ay AC ae Br Be & | fe ® i ‘¥ a 4 Erica iy nt I ey Vi (In J ) amo costume. k Es meen THE aUb-ARCTICS OF CANADA & A JOURNEY OF 3,200 MILES BY CANOE AND SNOWSHOE THROUGH THE BARREN LANDS BY fee eve Lb) C.Be Db l.S. WV INCLUDING A LIST OF PLANTS COLLECTED ON THE EXPEDITION, A VOCABULARY OF ESKIMO WORDS, A ROUTE MAP AND FULL CLASSIFIED [INDEX WITH ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN ON THE JOURNEY, AND FROM DRAWINGS BY ARTHUR HEMING NEW YORK: DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY. 1898 cat) aq Ay AMT ASO Ny eS CONE NI S: CHAPTER I. Toronto to ATHABASCA LANDING II. Down THE ATHABASCA - IIE RUNNING THE RAPIDS - IV. CHIPPEWYAN TO BuAck LAKE V. Into THE UNKNOWN WILDERNESS ~ VI. THe Home oF THE REINDEER VII. A Great FRozEN LAKE VIII. ON tHE LowER TELZ0A IX. Meerine witn Natives X. THe Eskimos - - XI. Customs oF THE ESKIMOS XII. Down To THE SEA - XIII. Apventures py LAND AND XIV. Potar Bars - XV. Lire oR DEATH? - - XVI. Fort CHURCHILL - = XVII. On SNowsHoES AND Doc-SLEDS XVIII. Crossinc THE NELSON - XIX. THRovuGH THE ForEST AND Home AGAIN APPENDIX I. Puants COLLECTED ON THE EXPEDITION II. Eskimo VocaBuLsaRy cF WorDS AND PHRASES 7 REO ae O NS. PAGE J. W. TYRRELL : : - - - - - Frontispiece J. BuRR TYRRELL = - = - - - - - - - 8 Our CANOEMEN - - - - = : - “ z - 11 Huvpson’s Bay Company’s TRADERS - E : - - 13 A Hutpson’s Bay Company’s INTERPRETER : - - = 15 A PIONEER OF THE NORTH - - - > - 16 INDIANS OF THE CANADIAN NortTH-WEST c - - : 18 Trooper, N.-W. Mountep Po.uicr, IN WINTER UNIFORM : 26 LANDING OF Scows ABOVE GRAND RAPID : - - - 29 GRAND RaApiIpD, ATHABASCA RIVER - - - - - - 31 ENGLISH-CHIPPEWYAN HatF-BREED - - - - - - 32 Neck DEVELOPED BY THE TuMp-LINE - - - - = 35 SHOOTING THE MountTaIN Rapip, ATHABASCA RIVER - = 40 StorE, Fort McMurray - - - - : - S a? 4 CHIPPEWYAN CAMP - 2 x 5 - - - : - 42 STARVING COREE Camp, Fort McMurray : - : : 44. A DANDY OF THE NortTH. A VOYAGEUR - - - - 46 AN ENGLISH-CREE TRAPPER - é - - - - = 48 Fort CHIPPEWYAN~ - 2 - - - - - - = 50 STEAMER ‘‘ (GRAHAME ” = = - - = - - 52 LANDING ON NortTH SHORE, LAKE ATHABASCA - - - 56 A TypicaL NorTHLAND FATHER - 5 - - - - 59 Inpian Loc House - = 2 - - = - - 64 CATARACT, STONE RIVER - : : - = - - : 65 A DirFicuLt PortTaGE - - = - z - - - 67 Inpian Rarts LOADED WITH VENISON : - = - - 69 A. B. C. Srtwyn, C.M:G., F.R.8. — - : - - - - 74 Scorcu-CreE Haur-BrEeED Z : : - - - af vi ILLUSTRATIONS. TELZOA RIVER - : : 7 : : a i Rapips, TELZOA RIVER~ - = 2 : : c HERD OF REINDEER - 2 a 2 dl Ick ON THE SHORE OF MARKHAM LAKE - - - ToBauNT LAKE - 2 : : E : * ‘ ‘FRENCH-CREE HaLF-BREED 3 : 4 - : RAPIDS ON THE LOWER TELZOA = = = 2 Musk OXEN : : E z 2 : s i Eskimo ‘“ Topick,” TELZoA RIVER - 2 - : Eskimo HUNTERS - = 2 a 4 a Group OF EsKIMOS_~ - - i ‘ 4 - 5 ICELANDIC SETTLER - - - E : : é AN Eskimo. Eskimo WoMAN - : 2 : S Ha.r-BrREED HUNTER WITH WOODEN SNOW-GOGGLES Section THROuGH IGLOE - E : Z 5 Eskimo Kyack - “ 2 = 3 a F a Eskimo OoMIACK - 3 : : s Z Doc-Wuir, Waxtrus Tusks AND Bows aNp ARROWS Harpoons, LANCES AND SPEARS J - 2 : EskIMo GAMES AND Toys - - 2 3 2 a Hatr-BrEED Boy - : = : : : : BuackFroot Boy - - - : : z : ENCOUNTER WITH POLAR BEARS : - - : THE Last oF OuR PROVISIONS - - : - : FRENCH -SALTEAUX GIRL - : s g a Rev. JOSEPH LOFTHOUSE AND FAMILY 1 ' ' Ruins oF Fort PRINCE OF WALES - Ick-BLocK GROUNDED AT Low TIDE N:-W. M.-P. * “Orr Dory” : : : E HaFr-BREED DoG-DRIVER - - - : : 2 Hupson’s Bay Company’s STORE, YORK Factory - ReEepb-DEER Cow-Boy - = - 2 2 i Doc-TRAIN AND CARRYALL Z : é = - CREE HUNTER’S PRIZE Es J E a : PAGE 82 83 85: 91 94 101 103. 104 106. 121 122 125 126. 134 136. 14] 142 146 154 163 180: 188 196 199, 209 212 216 218 228 229 238° 239: 240: 250 ffoure or rnae Tremec. EXPEDITION OF S893 THROUGH Norrvaren CANADA . Greys ss Te = SL OT ES COE: JES PU S Ss Se : me | | 4. a eh UG EBA v. \ / yor ts EA | AUG 23 TEE SHULL BY SE 2 on oe ce aS ef, Ce of MEST ER ELE Pepe yf e 4 e i — 2° i | 6 wanroniig \ ARS O 91 BAKER L : : W | | 7 tf fei} | | : | ale big | i} : D3: | ; LEZ ies rp lets J LANDS | 6 4 fCxUE 4 VG CTS TH - <4 i goth JUNE SS BOs | @ttP ‘in , Z ~ $a papa easement ous Amey me a a . : — rai : ‘ =a “oe tn ola _- — 5 PW ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS. OF CANADA. Clr Di i TORONTO TO ATHABASCA LANDING. On the morning of the 10th of May, 1893, in response to a telegram from Ottawa, I took train at Hamilton for Toronto, to meet my brother, J. Burr Tyrrell, of the Canadian Geological Survey, and make final arrange- ments for a trip to the North. He had been authorized by the Director of that most important department of the Canadian Government to conduct, in company with myself, an exploration survey through the great mysterious region of terra incognita commonly known as the Barren Lands, more than two hundred thousand square miles in extent, lying north of the 59th parallel of latitude, between Great Slave Lake and Hudson Bay. Of almost this entire territory less was known than of the remotest districts of “ Darkest Africa,” and, with but few exceptions, its vast and dreary plains had never been trodden by the foot of man, save that of the dusky savage. During the summer of 1892 my brother had obiained some information concerning it from the Chippewyan Indians in the vicinity of Athabasca and Black Lakes, 8 ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF (Ghee but even these native tribes were found to have only the vaguest ideas of the character of the country that lay beyond a few days’ journey inland. In addition to this meagre information, he had procured sketch maps of several canoe routes lead- ing northward toward the Barren Lands. The most easterly of these routes commenced at a point on the north shore of Black Lake, and the description ob- tained of it was as follows: “ Beginning at Black Lake, you make a long portage northward to a little lake, then across five or six more small ones and a corresponding number of portages, and a large body of water called Wolverine Lake will be reached. Pass through this, and ascend a river flowing into it from the northward, until Active Man Lake is reached. This lake will take two days to cross, and at its northern extremity the Height of Land will be reached. Over this make a portage until another large lake of about equal size is entered. From the north end of this second large lake, a great river flows to the northward through a treeless country unknown to the Indians, but inhabited by savage Eskimos. Where the river empties into the sea we cannot tell, but it flows a great way to the northward.” From the description given, it appeared that this river must flow through the centre of the unexplored territory, and thence find its way either into the waters of Hudson Bay or into the Arctic Ocean. It was by this route we resolved to carry on the exploration, and, if possible, make our way through the Barren Lands. One of the first and most important preparations for the journey was the procuring of suitable boats, in- asmuch as portability, strength and carrying capacity My ht hi, se SAS ailing Caen alle la yl ea (Leaving Fort Churchill. ) — — = i : a TORONTO TO ATHABASCA LANDING. 9 were all essential qualities. These were obtained from the Peterboro’ Canoe Company, who furnished us with two beautiful varnished cedar canoes, eighteen feet in length, and capable of carrying two thousand pounds each, while weighing only one hundred and twenty pounds. Arrangements had also been made to have a nineteen foot basswood canoe, used during the previous summer, and two men in readiness at Fort McMurray on the Athabasca River. Four other canoemen were chosen to complete the party, three of them being Iroquois experts from Caughnawaga, Quebec. These three were brothers, named Pierre, Louis and Michel French. Pierre was a veteran canoeman, being as much at home in a boiling rapid as on the calmest water. For some years he had acted as ferryman at Caughnawaga, and only recently had made a reputation for himself by running the Lachine Rapids on Christmas day, out of sheer bravado. His brother Louis had won some distinction also through having accompanied Lord Wolseley as a voyageur on his Egyptian campaigns: while Michel, the youngest and smallest of the three, was known to be a good steady fellow, boasting of the same distinction as his brother Louis. The other man, a half-breed named John Flett, was engaged at Prince Albert, in the North-West. He was highly recommended, not so much as a canoeman, but as being an expert portager of great experience in north- ern travel, and also an Eskimo linguist. The two men, James Corrigal and Francois Maurice, who through the kindness of Mr. Moberly, the officer of the Hudson’s Bay Company at Isle-a-la-Crosse, were 10 ACROSS THE SUB-ARCYTICS OF CANADA. engaged to meet us with a third canoe at Fort McMur- ray, were also western half-breeds, trained in the use of the pack-straps as well as the paddle, and were a pair of fine strong fellows. Thus it was arranged to com- bine in our party the best skill both of canoemen and portagers. Our reasons for not employing the Indians from Lake Athabasca were, that these natives had on nearly all previous expeditions proved to be unreliable. Such men as we had engaged, unlike these Indians, were free from any dread of the Eskimos, and as we advanced soon became entirely dependent on us as their guides. Besides, they were more accustomed to vigorous exer- tion at the paddle and on the portage than the local Indians, who are rather noted for their proficiency in taking life easy. Next in importance to procuring good boats and canoemen was the acquisition of a complete set of port- able mathematical instruments, but after some difficulty these, too, were obtained. The following is a list of them: One sextant with folding mercurial horizon, one solar compass, two pocket compasses, two prismatic com- passes, one fluid compass, two boat logs, two clinometers, one aneroid barometer, a pair of maximum and mini- mum thermometers, one pocket chronometer, three good watches, a pair of field-glasses, an aluminum binocular, and a small camera. These, though numerous, were not bulky, but they comprised a part of our outfit over which much care had to be exercised throughout the journey. A bill of necessary supplies was also carefully made out, and the order for them forwarded to the Hudson’s Bay Company’s store at Edmonton, with ‘NA NHONVO WMO ‘youed yy “Youol ‘[eSLLIOO, mals) | "youady “aOLIney smoy [PUTIN wie uyor allot slooUueA 12 ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA. instructions to have them freighted down the Athabasca River to Fort Chippewyan, on Lake Athabasca, as early as possible. The above and a hundred and one other prepara- tions having been completed, my brother and I bade farewell to our homes, and on the 16th of May boarded the North Bay evening express at Toronto. The jour- ney was not begun without the stirring of tender emo- tions, for to me it meant separation, how long I knew not, from my young wife and baby boy five months old, and to my brother it meant separation from one too sacred in his eyes to mention here. 3 Once aboard the train we made ourselves as comfort- able as possible for a five days’ ride. JI do not propose to weary my readers with a detailed account of the long run across continent by rail, as it is not reckoned a part of our real journey; in passing I will merely make the briefest reference to a few of the incidents by the way. It was not until after many delays between North Bay and Fort William on the Canadian Pacific Railway, owing chiefly to the disastrous floods of that vear, which inundated the track for long distances, washed it out at several points and broke one of the railway bridges, that we arrived at Winnipeg, the capital of the Province of Manitoba. Upon reaching the city it was found that our canoes, which had been shipped to Edmonton some time previously, had not yet passed through. After considerable telegraphing they were located, and it was found that they would arrive on the following day. In consequence of this and other business to be transacted with the Commissioner of the Hudson’s Bay Company, we were obliged to remain here for a day. During our i ef? BRORONVNIO LO ATTIABASCA LANDING: 13 brief stay we were warmly greeted by many friends, and were most kindly entertained at Government House by the late Lieutenant-Governor, Sir John Schultz, and Lady Schultz, to whom we were indebted for the con- tribution to our equipment of several articles of comfort. The next day we bade our Winnipeg friends good-bye and took the C. P. R. train for the West. The route lay ~ ANN \ \ is HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY'S TRADERS. through vast areas of the most magnificent agricultural country, as a rule level and unbroken, save by the innu- merable and ancient but still deep trails of the buffalo. Little timber was observed, excepting in isolated patches and along the river valleys, and for the most part the land was ready for the plough. Passing through many new but thriving towns and settlements by the way, we arrived early on the morning of the 22nd at the busy town of Calgary, pleasantly situated in’ the beautiful 14 ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA: valley of the South Branch of the Saskatchewan River, and just within view of the snow-clad peaks of the Rocky Mountains. From Calgary our way lay toward the north, via the Edmonton Branch of the C. P. R., and after a stay of only a few hours we were again hurrying onward. On the evening of the same day, in a teeming rain, we reached Edmonton, the northern terminus of the railway. Edmonton is a town situated on both banks of the North Branch of the Saskatchewan, and at this time was in a “booming” condition, particularly upon the southern bank. Many large business houses were being erected, and property was selling at stiff prices. Ed- monton is chiefly noted for its hgnite mines, which are worked to a considerable extent, and produce coal of very fair quality. The seams are practically of unlimited extent, and are easily accessible in many places along the river banks. Gold is also washed from the sands in paying quantities, while the town is surrounded by a fair agricultural and grazing country. Petroleum, too, has been discovered in the vicinity, and indications are that in the near future Edmonton will be a flourishing city. The older part of the town is situated on the north side of the river, and communication is maintained by means of an old-fashioned ferry, operated by cables and windlass. As the Hudson’s Bay Company’s stores and offices from which our supplies were to be forwarded are situated on the north side, we crossed over on the ferry, and engaged rooms at the Jasper House. Upon enquiry we were gratified to find that the supplies and men, excepting the two who were to meet us later, had all arrived in safety. Our provisions, which were to be a! £7 < * 8 . “_ on ts TORONTO TO ATHABASCA LANDING. 15 freighted down as far as Lake Athabasca by the Hud- son’s Bay Company, had not yet gone, but were already being baled up for shipment. The completion of this work, which was done under the supervision of my brother and myself, together with the making up of accounts and transaction of other business, occupied several days. But by the morning of the 27th of May our entire outfit, loaded upon waggons, set off on the northward trail leading to Atha- basca Landing, a small trading- post situated one hundred miles distant on the banks of the great Athabasca River. Two days later, being Mon- day morning, my brother and I, accompanied by a driver only, started out in a light vehicle in rear of the outfit. The weather was showery, and the trail in many places very soft. Occa- sionally deep mud-holes were encountered, bearing evidence 3 aemieeceen, siruemies Of the \ ieee Vi \ MMF772 fan | SS KK Yy ahr Z| ae ZY Pan a Zs eae Ss = eee SEG Then FHROUGH I1GLOE what repulsive remains of a carcass consumed at the last meal. Such is the Eskimo summer house. His winter dwelling in the snow is more interesting and curious. It is called an “igloe,” and is built in the form of a dome with large blocks of snow. The com- mon size of: the dwelling apartment of an igloe is twelve feet in diameter, and eight feet in height. This is approached by a succession of three or four smaller domes, connected by low archways, through which one has to crouch in order to pass. The innermost archway opening into the dwelling apartment is about three feet high, and as one enters he steps down a foot or more to the level of the floor of THE ESKIMOS. 137 the front portion of the dwelling. The back part, about two-thirds of the apartment, is three feet higher than the entrance. The front or lower section of the igloe corresponds to a front hall, and it is in it that the occupants, as they enter, beat the snow off their clothing, or remove their outer garments, when they wish to step up into the higher living apartment. The floor of the entire igloe consists simply of snow, but in this upper apartment it is well covered with deer-skin robes, so that it is not melted by the warmth of those who sit or lie upon it. Above the doorway of the igloe is placed a window to admit light into the dwelling. This is formed of a large square slab of ice, neatly inserted into the wall of the dome, and it serves well the purpose for which it is intended, admitting a pleasant soft light. Above the window a much-needed ventilating hole is usually made. This, because of the passing current of warm air, becomes rapidly enlarged, and requires to be frequently plastered up with snow. Sometimes one of the long approaches or corridors is made to serve for two or three dwellings, each of which is connected by low archways with the innermost of the smaller domes. Usually, opening out of the inner dome, each family has one or two small pantries, where they keep a supply of meat sufficient for a week or two. The furniture of the snow-house is much the same as that of the skin topick already described, but the stone lamps come more into prominence, contributing light to the dwelling during the long dark winter nights. These lamps are simply stone vessels, usually half 138 MACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANAD: moon shaped, and formed neatly of some description of soft rock. The rounding side of the vessel is made much deeper than the other, which shoals up gradually to the edge. The wick of the lamp consists of dried decomposed moss, pressed and formed by the fingers into a narrow ridge across the shallow or straight edge of the dish. In this position it absorbs the seal oil which is placed in the vessel, and when lit, burns with a clear bright flame, free from smoke. The lamp is then made self-feeding by suspending a lump of seal blubber above it, at a height varying according to the amount of light and consequent supply of oil required. This melts with the heat of the flame and drips into the vessel of the lamp. One lump keeps up the supply for a considerable length of time, the intensity of light being increased or dimished at will by lowering or - raising the lump of blubber suspended above the flame. A lamp is usually placed at either side of the en- trance in the upper apartment. Both are kept burning brightly the greater part of the long cold, dark days of winter, but during the hours of sleep they are “turned down,” that is, the lumps of blubber are raised; or sometimes one lamp is extinguished and the other made to burn dimly. These lamps, though chiefly designed to furnish light, also contribute a considerable amount of heat to the igloes. It is often necessary to turn them down, to prevent the snow walls from being melted by the heat, though the temperature outside may be 40 or 50 degrees below zero. Towards spring the snow-houses become very damp, and to prevent the roofs from being melted away fresh snow has to be added to the outside. Before they are THE ESKIMOS. 139 abandoned for the skin tents they sometimes become so soft that they cave in upon the occupants, causing much sickness in the form of colds and pneumonia. In their workmanship the Eskimos are always neat. Wood is used for manufacturing purposes when it is available, but all they are able to procure is of a fragmentary nature, such as has drifted from some dis- tant shore, or from the wreck of an unfortunate vessel. It is from this rough and scanty material they frame their kyacks, make their sleds, tent-poles, and the handles of their spears and harpoons; from it they fashion their bows and many other useful or orna- mental things, and by exercise of untiring perseverance and skill they manage to produce marvellous results. For example, a paddle is often made of two or three pieces of wood, but these are joined together so neatly that if it were not for the seal thong lashings the joints would not be noticeable. The lashings are put on green, or after having been softened in water, and are drawn tightly, so that when they become dry and shrink they produce strong and rigid joints. The process by which these lashing-thongs and heavy lines for hunting purposes, as well as the small thread for sewing, are manufactured is very interesting. A heavy harpoon line, used in the hunt for securing wal- ruses, is made from the skin of the “square flipper ” seal, a large species about eight feet long. For such use the skin is not removed from the carcase in the usual way, but is pulled off without cutting it, as one might pull off a wet stocking. The whole hide is thus preserved in the form of a sack. It is then placed in water, and allowed to remain there for several days, until the thin 140. ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTIES OF CANADA outer black skin becomes decomposed. This, together with the hair, is readily peeled off, and a clean white pelt remains. Two men then take the pelt in hand, and with a sharp knife cut it into one long even white line, by commencing at one end and cutting around and around until at length the other end is reached. One skin in this way will make three hundred feet of line. In this condition it is allowed to partially dry, after which it is tightly stretched and dried thoroughly in the sun. The result obtained is a hard even white line three-eighths of an inch in diameter, but equal in strength to a three-inch manilla rope. I have seen such a line, when imbedded in the flesh of a walrus at one end, and spiked to the hard ice at the other by a stout iron pin, as well as being held by six men, plough a furrow six inches deep through the ice, bend the spike and drag the six men to the edge of the ice, where the tug of war ended, the walrus, victori- ous, taking the unbreakable line with him into the deep. Smaller seal thongs, such as are extensively used ° as lashings for komiticks, kyacks, handles, ete. are made in much the same way as I have described, except that the hide of smaller seals is used, and often the pro- cess of removing the outer black skin is omitted, the hair being simply scraped off with a sharp knife or scraper. Finer lines, such as those used for fishing or for wind- ing whip-stocks, and thread for sewing purposes, are manufactured from reindeer sinew. The best is that obtained from along the spine, which is always saved from the carcase. It is prepared for use by first drying and then rubbing till it becomes quite soft, when it is THE ESKIMOS. 141 readily frayed out into fine fibres, in which condition it is used for fine needle-work ; but when coarser thread or stout cord is required, these individual fibres are plaited together, with wonderful neatness and rapidity. One woman can make fifty or sixty yards of this cord or thread in a day. With the Eskimos all joints, of whatever kind, are secured by these thongs, they having no nails or screws to supply their place. In making a komitick, the cross slats are all secured to the runners by seal thongs. In framing a kyack the numerous pieces are lashed together, ESKIMO KYACK. usually with seal or deer-skin, though sometimes, and preferably, with whalebone. The Eskimo kyack or canoe consists of a light frame neatly made from all sorts of scrap-wood, and strongly jointed together in the way just described. The frame having been completed, it is then covered with green skins, either of seal or deer, dressed, with the hair removed. The skins are joined to each other as they are put on by double water-tight seams, and are drawn tightly over the frame, so that when they dry they become very hard and as tight as a drum-head. A full-sized kyack thus made is about twenty-two feet long, a foot and a half wide, and a foot deep. It is completely covered over on the top, excepting the small hole where the paddler sits, so that though an extremely 142 ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA. cranky craft in the hands of a novice, it is used in perfect. safety, even in very rough water, by an expert. Indeed the Eskimos have an arrangement by which they can travel while almost submerged in the water. They have a thin waterproof parchment coat which they pull on over their heads in rough weather. This they place on the outside of the rim at the opening of the kyack, and tie securely, so that if the boat were to turn upside down the water could not rush in. An Eskimo in his kyack can travel much faster than two men can paddle an ordinary canoe. I have known them to make six miles an hour in dead water, whereas four miles would be good going for a canoe. The “ oomiack,” or woman's boat, 1s a ESKIMO OOMIACK. flat-bottomed affair of large carrying capacity. Like the kyack it is a skin-covered frame, the many pieces of which are lashed together with thongs of skin or whalebone; but instead of being covered on top it is open, and is of a much broader model, and not so sharp at the ends. It is chiefly used by the women for moving camp from place to place, but is never used in the hunt. It is essentially a freighting craft, whereas the kyack is used only for hunting or speedy travel. Oomiacks are often made large enough to carry thirty or forty people. They are propelled by ordinary paddles, not by the long double- bladed ones used with the kyacks. The komitick is a sled of rather peculiar design, consisting simply of two parallel runners, twelve or four- PLETE SKDIT OS: 143 teen feet long, built of wood and placed about eighteen inches apart, upon the top of which are lashed a number of cross bars or slats. The runners are shod either with ivory or with mud, the latter answering the purpose exceedingly well. The mud covering is, of course, put on in a soft state, when it can be easily worked and formed into proper shape. When the mud is on, and the surface nicely smoothed off, it is allowed to freeze, and speedily becomes as hard as stone. In order to complete the vehicle, and put it in good running order, there is one thing to be done. The shoeing, whether of mud or ivory, must be covered with a thin coating of ice, in order to do which the Eskimo overturns the komitick, fills his spacious mouth with water from some convenient source, and then from his lips deposits a fine stream along the runner, where, quietly freezing, it forms a smooth glassy surface. During the winter season the komitick forms an important factor in the Eskimo’s life. It is drawn by a team, not of horses, nor even reindeer, but of dogs. The number of animals forming a team varies greatly, some- times consisting of not more than three good dogs, but at other times fifteen or more are attached to a single sled. Hach dog is attached by a single line, the length of which varies according to the merits of its owner. Thus the best dog in the team acts as leader, and has a line twenty or twenty-five feet in length. In order to control the team the driver carries a whip of somewhat startling dimensions. This instrument of torture has a short wooden handle only about eighteen inches long, but what is lacking in stock is more than made up in lash, for this latter, made of the hide of 144 ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANADA. the square flipper seal, is nearly thirty feet in length. An Eskimo can handle his whip with great dexterity, being able not only to reach any particular dog in the pack, but to strike any part of its body, and with as much force as the occasion may require. Another curious Eskimo practice, observed by the women, is that of daily chewing the boots of the house- hold. As already intimated, these boots or moceasins are made of oil-tanned seal or deer-skins. The hair is always removed from the skin of which the foot of the moccasin is made, but not always from that part forming the leg. However, the point is this, that these moccasins, after having been wet and dried again, become very hard, and the most convenient or etfective—or possibly the most avreeable—way of softening them seems to be by mastication. Whatever may be the reason for adopting this method, the fact is that nearly every morning the native women soften the shoes of the family most beautifully by chewing them. What to us would seem the disagreeable part of this operation cannot be thoroughly understood by one who has not some idea of the flavor of a genuine old Eskimo shoe. In one of my trips in the land of the Eskimo I had an escort composed not only of men and women, old and young, but also of little children, several of whom could not have been more than five or six years old, and it was marvellous to see the powers of endurance of these little creatures, for they travelled along with the rest of the party, a distance of twenty-five miles, having no other object in view than that of seeing the white stranger. The “shin-ig-bee,” or Eskimo sleeping bag, is an article essential to the comfort of the traveller when THE ESKIMOS. 145 making long overland journeys during the cold winter season. It consists of a long oval water-proof skin bag, lined with another of similar shape, made of soft but heavy winter deer-skins. The opening is not at the top, but near it, across one side, and is made with flap and buttons, so that it can be closed up as closely as desired. When the traveller is provided with this kind of a bed he does not trouble himself to make a snow lodge for the night, as without it he would have to do, but he simply crawls into his “shin-ig-bee,” buttons up the opening on the windward side, and goes to sleep, no matter what the weather or temperature may be. With the mercury at 40 below zero a man may in this way sleep warm and comfortable, without any fire, out upon the bleak frozen plains. 10 “ fc a ROWS ND AR S TUSKS AND BOWS A ALRU W ’ SW Py DOG Olausleiases Ob CUSTOMS OF THE ESKIMOS. DeEeER-hunting is perhaps the most favored and remu- nerative occupation of the Eskimos. In some districts seal and other animals are extensively sought, but the reindeer is the universal stand-by. It is hunted with the bow and arrow or spear, and with guns as well, when these can be obtained. Having already stated that the only wood obtainable by the Eskimos is broken fragments of driftwood, the inquiry may arise, Where do they get material from which to make bows? The answer is, that lacking material for making such bows as are ordinarily used, their ingenuity comes to the rescue and designs a com- posite bow, which answers the purpose equally well. This implement of the chase is, in the first place, made either of pieces of wood or of horn, neatly joined together. In order to give it strength and elasticity, a stout plaited sinew cord is stretched from end to end, around the convexity of the bow, and then twisted until it is brought to the required tension. By this mode of construction, when the bow is drawn the wood or horn is only subjected to a compressive strain, while the sinew thong takes up the tension. Thus very powerful bows are made, though of rough 148 ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS GF CANAD materials ; but in order to use them with effect in killing deer, the sagacity of the hunter is often severely tested, for with the Eskimo there is no cover behind which to hide or creep upon his prey. The hunter’s first precau- tion is, of course, to keep the deer to windward, for the moment they catch the scent of an enemy they are off, and to get within range of the wary animals upon the open plains or rocky barrens is often. a difficult matter. A common way of working, when several hunters are together, is for some to take up positions in concealment, while the others drive the deer their way, causing them to pass within range of the deadly shafts. At a mode- rate distance an Eskimo with his ingeniously constructed - bow can drive an arrow its full length into a deer. Occasionally vast herds of deer, numbering many thousands, are met with, and at such times their numbers appear to give them confidence. The hunter then has no trouble in approaching them, but may go up and kill as many as he desires, either with bow and arrow or with spear. The spear, however, is chiefly used for killing deer in the water. At certain seasons of the year, when travel- ling north or south, the deer cross streams, rivers, or lakes in great numbers, and these crossings are com- monly effected year after year in the same place. The hunter, knowing their habits, lies in wait at the cross-_ ings, and often from his kyack spears large numbers as they are swimming past. When more deer are killed than are required for immediate use, the carcases are “cached,” that is, they are covered over by piles of stones to preserve them from the wolves and foxes, and the place of their burial CUSTOMS OR THE ESKIMOS. 149 is marked, so that during the next winter and spring, if food becomes scarce, these meat stores may be’ resorted to. When required, the meat thus stored is often quite blue or decomposed, but it has to be pretty bad when a hungry Eskimo will not eat it. Seal hunting is a most curious and interesting form of sport. The seals are hunted in entirely different ways at different times of the year. During the entire winter season they keep holes open through the shore ice, but because of the depth of snow are not seen until the warm spring sun exposes their hiding places. The Eskimo hunter has, however, a way of finding them out before this. He harnesses a dog that has been trained for the work, and, armed with his seal harpoon, leads him out to the snow-covered field, where the two walk in a zig-zag course, until the saga- cious animal catches the scent of the seal and takes his master straight to its secret abode. Here, under the hard crusted’ snow, it has formed for itself quite a commodious dwelling, but, unlike the Eskimo snow-house, its doorway opens into the water instead of into the air. This doorway, which is in the form of a round hole, just large enough to admit the seal, is kept from freezing up by the wary animal, which ever keeps itself in readiness, upon the slightest suspicion of danger, to plunge into it. Usually upon the arrival of the hunter, the seal, if at home, hearing the footsteps above, quickly vacates the premises. The Eskimo then, taking advantage of its absence, ascertains the exact locality of the hole in the ice, by thrusting his long slender spear down through the snow. When the exact position of the hole is found, 150 ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTIGS OF CANAD its centre is marked by erecting a little pinnacle of snow directly above it. This done, a long and tedious wait follows, during which time the patient hunter often suffers much from the cold, for he is obliged to remain quite still, not un- commonly from early morning until evening. In order to keep the feet from freezing, while thus remaining for hours upon the snow, a deer-skin bag is commonly used to stand in. | During the interval of the seal’s absence from home the doorway becomes frozen over, and it is on account. of this fact that the hunter is made aware of its return, for when the seal comes back to its hole and finds it crusted over, it at once commences to blow upon the ice to melt it. ‘This is the hunter’s long-desired signal, and the moment he hears it he places the point of his harpoon at the mark on the snow, and thrusts the weapon vertically down into the hole, almost invariably with deadly effect. The seal, thus harpooned in the head, is instantly killed, and is then hauled out by the line attached to the spear. Some seasons, when the ice is covered by a great. depth of snow, the dogs are not able to scent the seals’ houses, and then the Eskimo has to depend upon other sources for food, or else go on short rations. In the spring, as the snow disappears, the seals’ win- ter quarters are demolished, and they themselves are exposed to view. Then the Eskimo is obliged to resort. to other methods of getting at them. When one is. observed, the direction of the wind is first noted, then the hunter, keeping himself to leeward of the seal, walks. to within about a quarter of a mile of it; but beyond GUSROUS TOR, LAE VESK LIMOS. 151 this he begins to crouch, and advances only when the seal’s head is down. The seal is one of the most wide- awake of all animals, and has the habit of throwing up its head quickly every few seconds to guard against danger. When its head is down upon the ice, its eyes are shut, avd it is said that in these brief intervals it takes its sleep. However this may be, the hunter, by carefully watching the seal’s movements, is able, with- out much difficulty, to get within about two hundred yards of it, but at closer quarters he is obliged to pur- sue other tactics. He now lies down at full length upon the ice, and here the real sport begins. The seal takes the Eskimo, who is able to talk seal perfectly, to be one of its kinsmen; and indeed there is a great deal of resemblance between the genera, for both are similarly clothed, and the Eskimo, living largely upon the flesh and oil of the seal, is similarly odorous. As the two lie there upon the ice, a most amusing’ sort of conversation is kept up between them. Seal makes a remark and flips his tail. Eskimo replies in a similar manner, making the gesture with his foot, and at the ‘same time throws himself a little forward. Seal soon has something further to say, and again flips his tail. Eskimo replies as before, and closes up slightly farther the distance between them. When the seal’s head is down, the hunter, who ever keeps his eye on his prey, is able to approach still nearer by dragging himself forward upon his elbows. This manceuvring goes on for some time, until the distance between the performers has been reduced toa few yards, or sometimes to a very few feet. When near enough to make a sure shot, the Eskimo 152. ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANAD takes his bow and arrow from his side and sends a swift shaft through the head of his outwitted com- panion. Sometimes, instead of the bow and arrow, a harpoon is used with equal effect. . I knew an Eskimo who was so expert at this kind of sport that he was able to catch seals with his teeth. In order to secure one by shooting it, as just described, it is necessary to kili it instantly, for if only shot through the body, or even through the heart, it will throw itself into its hole and thus be lost. During the season of open water still another method of seal-hunting has to be adopted. There is now no ice to perform upon, so the kyack has to take its place, and in this light craft the Eskimo pursues his prey in the open sea, or in the channels of water among the ice. The weapon now used is not the bow, but a specially designed style of harpoon, which may be thrown long distances from the hand. The bow and arrow are use- less, because of the difficulty of instantly killing the seal by a shaft aimed from a kyack. This harpoon is a light form of spear, having an adjustable ivory head to which is attached a long plaited sinew line. This line is wound on the handle of the harpoon, and attached to the end of it is a small float. When a seal makes its appearance within twenty or thirty yards of the hunter the harpoon, thus arranged, is thrown, and if the seal is struck, the ivory head, which becomes buried in the flesh, is detached from the shank, and as the seal plunges about, or dives, the line is quickly unwound from the floating handle. Unless killed outright, the seal quickly disappears with line and float; but as it can remain under water CUSTOMS. OF (THE ESKIMOS. 153 only a few minutes at a time, it must soon reappear, and as it again nears the surface, the little float comes to the top and shows the hunter where to prepare for the next charge. Thus the poor wounded animal’s chances of escape are small. Perhaps the most exciting and dangerous sport of the Eskimo is that of hunting the walrus. This animal, sometimes called the sea-horse, is large, powerful, and often vicious. It is considered valuable both as food and for the supply of ivory which its im- mense tusks yield. The walrus is hunted chiefly from the kyack, either in open water, in the neighborhood of sandy shores, or about the edge of floating ice, upon ~ which it delights to lie and bask in the sunshine. A special equipment is required for this kind of hunt- ing. It comprises, besides the kyack and paddle, a large harpoon, a heavy line and box in which to coil it, a large inflated seal-skin float, and a long lance. This walrus harpoon is an ingeniously devised weapon, con- sisting of an ivory shank fitted to a block of the same material by a ball and socket joint. These are stiffly hinged together by stout seal-skin thongs, and the block is then permanently attached to a wooden handle about four feet in length. The ivory shank, which is about fifteen inches long, is slightly curved, and tapers to a rounded point at the end remote from the handle. To this point is again fitted an ivory head, about four inches long, let into which is an iron or steel blade. Through the centre of the ivory head a heavy line is passed and strongly looped. Then, the shank and head being in position, the line is drawn tightly, and fastened to the wooden handle by an ivory pin and socket catch. . ? Seal Spear + . +2 eal Harpoon al Harpoon. <_se DA Boyes wn S i= le a) Mea ed ai == sente) eS oe a) sae 6 10 on Lond os — — mM 3 I — x Ss ] COSHOMS TOR: LHF, ESKIMOS. 155 The remaining portion of the line is neatly coiled, and is provided at the end with a small loop. The line used is that made from the skin of the square- flipper seal, as already described, and may be two or three hundred feet in length, though sometimes not so long. The line box is simply a small round parchment- covered frame, about the size of the lid of a cheese-box, and is fastened to the top of the kyack, behind the paddler. : The seal-skin float is a pecular-looking object, consist- ing of the entire skin of a seal, removed from the carcase, as before described, without cutting it. The hair is re- moved from the pelt, which is then dressed as black parchment. The natural opening at the mouth of the skin sack is provided with an ivory nozzle and plug. By blowing into the nozzle the skin 1s inflated, and may be kept in that condition by inserting the plug. At the tail-end of the float is an ivory cross-head, to which the loop at the end of the harpoon line may be readily attached. The lance completes the walrus hunter’s equipment. This instrument is formed of a long iron or ivory bar having a steel blade point. The bar is fitted to a wooden handle by a ball-and-socket joint, and stiffly hinged with thongs as in the case of the harpoon. The object of the joint is to prevent the lance from being broken when thrust into a walrus, as otherwise it would be, by the animal plunging about. Equipped as above, the Eskimo hunters go out during the season of open water in pursuit of walruses, which, feeding upon clams, are usually found about sandy shores or islands. Single animals are sometimes found, 156 ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS OF CANAD: but more commonly they are in small herds. When feeding they remain in about the same place, but can stay under water for only about three minutes at a time. They come to the surface to breathe, sport about for a short. time, then go down to the bottom and dig clams from the sand for some three minutes, and then rise again to the surface. The Eskimo, taking advantage of their necessity, advances on them only when they are busily occupied at the bottom of the sea. When a walrus reappears .at the surface, the hunter, who, with harpoon in hand and line attached to float, awaits its return, hurls his harpoon with great force and precision, burying it deeply in the walrus’s flesh. The wounded monster, maddened by pain, plunges into the water, dives to the bottom, and endeavors to escape. The plunging readily causes the ball-and-socket joint of the harpoon to give, and this allows the head of the harpoon, which is buried in the animal, to become detached and form a button on the end of the harpoon line. The detached handle floats upon the water, but the line is securely fastened to the body of the walrus, which, in trying to escape, takes with him the line and attached inflated seal-skin; but though he may take this buoy under, and keep it down for a short time, he cannot do so long. Soon it reappears at the surface, and the hunter seeing it, makes for the spot, and awaits the returning walrus. The moment his head appears, harpoon or lance are hurled at it as before, and unless with fatal results, the same manceuvres are repeated. In this way often two or three harpoon lines and floats are attached to one CUSTOMS OF LAA EF SILIMOS. 157 walrus, but when so hampered it is considered well secured, and is finally despatched by the long keen lance. When, however, the attack is made in the neighbor- hood of heavy ice, as it frequently is, the hunt is much less likely to result successfully. Because of the floating erystal, the hunter often finds it difficult to follow the movements of his game, and even if successful in this and in placing a harpoon or two, he is often defeated in the end by the line being torn from the float, which has become fast in the broken ice. Thus once freed, the wounded animal usually makes good his escape. Occasionally these walrus contests result disastrously to the hunter, for the sea-horse is by no means a passive, harmless creature, submitting without resistance to the attacks of itsenemies. Frequently one—or a number of them together—will make a charge upon the assailants, attacking them viciously with their huge tusks, which, if brought in contact with an Eskimo, are likely to make a sorry-looking object of him. Of course, through long experience and practice in the chase, the Eskimo hunters become very expert in dodging and foiling a charge, but sometimes they are caught and roughly handled by these uncouth monsters of the sea. | Upon one occasion an old hunter whom I knew, named Coto, met with a bad accident while hunting walruses in his kyack. A number of them charged upon him suddenly, and being unable to get out of their way quickly enough, his frail craft was broken and torn to shreds, and his body was frightfully bruised and lacerated. The poor fellow recovered, however, but only after months of sore suffering. For a short time during the autumn season the sea- 158 ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS-OF CARA horse is hunted without the assistance of the kyack. The new ice being thin, the walruses break up through it at any place, and sport about in the water-holes which they make. Then the hunters—for several of them usually go together—march out upon the ice and attack them from the edge of the water-holes. This method of hunting is, however, rather dangerous, as the animals have an ugly habit of noting the position of their assail- ants, then disappearing below the water, and in a moment presenting themselves below the ice at the spot where the men stand. The Eskimos, who are familiar with this manceuvre, always change their position the moment one of the crafty brutes goes down, and stand, harpoons in hand, ready to receive him when he returns crashing through the ice with deadly designs upon his craftier adver- saries. It is an easier matter to harpoon a walrus thus in the ice than it is to secure him, for here the “oweta” or float cannot be used to advantage, and it is no easy matter to hold a three thousand pounder of the sea. However, this is attempted, and when one or more harpoons are made fast to the walrus the ends of the lines are spiked down to the ice by stout spikes, and in this way the brute is very powerfully anchored; but, as I have before stated, in spite of all that can be done, he often breaks away and takes the lines with him into the cleep. Polar bear hunting is an extremely dangerous and exciting sport. An Eskimo rarely ever cares to tackle a bear single-handed, but two men, armed with lances, do not hesitate to attack this monarch of the north. CUSTOMS OF THE ESKIMOS: 159 The method adopted in hunting a polar is as follows: Two men, armed only with lances, approach it from opposite sides at the same time. Then, as they close upon it, and the bear charges either man, the other rushes forward with his lance. Thus they let out its life-blood. It requires cool heads and steady nerves to be able to cope successfully with a polar in this way, but both of these characteristics the Eskimos possess in a marked degree, and it is comparatively seldom that accidents happen while thus engaged. These bears, which jive almost entirely upon seals, are usually found near the sea-shore, and often out some distance, swimming in the water, where they can live for a considerable length of time. The Eskimos attack them here as well as upon the land, but in the water they are treacherous enemies to deal with, as they are expert Swimmers and divers. They are very liable to surprise one by suddenly disappearing and reappear- ing at embarrassingly close quarters. The Eskimo custom in bear-hunting is, that whoever first sees a bear is the owner of the carease, no matter who kills it, but the skin is divided up among the several hunters. A bear-skin is so heavy that the Eskimo has no special object in preserving it whole, but he finds the greatest use for it when it is cut up into small pieces. In this condition it is commonly used by hunters as mats, which they tie under them when crawling over the ice after seals, or across the wet plains after deer. The pieces of bear-skin act as skates, upon which they can easily drag themselves along. The Eskimo method of hunting birds is chiefly with a 160 ACROSS THE SUB-ARCTICS-OP CARA spear of somewhat peculiar design. It is in all about five feet long, and consists of a wooden handle termi- nated at one end by a slender barbed ivory or iron rod, sharply pointed. About half way up the handle, three pointed barbed ivory fingers are securely fastened. The handle is then fitted into a wooden socket, which is held in the hand, and from which the spear is thrown. It is claimed that by means of the wooden socket the spear can be thrown with greater precision than by the bare hand, to which it would adhere more or less. However that may be, an Eskimo can hurl his bird-spear a marvellously long distance, and with deadly effect. If the point of the spear misses the bird, one of the — side fingers is almost sure to pierce it, or catch it between the fingers and the spear handle. . | In this way, ptarmigan, ducks, and other land and sea fowls are obtained in considerable numbers. They are usually speared while sitting in flocks upon the snow or in the water, but they are also frequently killed in this way when on the wing. Sometimes the bow and arrow is used for bringing down the feathered game, but the spear is the instrument chiefly employed. Fish are caught both by spearing and with the hook. The latter is of the crudest design, and is used in trolling.