne-
ci'ssary, to cut and carry home their grass ; but in regai'd
to working horses, no additional expence need thereby be

• The proprielv ol giving water willi bucli nioisl atnl succulent
(yod us cluvcr, is much umiblcd.

OF soiLi.Nt;. 367

incurred, as the servant who works his pair, lias plenty of
time, midday and evening, to find tlicm grass, if the field
is not far distant '*.

With a view of lessening the expence of carrying cut
grass from the field to the stable, the only circumstance
that weighs against cut grass in competition with pas-
ture. Lord Karnes has proposed to carry the cattle to
their food, instead of carrying food to the cattle. For
that purpose, he proposes erecting a moveable shed
in the field, all of wood ; and he adds, that it is pos-
sible to set a little shed on wheels, to be moved, from
place to place, without being taken down. This plan has
lately been revived by Mr George Adams, a farmer in
Worcestei'shire, who has taken out a patent for what he
considered to be a discovery, the importance of which had
not previously occurred to any other individual ; and, not
being conversant with books on agriculture, was not a-
ware that the very same idea had been recommended to
public attention, as far back as the year 1776, when Lord
Kames first published " The Gentleman Farmer f ."

I have thus gone through the important question of
Soiling, and have availed myself of all the information I
have been able to collect upon the subject, in order to
bring it more fully under the consideration of the reader.
The practice is now thoroughly established in all the im-
proved districts of Scotland ; and I trust that it will soon
he universally adopted in every other part of the united
kingdom.

• Communication from Mr Charles Alexaiider.
t One of my corrcepondents saw a shed of this kind, as Im
back as 1/72, on the Jarm of Wark, but it did not answer.

26S OF PERMANENT PASTURE.

Sect. XII. — On the System adopted in Scotland with re-
gard to permanent Pasture.

There is perhaps no particular, in which the systems
of husbandry adopted in England and Scotland, differ
more, than in regard to what is called old turf, or perma-
nent pasture. It is admitted, that by letting land lie iti
grass for several years, the expence of cultivation is greatly
diminished, and that from even indifferent soil, tolerable
crops of oats may be raised for two, or even three years,
on what, in some parts of Scotland, is called the out-fieldy
and in the more northern districts, qftei-jsal-land ; but
that practice, so contrary to every judicious principle of
husbandry, has fortunately become obsolete. In regard to
land of any considerable value occupied by tenants, when
a question was asked regarding old turf, in a district
distinguished for its fertility and produce, (the Carse of
Gowrie), the answer was, " We do not understand in this
part of the kingdom, what is meant by old tiof"

As this is a point, which seems to me of very great
moment to the farming interest, I shall state, 1. The ob-
servations which have been transmitted to me in favour of
old turf; 2. Those which have been urged against it; and
3. Shall endeavour to draw the practical result from both ;
to which may be added, some observations on the break-
ing np, and the laying down of old pastures.

1. Ar<ruments in favour of old tuff— Mr Robertson of
Ladykirk very ably maintains ihc advimtnges to be dcri-
\cd from permanent pasture. lie contends, that it is of

OF PERMANENT PASTUUr. 3f^9

tlie utmost importance to have some old <rrass or meadow
land attached to every farm, even where the pUjugh is the
principal object of attention. Where the liner sorts of
sheep are bred, as the Leicestershire, it is absolutely ne-
cessary * ; but even in farms strictly arable, it will be
found in the highest degree advantageous. The reason is
obvious. Where artificial grasses, as clover, arc alone re-
lied on for feeding the stock of the farm, in dry seasons,
the farmer may be almost entirely deprived of that re-
source j old grass would in that case be of infinite value,
from the superior nutriment which, when properly kept, it
always furnishes. The land should have a sound bottom,
and be rather of a moist and loamy quality. It should
never be cut for hay, but always pastured ; it should not
be top-dressed, so as to deprive the ploughed land of any
part of the manure produced on the farm ; the land
should be situated near the farm-house and offices ; and it
may be in the proportion of about eight acres in a hun-
dred. It is of great consequence to landlords, to preserve
such an extent of old turf on eveiy farm, untouched by
the plough.

Mr Robertson is also of opinion, that when grass land,
from age or other circumstances, gets into that state com-
monly called rich meadow or grazing land, it should not be
opened almost on any account. It would be much for the ad-

• Mr Robertson says, that he does not see how it is possible
to keep breeding ewes llirmigh winter without permanent grass,
unless by means of a very great expence of tin nip and hay. New
grass, be adds, will not liave above a fortnights start of real rich
turf, if it has been saved in winter. The value of the win-
ter pasture of such turf is also considerable. Besides it ought to
be calculated, that artificial grasses run the risk of being smother-
ed by strong crops, or destroyed when new sown by dry or wet
weather.

P. I. 2 a

t3 t O OF PERMANENT PASTURE.

vantage of every farm in Great Britain, were a field of that
sort attached to it. No convertible land ought to remain
above three years in grass at most. In the neighbourhood
of towns, or in a situation where a sufficient supply of
dung can be procured, one year in red clover will proba-
bly be sufficient j the best rotation, perhaps, 1 . Potatoes
or turnips ; 2. Barley ; 3. Red clover, and a little rye-
grass j 4. Potatoe oats j 5. Beans -, 6. Wheat. It is evi-
dent that this system only can last, where there is street-
manure, and dung to be procured in sufficient quantities,
otherwise, in the course of a few rotations, the clover crop
will become precarious, and would often fail.

In the last place, Mr Robertson states, that rich old grass
or meadow land is of infinite value to pasture stock ewes in
winter, and to give them their turnip on in spring, previous
to their dropping their lambs. It is also of the greatest
consequence to sheep of all kinds in Midsummer, espe-
cially in extreme dry weather, when the grass on the con-
vertible lands is burnt up. To cattle and horses, at that,
season, and in that kind of weather, it is a matter of the
first necessity. Sheep do pretty well, but the others can-
not thrive without green food in the manner of soiling, or
old rich turf. Nothing is so destructive to the feet of
horses, as confinement on a hard field of new grass at
Midsummer. The same thing may be said of cattle of alJ
sorts *. Even the richest of land, when sown down, does
not come to real perfection in less than thirty years j and
after that period, if properly managed, it may be said to
be in a progressive state of improvement ; so that it may
be a matter of serious consideration for any landlord to al-
low such land to be opened, if he has a just proportion of
it on liis property. If he has more than that, he may se-
curely reckon it as a good fund to raise money, by a pro-
per rotation of lillage.

• Wliere soiling is pracli^ji'ii llu'st- dbicclioiis are obviated.

OF PERMANENT PASTURE. 371

In a farm of 500 acres, one field of 30 to 35 acres of
old meadow land is highly desirable ; and so on in the
same proportion in other sized farms. Old grass certainly
feeds large cattle better. In Northumberland it is called
the ox j^astwCf tending to prove that it was formerly con-
sidered to be better calculated, or more necessary for cat-
tle than for sheep. At the same time, it is said, that new
grass feeds cattle better till Lammas, than even old grass.
The best mode of laying down land to grass is. Let the
land be quite clean, full of lime, and all kinds of manure ;
let the seeds be, one bushel of real perennial rye-grass,
five pounds of red clover, and ten or twelve pounds of
white clover.

Mr Low of Woodend observes, that the value of a por-
tion of old grass is not to be considered intrinsically, but
in relation to the farm of which it forms a part. Calcula-
tions concerning the comparative profit of land in tillage
and permanent pasture, he considers, therefore, as of no
value in this argument -, since it is not contended that land
in old pasture is of greater or equal value with the same
land if under tillage ; but that it is convenient and profit-
able to have a small portion of a farm so occupied ; in
short, that it is not the value of the grass itself, but the
greater value it gives to the rest of the farm, by its many
important uses, that is to be considered.

Mr Logan of Fishwick, who carried on farming to a
great extent, (occupying at one time about 2000 acres of
land of various qualities, one half of which he kept always
in grass, and the other half in tillage), concurs in these
doctrines. When he let Fishwick to Mr John Clay, he
would not suffer one particular field to be ploughed up,
which had been in grass above fifty years, and which,
when properly treated, produces such a great variety and
abundance of rich herbage, as soon brings the fatteninir
stock to great perfection. He has also an old grass field
2 A 2

'372 OF PERMANENT TAStU^t^.

at Edrom, where he resides, which has been 100 years in
grass, and is supposed never to have been Ikned ; it is a
rich black loaTn, on a gravelly bottom ; he top-dressed it
with lime in the months of November and December, and
had turnips laid on it for his feeding sheep afterwards ; it
made a most astonishing improvement, both in quality
and quantity of food ; the grass was darker in its colour,
smaller in the pile, and more luxuriant in its growth.

Mr Logan considers it to be a great advantage to top-
dress old grass lands with a compost of earth or moss,
hme, and dung, properly prepared ; and the best time for
laying on that compost is in the beginning of winter, the
field being previously eaten very close in the autumn, and
left untouched till May for pasture. Old grass land that is
constantly cut for hay, requires dressing, as it is annually
robbed of a crop without receiving any thing in lieu of it.
In counties where turnips are grown, he thinks it would
be of great use to those meadow lands, to have sheep fed
with turnips upon their surface in the dry weather, which
would be a profitable, and not expensive top-dressing ;
feeding cattle on the sward, with turnip, has not the same
good cfiect that sheep have -, cattle sink too deep in the so'l
with their feet*.

Mr Wilson of Simprin, another Berwickshire farmer, is
likewise of opinion, that in every faim a part of it ought
to be old grass, even though it should be in a dead or un-
productive state. He is such an admirer of old grass,

• On this subject, Mr John SliirrefT remaiks, that tl)Oiigh
sheep, when fed on old turf, certainly di» not suik so deep in the
soil, and tliciii«:li the heavy treadinj; ot cattle may ipjiiie the grass,
yet such treading n)ay be of great use in destroying viusci, with
vbicb old grass lends abound, severe poaching being the bcifc
cure.

OK PEKMANENT PASTURE. 373

that he keeps a proportion of it on bis fiirms, tboiigli lie
has the liberty of bi'caking it up. Land, when grass is
sown for permanent pasture, ought to be laid down in the
\cry highest order ; if that is not the case, it should never
be sufi'ered to remain.

Mr Wilson reckons old grass of equal value as tillage
land, and equally productive for man and cattle, with the
exception of lands in the neighbourhood of large towns,
where there is a ijreat command of duno;.

Having had the experience of feeding a number of the
best oxen that ever were fattened in Berwickshire, it is
Mr Wilson's opinion, that large oxen cannot be fed to ad-
vantage, after the fii"st or middle of June or July, without
old grass ; before that period, artificial grasses will answer
equally well, with the double advantage of allowing the old
grass to get up, — a great acquisition in ox pastures.

As to the quantity of old grass on different farms, he
jthinks, that from 35 to 40 acres on a 300 acre farm, and
from io to 50 acres on a 500 acre farm, and so on, is a
fair proportion. The time of breaking up ought, in his
opinion, to be regulated by its grazing well or ill. It is
farther his opinion, that if the land is laid down in the
best possible order, the longer it lies the better, or, in
other words, it should lie for ever in grass. As to artifi-
cial grasses being pastured, the swaixl will always be too
weak for large oxen, and the}' can never lie so comfort-
ably on it as on old grass ; besides other disadvantages, as
not standing drought or wet. Nothing indeed but age,
can produce that fine variety of plants, so ornamental and
valuable in old pastures.

It is contended likewise, that old turf is peculiarly advan-
tageous for feeding, in consequence of the variety of the
herbage which it produces. From that variety, the grasses
must appear at diflerent seasons ; in consequence also of
that variety, cattle must be tempted to eat the herbage ia

OF PERMANENT PASTURE.

greater quantities, and it may not only be more nourish-
ing, but also more easily digested.

The rents at which old grass parks let for in Berwick-
shire, justify these arguments in their favour. I am in-
formed by that intelligent surveyor of land, Mr Low, that
they fetch fi-om ^0 s. to even L. 5 per acre. These rents
vary much in different seasons, rising or falling according
to the demand for grass, which last is determined by the
proportion of stock in the count3% Very frequently, far-
mers, to consume their straw, find it necessary to winter
more cattle than they can graze ; but rather than dispose
of their stock in the spring to disadvantage, they run the
risk of taking these old grass fields at very great rents.
It is only where these fields are secured at fixed rents, by
lease or otherwise, that any profit is to be made by this
system *.

Mr Hope of Fenton is likewise of opinion, that it
would be desirable to have a certain portion of old grass
upon every arable farm. He considers the want of pas-
ture grass, as the point on which the great bulk of Scotch
farmers are most defective j and from the advantages

* It is remarked by i\Jr Kerr, in his excellent Report of Ber-
wickshire, p. 330, that when good soil, properly improved, has
been laid down lo grass, and has once become rich feeding land,
it appears to the Reporter, that no rent can be afforded for it in
tillage, which will compensate to the proprietor, for the after de«
falcation of rent which must take place when it is again laid
down in grass ; at least, so long as good pastures produce the
rents which they have given in Berwickshire for many years
past. This doubtless has induced some proprietors to throw more
of their land into grass, and may operate in time to overstock the
market with tliat commodity: but should that happen, the evil
will naturally cure itself; and when grass rents fall permanently
off, proprietors will readily see their own interests, in kiting a
portion for tillage.

OF PERMANENT PASTURE. 875

which he has seen derived by a few of his most intelligent
neighbours, from pasturing their lands, he is decidedly of
opinion, that if a full third of the county of East-Lothian
were kept in grass, as much grain would be raised as is
at present, with the advantage of all the additional stock
that would be maintained upon such an extended pas-
turage. He desires to be understood as meaning, that
this grass should form a part of the farm under the con-
vertible system, not permanent pasture, which he looks
upon as Httle better than the present system, where pas-
turage is too little attended to *.

2. Ay-guments against old turf. — The advantage, how-
ever, of permanent pasture, is denied by many of the most
intelligent farmers in Scotland. Mr Rennie of Phantassie
contends that none is requisite, and that whatever propor-
tion of it is kept, occasions one-fourth loss of rent to the
proprietor, besides the injury sustained by the farmer and
by the public. Tliough artificial grasses, he observes, may
not produce milk, butter, cheese, beef, and mutton, of so
rich a quality as old pasture, he is satisfied they will pi'o-
duce a larger quantity ; the best proof of which is, that ar-
tificial grasses, upon land of equal quality, condition, and
situation, always let in East Lothian at more rent than old
pasture under similar circumstances. The great advanta-
ges of artificial grass is, that it produces food for stock at
least one month earlier than old pasture, by which the
stock upon it get such a start, that they keep their supe-
riority throughout the whole season, and it is chiefly by
stock fed in this way that the early markets are supplied.
As to feeding large oxen on old grass, he has had no prac-

' On many farms in Berwickshire, the proportion of grass, I
understand, is often nearly one-half.

S76 OF PERMANENT PAETVRE.

tice, though he has fed cattle, from thirty to forty stones
Dutch, upon artificial grass. Indeed, full three-fourths of
the cattle fed in East Lothian are fattened on pasture of
this kind ; and he knows that cattle so fed, will come one
month sooner to market than those of equal condition will
from old pastures under similar circumstances. Artificial
grass is also preferable for early ewes and lambs, sick
horses, &c. ; nor does he think it more liable to sufi'er from
dry weather than old grass on similar soils, if properly
managed. On these accounts, there is not, in his opinion,
the smallest necessity for old grass, neither is it practised in
East Lothian, except perhaps in a few cases, where there
happens to be some hilly or rocky pasture, there it may
be for the interest of the tenant to let it lie in permanent
pasture, but not otherwise.

Mr Brown of Markle adheres to the statement of Mr
Rennie, and observes, that the difference of value betwixt
Uirf land, and land kept under convertible husbandry,
must vary mucli., according to soils and other local circum-
stances ; but in such a i;arm as the one in his possession,
he would not have the slightest hesitation of giving 20 s. pei^
Scotch, or 15 s. 8 d. y^er English acre, more for land, if
freedom of management were allowed, than he would, were
the landlord to i-ay, " You must keep it constantly under
grass." He farther adds, that he would make the like dif-
ference upon the number of acres proposed to be kept ex-
clusively in grass, whether the number was limited to one-
half, one-fourth, or one-eighth of the farm in his possession.

Mr Brown, considering the (juestion as meant to eluci-
date the superiority of convertible husbandry, further ob-
serves, that it is not an easy matter to calculate the differ-
ence of produce in twenty-one years, where land is kept
under permanent pasture, instead of being broken up and
croj)ped in a regular vvay, as it is not only the direct loss
upon the turf land, but likewise the indirect loss sustain-

OF PERMANENT PASTURE. 377

cd by the arable land, which must be held in view, when
that difference is taken into consideration. So far as the
cjiiestion is limited to the quantity of land kept in perma-
nent turf, he would answer generally, that the public loses
three firlots of grain for every stone of beef or mutton that
is obtained by feeding cattle or sheep upon that turf.

Now, under the supposition that equal quantities of
wheat, barley, oats and beans, were cultivated, these three
firlots would, according to Winchester measure, be some-
what more than three bushels and three-fourths of a bushel ;
and their value, at the round average of 50 s. 'per quarter,
would be about L. 1 : 3 : 6, from which sum falls to be
deducted 1 1 s., the estimated value of seed and labour for
raising that quantity of grain, leaving a balance of 12 s. 6 d.
as an offset against the value of each stone of beef or mut-
ton obtiiined by feeding cattle or sheep upon the old turf
land. On the other hand, Mr Brown estimates twelve
stone of beef or mutton to be a full average of the annual
produce j?fr acre from old turf, (in a few cases it may be
more, but in many others it is less) ; and as he considers half
a guinea 7?er stone, avoirdupois weight, to be a higher price
for beef or mutton than 50 s. per quarter is for grain of
all sorts, it follows from these calculations, that L. 1, 4-8.
Sterling per acre, is annually lost by adhering to the S3's-
tem of keeping land exclusively in old turf, independent
of the manifest injury done to the old tillage land, from the
necessity thereby occasioned of persisting, in consequence
thereof, in a similar exclusive system of management. — But
taking the question in another point of view, the result is
similar. Supposing five quarters of all grains to be the ave-
rage of arable crops, and every man who knows the old turfs
of England will allow that a low average is taken, the value
thereof at 50 s. ^;(?r quarter is L. 12, 10 s. Deduct from
that sum L. 5 Sterling, the estimated value of seed and la-
bour, and L. 6, 0 s. the value of beef or mutton produced

378. OF PERMANENT PASTURE.

from an acre of turf, there remains a balance of L. 1, 4 s.
Sterling in favour of convertible husbandly. — Mr Brown,
however, does not contend for constant tillage. He only ad-
vocates the cause of alternate husbandry, considering that
system to be the best one for promoting the interest of the
proprietor, the tenant, and the public.

Artificial grasses, Mr Brown adds, wiU certainly feed oxen
of an ordinary weight during the period of their growtli, and
answer equally w^ell for dairy purposes. No doubt there is
a period of the year when young grass will not feed, say
from the middle of July to the middle of August, because
the first gl'o\^i-h has then come to maturity, whilst the se-
cond has not commenced ; but these things need not hin-
der the farmer from having a fresh bite of older grass for
his cattle till the season furnishes a fresh supply of artifi-
cial grasses. This may be obtained from a field of three
or four years old hained grass, as well as from a field which
has remained in grass for ten times that period.

It is admitted, that a.field of perennial grass is benefi-
cial on every farm j though the advantages of such a field,
for the stock of breeding ewes in spring, ai-e rather proble-
matical, unless it is regarded as a proper place for giving
them turnips till the grass season arrives. In fact, upon
all well-managed farms, where stock and corn husbandry
are conjoined, turnips are the chief food given to ewes, in
the months of January, February and March, after which
a supply of grass is generally obtained.

The extent of perennial pasture, (not old turf), neces-
sary in a farm of 500 acres, must differ in almost every
dilferent situation. In Mr Brown's case, CO acres answer
very well, though with otliers a greater quantity may be ne-
cessary. But this grass, with the exception of a field un-
fit for ploughing, is regularly broken up by the plough
when four years of age, to tlw^ great benefit of the rest of

OF PERMANENT PASTURE. *J7y

riie farm ; yielding then heavy crops of corn, and requi-
ring little manure for several years.

Mr Hume of East Barns, and Mr Hunter of Tynefield,
concur in these observations. They state, that one acre
of sown grass will not only in general afford more keep
the first year, than can be procured from it the two follow-
ing years, but also comes much earlier in spring ; and that
grass, let for pasture at L. 7 or L. 8 per acre the first
year, would not give above L. 5 or L. 6 the second year.
The oat crop, they are hkewise of opinion, is not better for
the land remaining longer than one year in grass, — an opi-
nion generally entertained, unless in cases where the ground
remains longer in grass than is consistent with the length
of modern leases.

Mr Hood, a most intelligent farmer near Kelso, remarks,
tliat people will think very differently upon the subject of
old turf J and before any satisfactory answer can be given,
the age of the grass, size of the farm, and the nature of the
soil, should be stated ; for, upon a small farm, old grass is
neither necessary nor profitable j upon a large farm, a small
proportion of old grass may be very convenient. Upon the
whole, however, he does not think it is either necessary, or
for the advantage of a farmer, upon a lease of twenty-one
years, to keep any part of his land in old grass j nor is he
convinced, that it would be for his interest to do so, even
upon a lease of longer endurance. The genex'ality of soils,
if properly laid down, will produce more grass the first
year than they will do in any subsequent one, for ten years
at least. He has a field of originally good land, which has
been pastured for thirty years, and he is satisfied, that it
neither produces more grass, nor feeds better than it did
fifteen years ago ; he can see, therefore, no advantage to a
tenant, by allowing any part of his farm to remain so long
in grass. His opinion regarding old turf, may appear sin-
gular in some districts, but it is founded upon experience.

380 OF TERMANENT PASTUItC.

Dr Coventiy also is of opinion, that inferior lands should
not remain long under pasture. Light, open, sandy or grtv-
velly soils, or lands full of vegetable mould, may be kept in
grass longer than the poorer clayey grounds; and very light
lands may, for a time, even improve when under grass ;
but in the course of three, four, or more years, in conse-
quence of the clay soil sinking down, and becoming over
close and cohesive, the commonly cultivated herbage plants,
(clover and rye-grass), depart, and the native plants slow-
ly form ♦a sward, which is often, in pqor soU^ of a bad spe-
cies, and is never of much value. — If these lands were once
put into good condition, and well laid down to g; ass, they
might remain perhaps four or five years in pasture without
disadvantage ; but even then, a longer period might in-
crease their tenacity, and bring back all the evils arising
from over-closeness of texture, producing over-wetness and
infertility.

Mr Walker of Mellendean is confident, that no farmer
in Roxburghshire, upon a nineteen or twenty-one years*
lease, can lay down land to remain permanently in grass,
without being a loser thereby to a very considerable ex-
tent. He does not know what might have been the dif-
ference in the weight of his old cattle, had they been fed
upon such pastures ; but after working them to the month
of August, and continuing them on pastures of one and
two years' old, while there was grass in the fields, he has
sometimes sold them in the spring following, at the weight
of 120 stones English, mid his weddcrs and tlraft ewes ge-
nerally average about 20 lb. English per (juartcr.

Mr John Shirreff seems to me to refute several of thp
arguments Uocd in favour of old turf. He states, tliat new
pastures are much litter for sheep than old, because they
.nre much earlier in spring, and nuich more vivid and
fresh during the winter months. It is admitted, he ob-
serves, by some of the most strenuous advocates for old

OF PERMANENT PASTURE. Si$l

turf, that clover and rye grass has at least a fortnight's
start of okl pasture in spring ; though it will often actually
have near a month's, on similar soil, in the same situation,
wliether both have been eaten, or both saved during the
preceding winter, unless the clover have been eaten so
close as to injure the plants. This, he observes, is a cir^
cun^stance of the greatest moHient, as the salvation or de-
struction of a flock may depend on a few days' keep, in-
stead of a fortnight's, at that critical season of the year, tho
spring months.

In regard to the cattle fed on old turf, he maintain^
that very large oxen are but unprofitable stock, in most si-
tuations, and always easier and cheaper fed at the stall,
than in the pasture field j also, that it is contrary to a far-
mer's interest, either to breed, or feed cattle so heavy that
they cannot pasture at their ease on any land, but the soft
carpet of an old turf field. As to giving turnip to stock
ewes in spring, previous to dropping their lambs, he con-
tends, that pasture of two years' standing, or even what
had been pastured for one season only, namely, the year
immediately preceding, will equally well answer that pur*
pose as old turf will. IVIoreover, tliat drawing turnip,
and giving them to sheep, or any other stock on old turf,
never broJcen up^ as recommended by the friends to that
system, is cheating the rest of a farm of manure, and oc-
casions a heavy loss, as this old turf does not carry crain
crops, turnips, &c. as it would do, if under convertible
husbandry, and so return its due proportion of manure to
the other fields of the farm, while it allowed them to be ra«
freshed with pasture in their turn.

As to the objection, tliat in seasons extremely dry, the
gi'ass on convertible land is burnt up, he alleges, that if
land be well prepared and laid down with plenty of good
seed, particularly white cl6ver, and be not too hard stock-
ed, that is, too close eaten down, early in the season, cJo-

382 OF PERMANENT PASTURE.

ver and rj'e grass will bear nearly as much drought on the
same, or similar land, as turf will ; at least he ventures to
think, that when a field of good clover and rye grass is
burnt up, old turf, on similar soil, will at least be singed.
In an extremity, some oats or barley might be cut green,
to carry on stock till rain restored vegetation. And he
thinks, a very small sacrifice of this sort would bring good
clover and lye grass to the par of old turf, on the only
occasion on which they do not rank above it in this coun-
try, for any really useful, profitable, known purpose, to
which either species of produce can perhaps be applied.

In regard to the variety of grasses m old turf, Mr Shir-
reff observes, that this mixture is a palpable loss. There
is, thus, a quantity of the rotten herbage of noxious and
rejected plants always mingled with the fresh and edible,
which certainly can neither be so palatable, safe and nutri-
tive to the stock, or so economical in consumption, as when
a few plants only are cultivated, which are hioxin to be grate-
ful, salubrious and nourishing to the animals intended to con-
sume them, and which consequently make no waste in do-
ing so. And this is perhaps the reason that nev/ pastures
are in general more equally eaten than old. Where nox-
ious or rejected plants abound, we find the herbage rank
and httle touched, while particulai' parts of the field, free
of this trash, are eaten to the bone.

Mr Shirreff adds, that there are few, if any of the plants
which constitute the cultivated herbage of the Scottish
luisbandry, which do not spring again immediately, and
vigorously, as soon as cut or cropped over, provided they
be not allowed to run to, or towards full bloom ; or, which
is still worse, to form seeds. The case is different with
many of the plants in old turf, several of which are puny,
and also slow of growth. Some have a short paroxysm,
as the ci7iosurus cn'sfotusy whichj when the stem and pani-
cle withers, stands an unsightly object the whole autumn.

OK PERMANENT PASTURE. 3S5

and even winter after ; and being as tough as wire, must
annoy the cattle in mouthing the fresh herbage witli which
it is mixed.

Many plants, which are found in all old turf, arc re-
jected by cattle, sheep, and horses, as the common daisy,
(bellis perenni^J, common crowfoot, (ranunculus rcpcjis),
&c. ; this last indeed, when in seed, is so pungent, that were
any considerable quantity of it, taken into the stomach of an
animal, violent inflammation and death would inevitably
follow ; and, probably, many cows that are said to be
witched, or die of the woad-ill, &c. may suffer from this'
very plant. He farther asserts, that old turf is full of va-
rious fungi or mushrooms, many of which are deleterious,
and some of them, when taken into the stomachs of ani-
mals, the most deadly vegetable poisons in nature.

Ragwort (seriecio Jacobaa)^ is only eaten by sheep when it
is very young. This is a plant that covers many old turf
fields. The meadow-sweet (ulmaria) is a beautiful, fra-
grant plant, common in old meadows, if inclined to peat ;
but horses and cows reject it j sheep will eat it.

On the whole, Mr Shirreff is satisfied from experience
and observation, that, admitting always that the soil and
climate is nearly the same, a field of clover and rye grassi
well laid down, will, on the average of the two first years^
keep, or feed more stock, than one of old turf, of the
same extent will do, in the same years, and as the
flush of herbage of the clover, &c. will be much earliex*
as well as greater, more profit must be derived fi-om its
consumption.

One of the principal disadvantages of old grass land»
kept for hay, and occasionally pastured, is, the quantity of
manure that is wasted in top-dressing them. There can
iiardly be a question, that dung should be covered with
earth, so as to derive the full benefit from it. How absurd
then must not the practice be, of laving such quantities of

384- OF PERMANENT PASTURE.

rotten dung on the surface of grass land, so frequently the
case in England ! Dr Coventry most justly condemns this
practice as the bane of good husbandry, though it is ne-
cessary to follow it where the exclusive grass system is
maintained. He observes, that there must always be great
waste, wherever putrescent manure is spread on the sur-
face, instead of being covered in by a portion of the soil.
In the decomposition of putrescent matter, every one
must be sensible of the ascent of a part of the materials.
Animal and vegetable substances, if exposed to the atmos-
phere in a putrifying state, will ahnost entirely dissappear.
The loss may be greater or less in diiFei*ent cases ; but
every hour the manure lies spread on the surface of the
ground, it must of necessity suffer waste. On the con-
trary, if ploughed in towards the end of a summer-fallow,
or with a horse-hoed crop, it will be most effectually blend-
ed with and covered in by the soil, and all that essential
part which, becoming volatile, is dissipated into the at-
mosphere, will be retained for the nutriment of the after
crops *.

* There is no instance in Berwickshire, where the farmer is
bound to manure his grass land ; perhaps the most injurious sys-
tem that could be devised in a tillage or arable district. Of this
practice, as a system in husbandry, there is hitherto no experi-
ence in Scotland, where there does not exist that vast demand for
hay, which claims such extraordinary protection fur meadows
in some parts of England ; neither is meadows or old grass land
liay, so much in repute in Scotland. Round gentlemen's residen-
ces, perennial grass land is occasionally mown, for supplying hay
to their own stables. But sufficient rest and recruit is always al-
lowed, by several years' pasturage, to repair any waste of fertility
that may have been occasioned by the hay crop. See Ken's
Tkruicks/iiiCf p. ]o6.

Of PERMANENT PASTURE. S85

It may be observed, as an additional proof in favour of
the convertible system, that though in East Lothian the
meadow lands are all converted into arable land, and there
is hardly any portion of natural grass, yet, as Mr Curwen
remarks, the rents paid in that county, are higher than in
any part of Great Britain, and have been progressively
increasing ever since that system was established. Hither-
to, therefore, no deterioration of the soil has been felt,
which, after such a period, may fairly be taken as conclu-
sive, that the soil, so managed, will yield at all times with
equal productiveness.

Being anxious to bring this important subject to the
test of calculation, I prevailed upon some of my farming
correspondents, to direct their attention to this mode of in-
vestigation i and Mr Thomson of Bewlie, in Roxburgh-
shire, having stated it as his opinion, that though old grass,
if let at a moderate rent, might be of some advantage, yet
that no farmer could afford to pay as much rent for land in
grass, as he could do, under the alternate husbandry of
white and green crops, I was thence induced to inquire,
what would be the fair difference of rent, if one-eighth part
of a farm of 500 acres, w ere kept in permanent pasture,
compared to the rent that could be paid for the rest of the
farm. Mr Thomson's answer is," I think that the rent
ought to be one-third less per acre than the rest of the
farm." According to this docti'ine, if a farm of 500 acres
was worth L.2 per acre, one-eighth part thereof, or 62^
acres would only be worth L. 1 : 6 : 8, per acre j the differ-
ence being 1 3 s. 4 d.per acre would amount, on 62-|- acres, to
L. 41 : 13 : 4-, which, on a lease of twenty-one years, would
be a loss to the landlord of L. 875, besides periodical in-
terest.

But that is nothing, compared to the detriment sustain-
ed by the public, when land, fit for the convertible system
of husbandry, is retained in permanent jiasturc. The fol-

r. I. 2 b

386 OF PERMANENT PASTURE.

lowing is the calculation made by Mr Thomson, of the
difference in the value of the produce of the two sj'stems,
in the course of a lease of twenty-one years.

Produce of an acre for four years, cropped according to
the four-course shift husbandry, and as applicable to the
soil and chmate of the district in which Mr Thomson's
farm is situated, namely, the upper part of Roxburghshire.

1. Turnips, value of crop, - - L. 5 0 0

2. Wheat, value of ditto, - - - 10 0 0

3. Grass, value of ditto, - - - 3 10 0

4. Potatoe oats, value of ditto, - - 7 10 0

L. 26 0 0
To expences for ploughing, sowing, and hoeing

turnips, - - - L. 1 15 0

To ploughing, sowing, harvesting, &c.

the wheat, - - 2 15 0

To grass seeds, - - 0 12 0

To ploughing, sowing, cutting, &c. oats, 2 0 0

Value of produce for four years,

L.7

2 0 7 2

0

irs,

L. 18 IS

0
5

-

L.94. 10

4 14

0

6

Twenty years,
One year,

Produce of one acre for 2 1 years, L. 99 4 6

The produce of two acres in old grass, for 21

years, will feed five »hccp per a 7mumt leaving a

profit of 1 5 s. each, ihnt is, L. 1 : 17 :C,^>(r acre

2)cr aujiumi which for twenty-one years, (on the

Carry fonvard, L. 99 4 6

OF PERMANENT PASTURE. S87

Brought forward, L. 99 4 G
principle on which the profit on the turnips

should be stated), amounts to * - L. 39 7 6

Balance per acre, in favour of the convertible
system of husbandry, - - - L. 59 17 0

But if it were admitted, to obviate any objection to these
calculations, that the profit of a sheep per annum, inclu-
ding the fleece, is 21 s. each, yet still the balance ^er acre,
during a lease of twenty-one years, would be L. 44, 2 s.,
which sum, according to the above statement, may be
placed to the credit of convertible husbandry.

* On this subject, Mr Trevelyan of Nether Witton remarks,
that a real good pasture, will carry and feed four Southdown sheep
per acre, the fleece alone of which is worth seven shillings, and if
turnips are given the sheep in the winter, the calculation is five
sheep per acre ; from the profit of which, however, the expence
of the turnips is to be deducted. Another zealous friend to old
turf observes, that the species of land to be continued in old
grass, seems not to be properly understood; land that would only
keep two and a half sheep per acre, and the profit of these only
15 s- per sheep, is not the soil for which the warmest advocates iu
favour of old grass would contend. The soils that are generally
found most advantageous to keep in permanent grass, are strong
loams, or clayey soils, improper for turnips, and which improve
the longer they are kept and depastured in grass ; such lands as
will carry six or seven sheep per acre through the summer, and
one and a half, or two sheep of the store flock, through the winter.
Upon farms of clayey soils, it is contended, that a breeding ewe
flock could not be kept without a certain portion of old grass land,
and soils of this description aie in much greater proportion than
turnip soils. But where land will keep more sheep than Mr Thom-
son calculates, the arable crops will be proportionally more pro-
ductive,

2 B 2

^SS OF PERMANENT PASTURE.

On a farm of 500 acres, let for twenty-one years, the
loss of value in produce, would therefore amount to the
enormous sum of L. 29,925, in the one case, and L. 22,050
in the other ; and where the land was more valuable, the
loss both of rent and of produce would be still more than
the sums above calculated.

It may be observed, that the straw produced on the
farm, and the turnips, when eat oflp by sheep, will fully an-
swer all demands for dung that is wanted by the farmer.

Mr Tliomson's system of retaining a part of his land in
grass, for four or five years, and then throwing it again
into the rotation, has already been described, in the sec-
tion of Rotations, under the head of Double Rotations.

Mr Brown of Markle, some of whose calculations, respect-
ing the profits of convertible husbandry, upon soils such
as those of his own farm, (which are chiefly of a clayey na-
ture), have been ah'eady noticed, has also favoured me with
his sentiments upon the same subject, as applicable to soils
naturally quahfied for canying turnips. According to the
views he has taken of the question, it appears, that were
old grass land, calculated for turnips, to be broken up by
the plough, and brought under a regular course of hus-
bandry, the ([uantity of live stock which might be fed upon
turnips and clover, during a-six course shift, of turnips, bar-
ley, clover, oats, beans and wheat, would not be much inferior
to what is fed at present upon these lands, whilst they are
exclusively kept in a state of pasturage. But, allowing the
bean crop to make up for that deficiency, he considers the
disposable produce of the other three corn crops, that is, what
remains after the home consumption is supplied, as an en-
tire acquisition to the national stock, and he estimates the
value of that disposable produce at L.21, or L. S, 10 s.
upon each acre of land, regularly cropped and cultivated,
according to the rotation above mentioned. Hence, it ap-
pears, that a sum not less than L. 73, 10 s. Sterling, is lost

or PERMANENT PASTURE. 389

during a twenty-one years' lease, upon every acre of land,
naturally qualified for carrying turnips and clover, that is
retained as old turf, or kept in a state of permanent pas-
ture,— a sum which exceeds the fee-simple value of many
of these lands, were they brought to the hammer, and ex-
posed to sale by public auction.

These doctrines are amply confirmed by the calculations
of Mr Murray of Kirkland-hill, who makes the following-
statement of the produce of lands in cultivation, compared
with lands in perr^anent pasture :

Produce fier annum.

100 acres in fallow and wheat, - L. 1000 0 0

100 acres in oats and clover, - - 112500

100 acres in beans and wheat, - - 1500 0 0

Divide by 3)3625 0 0

Average produce j^er 100 acres, 1208 6 8

Produce of 100 acres in permanent pasture,

at L. 3, \0 s. jJ^r acre, per annum. - 350 0 0

Difference in value of produce ^£r 100 acres, 858 6 8

Loss in produce, per acre, pe>- annum, by
neglecting convertible husbandry, - L. 8 12 6

From the above sum, however, the expences of culti-
vation are to be deducted ; and if it were admitted, that
such expences may, in some cases, amount, to even 50
per cent, of the gross produce, a deduction to that ex-
tent, would reduce the loss, from neglecting convertible
husbandry, to L. 1 : 6 : 3 per Scotch, or L. 3, 9 s. /w Eng
lisli acre.

390 OP PERMANENT PASTURE.

I do not recollect any agricultural subject, where the ar-
guments on both sides are more fully stated, than in the
preceding extracts from the communications which I have
received from so many intelligent correspondents ; and it
is with great diffidence that I venture to submit to the
reader's consideration, what seems to me the result of the
whole investigation.

1 . I certainly think, that it is highly desirable to keep one
or two moderate-sized inclosures, containing from 10 to 20
acres, according to the size of the farm, near the residence
of the farmer, in grass, for the feeding of cattle and sheep,
provided the soil be naturally calculated for it, or is tho-
roughly drained, and improved by manure and cultiva-
tion. The utility of this measure is acknowledged by al-
most every one of my numerous correspondents, without
admitting at the same time, that such field or fields should
never be broken up, or that the same part of the farm
should always remain in grass.

2. Where the finer sorts of sheep are bred, it is contend-
ed, that it is necessary to have some old turf, where the
ewes may drop their Iambs, and where they may be fed
with turnips, or any other article in the spring season.
But old turf is quite unnecessary for either of those pur-
poses ; Mr Rennie of Phantassie, and Mr Brown of Mar-
kle, having ascertained by experience, that on dry land,
which is the only proper kind of soil for ewes to lamb up-
on, grass of two or three years old is as good as that of
twenty.

S. It is hkewisc contended, that it is necessary to have
some old turf, as a resource for the stock to go on, in case
of any spring or summer uncommonly dry, such as hap-
pened in the year 1810, when it was a long time before
the artificial grasses made their :ii>poarancc, or could be
cither cut or pastured. On loams, liowevcr, artificial grass
may always be pastured earlier than old turf, unless in sea-

OP PERMANENT PASTURE. 391

sons when uncommon wet weather prevails ; and other sub-

stitiitfs have been already sugg< sted.

4. Lands apt to be overflowed, or which have been con-
verted into water-meadow, it is evident, cannot be culti-
vatetl for grain crops ; and there may be some very rich old
meadoXoSi which it would be desirable to preserve in the
dairy districts * -, but with these exceptions, there seems to
be no donbt of the infinite superiority of the convertible hus-
bandry, to the landlord, the tenant, and the public ; and it
can hardly be questio^jpd, that there are many hundred thou-
sand acres in England, now in permanent pasture, which
might be advantageously subjected to that system. Old
grass lands also, may be broken up, and if judiciously
and moderately cropped, may be laid down again in grass
without loss f . Indeed Mr ShirrefF observes, that where
calcareous matter has not previously been applied to such
lands, he has no doubt, that with the assistance of that
most powerful manure, Ipth the quantity and quality of
tlroir herbage would be much improved.

It is ascertained by experience, that by feeding sheep with
turnips on old grass, a peqoetual crop of hay may be obtain-
ed, without injury to the land thus treated, by giving to the
sheep, the produce of as many acres of turnips, as the grass
field consists of The land, of course, receives their drop-
pings, which never fails to raise a good crop of hay. This
plan, however, is objected to on various grounds. It is in

* Many would go farther in regard to the preservation of old
meadows, thinking it a pity to touch them, on any account. It has
heen ingeniously remarked, that a similar reason might be given
for continuing to plough with four horses, that it would be ajiity
to spoil so pretty a team.

+ It has often occurred to me, that much land, under perma-
nent pasture in England, might be applied to the production of lu-
cern, the most valuable of the grass tribe.

392 OF PERMANE?TT PASTURE.

particular observed, that though eating drawn tui'nip on
old pasture grass, very much improves the quality of the
herbage, by the droppings and urine of the sheep stock,
as well as by the effects of compression from treading,
which destroys the tribe of musci, and encourages the
growth of trefoil or white clover, and also of any of the
finer species of the perennial grasses which may have posses-
sion, yet that such a plan can only be adopted, as the
means of restoring the beauty and luxuriance of aya-
vourite Jield of pasture, (for instance a lawn, or gentle-
man's park), and not as a profitable mode of consuming
turnip *, for the succeeding crop of hay, will exhaust the
fertilizing effects of the sheep manure. Were the field
on which the turnips are eaten, broken up for oats, to
be followed by turnip, a grain crop, then clover, &c more
justice would be done to a farm in general, and more va-
luable produce raised. Mr JVIitchell of Balquharn likewise
observes, that the above mode of obtaining a crop of na-
tural hay, must be greatly to the injury of the arable pasts
of a farm. In situations where dung cannot be purchased,
he is fully persuaded, that every acre of good turnip, con-
sumed in straw yards, or in byres (cow-houses), adds to the
value of a farmer's dung-hill, L. 6 Sterling.
Suppose 250 stones, at 7d. (being inferior to clo-
ver and rj'c-grass hay,) the value would be L. 7 5 10
Deduct, for expence of making, and all other

charges, - - - 1 5 10

L.6 0 0
Thus the produce would only pay the manure yearly be-
stowed on it.

It is remarked also, that these droppings of the sheep,
would produce a crop of wheat, which would be a much
better and more profitable application j and that it is a

OF PERMANENT PASTUUE. 393

most exceptionable practice, to apply manure in any way,
for the purpose of raising hay from the grass land, at the
expence of the arable.

In regard to the breaking up of land, and laying it down
again to grass, I have already given my sentiments at
large, in a paper to the Board of Agriculture*. Mr
Logan is of opinion, that the best method of breaking up
old grass land, where it is supposed grubs may injure the
crop intended to be sown, is to lime on the sward, after be-
ing very bare eaten, at the rate of 25 or 30 bolls of shells
to the acre, and then to have a thin furrow before the win-
ter : the lime and frost will destroy the grub, and make
the land harrow well f . Mr Trcvelyan of Nether Witton,
however, strongly recommends paring and burning, as the
most effectual means of destroying all the variety of grubs
with which old pastures abound. If lime be cheap, 100
hoUsjjer acre may assist in the destruction of grubs, and
will insure an abundant crop of turnips, if the land be
suitable j but liming alone, he thinks, will not destroy the
grub effectually. Many farmers prefer breaking up land
with the plough, during the winter, for a crop of oats in
the spring; beans next, and then wheat or oats, if the
land is of that quality to stand it, but if not, oats, turnips,
barley, and clover. Others contend, that a good crop of
beans is seldom or ever raised after oats from old pasture,
although the occupation of the land in grass has not ex-
ceeded three or four years, except the soil is upon a tender
deep loam.

As to laying down strong land, (that is to say, soil on a
clay bottom), to grass, Mr Logan advises, and, indeed, has

* See Communication to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iii,
p.6.

t It would appear, from Mr John Shirreff's remarks, Addenda
No, 5, that lime has not the effect of destroying grubs effec-
tually.

S94 OF PERMANENT PASTURE.

found it the best and most profitable plan, after summer
fallowing, and manuring the land with lime and dung, to
ridge it up for the winter, and to sow it with barley in
the spring upon a fresh furrow, by which system, a good
crop of barley, and a plentiful growth of grasses, may be
obtained ; whereas, when wheat is sown in the autumn
on fallow, the land gets so hard during the winter and
spring, that the grass-seeds cannot be sufficiently harrowed
in, without pulling up a gi-eat deal of the wheat, by which
means, the seeds are not covered, they do not vegetate
equally, and some not at all ; and the land always has a
hardness when in grass, which it loses by the spring work-
ing for barley ; after barley, the land is always more mel*
low, and the seeds vegetate more kindly.

When old pastures are broken up, if the soil is good,
there can be no doubt, that they might be replaced in at
more productive state than ever, and much profit got, by
adopting the following rotation : 1. Oats ; 2. Summer-
fallow with lime ; 3. "Wheat ; 4. Drilled beans witli
dung } 5. Wheat ; 6. Drilled beans ; 7. Wheat ; 8. Sum*
mcr-fallow with dung ; and, 9. Wheat and grass-seeds.

On the whole, it appears, that the retaining of any
considerable portion of a farm in old turf, or permanent
pasture, is, in general, injurious to the landlord, the tenant,
and the public ; nor can any system be more absunl, than
to bind a tenant, to lay on his gi-ass land, the greatest pro-
portion of the manure produced on his farm, and to re-
serve but a moderate quantity for his arable. How easy
would it not be, to double the value of any estate, where
such a system is adopted, by appropriating the mannrc
of the farm, to turnips and other green crops, and by the
adoption of the convertible system of husbandry ?

OF HAYMAKINO. 395

Sect. XIII. — On Haymaking.

In many parts of Scotland, the fanners are not suffi-
ciently attentive to the making of hay. They let it be
too ripe before it is cut down, for the sake of the
seed. Some of them thresh the seed of the grass hayed,
sometimes for their own use, and sometimes to sell. After
the hay is cut down, they suffer it to lie on the ground, as
the scythe left it, for ten, twelve, or more days, when often
the side next the ground is damaged, and discoloured, the
upper side over-withered, and the fine juices of the hay
evaporated, being often literally bleached with sun and
rain, like flax j by means of which, much of the substance
is lost. In a great many instances, after it is ricked,
they let it stand on the field for many weeks, when it re-
ceives much damage, often from rain, and the too long ex-
posure to the atmosphere of the surface of so many ricks ;
and a great space of land is also damaged by the long
continuance of the hay upon the ground. A great many
do not thatch their hay-stacks sufficiently to keep out the
winter rain and snow, and the consequence often is, that the
rains penetrate tlie stack, and sink far down, by which the
hay is damaged.

Tlie following improvements, in regard to the manage-
' ment of the hay crop, are recommended from several re-
spectable quarters. 1 . After the grass has arrived at its
full gi'owth, but before the seed is form.ed, it should be cut
down ; by this means the full juice and strength of the
plants will remain in the crop. 2. The hay ought never

396 ' OF HAYMAKIN«.

to be threshed, for there is no strength or substance in
threshed hay; but wherever seed is wanted, a particular part
of the field should be reserved for the purpose of furnishing
it. 3. After the hay is cut down, Mr John ShirrefF re-
commends, that it should be cocked as soon as the state of
the herbage will admit of it, for reasons to be afterwards
explained. He knows at the same time, from experience,
that there are few seasons in Scotland, where it is possible
to rick clover immediately after the scythe. There is al-
most always a dew or dampness, on a luxuriant crop of red
clover, fit to be mowed, even in the finest weather, till tlie
afternoon. It is impossible to get mowers to sacrifice half
their time to the convenience of another, and it is im-
possible to get rid of this dampness, but by turning,
or even in some cases tedding, or ratlier spreading it
out. 4. After it has been a short time in small cocks, it
ought to be put up in what are called tramp ricks ; and this
to be done in a fine sunny day. The sun and air gradually
win it, and, if the weather is favourable, it may, in ten or
twelve days, be put up in the stack, after which it ought to
be immediately well thatched. In rainy weather, it may
be difficult to prevent hay from being somewhat damaged j
but much may be done, by embracing every fair day to
turn the hay, or spreading out the small ricks, and putting
them up carefully in the evening. After it is in the tramp
rick, it may be said to be safe, unlcsji the rain continues
long; and whenever it is thought to be in such a dry state as
to keep, no time should be lost to put it into the stack.

Dr Anderson, in his Essays on Agriculture, has given
several useful directions for making hay from artificial
grasses, which has been practised with much success, Ac-
coiding to his system, the hay ought to be tedded as little
as possible, as the leaves of red clover, in a rainy day, are

OF HAYMAKING. 397

SO brittle, that they break off, and are lost. It ig better to
turn the swathe over as whole as possible *.

Dr Coventry has published some most judicious obser-
vations on haymaking, in his Treatise on Live Stock, print-
ed anno 1806, the substance of a part of which, it may be
proper to submit to the reader's consideration.

The cultivated herbage in Scotland, he remarks, which
is generally composed of rye-grass and red clover, witli
small proportions of other species, as white clover, yellow
clover, rib-grass, &c. should be cut jMich more early than it
commonhj isy especially if it abounds with a great propor-

* The form of the rick is a point of great moment in hay-
making. In Weosley-dale, in Yorkshire, they seldom makt long
ricks, but round ones, nearly cylindrical, till they ure about
two-thirds of its height, when a conical form takes phicc ; the
rick is then carried up to so regular a point, and roped so closely
and nicely, that neither wind nor water can penetrate. In short,
the ricks thus formed, are less injured by time or tempests, thaa
those that are covered with straw, which is the conunon practice
in most counties '. The reason is obvious, because the stacks
that are covered with straw, are seldom carried regularly to a top ;
they are generally too broad there, and the straw is then laid on
very injudiciously, and without method ; the rick consequently
in lime takes water, and a considerable part of it becomes putri-
fied litter. By the carelessness of servants, and the want of a
juoiclous and philosophical knowledge in most farmers, respecting
the figure and finishing of ricks, their losses cannot but be consider-
able. The true figure of what is generally called a round stack
or rick, is at the bottom part the lower frustrum of a spheroid ;
nearly at the middle, the diameter is about one-eighth greater ;
then it is gradually raised, and finished in a neat conical manner.

• It is said, that if the ricks are equally well built, thatching with straw
must be preferable. But, on tbe other hand, it is contended, that if straw
is at all admitted, the tops will be carelessly done, as its defects will be con-
cealed.

S98 or HAYMAKING.

tion of the first-mentioned species. It matters nothing,
though many stablers and grooms, prefer rye-grass so far
advanced as to have its seed mostly ripe ; for as the horses
under their charge, usually receive, at the same time, a good
allowance of corn, the hay does often perhaps little more
than divide the other food, bear bulk, and comfortably fill
the stomach. Such hard fodder is reckoned a more last-
ing bait : and certainly it is, if one shall judge by the time
required to eat it, and perhaps to digest it, and not by the
time it supports the animal, or the degree of nutriment it
contains. Grooms having the refuse seed as a pei'quisite,
are sometimes led to prefer the ripened produce, from mo-
tives which overmatch their virtue * : a ton of ripe rye-grass
hay, has frequently yielded a quantity of seed, worth 30 per
cent, of its own price. For the husbandman, however, it
is of great consequence to be aware, that the wider-ripe
grass is, for his purpose, by far the most valuable, a fact
not so generally understood, or attended to, as it ought to
be. Old stale rye-grass, made into hay, is not greatly su-
perior to the straw of corn ; while the young herbage, so
prepared, is very fattening — a thing quite analogous to
what takes place with several other sorts of vegetable pro-
duce. The stems and footstalks of the leaves of many
plants, as coleworts, cauliflower, asparagus, &c. which af-
terwards harden into a string)-, dry, hard, or insoluble
substance, is origiiiallij a soft, nutritious mucilage. Ano-
ther instance, shewing the atlvantage of cutting herbage of

• Mr John Shirreft' remarks, that not only grooms, but stablers
wlio take horses at livery, prefer wiry liay ; for two reasons, 1.
Horses eat kss of it, and, 2. The seed it yields puts money in tiieir
pockets. The fault lies with the consumers. Let them put a
proper value on fine, fragrant, delicate hay, and the farmers of
Scotland will scon supply it. Till then, it is not fur their interest
to do so.

OF HAYMAKING. 399

different sorts in ih early state ^ occurs in the case of pigs *^
fed on clover, rye, and buck-wheat, {polygonum fagopyrum),
they thrive on these articles, particularly clover, if cut
sufficiently early, /. e. when considerably moist and succu^
lent. But after the flowering period, and even long before
the seed is ripe, much of the produce is rejected by tliem \
or, if they are obliged to use it, they pine over it, or make
small progress ; and such an application of the vegetable
produce becomes then not economical. Indeed all gra-
mineous and other plants, given as food to cattle, should
be cut, in a duly young, but not in a very young state.
The difference in the value of the hay, from rj'e-grass, &c.
produced in one district, compared to another, would ap-
pear to be principally owing to the plants, in one situation,
being less ripe and hard, when mown, than in others.
Cultivators in different quarters, are not uniform in their
mode of practice as to this matter. The conduct of some,
however, in respect to the early cutting, and the careful
and speedy drying and securing of their hay, is commend-
able.

Besides these considerations, several advantages attend an
earJy cutting. It contributes to preserve the plants in vigour,
not only for the after part of the same season, but for suc-
ceeding seasons and crops, and it retains them in the ground
longer than they would otherwise continue. Most grami-
neous plants, which have been long under culture, seem little
capable of recovering themselves, when they are cut down
only after their stalks are full grown. In every species of
corn, and in the annual grasses, (of which description rye-
grass, probably, has a tendency to become, after some
years' cultivation in certain grounds), when the seed is fill-
ing, the entire plant becomes somewhat hard and dry ;
then fewer and feebler buds spring, to form new roots and

* Tbe same observation may be extended to horses and cuttle.

40Q OF HAYMAKING.

stems, and at length the dwindling produce ceases to sur-
vive.

Mr John Shirreff has remarked, that if it were possible to
make any considerable quantity of hay, under an actual shed,
there could be no doubt of obtaining it of superior quality
to that made in the sun. The flavour of grain, and its
straw, when put into sheaves immediately after being cut,
is very different from, and superior to, in colour and smell,
that which has been allowed to lie exposed to the atmo-
sphere for one night, or even a few hours, especially of
hot sun -shine, or damp weather, after being reaped ; and
the middle of the sheaf of grain, thus treated, is invariably
the fairest and sweetest grain, and the straw of that part
of the sheaf the finest.

The whole art of haymaking, as Mr Shirreff justly ob-
serves, resolves itself into two parts : 1. Cutting early j and
2. Drying the herbage as much as possible in the shade.

In regard to the first point, he insists, the more luxu-
riant the plant, and the quicker its growth, the more
succulent, fragrant, finer, and consequently the more nutri-
tious and valuable will be its herbage, in a young state,
whether green or dried. Nature and principles are the
same every where, and the same results will follow from
hayings (if that expression may be more generally applied
than it commonly is), the tea plant of the East ; the to-
bacco of America; and the clover and other herbage of
Great Britain, or of any other European countiy.

As to the second point, Mr Shirreff defines hay, properly
speaking, to be, " the juice of plants or herbage dried in the
leafy and fibrous part of that herbage." It is not, therefore,
he maintains, the fibrous matter, palpable to the touch, that
constitutes nnypart of the hay ; it is the inspissated juice,
condensed in the dried fibrous matter of the herbage, that
really constitutes that iirticle. In order that those juices
may be preserved in their greatest abundance and perfcc-

OF HAYMAKING. 401

tion, it is essential, that the herbage in which they are con-
tained, should be dried as much in the shade, as is consis-
tent with the cxpencc attending that mode of curing.
By drying herbage for hay in the shade, is meant cocking
or ricking that herbage. The outer exposed surface is al-
ways bleached and insipid. That which is below, and
in the shade, is grateful to the palate, and fragrant to the
smell.

Mr Shi rreff further adds, that if the inspissated juices
of dried herbage, be extracted by infusion from the fibrous
matter, the hay passes into the infusion, and the fibrous
matter itself is nothing but the straw of the plant. Hence
hay tea, given to calves, is a nourishing diet, whilst the fi-
brous matter that remains is of no value.

These observations seem to me so just, that I was glad
to find, that a plan had been adopted by Mr Church of
Hitchill, by which such important objects might be ob-
tained. It was originally practised in Lancashire, where
it is called tippling, and is carried on with great suc-
cess j and Mr Church has ascertained, that it may be
executed in Scotland with equal advantage. He considers
it to be not only a cheap, but a superior mode of mak-
ing hay, more especially in precarious seasons, or for
making a second crop of clover. It is proper to make
the tipple as soon as the grass is mown, if dry; if not,
it is better to wait till it is so. If the crop is strong,
there is a row of tipple placed on each swathe ; if light,
two of these are put into one row. In making one, a per-
son with the right hand rolls the swathe inward, until he
has a little bunch, then the same is done by the left, until
both meet and form 8 to VI lb. weight or thereabouts.
This bundle is set up on end against the legs or between
the feet. A rope is twisted of the grass, while the bundle
is supported in this manner, which is tied round the bundle
near the top of it j and from the top are drawn up a few
p. I. 2 c

402 OF HAYMAKING.

Straggling stems, which are twisted to make the tipple
taper into a point, and give it as mtich a conical shape as
possible. After standing a few hours, they become so
smooth on the outside, that the heaviest rains seldom wet
them through, and wheri wet they are soon dried again.
As soon as ready, they are put into the summer rick, or
even the winter stack, if very diT ; but are never opened
out,or ted, to make them dry, as they never require it. By
this method not a leaf is lost, and the hay is nearly as green
'as a leaf dried in a book. In a moderate crop, one wo-
ihan will tipple to one mower, and a woman will rake to
two tipplers or two swathes. But where the crop is strong,
it may require three women to keep pace with two mowers.
After the hay is put up in this manner, the crop may be
considered as secure, though it may continue wet weather
for a considerable length of time.

I HAVE thus laid before the reader, the substance of the
numerous communications transmitted to me, regarding the
practical details of the Scotch System of Husbandry, which
I trust will be found to contain, a number of valuable hints,
and more minute information, regarding some particular
points, than has hitherto been communicated to the pub-
lic.

The Author has always been of opinion, that howevermys-
terious the art of acriculture may have formerly been con-
sidered, yet that it might be reduced to a few simple prin-
ciples, and, in regard to some particulars, brought to almost
mathematical precision. The reason why that has not yet
been effecte<i, to the extent of which the subject was capa-
ble, is, cither that real practical men have rarely published
the result of their experience and observations on agricul-
tural questions, or that those who have written their serrti-

OP HAVJdAKTNO. iOS

ments, have seldom entered sufficiently into detail, so as to
explain those minute operations, on the due execution of
which its success must in «a great measure depend. Be-
sides, it is only within these few years that a judicious and
economical system of agriculture has been extensively car-
ried into practice, or the principles on which it ought
to be conductetl thoroughly ascertained. By the improve-
ments, however, lately introduced into that art, (which
the minute inquiries carried oh under the auspices of the
Board of Agriculture have fortunately brought to light),
the principles are at last established, on which the territory
of any country, at least of one possessing a soil and climate
similar to Great Britain, may be cultivated with profit and
success.

I trust, that the preceding details, will contribute to the
elucidation of this most important subject; in which case,
the attention bestowed in collecting materials for this work,
and the preparing it for publication, will be most amply
•ompensated.

CONCLUSION OF PART I.

It may be proper to conclude this extensive inquiry, by,
1. Giving a general view of the improved System of Hus-
bandry established in Scotland ; 2. Pointing out the im-
provements of which it is still susceptible ; and, 3. Ex-
plaining the means by which that system can best be dis-
seminated in the less improved districts of England and of
Scotland, where, from its simplicity and productiveness,
joined to the economy with which it is carried on, it may
be introduced with great public and private advantage,

2 c2

404 GENERAL VIEW

I. General Vievo of the Improved Husbandry of Scotland,

In a communication from my respectable friend, Sir
Jo&eph Banks, lie stated, that " agriculture has derived, is
deriving, and will derive, more benefit from Scotch indus-
try and skill, than has been accumulated, since the days
when Adam first wielded the spade."

I hope, that the following general view of the improved
System of Husbandry as established in Scotland, will jus-
tify that observation.

The foundation of improved agriculture is certainly laid,
in the best cultivated districts of Scotland, in as great per-
fection as it possibly can be in any country. The farms
are usually of a proper size-, — the farmers, in general, have
capitals adequate to their cultivation ; — they are bound to
pay the landlord such a proportion of the value of the pro-
duce, as renders it necessary for them to be industrious
and economical, and to acquire all the skill in the art of
husbandry to which they can have access; — their leases
arc commonly of such a duration, as to encourage judi-
cious expenditure in the improvement of their lands, with
the prospect of an adequate return ; — the covenants con-
tained in their leases are sufficiently fair, being almost, in
every case, well calculated to promote, and not to retard im-
provement.— A liberal system of connexion is established
between the landlord and the tenant ; — and the characters
of those, by whom the labours of agriculture arc carried on,
whether farmers, apprentices, farm- servants, or common
labourers, cannot be surpassed by those of the same de-
scription of life in any other nation. The experience of
Scotland, has likewise proved, the superior advantages of
liaving married servants on large farms ; by means of
whicli, the population of a country is increased, and tlie

OF SCOTCH HUSBANDRY. 405

kingdom filled with sober, healthy, and industrious sub-
jects *.

The various points which require to be attended to, pre-
vious to the actual cultivation of an arable farm, arc in
general ascertained, by the practice of Scotland, with a
degree of precision hitherto unexampled.

The farmers of that country have established it as a
principle, that the position of a farm-house and offices
ought to make a material difference in the rent of a
farm ; — they have ascertained the best construction of
farm-houses and offices, uniting economy and conve-
nience ; — they have pointed out the best size and shape of
fields, by means of which, much land is rendered produc-
tive, that would otherwise be wasted in useless fences, and
much labour in their cultivation saved, insomuch that
where the fields are large, five ploughs will do as much
work as six can in small fields, and every other part of the
cultivation of a farm will be executed with less power, in
nearly the same proportion ; — they have likcv.-ise pointed
out the inconveniences attending expensive fences, which
are more ornamental thim useful to a country ; — they are
fully aware of the importance of draining, and have prac-
tised it with success ; — they have ascertained, that by the
introduction of good roads, the value of a country will be
greatly increased ; — their instruments of husbandry are
cheap, and well constructed ; their ploughs excellent, and
peculiarly well calculated for general use ; and their carts
superior to any other for agricultural purposes ; — their
live stock are valuable, well calculated for their soil and
climate •, and their horses, not only well adapted for the
labours of husbandry, but maintained in such a manner, as
to render them capable of peribrming a great deal of la-

* These particu'ars are explained in the three dissertations of
Part 11.

■MJS GENERAL VIEW

hour ;— In some cases they have tried a partial use of
oxen with success, more especially in threshing-niills ; —
nor do tjiey neglect to pay a proper degree of attention to
the articles that ought to be raised upon a farm, according
to its soil, its climate, its elevation and exposure, and its
situation in respect of markets.

In regard to the actual cultivation of an arable farm,
many points of infinite importance have been ascertained
by the experience of Scotch farmers, in a manner the most
satisfactory. They have ascertained the proper length,
breadth, and shape of ridges ; — in the use of putrescent,
and still more of calcareous manures, they have made great
improvements ; — they have proved, beyond the possibility
of doubt, the advantages of deep ploughing ; — they have
completely ascertained the advantages of summer-fallow-
ing, where soils are either of a clayey nature, or are in-
cumbent en wet subsoils ; — they have carried on with
success, some essential improvements in the cultivation
of various crops, in particular in regard to those im-
portant articles, turnips and potatoes ; — they have also
brought to a high degree of perfection the course of crops
calculated for different soils ; and the rotations for which
€ach description of soil is respectively best adapted ; —
they cultivate in drills, beans, turnips and potatoes, in a
manner not to be surpassed for its excellence, and they have
laid it down as a maxim, that crops of grain should be
drilled, where the land is sown in spring, particularly where
it is subjected to annual weeds*; — they have also made some
impi'ovements in harvesting grain ; in particular, the plans
of cast-iron pillars and bosses, are admirable inventions for
a wet chmate, by means of which, the harvesting of grain.

* It must be adniiUed, at the same time, tliat the drilling grain
crops, is more gent-rally practised in England, than in Scotland,
but thai is not the case in regard to beuns, turnips, and potiitoes.

«F SCQTj^U HySjUANnUY. 407

^Ujd Oif pulse in particulai*, may be completed in half the
usual time ; — they have brought the cleaning and thresh-
ing of grain to the highest degree of perfection j ahuost
every individual, wljo li^ any claim to the character of a
farmer, having fanners in his possession, and threshing-
mills having become almost equally general ; — they have
carried to a great extent, the practice of soiling horses,
and even cattle ; and have proved, by decisive experi-
ments, the superiority of that plan ; — they have restrict-
ed the practice of preserving permanent pastures with-
in reasonable bounds, and have proved, that the con-
vertible system of husbandry, may be generally adopted,
to the great benefit of the landed proprietor, and of the
public.

These are circumstances connected vvith the improved
system of husbandry established in Scotland, the existence
of which, I trust, is abundantly proved in the course of the
preceding observations ; and though many of these prac-
tices are brought to as great pei'fection in some parts of
England as they are in Scotland, and though some of
them have even been derived from England, yet there are
few districts in the southern division of the island, where
they are ciarried to the same perfection, or where they are
so systematically established.

The result of this system is in the highest degree satis-
factory. In all the corn districts, or those in which con-
vertible husbandry is attended to, greater crops are raised,
and higher rents are paid *, than in any other part of the
British dominions, and, what is equally remarkable, the

* Mr Curwen, in his report to the Workington Society, for the
year 1810, p. 86, states the rent of hind in East Lothian, at L. G
per acre, and the produce, 40 bushels of wheat, 60 of barley, i)0
of oats, excellent beans, weighty crops of turnips, and most lux-
uriant crops of clover.

408 GENERAL VIEW

condition or circumstances of those engaged in agriculture,
evidently bear the like marks of abundance. Without en-
larging upon these matters in this place, I may only add,
that the produce of crops, in good seasons, and in fertile
districts, is calculated to be from 32 to 45 bushels of wheat,
from 48 to 55 bushels of barley, from 60 to 75 bushels of
oats, and from 30 to 35 bushels of beans, Winchester
measure, per statute acre. As to green crops, 30 tons of
turnips, 3 tons of clover, and 8 tons of potatoes, per statute
acre, are no uncommon crops. Any system that can pro-
duce crops of so superior a description, even on fertile
soils, is well entitled to imitation, more especially when it
is accompanied with great economy in the expence of cul-
tivation.

Forty-four years have now elapsed, since one of the
ablest writers on agriculture in modern times, (Lord.
Kames), pointed out the imperfection of Scotch husban-
dry ; and it is singula!', that, with hardly any exception,
these imperfections have since been removed. Had it not
come from such high authority, it is hardly possible to credit,
that within the memory' of so many persons now living,
our agriculture could have been so miserably deficient as it
seems to have been at that time. The learned Judge re-
presents, our instruments of husbandry as sadly imperfect ;
— our draft-horses as miserable creatures, without strength
or mettle ; — our oxen scarcely able to support their own
weight, and ten going in a plough, led on by two horses ;
— the execrable husbandry of infield and outfield generally
established ; — the ridges high and broad, in fact enor-
mous masses of accumulated earth, that would not admit
of cross-ploughing, or of proper cultivjition ; — shallow
ploughing universal J — ribbing, by which half the land was
left untillcd, a general practice ; — summer-fallow, though
common in three or four counties, yet only creeping on iu
others ;— over the greater part of Scotland, a continual

OF SCOTCH HUSBANRRY. 409

stnio'gle for superiority between corn and weeds ; — the
roller almost unknown : — no harrowin*^ before sowing,
and the seed thrown into rough uneven ground, where
the half of it was buried ; — imperfect rotations of crops ;
— little skill in harvesting j — no branch of husbandry less
understood than manure ; — potatoes in general propagated
in lazy-beds ; — swine but little attended to ; — and very few
farms in Scotland justly proportioned to the skill and abili-
ty of the tenant *. What a contrast to the description I
have just given, of the husbandry of Scotland at the pre-
sent period !

Among the circumstances which have occasioned so ex-
traordinary, and so rapid a change, in the husbandry of
Scotland, that turn for reading, by which the Scotch far-
mers are so peculiarly distinguished, though already point-
ed out, ought to be more fully dwelt on. Nothing can be
more absurd than to imagine, that the communication of
information by printing, which has promoted the advance-
ment of every other art, should be of no use in iigriculture.
It is not recommended, that a practical farmer, should
take for gospel what he reads in pi*int, and should alter his
whole system accordingly ; but let him reflect on what he
reads, let him try, on a small scale, useful experiments, and
let him extend them when they are found to answer. At
any rate, he may find in books a number of usefal hints,
which may be entitled to fiirther inquiry. Hence the writ-
ings of Kames, and those of Anderson, Dickson, Home,
Wight, &c. in Scotland, and those of Arthur Young, Mar-
shall, and others, in England, gave a great spur to the im-
provement of Scottish husbandry, by diiccting the atten-
tion of the farmer to the principles of that art to which
their lives were devoted.

* See Kames's Gentleman Farmer, Appendix, Art. 1, On tiie
imperfection of Scotch Husbandry.

410 . *JeS6BAL VIEW

The practice adopted by the Scotch fa,iriners, of tr^iveW
ling to England, and in some cases even to foreign coun-
tries, removed a number of prejudices, which could only be
speedily, and completely eradicated, by ocular inspection.

No circumstance, however, had a mor^ pp\yerful in^u^
ence in promoting a spirit of improvement, in the northern
part of the kingdom, than the formation of a Board of
Agriculture; and from that sera, in the opinion of the be?^
informed agriculturists in Scotland, may be dated that won-
derful change which has taken place in Scottish husbandry.
In consequence of that estabhshment, as remarked by an in-
telligent Scotch farmer *, ** a general desire sei?pd ^11 r^nks
to promote internal improvement. By means of that insti-
tution, great numbers of new men were brought forward
to public notice, whose names otherwise would probably
never have been heard of; and these being chiefly practi-
cal people, in other words, persons professionally concern-
ed in farm management, agriculture, by their endeavours,
was rescued from the hands of theorists, and a revolution,
of no small extent, accomplished in rural affairs. Be-
fore the Board was instituted, the bond of connection
amongst agriculturists was slender, and served few useful
puiposes, each standing on his own strength and informa-
tion, and unless in the case of those who travelled about to
collect useful information, (and the immber of those, at
tliat time, was not great), they knew Uttlc more about thu
practices of conterminous (Ustricts, than those of China, or
the most distant countries. The establishment of the
Board did away at once all those evils and difficulties : a
common fortress, erected for the benclit of all agricul-
turists, and to which each might resort for advice and pro-
tection, was immediately recognised. It made farmers,

* See Brown of Maiklcb Irealuo on llural Allans, vol. I,
p. 20.

or SCOTCH HOSBANDRV. 411

who resided in the most distant quarters of tlie kingdom,
acquainted with one another, and caused a rapid dissemi-
nation of knowledge amongst the whole profession. It did
more — the art of Agriculture was brought into fashion ;
and this being the case, old practices were amended, new
ones introduced, and a degree of exertion manifested,
which had never before been exemplified in this island.
The luunerous surveys of husbandry, executed under the
audiority of the Board, were of singular advantage also,
because they brought to light the practices of every coun-
try •, and whilst they pointed out the obstacles which lay in
the way of improvement, stated the most effectual methods
of removing them. The very colUsion of argument which
such discussions occasioned, was of advantage, causing
agriculturists to investigate the principles of the art which
they professed, and inducing them to search after new
channels of improvement. In a word, the Board, in a
few years, collected a mass of agricultural information
hardly to be equalled, and not to be exceeded, by the ac-
cumulated stores of every other nation."

Mr John Shirreff likewise attributes the rapid im-
provement of Scotland, to the interesting information com-
municated by the Board of Agriculture, at a time, when
the minds of men were qualified, from education and ob-
servation, to put a proper value on it, and whilst their
capitals, arising from that powerful stimulus to improve-
ment, leases, enabled them to execute those improvements
which this interesting and various information suggested.

In a communication from Mr Charles Alexander, a re-
spectable farmer near Peebles, it is observed, that the pub-
lications of that Board, and other recent works on faiming,
in particular " Tlie Farmer's Magazine," printed for the ex-
press purpose of promoting the views of the Board, were,
read with avidity, that a spirit of inquiry was thus ex-
cited, and that improved agriculture was universally con-

412 GENERAL VIEW, &C.

sidered to be, a sort of coining of money. Hence a large
share of capital, that did not originally belono- to agricul-
ture, and never was acquired by it, was thrown into the
scale; an unprecedented competition arose, for purchasing
and leasing land ; an increased spirit of agricultural im-
provement was the result, the effects of which soon became
almost universally conspicuous.

The exertions of many other public-spirited institutions,
in particular those of the Highland Society of Scotland,
were of the greatest service ; and a number of provincial
societies, in their several districts, propagated the spirit
with success *.

But information and skill would have been accumulated
in vain, had it not been that, by the extension of paper
currency, and the establishment of banks and branches in
almost every county in Scotland, the farmers were furnish-
ed with credit, and suppUed with the readiest means, of
converting the produce of their farms, into the circulating
medium of the country', and were thence enabled, not
only to continue their exertions, but to lay out consider-
able additional sums on the improvement of their several
occupations.

These circumstances combined, in addition to those al-
ready pointed out, will, I trust, account, in a satisfactory
manner, for the great advancement that has been made
in Scottish husbandry.

* The advantages of provincial societies are ably cxpliiined, by
Sir George S. Mackenzie, in the Ross-sbire report, p. 332.

IMPROVEMENTS IN, &C. 413

II. Improvements of vohlch the Husbandry of Scotland,
is suscejJtiOle.

Let us now consider some particulars which may
be entitled to the consideration of JScotch farmers, for the
improvement of the systems they have adopted. It must
not be imagined that they have nothing to leani ; and it
has been well observed, that though the Husbandry of
Scotland, in general, has recently been so much improved,
as natui-ally to suggest very high notions of its peculiar ex-
cellence, yet if the farmers of that country were to enter-
tain an idea, that the system is already nearly perfect, it
would be attended with mischievous consequences. I am
convinced, however, that the farmers in that part of the
united kingdom, instead of a blind adherence to any sys-
tem, however plausible, will always be ready to listen with
due attention, and, where it is proper, will be willing to
adopt, any new improvement that can be suggested in the
art of husbandry.

1. The ablest farmers in England have laid it down as a
rule, that all the straw of a farm should be converted into
dung, by the live-stock feeding on something much better
than straw ; and this opinion is founded, not on theory, but
on the practice of common farmers, whose scale of business
is great, and whose success is decisive. They maintain, that
when stock is fed upon straw alone, they are always lean, and
the dung they produce of little value ; whereas, when they
are fed on rich food, there is no end to the fertility of which
«uch a system might be productive. One of the great advan-
tages which the corn distillers derive from the possession of
farms, results from this circumstance, that the refuse of the
distillery, enables them to feed a number of cattle, and to
employ their straw principally as litter to be converted into
dung. With the same view, the farmers of Norfolk have

44-*' IMPROVEMENTS IN THE

bought oil cake at 16, 17, 20, and once at 22 guineas ^fr
thousand, for the purpose of feeding cattle, and converting
straw into dung. There is reason to believe, that when
the farmer can sell beef at the price of 8 d. per lb. and has
a proper quantity of litter, that he can safely give, 12
guineas per thousand for oil cake *.

There are various other ways, by which putrescent ma-
liure can be increased, as, by cutting the crop as low as pos-
sible ; cutting and gathering the stubble j collecting weeds,
and converting them into manure, &c. ; but augmenting
green crops, so as to convert the straw into dung, is un-
questionably the most important.

Dr Moodie of Clackmannan, with a view of increasing
putrescent manure, recommends employing boys and girls
with baskets, or light wheel-barrows, and a small shovel, to
gather the dung that is dropped on fields in pasture. It
Would in this way be done at a small expence. He calcu-
lates, that each cow or ox, would produce from five to ten
cubic yards in a summer, and that of the richest quality,
tlie greatest part of which would have been totally lost by
evaporation, and the remaining part would have injured
the pasture, at least for that year. But where the soiling
system is adopted, all this trouble is rendered unnecessary,
and tlie whole dung is not only obtained, but at much less
expence.

* In Norfolk, they frequently buy what are called foreign
manures. One individual, who occupies a I'ght land farm of
1500 acres, bad, at one time, a compost heap for turnips that
cost him L. 900. That exertion, however, is surpassed by Mr
Walker of Mellendean in Roxburghshire, who, in one year, limed
304^ English acres, at the rate, on an average, of 43 bolls of
shells per acre, (4 Winchester bushels each boll) ; the price, jier
boll, at the kiln was Is, each ; the expence of carriage 3 8. ptr
boll, the distance being twenty-four hiiles ; and the total expence,
in one year, amounting to no less a sum than L. 2552, IDs. Ster-
ling.

HUSBANDRY OF SCOTLANU. 'tl J

2. The proper management of dutig is also a subject of
great importance not yet perhaps fully understood. When
dung is ploughed in shallow, the air, rain, sunsliine, and
t\-ind, alternately act upon every portion of it that is ex-
posed, 6r that becomes so by successive surface operations.
Hence, it is of importance to cover the dung sufficiently,
imd not, by repeated tillage, to expose fresh portions of it
to the action of the atmosphere. Where fresh dung is
used, it is contended, that it should be deposited at the
depth of eight or nine inches from the surface. It is thus
safe, from the immediate action of those agents, which rob
it of the substance most nutritious to plants. It may be
placed at such a depth, as will render it accessible by the
roots of the crops ; at the same time it has been ascertained,
that the roots are fed by dung thus deposited, even before
thoy reach it -, a doctrine confirmed by Mr Scott's mode
of cultivating carrots above detailed *. Mr Parker of
Munden in Hertfordshire, also, ploughed in his dung, nine
inches deep, and has found by experience, his crops im-
prove under that system. These are circumstances well
entitled to the consideration of intelligent farmers.

3. The use of scufflers might be extended in Scotland with
great advantage. It would save ploughings, when the land
is worked in autumn for the reception of crops in spring, as,
in that case, it should not be ploughed again, but merely
scuffled. If the ridjjc is narrow, the scuffler mijrht be made
to fit its breadth ; and by one horse going in each furrow,
the farmer can get on to wet land much sooner, than if, in
ploughing, one of the horses were permitted to tread on
the ridge itself. Some scufflers are light, and calculated
for two horses, but others, much heavier and stronger, are
used to save ploiighings in summer fallows, and also for

* See n. 282.

416 IMPROVEMENTS IN THE

working bean stubbles, when they are in such condition
as to be fit for wheat or spring corn.

4. The skim coulter, invented by the celebrated Ducket,
is another instrument by which the expence of cultivation
may be diminished ; for by its means a single ploughing
is more effective than several, more especially where weeds
or any sort of stubble are to be turned down. No plough
ever yet invented will eifect this object so well as a skim
coultered plough ; by means of which, all weeds, stubble,
fragments of mo\\Ti tares, and clover, as well as long dung,
are so completely buried, that succeeding shallow tillage
does not disturb them ; and they are consequently left to
dissolve, without the gaseous effluvia of fermentation esca-
ping into the atmosphere. This is a point of the greatest
consequence, and a neglect of it has in many cases de-
stroved the effect of ploughing down green crops as ma-
nure *.

5. Spring sowing, without spring ploughing, is a fa-
vourite practice in some of the best cultivated districts of
England. On strong land in Suffolk, after scarifying
merely, they sow barley, or oats, after fallow, or beans,
pease, or tares, after what is called a bastard fallow. In all
these cases, the tillage is given in autumn, and the crops
arc put in so early, that they are infinitely cleaner and

• Mr John Shirreff remarks, that the advantages of a skim
coulter, for the purposes above mentioned, are evident ; but it
must not be supposed, that these can be obtained, without addi-
tional power of labouring animal, or more exertion from the same
aniniiils, which, if oppressive, will be the most expensive of tJ)e
two. If two horses can draw a plough raising a furrow-slice six
inches deep, if you attach the skim to bury the surfiice, say two
and a half inches of it, the labour of the animals will be increa-
ed at least 50 per cent., when the stiffness, and consequent resist-
ance of the lower part of llie furrow-slice are taken into account.
In most cases, Mr Shirreft" thinks lUal it would be belter to use
two ploughs.

HUSBANDRY OF SCOTLAND. 417

earlier, than if a spring ploughing were given them, which
would have considerably prolonged the sowing. For beans,
this practice has been found peculiarly excellent, and has
been attended with such success, that it has spread from
Suffolk to Essex, where they have not hitherto tried it
much with barley and oats. In so far as regards oats, this
plan has long been the uniform practice in all the more
improved districts of Scotland, where the farmers are ac-
customed to sow their seed on the winter furrow, or on a
furrow that has received the benefit of frost.

6. The late Mr Scott of Craiglockhart lamented much,
that in some parts of Scotland, the improvement of land
was often executed but imperfectly. In many instances the
hming was done sparingly, and the ploughing was shallow
and superficial ; in consequence of which, many fields, af-
ter being to a certain extent improved, rapidly reverted to
as bad a state as ever, and, in some cases, were rather
worse ; whereas, had these fields got a full dose of lime,
and been thoroughly ploughed and cultivated, and laid
down for pasture, such a sward of grass might have been
procured, as, with proper management, might have kept
the land in a fertile state in all time coming. These obser-
vations, however, are only applicable to the less improved
districts of the kingdom.

7. A plan has occurred to me, which may be entitled
to the attention of the Scotch fai'mers, and of those who
may be inclined to adopt their system. It is admitted, 1.
That by soiling, one acre of the same land, under a crop of
clover, is equal to two pastured. 2. That the crop of oats,
after soiling, is better than after pasturing, even with sheep.
And, 3. Tliat it is desirable to cultivate a proportion of
tares, to fill up the interval between the first and the se-
cond crops of clover. If one acre soiled, is equal to two
pastured, and if the succeeding crop of oats is better, it
would certainly be advisable to soil two years in succession,

P. I. 2d

418 IMPROVEMENTS IN THE, S:c.

even though more grass could be got by pasturing the se-
cond year of clover. But an excellent crop for soihng
might be secured in two ways : 1. By feeding slieep with
turnips, on the field soiled, after the second crop of clover
is cut ; or, 2. By dibbling tares in the following spring, —
a practice which some Norfolk farmers have successfully
adopted on lands in grass. The expence of seed and la^
bour would be inconsiderable, compared to the benefit that
would be derived from the practice ; and tares, so essen-
tial for the soiling system, would thus be secured. The
tares, not wanted for soiling, might be converted into va-
luable hay. Where this plan is tried, the winter tare ought
to be preferred, being the hardiest, and consequently it
may be dibbled as early in spring as may be judged neces-
sary. In some soils and climates, applying gj'psum the se-
cond year might improve the crop.

I cannot conclude this Section, without earnestly en-
treating the peculiar attention of the Farmers of Scotland
to these hints ; which are principally intended, with a view
of exciting discussion, and of promoting inquiry and ex-
periment. The Farmers of Scotland have already materi-
ally improved the art of agriculture; and it will not be
difficult for them, with the skill and capital they have al-
ready acquired, and the abilities and persevering industry
by w^iich they are so eminently distinguished^ to render
their system of husbandry as perfect, as the nature of their
soil, and the circumstances of an imfuvourable climate, can
possibly admit of.

ON TRANSFEnRING, &C. 41*)

III. On the Means of disseminating the useful Practices of
the best Scotch Farmers^ in the less improved districts of
England a7id Scotland, and on the j)ublic and private ad-
vantages thence to be derived.

Throughout the greater part of England, until about th«
commencement of the American war, there was but little in-
ducement to make any great exertions for the improvement
of aoriculture. The rents were low ; the markets good ; the
climate favourable-, and, in many extensive districts, leases
were almost unknown, and, strange to tell, were not even
wished for by the farmer. The landlord and the tenant jogg-
ed on together •, the one satisfied with an inferior rent, and
the other with his share of a moderate produce *. Indeed, so
long as the common field system exists, by which alternate
ridges are occupied by different tenants, and sometimes
belong to different proprietors, improvements are impracti-
cable upon all land that comes under that description ; and
though Bills of Inclosure, or, more properly speaking, re-
gulations for the local division of common property, have,
in some degree, alleviated the evil, it is far from being com-
pletely removed.

In so extensive, and taking it on the whole, so fertile a
country as England, many branches of agriculture, in the
course of successive ages, must have made considerable
progress, and some of them, more especially the manage-
ment of stock, and of glass lands, are most successfully
attended to. The Flemish husbandry, first established in
Hertfordshire, under the auspices, and at the expence of
Cromwell, extended itself into the neighbouring districts :

* The average produce of wheat in KiiglancI, is calculated at
f22 bushels per statute acre. There can be no difiiculty, under a
propar system, in raising it to jO bushels, and even more.
2 n 2

420 ON TRANSFERRING THE

the culture of turnips was introduced into Norfolk ; regu-
lar rotations of crops were pretty generally adopted ; in-
formation was spread, by the examples of intelligent land-
lords, and by the publication of many valuable works on
agriculture. The spirit, however, was still languid and
inert, and agriculture was scarcely considered by our states-
men *, as any material source of national prosperity, until
its utility and importance were pubhcly recognised, by the
establishment of a national institution, for the purpose of
promoting its improvement.

In Scotland, improvements commenced later j but they
were carried on with more spirit. Every part of England
was ransacked to collect information j examples of good
husbandry were not only introduced, but improved upon j
the farmers were encouraged to industry and exertion by
long leases •, their farms were properly arranged, and that
system of agriculture was established, which I have endea-
voured to describe, and which has already extended itself
over all the most valuable districts in that part of the king-
dom.

To those who will take the trouble of examining the ac-
count I have given of the Scottish system of husbandry, it
will probably appear, that there are a number of particu-
lars therein contained, Avhich are well entitled to the con-
sideration of English farmers ; and though it is impossible
to specify all those which might be adopted, (for they must
vary in different districts), yet it may not be improper,
briefly to point out some of the most essential, whether
applicable to the landlord, or the tenant.

In regard to the landlord, the following particulars will re-
quire his attention : — The larm oii^lit to be ci'a proper size,
and not less than from 300 to 500 English acres; — The rent

• See Appendix, No. W

SCOTCH HUSBANDRY TO ENGLAND. 4:21

ought to be such, as to enforce industry and exertion, and not
so low as to encourage indolence ; — The leases *, to a far-
mer in actual possession, ought to be granted for 21, and
to a stranger for 25 years ; for the latter is entitled to ex-
pect additional encouragement, if he comes from any dis-
tance : — The covenants contained in those leases, ought
to be fair, and even liberal ; — The farm-buildings should
be placed in as central a situation as possible, and the
house and offices should be made convenient and comfort-
able ; — The formation of good roads, to be considered the
most essential of all improvements, and as the surest means
of adding materially to the value of an estate.

As to the tenant, it may be proper to keep the following
particulars in view :~The farm should be divided into fields
of a proper size, and the ridges formed of a proper length
and breadth, suitable to the soil and climate, and to the na-
ture of the course of crops to be adopted ; — The lands
should be ploughed as deep as the staple of the soil will
admit of; — The ground should be kept thoroughly
clean, by fallowing or drilled crops ; — -Turnips, pota.-
toes, and beans, ought always to be drilled, hand-hoed
and horse-hoed ; and some intelligent Scotch farmers
maintain, that pease, and all crops of grain sown in spring,
should be drilled also ; — Two white crops of grain in

* Mr Pringle of Balle.ncrief observes, that the English pro-
jiri^tors onght to have it pressed upon them to giant leases ; with-
out them it will be in vain to look to the farmer lor any substan-
tial improvement. An addition of rent ma}' iiave the ellect to
quicken a tenant's industry : this, however, may be pushed too
far. hnprovements, and the ability to bear lliem, onght to pre-
cede the great increase of rent ; and he apprehends that in this
case, as in many others, the cause is often uiislaken for the eflect.
Sometimes, perhaps, they change places, and btcome alternately
one and the other.

423 ON TRANSFERING THE

succession not to be permitted; — A threshing-mill and
fanners ought to be considered as indispensably necessary
on every farm ; — -Two-horse ploughs ought to be pre-
ferred, and swing-ploughs, (without wheels), except in so
peculiar a soil as that of Norfolk ; — Single-horse, or
even double-horse carts, ought to be used, in preference to
waggons, as infinitely better calculated for the purposes
of a farmer * ; — To lessen the expence of farming,
economy in the feeding of horses ought to be particu*
larly attended to ; and where circumstances will admit of it,
the breeding of horses necessary for the use of a farm,
instead of purchasing them at high prices from other dis-
tricts;— The system of soiling horses and cattle, ought
to be adopted, which diminishes the expence of their
maintenance, and increases the quantity of dung; — A
greater extent of land, ought not to be kept in perma-
nent pasture, than is absolutely necessary for the uses of
the farm ; — The dung used on a farm, ought either to
be put in the furrows, or centre of a drill, or so deep, that
it will not be liable to be exhaled by the sun.

It is hardly necessary to add, that the practices above
enumerated, are not peculiar to Scotland, and that many
of them even originated in England j but, on the whole,
they are more systematically pursued, and more deeply
rooted, in the more improved districts of Scotland, than

* Mr Church of IJitchill remarks, that he has often been as-
tonished at the extravagant waste of labour, by the use of that
unwield) machine, the waggon. He has seen a large waggon,
drawn bj four gigantic horses, traverse afield for a few scattered
sheaves, which could easily have been drawn by a one-horse cart.
The celebiated George CuUey observes, that he has long been a
great advomte for single-horse carls, and is sanguine enough to
believe, that the time is not far distant, when they will become
nearly general, and waggons totally or nearly disu&ed.

SCOTCH HUSBANDRY TO ENGLAND. 421)

in any part of the united kingdom, with which I happen
to be acquainted.

I shaJI now pi-ocecd, to give some account of the intro-
duction of the Scotch systems of husbandry into various
parts of England, where, though it has certainly not uni-
formly succeeded, yet the exceptions are but few, and can
easily be accounted for.

A public-spirited and intelligent country gentleman,
(James Brougham, Esq. of Howis, near Penrith), informs
me, that he has farmed entirely on the Scotch system for
four years, his baihft" and most of his ploughmen being from
Scotland ; and he is satisfied, that he has done more
work, and to better purpose, than he could have done, had
he followed the mode of farming adopted in many parts of
the same county, where a different system is pursued.
His predecessor in one of his farms told him, he could
never get turnips to grow ; that he never had potatoes
sufficient to supply his family, and quite scouted the idea
of sowing grass-seeds. This was the opinion of all the
neighbourhood : they now see, however, that it only re-
quired the turnip and potatoe crop to be properly culti-
vated, and the land to be clean, and in good heart when
sown with grass-seeds, to grow as fine crops of turnips and
of clover and rye-grass, as can be seen in any part of the
county.

Among the advantages of the Scotch system, Mr
Brougham remarks, that the farna-buildings in Scotland
are in general much more convenient than those in Eng-
land. In a large farm, there is the difference of at least
the labour of one man throughout the year, between a
convenient and an inconvenient set of offices. Threshinjj-
machines are also a very great saving, and would certainly
be erected wherever leases are given. Considerino- the hiixh
price of horses, sen'ants' wages, corn, hay, &c. he is convin-
ced, that there would be a saving of above 10s. ^er acre, on

424? ON TRANSFERRING THE

the average of the arable land of England, were the Scotch
system of working and feeding horses introduced, and the
buildings, &c. on a more convenient plan*.

Mr Brougham adds, that the system adopted by him has,
in several instances, been imitated by others. Some of the
gentlemen farmers near him, seeing that his hofses did so
much more work than their own, have got some of the
same breed. He intends to get a good stallion, and to
shew him in the county next year. The farming horses
in his neighbourhood are of a small size, havinfj been
crossed with a sort of half blood, until they are become
the most useless cross-bred animals to be seen any where.

The Scotch system of husbandry has also been establish-
ed, on a great scale, in Oxfordshire, on the estate of Mr
Stratton. Mr Wood, who had taken Tracy farm, near
Enstone, sent me the following contrast of agricultural
economy between his system, and the one practised by a
neighbouring tenant. The Enghsh farmer had going,
at the same time, in one field, six ploughs, with five
oxen in each ; four ploughs with horses, three of which
had four horses in each, and one had five. The whole
oxen and horses were particularly good, and all going a-
head of one another in the furrow, of course each plough
had a holder and driver, making 20 men and boys, 30
oxen, and 17 horses; in all 20 people, and 47 cattle and
horses, to yoke 10 ploughs. Mr Wood hail on his ground
adjoining, eight ploughs going, employing in all eight men
and 16 horses. Surely such a difference of management
as this speaks for itself! One fixrmer was so much convin-
ced of his error, that he borrowed a Scotch plough for a
trial, and has since given an order for six to be sent to

* Weio long teauis proluLiltd, tl.e saving would inobabl)- Le a
gieiil deal mure.

SCOTCH HUSBANDRY TO ENGLAND. 425

him from Scotland ; perhaps his example may, in time, be
followed by others *.

Admiral Bentinck has successfuUy introduced some bran-
ches of the Scotch system into that district of Norfolk
called Marshland. In October 1809, he invited some far-
mers to gee a Scotch plough worked ; and seven of those
present, immediately ordered one each. Lord Wiliiam
Bentinck has taken a farm in that neighbourhood into his
own hand, and has established there a young Englishman as
his bailiff, who is well acquainted with the Scotch system,
and convinced of its advantages. By his means liming, (a
practice totally new in Marshland), will be introduced,
which, with drilled green crops, and stall-feeding cattle,
will be the first experiments tried.

The late Mr Wolstenholme, who resided near Weymouth,
to whom I had recommended a Scotch bailiff, informed
me, that the new system answered incomparably well in
Dorset. He ploughed strong land with two horses a-breast,
with reins, and no driver, and the plough worked much
easier with two horses, than the country plough did with
four J the expence of a driver and two horses is thus sa-
ved ; the horses turn at the land's end, in half the com-
pass ', the mould-board turns the furrow cleaner and
more completely over, consequently buries the surface
better, leaving no green edge to grow j it saves more

* The prejudices in some parts of England, against the in-
troduction of swing-ploughs, with two horses a-breast, are astonish-
ing. A gentleman who had tried one, could not prevail on a
neighbouring farmer to imitate his example. He could not af-
ford, he said, to try such experiments. Many farmers suppose,
that wheels are necessary to keep the plough out of the ground,
as if that could not be efiected by a skilful ploughman, with an
instrument properly constructed.

426 ON TRANSFERKING THE

than half the expence of harness, as, exclusive of two sets,
instead of four, the harness is made much lighter, with
hempen traces and hempen halters.

Mr Wolstenholme considered the Scotch system as cer-
tainly cheaper, and that it raised better crops, the ground
being better tilled, and in better sfcason. He was of opi-
nion, that the Scotch husbandry ought to be considered as
enabling the farmer to meet neiio rents ; without it, he was
certain that many of these rents could not be paid, where
the poor-rates, tithe, and revenue-tax, joined to the rise on
land, fall so heavy ; and even now, if coi*n were to fall to its
former prices, he much doubted if they could stand it. His
neighbours had all been frequently over to examine his im-
plements, and to see how they were used, and he had no
doubt, would (at least the most liberal) follow the exam-
ple. He farther observed, that one cause of the miserable
farming now seen is, the poverty of the tenants, and their
taking farms four times too great for their capital. Now
the Scotch system, lessens the expences at least half, while
it raises the produce ; the result is obvious. It also has a
strong tendency to increase knowledge on this most useful
subject, to excite emulation, and consequently to encourage
and promote new discoveries.

Major Dallas of Tremanncy near Welchpool, has esta-
blished this system in Wales, where he is carrying it on
most successfully. He has been the means of introducing,
into that part of the kingdom, the two-horse ploughs, Scotch
carts, and threshing-mills, and, on an average, about fifty
of each are now annually made, by a Welch ciirpcnter and
smith, from the models given them. The Cheviot breed
of sheep has also been introduced, and, above all, the Scotch
mode of drilling turnips, by following wliicli system, n
neighbouring farmer raisctl, to his great astonishment, 40
tons/)tT English acre.

In some places, Scotch farmers may not have succeeded.

SCOTCH HUSBANDRY TO ENGLAND. 427

owing to the want either of skill or capital ; but wherever
they have been properly encouraged, and have not becH de-
ficient in those two most essential articles, they have in ge-
neral shown the most convincing proofs of the utility of
their system.

If it is admitted, that in some districts of England, the
Scotch system of husbandry might be introduced with ud-
vantage, the next question is, what is the best mode of ef-
fecting that object ? With that view, I have drawn up the
following

Plan for transferring the Husbandry of Scotland
into England.

If any proprietor of land in England, is convinced that
it is for his own, and for the public interest, to alter the
system of husbandry adopted on his estate, the following
plan is submitted to his consideration.

To the young and active landlord, it might be expedient
to examine upon the spot, the real state of Scotch hus-
bandry, in the more improved districts, to see the manner
in which it is conducted, and the effects that have result-
ed from it, and to ascertain how far such a plan is appli-
cable to the estate he possesses.

If an excursion to Scotland is either inconvenient or im-
practicable, it would be necessary to consult with those who
are thoroughly acquainted with the system proposed to be
adopted, cautiously avoiding such as are more likely to at-
tend to their own interest, than the advantage of their em-
ployers.

If the proprietor has a farm in his own occupation, it
might be proper to procure a superintendant or bailiff from
Scotland, whose example might tend to remove the pre-
judices of the farmers in the neiglibourhood, against the
new system which it was proposed to establish.

428 ox TRANSFERRING THE

If any farm, from 300 to 500 acres of arable land, were
accessible, it might be proper to let it to some industrious
Scotch farmer, with a view of opening the eyes of the other
farmers to the advantages of the new system.

The proprietor must necessarily make up his mind to
the granting of leases for twenty-one years, to the natives
of the county, and of twenty-five yeai's, to any stranger
brought into it, otherwise he need not expect that an im-
proved system will be introduced.

The leases should be granted on liberal terms, with re-
gard to covenants, but with a proper increase of rent, part-
ly perhaps depending on the price of grain, to prevent any
material defalcation in the relative income of the estate.

The outlays of the proprietor, must depend upon his a-
bility to expend money on the improvement of his estate.
What is executed by a tenant, is in general done with
economy and judgment ; but it is not right to cripple the
exertions of a new tenant, by compelling him to lay out,
on permanent improvements, that capital, that ought to be
devoted, to the purchase of stock, &c. and to the cropping
and manuring the soil.

If these measures were generally adopted, there is every
reason to beljeve, that the income derived from at least ten
millions of acres in England, might be doubled, and the
produce considerably increased.

Some recommend the pkin of sending the sons of far-
mers, for one or more years, to be taught the art of hus-
bandry, in the districts where it is most skilfully practised.
This is a slow, but, at the same time, a sure mode of ob-
taining the object in view, provided the young men are
obliged to put their hand to labour of every kind, and arc
not suffered to ramble idly about the country.

But, on the whole, the introduction of new farmers,
where they can be procured, is the best plan to be adopt-
ed. There must be an example of a new system cxliibited.

SCOTCH HUSBANDRY TO ENGLAND. 42f)

and that on a large scale, before any important alteration
can be effected. Tlie example of a landlord will not do
alone, for a farmer will always attribute his success, to pro-
fusion of cxpcnce, rather than to superiority of skill or
management. But when a brother farmer succeeds, the
case is otherwise j and if he proves the possibility of raising
as good, and even better crops, with less expence, his ex-
ample will, in process of time, be imitated by his neigh-
bours, and an extensive district will be gradually impro-
ved. No proprietor will ever think of dismissing his old
tenants, if they are disposed to adopt practices, the supe-
riority of which has been established in their own imme-
diate neighbourhood, and who will give a fair rent for the
land they occupy. When new tenants are introduced, great
care should be taken, to select men who arc provided with
capital sufficient to go through with such undertakings.
By neglecting this precaution, some well-meant attempts
have turned out unsuccessfully, which would not probably
have been the case, under different circumstances.

The principal difficulty in establishing the Scotch system
of husbandry in England, relates to servants. Tlie far-
mer, as Mr Brougham has well observed, must bring
ploughmen with him ; they will soon find their conse-
quence, and presume upon it, which may lead to a great
deal of mischief, unless very skilfully guarded against by
the master. Binding servants to a certain term of service,
and to good behaviour, &c. is worth nothing : if a master
and his servants come to an actual quarrel, the sooner they
arc sent off the better for both parties ; and from what Mr
Brougham has seen, he can easily conceive, that a cross-
tempered master, or one who does not understand the way
of managing servants, may be left without any, at a critical
time, in a strange country, where all the neighbourhood,
instead of helping him in his need, would enjoy the pro-
spect of getting rid nft/ie yieia settlers in the parish.

Owing to these circumstances, Mr Wood of Tracy

430 ON TRANSFERRING THE

Farm, recommends employing English servants : they are
by no means averse to hold the Scotch plough, and indeed
are rather fond of it, and soon acquire all the knowledge
which it is necessary for them to obtain.

In regard to the advantages which may be derived from
such a change of system, there is every reason to believe, that
if the simple and economical mode of agricultural manage-
ment of Berwickshire, the Lolhians, &c. were adopted in
the less cultivated districts of England and Scotland, it
would not only enable the proprietors of land, in several
most extensive districts, to pay without difficulty the taxes ta
which they are now subjected j but a new source of income
would thence arise, whence the public treasury might,
through various sources, derive a most important benefit.

By means of this improved system of agriculture, exten-
sively established, there would be such an addition to the
produce of the country, as to render the importation of
foreign ai'ticles, for the subsistence of the people, perfectly
unnecessary *. The mischiefs which have resulted from
that importation, have been incalculable; and the prosperi-
ty of this country y can never be insuredy until it can feed it-
self\.

It is impossible that such a change can be effected in a
moment, though it may be brought about much more
speedily than persons can be aware of, who are not accas-
tomed to carry on improvements on an extensive scale.
Indeed, any delay ought now to be avoided. The period

* For above seventy years, at the commencement of the last
century, we fed ourselves, though the price of grain was so low,
as greatly to promote population ; a sufficient practical refutation
of several visionary doctrines, which have been circulated on that
subject.

t These opinions are strongly corroborated by the sentiments
of several intelligent correspondents in England. Admiral Bei>-
linck states, llial the priiatc adiantages, from llie introduction of

SCOTCH HUSBANDRY TO ENGLAND. 431

has at last arrived, when we must rely, more and more, on
our internal resources, than hitherto has been the case ;
and dreadful as the contest is, if we avail ourselves of those
resources, we shall suffer but Httle by the war, if it is ably
conducted, though we should be unfortunately compelled
to continue it for some years longer.

the Scotch System would be, increase of income, and larger pro-
duce. The public advantages, an increasing revenue, and an aug-
menting capital, employed in productive industry. Mr Broug-
ham observes, that the public, as well as the private advan-
tages to be obtained, were the Scotch system generally adopt-
ed, must be very great : more corn would be brought to mar-
ket, and more rent would be paid to the landlord. A spirit
of emulation would, in the course of a short time, be created
between the old and new inhabitants, " and we might see
*' the East Lothian and Berwickshire husbandry, which has beea
" so long cast in our teeth, left behind, by the improvers of De-
" von and Herefordshire." Mr Brougham adds, it is extremely
likely, that a great influx of Scotch, added to the increased de-
mand for agricultural labour, which always accompanies new
plans and improvements, might have the effect of materially al-
termg the poor's rates, principally by introducing a better and
more adequate rate of wages than at present exists. JMi VVoisten*
holme was of opinion, that the national advantages resulting from
such an improved system as that of Scotland, were great and
manifold, as weli as obvious, more especially as it would enable
us to grow sufficiently for our own consumption, instead of being
dependent on others. By the Scotch system, with a proper rota-
tion of crops, that is, never allowing two white corn crops to suc-
ceed each other, as much, or more corn, might be produced, than at
present, and the intermediate green crop would support and feed a
far g'-eater stock, so that the meat market will be better supplied ;
and the infinitely greater quantity of manure raised by this sys-
tem would ultimately bring the land into the highest possible con-
dition. This being once effected, all tlie now poor and waste
lands would be ultimately brought into cultivation, to the great in-
crease of the wealth and population of the country.

432 CONCLUSION OF PART I.

I HAVE now finished a most laborious undertaking, which
the solicitations of a respectable friend, and a sense of pub-
lic duty, induced me to attempt. However anxious to pro-
mote the cause of agriculture, I could never have hazard-
ed such a publication as the present, without, not only a ge-
neral knowledge of husbandry, and a minute examination of
several thousand acres of the best cultivated land in Scot-
land, but also with the advantage to be obtained, from fre-
quent discussions on the subject, with many of the most
intelligent farmers in Scotland. I had also the satisfaction,
of receiving from them, the most distinct and valuable
statements, of the systems they had respectively adopted,
of the principles on which these systems were founded,
and of the benefits which had thence been derived, by
themselves and the public*.

* Mr Church of Hitchill informs me, that he has made a se«
cond trial of the plan of sowing turnip seed on moist dung, when
put fresh into a drill, and that the trial was attended with all the
success he could reasonably expect. The turnips were fully
larger than those sown in the ordinary way, and vegetated as soon
as when seed is sown in rainy weather. When the turnip seed is
sown upon moist dung, he finds, that the slightest covering of
earth is sufficient. It is well known, that it is the steam or
effluvia evaporating from dung placed in a drill, which makes
drilled turnips vegetate more rapidly than the broad-cast. This
gives the drill a decided preference over the broad-cast, inde-
pendent of other considerations ; and it would appear, that the
mo»-e inmiediately the steam or effluvia can be applied to the ^ed,
the more likely is the crop to be productive.

ADDENDA.

oiKCE the preceding pages were sent to press, some addi-
tional information has been transmitted to me regarding seve-
ral important particulars, which I have thought it necessary to
annex, notwithstanding the size which the work has already
reached. In order to diminish the bulk as much as possible,
a smaller type has been made use of.

No, I.

COMPARISON BETVv-EEN THE ADVANTAGES OF FEEDING CAT-
TLE WITH POTATOES AND TURNIPS.

BY ROBERT SPEARS, ESQ. DYSART,

1 HE average produce of potatoes may be taken at 40 bolls,
4 cwt. per boll, or 8 tons per Scotch acre. Mr Spears has had
55 bolls per acre.

The average of an acre of turnips in fertile soils, and under
a good system of management, may be stated at about 35 tons.

One acre of turnips will keep the same number of cattle
three months, which an acre of potatoes will keep only about

p. I. 2 E

2 ADDENDA.

from six weeks to two months, giving the cattle as many of
each article as they will eat ; but still the cattle will fatten
fully more on potatoes in two months, than on turnips in three.
By far the best way, however, is to feed with both at the same
time : in this way the cattle require no water, which they do
when fed with potatoes alone *, and when kept close on the lat •
ter, they are apt occasionally to lothe their food, which is ne-
ver the case when fed with part of each. It is of great impor-
tance to have potatoes always at command, particularly in the
event of a severe storm, or if cattle are kept on, in a fattening
state, late in the spring, when turnips will have run to seed, and
when he has no ruta baga. Both impoverish the soil when kept
too long in it, and become verj' indifferent feeding. The fol-
lowing mode of feeding has been practised by a brother of Mr
Spears, who is an extensive farmer, and who has at present a
number of cattle feeding according to that plan. By seven in
the morning, (against which time they are all properly cleaned
out), every pair of cattle get one peck and a-half of potatoes raiK,
As soon as these are eaten up, they get as many turnips as they
will eat, and then some straw, of which they only eat a small
quantity : all this is over by ten o'clock, when the doors of the
place where they are kept are shut, and the cattle allowed to
remain quiet till two in the afternoon, when the same mode of
feeding again takes place, and by five o'clock they are littered
up for the night. With this mode of feeding they are growing
to fat and weight in a most wonderful manner.

The quantity of manure from the potatoes and turnips will
be nearly the same, but that from the potatoe feed will be the
strongest. In fact, the richness of dung is regulated by the
quality of the article from which it is produced.

The kinds of potatoes mostly used in the neighbourhood of
Dysart, are called Dons and Shanwell Red, said to have been

* Mr John Shirreff remarks, in regard to no water being required, that
that only saves the trouble of iJiiving it, which will always be compensated
with the chance of its being wanted, which is oftencr the case than is com-
monly imagined. Besides the water will add to the urine, which is the
prinuira mobile in converting ttraw into manure.

ADDENDA. «>

lately inoported from Ireland by Dr Coventry. In deepish
loam, and when the season is not over dry, the red produce a
very great crop, and are a solid good potatoe, but they don't
do BO well in lightish dry soils.

The Swedish turnips have been only very partially tried in
this quarter of the kingdom. The general opinion regarding
them is, that they are fully as valuable as potatoes, but it is a
just objection to their being extensively cultivated, that they
require an additional quantity of manure, and are of a more
scourging nature for the soil. They will only thrive also in a
very fine loam. The potatoes have likewise this great advan-
tage, that they are generally out of the ground in full time for
insuring a good crop of winter wheat ; whereas, after Swedish
turnips, the ground can only be prepared for a barley or aa
oat crop, unless the crop is taken up u-ad stored. Mr Spears's
brother raises the greater part of his wheat crop after potatoes,
and has nearly the same return as after summer-fallow, a cer-
tain proportion of which, however, he always finds it necessary
to have on strong soils. Indeed, every farmer occupying a
heavy soil will find it for his interest to summer- fiillow regu-
larly his land for wheat, as there is no other management by
which such soil will turn out so much to his advantage.

No. II.

ON THE CULTURE OF RAPE, INSTEAD OF A SUM^fER-FALLOW
ON THIN CLAY SOILS.

BY GEORGE CULLEY, ESQ*.

XV APE may be sown from the 24th of May to the 8th of June ;
but comes to the greatest growth if sown in May. If sown
earlier, it is apt to run to seed. From two to three pounds of

* There is a short account of this process in Part I, p. 237, and 2^8,
2 E 2

4 ADDENDA.

seed is required per acre, sown by a common turnip-seed drill.
But as rape-seed is so much larger than turnip-seed, the drill
should be wider. Wlien hoed, the rape should be set out at
some distance as turnip plants. The drills should be 26 to 28
or 30 inches, according to the quantity of dung given. As
many ploughings, harrowings and rollings, &c. should be given,
as may be necessary to make that kind of poor soil as fine as
possible, and cleared of twitch, &c. : the produce will be from
25 to 50 per acre or upwards. But it is not so much the value
of the green crop, (although the better the green crop, the
better will the wheat Oe), as the great certainty o£ a valuable
(Crop of wheat. The sheep are put on from the beginning td
the middle cf August ; they must have the rnpe consumed by
the middle, or at latest by the end of September, so that the
wheat may be got sosvn on such poor damp soils before th6
autumnal rains take place. The number of sheep must de-
pend upon the goodness or badness of the crop. But as many
sheep must be employed as to eat the rape, by the middle of
September, or end of that month at the latest, for the reasons
formerly given. The Burwell red wheat, (so called from a
village in Cambridgeshire), is always preferred. Poor clays
■will not allow deep ploughing, consequently that operation
must be governed by the depth of the soil. The land must be
made as clean as any naked fallow *. There is scarcely an in-
stance known of a crop of wheat, sown after rape, and cat off
with sheep, being mildewed, and the grain is generally well
perfected. Mr Culley has known a crop of wheat after rape,
upon a poor muirish thin clay soil, worth much more than the
fee-simple of the hmd that produced it. He has frequently
known land both after rape and after naked fallow, in the same
field ; and invariably the rape wheat was better in every re-
spect, than that after naked fallow.

• This can hardly be done, without the aid of a powerful scarifier.

ADDENDA.

No. III.

FARTHER INFORMATION FROM WILLIAM HUNTER, ESQ. OF TYNE-
FIELD, REGAKDING THE EXPERIMENT HE TRIED OF FOLDING
SHEEP, AND FEEDING THEM WITH TURNIPS. SEE PAGE 262.

JL HE number of acres of turnips given to the 300 sheep were
from 20 to 22, and the average produce from 42 to 45 tons per
Scotch acre, tops included. The quantity of straw used was
nearly as follows : ]. The straw of about 75 Scotch acres, the
preceding crop of wheat, which had been stacked on purpose
for the experiment, say ISO stone tron per acre, or 26 cvvt. ; and
the like quantitj- of tlie crop of the year in which the experiment
was made. The sheep were folded the last week of October and
first of November; they were sold in March, and the hut of
tliem were sent off in the first or second week of April, so that
they were about five months in the fold. During the wet
months of November, December and Januarj"^, any quantity of
litter may be thrown in, but regard must be had to proportion
it on the whole to the droppings from the sheep, as, in case of
there not being enough of droppings disposed in the mass, the
fermentation Vvanted, when put into the dunghill at the end of
the season, will not be strong enough. Where saving of straw
is an object, a covered pcnn v»ill be required. iMr Hunter's ob-
ject was to get as much slraw converted into good manure as
he could. The manure was given to about 51 or 52 Scotch
acres ; but had he been aware of its powers, it might have gone
farther. In regard to the value of the manure, it may be ob»
served, that manure got at Dunbar, the nearest place whore it
can be had, but five miles from the farm, costs, carriage &c.
included, 8 s. or 9 s. per ton.

It is proper, however, to remark, that the above quantity of

6 ADDEXDA,

Straw anil weight of turnip would have produced a very consi-
derable weight of manure used in the ordinary way ; but the
sheep eat much less of the straw than cattle in proportion to
their weight and weight of straw and turnips, and that the
manure produced is very superior to any that he ever had oa
his farm.

Last year, (1811), Mr Hunter*s sheep, (ten score), were
kept in the straw fold, and fetched 2 s. per head more than
those in the field, sold the two following weeks after they were
disposed of. This might in some measure depend on the state
of the market at the time, but the sheep in the fold were fatter
than the others. Had it been otherwise, and had they even
sold for 2 s. less, he would not have inclined to drop the plan
of making so much straw into the best of manure. He has al-
ways as many sheep in the fold as he can spare litter for. This
year he bought upwards of fifty small Highland cattle, worth
only L. 4, 7 s. each, which he is soiling in a fold in the turnip
field, in the same way as the sheep. They are thriving apace.
He proposes to keep them there on turnip until the clover is
fit to cut, and he will send them to another farm to be soiled,
having little clover on the farm where he resides ; he is reserving
straw for the purpose. By summer soiling the cattle, he thinks
they will be fat in August. He cannot help thinking, that where
the land, on an average of years, produces seven or seven and
a-half bolls ^er Scotch acre, that it may with attention to soil-
ing be manured once in every four years at least, by the ma-
nure arising from its own produce ; at least that may be done
where there is a due proportion of turnip land, and where that
is not the case, perhaps the soiling in summer with green food
will do as well.

Mr Hunter adds, that by the practice of soiling, he has now a
sufficient command of manure on his farm. In the year 1810,
not being so well provided with straw, he had only eight score
of sheep in the fold, and in place ol'giving 320 yards to the score,
allowed only 160 : whether from want of room to move about, or
some other cau5e which escaped his notice, many of them turn-
ed lame before the end of the season ; they fattened, however,
very well. Last } ear, he had ten score in the fold, giving 340

ADDENDA. 7

yards to the score : the wliole surface was covered very thick
with straw, not less than ten or twelve pound to tiie yard ; the
sheep were turned in, and treated as formerly ; none proved
lame, and they fattened as usual. The average quant it v of straw
the same as before ; on the whole, from six to ten stone per
score, according as the weather happened to be moist or dry.
Taking every thing into consideration, from seven to eight
stone per day for each score may be nearly an average. If
the spring months ai'e very dry, a little watering added to the
droppings of the sheep may be required, or less straw may be
thrown in. The two last seasons, when the manure of the
fold was carted to the dung-heap, which was never done till
the sheep were sent to the butcher, he had three or four in-
ches of the sarface of the earth of the fold shoveled up and
mixed with the dung, as the soil is always fully impregnated
with the moisture oozing through the straw to that extent,
and it readily fermented with the rest, if not rather assisting it,
and increasing the quantity of manure in proportion. He has
not weighed the manure for these two last years, aod cannot
therefore state the quantity exactly, but he thinks it npt far
from six large cart-loads, for every acre of straw expended.

The degree of fermentation he allows to take place in the
dunghill, when all is thrown up and mixed, is just what he
finds sufficient to destroy the vegetative powers of grain left
on the straw, or any seeds of annuals that may lie in the mass.
He would here observe, that any greater degree of fermenta-
tion than the above, in his opinion, takes away not only a
proportion of the quantity, but also from the quality of tlie
heap.

AODEKDA.

No. IV.

a more particular description of me charlbs
Alexander's dung-pit.

IVf R Alexander begins to collect the earth to the pit the
first opportunity after its former contents are carried to the tur-
nip field. The place designed for getting the earth is careful-
ly and deeply ploughed the winter before, and again in the
spring, and all the stones carefully picked out. As soon as the
turnip sowing is finished, and the horses spared, he takes two
horses, and two drivers, and two coup carts, with a labourer to
assist the drivers in filling their carts, beginning at one end of
the place where the earth is to be taken, and proceeding regu-
larly taking off a spade deep, (about eight inches), the carts
always alternately filling and emptying, and laying on the earth
in the pit, each cart-load laid close to another, until a layer of
a foot deep is laid over the area of the pit, then beginning in
the same way with another layer, until the whole is brought to
Ihe level that corresponds to the sewer that conveys the urine
from the dung court. The earth, at that season, being general-
ly dry enough so as to prevent the carts, in laying on the upper
layers from sinking ; and if that is not the case, it is often let to
consolidate a week or two before finishing it : in a word, no
other necessary business is stopped on its account. If the whole
is finished before the cattle is put up on turnip, which afford the
principal supply of urine, great care is required in laying on
the last layer, that the whole surface is perfectly levelled, so
that the urine is equally distributed over the whole mass. The
calculation of the whole cxpcncc is nearly as follows : The
dimensions of the pit is 12 yards square and 4' feet deep, the
solid contents 192 yards. The disUmce, at an average, being

ADDENDA. ^

200 yards, 2 yokings of five hours each day, and 14 rake at
each yoking.

S Men at 2s. each,;)^r day, - - L.O 6 0

2 Horses at 4 s. each per day, each cart carrying

one-half square yard, or 28 yards per day, 0 8 0

Total expence per day, L. 0 H 0
Each cart carrying half a square yard, or 28 yards
per day, the expence is at the rate of 6d. per
yard, and the total expence of collecting ]92
yards of earth, is - - hA 16 0*,

As the compost, when carted to the field, although heavier
by being drenched with the urine, yet loads better in the carts
than when brought in loose and dry into the pit, produces about
288 cart-load ; he allows forty of these cart-loads to an acre, con-
sequently the urine produces dung sufficient for seven acres.
The way he applies it is as follows: In dunging the turnip field,
he begins with the dung taken from the dung court and straw
yard, the greatest part of which has been carted out and put in
dunghills on the field, except what has been gathered in the
spring: as that is rougher and less rotted, he uses it in the same
field for planting potatoes: and therefore beginning at the mos^
distant part of the field with planting the potatoes, after the field
hasgotthe ploughingsandliarrowings necessary for cleaning the
ground, and reducing it to a proper mould for receiving the
seed ; with a double mould-board plough, he lays out the drills,
and carts on the dung, laying a rov/ of small heaps on, provin-
cially called hutSf in eveiy third drill, whether for potatot's or
turnips. In this way he applies all the dunghill and farm-yard
dung; and when all that kind of dung is applied, he begins with
the compost from the pit, but iiisti ad of laying it on in open
drills like the former, he gives the ground a close ploughing and

• In many parts of the kingdom, the expence would be still higher, and
probably two fillers would be thought necessary.

10 ADDENDA.

harrowing, and carts on the compost on the level surface,
spreading it carefully aad equally en the ground, which it does
more readily than dunghill dung, and then drills up the ground
for receiving the turnip seed ; and as the ploughs, in formmg the
drills, turn the compost perfectly into the middle of the drills,
and do not bury it too deep, the young plants sooner get
the benefit of it than the other dang, which by being put ia
the opened drill, and the drill again turned over it, the roots of
the young plants are longer in striking into it. — He finds, there-
fore, that in-the first stage, the plant is more vigorous in the
former, than in the latter ; nor did he ever observe, in the after
periods, that they fell short on the other ; nor in the subse-
quent crops, which, if otherwise, would have been perfectly
obvious, as the practice of both is carried on in the same field
or fields, as the methods have been carried on now for ten years,
and, as he must have known the part of the field where the
compost was applied, he certainly must have discovered the
difference, if any difference had been discoverable *.

So. V.

ox GKUBS AND CATERPILLARS.

jMr John Shirreff doubts much if either frost or lime wiH
destroy the grub. It can easily avoid frost, by going deeper
into the earth. The coats of insects, that destroy young
grain, when in the grub state, are hard, dr^, and as tough as
leather, so that they would most probably resist the effects of

• It is objected to this plan, tliat the dung heap in the yard is thus de-
prived of the urine which it ought to receive ; and it is contended, that it
would be better to mix the earth with the farmyard dung, (instead of
placing it in a separate pit), and to saturate i/ie whole with the urine of the
live stock, carefully collected for that purpose.

ADDENDA. 11

•any small quantity of quicklime that might happen to come in
contact with them ; and calcareous matter is destructive to in-
sects in a caustic or hot state only. How soon exposure to
the atmosphere deprives lime of this quality is well known.
As to killing grubs by rolling, unless accidentally squeezed
between two stones, he should doubt the fact. It is difficult
to break or cut their skin with the thumb nail pressing then!
against the forefinger ; their bodies arc so elastic, that they
defy a very strong obtuse pressure, such as that of a roller.

Slugs may certainly be killed by quicklime and by rolling, if
they be attacked iihen on the surface of the ground^ where
they are every soft morning in search of food, which consists
of the most delicate and tender parts of young vegetables.

Mr Shirreff" informs me, that Mr Alexander Tait, a most
intelligent and respectable man, who rented the old orchard
and garden of The Byres, the ancient seat of the Lindsays,
now the Earl of Hopetoun's property, in the vicinity of
Haddington, was so much tormented with slugs eating his
young pease in spring, that he tried various plans to destroy
them. He even gathered them in such numbers as to fill
earthen jugs with them, in a single morning, turning out his
whole family to pick them up. Still, however, they ruined
valuable crops. He, at last, brought some lime from the
kiln, and getting up before day-break, had a quantity im-
mediately slackened, and carried in a wheel-barrow to tlie place
where he had sown his early pease. As soon as day dawned,
to allow him to see the state of things, he put some of the hot
lime into a sieve, and going to the windward side of the pease,
he gently shook the sieve. The hot caustic powder instantly
pervaded the surface of the ground to leeward. In this man-
ner he went along the whole windward side of the plot. He
observed that a particle of lime did not kill a slug, for the in-
sect had the faculty of throwing off a slimy slough, and disen-
gaging itself from the particle, but if, in the progress to its
hole, which it immediatel} made for, it came in contact with
a second atom, however small, which it was almost certain to
do, it had not the power of extricating itself as in the former

22 ADDENDA.

instance, but, wreathing about in a thousand contortions^ it
soon expired.

By persevering in this way of killing slugs, Mr Tait prevents
them from ever doing him material injury.

The most effectual mode of killing grubs, Mr Shirreff con-
ceives, is, by perfect aration of the soil, in the convertible sys-
tem of husbandry. By this means, the insects and their nidi,
are frequently exposed to the attacks of small birds, and rooks,
which are very fond of them. Moles are great enemies to
them also ; but the cure is as bad as the disease.

Mr Rennie of Phantassie, has made a most useful discovery,
regarding the best means of destroying the caterpillar, so de-
structive to gooseberry plants, which Mr Curwen has very pro-
perlyiinserted in his Report to the Workington Agricultural So-
ciety for the year 1810. Mr Rennie has ascertained, that the
cateipillar deposites her eggs in the earth, below the gooseber-
ry tree. These are ready to hatch just at the time the young
leaves are budding, so that they immediately afford food for
these destructive reptiles. The method he has adopted for de-
stroying them is, previous to the gooseberry bushes coming in-
to leaf, to have a portion of the upper mould raked off, and
mixed with hot lime, which destroys the eggs. Mr Rennie
made an experiment that has put the matter bej'ond doubt.
He kept a part of the soil exposed to the air, and brought
leaves and placed upon the earth. The caterpillar hatched,
and immediately attacked the leaves. This remedy against an
enemy that frequently destroys this most valuable and profit-
able crop is so easy, that those who suffer, can have no right or
pretence to complain.

ADDENDA. It

No. VI.

ON THE ADVANTAGES THAT WOULD ARISE FROM THE DISCOVERT
OF A REAPING MACHINE,

J HE following estimate has been drawn up by Mr Donald
Cumir.ing, to prove the advantages that might be derived from
the discovery of a reaning-niachine, which he flatters himself
he has invented.

The general price of reaping, with the sickle or hook, is a-
bout ItiS. per English acie. The expence of reaping, by a
well-constructed machine, cannot exceed 4 s. so that t'aere
would be a saving of iis. per acre in the expence of labour a-
lone ; to which may be added 8 s. more on an average, as saved
by the expeditious mode in whicli the work would be perform-
ed, by means of which the crop would be speedily and effec-
tually secured against the effects of shaking winds and rotting
rains. The total benefit, therefore, would be no less than
16s. per acre, — a saving so great, as even to equal the whole
rent of much arable land in the kingdom. Besides, by the
machine cutting so low, much additional straw would be ob-
tained, a point of considerable moment. Two reaping-ma-
chines would be able to reap 40 acres /}£?r day, or 240 in six
days. The expence of each niachine, it is supposed, will be
from L. IS to L. 20, and the only additional expence would be
the mere repairs of the knives, which are the only part ex-
posed to wear. It is supposed, that a machine would last for
twenty years, if carefully laid by, when the reaping is over.
One machine may serve several small farmers, if made at their
joint expence.

The discovery of such a machine, therefore, might be con-
sidered as an object of the greatest national importance. It
may be proper, however, to observe, that in the opinion of a
mo&t reepcctable correspondent, of all the improvements lii-

14 ADDENDA.

theito attempted, that of the Reaping Machine seems to him
the most hopeless. The varieties of soils, surface and situation
of the crops it has to contend with, appear to him almost unsur-
raountable bars to any machine of the kind ever proving use-
ful. It is well known to every agriculturist, that the difficulties
attending the reaping of laid and twisted crops, requires not
only ej-es, hands, fingers and feet, but also a moderate share
of judgment. Now, even suppose a machine to possess all
these qualifications, and shut its eyes, what could it do ? If the
eyes of a human being were to be shut, he could not reap one
handful of a crop twisted together. As all these qualifications
therefore are required, he despairs of any ever being invented
that can be generally useful. These very difficulties, however,
render such a discovery, if it can he accomplished, the more
important.

No. VII.

ACCOUNT OF MR HUNTER OF TYNEFIELd's SYSTEM OP FARMING,

OX THE PRINCIPLE, OF CONVERTING ALL THE STRAW OF

A FARM INTO DUNG.

OIKCE these papers were sent to press, Mr Hunter of Tyne-
field has favoured me with the following account of his
farm, explanatory of the system he has adopted, which seems
to me peculiarly advantageous for the management of a turnip-
land farm.

Mr Hunter's farm consists of 350 Scotch, or 4-37 English acres.
The stock of horses lor labour are sixteen. The other stock
cannot be stated, varying according to the quantity of green
food that is there produced. It is only necessary to observe,
that about ten sheep, weighing from twelve to fourteen pound
■per quarter, require from thirty to thirty-two tons of turnips,

ASDEKBA. 15

(the average produce of an English acre), to fatten them for
market. Mr Hunter also keeps some cattle for winter soiling^y
(if that expression can be made use of), which are bought in
October and November, and sold in March. The sheep are
fattened sometimes sooner, but ihe above weight of turnip will
keep them till that time. The cattle are sold as soon as fatten-
ed, if the market offers, and are sooner or later ready, in pro-
portion to the condition they might be in, when put up to
feed f.

Mr Hunter raises four or five acres of turnips, for one of
rutabaga; but ruta baga requires one-third more manure to
produce a full crop.

The crops Mr Hunter raises of turnips and of ruta baga,
are as follow :

1. Turnips.

rir Scotch .^cre. Per English Acre.

Greatest crops, turnips 38 tons, tops 6

tons, - - - 44- 35

Smallest crops, - - 32 25y-

2. Rut bagn.

Greatest crops.

-

32

25f

Smallest crops,

-

23

Uf

Mr Hunter was accustomed to make the intervals of the
rows, from twentj^-seven to thirty inches. He found, at that
time, the crops to average about three or four ton \q&?, per acre

• Soiling is commonly understood to mean giving succulent herbage to live
stock ; but if it properly means making dung, it may also be applied to the
giving of roots for the purpose of feeding animals, and mating dung,

f It is calculated, that an acre of good turnip, would feed two and a
half cattle of 30 stones Amsterdam each, I7A oz. to the pound, and 16 lbs.
to the stone ; but say that only two cattle are fed per acre, in that case, it
is contended, that 440 lbs. Amsterdam more beef than mutton, would be
produced from equal weights of turnips, provided that the turnips be con-
sumed at the stall by the (dtile.

16 ADDENDA.

than he now does, when he makes the intervals twenty-fouf
to twenty-six inches *.

Mr Hunter begins to sow winter wheat after turnips, when-
ever the weather will permit in January, and continues sowing,
when the weather is dry, till about the 12th of jNIarch. He af-
terwards sows the whole of his turnip break or shift, with sum-
mer wheat, of that sort recommended by Sir Joseph Banks.
He had it from Lincolnshire seven years ago ; and has sown it
at all times, during the spring months, but he has now ascer-
tained, that the proper time of sowing it, in the climate of his
neighbourhood, is the two last weeks of April.

The weight of hay, from clover and rye-grass, may average
150 stones of twenty-two pound each, ^e?- English acre.

Mr Hunter sows wheat after clover, about the middle of Ja-
nuary, if the season will allow, if not, as soon after as possible.
He ploughs his clover stubble early in December, so that the
snails bred among the clover may be turned up and destroyed.
Formerly, he used to plough and sow in November, but these
vermin, not being then effectually destroyed, crept into the
ground again, and coming out in spring, thinned the wheat ma-
terially. Ploughing in December, and sowing in January, or
February, has answered his purpose of destroying these ver-
min effectually.

The produce of wheat after clover is eight bolls per Scotch
acre, or twenty-seven bushels j^^'' English acre ; that of oats,
is ten and a half bolls per Scotch acre, or fifty-two bushels per
English acre.

Mr Hunter pastures very little with cattle or horses ; indeed
he proposes giving it up altogether, unless in barren soils where
the plough cannot be introduced ; and means to convert, any
clover that may be left from soiling, into hay, for his horses in
winter and spring; and by giving fourteen pound of oats /;i>/-
day to a horse, with ruta baga, he has been able to save a third

♦ This can only be the ca»e, however, where the land is in very good con-
dition. Intervals of from twenty-eight to thirty inches are to be preferred,
with land rot in good condition, or where ubuudance of manure cuuiot be
given .

ADDENDA. 17

^art of the allowance of oats given to his horses, when no liay
or ruta baga were used. On the above allowance, Mr Hun-
ter's horses are worked nine hours every day, when the wea-
ther will permit.

The manure hitherto given to turnips by Mr Hunter, has
not been so great as he wished ; but as the quantity on the farm
increases, a greater quantity has been applied. Mr Hunter id
quite clear, that the land can never be over-manured for tur-
nips.

The depth of the first furrow for the turnip fallow is from
nine to twelve inches, where there is a depth of soil; the
after ploughing about six or eight ; after the turnips have been
eat off, the ploughing ought only to be about three inches for
wheat, to prevent the seeds of annual weeds being brought up ;
after the clover, four or five inches is a proper depth for oats
or wheat.

The stock kept upon turnips or clover, have the refusal of
water at all times when soiling ; cattle in summer must have it.

When turnips are taken up to the extent of a half, four rows
are lef^ and four taken up alternately ; if a third part is to be
taken, six are left, and three taken alternately. As soon as
the turnips or ruta baga, begin to run or shoot in spring, they
are taken off the field, when the tops and roots are cut off;
they are then piled up in some place sheltered from the sun
or too much air ; and being covered with a little straw, and
kept moist, they may be preserved as long as they can be want-
ed ; the ruta baga will be perfectly good to the first of June.

Mr Hunter sows no more barley than is required for paying
his farm-servants their wages in kind, which are partly paid in
barley ; having from experience found, that wheat after clover,
sown with barley, often fails. When he began farming, he suf-
fered severely by not attending to this important rule in agri-
culture *.

Wlien circumstances permit, Mr Hunter limes once in four-
teen years, at the rate of 60 barley bolls per English acre. Lime

" It is an old Scotch maxim, " Ha that saws wheat after bear, had need of
lueilde gear ;" or, He should be a rich man, who sows whf at after barley.
V. 1. 2 F

■18 AUliKNDA.

ought to be applied to all lands under a rotation of four,
where white and green crops are sown alternately.

The weight of potatoes jser English acre, under good culture,
and a proper soil, is from eight to ten ton. Mr Hunter was
inuse, before he found that horses throve on ruta baga, to give
them potatoes occasionally, though they did not thrive so well
on them, even when steamed, as he could have wished. He
has now laid potatoes entirely aside, unless those raised for
swine, finding ruta baga far superior for horses.

It is proper to explain the system adopted by Mr Hunter,
for cultivating light land. The basis of that system is, 1. Al-
ternate white and green crops ; 2. Converting nearly the
whole of the straw produced on his farm into dung ; 3. Plough-
ing deep at particular periods ; and 4. Soiling both summer
and winter.

1. The rotation he follows is, 1. Turnips; 2. Wheat; S.
Clover ; 4'. Wheat or oats ; half of the clover being pastured
with sheep, whilst the other half is used in soiling work-horses.
The clover stubble is broke up for wheat or oats, generally ia
the proportion of two-thirds for wheat. Under the above ro^
tation, the crops, on an average, have increased in produce
considerably.

2. Mr Hunter's object is, invariably to convert almost the
whole of his straw into manure ; for by giving plenty of green
food, very little of the straw is eaten by the cattle or sheep,
either in summer or winter. The horses alone require some
straw, along with the ruta baga at all times ; but during the first
months of winter, November more especially, when ruta baga
has not reached its growth, a few of these roots are given,
and a greater proportion of straw or hay is wanted. If any
considerable quantity of clover can be converted into hay, the
straw will be perfectly unnecessary, unless for litter.

3. Soon after Mr Hunter began this system, he thought
that the turnip, and other crops, were rather falling off, but
fortunately he discovered a remedy, which was, to plough very
deep the first furrow given to the turnip fallow. This he did,
whatever was the depth of the soil, sometimes using three or
four horses in the plough. Since he adopted that practice, all

ADDKNDA. 19

the crops are more certain, seldom if ever failing, and never
from being often repeated, unless owing to the inclemency of
the season.

4. Mr Hunter makes it a rule to soil both summer and win-
ter, preserving as much straw from the winter soiling-fold, as
will be sufficient for littering horses, young cattle, and swine,
during the summer, giving always plenty of green food, chiefly
clover. Soiling in an open fold, with cut clover in summer,
does not require so much straw, as winter soiling with turnip.
He has not ascertained the proportions exactly, but thinks
that one-half will suffice in summer that is required in winter.

The stock are fed in the following manner : They have al-
ways abundance of green food or roots. One-half, or some-
times one-third of all the turnips produced upon the farm, are
carted to the fold or straw-yard, to sheep, young cattle, and
swine. The swine have at all times clover in summer, and
turnip or ruta baga in winter, together with potatoes for those
meant to be fattened. The working horses have also half a
bushel each of ruta baga during winter and spring, so that all
the stock are soiled, the milch cows excepted, who get the
whole chaff, and other refuse from the threshing-mill, and the
sheep, when pastured on clover, to consolidate the ground.

Mr Hunter is decidedly of opinion, that any soil adapted
for turnips, and that will produce seven bolls of wheat per
Scotch acre (or 24 bushels per English acre), or 9 bolls of oats
per Scotch (or 44 bushels per English acre), cannot be put
under a more profitable system, or rendered more productive,
than in the way he has suggested. By the frequent ploughings
given to the turnip break or shift, the land is made perfectly
clean. Turnip is the only crop, for which, according to Mr Hun-
ter's experience, land cannot be over-ploughed. So much plough-
ing for turnip, would, in his opinion, be hurtful to the afler crops,
were it not that one half or more of his turnips are eaten on
the ground with sheep, which brings it to a proper consistence
for the succeeding crops of wheat, tSrc. Where land has been
over-cropped, or it may be rather said over-ploughed, farmers
will find two or three years' pasture necessary to allow the soil
to consolidate ; but he is so partial to soiling, that he thinks

SiO ADDENDA.

two years* soiling, preferable to two years' pasturing, even
tliough the second year's crop should be greatly deficient ;, as
he is certain, during liis whole practice, of constantly having
oats after cut clover, as well as the other crops, fully equal to
those after pasture, and that the like will take place during
the whole after crops in the rotation.

This idea of soiling two years in succession, instead of past
turing the second year, is justified by the opinion, that one
acre soiled is equal to two pastured.

«

PART II.

DISSERTATIONS

ON

QUESTIONS CONNECTED WITH THE AGRICULTURAL
IMPROVEMENT OF A COUNTRY IN GENERAL,

BUT MORE ESPECIALLY AS APPLICABLE

TO TilE

STATE OF SCOTLAND*.

* The two part?, for the sake of greater expedition, being printed
at the same time, it was necessary to page them separately.

DISSERTATION I.

THE SIZE OF FARMS, AND ON THE VARIOUS MODES OF
OCCUPYING ALLOTMENTS OF LAND, FOR FARMING, AND
OTHER PURPOSES OF A SIMILAR NATURE.

H

AVING visited the districts in Scotland most distin-
guished for the knowledge and practice of agricul-
ture, it appeared to me, that their improved state greatly
depended on the Size of the Farms. That is a point on
which volumes have been written, and respecting which a
considerable diversity of opinion obtains. It is impossible,
however, to lay down any precise or universal standard
regarding the size of farms, as so much depends upon
the nature and situation of the soil, the character, skill,
and capital of the farmer, and a variety of other particu-
lars. It is contended, indeed, that there should be occupa-
tions of various dimensions, and that possessions of a small,
or at least of a moderate size, arc desirable, for the follow-
ing reasons : 1. That persons engaged in other employ-
ments, besides that of farming, may be accommodated
with small portions of land, so as to raise many articles
which they cannot otherwise readily procure, on account
of their distance from a market; 2. That industrious in-

A 2

SIZE OF FARMSi

dividuals, possessed of small capitals, may have an op-
portunity to follow the profession of a farmer, to which
they would do credit, but from which, unless some small
farms were to be had, they would necessarily be exclud-
ed -, 3. That young men may be enabled to commence
farming on a moderate scale j for though possessed of suf-
ficient capital, and regularly bred to the profession, they
are so apt to fall into errors, that they ought not at first
to undertake the management of too extensive concerns ;
and, 4. Because in poor countries farms must be smaU,
sometimes in proportion to the small extent of cultivated
land l}^ng contiguous, and sometimes to the limited capi-
tal of the occupiers ; whilst in more fertile and wealthier
districts, the skill, spirit, and opulence of the farmers,
enable them to do justice to farms of larger dimensions.
How far such reasoning is to be assented to, will appear
in the course of the following investigation.

In discussing a subject of such vital importance to the
agricultural interests, and indeed to the general prosperity
of a country, it is proposed, for the full elucidation of the
various questions therewith connected, to divide farms into
the following classes : 1. Small farms, or possessions under
50 acres of arable land; 2. Dairy farms; 3. Fai'ms adjoining
to to\sTis ; 4. Clay-land arable farms ; 5. Turnip-land ara-
ble farms ; 6. Conmicrcial farms ; 7. Pasture farms ; 8.
Fai'ms for the accommodation or amusement of the pro-
prietor ; and, 9. Farms for experiment, and connected
with objects of public utility.

SIZE OF FARMS. 5

1 . Small Farms, or inferior OccnpatioJis.

Occupations under fifty acres may be treated of under
the same general head. This is a subject which it is ne-
cessary fully to enter into, as it is of the utmost impor-
tance to examine the various modes of holding, and of
managing, portions of land, whether small or great, that
the advantages and disadvantages of each may be duly
estimated.

Wc shall commence this branch of the inquiry with
considering, whether labourers employed by large farmers
ought to have lots of land attached to their cottages.

It will appear in the third dissertation, that in all
the more improved districts of Scotland, a large propor-
tion of the firm-servants are married ; for whose accom-
modation the farmer undertakes to keep a cow, (the
property of the servant), during the whole year, without
making any charge for its maintenance. No land is spe-
cially allotted for that purpose, as the servant's cow usually
accompanies those of the master. This system has been
so long established, and is productive of such benefit to
the servant, more especially if he has a large family, and,
(as will be afterwards explained), is so advantageous to the
public, that it were to be wished it could be extended to
other districts, rather than abolished in those in which it
is already established.

In regard to the idea of giving any number of acres to
day labourers, to be held independent of the farmer, and
immediately of the proprietor, such a system is objected to
on the following grounds : That day labourers have no
leisure for attending to the cultivation of any extent of
land : That a small garden for potatoes, cabbages, and
other vegetables, is perfectly sufficient for their accommo-
dation, and that any greater quantity would break in

b SIZE OF FARMS.

upon the time they ought to devote to the assistance of
the farmer in carrying on his operations : That in an im-
proved district, tliere is always work sufficient, at all sea-
sons of the year, for those who are industrious : That
if the labourer were thus rendered in some measure inde-
pendent of the farmer, to Avhom he must otherwise look
up for his subsistence, and were led to consider his being
hired to labour as a secondary object, he would soon be-
come idle and useless to the neighbourhood, and would
either live in constant poverty from indolence, or both he
and his family would refuse to work, unless paid much
bcvond the fair average rate of wages * : That these
labourers are extremely apt to commit depredations on
the property of their neighbours : That whether they have
leases, or possess their land from year to j'ear, they are
likely to prove troublesome to the neighbouring farmers ;
but if they have leases, the nuisance can hardly fail to be-

* This subject is very ably discussed in Kerr's valuable Report
of Berwickshire, p. 101, 105, &c. It has also been observed,
that if labourers, by receiving an allotment immediately from the
proprietor, were to be placed in such a situation, that their hiring
themselves to the farmer would be optional, the very object of
the iobtitution, namelj', that there should be on the farm an ade-
quate number of servants always at, the command, and Under the cou'
troul of the occupier, would be defeated ; and whilst the labourer
might, (if unwilling to work for the farmer), derive a scanty
subsistence from his own small occupation, it would neither en-
able him to educate his family, (which industrious labourers, un-
der the present system, arc able lo elVect), nor ever to emerge
from his original sphere of life, in which he may live as comfort-
ably and happy, as the most opulent individual in the kingdom.
Thus, it appears, that on the whole, it is neither conducive to the
intejest of the farmers, nor the advantage of the labourers them«
telvcs, that the latter should possess any land immediately froni
llic propiietor.

SIZE OF PAn\fS. 7

conie almost intolerable : And, lastly, that their situation,
in point of real comfort, can never be compared to tiiat in
which the hinds or ploughmen of Berwickshire, of Rox-
burghshire, of the Lothians, and of other improved districts
in Scotland, are placed, who have abundance of the ne-
cessaries of life for themselves and their families, without
any trouble or anxiety, and nothing to abstract their at-
tention from their regular duty to their masters.

lliese observations arc sanctioned by the authority of
many of the ablest farmers in Scotland, with whom I
have had an opportunity of discussing this interesting
subject ; and 1 have every reason to believe, that the same
ideas are entertained by the most intelligent farmers in
the more improved arable districts of England. Both are
of opinion, that day labourers ought to hold their occupa-
tions immediately of the farmer, and that the land they
possess ought to be restricted to portions capable of being
cultivated by the spade.

By some it is contended, that no land should be occu-
pied by any description of persons excepting those whose
sole business is farming. There are, however, various
exceptions to that general rule, as in the case of, 1. La-
bourers by the piece, carriers, millers, and mechanics;
2. Gardeners and nurserymen j 3. Villagers ; and, 4.
Farmers with moderate capital, or who reside in remote
parts of the kingdom, where extensive tracts of fertile land
are rarely contiguous.

1. A gentleman distinguished for infonnation and abili-
ty, regarding all questions connected with husbandry, the
late Robert Barclay, Esq. of Ury, in a paper addressed to
the Board of Agriculture *, has stated it as his opinion,
that, though labourers by the day ought not to have land

* Communications, vol. i, p. pi.

8 SJZE Ol TARMS.

beyond what is requisite for a cottage garden, yet, that
labourers hy the piece, who are hired occasionally by
different farmers, should not be subjected to the same
restriction. There are also a superior sort of la-
bourers, who contract for making and repairing roads,
and other undertakings of a similar nature, or who act
as carriers *, to whom the possession of a small por-
tion of land is a great convenience. This description
of persons has materially contributed to put an end
to a very burdensome species of bondage, by which
the tenants of many estates in Scotland were bound to
convey a certain quantity of fuel to the mansion-house
of their landlord; a practice which, some years ago, could
hardly be dispensed with, as fuel was not procurable by
any other means ; but wherever villages, with carriers as
above described, arc to be met with, it is no longer ne-
cessary. Millers have likewise occasion for small farms.
Such lots of land also, are of much use to mechanics in
the country, as cart and plough makers, &c. who may
not always have a demand for the articles they manu-
facture, and who may consider such a possession as sub-
sidiary to their other occupations f . Lord Kames lilie-

* Industrious persons, possessf d of small capitals, who wish to
become farmers, ought to set out as carriers, &c. to which their
funds may be adequate, and by activity and industry they may in
time realize a capital, which may enable them to stock farms of
a proper size.

t On large estates, and in situations distant" from villages, it is
a great accommodation to the adjacent district, to have mecha-
nics in tlie various necessary branches established in some cen-
tral place. The Duke of Montrose, in this view, has broken
down a farm, on a remote part of his estate, into cottaries of two
acres arable, with two cows grass each, for mechanics, viz. a
smith, a carpenter, a weaver, a shoemaker, a carrier, .Src. Tho

SIZE OF FAKMS. f)

wise contends *, that weavers residing in the countrj',
should have lots of four acres each, weaving being a se-
dentary occupation, and requiring at times field labour
for the sake of health. This is peculiarly necessary where
there is no market at hand for the purchase of provi-
sions.

2. The advantages of having land appropriated for
kitchen gardens in the vicinity of towns, are too obvious
to be dwelt on. The produce is great, and the vegetables
thereby raised are of infinite benefit by coming early to
market. The rent given for this description of land, near
Edinburgh, is high. A lease for four years, of eight
EngUsh acres of land, was lately sold for £. 200, subject
to a rent of £. 8 per acre, which, at compound interest,
makes the rent paid to be at the rate of <£. 15, 12 s. per acre
per annum ,- and a field of seven acres, near the Grange,
at no great distance from that metropolis, is partly sublet
for the same purpo.se, at the rate of 2 s. j^cr fall, or ^.16
per English acre. Nurseries also fetch a rent little inferior
to garden ground. To a well-employed nurseryman, the
profit of his ground is astonishing, in one year exceeding
considerably the fee-simple of the same quantity of land in
situations remote from a town. Nurseriesybr sale^ however,
ought to be encouraged, for the sake of persons who can-
not afford to form, nor to keep up nurseries of their own.
Besides, intelligent persons, who make it a business to
raise trees, ai'e more apt to have a greater variety, and
to try useful experiments, than private individuals, who
have other pur.'^uits to distract their attention. Nursery-
men also, will often undertake to plant extensive tracts,

innkeeper, for the accoinmodalion of the public, possesses nearly
as mucli PS all the rest put together.

* Gentleman I-'iirmer, p. CO?,

1& SIZE OF FARMS.

and to keep up a sufficient numbez- of trees in them, at a
moderate expence, which is a great inducement to the
formation of plantations.

3. There is no circumstance connected with this in-
quiry, to which I am more anxious to call the attention of
the reader, than to the numerous advantages to be de-
rived from ffivins: allotments of land to the inhabitants of
villages and small towns ; and as this subject is not so ge-
nerally understood as it deserves, it is the more necessary
to dwell upon it at some length.

In the western districts of Scotland, where coal abounds,
and manufactures have been introduced, a number of vil-
lages have been erected, (generally two or three, or some-
times more in eveiy parish), containing from twenty to
two or three hundred families. Around each village, a
range of land, proportioned to its size, is occupied by the
inhabitants. Such of them as keep horses, and such farmers
also as have retired from business, generally take more or
less land, and their example is followed both by the trades-
men and labourers. When the villaije comes to contain
from iOG or 500 mhabitants, the anxiety to obtain such
possessions increases, and the land fetches, fi*om the greater
demand, a higher rent. In most of the parishes in the
counties of Lanark, Renfrew and Ayr, a number of acres, in
extent greater or less, according to the population of the
town or village, is rented at from jS. 't to £. 6 per English
acre, and in some instances still higher. The size of these
village possessions held by each individual, varies from
2 to 25 Enghsh acres, but the greatest part arc from 4 to
12 or 14 acres.

As milk, potatoes, and oats, form the principal means of
subsistence among people of that rank in Scotland, the
ground around these villages is generally devoted to the
raising of these articles of fooii. A person who possesses
four acres, will have nearly one acre in potatoes, one, or

SIZE OF FARMS. 1 1

one and a lialf in oats, or sometimes in wheat, and the
remainder in hay and pasture ; but in some places a still
greater proportion is kept in grass.

Such a mode of occupying land is beneficial in va-
rious respects. There is no plan by which a landlonl
can expect to obtain so high a rent, hence many intel-
ligent proprietors have erected villages for that special
purpose. John, Earl of Loudoun, for instance, founded
the village of Dervel, about the year 1760, on liberal
terms, with the view of increasing the value of land in tliat
neighbourhood ; and that expectation has not been dis-
appointed, for there are about 250 acres round that village,
now yielding from ^.2, 6 s. to £.4iper acre, while the
neighbouring farms, the soil of which is equally good, are
rented only at from 15 s. to 19 s. jyei- acre.

If the health, the comfort, and the morals of the inha-
bitants, be taken into consideration, land cannot be bet-
ter occupied than in this manner. Such villages are cci-
tainly more healthy than lai'ge towns. Labourers and me-
chanics must feel themselves and their children much haj3-
pier in the former than in the latter ; and their morals,
and those of their families, are not in such danger of being
contaminated, as if they resided amidst a greater popula-
tion. They are also much better supphed with wholesome
food, as miUc and vegetables, when they cultivate a piece
of ground for themselves, than when they are at the
mercy of the neighbouring farmers for these necessaries
of life; amd not only is their health improved, but
they become more industrious, by performing in the even-
ings, and other intervals of their labour, the little offices
about their cows, their horses, and their small possessions ;
whereas those who are deprived of that profitable and ra-
tional mode of spending their leisure hours, are in dang-or
of devoting them to improper objects. There is no iuotL-
ako, by which a greater produce can be raised from land.

12. SIZE OF FARMS.

than by erecting a village, and letting the adjoining
ground in small lots to the inhabitants. The high rent
demanded compels them to be industrious, in order to turn
tlie land to the best account, and in particular to pay great
attention to the collecting of manure, in so much that eve-
ry corner of their little occupation is improved to the high-
est degree.

The milk of their cows beinjj cither used in their fit-
milies, or sold as it comes from the cow to their neigh-
bours who keep none, it goes much farther as an arti-
cle of food, than when manufactured into cheese. It
is calculated, that from 50 to 60 Scotch pints of milk,
(or from 100 to 120 English quarts), may be converted
into a cheese of from 16 to 20 lb. English. But if that
cheese could be again restored to milk, in such quantities
as might be from time to time required by the family of a
labourer or tradesman, it would be much wholesomer,
and would nearly ffo twice as far towards maintaining the
family, than the cheese made from it, and the pork pro-
duced by the whey *. It can hardly be questioned, there-
foi'e, that the interest of the proprietor, the labouring
class of the community, and of the public at large, cannot
"be better promoted, than by encouraging the villages oii
this principle, particularly in those districts where coal a-
bounds, and where, of course, manufactures have been, or
may be introduced f .

* Dr Franklin, wlien living on bread and milk, was the stout-
est person in the printing oirice where he worked.

+ These facts regarding the villages in the west of Scotland, are
eommiinicated to me by Mr Ailon of Stralhavtn, the iiilelHgent
leporter of Ayrshire.

SIZE OF fahms. IS

If this beneficial system of erecting villages, and fur-
nishing the inhabitants with land, could be extended over
every district in the kingdom where it could be establish-
ed with advantage, it would promote more the health,
the comfort, and the happiness of several numerous classes
of the community, than any other measure that could be
adopted.

Nor is it in the western parts of Scotland alone where
this practice prevails. It exists in a greater or less degree
in every other district of that country with which I am ac-
quainted. A Scotch acre of ground will supply the family
of a tradesman with vegetables and some grain. Where a.
cow is kept, three Scotch acres, (nearly four English), arc
thought sufficient, if the cattle are of a moderate size. At
Peterhead in Aberdeenshire, the lots usually consist of a-
bout four Scotch or five English acres, and they are no\^
divided into four equal parts. The rotation is, 1. Fallow,
Turnips or Potatoes *, 2, Bear or Oats with grass seeds ;
3. Hay or Pasture ; and, 4. Oats. The rent has been lately
increased from £. 4, 10s. or £. 5, to even £. 6, 10s. jier
Scotch acre, according to the situation and nature of the
soil. The profit, after paying all expences, is calculated to
be about £. 3 ■per Scotch acre.

There are other modes of managing the cow system in
tlie neighbourhood of villages. In Berwickshire, it is a
common practice for the inhabitants, instead of taking se-
parate allotments, to form clubs or copartneries, and to
rent any adjoining grass fields for pasturing their cows
and horses. Fields of that description are annually set up
to auction, and from the high rents given, may always be
hired where the villagers wish to have that accommoda-
tion. But as the profit of keeping cows, according to tJiii
system, depends upon the sale of milk, and is necessari-
ly limited by the consumption of that article, it has fic-
quently haj^pened, from the supply exceeding the demaiid.

14 SIZE OF FARMS.

that village cows have not paid their expences *. Near
the village of Leslie in Fife, some grass fields ai'e annually
let by auction, and the inhabitants pay a certain sum for
a cow's grass. The consequence is, that great attention is
paid to the breed, in particular to their being excellent
milchers, as the same sum is paid for the pasture of a coav
that produces a small, as for one that yields a great quan-
tity of milk f .

In the case of newly erected fishing villages also, some
ground may be allotted for those who settle there, to carry on
the precarious profession of fishermen. A market cannot al-
ways be obtained for the quantity offish that may be caught,
and they may often be jYrevcnted from going to sea in
stormy weather ; the fishermen therefore must have much
time that can be devoted to other purposes. By the addi-
tional inducement of lots of land, a hardy peasantry may
be tempted to settle in situations calculated for carrying on
the fisheries. The landlord may thus increase the value
of his estate, and may obtain the aid of the wives and fa-
milies of the fishermen in carrying on his improvements.

4. In manj' parts of Scotland, arable farms must be of a
tmall extent, sometimes because no great quantity of fertile
land can be had contiguous, and sometimes because farmers
cannot be met with, possessed of sufficient capital to do jus-
tice to large occupations. The best size of a farm for persons
so circumstanced, is ^enerallv from 40 to 50 acres of arable
land, affording employment for a pair of horses. It is ad-
luittei], that such farmers arc rarely so skilful or so intelli-
gent as their wealthier brethren, who have better means of
acquiiing knowledge in their profession. The former, how-
ever, are more economical, which in some degree compcn-

• Kerr's Berwicksliirc, |). 105.

i Sl.uisUcal Account of Scotlami, vol. \i, p. 41.

SIZE OF FARMS. 15

sates for that disadvantage. These farmers, it is said, hold
their plough, feed their cattle, repair and even make some
of their farming implements, are contented with a humble
cottaffc, receive the assistance of their wives and families
both in cultivating the farm, and harvesting its produce *,
and, Jiving at less expence, can afford, it is contended, to pay
even a higher rent than the more opulent farmer, whose
accommodations and mode of living are so different. On
the other hand, it is asserted, that such farmers and their
families are mere drudges ; that they live more uncom-
fortably than the servants on a great farm ; that they are
tenacidus of old customs; that they are prejudiced against
any alteration, even when obviously beneficial ; that in
proportion to the extent of land they occupy, they must
keep a larger stock ; that their cattle and implements of
husbandry being of an inferior description, they can never
work their land to ecjual advantage ; and that if they can
carry on the cultivation of land already in an arable state,
yet in the case of waste lands, they rarely, if ever, possess
spirit, skill, or capital to carry on any considerable im-
provement. It is in dairy farms alone, as some maintain,
tliat the small farmer has an evident advantage over the
great one.

* On this subject JMr Brown of Markle very justly remarks,
that the share which a farmer's family takes in the cultivation of
a farm, will never save a halfpenny of the outgoings ; on the con-
trary, his expences will be greatly increased by having any part
of his labour executed by the branches of his own house. They
cannot be supported cheaper than hired servants, and rarely will
work so much, especially if the labour of the whole season is ta-
ken into consideration. Perhaps, upon some particular occasions,
g, temporary exertion may be made, greater than what is com-
ijionly displayed by hired labourers, but it generally happens that
a proportionable relaxation will imnjt'diatoly afterwards occur.

Ift SIZE OF FARMS.

Some of the particulars above enumerated regarding
small farms, may not be considered as strictly coming
within the principal scope of this publication. At the
same time, they are of such infinite consequence to so
many numerous and valuable classes of the community,
that he must be a fastidious critic indeed, vs^ho would ob-
ject to the discussion, or who would regret that they have
been thus brought under his review.

2. Dairy Farms.

In Ayrshire, where the dairy system is carried to greater
perfection than in any part of Scotland, the farms are of a
moderate size, in general from 50 to 150 Scotch acres,
though there are some of a larger description. About 100
Scotch acres (127 EngUsh) is reckoned a good size. On
such a farm, from 10 to 12 cows (a number capable of being
managed by one family with ease and economy) may be kept,
and it will also produce other articles besides what is neces-
saiy for their maintenance. In hard soils, and dry cli-
mates, grain husbandry is preferable; but in soft soils,
and moist cKmatcs, whenever farms are of a moderate
size, the dairy ought to be the principal object of the
farmer. It furnishes regular and profitable occupation
during the whole year to himself and his family. Cleanli-
ness, so essential in this branch of husbandry, is more likely
to be better attended to on a small scale than on a large
one, and by persons interested in the sale of the. com-
modities produced, than by hired servants or labourers.
Where is this system indeed more hkely to answer, than
with the small farmer, whose cows are his pride, who
takes a dehght in shewing his stock to his friends when
they visit him, in detailing the history of their lives, in
dwelling on tiie condition to which he has brought them,

Size of farms. 17

and in pointing out the beauties of their progeny, and the
excellence of their produce * ?

In daily farms, four objects may be attended to: 1.
Selling the milk fresh from the cow ; 2. Making butter ;
3. Manufacturing cheese ; and, 4. Feeding the calf for
sale. It will be propet to give a general account of the
nature and profits attending each of these branches of the
dairy system, as thence the proper size of a dairy farm
may, in some degree, be ascertained.

1. In the immediate neighbourhood of towns or large
villages, milk is sold in small quantities fresh from the
cow, and in this way more profit is derived from it than
in any other mode. The price, when sold in villages, is
commonly from 3d. to 4d. for two English quarts, or
Scotch pint, and from 4d. to 6d. for the same quantity
when sold in towns. Fresh milk is used with porridge or
hasty pudding, with bread, or potatoes, and in this way it
is not only much wholesomer than when used in any other
mode, but goes much farther as food, one gallon of milk
used fresh being equally nourishing as the cheese produced
from two gallons, and the meat from the whey given to
hogsf. No wonder then that labourers are anxious to
have milk for their families.

2. Where milk cannot be sold fresh with advantage, it
is generally converted, within any moderate distance of a
town, into butter and butter-milk, the first for the con-
sumption of the upper ranks, the second as an important
article of food for the labouring classes of the community.
The art of making butter has of late been much improvetl
in Scotland. In the western districts, it is generally niatle
of the entire milk, and not of cream alone. By the a-
doption of that plan, the butter is not so rich, but is sound

* Alton's Report of Ayrshire, p. 430, t I">itto, p. 4r

18 SIZE OF FARMS.

and good, and the butter-milk is rendered peculiarly pa-
latable and wholesome *. Seven Scotch pints, or 3.18
English gallons, make a pound of butter, (22 oz.), which
sells at from 1 s. 6d. to 1 s. lOd. per pound ; and when
one pint of water is added to three or four pints of butter-
milk, the whole will sell for 1 d. per pint.

3. Ayrshii'e has long been famous for a mild and palat-
able species of cheese made from sweet milk, commonly
known mider the name of the Dunlop cheese, from the
parish where it was originally manufactured, Mr Alton,
in his excellent Survey of Ayrshire, informs us, that from
50 to 55 Scotch pints of milk, (from 100 to 110 English
quarts), with the cream, will generally yield one stone of
that cheese, Ayrshire weight, (2^ lb.), which sells at 14;s.
per stone f . Taking the average of 22 stones of cheese
from 1200 pints (or 2400 English quarts) of milk, the
return will be about .^.15:0:8 per atinum, besides
the value of the calves, and what can be made of the
whey. This last article is used as food in the farmer's fami-
ly, and is given as drink to the working people. It is also
given both to horses and cows for drink ; the cows give
more milk when they get it. It is sometimes sold in
towns at a penny per Scotch pint. When boiled, the
float-whey at the top resembles curd. In country places
distant from towns, it is now generally used in feeding
swine. The whey produced from the milk of three or four
cows, with a few vegetables and otlier offaLs, will rear a pig
in one season from the value of 8 s. to 10 s. to the weight
of 1 4- or 15 Enghsh stones. Butter is rarely extracted

• Alton's Ayrshire, p. 449-
t The price of the Duulop cheese has lecenlly fallen as low as
10 b. per stone, but it is supposed will soon return nguin toils
former standard.

SIZE OF FARMS. 19

from the whey in Scotland, as is the case in some of the
English dairies. It is said that this can only be done when
the milk is too much heated in the process of coagulation.
Whatever is so obtained is robbed from the cheese, and
that is not the best way of making butter.

Skimmed-milk or common cheese, is also made to a
considerable extent in Ayrshire. The cream of the milk
is converted into butter. It is well worth trying, whether
it would not be more profitable, instead of making the
cream into butter, to mix the cream of the skimmed milk
with a quantity of sweet milk equal to that from which
the cream was taken, by which means Stilton cheese might
be made, for in that consists the whole secret of manufac-
turing that high-priced article.

4. The feeding of calves for veal is another mode of
deriving profit fi^"om a dairy. Tliis practice has been
brought to great perfection in the counties of Ayr and
Lanark. The calves receive no other food but milk as it
comes from the cow, and which they are taught to drink
from a dish, in general not being permitted to suck.
The young calves are fed on the first-drawn milk, which
abounds with serum or whey ; the older ones get the last
drawn, which is much richer. It requires this rich part of
the milk, of at least two or three cows, for several weeks,
to bring a calf to the greatest pitch of fatness. Tlie
highest price given for a calf thus fed in Ayrshire, is from
j€. 5 to d£. 6, to which value it may be brought, by proper
management, in eight or ten weeks. In Lanarkshire, par-
ticularly in the parish of Strathaven, which is celebrated
for its veal, calves have been fed to the value of -s^. 10 ; but
that may proceed more from ostentation than prudence, as
the milk, after the calf has been brought to a certain de-
gree of fatness, may be applied to more profitable uses *.

* Alton's Ayrshire, p. 442, &c.

20. SIZE OF FARMS.

Mr Alton estimates the value of the produce of these
cows, in different circumstances, at the following rates :

1. Value of 1200 Scotch pints, or 2400 English
quarts, sold in villages, at from 3d. to 4 d.

'per pint, or 2 English quarts, average 3i-d. ^.17 10 0

2. Value of ditto, sold in towns at from 4 d. to

6 d. ^>^* pint, or 2 English quarts, average 5 d. 25 0 0

3. Value of the same quantity employed in
making butter and butter-milk, at 4^ d. per

pint, or two quarts, - - - 22 10 0

4. Value of the same quantity made into sweet-
milk cheese, at 3xd. ^. 15 : 8 : 4, with £. 3
for the calves, and the profit to be derived

from the whey, - - - 18 8 4

5. In regard to feeding calves, he calculates, that when the
calf Is of the most thriving kind, and properly managed,
milk will bring a better return, when disposed of in that
way than in any other, except when the milk is sold
fresh in large towns.

Besides this profit, a dairy farm, when properly regu-
lated, produces a variety of other articles. One-third, or
at least one-fourth of the farm ought to be cultivated as
arable land, and a sufficient quantity of young cows ought-
to be reared to keep up the stock. The custom of pro-
viding clover, tares, &c. for early summer food, and some
turnips or cabbages for winter food, and some potatoes as
.spring food, is becoming more general in Ayrshire, great-
ly to the improvement of the dairy system.
. Mr Aiton, who has paid particular attention to the sub-
ject of dairy farming, considers small farms as pccuharly
advantageous for that branch of husbandry, because it is
in the power of the farmer's wilb or daughters to perform,

SIZE OF FARMS. 2r

or at any rate to superintend, tlie whole concern. No
branch in agriculture requires such constant and unre-
mitting attention as the dairy. If a few spoonfuls of milk
are left in the udders of the cow at milking ; if any one
of the implements used in the dairy be allowed to be taint-
ed by neglect -, if the dairy house be kept dirty or out of
order ; if the milk is either too hot or too cold at coagu-
lating •, if too much, or too little rennet is put into the
milk ; if the whey is not speedily taken off"; if too much or
too little salt is applied j if the butter is too slowly or too
hastily churned, or if other minute attentions are neglect-
ed, the milk will in a great measure be lost. If these nice
operations occurred only once a month, or once a-week,
they might be easily guarded against, but as they require
to be observed during every stage of the process, and al-
most every hour of each day, the most vigilant attention
must be kept awake throughout the whole season. That
is not to be expected from hired servants. The wives and
daughters of farmers, therefore, having a greater interest
in the concern, are more likely to bestow that constant,
anxious, and unremitting attention to the dairy, without
which it cannot be rendered productive*.

Another advantage derived from small dairy farms is, that
cows are much injured if they are compelled to travel far
from the place they are milked to their pasture. It is
found advisable, therefore, when a farm exceeds 200
Scotch acres, to erect two sets of dairy houses to suit the
different parts of the farm.

* It is a practice in some parts of the country, to let cows by
the year ; the farmer furnishing merely the cows and their food,
and the person who bargains for them attending to their feeding
and the management of their produce ; but that occasions fi^;-
(jLient disputes between the parties.

22 SIZE OF FARMS.

3. Farms adjoining to Towns.

In the neighbourhood of towTis, farms are commonly
from 100 to perhaps 200 acres, which is found abun-
dantly sufficient for such occupations. It is well re-
marked by a most intelligent correspondent, (George
Rennie, Esq. of Phantassie), that farmers in the vi-
cinity of large towns, may be compai'ed to retail shopJceep-
ersy whose attention must be directed to small articles, by
which a great deal of money may be got, the greater
part of which would be lost, without the most unremitting
attention. The farmer at a distance from markets, who
cultivates on a great scale, may be compared, on the other
hand, to a wholesale merchant, who, as his profits are less,
requires a greater extent of land, for the purpose both of
engaging his attention, and of enabling him to support
that station of hfe in which he is placed. There is
this difference, also, between farmers in the neighbour-
hood of towns, and those who reside at a distance from
them, that the former find it more profitable to sell their
produce, even such bulky articles as turnips, potatoes, clo-
ver, hay and straw, than to fatten cattle for the butcher ;
and they are enabled to do so, without injury to their
farms, as they can procure dung in return, when these
articles are sent to market.

As this is an interesting part of the investigation, it is pro-
posed shortly to inquire into the following particulars :

1. What rents are paid for lands in the neighbourhood of
large towns ?

2. What rotations of crops will enable tiic farmer to pay
such rents ?

?). Wliat are the advantages which farmers possess in the
neighbourhood of towns ? And

SIZE OF FARMS. 2fJ

1e. What political effect may result from such high reiits
being exacted from them ?

I. I have received from various quarters, statements of
high-rented lands, not only near Edinburgh, but in the
neighbourhood of other towns. The farm of Lairwell,
for instance, near Perth, on the estate of Lord Gray, a-
mounting to 100 Scotch, or 127 English acres, is let as
follows :

Money rent, - - - £.576

1 Boll (4 bushels) of wheat, supposed to be
worth at an average 40 s. per boll, or 10 s.
per bushel, - - - 2 0 0

Poultry and other articles paid in kind, sup-
posed in all to be worth £. 10, or per acre, 0 2 0

Total, j€. 7 9 6

Which is equal to ^. 5 : 17: 1 per English acre.

Within such a moderate distance of Edinburgh, as
from three to seven miles, £. 7 per Scotch, or sB.5, 10 s.
per English acre is not an unusual rent ; and the farm of
Coats, consisting of 80 Scotch acres, situated about one
mile from Edinburgh, some parts of it even nearer, is let at
about £. 8 pe7- Scotch, or ^. 6 : 5 : 10 per English acre.

The fiirm of Clearburn, about one mile from the
suburbs of Edinburgh, consists of 77 Scotch acres, and
is let for j£. 9 : 16 : 8 per Scotch, which is equal to
j£. 7 : 1 3 : 7 per English acre. It has the advantage of
a good house, to which any person, taking such a
farm, at such a rent, is well entitled. Such farms arc of-
ten rented as a convenience by persons of property, who
wish to hve, at least occasionally, in the country, and who
take land, more as an accommodation and amuscmcnr,
than for profit.

24- SIZE OF I'ARMS. '

A respectable proprietor near Edinburgh has recently
let 33 acres, adjoining to the Water of Leith, at
£. 10, 10 s. "per Scotch, equal to ^. 8 : 5 : 1 jper English
acre, without any house, and was offered £, 12, but pre-
ferred a tenant whom he knew to be unexceptionable ;
and he lately let about four Scotch acres at ^. 12, 12 s. or
-£.9, 18 s. jper English acre. These sums are chiefly paid
by cowfeeders and butchers, whicli they can afford to pay,
from the nature of their business, and their contiguity to
the Edinburgh market, which no farmer, who had nothing
but the cultivation of his farm to rely on, could offer.
Notwithstanding these high rents, some of these cowfeeders,
by selling milk, have, within these few years, realized jBrom
£. 1000 to £. 3000 each.

2. Let us next proceed to the second head of the pro-
posed inquiry, namely, the rotation of crops usual near
Edinburgh, where the system of town-land farms is brought
to the highest perfection, and where the highest rents are
paid for land.

Within a mile of the suburbs of the metropolis, the
grouijd is principally occupied in gardens and grass parks.
Beyond that space, to the extent of about two miles and a
half, some grain is raised, but the land is chiefly devoted to
the production of such green crops as are generally con-
sumed in the town and its environs, as clover, turnips, po-
tatoes, cabbages, &c. \ the expence of carriage making it
less profitable to raise them at a greater distance. A
species of garden culture seems to be best calculated for
rendering the ground productive, in situations where mar-
kets arc near, and manure at command, though it requires
a degree of superintendence rather inconsistcJit with a farm-
ing on a great scale. It is probable, indeed, that the com-
mon vegetables, necessary for the consumption of the in-
habitants of towns, will soon be raised by farmers, instead
of gardeners, (early crojis alone excepted^, as by farmers

SJZE OF FAUMS. 23

they can be produced at half the rate, owing to tjieir less
expensive mode of cultivation.

The most appi'oved rotation, wliere land lies at from two
and a half, to four or five miles from Edinburgh, is, pota-
toes *, wheat, and grass ; and sometimes, aitcr grass, oats.
If the fai'm amounts to 60 acres, its average produce, and
the value thereof, at the prices these articles now fetch, may
be stated as follow :

1. 20 Acres of potatoes at £. 19 per Scotch, oy£. 15, 4 s.
per English acre, - - *£. 380 0 0

2. 20 Acres of wheat at 40 bushels of Scotch,
or 32 bushels pei' English acre, at 10 s.

per bushel, - - 400 0 0

3. 20 Acres of clover, sold for beinff cut
twice, at ^.21 per Scotch, or .£. 16 : 16 : 4

per English acre, - - 420 0 0

£. 1200 0 0
4. Wheat straw, at lOkemples (317 pounds
Troy) per Scotch acre, or one kemplc for
four bushels, or one boll of wheat, at 9 s.
per kemple, is £. 4, 10 s. per Scotch, or
i£. 3, 10 s.jser English acre, - 90 0 0

Total value of the produce, jS. 1290 0 0

Which is at the rate of ^.21, \0 s. per Scotch, or
jS. 17, 14 s. per English acre. In 1809, the produce of
this extent of land was estimated at £.26 : 12 ; 2 per Scotch,
or jB.20 : 18: 4 per English acre.

* Ruta baga would also be a profitable article occasionally to
cultivate in the room of potatoes ; not only for the consumplion
of cows and horses, but as an excellent cuhnary vegetable ; a
very moderate average crop may be estimated at 20 tons, or 3200
English stones; and valuing the stone, consisting of 14 lbs, at 2d

26 SIZE OF FARMS.

It is to be observed, however, that in many cases, the
crops of wheat in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and in
fertile soils under the more improved systems of Scotch
husbandry, produce more than 32 bushels per English
acre. Sometimes 12, 14, and even 16 bolls per Scotch,
or 38, 47, and even 55 bushels per English acre, have
been obtained : 55 bushels of wheat at 10 s. per bushel, is
L. 27, 10s. ; and if every 4 bushels produce six shillings
worth of straw, (for the straw is proportionably less when
the quantity of grain is great), the produce per English
acre, in straw, would be L. 4 : 1 1 : 8, and the total pro-
duce L. 32 : 1 : 8 per English acre. But as wheat is cheaper
when the crop is abimdant, let the wheat be stated at 8 s.
per bushel j the value of the produce will then amount to
L. 26 ; 1 1 : 8 per English acre.

When oats are taken after clover, the average prodiice
is from 12 to 14 hoWsper Scotch, which is at the rate of
f..*om 57 to 67 bushels per English acre. The value may
be stated at from L. 1 1, 8s. to L. 13, 8 s. per Enghsh acre.
To these sums must be added the price of the straw, which
is more valuable than wheat-straw, being reckoned more
nutritious and palatable for cows and horses. It sells at
above 12 shillings pe^- kemple, and consequently may be
stated at L.9, 2?,. per Scotch, or L. 7, Ss.per English acre,
making a crop of oats in all worth L. 20, lis. per Eng-
lish acre.

In light soils, where turnips can be raised, the crop, in
common seasons, is reckoned worth L.20 per Scotch, or

each, a crop of ruta baga, near Edinburgh, would be worth
«C. 26: 13 : 4 per English acre. A much larger crop, however,
is often obtained. The yellow turnip is also entitled to the par-
ticular attention of the farmers near Edniburgh ; also podded peas
and beans, and coUards, that is young cabbage, plants oi which,
(the sweetest of greens), are bundled together for spring use.

SIZE OF FARMS. 27

L. 1 5 : 1 0 : 6 per English acre j but the value of a crop of
turnips wa& greatly increased during the stoppage of dis-
tillation from grain, the cowfecders being thereby compel-
led to try other articles for the maintenance of their stock
during the winter season. The price then rose from L. 26
to L. 36 per Scotch, or from L. 20, 9 s. to L. 28 : 6 : 3 ^^^r
English acre.

In regard to the clover crop, it is to be observed, that
there are a description of persons called grass-dealers, who
buy from the farmers whole fields of clover. They cut it
down gradually, according to the demand, makuig it up
into small bunches, eight of which make what they call a
load. The bunches, which have been of late greatly di-
minished in point of bulk, sell at Hd. each, and consequent-
ly the load is a shilling.

3. We shall now proceed to state the circumstances which,
in addition to such great produce, enable the farmers, in
the immediate vicinity of Edinburgh, to pay their rents. In
the^;s^ place, The turnips, potatoes, and the grass crop,
are frequently sold on the ground^ without any further
trouble or expence to the farmer. In the second place, far-
mers near Edinburgh can purchase great quantities of ma-
nure, at a cheap rate, considering the crops they raise, and
the prices they obtain for them. Compost dunghills indeed
may be procured as low as four shillings per single-horse
cart-load, thirty of which is reckoned sufficient to manures
not only a Scotch acre for potatoes, but also the succeed-
ing crops, in the common rotation of potatoes, wheat and
clover, sometimes with the addition of oats. The total ex-
pence is only at the rate of L. 6 /;«• Scotch, or L. i, 16 s.
2)er Enghsh acre, besides the expence of carriage*. In the

* This must vary much, according to the distance, in so much
that it may become 130 per cent, dearer to one farmer tlian to
another. If it is driven eight miles from town, a man and two

2S SIZE OF FARMS.

ihird place, Since the extension of Edinburgh, and the
more luxurious mode of living adopted by its inhabitants,
there is a ready sale, and a high price, for every article
a farm can produce ; in particular, such great numbers of
horses are kept, not only for carts and carriages, but at
the Artillery and Cavalry barracks erected in the neigh-
bourhood of the town, as to occasion a great demand for
hay, straw, &c. And, in the lasi place. The vicinity to
the town is a great convenience to the farmer, as corn
and fodder, and every other article to be disposed of, can
be carried more expeditiously to market, and consequent-
ly at less expence, and the payment is immediate.

4. It may be proper, in the next place, to consider the
political effect which results from the high rents paid for
lands near towns. Such rents, and the great competition,
where produce can, with certainty, be disposed of, evidently
tend to diminish the size of such occupations. There are
few who would wish to have above from 100 to 200 acres
in their possession, upon the short leases usually 'near
towns, and when the farmer must pay at the rate of
from L. 7 to L. 10, or even as high as L. 12 per acre,
and must frequently be disposing, in small quantities, of
the articles produced on his farm. Hence it is that in
Flanders, which is full of large towns and villages, from the
existence of similar circumstances, the farms are small.

In less populous parts of the country, it can hardly
be questioned, that large farms are necessary, to furnish
sufficient occupatio;i to industrious, opulent and intelligeni

single-horse carts can do no more than bring home one turn in a
day. Allowing, therefore, iGs. for the man, the two horses, and
the two carts, and 8 s. for the dung, the total is 24 s., or 12 s.
per single-horse cart-load laid down on the land ; whereas, farmers
within a mile of town can lay down at 5 s. -Id. a-cart, at six
turns a-day.

SIZE OF FARMS. 2J)

farmers ; but near towns, fi-om the greater produce, the
constant cropping, and the more rapid sale, forms of a
smaller description will answer the same purpose ; and it
is certainly for the advantage of such towns, that the farms
in their neighbourhood should be of a moderate size.
When there are a great number of farmers, there will be
more competition ; lesser objects will be attended to, and
the markets will be more regularly, and better supphed.

4. Clay-land Arable Farms.

In a valuable work on agriculture, recently published,
it is justly remarked, that where agriculture is followed as
a distinct profession, a farm ought to be of such a size, as
to furnish regular employment, not only to the farmer
himself, but also to the servants and labourers employed
by him, in order that the greatest possible profit may be.
derived from their labour, at the least possible expence. It
is evident, that this can only be accomplished on a fann of
considerable extent, where judicious rotations of crops can
be adopted, and where the economy of the farm is so con-
ducted, that too much work does not occur at one season
of the year, and too httle at the other j in short, where that
division of labour, from which manufacturers have derived
such essential benefit, is extended to husbandry *.

To manage a strong land, or clay farm properly, requires
great attention, and the almost constant personal pre-

* See a treatise on rural affairs, in two volumes octavo, by Robert
Brown, farmer at Markle, county ef Haddington, so justly charac-
t-erised by Mr Curwen as an excellent theoretical, as well as a prac-
tical farmer. Report to the Workington Society, anno IS 10,
p, 87.

so SIZE OF FARMS.

sence of the farmer in superintending the various opera-
tions which must necessarily be carried on.

There are four circumstances on which its size ought in a
great measure to depend, which, though not peculiar to
this description of farms, it may not be improper, from the
importance of the subject, here to enumerate : 1. The si-
tuation of the farm-house and offices, from which no part
of the land ought to be too distant ; f6r it is desirable
that no time should be wasted, either in conveying ma-
nure to the remotest part of the farm, or in carrying
home the crop. Where the house and offices are in a cen-
tral situation, the farm may consist of 500 or even 600
Scotch, from 635 to 762 Enghsh acres, without much
inconvenience in that respect; but where a farm is of
smaller dimensions, say from 300 to 400 Scotch, or from
381 to 408 English acres, the operations may, in general,
be carried on under the more immediate inspection of the
farmer. 2. It seems to be universally admitted, that no
farmer, on such land, ought to have less than six two-
horse ploughs, to give full occupation to which, 50 Scotch,
or 621- English acres, may be assigned, which would make
in all a farm of 300 Scotch or 381 Enghsh acres. 3. A
clay-land farm ought also to be so large, as to justify the
expence of erecting a threshing-mill, on a proper and sub-
stantial construction, to go by water, by wind, bj' steam,
by oxen, or by horses. 4'. The size of such a farm ought
likewise, in some degree, to depend on the state of the
roads in the neighbourhood, its distance from markets,
and above all from lime, that most essential article for the
proper cultivation of strong land.

Taking all these circumstances into consideration, though
an active and attentive farmer, with a large capital, and with
other advantages, may be able to manage a clay farm of 600
Scotch, or 672 English acres; yet, on the whole, 300 Scotch,
or 381 Englisli acres, is, in general, sufficient ; and it has

SIZE OF FARMS. 31

been remarked, that those who grasp at having farms of a
greater extent, where servants are not immediately under
the master's eye, oftener lose than gain by extending their
concerns. Such a farm as 300 acres may, with propriety, be
divided into six, seven, or eight fields. The estaljlishnient
requisite for it will be sufficiently extensive for carrying-
on every operation, (reaping excepted), without additional
assistance, and the fields may be so laid off, as not to extend
beyond a reasonable distance from the farm-house and of-
fices. On the other hand, where a greater quantity of
ground is combined into one farm, the fields must be more
extended, and the expence of labour increased, from the
distance between the fai-m-offices and the ulterior divisions,
by means of which a greater establishment will be required
to bring home the produce, and to take out manure ;
much time also will be unprofitably consumed in going to,
and returning from the fields, and as in rainy weather, the
ground wiU be greatly cut up by these operations, mucli
additional labour will therefore be required, from the ne-
cessity of taking lighter loads.

In regard to clay farms, consisting of less than 300 Scotch
acres, they do not afford sufficient employment for a per-
son possessed of capital, abilities, and activity. The far-
mer therefore generally employs himself as a working
grieve or overseer ; and servants accustomed to his pre-
sence and aid, when they happen to be left to themselves,
idle away their time, or commit blunders. There is still a
greater objection to the smaller size of farms, that the stock
of men and horses kept is not equal to execute, by tliera-
seives, any hurried piece of extra work, such as the delivery
of a cargo of lime, the carriage of a dunghill fiom town,
the delivery of a large quantity of grain upon a spurt,
the leading grain into the stack-yard after bad weather,
also keeping the proper season of ploughing, sowing, or har-
rowing any ticklish field upon the farm ; all these difficul-

32 SIZE OF FARMS.

ties can be surmounted, if the stock and farm are large, and
the other operations of the farm go on smoothly at the
same time. It may be laid down, therefore, as an axiom
regarding clay-land occupations, that a farm of a proper
size can be cultivated with considerably less stock, and
every way at less expence, in proportion to its size, than
one of smaller dimensions.

S. Turnip4and Arable Farms6

Where the soil of a farm Is of a Hght description, a lar-
ger extent of land is necessary, as, in such soils, sheep and
cattle are not only fed off in greater numbers than in the
elay-land districts, owing to the quantity of green food they
produce, but also because stock is sometimes bred in consi-
derable quantities. On such soils, therefore, a farm of from
600 to 1000 Scotch, from 762 to 1270 Enghsh acres, has
not been considered too large •, and where it is intrusted
to a skilful and active farmer, such an extent is not disad-
vantageous either to him, to the landlord, or to the public.
In some instances indeed, persons of uncommon abilities,
have successfully held even larger occupations of turnip
soils.

It has been much contended, whether it is necessary, on
such extensive farms as those of 1000 Scotch acres, to
have two sets of offices. They certainly ought to be avoid-
ed if possible; and if the farm-yard is fortunately situatctl
in the centre of the farm, one set may be sufficient, tliougli,
in that case, the mere remote fields of the occupaticm are
seldom so properly attended to, and consequently arc less
productive and valuable.

SIZE OF FARMS. ' 3S

6. Commercial Farms.

If the idea be well founded, that agriculture should not be
under more restrictions than manufactures or commerce,
but that any extent of land should be occupied, in propor-
tion to the skill, abihties, and capital of the farmer ; in
that case farms of still gi'eater extent than even 1000 acres
of arable land, cannot, in particular instances, be objected
to, though such extensive occupations are not in general
to be recommended. To such farms, the name of Cojn~
mercial * may be given, as they often resemble more the
bold speculations of a merchant, than the cautious under-
takings of a mere practical farmer. Such farms, more
especially in turnip-soils, may extend from 1000 to 2000
Scotch, or from 1270 to 254;0 English acres.

7. Pasture Farms.

Where farms, as is usually the case in hilly districts, are
almost entirely employed in pasturage, or in the breeding
of sheep or cattle, there can be no precise limits to their
extent. A proprietor of an estate in the north of Scot-
land, had once a farm in his own hands, which he was
converting from the rearing of cattle, to the breeding of
sheep, on which he had above 6000 Cheviot sheep, and
the farm amounted to above 25,000 English acres. In
some parts of the Highlands of Scotland, sheep walks still
more extensive are to be met with.

• Tho term Cumnierciai may he objected to ; but why not the
commerce of land, as well as that of corn ? And may not the
raising of corn be called a species of manufacture, and the most
important of any ?

P. ir» c

34) SIZE OF FARMS.

8. Farms for Accommodaiion or Amusement.

It is not only a healthy, but a useful em})Ioyment,
for gentlemen residing in the country', to have some
land in their own possession, for the purpose of occupation
or amusement, and to pro%'ide themselves with the various
articles which their families may require. Perhaps those
articles might often be purchased fully as cheap at market ;
and it would be more profitable to the proprietors, to let the
land at a fair rent; but it would be highly unpleasant for any
gentleman, to have the servants of another, over whom he
could have no control, working constantly near his own
house, and to have scarcely a spot he could call his own,
on which he or his family could take air or exercise *.
What the extent of such farms should be, it is not neces-
sary to discuss, as so much must depend upon the esta-
blishment kept by the proprietor, the time he resides in
the country, and the degree of attention which he can give
to his farm.

9. Farms of Experiment and Piiblic Utility.

Since the attention of the public lias been so much di-
rected to agricultural pursuits, many respectable propwe-

• Mr Kerr, in his Survey of Berwickshire, p. 51, justly ob-
serves, that there cannot be u more rational, or more continual-
ly varying and amusing occupation of time, for the retirement
of a country genileman, than the detailed superintendence of agri-
cultural pursuits, united with attention to the improvement and
einl>ellishmcnt of his e&tutc, by inclosing and planting.

SIZE OF FARMS. ' 35

toi-s of land in P^ngland, among whom I with pleasui-c c-
nmnerate the Duke of Bedford, the Earl of Egremont,
Lord Somerville, Mr Coke in Norfolk *, Mr Western
in Essex, Mr Curwen in Cumberland, and many others
who might be named ; and several in Wales, as Sir W.
W. Wjiine, Sir Robert W. Vaughan, &c. j have culti-
vated extensive tracts of country, with the view of trying
useful experiments, and disseminating a knowledge of a-
griculture in their respective neighbourhoods.

Nothing can be more laudable than such exertions, and the
spirit of improvement which they have thus excited in all the
adjoining districts, and the important flicts thence brought
to light, is the best recompence for all their labours. At
the same time, even such efforts cannot compensate for the
want of " Experimental Farms" under public patronage,
and devoted exclusively to the ascertaining of useful facts
by accurate experiment, continued as long as may be ne-
cessary. The establishment of even one farm of that de-
scription, on a proper scale, would be more valuable to this
country than the conquest of many provinces.

On the whole, leaving out the three last descriptions
of farms, as it is so difficult to assign any particular limits
to their extent, the proper sizes of the other sorts may be
stated as follow :

* Some Scotch farmers went to examiue the husbandry of
England, On their return they declared, " That after having
" visited all the principal counties in England, they returned per-
" fectly satisfied in their own minds, that every thing that an
" agriculturist could wish to see, was to be met with at Ilolk-
" ham, where every branch of liusbandry was conducted with
" the greatest regularity, and on the most improved principles."
What an eulogium on the intelligent owner of tliat noble proper-
ty.

36 SIZE OF FARMS,

English acres, omitting

fractional parts. SAtch acres.

62 1 . Small farms, under 50

62 to 127 2. Dairy farms, from 50 to 100

127 to 25i! 3. Town farms, from 100 to 200

254- to 762 4. Clay-land farms, from 200 to 600

762 to 1370 5. Turnip-land farms, from 600 to 1000

1270 to 2540 6. Commercial farms, from 1000 to 2000*.

Some are apt to consider large farms as hostile to po-
pulation, and in other respects prejudicial to the public in-
terests. Let us consider how far such objections are well
founded.

With regard to large farms having a tendency to dimi-
nish population, such an idea has no just foundation, and
indeed can never happen under an improved system of a-
griculture, where a proper proportion of the land is culti-
vated by the plough, and where it is the practice to have
married servants^ on the footing which will afterwards be
described in Dissertation III.

In Mr Robertson's valuable Survey of Mid-Lothian,
printed in 1795, it is distinctly stated, that upon the farm
of Granton, then possessed by himself, containing about
250 English acres, in consequence of the junction of three
farms into one^ the population had increased from 40 to
70 souls. It is remarked bv the same intelhijent farmer,
that on small farms, there are seldom any hoiises or cotta-
ges but the farmer's own, all his assistants being unmar-
ried. Where there are great farms, on the other hand,

• Some would leconiiiieud the division of arable farms into
three classes. 1. Small farms under 200 English acres; 2. Mo-
derate sized farms, from 200 to 500 ; and large farms from 500
to 1000. Such is the diversity of opinion on this most interesting
subject.

SIZE OF FAKMS. 37

cottagers abound j all the labourers are married, and have
tUmilies : Ijence population must increase.

As it is seldom, however, that the former state of the
population on a farm can be exactly ascertained, it may
be sufficient to consider its actual amount on some srreat
farms at this time, which will furnish data tp calculate the
amount of agricultural population in a well-cultivated dis-
trict, under a proper system of management.

Mr Brown at Markle in East-Lothian, on a farm of
535 Scotch, or 670 English acres, had, in 1802, a popula-
tion of 102 souls, wlijch in 1809 was reduced to 91 ; en-
tii'ely owing to the families of some of the servants grow-
ing up, and removing to other places.

Mr Somerville at Atheist anford- Mains, in East-Lo-
thian, has, on his farm, containing 608 Scotch or 772
English acres, a population of 92 souls, occupying twenty
separate houses. His servants have a number of children,
some of them seven or eight, all of whom are usefully em-
ployed in agricultural service.

On the farm of Mr Rennie of Phantassie, in East Lo-
thian, amounting to 553 Scotch, about 702 English acres,
the population amounts to 163 souls. Six of the hinds
Jiave six children each.

Mr Nisbet, on his farm of Redden, in Roxburghshire,
Avhich amounts to about 1 000 English acres, has 1 50 souls,
and some of the hinds have seven, eight, and nine chil-
dren.

But the most striking instance reported to me of agri-
cultural population, and of its increase owing to a great
extent of land being in the possession of one individual,
is on the farms possessed by that intelligent and respec-
table farmer, Mr Walker of Mellendean, in Roxburgh-
shire, of which he gives the following most satisfacUjry
statejHcnt :

38 SIZE OF FARMS.

State of the Population of the Farms occupied by Mr
Walker, when he entered into possession, on the sup-
position that each family consisted of five persons.

Entry.

Familic-.

Souls.

1787.

Caverton and Backedge,

16

80

1789.

Mellendean, _ » _

13

65

1803.

Softlaw and Middlemost walls,

8

40

1808.

Rutherford, Broomhouse, &c.

SO

150

67 335

The same rule for calculating the number of souls is
applied to ascertain the present state of the population on
Mr Walker's farms, though in many cases it is higher.

Present State of Population on these Farms.

Mellendean,
Caverton, &c.

Softlaw, &c.
Rutlierford, &c.

Total population, awio 1811,
Total former population,

Increase, 39 - 195

If it were contended, tliat the number of unmarried
servants kept on the different farms shoukl not be cinime-
rated, 15 on tliat account might be deducted, leaving, on
that supposition, an increase of population (in the I'arni?
of one individniil, lo the enormous amount of ISO souN.

Families.

SouIj.

27 -

135

16 -

80

19 -

95

44

220

106 -

530

67 -

. 335

SIZE OF FARMS. 39

It is proper, however, to state, that the population
on the farms occupied by Mr Walker, amounting in
all to IOC families, are not exclusively einj)loyeil in their
cultivation. Upwards of one half of thciu consist of
weavers, masons, and labourers of various descriptions,
who, except in time of harvest, (when all turn out who
are able to wield the sickle), only furnish a young girl
or lad, when wanted, for every kind of field-work, at
Is. per day in summer, and lOd. per day in winter.
The innnber of families who are constantly employed
on the farms, and who thence exclusively derive their
maintenance, may be stated at 50. The liberal encourage-
]nent given to the remaining householders, every one of
whom has a garden attached to his house, and likewise a
considerable quantity of potatoes and flax raised in the
fields, also coals carriage free ; all these articles, with the
victuals they receive in time of harvest, and the wages of
the girl or lad at other seasons of the year, may be con-
sidered as equal to one-fourth part of their annual main-
tenance.

It appears on the whole, from these returns, that the
extent of land possessed by these five farmers, amounts to
something more than 6000 English acres, and that the
population is 1026, or about one soul for every six Eng-
lish acres, (rather more than IQ6 per square mile), without
any common being attached to their farms, as is fre-
quently the case in regard to small farms.

It would likewise have been extremely desirable to have
ascertained the surplus produce, or the (juantity of human
food sent to market, after feeding the population on these
farms ; but various circumstances render it hardly possi-
ble to make such a calculation with any thing like minute
accuracy, especially when it is to be applied to different
farms, of dift'erent soils, and under different management.
I shall therefore content myself with presenting to the read-

40 SIZE OF FARMS.

er an abstract of a return transmitted to nie by a respect-
able farmer, Mr Brown at Markle, who possesses 670
English acres of land, chiefly kept under arable husban-
dry, and the population of whose farm amounts to 91 of
all ages. Such an abstract, I trust, will answer every useful
pui-pose, in regard at least to the surplus produce of that
important species of occupation, clay-land farms.

" According to the most accurate calculation in my
power, the produce of ninety English acres, of tolerably
good land, is required to support the population of this farm.
These acres are appropriated in the foDowing manner ;

1. Twenty-two acres in grass for milch cows. — Note.
The produce of forty-four acres, besides straw in win-
ter, is consumed by milch cows ; but as one half of the
cheese and butter manufactured from the milk of these
cows is carried to market, only twenty-two acres are
charged.

2. Twenty-five acres in oats, the produce of which is con-
sumed as meal, in the shape of pottage or hasty-pudding,
by the servants of the farm and their families, or by the
shearers, (reapers), in harvest.

3. Twelve acres in barley, the produce of which is used
upon the farm, cither as pot barley, or manufactured
into meal, or malted and used upon the farm in harvest
time.

4. Six acres in pease and beans, the produce of which is
manufactured into meal, and used with part of the bar-
ley as bread by the servants.

5. Six acres in potatoes.

6. Three acres in garden ground.

7. Six acres in wheat. — As wheat broad is purchased, not
only for my own family, but also by the married scr-

SIZE OF FARM?. 1 i

vants upon the farm, I am inclined to think that the
produce of" six acres may be charged on that account.
8. Eight acres in grass for feeding beef ami mutton, most-
ly used by my own family, with a small fjuantity by the
married servants. — I here estimate that eighty stones of
beef and mutton, Amsterdam weight, are annually con-
sumed upon the fann, and that it will require eight acres
of grass to produce that quantity of beef and mutton,
over and above the original weight of the animals when
purchased."

*' From the above it appears, tliat the produce of 90
English acres of ground is required to support the population
of this farm. It may be proper next to add, that the pro-
duce of the like number of acres is consumed by the work-
ing, supernumerary, and saddle horses, viz. 40 in grass,
tares and hay, and 50 acres in oats ; and that on an ave-
rage of years, the produce of 45 acres is used as seed-corn.
About 100 acres or thereabouts are annually unproduc-
tive, that is in summer fallow, in grass upon wliich young
horses are reared, or occupied by fences, roads, water-runs,
stack-yards, and other purposes, from which no direct
produce is returned. These, with four acres in flax, given
to the servants as a part of theii* wages, amount in all to
329 acres, wliich, deducted from 670, the total number of
acres in the farm, leaves a balance of 341 acres for raising
surplus produce."

*' Of the acres carrying surplus produce, 22 have al-
ready been accounted for, as devoted to the feeding of
milch cows, one half of the cheese and butter manufactur-
ed from then- milk being estimated as going to market.
About other 70 acres are kept either in pasture grass for
sheep, or used for soiling cattle in the yard, and 30 acres
in turnips. Thus the number of acres in grass and turniiis
for feeding cattle and sheep, is 122; and if this is sub-
sti-acted from the above balance of 311 acres, it will ap-

42 SIZE or FAU.MS.

pear that there remains 210 English acres upon which dis-
poseable grain can be cultivated."

*' With regard to the produce of these acres, it is dif-
ficult to speak with the shghtest precision, because it varies
from year to year according to the goodness and badness
of the seasons ; while at the same time it deserves atten-
tion, that every deficiency of produce, in the acres set a-
part for supporting home population, and raising food for
horses, and seed-corn, must be made up from this surplus.
Generally speaking, the surplus corn may be estimated at
something more than four quarters per acre, or 900 quar-
ters altogether, after the acres appropriated to home con-
sumption and fattening Hve stock are deducted."

*< As a part of the turnip crop is consumed by my own
milch cows, and by breeding ewes in the winter months,
the return from feeding stock may be stated at 800 stones,
Amsterdam weight, per annum of beef, mutton and lamb,
over and above the weight of the cattle and sheep when
purchased, and about 150 stones of pork, fed in the straw-
yard upon the offals of corn, &c. I have no data for es-
timating the quantity of butter and cheese sold, as most
of the butter belongs to the servants -, but if the whole is
rated at 70 Scotch stones, of 22 avoirdupoise pounds, I
suppose a great error will not be conmiitted."

The above return is very satisfactory, as it throws
so much light on the internal economy of arable farms,
respecting which so little hitherto has been communicated
to the public. It required indeed a degree of intelligence,
of ability, and of public spirit, which pre rarely to be met
with combined in the same individual, to draw up such a
st.'itemcnt, and to induce the author to agree to its publico^
lion.

SIZE or FARMS. 4)S

On the farms of Mellcndcan, &c. which are prin-
cipaUy of a hght turnip soil, the produce of land in
cultivation, is proportionally less, not being so fertile ;
but as naked fallows arc unnecessary in turnip soils,
there is a greater proportion of land under grass or green
crops, and the produce of meat is higher. According
to Mr Brown's calculations, his farm, containing 670 Eng-
lish acres, would produce a surplus produce on an ave-
rage of 900 quarters, or, at eight bushels per quarter,
7200 bushels. It would also produce 950 stones, Amster-
dam weight, of beef, mutton, lamb and pork. This is at
the rate of nearly ten three-fourth bushels, and about ono
stone seven pounds of butcher meat of surplus produce
for every acre on the fn-m. On the other hand Mr Wal-
ker, on 2866 English acres of tui-nip soil, calculates, that
there is a surplus pi-oduce of 3551 quarters of grain, and
about 7000 stones of butcher meat j consequently the sur-
plus produce, jyct- acre, is nearly ten bushels of grain, and
about two stone eight pounds of butcher meat, EngUsh
Aveight, or fourteen pounds to the stone, and sixteen ounces
to the pound.

When all these circumstances are taken into considera-
tion, can it be questioned whether large farms, under an
improved system of cultivation, instead of being hostile, are
not even favourable to population, furnishing, at the same
time, an immense supply of surplus produce; and I should
be glad to know, whether any branch of domestic indus-
try, or of foreign commerce, can, in any other respect, be
compared with The cultivation of the soil, and the

IMPORTANCE OF ITS PRODUCTIONS.'*

We shall now proceed to state the various advantage*
resulting from large farms. Tliese may be classed under
the following general heads : 1. Wlien the farm is of a
proper size, (from 300 to 600 Scotch, or from 381 to 762
English acres), less cxpence is incurred in building houses

44 SIZE OF FARMS.

and offices, and in keeping them in repair, than if the
farm were divided, and two sets of houses, &c. were erect-
ed for the accommodation of two or more farmers j at
least that is generally the case, though some large farmers
go beyond all bounds in the accommodations they require.
2. The inclosures on a large farm are on a larger scale,
and are originally made, and afterwards kept in repair, at
a less expence j much ground is thus added to cultivation,
and less shelter is given to the vermin with which hedges
and walls abound. 3. There is also a saving of expence
in housekeeping, when two farms are united into one, the
amount of which must vary according to circumstances.
4. The saving in the expence of cultivation is consider-
able. When a farm of 200 English acres is united to
one of 330, the work of a pair of horses, and a plough-
man will be saved ; fewer instruments of husbandry
are also necessary ; in particular, one threshing-mill will
be sufficient. 5. The land i§ much better cultivated,
more effectually drained, and more improved by extrane-
ous manures, which small farmers cannot afford to pur-
chase to any extent, or to convey to any distance. 6. A
much greater quantity of disposable produce, as appears
from the preceding statement, is sent to market. The
small farmer and his family, indeed, consume so much of
tlie produce they raise, and raise so little, that the surplus
is inconsiderable. It is only by means of large farms,
that great towns, or populous districts, can be supplied in
sufficient quantities with such artick's of jirimary necessity,
as grain, butcher meat, &c. ; in regard to butcher meat
in particular, it is generally sold by the large farmer in a
fattened state, which is seldom done by the small farmer.
7. The live stock on large farms is confessedly of a supe-
rior (juality, because a large farmer can afford to pur-
chase the best sorts, and to maintain them afterwards;
the instruments of husbandly are likewise of a more

SIZE OF FAR.ArS. 4.5

improved description, and capable of performing their
work in a better manner. 8. The l:il)our on a larjre
farm can be better subdivided tlian on a small one *, by
means of v.hich critical periods may be caught, more
strength of labour can be applied to particular parts of the
farm when wanted, and the work may be done better, and
with more expedition in an adverse season. 9. The large
farmer has full employment, independent of manual la-
bour f. He has enough to do, superintending others,
instead of working with his own hands ; for whilst he is
busily employed himself at a particular job at one part of
liis farm, his servants may be completely idle at another.
It is in consequence of having full employment, that he is
not under the necessity of engaging in other undertakings,
which not only abstract his attention from his farm, but
may also be attended with real loss 1. 10. A farmer with

* In the cultivation of turnips, for example, the first forming of
the drills, the carting, spreading and ploughing in of the dung,
and the sowing of the seed, ought all to be going forward at the
same instant, in order to insure success. But on very small
farms, these different operations must of necessity be accom-
plished in succession; hence, in a droughty season, not only is the
soil itself robbed of its moisture, but the dung, from lying spread
along the drills, is exposed to the rays of a scorching sun, and is
frequently rendered so dry, as to be of very little service to the
plants, during the first stage of their growth ; nay, may even ope-
rate against the vegetation of the seeds, by keeping the soil im-
mediately under them too open.

t Men of genius and enterprise will not be confined to small
farms, such as those which prevail, for instance, in some parts
of Stirlingshire, &c. They speculate on something else, as black
cattle, horses, grain, &c, &c. and look upon their farms as a
secondary and unimportant concern.

X Since rents, and the expence of cultivation and of labour,
have so much increased, a person of education and character can-

46 blZE OF TARMS.

a large capital has enlarged ideas, which expand with the
extent of his possessions : He has a superior education,
and understands better every branch of his profession :
He has more enterprise, and having fewer prejudices to
subdue, he is more ready to adopt new improvements :
He is able to travel about to obtain useful information,
to educate his family better, and in every respect to ren-
der them more useful members of society. 1 1 . On a large
farm a greater variety of practice can be introduced, such
as pasturing a proportion of the farm alternately ; and
whilst the large farmer may be both disposed and enabled
to change his intended system, should an unfortunate sea-
son, or some other incident, render it necessary, the far-
mer on a limited scale must continue in the trodden path,
often in opposition to the true principles of his profession.
12. Large farms are favourable to the improvement of
land in an inferior or waste state. The small farmer gene-
rally leaves it as he found it, whereas, when a great far-
mer, with a considerable capital, gets such land into his
possession, on an improving lease, he soon renders the waste
nearly as valuable as the old cultivated soil*. 13. Large
farmers, when they are active, spirited, and intelligent,
are the fittest persons to try experiments, and to prose-
cute them to the necessary extent ; small farmers cannot
itfford it, and gentlemen farmers, though there are excep-
tions to the i-ule, seldom give that unremitting attention
so necessary for insuring success. 14. Many operations

not live respectably, or even with comfort, on a small larnij
and must look out for some other means of subsidiary occupa-
tion.

• When persons can be prevailed upon to take small portions
of waste land, (from two to six acres), to improve, they often do
it effectually; but tmali fainiers rarely add to the arable land in
their possession.

SIZE OF FARMS. 47

on a large farm can be clone better, and, in proportion to
their importance, at a cheaper rate, than on a small one.
For instance, where a large flock of sheep are kept, or a
nm-nber of cattle, careful and intelligent servants may be
hired for attending them, which no farmer on a small scale
can afford. A large farmer can also sell at market, in the
same space of time, and with Httle more expence, ten times
the number of cattle or sheep, or ten times the quantity of
grain, that any small farmer can have to dispose of. 1 5. The
large farmer, possessed of all these advantages, can in gene-
ral also afford to paj' a higher rent, and, from the capital
or credit he possesses, •with more punctuality, than the small
farmer, from whom the rent he agreed to pay, cannot often
be exacted without compunction. 16. The large farmer
pays more taxes to government for his house, and every
article of his consumption. Indeed, farmers whose rents
are under £. 50 a-year, are considered by parhament, and
justly too, to be in so wretched a state, that they are not
made liable to the payment of the income tax*, — and if all
the farms in the kingdom were under £. 50 per annum,
government would not draw a single shilling from the oc-
cupiers of land. In the last place. Respectable farmers,
possessing that species of independence which a lease fur-
nishes, are a most important link in the gi'eat chain of so-
ciety, not to be found in any country in the universe,

* The following description of the situation of a small farmer,
by Mr Walker of Wooden, will fully justify this exeiuution. —
" In every instance I have met with, where a p^r£on occupies
such a quantity of land as 60 acres, merely as a farmer, without
any other employment, I have uniformly observed, that the oc-
cupier could with difficulty live by his profession ; that his lands
were always in a wretched condition, and of course very unpro-
dactive ; and that he and his family drag on a very uncomfortable
existence, iu constant trouble and perplexity."

18 SIZE OF FARMS,

Great Britain alone excepted, — a class, whose habits of in-
dustry, intelligence and spirit, and the extent of whose
capital, which it has required centuries to accumulate,
form a species of bulwark, materially tending to preserve
the existing order of society ; but if that bulwark, which
it might be difficult now to overthrow, were once laid
prostrate, it would baffle human policy, without the ex-
istence of similar circumstances, ever to renew.

"When all these particulars are considered, and when
to them it is added, that population, as well as produce, is
in general increased by large farms, under an improved sys-
tem of agi-iculture, there seems to be little doubt, which
description of farm is best entitled to encouragement, and
is the most likely to promote the public advantage.

There is an important subject of discussion, connected
with the size of farms, of wliich it is necessary here to take
notice, namely. Whether it is proper that any farmer
should be suffered to occupy more than one farm, or to
possess what in England is called an off-farm, and in
Scotland a led one P There is much to be said in favour of
the practice. Though a farm of a moderate size may be
sufficient for a person possessed of moderate talents, and of
a small capital, yet where great talents and a great capi-
tal are united, there is no reason why ample scope should
not be given for the exertions of which such an individual
is capable, and why he should not be permitted to extend
his pursuits. Such additional farms are rarely taken but
by able and spirited cultivators; and it would be bad poli-
cy to limit such men to the cultivation of the single spot
on which they happened to be originally set down, to curb
or palsy their exertions, or to fetter their free agency,
where their actions do not endanger the happiness of
society. It is also said. Why should agriculture, in
point of extent, be more limited than commerce ? And
in regard to led or off farms in particular, it is contend-

SIZE OF FARMS. 49

ed, that it is hardly possible for fai'ining to be carried on
with spirit, or to any great extent, where they are pro-
liibited. A person, for instance, possessed of £, 1 0,000 of
capital, is deairous of following agriculture as a profession.
He takes a farm of 500 acres, on a lease of 19 or 21 years.
He lays out £. 5000 of his capital in stocking and impro-
ving that farm ; but if he has no other land in his occupa-
tion, as a place of refuge, he is entirely dependent on his
landlord, who, at the termination of his lease, may deprive
him of his farm on very short notice, and when it may be
impossible for him to provide himself with another. Un-
less, therefore, he is in the actual possession of another
farm, he may be under the distressing necessity, of selling
oiF the whole of his stock, and abandoning his profession ;
whereas with a led, or off fann, he may still retain the stock
on that part of his occupation, though he may be obliged
to sell off the rest *.

These led or separatefarms aregenerally intrusted to farm-
ing stewards, and being usually at no great distance from the
farmer's residence, are managed under his inspection, and
in general advantageously. Hence, though it is certain-
ly desirable, that every farm of a proper size, should have a
separate possessor, yet there are cases, at the same time,
where a departure from that general rule may be admissi-
ble f , more especially when farmers go from well-cultivated

• Mr Bailey of Chillingham remarks, that a tenant, who has a
farm of strong loam, upon which he cannot grow a sufficiency of
turnips, can afford more rent for a farm of turnip soil, than any
tenant who had to reside upon it, and had no other farm.— It is
likewise obvious, that a high sheep farm is not safe, and far less
commodious, without a low farm, or at least winter pastures an-
nexed to it.

t One of my farming correspondents has explained his ssiUi-
nients on this subject, in the following terms :

P. II. D

50 SIZE OF lARMS.

districts, which is sometimes the case, to improve the bar-
ren ; or where opulent sheep farmers, in the more south-
ern districts, take extensive tracts of country in the north,
for the purpose of breeding more improved kinds than were
foraierly to be met with there, by means of which the va-
hie of these distant regions is greatly increased. Peculiar

" I now beg leave to give my bumble opinion respecting the
resolutions which some proprietors have entered into, of insisting on
residing tmants, which I am of opinion is very much against their
own interest, as well as a check to farmers of enterprise and ca-
pital; for instance, a farmer has a farm of 100 acres, but has a
capital to stock another farm of 100 acres more, which is in his
neighbourhood, and which he could manage equally well as his
own, and of course could give a greater rent for it than any other
person who might be obliged to reside upon it, having no family
to keep. But as residing tenants are insisted on by both land-
lords, it is out of the question. The farm is therefore let to a
farmer, probably IDs. or 20 i. per acre cheaper, than the other
farmer would have given. The person that gets it, perhaps hard-
ly maintains his family upon it, whereas the other would have
made money, not having a family to keep ; the landlord would
have got more rent, and the residing tenant would have turned
himself to some other useful employment, or got another farm.
Nor is this all, The former with the accumulated stock, may per-
haps embark it in a business that he knows nothing about, or
perhaps lends his money to the residing tenant, who, from the
smallness of the farm, is unable to make any thing of it ; and in
<ither case, a heavy loss is sustained by an industrious farmer,
who might have made, on diflerent principles, a moderate for-
tune." There is a difficulty in this case regarding keeping up the
buildings, where they are erected on separate properties. If none
exist, it is certainly for the interest of the landlord to avoid that
expence. Care ho-wcxer must be taken, that one farm is not en-
riched at the expence of the other, bi/ the conveyance of produce, un'
las a fair proportion of vianurc is returned.

SIZE OF FARMS. 51

attention is necessary to enforce improvements in regartl
either to stock or culture, in cases of that nature ; but
•where that is properly adverted to, the farm may certainly
be brought into a better, rather than into a worse condi-
tion. Nor can any serious mischief arise from the practice,
for the evils, if any, will correct themselves. If a man rents
more land than he can advantageously manage, either by
himself or others, he suffers of course, and his business is
of necessity contracted to that scale, which his capital,
industry and abilities are adequate to embrace*.

In regard to the idea, that if farms in general were of a
large size, it might frequently be difficult to get men of ca-
pital to take them, and that it would establish a kind of
monopoly : It is to be observed, that where leases are
granted, persons quit other lines of life, as the arm}',
the navy, the law, commerce and manufactures, and be-
come farmers, thinking it a liberal, creditable, and pro-
fitable profession. Hence, m prosperous districts, there
can be no want of candidates j and where there is any de-
ficiency of capital, the payment of the rent may be post-
poned, till the sale of the crop can produce it, and the
buildings and other substantial improvements may be made
by the landlord. On such a system, large farms may be
introduced, even into poor countries, and persons possess-
ed of even a moderate capital, may be enabled to take
them. As to the objection, that large farmers are apt to
get above their profession, and to become, like gentlemen-
farmers, luxurious in their mode of living, careless about
their business, and trusting every thing to their stewards ;
that may happen in particular cases, but can never be-
come general. The exaction of a fair rent, and the pres-
sure of taxes, is a sufficient stimulus to economy t as well as
to industry and exertion.

• Riunark by Mr John Shirrcft".

52 SIZE OF FARMS.

It must not be imagined, however, that no arguments can
be made use of in favour of small farms, though those in
favour of large ones seem greatly to preponderate. There
are, it is said, numbers of people, tolerably well skilled in
improved agriculture, who have not capital for what is now
considered to be even a moderate farm. The share which
these farmers, and their families, take in the cultivation of the
farm, saves considerable outgoings in the wages and main-
tenance of servants *, and superior care may be expected,
where the whole family are personally interested in the
success of the undertaking. It is admitted, that the greater
tenants, either as breeders or graziers, will in general pro-
duce proportionably the greatest quantity of animal food j
but there are two exceptions even to that rule, in the cases
of pigs and poultry, which thrive better, and are more
profitable, under the minute attention of the cottager or
small farmer.

It is also remarked by Mr Stewart of Hillside in Dum-
fries-shire, from whose return the preceding observation is
taken, that when a young man sets out in the world as a
ploughman, without patrimony, or any thing but what is
to be acquired by his own exertions, he may possess, not
only worth and industry, but also invention and genius,
iit to show an example to all ai'ound him, had he an op-
portunity to do so. But if faims are all large, or even of
moderate sizes, such deserving people may never get above
the servile state in which they set out in the world f . Many

• This advantage is ideal. Sec note, p. 15.
■f It is found, in well-cultivated districts, that persons of this
description, who have industry and talents, become stewards or
barn-men to large farmers, then overseers to gentlemen, and, lat-
terly, get farms themselves : and thus a spirit of industry and am-
bition is fostered in that class of men. Besides, it is not the bu-
siness of the political economist to lind situations for the display

SIZE oi" FAims. 53

now in the highest class of agriculturists, as well as of store
farmers, exemplary and beneficial improvers of their coun-
try, must still have remained in the employment of herd-
ing, or at the stilts of the plough, were it not for the pro-
gressive size of farms, which enabled them to commence
their career in agriculture.

There was a time, says Mr Robertson of Muirton, not
yet long past, when the little tenant was unfit for his pro-
fession, from want of knowledge. That is rarely the case
in these days. Agriculture is now understood by the lit-
tle tenant of 40 acres, as well as by the great farmer of
400 *. The threshing-mill, indeed, is not adapted to the
lesser class of husbandmen ; but it would be better, it is
said, to reduce the power of that compHcated machine, to
the ratio of the little tenants, than to raise all tenants to
the present level of that usefiil instrument. On the other
hand, it is contended, that a threshing-mill can never be
employed with profit, if it is built on a very small scahy as

of individual worth, industry, invention, and genius ; these, when
left at liberty, will always find a field for themselves. The poli-
tical economist can only point out such arrangements, as are the
most likely to promote the general benefit of the community.

• On this subject Mr Shirreff very justly remarks, that though
the tenant of 40 acres may naturally be as able as the tenant of
400 acres, he has not had an opportunity of gaining the same
quantum of knowledge, by a sufficient latitude of experience, A
medical man gets more knowledge by walking the hospitals of a
great city in a few months, than another from country practice
for many years. Many serious blunders may be committed bv
persons of limited experience and education, particularly in the
choice of feeding, and, above all, breeding stock ; also in the
choice of corn, clover, turnip, seed, &c. which would produce
consequences fatal to his prosperity, if he farmed on an extended
scale.

5i SIZE OF FARMS.

it docs its work indifFerenth-, and as the hands employed
in working it will be almost half idle.

It is known, however, by experience, that it is impossible
that any comitrycan be improved, where small farms prevail,
from the difficulty of finding servants and labourers to carry
on the necessary improvements. No sooner does any cue
save a little money as a farm servant, than he resolves, in-
stead of working for others, to take a farm for himself;
and the consequences are, not only a want of labourers,
but a race of very indifferent servants, above servitude, ex-
pecting soon to be masters. This mischief was fuUy ex-
perienced, when improvements began in a remote district
of the kingdom, (the county of Caithness) *, and thence it
became necessaiy, to bring as many labourers as could be
procured, from those districts where large farms had been
introduced, and, consequently, where numbers of people
were compelled to look out for work, and to become in-
dustrious. The greater number of industrious labourers
in England, is in a great measure owing to large farms
having been earher introduced into that countrj', than was
generally the case in Scotland ; in consequence of which, a
greater number of individuals, were compelled to depend
on their daily labour for their subsistence.

Besides, when the inhabitants of any district, into which
improvements have been introduced, are removed, which,
to a certain extent, must be the case, until a proper system
is established, they are not lost to the community, for un-
less induced to emigrate to foreign parts, they settle in thfe
uciglibouring towns and villages, and become useful and
industrious members of society. Many towns in the
western parts of Scotland were peopled by the introduc-

• This will be lully explained in the agricultural report of
Caithness.

SIZE OF FARMil. 55

tion of sheep farms into Argyleshire, which arc not so fa-
vourable to population as farms under an improved arable
culture -, but so far from lamenting that circumstance,
these emigrants look down with pity on their former mi-
serable state, and are enabled, from their successful indus-
try, to remit sums of money to their relations, who continue
to reside in poverty, in the vales of their ancestors *.

* On the subject'of the public advantages derived from the intro-
duction of the system of sheep farming into the Highlands, the evi-
dence to be met with in the Statistical Account of Scotland seems
to be conclusive. Mr Dugal M'Dougal, minister of Locb-Gail-head
in Argyleshire, (Statistical Account, vol. iii, p. 182), alter statinw
that the great decrease in the .population of that parish was ow-
ing to the introduction of sheep, proceeds to observe, I. That the
produce of the district, since sheep became the principal commo-
dity, is at least double the intrinsic value that it was foimerly,
so that half the number of heads, produce more than double the
quantity of provisions, for the support of our large towns, and th&
supply of our tradesmen and manufacturers ; and, 2. That tha
greater part of those who were dispossessed of their farms, betook
themselves to a seafaring life, or settled in the populous towns
upon the Clyde ; and thus were taken from a situation, where
they contributed nothing to the wealth, and very little to the sup-
port or defence of the state, to situations in which their labour is
of the greatest possible utility, where they have an easy opportu-
nity also of training up their children to be useful and valuable
members of society.

The following statement is extracted from the statistical ac-
count of the parish of Dunoon in Argyleshire, (Statistical Ac-
count, vol. ii, p. 391) — The number of farmers, by the introduc-
tion of sheep, and other causes, have certainly decreased, but
many of the subtenants, with a cow's grass, ^c. find themselves
easier and better off, than when they occupied a larger possession;
and even those who have been obliged to emigrate, have in gene-
ral settled in Greenock, where they seem better fed and clothed
than when they resided in their original parish.

$S SIZE OF FARMS.

On the whole, there seems to be a regular progi'ess in
the size of farms. At first, when the art of agriculture is
in its infancy, farms rhust l)e 'small, because there is neither
capital to cultivate, nor Skill to manage, large occupations.
As capital increases, and skiU improves, farms become
larger, and indeed attain a size, which appears calculated,
(unless where it is the practice to hiave married servants),
materially to diminish the population of the country. But
if that were to be the case, we must not seek for a criterion
of the strength of the country in the number of people in-
habiting any particular insulated portion of it. Some have
rashly concluded, that because in spme districts population
has diminished, the whole strength of the country has also
been reduced ; but whoever will give himself the trouble
to consider, that enlarged means of subsistence must give
rise to a multiplication of numbers, and that this multiplica-
tion, and the efforts employed to provide for its mainte-
nance, are in a manner reciprocal, will soon discover, that
partial depopulation, by the enlargement of farms, is only
the consequence of a demand for a greater quantity of sur-

In the statistical account of Inverchoalan, (vol. v, p. 472), it
is observed, that the former possessors, who neither understood
grazing nor tillage, and could hardly, by their poor unskilful ef-
forts, gain a miserable subsistence for themselves and their fa-
milies; happily for them, they were mostly removed to the neigh-
bouring towns, where they found sufficient employment, and
where many of their children, by the advantages of education,
(which they could not enjoy in their own country), have raised
themselves to independence, become useful members to the com-
niunity, and a support and comfort to their parents in their old
ace.

.SIZE OF I'ARM.S. 57

plus produce in another quarter, where an increasing po-
pulation is more usefully and profitably employed. It ap-
pears, too, that in the vicinity of towns, in which a variety
of articles are required from the farmer, he has so many
profitable minutiae to attend to, that a large farm becomes
unsuitable. In such a situation, the farms are consequent-
ly smaller, than those at a greater distance, where articles
of a wholesale description are the proper objects of atten-
tion.

DISSERTATION 11.

OP

XHE CIRCUMSTANCES CONNECTED WITH THE ESTABLISH-
MENT OF A LIBERAL SYSTEM OF CONNEXION BETWEEN
THE LANDLORD AND TENANT.

npPIE nature of the connexion, between the landlord
and the tenant, has greatly altered, with the progress
of political society. In ancient times it was of a military
description. The proprietor of an estate was himself a
warrior* and those who possessed land under him were
his soldiers, who were bound to military service, and who
paid him hardly any rent, with the exception of some ar-
ticles in kind, for the maintenance of his family.

When the feudal system was abolished, the landlord, at
first, still considered himself as the patron of those who
were placed under him. The rents continued low ; the
occupiers of the estate claimed, from generation to genera-
tion, under the name of '* Kindly Tenants" a sort of tacit
patrimonial interest in their respective possessions * j and
paying very inadequate rents, and having no permanent
security in their possessions, nothing could exceed their in-
dolence, their ignorance, and of course the poverty of their
condition.

* See Alton's Survey of Ayrslitrc, p. 175.

60 CONNEXION BETVTEEN LANDLORD AND TENANT.

The connexion between the two classes is now of a de-
scription totally different. The landlord considers himself
as the owner of an estate, of which he must make the most
he can, for the benefit of himself and family ; he lets it for
a certain number of years, to persons possessed of skill, in-
tegrity, industry, and capital, under the obligation of pay-
ing him a specific sum per annum, out of the annual pro-
duce, besides being bound, if not to improve the value of
the property, at least that it shall not be deteriorated during
the currency of the lease. The contract becomes more of a
mercenary nature, without however totally destroying ties
of a more pleasing description ; for the landlord, on the
one hand, must still feel himself deeply interested in the
success of his tenant, on which his own income and pro-
sperity materially depend ; whilst the tenant, on the other,
looks up to his landlord as a friend, whose interests are ne-
cessarily incoi'porated with his own, and who will naturally
be inclined to give an industrious and improving tenant
a preference, Avhen the farm is to be re-let.

Under this new system it is essential, both for the land-
lord and the tenant, to take various particulars into their
consideration, in order that the connexion between them
may be established on just and liberal principles. That
connexion is one of the most satisfactory, as well as tlie
most important, that exists in pohtical society. It does not
depend upon the mere covenants of a lease, but upon a con-
viction, that the interests of the two parties are interwoven
together, and that it is necessary for both parties to take
into consideration the following circumstances, as the
basis ol" their future connexion : 1. The extent of Capital
which the farmer may require to carry on his ojicrations ;
2. The Expence and Profit of farming ; 3. The Propor-
tion of that Profit to which the landlord is entitled under
the name of rent -, and, 1. The Duration of Leases, and
the Covenants which they ought to contain.

KXTENT OF CAPITAL. G 1

Sect. 1. — On the Capital necessary to carry on Farming
Operations.

A proprietor ought to ascertain, when an individual
offers to take his farm, not only the character of the per-
son who offers, in regard to professional knowledge and
ability, to industry, and to integrity, but also whether he
is possessed of a capital adequate to its due cultivation.
No prudent landlord will ever think of giving the pos-
session of any part of his estate to a needy adventurer,
who may bid a high rent, without the means of fulfilling
his engagements. It is incumbent upon the tenant also to
calculate what capital the farm he offers for will require,
and whether he can command that capital. The tenant,
indeed, unless in times of great national pi'osperity, when
credit abounds, is not safe, without a surplus, in case any
imtoward circumstance should occur. A general idea has
been entertained, that a farmer should be possessed of a
capital, according to the extent of the farm he takes, at
the rate of .^. 1 0 per Scotch, or about £. 8 j)<^^ English
acre. This estimate is properly applicable only to arable
lands. In pasture districts, the common mode of estima-
tion is, according to the amount of rent to be paid ; and it
is calculated, that in ordinary pastures, every farmer ought
to have, at his command, from three to five times the rent
he has agreed to pay *. In regard to arable farms, how-
ever, the actual sum required must vary, according to a

* In the more fertile grazing districts, carrying stock worth
fronti L. 30 to L. 40 per acre, as is the case in some parts of Eng-
land, five rents is evidently insufficient.

62 EXTENT OF CAPITAL,

number of circumstances, which it may be proper to enu-
merate.

The^;-5/ point to be considered is, Whether it is neces-
sary for the farmer to expend any sum in the erection, or
in the repair of his farm-house and offices. In some cases,
a large sum is required ; for landlords are not always able
to lay out much money in providing their farmers with
such accommodation as they may require, and they will
rather give the land on advantageous tenns to the tenant,
than undertake that expence. 2. A considerable sum
must always be necessary, for purchasing a proper stock,
and instruments of husbandry, which, according to the
Scotch system of husbandry, unite cheapness * and simpli-
city, and, as will afterwards appear, (see the list in the sub-
joined statement), are not very numerous. 3. The capital
i-equired must also greatly depend on the condition of the
farm, at the commencement of the lease, in regard to
drainage and inclosure, whether the ridijes are high and
crooked, or must be levelled, and whether there are
any waste lands to be brought into a state of cultivation,
during the currency of the lease. 4-. ISIuch also depends
on the circumstance, whether it is necessary to purchase
lime, or any extraneous manure, to any great extent. Tlie
sum laid out on Ume alone, when the improvement of a
farm commences, has often been from £. 5 to even jff. 10
pej' acre. 5. An incoming tenant has also, in many cases,
a considerable sum to pay to his predecessor, for the straw
of the crop, the dung left upon the farm, the proportion
of fallow lie has executed, &c. so that much depends on
the conditions obligatoiy on the way-going tenant. 6. The
cnpital required nuist also depend upon the period when
ilie rent becomes payable. If the farmer enters in May,

* The tlneshing ni.ll is nut an exception, considering tlie work
itexecutis.

EXTENT OF CAPITAL. GS

and pays one-half year's rent in November, and the other
half in the May following, (which in Scotland is called a fore-
hand rent), it is certainly a hardship that he should be liable
for rent, before he has had any return from the land, out of
the actual produce of which it ought to be paid. 7. In the
last place, a tenant, on entering on a farm in May, has to
maintain himself, his family, and his servants, for eighteen
months, before he can draw any profit from the land, ex-
cepting from the cattle kept during the winter, which he
may perhaps sell in the spring, or the summer following.
No rent therefore should be paid on an arable farm, where
the farmer obtains possession of only the houses and grass
in May, and has not a corn crop till the year which suc-
ceeds his entry, until at least a year and a half after that
entry. He has not the means of paying any rent at an
earher period, unless it is taken ;from his capital, which
would tend to cripple his future exertions. It is a better
plan, therefore, both for the landlord and the tenant, that
the entry should always be at Martinmas, and that the
payment should commence at the Martinmas following.
The fixing of a judicious term for the entry into farms, is
a subject of more importance than is commonly imagined.
Regarding the capital required by an arable farmer, re-
turns have been transmitted to me by a number of intelligent
farmers, and after forming a calculation of the sizes of the
different farms, and the sums required for each, the result
was, that £. 8, 9s. per Scotch, or ^. G : 12 : 9 ■per English
acre, was, on an average, supposed to be sufficient *, and
that where a larger sum is laid out, the farmer must have

* In England, it is considered to be an established fact, that
arable land worth 30 s. ftr acre, requires L. 10 of capital jur
acre. But, wbere attention is paid to economy, a less sum will
suffice, according to the Scotcli system, us fewer horses are re-
quired, and the instruments of liusbandry are simpler and cheaper.

64» EXTENT OF CAPITAL.

in view some advantages to counterbalance tlie additional
expence. Even in Berwickshii-e, the sura required, under
proper management, does not much exceed the above esti-
mate. A farmer in that county took on lease a farm of 600
acres, of turnip soil. It had been, rented at only 10 s. .per
English acre, and he agreed to give 31s. 6d. Much was to
do in regard to manuring, liming, draining, purchasing
stock, &c. ; but at the end of the four first years, upon
balancing his books,, the farm owed him only £, 4400, or
about £. 7, 7s. jper English acre, making a fair allowance
for the annual maintenance of the farmer and his family.

It is evident that any estimate of the sum required to
stock a farm must be fluctuating, depending upon the
prices, at the time, of the vaiious articles which the farmer
requires. As it is desirable, however, to have some idea
of the articles necessary, and of the total amount, the fol-
lowing estimate, di'awn up by an experienced and intelli-
gent farmer, (Mr Dudgeon of Prora in East Lothian), is
submitted to the reader's consideration, as apphcable to a
district in a high state of cultivation, and where the farmers
are opulent.

Estimate of the Sum required to stock a farm of 300 Scotcli,
or 381 Englidi acres, of clay land.

1 2 Plough horses, at L. 50, - - -
I Supernumerary, . - . -
1 Saddle horse, - . _
6 Ploughs, at L.S, 10 8. . - -

1 3 Harrows, at L. 1 , 7 s.

1 Roller, . - . -
6 Close carts, at L. 1 J, ...
6 Long ditto, at L. 4,

2 Wheel-barrows, at 21 ».
2 Haml ditto, at 5 s. - •

L.600

0

0

30

0

0

50

0

0

21

0

0

17

11

0

5

5

0

90

0

0

25

8

0

2

•2

0

0

10

0

L 841

16

0

EXTENT OF CAPITAL.

65

Brought forward,
Forks, graipes, &c. - - - _

72 Corn bags, at 4 s. - - •

2 Firlots, at 20 s.

Barn looms, rakes, &c. - . -

Threshing machine, with appendages,
2 Hand-fanners, - _ - -

Furniture for horses, - - -

Smith one year, for every thing /rr plough and cart,
Wright, ditto, ....

Property and assessed taxes.
One-half statute road-money, at 40 3.//irr plough *,

72 Bolls oats, at 25 s.

18 barley; at 30 s.

1 2 pease, at 25 s.

§ wheat stacker,

One pair of shoes, ditto,

240 Bolls oats, at 24 s.
7 Acres grass, at L. 8,
6 — — tares, at ditto,
1 200 Stones of hay, at 10 d

*res.
Fallow, - 50

Wheat after fallow, 50
Ditto after pease &
beans, - 50

Clover, - - 50

Oats, - - 50

fieans, - - 50

300

L. 841 16

3 3

14 8

2 O

3 10
200 0

5 O
00 10
24 O O
21 O O
97 10 O

6 0 0

L, 1278 17

0

Servants Maintenance

,

-

L.90

0

0

-

27

0

0

.

15

0

0

1

0

0

- - -

0

10

o

133 10

0

Horset,

-

L.288

0

o

-

56

0

0

-

48

0

0

I.

50

0

0

0

Seed Corn,

^^■" ?t^.6 \j

bolls.

0

0

0

0

37|^

5- 87| at 40 s.
50 3

L. 175

0

0

0 - _

50

0

0

50 at 25 s.

62

10

0

50

62

10

0

0

Carry forward,

L. 2204 7 O

" Some contend, that the whole road-money should be charged ; but it
IS the common practice for the out-going tenant, and the successor, to pay
each one-half of the statute road-money.
P. II. E

66 EXTENT OF CAPITAL.

Brought forward, L. 2204
Lime for one-sixth part of the farm, say 50 acres, - 500
4 Extra servants, at 12 s. a-week for 9 months, - - 86
Dung for 1200 cubic yards, at 3 %. ptr yard, the price to an cut-
going tenant, - - - 60
Filling and spreading same, 266 cart-loads, at 3 d, - 3
Shearing and leading first harvest, viz. 200 acres, at 28 a. 6 d. 285
25 Wintering cattle, at L. 10 each, _ . . 250
4 Milch cows, at L. 12, 10 s. each, ... 50
Interest on money expended for one year, - - 135
Add, a supernumerary horse, L. 20 ; a poney, L. 14; horse-
furniture, L. 8, - - - -! 42 0 O

8

e

0

o

8

0

0

0

6

s

0

0

0

o

0

0

0

0

L. S616 1 8

This is at the rale of L. 12, 1 s. fur Scotch, and L. 9 : 12 : 10 /*r Eng-
lish acre.

In this calculation no allowance is made for the first year's rent, nor for
furniture, nor the maintenance of the family, which would add consider-
ably to the preceding estimate ; but the amount of which must depend on
a great Tariety of circumstances.

It is evident that there must be a great diversity of opi-
nion rcffardinjT the various ailicles above enumerated. Some
recommend having fourteen instead of twehc horses, and
giving a higher price for them, as L.55 jper pair *. Others
insist on more economy in the first expenditure : they say,
that a prudent farmer, if he has not a large capital at his
command, will purchase eight horses, past their prime,
A\hich he may buy for L. 25 each, together with four breed-

* In regard to tlie price of horses, that is perpetually (luctiiat-
ing. More than even fourteen horses would be required, were no
carts hired to drive lime ; but in the csliniated price of that ar-
ticle, the e.'cpence of carriage is included for a tolerable distance
from lime.

EXTENT OF CAPITAL. 67

ijig marcs, aiid in five or six years he would be fully sup-
plied with good stock, and may sell his old horses without
much loss. In many cases such shifts must be resorted to,
where there is any deficiency of capital.

Some object to the idea of having only one roller, con-
sidering four as necessary on a large farm, two of stone
and two of wood, as two must frequently work together,
and one of stone and one of wood would not suit. This
would increase the expence of rollers from L. 5, 5 s. to
L. 20.

Others contend, that it is necessary to have 1200 cubic
yards of dung for such a farm, to dung the fallow wheat *,
and the oat stubble for the beans: but to that it is answered,
that no such quantity can ever be obtained from an out-
going tenant, and it is only what can be bought in such a
situation, that can be included in the expence of stockincr
a farm.

It is also said, that the quantity of oats given to the
horses is more than is necessary, and the quantity of hay
and grass too little ; and that many farmers in the Carse
of Gowrie feed their horses entirely on clover throughout
the whole summer ; but, if they are well worked, particu-
larly in driving lime, substantial feeding is necessary.

It is also observed, that the rotation proposed, makes
the return of crops of wheat too frequent j and hence it
arises, that the grain is so often blighted, or the quality
inferior; by such severe cropping, the condition of the
ground is reduced, so as to render it unfit for producing
good grain-
It would be tedious to insert in this work, all the various
calculations which have been transmitted to me, of the ca-
pital necessary to stock an arable farm ; but I shall endca-

• The propriety of dunging wheat after fallow, will be after-
wards considered.

F. 2

68 JiXTENT OF CAPITAL.

vour shortly to state some of the most interesting observa-
tions, which I have received upon the subject.

In the county of Moray, it is stated, that where the te-
nant has to build houses, and inclose the farm at his own
expence, it would require L. 8000 to stock 220 Scotch
acres, that is at the rate of nearly L. 13, 13 s. per Scotch,
or L. 10 : 18 : 6 per English acre ; but it is observed, at
the same time, that half that sum would be sufficient, if the
proprietors were to build the houses, inclose the farm, and
allow a sufficiency of lime. For these expences they
would be amply repaid, as tenants of small capital would
then embark in farming, and more candidates would pre-
sent themselves, which would tend to the increase of rent.
Besides, the capital of the farmer, if laid out in buildings,
is locked up in permanent works, yielding him no annual
return, and in which he has only a temporary interest ;
whereas, it would be more beneficial for both parties, that
the farmer's capital were to remain at his command, for im-
provements that would yield him some yearly profit, or
which might meet the failure of crops, and other casualties
to which he is exposed.

In the Mearns or Kincardineshire, the capital employed
in agriculture, over the whole county, amounts to about
L. 675 per 160 English acres of arable land, including in
it the stock required for the uncultivated land. This is at
the rate of L. 4- : 4 : 4 per English acre.

In Forfarshire, it is estimated, that a farm brought un-
der regular rotation, may be stocked sufficiently with hor-
ses, cattle, implements, threshing machine, and all neces-
sary expences for the first year, for about L. 6 per Scotch,
or L. 4, 16 s. ^er English acre.

In the Carse of Gowric, where the farmers in general
enter at Whitsunday, and then get possession of the houses
only, it is calculated, that it will require L. lO^^rr Scotch,
or L. 8 j)er English acre, of capital, exclusive of rent, of

EXTENT OF CAPITAL- 69

pajments for fallow clone, or the manure to be })incliasc(l.
Besides, the family and servants must be maintained for
eighteen montlis, and the stock for about twelve months,
before the farm produces any thing to tlie new-coming
farmer. This however is gi'eatly owing to the injudicious
term at which he enters.

In Fife, it is observed, that on all soils, poor or rich, the
least sum that is necessary is two years and a half rent of
the farm, free of debt. Three or four years* rent is still
better ; and five years' rent can be profitably employed in
stocking a farm, but not mqre, unless great and expensive
improvements are to be executed.

In the county of Clackmannan, about L. 1600 is requi-
red to stock a farm of 180 Scotch acres. This is at the
rate of nearly L. 8, 18 s. per Scotch, or L. 7 : 2 ; 5 per Eng-
lish acre.

In Stirlingshire, it is observed, that the sum required
for stocking a farm, must vary according to circumstances,
and the condition of the farm ; in general, however, up-
on entering on a new lease, a farmer requires to be
possessed of from L. 8 to L- 10 of capital for every Scotch
acre he means to occupy. This is at the rate of from
L. 6, 8 s. to L. 8 per English acre.

An intelligent farmer in Mid-Lothian informs me, that
in the year 1754-, he stocked a farm of 1 10 Scotch or 132
English acres, which in those days required ten horses, for
two four-horse ploughs, and for one two-horse cart em-
ployed in collecting manure, &c. He kept a minute ac-
count of the whole expenditure, which amounted to a
trifle more than L. 400. This is at the rate of L.3 : 12 : 8
per Scotch, and L. 2 : 18 : 2 per English acre. It would
now require above triple the amount to stock the same
firm ; notwithstanding, that the number of horses is so
much diminished by the introduction of two-horse, instead
of four-horse ploughs, according to the improved system
of modern husbandry.

70 EXTENT or CAI'ITAE.

Without iioinff through the various other conimunica-
tions which I have received upon the subject, I shall con-
tent myself with adding an estimate, drawn up by a farmer
in Roxburghshire, of the sum it actually required to stock
an arable farm of 200 English acres, which he entered to
at Whitsunday 1810.

To one year's rent, at L. I, 18 s. per acre,

To four work-horses, at L. 35 each, -

To keeping four horses for one year, - -

To two carts, at L. 1 5 each, _ _ _

To two ploughs, at L. 3 each, - - -

Two pair of harrows, _ _ _ _

To harness for horses, _ _ _ _

To 20 Highland cattle, at L. 5 each,

To two hinds, for one year, at L. 35 each.

To a boy, - - - -

To grass-seeds, for sowing down 40 acres, -

To seed wheat, for 20 acres, 10 bolls at L 3, 10 s. ^ler boll,

To seed barley, for 24 acres, 12 bolls, at L. 2, 5 s. fier boll.

To seed oats, for 40 acres, 28 bolls, at L. 1, 15 s. fer boll,

L. 967 0 O

Deduct from this 40 acres of grass, at L. 1, 15 s. per acre, 70 O 0

350

0

0

140

0

0

110

0

0

30

0

0

6

0

0

3

0

0

15

0

0

100

0

0

70

0

0

S

0

0

24

0

0

35

0

0

27

0

0

49

0

0

L. 897 O O

Add for maintaining farmer's family, taxes, &c. - 230 O O

L. 1127 O O

The above is the sum it will cost in general to stock a farm of that ex-
tent, varying more or less according to circumstances. It is at the rate of
I.. 5 ; 12 ; 8 per English acre.

Industrious tenants, tlicreforc, even with moderate cnpi-
lali^, ought not to be discouraged by any idea, that an
overgrown capital is necessary for taking a farm ; at least

EXI'ENCE AND I'llOI'IT OF FATJMINC. 71

where tlie rents are moderate, and tlie landlord is disposed
to give them every reasonable encouragement.

As a considerable capital, however, is necessary, it is well
worth consideration, whether some means might not be
devised, that will enable the farmer to procure the use of
capital, on as easy terms as the manufacturer or the mer-
chant. He ought to gain 1 5 per ceiit. on the capital he lays
out. He can easily therefore j)ay 5 per cent, for the money
he may have occasion to borrow. Let him then be fur-
nished with the means of giving adequate security ; let
the tenant have the power of subletting his farm, or as-
signing his lease, always securing to the landlord the pre-
ference on equal terms. A prudent farmer, of respectable
character, would in that case never want credit when ne-
cessary, and all difficulties regarding the capital required,
would in a great measure be done away. This important
subject will afterwards be resumed, at the conclusion of this
dissertation.

Sect. 2. — On the Expence and Profit of Farming.

This is a subject of great importance on various ac-
counts. It is necessary to check as much as possible, by
authentic statements of the expence and profit of farming,
a spirit of speculation and rivalship, which has a tendency
to raise the rent of lands too high, a circumstance which
would prove equally injurious to the tenant and to the
landlord. The rent should only be carried to such a
height, as may be sufficient to enforce industry and im-
provement, and to promote economy in management,
without discouraging exertion j and wherever there is

Y2 EXPENCE AND PROFIT OF FARMING.

the least doubt, in regard to probable produce, markets,
&c. the cast or balance should always be in favour of the
tenant.

In offering for a farm, the tenant should take into se-
rious consideration the innumerable risks to which he is
subjected, from defects in the soil, inclemency of the sea-
sons *, improvident laws, want of sale for the articles he
raises, mercantile failures, want of health to attend to liis
busifiess, deficiencies of crops, and various other contingen-
cies.

In accepting an offer for a farm, the landlord ought to
consider the character of the person who offers, the capital
he is possessed of, his skill in farming, the probable pro-
duce under medium management, and the average amount
and value of that produce, on a medium of yeers, so that
after paying the rent, and all expences, the tenant may
have a fair share of the produce, a handsome] interest for
the capital employed, and an ample competence to enable
him to live comfortably, to maintain and educate liis fa-
mily, and to lay up a surplus for contingencies. The rent
of the farm, however, should always be such as to promote
exertion and improvement f .

* Whilst writing this sentence, I received a letter from Muir-
ton, in Kincardineshire, dated 20th November, in which there is
the following paragraph :

" The rain is pouring on in tubfuls, and nearly all the beans
still in the field ; also much oats and bear. It has rained inces-
santly for four weeks." — A miserable prospect to a farmer, if he
is liable to a very high rent.

t On the subject of rent, Mr Aiton, in his Survey of Ayrshire,
p. 176, &c. has pointed out the injurious consequences resulting
from rents when too low. He observes, that formerly the tenants
claimed, from generation to generation, a sort of tacit patrimonial
interest in their respective possessions, known in Ayrshire by the
right of " Kindly Tenants." The njection of their claims, which

EXPENCE AND PROFIT OF FARMING. 73

There is another point of view in which a discussion on
the expence and profit of farming is of the utmost impor-
tance, as it is necessary to ascertain to what extent arable
cultivation ouglit to be extended. Land tliat will not pro-
duce 30 bushels of oats, 24 bushels of barley, and 18 bushels
of wheat, pc7- statute acre, under the best management that
circumstances will admit of, had better remain in pastu-
rage.

excited loud and reiterated complaints among the tenantry, has
been notwithstanding productive of much good, not only to the
proprietors, but even to the tenantry, as well as to the public.
While the former tenants and their heirs were continued in their
possession, and the rents not much raised, their indolence and bad
habits were also continued ; but by laying the farms open to pub-
lic competition, the proprietors have had a choice of tenants ;
the most active and industrious were preferred, which operated
as an incitement to others to become more industrious ; and every
advance in the rent, called forth a greater stretch of invention,
and served as a stimulus to industry.

The rent of any farm may be stretched to a pitch which no
industry can reach ; but if not carried too far, the raising of rents
will do more to excite industry, than ever so many lectures upon
the subject. A fair increase of rent, where that has not hitherto
taken place, it is contended, would be productive of the following
advantages. — 1. There would be more economy in the manage-
ment of farms. — 2. There would be more industry and exertion
to raise a greater produce, and to bring it to a better market. —
3. There would be a disposition to try experiments for the pur-
pose of acquiring more knowledge in farming ; and farmers would
go about to acquire knowledge, instead of remaining sluggishly at
home. — 4. The proprietors, receiving a better income, would ba
enabled to live more comfortably, and to do more good.— 5. The
revenue of the country would be greatly increased, more especial-
ly while the property-tax continues on its present footing. — 6. Fair
rents may be called the best slimulus to improvement.

74- EXPENCE AND PROFIT OF FARMING.

With a view of communicating data, on which calcu-
lations may be made of the expence and profit of farming
on a large scale, I shall subjoin estimates, with which I
have been furnished by two respectable practical farmers.
It is evident, at the same time, that these calculations
are only applicable to improved districts, where the soil
is fertile, the farms are of a proper size, and where the
tenant enjoys these most important advantages, a fa-
vourable climate, a fertile soil, good roads, and vicinity
to market.

1 . Statement by Mr Murray, lately residing at Kirkland-
hill, in East- Lothian.

Mr Murray supposes a farm to consist of 400 Scotch
acres of good hard clay soil, divided into eight fields ; six
of the fields under a rotation of six courses, and two of
them old pasture ; when these are taken up, two to be laid
down for pasture.

Xos. acres.

1 . say 50 of fallow to have 4 or 5 furrows and harrowed, &c.

2. 50of wheat, at 10 bolls, 500 bolls, at 40s. /^r boll, L, 1000 0 0
'.i. 50 of clover, at 200 stone //cr acre, L, 10, 500 O O
4 50 of oats, at 10 bolls, 500 bolls, at 25s /.r boll, 625 O O

5. 50 of beans, at 8 bolls, 400 bolls, at 25s. /i^r boll, 500 0 0

6. 50ofwheat,at 10 bolls, 500 bolls, at 40s./»fr boll, 1000 0 O
7.8. 100 in 2 fields for pasture, at L.;5, lOs./nrr acre, 350 0 0

400 to produce 1900 bolls, and 100 acres 7 t gq-.- q q

pastured, J

As l.md lets at present, this farm should rent at JL. 1600 /ler annum, or
L. 4^«- Scotch acre. 'Ihe produce is at the rate of L. i) ; IS ; 0 Jier Scotch,
and 1, 7,19 s. //rr English acre.

EXPENCE AND PHOFIT OF FARMJNG. 75

The following is an abstract of the cxpcnco of cultivat-
ing such a farm.

Not,

1. Fallow

2. Wheat

3. Clover

4. Oats

5. Beans

6. Wheat
7,8. Pasture 100

Abstract of the IVorL of Men and Horns,
acres, days.

50 325 of a man and two horsei,

50

50

40

50

50

171^
125
169
285
171^
4

ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto,

L, 162 10

0

85 15

0

62 10

0

84 10

0

142 10

0

85 15

0

2 0

0

Acres 400 1251 days L. 625 10 O

Six two-horse ploughs might do the work upon the fann, though many
would prefer seven.

Abstract of Labourers on each Field,

1. Fallow 50 100 days spreading dung, at 2s 6d.

2. Wheat 50 328 days' work,
S, Clover 50 /cr account,

4. Oats 50 328 days,

5. Beans 50 /ler account,

6. Wheat 50 323 days,

7. 8. Pasture 100 the expence of a herd.

Acres 40O

L.12

10

0

72

14

O

56

18

0

72

14

O

78

5

O

72

14

0

30

0

0

L. 1021

0

0

General Statement,

1 , Total expence of labour,

2. Rent *°^ of the produce,

L.1021 O O
IGOO O O

L.2621
S. Balance, for seed to add to sow the crop, 100 acres wheat,-
50 acres oats, 50 acres beans, 50 acres clover,
Labouring utensils up.'iolding.

Manure to the farm, above what the straw produces,
Interest of L. 4000 of stock.

Per centage on the perishable stock and lost time,
The necessary maintenance of the farmer's family, taxes,
&c.

O O

. 1354 0 O

L 3975 0 (»

76

EXPENCE AND PROFIT OF FARMING.

It may be proper now to give the same estimate in Eng-
lish acres, without inserting fractional parts.

No J. acres.

1. Fallow 63 of fallow, to have 4 furrows and harrowed.

2. Wheat 63 of wheat, quarters 255, at L. 3 : 18 : 3|, L, 1000 O 0
S. Clover 63 of clover, at L.7 : J7 : 4|, - 500 Ct O

4. Oats 63 of oats, quarters 372, at L. 1 : 13 : C|, €25 O O

5. Beans 63 of beans, quarters 204, at L. 2 : 9 : 11, 500 O O
€. Wheat 63 of wheat, quarters 255, at L. 3 : 18 : 3f> 1000 O O

7,8. Pasture 127 in 2 fields for pasture, at L, 2 : 15 : Of , 350 O 0

508 acresi.

Produce, 1087 quarters. L. 3975 0 0

Nos

acres.

1.

Fallow

63

2.

Wheat

63

S.

Clover

63

4.

Oats

63

5.

Beans

65

6.

Wheat

6S

7.8.

Pasture

127

Abstract of the Work of Men and Horses.

325 man and two horses,

1711

ditto.

125

ditto,

169

ditto.

285

ditto,

171^

ditto.

4

ditto.

508

1251 day J
Abstract of the Labourers en each FietJ.

L.162 10

0

85 15

0

62 10

0

84 10

0

142 lO

0

85 15

0

2 0

O

L.625 10

0

No*.

1. Fallow

2. Wheat

3. Clover

4. Oats

5. Beans
G. Wheat

7.8. Pasture 127

acres.

63
63
63
63
63
63

100 days spreading dung, 2s. 6d. L. 1 2 10 O

328 days' work,
per account,

328 daysi

per account,

328 days,

expence of a herd,

508

72 14 O

56 18 O

72 14 O

78 5 O

72 14 0

30 0 O

h. 1021 0 0

General Statement.

1. Total expence of labgur,

2. ReBt ^^ of the produce,

L. 1021 5 O
ICOO 0 0

Carry forward,

L.2f;2I 5 0

EXPENCE AND PROFIT OF FARMING.

77

Brought forward, L. 2621 5 0

3. Seed to add to sow the crop, 100 acres wheat, 50 acres
oats, 50 acres beans, 50 acres clover,
Labouring utensils upholding.

Manure to the farm above what the straw produces, ^ 1354 15
Interest of L. 4000 of stock,
Per centage on the perishable stock and lost time,
Necessary maintenance of family, taxes, &c.

L. 3975 O O

2, Statement of the Produce, Rent, and tlie Expence of
cultivating a Farm in East Lothian, of 533 Scotch, or
702 English acres, by George Rennie, Esq. of Phan-
tassie.

1. PRODUCE.

Rotations.

FalloV,

a

0

c
u

■a

c2

1^

I. On a Clay Soil.

1 . 42 acres fallow,

2. 42 wheat,

3. 42 hay,

4. 42 oats,

5. 42 beans,

6. 42 wheat,

252

42
at 10 bolls //^r ac.

200 stones

10 bolls

Bolls
420

336

Stones.
8400

Bolls
420

Bolls

33G

"~

i.

40
1
25
24
40

L.

840
420

403

672

/.

~o

0
0
4
0

0
0

0

0

j 756J 8400

420

336

-

— L 2860

4

0

II, On a Light Soil,

1. 62 acr. turnips,
„ 531— barley,
iSl — wheat,

3. 62 — grasspastur.

4. 62 — oats,

5. 53 — pasture, old

301 turnip land ant

10 bolls /ler acre,
8

10 bolls /fr acre,
1 grass.

248

Barley

G20

—

62

10/
SO/.
40j.
140/

90/,

620
465
49G
434
775
238

310

0
0
0
0

c

10

0
0
0
0
0
0

1004

310 |l04C

83C

— !Z,.5S8S

l,.>

lo

252 clay land,
553 acres.

Average pro
ox per En

duce,
glish

per Scotch acre, in six years, L. 1 1 , 7 s.
acre, I,. 9 : 1 : 7,

78 EXPENCE AND PROFIT OF FARMING.

It appears from this interesting statement, that winter
wheat, sown in spring after turnips, yields within two bolls
per acre of the produce on strong land after summer-fallow j
so that, considering the expence of the fallow, and the loss
of rent for one year, ^\ heat is raised at a cheaper rate, on
this plan, after turnips, than after fallow. It also appears,
that it is more profitable to sow wanter wheat in spring,
than barley; for that grain, at ten holh pei' acre, and SOs,
per boll, produces only £.15 ; whereas the wheat, at
eight bolls per acre, and 40 5. ^er boll, yields £.16 per
acre. The straw of the wheat also is much more valuable,
and the succeeding crop of grass (the wheat crop not
being so apt to lodge) is better. The advantage, there-
fore, of raising winter wheat in spring, and after turnips,
fed by sheep on the ground, cannot, in the whole, be sta-
ted at less than L. 3 per acre. It must be admitted, that
the land is left in better condition after barley, than after
wheat, and the difference would probably be made up by
the after crops in the course of future rotations -, at the
same time, if wheat must be raised in greater quantities,
to prevent an injurious dependence upon foreign powers
for bread-corn, we arc thus furnished with the means of
raising it *.

* On this subject Mr llemiie farllier remarks, that when wlicat
is sown after turnip, it is sown upou the land from which the tur-
nip is lirst taken ofi", which is generally the best in the field: bar-
ley, on the contrary, is sown upon the last eat off, and is frequently
much hurt by the growth of the turnips in the spring months.
After attentively taking tlie wliole circumstances into considera-
tion, therefore, though tlitre may be some lands on which, from
soil, climate, and situation, winter wlieat may be sown in spring
willi advantage, ytt, on the wliolc, he is of opinion that barley
is the most advantageous crop of the two.

EXPENCE AND ITwOFIT OF FARMING.

79

2. EM'ENCES.

I.

I. Rent of 553 acres^

Scotch, at 90s. \
Wheat for 42 acres,-j

at three firlots/ur C

acre, j

Hay for 42 acres,!

seeds,
Oats for 42 acres, at

3 firlots, 2 peckS:
Beans for 42 acres.

at 1 boll, 3 pecks.
Wheat for 42 acres

at 1 boll.

:]

II.

1. Turnipsfor seed, atT

2 lbs //dT acre, 5

2, Barley for seed, 2 i

firlots, ) peck, 5

3, Wheat for seed, I "/

boll, S

4. Hay for seed,
Oats for seed, 3 7

firlots, 2 pecks, ^

Expences,
Horse corn,

— hay,

— grass, 10 acres,

— tares, 5 acres,

31.

18

il —

104^18

2000

42

S-l

96
350

50

Smith and wright-work, - ., _

Servants, 17 men. at 1,. 36 a year,

3 men and a boy, - - -

Turnip work, &c, _ _ _ _

Harvest work, &c. _ _ _ _

Taxes and incidents, _ _ _ _

Six cows kept for the family, after deduct-
ing what is made into butter and cheese,
produce, _ _ _ _

at 40^, 63

42
25s. 52
24s. 60
40 J. 84

6

30.-. 27

40^. 62

62

25s. 67

25s. 437

lOJ. 83

I60s. 80

160j. 40

100
612
80
50
300
190

30

s.\j.

0 0

0 0

r

10 0

lOj 0
6 8
0 o
0 0

0 0
0 0

o o

0 0

Profit,
Total produce,

at 90/. 24 88 10

301

224

640

\:,r,:

501 :

STl

Z.5S88

10

16

16

IL'

14

80 EXPENCE AND PIIOFIT OF FARMING.

If the total profit is L. 871 : 1 : 4, that is, at the rate
of L. 1 : 11 : 6 per Scotch, and L. 1 -. 5 •.2\ per English
acre. From that profit, the famUy of the tenant is to be
maintained, and the interest of the capital employed, which
cannot be calculated at less than L. 6000, must be paid.
The profit on the capital is only at the rate of about 1 4 per
cent, an interest hardly equal to that to which a farmer is just-
ly entitled, considering his toil, and the hazards to which
he is liable from the seasons, the markets, &c. On this sub-
ject it is well observed by Mr Dudgeon of Prora, that if
something decent is not made by skilful and industrious
farmers, it Would injure both the proprietors of land and
the public. Adventurers of a different stamp would occu-
py the farms, and the genius and spirit of agriculture
would become languid, and perhaps expire.

The preceding estimates shew the great importance of
having farms of a proper size. On a farm of 100 or 200
acres, a farmer, who paid a high rent, could hardly exist ;
whereas, on a farm of 500 acres, even paying a high rent,
he may live comfortably, without requiring an additional
capital, in the same proportion as if the farm had been di-
vided into several small ones *, and without much more
additional risk or labour.

In regard to the farm of Phantassie, in particular, the
intelligent author of the preceding estimate adds, that
this farm ought to be considered as connected with a pret-
ty large distillery, from which abundance of rich dung is
procured. There is also a lime rock on the premises,
from which that valuable article is easily obtained,— ad-
vantages which are hardly ever to be met with.

• Tor instance, having only one house, one set of offices, one
Ihreshing-niill, &c. »

EXPENCE AND PROFIT oF FARMING. SI

On the whole, tliough in comphancc with the request of
the President of the Board of Agriculture, Mr Rennie made
a return, according to the present value of land and produce,
it is by no means his opinion, that a farmer is warranted
in risking his capital, by taking land at such a rent as the
present prices of corn seem to justify. It has always been
his firm and decided opinion, that the only fair and just
criterion to judge of the value of land, is, by making au
estimate, according to the prices by which the export and
import of grain are regulated. The present prices of corn
may be attributed to the very peculiar state of Europe,
owing to which, for these several years past, our con-
nexion with the Continent has been greatly impeded, and
of course importation from foreign cour»tries made at a vast
increase of expence. A continuation of high prices, there-
fore, depends upon the continuance of war, the corn laws
being in fact completely annihilated. Of late, Govern-
ment has found it necessary to encourage importation of
grain from every quarter, though it is perfectly plain that, so
long as the war continues, prices cannot be reduced to their
former level, unless veiy full crops are obtained at home.
Keeping these matters in view, he is firmly of opinion,
that no man is warranted in renting land at higher prices
than these rates of import and export will enable him to
pay. If his conjectures are well founded, a deduction
ought to be made from the above statements, in exact pro-
portion to the difference between the prices by which these
statements are made out, and the prices at which the ports
are opened and shut j it being on these grounds only, that
he considers any man warranted in risking his capital on
land, until new corn laws are obtained *.

* At llie same time, it is to be observed, that as in the highest
years of importation, the quantity of grain imported, forms but a
very inconsiderable proportion of the grain necessary for the roii-

p. II. r

82 RENT, ANl) MODE OF PAYMENT.

Such statements as these above inserted*, sanctioned by
the authoi'ity of intelligent practical farmers, must throw
great light on the important question of the produce and
the expence of farming ; also on the rent that land should
yield, and the profit to which the farmer is entitled.
They are certainly too high for any farm that is not situa-
ted in the most fertile districts of Scotland, for it is dif-
ficult any where else to get such an extent of land, as
from 400 to 500 acres, of equal fertility, and without any
muir or bog, or any otlier sort of inferior land, being in-
termixed with it.

Sect. III. — On the Proporiioji of Produce to he exacted as
Rent J and on the mode of Payment,

It has been aheady observed, that it is essentially
necessary to exact a fair, but not an oppressive rent,
from the tenant ; such a sum as will have the effect of ex-
citing him to activity and exertion. Without dwelling

sumption of the inhabitants of the country, even in bread, (pro-
bably not a week), independent of the consumption in beef, in
spirits, in feeding cattle, &c. the force of these ingenious argu-
ments is therefore greatly diminished. Had it not been for the
great improvements wliich have taken place in agriculture, wc
could never have fed such an increasing population so amply,
without tenfold additional importation.

* Many farmers in Scotland, more especially those who culti-
vate a great extent of land, keep regular accounts ; but the prac-
tice is not so general as it ouglit to be. Evtry farmer should an-
nually make up such a statement as Mr Ilennie has given.

RENT, AND MODE OF PAYMENT. 83

on the biurh rents exacted for lands in the neighbourhood
of large towns, which are no precedent in other cases, it is
proposed to consider, what sum may be fairly demanded
for land, under a regular system of arable or convertible
husbandry.

Before entering, however, into any detail, it may be pro-
per to observe, that though the rent paid by the tenant is
in general no bad criterion of his skill and industry, yet,
at the same time, much must depend, on a variety of other
circumstances ; as, 1. The soil of the farm, and the means of
remedying its defects * ; 2. The subsoil, a point of much
more importance than is commonly imagined f ; 3. The
climate ; 4^. The situation as to markets •, 5. The vicinity
to coal and to lime, or other extraneous manures ; 6. ■ The
means of conveying the produce of the farm, (for good
roads make an essential difference in the value of a farm) ;
7. The size of the farm itself; 8. The position and con-
struction of the house and offices -, 9. The length of lease ;
JO. The covenants; 11. The encouragement given to im-
provement ; arid, 12. The amount of other payments, be-
sides the rent, to which the tenant is liable. Every farmer,
before he engages in a new lease, ought to take all these,
among a variety of other circumstances, into his considera-
tion.

* Clays are improved by a mixture of sand, and sandy soils
by clay, which are frequently at no great distance from each
other.

t Mr Robertson of Ladykirk observes, that the subsoil of a
farm should even be more attended^o' than the soil. It seldom
happens, in a good climate, that the land is unproductive, when
the subsoil is dry and good. It is wonderful what even a thin
soil will do, when full of manure, and on a good and sound sub-
soil.

f2

Si RENT, AND MODE OF PAYMENT.

On the subject of rent in general, there are two points
which require peculiar consideration : 1 . "WTiat propor-
tion of the produce should be paid to the landlord -, and,
2. Whether it should be paid in money, or in kind, or
partly in both.

1 . The following are the particulars of the rent paid for a
farm amounting to 280 Scotch, or 350 English acres.

1. Money rent, - - - £.4: 15 0

2. Haifa boll of wheat, (2 Winchester bushels)

averaged at 40s. per boll, or 10s. per bushel, 10 0

3. Half a boll of barley, (2 Winchester bushels)

averaged at 30s. ^fr boll, - 0 15 0

Total per Scotch acre, i^. 6 10 0
Which is equal to 3^.5:2:3 per English acre.

This farm, however, is situated in the Carse of Gowrie,
which is certainly one of the most fertile districts in Scot-
land : It is not far distant from the Frith of Tay, a na-
vigable arm of the sea, by which lime may be imported,
and the produce of the farm exported, with great facility :
The climate of the Carse also, as well as the soil, is un-
commonly well calculated for arable cultivation, and less
liable, than almost any part of the kingdom, to any agri-
cultural disaster.

There is an instance of a still higher rent in East-Lo-
tliian, amounting to L. 1710 per annwnj for only 240
Scotch, or 288 English acres. This is at the rate of
L. 7 : 2 : 6 pa- Scotch, or L. 5 : 14 s. per English acre.

The total annual produce cannot be estimated at more
than L. 3200, which would be at the rate of L. 13 : 6 : 8
pel- Scotch, or L. 10 : 13 : ^ per English acre.

These rents totally destroy the old maxim, that every
arable farm ought to produce three rents, one for the land-

KENT, AND MODE OF TAVMENl . Sj

lord, one for the expence of cultivation, and one for the
maintenance of the fanner *. It might be founded in
truth, when first thought of; but since the introduction of
two-liorse ploughs, and threshing machines, it has not
the slightest affinity to the situation of the farmer. Besides,
since roads and markets have been so much improved, the
sale of every article more certain, the number of horses and
servants necessary for an arable farm so much reduced,
and every branch of agriculture so much better understood,
the landlord is entitled, at least infertile districts, to a larger
proportion of the produce.

What proportion of the produce of arable land, ought
to be paid as rent to the landlord, is a question that has
long been considered as abstruse, mysterious, and very
difficult to resolve. In the year 1753, it was recommend-
ed to the attention of the public, by the Edinburgh So-
ciety for the improvement of Agriculture, but no person
ventured to discuss it, until after the lapse of twenty years,
when the late Alexander Weddei-burn of St Germains,
father of the celebrated Chancellor Wedderburn, Earl of
Rosslyn, published his essay on that subject, in the year
1766. In that work Mr Wedderburn justly observes,
that no blind bargain ought to be concluded between the
landlord and tenant; for there are rules and principles, by
the fair application of which, the rent that ought to be
justly demanded, for arable land, may be ascertained with
tolerable precision. It is a bad system, he remarks, when
parties, whose interests are so clearly interwoven together,
meet rather like enemies than friends : the natural conse-
quence of which is, that he who is most skilful in the arts
of deceit, obtains a disgraceful victory. As a foundation
for a proper system on this subject, Mr Wedderburn con-

* It was ail old Scutch adage, " Ane to saw, ane to chaw, and
aue to pay the laird with a'."

S6

RENT, AND MODE OF PAYMENT.

tended, that land producing on an average 8 bolls of
wheat, 3 of pease, 6| of barley, and 4| of oats, or at the
rate of 5| bolls per Scotch acre overhead, together with
1 65 stones of hay, might be considered as a standard ; the
value of which, on the average of twenty years preceding
1754, produced £. 300 per afimun^ which admitted a divi-
sion of its produce into three parts, one for the landlord,
one for the tenant, and one for the expence of cultivation.
Where the produce was less, the expence continuing the
same, the estimated sui-plus, he proposed, should be equally
divided between the landlord and the tenant; but when the
produce was more, the surjilus, beyond the one-third part
of 5\ bolls per acre, he affirmed, should go to the land-
lord, as explained by the following Table.

Bolls
per acre.

Value of
product.

Expence.

R«t.

Farmers

profit.

51
6

7
8

300
340
381
436

L.lOO
100
100
100

L.lOO
140
181
236

L.lOO
100
100
100

Such calculations, however, were only suited to the mi-
serable state of agriculture at the period when Mr Wed-
derburn wrote. At that time, 126 Scotch, or 144 Eng-
lish acres, of arable land, were reckoned the proper size
of a farm, and the capital required to stock it was estima-
ted at only L. 200, or at the rate of L. 1 : 13 : 4 per
Scotch, and L. 1 : 7 : 9 per English acre *. I lad the ca-
pital required for farming continued at the same rate j

• Soc an Essay upon tlie qiicslion, " What pn>portion of tlie
produce of arable laud ought to be paid as rent to the landlord ;"
by Alcxandtr Weddcrburn, Esq. of St Germains, printed at Edin-
burgh, annu 1770. Page 6. and 10.

RENT, AND MODE OF PAYMENT.' * 87

had tlic expence of cultivation remained in the same pro-
portion ; had no allowance been made for erecting thresh-
ing mills, purchasing lime, &c. ; and had the principle
been adopted, that the profits of the farmer should not ex-
ceed L. 100 pa- annum ; what would now have been the
state of the agriculture of Scotland ?

The French Economists adopted a mode somewhat si-
milar, for estimating the amount of rent. Thov crave,
what they called the produit nety to the landlord, by inclu-
ding the farmer's profit among the expences, and, deduct-
ing the total expence from the total produce, the net re-
mainder they accounted the proper rent for the landlord
to receive.

It is evident, that such nice calculations are not suited to
the peculiar situation of the farmer, whose crops are pre-
carious, who has no certainty of the prices he is to receive
for his produce, and who may be often disappointed in his
payments, from the failure of those to whom it may be
sold ; and it is quite absurd to apply the same rules to all
situations, soils, and climates, in aE the various districts
of an extensive country. I am induced, therefore, to sub-
mit to the consideration of the reader, the following hints,
on which some average calculation may be formed, for the
mutual advantage of the landlord and tenant; the balance,
whenever there is the least doubt, being always given in
favour of the tenant.

Poor land cannot possibly pay the same proportion of
renty according to its usual produce, as the rich and
fertile. The expence of cultivation is nearly the same,
and indeed in some cases may be higher, and yet the pro-
duce is gi'eatly inferior, not only in quantity, but in quali-
ty. Some land may yield, on an average, at the rate of
L. 1 5 per acre per ajinum and upwards ; some at the rate
of YiAO per annum ; and some at the rate of L.5, and even
less. The expence of cultivating each will not be materially

§3 RENT, AND MODE OF TAYMEXT.

different. The rent, therefore, ought not to be in the
ratio of the produce. Perhaps a fair proportion might be,
two-fifths of the produce in the first instance ; one-third
in the second ; and one-fourth in the third.

Or,

Per Scotch acre. Per English acre,

1 . Rent of land producing L. 1 5

per ajimwii at two-MthSf L.6 0 0 L. 416 0

2. Rent of land producing L. 10

per acre, at one-thu'd, - S6S 2126

3. Rent of land producing L. 5

per acre, at one-fourth, - 150 0198

For inferior produce, perhaps one-fifth might be suffi-
cient *.

It is to be observed, that these calculations are intend-
ed for land in an arable state, (grazing farms must be let
on principles totally different, namely, according to the
quantity of stock they can maintain) ; and that the rent
is supposed to be in full of all demands exigible from the
tenant.

* It is 'remarked by Mr Stewart of Hillside, that the rent
ought to depend upon other circumstances as well as the propor-
tional quality of the soil and quantity of produce. Lands of a
good soil and subsoil may be so high situated as to make the crop
greatly more precarious, and the grain inferior in quality, and it
may be distant from lime and from markets. This will add
greatly to the expence of management, and must lessen the price
of the produce. In these high-situated farms, turnips will often
grow lu.Kuriant, but they cannot be depended on for the whole of
the winter months, and seldom or never in spring, unless they arc
stored. They become the more precarious, that they must be,
sown early in the season, of course they are the more subject to
be frosted, Huta baga, however, or Swedish turnip, is not liable
to this objection.

RENT, AND MODE OF PAYMENT. 89

It has been contended, that as both the cxpence of culii-
rating land, and the value of its produce, are infinitely va-
rious, a fanner ought to calculate, what profit he can
make, on his idiolefarm, without entering into details -, it
being of httle consequence to him, whether he pays at the
rate of L. 10 or 10?,. per acre, provided he makes an ade-
quate interest on the capital invested. That is certainly a
fair criterion on which a tenant may calculate what he ought
to oifer ; but a landlord, in estimating the rent he ought
to demand, must take into his consideration the produce
that his land is likely to yield, and to what proportion of
it, or its value at a fair average, he is justly entitled, un-
der all the circumstances of the case.

2. In regard to the mode in which rents should be paid,
I have no hesitation in stating, that a pait of the rent
ought to depend on the price of grain, not at the moment,
but at the average often, or of twenty-one years, striking off
the first, and adding a new one every year. Without some
such arrangement, the tenant, on the one hand, cannot
make a fair offer of rent, lest the price of grain should fall
too low ; nor, on the other, can the landlord grant a lease
of considerable duration, lest the price of grain should, in
the progress of time, rise much higher. It is for the in-
terest of both parties, therefore, that whilst one-half of the
rent should be payable in money, the other half should be
converted into corn, not payable in kind, but in money,
according to the average value of a number of years *.

* Dr Young of Stouebaven, an able correspondent, has sent me
the following instance of the injury wliich a landlord received by
injudiciously converting a large proportion of grain, into a money
rent. A farm was let in lease previous to 17^5, at which time
the rent was 29 bolls of meal, 14 bolls of bear, services which
would now be worth L. 1 5, and L. 5 of money. On the letting in
1765, the whole was converted into money, and a small advancQ

90 RENT, AND MODE OF TAYMENT.

For a farm already improved, the rent payable half in
money, and half in the value of a certain quantity of
grain, on a continually changing ten, or twenty-one years'
average, may continue indefinitely to landlord and te-
nant.

Instead of a corn rent, some recommend an increase of
money rent at regular periods, and this plan is necessary,
with a view to improvement, where longer leases are granted
than for twenty-one years. In such cases, a low rent at first,
enables the farmer to carry on his operations with less capi-
tal than otherwise he would require, and he is afterwards

of rent given. In 17S4, the farm was re-let, and another ad-
vance of rent given, on a lease to endure for 57 years. The rent
fixed at the last letting, to continue for the long period mentioned,
was L. 28. Hence there is now the following difference at a mo-
derate valuation:

29 IjoIIs of meal, - L. 29 0 0

1 4. bolls of bear, - - 14 0 0

Services, - - 15 0 0

^Money, - - 5 0 0

L.53 0 0
Present rent, . - 28 0 0

Difference, or actual loss to the landlord, L. 35 0 0

So that valuing grain moderately, the present rent is less than
what it would have been, by more than one-half, had the same
rent continued, as paid upwards of 50 years ago. This is strong-
ly in favour of a rent partly payable at least in the value of grain.
Indeed, considering the great import of corn, and the rapid in-
crease by the culture of potatoes, by both of which the price of
corn is so materially diminished, some are of opinion, that even
a corn rent, unless varying every seven or ten years, is not a suf-
ficient protection to the interests of Ihe landlord.

KENT, AND MODE OF PAYMENT.

i)l

enabled to pay, without difficulty, a moderate addition, as
the farm gets into good order. How much better for the
landlord to adopt such a plan, than to require an enor-
mous rent from the beginning, which would crush the
spirit of the farmer, deaden his exertions, check the im-
provement of his property, and ultimately retard its reacli-
ing its full value, and consequently its yielding an adequate
rent.

It may be proper to add, that notwithstanding the high
rent paid in Scotland, which renders the prospect of any
additional rent more unlikely, yet land sells at a consider-
able price, or number of years' purchase on the improved
rent, from a conviction of the superior advantages of pos-
sessing landed property in that country. The following
table contains a statement of the sale of several estates
in the immediate neighbourhood of Cupar, the county
town of Fife, and which all took place in the course of the
year 1809.

Names of the
Estatcj.

Number of
Scotch acres.

Number of
English acres.

Price.

Names of the
Purchasers,

Dairsie,
Spring Garden,
Cairnie,
Kilmaron,
Hilton,

320
82
400
270
250

384
98

480
324
300

L. 28,500
14,500
32,000
26\000
20,500

Traill, Esq.
Coll. Don.
Gillespie, Esq.
Cai)'. Maitland.
Lord Levtn.

1322

1 5S6

121,500

Which is at the rate of L. 91, 18 s. jJcr Scotch, or L. 73
per English acre *. Land often sells much higher in small
lots, more especially near large towns; but to have such a
number of acresy sold at such a price, at such a distance
from the metropolis of Scotland, is rather extraordinary.

* The estate oi Eccles in Berwickshire was sold in 1 803 at
about L. 26,600. It is now resold at L. 48,000. It conlains 0^0

02 COVENANTS IN LEASES.

Sect. IV. — On the Advantages of Leases^ their Duration,
and the Covenants to he inserted in them.

It is impossible to expect that any fanner will undertake
to increase the value of the property of another, without
the certainty of having the land he improves in his pos-
session, for a term of years, sufficient, not only to repay his
expenditure, but also to reward him for his skill and indus-
try in making the improvement *.

When a farmer of spirit and capital enters into the pos-
session of a farm, on a lease of 1 9 or 3 1 years, what a scene
of industry and exertion commences ! The whole neigh-
bourhood, and even distant counties are ransacked for
good stock ; the best instruments of husbandry are pur-
chased ; the fields are thoroughly ploughed and cultivated ;

EngVisb, nearly 504 Scotch acres. It ought therefore to be let
at the yearly rent of L. 1920, to yield 4/Jer ctnt, for the price,
the common rate of lands in this country when they are purcha-
sed. The rent would thus be brought to L. 3, \^%,ftr Scotch,
or L. 2 ; 14 : 11 jter English acre.

* Mr Curwen has very ally observed, that example, and im-
provements in agriculture, are of little consequence to a farmer,
without a lease. He is precluded from adopting them. Whatever
advances the value of his farm, beyond the state in which he took
it, renders his tenure more insecure. If he wislies to keep his
farm, it must not appear to be above the scale of moderate ad-
vantage. If his exertions shew it to be capable of improvement,
he hazards the h)ss of it. How much is lost to the public by
this narrow and stiipid policy !

COVENANTS IN LEASES. 93

the fences are put into good order ; lime and other ex-
traneous manures are provided in considerable quantities ;
the necessary drains are carefully attended to ; and the
whole is caiTied on, in the spirit of commercial speculation ^
with a view of securing, not only indemnification for actual
outlay, but also considerable profit before the expiration of
the term. Can any plan be more advantageous to the te-
nant, to the landlord himself, or to the public ? The te-
nant lays out his capital with spirit, but with more atten-
tion to economy, than if the land were his own ; and when
judiciously laid out, he will ultimately derive more certain
profits, for the sura he has expended, than the manulkc-
turer, or the merchant. The proprietor gets a fan* rent
for his land, has the satisfaction of seeing his estate in a
progressive state of improvement, and has the prospect of
a considerable addition to his own income, or that of his
family, when the lease he has granted is at an end. Tlie
public is benefited in various ways, and, above all, in ha-
ving from one-fourth, to one-third, and in some cases one-
half, greater produce, than if the land had remained in its
former state of precarious tenure, at the will of the land-
lord ; in which case, the tenant has no spur to any exer-
tion, beyond common industry, and no temptation to lay
out any sum beyond what is absolutely necessary for the
preservation of his farm, in a state of common, instead of
superior, cultivation.

Such are the advantages which in general are to be ex-
pected from the granting of leases : we shall proceed to
consider two most important particulars connected with
that interesting subject: 1. Their duration; and, 'i. TIjc
covenants to be inserted m them.

1. Duration of Leases.

Tlie duration of leases must certainly differ, flccordingr
to a varietv of circumstances. If a farm is almost in a statr

04} DURATION OF LEASES,

of nature, and requires infclosing, liming, draining, and o-
ther expensive improvements, and perhaps the expenditure
of a considerable sum for erecting and repairing a house
and offices, a lease of twenty-five, and in some cases even
of thirty-one years, may be necessary, to allow the improv-
ing farmer, or his family, a fair and adequate return *. A
spirited tenant, who takes a farm of that description, con-
sidering his risk, trouble, and expence, is well entitled to
more than mere remuneration, or ordinary profit f .

* It is objected to such a length of lease, that the improving
tenant will probably have died before the lease terminates; that
his heir may be a minor, and may not possess the skill and
talents of his predecessor. It is more likely, however, that a
son will succeed, trained up to skilful husbandry under his father's
eye.

t Mr Neil Ballingal took a farm of 330 Scotch, or 482 Eng-
lish acres, in the county of Fife, at 15 s. per acre, on a lease of
31 years. The whole of it required draining, liming, fallowing,
&c. at an expence, varying from L. 10 to even L. 20 j7er acre.
The whole improvement, owing to the extent of the farm, and the
great expence attending its improvement, which the tenant could
only gradually defray, was not completed till the nineteenth year
of the lease. Can a stronger proof be adduced of the absolute neces-
sity of granting a lease of 3 1 years, in similar cases. The farmer
was no gainer, even at the low rent of 15 s. per acre, for the first
19 years, expending, on completing his improvements, the profit
derived from the parts already improved ; but he went on with
cheerfulness, expecting to be reimbursed by the possession of a
completely improved farm, at a moderate rent, for eleven years,
capable of being cultivated, by half the number of men ami
horses formerly used, actually maintaining double the number of
cattle, and producing three times the quantity of grain it was ca-
pable of doing before the improvement commenced ; — all this, at
15 s. per acre, insured a competent reward for his exertions.

As another proof of the advantages of long leases in promoting

DURATION OF LEASES. 95

In regard to a farm that is even considerably improved,
a lease of nineteen, or perhaps twenty-one years, is also
necessary ; but these periods, in such a case, ought not
to be exceeded. Unless specific improvements, expensive,
and, at the same time, little profitable to the tenant, are
stipulated, the common duration of nineteen years is
enough; even though one-fifth part of an arable farm,
of considerable extent, requires improvement, if that fifth
be of a nature to encmirage the attempt, and if the tenant
has capital, begins in time, and goes on with spirit.
The produce of the lands themselves will yield a suffi-
cient bonm in the duration of a common lease of nine-
teen years. If it is extended to twenty-one years, the
tenant is certainly safer. Such a term, however, is ne-
cessary, because no farm can be in such a state of per-
fection, as to require no further improvement. New modes
may be necessary, in consequence of new discoveries in
agriculture, or unforeseen alterations in the political circum-
stances of a country. Unless a farmer, however, has his pos-
session secured to him, he can have no inducement to

improvement, it is said that the greatest outlay of farming ca-
pital on building, inclosing, and improving the soil, has been
where fifty-seven leases were granted, above twenty years ago,
on the lordship of Noedpath, belonging to the late Duke of
Queensberry. That estate was all let for grassums or fines,
which no doubt considerably reduced the farmer's capital, yet a
power being granted to assign or subset it, gave security for bor-
rowing. The expectation of a long lease afforded large scope to
permanent amelioration, every species of which was executed at
the farmer's cxpencc. This, nothing but the length of the lease,
and the hopes of a distant return, could have justified. The
great improvements which took place, in the Orniiston estate, in
consequence of long leases, are too well known to require anv 'la:-
ticular discnssion. .

S6f DURATION OF LEASES.

try any experiment whatever, and agi'iculture, in that case,
must remain for ever stationary. A man who has a con-
siderable capital also, and wishes to employ it in extensive
farming, has a right to look for the comforts and conve-
niences of life for himself and family ; and if he finds he
can have no security for them in that line, (which he ne-
ver can do, if he is liable to lose his farm every year, or in
the course of any short period of time), he will most as-
suredly renounce so unpromising a profession, and employ
himself and his capital in some other way. Leases of consi-
derable duration, therefore, are to be considered a most
essential requisite towards promoting the interests of agri-
culture, in all cases ; and it can hardly be doubted, that,
to the granting of leases, the security they give to the far-
mer, and the inducement they hold out to men of liberal
education, enlarged ideas, and extensive capital, to engage
in that profession, the present flourishing state of agricul-
ture in Scotland is to be imputed, more than to all other
causes whatever.

So forcibly do these considerations, (for which I am in-
debted to a most respectable correspondent, Robert Wal-
ker, Esq. of Wooden in Roxburghshire), strike my mind,
ihat,^ if it were not on the whole impolitic for the legis-
lature to interfere with the management of private pro-
perty, I should think it a measure entitled to considera-
tion, the propriety of imposing a heavier land-tax, where
farms are not under lease, than where they arc, as a pe-
nalty on the proprietor, for not promoting the improve-
ment of the country, and the comfort, the happiness, and
independent spirit of those who live under him *. The

• The same idea has occurred to Mr Curwoi). He says, a
question arises, Has the proprietor the sole and entire interest in
the land he possesses ? In China, most undoubtedly, the laws
shew tijc very reverse. The principle of the law is also here against

DURATION' OF LEASES. 97

tenant, in some cases, is as much to blame as the landlord,
by not applying for a lease. Wherever the tenant does
not wish for a lease, it is evident, that his object is, to
remain in a state of torpor, and not to excite any ex-
pectation of additional rent, by any attempt at improve-
ment.

On the subject of leases, nothing can be stronger than
the following opinion, delivered by a most respectable and
intelligent country gentlemen, (William Robertson, Esq.
of Ladykirk), whose property is considered to be one of
the best managed in Scotland. His words are, " When
*' the proprietors of land in England find it convenient to
*' let leases of sufficient endurance, then the rent of land
*' will find a just level, and the consequence will be, the
*< improvement of husbandry. Until that is done, all o-
" ther matters, connected with the amelioration of the soil,
** must in a certain degree be stationary."

It must not be imagined, however, that leases ought to
be indiscriminately given. They certainly ought not to
be granted, but where a farm is of a proper size, and is
put into a shape for profitable cultivation, and where te-
nants also can be found, possessed of skill, spirit, and capital.
The improvement of an estate may be retarded, instead of
being promoted, if leases are given of ill-arranged occupa-
tions, and to ignorant, slothful, and needy farmers, not
entitled to that honourable appellation. Nor ought leases
to be gi'anted, (being in fact, during the period agreed

it. The law recognises, where, there are two concurrent rights,
that neither of them shall be exercised so as to be injurious to
the other. If the withholding leases should extend so far as to
become general, would it not be fully justifiable to impose such a
tax as should meet and correct what would be so injurious to the
community at large?

r. II, Tr

98 COVENANTS IN LEASES.

upon, a species of alienation of property), without proper
covenants, protecting that property from waste.

Far less are leases of an indefinite length, as for one life,
or for several lives, to be recommended. Experience has fully
demonstrated, that any uncertain period is injurious to im-
provement, and that nineteen or twenty-one years, is a fair
term, in an improved country, enabling the tenant to lay out
his money with the prospect of a profitable return. When
the length of a lease is fixed, the tenant makes his axrange-
ments accordingly, and he lays out his capital early, in
the expectation of having a greater return before the ter-
mination of the lease ; but when the term depends upon
his own life, he is apprehensive, that if he spends a large
sum of money, the benefit of it may be lost to himself and
family, from the uncertainty of human existence. He lays
out no pait of his capital, therefore, but in the expec-
tation of immediate returns, and the longer he lives, he
becomes the more negligent, and the less incHned to ex-
ertion.

2. Of Covenants in Leases.
When a lease is granted, more especially of any dura-
tion, it is essentially necessary for the interest of the land-
lord, who is properly a trustee for the public, that it should
be under such covenants, as may prevent the property
from being injured, instead of being improved, more es-
pecially when the lease approaches to its termination, and
the tenant has no pecuUar inducement to prosecute his
improvements. In general, the covenants in leases, which
are a species of rent, arc too complicated, and too uumc-^
rous. Unnecessary restrictions in a lease are a great im-
pediment to improvements, by precluding a spirit of enter-
prise, and of experiment, which have proved the principal
sources of new discoveries, and of prosperous agriculture.
At the same time, where there arc no covenants, caiculatcil

COVENA34TS IN LEASES. 99

for preserving the farm in good order at the termination
of the lease, or providing for a certain proportion of grass,
a certain quantity of land to be reserved for the incoming
tenant, for turnips or summer fallow, nor the fodder of
the last crop, in that case, the crop of the outgoing tenant,
(who takes care to plough eveiy thing he can), may be
sold off by public auction, and the farm left in poverty
and wretchedness. This has often happened to negligent
landlords.

Among the covenants necessary for their protection,
without imposing any unnecessary restraint on the tenant,
the following are the most essential.

1. The lease to go to the tenant, and the heir succeed-
ing to him in the principal part of his property, and not
to be divided into smaller portions, without the consent of
the landlord.

It is supposed, when a farm is let to one individual,
that it is of a proper size or standard, any diminution of
which might be highly inconvenient, if not ruinous to the
farm. For instance, if a farm is divided into six fields,
under a rotation of six shifts, or breaks, it would be in the
highest dcgi'ee prejudicial, to have one of them taken frOm
the farm, and let to another. It may be proper also, in
the event of the death of the original tenant, that the farm
should go either to the eldest son, or to a^y one of his
children to be named by the father, to prevent that jarring
of interests, which must inevitably injure tlie cultivation ot
the land, and probably bring tlie whole family to ruin.

2. If the tenant or his heirs wish to give up the farm,
or are compelled by bankruptcy to renounce the posses-
sion of it, in that case the landlord shall have the prefer-
ence, at a surplus rent or price to be determined by arbi-
ters mutually chosen, or appointed by the sheriff of the
county ; or it may be agreed upon between the parties,
that the lease shall be assignable, or the farm sublet, for a

Tr 2

] 00 COVENANTS IN LEASES.

certain surplus rent, and not for any premium, 20 per cent.
of which surplus rent shall be payable to the landlord,
as an inducement to him to grant that privilege-
Such a power, of subletting, it is said, would tend to
throw much additional capital into the agricultural profes-
sion, as active men, possessed of funds for the purpose, would
more readily embark in a business in which they could make
progressive advances in wealth, as a merchant, instead
of being confined to mediocrity, as every farmer must
comparatively be, who is tied down, for nineteen or twenty-
one years of his life, to the improvement of any particular
farm whatever.

3. All mines, minerals, metals, coal, peat, marl, lime-
stone and quarries of all kinds, to be reserved to the land-
lord, with power to him, or those authorised by him, to
search for, work, and take out, all, or any of these,
in any part of the lands, and to carry them off at any
time; and also to make roads, aqueducts, and levels,
and to erect houses and machinery, when and where he
may judge requisite for such purposes ; the tenant being
always allowed deduction from his rent, or to be otherwise
paid, for any actual damage * done to his grounds, and
loss occasioned to him by any of these operations, as the
same shall be ascertained by two neutral persons of skill,
to be mutually chosen.

* I think in fairness to th'i tenant, if he gives the full value for
the land, that it should he actual, and not surface damage alone.
If the tenant does not get actual damages, he does not get
fair damages, that is compensation for damages or loss sustained.
Powers should he reserved to the tenant to quarry for stones,
when they are to be emplo}ed upon the farm in building, drain-
ing, (5v:c. to dig peats for fuel, to quarry lime, or to dig marie for
manure, for the use of the farm, but not ior sale.

COVENANTS IN LEASES. JOl

■t. Full power reserved to the landlord, to make or al-
ter roads through the lands, for the accommodation of
his estate; to form or repair boundary fences, to make
embankments against injury from the sea, from lakes or
rivers, and also to straighten boundaries, and exchange
lands, either with any of the neighbouring proprietors, or
with any of his other tenants, not exceeding one-tenth part
of the farm let, and the annual value of the ground taken
away, or thrown into the farm, by these means, after being
ascertained by two indifferent men to be mutually chosen,
shall be deducted from, or added to, the rent.

5. The landloi'd reserving a right to cut and carry away
growing timber, and also at any time, during the currency
of the lease, to assume possession of any part or parts of
the lands which he shall choose, for being planted with trees,
or for building houses, or for other purposes, provided the
ground so taken shall not exceed acres, the situation
and boundaries thereof to be described, in the most distinct
and unequivocal terms, in the deed ; and the tenant shall
be entitled to a deduction from his rent, for the land so re-
sumed, according as the same shall be settled by indiffer-
ent men, to be mutually chosen ; the proprietor being
bound to inclose, at his own sole expence, the land so
planted, and to keep such additional fences in repair *.

6. The landlord reserving all fish and game on the farm,
with the sole right of fishing, fowling and hunting, by him-
self, his gamekeepers, or others having his authority in

* It seems unjust to throw any share of the expence of milking
or repairmg such fences on the tenant, as the whole benefit ot the
phintations go to the landlord, unless where the plantations and
the fences connected with them, inclose and divide the farm in a
proper manner, and consequently on that account, and Irom the
shelter they yield, are advantageous to the tenant himself.

102 CWENAXTS IN' LEASES.

\vriting * j but always so as not to injure the land^ fences,
or any sown or planted crop, and being liable to make a
recompence for the same, at the arbitration of two neu-
tral men mutually chosen. On the banks of rivers, the
preser\'ation of salmon and salmon-fry ought to be pecu-
liarly attended to.

7. The landlord reserving power, if at any time the
houses, fences, gates, and drains on the farm, shall be
found in great disrepair ^ to cause the same to be put in
proper order, and to charge the tenant with the expences
thereof, unless he (the tenant) shall execute such repair
within six months after being required so to do, by a no-
tice in writing f ; or denies the necessity of such repairs,

* Perhaps the right of riding or walking in any field, more es-
pecially if contiguous to a mansion-house, ought also to be reser-
ved. An eminent lawyer once said to his tenant : * I cannot go,
' without your leave, into that park you rent from me, though it
• is at my own door.'

t It is impossible to limit the time for executing repairs to a
short period, for instance, one month. The mechanics or labour-
ers in the vicinity might be previously engaged. A fall of
snow or intense frost may render it morally impossible even to
commence the repair of eitber fences or drains, with a fair pro-
spect of executing them economically, or even in a business-like
or substantial manner, within that space of time. Harvest and
seed-time should also be excepted. It is contended, indeed, tbat
the clause should be cautiously worded, so as to prevent its be-
ing turned to the worst purposes, those of oppression. Arbiters,
if necessary, should determine whether such repairs be wanted,
else a tenant may be injured by the mere ignorance of a landlord,
with fair intentions. But if the landlord sliould be in main atiiiiio,
what else but eternal vexation, and enormous cxpcncc, is to be
expected, without benefit to cither party ?

COVENANTS IN LEASES. 103

in which case the nece^ity thereof must be settled by ar-
bitration *.

8. The farm to be cultivated, manured, and cropped in
a fair and regular manner. One-fourth in turnip soils, and
one-sixth in clay lands, to be in grass, and the same pro-
portions of the farm to be left in grass, properly sown
down with clover and grass seeds, and that in regular fields
or divisions, each consisting of at least acres. During
the three last years of the lease, one-fourth part of the
land in tillage to be rnider a fallow or a green crop, sown
in drills, and properly manured with lime or dung, and no
two crops of white grain to succeed each other, without a
£jliow or green crop intervening, unless justified by pecu-
liar circumstances, or some unforeseen necessity ; in which
case it may be permitted, for one year, if the required
proportion of land in grass, and green crop and fallow, is
to be found.

9. All the hay, straw, and artificial grasses, growing
3'early on the farm, to be consumed on it, and the dung
made therefrom to be regularly laid on the lands ; but in
case a certain quantity of dung has been brought in the
course of any one year to the farm, from any neighbour-»
ing town or village, a certain C]uantity of hay or straw
may be sold from it, either the succeeding year, or the
one after.

* Some recommend, that in addition to this general power,
tl)ere should be fixed periods when the proprietor, either by him-
self or others, should ascertain tbfe state and progress of improve-
ments, with respect to inclosing, &c. By this means he will see
whether the conditions of the lease are fairly fulfilled, and will
have it in his power to stimulate the exertions of an indolent
tenant, and regulate and correct the injudicious operations of an
unskilful one. But this can onl}' be necessary where the tenant
is of a doubtful character.

LO* COVENANTS IX LEASES.

1 0. The tenant, in turnip soils, to leave at least a tlmxl
of the lands in grass of one, two, and three years old, all
laid dowTi with the crop after summer fallow or turnip,
with hberty to sow grass seeds among the whole of the
last grain crop, to be covered according to the custom of
the country ; to prepare, at a reasonable price, a sufficient
breadth of ground for turnips or summer fallow ; and the
stable-yard manure, made during the winter preceding
the last crop he grows, to be left, and paid for at a fair
value. On rich arable land, one-sixth part to be in grass
of one year, and one-sixth of two years, and one-sixth
prepared for fallow or turnips j and if the soil is clay, one-
sixth in beans may be fau'ly stipulated, for the three years
preceding the termination of the lease.

* 11. The straw of the last crop belonging to the te-
nant, to be left on the farm, and sold to the incoming
tenant, at the average price of the district, provided the
straw was paid for when the tenant entered into posses-
sion.

12. The tenant to make good any damage that may be
occasioned by fire; and for the greater security of the land-
lord, the tenant to keep his houses and offices constantly
insured, in some respectable insurance office, to the extent
of at least . Such insurance to be at his
sole expence, the documents thereof to be produced when
required j and in case of neglecting the same, for the
space of six months, after due notice in writing, the lease
to be void.

13. The rent agreed upon, to be payable by equal por-
tions, half yearly, at the usual terms in the months of May
and November.

These terms are fixed upon for the better security of
the landlord, and to prevent embezzlement of the crop ;

COVENANTS IN LEASES. 10 i

but three months additional time is in general allowed to
the tenant, to dispose of the produce of his farm *.

l^. All personal services to be abolished, but the tenant
to become bound to make or to repair, a certain extent of
the roads belonging to the farm, if necessary.

15. All disputes between the landlord and the tenant to
be settled by the arbitration of one or two men mutually
chosen, and, in case of variance, the arbiter or arbiters, if
they judge it necessary, shall submit the case to the judg-
ment of some eminent counsel, at the mutual expence of
both parties, whose opinion shall be final.

These hints, (some of which are extracted from the ar-
ticles of lease recommended by the intelligent Professor of
Agriculture, in the University of Edinburgh, Dr Coven-
try), will sufficiently explain the covenants which seem to
me essential, in almost every lease. Peculiar circumstances
may render additional ones necessary ; for instance, not to
break up old pastures, without paying a very considerable
additional rent, &c. There is nothing however less to be
desired, than to make such a deed or instrument too long,
or the restrictions in it too complicated, or to deprive the
tenant of all freedom of exertion, whilst he is carrj'ing on
his improvements. With regard to management in gene-
ral, the stipulations, at the commencement of the lease,
should all be of a negative tendency ; i. e. the farmer
should only be restricted from following a mode that is
generally alloisaed to be injurious, but left to adopt any new
or improved line of management that may fortunately be
discovered. Positive directions for management, should
never take place, till the three last years of the lease.

* Where the clergyman of a parish receives grain in kind, the
tenants on an estate ought to furnish the quantity to be paid, ia
proportion to their respective possessions, to be allowed for it as
part of their rent,

1Q6 COVENANTS IN LEASES.

Before closing this important inquiry, it may not be im-
proper to lay before the reader, such observations of a misr
cellaneous nature, as have been transmitted to me on the
subject of leases.

It has been remarked, regarding the restriction of sell-
ing hay, that as that article is never converted into dung,
like straw in the form of litter, there should be no restric-
tion against selling it. It is the interest of the tenant that
his horses and cattle be well fed, and if there shall be any
surplus of hay, he should be allowed to carry it to market.
Grass, converted into hay, is not, like grain, of an exhaust-
ing nature, but is sown to meliorate the ground, and to
enable the tenant to pay his rent. If a crop of hay, there-
fore, brings little money into the pocket of the tenant, and
if one-sixth part of his farm must be in a bare fallow, how
can he possibly stand in a manner the loss of two crops out
of six ? He may be tempted to risk a scanty crop of pease,
or even a scourging crop of potatoes, imperfectly manured.
In regard to the sale of hay, therefore, some latitude is ne-
cessary. This idea, however, is strongly objected to ; and
it is contended, that the farmer, upon a fair calculation,
would make more by feeding his horses with the hay,
which would make a great saving in the consumption of
oats, than by sending the hay to the market and bringing
back dung. In all such cases, the farmer should make
exact calculations of expcnce and profit ; and above all,
should never be induced to attempt any plan by which the
quantity of dung, (that great source of fertility), can be in
any degree diminished. In this case, by feeding his horses
with hay instead of straw, and littering them well with
straw, a great quantity of manure would be obtained, at
a cheaper rate, tluui by baying and carrying it from any
(distance.

Another correspondent observes, that in general he
Studies to have alternate green and corn crops, allowing

COVENANTS IN LEASES. 107

such land as has been sown off with grass seeds, (wliich is
always done along with the first crop after fallow or turnips),
to remain two or three or more years in pasture, according
as the soil is more or less favourable to the growth of corn ;
yet when land is broken up from old ley, two corn crops
are always taken. This practice, however, unless in very
peculiar cases, cannot be approved of. General rules, at
the same time, ought certainly to be modified by sudi
circumstances as are often to be known only to real prac-
titioners; and though the system of alternate green and
corn crops, is beyond question an excellent rule in gene-
ral, deviations from it must sometimes be admitted. In
the instance above stated, the first crop of oats after grass
is often uncertain, whilst the second is generally a good
one ; and the land, after two crops, is reduced to a finer
tilth, for turnips or any otlier green crop *.

Another circumstance may also justify a deviation from
the general rule, that two white crops should never succeed
each other. For instance, grass seeds are generally sown
with the fallow crop, and it will, and does often happen,
that the grass seeds fail. When that is the case, what
can be done ? there is the usual proportion of both green
crop and fallow upon the farm. To compel the farmer,
therefore, to put the land, where the grass seeds have failed,
imder a green crop, would often be very inconvenient. The
usual plan is, to plough the field, Avhere the grass seeds
have failed, for another white crop, either oats or barley,

* It is also contended, that io remote parts of the country,
where green crops are not so valuable as in the vicinity of large
towns, two corn crops may be allowed, after the ground has been
pastured for three or more years, provided that not more than
one half of the arable land is under a white crop at once, and that
one-fourth of the farm, at the least, is under grass two years old.
That system, however, cannot be recommended.

108 COVENANTS IN LEASED".

and to allow the grass field, that was intended to be plough-
ed up, to lie for another season.

In 1802, Mr Pringle of Ballencrieff, in East-Lothian,
took a farm in Galloway on a lease of thirty years, for
the pui-pose of improvement ; it was proposed to leave
him at full liberty to manage and crop it in any man-
ner he chose, for the first twenty years ; but for the re-
maining ten, a rotation of crops was proposed, respect-
ing the advantages of which he entertained considerable
doubt. He observed, that it was most fair the proprietor
should put it out of the tenant's power to deteriorate the
farm towards the expiration of the lease ; but that it was
absurd to prescribe a mode of management, and a rotation
of crops to be rigidly followed at so distant a period, as
from twenty to thirty years from the commencement of the
lease; that rotations, like most other things, have their day
and fashion ; that we think lightly of rotations which were
esteemed the best thirty years ago ; that the political situa-
tion of the country might be changed, as well as the re-
lative value of the different grains we cultivate, and that
a better rotation of crops might yet be discovered, than
any hitherto known. He therefore suggested^ that at the
end of twenty years, the mode of cropping, during the re-
mainder of the lease, should be fixed by arbitrators, mu-
tually chosen by the parties, or by the sheriff of the county.
Such a clause was adopted, and has since been in several
instances introduced into leases of farms in Dumfries-
shire.

There is no point, however, that has been piore strong-
ly recommended, as likely to prove advantageous to the
agricultural interests of the country, than to authorise the
subletting of land. It is maintained, that until l(>ascs be-
come disposable property, the utmost value can never be ob-
tained for an estate, because people who know how to make
ihc most of their capital, hesitate, nay revolt at the idea,

COVENANTS IX LEASES. U)9

of investing their property, whence they cannot withdraw
it, when they perceive another more advantageous mode of
employing it. If a hindlord entertains a partiality for a te-
nant, because he is a good cultivator, he may be almost cer-
tain that the subtenant, to whom the farm is sublet, is at
least as good, if not a better one, because he must pay a high-
er rent. As the law now stands, there is an implied exclusion
either to assign or subset, unless a permission to that eflfect
is expressly given in the body of the lease. It would be an
endless task, it is said, to enumerate the baneful conse-
quences of this system to the community at large as well
as to die landholder. It may be fairly asked, why make a
fi'eehold or feuhold estate, assignable at the will of the
possessor, and not a leasehold ? Does it impair the land-
lord's security, or endanger his right of property ? Quite
the reverse. He obtains the security of two or more per-
sons, instead of one, and his farm is as likely to be im-
proved, as the original conditions in regard to manage-
ment cannot be broken through. The principal, as well as
the substitute tenant still remain liable as a co-obligant
to the proprietor, and he will guard against the fai-m being
injured or deteriorated by the person to whom it is de-
vised, more especially if an extra or surplus rent is obtain-
ed. In fact, every new occupant or devisee, contracts up-
on the faith of improving more highly, and raising more
produce, than his predecessor, by dint of additional capi-
tal, skill, and industry. Besides, there is a class of enter-
prising agriculturists, whose inclination is more bent upon
active improvement, than confining themselves for nineteen
years to one object or farm, and who, upon being suffered
to reap the benefit of their capital so expended, through
the medium of a subtenant or assignee, would assiduously
persevere in the same system of improving the waste or less
cultivated tracts of the country ; or taking, from indigent,
slothful, and ignorant occupiers of farms, land, to wliiih

I1<J COVENANTS IN LEASED.

they never could do justice. Thus a much greater quan-
tity of capital, skill, and industry would be brought into
the field of agriculture -, a greater quantity of human food
produced; the face of the country enriched and embellish-
ed ; and the interest of the landholder, as well as that of the
community, essentially promoted.

There is certainly much sound ai'gument in these observa-
tions, (by many they will be considered as decisive and in-
controvertible) ; and perhaps a system might be established,
for promoting the improvement of this countiy, at least in
its more remote provinces, in the same manner as the wilds
of America are brought into cultivation. No sooner does
the cultivator finish his task, than he disposes c£ his farai
to another, and commences a new undertaking of a simi-
lar nature. In the same manner persons possessed of ca-
pital, ardent minds, and a turn for agricultural improve-
ment, with a power of subsetting, under reasonable restric-
tions, might go fi'om one farm to another, and thus be the
means of bringing extensive tracts of country into a pro-
ductive state..

COVENANTS IN LEASES. 1 1 1

I liave thus endeavoured to lay before the reader,
the result of a very extensive correspondence, regarding
the circumstances on which a liberal connexion between
a landlord and tenant principally depend. Their interests,
when properly understood, are in general the same ; and
nothing can occasion any material difference between
them, but a misconception of the prmciples on which the
connection ought to subsist. When these principles are
thoroughly explained, (to which I hope the preceding ob-
servations will in some degree contribute), the agriculture
of the kingdom at large will derive advantages, not easily
to be calculated.

DISSERTATION III.

OF THE VARIOUS DESCRIPTIONS OF PERSONS EMPLOYED IN
AGRICULTURAL LABOUR, IN THE MORE IMPROVED DIS-
TRICTS OF SCOTLAND.

nPHE individuals by whom the agricultural labours of
any district is carried on, consist of four descriptions
of persons; 1. Farmers; 2. Farm- Servants ; 3. Appren-
tices in Husbandry ; and 4. Day-Labourers, or others oc-
casionally employed in the cultivation of the soil. It is
proposed to give some account of each of these classes, and
to conclude with some observations on the advantages of
carrying on the operations of a farm, under a regular sys-
tem.

Sect. I. — The Farmers.

In the year 1776, a learned and distinguished writer on
agriculture, (the late Lord Kames), published a long arti-
cle, *' On the imperfection of Scotch Htisbandrij " which then
was at a very low ebb*; and in another part of that valua-
ble work we find the following paragraph : " East Lothian,
time out of mind, has been famous for superior skill in agri-

♦ Gentleman Farmer, p. 3o3.
P. II. H

11 4- THE FARMERS.

culture ; and yet to seek for instruction there, one would
be greatly misled. That county, for the richness of its
crops, is more indebted to the fertility of its soil, than to
the skill of its farmers. AAHiat pity it is, that so fine a
country should be possessed by men so little gi-ateful to na-
ture for her bounties *!" Wliat a change has since taken
place, for that very district has now become a pattern of
improved cultivation. Indeed a zealous fi'iend to agricul-
ture, who has visited every part of the kingdom in search
of useful information, (J. C. Curwen, Esq. member for
Carlisle), in his address to the Workington Society, in
1810, very candidly declares, " that the beauty and regula-
rity of the crops, and the extreme cleanness of tlie fallows,
in East Lothian, struck him more, than any thing he had
ever before beheld in any other countr}' ; that he does not
know a farmer who may not learn something in that dis-
trict ; that in regard both to excellence of soil and ma-
nao-cment, it exceeded any thing he had ever witnessed in
any other part of Great Britain ; and though it costs him
much to own it, that he despairs of being ever able to at-
tain an equal degree of perfection."

So important an alteration, in so short a period as thirty-
five years, must certainly, in a great measure, be attributed,
to the character of the farmers, who, not only in East Lo-
thian, but in the other more improved districts of Scotland,
in respect of enterprise, information, and professional skill,
are fully equal to those of any other country f . Tlicy
liave universally risen above the class of mere peasants, in
knowledge, education, and manners, closely approaching
to the character of country gentlemen J, and filling up the
blank left by the extinction of the smaller proprietors.

* Gtntliin.ni Fanner,!). \l6.
t Ku?l LoLliian Hcpoi t, p. 55.
I lierwickbhlie Report, p. 118.

THE FARMERS. 115

The following observations will give some idea of the
chai-acter of these farmers, and the qualifications they ge-
nerally possess.

There is certainly no country in Europe, where the ad-
vantages of education are more generally diffused than in
Scotland, and this is the case with the upper rank of far-
mers, fully as much as in regard to any other profession.
Besides attendinij the grammar schools in their immediate
neighbourhoods, and sometimes those in the more northern
counties of England, their education is, in many instances,
perfected at the universities of Scotland, where they ac-
quire a taste for reading, which makes them masters, not
only of agricultural information, but enables them after-
wards, to make a very respectable figure, whenever lite-
rary, or even scientific sulyccts, become the topics of con-
versation *.

Their mode of livinor varies. In the more northern
districts, such as the Carse of Gowrie, they are distinguish-
ed for economy ; whereas, in the more southern counties,
their mode of living unites at once, the comforts, and even
the elegancies of life, suited to their station. They have
also frequent and friendly intercourse with each other, both
in their own families, and upon occasions when their pro-
fessional concerns call them from home, either for the pur-
pose of marketing their grain, or purchasing and seUing
live stock f .

Their skill in husbandly is of a superior dcsci'iption,
partly owing to the examples set before them by their
predecessors, who were well acquainted wiih some of the
most important branches of agriculture, though certainly
deficient in others, and partly owing to their personally
examining the husbandry of other districts ; but, above

* Eatt Lothian Report, p. 56".
f East Eolliian llepoil, p. 55.
H 2

116 THE FARMERS.

all, it may be attributed to their turn for reading, either
books, or periodical publications on husbandry, from which
they derive the earUest information of eveiy new unprove-
ment.

Their attention to business is characteristic. One far-
mer ipforms me, that it is a rule with him, to see his
Jiorses thoroughly cleaned every evening at eight o'clock.
Another observes, how essential it is that the farmer should
be commander in chief upon all occasions ; in particular,
he ought to be the first up in the morning, to set all the
whe<^ls of the machine a-going, by his example and direc-
tions, Impressed with the necessity of observing that
maxim, my correspondent informs me, that he has not
breakfasted by day-light, any time these nineteen years, dur-
ing 'voinfer^ (except by accident on any particular day), nor
any individual in his house. The breakfast is ail over by
candle-hght, by which means an hour is saved, wliich many
farmers lose by indolence -, yet six hours in a week, is near-
ly equal to the working part of a winter day. This is a
greater object than can at first view be imagined, where
there are perhaps twenty servants, at daily work, or in
that proportion.

Mr Kerr, in his report of Berwickshire, has very ably
described, that spirit of enterprise by which the farmers of
Scotland are distinguished, which, though he has restricted
his observations to Berwickshire, the county, the state of
whose agriculture he was reporting, yet they are equally
applicable to other districts. In the improved districts of
Scotland, the farmers are every where seen, carrying on
extensive and costly improvcmejit§, by draining, inclosing,
liming, and marling, or by careful and judicious improve-
ments of their live-stock, wilh all the eagerness and intel-
ligence of commercial speculation. They tmst to the pro-
fits of future years, to reimburse their large expenditures,
with reasonable atlvantnge. Thov arc enabled to wait the

THE FAnMET?*: 117

result, in consequence of tlic sufliciency of their capital,
and the security of their leases : the former derived from
their own successful and intelligent itidustry, or that of
their fathers ; the latter, from the good sense of the land-
lords, in seeing their own interests, most materially intci*-
woven, in the security and success of their tenants.

Such is the anxiety entertained by the Scotch farmers,
in regard to improvement, that many of them make annual
excursions into the best cultivated districts of the united
kingdom, where they have an opportunity of observing the
practice of those districts, and comparing it with their own ;
and such is their candour and good sense upon these occa-«
sions, that though they may see much to censure, they
neither withhold their approbation where it is due, nor are
they backward in adopting the improvements of others,
where they are likely to answer *.

The principles on which their system of husbandry ig
established, depends on three important particulars : 1 .
Economy 5 2. Simplicity ; and 3. Arrangement.

Their economy is conspicuous, in their two-horse
ploughs, their single-horse carts, their mode of feeding their
horses, &c. The simplicity of their system appears, in their
avoiding breeding stock as much as possiblef , but purchas-
ing them when wanted ; in their not cultivating too great
a variety of articles, and in their having all their instru-
ments, of as plain and simple a construction as possi-
ble. The arrangement of labour on their farms is also ju-
dicious, insomuch, that notwithstanding their living in an
unfavourable climate, almost everj' day is well employed,
and very few are lost. This is certainly greatly owing to

* East Lothian Report, p. 55.
t The advantages of this plan have been pointed out in Cl>ap. I.

Sect. 8. In many parts of Berwickshire, however, they prefer
the breeding systcru.

118 THE FARMERS.

the preference they give to married servants, who are more
sober and steady, less inclined to remove, and, by their
getting acquainted with the farmer's plan of working, every
thing goes on like clock-work.

On the whole, the farmers, in the more improved dis-
tricts of Scotland, are a most respectable and highly esti-
mable body of men, and perhaps enjoy as great a share of
that distinction and recompense, to which their skill, a-
bilities, and capital give them so just a title, as the same
number of their brethren can boast of in any other coun-
try *.

Sect. II. — Farm-Servatits.

In all the improved counties of Scotland, a great pro-
portion of the servants employed in husbandry are mar-
ried, and rear up numerous families of healthy children.
No sight can possibly be more gratifying to any indivi-
dual, who can contemplate with pleasure the happiness of
his fellow-creatures, than to see such colonies of hardy
and industrious peasantry, as are to be found, on large
farms, in the Carse of Gowrie, in East-Lothian, and in the
counties of Berwick and of Roxburgh. I was thence led
to pay particular attention to the state of farm-servant% in
those districts, the result of which I think it proper to lay
before the reader, on account of its peculiar importance to
a most valuable class of the comnuniity, though by some it
may be considered as too diHuse, and entering too inuch

East Lothian llcport, p. 55.

FAHM-SERVANTS. 119

iiit minutia?. The following detail is principally applica-
ble to the counties of Berwick and Roxburgh, where the
system of maintaining farm-servants is brought to the
greatest possible degree of perfection * ; at the same time,
observations regarding their state in other districts, when
it is necessary, shall be frequently interspersed.

\ . Pef'iod of hiring. — Farm-servants in Scotland, when
married, are usually hired for twelve months ; but where
young men are employed, it is the practice to hire them
only for half a year. When hired for twelve months, it
gives an idea of greater durability to the contract, in conse-
quence of which they are led to continue for many years in
the same service. Indeed it is now a common practice in
many counties, for the ploughmen who have families, when
the wages are once fixed, not to think of any change, but to
remain from year to year, unless any very unforeseen cir-
cumstance should occur, that might induce either the master
or the servant to think of an alteration. It is the practice
in some districts, to hire servants in the months of
June or July, the year's service to commence at the Mar-
tinmas {23d November) following j whereas in other
districts, they are not hired till Martinmas-day, and
they go home the same day to service, which is thought
a bad system, both for the farmer and the servant. In
Bei-wickshire, Whitsunday is the term ; and when a farmer
enters at Martinmas, it is often difficult to get farm-servants
worth die having.

* The account of the state of the farm-servants in the counties
of Berwick and Roxburgh, is principally extracted from a most
interesting communication on this particular subject transmitted
to me by Mr Low of Woodend: in regard to the other districts,
from the answers of several other intelligent correspondents, and
Jrom the valuable report of Berwickshire drawn up by Mr K«rr,

12a

FARM-SERVANTS.

2. Place of residence. — Every hind* or ploughman has
a separate house provided for him by his master. This he
furnishes himself, at an expence of from L. 20 to L. 30.
These houses were formerly very indifferent hovels, but they
are now built with stone, covered with pantiles, and some-
times with slate. The expence, at the present rate of la-
bour, and price of materials, may be from L. 30 to L. 40
each, according to size, and distance from materials. Some
cottages, however, have cost from L. 50 to L. 60. The
following sketch will give an idea of the form or area of
these houses, the position of the beds, and of the fire place,
which is usually placed in the partition wall.

Plan of a 'Ber^wiclcsMre Cottage.

3.

4.

J; I 'Beds.

3, Recess for holding milk, &c.

4. Fire place.

5. Pig-sty and coal-house,
G. Inner door.

• The word hind nutans a married |ilini|;liin.m, livii)g in a cot-
tage, as a farm-servant ; and the term p/uiii^ht/ian, has a more t;e-
neral meaning, and may be applied, with propriety, to unmarried
servants, living in their master's family, and working a plougli.

FAUM-SERVAXTS. ii!l

It would be liiglily expedient, to have the houscK of the
farm-servants insured, as children are always fond of play-
inc: with fire : and it is well worth the attention of an en-
lightened and humane landlord, or farmer, who may have
many married servants under him, to pay particular regard
to their cleanliness and health. For that purpose, they should
be induced or bound, twice a year, to have all their move-
able furniture taken out, and carefully cleaned; and at one
of these times, at least, to have the whole inside walls of
the cottage white-washed with lime. For the sake of neat-
ness, also, the outsi<le might undergo the same operation.
But for the inside, lime ought invariably to be used, as tend-
ing to destroy contagiouse ffluvia ; for, after sickness, the
seeds of future diseases may still lurk in the bosom of the
family. The tendency and inclination to accumulate rags
within the house, is astonishing. These are all huddled
into a mass together. They ought, once or twice a year,
to be sold to papermakcrs, or otherwise disposed of, being
often the sources of contagion.

3. Situation of the houses. — The houses of the farm-ser-
vants, originally formed a wing of the farm-offices, but they
are now, where circumstances admit of it, always removed
to a small distance, with the exception of a house for the
steward, Or the h/remariy (the servant who has the charge
of the cattle), one or both of whom should be at hand, in
case of any accidents happening to the horses or cattle
during the night. On this plan, any temptation to com-
mit petty depredations is done away, by the opportunities
being diminished. It is also more cleanly and healthy,
and the hinds and their families are much less liable to
agues, than when they lived in the centre of a moist
dunghill. The children, too, are thus more easily kept
out of the way of mischievous amusements, and, what
is of more consc<juence, the fanu-oflices can be made more

l'J2 i; ARM-SERVANTS.

compact, and wholly devoted to their proper puiposes. Be-
sides, by removing these houses to a convenient distance,
the risk of fire is avoided, which the proximity of many
inhabited houses to the stack-yard, and farm offices, would
necessarily occasion, when the negligence or inebriety of
a farm-servant, or his wife, or a spark from their chimney,
may occasion the destruction of a set of offices, with a crop
recently harvested, and a stock of horses and cattle. The
houses, however, should not be too far off", but at such a
distance, (from 200 to 300 yards is reckoned the best),
that the servants may alv, ays be within call, to attend to
their stables, and various other duties.

4. Hours of "J^orking. — The hours of working must vary
in different places *, but in general are as follow :

* The following statement is given of the labour performed by
the farm-servants, in the Carse of Gowrie, in Donaldson's ac-
count of that district. " The ploughmen get up in winter by the
dawn of day, and are employed in the stable till nine o'clock, in
feeding and cleaning, each his own pair of horses. After break-
fast, the ploughs, or carts, are in employment for the remainder
of the day, reserving only as much light as may suffice for re-
peating the operation of feeding and cleaning the horses. When
the more busy season of the spring sets in, the plough is more
diligently plied, being under yoke from nine to ten hours, with a
short interval of an hour, about nine in the morning, and a simi-
lar rest about two o'clock. In the barley seed-time, and during
the summer and harvest months, the ploughmen get up by four
in the morning ; they are in the stable by five o'clock ; and, un-
yoking about ten, are employed in cutting grass, and taking care
of the horses, until two o'clock, when they again get under the
yoke until seven at niglit." hi Roxburghshire, they never work
less tbau ten hours, when the length of the d:iy will admit, and

FARM-tiERVANTiJ. 123

111 spring, the ploughmen rise at five o'clock ; after
dressing their horses, take breakfast, and yoke the plough
about six ; at eleven they come to feed and clean their
liorses, and after dinner yoke at two, and unyoke again at
six.

During the harvest, they often rise at four, and begin
work at five, or at light ; breakfast in the field ; unyoke
at eleven ; yoke again at two, and work till the evciung.

In summer, they rise at half past four, and yoke at five.
They unyoke after going five hours, they then bring in
clover to the horses. In hot weather they rise at four,
yoke immediately; unyoke at ten, when they bring in
clover J again yoke at two, and unyoke at six.

In winter, they get up before day-light, yoke as early as
they can see to work, and unyoke betwixt one and two
o'clock. In the afternoon other jobs are executed.

Female workers are out through the summer for ten
hours, excepting at hay and corn harvest, when they work
till sunset. In winter they work from six to eight hours,
or from light to liijht.

But though these are the hours in general, yet in the
busy period of hancst, or when there is a pressure of work,
no limited hours of working are thought of The servants
are ready and willing at all times, by night or by day, to
carry in and stack the corn, and perform cvciy other ne-
cessary operation.

In regard to hours of working, Mr Church of HitcliHl
observes, that on a well-regulated farm, every person ought
to work ten houi-s, as long as the days will admit of it,
and from- light to light, in the short days of winter, one
lialf of the dav before dinner, and one half after it. The

in winter, from ligbt to light. In harvest aod hay time, and e\^n
when sowing the turnips, both men and horses, work as mnch a^
tbey are able, without any regard to Iionrs.

^24- FARM-SERVANTS.

work-horses also go two journeys or yokings in the day,
excepting in the shortest days, when they are not un-
yoked, but have a feed in the field at noon. The plan
of two yokings a-day must be equally advantageous for
them, as it is found for post horses, which can go thirty or
forty miles in two Stages, much better than in one. Iliis
does not seem to be understood in those parts of the united
kingdom, where it is the practice to go but one yoking
a-day, even in the longest days of summer. This practice
probably originated in the common field system, atid con-
tinues, owing to the distance of the land to be ploughed
from the farm offices; an additional proof of the importaiace
of having the offices in a central situation.

5. Wages in money. — The hinds in Roxburgh-
shire and the neighbourhood, formerly received almost
their whole wages or emoluments in Jcind^ and, in order
that they might provide themselves with clothing, they
were allowed to keep a certain number of sheep upon the
farm. As that plan, however, could not well be continued,
tinder an improved system, (in many cases, after the com-
mons were inclosed, no sheep being kept by the farmer
. himself), it was converted into an annual allowance in
money, known under the name of *' Sheep Silver." This
amounts, in different districts, to from thirty to fifty shil-
lings, and in Roxburghshire it is on an average about
L.. 3 per annum. To a servant of uncommon merit, it is
sometimes raised to live pounds.

Servants of a higher description, who are intrusted
with any charge of importance, have greater wages in
money, sometimes as high as from twenty to twenty-four
pounds per annum *.

* Farm-servants have also a small perquisite in money, about
<»ne penny per bull for driving grain to market, in addition to

FARM-SERVANTS. 125

6. Wages in grain. — The payment of wages in kinc1>
probably originated, partly from scarcity of specie, and
partly from the desire of the servants to be provided with
meal or grain, without going to market for purchasing these
articles j and the farmers would most readily concur in the
plan, as a market at home was thus given them for part of
their grain, without their being put to the expencc of its
carriage to a distance, antl as it gave the servant a kind of in-
terest in what was going forward, without his being entitled
to interfere in the operations carrying on. To interest them
still more in the produce, it is a rule, that the grain given
to the servants, should be the best, next to the seed, that
the farm prodnces, and better dressed than the general
growth. The payment of wages in kind is almost uni-
versal in the more improved districts in Scotland, and
contributes not a little to the sober and economical ha-
bits of the people, who might be tempted, if they had
money in their pockets, to waste it at markets, or in
alehouses, instead of expending it on the maintenance of
themselves and their families *. If paid in money they are

their regular money wages. This allowance is not unreasonable,
as the servants on such occasions are often twelve hours or more
absent from their homes, and have often hard work as porters, in
loading and unloading.

• An intelligent farmer from Northumberland informs rue,
that some farmers in Tyne-side pay their servants in kind, or,
which is the same thing, find them a certain quantity of corn, at
a fixed price, but that is not a general practice ; and two modes
being followed induces the servants to change iheir places, hiring
to masters who find corn, when it is high, and changing to those
who pay money alone, when corn is cheap. Were the Berwick-
shire plan general, it would be better, he observes, for both mas-
ter and servant. The farmer would thus exchange the prodnctj
of the farm, for the labour bestowed upon it, and the latter would
not ftel the eflects of scarce years, and high prices. There is

126 FARM-SEUVANTS.

miserable and necessitous, when the price of grain becomes
high j whereas, when paid in kind, it is evident, that
they suffer nothing in times of scarcity ; and, indeed, the
higher the price of grain the better for them. This pre-
vents a great deal of discontent in such times. On the
other hand, it is asserted, that a large body of the coiri-
munity, thus feeling nothing of the pressure of want, are
too apt to consume more food than they ought to do, and
even to waste it. That, however, is not the case in Scot-
land. Their natural turn for economy, induces the farm-
servants there, to accumulate rather than to spend ; and
they seldom consxnne more than is necessary for their subsis-
tence. In years of scarcity, sober and intelligent servants,
carefully economize at home, and sell the surplus, thus
laying up a resource for old age and infirmity. The
only objection I have heard to such a system is, that in
years of scarcity, even the husbandman ought to consume
less food, which may not be the case, when he has the
same quantity allowed him every year. Nothing, how-
ever, but absolute famine itself, should stint the quantity
of food to be consumed by the hard-working labourer.
Indeed, when the price is high, he is tempted to diminish
ln"s consumption, more perha[")s th.c?n he ought to do, for
the sake of the price he can obtain fou- it.

Besides, the husbandman, as well as others in the lower
ranks, 7nu^t consume less food, in scarce, than in plentiful

also another plan followed by some furmers, that of sujiplying the
labourers with whatever corn ihey require, at a ceilain price per
tubhc-l, which is generally much below the average price : this is
found lo encourage prodigality, and sonietinics induces the la-
bourer to dispose of part of what he gets privately, when it is
dfar, und thus he becomes dishonest. It would be wtU for both
parties were this plan abolished. Tor aUhougli the masters who
follow it, pay less money wages than those who adopt the other
plan, yd eventually their labour »o&ls more.

FARM-SERVANTS. 127

seasons ; for, though he gets the same bulk or measure of
grain, wliere his wages are paid in that article, yet there
will be less meal in it, which is the edible part of the graiii.
A scarcity indeed proceeds as rauch from bad quality, as
from small quantity of produce, the one being a necessary
consequence of the other, as skinny shrivelletl grain pro-
duces food weak anil unsubstantial.

The grain allowed to the hinds, in several districts, is to
ihe following amount j 72 Winchester bushels of oats, IS
of barley, and 8 of pease or beans, worth, on an average,
about L. 22.

It is contended, however, that the allowances to farai-
servants should consist of meal, equal to the amount of
their annual consumption, and not in unmanufactured
grain ; anel that both their Avages and perquisites should
as httle as possible lead them to the sale of grain, or its
use, (as in the case of keeping fowls), or on any other pur-
pose but the maintenance of their families. If they have
apart of their wages paid in unmanufactured grain, which
they may sell, it may be a cloak to dispose of what they
have not honestly procured. Besides, as the master has
much to do with the sale of corn, it would appear more in
his line of business, to sell the produce, delivering to the
servant the meal and barley required for his family, and
paying in money the remainder of his wages, for buying
what other necessaries may be wanted. This is not liint-
ed at from any idea of a general disposition in married
servants to pilfer, to which the use of the threshing-mill is
a great check ; but because poverty should never be led
into the way of temptation. If no grain were paid in
kind, it would be impossible to sell any without creating
suspicion *.

* Mr Kerr remarks, in his Report of Berwickshire, p. 415,
that a ntw custom is generally creeping in, df ihc hinds demuiid-

128 FARM-SERVANTS.

7. Keeping a cffw. — Among the advantages enjoyed by
farm- servants in Scotland, that of having a cow kept du-
ring the whole year, is reckoned a privilege of peculiar
value.

In Roxburghshire, during six months in the year, the
cow is in general pastured in a field, and during the re^
maining six months, is kept in the house upon straw.
About calving time, in some districts, she has a regular
allowance of coarse hay, or turnips, or something equi-
valent. The cow, and her produce, is the servant's proper-
ty. Tlie milk itself forms no small means of support to the
family, and, in particular, tends much to the comfortable
subsistence of the children. The cheese is m.ostly con-
sumed at home. Any quantity of butter, that is not used
for necessary domestic purposes, is sold, in small quanti-
ties, at the weekly markets, in a fresh state, or is salted, and
sold at the market price, whatever that may be, usually
about 50 s. pe7- firkin. Good housewives generally strive
to have at least one firkin for sale. The whey is general-
ly given to the pig. The value of the cow to the cottager,
depends very much on the pasture on which she may be
placed. It varies from L. 6 to L. 10, and, in very favour-
able situations, will amount to a still gi'eater sum. Indeed,
a good cow, properly maintained, will produce at the rate
of 1 s.pcr day, or L. 1 8 x>er annum. The calf they sell as soon

ing money and meal, instead of grain. In some instances, L. IS
in money, and a weekly allowance of two pecks, or 17^ lbs. of
meal, have been bargained for, instead of the articles, which may
Ic denominated wages ; all the other allowances or perquisites
remaining as afterwards stated. This practice seems now again
fiiiling into disrepute. For two or three years the niihtia system
had drained the country of men. But boys have since grown up
to supply the demand, and men-servants are more upon their or-
dinary level. At that time they hardly knew what to ask, and
a known ;:'K)d servant was never refused his demand.

fARM-SERVANTS. 129

as possible, being rarely allowed to keep one on the farm,
and never on valuable land.

The benefit of milk to a poor family, is of such peculiar
importance, (producing double the quantity of human sus-
tenance it would do, if the milk were converted into cheese),
that the practice cannot be too much recommended. An
intelligent farmer informs me, that his servants have been
frequently offered h. 10 per annum in lieu of a cow's main-
tenance, which they have repeatedly refused. Keeping
cows is certainly attended with some inconveniences to the
farmer, and, occasionally, disputes will arise between the
servant and him on that subject ; but it is such an advan-
tage to a person with a family, to be able to provide his
children with milk, that it would be a misfortune were
such a system to be altered, where it is already establish-
ed ; and indeed I hope, that, in process of time, it will be
inlroduced into other districts, where it may be at pre-
sent unknown.

The idea of giving turnips to the servants' cows, is con-
sidered by some to be unreasonable * ; but upon turnip
farms, in the counties of Berwick and Roxburgh, and in
other districts, it has become so common to give a mo-
derate quantity, that it is almost considered to be a right ;
and indeed without it, the ploughman and his family can-
not be supplied with milk in the winter season. It has
become usual, therefore, when the cattle of the farmer get
their turnips in the field, that the ploughman's cow shall
go along with them, or they receive six cart-loads of tur-

* Upon all well-improved farms, where the crops are strong and
free from grass, it is absolutely necessary to give the servants' cows
some better food than the straw. If they have not better food when
near calving, they would often be lost altogether, or would become
so low in condition, before they got grass, that they would be of
very little value to the owner during t);o summer month*.
7'. Ti. r

13D FARM-SERVANTS.

nips for each cow. In other farms, they give two cart-
loads of bog hay, or one cart-load of good clover and rye-
grass hay per cow, in place of turnips.

As the best mode of preventing disputes regarding the
feeding of cows, it is the practice with some farmers, to fur-
nish the cow themselves, and if she gets fat, to sell her,
and to provide another in her place. It seems fair enough
that the profit should go to him, as he has been at the ex-
pence of the feeding. This plan is also convenient for young
people who get married without much stock.

In the case of unmarried servants, an agreement is
sometimes made, to supply them with a certain quantity
of milk, of which even the ploughmen in Scotland are
fond, not being much accustomed to beer. The quantity
usually given, is about a Scotch pint, or two English quarts
per day; but some give it only during the summer months.
Mr Thomson of Muirtown of Balhousie, near Perth, cal-
culates the expence of a Scotch pint of milk per day, at
4d., and consequently in all, at L. 6 : 1 : ^ per a7imim. In
Strathcarn, this allowance is converted, at the rate of 52 s.
per annum. Instead of giving any specific quantity of
milk, Mr Rennie of Kinblethmont, keeps a cow for two
or three of his unmarried servants, according to her size,
and divides among them the milk she produces.

8. Pig. — Farm-servants arc seldom precluded from
keeping a pig, which can be fed on the refuse of their po-
tatoe crop, with little additional expence. 1 hat indulgence
is certainly of much consequence to them, and, when the
animal is confined, of very small consideration indeed to
the master. The flesh used to be regarded in Scotland
with Jewish antipathy, but such })rejudices are now got
the better of, and the unclean beast is slaughtered without
repugnance. The pork is salted, and used by the family
in small portions at a time. It makes a good relibh to

FARM-SERVANTS. ISl

their vegetable diet, and serves to render their barley
broth more palatable. When fattened, a pig of the ordi-
nary sort, may be worth from 30 s. to 40 s. When fut, the
pig may weigh about 9 stone, of ll' lbs. each, at 4d. /j<?r
pound: this would amount to 42 s. besides the lanl and in-
meat, from which, however, the original cost of the pig, at six
weeks old, about 10 s., must bo deducted. Soine indus-
trious farm-servants in Berwickshire, will feed two pigs in
the year, as young pork is much used in that county.

9. Poultry. — I was often astortished at the incredible
number of eggs shipped at Berwick for the London mar-
ket, amounting in value, to several thousand pounds per
annum ; but the number of fowls kept by the farm-servants,
not only in Berwickshire, but in the neighbouring districts
of Northumberland, and Roxburgh, (the surplus eggs of
which are shipped at Berwick), and some even from East Lo-
thian, Tweeddale, &c. fully explains it. Every ploughman
is allowed to have from three to five hens, and the country
abounds with travelling hawkers, who collect the cirirs at
from 6d. to Is. per dozen, sometimes as high as 20 d., and,
about Christmas, even 2 s. ; they also purchase any hens or
chickens that are not sold at the weekly markets in the neigh-
bourliood. The farmers, afraid of having their grain em-
bezzled, are anxious to commute this perquisite for a pay-
ment in money, of from five to ten shillings per ajinujn, to
which the hinds are sometimes obliged to assent, but with
a degree of reluctance, which shews the high itlea they
entertain of the profit to be derived from this privilege.

10. Garden. — To every cottage, there is generally at-
tached a small garden, in which they cultivate onions,
cabbages, early potatoes, &c. This is of great bene-
fit to the servant, but it is a considerable loss to the far-
mer, from the dung it requires.

I 2

132 FARM-SERVANTS.

11. Potatoe ground. — In Berwickshire, every plough-
man is allowed as much ground as will plant from one
and a half, to three bushels of potatoes. In East-Lothian,
the allowance of ground given for planting potatoes, is
about one-tenth part of an acre, or nearly 100 yards, up-
on a six-ell ridge about 19i feet broad, or 900 yards of a
drill in length. Dung is furnished to the potatoe crop,
by the farmer ; the horse culture is done by the farm
horses, and the hand culture by the wife and children of
the servant. The importance of this privilege is too obvi-
ous to be insisted on. This mild and wholesome root, is a
prime article of food to the industrious peasant, and to his
children in particular.

12. Flax. — In Berwickshire, each hind has the privilege
of sowing about a peck of lint-seed. In East Lothian,
one-tenth part of a Scotch acre is allowed for that purpose.
This plan is said to be highly advantageous, as its culture,
dressing, spinning, and preparation for the manufacturer,
affords a useful source of industry to the wives and daugh-
ters of the hinds, and they are thus also enabled to pro-
vide themselves with linen, and sometimes to sell a small
quantity of cloth.

Others view this privilege in a very different light.
They contend, 1. That when fann-servants are allowed to
sow a portion of flax, tlieir houses, wliich are often thatch-
ed, are very hable to be set on fire, from the flax being kept
near the roof-, and one farmer, it is said, has had his whole
farm-cottages twice burned down, within the space of a few
years, owing to that circumstance; and, 2. That the manu-
facturing the flax, and tlic spinning it afterwards, prevents
the young girls from getting out to assist the farmer in his
operations, so much, and so often, as occasion may re-
quire ; whereas nothing tends so much to encourage the
breeding of licalthy rustics, tlian the gii'ls working out of
doors, at all kinds of agricultural labour, suited to their

FARM-SERVANTS. 133

strength and sex. This objection, however, is not well
founded, the flax being spun in the winter months, when
out-door omployment cannot be procured.

The culture ot flax by farm-servants, has certainly much
diminished in Berwickshire ; and the farm-servants now,
generally, take land for potatoes in its stead, in addition
to their ordinary allowance of ground for that root. This
may be owing to various causes. 1. The crop is very un-
productive in dry soils ; 2. There are few flax mills, and
the dressing by hand is extremely troublesome ; and 3.
Spinning is a miserable employment, and not so profitable,
as the more pleasant and healthy work that can be had
out of doors.

13. Bees. — The keeping of bees is never prohibited, but
the cottagers' wives and daughters, find more profitable
employment in their household, and other duties, than in
attending to this precarious and wandering stock. The
correct modern husbandry of Scotland, has deprived bees,
of that variety of food these insects formerly enjoyed,
from the numberless wild flowers or weeds, both annual
and perennial, which the drill and fallow systems have
almost extirpated. The bloom of furz, (whins), from
which they extracted a substance, either for making honey,
or constructing their cells, is now more rarely to be met
with ; these plants being almost rooted out in the more
improved districts. At an average, under the most favour-
able circumstances, a hive may produce three Scotch pints
of honey, worth from 5 s. to 7 s. a pint ; but in bad sea-
sons, the quantity is very inconsiderable. Some question,
whether the honey ever repays the owners for the time
spent in watching, and hunting after this capricious stock,
often to the distance of miles, and losing them after all,
and this risk is certainly alone equal to a considerable per-
centage on the capital invested in it. At the same time,

134 FARM SERVANTS.

it is a pity, in favourable situations, not to keep up a spirit
of attention to the labours of this industrious insect, the
total produce of which, in an extensive district, would not
be inconsiderable.

14. Fuel. — Where coals are difficult to be procured,
and where peats and turf abound, these no doubt are pre-
ferred ; but in situations where the farmers consent to
carry the coals, and where the supply of peats and turf is
scanty, coals are used in preference. Peat and turf, when
good of their kind, give a greater blaze, and diffuse warmth
with a cheerful light ; but they consume too quickly, and
afford a less steady heat for the operations of cookery, than
coals. Their ashes also, are apt to be blown into every
corner of the house. Where coals are used, each hind
has from three to five single-horse cart-loads, carried home
to him, but the price, and the tolls, are usually paid by
himself.

llie following statement, communicated to me by Dr
Young of Fawsyde, near Stonehaven, points out the su-
periority of coal over peat as fuel. A poor woman was
obliged to purchase peats, during a scarcity of coals in win-
ter •, her daily consumption of peats cost her three half-
pence •, her annual quantity of coals was two bolls, each
boll ?>6 stone Amsterdam weiglit, or containing about 212
pints. Coals generally sell at Stonehaven for about 5 s. j^cr
boll; the highest they liave been known at was 6s. Sd.
Her i)eat fire, (although at the common price of coals,
more than four times their value), was not nearly so ser-
viceable.

15. Perquisites. — In addition to these allowances, and
some percjuisites when driving grain, lime, marie, &c.
where the carriage is distant; the farm-servants, during
harvest, and when carrying in corn, have their main-
tenance, because their wives are then employed in the ser-

FARM-SERVANTS. 1 85

vice of the farmer, and also because of the extra hours in
wliich they are employed in that busy season ; but they are
not allowed those quantities of beer, which occasion such an
endless expence in the houses of the farmers in England,
without being of any real advantage to the servants them-
selves. During harvest, they are only allowed in Berwick-
shire, one bottle of small beer to dinner •, and when carrying
in corn, they have another bottle, and half a loaf in the
afternoon *. In regard to perquisites, in general, it has
been justly remarked, that they should be considered as pre-
miums for good behaviour, and not as a matter of right.
Indeed, Mr Walker of Mellendean allows only such of his
servants, as distinguish themselves by their good behaviour,
to keep a pig.

15. General View of their Wages and other Emoluments.

Wages.

1. Allowance in money on an average, about L. 4 0 0

2. Value of the allowances in grain, - 22 0 0

L,26 0 0
Perquisites.
3. Keep of a cow, at 6 d. p^r day

for the whole year, - L. 9 2 6

Carryforward, L. 9 2 6L. 26 0 0

* An intelligent correspondent informs me, that in his part of
Berwickshire, the ploughmen are allowed breakfast, dinner, and
supper, while employed in the hay, as well as the corn harvest ;
and that the same allowance is given them, while their wives, «!v:c.
are employed in reaping the crop, though they themselves may
be engaged at the plough, or other ordinary farm labour at that
time; as their wives cannot in that case cook their victuals.

136 FARM-SERVANTS. ""

Carry forward, - L. 9 2 6 L. 26 0 ©

5. Poultry, - - 0 10 0

6. Garden, and land for potatoes

and flax, - - 3 10 0

7. Carriage of coals, - 10 0
8 Harvest food, and allowance

when leading, - 110 0

15 12 6

*L.41 12 6

In the above statement, the garden and the land for po-
tatoes and flax is only estimated at its worth to the farmer;
but these articles are more valuable to the hind, by whom
they are received.

1 7. Family gains and perquisites. — In addition to the
above sum, the families of the farm-servants enjoy various
sources of profit. Their wives, and their children, from
the moment they can handle a hoe or weed-hook, except
in the dead of winter, are never in want of out-ivorkf for
which they receive ample wages. In fact, a ploughman's
family, after the first few years of helpless infancy are over,
arc his riches, and they often contribute to maintain him
when he is past labour. Besides the out-door work, there
is also a good deal of industry w?VAm di)07s. Spinning forms
a considerable part of the employment of the females : They
make also their own clothes, and repair those of the men :
They knit stockings, the wool of which they themselves
card, spin, dye and twine. These, with the other house-
hold cares of baking, cooking, washing, churning, cheese-

* This per week is l6 s. or 2 s. 3jd. per day. The average of
•d\i En^ilaiid in ISIO was 2 s. 5 d.

FARM-SERVANTS. 137

making, &c. furnish ample employment to an industrious
family circle.

On the whole, the following is the income which, in some
cases, a hind, with an industrious family, may ac-
quire.

1. Gains by the ploughman himself, L. ^l 12 6

2. His wife's harvest food, 28

days, at 10 d. - L. 1 3 4-

3. One child working at turnips,

&c. at 8 d. - - 4 0 0

4. Gains of his wife and chil-
dren in barn-work, and spin-
ning through the winter, 2 7 G

7 10 10

L.49 3 4

Some profit is also derived from the potatoe ground,
and from the flax sown. The rent of the cottage 'also, is fre-
quently paid for by the wife's working during the harvest.

Such is the general state of ploughmen or hinds, as they
are provincially called, in the counties of Berwick and
Roxburgh ; let us proceed to consider their situation in
other districts.

In East Lothian, Mr Brown of Markle gives the follow-
ing account of the wages he pays to no less a number than
14- married servants. Tliey are all paid in kind, having
12 bolls, or 72 bushels of oats, 3 bolls, or 18 bushels bar-
ley, and two bolls, or 8 bushels pease ^p^rr annuniy together
with maintenance of a cow, summer and winter, a piece of
land for potatoes, generally worth L. 1, 10 s. a piece of
land for flax, generally worth 20 s. liberty to keep a few
hens, what dung is wanted for their gardens, coals driven,

1 5 8 FAKM-SERVANTS.

and their whole maintenance during harvest, (which usual-
ly lasts for about five weeks), and if they do not receive
their supper in kind, they are paid for it in money. The
servants who sow the corn receive, beside the above arti-
cles, a pair of shoes, or 9 s. in lieu of them, and those who
stack the grain, have half a boll of wheat on that account.
Taking every thing at a fair value, the wages and emolu-
ments of each servant, where the cow is well maintained,
may be calculated, at this time, at L. 38 Sterling ^^r an-
mim.

In Dumfries-shire, Mr Stewart of Hillside has given me
the following estimate of the expence of keeping a married
farm-servant.
A cow kept, or her milk furnished, the calf at .a month

being the farmer's for the waste and risk of the cow,

(this is an excellent mode of insurance), L. 6 0 0
52 stones of meal at 2 s. 6 d. - - 6 10 0

Potatoes, from 3 to 5 cart-loads according to

the number of children,
House and firing,
Money wages.

2 0

0

2 10

0

15 0

0

J^. 32 0

0

Servants who have not a cow's milk, get a Scotch pint,
(2 English quarts), of skimmed milk daily, for nine months,
which may be reckoned worth 30 s. This will bring the
wages to L. 28, 10 s.

Mr Boyd, of Powis, near Stirling, estimates the ex-
pence of a married servant at L. 32 ; Mr Blair of Mon-
tague, near Perth, at L. 3 1 Sterling.

FARM-SERVANTS. Ifi9

In the Mcarns, the following is the calculated cxpcnce :

In money yearly,

L.

10

10

0

In coals, _ > >

-

1

1

0

In potatoe ground,

-

0

15

0

In meal, 6^ bolls, at L. 1, 4 s.,

-

i

16

0

A cow, kept summer and winter,

■

5

0

0

L. 25 2 O

In Caithness, a married man receives L. 8 of money
wages, and seven bolls of meal in kind, which is calculated
to be worth, on an average, 20 s. per boll, with the keep of
a cow, which being but small in size, and perhaps but in-
differently kept, consequently cannot be estimated at more
than L. 3 additional, and a house and fuel, worth about
L. 3 more, consequently the whole will not exceed L. 21.

Thus it appears, that the wages of servants diminish as
WG proceed northwards. The additional expence, how-
ever, of farm- servants, in the more southern districts, is,
in general, amply compensated, by the additional skill and
industry of those who receive it.

18. Married servants. — It is here proper to discuss the
important question, whether single or married farm-ser-
vants ought to be preferred, and to lay before the reader,
the evidence of several intelligent practical farmers, in sup-
port of the married system.

Mr Stewart of Hillside remarks, that married servants
are generally more steady than the uimiarried, and also more
docile, feeling that they cannot so easily move themselves
from one place to another, and if thrown out of work for
a very short time, that they have more than themselves to
provide for, having in general a numerous and clamorous
progeny. This system is useful in various respects. If the

i 'iO FARM-SERVANTS.

master is solicitous about their welfare, by attention to
their wants and necessities, they are inclined to continue
with him, and at length a mutual attachment springs up
between the master and the servant ; the servant is thus
induced to attend to the manner of performing; his work,
so as to promote the interest of the farmer, (which rarely
enters into the viewa of unmarried servants), and even to
exceed the mere performance of the duty required of
him. Besides this, the horses will be better cared for, will
do their work more easily, and their lives will be consider-
ably prolonged, by keeping the sam.e persons long about
them, so as to have become acquainted with their tempers,
instead of changing every half year. There ought to be,
however, always one unmarried servant, who can be de-
pended upon, to be near the horses, in case of accidents
daring the night.

Mr Dudgeon of Primrose Hill states, that the necessity
of furnishing a house and purchasing a cow, before they
can propose entering into a married state, holds out a
strong incentive to early habits of sobriety and frugality,
and lays the foundation, of that decency of character in
after life, for which the individuals of this class (in Scot-
land) are so justly distinguished *.

In a communication from Mr Jack of Moncur, in the
Carse of Gowrie, the advantages of having married ser-
vants are ably stated. It is there observed, that thoy do
not remove so often, which is a great benefit ; that they
get acquainted with the farmer's plans of working ; and that
their families are useful in harvest, and among drill crops,
both of which are done by piece-work. Indeed, within
these eight or ten years past, the harvest work, which was

* It is j^ great public disadvantage attending small farms, that
tlie servants must br unmarried, as the small farmer cannot aflord
accominodatiun to married servants.

FARM-SERVANTS. 14 1

formerly performed by people from Athol, is now executed,
in that district, by the inhabitants, and a great deal of it
by women and children.

Mr Ballingall, in Fifeshire, also prefers married servants,
as being more steady and industrious, as well as sober, and
always at home ; and as their families furnish abundance of
turnip hoers, who are inured to work from the time they
are able to lift a hoe.

Mr Thomson, of Bewlie, in Roxburghshire, is likewise
strongly prepossessed in favour of married servants. He
observes, that large farms have a tendency to increase po-
pulation, as it is almost impossible to farm them to advantage
withmit married servants : such servants are not only the
best, but their children are in general numerous, strong,
and healthy.

Mr Blair, of Montague, near Perth, calculates the ex-
pence of a married servant at L. 31, lis., and of an un-
married servant at L. 33, making the former the cheapest.

Some farmers object to married servants, as troublesome
about their cows and houses, and as being disposed to pilfer,
for the sake of their cows or families ; but from the obser-
vations above detailed, the superiority of married servants
can hardly be questioned, and they seem indeed to be al-
most indispensable for large farms. Their utility also,
in training up such numbers of young persons, to the la-
bours, and to the art of husbandry, cannot be too highly
appreciated.

In regard to the public, it has been well observed, that
married servants not only are the best for the farmer, but
add strength to the state ; and indeed it is of such conse-
quence to have a healthy and numerous agricultural popu-
lation, that it might be politic to give, by way of premium,
to those farmers whose ploughmen were married, a deduc-
tion of the horse tax, as a mark of public approbation of
so advantaireous a svstem.

1 4^2 FARM-SERVANTS.

In many of the returns transmitted to me, the plough-
men are all married, in others only two or three on a farm
are in the single state ; but, on an average, ten out of
twelve, or five-sixths are married, forming little colonies,
of a description of persons in the highest degree useful and
meritorious j decent and orderly in their behaviour, and
desei^ving every possible degree of encouragement.

Though it may be attended with some disadvantages,
yet on the whole it greatly contributes to the comfort of
the farmer, to have his servants married. Their victuals
are prepared in their own houses, and there is no grumb-
ling either regarding the quantity, or the quality, of their
food ; — a source of endless complaint where a contrary
system is adopted *.

In regard to unmarried servants, most farmers keep one
or two lads who live in the house, and who each work a
pair of horses. Their wages vary, from L. 5 or L. 6 up to
L. 12 half yearly, (the term for which they are eagaged),
and they have their fiill board in the farmer's kitchen. As
soon as they earn a sufficient sum to furnish a house, and
purchase a cow, they generally get into the married state.

19. Average nnmher of children. — The hinds do not
marry until they have accumulated some capital, to en-
able them to purchase furniture, a cow, a pig, &c. Some
contend, that the average of a hind's family may be

* It is well known, that farm-servants, when kept in a house,
are extremely troublesome about their victuals ; indeed such is the
perverse nature of mankind in general, that the better they are
treated, the saucier they arc apt to become, and the more dispo-
sed to grumble. Nor is it possible to estimate the expence of
keeping an unmarried servant in the master's house, as it depends
upon the extent of his appetite, as well as the mode of feeding.
Some unmarried servants, however, .are necessary, to be trained
up to ploughing, and other a^^ricuhural ojierations.

FARM-SERVANTS. 1 13

stated at five children ; others, however, consider that es-
timate to be too low ; for in several cases, they rear from
seven to eight, and even nine children.

20. Whether the children are educated. — Any neglect
in so essential a duty as that of educating their children, is
held to be so scandalous, that hardly an instance of it is
known. Boys and girls are invariably taught to read, and,
before their leaving school, their bible is made perfectly fa-
miliar to them. A thorous^h knowledjje of their catechism
is also reckoned indispensable. They are generally taught
to write a little, especially the boys, and sometimes to cast
accounts ; and this most commendable attention to the
education of their children, seems to gather strength, with
the more efhcient circumstances of their parents.

21. What becomes of their families. — Most commonly at
least one lad in a family, remains in the humble calling of
his father-, but the greater proportion of them, betake them-
selves to different trades, for the successful prosecution of
which, they are in general well fitted, by early habits of
frugality and industry. A few become soldiers ; a num-
ber are compelled by ballot to serve in the militia, or more
commonly their own, or the hard earnings of their fiiends,
are wrung from them, to provide substitutes, when the lot
falls upon them. The sea being generally regarded by
them with horror and aversion, the navy derives little or
no advantacre from this source.

The females seldom get into the state of matrimony, un-
til they have fully attained the years of discretion ; the
phlegm or prudence of their country gallants, seldom fa-
vouring very early matches. Before this important era
in their life, they are employed in the manner already de-
scribed, or enter into service, in the houses of the neigh-
bouring gentry and fi^rmer*.

141 FAn:\l-SEKVANTS.

22. What becomes of the hinds in their old age. —
From the habitual temperance, and regular pursuits of
their youth, they are usually capable of earning a scanty
subsistence, as day labourers, or otherwise, until the
very verge of old age. When absolutely unfitted for la-
bour, by infirmit}', or extreme old age, they are main-
tained by their children, or by the parish poor rates;
which last, unfortunately, begin to supersede the former
mode of support ; for within the memory of many, the
disgrace of permitting an aged parent, or near relation,
to be beholden for his subsistence to this legal sort of
beggary, would have stimulated the most profligate to in-
dustry.

23. Their manners and charactei\ — Tlie manners of
this class of people accord to their situation in life, being
simple, orderly and decent.

Though they labour incessantly during six days of the
week, Sunday is to them a real day of rest, and distin-
guished by a peculiar attention to religious ordinances,
and to the instruction of their children in the duties they
have to perform. The Scotch farm-servants are ftiUy as
extravagant in the articles of clothing, if not more so,
than the English. They have all their Sunday's garb,
and rarely attend church, on that day, in their common
dress.

24. What iscrndd improve the situation of the Peasantry.-^
Owing to the numerous families which they generally rear,
it is seldom possible for them to accumulate any capital,
as a provision for their old age ; but there is no doubt,
that tlu'y could easily afford anall weekly payments, that
would be sufficient to secure them a comfortable and inde-
pendent subsistence when advanced in life. Nothing
tljcrcfore is wauled, to complete the comfortable situation

FARM-SERVANTS. 145

<^ this most deserving class of the community, but the in-
stitution of Benefit Societies ; and the person who would
establish a safe and practicable plan for that purjipse,
would prove of infinite service to tliem and to the pub-
lic*.

25. Objections to the above system considered. — It must
not be imagined, however, that this system has not been
objected to ; but the objections urged do not seem to be
material. It has been said, that it would be nmch better
to lay down at the ploughmen's doors, a certain quan-
tity of potatoes, than to give them the trouble of raising
them by their own labour ; and to furnish them with milk,
instead of permitting them to keep a cow. These pri-
vileges, it is said, are attended with some inconveniences.
Their potatoe land may not be so completely worked
up as that belonging to the farmer ; and the servant's fa-
mily may not always be in a state to pay sufficient atten-
tion to the cow, who may suffer by their neglect : But
the great object is, to make farm-servants and their fa-
milies industrious, economical, and, above all, happy, and
to interest them in the prosperity of their master, and
the welfare of their country. All this is best effected, by
giving them the possession of property, in the preserva-
tion and advantages of which, they must feel themselves

* Some are of opinion, that the belonging to a Benefit Society
ought to be legislatively rendered compulsatory on every indivi-
dual in the empire above 14 years of age, and under 40. The
destructive poor rates must take care of the older till they die out.
Every parish ought to assist the funds at the outset, for a few
years, till well established, which will be an enormous eventual
saving. The establishment of Benefit Societies universally, upon
a broad and judicious basis, would immortalize any minister who
carried it into effect.

P. II. K

H© FARM-SEllVANTS.

deeply interested. I have no doubt, indeed, that if the farm-
servants in England, were put upon the same footing with
those above described, it would be a great blessing to the
country. The Scotch farmer, can at all times have the
command of his farm-servants ; and when he wants any
thing done, he knows where to find them immediately, as
they are all living on the premises, with their families, in
their own houses. But the English farmer, on the other
hand, must go a mile or two off, or more, to find his peo-
ple, and, perhaps, must go from pot-house to pot-house,
before he find them ; and then in a situation unfit for la-
bour, which not only disappoints their employer, but such
a way of expending their earnings, beggars their families,
and compels them to apply to the parish for relief*. This is
one great cause of the heavy poor rates all over the kingdom.
Nothing would tend more to diminish those rates, and to
reform the morals of the lower classes, than for the proprie-
tors of landed property, in England, to build, on every farm,
a sufficient number of cottages for the residence of farm-
servants and their families, with small gardens attached to
each. The farmer would thus, at all times, have the com-
mand of his servants ; and it would be the means of keep-
ing them out of public-houses. It would not then be ne-
cessary, to send for them in a morning, to go out with
their horses, which is too often the case at present, by
means of which a great deal of time is lost, not only of the
labour of the men, but of the horses.

26. Ot/ier farm-servants. — Besides the ploughmen, to
whom the preceding observations principally apply, a
variety of other servants are essential on large farms, as

* Ilencc the advantage of paying wages in kind, as lias been
already remarked. Wlien they liave little money in their posses-
>;!on, they are not tempted to go to the alehouse.

FARM-SERVANTS. 117

shepherds, smiths, carpenters, and persons to do other
kinds of husbandry work, unconnected with horse labour.
These are necessary under an improved system, indepen-
dent of day-labourers, to be afterwards mentioned. A
number of female servants are also kept, particularly in the
more northern parts of the kingdom, who, besides milking
the cows, and assisting in weeding the crops, and taking
care of the house, and the farmer's children, are employed
in spinning lint yarn, to be manufactured into linen, for
the use of the family *.

On the whole, it is impossible to form too high an idea,
of the excellence of the Scotch farm-servants, in the more
improved districts of that kingdom. It is justly remarked
in the Carse of Gowrie, that notwithstanding the improved
implements which have been introduced into that district,
yet that farming there, would have been in a very back-

* It may not be improper to give a general view of the system
adopted in some of the southern counties of England, in regard to
farm-servants, for the sake of comparison with the preceding
statement.

1. The general mode of paying farm-servants (not labourers) in
England, is by yearly wages in money, with board in the farmer's
house. 2. In general no perquisites are allowed to farm-servants;
but in Suffolk, the tradesmen with whom the farmer deals, give
his men frr^m 1*. to 2a. 6d. to spend at their harvest-home.
3. Servants are never allowed any emolument by working for
other men than their masters. 4. Servants drink what small-
beer they please ; the allowance of ale is usually a pint at each of
the three meals, (some only a quart a-day), except in harvest, when
three quarts a-day is allowed ; and whenever the farmer wants to
excite diligence, it is done by ale. 5. Servants cannot insist on any
thing that relates to the feeding of horses ; but they prefer the
service of those who feed well, and keep crack-teams. Servants
are very apt to give more corn than their masters allow, and
complaints are very coumion before magistrates on this head.

148 FARM-SERVANTS.

ward state, if it were not for the valuable servants of which
they were possessed; and a respectable farmer in East-
Lothian, (Mr Pringle of BallencriefF), who has travelled
even into foreign countries in search of agricultural infor-
mation, represents the farm-servants in that district, as al-
most always sober, steady, and regular, and on the whole
the best servants he ever saw *.

6. The farmers who keep crack-teams, indulge in expensive har-
ness, with bells in unison, &c. ; and servants like to let them-
selves to such masters ; but I never heard of any such thing be-
ing insisted on. 7. In winter the hours of work are from light to
dark, but the horse-keepers are in the stable two hours before it
is light. In summer the teams are in the fields at six o'clock;
they plough for eight hours, or eight hours and a half, but break-
fast under the hedge: this for one journey, but two journeys are
common, in which case they breakfast before they go out;
plough four, or four hours and a half; come home to dine and
bait the horses, then out again to plough for four or four hours
and a half more. Servants, not ploughmen, work from six to
six, except one hour and a half for breakfast and dinner. 9- No
allowance of days for fairs; if asked, which may happen once or
twice a-year, it is gratuitous in the master. 10. It is not at all
common for servants to refuse to work, except under certain bar-
gains, in harvest ; in which they will do no other than harvest
work ; but farmers are attentive to have jobs of various sorts
ready, to which they can set their men, in case of weather too
bad for working abroad.

• Unfortunately this character is not applicable to the servants
in the neighbourhood of great towns, who, in various respects,
are of a description materially diflerent, more especially in regard
to their moral character, their industry, and their zeal in the
service of their masters.

APPRENTICES IN HUSBANDRY. 1 If)

Sect. III. — Apprentices in Hmhandry.

It is much to be regretted, that the plan of having ap-
prentices in husbandry is not more common. I have
found, in the course of my inquiries, but one farmer in Scot-
land, (Mr Walker of Mellendean), who adopts that system.
He has favoured me with the following account of the plan,
which I hope others will be induced to follow, when they
are made acquainted with its nature. He informs me,
that the young men whom he has hitherto had under him
as apprentices, have uniformly paid hun ten pounds.
Some of them remain two years with him, but the greater
number only one. They eat in his kitchen, where they
have always plenty of plain wholesome food. He takes
none who are above living in that way, or who will not
put their hand to whatever is going forward on the farm.
He hr 3 sometimes been offered ten times the above sum
to take in young gentlemen, to eat and associate with his
own family, but this he has uniformly declined. These
young men have an opportunity of attending to eveiy
operation of husbandry, as practised on Mr Walker's
farm, and are taught to sow, to build stacks, to hold the
plough, &c. Having hitherto been fortunate enough to
have none but steady young men, he rather considers
them profitable than otherwise, and at some seasons he
finds them particularly useful.

What a pity it is, that experimental farms were not es-
tablished at the public expence, where not only persons in
the inferior classes of society, but even those connected with
the higher ranks in life, might l)c instructed, as appren-
tices, or students, in the practical details of agriculture.

150 DAY-LABOURERS.

Sect. IV. — Of Dar/'Labourers.

In addition to the farm-servants of various descriptions,
above described, a number of other labourers are occa-
sionally employed in various operations about a farm, as
women and children at turnip hoeing, &c. ; men to cut
the hay ; reapers to cut the corn : many are also employed
in scouring ditches, clipping hedges, draining, inclosing,
&c. so that the number of persons, employed in a district,
under an improved system of husbandry, can hardly be
enumerated *.

The wages vary in different districts, according to the
nature of the work to be performed, and other circum-
stances. It is well observed by Mr Church of Hitchill,
that field work ought as much as possible to be task-
ed out, or let by the piece, or job. Were this gene-

* The binds, and bouse servants have sufficient employment,
in ploughing, and olher operations connected witb the cultivation
of the farm, the hibouring work of which, as bay making, mow-
ing, hedging, ditching, draining, and tb<; bkc, is performed by
hired labourers, either by contract, or piece work, or by wages
varying from 2 s. 6d. a-day in summer, to 1 s. in winter. When
hired for the whole year round, such labourers generally receive
from 10 s. 6d. to 12 s. a-week. Kerr's Berwickshire, p. 418.
The hours of labour during eight months, are from six in the
morning till six in the evening, with one hour for breakfast, and
one for dinner, at nine and one o'clock respectively. In the four
winter months, of November, December, January and February,
work continues during good light, wIjimi frost allows, and break-
fast is taken before work begins. Kerr's Berwickshire, p. 4.1.9.

DAY-LABOURERS. 151

rally done, the same number of hands would go through
much more work, than they will do by day wages ;
and by this method also, more labour would be gained
to the community, and generally at a cheaper rate to the
employer.

In regard to day-labourers in general, the subject has
been already so frequently discussed, that it seems unne-
cessary to dwell upon it at any length. The whole plan
of having married farm-servants, however, accoi'ding to
the system adopted in the more improved districts of Scot-
land, having never liithcrto been minutely explained, I
thought it my duty, to enter into it in detail, as it seemed
to me peculiarly well entitled to all the attention that could
possibly be bestowed upon it.

Arrangement of Agriailtural Labour.

It may not be improper here to state, some observations
transmitted to me by Mr Church, on the judicious arrange-
ment of agricultural labour, one of the most important
branches attending the management of an arable farm.
On it indeed, in a greater or less degree, hinges the profit
or loss of the farmer. To dispose of the labouring persons
and cattle upon a form, at such work as is likely to be the
most profitable, and to see that they are fully, constantly,
and regularly employed, requires, at all times, the eye of
the vigilant husbandman. Under a good system of hus-
bandry, a farm furnishes regular employment, both to the
servants, and to the cattle, throughout the whole year.
On a considerable farm, it is proper to have servants ap-
propriated for each of the most important departments of
labour, as there is often a great loss of time, where the
same persons are frequently changing their employments.
Besides, as Dr Smith has so ably elucidated in his de-
scription of pin-making, the work is executed, not only
more expeditiously, but also much better, in consequence

15i BAY-LABOURERS,

of the same hands being constantly employed in it. For
that purpose, the ploughmen ought to be kept chiefly at
work with their horses, in ploughing, or carting ; and in-
deed, (as an English gentleman has well obsei'ved), in
Scotland they are in a manner tied to their horses, having
hardly any work to do independent of them. They are
therefore as carefiil of, and as much attached to them, as
if they were their own. Every ploughman also, besides
the care of his horses, has his harness, plough, cart, &c.
for which he is responsible. Common or day labourers
ought to be almost exclusively employed in draining,
ditching, &c.

Concluding Remarks, on the siibjects discussed in the three
precedi7ig Dissertations.

On the whole, what spectacle can be more delightful,
than to see a large estate, imder the direction of an intelli-
gent landlord, or of one competent to the task of manag-
ing it to advantage, where the farms are of a proper size,
where they are occupied by industrious and skilful tenants,
anxious to promote, in consequence of the leases they en-
joy, the improvement of the land in their possession, and
where the cultivation is caiTied on, by a number of married
servants, enjoying a fair competence, and rearing large fa-
milies, sufficient, not only to replace themselves, but also,
from their surplus population, to supply the demand, and
even the li-aste, of the other labouring classes of the com-
munity ? Such a system is, I believe, carried to a higher
degree of perfection, and to a greater extent, in the more
improved districts of Scotland, than in any other country
in the universe.

APPENDIX.

No. r.

OF VARIOUS CIRCUMSTANXES WHICH HAVE INDIRECTLY COX-
TRIBUTED TO THE EXCELLENCE OF SCOTCH HUSBAXDRY.

In addition to the reasons assigned in the introduction, other
circumstances have Hkewise indirectly contributed to the excel-
lence of the Husbandry of Scotland, some of which it may not be
improper briefly to enumerate, as meriting some consideration.

1. The inferiority of the climate of Scotland, compelled the
farmer to pay particular attention to every means by which so
great a disadvantage could possibly be counteracted *.

2. The small proportion of fertile land which it possesses,
rendered it peculiarly valuable, and was a strong inducement
to make it as productive as possible. Where nature is bounti-
ful, man is too apt to become indolent.

* It is said, if inferiority of climate is a source of excellent husTjan(iry,
the best specimens of Scotch farming should be found in the Shetland Islands.
This, however, is carrying the argument to an extreme. It is a welWcnown
fact, that in warm climates, men are habitually too indolent to be good
farmers ; and where the soil is also fertile, they have no call for exertion :
whereas, where the soil is fertile, and yet the climate is unfavourable, it re-
quires a continued exertion to counteract its influence. This tends to pro-
mote good husbandry, for the farmer must be continually on the alert. la
the same manner, in Holland, the houses zfiA. furniture are in a remarkable
degree dean, owing to the dampness of the climate, which would destroy
both, but for the perpetual attention of the people, by rubbi.^g and scrub-
bing, to counteract the bad effects of so moist an atmosphe:?.

APPENDIX.

3. The skill and experience which the Scots had acquired in
gardening, convinced them how productive land might be ren-
dered by due attention to its culture.

4. It was in the counties which border upon England, that
the improved system of Scotch Husbandry began, and there
arose, at the same time, a laudable spirit of emulation, between
the borderers of the two kingdoms, which tended to promote
their mutual improvement.

5. It has been justly remarked, that agricultural improve-
ments began to appear at an earlier period in England, than in
Scotland, before the human mind had fully ripened, and be-
fore a knowledge of mechanics, or the habits of mercantile ac-
curacy, had been brought to any degree of perfection ; and
rules, to a certain degree advantageous, having been once es-
tablished, there arose a strong prejudice in their favour, which
it was difficult to eradicate: whereas the improvements of
Scotland commenced at a more advanced and enlightened pe-
riod of society, when great progress had been made in the
arts, and in the conduct of every species of business, and after
a. general spirit of inquiry, of industry, and of exertion, had
been excited.

6. In many parts of England, more especially in the neigh-
bourhood of manufacturing and commercial towns, the sons of
farmers, owing to the uncertainty of the tenures by which
farms are held, and the consequent precarious and depen-
dent condition of the farmer, were induced to become manu-
facturers and merchants, instead of continuing in the farming
line, and thus transferred to commerce, the capitals acquired
by liusbandry ; whereas, in the improved districts of Scotland,
the reverse very frequently takes place ; and many farmers are
to be met with, who have been trained to other professions,
but who prefer the agricultural, to every other occupation, not
•only as being the most rational, but, on the whole, when con-
ducted on a proper scale, and where leases are granted, as li-
beral and as independent as any other, and equally advanta-
geous *.

* Several farmers in Scotland are wortli from L. 10,000 to L. 50,000, and
some even more, all acquired by husbandry. It is only where leases are

APPENDIX. 3

- T. The clergy of Scotland have had their full share in pro-
moting a spirit of improvement in various parts of the king-
dom. Their situation is almost peculiar to that country. —
They are all resident, and by far the largest proportion of them,
are fixed down to their respective livings, without any reason
to expect that their situation will ever be materially improved.
Each of them have a small portion of land, the occupation of
which they hold in the same manner as tenants on a liferent
lease ; and hence have an interest to improve their little spot,
to which they are often induced to rent an addition, which
they cultivate with equal zeal. L&ss prejudiced, and possess-
ing more extensive information, than many of their neighbours,
they are often the first to suggest, and even to attempt, new
improvements. When these succeed in their hands, their ex-
ample is naturally followed by their parishioners *.

8. The fields in Scotland, (in general from 10 to 25 acres),
are of a size better adapted for arable cultivation, than the ge-
nerality of those in England. The necessity of frequent turn-
ings, by which much time and labour are lost, is thus done
away. It is hardly possible, indeed, that a small field can be
so completely ploughed as a large one, more especially where
the form is irregular f . Small fields also, more especially if
inclosed with hedges, and surrounded with hedge-rows, though
calculated for the growth of herbage, are unfavourable to the
production of grain. A great deal of ground is lost, the hed-
ges are a shelter for birds and vermin, and generally a nursery
for weeds ; and the grain produced near the hedges is always
of an inferior quality. In the improved districts of Scotland,

granted that the farmer can exclaim, in the words of Cicero, " Omnium

rerum ex quihus aliquid adquiretur, nihil est agricultura melius, nihil uberius,
nihil homini libera dignius."

* One of the best works on agriculture was written by the late Dr Dick-
son, minister of Whittingham in East Lothian-

f A friend of mine, on a tour through England, has lately described his
astonishment at seeing, within a few miles of Bath, " four great horses,
turning in the narrow corner of a four-acre field, and pulling after them a.
huge ill-made plough, with a driver, besides a ploughman "

«2

APPENDIX.

on the other hand, the fields, tliough generally inclosed, are
not formed into such small divisions as in England. Hence
the country is not so beautiful to the eye, but the climate is
certainly healthier, and the soil more productive of corn.

9. The convertible system of husbandry, or alternate grain
and green crops, including the abolition of fallows on turnip
soils, is completely established in Scotland ; and is by far the
best mode that has hitherto been suggested, for the productive
cultivation of a much larger proportion of England, than is ge-
nerally believed to be adapted to it.

30. The correctness with which the following process is exe-
cuted in strong soils, is one of the leading features of Scotch
Husbandry. It is not repeated so frequently as it is in many
districts of England, occurring, in general, but once in the
course of six years ; the soil of the field, however, by frequent
ploughing?, (six or seven times where necessary), though con-
sisting of the strongest and most stubborn clay, is thus com-
pletely pulverised, weeds are extirpated, insects are destroyed,
and fertility insured during the whole course. The depth also
to which land is ploughed in Scotland, more especially when it
is fallowed, is considered to be a great advantage.

11. Though Scotland cannot boast, either of the chalk-pits
of England, or the limestone gravel of Ireland, yet the Scotch
farmers, aware of the importance of calcareous manures, have
carried the use of burnt limestone to an extent, and manage it
in a manner, not to be excelled in any other district. Where
sholl-marl also has been discovered, it has been applied on a
great scale.

12. The use of calcareous manures having augmented the
crops of corn, and improved the herbage, the fanners in Scot-
land have been thereby furnished with an additional quantity
of putrescent matter, whicli, in the lighter soils, instead of be-
ing mixed with them in the course of ploughing, by which
much of its strength and virtue would be lost, is usually de-
posited, when cillier turnips or potatoes are cultivated, in the
centre of a drill, by means of which, as much advantage as
possible is derived from it, and in this way nearly half the
quantity used in other districts, is found to be sufficient.

APPEMDIX. 5

13. Tlie instruments of husbandry adopted by the flirmers in
Scotland, are distinguished for their utility. The single horse-
cart, the two-horse plough, the fanner, and the threshing-mill,
are excellent implements for the various objects for which they
are respectively destined, and by their means, the expencc of
cultivation and labour is greatly reduced.

l*. The great attention that has been paid to the improve-
ment of the roads, has, for obvious reasons, been of infinite ad-
vantage to the agriculture of Scotland. A fai'mer can afford
to pay a much higher rent, where he has that accommoda-
tion, than where it is not to be met with. Canals also have, in
some cases, been of use ; and iron rail-ways are likely to be-
come of considerable advantage to the more interior districts *.

15. The increasing price of agricultural produce, has, in a
peculiar manner, operated as a premium to improvement ; and,
it is observed, that the best cultivated districts in Scotland,
are either in the neighbourhood of large towns, or where there
is an easy mode of conveyance, by water-carriage, or other-
wise, to advantageous markets f .

If these are not to be considered, stricti}' speaking, as causes
of the excellence of the Husbandry of Scotland, they are at
least to be accounted circumstances tvkich have indirectly contri-
buted, in a greater or less degree, to thejame "which it has acqui-
red.

* Tlie iron rail-way, from Berwick to Kelso, which may afterwards be
extended farther into the interior, will be of infinite advantage to several
inland districts. Other rail-ways are in contemplation.

f What an advantage is not tlie Morpeth market to the farmers in the
two counties of Berwick and Roxburgh ?

APPEXIilX.

No. II.

HINTS REGARDING THE IMPROVEMENT OF WASTE LANDS.

J N the course of my inquiries regarding the Husbandry of
Scotland in its more fertile districts, some useful facts and ob-
servations were incidentally transmitted to me, on the subject
of improving the waste lands of the kingdom. These I have
thought it advisable to annex, by way of appendix, to the pre-
ceding account of the more improved Husbandry of Scotland,
to prevent the risk of their being lost. They relate to the fol-
lowing particulars : 1. The possibility of improving waste lands ;
. 2. The modes of improvement by ploughing, trenching, paring
and burning, or floating away sterile surface ; 3. The proper
breadth of ridges in new improvements ; 4. The cultivation of
srass on such lands ; 5. The distinctions of natural meadows ;

o

and 6. The improvement of wastes in fertile districts ; which
may be adduced as a proof of the advantages to be derived
from a General Bill of Inclosure,

1. On ilic Possibility of Improving Wastes.

The common description of a waste country, is enough to
deter any individual from attempting its improvement, unless
impelled by the strongest personal interest. ^VTlat can be
more unpropitious than an uninclosed tract, encumbered with
large stones, greatly in want of drainage, overrun with furze
and heath, with a sterile soil, and a weeping climate, present-
ing difficulties not easil}' to be surmounted ; yet, notwithstand-
ing these unfavourable circumstances, such lands are, to a cer-
tain extent, susceptible of improvement. Such a soil and cli-
mate, with proper culture, will produce roots and herbage for
improving both stock and sward, though not in degree, yet in
no small proportion to what has taken place on more favoured
situations. Potatoes, turnips, cabbages, sown grasses, and

APPENDIX. 7

tares, may all be raised. Want of manure is the great obstruc-
tion ; but were all the coarse herbage to be procured in such
wastes, cut and preserved for raising potatoes in drills, laying
i t below them on land that had been but two years limed and
broke up, a good crop would be obtained. The cultivation of
these crops would not only improve the pasture, but afford, at
all seasons, a supply of food, that would increase the value of
cattle, fully in proportion to what takes place elsewhere *.

2. Modes of Improvement.

There are four modes which have been tried in Scotland,
for improving such waste lands: 1. By ploughing; 2. By
trenching ; 3. By paring and burning ; and, 4. By floating
away the sterile surface.

1. Mr Walker of Mellendean improved a piece of high
ground, situated about three miles from Kelso, and seventeen
from lime, originally muir, intermixed with small spots of
sandy soil, and covered with whins, in the following manner.
He generally broke up from 15 to 20 acres yearly. When first
ploughed, the furrow was laid as flat on its back as possible,
and allowed to remain in that state from 15 to IS months, in
order to rot the sod or turf; about midsummer it was cross-
ploughed, and after being harrowed 12 or 14 times, (or what
is called there six or seven double tines), it received the lime,
was ridged up, and sown in the following spring with rye or
oats, generally the former, having found it to be a more certain
crop than oats upon that kind of soil : the average crop, from
three and a half to four bolls per acre. As soon as the rye
was cut, the ground was ploughed again, and a crop of drilled
turnips, (with dung), taken the following season; the turnips
were eaten on the ground by sheep, and then sown down for
pasture with the first crop after the turnips. After remaining
a year or two in grass, innumerable shoots of young whins
made their appearance. These, when a year old, or nearly so,
were regularly drawn out in soft rainy weather by the shep-
herd, the only servant kept on the ground ; and as this was

• Extracted from the communications of Mr Scott of Craiglockhart, and
of Mr Dudgeon of Primrose Hill.

APrENDIX.

executed without taking away his attention from the flock, it
was done at little or no expence. On the improved part of
the land, which was laid down to grass, Mr Walker keeps his
young sheep in summer, and his breeding ewes in winter.

Mr Blackie of Holydown has made considerable improve-
ments on a farm called Clinton Moor, containing about 300
acres. He describes it as being a perfect waste, not so much
as a house upon it, a cold climate, two-thirds of the farm a
thin wet soil, with a yellow tilly bottom, the surface covered
with a coarse kind of grass, a mixture of bent, ling, and some
heath, the grass in spring so dead, that it would blow away by
a high M'ind, or burn as well as any mountain heath ; the other,
one-third short heath, almost without the appearance of grass,
and in many places quite naked.

The ground being quite open, he was first under the neces-
sity of dividing it by hedges and ditches into suitable inclo-
sures, such as the nature and situation of the soil would admit
of. The plan he adopted was, to tear up about 50 acres an-
nually, to rest it in that state for two years ; then to cross-
plough and harrow it, then another ploughing and harrowing,
then to lay on shell marl, at the rate of 40 double carts per
acre, and after that, a shallow ploughing with a slight harrow-
ing, so as to mix the marl with the soil *. The land was thus
materially reduced, and before winter, it was gathered up into
ridges, ten feet broad; from the thinness of the soil it could
not be mounded up into broader ridges ; indeed, as it was, the
furrows were left bare.

The first crop of oats was never worth more than the seed,
if so much ; then he took a second crop, which ripened in good
time, and produced on an average four bolls. There was sown
along with that crop, one bushel and a hall' of rjc-grass jKr

' The plan adopted liy Mr Barclay in Aberdeenshire, is, where heath pre-
dominates, to suffer it to remain two or three years after the first furrow, to
rot and mellow before the fallow took place, at which time lime was always
applied, and, if possible, dung, more or less, as it could be procured With
tiie first crop grass-seeds were always sown, and the fields pastured for the
live or ii\ following years.

APPEXDIX. 9

acre, with a mixture of white and yellow clover; he then took
a crop of hay, eighty or ninety-six stone average /je;- acre; next
winter ploughed again for a crop of oats, average four bolls ;
then fallow, and on some of the driest parts turnips, dressed
with dung and moss, of which there was plenty ; then another
crop of oats or barley ; sown down again with grasses fit for
the soil ; then pasture till it grows more solid, before opening
for another course ; but never two white crops afterward, with-
out an intervening green crop or fallow. What effect lime
would have had on such a soil, cannot be stated ; as lime could
not be had there under 10s. per boll, it would not probably pay
the expence.

2. A most intelligent correspondent states, that he is deci-
dedly of opinion, that trenching of all muir grounds, improved
for corn cropping, would be the most lasting and beneficial
mode of improving them. The sterile surface, which is com-
posed of muirish earth and vitrifiable sand, should be turned
down, without the reach of the roots of the crop, and the bot-
tom soil, which is in general a tillj turned up, exposed to the
sun and air, and if manure were applied to it, would prove a
kindly soil, particularly where the bottom was made free and
drained, by the worthless old surface put below it. As proof
of the utility of deepening surface soils, both wet and dry bot-
toms, look at the patches of gardens that have received the
deep digging or shallow trenching, of the cottages placed oa
the skirts of the muirs all over Scotland, and you will observe,
the additional verdure and luxuriance of crop upon these pat-
ches, more than upon the lands adjoining, the surface of which
is often very little more than scratched by the plough, and
the dung and other manure applied to it has not deepness of
soil to operate upon, so as to produce a good crop *.

3. In regai'd to paring and burning, in many situations that
is certainly the best mode of improvement. Where there is a
rough and barren surface, over a fertile loam or clay, it is de-
sirable to get rid of that surface, at almost any expence ; but

• It Is remarked, however, that cottage gardens get more dung tliatt
could be given to larger tracts.

JO APPENDIX.

if, in addition to the advantage of clearing the ground of such
a nuisance, you can also convert it into a source of fertility,
M'hat can be more desirable? By means of paring and burning,
the Author of this work raised, by the first crop, what would
pay all the expence of the improvement ; and then by laying it
down to grass, it gradually acquired strength and permanent
fertilit3%

The opieration of paring and burning is likely to be much fa-
cilitated, by a very cheap and simple contrivance invented by
William Aitchison, Esquire of Clement's Wells, near Mussle-
burgh. It is a portable furnace for burning sods, made of old
cart iron hoops, of the following shape.

^JG G G G G^

J) )) )) )) ))„

The two pieces of hoops A and B are made straight to lie on
the ground, and the half hoops g g g g, are fixed to them by
rivet nails. They are about four feet long each, and so light,
that a boy could run about with two of them in each hand.
Turf being laid along the sides, and over the top, they keep an
opening through the hoop for air to make the fire burn. Be-
fore this invention, it was very difficult to get the turf sufficient-
ly dry in so moist a climate, and the process was extremely ex-
pensive an(i ui>certain, but this simple apparatus keeps the turf
always open, and ready to receive air, by means of which a few-
hours of dry weather makes it fit for burning. The expence of
these turf kilns is but trifling, and by their means, when once
the small quantity of turf is set on fire, a great deal of it may
be burnt in one day *.

4. There is another mode of improving waste lands, which
seems to be peculiar to Scotland ; it is that of conveying away,
by means of Avater, the moss or peaty earth, with which somc-

• It is worth consideration, whether the same process niiglit not be ap-
plied to liic burning of kelp.

APPENDIX. J i

times the richest clay is covered, so as to render it accessible
to cultivation. This method was either improved upon, or dis-
covered by that able agriculturist, the late Lord Karnes ; and
by his efforts, and those of his public-spirited representative
and successor, many hundred acres of land have been convert-
ed, as if by magic, from black moss, where hardly a snipe or
muir-fowl could find subsistence, to rich and fertile carse or
clay-land, worth I'rom L. 3 to L. 5 j).er acre *.

3. Proper Breadth of Ridges, ivhen Waste Lands are
improved.

There is nothing more essential, than to render waste lands,
when improved, as dry as possible ; and for that purpose, I am
convinced of the superior advantage of making the ridges wide
and high, not in mossy land, but where the soil consists of earth
of a soft or spongy quality.

New land, (more especially where the bottom is till), is
generally of that description, retaining a great superfluity of
water, which prevents any manure, whether lime, dung, or
marl, from operating on it successfully. But this great obsta-
cle to the improvement of waste lands would be obviated, by
the use of wide and high ridges.

By this means also, the land might be dunged, ploughed,
and harrowed, and afterwards pastured on, at times, when it
would otherwise be impracticable.

I have seen very good crops of corn raised on new land, in
lazy-beds^ when they could not be obtained in any other way.
This was entirely owing to the height of the ridges, and the
consequent dryness of the land. To cottagers bringing in jiew
lands, this plan is particularly recommended, not only for potur
toes, but for all their other crops.

* There is an excellent account of this in Brown's Treatise on Rural
Affairs, vol- i, p. \06- It would be desirable to have estimates made out
of the expence and profit of cultivating waste land in Scotland, according to
various pbns that might be adopted, as being the most advantageous mode
of expending agricultural capital, where the rent of improved land is so high.

12 APFEKDIX.

But as it is impossible to cultivate large tracts by the spade,
the best plan to pursue, ivith the plough, is, to widen the ridges
from 16 to even 30 feet, by means of which the land would be
kept dry. This was the plan adopted by ancient farmers, and
is sanctioned by their experience. Some ground in this way
would be lost by the furrows ; but as soon as the land was
brought into thorough good order, and of as firm a consistency
as old land, the plan of smaller ridges might be adopted. This
plan is peculiarly necessary in districts subject to all the disad-
vantages of a wet climate.

4. On the Cultivation of Grass on Waste Lands.

Though grain may be cultivated on lands possessed of great
natural fertility, yet grass is the stimulating cause, and princi-
pal source of the culture and improvement of weak soils, and
of barren districts. In such cases, it is from grass alone that
the remuneration can be looked for by the farmer. Not that
such soils produce grass in great plenty, or of very good qua-
lity, but in this way it is giving something, whilst a stop is put
to farther expenditure *.

In carrying on the improvement of a farm, it is a general
rule, that tlie best land should be first improved, as that is the
only description of soil that brings immediate profit; and the
farmer is thereby enabled to go forward. In regard to waste
lands, the great object is, to bring them into grass. The crop
of grain is but a secondary object ; it is the pasture grass that
may be obtained, that is the cause of its cultivation f .

When waste lands are laid elown to grass, Mr Walker of
Mellendean recommends to sow grass-seeds in the following
proportions: about eight pounds of white, three pounds of red,
and three pounds of yellow clover, and rather more than hah"
a bushel of rye-grass, j^f^r English acre. Cocksfoot, however,
is now peculiarly recommended for such lands.

• C'»in-.munlcation troin Mr Barclay, Mill of Knockleith, county of
Aberdttn. ■\ Ditto.

APPENDIX. 13

5. Distinction of Natural Meadorvs.

In many parts of Scotland, there is a species of bog or
marsh, which is provincially called meadow. It is always over-
grown with coarse grass, rushes, and various other aquatic
plants, and when occupying part of tillage fields, is generally
cut for hay. When these meadows are found on stock farms,
in high situations, few are so ignorant of their value, for pas-
ture to cattle and sheep in winter, as to attempt, or to desire,
to render them arable ; but the propriety of reclaim ihg them,
when found in low arable farms, has been disputed. Mr Low
is decidedly of opinion that these bogs, when on free subsoils,
may be improved and cultivated to very great advantage ; but
when on a retentive till or moss, (of which last they often
seem almost entirely to consist), experience warrants him in
asserting, that they ought not to be disturbed by the plough.
They afford a good crop of hay, as substantial food for cattle
in winter; they yield a great deal of manure, without requirini^
any; and they are not rendered fit to bear corn crops but at a
vast expence.

6. On the Improvement nf Wastes in Periile Districts.

Mr Brown of Cononsyth, near Arbroath, has communicated
to me the following method which he has adopted, for bringing
waste lands into cultivation, and which he has found to answer
well.

The soil on which he tried the experiment, was a poor clay,
rather stony and wet, covered with heath and furze. After
clearing it of stones and other obstacles, and draining it by open
<litches, he gave it as deep a furrow as four good horses were,
able to draw ; and if the ground was very wet at the time, so
much the easier done : it was often performer/ tvhcn the /lorsrs
XKOulil be idle in the stable, by the rest of the farm being drench-
ed with rain : it is allowed then to lie till the following sprintr,
"when it got a good rub of harrowing, so as to fill up the seams
betwixt the furrows. Next vear it was fallowed and limed, at

11; APPENDIX.

the rate of 40 bolls lime-shells ^er acre, and 15 or 20 loads of
dung, and sown with wheat about the beginning of September;
which seldom failed to give a good crop, and then it came into
the rotation with the rest of the farm. He thinks that waste
ground should never get the second or cross furrow, until the
first furrows are grown fast together, or about two years after
the first ploughing ; if sooner, it requires double the labour to
fallow it, exhausts the soil, and cannot possibly be got so well
finished. This is one proof, among many others, of the advan-
tage of improving waste lands, by farmers possessing arable
farms in their neighbourhood, as the labour can be executed
without extra stock.

It is impossible to conclude this paper, without lamenting,
the little attention that has hitherto been paid to the improve-
ment of our waste lands. Many years have now elapsed, since
the necessity of rendering our barren wastes productive, was
recorded on the Journals of Parliament; and yet every at-
tempt to render those most important Resolutions effectual,
has in a great measure been in vain. The consequence has
been, as was foreseen, frequent scarcities, immense importa-
tions, an unfavourable rate of exchange, a high price for bul-
lion, and all the mischiefs which have thence originated. The
advantage of ¥l general bill of inclosure is, that in every parish
something may be done, thousands of farmers may each of them
be improving a few acres, and in this way improvement may be
carried on more advantageously to the public, and more likely
to become speedily productive, than if large tracts were under-
taken by any particular individual. Indeed, if the land, in-
stead of being inclosed, was merely partitioned among the per-
sons having interest therein, it would be a material object
gained.

APPF.KDIX. ' 15

No. III.

LETTER FROM GEORGE FREDERICK STRATTOX, ESQ. TO SIR JOHJT
SINXI.AIR, BART. EXPLAINING THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
THE SCOTCH SYSTEM OF HUSBANDRY, INTRODUCED BY IlIM ON
HIS ESTATES IN OXFORDSHIRE.

Great Tcrv Park, Oxfordshire^
SIR, Uth March 1810.

J N compliance with your request, I herewith send Answer?
to the several Queries which I received by your direction, re-
garding the improvements on this estate. Previous, however,
to your perusal of them, I take the Hberty of requesting your
attention to the following particulars relative to the property
in question, which will both serve to elucidate the subject of
tliem, and may prove of use to other landed proprietors, whose
situation may at all resemble mine. I shall only add, that
either the whole, or any part of the information I shall have
the honour of sending you, is entirely at your service, in anj''
way that you may think proper to apply rt.

In 1800, I came into possession of the Great Tew estate.
I found it apparently in very high condition ; its buildin"-s,
fences, &'C. in very excellent repair ; the whole freehold, com-
pletely in a ring-fence, tithe-free, and land-tax redeemed;
well timbered, and ornamented with young plantations, in a
most thriving condition, and entirely unencumbered, except
by a mortgage of L. 4000. Besides these advantages, and that
of having the manor, the whole village, and the perpetual
advowson of the living, the excellence of the soil of the
whole was, as it were, proverbial in the neighbourhood, and
I felt no inclination to dispute the character it had obtained,
of being one of the finest estates in the county. It was un-
der the management of an old steward of my father's, of

'16 APPENDIX.

whose honesty and science I had the highest opinion ; who
superintended all the improvements and plantations which I
annually made, and whose advice I followed implicitly in the
renewal of leases, increase of rents, and in all other concerns re-
lative to its internal management. It was all let on twelve
years' leases, the greatest part of which were on the point of
expiring, consisted of 3700 acres, and produced a rent of a-
bout L. 3700 a-year. In October 1801, the leases of 1171
a^res, which were let in six farms for L. 1155 per annum, and
consisted of as fine land as any on the estate, expired : and
so infatuated was I, as to be well satisfied in renewing them
to the same tenants at an increase o^ Ij. 20^ per annum. (I
must here mention, that having at the time submitted them to
the inspection of an eminent valuer of land, he actually did
not rate them so high, which confirmed me in the opinion I en-
tertained of my steward's abilities). I could not help obser-
ving, however, that the outgoings of the estate absolutely
exceeded the clear sum I received from it : insomuch, that at
each rent day, instead of L. 1800 or L. 1900, I never received
above L. 800 or L. 900; and charges general, charges annual,
planting, repairs and taxes, consumed more than half my
rent * ; but having always heard of the great outgoings to
which landed property is subject, and having, I may almost
say unfortunately, other resources to supply my expenditure,
the defalcation of my receipts, and the lowness of my rents,
did not sting deep enough to awaken me from the lethargy in
which I was sunk, and 1 only conceived, that I was suffering
the lot of all landed proprietors ; while I consoled myself for
the smallness of my receipts, by the reports which were con-
stantly dunned in my ears, of my goodness as a landlord.
This infatuation, however, was at length doomed to cease : lor
being ybrf«rta/e/j/ distressed for money, by the disappearance
of a person to whom I had lent a large sum, and by the ex-
pences of a contested election, I thought it worth while to
examine whether the rents of my neighbours in general were
as low as ray own ; and I had just discovered that the rent$

I one year actually tcc'.ivi.vi only 1.. 1 1'JO for iLc wliok- year's rent.

APPENDIX. 17

they received were 50 per cent, above mine, when Mr Young's
visit into Oxfordshire, to draw up liis survey of that county,
and the observations he made on my estate, convinced me,
that it might, under proper management, and by twenty-one
years' leases, be nearly doubled in value. I applied myself,
therefore, seriously to the examination of the real value of ray
estate. The subject became daily more clear to me, and ha-
ving seen a pamphlet " On the Rents of the Landed Property
of England," 1 was so much interested by it, that I sent for
its author, Mr John Loudon, to look over my property. He
completely convinced me how much I had been imposed on ;
and asserted, that if I would adopt on the estate, the Scotch,
or Northern System of Agriculture, he would undertake to
raise my rental from 4 to L. 10,000 a-year. This rise appear-
ed so enormous, that at first I could scarcely credit its practi-
cability : but on inquiring the rents, and the system of husban-
dry pursued in the northern counties of England, and in the
Lowlands of Scotland, I found the former so much above even
what Mr Loudon asserted my land to be worth, and was so well
satisfied with the account I received of the latter, that after ma-
ture deliberation, I determined to adopt the plan he recom-
mended in its fullest extent : and as Mr Loudon himself offer-
ed to take, in partnership with his father, who rented two
farms near Stanmore, on the Scotch system, all the northern
side of the estate, at the very rent which I had before thought
so enormous, if I would grant him a twenty-one years' lease
of it, and engaged to let the remainder in the same propor-
tion, I resolved to submit the whole lo his management, if
the old tenants would not agree to continue their farms on
twenty-one years' leases, which I offered to them, and at 10
per cent, less than the rent which Mr Loudon offered me him-
self, and valued the estate at. I allowed them all two months
to consider of it, and on their all refusing the conditions, I
set myself to adopt the Scotch system of agriculture on the
whole estate, except the Park, and fields adjoining to it,
which I would not allow to be ploughed up, as I intended to
keep them in my own hands. At that time, (June 1808),
the leases of about 1100 acres had but lately expired, and

b

18 APPEMPIX.

were held by tenants at will, who were obliged to quit at a year's
notice. The remainder of the estate was still on leases, the
longest of which had then six years to run. But even one
year was too long in my opinion to wait, so anxious was I for
the introduction of the new system, and I offered to all the
tenants who had leases, to purchase them at a valuation, or at
a fixed sum. This all of them refused, except four, whose
leases I purchased by appraisement on the following terms :

V^CTCs. R nt. When Lease to expire. Money given.

206 .£.190 5th April 1811 £.732

87 110 10th Oct. 1S13 250

136 174- Ditto 970

210 243 5th April 1814 1030

639 £.717 £.2982

They were to give up possession of their farms at Michael-
mas 1808, and to have the use of their houses, barns, &c. till
July 1809, for the purpose of threshing out their corn, and
consuming their straw. The value set on the leases shews at
once how much the farms were underlet : as, reckoning the
interest of the respective sums paid for the different leases up
to the time when each would fall in, the above 639 acres
would have been worth L. 886 additional to the actual incum-
bents, which would have raised their rent to L. 1603 per au-

num

*

I need scarcely mention, that luunediately on the leases be-
ing valued, I discharged my steward, whose mismanagement,
whether it proceeded from incapacity or dishonesty, rendered

* I am now convinced, that there is no hetler way of finding out whether
an estate is underlet, than purchasing the lease of any farm upon it, whose
rent might be considered as an average of the whole, hy appraisctiient. By
adding to the sum given, the compound interest which it would have pro-
duced by the end of the lease, dividing the amount by the number of years
the lease has to run, and adding the produce to the prescLt rent, the proper
rent will be found-

AprEN'nrx. 19

him equally unfit for the superintendence of an estate. I am,
however, willing to think, that the fault lay more in his head
than his heart, as though he had been many years steward to
my father and myself, I do not believe him to be rich.

I had thus 639 acres, and luckily in a ring fence, to put in-
to ]Mr Loudon's possession at ichaelmas 180S ; at Michael-
mas 1809, he also came into possession of about 220 acres
more, which were held by a tenant at will. His whole farm,
when all the present leases fall in, the last of which expires
at Lady-day 1814, was to consist of about 1800 acres, all
at three guineas per arable acre. I, on my part, was to build
him a house, homestall and threshing machine, and to make
other improvements on the premises, which I shall particula-
rise hereafter, which, at a rough guess, he laid at about
L. 4000. These improvements I immediately commenced,
and have continued them to the present time, M'ith great ex-
ertions, having for a long time had 132 workmen employed
upon them, and they are now nearly completed: but from the
astonishing rise which Ins taken place in the price of timber,
labour and other * incidental circumstances, which we were
not then aware of, they have already cost upwards of L. 9600
and will probably cost L. 2000 more f .

" One of the principal of these was, being obliged, by unsoundness of
ground, to place the threshing machine on a lower level than I had intend-
ed, by which I was obliged to excavate a great quantity of ground, to carry
off the water; and another was, not being able to find any stone on that
side of the estate, proper for the upper covering of the roads, as 1 had ex-
pected we should have done,

t It would be the height of injustice not to mention here a trait of Mr
Loudon, which cannot be too generally known, and which reflects the high-
est lustre on his character and honour. I was bound by the lease to execute
all the improvements mentioned in it, without any stipulation as to what
they might cost- But when Mr Loudon found how very much they ex-
ceeded his estimate, he insisted on paying himstlf all that they might come
to above L 7000; and exj)ressed his concern, that from the circumstance ot
his being as it were just setting out in life, he could not pay the whole of
their excess above his original estimate, which he in real justice thought
himself bound in honour to do.

h 2

20 Al'I'ENDIX.

The southern side of the estate, consisting of about 1500
acres, I let to Mr Stenhouse Wood, (with whom you have al-
ready had some correspondence), at two guineas and a half
per acre. He commenced tenant at Michaelmas last, and
came into possession of nearly 1100 acres. I am also to make
some improvements, (of which hereafter), on this farm, but
I have restricted the amount to be laid out not to exceed
L. 2000. Besides the above expences, must be reckoned the
allowances I made to the tenants at will who left their farms.

Thinking it hard upon them that they should bo turned out
when they least expected it, I caused all the improvements
which they had made on their respective farms, whether by
purchasing lime or manure, by draining or otherwise, of
which they had not actually received the benefit, from their
having only lately taken place, to be appraised, taking care,
in each case, to pay them rather more than less than their ac-
tual value. Under this head I paid as under to the tenants at
will of the following farms :

A. R. P. Rent. Mon:y paid .

355 1 14 ^.360 £.172

462 0 18 343 300

225 1 7 lyO 150

1042 2 39 £.893 £.622

Besides which, they gained half a-3'ear's rent by being al-
lowed to give up their farms at Michaelmas 1809, instead of
Lady-day 1810, as I allowed them their yards, barns, &c. to
thresh out their corn and consume their straw. The whole
expences incurred, therefore, as nearly as they can be ascer-
tained at present, are as follows :

Paid for permanent improvements on Mr Loudon's

farm, £.11,600

Ditto, Ditto, Mr Wood's, 2,000

Paid tenants for their leases, - - - 2,982

Carryforward, £.16,582

ArPENDIX. C?l

Brought forward, £. 16,582
Paid tenants at will for improvements which they
had made, of which they had not received the be-
nefit, - - - . . . 522

Total expences incurred, £. 17,'204<

Deduct paid by Mr Loudon, l-,600

Total paid by me, - af. 13,601.

I have thus given a general sketch of the plan w])ich I have
followed with regard to my estate in this county ; and shall
now proceed to answer, as well as I can in the present early
state of its improvement, the several queries which you have
proposed to me.

1. What was the state of the two farms possessed by Mr
Loudon and Mr Wood, in regard to the following particulars ?

L Number of farmers ? — Ansiver. Sixteen.

2. Size of their farms ? — Three under 100 acres ; four from
100 to 200; six from 200 to 300; one from 300 to 400; two
from 400 to 500 acres.

3. Number of fields ? — 201 ; besides parks and paddocks ad-
joining it, and a number of small closes and orchartls in and
about the village.

4. Quantity of permanent pasture? — 1472 acres.

5. Quantity of arable ? — About 1990 acres. The planta-
tions, village, gardens, orchards, &c. are not included under
either head.

6. Course of crops by lease ? — They were ail twelve years*
leases on six-course crops, viz. 1. Turnips; 2. Barley and
clover-seeds ; 3. Clover to be mowed once ; 4. Clover two years
old to be eaten off; 5. Wheat ; 6. Oats ; one fourth of the

22 APPENDIX.

arable land to be summer-fallowed the last year, and to be
sown one half with turnips, and one half with wheat.

7. Course in practice ? — They have been very much in the
habit of diminishing their green, and increasing their white
crops ; and from not being properly attended to, have, I am
sorry to say, very often transgressed in this respect ; though
from the great strength of the land, it has fortunately not suf-
fered much by it.

8. Number of ploughs? — About 21 ploughs, or one to
every S3 acres, with four bores or five oxen, and a man and
a boy to each. They ploughed about three-fourths of an acre
a-day.

9. Number of horses and oxen for ploughing ? — 87 horses
and ten oxen.

10. Quantity of other stock? — 2160 sheep, and 227 cows.

11. Number of servants ? — 56; 30 of whom were parishion-
ers.

12. Population on the farms ? — This T cannot exactly ascer-
tain ; most of the servants that did not belong to the parish
were single. The population of the village of Great Tew,
children included, consists of near 400.

13. Rent ? — Average of the whole 22s. j)er acre, or L.4070
per annum.

l^. Tithe ? — The whole estate is tithe-free.

15. Poor's Rates ? — About 3s. 6d. in the pound on the ac-
tual rent.

16. Average produce ? — 1 9 bushels of wheat, four and three-
fourth quarters of oats, four quarters of barley, one and one-
half ton of hay, per acre.

17. Depth of ploughing ? Three inches ; though over half
the estate the soil is at least twelve inches in depth, and no
where less than five.

18. Manuring in general ? — AFost of the tenants only used
the common manure made by their stock. One of them ma-
nured ten acres one year with malt-dust, which answered very
well.

19. Manuring with lime? — One of the tenants manured an-
nually ten acres with lime, 20 (juarters to an acre : one ten

APPENDIX. 23

acres, 16 quarters to the acre ; and one eight acres, 16 quar-
ters of lime, or soap-ashes, to the acre. He considered soap-
ashes to have much the same effect as lime, which, it is in this
country universally agreed, is the best preparation for turnips,
as they are not so likely to take the fly after that manure, as
after common dung.

20. Nature of the leases ? — The leases were for twelve years
each. Landlord has all timber, and pollard trees, and cop-
pices of all sorts, and the loppings of them ; has a right to re-
enter if the rent when due is not paid after 21 days' notice ;
is to keep all the buildings, gates and styles in repair. Te-
nants to pay L. 10 penalty for every acre of pasture or mea-
dow land broken up, and L. 5 for every acre mowed more than
once in the year : to pay all taxes and rates whatsoever, ex-
cept landlord's income tax ; not to sell any hay, straw, or
dung, but expend it all on the land ; to have the course of
crops as mentioned in answer to question 6 ; to mow the net-
tles and thistles twice ayear ; to level all mole-hills and ant-
hills ; and scour out all ditches and water-courses ; to keep
all the thatching, windows, and fences (except gates and
styles) in repair; not to cut the hedges till they are quite fit,
and only at the proper season of the year. The tenant was
also bound to let the landlord have the use of his team for
two days in the 3'ear gratis, to fetch coals, &c. ; to warn off
all trespassers, and lend his name to any actions against them
which the landlord may choose to bring. If tenant dies
during the lease, or subsets any part of the farm without leave,
landlord to re-enter, and take possession without any payment
for it.

21. What terms did you offer the English tenants to con-
tinue?— I offered them 21 years' leases, with full power to do
what they pleased with the land, except for the last five years.
Engaged to put all their buildings and fences into most com-
plete repair, and to make any alterations in either that tfiev
could reasonably require ; and at ten jwr cent, less rent tlian I
was offered by the Scotch fiirmcrs. I gave them two months
to consider of it : they ail refused. After I had engaged all
their farms, one of them odered me tlie whole new rent,
which, as the farm was prouiised, 1 was of course obliged to

21' APPENDIX.

refuse. One of them, who had 255 acres at L. 260 a-year,
and to whom, by my steward's persuasion, I had given up L. 5
a-year, as he said the farm ivas valued rather high, offered me
L. 355 per annum to continue. His farm is engaged at the
expiration of his lease in four years at L. 2 : 12 : 6 per acre.

Q. What is the present state of these farms in regard to the
same particulars ?

1. Number of farmers? When the leases expire in four
years, there will be only two Scotch farmers, who will have
the whole estate, except the Park, and a few fields adjoining
it, and the village.

2. Size of their farms? — One about 1800, and the other a-
bout 1500 acres.

3. Number of fields? — From 95 to 100: but I cannot yet
ascertain their exact number, as the fences are not all removed,
on account of some part of the estate being still in lease to the
old tenants.

4. Quantity of permanent pasture ? — None, except about
30 acres round Mr Loudon's house, and about 200 acres in
hand.

5. Quantity of arable ? — About 3300 acres, — an increase of
about 1400 acres.

6. Course of crops by lease ? — The course of crops is en-
tirely at the option of the tenants.

7. Course in practice ? — Mr Loudon's course will be for the
first four years, till he gets all his farm, 1. Turnips or fallow;
2. Wheat or barley, and seeds ; 3. Clover eaten with stock ;
4. Oats, or wheat. Then when he gets the whole fiirm, it is
his intention to have a five years' course, which will be the
same as the above, except that there will be two years of clover.
— 1. Mowed ; 2. Eaten. Mr Wood's course will be a five-course
crop, in the following proportions to KXK) acres: — 1st, 130
acres summer-fallow; 50 acres turnips; 20 acres beans, or
pease ; of which, if they answer, and do not injure his clovers
n^aterially, he intends to lave 50 acres, in \\liith case the

APPENDIX. 25

summer fallow will be reduced to 100 acres — 2d, 200 acres
wheat — 3d, 200 acres clover, one year old, pastured and cut
— 4th, 200 acres clover, two years old, pastured — 5th, 100
acres wheat after clover, pastured, two years old; and 100
acres of oats after clover, one year cut, and one year pastur-
ed.

8. Number of ploughs, cattle in each, and how much they
do in a day ? — They reckon one plough with two horses, and
one man to each, amply sufficient for 100 acres under the
convertible husbandry. There will thus be 34< ploughs for the
34-00 acres : each plough will do three-fourths of an acre in a
day on an average.

9. Number of horses and oxen for ploughing ? — 70 horses :
as it is as well to have a couple over the number, in case a
horse should be ill. They never use oxen. There will be a
saving, therefore, of 17 horses and 10 oxen, though about 1400
acres more are kept under the plough.

10. Quantity of other stock? — Mr Loudon intends fatten^
ing and selling annually 200 horned cattle and 200 sheep for
1000 acres. This must vary in some degree, as it must de-
pend on the quantity in fallow and turnip. Mr Wood to 1000
acres, intends keeping constantly 100 head of black cattle and
100 wether sheep. He will sell of course, as fast as he can
fatten them. He sometimes, however, will have a quantity
bought ready fattened, which he will only keep a short time
and send up to the London market.

11. Number of servants? — Mr Loudon has one man to every
75 acres. Mr Wood twelve men, six women, and two boys
to every 1000 acres.

12. Population on the farms ? — This cannot be yet ascer-
tained ; a great many of the servants are only temporary
ones ; as the farmers have not yet had time to make their ar-
rangements.

13. R^nt ? — Average L. 2, 18s. j^^r acre, or L. 9570 exclu-
sive of the Park, village, &c. which will be about L. 620 more,
making the whole about L. 10,250, which is an increase of up-
wards of L. 6000 per annum. The interest of the money laid
out should, however, be deducted.

26 APPENDIX.

14. Tithe ?— All tithe-free.

15. Poor's rates ? — The Scotch system having been only
just begun, (Mr Loudon having commenced at Michaelmas
1808, and Mr Wood at Michaelmas 1809), it cannot yet be
ascertained what effect it will have on the poor's rates.

16. Average produce ? — This remains to be proved. Mr
Loudon's ground that has been ploughed for the first time,
has yielded en an average seven quarters and a half of oats to
an acre.

17. Depth of ploughing ? — Mr Loudon, nine inches ; Mr
Wood, five, six and seven inches.

18. Manuring in general fl Mr Loudon manures once every

and i. course with the turnip or fallow

19. Manuring with lime ? \ crop : the summer fallows limed
at the rate of from SO to 60 quarters an acre. Mr Wood
manures 200 acres in 1000 annually, 150 with common ma-
nure, and 50 with lime. The expence of liming will be
L. 4, 10s. an acre to him, and L. 5, 5s. to Mr Loudon.

20. Nature of the leases ? — The leases are for 21 years. In
Mr Loudon's, the landlord may have any number of acres not
exceeding 300, to be valued by neutral men, for pleasure
grounds or plantations ; is to erect a farm-house, with offices
and fami-yard, threshing machine to go by water, garden,
rick-yard and pond, agreeable to a plan drawn by Mr Lou-
don : to put all the old farm-houses and buildings, ditches,
water-courses and fences, into complete repair, except such
as are to be pulled down or grubbed up ; and to plant other
fences where they may be wanted ; to make sufficient roads
through the farm, and to drain the whole of it ; to pay for the
expence of digging and burning whatever lime may be want-
ed, the tenant paying 5 per cnit. interest on the money so laid
out ; the tenant to farm the whole in a husband-like manner,
with any course of crops he thinks proper, except the last
three years, when he is to consume the hay and straw on the
premises; or if he sells any, he must buy two load of manure
for every load of ha}' or straw sold ; and must not sow two
corn crops in succession ; and may subset any part of it to un-
der-tenant?, first offering it to the landlord, but being himself

APPENDIX. 27

bound with the under-tenant for the payment of the rent, and
the fulfilment of the lease ; to keep and leave all the build-
ings, threshing machine, and fences, in complete repair ; to
warn off trespassers, and to lend his name to actions brought
by the landlord against them. — Mr Wood's is the same, ex-
cept that the landlord is not to pay more than L. 2000 for the
improvements to be made on his farm, which is to be laid
out according to Mr Wood's judgment: and there is no clause
in Mr Wood's for the landlord to pay for digging and burning
lime.

21. What is the expence of the new>- I cannot at present
buildings, specifying the particulars ? I answer the above so

22. Expence of threshing mills ? I fully as I could wish.

23. Expence of altering the fields /*The whole of the im-
and fences, and what effect it has on I provements on Mr
the appearance of the country ? J Loudon's farm will
come to L. 11,600, of which the threshing machine and barn is
L. 700 ; conveying the water to it, and excavating the ground,
to let it off after falling from the wheel, L. 800. The thresh-
ing machine is turned by water, acting on a wheel 16 feet
high. It certainly is larger than was required, having once
threshed and winnowed for experiment, 19 quarters and 2
bushels of oats (9 gallon measure) in one hour, and it would
have done more, had not the straw been exceedingly long,
which made it take more time in passing through the machine
than it would otherwise have done. It will, however, with
great ease, thresh nine quarters an hour, and clean it com-
pletely, doing the work as well as possible. Part of the im-
provements on Mr Wood's farm will consist of two threshing
machines, turned by water, but of smaller power than Mr
Loudon's ; they will cost about L. 300 each. The fences are
not yet all altered, from the circumstance of some of the farms
being still in possession of the old tenants. In Mr Wood's
farm they will require little or no alteration, tis the fields are
most of them of good sizes and shapes : and from the greatest
part of it having been arable land under the old tenants, it
will receive no other alteration in appearance than what will a-
rise from its superior cultivation. Mr Loudon's farm having

28 APPENDIX.

consisted originally of small inclosures, and the greatest part
of them pasture, is very mucli altered in appearance. All
the trees that ^vere in the hedge-rows are left standing, and
have a more picturesque effect than they had, which is in-
creased by that of the new roads, which serpentine round the
farm on the sides of the hills, (that the level may be kept),
and appear like rides through an araWeJerme ornie. The re-
servoir for the threshing machine has also a very good effect on
the prospect, as water was before much wanted to enliven the
scene ; and the new farm-house, which stands on the brow of
a hill, commanding a beautiful valley, and a view of a great
part of the farm, is also a very ornamental object. Its roof,
and that of all the farm buildings, is paper, dipped in tar, &c.
which, from the enormous price of pitch and tar, did not cost
much less than slate or tiles, but is much more picturesque
than either.

24. Expence of roads ? — There will be seven miles of new-
roads in Mr Loudon's farm, six of which are finished. They
are stoned, 16 feet wide, and ten inches deep ; and cost
Is. 10 d. a-yard making, and 2s. 3d. a-yard covering (car-
riage included), with white stone-brash, brought from the
other side of the estate. Thus the seven miles on Mr Loudon's
farm will coast L. 2515 : 6 : 8. I do not exactly know what
extent of new road will be required on Mr Wood's farm ; but
as it is already intersected diagonally by a public parish road,
and as it abounds with excellent materials in all parts, much
less new road will be required, and it will not be nearly so ex-
pensive in proportion.

25. Expence of liming? — From L. 3, 3s. to L. 5, 5s. per
acre, exclusive of carriage.

26. Payments to old tenants ? — This I have already answer-
ed in my preliminary observations.

27. What rates or taxes are paid by you, or by the tenants,
and their amount ? — They pay all, except the landlord's in-
come tax.

28. Do not the trees left standing injure the crops of grain ?
—After all the pollards are grubbed up, there will be few trees
left but oak and elm, of any size, which, though certainly in

r,i.i.,.i,r'>i'i.,i'.„.

APPENDIX. S9

some degree injurious to the crops, and impediments to ara-
tion, are yet so ornamental, that, in my opinion, they ought
not to be removed. So partial indeed am I to them, that I
have constantly bought timber for the necessary repairs, rather
than have them cut down. It is but fair also to allow them the
merit of sheltering cattle from the heats of summer, and the
storms of winter.

I have new, I believe, answered all the questions delivered
to me by your orders, as far as can be done in the present
early state of the alterations which have been commenced. I
have added two maps, which I have drawn on such a scale as
enables a sheet of letter paper to contain the whole of the
estate in its original state, and the other a plan of it, as it will
be when all the improvements are completed. I have to la-
ment, that numerous avocations, and engagements of various
descriptions, have prevented me from an earlier compliance
with your desires on the subject. Any farther information you
may require, that it is in my power to supply, I shall be most
happy to send. I can only add, that the whole system which
I am now pursuing, is entirely owing to the suggestions of Mr
Loudon, who has the entire merit of planning it, and to whom
I must give the credit of finally opening my eyes to the real
value of my estate. The only praise I can claim, is for resolu-
tion and perseverance in adopting and going through with
them, in opposition to the genei'al opinion of the country, and
to the advice of almost all my acquaintance. I am happy to
say, however, that the reign of prejudice is rapidly declining
in power, and that many of my neighbours are rapidly adopt-
ing that grand support of Scotch husbandry, the two-horse
plough. I begin to feel sanguine hopes that the county of Ox-
ford will, in course of time, be as pre-eminent in agriculture
as its university is in learning, and that the rest of the country,
following its bright example, will adopt a system of husbandry,
M'hich will provide ample resources for its increasing popula-
tion, without being under the necessity of applying to foreign

30 APPENDIX.

nations, for their permission to import the first necessaries of
life.

I have the honour to be, Sir, your very obedient,
and very humble Servant,
GEO. FRED. STRATTON.

To Sir John Sinclair^ Bart.
S^c. S)C. S^c.

N. B. — I have since been informed, that Mr Wood has sub-
let all the land he had in hand, (1100 acres), at an advance of
L. 450 per annum.

RESULT OF THE ADOPTION OF THE SCOTCH SYSTEM OF HUS-
BANDRY ON AN ESTATE IN OXFORDSHIRE.

1. An estate of 3700 acres, in the short period of about two
years, has been increased in rent, from L. 4070, to L, 10,730,
making an additional income of L. 6660 per annum.

2. This increased rent would have been obtained at an ex-
pence of only L. 6500, or about one year's additional rent, had
it not been for an unexpected rise in the price of labour and
materials.

S. From the sum actually laid out, namely, L. 13,600, there
ought to be deducted L. 3504, being payments to the old te-
nants for renouncing their leases, or bounties to tenants at
will, for some improvements executed by them, leaving a ba-
lance of L. 10,000 as the amount of actual expenditure : but
that sum having been laid out in permanent and substantial im-
])rovemcnts, as in the making of roads, and in draining, inclo-
sing, building, erecting threshing-machines, &c. tlie income to
be derived from the estate, as well as its real value, must be
very considerably augmented when the present leases termi-
nate.

APPENDIX. SI

4. By these improvements the total value of this property
has been already increased from L. 12(),0(X) to L. 230,0{)(). Tlie
ditterence, amounting to about L. 100,000, being clear profit,
after deducting all the real expences of the improvement.

5. Instead of 1990 acres under arable crops, and 1472 in
permanent pasture, the whole 3462 acres are rendered arable
under the convertible System of Husbandry. A great addition
is thus made to the produce of the country, and the food of its
inhabitants.

6. Though there are thus 1472 additional acres under the
plough, 17 fewer horses and 10 fewer oxen, are employed by
the farmers ; in consequence of which, and by the use of
threshing machines, the expence of cultivation is greatly re-
duced.

7. Instead of 201 fields, there are now only about 100, by
which the healthiness of the country is greatly improved.

Permit me then to ask.
What would not be the income of the landed proprietors of
England, the additional produce of their estates applicable as
food for the people, and the addition to the public revenue, if
the Scotch System of Husbandry were universally adopted ?
How can it be said, that the resources of the nation are ex-
hausted, when we have such means of additional wealth in our
power ? Had the Board of Agriculture been enabled, to have
completed its inquiries some years ago, (which, by adequate
grants, might easily have been accomplished), tlie most econo-
mical, and the most judicious systems of cultivation, would
have been long ago ascertained, and this country would have
already made considerable progress in a new era of prospe-
rity and improvement.

JOHN SINCLAIR.

.%. Terrace, Palace Yard, Westminster,!
]2fh April 1810. j

32

APPENDIX',

No. IV.

OK THE NECESSITY OF AN ACT OF PARLIAMENT TO ENCOURAGE
DRAINING.

BY THE REV. WILLIAM DALING, MINISTER OF CLEISII, BY
KINROSS.

An act of Parliament to encourage draining in Scotland is
much wanted. As the Parliament have rewarded the inventor
of a new method of draining, upon condition of its being made
public for the advantage of the country, it is to be hoped that
they will remove the greatest obstruction which at present
exists to the draining of wet land in Scotland. This obstruc-
tion consists in a deficiency in those acts which have contri-
buted so much to raise the agriculture of Scotland to its pre-
sent state of excellence. We have laws for dividing runrig
lands and commons, for straighting marches, and making march-
fences : but we cannot oblige our neighbours to join in a com-
mon drain, as we can do in a common fence. Yet the former
is of much more importance than the latter ; for ground may
be highly improved, and excellently cultivated without fences,
as the Carse of Gowrie is : but wetness is a bar to all improve-
ment. A great deal of wet land would immediately be brought
into cultivation, if an act were passed, proceeding upon the fol-
lowing principles:

1. Every person should be entitled to have his ground made
and kept dry.

2. The cxpence should be defrayed by the persons who re-
ceive advantage from the drain, and in proportion to the ad-

APPENDIX. SS

vantage recelveil, as ascertained by arbitrators, or commis-
sioners nominated for that purpose.

3. Full compensation should be made to those whose pro-
perty may be injured in draining the grounds of others.

4. The method of carrying the law into execution should be
so cheap and easy, that the advantage of it might be within
the reach of every one who has the smallest quantity of ground
to drain.

For that purpose, the method of proceeding might be the
same which is already established in the cases of marches, &c.
If the persons concerned could not agree among themselves to
settle the business by arbitration, they might apply to the
Sheriff: if it was found necessary to go to the Court of Session,
that court might settle it, as they do the division of commons,
by sending commissioners to the place. A litigious spirit
should be checked, by the judges giving expences, or
damages, if necessary.

Our ancestors, in framing the laws concerning the division
of commons, and the inclosing of land, have evidently pro-
ceeded upon this principle, that every man should have the
complete enjoyment of bis property, so that he may be able to
manage it any way that he thinks best. And if the advantage,
and proper method of draining, had been as well understood,
when these laws were passed, as they are now, a draining act
would also have been made, and the improvement of the
country would have been much greater than it now is. But as
it has hitherto been overlooked, the present seems to be a
very proper time for bringing forward such a measure, for the
following among other reasons :

All men are now sensible of the advantage of draining.
Wet ground is generally rich, and will, when drained, produce
excellent crops for several years, without manure.

Many tracts of wet land have also the advantage of climate,
as they lie low, and upon the banks of rivers ; so that they
would form a valuable addition to the corn lands of Scotland :
And such an addition would be extremely desirable, as a great
proportion of the surface of the country is not arable, and can
never be made so.

34f APPENDIX.

At present, in particular, an additional quantity of corn land
would be of the utmost importance, when the country does
not raise corn sufBcient for its own consumption, and when
our supplies from other countries are in a great measure
stopped.

The cultivation of the wet grounds would increase the quan-
tity of manure for those which were before in tillage : if they
are ploughed, by the straw and corn ; if kept in watered mea-
dow, by the superior quantity and quality of the produce ;
for dung, except in a few situations, cannot be purchased.

The attention of the public has of late been drawn to the
cultivation and uses of moss, a subject of great national im-
portance ; here also the advantage and necessity of draining
are evident.

The improvement of the climate is an obvious effect of
draining. The great evaporation that takes place from the
surface of bogs, must render the air much damper, and much
colder than it would otherwise be. Consumptions, the rheu-
matism, and probably other diseases, would thus become less
frequent.

The beauty of the country would be improved in a very
hjf^h decree. A taste for neatness and ornament is now much
more generally diffused than it was at any former period : it is
the sign of the increasing wealth and improvement of the
country.

There are now many persons completely qualified to direct
the formation of drains, and plenty of labourers to be got for
executing them. At present, especially, when such numbers
are out of employment by the stagnation of trade, a draining
act would have the effect of setting many of them at work,
and in a way most beneficial to the public. Those who could
not use the pickaxe and spade, might be equally useful with the
wheelbarrow : women could be employed in this manner, as
they always are in peat mosses.

In some cases the same cut which serves for a drain, might
form part of a canal.

Neighbours often quarrel about the draining of their grounds:
but if it were always in the power of any one of the parties, to

APPENDIX.

35

settle the dispute by arbitration, quarrels would soon be settled,
and soon forgot, when tlie good effects of the draining were ex-
perienced. Probably no man ever repented the draining of
wet ground : of other things which were supposed to be im-
provements, as much cannot be said.

If such a law were made for Scotland, it would save time
and trouble to parliament, and much unnecessary expence to
individuals *. Perhaps England and Ireland also, if their laws
are in that respect deficient, would follow our example.

It is to be hoped that some public-spirited institution will
step forward, and be the means of procuring such an advan-
tage to their country.

No. V.

PROOFS OF THE UNFAVOURABLE IDEA ENTERTAINED BY BRITISH
STATESMEN, OF THE ABILITY OF THIS COUNTRY TO RAISE A
SUFFICIENCY OF GRAIN FOR ITS OWN CONSUMPTION, AND OF
THE LITTLE IDEA THEY ENTERTAINED OF THE IMPORTANCE
OF AGRICULTURE, PRIOR TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NA-
TIONAL INSTITUTION FOR PROMOTING ITS IMPROVEMENT.

In the year 1790, the Committee of Privy Council appointed
to inquire into all matters relating to trade, took into its con-
sideration the laws regarding the exportation and importation
of graiD, and presented a report to his Majesty upon the sub-
ject, which is drawn up with much ability, although with such
little idea of the agricidtiu-al resources oj" the country, that we
are told, we must depend for a part of our consumption, not
on an increased cultivation at home, not even on the pro-
duce of Europe, but on the harvests of America. Yet in
the year 1808, as appears from the customhouse accounts,

• The same idea of a law to facilitate draining, occurred to the intelligent
reporter of Berwickshire, An. 1S09. See report, p. 490, p. ii.

c

36

APPENDIX.

we exported corn to thevalueof L.4'70,431, and imported only
to the amount of L. 336,460, consequently Great Britain be-
came again an exporting country, and for that year at least,
with the assistance of Ireland, was independent of foreign na-
tions for food.

In the year 1791-2, Mr Pitt explained, in a speech on the
state of the nation, what appeared to him the causes of the ge-
neral increase of the national prosperity which had taken place
at that time. That speech is very ably commented upon by Mr
Arthur Young, in his Annals of Agriculture *. Mr Young was
shocked to find, in that speech, the greatest, dearest, and most
important interests of the kingdom, totally and contemptuously
overlooked, as of no sort of consequence in the great scale of
national prosperity. A financier, he observes, in giving a ge-
neral view of the national resources, and dwelling with pride
on the public revenue, does not think that agriculture, which,
even then paid twelve millions Sterling per annum, in public
burdens, M'orthy even of being named amongst the sources of
prosperity !

Mr Y'^oung also remarks, " that the agricultural interests of
this kingdom, perhaps never found themselves placed in so
contemptible a position, as in this speech of the minister, who,
wishing to make the utmost parade of every circumstance that
would count in a catalogue of national advantages, totally over-
looks every thing connected with land." Mr Young little ex-
pected, in the course of a few months, to be secretary to a Board
of Agriculture, established with the concurrence of that very
minister, by whom that speech had been delivered.

As late as the year 1796, another British statesman, distin-
guished for political information, (Lord Auckland), delivered
a speech in the House of Lords, which was afterwards publish-
ed, and of which the following is an extract :

" To what, under the protection and favour of Divine Provi-
dence, shall such prosperity be ascribed ? — to our naval supe-
riority and successes ; to our conquests in the East and West
Indies ; to the acquisition of new markets ; to the enterprising

Vol. ivii.p- i69-

APPENDIX. 87

spirit of our merchants ; to the improvements of our manufac-
turers ; to the energy of our countrymen in arts and in arms ;
to the union of liberty with law ; to the national character,
cherished by, and cherishing the principles of our inestimable
constitution ; that constitution, which it has been the object of
our enemies to destroy, by means and effects utterly destruc-
tive to themselves ; that constitution, which it is the great pur-
pose of our struggles in this just and necessary war, to preserve
and to maintain *."

Not one word of agriculture in this whole paragraph, intend-
ed to enumerate the causes to which our prosperity was to be
ascribed. We have hitherto indeed been too much considered
as a mere commercial nation ; whereas every country possessed
of an extensive and fertile territory, ought to account the cultiva-
tion of its soil, as the surest foundation of its prosperity, and the
best entitled, of all the sources of that prosperity, to the pecu-
liar attention of an enlightened government. Such a govern-
ment will be ready, at all times, to remove every obstacle to
improvement ; if not to promote, by public encouragement,
those unceasing exertions, by which alone the whole territory
of a great country, can be rendered, what it ought to be— one
uninterrupted scene of industry and cultivation.

No. VI.

ACCOUXT OF JAMES SMALL, AND OF HIS IMPROVEMEXTS IN THE
CONSTRUCTION OF AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS,

BY SIR JOHN SINCLAIR.

-W EXT to the pleasure of promoting the improvement of a
country, by personal exertions, is the satisfaction of doing jus-

• See the Substtnce of Lord Auckland's Speech in the House of Lords,
the 2d day of May 179C. London, printed for J. Waher, Charing-crosj.

38 APPENDIX.

tice to the merit of those, who have distinguished themselves,
by their successful efforts in the accomplishment of that ob-
ject. I am thence induced, to give some account of a native of
this country, James Small, to whom Scotland, and the agri-
cultural world in general, are peculiarly indebted. That is the
more necessary, as the services of this useful mechanic have
not hitherto been sufficiently known or appretiated.

James Small was born at Upsetlington, in the parish of Lady-
kirk, and county of Berwick, about the year 1 740. His fa-
ther's only profession was that of a farmer. Under his superin-
tendence, his son, the late James Small, was instructed in all
the various branches of agricultural labour ; a knowledge, of
which he afterwards experienced the advantages.

Young Small was first bound as an apprentice to a country
carpenter and ploughraaker, at Hutton, in Berwickshire. He
remained in Scotland for some time after his apprenticeship
was over ; but about the year 1758, he went to England, where
he worked with a Mr Robertson at Doncaster, in the making
of waggons and other wheel carriages.

It was in the year 1763, that he settled at Blackadder
Mount in Berwickshire, under the patronage of John Renton,
Esq. of Blackadder. He there set up a manufactory of ploughs
and other agricultural implements; and as he at the same time
occupied a farm of considerable extent, he had an opportunity of
trying many experiments, which he might not otherwise have
been enabled to attempt. He there contrived a device for as-
certaining the best shape of the mould board, by making it of
soft xwod ; by means of which, it soon appeared, where
the pressure was the most severe, and where there was the
greatest friction.

When he first settled at Blackadder Mount, the old Scotch
plough was almost solely in use throughout Berwickshire.
It was drawn by a pair of horses, with the addition of four,
and sometimes of six oxen ; the smallest number was a pair of
horses, and a pair of oxen, attended by a driver.

He began with trying experiments on his own farm, with
ploughs of smaller sizes, and of different forms, proving, by a

APPENDIX. 89

Steel-yard with a stronger spring than usual, which of them
performed the best work with the least force of draught.

Some persons are impressed with an idea, that he had no
other merit, but that of introducing into Scotland, the Kother-
ham plough, or reviving a plough that had been made by an
itinerant ploughmakcr, called Lomax, or Lummas, many years
before, but which had fallen into disuse, neither of which how-
ever is the fact. That he was well acquainted with the Rother-
hara plough, appears from his own treatise on ploughs and
wheel carriages, (p. 172.) ; and he probably would adopt any
particulars in the construction of that plough, which might ap-
pear advantageous * : but it is well known, that he improved his
own plough gruduallij, and by means of repeated experiments ; and
there is positive evidence, that instead of the Rotherham, the
old Scotch plough was the foundation on which he proceeded.
Besides the testimony of Lord Kames, to be afterwards quoted,
his book-keeper, Hector Heatlie, in a letter to one of the late
James Small's sons, states, " That when his father began busi-
ness at Blackadder Mount in 1763, there was nothing used in
Berwickshire but the old Scotch plough, a comparatively very
awkward instrument, which went with two oxen and two hor-
ses, and indeed often with four oxen and two horses. Your
Jather, observing the Jaidts about her^ made and introduced a
plough with the broad sock ; she was a short little plough,
with a wood mould board, and round in the breast. You know
what I mean. The mould board was round on the top, and
not straight, which consequently made her worse to draw.
This plough was much esteemed, and she was far easier drawn,
and made tolerable neat work, especially on ley ground ; but
your father did not stop there, but continued to make some ad-
ditional improvements on her."

Indeed, any mechanic who will take the trouble of exami-
ning the beam, the sheath, the handles, the coulter, and the

• There were a few Rotherham ploughs in Scotland at that time, and I
am informed that moulds were got by a gentleman in Forfarshire, from a
Wright at Grindon in Northumberland, who had travelled with Lummas.

40 APPENDIX.

muzzle or bridle of Small's improved plough, with the old
Scotch one, will find the parts similar ; and Mr Gray, who is
so thoroughly acquainted with the construction of ploughs, is
of opinion, that the superiority of Small's plough, in a great
measure consists in this, that its different parts are made neater
and lighter, than in the old Scotch plough, and that these
parts are so much better combined together, that the line of
traction, and the centre of gravity of the plough, perfectly coin-
cide, the line of draught, (as will appear from the annexed en-
graving), passing through the centre of resistance.

Like other ingenious men, James Small was distinguished
by simplicity of behaviour, and modesty in his pretensions; he
did not, therefore, bring himself forward, nor do himself that
justice to which he was entitled. In the introduction, how-
ever, to his treatise on ploughs and wheel-carriages, he states,
" The chief merit I claim in the following sheets is this, that
I have given directions by which any sensible workman may
be enabled to make a plough o?? my principles ;" thus claim-
ing to himself the merit of an improved construction. In that
assertion no person ventured to contradict him, whilst he was
alive to defend his own pretensions to the credit of his im-
provements.

In regard to the merits of Mr Small's plough, they arise
from this, that the sock and the mould board are formed ac-
cording to strict mechanical principles ; and that those parts
which enter the earth, and cut up the furrow, have that equal
tapering, or sharpened wedge-like form, which occasions the
least resistance in raising the furrow slice. The mould board,
in particular, has that regular curve or twist, which not only
lessens friction, in elevating and turning over the furrow slice,
but it also places and leaves that slice in the most proper posi-
tion for the beneficial effects of the atmosphere, and the opera-
tions of the harrow *. Small has also the sole merit of invent-

• Mr Kerr considers the peculiar sdvantages of Small's plough to arise
from this, that at its anterior part it is an exceedingly thin wedge, and
therefore cuts the plic from the fast land, with the smallest poasible resistance,
aided by the broad thin feather of the sock, which cuts olT the plit below

APPENDIX. 41

ing and modelling the mould-board, and other parts of the
plough, in cast metal, which contributed so much to the speedy
extension of that valuable instrument.

It is a striking proof of the excellence of his plough, that
many ploughmen in Berwickshire, for their own ease and sa-
tisfaction, offered to be at the sole expence of the wood work, if
their masters would suppl}' them with Small's plough, and
would defray the other charges of the implement.

The celebrated Henry Home, Lord Karnes, who was a friend
to merit, and an ardent promoter of agricultural improvements,
warmly patronized Small's exertions. In his Gentleman
Farmer, l-th edition, chap. I. p. 5, he says, " I boldly recom-
mend a plough introduced into Scotland about twelve years
ago, by James Small in Blackadder Mount, Berwickshire,
which is now in great request, and with great reason, as it
avoids all the defects of the Scotch plough " — evidently declaring,
that the object of Small was, not to bring into use a new
plough, but to remedy the defects of the old-established im-
plement of the country ; and his sons positively aflSrm, that
during all the period whilst their father was attempting to im-
prove his plough, they never recollect to have heard him men-
tion the Rotherham plough ; and they are certain that there
never was one of them, either in his manufactory, or on his
farm. ^

In consequence of the great improvements made by James
Small on this implement, instead of two or more horses, toge-
ther with two or more oxen, formerly used, and a driver; Lord
Kames had the satisfaction of seeing himself, scarcely a plough
with more than two horses and the ploughman, in the lower
part of Berwickshire, and he then prophesied, what has since

from the subsoil. The mould board gradually increasing, the obtiisitj- of
the wedge-form, gradually turns over the plit in a proper manner, instead
of having all its work to do at once, against the whole resistance. It was
experimentally proved, before the Dalkeith Farming Society, that Small'*
plough, in tearing up old ley, was drawn by a force of from 9 to 10 cwt.
while the old Scotch, in the same field, required a force of IG cwt. to per-
form the same work, in the same field.

42 APPEKDIX.

taken place, that the practice would become general. It may
be now considered as universally established over all the im-
proved districts of Scotland. The saving thereby made in the
expence of cultivation can hardly be calculated.

It was by Lord Kames's encouragement, and at his particu-
lar request, that James Small was prevailed upon to draw up
a treatise on ploughs and wheel carriages, which was printed
after his Lordship's death in 1784. This is certainly one of the
best and most useful, as well as one of the earliest publications,
on this interesting subject. In that treatise he gives a distinct
and scientific account of the principles on which ploughs and
wheel carriages ought to be constructed.

When a Farming Society was established in Ireland, consist-
ing of the most respectable characters in that spirited and im-
proving country, they ordered this treatise to be reprinted ; in
consequence of the circulation of which, numbers of Small's
improved ploughs were sent to Ireland. The demand became
so great, that the society resolved to send over a person to
Scotland, (Mr Robert L'Estrange), to learn the art of making
Small's ploughs, and other agricultural implements. With the
utmost liberality and public spirit, though attended with much
detriment to their own personal interests, every information
was most readily given by Alexander Small and Company,
who continue their father's profession, that they could possibly
furnish ; and the society have since erected a manufactory for
these implements, under Mr L'Estrange's superintendence,
which has spread these ploughs over the greatest part of Ireland.

It was about the end of the year 1779, or the beginning of the
year 1780, that James Small made a pattern in wood for the
mould-board, and also for the land-side plates of his plough, and
he took them with him to Carron, where he got them cast. They
were so well shaped, and answered the purpose so well, that
they gave the highest satisfaction both to gentlemen and far-
mers. Some years afterwards, he made another important im-
provement, that of getting the sheath and head, which were
formerly of wood, made of cast-iron, by which they were ren-
dered much less liable to injury ; and indeed, when the head
formerly gave way, the plough was often rendered useless.

APPENDIX. 4y

The plan of making these parts of the plough of cast metal,
was one of the most important improvements ever effected in
agricultural machinery; and, without which, Small's plough
could never have spread so rapidly as it did over all Scotland.
But when ploughraakers were thus furnished with the most dif-
ficult parts of the plough, according to the most approved mo-
dels, ready for putting together, the rest of the implement,
more especially after Small had explained in his treatise the
principles on which it was to be formed, was much more easily
constructed.

The difficulties James Small had to contend with, to intro-
duce his plough, even in his own neighbourhood, were very
great, of which the following instance is recorded : The late
Mr Lumsdaine of Blanerne, was one of the first who ordered
the new improved plough, but his servants did all they could
to prejudice their master against it, pretending it did not go
well, &c. Small was then obliged to appear in the field him-
self, and taking the plough into his own hand, he proved to Mr
Lumsdaine and all his ploughmen, how well it could work.
Had he not been a good ploughman, as well as an able mecha-
nic, he could not have thus triumphed over those who opposed
the introduction of his improvements.

Having established his plough in Berwickshire, Small wish-
ed to introduce it into Mid-Lothian, where it had met with
much opposition ; but being confident of the superiority of his
invention, he offered to make a comparative trial. In conse-
quence of that challenge, a competition of ploughs took place
in a field near Dalkeith, in presence of many gentlemen and
farmers from Berwickshire, Mid Lothian, East Lothian, &c,
A number of ploughs were brought forward, as the old Scotch
plough ; several English ploughs ; a plough by Mr Hutchison
with an iron-wheel, &c. ; but SmalPs was successful, the judges
having decided, that it did the best work, and was considerably
lighter in the draught, than any of the others. In consequence
of the success of his plough at this public trial, it spread rapidly
over all the diiferent counties in Scotland, and has since been
adopted in many parts of England, Wales and Ireland, and in
many foreign countries.

44f APPENDIX.

Small's plough has likewise been successful in many other
competitions, in England, and in Ireland, as well as in Scotland,
which it is unnecessary here to detail. '

It is proper, also, to remark, that he made several im-
provements in other agricultural implements besides the plough,
as in harrows, rollers, winnowing machines, and wheel carriages.

It was a rule with James Small, that whatever piece of work
he undertook, whether the making of a cart or plough, or any
other implement, it should be made complete ; and so anxious
was he, that his implements should give perfect satisfaction,
that rather than suffer any insufficient work to be sent from his
manufactory, he would break it to pieces, whatever loss he
might thereby sustain.

There was nothing, however, by which he was more distin-
guished, than by his zeal to promote useful improvements in
the department of agriculture.

One who knew him well, (Hector Heatlie, formerly his
book-keeper, and now resident in Dunse), affirms, *' that to
serve his country in the line of his profession was his incessant
object, and to which he had so great a propensity, that to it
he sacrificed his ease, his health, his strength, and his sub-
stance." Had it not been for this turn of mind, James Small
might have left behind him a competence for his family ; but
instead of thinking of his pecuniary concerns, he was constant-
ly trying experiments, and making improvements in machi-
nery. Wlien his ploughs were sent to any distance, he was
often under the necessity of attending to see them tried, and
to refute any objections that might be made to them. This
occasioned, not only much loss of time, but expence. He also
lost considerably by publishing his Treatise on Ploughs and
Wheel Carriages, which enabled others to rival him in that
branch of business. In fact, he had such a propensity to be
useful, that he laid personal interest too much aside. He had
the satisfaction, however, of performing services to his coun-
try, to which I have endeavoured to do justice, from informa-
tion the authenticity of which may be relied on, and to leave a
character behind him, which will long be remembered with re-
spect. By him an implement was constructed, which has ma-

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APPENDIX. 45

tcrially diminished the expence of cuUivation, which will an-
swer in every soil, which will turn out the cleanest and deepest
i'urrow with the least force of draught, and which, on the
whole, is better adapted,yor general purposes^ than any plough
that has hitherto been seen or heard of*."

James Small died in the year 1793, about the 53d year of
his age. Of him it may be safely affirmed, that a man possess-
ed of more public zeal, and of a greater turn for mechanical
inventions, has rarely appeared in any age or country.

Description of Small's Plough.

In order that the reader, who may not have seen this plough,
may be enabled to form a just conception of its construction,
an engraving is annexed, which will be perfectly intelligible,
with the aid of the following references :

References to the Engraving of Small's Plough.

Fig. 1, The left hand or land side of its luoodenjrame.

A, B, represent the beam ; C, D, the sheath fixed into the
beam at D ; and its lower end C, serves for the sock or share
to be fixed upon.

E, F, the left hand or larger handle, placed upon the beam
at B, and the lower end is fastened to the sheath at E, by
which the sheath is supported against the resistance that
the sock is exposed to in passing through the ground.
Tliere is also an iron-bolt goes up through the frame at E,
and is secured by a screw nut on the upper side of the beam ;

• That intelligent practical farmer, Robert Brown, Esq. of Markle, in
his recent treatise on Rural Affairs, vol. i, p. 2SG, remarks, that under a
parity of circumstances, the swing plough brought into practice, and after-
wards improved by Mr Small, is fitted for executing work to better purpose,
than any other of the numerous varieties of that implement, employed in the
leveral districts of Great Britain.

46 APPENDIX.

by this means, the beam, the larger handle, and the sheath,
are kept firm together.

Fig. 2. Plan, or bircTs eye vietv of this machine.

A, B, the beam ; B, C, the larger handle ; D, E, the right
hand or lesser handle, attached to the larger one by the iron
rod F, and the wooden roundels G, H.

Fig. 3. The land, or left-hand side of the plough ixihen
coynpleted.

A, B, the beam ; B, C, the larger handle ; E, F, the coulter

fixed into the beam at F.
G, H, I, the sock or share, placed upon the lower end of

the sheath.
H, K, L, M, are plates of cast-iron, nailed upon the land side

of the plough, to prevent the wood from wearing, by rubbing

on the firm land.
L, M, the hindermost end of the mould-board.

Fig. 4. The right-hand, orjiirrcw side of the plough.

A, B, the lesser handle ; B, C the beam ; D, E the bridle or
muzzle, placed upon two iron-bolts which pass through holes
in its arms, and the fore part of the beam ; E, F the chain,
and swing or cross-trees to which the horses are yoked.

G, H, the coulter; K, H, I the share ; L, M, N, I the mould-
board ; its fore part JM, I, is fastened to the sheath, and its
back part fixed on the lesser handle.

Fig. 5. The upper side of the plough ready Jor imrJcing.

A, B, represent the larger handle ; B, C the beam ; D, E
the bridle, having a few holes in its fore part by which the
draught chain can be shifted a little to either side, and cause
the plough take a broad or narrow furrow slice, as may be
found necessary. In the cross D, are also several holes, by
which the depth of the furrow can be regulated, by shifting
the holt that passes through the cross D, and the beam.

E, F, the tliain, and swing-trees, to which the Iiorses are at-
tached when ploughing.

APPENDIX. 47

G, H, the lesser handle ; I, H, K, L, the mould-board ;
L, M, the fine or feather of the share.

Fig. 6. The under side of the flou^h.

A, B, the larger handle ; B, C the beam ; D, E the lesser
handle ; E, F, G the share ; G, H the sole, and I, E, K, L
the mould-board.

In regard to the weight of Small's plough, it varies from 134-
to 141 lbs. English ; but when the chain is added, it amounts
even to 162 lbs. A set of drawing bars or home trees, as they
are sometimes called, weighs from 20 to 21 lbs. more. The
price of the plough is L. 3, 12 s. and of the drawing bars 12 s.
or L. 4, 4 s. in all, so that it unites the advantages of strength
and cheapness, and is at the same time much lighter than many
other ploughs.

Alexander Small and Company, the sons of this ingenious
mechanic, have lately reduced the weight of the plough con-
siderably, for light land, (from 141 to 105 lb.), so that it will
suit a single horse, of a strong make, or a pair of small horses.
The price is also diminished from L. 4, 4 s. to L. 3, 10 s. Their
manufacture is carried on at Leith Walk, near Edinburgh,
where those who may wish to encourage ingenuity, may be
furnished with ploughs and other instruments of husbandry, of
the best construction.

As unfortunately they are deficient in capital, at least for
any extensive undertaking, it is proposed, that a sum of money
shall be raised by subscription, under the patronage of the
Highland Society of Scotland, the Farming Society of Ireland,
and other public spirited institutions, to enable them to car-
ry on their business, to the extent, to which their father's
services to the country, and their own ingenuit}' and merit,
would procure them a demand.

Charlotte Square, 7

Edinr. \dth December ISll.j

4S APPENDIX.

Na VII.

DESCRIPTION OP A MACHINE FOR DRESSING, (iIUMBLINg) BAR-
LEY OR BEAR, INVENTED BY MR GEORGE MITCHELL, MILL-
WRIGHT AT BISHOP-MILL, NEAR ELGIN.

References to the Plan.

Fig. I. A B C D E F represent the framing that carry the
wheels and scutching apparatus. G G G G, a hollow cylin-
der of wood or cast-metal, into which the bear or barley is
conveyed from the hopper K.

H H represent a wheel fixed upon an iron axle or spindle, pla-
ced perpendicular in the centre of the cylinder G, and upon
this spindle is also fastened the scutchers 1 1 1 1 ; so that when
the wheel H is turned by the wheel N N, which is fixed up-
on one end of the horizontal axle M, and on the other end
of this axle is also placed the wheel O O, this wheel being
attached to a threshing-machine or any other engine by
which means motion may be conveyed to the scutching
arms I, which revolve in cylinder G, and clear the grain of
the beards or awns as it passes down through among the scut-
chers placed on the spindle, (see E F, G H and IK, in Fig.

ni).

PP the cross-rail, in which the upper pivot S of the perpen-
dicular axle turns. L a spout or opening that allows the
grain to issue out of the machine, when completely humbled,
or the beards wholly cut off.

Fig. II. Elevation of this machine, wherein
A BCD represent the frame that supports the different
parts of the machinery.

^JAVMTIXJC for U1<UK SJSajC i> JHA.^CL.]KX oi- BEAI^

j;v//r' ,>r' /-v^t

APPENDIX. 49

E F G H the tube or receptacle into which the bear or bar-
ley passes through the spout R S, from a hopper above the
machine.

T U V are hoops of iron to hold the tube firmly together.

IK the perpendicular spindle on which the scutchers and
horizontal wheel are fixed, (see C D in Fig. III.). M re-
presents an iron axle, upon which are fixed the wheels N
and O, that convey motion from the threshing-machine
to the scutchers. L Y are beaters, in which the pivots of
the horizontal spindle M turns. R a rail, that the foot of the
spindle or axle I K turns. Z a spout or opening, through
which the grain runs from the scutchers or beaters.

Fig. IIL A B represent the spindle, on which are fixed the
wheel C D, and also the scutchers E F, G H and I K ; these
scutchers, revolving in the tube at about two thousand feet
in the minute, detach the beard or awns from the bear
completely.

Fig. IV. A B C D represent one of the beaters, and E the
axle on which it is fixed ; a greater number of scutchers
may be placed upon this axle if found necessary.

Fig. V. An end view of one scutcher ; its edges F G should
be a little rounded, to prevent them from cutting the bear or
barley in the operation of humbling.

This useful machine has been attached to many threshing-
mills, and it has been found to answer the intended purpose so
well, that it is recommended by those gentlemen who have ap-
plied it, as a very great improvement. There must be some
additional stress on the power by which it is turned, but by
experience it is found to be so trifling, that this machine may
be added to any threshing-mill, whether driven by water, by
wind, or by horses.

59 AFPEKDIX.

No. VIII.

ox THE MANUFACTURE OF POT, OR PEARL BARLEY.

Jr OT or pearl barley should never be manufactured from
grain weighing less than sixteen stones pe?- boll, (nearly six
Winchester bushels), and particular care is requisite in se-
lecting the grain, so that it be plump, well filled, and of equal
size.

Grain of sixteen stones weight is generally reduced, when
common barley is the object, to from eleven to twelve stones,
and proportionably lower for fine. The expence of making
pot barley, in general, is at the rate of 2 s. 6d. per hoW, and
the dust or refuse, which is always retained, is commonly va-
lued at that sum. It is excellent food for horses, for cows,
(more especially if boiled), and for hogs.

The process of making pot barley is as follows : After kiln-
drying the barlej', it is put into the mill, and rough hulled,
which may be done in about fifteen minutes ; if the mill is in
good order, and wrought by a proper hand, twenty bolls, (120
Winchester bushels), may be put through it in eleven or
twelve hours. This quantity is laid in the trough or floor, as
it comes from the cases, and made a little damp ; it is kept
in this state about forty-eight hours ; and if not made very
fine, the same quantity may be again completely finished in
eleven or twelve hours.

Next to wheat, barley is the grain, the best adapted for
making bread, but it is attended with two great inconveniences ;
1. It has a coarse outer husk, of which wheat is naturally divest-
ed ; and, 2. It has a dark inner husk, of so delicate a texture,
that, when ground with the flour, it can never afterwards be
extracted, by bolting or any other contrivance. It is princi-
pally this dark inner husk, whiclt makes the barley bread so
dark t;oloured and unpalatable.

IKOr? IM.OIUII ,-uul .>3Arj;iI'V:K, for '♦UkJiiW** POM- B.NKl.KT

I-' ■■■ '-

Srn/^- c/^Fcfl

i

APPENDIX. 51

When pot or pearl barley is made, both these husks are
taken off; and when flour or meal is manufactured from pot or
pearl barley, it resembles much wheat flour. It may be made
by itself into excellent cakes, which some from its lightness
prefer to any other sort of bread. Mixed with wheat flour, in
various proportions, as one-fourth, or even one-third, it makes
as good loaf bread as any one could desire.

The following statement will explain the saving which would
thence arise, per quartern loaf, and per sack.

20 English stones of 14 lbs. avoirdupois, each, or "i make a
16 Dutch stones of 17^ lbs. avoirdupois, each, J load.

A load is equal to an English sack, each 1 280 English pounds
weighing 2 cwt. 2 qrs. or - j avoirdupois.

A sack of flour will produce, on an average, twenty

peck loaves, each weighing 17 lbs. 6 oz. avoirdupois, Lb,, oz.

Total product of a sack, - - 346 6

Deduct the weight of a sack of flour, - 280 0

Increased by the addition of water and yeast, &c. 66 6

15 Dutch stones of flour (from wheat) at 5s. per
stone, - - - - ;£. 4- 0 0

Hence, the peck loaf 4 s.
the quartern loaf 1 s.

lOj Dutch stones of wheat flour at 5 s. - jg. 2 13

Sj Do. do. of barley flour at 3 s. the price at
which it can be furnished, - - 0 16

jg.S 9 4
Hence, the peck loaf 3 s. 5^ d.

the quartern loaf \0\ d.

Saving by the use of one-third barley flour, jser quar-
tern loaf, \\ d.

Saved by mixing the barley flour with wheat, on each

sack, - - - 3^.0 10 8

d2

52 APPENDIX.

If the price of wheat flour rises, the saving will increase, as the
price of barley will not probably rise in the same proportion.

N. B. — There is an allowance to the baker of 1 s. 6d. per
bushel, which would n>ake about one penny addition to the
price of the quartern loaf.

Description of a Machine for making Tot or Pearl Barley.

Fig. 1. represents the mill-stone, and U V an iron cross or
rind, by which it is fixed upon the spindle or axle^ ( See R
in fig. 4).

Fig. 2. A B C D represent the frames and bearers which sup-
port the machinery.

E F, the case or curb that incloses the mill-stone, and being
covered with sheet iron, in which are small holes, to allow
the refuse or dust to escape, while the barley is retained
within the case E F, in which the mill-stone moves with con-
siderable velocity.

M N represent a wheel fixed on the scale, O P ; this wheel
may be driven by any machine having power to turn the
barley mill-stone with its case. G H represent a wheel,
also fixed upon the axle O P, by which wheel the pinion
H I, is driven ; this pinion being fixed upon the iron-axle
spindle R. Upon this spindle is also fastened the mill-stone,
and by this means driven within the case or curb with con-
siderable velocity. K represents the small wheels that are
driven by the wheel G H, to turn the case or curb E F, by
acting on the wheel L L, which wheel is fastened upon the
case. This case is made so as to be easily taken separate in
the middle, in order that it may easily be put on, or taken
off" from the mill-stone, at any time when necessary.

APPENDIX.

NO. IX.

ACCOUNT OF SEA-WEED BEING EXHIBITED TO COWS BY WAY OF
CONDIMENT.

COMMUNICATED BY MR JOHN SIIIRREFF, ABBEYIIILL.

JNJr Maccallum, south side of the Grassmarket, opposite to
the Corn-stand, keeps about twenty milch cows, which he feeds
on grass in summer, and always on grains, (in Edinburgh called
draff), in winter. He also gives them distillers' dreg or lees for
drink, in that season, when he can get it, which is at all times
when distillation goes on. His cows likewise get some turnip
once a day in winter and spring, and sometimes twice ; not
so much for food, as for a condiment, or, as he says, a medi-
dne. And when turnip are very scarce, and high priced, he
gives sea-weed in lieu of them, particularly in the months of
February, March and April. This he gets on the Black Rocks,
near Leith, at spring tides only, so that he keeps some of it
for two weeks. There are two species used, ihej'iicus digitattiSy
and ihejucus serratus. He does not use the F. resictdosus, lest
it fill the cows too full of tvitid, meaning air. Mr Maccallum
begins by parboiling the sea-weed, and giving the cows a
little of the water it has been boiled in : When they drink the
water, they are then offered some of the parboiled weed it-
self, and when they eat it parboiled, it is gradually exhibited
to them raw. He gives each cow, once or twice a-day, as
much as a person can neatly carry, at once, between his two
hands. These marine plants operate as a gentle laxative, and
Mr M. thinks the use of them promotes the health of his
cows, and consequently adds to the quantity of milk they
yield.

54?, APPENDIX.

N. B. — The cow-keepers about Edinburgh frequently sell
their milk to retailers, at a certain sum weekly ; in some cases
as high as a guinea per week. Whenever the cow begins to
fall off in milking, she is disposed off, and another purchased ;
and she is usually in such good condition, that the price she
sells for buys her substitute.

No. X.

ACCOUNT OF A SIMPLE STEAMING APPARATUS FOR COOKING
ROOTS OR OTHER FODDER FOR LIVE STOCK, WITH A DRAW-
ING, EXPLAINING THE NATURE OF THE PROPOSED APPARA-
TUS.

RY MR JOHN SHIRREFF, ABBEY-HILL.

J- HE chief advantage attending the use of the apparatus about
to be described, consists in saving labour and time in lifting
off and on, the tubs or casks for holding the materials to be
steamed, also the expence of cost and repairs of leaden pipes,
cocks, &c. Its superiority over those commonly used, parti-
cularly in a large operation, will be at once perceived by those
who have paid attention to the subject.

The boiler may be of any approved form, and of a size pro-
portioned to that of the box, with a furnace of that construc-
tion which affords the greatest quantity of heat to the boiler,
with the smallest waste of fuel. The box may be made of stout
pine plank, well jointed together. One of eight feet in length,
five feet wide and three feet deep, will serve for cooking pota-
toes, in the space of one hour, sufficient to feed fifty large
milch cows for twenty-four hours.

The box should stand within a few feet of the boiler, witli its
side parallel to it, either on a piece of solid building, or on six
or more posts. It must have a porous bottom, with a close one
about a foot below it. From the upper part of the boiler, a
pipe of wood, or any other suitable substance proceeds, and

API'ENDIX. 55

enters into the box about the middle of it, between the false
and solid bottoms, conducting the steam into the space be-
tween them, which penetrating through the holes or grating of
the false bottom, rises upwards, and mixes with the contents of
the box, while the condensed steam and any liquid matter that
may ooze out of the materials, drips through the apertures,
and lodges on the solid bottom below, from whence it can be
let off by a cock fitted to it for that purpose. There is an
opening in the upper part of the box two feet square, shut by
a lid that moves on hinges. This lid is kept down by its own
weight only, and acts as a safety valve to the box and boiler
also, from the connection between them, though the boiler
may be accommodated with a separate safety valve if thought
necessary. When the force of the steam is very great, the
lid is lifted up, and a quantity escapes into the atmosphere,
and the lid then falls down again of its own accord. This aper-
ture is made so large, that it may be used to fill the box with
whatever material is intended to be steamed. One end of the
box must be accommodated with a door, which must fit close,
and be secured firm, while the operation of steaming goes on,
but must admit of being opened to one side when the business
of cooking is finished, to allow the cooked contents of the box
to be drawn out by a solid iron rake, into a large trough placed
immediately below to receive them. From the ignorance and
carelessness of servants, in managing fire in the furnace, the
bottoms of cast-iron boilers are sometimes fused, especially if
the water in the boiler be allowed to get too low ; and, again, if
the boiler be too suddenly supplied with water, when red hot,
it will crack. To prevent these accidents, the bottom of the
boiler has been cut out, and its place supplied with broad plates
of malleable iron lapped over each other, and clinched to the
cast-iron sides of the boiler. But all risk of either fusing or
cracking would be prevented, by supplying the boiler gradual-
ly with water from a cistern, in the manner it is furnished to
the boilers of steam engines. The boiler may also be equip-
ped with two cocks, attached to pipes of different lengths, to
determine at any time whether the boiler has too mucli or too
little water in it, though there will hardly be any occasion

56 APPENDIX.

for these : because, if the valve or lid hanging on the aperture
at the bottom of the cistern, and the stone suspended on the
surface of the water in the boiler, be in due equilibrium, the
quantity of water in the boiler must always be the same, while
tlicre is a sufficient quantity in the cistern to supply the waste
from evaporation in the boiler.

It might be an improvement, to have the top of the box made
to lift off and on, for the purpose of filling it more conveniently
with the materials to be steamed : Also to have divisions to
slide out and in, to contract the space in the box, to suit a
smaller quantity of materials that might at any time be requir-
ed to be steamed. These sliding divisions would, each in their
turn, become the top of the box, and would each require to
have the lid moveable on hinges accordingly. It would great-
ly expedite the business, if a crane were used for lifting the
potatoes from the washing machine, and depositing them on
a barred platform to drip. This platform might be placed near
to the box, above it somewhat, and projecting over it a little
withal, so that when enough of potatoes shall have been wash-
ed, the whole might be tumbled into the box at once by rai-
sing the opposite side of the platform.

APPENDIX. 57

No. XL

list op the intelligent farmers, from whose communica-
tions the preceding account of the husbandry of
scotland, has been drawn up. ,

1. Berwickshire.

1. William Robertson, Esq. of Ladykirk.

2. George Logan, Esq. of Fishwick.

3. A. Low, Esq. Woodend.

4. David Low, Esq. ditto.

5. Mr Robert Kerr, Ayton.

6. Mr William Dudgeon, Primrose-hill.

7. Mr John Wilson, Idington Mains.

8. Mr James Wilson, Simprin.

2. Roxburghshire.

9. Thomas Nisbett, Esq. of Mersington.

10. Robert Walker, Esq. of Wooden.

11. Adam Walker, Esq. of Mellendean.

12. Thomas Hood, Esq. Hardacres.

13. Mr Thomson, Bewlie.

14. Mr Andrew Blaikie, Holydean,

3. East Lothian.

15. The Honourable Baron Hepburn.

16. George Rennie, Esq. of Phantassie.

17. Robert Brown, Esq. Markle.

18. David Wight, Esq. Ormiston.

19. William Hunter, Esq. of Tynefield.

20. William Hume, Esq. East-Barns.

21. Mr Rennie, Oxwcll Mains.

•58 APPKXDIX.

22. Mr Dudgeon, Prora.

23. Mr Buist, overseer at Tynninghame.

24. Mr Somerville, Athelstonford Mains.

25. Mr Skirving, Garleton.

26. Mr Richard Somner, Gilchriston.

27. Mr James Cuthbertson, Seton Mains.

28. Mr Murray, Kirkland-hill.

29. Mr Archibald Park, Windy IMains.

30. Patrick Brodie, Esq. Garvald.

31. Mr Robert Hope, Fenton.

32. Andrew Pringle, Esq. Ballencrief.

33. Mr John Carnegie, Drylaw-hill.

34. Mr Adam Murray jun..j

4. Mid-Lothian.

35. Mr Thomas Scott, Craiglockhart.

36. John Newton, Esq. of Currie-hill.

37. Mr Thomas Allan, Craigcrook.

38. Mr William Gray, Gorgiemoor.

39. Mr John Shirreff, Abbeyhill.

40. Mr Alexander Guthrie, of Edinburgh.

41. Mr Richard Shirreff, Dairy, near Edinburgh.

42. Gilbert Grierson, Esq. merchant, Leith.

43. Mr Robert Laing, Campend.

44. Mr George Frame, Braidwood.

45. Mr John Milne, Smeaton.

46. William Aitchison, Esq. of Clements Wells.

5. West Lothian.

47. Mr Thomas Trotter, Newton.

48. S. Wood, Esq. Millrig.

6. Dumfriesshire.

49. William Stewart, Esq. of Hillside.

50. INIr John Church, Hitchill.

7. Galloway, Ayrshire, and Clydesdale.

51. Sir Alexander Gordon, of Greenlaw.

i

APPENDIX.

52. Mr David Shank, Curghie.

53. John Tennant, Esq. Girvan Mains,
54-. Mr William Aiton, Strathaven.

55. Mr George Douglas Aiton.

56. John Mackenzie, Esq. of Glasgow.

8. Febblesshirk.

57. Mr Charles Alexander, Easter Haprew,

9. Stiklingshire.

58. John Campbell, Esq. of Carbrook.

59. Mr Andrew Robertson, Almon.

60. Mr Andrew Chalmers, Dunmore.

61. James Boyd, Esq. Powis.

10. Clackmannanshire.

62. J. F. Erskine, Esq. of Mar.

63. Robert Stein, Esq. Kilbagie.

64. John Phipps, Esq. Dolls.

65. Mr John Laing, Tullybody.

66. Mr Peter Mitchell, Balquharn.

67. Mr Alexander Kerr, Lorns-hill.

68. Rev. Dr Moodie, Clackmannan,

69. Mr James Thomson, Park.

11. Fife.

70. The Earl of Kelly.

71. John Newton, Esq. of Cartland-hill.

72. Mr Neil Ballingal, Sweet Bank.

73. Thomas Bruce, Esq. of Grangemuir.

74. Robert Spears, Esq. of Dysart.

75. William Young, Esq. of Burntisland.

12. Perthshire.

76. Sir Patrick Murray, Bart, of Ochtertyre.

77. E. Marshall Gardiner, Esq. of llilcairnic.

78. William Blair, Esq. of Montague.

79. Mr James Kilgour, Perth.

$Q APPENDIX.

80. Mr James Andrew, Tillylumb.

81. Mr William Cimningham, Goodlyburn.

82. Mr Henry Thomson, Muirtown of Baihousie.

83. Mr Robert Clerk.

13. Carse of Gowrie.

84. George Paterson, Esq. of Castle-Huntly.
S5. Mr Thomas Drummond, Westbank.

86. Mr Patrick Jack, Moncur.

14. NoRTHBRN Districts.

87. George Robertson, Esq. Muirton, near Bervie.

88. Mr Brown, Cononsyth, by Arbroath.

89. Mr Rennie, Kinblethmont, near Arbroath.

90. Mr Barclay, Knock-Leith.

91. Mr John Milne, Mill of Alvah, near Banff.

92. Mr John Lawson, in the county of Banff.

93. Mr A. Wilson, near Cullen.

94. Mr Young, Morayshire.

95. Mr Sheriff, Kinmylies, near Inverness.

^. Capt. John Henderson, of Aimster, in Caithness.

15. Correspondents, regarding the introditction of
THE Scotch System op Husbandry into England.

97. Sir Joseph Banks.

98. Arthur Young, Esq.

99. G. F. Stratton, Esq. of Great Tew Park, Oxfordshire.

100. James Brougham, Esq. Howis, near Penrith.

101. William Wolstenholme, Esq. near Weymouth.

102. George CuUey, Esq. of Eastfield, by Bclford.

103. Mr Money Hill, of Waterden, in Norfolk.

104. Admiral Bentinck.

APPKNDIX. 61

There were also a number of other intelh'gent proprietors
and farmers, who transmitted to me very important communi-
cations, but under the express injunction, that their names
should not be mentioned; a circumstance much to be lament-
ed, as their authority would have added much weight to any
publication.

If the intelligent farmers whose names are contained in the
preceding list, and others who are well acquainted with the
Husbandry of Scotland, were to favour the author of this work
with their remarks upon it, he would be enabled to render it
much more complete, than it possibly can be without such
assistance.

There are no means by which any subject, of so extensive,
and so complicated a nature, as that of Agriculture, can be
brought to any great degree of perfection, but first by collect-
ing the result of the experience and observation of great num-
bers of practical men, and next, after that information has beea <
methodised and detailed, to have it remarked upon, by other
intelligent men, and discussed as thoroiighli/ as possible.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 65

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

1. The Berwickshire Hammels.

The division walls which are not under cover, are only sf>
high as to have the effect of keeping the horses or cattle per-
fectly separate. That part of the wall which is covered ought
to be as high as the roof of the building, in order to stand the
great draught of air from one end of the building to the other,
thus rendering the whole much warmer.

At the side of the gates are troughs for holding turnips, wa-
ter, &c.

The building NO. 8. is not separated into two divisions, but
is similar to the others, with this difference, that there is a wide
gateway for a cart, or any farm carriage, with a close made
gate on the north end for shelter : this alteration was thought
necessary to have more ready access to different parts of the
farm-offices, when that hammel happens not to be occupied.

Each hammel will hold three moderate sized animals, that is
to saj', oxen or steers below G.5 stone in weight, 14 lb. to the
stone. No doubt tivo is better^ but that takes up room, and in-
creases the expence of building.

These hammels completely answer the object in view.

2. ExplaxaTion or the engraving of the'steaminc

APPARATUS.

See Appendix, NO. X.

A False bottom of the steaming box.

B Door of the box, — To open with iron hasp, to secure it when

shut.
C The boiler.
D The pipe for conducting the steam between the false and

real bottoms of the box.

66 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

E Sliding division of the box, with handles for pushing it in,

and drawing it out.
F End view of the steaming box, with iron hasps securing the

door.
G Boiler and pipe.
H Side view of the steaming box.
I Lid moveable on hinges, and acting as a safety valve.
K Cock for discharging water from the boiler.
L Cock for discharging condensed steam and other liquids

from the bottom of the steaming box.

3. Description of an iron plough, constructed by mr john

W^ILKIE, at UDDINCSTON, NEAR GLASGOW.

[^See Plate, Appendix, p. 60].

Fig. I. and II. Plan and profile of an iron plough, wherein the
same letters represent the same parts.

A B Represent the beam ; B C the left-hand stilt, or large
handle.

D E The right-hand stilt, or lesser handle.

F G H The sock or share, placed on the fore-end of the head.

II The coulter, fixed into a hole or mortise in the beam.

GK The mould-board, fastened upon the furrow, or right-hand
side of the sheath, and lesser handle.

DNO The rods of iron that connect the two handles, and also
hold them at a proper distance from each other.

L M The muzzle or bridle, placed upon an iron bolt, which
passes through a hole in its arms ; and the fore-part of the
beam at A, upon the back-end of the bridle at M, is a cross,
in which are several holes to receive a bolt that passes
through one of these holes, and one in the beam, so that by
shifting this bolt in the different holes of the cross M, the
bridle having liberty to turn on the bolt at A as a centre,
the fore-end L of the bridle can easily be either raised or de-
pressed, in order to give the plough a greater or lesser hold
ftf the ground, as may be found the most convenient.

INDEX.

TJie Numerals refer to the Part ; the Figures to the Page.

Agriculture, may be reduced to a few simple principles, i,
■i06. Much benefited by Scotch industry and skill, 408. Its
importance little known by British Statesmen, previous to the
establishment of the Board of Agriculture, App. 35.

Agriculture, Board of, has materially contributed to the improve-
ment of Scotland, i, 144. Mr Brown of Markle's opinion up-
on that subject, ib. Mr John Shirreflfs, 415. Mr Charles
Alexander's, ib.

Agricultural labour, on the importance of arranging it properly,
ii, 151.

Apprentices in husbandry, ii, 149.

B

Banks in Scotland, materially contributed to improvement, In-
troduction, i, 7, and note.

Banks, Sir Joseph, his opinion of Scotch husbandry, i, 404.

Barley, observations on its culture, i, 246. Bear recommended
iu the northern districts, 247. On the period of sowing bar-
ley, 249. Description of a machine for dressing it, App. 48.

Beans, on their culture, i, 252.

Bear, more advanti^geous than barley in certain districts, i, 2t7,
248 and note,

c2

OS INDEX.

Belts of Planting, peculiarly useful in billy countries, i, 45. Cor-
ner plantations better in low countries, ib.

Broad Wheels, successfully tried by Baron Hepburn, i, 40. Re-
commended by INlr Walker of Wooden, 6l. By Mr Cunning-
bame of Lainshaw, 6l, 62. By INJr Morton, 63.

Cabbages, on their culture, i, 285.

Capital necessary for farming operations, ii, 6l. Estimates of car
pital necessary to stock a farm, 64.

Carrots, not much cultivated in Scotland, i, 276. Mode of cul-
tivation, ib. Calculated for peaty soils, 279> note.

Carts, single-horse ones preferred in Scotland, i, 69.

Cattle, account of the breeds in Scotland, i, 97. Feeding cattle,
98. Dairy cows, 104. Working oxen, 110.

Climate of Scotland, unfavourable to cultivation, Introd. i, 1.

Clover and Rye grass, culture of these articles, 272. Their va-
lue, 275.

Cockspur Thorn of America, considered as an excellent fence,
note, i, 43.

Composts, advantages of them in improving land, i, 188.

Covenants in Leases, necessity of, ii, 98.

Crops, of those usually cultivated in Scotlaod, i, 239-

D

Dairy Cows, account of mode of management of in Scotland, i,

104.
Day Labouiers, observations regarding them, ii, 150. To work

by the piece or job, ib.
Dung, quantity raised from the different crops, i, 157. Making

dunghills, 158, Difference between rotten and fresh dung,

160. Application of dung, l62. Depth at which it ought to

be put, 163. Price near Edinburgh, l65.
Dung-pit, description of Mr Charles Alexander's, Addenda 8.
Draining, the importance of, i, 47- Opinion of Mr Robertson

of Ladykirk regarding it, 48. The practice of draining in

IXDEX. 69

Essex, Uk F.lkington's mode, 26. note. Obstacles to it, 55.
Legal obstacles, 5'/. Ought to be removed, and plan for thc;r
removal, App. 32.

Economy in mansigement, studied by Scotch farmers, Intrud. i,
4,

Education, advantages which the farmers of Scotland have de-
rived from the establishment of parochial schools, Introd, 1, ?.

Elkington, on his mode of draining, i, 48, note, and 55.

Entailed Estates, less prejudicial to improvement in Scotland than
in England, Introd. i, 3.

Expence of farming, ii, 7i« Estimate by Mr Murray of Kirk-
land-hill, 74. By Mr George Rennie of Pbuntassie, 77-

Fallowing, observations on that process, i, 215. Account of
the manner of performing it, 217. Expence, 219. Advan-
tages, ib. Cases where fallowing strong lands is not practised,
233. Crops proposed instead of a naked fallow, 235.

Farm-Servants, the;r excellence in Scotland, Introd. i, 6.

Farm-House and offices, their position the first point to be at-
tended to by a farmer, i, 9 and 11. Should front the south,
ih. Their construction, 12. Whether with a sunk story, 13.
Their accommodation, 15. Size of stables, ^-c. 16. Distance
of the house from the farm-offices, IS. A command of water
essential, 20. Kitchen garden of infinite importance, ib. By
whom they ought to be erected, 24. By whom they ought
to be repaired, 26.

Farmers, should attend to the soil, climate, elevation and expo-
sure, and the situation of a farm in regard to markets, i, 136.
Real farmers distinguished by a variety of knowledge, 139.

Farmers in Scotland, their character, as represented by Lord
Kames, i, 113. Their character at present, 114. Their edu-
cation, 115. Their mode of living, ib. Their skill in hus-
bandry, ib. Their attention to husbandry, 1 16, Their spirit

70 INDEX.

of enterprize, ib. The principles of their system, 1 . Economy ;
2. Simplicity ; 3. Arrangement, 17- List of those from
whose communications this work has been drawn up, App.
57.

Farm-Servants, their excellence in Scotland, ii, 118. Period of
hiring, II9. Place of residence, 120. Situation of the houses,
121. Hours of working, 122. Wages in money, 124. Wages
in grain, 125. Keeping a cow, 128. Keeping a pig, 130.
Poultry, 131. Garden, ib. Potatoe ground, 132. Flax,- ib.
Bees, 133. Fuel, 134. Perquisites, ib. Total wages and e-
moluments of farm-servants, 135. Family gain and perquisites,
136- Farm-servants in East Lothian, 137. Farm-servants
in Dumfriesshire, &c. 138. Married servants, 139. Average
number of children, 141. Education of their children, 143.
^Yhat becomes of the family of farm-servants, ib. What be-
comes of hinds in their old age, 144. Their manners and cha-
racter, ?i. What would improve their situation, 144. Objec-
tions to the Scotch system of farm-servants answered, 145.

Fanners, generally to be found in Scotland, i, 71.

Feeding-Cattle, plans for that purpose, i, 22. Comparison be-
tween potatoes and turnips, Addenda, 1.

Fences add greatly to the value of a farm, i, 40. Sorts of fences
known in Scotland, 41.

Fields, size and shape of, i, 26\ Depend on, I. Extent of the
farm, 27; 2. Nature of the soil and subsoil, 28 ; 3. Rotation
adopted, 29 ; 4. Stock on the farm, 30; 5. Water, 31 ; 6. Roads,
32; 7« Elevation of the ground, ib.; 8. Pasturage, ib. ; 9.
Climate, 33. Square form, ib. Oblong form', 34.

Flax, not much cultivated in Scotland, i, 286\

Fold-yards, a cheap mode of accommodation, i, 21.

G

Grass Lands, on breaking up and laying them down, i, 392.
Grubs and Caterpillars, Addenda, 10.

VNDEX. 71

H

Hammels, a description of them, i, 22, 23.

Harrows, their construction, i, 08.

Harvesting Grain, and preparing it for the miller, observations
upon, i, 28. Of cutting down the grain, i(>. Of carrying it
it in, 333. Of stacking it, 334. Of preparing wheat injured
by a bad harvest, for use, 32S.

Hay-Making, imperfectly performed in Scotland, i, 394i. Ma-
nagement recommended, 395. Form of ricks, 396» note,
Observations on hay-making by Dr Anderson, ih. ; by Dr
Coventry, 397. ; by Mr John Shirreff, 399- Mr Church's
mode of tippling grass for hay, 405.

H^dge-Rows, opinion of Mr Wight of Ormiston as to the utility
uf, i, 44, and note.

Hedges, of cutting them down, to admit the wind into the field,
i, 46.

Highland Society of Scotland, has promoted its agriculture, i,
41 6.

Hogs, formerly but little attended to in Scotland, i, 135. Ad-
vantages of keeping them, 136.

Horses, excellence of the Scotch breeds, i, II 6. Their food,
117. Expence of keeping, 122. Working abreast, 127. Quan-
tity of work done, 128. Mode of supplying, 131. Grinding
corn for horses, 1 33.

Hunter of Tynefield's system. Addenda, 14. Converts the straw
of his farm into dung, ib. Principles of his system, 18.

Husbandry of Scotland, general view of it, as now practised, i.
408. Improvements of which it is "susceptible, 417- Cir-
cumstances which have contributed to its excellence, Introduc-
tion, i, 1, Appendix, NO. 1.

Inclosing, promoted by a Scotch act, Introd. i, 6.
Inclosures, plan of raising them adopted by William Forbes, Esq.
of Callander, i, 45. Its advantages, 46.

72 INDEX.

Increase of Rents, advantageous when moderate, as a spur to in-
dustry and improvenjeni, Inlrod. i, 4.

Instruments of Husbandry, their importance, i, 66. List of those
commonly made use of in Scotland, ib. Miscellaneous arti-
cles, 95.

K

Kail, not so valuable as cabbages, i, 286.

LANDLORD and Tevant, nature of the connection between
them formerly, ii, 59- Nature of connection at present, 60.

Large Farms, tlieir advantages, Introd. i, 4.; li, 43.

Lawfa m Scotland, highly favourable to improvement, Introd. i,
6.

Leases, essential to improvement, Introd. i, 3. Their advantages,
ii, d^. Their duration, 93. Covenants in leases, 98.

Lime, much used in Scotland, i, 169. Soils to which it is ap-
plied, 172. Distance carried, ib. Quantity used, 179' Slack-
ing, 175. Modes of application, 180. Top-dressing with
lime, 183. Expeuce of liming, ib. Pounded limestone, 184.
Lime sometimes not useful, 185.

Live-Stock, account of them in Scotland, i, gj.

M

Manures, recent improvements ip the art of preparing manures
by Lord Meadowbank, i, 191. By Dr Rennie of Kilsyth, 193.
By Mr Mitchell in Ayr, ib. List of those principally made
use of in Scotland, 157.

Marie, its importance as a manure, i, \S6.

75

O

Oats, observations on the culture of this grain, i, 250.

Open Drains, nature of that fence, i, 41. Objections to them,

42. Their nature, 49.
Oxen, on working them, i, 1 10.

Pan-tiles, used in draining, i, 54.

Paring and Burning, improvement on that process, Appendix, 10.

Paper- Money, advantages thereof, in promoting improvement,
Introd. i. J.

Pease, a precarious crop in Scotland, i, 251.

Permanent Pasture, on the system adopted in Scotland v?ith re-
gard to, i, 308. Great difference of opinion regarding it, ib.
Arguments in favour of old turf, by Mr Robertson of Lady-
kirk, 368; by Mr Low of Woodend, 371 ; by Mr Logan of
Fishwick, ib. ; by Mr Wilson of Simprin, 372, note ; by Mr
Hope of Fenton, 374, note ; from Kerr's Report of Berwick-
shire, ib. Arguments against old turf, 375 ; by Mr Rennie of
Phantassie, ib. ; by Mr Brown of Markle, 376 ; by Mr Hume
of East Barns, and Mr Hunter of Tynefield, 379; by Mr Hood,
ib. ; by Dr Coventry, 380 ; by Mr Walker of Mellendeun. ib. ;
by Mr John Shiireff, ib. Comparison between old turf and con-
vertible husbandry, by Mr Thomson of Bewlle, 385 ; by Mr
Brown of Markle, 388 ; by Mr Murray, Kirklandhill, 389.
Result of the discussion regarding permanent pasture, ib.

Ploughs, nature of those used in Scotland, i, 66. Sometimes
worked by oxen, 6?-

Ploughing, on the most advantageous modes of conducting that
operation, i, 195. Importance of good ploughing, 197. Tabic
of ploughing, ib. Maxims as to deep ploughing, 199. Ad-
vantages of deep ploughing, 202. Angle of the furrow slice,
206. Proper times of ploughing wet and dry soils, 207. Rate
of ploughing, 208. Disadvantages of frequent turnings in
ploughing, 2 10. Spring sowing without sprmg ploughing, 211.

74 INDEX.

Pot or Pearl Barley, on the mode of manufacturing that article,

Appendix, 50. Description of a macliine for making it, 52.
Potatoes, mode of raising them, i, 26~. Consumption, 269.

Preparation for crops of wheat, 270. Increased culture, ib.
Price of Land in Scotland, ii, Ql.
Profit of Farming, ii, 71« Observations by Mr Rennie of Phan-

tassic on the profit of farming, 80.
Proprietors of Land in Scotland, distinguished for their delight

in rural occupations, Introd. i, 2.

R

Reafing Machine, advantages of a. Addenda, 12. Obstacles
to its construction, ib.

Rent, proportion of produce to be paid to the landlord, ii, 82.
Circumstances on which it should depend, 83. Rents paid in
Scotland, 84. Proportions of rent that ought to be paid, 88.
INIode of paying rent, Sp.

Repairs of Roads, observations by Mr Loudon Macadam, i, 65,

Ridges, their advantages, i, 142. Length, 143. Breadth, 144.
Straightness, 152. Height, 153. Line of direction, ib.

Roads, advantages resulting from them to agriculture, i, 58.

Rotation of Crops, importance and difficulty of discussing this
subject, i, 287. Remarks by Mr Maxwell of Fletton, and Mr
Church of Hitchill, 288. Comparison of the old and new
courses in the Carse of Cowrie, note, 288. Of the principles
on which rotations ought to be arranged, 289. Of the various
sorts of rotations, 294. Of a two years' rotation, 244. Of a
thiee years' rotation, 295. Of a four years' rotation, 297.
Of .'a five years' rotation, 305. Of a six years' rotation, 308.
Of a seven years' rotation, 310. Of double rotations, ib. 1,
Rotations on clay land, 312 ; 2. On loams, 313 ; 3. On light
soils, 314; 4. Miscellaneous particulars, 315.

Rye, not much cultivated in Scotland, i, 2S6. Will answer on
crude soils without maaurf, ib.

1

INDEX-. 75

Scotch Hdsbanduy, on the means of disseminating it in Eng-
land, i, 423. Success of the Scotch system in various parts of
England, 427. Introduction of that system into Oxfordshire,
on the estates of G. F. Stratton, Esq. App. 15. Advantages
to be derived from its introduction, 30.

Scots, their character, Introduction, i, 7.

Sea-Ware, mode of using it in Scotland, i, 186.

Sea- Weed, account of a mode of exhibiting it to cows by way of
condiment, App. 53.

Shape of Fields, disadvantages when they are irregular, i, 36.

Sheep, account of the Scotch breeds, i, 114. On feeding sheep
in folds with turnips. Addenda, 5.

Size of Farms, ii, 3. Small farms, 5. Dairy farms, l6. Farms
adjoining to towns, 22. Clay-land arable farms, 29. Turnip-
land arable farms, 32. Commercial farms, 33. Pasture farms,
ib. Farms for accommodation or amusement, 34. Farms of
experiment and public utility, ib. Population of large farms,
36. Surplus produce of large farms, 39. Calculations by Mr
Brown of Markle of surplus produce, 40. Calculations by Mr
Walker of Rlellendean, 43. Advantages of large farms, ib.
Of led or off farms, 48. Objections to large farms answered,
51. Progress in the size of farms, 58.

Small Farms, arguments in their favour, ii, 52. Objections to
small farms, 54.

Small Fields, in general highly objectionable, i, 36. A few small
fields near a farm-house convenient, 38.

Small, James, account of his improvements in the construction of
agricultural machinery, App. 37* Description of his plough,
45.

Soil, uniformity of, extremely desirable in fields, i, 35.

Soil of a Farm, its importance, i, 137-

Soiling or Feeding Stock with cut green food, origin of the word
and introduction of the practice, i, 343. Of the articles used
in soiling, 3 14. Of the difi'erent sorts of stock thus fed, 1.
Horses, 346 ; 2. Cattle and milch cows, 353 ; 3. Pigs, 358.

IG INDEX.

Of the advantages of soiling, Z5^. Of the profit of soiling,

363. Objections to soiling, 364.
Sowing of Seed, on the, i, 318. On sowing crops drilled or

broad-cast, ib. On the advantage of sowing early, 324. On

sowing old or new seed wheat, 325. On preparing seed-wheat,

ib,
Stack-Yards, their best construction, i, 23, 24.
Steaniing Apparatus, account of a simple mode of cooking roots,

&:c. App. 64.
Stone- Walls, preferable to other fences in point of utility, i, 4*2.

Description of the Galloway or snap-dyke, ib.
Subdivision of Fields, may be done by sheep flakes or hurdles,

i, 29.
Subletting of land, on the ^.dvantages of that system under pror

per restrictions, ii, 1(58.
Summer Fallow, on the mode of cultivating rape iijstead of sura-

niftr fallow, Addenda, 3.,

Tamarisca Gallica, of the, as a fence, i, 47> and note.

Tares, not much cultivated in Scotland, i, 255. On dibbling
them, i, 41 S.

Threshing Grain, of, i, 340. Description and expence of a ma-
chine erected on the borders, driven by steam, ib.

Threebiiig-Mill, the great glory of the Scotch improvements in
husbandry, i, 72. Driven, 1. By horses ; 2, By oxen ; 3. By
wind ; 4. By wind or horses ; 5. By water ; 6. By water or
horses ; or, 7- By steam, 74. Advantages of threshing-mills,
82. Estimate of the profit derived from them, 88. Improve-
ments on the threshing-mill, sp. Steam threshing-mills,
i, 340.

Turnips, on the culture of that article in Scotland, r, 256. Drill-
ing turnips, ib. Sorts, 258. Produce, 261. Consumption, 2^2.
Preserving, 264. Miscellaneous hints as to turnips, ib. On
Sowing tire seed on moist dung, T, 266, 436. note.

INDEX, 77

u

Uncertainty of Payments, always disadvantageous, Iiitrod;

i, 4.
Under Drains, description of Mr Andrew's of Tillilumb. Advan»

tages of under draining, i, 53.
Urine, bow lo be applied, i, 167.

w

VVaggojis, only six in Scotland, 1,71.

'Vaste Lands, hints regarding their improvements, App. 6. Or\
the possibility of improving wastes, ih. Modes of improve-
ment, 7, Breadth of ridges when waste lands are improved,
11. Cultivation of grass on waste lands, 12. Improvements
of wastes in fertile districts, 13.

Weeding, observations regarding, i, 326.-

Wheat, on the culture of that crop, i, 240. On sowing it early,
241. Oa kiln-drying seed wheat, ii. also 325. On sowing,
winter wheat in spring, 242. On spring or summer wheat,
243. On new varieties of wheat, 245. On sowing wheat too
often, 246.

White Thorn, preferable to every other plant for fencing, i, 43..

THE END.

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