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FOREST TYPES AND PRODUCTS
TH£ PRINCIPAL rORESTTR£E5,

BY

Department of the Interior
Bureau or Forestry

Bulletin No. 10

M^jor GEORGE P. AHERN

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K H. N. WHITFORD, Ph. D.

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THE FORESTS OF THE PHILIPPINES

Part I
FOREST TYPES AND PRODUCTS

BY

H. N. WHITFORD, Ph. D.

FORESTER, CHIEF OF DIVISION OF INVESTIGATION

Department of the Interior
Bureau of Forestry

Bulletin No. 10

Major GEORGE P. AHERN

Director op Forestry

103553

MANILA

BUREAU OF PRINTING

1911

CONTENTS.

Page.

Letter of transmittal 7

Equivalents of the metric and English systems of measurements used in

this bulletin 8

Introduction 9

Classes of vegetation 12

1. General 12

2. Grass lands * 13

3. Second-growth forests 14

4. Virgin forests 15

I. — Climate 15

II. — Topography and soil 16

III.— Types of forest 17

A. — Dipterocarp types 18

(a) General character 18

(6) Lauan type 19

(c) Lauan-hagachac type 21

(d) Yacal-lauan type 22

(e) Lauan-apitong type 24

(/) Tanguile-oak type 25

B. — Molave type 26

C. — Mangrove type 28

D.— Beach type 29

E.— Pine type 30

F. — Mossy-forest type 31

G. — Summary 32

Wood uses 32

1. Dipterocarps 32

Lauans 32

Apitongs 33

Yacals 33

2. Substitutes for mahogany 36

3. Durable timbers 37

4. Salt-water piling 38

5. Shipbuilding „ 38

6. A substitute for lignum-vitae r 39

7. Bridges 39

8. Railroad ties and mining timbers 39

9. House construction 39

10. Paving blocks 40

11. Furniture and cabinetmaking 40

12. Carving and engraving 40

13. Canes 40

14. Boxes and dry measures 40

15. Tool handles 41

16. Carriage building 41

17. Wooden shoes 41

18. Telegraph and telephone poles 41

19. Matchmaking 41

20. Musical instruments 41

3

C ^A-,6^

Page.

Weight and hardness 41

Lumbering in the Philippines 43

1. Markets 43

2. Logging operations 45

3. Milling operations 47

I. — Steam sawing 47

II. — Hand sawing 47

4. Transportation 48

5. Labor 49

6. Opportunities for lumbering 50

7. Conclusion 50

Minor forest products 51

1. Woods used for fuel 51

Firewood 51

Charcoal 52

2. Barks 52

Tan barks 52

Other barks 53

3. Dyewood 54

4. Resins and oils 54

Almaciga 55

Dipterocarp resins 55

Manila elemi 56

Other resins and oils 56

5. Gutta-percha and rubber 57

6. Vines 57

Rattan 58

Other vines 58

7. Bamboo 60

8. Erect palms 60

Relation of the Government to the forests and their products 60

1. Legal status of the public forests and'forest reserves 60

2. Disposal of forest products 61

I. — Forest products obtained free of charge 61

II.— Forest products gathered with charge 62

3. Charge for forest products 62

I. — Lumber 62

II. — Minor forest products 63

4. Cutting regulations 64

5. How the Bureau of Forestry assists the lumbermen 64

APPENDIXES.

Appendix I. — Mechanical tests of thirty-four Philippine woods 65

Appendix II. — Bibliography of the forests and forest products of the

Philippines 85

1. Bureau of Forestry publications 85

2. Works in Spanish on the forestry, forest products, and forest botany

of the Philippines ~ 86

3. Systematic botanical publication since 1903 86

4. Other papers relating to the Philippine forests and their products 87

General index _ 89

Index to scientific names 1 « 93

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate. Facing page —

I. General view of second-growth forest, in the foreground is a

remnant of the original forest after being logged 16

II. View in second-growth forest; palosapis (1, 2, and 3) and cupang

(4) are remnants of the original forest 16

III. Young second-growth forest; hamindang and anabion 16

IV. Outside view of a dipterocarp forest of the lauan type. This

forest will yield 30,000 feet per acre, board measure, clear
lumber, and consists of an almost pure stand of the lauans and

apitongs 16

V. Interior view of the lauan forest shown in Plate IV. The trees

are almon-lauan and red lauan 16

VI. Interior view of lauan type. The trees are almon-lauan, red

lauan, and tanguile 16

VII. Interior view of the lauan-hasachac type 16

VIII. Exterior view of yacal-lauan type; also shows the method of log-
ging with carabao 32

IX. Interior view of yacal-lauan forest after being partially logged.

Black yacal in the center 32

X. General view of a lauan-apitong type on the edge of a clearing—. 32
XI. General view of lauan-apitong forest. Original forest in the

background; cut-over forest in the foreground 32

XII. Interior view of lauan-apitong forest. Apitong ridge 32

XIII. View in lauan-apitong forest. Tree of panao showing form of

bole and crown 32

XIV. Interior view of tanguile-oak forest. The trees are tanguile and

lauan 32

XV. Interior view of tanguile-oak type; tanguile and Eugenia sp 48

XVI. Interior view of mangrove swamp 48

XVII. Interior view of mangrove swamp 48

XVIII. View of the beach type 48

XIX. Pine forest of Benguet 48

XX. Exterior view of mossy-forest type and upper portion of tanguile-
oak type 48

XXI. Interior view of the mossy-forest type ~ 48

XXII. Logging sled 64

XXIII. Steam logging; donkey engines - '— . 64

XXIV. Logging railroad — . 64

XXV. Steam sawmill 64

XXVI. Steam sawmill 64

XXVII. Gutta-percha as it reaches the market - 64

XXVIII. A bamboo forest 64

5

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

Manila, November 11, 1910.
Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith the report entitled "The
Forests of the Philippines," by H. N\ Whitford, Ph. D., forester, chief
division of investigation, and to recommend its publication as Bulletin
Wo. 10 of this Bureau. It consists of two parts for separate publication,
Part I, "Forest Types and Products," and Part II, "The Principal Forest
Trees." It has been prepared in response to a strong and increasing
demand for information concerning the forest resources of the Philippines.
Very respectfully,

George P. Ahern,
Director of Forestry.
The honorable,

The Acting Secretary op the Interior, Manila.

7

EQUIVALENTS OP THE METRIC AND ENGLISH

SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENTS USED IN

THIS BULLETIN.

1 inch equals 25.4+ millimeters (approximately 25).
1 foot equals 0.3048+ meter (approximately 0.3).
1 mile equals 1.609+ kilometers (approximately 1.6).
1 centimeter equals 0.3937+ inch (approximately 0.4)
1 meter equals 3.28+ feet (approximately 3.3).
1 kilometer equals 0.62+ mile (approximately 0.6).

1 acre equals 0.404+ hectare ( approximately 0.4 ) .
1 hectare equals 2.47+ acres (approximately 2.5).
1 square mile equals 259 hectares (approximately 260)

1 cubic foot equals 0.028+ cubic meter.
1 cubic meter equals 35.314+ cubic feet.
8

THE FORESTS OF THE PHILIPPINES: Part I.

THE FOREST TYPES AND PRODUCTS.

INTRODUCTION.

The object of this bulletin is to bring together the most important
facts concerning the forests of the Philippines and the exploitation of
their products. Nontechnical terms have been used whenever possible.
The estimates of areas of the different types of vegetation are based
upon rough reconnoissance work on a large scale. The estimates of
standing timber are based upon the results of rough cruising over
large areas, supplemented by intensive valuation surveys over certain
small selected stands. The figures given for the total area covered by
virgin forests are known to be conservative; and the division of this
area into the different types or groups of types is a rough estimate
which will be subject to revision when more data have been collected.

Throughout the work emphasis has been laid on the importance of
the dipterocarp family; for in spite of the richness of the Philippines
in fine furniture woods, the real wealth of their forests consists of con-
struction timbers, such as are represented by the lauans, apitongs, and
yacals — all belonging to the dipterocarp family. It is estimated that
the dipterocarps include about 144 out of a total of the 200 billion
board feet of standing timber in the Islands. Not only is the total
amount great, but the members of this family occur in stands sufficiently
heavy to be exploited by the use of machinery. The predominance
of this family needs emphasis because it is the general belief that the
Philippines and the Tropics in general produce only woods of the
mahogany and teak grades.

In Part II of this bulletin popular descriptions are given of 106 trees,
or all the principal timber trees whose lumber finds a place of some
prominence in the markets. Brief mention is made of some 277 other
trees that are found commonly in the forests or are cultivated for
ornament or for fruit. While this is a very small proportion of the
estimated 2,500 or more trees in the Islands, yet it includes practically
all the large trees except those of a few families like the Sapotaceae,
Meliaceae, and Myrtacese, whose wood, if it reaches the markets, will prob-
ably be classed with some which are already known. All the species, even
of the dipterocarps, have not been described because of insufficient
data. The unexplored portions of Mindanao will undoubtedly furnish
some species that are not as yet known on the markets. It must be

9

10

remembered that a large number of the estimated 2,500 trees are small;
many even in the mature state will not reach a size of 5 meters in
height; others are not over 10 meters; and a large number of greater
height have either ill-formed short trunks, or produce wood so soft that
it will never occupy more than an inferior place in the markets.

Most of the descriptions of the species given in Part II were made
in the woods from living trees; and the work was later supplemented
and checked by wood and herbarium specimens. . The description of
the reproductive parts has been omitted altogether, and the form of
the leaf can be found in the illustrations. A ranger, forester, or lum-
berman is called upon to pass judgment upon the trees of the forest
that are not in flower and fruit, and if he is to have a working knowledge
of the forest he must get it from bark, leaf, or wood characters. Many
Filipino woodsmen are keen in distinguishing the forest trees, and to
one who first enters the forest their aid is well-nigh indispensable.
But it is nevertheless true that their determinations should be con-
stantly subject to check. It should be borne in mind by those who wish
to obtain some notion of the varieties and amount of each kind of
timber on a given tract that while the forest as a whole is exceedingly
complex, yet if the merchantable timber alone is considered, it is com-
paratively simple. The author has collected 80 different tree species
on 1 acre 'which contained representatives of only two species that
reach merchantable size when mature. This of course is an extreme
case. The chances are great that for any given tract of forest there
will not be more than 15 or 20 species of merchantable kinds. Thus,
while the tract may contain 150 to 200 tree species, yet from the lum-
berman's point of view about nine-tenths of them may be discarded
from further consideration by size alone.

In the descriptions, and throughout the text, a number of relative
terms are used. For example, as regards size: "Very large" trees are
those above 40 meters (134 feet) in height; "large," from 31 to 40
meters (100 to 134 feet) ; "medium," from 21 to 30 meters (68 to
98 feet) ; "small," from 11 to 20 meters (36 to 66 feet) ; "very small,"
10 meters (32 feet) and under. While it is probable that there are
trees in the Philippines that will reach a height of over 70 meters (230
feet), yet the largest tree measured to date shows 61 meters (200 feet).
Very few species will reach a diameter of more than 180 centimeters
(6 feet), measured above the root buttresses. The use of the relative
terms "hardness" and "weight" is explained in another connection.
(See p. 41, Part I.)

The terms "abundant" and "scattered," with qualifying adverbs, are
used throughout the text to express the amounts of each kind of timber
in the forests. The impression is apt to prevail that because a timber
is abundant in the market it is abundant in the woods. Thus, during
the fiscal year 1909-10, there were manifested 13,717 cubic meters of

11

ipil, and 20,764 cubic meters of apitong, yet the relative proportion
of the amounts cut does not give anything like a true idea of the pro-
portionate amounts of standing timber of the two kinds; for there is
probably more than one hundred times as much standing timber of apitong
in the Islands as of ipil. The word "abundant" in reference to a species
indicates that there are at least four trees to the acre, and that the
stand extends over large areas. This restricts its use only to certain
members of the dipterocarp family. Thus, one large tract of approxi-
mately 40,000 acres, shows the following number of trees 16 inches and
over in diameter, per acre, all belonging to the Dipterocarpaceae :

Apitong 7.77

Almon-lauan 6.55

Tanguile 4.59

Ked lauan 8.45

It is very doubtful that there is a single tract of timber in the
Islands of 1,000 acres that will contain an average stand of even two
trees of ipil to the acre. A yacal forest in Mindanao, covering an
area of approximately 4,000 acres, shows a stand per acre of 2.9 trees
of lumbayao (belonging to the Sterculiaceae or dungon family) 16 inches
and over in diameter; and a lauan-hagachac forest in Mindoro, com-
prising about 3,500 acres, contains an average per acre of 1.93 trees
of narra. On certain small definite areas, however, these and similar
species often are found in relative abundance.

Durability, another relative term, is the most important quality of
timber for use in the Tropics. In a general way it is associated with
hardness and weight, yet there are important exceptions. For instance,
calantas is classified as a soft wood, yet it is durable ; on the other hand,
many waods classified as hard and heavy, decay rapidly when exposed
to soil or weather. It has been found impossible to arrange a table
showing the relative durability of the principal timbers, because of
the lack of sufficient data. Available data are referred to in the dis-
cussion of the woods in Part II and on page 37 in Part I.

In Part II there is given all the available information on the sil-
vicultural characteristics of each species, especially concerning the rela-
tion to light and to soil moisture. More or less ill-defined rings of
growth are associated with those species which are wholly or partly
deciduous and which are intolerant of shade. The two most important
tree families in the Philippines, the narra and dipterocarp families,
show remarkable contrasts as regards their light relations. The mem-
bers of the former family are light loving, those of the latter are tolerant
of shade. The quality of the dipterocarps, which permits them to bear
shade, is thought to be the main cause of their success in occupying
large areas in the better soils.

In the United States the contents of round logs are generally meas-
ured in board feet. This does not show the entire contents of the logs,

12

but an estimate of the amount of manufactured lumber that can be
obtained from them. The logs are measured in the round, and from
log rules the number of board feet a log of given dimensions will
yield is estimated. Depending on the size of the log, these log rules
show that for every cubic foot of timber in the round, approximately
4 to 8 board feet can be obtained. The average is usually taken as
6 board feet. In the Philippines the measurements and forest charges
are based on the solid contents of the round logs in cubic meters. This
can be expressed in board feet by using the following transposing
factors: 1 cubic meter of round timber is taken as equivalent to 250
board feet, or 4 cubic meters as equivalent to 1,000 board feet. This
is practically equivalent to stating that 1 cubic foot will yield 7 board
feet, or 7.08, to be exact.

In this bulletin the stands of timber are expressed in cubic meters
per hectare. To transpose this figure to an equivalent in board feet
per acre, it is only necessary to multiply by 100. This factor is obtained
by taking 250 board feet as equivalent to 1 cubic meter, and 2.5 acres
as equal to 1 hectare. There are really 2.471 acres in 1 hectare, and
if this exact figure were used, the transposing factor would be 101.17.

Special credit is due Mr. H. M. Curran, of this Bureau, for assistance
in collecting data for the maps and wood specimens for the working
museum ; to x Mr. E. E. Schneider, also of this Bureau, for aid in classify-
ing the uses of the woods, determining their gross characteristics, and
for revising the spelling of the common names; and to Mr. Elmer D.
Merrill and other botanists of the Bureau of Science for aid in referring
the tree species to their scientific names.

classes of vegetation.

1. General.

There is little question that practically the entire land area of the
Philippines, from sea level to the highest mountains, was originally
covered with unbroken forest growth of some kind. The following
represents the present classes of vegetation, with the estimated area of
each :

Table 1.

Classes of vegetation.

Area
(square
miles).

Percent-
age.

Virgin forests

Second-growth forests _

Grass lands

Cultivated lands*

40,000
20,000
48,000
12,000

33*
16f
40
10

Total.

120,000

100

a It is difficult to estimate, even roughly, the area under cultivation. The above is
probably not far from the total amount that has been cultivated some time within the
last twenty years. Probably less than half of this is actually under cultivation at any
one time.

13

Put in another way, the land area of the Philippines is about equal
to that of the State of New Mexico, while the virgin forest area is approx-
imately equal to the entire area of the State of Kentucky.

2. Grass Lands.

The large grass areas, called cogonales, are covered principally with
two species — cogon grass (Imperata exaltata) and talahib (Saccharum
spontaneum) . Such areas are known as cogonales. They are mainly
the result of a shifting system of agriculture, which is prevalent through-
out the Tropics and known in the Philippines as caingin making. 1

Cogonales originate in the following manner, and remain as such so
long as fires prevail. Usually a small portion of original or second-
growth forest is cut during the dry season, the timber and brush are
allowed to dry, and are then partially burned. The area thus prepared
is planted with rice, sweet potatoes, corn, or other crops. Cultivation
then practically ceases, and the jungle growth, consisting of grass, weeds,
and tree species, quickly gains ascendancy over the planted crops, and at
the end of the first, second, or third year the caingin maker abandons his
clearing for a new one in another patch of forest. If the jungle growth
is set on fire, as is frequently done, nearly all plants except the grasses
are killed. In this way through many years vast areas of forest lands
have been converted into cogonales, and repeated firings have prevented
any^hange in their vegetation, xibandoned areas, formerly more inten-
sively cultivated, have also become changed to grass lands in the same
way. It is surprising how quickly this grass will become dry enough to
burn. Three or four rainless days will permit it to burn with sufficient
heat to kill nearly all the seedlings of woody species. Grass lands are
prevalent on land of nearly all types of topography, from sea level to the
tops of the mountains. In the pine region of central and northern
Luzon other species of grasses frequently take the place of the cogon,
although these grass lands originated in the same way.

The grass lands are a detriment rather than a help to agricultural
development. They seem to be the favorite breeding places of grass-
hoppers which frequently destroy growing crops. It is very expensive
to bring them under successful cultivation, for they form dense masses
of roots and underground stems which several plowings will not entirely
kill. Many Filipino farmers prefer to prepare for cultivation the land
covered by virgin or second-growth forests. Indeed, in some instances
they will first plant a grass area with seeds of some small rapid-growing
trees, allow them to grow and shade out the grass, then cut and burn the
wood, and plant their crops. The cogon grass is so coarse that it can not
be considered a good forage crop unless it is kept closely cropped, in which
case other grasses better for forage gain a foothold.

1 Known in India as taungyas.

14
3. Second-Growth Forests.

The 20,000 square miles of second-growth forests in the Islands, like
the grass lands, are due in the main to the caingin system of agriculture.
If fires are not started when the caingin is abandoned, the woody species
quickly gain the ascendancy and shade out the little grass that has
obtained a foothold. Here, as in temperate regions, certain species
of little value enter the freshly deforested regions, giving rise to subtypes
of forest known under the Tagalog name of "calaanan," the Visayan name
of "late," and the Moro name of "boog." On freshly exposed soil, the
first stages of this reforestation process are remarkably similar through-
out the Islands. At first, the composition is very simple, being made up
principally of the following species: Hamindang (Macaranga bicolor),
binunga (Macaranga tanarius), hinlaumo (Mallotus ricinoides), alim
(Mallotus moluccanus) , and balanti (Homalanthus populneus), all
belonging to the Euphorbiaceae ; anabion (Trema amboinensis) , belonging
to the UlmaceaB; and anilao (Columbia serratifolia) , belonging to the
Tiliacese. For small areas, sometimes one — sometimes another — of
these trees are found in almost pure stands. This is particularly true
of hamindang, binunga, anabion, and balanti. All these trees are cap-
able of producing seeds within a year or two after germination. Some
are edible, and are thus quickly scattered by birds and animals; others
have fruits adapted to wind distribution. Most of them mature early,
are light loving, and are replaced by a more complex stand, composed of
shade-enduring species. Ultimately, these second-growth forests may
redevelop into forests whose composition is much like that originally
destroyed.

In the natural reforestation of the grass lands, another set of species
first gains entrance. In the high regions of central and northern Luzon,
the Benguet pine (Pinus insularis) is the pioneer species. In the low-
lands among those that first gain entrance are binayuyu (Antidesma
ghaesembilla) , alibangbang (Bauhinia malabarica) , duhat (Eugenia
jambolana), acleng-parang (Albizzia procera), and others. The first
two of these are especially able to resist the effect of fires, and thus can
occur as scattered trees through the grass lands. When fires are checked
for several years, these trees often form the centers for closed stands,
and eventually cover large areas. These subtypes become gradually
more and more complex, the rapidity of the process depending on their
distance from seed-bearing trees, and of course the composition varies
according to the character of the species of the seed-bearing centers.
Thus so many subtypes exist that it is difficult to make generalizations.
Advance stages in the development of second-growth forests are so
mixed with tangles of climbing bamboo and other vines that they are
difficult to penetrate. Such forests often cover large areas, and are the

15

so-called jungle growths of the Philippines. They often alternate with
patches of grass, with which they make the vegetation known as parang.
Forest fires such as exist in drier portions of the Tropics and in tem-
perate regions do not exist in the Philippines. Surface fires run through
the pine forests, destroying young trees and injuring somewhat the older
ones. Outside the pine regions there are practically no forest fires, only
"prairie" fires and burnings of timber that has been felled previously.
These may injure the edge of the original forests, but do not penetrate
them and produce conflagrations such as are known in the coniferous
forests of the temperate regions. The parang districts often show kalei-
doscopic changes, due to the rapid development of jungle growth where
the fires are checked and the entrance of grass or second-growth forests
in newly abandoned caingins. In the more thickly settled portions of
the Islands, and along well-traveled trails, practically all the original
forests have disappeared, giving place to grass or second-growth forests.
The second-growth forests are seen by the average traveler, and have con-
veyed the wholly wrong impression that the forests of the Philippines,
and, it is believed, of the Tropics in general, are a densely overgrown mass
of inpenetrable jungle. Little is seen of the original forests of the
interior, for the jungle growth on its borders tends to discourage efforts
to penetrate within. Over one-half (approximately 68,000 square miles)
of the area of the Islands is covered with grass or with second-growth
forests. The prevention of further destruction of the virgin forest, and
the reforestation of the grassy regions on nonagricultural lands, both by
the prevention of fires and by planting, are the greatest forestry problems
of the Philippine Islands.

4. Virgin Forests.

Virgin forests are those which either have been undisturbed by man,
or have been so little exploited that their original character has not been
materially changed. They form the source from which the inhabitants
of the Islands may draw and are drawing their main supplies of timber,
and also include the protective forests of the high mountain regions.
They cover approximately one-third of the total area of the Islands.

i. — CLIMATE.

The average annual rainfall of the Philippines shows pronounced varia-
tions in different parts of the Archipelago, ranging from 900 milli-
meters (36 inches) to 4,000 millimeters (160 inches). The heaviest rains
occur during the summer and autumn months (June to October), which
is properly called the rainy season. The entire Islands are well watered
during these months. During the winter months (November, December,
January, and February) the northeast monsoon rains continue to water
abundantly the eastern and northern coasts, thus giving the Pacific coasts

16

and the islands bordering the large inland seas a prolonged or second rainy
season. The western half of central and northern Luzon, the western
coasts of Mindoro and Panay, the Calamianes group, and small areas in
other portions of the Islands receive little rainfall from this monsoon, be-
cause of intervening mountain masses. Thus a prolonged, comparatively
dry season with only occasional showers prevails in these regions for the six
months from November to May. In the other portions of the Islands,
this dry season varies from two to four months and is more frequently
interspersed with showers. In some places the showers are so frequent
that there is an entire absence of a dry season. Thus, it will be seen that
there are two distinct climates, one in which the dry season is long and
pronounced and another in which the dry season is shorter and less pro-
nounced and sometimes wanting. In the former region, the forests
during this season shed a portion of their leaves, and some trees are even
entirely defoliated for a short time ; in the latter, the forests are generally
evergreen. Though grass areas are found in both, they more quickly
establish themselves in the drier belt. It is a general rule that through-
out the Islands during the long or short dry seasons the amount of rain-
fall in local showers, and the relative humidity, is less in the lowlands
than in the high altitudes; consequently, the forests of the low altitudes
may show a much less evergreen appearance than the forests of higher
altitudes of the adjacent interior mountain passes.

The monthly distribution of the rainfall should be considered, because
some localities in the regions of a long dry season receive a greater an-
nual rainfall than others in the region of a short dry season. Thus
Balanga (Bataan), in the region of the long dry season, has an annual
rainfall of 2,394 millimeters, of which 83.5 per cent falls from June to
October; 5.3 per cent from November to February; and 11.2 per cent from
March to May. On the other hand, Jolo, in the Sulu Archipelago, with
no dry season at all, has an annual rainfall of only 1,666.8 millimeters,
of which 49.2 per cent falls from June to October; 28.3 per cent from
November to February; and 22.5 per cent from March to May.

Although the Philippines have a range of latitude from 4.5° to 22°
north, the variation in the temperature is believed not to be great enough
to have any pronounced direct effect on the vegetation below 500 to 600
meters in altitude.

II. TOPOGRAPY AND SOIL.

As a general rule, the topography of the islands of the Archipelago
consists of interior mountain ranges, with coastal plains of greater or less
width. In some cases these ranges are nearer one side of the Islands than
the other; in others, large river valleys separate two parallel mountain

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1 '. '. ; .' . ; /.'.

O
W
O

o

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O
H

I s

O

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Eh

o

PS
O

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u

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w

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o

Plate V. — INTERIOR VIEW OF THE LAUAN FOREST SHOWN IN PLATE IV.
The trees are almon-lauan and red lauan.

Plate VI.— INTERIOR VIEW OF LAUAN TYPE.
The trees are alraon-lauan, red lauan, and tanguile.

Plate VII.— INTERIOR VIEW OF THE LAUAN-HAGACHAC TYPE. - -

ranges. The mountains are volcanic in origin. Some isolated volcanic
peaks rise abruptly from the surrounding lowlands. Limestone deposits,
often crystallized by volcanic action, occur scattered throughout the
Islands, especially along the coast. In some portions, large areas of
stratified volcanic tuffs exist. These variations in the character of the
rock and soils in a measure affect the character of the vegetation. Under
a discussion of the forest types, attention will be called to certain pro-
nounced variations due to this cause.

Dipterocarp types.

I'll. TYPES OF FOREST.

The forest area of the Philippines may be divided into the following
types :

1. Lauan type

2. Lauan-hagachac type..

3. Yacal-lauan type

4. Lauan-apitong type I

5. Tanguile-oak type J

6. Molave type.

7. Pine type.

8. Mangrove type.

9. Beach type.
10. Mossy type.

It is convenient to use the term "dipterocarp" to distinguish the first
five of the above types, as the characteristic trees belong to the Diptero-
carpacese, the principal tree family of the Philippines. It is impossible,
without more careful study and with the aid of topographical and
geological surveys, to delineate the types on the map; and therefore the
exact area covered by each type can not be ascertained at present. But
the following is a very rough estimate of the area occupied by certain
types or groups of types, with an estimate of their volume in cubic meters
and board feet :

Table 2.

Kinds.

Area.

Volume of stand-
ing timber—

Total volume.

Per
cent.

Square
miles.

Acres.

Hectares.

Per acre
(board
feet).

Per hec-
tare (cu-
bic me-
ters).*

Million
board
feet.

Million

cubic

meters.

Dipterocarp

Molave

75

10

5

2

8

100

30,000

4,000

2,000

800

3, 200

19, 200, 000
2, 560, 000
1, 280, 000
512, 000
2, 048, 000

7,770,000

1,036,000

518, 000

207, 200

828, 800

10, 000
3,000
2,000
2,000

100
30
20
20
Purely

192, 000

7,680

2,560

1,024

protective

777. 000
31.080
10. 360
4.144

Pine

Mangrove

Mountain

Total

40,000 1 25.600.000

10, 360, 000

203, 264

822.584

a See page 12 for explanation of factor used in changing cubic meters to board feet.
103553 2

18

A. — DIPTEBOCARP TYPES.

(a) General character. — Covering 75 per cent of the virgin forest area,
or 30,000 square miles, and containing approximately 95 per cent of the
total amount of standing timber in the Islands, the dipterocarp types are
preeminently the most important. They are found on nearly all types
of topography, from immediately behind the frontal zone of the be*ach
to an altitude of approximately 800 meters on the slopes of largest
mountain masses. From the standpoint of the botanist, the composition
of these forests is complex; but from the standpoint of lumbermen it is
comparatively simple. As the name implies, the members of the dip-
terocarp family constitute the prevailing class of timber. Taking it as
a whole, it is estimated that 75 per cent of the 192 billion board feet,
or 144 billion board feet, are dipterocarps. The remaining 48 billion
board feet in the dipterocarp forests are divided among a large number
of species, representing many families.

Practically all the species of the dipterocarps are large trees, reaching
heights of 40 to 50 meters and diameters of 100 to 150 centimeters or
more, and it is not rare to find even these dimensions exceeded. They
have straight, regular boles, resembling in size and shape the Lirioden-
dron tulipiferum (yellow poplar or tulip tree) of the United States.
Some species of other families have a size and form similar to and codo-
minant with the dipterocarps, but by far a greater majority are subdo-
minant species, many of which have ill-formed boles, much smaller in
diameter and length. Underneath the dominant and subdominant species
are a large number of undergrowth tree species which do not attain more
than 10 centimeters in diameter when mature, and a height of 10 meters
or less. From a botanical point of view, these add greatly to the com-
plexity of the forests, but for commercial considerations they should be
called undergrowth trees. Within the forests there are comparatively
few shrubs, or bushes, and herbs.

All the types of dipterocarp forests contain climbing palms (rattans),
but the number and size of other large vines (lianas) seem to diminish
with the prominence of the dipterocarps. Artificial and natural open-
ings in the forests are often covered with a jungle of climbing bamboos
and other large lianas, and the edges of the forests, especially along
the streams, present breastworks of twisted vines which are very difficult
to penetrate; but as soon as the interior is reached it is easy to pass
through the forest with only the occasional use of a bolo (machete).

Practically all the dipterocarps are evergreens, for the new leaves
are formed before the old ones drop. In some of the types discussed
below, a few of the dipterocarps and many of the other tree species
are partially deciduous, dropping a portion of their leaves during the

19

dry season ; some species, including one dipteroearp, may become entirely
defoliated for a period varying from one day to two months.

As stated above, the dipteroearp forests show more or less distinct
types (formations), which are here given the common names of the
most numerous species found within them. These may be divided into
subtypes (associations) ; but, except in limited regions where inten-
sive work has been done, little or no attempt has been made to dis-
tinguish them. Many of them are only stages in successful movements
of the forests. Such movements are either due to the recovery from
artificial disturbances or to changes in the character of the topography.

As many of the regions of the Philippines have not yet been fully in-
vestigated, the following division of the dipteroearp forests into types
is only provisional. It is believed, however, that these types, generally
speaking, will hold good, and that if changes are made they will be
in the nature of a division into subtypes.

(b) Lauan type. — To this type is given the name "lauan" because
several species (see p. 20) producing similar woods having the name
of lauan predominate. It represents the most successful commercial
forest in the Philippines, and is confined to regions with a short or
no dry season. It reaches its best development on the more gentle
slopes near the base of the mountain masses, usually extending to
altitudes of 300 to 400 meters, at which height it merges gradually into
the tanguile-oak type. In regions of rougher topography it does not
produce such heavy stands. In favorable soils it may occupy the low
coastal hills, although usually near the sea it merges into the yacal-lauan
type or the molave forest. The relative proportion of the dipterocarps
is usually heavier in this than in any other type, and the total volume
of timber is greater. An indication of the composition and stand of
the forest can be best illustrated by the following table, which is based
on the results of valuation surveys.

Table 3. — Volume of trees J^0 centimeters and over in diameter in northern
Negros ( average of 54-65 hectares ) .

Scientific name.

Common name.

Volume

per

hectare

(cubic

meters).

Stand

per acre

(board

feet).

Shorea sp

Shorea furfuracea

Dipterocarpus grandiflorus _

Shorea polysperma

Pentacme contorta

Parashorea plicata

Total Dipterocarpacese .
All others (estimated)

Total.

Red lauan

Almon-lauan

Apitong

Tanguile- _.

White lauan

Bagtican-lauan.

185.18
92.02
66.63
59.98

25.23

428.99
22.58

451. 57

18,518
9,202
6,663
5,993

2,523

42,899
2,258

45, 157

20

These figures are fairly representative of a portion of the lauan type,
but, depending on the local conditions, the volume and other qualities
will vary, and so give rise to the subtypes. Much closer study must
be given to these subtypes before they can be accurately described. In
parts of Luzon, especially in the Provinces of Tayabas and Camarines,
the principal species of the family Dipterocarpacese occurring in the
largest stands are as follows: Mayapis-lauan (Shorea squamata), almon-
lauan (Shorea furfuracea), bagtican-lauan (Parashorea plicata), white
l^uan (Pentacme contorta), tanguile (Shorea polyspermia) , tiaong-lauan
(Shorea sp.), the apitongs (Dipterocarpus spp.). The lauan types of
Mindanao, especially in the Zamboanga district, contain mayapis-lauan,
almon-lauan, bagtican-lauan, white lauan, kalunti-lauan (Vatica sp.),
and Dipterocarpus spp.

Many other families are represented in this type, but the species which
reach codominance with the dipterocarps are much less abundant than
in other types in which the Dipterocarpaceae predominate.

The lauan type is comparatively free from jungle undergrowth. It
contains a very complex small-tree flora and a great many climbing palms.
Erect palms, some of them reaching the height of subdominant trees,
are everywhere present. Contrasted with other types, it presents a more
closed canopy and consequently a regular profile. On its borders, and
in natural or artificial openings, lianas grow in great profusion, but
while lianas occur within the forest itself, yet they are reduced to a mini-
mum in numbers, and especially in size, because of the dense prevalent
shade. The forest floor contains a very scanty growth of herbaceous
vegetation. The undergrowth of the forest is not an impenetrable jungle.
One can pass through it in all directions, encountering difficulties in the
way of obstructive vegetation only in artificial or natural openings where
light permits the jungle growth. In short, the dominant trees, nearly
all dipterocarps, form and maintain a successful forest of trees, which
produce a shade so dense as to crowd out many light-demanding species.
These are either forced to the edge of the forest, or else exist in the
interior in a sickly condition, awaiting as it were the chance entrance
of light to permit them luxuriously to fill up the opened space. Stripped
of its ornaments of palms, lianas, epiphytic orchids, and ferns, whose
importance is exaggerated in the eyes of the inhabitants of the temperate
regions, the lauan type bears striking resemblance to the commercial
forests of the temperate zone. In simplicity of composition of the
dominant trees, and in volume of wood produced, it approaches in value
the famous coniferous forests of the more northern latitudes.

It is not possible to estimate the area that this type of forest occupies.
It covers a very large part of the entire forests, and probably formerly
occupied extensive areas which are now in cogon or second-growth forests,
or under cultivation.

21

(c) Lauanrhagachac type, — The lauan-hagachac, like the lauan type,
is confined to the regions where the dry season is short or wanting. It
is restricted to areas where the water level is near the surface of the
ground. It reaches its most extensive development in river bottoms,
especially on slightly raised river deltas. It extends in narrow strips
along the smaller streams through the lauan type, where it resembles
this in character, and often they can scarcely be distinguished.

In composition it differs mainly from the previous type in the presence
of hagachac (Dipt ero carpus affinis), and a much larger number of co-
dominant species of other families. Where this forest has been analyzed
carefully, it shows a large number of subtypes, which are often stages in
succession, due to the unstable character of the habitat. Thus, in flood
times, slight changes in the level of the soil due to deposits or the forma-
tion of new water channels alters the relative height of the ground-water
level, which may be great enough to effect a decided change in the cha-
racter of succeeding generations of trees. Thus, the type as a whole is
a complex of many subtypes in various stages of development. Conse-
quently the average hectare will show a greater number of species and
fewer individual trees that have obtained maturity. Also, during the
rainy season, the soil in large areas is too wet for the best development
of many species. These factors reduce the volume of lumber per hec-
tare as compared with forests growing in more stable areas.

In spite of the unstable and moist character of the soil, there is a con-
stant tendency to produce a forest in which the dipterocarps predominate.
The following is an estimation of the volume of such a forest :

Table 4. — Volume of trees JfO centimeters and over in diameter, on a delta plain
in eastern Mindoro {average of Jf2.Jf hectares).

Scientific name.

Common name.

Volume
per hec-
tare
(cubic
meters).

Stand per

acre

(board

feet).

Dipterocarpacese :

Pentacme contorta

Shorea guiso __.

Dipterocarpus sp

Dipterocarpus affinis..

Total Dipterocarpacese

Leguminosse:

Pterocarpus indicus

Anacardiacese:

Koordersiodendron pinnatum.

Combretacese:

Terminalia pellucida

Terminalia nitens

Terminalia edulis

All others (estimated)

Total.

White lauan.
Guijo

Apitong

Hagachac

Narra

Amuguis .

Dalinsi ___

Sacat

Calumpit _

55.83

14.5

7.42

16.03

93.78
8.76
10.69

3.13

46.67

163.03

5,583

1,450

742

1,603

9,378

876

1,069

313
4,667
16, 303

22

The principal other trees occurring in this type of forest that are
dominant or snbdominant with the dipterocarps are dao (Dracontomelum
dao) ; malaikmo (Celtis sp.) ; Canarium spp. ; ilang-ilang (Canangium
odoraium) ; various species of the mahogany family (Meliacece), including
very scattered specimens of calantas (Toona calantas) ; species of laurel
family (Lauracece) ; dapdap (Erythrina indica) ; cupang (ParJcia Unto-
riana) ; several soft- wooded species of the dungon family (Sterculiacece) ;
many species of the binunga family (Euphorbiacece) , especially Macaranga
and Mallotus; biluang (Octomeles sumatrana) , a tree belonging to Datis-
caceae which reaches very large dimensions.

The portions of this type found along streams in the lauan type are
somewhat more stable in character. Temporary flood plains may show
pure stands of hagachac. Narra, dao, aniuguis, acle (Albizzia acle),
guisocguisoc (Hopea philippinemis) , malugay (Pometia pinnata), catmon
(Dillenia philippinensis) , and others are found scattered along the
streams mixed with various species of lauan, which reach their best
development on the adjacent higher and drier soils.

As one would naturally suppose, this forest is more open than the
lauan type, consequently the jungle growth consists of tangles of
rattan and other large vines. However, mature subtypes are compara-
tively free from jungle growth.

Erect palms are constantly present. The Mindoro portion of it, above
described, shows 66.5 palms to the hectare (not including young ones
without stems), composed of six different species. The lowlands near
the mouths of rivers at the head of Davao Gulf (Mindanao) will show
even a larger stand.

As the lauan-hagachac type occurs on land sought for agricultural pur-
poses, especially the cultivation of rice, the area occupied by it is very
limited in extent. In thickly settled agricultural regions it has been
entirely destroyed.

(d) Yacal-lauan type. — This type finds its best development in regions
v/here the dry season is short, on low coastal hills whose basal rock is
volcanic in structure. It occurs on headlands projecting into the sea,
especially those at the heads of embayments. These headlands usually
have drier soils, lower relative humidity, and less rainfall than the
region back of them. It also occurs on the hills bordering large river
valleys that have approximately the same physical conditions.

This type, in contrast to the two dipterocarp types above mentioned,
has a slight deciduous appearance during the driest portion of the year.
As it has a large number of codominant species, it more nearly resembles
the lauan-hagachac than the lauan type. Erect palms are scattered
throughout the forest, although they are not nearly so numerous as in
the previous mentioned dipterocarp type. Climbing palms and other
lianas are present, but are not especially abundant except in open

23

places. The type can be divided into two subtypes — the ridge subtype
which occurs on the tops and exposed slopes of the ridges, where yacal
is most abundant, and a subtype found on protected slopes of ravines
and along small streams. It is difficult to draw a sharp line between
these subtypes, inasmuch as they merge into each other, and from the
standpoint of the lumberman they are a unit. Hence they are treated
as one. The following is an illustration of the volume of a fair sample
of this type of forest in Mindanao.

Table 5. — Volume of trees J^O centimeters and over in diameter, in the Port
Banga region, Mindanao {average of 51.11 hectares).

Scientific name.

Common name.

Volume

per

hectare

(cubic

meters).

Stand per

acre

(board feet)

Dipterocarpaceae :

Hopea plagata

Pentacme contorta .
Parashorea plicata_.
Pipterocarpus sp. __.

Shorea guiso

Vatica sp.

Shorea squamata __.
Shorea furfuracea__.

Vatica sp

Hopea sp

Yacal

White lauan

Bagtican-lauan_

Apitong

Guijo

Kalunti-lauan

Mayapis-lauan _

Almon-lauan

Narig

Malayacal

50.37

26.02

12. 05
16.80
12.34

6.14
2.83

5,037

2,602

1,205
1,680
1,234

614
283

Total dipterocarpaceae

Sterculiacese:

Tarrietia javanica

Leguminosae:

Kingiodendron alternifolium .
All others

Lumbayao..
Batete

136. 01
21.35

7.29
124.35

13, 601

2,135

729
12,435

Total.

289.00

28,900

Other codominant species and the larger subdominant ones are as
follows: Malaikmo; antipolo (Artocarpus communis) ; ilang-ilang; liusin
(Parinarium griffithianum) ; Canarium spp. ; kamatog (Erythrophloeum
densiflorum) ; banawi (Gylostemon grandifolius) ; amuguis; malugay;
alupag (Euphoria cinerea) ; balacat (Zizyphus zonulatus) ; taluto (Pte-
rooymbium tinctorium) ; Calophyllum sp. ; Garcinia spp. ; Anisoptem sp.
and Hopea sp. (Dipterocarpacece) ; batitinan (Lagerstroemia piriformis) ;
sacat; Eugenia spp. ; Palaquium spp. ; lanete (Wrightia calycina) ; molave
(Vitex parviflora) ; sasalit (Vitex aherniana) ; bancal (Sarcocephalus cor-
datus) ; calamansanay (Nauclea sp.). This list gives some idea of the
complexity of the type.

Forests of the same type in Leyte and in various part of Luzon, espe-
cially the Provinces of Tayabas and Ambos Camarines, show so similar
a composition that they may fairly be classed under this type. The
actual area that this type occupies is not known at present, but it is not
large, as it occurs in narrow belts along the coast, and in many cases has
been cleared by caingin makers.

24

(e) Lauan-apitong type. — So far as altitude and topography are con-
cerned, this corresponds to the lauan type, but differs from it in having
a longer dry season, the effect of which is sufficient to justify its separa-
tion into a distinct type. During the dry season, this type shows a
decided deciduous element. Except in places of favorable soil condi-
tions, the forest cover is quite open, allowing the entrance of jungle
undergrowth, lianas, erect bamboos, and the like. The composition of
the dominant species is more complex than the lauan type, and resem-
bles markedly in this respect the lauan-hagachac and yacal-lauan types.
Here also the dipterocarps furnish the greatest bulk of timber. Man}
of the species found in the previous mentioned types are here not
present, although all the species occurring in the lauan-apitong type
are also found in the other dipterocarp types. This indicates that the
distinction is a climatic one. While the dipterocarps show a decidedly
less leaf surface during the dry season, only one of them, palosapis
(Anisoptera thurifera), is wholly deciduous, but only for a day or two.
This is true of a great majority of the trees belonging to other families,
which contain only a few that become bare, even for a short time.
On the clearing edge of this forest, there are good stands of almost
pure erect bamboo; these extend into the virgin forests where the dip-
terocarps are mixed with cupang (Parkia timoriana) and other species.
The bamboo undergrowth in such places, with the rather scattered
trees, gives the forest the appearance of a park.

A typical stand of this forest is as follows:

Table 6. — Volume of trees JfO centimeters and over in diameter in Bataan
Province, Luzon ( average of 50 hectares ) .

Scientific name.

Common name.

Volume

per
hectare
(cubic
meters).

Stand per
acre
(board
feet).

Dipterocarpacese :

Dipterocarpus grandiflorus

Apitong

Panao

} 81.6

66.5
28
16
4.1

8,160

6,650

2,800

1,600

410

Pentacme contorta

White lauan

Anisoptera thurifera

Palosapis

Shorea polysperma

Tanguile

Guijo

Total Dipterocarpacese

196.2
89

19, 620
8,900

Total

285.2

28, 520

Under "all others" are included the following species codominant
with, or prominently subdominent to, the dipterocarps: Malaikmo;
antipolo; tangisang-bayawak (Ficus variegata) ; tamayuan (Strombosia
philippinensis) ; Xylopia dehiscens; dalinas (Cyathocalyx globobus) ; du-
guan (Myristica philippensis) ; lago (Pygeum glandulosum) ; liusin;
acle; tanglin (Adenanthera intermedia); cupang; tindalo (Pahudia

25

rhomboidea) ; pili and pagsahingin (Canariwm spp.) ; kamingi (Santiria
nitida) ; Dysoxylum spp. ; malakamingi (Reinwardtiodendron mer-
rillii) ; Amoora spp.; Aglaia spp.; tuai (Bischofia javanica) ; hamindang
(Macaranga bicolor) ; binunga (Macaranga tanarius) ; gubas (Endos-
permum peltatum) ; pahutan (Mangifera altissima) ; lamio (Dracon-
tomelum cumingianum) ; dao; amuguis; alupag; balacat; taluto; bitanhol
(Calophyllum blancoi) ; mangachapuy (Hopea acuminata) ; biluang;
banaba (Lagerstroemia speciosa) ; sacat, calumpit, and binggas (Termtn-
alia spp.) ; nato (Palaquium luzoniense) ; manicnic (Palaquium tenui-
petiolatum) ; bolongeta (Diospyros pilosanthera) ; dita (Alstonia
scholaris).

(f) Tanguile-oah type. — The forests of this type cover the area
extending from the upper limits of the lauan and lanan-apitong types
to the lower limits of the mossy-forest type in the higher portion of
the mountains. These forests have not been studied in great detail,
and more extended investigations are necessary to determine whether
more than one type exists or not. When such studies have been made
in many parts of the Islands, it may be found that there are a number
of distinct types instead of the one here considered. In the mean-
time, the provisional name of tanguile-oak type has been adopted.
Its lower limits are from 400 to 500 meters above sea level, and it
extends upward to a height of between 800 and 900 meters. The topog-
raphy is such as is usually found on mountain sides, gentle to steep
ridges and slopes alternating with deep ravines and gorges. The ever-
green character of the forests and actual measurements show that rainfall
is more evenly distributed throughout the year, and the relative humidity
is constantly higher than in the adjacent forests of the lower altitudes.

As its name implies, the principal species represented in this type are
tanguile and oak; of these, the former also occurs frequently in diptero-
carp types of the lower altitudes. It is found nearer sea level in regions
where the dry season is short than in those where the dry season is
longer, but in both its numbers increase with the altitude until the
mossy-forest type is reached. In the higher portions of the tanguile-oak
type, it is the only dipterocarp of numerical importance. In the lower
limits of the type occur, of course, scattered specimens of the dipterocarps
of the bordering types below. This is especially true of the lauans and
the apitongs, although the latter are not nearly so abundant as the former.
Some species that usually are found along streams in the types of lower
altitudes occur in deeper soils of the tanguile-oak type away from the
streams. Thus, tuai, catmon, and pahutan {Mangifera altissima) are
among those so distributed. Certain species of oak, which occur as
scattered trees in the lower types, here become much more abundant, and
in some places give a decided tone to the vegetation. Among other
species that are numerically prominent in this type are mangachapuy

26

(Hopea acuminata), almaeiga (Agathis alba), kalingag (Cinnamomum
mercadoi), and other species of the laurel family, malabayabas (Tristania
decorticata) , Gordonia luzonica, and many species of Eugenia. Many of
the species occurring in this type also occur much dwarfed in the mossy
forests higher up. Indeed, the type is the meeting ground of a number
/of the species which are found in the types both above and below. So
;far as is known, there are no species of trees that reach large size that
/ are peculiar to this zone, with the exception, perhaps, of certain species
of oaks. A number of species, however, reach more successful develop-
ment, both as regards numbers and size, than in the other types in which
they are found. Open places occur in this as in other types, giving rise
to many subtypes. The undergrowth trees are numerous, but the compo-
sition is not so complex as the types below. The closed portions of
the type are comparatively free from large lianas other than rattans, so
that the only difficulty in penetrating the forest in any direction is
encountered in the tangled growth of the open places.

In high plateau regions, between 500 and 800 meters of altitude, this
type attains heavy stands, but usually the topography is so rough that
tall forests, covering large areas without a break, are wanting. Large
epiphytic plants, like birds'-nest ferns, are more abundant here than
lower down. In the upper limits, the trees gradually become more
dwarfed, and the trunks are covered with mosses and liverworts, until the
type gradually merges into the mossy forests above.

B. — MOLAVE TYPE.

Throughout this type, molave (Vitex parviflora) is fairly well dis-
tributed. The type occupies a topography similar to that on which the
yacal-lauan type is found, except that in a great majority of cases the
underlying rock is usually limestone rather than volcanic in nature.
The low limestone hills, either coastal or bordering large uplifted river
valleys, are usually composed of crystalline coral limestone with a honey-
combed structure. These rocks are generally covered by shallow or very
scanty soil, and this, together with their honeycombed nature, makes the
habitat a very dry one. It is roughly estimated that the area covered by
this type comprises some 4,000 square miles (1,036,000 hectares). The
trees are the most valuable in the Philippines, and are easily accessible
for exploitation. This has brought about the more or less complete
destruction of the original forest, and so it is very difficult to analyze
the true nature of the vegetation. From the study of virgin and nearly
virgin areas, however, the following characteristics seem to be most
general. The forest is open. Its large trees are few and far apart, with
the intervening spaces filled with small trees, or by a jungle growth
usually of sprawling, climbing, or small erect bamboos. With a few
exceptions, the dominant trees are short boled, irregular to very irregular
in form, and with wide-spreading crowns. The forest has a decidedly

27

deciduous foliage, almost entirely so on rough topography in regions
where the dry season is pronounced. The composition of the type varies
in different parts of the Islands.

In some expressions of the type, the following dominant trees are
present: molave, dungon (Tarrietia sylvatica), tindalo, supa (Sindora
supa), batete, ipil (Intsia bijuga), acle (Albizzia acle), banuyo (Walla-
ceodendron celebicum), balacat, alupag, bansalaguin (Mimusops sp.),
calantas (Toona calantas), lanete (Wrightia laniti), mancono (Xan-
thostemon verdugonianus) , batitinan (Lagerstroemia piriformis), spiny
narra (Pterocarpus echinatus), narra, taluto, tucang-calao (Aglaia
clarhii), and liusin. Of the smaller species, the following may occur:
ebony (Maba biixifolia), camagon (Diospyros discolor), kuyus-kuyus
(Taxotrophis ilicifolia), cana- fistula (Cassia javanica), bayok (Pteros-
permum spp.), and tulu-tulu (Mallotus floribundus) . It must not be
supposed, however, that all these species occur in any one locality.
Indeed, the reverse is the case. Mancono, for instance, in merchantable
quantities, is restricted to northeastern Mindanao and adjacent islands.
Supa, likewise, is found in Tayabas and Ambos Camarines; narra,
calantas, and acle are usually scattered along the hill streams. Distinct
forms of the type are sometimes present on dry hills of hard volcanic
rock — hills too dry to support any forest but members of this type. Often,
such species as molave, batete, ebony, liusin, batitinan, and others, are
found scattered throughout the open places of the yacal-lauan type.
This is especially true of batete. Even in some limestone regions, the
slopes of valleys often contain clearly defined expressions of the dip-
terocarp types, and in the very humid atmosphere of the Davao Gulf,
the Island of Samal (mainly of a crystalline coral limestone formation)
contains a dipterocarp forest of guijo, white lauan, bagtican-lauan,
and other species that causes it more nearly to approach a dipterocarp
type than any other, with trees of the molave type scattered among
the thinner portions of the forest. North of this is a small coral island
which contains an almost pure stand of ipil. Indeed, so far as observa-
tions go, with the single exception of supa, all the trees mentioned
above are found growing scattered in the various types of dipterocarps,
and occupy positions either along the streams or in drier portions. Some
of them reach better individual development in such situations than
when growing on limestone hills. It will thus be seen that many of
these species occupy limestone soils, not because they prefer them
to any other, but because they are shaded out of the moister soils by
the more successful development of the shade-enduring dipterocarps.
The dipterocarps, on the other hand, have soil-moisture requirements that
will not permit them to exist in the drier soils of the limestone regions.
In a word, the limestone habitat is one that contains a mixture of
certain species of the various types of dipterocarp forest.

As one would suppose, the volume of the molave type is much lower

28

than that of any of the dipterocarp types. This is due both to the
thin stand and to the short boles of the trees. It is estimated that
the type will average not more than 30 cubic meters per hectare of timber
of merchantable size (3,000 board feet to the acre). However, the type
is a valuable one, because it contains hard, durable timbers, many of
which are very valuable cabinet and furniture woods.

C. MANGROVE TYPE.

The mangrove type is in many respects the most peculiar one in
existence. It is literally a forest of the sea. Where conditions are
favorable, it occupies the beach washed by the tides. It is especially
well developed on the mud flats at the mouths of rivers entering the
sea at the heads of protected bays. Wherever wave action allows a
fairly stable shore line, trees of the type are present. They occur on
the quieter portions of the coral reefs, and are thinly scattered on many
wave-made terraces that are exposed at low tide. A majority of the
stand is composed of the members of one family, the Ehizophoraceae,
or bacauan family, comprising the following principal species: Bacauan
(Rhizophora mucronata) , bacauan-lalaki (Rhizophora conjugata), bu-
sain (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) , pototan (Bruguiera eriopetala), pototan-
lalaki (Bruguiera caryophylloidcs) , langarai (Bruguiera parviflora), and
tangal (Ceriops tagal). The following principal species of other familes
are pagatpat (Sonneratia pagatpat), pedada (Sonneratia sp.), api-api
(Avicennia officinalis), tabao (Lumnitzera littorea), tabigi (Xylocarpus
obovatus), piagao (Xylocarpus granatum), Excoecaria agallocha, and
dungon-late (Heritiera littoralis).

On the muddy flats at the mouths of large rivers in protected bays,
the pioneer plant is bacauan. Back of this come the bacauans mixed
with pototan and other species of Bruguiera, and then, usually covering
large areas, is langarai, mixed in varying proportions with bacauan,
pototan, busain, tangal, and pedada. In more open bays, where the soil
is mixed with considerable sand or coral limestone, occurs a distinct
frontal zone of pagatpat, with more or less api-api. Wave-cut coral
terraces often contain nearly pure stands of pagatpat. The inner margins
of the swamps usually have scattered specimens of dungon-late, tangal,
piagao, tabigi, and tabao. In many instances, a distinct zone of the
nipa palm (Nipa fruticans) is present near the upper limits of this
type. This palm also forms thickets along the streams where the water
is less brackish. Where the type is less distinct, all sorts of mixtures of
the above species are present.

The capacity of this type to produce firewood and timber varies accord-
ing to the degree in which it has been exploited. In thickly populated
districts, the forest has been reduced to such an extent as to render it
valueless for anything except firewood. Virgin areas show surprisingly

29

large stands of poles and trees, some of which are sufficiently large to
produce lumber. In Mindanao, valuation surveys made on a very good
stand show 149 trees per hectare of more than 25 centimeters in diameter,
yielding 130 cubic meters of timber per hectare, or 13,000 board feet
per acre. Pagatpat has been measured with a height of 31 meters, a
diameter, breast-high, of 137 centimeters, and a merchantable length
of 17.5 meters; bacauan, a height of 28 meters, a diameter above the
stilt roots of 70 centimeters, and a merchantable length of 16.5 meters;
pototan, a height of 28.8 meters, a diameter, breast-high, of 80 centi-
meters, and a merchantable length of 18.3 meters. It is estimated that
the swamps of the Islands will show an average volume of 20 cubic meters
per hectare of trees over 20 centimeters in diameter, and if, as is usually
the case, the branches and large twigs are used, this amount will be
exceeded.

The forest itself has rather an even top profile. The canopy is fairly
well closed, and the forest is practically clear of undergrowth, except at
its inner edge. The presence of a complex system of stilt roots, as high
as 3 meters and wide spreading, of the two species of Rhizophora presents
a tangle through which one can make his way with difficulty. A number
of the species, such as pagatpat and api-api, show characteristic aerial
roots. The leaves of all are hard and leathery in texture. The seeds
of the Khizophoracese begin to germinate on the trees, finally drop, and
are distributed by the tides until they find a favorable lodging place,
where they continue their development.

D. — BEACH TYPE.

Sandy beaches above high-tide limits are found throughout the Phil-
ippines. They are favorite places for settlements and so the original
vegetation has been greatly modified. In those places where it has kept
its original form, it presents a distinct type. Usually the frontal zone
has a tangle of vegetation in which pandans (species of Pandanus) form
a conspicuous part. The principal trees are as follows: Talisay (Termi-
nalia catappa), dapdap, (Erythrina indica), botong (Barringtonia
speciosa), malubago (Hibiscus tiliaceus), bani (Pongamia glabra), banalo
(Thespesia populnea) , dungon-late, palo maria (Calophyllum inophy-
llum), agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia) , tawalis (Osbornia octodonta),
and bantigi (Pemphis acidula). In some places ipil, narra, bansalaguin,
and other valuable trees are encountered. Talisay often occurs in patches
of pure stands in rich river bottoms. On sandy flood plains of large
rivers, in various parts of the Islands, agoho often forms small pure
forests.

Behind the frontal line, the vegetation partakes more of the nature
of other types. Series of old beaches sometimes cover quite extensive
areas, on which the lauan-hagachac type usually is found. This type is

30

especially well developed on old beaches where the dry season is wanting.
In the Dayao Gulf, for instance, are encountered heavy stands of very
large trees of hagachac, guijo, and bagtican lauan that will scale as high
as 100,000 board feet to the acre. It must be remembered that in such
places the ground water level is not far below the surface, and the atmos-
pheric moisture conditions are constantly humid. The humus accumu-
lations of previous generations of vegetation enriches the well-drained
soil. Altogether, these conditions make the habitat an exceedingly
favorable one.

E. — PINE TYPE.

This type reaches its best development in the high plateau region of
northern and central Luzon. The greater part of it, although at an
altitude ranging from 900 to 1,500 meters, is in a region with a distinct
dry season. The rain-bearing winds of the dry season deposit most of
their moisture before they reach this rough plateau region. The pines are
scattered as single individuals, or in open to nearly closed patches
throughout a large grass area. In many ravines and along water courses
are stands of broad-leaved trees. There is much evidence to show that
formerly this area was covered with forest growth consisting principally
of broad-leaved trees, and although pines were undoubtedly present, they
were of little relative importance, being confined to the steeper and drier
situations where the broad-leaved trees could not grow. Through the
activities of man, however, in the centuries of occupation, the broad-leaved
trees have been cleared off, and repeated fires have prevented their repro-
duction. The pine, however, is less sensitive to fires, and consequently
at present there are broad areas of grass lands with many groves of pines.
There is little doubt that if fires were kept off, the pine, in the absence of
broad-leaved competition, would quickly seed up the entire area, for its
reproduction is abundant and rapid; and gradually the pines themselves
would be replaced by the original broad-leaved vegetation. This struggle
between the pines and the broad-leaved trees is often shown in caingins
bordering situations where both types occur. The pines, because of their
numerous winged seeds, will make their appearance first; the other
vegetation comes more slowly, but will gradually prevent the starting of
a new generation of the light-demanding pines. This last movement of
vegetation is a much slower one. Not only are the pines found in regions
where the dry season is pronounced, but at higher altitudes in the mossy-
forest belt, where the humidity is greater and more evenly* distributed
throughout the year. Thus, pines occur in abandoned caingins at an
altitude above 1,500 meters, and even as high as 2,500 meters. Here they
alternate with patches of grass or mossy forest. The rainfall of this
region, as in many other portions of the Islands, is exceedingly heavy
from June to October. Especially in the deforested regions, landslides
occur frequently on the mountain slopes, making the natural reforesta-

31

tion of such places difficult. In the more level places, where fire lines
have been established, grass patches become quickly covered with pine
seedlings.

Benguet pine (Pinus insularis) is the only species in the highlands
of central and northern Luzon. In some places, scattered pines are found
in the grass lands, as low as 500 meters altitude, bordering on the upper
limits of the lauan-apitong type. Pines are also found in Zambales and
Mindoro. In Zambales, two species occur: Pinus insularis and Pinus
merkusii. Their altitudinal range is usually from 500 to 1,500 meters,
I although scattered trees of Pinus merkusii are found at as low an alti-
tude as 60 meters. In Mindoro, Pinus merkusii occurs in pure stands
and in open groves scattered throughout the grass lands, southwest of
a high mountain mass. It is found as low as 60 meters above sea level
in one situation, although usually it is not found below 900 meters.

Measured groves of Benguet pine show a volume of 74 cubic meters
per hectare (7,400 board feet per acre) of trees 25 centimeters and over
in diameter. The trees will reach a height of 40 meters and a diameter
of from 90 to 100 centimeters.

F. — THE MOSSY-FOREST TYPE.

Some 3,200 square miles (828,800 hectares), or 8 per cent of the land
area of the Philippines, is the estimated amount of the high and very
rough mountain region covered by virgin forests. They are essentially
protective forests. Many such mountainous regions have already been
cleared of their forests by caingin makers and are now covered with
grass. These regions show such a complex set of conditions, both as
regards habitat and vegetation that as yet our knowledge is too incomplete
to carefully distinguish the types. Perhaps, in a broad sense only, one
type exists, with certain variations or subtypes. Because of the presence
of moss and liverworts in great abundance, it has been designated as
the mossy-forest type.

The topography is rough and constantly changing. It consists of
steep main ridges, rising to exposed peaks, and whose sides are in turn
cut into smaller ridges by the deep canons. Land slips are frequent,
and these in all stages of being reclothed with vegetation add to the
difficulty of analysis. The soil is shallow or nearly absent. Kock ex-
posures occur, often covering large areas ; but except on very steep slopes
or on fresh slides they are covered with vegetation. Some mountains
have more rounded dome-shaped tops, and on these the topography is
much more stable.

As a rule, the climatic conditions are exceedingly moist, both as regards
rainfall and relative humidity. Opposed to this favorable climate is the
very great exposure to winds. The former is the cause of the mossy
condition ; the latter, of the dwarfed habit of the trees. The temperature
conditions are much lower than those of the coastal region.

32

The tree vegetation is complex, yet not so much so as the forests lower
down. Especially on the highest mountains, owing to these very un-
stable conditions, or where volcanic action has not been long extinct, trees
are absent or nearly so. On mountains above 1,200 meters, the mossy
forest appears at its best. Dacrydium and Podocarpus spp., Eugenia
spp., Tristania decorticata, Leptospermum amboinense, Decaspermum spp.,
Quercus spp., Myrica spp., Englehardtia spicata, Acr onychia laurifolia,
Symplocos sp., Ternstroemia toquian, are some of the principal trees,
only a few of which are found lower down. All of these trees are
usually dwarfed in appearance, seldom reaching a height of more than
20 meters, and usually not over 5 meters. The trunks and branches are
generally covered with mosses, liverworts, filmy ferns, and epiphytic
orchids. The open places are usually occupied with ferns, and sometimes
with grass. Tree ferns occur on the slopes within the forests, and on
some steep slopes give a decided character to the vegetation. Battans
and other climbers, especially Pandanaceae, are common, as are also small
erect palms. Few mountains in the Philippine Islands attain a height
of more than 2,000 meters. In general, the vegetation at such altitudes
is much more dwarfed ; in some cases, good-sized trees are found, even at
high elevations ; on others, no tree vegetation occurs at all.

G. SUMMARY.

The following is a tabular summary of the types of vegetation found
in the Philippines. [See pp. 34, 35.]

WOOD USES,

It is estimated that the Philippines contain more than 2,500 tree
species, of which probably 300 find their way into the Manila and pro-
vincial markets in the form of timber. Of this number, less than 100 are
commonly encountered.

1. Dipterocarps.

As stated previously, the dipterocarp family furnishes the main bulk
of standing timber. These woods can be roughly divided into three
groups, viz, the lauans, the apitongs, and the yacals.

LAUANS.

Among the lauan group are white lauan, kalunti-lauan, almon-lauan,
bagtican-lauan, malaanonang-lauan, mangasinoro-lauan, tiaong-lauan, ma-
yapis-lauan, red lauan, and tanguile. Many shades of brown and red
are comprised in the different species. White lauan and mangasinoro-
lauan are of a light creamy brown color; bagtican-lauan and almon-
lauan show shades of pink, which becomes a clear red in the case of
mayapis-lauan, tiaong-lauan, and some grades of tanguile, and even a
dark red color in the case of red lauan. In hardness they grade from
soft to moderately hard in the approximate order outlined above. Their
weight is light to moderately heavy. They are all coarse but straight-

"1

o

5

H
H
X
W

I

5 s
> <

Plate IX.-

-INTERIOR VIEW OP YACAL-LAUAN FOREST AFTER BEING
PARTIALLY LOGGED. » •

Black yacal in the center.

Plate XL— GENERAL VIEW OF LAUAN-APITONG FOREST.
Original forest in the background : cut-over forest in the foreground.

>%kw*- ,^ Xgk

j*?4. | • .11

'*tN%^^ r *^

jH^H#; !*

Plate XII. — INTERIOR VIEW OF LAUAN-APITONG FOREST.
Apitong ridge.

Plate XIII. — VIEW IN LAUAN-APITONG FOREST.
Tree of panao showing form of bole and crown.

w
tf
o
fa

w
<
o

fa

3
o

<:

H

fa
O

o

s

fa

33

grained, free from knots, easily worked, and in general mechanical prop-
erties are not greatly dissimilar to the pines. When quarter-sawn or
slash-sawn with a figure, they show a beautiful grain. The lauans, with-
out exception, come from tall trees, 100 to 150 or more feet in height, 6 ,
feet or less in diameter, and with straight, regular trunk up to 100 feet i
to the first limb.

The lauans are readily attacked by fungi .and white ants, but not more
so than is Oregon pine, their chief competitor. They can be divided,
into three groups, the white lauans, the red lauans and tanguile, which
are the usual trade names.

Locally, they are used for a great variety of purposes. They are
especially adapted for light and medium construction work, in which they
will find their greatest usefulness. In this respect they are to the
Tropics what the lighter grades of pines and their allies are to the
temperate regions. Nevertheless, for many classes of construction, be-
cause of their color and beautiful grain, they are superior to the pines.
This is especially true for interior finish of all classes. The better grades
of lauan and tanguile are now being shipped to the United States under
the trade name of "Philippine mahogany."

APITONGS.

The trees that furnish timbers of this group are apitong, hagachac,
panao, and guijo. They grade in color from a dirty brownish red to red.
In. hardness they are moderately hard to hard ; in weight they are moder-
ately heavy. The first three appear in the market under the trade name
of apitong, the last as guijo. The former are coarse but generally ,
straight-grained ; the latter has a somewhat finer grain.

They are used for many purposes, but are especially adapted for heavier
construction where contact with the ground is not necessary. Gruijo is
considered more valuable than apitong. They are not durable timbers,
being susceptible to the attacks of white ants and fungi. Of the two,
guijo is somewhat the more resistant. The apitongs have general con-
struction qualities comparable to the hard pines of the temperate regions.
In abundance, they are next in importance to the lauans.

YACALS.

The trees that produce timber of this group are yacal, guisoc, guisoc-
guisoc, malayacal, narig, karig, mangachapuy, and dalingdingan-isac.
The woods as a whole are yellowish brown, becoming darker with old age.
They are all considered very durable timbers. This is especially true of
yacal, guisoc, and malayacal, which invariably appear under the market
name of yacal. Narig is often mixed with and sold as yacal. Manga-
chapuy and dalingdingan-isak are sold as mangachapuy. 1

1 Other trees, closely related botanically to these, yielding woods somewhat
softer and less durable, are also found under the name of mangachapuy.

103553 3

34

Table 7. — Comparative characteristics
CHARACTER OP

Types.

Lauan.

Lauan-hagachac.

Yacal-lauan.

Lauan-apitong.

Rainfall.

Relative humid-
ity.

Altitudinal
range.

Soil and under-
lying rock.

Topography .

Fairly well dis-
tributed
throughout
year; short or
no dry season.

High and fairly
well distribut-
ed throughout
the year.

From near sea
level to 300 or
400 meters.

Medium shallow
to fairly deep;
rock volcanic;
moist; some-
times fairly
dry.

Slight to steep
slopes.

Fairly well dis-
t ributed
throu ghou t
year; short or
no dry season.

Medium during
short dry sea-
son; high dur-
ing rainy sea-
son.

Near sea level

Usually alluvial;
deep; alter-
nating] y very
moist and quite
dry; under-

f ground water
evel near sur-
face.

Level or nearly
level.

Fairly well dis-
tributed
thr ough out
year; short or
no dry season.

Fairly low for
short dry sea-
son; high dur-
ing rainy sea-
son.

Near 6

i level .

Shallow and fair-
ly dry or very
dry; volcanic
rock.

Slight to steep
slopes.

Pronounced dry
season.

Fairly low
throughout
long dry sea-
son.

From near sea
level to 300 or
400 meters.

Shallow to fair-
ly deep; part of
year very dry;
volcanic rock.

Slight to steep

CHARACTER OP

Merchantable
timber per hec-
tare.

Composition of
dominant spe-
cies.

Canopy of domi-
nant species.

Profile of forest

Erect palms

Erect bamboo

Large lianas.. ,

Com
smal

rtoeition of
il trees.

60 to 450 cubic
meters.

Nearl y pu re
stands of dip-
tero carps to
complex.

Closed or nearly
closed; ever-
green.

Fairly regular to
regular.

Abundant ...

None or very few.
Not abundant — ..

Very complex

25 to 200 cubic
meters.

Complex

Open to closed;
nearly ever-
green.

Very irregular...
Abundant

None or very few.
Abundant

Very complex

60 to 800 cubic
meters.

Complex .

Medium open:
slightly decid-
uous.

Irregular

Fairly abundant..

None or very few.
Fairly abundant..

Very complex

50 to 300 cubic
meters.

Complex

Medium open;
decidedly de-
ciduous.

Irregular

Almost absent

Usually abun-
dant.

Fairly abundant .
Very complex

of the different forest types.

THE HABITAT.

35

Tanguile-oak.

Molave.

Pine.

Mangrove.

Beach.

Mossy forest.

Fairly well
distributed
throughout
the year;
short or no
dry season.

High to very
high, ex-
cept in dry
season.

From 400 to
900 meters.

Very shallow
to fairly
deep; some-
times fairly
dry: vol-
canic rock.

Usually
rough ;
some gentle

slopes.

Fairly well
distributed
throughout
the year to
adistinct
dry season.

Fairly low
during dry
8 e a s o n ;
high dur-
ing rainy
season.

Usually near
sea level to
150 meters.

Usually on
limestone
rock; shal-
low soil;
dry.

Usually
steep slopes;
some gen-
tle.

Usual 1 y a
distinct dry
season.

Low to high„_

Usual 1 y
above 900
meters.

On shallow
soil above
limestone,
or in deep
soils not
lintestone;
dry to moist

Steep slope
to level
ground.

Long, short, or
no dry sea-
son.

Fairly high,
or low dur-
ing dry sea-
son.

Between low
and high
tide.

U s u a 1 1 y
a muddy,
deep, delta
soil; also
coral lime-
stone and
sandy soil;
wet.

Gently shelv-
ing.

Long, short, or
no dry sea-
son.

Usually low
during dry
season.

Near sea level.

Sandy or peb-
bly soil; very
dry during
dry season.

Gently shelv-
ing.

Usually well
distributed
throughout
the year.

Daily range
great, but
high at
night.

Above 900 me-
ters.

Rock expo-
sure near
surface; soil
shall ow;
v olcanic
rock.

Very rough.

THE VEGETATION.

20 to 150 cu-
bic meters.

Medium
complex.

Open to
closed;
evergreen.

Very irregu-
lar.

Fairly abun-
dant but
small.

None

50 cubic me-
ters an d
under.

Fairly com-
plex.

Open; decid-
edly decid-
uous.

Very irregu-
lar.

None

100 cubic me-
ters and un-
der.

1 or 2 species
of pines.

Open; ev er-
green.

Regular to
irregular.

None

130* cubic me-
ters and un-
der.

About 10 spe-
cies.

Open to
closed;
evergreen.

Fairly regu-
lar.

Almost stem-
less nipa
palm.

None ...

do

Very few

Under 25 cu-
bic meters.

Simple

Open; decid-
edly decid-
uous.

Irregular

Very few

Very few, if
any.

Very few

Complex

No estimate.

Simple to me-
dium com-
plex.

Open to
c lo s e d ;
evergreen.

Irregular.

Many small
ones.

Practically
none.

Fairly abun-
dant.

Complex.

Abundant or
none.

Abundant
climbing
bamboo.

Complex

do

do

Very few

Fairly abun-
dant.

Complex

36

The yacals are usually hard and heavy. They are as free from the
attacks of white ants and fungi as any so-called durable wood used for
construction purpose. Yacal is a general all-round construction timber
where contact with the ground is necessary, and because of this is much
sought for railroad ties, paving blocks, and house posts. It is also used
as bridge timber, in various parts of ships, and for construction of houses.
It is estimated that there is more standing timber of the yacals in the
Islands than all the other so-called standard durable timbers put together.

2. Substitutes for Mahogany.

The term "mahogany" is here used in its broadest sense. The true
mahogany, the product of Swietenia mdhagoni, does not occur in the
Philippines. However, the narra family contains a group of woods
of more or less brilliant color and beautiful grain which are capable
of taking a high polish, and which can not be excelled as substitutes for
mahogany. These are narra, tindalo, ipil, acle, and banuyo. Narra
varies in color from a light yellow to a brilliant red. It is moderately
heavy, moderately hard to hard, has a rather coarse more or less twisted
grain, and is very durable. It is practically the same as the padouk
\>i India, and is sometimes sold as Philippine mahogany. It is used
principally for fine furniture, interior finish, doors, flooring, and windows.
Large one-piece table tops come from the buttressed roots. Tindalo
has a saffron red color, which becomes darker with age. It has a fine,
more or less straight grain, and is heavy, hard, and durable. It is
used in fine furniture and cabinetmaking, and is one of the best timbers
for hardwood floors, stairways, and interior finishings, where beautiful
expensive woods are required. Ipil, while used principally in the Phil-
ippines for construction work in contact with the ground, is nevertheless
a wood of the mahogany grade. It is very durable, heavy, and very
hard, has a fine, sometimes twisted, grain, and is one of the most satis-
factory woods for fine furniture and cabinetmaking. Banuyo is moder-
ately heavy and moderately hard, is golden brown in color, with a fine
grain. It is used for fine furniture, cabinetmaking, carriage bodies,
and carving. While none of the above are found in very large quan-
tities, there is a sufficient supply to meet a small steady demand. All
could probably be worked into veneers.

Besides the above, there are a number of other woods that are good
substitutes for mahogany. Palo maria, sometimes called Borneo mahog-
any, is a hard and moderately heavy, reddish brown wood, with a fine
twisted grain, that is capable of taking a good polish. Calantas is the
only one of the true mahogany family that is sometimes sold under
the name of Philippine mahogany. It is light and soft, reddish in
color, and has a distinct odor resembling that of cedar. It i« closely
related to the West Indian cedar, and while making admirable furni-

37

ture, piano cases, etc., it is much sought after for cigar boxes. It,
however, like the other fine woods, is not plentiful.

Because of their abundance, and therefore their ability to supply
the demands for a steady product, the finer grades of red lauan and
tanguile will no doubt be known to the outside world as Philippine
mahogany. These woods have a beautiful grain and color, and are
susceptible of a good polish. They have already found a place in the
United States as a substitute for mahogany. Such a market can be
steadily supplied with large quantities of these woods.

3. Durable Timbers.

Next to fine furniture and cabinetmaking woods, the Tropics are
noted for their hard durable timbers. Because of the warm climate
and continuous moisture conditions, fungous growths and white ants
rapidly destroy those timbers that are not able to withstand their attacks.
No timber is able to do so indefinitely, but some are much more durable
than others. Teak is perhaps the best known of this class of woods.
This timber, while not indigenous to the Philippines, occurs in plan-
tations in Mindanao and the Sulu Islands, and it has been demonstrated
that the tree can be grown here successfully. It will no doubt become
one of the planted tree crops of the Philippines, and the Islands will
thus be enabled to furnish their share of the world's supply of this timber.

Because of their excellent qualities and comparative abundance, three
Philippine timbers may be classed with teak, or at least may be regarded
as substitutes for it. These are molave, ipil, and yacal.

Molave is perhaps the best known hardwood in the Philippines, and
more of it is extracted than of any other one kind of wood in proportion
to the amount of standing timber. It is a member of the teak family.
The wood is hard and heavy, pale yellow in color, and has a fine but
usually twisted grain. It is especially valuable for house posts, hard-
wood floors, window sills, railway ties, bridge timbers, paving blocks,
salt-water piling, carvings, and many parts of shipbuilding. Trees of
molave occur scattered usually on the limestone coastal hills through-
out the Philippines. They generally have short, irregular boles, and
this renders the timber less valuable than it would otherwise be. It
is in such demand locally that little is now exported.

Attention has already been called to ipil as a valuable wood of the
mahogany grade. Nevertheless, the demand for hard durable timbers
is so great that it is usually considered as one of the best construction
timbers, exposed to soil and weather. Like molave, its principal uses
are for house posts, hardwood flooring, railway ties, paving blocks, and
telegraph poles.

Yacal has also been discussed elsewhere. Because of its abundance,
it is probably the only one of the hard durable timbers that will find

38

much of a place in the markets outside of the Philippines. Prominence
is given to the above-mentioned woods, not because they are the only
hard durable timbers the Islands contain, but for the reason that they 1
are the only ones in anything like sufficient quantity to supply the
demands of the trade. Other principal timbers that resist well the
attacks of fungi and white ants are narra, tindalo, acle, banuyo, calantas,
palo maria, mancono, dungon, aranga, banaba, anubing, bansalaguin,
batitinan, betis, the macaasims, pagatpat, supa, and agoho.

4. Salt-water Piling.

There is a strong demand for woods that will resist even fairly well
the attacks of the shipworm (teredo), and few species are able to
meet the necessary requirements. The woods most commonly sought
for such purposes are molave, dungon, aranga, betis, liusin, and piagao.

Molave is one of the best woods for this purpose. The chief ob-
jection to it, however, is its irregular form, and the fact that it is
difficult to find piles of sufficient length to meet the demands. Dungon
has long been considered- a valuable pile for salt water. The wood is
very hard and heavy, tough, chocolate-brown in color, fine and cross
grained, and difficult to saw. Besides piling, it is used for a large num-
ber of purposes, the principal ones being various kinds of naval construc-
tion, railway ties, and paving blocks. The amount that can be obtained
in very limited. Aranga, formerly more plentiful but now very scarce,
has long had the reputation of being one of the best woods for salt-water
piling. It is very hard and heavy, ranging in color from yellow to
chocolate brown. Betis, like the others, is a very hard and heavy wood,
dark reddish brown in color. Liusin is one of the woods which has
only recently come into use for this purpose. It is very hard and
heavy, and pale red to red in color. Liusin piles, placed beside dungon,
seem to last better than the latter. The part above water is more
readily subject to fungous attacks. Piagao is said to resist the teredo
well, but there is as yet no direct evidence to confirm this statement.
None of the above woods are plentiful, especially in sizes suitable for
piling.

5. Shipbuilding.

Teak, of course, is the standard shipbuilding wood. In the Phil-
ippines, the following are considered adapted to this purpose: Molave,
dungon, yacal, mangachapuy, betis, ipil, guijo, narra, batitinan, palo
maria, banaba, aranga, liusin. The following seem to be those in most
common use for the different parts of the ship : Keels — Dungon, ipil,
aranga, banaba, bansalaguin, betis, guijo, liusin, molave, narra, palo
maria, yacal. Kibs — Molave, dungon, apitong, malugay. Sides — Yacal,
guijo, banaba, apitong, batitinan, mangachapuy. Eudders — Molave,
yacal, dungon, guijo. Spokes and handles of ships' wheels — Bansala-
guin. Keelson — Batitinan. Masts — Palo maria, guijo, mangachapuy,

39

and lauan. Decks — Mangachapuy, batitinan, palo maria. Eails — Ya-
cal, guijo. Booms — Guijo, palo maria, mangachapuy.

6. A Substitute for Lignum- Vit^.

True lignum- vitae does not occur in the Philippines. Mancono has
been tried, and seems likely to find a place as one of the lignum-vitaes
in the world's markets. 1

7. Bridges.

The following woods are most commonly sought for bridge building:
Ipil, yacal, guijo, dungon, macaasim, and apitong.

8. Eailroad Ties and Mining Timbers.

The railroads are accepting the following woods for ties : Ipil, molave,
yacal, tindalo, betis, acle, anubing. To these can be added narig,
mangachapuy, sasalit, banaba, malaruhat, macaasim, palo maria, batete,
supa, and perhaps guijo and pagatpat. If creosoted, it is believed that
the apitongs and the lauans would make very desirable ties.

The above woods could also be used as mining timbers. The scarcity
of durable woods in the vicinity of mines, however, compels the use of any
wood near at hand. In the Benguet mines, pine is practically the only
timber used. Arrangements are being made for the use of preservatives
on this wood. Where near at hand, the bacauans are also commonly
used.

9. House Construction.

The choice of woods in building houses depends very much on the taste
and means of the owner. The list given below is arranged approximately
in the order of the quality, regardless of cost. It is well to explain that
houses in the Philippines are usually built on posts known as harigues
(from the Tagalog word haligi). This method doubtless comes from the
original custom of building houses on posts to raise them above water or
swampy ground, especially along the seashore, or as a protection against
enemies. The custom still prevails, because the health conditions are
better when the houses are some distance from the ground, and besides,
they resist better the effects of earthquakes. As a usual thing the base
or stump of the harigue is made of a durable wood, on which are spliced
woods of a less durable quality.

Stumps : Ipil, molave, sasalit, bansalaguin, betis, dungon, yacal, banaba,
and anubing.

Posts above stumps: Ipil, yacal, tindalo, dungon, aranga, anubing,
macaasim, guijo, palomaria, supa, apitong, palosapis.

Trusses, girders, joists, framing, etc. : Yacal, dungon, ipil, tindalo,
aranga, guijo, macaasim, supa, apitong, palosapis, amuguis, tanguile,
lumbayao, red and white lauans.

1 See Hutchinson, W. F. : A Philippine Substitute for Lignum-vitse. Bulletin
No. 9, Bureau of Forestry, Manila, P. I.

r 40

• Floors and stairs : Molave, ipil, tindalo, aranga, calamansanay, narra,
pagatpat, palo maria, yacal, malacadios, supa, amuguis, mangachapuy,
apitong, tanguile, palosapis, red and white lauans.

Interior trimming: Acle, narra, tindalo, molave, palo maria, malaca-
dios, banuyo, calantas, malugay, supa, guijo, amuguis, tanguile, lumba-
yao, palosapis, red and white lauans.

Interior sheathing, doors, sash, etc. : Narra, molave, ipil, palo maria,
malacadios, malugay, supa, guijo, tanguile, palosapis, lumbayao, red and
white lauans.

Many houses are built cheaply now by using guijo and apitong for the
trusses, girders, etc., guijo, amuguis, or tanguile for the flooring, and tan-
guile and red or white lauans for interior trim. These latter make a
beautiful finish. Of course, all sorts of combinations of timbers are
possible, depending upon the taste and means of the owner, and upon
the local supply.

10. Paving Blocks.

Molave is the favorite paving block. Ipil and yacal are also used
extensively. Tests are being made of treated blocks of the cheaper and
less durable kinds. Creosoted paving blocks of lauan and other nondu-
rable timbers have been in use over two years and as yet show no signs of
decay or wear. Pagatpat blocks have been laid recently and are expected
to give good results.

11. Furniture and Cabinetmaking.

The list of woods used for cabinetmaking and furniture is a long one.
Of the durable woods, narra seems to be the favorite. Of the less durable
ones, red lauan and tanguile are extensively used. Nearly all the woods
of the narra family are used more or less for this purpose, especially
tindalo, banuyo, ipil, acle, and supa. Other woods are ebony, camagon,
bolongeta, palo maria, batitinan, baticulin, catmon, lanete, calamansanay,
lumbayao, banaba, calantas, bancal, anubing, molave. (See under sub-
stitutes for mahogany, p. 36.)

12. Carving and Engraving.

Lanete is the favorite wood for carving. Others principally used are
ebony, molave, camagon, banuyo, narra, acle, acleng-parang, tindalo,
baoBalaguin, and baticulin.

13. Canes.

The favorite woods for canes are ebony, camagon, and bolongeta;
others are kuyus-kuyus, camuning, mancono; woods of various palms are
also used for canes.

14. Boxes and Dry Measures.

The lauans and the natos are the favorite woods for these purposes.
Narra is often used for the larger sizes of measures.

1

41
15. Tool Handles.

The following are the woods most suitable for tool handles : Dungon,
dungon-late, kulis, bansalaguin, banaba, alupag, liusin, camagon, tindalo,
nana.

16. Carriage Building.

For this purpose the common woods are: Shafts — Guijo, lanutan.
Hubs — Palomaria, guijo, dungon, ipil. Spokes and felloes — Guijo, yacal,
molave. Covering of the body — Banuyo, amuguis, white and red lauans,
and the natos. Floor and back — Eed lauan, guijo, apitong, narra, natos.
Axles — Guijo.

17. Wooden Shoes.

The following are used for the soles of wooden shoes and slippers:
Tui, dita, anabion, bay abas, cupang, balacat, ligaa, lumbang, pinkapin-
kahan, white natos, daluru (air roots of pagatpat and api-api).

18. Telegraph and Telephone Poles.

Here, as in many other instances, almost any available wood is used.
Ipil seems to be the favorite, although pagatpat is now coming into
use. Green poles of kapok (cotton tree) are placed in the ground, take
root, and become trees. As such, they are extensively used in some
parts of the Philippines.

19. Matchmaking.

The woods most commonly used for matchmaking are malapapaya and
taluto. The following are also used: Pinkapinkahan, cupang, biluang,
hamindang, binunga, lumbang, and gubas.

20. Musical Instruments.

The following is a list of woods used for making musical instru-
ments: Sides of guitars and mandolins — Lanutan, nangka, banuyo, acle.
Bottoms — Banuyo, camagon, nangka. Necks — Lanete, kayutana, cama-
gon. Tops of necks — Camagon. Sounding board — Imported and native
pines. Pins — Dungon and camagon. Calantas is used for piano cases,
and ebony for keys.

In Part II of this bulletin there is arranged, for the various species
discussed, a list of the uses to which each wood is put.

WEIGHT AND HARDNESS.

Weight and hardness are relative terms. In the United States the
woods of all broad-leaved trees are considered hard. In this sense, all
the woods of the Philippines, except the pines, are classified as hard.
Using the term "hard" in a more rational way, a number of Philippine
woods could be classified as soft.

Weight in woods is a variable quality. It depends, for woods of the

42

same species, on the age of the tree: on the conditions in which it is
grown; on the portion of the tree from which the sample weighed is
taken ; and on the amount of moisture contained. The latter variability
is eliminated by basing the specific gravity on the dry wood, as is done
in the following table. Taking everything into consideration, it would
be misleading to apply a fixed specific gravity to each wood; therefore
it is thought best to group the woods in such a way as to allow for a range
in weight and hardness by using relative adjectives to designate these
qualities.

The following tables are based mainly on the work of Gardner * and
Foxworthy, 2 with some modifications and additions:

Table 8. — Table of weights of the principal Philippine woods.

Very heavy.

. Heavy.

Moderately heavy.

Light.

Sp. gr. 0.90 or more; 900
kilos or more per cu-

Sp. gr. 0.70-0.90; 700

Sp. gr. 0.50 to 0.70; 500

Sp. gr. 0.50 or less; 500

to 900 kilos per cu-

to 700 kilos per cu-

kilos or less per cu-

bic meter; 56 pounds
or more per cubic foot.

bic meter; 44 to 56

bic meter; 31 to 44

bic meter; 31 pounds

pounds per cubic

pounds per cubic
foot.

or less per cubic foot.

foot.

Bacauans.

Agoho (a). »
Alupag (a).

Acle.

Almon-lauan.

Billian.

Acleng-parang.

Antipolo.

Bolongeta.

Aranga (a).

Amuguis (a).

Bagtican-lauan.

Camagon.

Bansalaguin (a)

Anabing.

Baticulins.

Camuning.

Batete.

Apitong (a).

Biluang.

Ebony.

Betis (a).

Banaba (a).

Calantas.

Mancono.

Batitinan.

Balacat.

Cupang.

Pototans.

Binggas.

Balinghasay.

Dita.

Sasalit.

Calamansanay.

Bancal.

Duguan (a).
Gubas.

Tangal.

Catmon.

Banuyo.

Dalindingan-isak.

Batino.

Kalunti-lauan.

Dungon (a).

Benguet pine.

Lauan, red (a).

Dungon-late (a).

Calumpit.
Dalinsi.

Lauan, white.

Guisoc (a).

Malapapaya.

Guisoc-guisoc.

Dao.

Mayapis-lauan.

Ipil (a).

Guijo (a).

Mangasinoro-lauan.

Lanutan.

Hagachac (a).

Palosapis (a).

Liusin (a).
Malayacal (a).

Lanete.

Pinkapinkahan.

Lumbayao.

Taluto.

Macaasim.

Malasantol .

Tiaong-lauan.

Mangachapuy.

Malacadios (a).

Molave.

Malacmalac.

Narig (a).

Manicnic.

Pagatpat.

Malugay.
Nangka.

Tindalo.

Tucang-calao.

Narra.

Yacal (a).

Nato.

Palo maria.
Plagao.
Panao (aV
galinkugl.

Santol.

Sacat.

Supa (a).
Tabigi.

Talisay.

Talisay-gubat.

Tamayuan (a).

Tanguile.
Teak.

Toog.
Tuai.

* The woods followed by (a) also have representatives in the class immediately higher
than the one in which they are placed.

1 Gardner, R. : Mechanical Tests, Properties, and Uses of Thirty-four Philippine
Woods. Bulletin No. 4 (2d ed.), Bureau of Forestry, Manila, 1907.

a Foxworthy, F. W.: Philippine Woods, Phil. Jour. Sci., Sec. C, Vol. II
(1907), pp. 351-404, and Indo-Malayan Woods, same Journal, Vol. IV (1909),
pp. 412-415.

43

Table 9. — Table of hardness of the principal Philippine woods.

Very hard.

Hard.

Moderately hard.

Soft.

Agoho.
Alupag.

Acle.

Anubing.

Almon-lauan.

Aden g- parang.

Apitong (a).»

Antipolo (a).
Bag ti can -lauan.
Balacat (a).

Aranga.

Amuguis.

Banuyo.

Bacauans.

Batino.

Banaba (a).

Bansalaguin.

Batitinan.

Batete.

Bancal (a).

Betis.

Binggas.

Balinghasay.

Baticulins (a).

Billian.

Calamansanay.

Calumpit.
Dalinsi.

Binunga.

Bolongeta.

Catmon.

Calantas.

Camagon.

Guijo.

Dao.

Cupang.

Camuning.

Quisoc.

Hagachac (a).
Malasantol.

Dita.

Dungon.

Guisoc-guisoc.

Duguan.

Dungon-late.

Ipil.
Macaasims.

Malacadios (a).

Gubas.

Ebony.

Malacmalac.

Ham in dang.

Liusin.

Mangachapuy.

Manicnic.

Kalunti-lauan.

Mancono.

Malay acal.

Nangka.

Lanete (a).

Narig.

Malugay.

Narra (a).

Lauan, red (a).

Pototans.

Molave.

Nato.

Lauan, white.

Sasalit.

Pagatpat.
Palo maria.

Panao (a).

Lumbayao (a).

Tangal.

Salinkugi.

Malapapaya.
Mangasmoro-lauan.

Piagao.

Talisay.

Snpa.
Tabigi.

Talisay-gubat.

May apis.

Tanguile.

Palosapis (a).

Talisay.

Teak.

Benguetpine (a).

Tamayuan.

Toog.

Santol (a).

Tinda'lo.

Tuai.

Taluto.

Tucang-calao.

Tiaong-lauan.

Yacal.

a The woods followed by (a) also have representatives in the class immediately higher
than the one in which they are placed.

lumbering ik the philippines.

1. Markets,

The demand for lumber in the Philippines is greater at the present
time that the local lumbering operations can supply. The volume of
native timbers that passed through the official channels for the fiscal year
.1909-10 amounted to 176,758 cubic meters (44 million board feet).
During the same time there were imported into the Islands approximately
20 million board feet, 12 millions of which was for the United States
Army. Besides this, 798 gratuitous licenses were issued for both public
and private use, and a large amount of timber was obtained without
license under the free-use privilege. The quantity used without charge
is estimated to be at least 25 million board feet. This makes the total
consumption of timber in the Islands as follows :

Million
board feet.

Regular licenses 44

Free use 25

Imported 20

Total 89

This amount does not include 246,776 cubic meters of firewood upon
which forest charges were paid but which can not be expressed in board
feet; nor an unknown, but large, amount of firewood extracted and used
free of charge.

44

The lumber markets in the principal centers of the Islands are unstable,
although they are more satisfactory to-day than ever before. Previously
a large number of the dealers handled a mixture of many kinds of timbers
which were often unassorted even as to classes, to say nothing of grading
within the classes. The lumber was often poorly sawed, and not trimmed
or edged. This condition still exists among many dealers. The larger
firms are putting on the market more perfectly sawed timber, edged and
trimmed, and in many instances graded. They confine their efforts to
handling a few kinds, and keep a supply on hand to satisfy demands up
to a million or more board feet. As a rule, however, a great deal of the
lumber reaches the market green, and is sawed, sold, and put to use at
once, shortly after it is cut. As a result, it is poorly seasoned, and can
not but give the timber a bad name. It is hoped that some time in the
near future concerted action can be taken by dealers to establish a uniform
system of grading.

The market with regard to prices of the principal kinds is becoming
more and more stable. Previously, small cutters with little capital, who
brought timber to market, were at the mercy of the commission merchants,
and often had to sell at a sacrifice in order to continue operations. This
is not so true to-day as it was three or four years ago.

The average Manila retail price of the cheaper grades of the lauans is
1*50 to 1*60 per thousand feet board measure ; better grades of red lauan
and tanguile sell for 1*60 to 1*80 ; apitong sells for 1*70 to 1*80 ; guijo,
1*80 to 1*90; yacal for 1*120 to 1*150; molave, 1*150 to 1*200; ipil,
1*150 to 1*200. Oregon pine, the chief foreign competitor of the cheaper
construction timbers, retails for 1*50 to 1*70. With the present strong
demands for timber, there is little inducement to handle native timbers
to undersell the Oregon pine. When well seasoned, the lauans are as
good as Oregon pine for certain classes of construction, and are much
better for other purposes for which they are used.

The increased activity in all lines of business during the past year
has created great demands for all classes of construction timber, especially
dipterocarps (lauan, apitong, and yacal), ipil, and molave. At the
present time, this demand is too great to warrant large shipments to
America or foreign countries. Should the local market become over-
stocked — and with greatly increased exploitation it can easily become
so — the China market alone could consume the surplus. Philippine
timbers have an excellent reputation in China, where the better grades
from Borneo and Singapore are often sold under the name of Philippine
hardwoods. This being the case, it is all the more imperative that a good
system of grading should be established, with Government inspection for
exported lumber. During the fiscal year 1909-10, 1,300,000 feet of
lumber were exported, which is twice the amount exported during any
previous year since the American occupation.

45
2. Logging Operations.

During the fiscal year 1909-10, there were issued 969 ordinary and
exclusive licenses. Deducting 20 per cent for licenses which were not
used, there are left 775 licensees, who extracted 44 million board feet of
timber, an average of about 57,000 board feet for each licensee. During
the fiscal year 1909-10 the largest licensee cut about 8 million board
feet; the next largest cut and manufactured about 3 million board feet.
A number reached over 250,000 board feet, but by far the majority of the
licensees placed on the market much less than this amount.

From the above it will be seen that the majority of the licensees
are small operators. They use human and animal motor power to get
their timber to tide water. In a very few instances, hand labor is
employed, but only when the timber is within a few hundred feet of
the coast; in fact, in most instances, this method is utilized only on
the slopes of hills fronting tide water. The animals used in hauling
the logs are, almost without exception, carabaos (water buffaloes).

The method used in extracting timber by carabao is crude and waste-
ful at its best. This crudeness, coupled with the usual methods of
financing the operation and getting the timber to market, is the main
cause of the high price of lumber. As a general rule, the Filipino
licensee is of the upper class, known as "ilustrados." He often controls
a following of workmen who are practically under his power. He sel-
dom, if ever, visits the woods. He furnishes a follower, or friend, with
the carabao and other equipment, in consideration for which he receives
a certain percentage of the value of the logs that are cut and hauled
to the beach. This man in turn selects the woodsmen from his follow-
ing, who are paid so much per cubic foot for the timber delivered on
the beach. These men may or may not be advanced provisions and
held responsible for the equipment and the health of the carabao. In
some instances, the men who really do the work get no pay, except
provisions, and usually are kept so deeply in debt that they become
almost the slaves of their landlords and creditors. This is especially
the case, as often occurs, when the licensee stakes the workmen with pro-
visions direct, and holds them responsible for the condition of the carabao.
Sometimes the licensee is the friend or relative of local native officials,
who use their influence to help him get or control the labor. In return,
political help is expected.

In the Moro country, the retainers of leading datos are used in
the following way: A merchant in a coastal t6wn, usually a Chinaman
or American, who may or may not be a lumberman, gets on friendly
terms with a leading dato who has a large following throughout a wooded
district. The merchant obtains the license, and makes a bargain with
the dato to furnish him with timber at so much per cubic foot. The
dato issues orders to each of his henchmen, who are under his control,

46

to cut and remove a certain amount each month, for which they are
paid so much a cubic foot, usually in provisions. In this way, the
dato and the merchant both get their timber cheap at the expense of
the man actually doing the work. In defense of such methods, it is
only fair to state that they are usually in operation in the outlying
districts, and the forest wealth can not at present be utilized in any
other way. With the development of the lumber industry, such methods
will go and are going out of use.

In many instances, the licensee is a lumberman himself, pays his
workman a direct wage, and treats them fairly. The policy of the
Bureau of Forestry is to favor such licensees. Too often, however, the
licensee pays little attention to the actual cutting in the woods, leav-
ing this to the ignorant workmen without adequate attention, confining
his own efforts to the milling operations and to the disposal of the
product. The result is that his men are not utilized to the best ad-
vantage. This makes the cost of extracting the timber abnormally high,
and places the licensee at a disadvantage, as compared with those who
use the system of logging by contract. This handicap, however, may
be overcome by the better milling he secures.

In many instances, the trees are cut with rude, narrow-blade axes,
although American axes and crosscut saws are coming more into use.
The logs are cut into proper lengths; one, two, three — sometimes as
many as fifteen — carabaos are hitched tandem fashion to each one; and
with one man to control each carabao the log is drawn to its destination.
Sometimes the logs are squared, and sometimes they are removed in
the round. Frequently a rude sled is used, one end of the log resting
on the ground; but two- wheeled carts are sometimes substituted. The
harness is often a rude affair, consisting of a yoke, with ropes made
of rattan. Occasionally good logging trails are constructed, over which
the logs are dragged. The length of haul varies from a few meters up
to 5 and 8 kilometers (3 to 5 miles).

The above description of the financing system usually in vogue, and
of the rude methods of logging, is sufficient to show that both the
system and methods are capable of improvement, and until they are
improved the actual cost of logging will be proportionately higher than
it ought to be. What is needed more than anything else is competent
supervision of the logging operations. It is believed that with such
supervision the cost of cutting and removing timber to tide water can,
in many instances, be reduced at least one-half. The removing of logs
by man force, in use to some extent in Borneo and other neighboring
countries, can not be adopted to any extent in the Philippines, prin-
cipally on account of the scarcity of labor.

Certain portions of our forests are adapted to logging by animal labor
and no other. This is true of the molave type, that contains scattered

47

valuable trees too far apart to warrant the establishment of expensive
steam logging. It is also true of isolated remnant patches of the dip-
terocarp types, where the amount of timber is limited.

Steam logging, with a railroad from the cuttings to the mills at tide
water, is in successful operation by three companies. These companies
have installed a logging system, patterned after the methods in use in the
United States. The trees are cut by crosscut saws, bucked up into the
proper lengths with saws, hitched to cables, pulled to landings by donkey
engines, loaded on cars, and carried on a logging railway to the mill,
5 to 8 miles distant. These companies are exploiting forests covering
large areas, that contain from 20,000 to 40,000 feet per acre of merchant-
able timber, composed principally of the lauans and the apitongs. With
American foremen, they have been successful in accustoming their labor
to the use of the crosscut saws and to the handling of the timber by ma-
chinery in all stages of the operations.

There are a number of locations in the Islands where equally good
forests are found, but in some instances engineering obstacles will have
to be overcome to obtain access to them. These difficulties, however,
are no greater than those encountered in many parts of the United States
where steam logging is in successful operation.

3. Milling Operations.

i. — steam sawing.

The number of saw mills in the Islands has grown from 31 in 1907
to 60 in 1910. This increase has been mostly in the installation of small
mills in the provincial towns, or in or near the cutting areas. Manila
contains 11 steam mills, and the provinces the remainder. Outside of
Manila, there are three band-saw mills. These contain modern appli-
ances to handle the logs, the finished product, and the waste.

A majority of the provincial sawmills do not cut more than 3,000
board feet daily when running at their full capacity. Nearly all the
small sawmills are greatly handicapped by the lack of sufficient power.
Some of them can not handle many of the large logs, except by first
cutting them up by handsaws.

II. — HAND SAWING.

Hand sawing, known also as whipsawing, is still extensively used
throughout the Islands, principally by Chinese lumbermen. There are
several firms, located in Manila, Cebu, Iloilo, and other large towns, who
can manufacture from 3,000 to 10,000 board feet per day. Nearly every
town of any importance has its whip sawyers. In most towns, no other
kind of sawed lumber is used at all, so that the merchants find no compe-
tition from steam-sawed material. The firms in places where there is

48

competition are able to hold their own because they utilize almost the full
contents of the log. In the first place, the saw kerf is as low as 0.08
of an inch, as contrasted with 0.16 to 0.30 of the band and circular saws.
As a rule, the lumber is neither edged nor trimmed, being sold in the
full length and width of the portion of the log from which it is taken.
Great care is taken to utilize all the waste; as much of the log as possible
is % con verted into lumber, and the remainder is sold for firewood and other
purposes. The hand sawyer is often able to manufacture from 9 to 10
board feet from each cubic foot of lumber, as against the steam mills'
cut of 5, 6, or 7 board feet per cubic foot of the raw product. The Chi-
nese and Filipino contractors demand a great deal of lumber £ inch or
less in thickness, which they use mostly for partitions and boxes. Hand
sawyers often buy 1-inch steam-sawed material, and whipsaw it into two
boards that sell for £-inch lumber. Chinese merchants often contract
with steam mills to have their logs sawed. They are usually on the
ground watching the process, and save every scrap of the so-called waste.
Sawmills that are located in the large cities, or in heavily populated
centers, find a ready marked for at least a portion of the waste. The
merchants operating the smaller mills often carefully sort their timber
into many grades, and find a ready sale for the slabs and edgings that
are not used as fuel in the mill. In mills some distance from the centers
of the population, the waste is usually burned, except that utilized for
fuel or sold by the small boatload to any buyer who cares to come for it.
The whipsawed material would become a more severe competitor of that
from the steam sawmills if enough of it could be placed on the market to
supply the demand, and were it not that large contractors will not handle
it because it is not sized, edged, or trimmed. The lack of labor as cheap
as that found in China will always limit the output of whipsawed lumber
in the Philippines.

4. Transportation.

The high cost of getting timber to market in the form of logs or
manufactured lumber is at present the bugbear of the lumbering business.
Few companies have as yet succeeded in successfully solving this problem.
The product of no single company is sufficiently large to warrant its
maintaining a steamer built especially to carry lumber. Until such
time as a single company or a combination can manufacture enough
lumber to warrant its shipment direct from the mill to the markets they
can not hope to compete sucessfully with Oregon pine in the Chinese
or other markets. At present all the lumber for foreign markets is
transshipped at Manila or Singapore. This, with the necessary handling
in transshipping, approximately doubles the cost of a direct shipment, as
the local freight rates are excessively high. From remote districts, out
of the regular lines of steamers, it often costs as high as ^60 a thou-

* « -\ * V*.

/ ; V'V ; ^' "^» r -- rf*'^

,*m 1 • • • A*

<
w

H
>

o

<

fa
O

>
O

E

H
H
55

Plate XXI.— INTERIOR VIEW OF THE MOSSY-FOREST TYPE.

49

sand board feet to transport timber in the form of logs. From distances
equally remote from Manila in the line of travel of the interisland steam-
ers, the cost is ^11 to f*29 per thousand board feet of the manufactured
product. These boats are ill adapted to carrying lumber or logs.

Logs are occasionally transported short distances by rafts. These rafts
are usually rudely constructed affairs, with the logs tied together with
rattan. Light logs are used for buoys, and heavy timbers can thus be
transported. However, the principal forest regions are remote from the
lumber centers, and no attempt has been made to raft timber from them to
the markets. Some of the larger companies use barges to transport the
finished product. The smaller concerns are dependent upon small sailing
vessels.

To sum up, the high cost of placing the timber of the Philippines on
the market is due to the following causes: (1) The high cost of logging,
due principally to the crude methods employed and to lack of proper
supervision; (2) the excessive cost of milling, due to (a) insufficient
equipment and poor arrangement of the mill, (b) to the difficulty of get-
ting competent men to manage the operations, and (c) to a consequent
loss in sawing due to excessive waste and poorly manufactured material ;
(3) as yet no company has a capacity sufficient to warrant their owning or
hiring vessels especially adapted to carrying lumber to the home or
foreign markets. The conditions above described are distinctly pioneer
in nature. A few companies have successfully met some of them, but none
have as yet succeeded in meeting the entire situation. When they do,
they will be able to compete with all other timbers of like grades in the
foreign and home markets.

The scarcity of the high-grade timbers needed in construction work
in contact with the ground can and will be overcome by artificially
preserving timbers of the cheaper construction kinds. This is the
solution of the problem, especially so far as concerns the timber used in
railroad construction and mines.

5. Labor.

Much has been written concerning the labor problem of the Philippines.
That it is a serious one with many industries in the Philippines can not
be denied; that it can be successfully solved is an established fact, so
far as lumbering and logging are concerned. "With good American fore-
men, crews of native laborers have been trained to conduct successfully
the operations both in the woods and in the mill. Where the best re-
sults have been obtained, they are at least equal to and sometimes better
than American labor, considering dollar for dollar of outlay. The wages
vary from f*0.50 to f*1.50 per day. When properly treated, Filipinos
make fairly steady workmen. In thinly settled forest regions, it is

103553 ' 4

50

necessary to import labor from the more thickly settled districts. Many
difficulties naturally stand in the way of doing this, but with some patience
it can be and has been successfully accomplished. Colonies must be
established, schools and churches built, and amusements provided. Once
the lumberman gains the confidence of the men working for him, he will
find laborers coming of their own accord. Failures in getting labor in
the Philippines are less frequent in the lumbering business than in
other pursuits. The Filipino has a natural aptitude for running ma-
chinery, and it is the kind of labor that he likes. He must, however,
be constantly supervised by Americans or other foreigners who under-
stand their business and the men working under them.

6. Opportunities for Lumbering.

A reference to the description of types will show that certain of our
forests produce heavy stands of timber of a few kinds, and are therefore
adapted to lumbering on a large scale. This is especially true of the
lauan and the lauan-apitong types; less so of the lauan-hagachac and
yacal-lauan types only because these do not cover so large a territory.
With sufficient capital and modern methods of logging and milling, these
forests can be successfully exploited.

There are a number of desirable tracts suitable for large operations
in the dipterocarp types that await capital for the utilization of the
timber upon them.

As already stated, the entire area of some of the forest types, and
isolated patches of others, are not adapted to large operations simply
because the supply of timber is not great enough to warrant great ex-
penditure in extracting it. Opportunities for the small investor in these
are not lacking. Indeed, a large proportion of the most valuable timber
placed on the market to-day comes from the tracts granted to small
licensees.

7. Conclusion.

As shown above, the lumber business in the Philippines is at present
a small one. The handling of 89,000,000 board feet annually can not
be considered, comparatively speaking, a large business. Yet the pos-
sibilities are great. A number of large tracts of virgin timber are ready
for the ax. To exploit them successfully capital is necessary.

It is estimated that the forests properly managed can be made to yield
two billion board feet annually, without being damaged. This will allow
a rotation of one hundred years. While there is no prospect of the full
utilization of the forest wealth in the immediate future, with sufficient
investment of capital there is little reason to doubt that within the next
ten or fifteen years the annual output of timber in the Philippines will
reach the 500-million mark.

51

MINOR FOREST PRODUCTS.

Minor forest products include everything derived from the forest with
the exception of timber. Most of the forest plants are put to some
practical use — either the entire plant or some portion of it, as the bark,
leaves, fruit, etc. — and in general the dependence of the neighboring
peoples upon the forest for the means of existence is in inverse propor-
tion to their stage of civilization. As they become more and more
civilized, commerce offers them a wider range of choice and they become
less dependent upon the local supply. Thus it happens that savage or
semisavage tribes have shown great ingenuity in discovering uses for
the forest products within easy reach, and as they are gradually thrown
in contact with neighboring tribes the uses are extended, until eventually
many of the forest products find a permanent place for themselves in
the markets of the world. At the present time, therefore, minor forest
products may be divided into two classes: Those whose uses are widely
recognized, and which have a market value sufficiently definite to permit
them to be assessed for the forest charges ; and, second, those whose use
is so purely local, or the demand for which is so unsteady, that they are
not sold in the market, or which for some other reason it is impracticable
at present to bring under the Internal Revenue Law.

1. Woods Used for Fuel,
firewood.

More wood is annually used for fuel in the Islands than for lumber.
Records for the fiscal year 1909-10 show that 246,776 cubic meters of
firewood were cut, and it is probable that an even greater amount was
cut and used without record.

While all kinds of woods are used for firewood, the favorite source
is the mangrove swamps, producing a group of woods which may be
classed under the names of bacauans, pototans, and tangal. These
woods have calorific power higher than that of oak, 1 and are among the
best firewoods in the world. They constitute the principal value of the
mangrove swamps which are found scattered along the seacoasts through-
out the Islands, varying in width from a few feet to several miles. They
probably cover about 2 per cent of the forest area of the Islands, or
about 800 square miles.

There are other woods in the Philippines that have perhaps an even
higher heating power than the mangroves. Among these is agoho
(Casuarina equisetifolia) , but because of its scarcity it can never take
the place of the bacauans. Many species of trees found in the second-

according to tests made by the Bureau of Science, Manila, the gram calories
of bacauan is 8,161, of tangal 8,055, and of oak 7,965.

52

growth forests yield excellent firewood. Among these are bayabas
(Psidium guajava), ipil-ipil (Leucaena glauca), and madre-cacao
(Oliricidia sepium).

Firewood is sold under the name of rajas and Unas. The former are
from 60 to 150 centimeters in length and from 7 to 15 centimeters in
diameter. Lenas are of smaller dimensions. It is impossible to esti-
mate the value of the firewood used annually in the Philippines. The
average retail price of bacauan in the Manila market is about ^25 a cord.

CHARCOAL.

The principal woods employed in the manufacture of charcoal, like
those used for fuel, come from the mangrove swamps. They include
the bacauans, the pototans, tangal, tabigi, and dungon-late. In places
where mangrove woods are not available, agoho, binayuyu, bayabas,
madre-cacao, and other species of the second-growth forest furnish the
supply. Kilns for burning charcoal, as a rule, are rudely constructed,
A number of Japanese licensees have introduced the methods employed
in their own country; and if their kilns would find general acceptance
the usual methods of burning charcoal would be improved. 1 The char-
coal industry of the Philippines is not a large one and does not supply
the full demand, for small quantities are annually imported. Official
records for the fiscal year 1909-10 show that 4,315 cubic meters
were used. During the same time 50,538 kilos were imported.

2. Barks.

Under the local name of cascalote, the barks of many trees are util-
ized for various purposes, principally for tanning and dyeing.

TAN BARKS.

The tanning industry in the Islands is not highly developed, and
as there is no export trade in the barks or their products the amount
utilized for this purpose is small. The principal source of tan bark is
the bacauan family of the mangrove swamps. The crude product
derived from the bark is known as mangrove cutch, which has to be
put through certain processes of refinement before it is ready for tanning.
There are no cutch factories in the Philippines, but some are in suc-
cessful operation in Borneo, where the mangrove swamps are more
extensive. However, the swamps in Mindanao, Palawan, and other
islands in the southern portion of the Archipelago cover a sufficient
area to justify the establishment of cutch factories, and there seem to be

ID,

fa:
PI

B0]

ro

1 For a description of the two types of kilns see Maule, Wm. M. : The charcoal
industry of the Philippine Islands. Bull. 2, Bureau of Forestry, Manila, P. I.,
1906.

* Approximately 1,000,000 kilos ; 230 kilos equal 1 cubic meter.

53

excellent prospects for introducing the industry and for thus utilizing
the bark from a large proportion of the swamp timber felled for fire-
wood. Through certain chemical changes coloring matters begin to
appear in the bark soon after felling, and for this reason it is considered
necessary to work up the bark within forty-eight hours. This requires
the factories to be located in or near compact mangrove areas. Four
to 6 tons of bark are necessary to produce 2 or 2£ tons of cutch.

The barks of the following species of the mangrove trees contain
tannin: Bacauan (Rhizophora conjugata), bacauan-lalaki (Bhizophora
mucronata), pototan (Bruguiera eriopetala), busain {Bruguiera gymnor-
rHza), langarai {Bruguiera parviflora), pototan-lalaki (Bruguiera cary-
ophylloides) , tangal (Ceriops tagal).

Eecent analyses of barks from Mindanao made in the laboratories of
the Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C, show the following
results :

Kind.

Tangal ._
Bacauan .
Pototan _
Langarai.

Total
solids.

58.58
53.91
37.36
24.43

Soluble
solids.

49.02
51.03
36.81
19.82

Reds.

9.56

2.88

.55

4.61

Nontan-
nins.

13.19
11.64
10.15
7.27

Tannins.

35.83

26.66
12.55

The proportion of tannin according to these analyses compares favor-
ably with that of barks of the same species from Borneo. It is estimated
that the swamp area of one bay in Mindanao contains 25,000 hectares and
that it will yield approximately 25 tons of bark to the hectare, making
a total of 625,000 tons of bark. With a rotation of twenty years this is a
sufficient quantity to supply a large factory indefinitely.

While there are probably many other trees in the Philippines besides
the mangroves whose bark produces tannin, camanchile (Pithecolobium
dulce) and agoho (Oasuarina equisetifolia) are the only ones utilized to
any extent.

OTHER BARKS.

The bark in the Philippines used most extensively for dyeing purposes
comes from tabigi or nigi (Xylocarpus obovatus), also a tree of the man-
grove swamps.

The extract from the bark of tangal is employed for flavoring and color-
ing the sap of coconut and other palms used as alcoholic beverages. By
far the largest proportion of the bark of this tree now gathered in the
Philippines is used for this purpose.

A number of small trees contain barks used for tying purposes. In
some instances they are used direct; in others they are first made into
r opes. Among these may be mentioned the following: Malubago (Hi-

54

biscus tiliaceus), anilao (Columbia serratifolia) , tanag or taloktok
(Kleinhofia hospita), danling-aso (Helicteres hirsuta).

The barks of a number of vines and trees produce materials suitable for
soap. Gogo (Entada scandens), the principal one of these, is a large
vine. Sections of the vine are pounded to a pulp, bound into small bales,
and are used extensively for washing hair. Salinkugi or gogong-toko
(Albizzia saponaria) is a tree containing a bark that is used for the same
purposes as the gogo vine. While other vines and trees yield soapy barks,
none are used to the'same extent.

The total amount of tan bark officially manifested during the fiscal
year 1909-10 was 3,302,939 kilos, two-thirds of which came from Min-
danao. The amount of dye bark manifested amounted to 98,482 kilos.

3. Dye wood.

While a number of woods of the Philippines can be used for dyes,
only one, sibucao (Ccesalpinia sappan) , is so used to any extent. This
is practically the equivalent of the Brazil wood (Ccesalpinia echinata).
It is a small bushy tree and is semicultivated, especially in the Island
of Guimaras, from which most of it comes. During the fiscal year
1909-10, 1,154,614 kilos of dyewood passed through official channels,
practically all of which was sibucao.

4. Eesins and Oils.

The following diagram shows the sources of the principal oil and
resinous products of the Philippines :

Table 10.

Principal Sources of Resins and Oils.

From bark or sap-
wood or both.

I

From nuts.

Pines
(resins).

Dipterocarps
(resins).

Pili or
Manila
elemi
(resin)
( Canarium
luzonicum) .

Supa(oil)

(Sindora

supa).

Palo maria

(oil)
( Calophyllum
inophyllum) .

Lumba

(oil'

{Aleut

spp.

Almaciga Pines ( Pinus

(Agathis insularis and

alba). P. merkusii).

Yacals (Ho-
pea plagata
and Shorea
balangeran).

Balao.

Apiiong (Dip-

terocarpus
grandifloru8).

Panao

(D. vernici-

fiuus).

Palosapis
(Anisoptera
thurifera) .

55

ALMAOIGA.

The local commercial name of the resin produced by Agathis alba
is almaciga. This is a tree of the pine family, closely related to the
species yielding the kauri resin of New Zealand. It grows in the moun-
tainous regions of the Philippines usually between altitudes of 400 and
1,000 meters. The resin is gathered by the hill people. It accumulates
as a hardened product on the trunk after incisions are made in the
bark, or at the base of the trunk where it is deposited in the ground
through ruptures made usually near the junction of the roots and the
trunk. The latter deposits remain in the ground after the tree dies and
decays and are discovered by the collector, who thrust a sharp pointed stick
in the ground to determine their location. Almaciga to the amount
of 1,092,398 kilos passed through official channels during the fiscal year
1909-10. Approximately four-fifths of this amount came from the Moro
Province of Mindanao.

DIPTEROCARP RESINS.

While all the dipterocarps are resinous, only a few of them yield prod-
ucts that have reached the markets. Locally they are used extensively as
torches, for calking small boats, etc. As explained in Part II, under
a discussion of the dipterocarp family, these deposits are wood oils which
quickly or slowly transform into a resin on exposure to the air. Some of
these are encountered in a solid form, others are plastic, and still others
harden so slowly that they are removed as fluids. The latter are known
as wood oils and bear the local name of the tree from which they are
collected. To the former class belongs the resin of yacal (Hopea plagata)
and guisoc (Shorea balangeran) . This is collected by making incisions
through the bark. The oil hardens to a brittle brownish-black resin and
is collected in this form. It is used locally for torches and is often mixed
with softer resin for calking.

Apitong, panao, and palosapis are the principal dipterocarps that
yield fluid resins, or wood oils. The resins of these trees are usually
known as balao. The oil is allowed to collect in cup-shaped incisions
made in the wood. As the flow ceases the surfaces are recut and fired,
which greatly increases the deposit. It is used locally for lighting, and,
when mixed with powdered charcoal, for calking boats. Other dip-
terocarps produce resins, but the amount that can be collected is much
less than from those mentioned above. 1

The amount of wood oils that passed through official channels during
the fiscal year 1909-10 was 131,377 liters, mainly from the Provinces
of Leyte and Occidental Negros.

1 For a discussion of the chemical nature of the oils of supa, balao, panao,
and palosapis see Clover, A. M.: Philippine wood oils, Phil. Jour. Sci., 1 (1900),.
191-202.

56

MANILA ELEMI. 1

The resin produced by pili (Oanarium luzonicum), a tree growing wild
or as a planted crop in the Philippines, is known commercially as Manila
elemi and locally as brea or pili resin. Incisions are made in the bark
usually at the beginning of the rainy season. About once a month the
resin is collected and the bark recut. This keeps up till December, when
the resin practically ceases to flow for that year. The resin is graded
into two classes, viz, "brea blanca" and "brea negra," the principal differ-
ence being one of cleanliness. It is soft, sticky, and opaque, slightly
yellow in color, has a very agreeable resinous odor, and burns with a
smoky flame. It is used extensively for torches and with other resins
is mixed with powdered charcoal, brick, and ashes for calking boats.
During the fiscal year 1909-10, 57,629 kilos of Manila elemi were officially
manifested. The resin came principally from the Province of Tayabas,
where the tree is quite extensively cultivated. 2

OTHER RESINS AND OILS.

The two pines (Pinus insularis and P. merhusii) of the Philippines
are rich in turpentine. As yet however the resinous products of these
trees are used only locally. Lumbang oil is the product of the nuts of
two species of Aleurites. A. moluccana (lumbang) is an introduced,
semicultivated tree confined principally to the provinces near Manila
and to the Davao district of Mindanao. Aleurites trisperma (balukanad),
is a closely related species that is found wild or semicultivated. The
nut is about the size and shape of a hickory nut. The hard shell is
removed, and the oil is extracted from the kernel. It is used in the
Philippines for illuminating purposes, in the manufacture of soap
(usually known as Chinese soap), for painting small boats, and for
treating timbers intended for use in water. It seems -to be closely
related to the Chinese wood oil or tung (tung yu or Ningpo varnish),
which is extracted from a nut coming from another species of the genus
Aleurites* During the fiscal year 1907-8 some 1*22,000 worth of lum-
bang nuts were gathered in the Moro Province alone.

From the fruits of palo maria (Oalophyllum inophyllum) an oil
known as the "oil of palo maria" is extracted (known in India as domba

x For a full discussion of this see Clover, A. M. : The terpene oils of Manila
elemi, Phil. Jour. Sci. 2 (1907), Gen. Sci., 1-40.

■Forms of Canarium luzonicum produce a much-prized edible nut that is rich
in oil and has a flavor not unlike that of the almond. There seem to be three
varieties of the nuts known locally in Tayabas as basiad, tugdugin, and pilauai.
Basiad is said to have the best flavor, though pilauai attains the largest size.

* For a discussion of the chemical properties of this and other oil-bearing seeds
see Richmond and Vivencio del Rosario: Commercial utilization of some Philip-
pine oil-bearing seeds: preliminary paper, Phil. Jour. Sci. 2 (1907), Gen. Sci.
439-449.

57

oil). This oil is used in small quantities in the Philippines chiefly for
illuminating purposes.

5. Gutta-percha and Eubber.

The following diagram shows the wild and cultivated sources of gutta-
percha and rubber in the Philippines.

Table 11.
Sources of Wild and Cultivated Gutta-percha and Rubber.

Gutta-percha.

Rubber.

Native trees
from Palaqui-
wmspp. (Kali-

paya) Betis
family.

Cultivated

vine (Calo-

tropis gi-

gantea.)

Native.

Cultivated
(trees).

Trees.

Vines.

Fig family.

Mens spp. of
balete group
(fig family).

Alstonia spp.

and others

of dogbane

family.

India rub-
ber {Ficu8
elastica) .

Castilloa
( Castilloa
elastica) .

Para rub-
ber family.

Para rub- Ceara

ber {Uevea rubber

brasilien- (Manihot

sis). glaziovii).

Tabango ( Cho-
nemorpha elas-
tica) (dogbane
family) .

Parameria
philippinensis
and other spe-
cies (dogbane
family) .

Gutta-percha is the product of certain species of Palaquium found in
Mindanao and adjacent islands. The gutta-percha (kalipaya) trees
are found scattered over a large area. The crude product is collected after
felling the tree by ringing the bark at regular intervals. It is gathered
by the wild tribes principally from the Cotabato Valley of Mindanao.
No attempt has yet been made to cultivate trees producing gutta-percha.
Official reports show that 96,169 kilos were collected during the fiscal
year 1909-10. In Jolo and certain other ports it is rudely refined and
eventually reaches the Singapore market. Oalotropis gigantea, a vine
belonging to the Asclepiadaceae, yields a kind of gutta-percha. It is
found in a few provinces in and about towns, and is undoubtedly an in-
troduced plant in the Philippines. Only scattered specimens are to be
found, and we have no information that it is utilized for any purpose
locally.

Eubber is often confused with gutta-percha and for that reason the
Philippines have gained the reputation of containing considerable quanti-
ties of wild rubber. It is probable that a small quantity of the product

58

known officially as gutta-percha is really wild rubber, but it is impossible
to state the exact amount. Investigations to determine the source and
amount of wild rubber in the Philippines indicate that certain vines and
trees produce it, but not in large quantities. The diagram (Table 9)
shows the native trees and vines that are known to yield rubber. Certain
species of Ficus belonging to the balete group of the Moracece produce
rubber, but little is known about the quality or amount. Species of
Alstonia (dita, etc.) and other trees of the dogbane family yield rubber of
a poor grade in small quantities. A large vine, known under the Moro
name of tabango (Chonemorpha elastica), is probably the principal source
of the wild rubber of the southern islands. It has been found in the Cota-
bato region of Mindanao and on the Islands of Jolo and Tawi Tawi of the
Sulu Archipelago. Dugtung-ahas (Parameria philippinensis and other
closely related species) is a large vine that contains rubber in small quan-
tities. Both of these vines belong to the dogbane family (Apocynacece).
It is not known whether they occur in sufficient quantities to warrant a
systematic attempt to exploit them on a large scale.

It has been demonstrated beyond doubt that the soil and climate of
the Philippines are favorable to the growth of the standard cultivated
rubber trees. One small plantation on the Island of Basilan is already
successfully producing rubber, others have been started, and it is only
question of time when the Philippines will become one of the rubber-
producing regions of the Tropics. At present Para rubber (Hevea
brasiliensis) and Castilloa (C. elastica) seem to be the favorites, but
Ceara (Manihot glaziovii) and India rubber (Ficus elastica) are also
cultivated.

6. Vines.

The following diagram shows the principal minor products produced

by vines:

Table 12.

Peincipal Minor Products from Vines or Lianas.

Climbing palms
(rattans).

Climbing
ferns.

Other vines.

Rattans of
commerce,

known
locally as

bejucos.

Principal
rough
tying
product of
the Phil-
ippines.

Hat
making.

Some forms

have edible

shoots and

fruits.

Many (See under Soap (go

used lb- Gutta-per- go). (See

cally for cha and under

tying rubber). Barks).
purposes.

Nito (Lygo- Diliman or
dium spp. ) . Hagnaya

(Stenoclaena
spp.).

59

RATTAN.

This is the product of a large number of species of climbing palms
(the genus Calamus), and is known locally as bejueo. The best qualities
are found in the lauan, the lauan-apitong, the tanguile-oak, and the
mossy-forest types. The hill people are the principal rattan collectors.
Eattan palm starts as a rosette of leaves from the center of which a
stem develops. At first this is covered with prickly leaf sheaths, but
as it develops, the old leaves with their sheaths drop off leaving a
smooth jointed stem usually about 4 centimeters or less in diameter
and of great length. One has been measured with a length of 122
meters (about 400 feet), and others are said to be much longer. In
many species the stout midrib of the leaf extends into a long whip*
like projection armed with stiff recurved spines.

Eattan is brought to the market either in the round or split. It finds
its greatest use in the Philippines for tying bales of hemp, sugar,
tobacco, and other agricultural products. The better grades are used
in furniture making and one kind is used for making hats. The best
qualities of rattan come from the Island of Palawan, and go to the
Singapore market. According to the specifications of a Singapore firm
a good grade of split rattan should be mature, strong, not ribbed, 3.7
to 5 meters (12 to 16 feet) long, with a diameter of 4.5 to 9 millimeters
(three-sixteenths to three-eighths inch). Bright color is desirable but
not absolutely necessary except in the best quality.

During the fiscal year 1909-10 there passed through official channels
a total of 3,069,212 kilos of rattan. The Province of Ambos Camarines
produced 759,278 kilos, and Sorsogon 607,951 ; Occidental Negros stands
third with 347,138 kilos, mostly used in baling sugar. The other prov-
inces producing more than 100,000 kilos are as follows : Mindoro, Taya-
bas, Oriental Negros, and Cagayan. This is not the arrangement of
provinces according to the actual amount they contain. It merely
means that the exploitation is greater because these provinces lie nearer
the centers of demand. Probably the Moro Province and Palawan
contain a larger supply than any of those mentioned above.

OTHER VINES.

Diliman or hagnaya (Stenoclaena spp.) are climbing ferns used prin-
cipally as a string to bind the parts of fish traps. Black and white
nitos (Lygodium spp.) are also climbing ferns and are employed in
making wickerwork and for the borders of hats. The forest abounds
in many kinds of ojther vines used for tying purposes, generally with-
out being made into ropes.

60

7. Bamboo.

While wild bamboo of some kind is found scattered everywhere through-
out the Islands, yet wild structural bamboo in commercial quantities
is confined to regions with a pronounced dry season. Introduced bam-
boos are planted in all parts of the Philippines and with the wild forms
play an important part in the domestic and economic life of the Islands.

The following is a list of the uses of bamboo: House construction
(posts, beams, rafters, floors, siding, stairways, doors, windows, roofs) ;
fencing ; rafts, rude piling and decking for wharves ; fish traps ; bridges ;
parts of carts; parts of small boats; handles for tools and weapons;
bows and arrows; musical instruments; hats; baskets; mats; sawali (a
coarse kind of mat used principally for partitions and the siding of
houses) ; picture frames ; decorative arches and many kinds of ornaments ;
and temporary construction of all kinds.

8. Erect Palms.

In many places where bamboo is wanting or scarce the trunks of
erect palms are extensively used as a substitute for many classes of con-
struction. They are used in the round or split into narrow pieces and
the pith removed. The following palms are most commonly used for
structural purposes: Livistona spp. (anahao and palma brava), Oncos-
perma spp. (anibong), Caryota spp. (pugahan or fish-tail palm),
Heterospatha sp. (sagasi), Pinanga insignis (sarawag), and many species
of Pinanga under various local names.

The sap of the inflorescence of nipa palm (Nipa fruticans), a wild
and semicultivated palm of the tide-water swamps, is the source of a
large part of the alcohol and vinegar of the Philippines and its leaf is
the principal roofing and thatching material of the Islands. The leaves
of anahao and other palms are also used for this purpose, especially
in places remote from nipa swamps. Next in importance to the nipa
palm is the buri palm (Oorypha elata). This grows wild and semi-
cultivated. The sap of the inflorescence is fermented and used as an
alcoholic drink (tuba). 1 The leaves are used for roofing, for making
mats, sails, bags, hats, and ropes.

Many less important minor forest products are treated briefly in
Part II of this bulletin.

relation of the government to the forests and their

products.

1. Legal Status of the Public Forests and Forest Reserves.

The public forests of the Philippines include all unreserved public
lands covered with trees of any age. By the action of the Governor-

1 Tuba is the general term for the fermented sap of a number of palms. The
principal source of this drink is the coconut palm.

61

General of the Philippines any portion of the public domain may be
set aside as a forest reserve. Both the public forests and the forest
reserves are administered by the Bureau of Forestry "for the protec-
tion of the public interests, the utility and safety of the forests, and the
perpetuation thereof in productive condition by wise use." No land
containing public forests can pass out of the control of the Bureau of
Forestry until the Director certifies that it is more valuable for agri-
cultural than for forest purposes.

2. Disposal of Forest Products.

The following diagram illustrates the various ways of disposing of
forest products :

Table 13.

How the Government Disposes op its Forest Products.

Free of charge.

With charge.

Without li-
cense. (Second

and lower
group timbers

and minor
products" for

domestic

purposes. )

Gratuitous
license.

To miners
from

claims, for
develop-
ment of
mines.

Miners' license.

Ordinary

Exclu-

Exclusive

(From public
forest for de-

license.

sive li-

license

(Full

cense.

agree-

velopment of

charge.)

(Full

ment. (Full

claims. Half

charge. )

charge. )

charge.)

1

For public

works. (Second

and lower

group timbers
and minor

products.)

To home
builders.
(First-
group tim-
bers.)

-FOREST PRODUCTS OBTAINED FREE OF CHARGE.

Certain forest products can be obtained without charge with or without
license. The Free-use Act provides that until Oct. 25, 1915, inhabitants
of the Philippine Islands can gather without license and free of charge
all products to be used for domestic purposes except first-group timbers.
Special areas of public forests, known as communal forests, are established
for the use of certain settlements, from which the inhabitants are
required to obtain all of their free-use products. Where such areas have
not yet been set aside, the free-use products can be gathered in any portion
of the public forests within the provinces in which the collector resides.

Gratuitous licenses may be issued (1) under certain conditions to
inhabitants of the Philippines for first-group timbers to be used for the
construction of homes; (2) to miners for all forest products from their
claims used in the development of the mines; and (3) for minor products
and second and other lower group timbers to be used in the construction
of public works of all kinds.

62

II. — FOREST PRODUCTS GATHERED WITH CHARGE.

The following classes of licenses are issued for the cutting, collecting,
and removal of products upon which forest charges are imposed : miners'
licenses, ordinary licenses, exclusive licenses, and exclusive license agree-
ments.

Miners' licenses provide for the gathering of products from areas out-
side of the claims, and that the products so collected he paid for at one-
half the regular rates, and are to be used for the development of mines
mentioned in the license. Ordinary licenses provide for the collecting of
product upon which the full charges are made. The territory granted
is restricted to definite areas, for which one or more licenses may be
issued. Ordinary licenses are usually granted for terms of from one to
three years and may be renewed at their expiration. Exclusive licenses
grant to a single licensee the right to gather forest products in a partic-
ular area. Exclusive license agreements are granted for periods up to
twenty years in large areas which can be extensively lumbered without
permanent injury to the forest. Applications for such for an area of
more than 1,000 hectares (approximately 2,500 acres) must secure the
approval of the Secretary of the Interior. Thereupon proposal for com-
petitive bids are published in the Official Gazette and other periodicals,
and the license will be granted to the bidder who makes the most satis-
factory offer, including a guaranty to install the most complete and
efficient plant most promptly, and to do a sufficient amount of annual
development work. A bond is required for the proper performance of
all obligations.

The right to reject any and all bids is expressly reserved, and in
general no proposal for an exclusive license agreement will be approved
except upon a reasonable showing that the licensee will be able within
the period fixed in his license actually to exploit the resources of the
forest tract. The man who means business must show that he really
intends to develop the tract for which he wishes to secure an exclusive
license, and that he will protect the interests of the public in the conces-
sion.

3. Charges for Forest Products.

i. — LUMBER.

For the purpose of forest charges the present grouping of the timber
is as follows :

63
Table 14.

Group I.

Croup II.

Group III.

Acle

Alupag.

Agoho.

Baticulin.

Aranga.

Amuguis.

Betis.

Banaba.

Anubing.

Camagon.

Bansalaguin.

Apitong.

Ebony.

Banuyo.

Batino.

Ipil.

Batitinan.

Bitanhol.

Lanete.

Bolongeta.

Catmon.

Mancono.

Calamansanay.

Calumpit.

Molave.

Calantas.

Cupang.

Narra.

Dungon.

Dalinsi.

Tindalo.

Guijo.

Dita.

Yacal.

Macaasim.

Dungon-late.

Malacadios.

Malacmalac.

Mangachapuy.

Malapapaya.

Palo maria.

Malasantol.

Supa.

Mayapis.

Teak.

Palosapis.

Tucang-calao.

Panao.

Sacat.

Santol.

Tamayuan.

Tanguile.

All other timbers are placed in Group IV.

The metric system of measurement has been officially adopted by the
Philippine Government, and the charges are based on the volume of
round timber. The forest charges of the different groups are as follows :

Table 15.

Group.

Charge per cubic meter.

Charge per 1,000 board foot.

Philippine
currency.

United States
currency.

Philippine
currency. »

United States
currency.

1

T2. 50

1.50

1.00

.50

51.25
.75
.50
.25

f-10.00
6.00
4.00
2.00

$5.00
3.00
2.00
1.00

2

3

4

a Assuming that 4 cubic meters will cut 1,000 feet board measure. (See p. 12.)
II. — MINOR PRODUCTS.

The charges on minor products is 10 per cent of the market value.
This may change from time to time. The following is a list of the prin-
cipal minor products, except firewood, with their respective forest charges :

Almaciga per 100 kilos.... !*1.50

Manila elemi do 1.50

Gutta-percha do 7.00

Rubber do 7.00

Rattan _ do 1.00

Charcoal per cubic meter 40

Dyewood per 100 kilos.... 1.50

Dyebark do 50

Tanbark do 30

Wood oils per liter 01

The forest charges on all firewood is 1*1 for 1,000 pieces, each from 60
centimeters to 1J meters in length and from 7 to 15 centimeters in dianv

64

eter; for all firewood of lesser dimensions the charge is 10 centavos per
cubic meter.

No other charges are collected from the licensees. The land from
which the timber is taken is free from all taxation, as it remains
Government property. There are no export duties on forest products
all enter the United States free from duty, and logging and milling
machinery and supplies can be imported from the United States with-
out import charges.

4. Cutting Eegulations.

The cutting regulations are simple and are devised merely to insure the
wise use and perpetuity of the forest. On land that is more valuable for
agriculture than for forest growth, clear cutting may be allowed. On
trees cut from land suitable for forests and for no other more valuable pur-
pose a minimum diameter limit is established. For the lower group
timbers this is usually 40 centimeters (16 inches), measured breast-high
outside of the bark. In some cases it is lower, depending upon the mature
size of the species and on the silvicultural condition of the forest. For
the higher group timbers the minimum diameter limit is usually 60
centimeters (24 inches). Where there is danger of the extinction of
valuable species, the Government reserves the right to select the trees to
be cut. The licensees are expected to utilize all merchantable timber
that they cut ; the stumps must not be unnecessarily high, and no timber
must be abandoned in the forest. These rules are simple and no lumber-
man who has good control of his logging crew will find that he is
hampered by carrying them out. On the other hand, he will generally be
the principal gainer by doing so.

5. How the Bureau of Forestry Assists the Lumbermen.

The Bureau of Forestry will furnish advice in all classes of forest
work. Nearly all the Islands of the Archipelago have been explored,
and while much yet remains to be done, the results already obtained
enable the Bureau to suggest profitable areas to lumbermen who are
considering applying for a concession. Foresters are available to in-
vestigate and report upon special timbered areas.

The museum of the Bureau of Forestry contains more than 1,000
species of Philippine woods. These have been carefully studied by the
experts of the Bureau, who are now in a position to identify samples of
most of the native timbers.

Cooperative work with companies to ascertain the ability and methods
of preserving the different timbers have been taken up; and there is
little doubt that cheap timbers, which are abundant but decay quickly in
their natural state, can be made to take the placd of the scarcer, high-
priced timbers for many structural purposes where contact with the
ground is necessary.

o

R

O
g

3
o
o

►J

<:

K
X

«
O

c

o

PQ
3

<:

PQ

APPENDIXES.

Appendix I.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THIRTY-FOUR PHILIPPINE WOODS.

Gardner 1 has published the mechanical tests of thirty-four Philip-
pine woods. The results of this work are given in the following tables :

1 Gardner R. : I. Mechanical tests, properties, and uses of thirty-four Philippine
woods. II. Philippine sawmills, lumber market, and prices. Bull. 4 (1907).
Second edition revised.

103553 5 65

66

Table I. — Cross-bending

Name.

Locality.

Moisture over 35 per cent.

g8

lis

-M 03

2

las

Lauan.

Do.

Almon.

Apitong.

Do.

Do.

Gutjo.

Do.

Molave..

Do

Yacal .

Narra.

Do.

Tanguile..

Do.

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum .

Zambales_.

Tanguile-balacbacan .

Sacat_.

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum.

\ Negros. (Minimum _

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

(Average

Zambales < Maximum.,

(Minimum __

(Average

Negros < Maximum..

(Minimum ._

{AmbosCama- f^ggS^
t rines. (Minimum..

(Average

Mindoro < Maximum.^

(Minimum __

\ deBay. | Minimum ._

|AmbosCama.|^ a ^ ::
\ rines. iMinimum..

{Average
Maximum
Minimum

I deiiay. (Minimum..

{Average __.:_
Maximum. _
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

[ §£&S ntal l&SEsL

I negros. (Minimum..

(Lamao Forest (Average

Reserve,Ba- < Maximum.
[ taan. (Minimum _.

H

H
H

H

H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H

51.8

75

35.5

86.4
41.6

59.2

70

49

53.9
81

55.8
84.6
48.8

95.5
107
76.8

43.7

56

37.2

57.8
89.8
41

45.5

62

36.4

54.4
72.5
43.8

43.3

54.2
35.3

79
93
65

51.8
81.7
35.5

45.4
35.5

47.7

58.1
62.5
53

48.5
54.4
45.2

0.444
.485
.405

.478
.529
.412

.464

.52

.378

.62

.715

.56

.679
.721
.588

.564
.581
.55

.677
.735
.629

.806
.596

.772
.858

.782
.825
.712

.906
.76

.563

.59

.535

.63
.77
.475

.536
.565
.51

.457
.54
.405

.509

.53

.479

.561
.585
.54

2,630
5,340
1,410

5,260
7,450
2,810

5,400
6,750
3,800

3,750
6,330
1,970

5,220
7,030
2,530

5,960
7,040
4,920

6,330
8,150
4,920

6,420
9,140
2,110

4,870
9,150
1,410

6,840
9,850
2,100

7,270
9,850
4,920

3,000
4,500
2,110

6,020
7,730
4,360

5,180
5,900
4,640

4,010
5,620
2,110

5,030
5,900
2,950

3,340
4,220
2,110

4,570
5,840
3,160

6,410
7,880
4,510

6,380
7,310
4,360

5,550
8,720
3,730

6,790
8,430

7,060
8,300
6,050

8,660
10,200
7,180

11,450
4,570

8,380
13,600
4,360

8,640
11,950
2,460

10,160
11,600
7,750

6,300
8,100
4,500

7,960
10,830
6,050

6,780
7,600
5,760

4,980
7,170
2,110

6,280
6,900
5,350

5,030
6,380
4,120

6,870
7,950
5,340

8,040
9,770
4,510

8,260
9,430
5,980

7,350
10,550
5,640

8,910
10,470
3,910

9,470
10,960
8,040

12,050
13,820
10,380

11, 350
14,200
6,210

10, 610
14,600
5,200

10, 380
14,380
3,820

13,070
15,350
10,260

8,390
11,300
5,300

10,220
13,500
7,190

9,160
10,210
7,030

6,380
9,450
3,040

8,670
9,330
7,920

7,670
4,840

* The apparent elastic limit was used in order to compare tests of native woods with
similar tests of American woods. See table of tests, pp. 83, 84.

67

strength of Philippine timber.

Moisture 20 to 35 per cent.

Moisture under 20 per cent.

1

0J

.Q

a

1

fc

•O

i

a

I

O

u
oj

3
8

S
O

•a
28

bcfcs
o

'3
oj
P<

CO

"'do

-(-» 0Q
Sjjoj

.•9 ® ft

Fiber stress at apparent
elastic limit (pounds
per square inch) .

d o8

II

0J

"go.

si-

3 as

•F-l rt.

M<
CO XXI

03x3
Oftfl

Ow CO

GO

0J

O
u

0)

.a

a

d

oj

t-.

0J

P.
8

a

g

'3
p.

CQ

oj »

s a £
^ " s

-M 0Q

* 52 t-.
oj * S
£ a> p<

CC +J 00
*-< S *H
0J * 0J

■9 * ft

0J 0J

t-4 f-,

d os

!•§•

0J

*3 A

dS <a

1

0J

p.

CO

H

29.8

35

20

0.442
.47
.40

3,350
6,190
1,550

5,300
7,740
3,520

7,200
8,920
4,220

1,462
1,790
1,050

H

10.4

17.5
3

0.457
.488
.404

5,730
10, 550
3,390

8,240
12, 640
5,480

9,760
14,250
7,020

1,653
1,840
1,395

H

36J

0.446
.488
.40"

.478
.529

]

.412

|

■H

.464

.52

1

.378

H

26.8
33.6
22

.699

.74
.658

6,190
9,150
4,220

8,220
9,850
6,320

10, 230
11,640
8,600

2,033
2,550
1,710

H

14

19.8
9

.706
.825
.618

7,340
10,550
4,920

9,760
12,480
6,050

11,620
15,600
6,050

2,144
2,425
1,900

H

.645

.826
.56

H

20.8
20.8
20.8

.93
.93
.93

2,950
2,950
2,950

4,150
4,150
4,150

5,100
5,100
5,100

1,000
1,000
1,000

}

»i

.687
.93

i

.588

1

■■{

.564
.581

I

.55

H

26.6

35

20.3

.72

.776

.673

7,820
9,850
4,920

9,940
12, 380
7,800

12, 860
14,600
10,540

2,077
2,370
1,660

H

13.7

18.6

7

.759

.82

.718

10,080
12,650
7,730

12,850
19,700
8,940

15, 150
21,500
11,900

2,158
2,480
1,740

H

.708

.82

.629

I'I

23.3
23.3
23.3

.724
.724
.724

7,740
7,740
7,740

9, 150
9,150
9,150

12,650
12,650
12,650

2,110
2,110
2,110

1

5o|

.697
.806

J

.596

W

31.8

35

24.8

.803
.848
.725

5,010
7,030
3,520

9,000
10,700
7,740

10, 190
12,150
9,530

1,602
1,950
1,400

H

10.4
19.5
3.5

.824

.88

.79

8,240
10,550
4,920

8,580
13,600
4,920

8,580
13,600
4,920

1,614
1,980
1,240

H

29J

.785

.88

.69

.782
.825

I'""

.712

H

29.6
34.3
21.6

.846
.94
.77

8,180
11,250
4,220

10,700
13,600
5,480

14,090
17, 650
7,700

2,368
2,870
1,680

H

15.6
19.8
11.4

.848

.90

.81

9,650
12,230
6,680

12,130
17,480
9,140

15,690
21, 800
13,580

2,583
3,000
1,844

H
"1

.848

.94

.76

.568
.59

1

.535

H

26.9
32.7
22.9

.508

.56

.438

5,650
8,430
2,110

6,570
9,850
3,090

7,380
11,020
3,460

1,462

1,710

870

H

9.6
13.8
4.6

.487
.531
.384

6,440
10,550
2,810

7,070
10,680
2,810

7,560
11,730
2,960

1,510
1,670
1,050

H

.54
.77
.384

H

30.6
34.6
21.8

.487
.524
.38

5,310
6,740
4,220

6,960
7,600
6,190

9,110
10, 230
7,030

1,456
1,685
1,050

H

13.7
18.7
5

.422
.58
.355

6,440
9,150
4,500

7,380
11,400
4,920

8,360
12, 560
4,920

1,232

1,610

976

H

.469

.58

.355

H

34.5
34.5
34.5

.54
.54
.54

6,050
6,050
6,050

6,330
6,330
6,330

7,700
7,700
7,700

1,320
1,320
1,320

H

9.7
18.4
1.6

.535
.606
.478

6,430
10, 550
2,110

7,470
11, 520
2,110

8,570
13,220
2,300

1,594
1,950
1,120

H

.491
.606
.405

\~

ls(

.509
.53

.479

1-

■1

.561
.585
.54

68

Table I. — Cross-bending strength

Name.

Bacat .

Ipil.

Do.

Do...

Dungon_.

Do-

Do.t>_

Malasantol .
Bupa

Do.

Balacat .

Do_

Macaasim.
Calantas _.

Do...

Tindalo _

Do —

Moisture over 35 per cent.

Locality.

Tarlac

/ Ambos Cama-
\ rines.

Mindoro

Palawan .

Ambos Cama-
rines.

Masbate _

Mindanao .

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

(Average —
\ Maximum..
[Minimum ..

(Average —

J Maximum..

I Minimum _.

(Average—.

J Maximum.,

(.Minimum _

(Average —
{ Maximum.
I Minimum .

(Average —

_ J Maximum.

(Minimum _

(Average —

._ J Maximum.

I Minimum.

{Average —
Maximum.
Minimum _

(Average

_do < Maximum..

(.Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

jLamao Forest (Average

Reserve, Ba- < Maximum..
1 taan. I Minimum _.

(Average

Tarlac < Maximum..

I Minimum..

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum _.

(Average _„.
Maximum-
Minimum _

{Average .
Maximum-
Minimum

r-r-fe

H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H

55.2
82.6
35.3

52.7
76.1
36.1

63.1
106
35.6

52.2
60.1
46.6

42.2
66.4
35.2

36.3
37.2
35.5

49.4
81.6
35.5

66.2

84.5
35.4

37.3
40.8
35.6

38.7
46.7
35.1

56.1

86

45.7

45.4
59.8
36.5

68.4
87.9
36.3

75.4

94

61

57.3
67

40.4
44.6
35.8

44.7

55

37.7

0.60
.657
.478

.79
.872

.67
.77
.56

.807
.867
.75

.824
.895
.723

las

m^ a!

5,800
7,740
2,250

4,360
5,620
2,670

S.2&

7,050
9,000
2,810

6,690
9,420
5, 620

9,170
12, 220
2,110

5,660
7,880
1,410

.827 4,730
.845 4,920
.816 4,360

4,520
5,900
2,810

4,500
6,330
2,810

6,410
8,440
4,920

.668
.707
.636

.689
.608

.673

.692
.61

.755
.843
.70

.517
.57

.478

.56
.62
.515

.695
.734
.667

. 357 3, 000
. 379 3, 949
. 336 1, 970

£2

3

300
12, 450
3,120

7,960
11,680
5,620

5,450 7,430 9,410 1,226
9,150 10,820 13,640 1,840
1,480 2,050 2,050 550

11,210
13,750
2,810

7,400
9,570
2,540

6,420
7,030
5,620

5,740
6,890
4,150

6,480
7,380
5,280

8,180
8,870
7,180

r

Oftg

i,

1,920

1,295

1,

1,000

4,890 7,170
6,720 8,920
2,810 4,920

5,120
6,190
4,220

5,210
6,330
3,520

4,370
8,440
1,546

.511
.54
.492

.747
.77
.734

.757

3,560
5,620
2,110

8,090
9,140
6,330

7,070
10,400
5,350

6,280
6,750
5,780

6,200
7,390
3,940

6,120
8,790
3,550

4,240
4, 920
3,100

4,900
6,180
8,020

10,770
11, 940
8,430

9,005
12,400
5,350

13, 520
17,000
6,330

11, 770
14, 980
4,370

10,250
11, 400
8,640

7,870
9,520
5,510

8,690
10, 040
5,870

10, 050
11, 150
8,630

8,700
10,500
6,490

8,540
9,200
7,730

7,780
9,370
4,790

8,660
10, 880
5,180

5,650
6,600
4,400

6,250
7,950
3,060

15,000
16, 980
12,300

11,330
14,200
8,600

1,953
2,210
1,420

1,
2,

1,050

1

1,790
1,470

1,317
1,""

920

1,518
1,670
1,420

1,435
1,530
1,370

1,415
1,650
1,""

» The apparent elastic limit was used In order to compare tests of native woods wit*
similar tests of American woods. See table of tests, pp. 83, 84.

b Thls is not the wood commonly known as dungon, but is often sold under that naff*

69

of Philippine timber — Continued.

Moisture 20 to 35 per cent.

o

h

«J o

o
CO

OS

^ 2 M

<u «3 3
£ a> ft

B«3

ft 8/3
ft5"

aS a O /-s
<» 5 ^

<U a)
p 03

P m

B.2& p5^

n 52 n 2 So

33i$5

JO'S ft

s

l»!

(24.2

35
I 20.2

25.8
34.6
21

(34.5

2{ 34.5

134.4

0.606
.677
.485

.783
.83
.685

.743

.77

.717

i

H

H
H
)■

(26.4
33.9-
120

.1
34.5
26.3

30.7
31.9
29.5

26.3
27.1
25.6

29.3
34.4
20

5,930
7,600
2,110

5,580
7,730
3,520

7,530
7,740
7,320

.878 6,870 8,940
.924 9,850 11,400
.788 3,800 5,910

(.1
34
26.6

H

(26.6

30
124.1

26.7
30.4
23

.854

.89

.822

.685
.69

,663
.68
.646

.711
.835
.644

.827
.955
.712

7,290
9,140
2,390

6,640
9,420
5,070

9,520
9,700
9,350

"Sft

S&5 o:

•cl ft

8- fl>

!Kl

Moisture under 20 per cent.

a

9,050
12,470
4,220

7,900
12, 600
5,620

13,040
13,520
12,560

4,960
6,330
3,520

5,060
5,200
4,920

5,840
6,330
5,350

7,360
11,250
4,220

5,280
9,250
1,680

1,637
1,900
1,160

1,470
1,730
1,260

1,750
1,840
1,660

H
H

o
g o

12.8
19.3
4.2

18.1
19.6
16

18, 510
16,900
7,900

H
H
H

28.9
34.5

7

28.9
35.5
23.3

26.6

.4

20.6

.579
.602
.561

.77
.81
.734

6,910 10,600
8,440 13,150
4,220 7,260

6,540
7,040
6,050

7,180
7,600
6,760

10,070
12,660
7,450

7,520
11,010
2,410

9,070
9,200
8,940

10,310
10, 550
10,080

12,390
16,450
9,140

1,947
2,260
1,240

1,442
1,900
1,050

1,525
1,530
1,520

1,595
1,610
1,580

1,907
2,870
1,370

H

11.6
17.6
6.5

H

0.664
.70
.622

.816

.99

.713

-mo/ 3

p. -a

+3.5

.5+? a

gag

03 a '~

w .2 &

^OS

"OQ M

5^ ft

^ 2 M

8,350

9,610

10,540

12,230

4,220

4,500

6,000

6,440

7,580

7,740

4,780

4,780

.845
.985
.796

12.1
18.2
5.3

14.5
19.7
10.2

9,050 1,510
13,220 1,930
3,230 750 J

5,710
6,330
3,800

5,200
5,910
3,870

6,060
8,090
4,220

8,130
10,400

.547
.583
.505

.787
.864
.756

.802
.866
.72

3,460
4,920
1,410

9,490
11,250
8,440

5,800
9,710
2,890

7,010
10,000
4,690

10,560
13, 130
8,940

4,500 5,210
6,330 7,200
1,410 1,610

12,750
14,340
11,380

7,470
11,250
2,890

16,570
17,650
15,100

8,680
12,830
3,030

1,204
1,310
1,110

1,778
1,950
1,630

801

1,050

580

2,182
2,230
2,160

1,445
1,580
1,180

■32<

10.4
18.7
2.6

H

P S3

m
03 "O
pP.^

SI'S

""• ftp

"g

11,440
15,600
4,920

6,980
9,040
4,780

10,160
14, 760
5,770

13,460
18,300
7,180

,694
.712
.66

,625

5,760
7,730
3,520

10,060
15,500
7,040

17, 110
22,700
9,770

7,630
9,000
4,220

P-P

o ^.S

22— > ®

1,886
2,080
1,710

1,383
1,630
1,180

10, 880
13,540
4,800

11,670 13,100 1,863
15,800 16,850 2,280
7,730 7,810 1,475

6,050
.66 8,440
.54 4,220

15.7 .79
19.1 .82
12.3 .76

11.1
14.6
8.6

H

19.5
19.5
19.5

.37
.355

.808
.808

6,260
8,450
3,240

5,300
6,320
4,220

7,600
11,250
4,670

9,650
11,980
6,690

7,260
8,160
6,320

2,209
2,500
1,500

1,754
2,290
1,320

03

H

H

24<

0.616
.70
.478

.792
.99
.68

.673

.77
.56

.807
.867
.75

.857
.985
.723

.85
.89
.816

23^ .7
[ .6

23< .707
636

8,270
11,720
4,670

11,010
13,240
7,750

9,300
8,670

7,180
7,180
7,180

9,140
9,140
9,140

1,271
1,520
1,080

1,825
2,030
1,530

1,255
1,340
1,160

61

i

H
H

11,200 1,570
11,200 1,570
11,200 1,570

.646
.712
.608

.711
.835
.61

.818
.955
.70

.517
.57
.478

.578

.66

.515

.717

.82
.667

.527
.583
.492

.768

.864
.734

H

.806
.866
.72

70

Table I. — Cross-bending strength

Name.

Moisture over 35 per cent.

fc

2#

■M CO

P.'O

g g

-MO)

3
1
o

a>

P;
8

•a
o

fl

ot'So

p <a

P w

a>

W

par?

•gp.

•a

O Afl
So*

P

<a

■s M

rp p&

B

P

O

CD

M 52 M

a> * s

-2 a> a

u 2 fi
<v£ a)

P o o

3° 3

fc

8

CO

P4

fc<

a

a

H

59

0.77

6,290

7,690

11,200

1,536

71.8

.813

7,460

9,480

13, 240

1,710

50.7

.70

2,950

4,500

8,420

1,160

1 (

46.1

.692

4,490

6,800

9,780

1,697

31

61.1

.76

9,110

9,300

12,670

2,160

) I

35.7

.621

1,548

3,520

5,630

1,160

) (

53.9

.675

6,730

8,020

11,040

1,735

8

64.1

.753

8,000

8,850

11,680

1,840

) I

49.5

.613

6,320

6,880

9,620

1,530

H

92.5

.632

3,920

6,000

7,270

1,069

103

.707

5,280

7,730

8,920

1,395

77

.598

2,460

4,780

5,250

895

H

96.8

.579

5,900

7,010

9,080

1,213

111

.604

7,030

8,720

11,560

1,360

83.6

.553

4,080

4,570

5,810

1,080

] [

38.1

.849

5,780

8,460

11, 910

1,768

7

42.5

.882

7,380

10, 130

13,680

2,055

1 I

35.1

.82

3,160

6,330

10, 010

1,293

1 (

.61.6

.725

3,670

5,620

7,450

2,035

30

100

.798

5,240

7,750

9,340

2,400

1 I

45

.615

2,090

2,830

3,660

1,050

] (

46.2

.841

6,820

9,420

11,740

1,702

18

57.8

.883

8,440

10,550

14, 150

2,050

J 1

40

.784

3,800

7,310

9,510

1,480

} f

56

.623

5,840

7,040

8,930

1,461

24

105

.708

8,790

9,500

12, 450

1,680

J 1

36.6

.488

2,950

4,080

5,500

810

H

54.4

.777

4,540

6,350

9,320

1,427

61.2

.795

5,620

7,600

10,600

1,630

49.1

.76

2,540

4,080

5,900

1,200

1 1

1 1

H

82

.522

2,900

4,170

5,140

881

115

.572

5,070

6,880

7,390

1, 120

47.7

.455

1,400

2,860

4,080

575

H

75.8

.406

4,040

4,690

7,100

1,201

84

.43

4, 920

5,620

7,900

1,370

65

.371

2,110

2,250

2,610

870

H

67.7

.399

4,070

5,320

6,760

1,133

91

.456

4,920

6,330

8,300

1,420

48

.343

3,510

3,510

3,510

870

H

57.2

.635

4,780

6,930

10,280

1,627

72

.713

6,680

8,570

12,700

1,920

48.2

.553

2,810

5,200

6,900

1,290

u

) I

) f

60.9

.71

5,430

8,120

11,360

1,896

14

63

.73

7,720

10, 200

14,150

2,180

J I

57.6

.70

2,390

5,900

7,160

1,340

Tindalo_

Amuguis..

Do.

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum __

{Average
Maximum
Minimum __

Acle

Do.

Betia

Do.

Tarlac.

Zambales_.

Bansalaguin _

Palo Maria..

Tayabas

f Ambos Cama-
\ rines.

Unknown ___
Zambales.

Batltinan .

Aranga _

Banuyo _

Unknown ._.

Ambos Cama-

rines.

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

(Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum _
Minimum _

(Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average ___
Maximum _
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum _
Minimum _

Red Lauan.

Mayapis

Malugay

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

\ Negros. ] Minimum.

{Average ___
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

Sasalit.

Zambales.

(Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

Liusin

(Average
Maximum.
Minimum .

• The apparent elastic limit was used in order to compare tests of native woods with
similar tests of American woods. See table of tests, pp. 83, 84.

71

of Philippine timber — Continued.

Moisture 20 to 35 per cent.

Moisture under 20 per cent.

S
p
p

3

o
H

F

i
I

o

u

0>
£i

a

P

P

©

©

p.

©

P

s

o

n

•a
o

>.

o

3

"o

0)

ft

m

2 J ©
^ © A
En

la*

o8'8 ©
© <5 ©

.•9 ® ft

22

oo'O .

p a^
£ ° °

3 as

.5 -3 .

© p,-v

° &a

So £

OWOQ

3

GO

O
t-,

©

B
p

+3

a

o

M
0)
ft

©
p

s

o

2

b

o

go

©
Jg

'3
©

ft

©00

<8d ©

aj h in

138

£ © ft

p-d*

2 S £
£«£

X * »
•2 © ft

22

P 0Q
M

h.

© p^
* o «

ft.2
13 5 g

6wcQ

«M

Oj

1

a*

1

QQ

H

22.5
24.6
20.3

0.785
.788
.784

6,370
7,020
5,340

8,160
8,300
8,080

9,050
10,000
8,080

1,273
1,320
1,180

H

18.9
19.9
17.7

0.766

.808
.68

6,990
7,450
4,920

8,220
9,770
7,170

8,920
11,020
7,680

1,180

1,370

950

H

0.772
.813
.68

H

33.6
33.6
33.6

.75
.75
.75

5,620
5,620
5,620

8,590
8,590
8,590

12,050
12, 050
12,050

1,760
1,760
1,760

1

32J

.694
.76

I

.621

•i

.675
.753

.613

H

27.9
34.5
21

.635

.67

.607

5,630
6,330
4,640

6,830
8,870
5,340

7,550
9,750
5,980

1,138
1,210
1,060

)■!

15.7
15.7
15.7

.684
.684
.684

3,660
3,660
3,660

4,920
4,920
4,920

5,400
5,400
5,400

880
880
880

H
■1

.635

.707
.598

.579
.604

.553

H

31.8
34.4
27.1

.86

.886

.82

4,930
7,380
2,110

8,090
10,550
5,380

10,850
14,060
7,030

1,593
1,950
1,080

1 .

2o|

.856
886

I

.82

)■{

34
34
34

.806
.806
.806

4,190
4,190
4,190

5,660
5,660
5,660

7,580
7,580
7,580

2,020
2,020
2,020

1

,,{

.728
.806

1

.615

)■{

33.3
33.3
33.3

.88
.88
.88

6,750
6,750
6,750

7,030
7,030
7,030

7,740
7,740
7,740

1,740
1,740
1,740

H

15.5

17

14.3

.87

.905

.85

8,670
10, 250
6,330

11,870
13, 350

8,780

14, 480
18,200
12,400

2,311
2, 530
2,100

H

.85

.905

.784

.623
.708

.488

'1

5

6.2

4.1

.836

.85
.821

6,850
8,860
4,920

8,400
11, 100
5,770

9,630
12,300
7,030

1,655
1,910
1,450

H

.795
.85

.76

-I

31.4
34.8
29.3

.826

.86

.796

7,970
10, 200
4,790

11,070
12, 660

8,860

13, 440
16,900
10,300

2,061
2, 350
1,740

H

5.6
7.5
2.9

.882
.942
.832

12, 530
16,880
7,740

16,230
21,350
9,850

17, 920
24,450
11, 630

2,419
2,800
2,000

H

.859
.942
.796

M

29.3
29.3

.52
.52

4,220
4,220

5,340
5,340

5,940
5,940

1,105
1,105

H

17
13.4

.538
.523

4,030
2,810

5,530
5,200

6,000
5,800

1,070
1,000

H
"I

.525
.572
.455

.406
.43

.371

20J

.399
,456

.343

11

22.4
26.4
21

.656
,693
.625

5,790
6,900
3,800

7,530
8,080
6,900

10, 530
11,740
8,850

1,732
2,150
1,530

H

12

19.8
7.5

.686
.75
.62

7,730
9,850
4,090

11, 220
14,900
6,810

13,980
19,830
10,040

1,788
2,180
1,480

H

.658

.75

.553

a{

26.4
22

.901

.742

9,990
7,030

11,420
7,460

14,050
8,770

2,120
1,240

H

12.4
9

.839
,807

8,010
4,080

10,260
4,220

11,310
5,310

1,837
1,120

H

.872
.995
.742

1

"1

.71
,78

1

.70/

n

Table I. — Cross-tending strength

Name.

Lumbayao..

Agoho

Do

Locality.

Do.

Mangachapuy_.

Do-.

Dao

Cupang_.

[Basilan Is- (Average ._
land, Moro ^ Maximum.
[ Province. (Minimum __

(Average
Maximum..
Minimum

{Average __.
Maximum.
Minimum __

Moisture over 35 per cent.

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum .

{Average
Maximum,.
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

(Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

H
H

H

If

37.1
38.7
35.5

45.9
57.4
35.4

51.3

69

36.2

H

<U OQ

B fl

81s

0.545 5,620
. 56 6, 740
.53 4, 500

J2

5 « A

.704
.762
.62

.622
.55

96.2
129

.285
.368
.259

8,400
11,820
1,970

6,070

7,880
3,240

2,460
3,380
1,410

6,460
6,890
6,040

9,730
13, 220

2,670

7,430
8,290
5,620

22

a

oft

ll'S

©as

7,790
8,060
7,520

11, 920
15, 950
3,160

S3

1^

1,160
1,210
1,110

1,696

2,050

870

8,600
10, 320
7,020

3,090 3,580
3,940 4,530
2,250 2,550

1,528
1,710
1,260

779

1,100

160

* The apparent elastic limit was used in order to compare tests of native woods with
similar tests of American woods. See table of tests, pp. 83, 84.

73

of Philippine timber — Continued.

Moisture 20 to 35 per cent.

26.1
33.9
20.5

26

34.2

20

«!

0.552
603
483

34.8
23.5

(32.5
2 34
I 31

6o£

.854
.905
.80

.725
.75
.708

.631
.633
.63

h d

gas

© J* S
•2 © ft

6,550
8,870
3,510

7,620
10,000
4,150

6,620
9,000
4,080

9,030
10, 400
3,240

6,390
6,600
6,190

© p

'as
J 1 !

© * o
£ © ft
1*4

10,090
12,180
4,430

8,240
10,980
5,630

10,780

11,960

4,220

7,230
8,150
6,320

© ©

3 o3

11,730
16,100
370

14,190
16, 450
5,830

8,550
9,440
7,660

1,416

1,630

950

1,775
2,130
1,420

1,715

2,030

920

1,740
1,740
1,740

Moisture under 20 per cent.

l-l

12.7
19.5
5.3

0.584
.671
.53

17.6
19.7
16

l*

u

7,800
10,140
4,220

.942
.954

•£ d

8 H ©

5 0> ft

9,110
12, 380
4,220

8,620
9,150
7,740

© d
£ d
£ft~

« S 2

5 © ft

11,290
12,670
10,280

08

P CO

d
"3°

§d

^ -si

• a '3"

11, 390
14, 920
7,810

14, 6C0
15,420
14,250

*P

S

1, 570
1,870
1,340

1,970
2, 160
1,630

H

-I

»(

hh3

"S 9

0.565
.671
.483

.704
.762

.854
.905
.80

.942
.954

.59

.622

.55

.725

.75

.708

.285
.368
.259

74

Table II. — Compressive strength along

Name.

Lauan _

Do.

Almon..

Apitong _

Do..

Do..

Guijo..

Do..

Molave.

Do..

Yacal.

Narra..

Do-

Tanguile .

Do-

Locality.

Tanguile-balacbacan _

8acat_

Do-.

Ipil_

(Average
Maximum __.
Minimum

(Average
Maximum
Minimum

{Average
Maximum .
Minimum..

(Average
Maximum _.
Minimum

(Average
Maximum —
Minimum

Occidental Negros..

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum __

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum —

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum __

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum __

Ambos Camarines _

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum __

Moisture over 35 per cent.

Num-
ber of
tests.

[Average

Cagayan < Maximum—

[Minimum __

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum _.

I ■•

[Average

Zambales < Maximum—

I Minimum __

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum __

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum __

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum __

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum ..

70

20

78

34

Moisture
(per
cent).

18

) -

36

52.4

73

38.4

59.5

76

35.2

57.6
71.6
46.1

53

71.8
36

53.4
93

46.4

93.2
102
83

41.8
59.6

55.7
79.6
40.9

46.4

66

37

50.5
61.5
40.3

46.7

75

38.6

77.7

93

66.5

55.9
75.5
35.5

40.5
47.4
35.2

44.1

58.6
35.6

56.4
59.5
49.3

49.8
53.8
46.2

53.1

89.7
35.2

52.9
78.7
43.5

Specific

gravity

of dry

wood.

0.444

.485
.408

.478
.529
.412

.464
.52

.617
.715
.56

.679
.721
.588

.564
.581
.55

.675

.73

.629

.697
.806
.596

.772
.85

.784
.822
.712

.828

.85
.77

.563
.69
.535

.619
.68

.482

.53

.565
.47

.46
.54
.405

.509
.53

.479

.561
.585
.54

.60
.657
.478

.796
.872
.714

75

the gram of Philippine timber.

Moisture 20 to 85 per cent.

Moisture

(per

cent).

35
25

Specific

gravity

of dry

wood.

24

27.2

84

20

28.8

85

23.2

0.44
.47
.40

.711
.825
.664

Stress at
rupture
(pounds

per
square
inch).

Moisture under 20 per cent.

4,040
4,550
3,470

5,740
6,770
4,740

Number
of tests.

Moisture
(per
cent).

.719
.76
.673

20

94

29.7
34.6
20.2

29.5
35

21.8

18

28.5
34.2
21.1

30.6

35

27.2

.794
.858
.725

.832
.94
.76

6,160
7,220
4,900

7,080
8,800
6,100

8,340
9,510
6,250

36

.534

.77
.438

.485

.52

.355

5,290
7,060
4,160

5,030
5,450
3,752

I

26.6

22

34.8

20

1

25.9

30

31.7

21.6

.592
.677
.485

.779
.855
.68

32

5,500
5,910
3,990

6,250
7,600
4,280

16

12.4
19.4
3.3

14.4
19.4

15.2
15.2
15.2

Specific
gravity
of dry
wood.

14.6

19.8

7.5

12.7
18.8
5.2

13.4
18.1
10.7

7.5
9.7
4.8

13.7

19.9

8.8

9.6

19.2

1.7

12.4
19.7
4.2

17.7
19.9
14.8

0.458

.488
.404

.688
.735
.618

.748

.82

.68

Stress at
rupture
(pounds

per
square
inch).

.818
.88
.728

.849
.90
.814

.484
.531
.384

.424
.58
.376

.535
.606

.478

.661
.70
.601

.807
.99
.713

Total
number
of tests.

6,180
9,270
4,730

7,250
9,400
5,270

4,190
4,220
4,160

7,940
11,400
3,980

10,300
6,800

9,220
11,280
7,580

6,740
8,600
4,540

5,230
6,521
3,825

6,900
8,670
4,150

7,140
9,020
4.970

6,570
8,020
8,650

Specific

gravity

of dry

wood,

all tests.

70

150

20

110

115

50

157

60

92

134

0.448
.488
.40

.470
.529
.412

.464

.52

.378

.645
.825
.56

.687

.93

.588

.564
.581
.55

.708

.82

.629

.806
.596

.783
.88
.69

.784
.822
.712

.843
.94
.76

.563

.59

.535

.54
.77
.384

.469
.58
.355

.491
.606
.405

.509
.53
.479

.561
..585
.54

.616
.70
.478

.792

.99

.68

76

Table II. — Compressive strength alon$ the

Name.

Ipil-

Do_.

Dungon .

Do..

Do»„.

Malasantol _

Supa .

Do_

Balacat-.

Do_

Macaasim .

Calantas_,

Do..

Tindalo ...

Do_.

Do-.

Amuguis .

Do-.

Acle .

Locality.

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum _

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum .

{Average __ .
Maximum
Minimum _»

{Average —
Maximum..
Minimum __

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum _.

fLamao Forest Re- 1^?^-
i serve, Bataan. |JfSSX:;

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum __

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum __

{Average _„.
Maximum..
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum.
Minimum .

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum

_r, f Average —

Mindoro {Maximum—

(Minimum —

^ . (Average- —

Palawan -{Maximum-

I Minimum.-

Moisture over 85 per cent.

Num-
ber of
tests.

Tarlac—

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum __

10

16

76

Moisture
(per
cent).

12

54

1 ,(

60.4

89

37.5

51.4
61.2

44.8

44.1

58

37.1

36.9
37.5
36.2

50.7

82

35.5

64.4

86

37.4

36.1
36.3
36

37.2
41.6
35.1

52.6
61.6
39.5

44.7

63

36.8

63.9
81.5
35.2

77.3
89.6
62.9

57.3
64.7
46

41.9
44.8
38.3

43.9
58.1
37

56.7
70.1
50.7

45.2
57.8
36

54.1
61.6 I*
48.1

84.5
101
39.2

Specific

gravity

of dry

wood.

0.666
.75
.56

.807
.867
.75

.846
.723

.825

.84

.816

.669
.707
.636

.631

.68
.608

.677
.692
.644

.746
.855
.70

.517
.57

.478

.56
.62
.515

.703

.81

.667

.357
.379

.51
.54
.492

.747

.77

.734

.80
.86
.72

.77
.813
.70

.692
.76
.621

.675
.753
.613

.631
.707

* This is not the wood commonly known as dungon, but is often sold under that

W

grain of Philippine timber— Continued.

Moisture 20 to 36 per cent.

Number
of tests.

Moisture
(per
cent).

32.5
33.4
31.5

Specific
gravity
of dry

0.77

.77
.77

Stress at
rupture
(pounds

per
square
inch).

40

42

112

25.2

34

20

29.5
34.8
25.1

32.6

35

29

30.7
34.3
27.2

30.2
33.4
26

28.3
34.7
22.5

24.9
30.7
20

26.2
30.5
20

.985
.788

.854

.89

.822

.67
.69
.657

.684
.689
.679

.711
.835
.61

.819
.955
.712

6,030
6,470
5,530

Moisture under 20 per cent.

Number
of tests.

Moisture
(per
cent).

.588
.66
.561

.776
.78
.774

6,440
7,970
4,050

4,690
6,670
3,460

4,600
5,200
4,090

4,840
5,040
4,660

7,100
8,510
5,790

5,980
7,700
4,000

48

19.8
19.8
19.8

Specific
gravity
of dry
wood.

0.77
.77
.77

10.7

16.4

8

4,650
5,320
3,770

5,880
6,600
4,960

10

42

13.5
17.1
10

14.5

19.5

8.3

Stress at
rupture
(pounds

per
square
inch).

6,540
6,570
6,510

.839
.882
.796

9,420
11,970
6,410

Total
number
of tests.

10

26.3
32.2
23.8

28.8
32.4
23.6

27.4
32.7
22.5

22
23
20.1

34.8
30

80.2

84

25

.537
.583
.505

.787
.864
.756

.742

.753

.788

.707
.75
.641

.647
.684
.607

3,820
4,320
3,360

8,770
9,680

7,310
9,040
3,530

6,340
7,350
5,150

4,920
6,140
3,980

5,050
5,820
4,400

9.8
19.2
2.2

17.1

18

15.7

9.7
12.8
7.1

12.5

19.1

9.1

.694
.712

.713
.808
.625

.587
.638
.54

.793
.82
.76

.37
.355

.557
.573
.531

}---

16.9
17.6
15.7

18.6
19.4
16,9

.819
.83
.802

.794
.808
.784

6,580
8,040
5,140

8,700

10,340

7,046

5,530
7,590
4,020

6,860
7,650
5,980

4,420
4,830
3,230

3,520
4,360
2,890

7,710
8,650
7,040

6,780
7,660
5,950

Specific

gravity

of dry

wood,

all tests.

90

79

108

44

54

92

122

16

118

92

55

14

87

0.673
.77
.56

.807
.867
.75

.858
.985
.723

.85
.89
.816

.669
.707
.636

.646
.712

.711
.835
.61

.813
.955
.70

.617

.57

.478

.578
.66
.515

.717
.82
.667

.358
.379
.336

.527
.583
.492

.763
.864
.734

.805
.866
.72

.772
.813
.68

.693

.76

.621

.676
.763
.613

.635
.707
.598

78
Table II. — Compressive strength along tht

Name.

Locality.

Moisture over 35 per cent.

Num-
ber of
tests.

Moisture

(per

cent).

Specific
gravity
of dry
wood.

Acle

Betis

Do-

Bansalaguin __

Palo maria

Batitinan

Aranga

Banuyo

Red lauan

Mayapis

Malugay .

Sasalit

Liusin

Lumbayao .
Agoho

Do..

Do

Mangachapuy

Dao

Cupang

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.,

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

{Average ....
Maximum..
Minimum ..

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum _.

Occidental Negros .

Laguna..

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

r^f nd - Moro i&SSfc:

1 ™ vince ' iMinimum-

! Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

Mindoro

Palawan

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

(Average ...
Maximum.
Minimum _

60

40

18

28

40

14

26

94.9
106
81

38.2
42.7
31.6

59.5
79.3
42.8

43

53.6

35.1

50.2
103
35.1

54.9
61.6
48.5

77.9
110
35.3

76.9
92.3
63

63.5

85.4
44.1

55.8
70.8
46.6

60.9

63

57.6

44.2
56.4
35.3

46.2
62.7
35.4

93
128
59.8

0.579
.604
.553

.854
.882
.82

.725
.798
.615

.784

.618
.704
.488

.777
.795
.76

.527
.572
.46

.406

.43

.371

.899
.456
.343

.635
.713
.553

.71
.73
.70

.725
.762
.62

.602
.633
.55

.285
.368
.259

79

grain of Philippine timber — Continued.

Moisture 20 to 35 per cent.

Moisture under 20 per cent.

Total
number
of tests.

Number
of tests.

Moisture
(per
cent).

Specific
gravity
of dry
wood.

Stress at
rupture
(pounds

per
square
inch).

Number
of tests.

Moisture
(per
cent).

Specific
gravity
of dry
wood.

Stress at
rupture
(pounds

per
square
inch).

Specific

gravity

of dry

wood,

all tests.

1

12

f 0. 579
< .604

r

1 .553

1

24

( 81.5

34. 8

I 28.3

0.857
.886
.82

6,410
7,330
5,000

1

38

f .856
< .886

)

I .82

)

2

f 84
\ 34
I 34

.806
.806
.806

4,410
4,540
4,290

1

62

f .728
< .806

J

I .615

1

2

f 32.8
I 32.8
I 32.8

.883
.883
.883

7,140
7,310
6,980

1

12

(

14.5
16.5
12.1

0.87
.905
.85

8,630
9,560
7,800

}

48

f .85
< .905
I .784

)

2

f 34.2

35
I 33.4

.674
.708
.64

5,720
6,240
5,340

1

42

f .623
I .708

J

I .488

i

8

1

5

5.6

4.4

.836
.85
.821

9,290
10,640
7,190

I

26

f .795
< .85

1

1 .76

36

f 31.2
{ 34.5
I 27.7

.826

.86

.796

8,020
8,730
6,840

)

52

(

4.9
6.4
3.4

.882
.942
.832

12,420
14, 920
9,290

)

88

f .859
{ .942
I .796

)

4

( 24.2
I 28
I 20.5

.50
.546
.455

3,990
4,470
3,400

}

4

1

15.5

17.8
13.3

.534
.545
.523

4,150
4,470
3,530

}

38

f .525
\ .572
I .455

1

28

f .406
< .43

i

I .371

)

40

f .399
I .456

i

l .343

i

18

f 22.1
\ 35.9
I 20

.666

.71

.625

5,740
7,270
5,160

)

26

1

11.2

18.8
7.4

.683

.75

.62

8,080
10, 930
4,830

I

8

r .658
{ .75
I .558

i

42

f 25.7
I 31.1
( 21.5

.89

.984

.742

9,290
11,890
6,600

1

34

1

11.3
15.8

8.7

.849
.995
.815

9,100
11, 180
6,400

I

76

8

f .872
{ .995
( .742

f .71
< .73

1

1 .70

54

f 25.2
I 31.5
I 20.1

.551
.603
.483

5,480
6,390
4,520

)

52

I

12.5
19.7
5.3

.58
.671
.53

6,410
8,100
3,550

I

106

f .565
\ .671
1 .483

1-

56

f .725
I 762

J

I .*62

36

( 27
I 34.8
I 20.4

.858

.94

.78

5,770
7,770
4,330

1

36

f .858
{ .94

i

t .78

8

1

18.3
19.6
17.6

.909
.954
.93

7,370
8,580
5,010

)

8

( .909
J 954

1 !93

26

f 29.6
{ 33.1
I 24.9

.726

.75

.51

7,730
8,280
6,950

1

26

f .726
I .75

i

l .51

L

14

f .602
< 633

)

I .*55

1-

26

f .285
I .368
I .259

)

80

Table III. — Shearing strength along the grain of Philippine timber.
[Results averaged regardless of moisture content.]

Name,

Locality.

Num-
ber of
tests.

Specific
gravity
of dry
wood.

Lauan_

Do.

Almon

Apitong .

Do_.

Do_.

Guijo..

Do.

Molave _

Do_.

Yacal_.

Narra_.

Do

Tanguile .

Do_

Tanguile-balac bacan _.

Sacat -

Do_.

{Average —
Maximum..
Minimum —

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum..
Minimum —

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum _.

{Average —
Maximum-
Minimum _.

(Average —
Maximum..
Minimum ..

{Average —
Maximum-
Minimum _.

{Average —
Maximum..
Minimum _.

Ipil.

! Average
Maximum-
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

Occidental Negros_.

{Average ___
Maximum-
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum _-

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum _.

Ambos Camarines -

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

150

129

51

150

59

70

26

1 »

132

1 -

0.446
.488
.40

.478
.529
.412

.464

.52

.378

.645
.825
.56

.687
.93

.588

.564
.581
.55

.708

.82

.629

.697
.806
.596

.784

.88

.69

.784
.825
.716

.843
.94

.563
.59
.535

.54
.77
.384

0.471
.58
.355

.491
.606
.405

.509

.53

.479

.561

.585
.54

.616

.70

.478

.793
.99
.68

81
Iable III. — Shearing strength along the grain of Philippine timber — Continued.
[Results averaged regardless of moisture content.]

Name.

Ipil-

Do_.

Dungon _

Do..

Malasantol .

Do_.

Balacat..

Do..

Macaasim _

Calantas..

Do..

Tindalo..

Do_.

Do..

Amuguis _

Do...

Locality.

{Average
Maximum-
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum..
Minimum _:

i Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

(Average
Maximum-
Minimum..

(Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

{Average ...
Maximum.
Minimum __

(Average
Maximum..
Minimum _.

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum __

(Average
Maximum..
Minimum __

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum __

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum __

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum

(Average

Unknown i Maximum

I Minimum

{Average
Maximum..
Minimum __

(Average.

Masbate i Maximum.

I Minimum _

iAveracre
Maximum!.
Minimum __

(Average.

Num-
ber of
tests.

Palawan i Maximum..

I Minimum..

* This is not the wood commonly known as dungon but is often

103553 6

90

1 44

118

117

35

56

Specific
gravity
of dry
wood.

Stress at
rupture
(pounds

per
square
inch).

.673

.77

.56

948

1,445

410

.807
.867
.75

753

1,226

525

.852
.985
.723

1,253

1,854

672

.85
.89
.816

1,298

1,560

925

.669
.707
,636

855

1,102

563

,646
.712
.608

720

1,110

409

.71

.835

.61

898

1,480

520

.813
.955
.70

852

1,380

293

.517
.57

.478

486
638
300

.578

.66

.515

692

1,281

253

.717

.82

.667

916

1,390

376

.358
.379
.336

526
870
289

.527
.583
.492

778

1,049

455

[ .763
.864
.734

1,004

1,460

685

f 0.805
.866
.72

911

1,507

299

[ .772
.813
.68

905

1,226

496

f .692
.75
.621

824

1,762

396

[ .675
.753
.613

851

1,107

641

14

sold under that name.

82

Table III. — Shearing strength along the grain of Philippine timber — Continued.
[Results averaged regardless of moisture content.]

Name.

Acle

Do

Betls

Do

Bansalaguin

Palo maria

Batitinan

Aranga

Banuyo

Red lauan

Mayapis

Malugay

Sasalit

Liusin

Lumbayao

Locality.

{Average .__
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average —
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average —
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average ...
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average ...
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _,

{Average
Maximum.
Minimum _

{Average ...
Maximum.
Minimum _

(Average ...
Maximum.
Minimum _

{BasUan Island, Moro Prov- &™?Zm:
1 lnce * (Minimum.

Num-
ber of
tests.

46

82

Specific
gravity
of dry
wood.

.707

.579
.604
.553

.856
.886
.82

.728
.806
.615

.85

.905

.784

.623
.708

.488

.863
.94J
.796

.525
.572
.455

.406

.43

.371

. 456
.343

.658

.75

.553

.872
.995
.742

.71
.73
.70

.565
.671
.483

83

Table IV.— Summary of mechanical tests on thirty-two species of American woods.

[From Tables, I, II, IV, V, and VI Circular No. 15, Division of Forestry, United States
Department of Agriculture.]

Kind of wood.

Reduced to 15 per cent moisture.

Longleaf pine _

Cuban pine

Bhortleaf pine_
Loblolly pine__

Reduced to 12 per cent moisture.

White pine

Red pine

Spruce pine ~_

Bald cypress

White cedar "_

Douglas spruce* (Oregon pine)_

White oak

Overcup oak !!"!!

Post oak 111""""

Cow oak "

Red oak 111111!

Texan oak 1111J11111.

Yellow oak I!!!!

Water oak 11111"!

Willow oak

Spanish oak .

Shagbark hickory__.
Mockernut hickory ,

Water hickory

Bitternut hickory __.

Nutmeg 1 hickory

Pecan hickory

Pignut hickory __

White elm

Cedar elm

White ash

Green ash

Sweet gum

Specific
gravity
of dry
wood.

0.61
.63
.51
.53

.50
.44
.46
.37

.51
.80
.74
.80
.74
.73
.73
.72
.73
.72
.73
.81
.85
.73
.77
.78
.78
.89
.54
.74
.62
.62
.59

Fiber
stress at
relative
(appar-
ent) elas-
tic limit
(pounds

per
square
inch).

8,500
9,500
7,200
8,200

6,400
7,700
8,400
6,600
5,800
6,400
9,600
7,500
8,400
7,600
9, 200
9,400
8,100
8,800
7,400
8,600
11,200
11, 700
9,800
11,100
9, 300
11, 500
12, 600
7,300
8,000
7,900
8,900
7,800

Modulus
of rup-
ture
(pounds

per
square
inch).

10,900

11,900

9,200

10,100

7,900
9,100
10,000
7,900
6,300
7,900
13, 100
11,300
12, 300
11,500
11, 400
13,100
10, 800
12,400
10, 400
12, 000
16,000
15, 200
12, 500
15, 000
12, 500
15, 300
18, 700
10, 300
13, 500
10, 800
11,600
9,500

Modulus

of elas-

ticitv

(1,000

pounds

per
square
inch).

1,890
2,300
1,600
1,950

1,390
1,620
1,640
1,290
910
1,680
2 090
1,620
2,030
1,610
1,970
1,860
1,740
2,000
1,750
1,930
2,390
2, 320
2,080
2, 280
1,940
2,530
2,730
1, 540
1,700
1,640
2, 050
1,700

Stress at
rupture

com-
pression

along
the grain
(pounds

per
square
inch).

6,900
7,900
5,900
6,500

5,400
6,700
7,300
6,000
5,200
5,700
8,500
7,300
7,100
7,400
7,200
8,100
7,300
7,800
7,200
7,700
9,500

10, 100
8,400
9,600
8,800
9,100

10, 900
6,500
8,000
7,200
8,000
7,100

Stress at
rupture
shearing

along
the grain;

not re-
duced for
moisture
(pounds

per
square
inch).

700
700
700
700

400

500

800

500

400

500

1,000

1,000

1,100

900

1,100

900

1,100

1,100

900

900

1,100

1,100

1,000

1,000

1,100

1,200

1,200

800

1,300

1,100

1,000

800

a Actual tests on "dry" material not reduced for moisture.

84
Table V.* — Comparison of selected Philippine, Borneo, and American tooods.

Name.

Locality

Aranga

Billian (Borneo iron-
wood).

Pignut hickory

Dungon

Yacal

Merabau (Borneo ipil) .

White oak

Molave .

Guijo

Selangan batu (Bor-
neo yacal).

Apitong

Longleaf pine

Ipil

Lauan

Oregon pine

California redwood

Philippine Islands-
Borneo

United States

Philippine Islands.

do

Borneo

United States

Philippine Islands.

do

Borneo

_ >ine Islands.

United States

Philippine Islands.

do

United States

do

Compression
along the grain.

Aver-
age
per
cent
mois-
ture.

4.9
22.5

12

10.7

13.4

21

12

12.7

14.6

27.6

14.4

15

17.7

12.4

12

13.3

Average
stress at
rupture
(pounds

per
square
inch).

12,420
11,290

10, 900
9, 420
9, 220
9,035
8, 500
8,330
7, 940
7, 420

7, 250
6,900
6, 570
6,180
5,700
5,560

Cross-bending.

Average

Aver-

modulus

age

of rup-

per

ture

cent

(pounds

mois-

per

ture.

square

inch).

5.6

17, 920

22.5

19, 660

12

18,700

11.6

17,110

15.6

15, 690

21

18, 830

12

13, 100

10.4

8,580

13.7

15,150

27.6

12, 325

14

11,620

15

10, 900

18.1

6,980

10.4

9,760

12

7,900

12.3

9,110

Average
modulus
of elas-
ticity
(1,000
pounds

per
square
inch).

2, 419
2, 384

2, 730
2,209
2,583
2, 505
2, 090
1,614
2,158
2, 027

2,144
1,890
1,383
1,653
1,680
1, 320

Aver-
age
specific
gravitr
of dry
wood.

0.8,5!

.51

* Table VI of the original report.

Appendix II.

bibliography of the forests and forest products of the

philippines.

1. Bureau of Forestry Publications.

Appendix K. K. Report of the Military Governor in the Philippines. (1900.)

(This appendix contains the first annual report of Capt. Geo. P. Ahern, who

on April 14, 1900, was assigned the task of organizing a forest service for

the Philippines.)
Appendix II. Report of the Military Governor in the Philippines. (1901.)

(This appendix contains the report of the operations of the Forestry Bureau

from July 1, 1900, to May 16, 1901.)
Special report of Capt. George P. Ahern, in charge of the Forestry Bureau of

the Philippine Islands, covering the period from April 1, 1900, to July 30,

1901.
Report of the Bureau of Forestry of the Philippine Islands from July 1, 1901,

to September 1, 1902. Report of the Philippine Commission, 1902. Appendix

J, pp. 451-527.
Report of the Forestry Bureau of the Philippine Islands for the year ended

September 1, 1903. Report of the Philippine Commission, 1904. Appendix

E, part 2, pp. 277-325.
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Forestry from September 1, 1903, to August

31, 1904. Report of the Philippine Commission, 1904, part 2, Appendix

H, pp. 328-378.
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Forestry for the period from September

1, 1904, to August 31, 1905.
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Forestry, 1905. Report of the Philippine

Commission, 1906, part 2, Appendix C, pp. 107-117.
Annual Report of the Director of Forestry of the Philippine Islands for the

period July 1, 1905, to June 30, 1906.
Annual Report of the Director of Forestry of the Philippine Islands, July 1,

1906, to June 30, 1907.

Annual Report of the Director of Forestry of the Philippine Islands, July 1,

1907, to June 30, 1908.

Annual Report of the Director of Forestry of the Philippine Islands, July 1,

1908, to June 30, 1909.

Annual Report of the Director of Forestry of the Philippine Islands, July 1,

1909, to June 30, 1910.

Ahern, Geo. P. Important Philippine Woods. 1901 (Manila).

Merrill, E. D. Report on Investigations made in Java in the year 1902. Bull.

1, For. Bur., Manila (1903).
The Forest Manual. Bur. For., 1904 (Manila).
Maule, Wm. M. The Charcoal Industry in the Philippine Islands. Bull 2,

Bur. For., Manila (1906).
Ahern, Geo. P. A compilation of Notes on India Rubber and Gutta-percha.

Bull. 3, Bur. For., P. I. (1906).

85

86

Gabdneb, Holland. I. Mechanical Tests, Properties, and Uses of Thirty Philip.

pine Woods. II. Philippine Sawmills, Lumber Market, and Prices. Bull

4, Bur. For., P. I. (1906). (Second edition, 1907, contains tests of thirty.

four woods.)
Everett, H. D., and Whitford, H. N. A Preliminary Working Plan for the

Public Forest Tract of the Insular Lumber Company, Negros Occidental,

P. I. Bull. 5, Bur. For., Manila (1906).
Merritt, M. L., and Whitford, H. N. A Preliminary Working Plan for the

Public Forest Tract of the Mindoro Lumber and Logging Company, Bongabon,

Mindoro, P. I. Bull. 6, Bur. For., Manila (1906).
Whitford, H. N. A Preliminary Check List of the Principal Commercial Timbers

of the Philippine Islands. Bull. 7, Bur. For., Manila (1907).
Useful Information Concerning Philippine Public Forests and Possibilities for

their Exploitation. Circular 2, Bur. For., P. L, May 28, 1908, and Circular

4, Bur. For., P. I., Oct. 1, (1909).
A Few Pertinent Facts Concerning the Philippine Forests and Needs of the

Forest Service, that Should Interest Every Filipino. Circular 3, Bur. For.,

Manila (1908).
Merritt, M. L. The Forests of Mindoro. Bull. 8, Bur. For., Manila (1908).
Hutchinson, W. I. A Philippine Substitute for Lignum- Vitse. Bull. 9, Bur. For.

Manila (1908). Second edition (1909).

2. Works in Spanish on the Forestry, Forest Products, and Forest
Botany of the Philippines.

Blanco, M. Flora de Filipinas, 1st edition, 1837.

Blanco, M. Flora de Filipinas, 2nd edition, 1845.

Blanco, M. Flora de Filipinas, 3rd edition, 1877-83.

Vidal, S. Memoria sob re el ramo de Montes en las Islas Filipinas, 1874.

Vidal, D. Manual del maderero en Filipinas, 1877.

Vidal, S. Catalogo metodico de las plantas lenosas silvestres y cultivada9

observadas en la Provincia de Manila, 1880. Madrid (extract from Revista

de Montes ) .
Vidal, S. Flora forestal de Filipinas; Sinopsis de familias y ggneros, Manila,

1883.
Vidal, S. Phanerogamae Cumingianae Philippinarum. (1885) Manila.
Vidal, S. Revisi6n de Plantas Vasculares Filipinas. (1886) Manila.
Delgado, Juan J. Historia General Sacro-profana, Politica y Natural, 1892.

Pp. 407-707, Manila.
Tavera, T. H. Pardo de. Plantas medicinales de Filipinas. Manila (1892)

English translation by J. B. Thomas. (1901.)
Puigdulles, E. M. Apuntes para el mejor conocimiento, etc. Manila, 1895.
Reglamento definitivo para el Servicio del Ramo de Montes de Filipinas, Manila,

1898.
Los Arboles de la Goma, resinas y frutos oleosos de Filipinas por D. Regino Garcia

y Baza. Manila, 1902.

3. Systematic Botanical Publications Since 1903.

Technical tree descriptions may be found scattered through the following publica-
tions :

Bulletins 6, 17, 29, and 35, Bureau of Government Laboratories (Bur. of Sci.)>
Manila.

87

Philippine Journal of Science. Supp. 1 (1906) and Section C, vols. 2 (1907) to

5 (1910). Phil. Jour. Sci., Manila.
Leaflets of Philippine Botany, edited by A. D. E. Elmer (1907-1910).

-L Other Papers Eelating to the Philippine Forests and Their

Products.

Sherman, P. I. Gutta-percha and Rubber of the Philippine Islands. Bull. 7

(1903), Bur. of Gov. Lab., Manila.
Merrill, E. D. A Dictionary of the Plant Names of the Philippine Islands. Bull.

8 (1903), Bur. of Gov. Lab., Manila.
Clover, A. M. Philippine Wood Oils. Phil. Jour. Sci., 1 (1906), 191-202.
Whitford, H. N. Vegetation of the Lamao Forest Reserve. Phil. Jour. Sci., I

(1906), 373-432, and 637-682.
Richmond, G. F. Philippine Fibers and Fibrous Substances: Their Suitability

for Paper Making (Part II). (Deals with bamboo principally.) Phil. Jour.

Sci., I (1906), 1075-1085.
Foxworthy, F. W. Philippine Woods. Phil. Jour. Sci., Sec. C, 2 (1907),

351-404.
Clover, A. M. The Terpene Oils of Manila Elemi. Phil. Jour. Sci., Sec. A, 2

(1907), 1-40.
Richmond, G. F. Philippine Fibers and Fibrous Substances: Their Suitability for

Paper Making (Part III). Phil. Jour. Sci., Sec. A, 2 (1907), Gen. Sci.,

81-114, and 4, 233-255.
Richmond, G. F., and Rosario, M. Commercial Utilization of Some Philippine

Oil-bearing Seeds: Preliminary paper. Phil. Jour. Sci., Sec. A, 2 (1907),

439-449.
Foxworthy, F. W. Lumbayao (Tarrietia javanica Blume). Phil. Jour. Sci.,

Sec. C, 3 (1908), 171-174.
Foxworthy, F. W. Indo-Malayan Woods. Phil. Jour. Sci., Sec. C, 4 (1909),

409-592.
Whitford, H. N. Studies in the Vegetation of the Philippines. I. The Composi-
tion and Volume of the Dipterocarp Forests of the Philippines. Phil. Jour.

Sci., Sec. C, 4 (1909), 699-725.
Bacon, R. F. Philippine Terpenes and Essential Oils (III and IV). Phil.

Jour. Sci., Sec. A, 4 (1909), 93-122, 257-265.
Bacon, R. F., and Gana, V. Q. The Economic Possibilities of the Mangrove

Swamps of the Philippines. Phil. Jour. Sci., 4. ( 1909 ) , A. Gen. Sci., 205-210.
Foxworthy, F. W. The Almaciga Tree; Agathis alba. Phil. Jour. Sci., Sec. A,

5 (1910), 173-176.
Richmond, G. F. Manila Copal. Phil. Jour. Sci., Sec. A, 5 (1910), 177-201.

GENERAL INDEX.

Page.

Agoho (firewood) 51

Agoho (tanbark) 53

Agreements, exclusive license 62

Alcohol, nipa 60

Almaciga 55

American woods, mechanical tests of.. 83, 84

Anahao 60

Analysis of tanbarks 53

Anibong 60

Anilao (bast) 54

Apitong oil 55

Apitongs, uses of 33

Appendix I, Mechanical tests 65

Appendix II, Bibliography 85

Application for exclusive license

agreement 62

Arpa of dipterocarp types 18

Area of mangrove swamps 51

Area of types, table of 17

Areas of forest, total 12

Axles (see also Carriage building).... 41

Bacauans (firewood) 51

Bacauan (tanbark) 53

Balao (.see also Dipterocarp resins).... 55

Bale ties (see also Rattan) 59

Balete (see also Gutta-percha and

Rubber) 57

Balukanad 56

Bamboos 60

Barks 52

Barks for tying 53

Barks, percentage of tannin in man-
grove 53

Barks (tanning), analysis of 53

Barks used for making ropes 53

Barks used for soap 54

Basts for tying (see also Other

barks) 53

Bataan, volume of trees in 24

Bayabas (firewood) 52

Beach type 29

Bejucos (see also Rattans) 58,59

Benguet pine 31

Betis family (see also Gutta-percha

and Rubber) 57

Bibliography 85

Blocks, paving 40

Board feet, equivalent in cubic

meters 12

Boog 13

Booms 39

Borneo mahogany 36

Page.
Borneo timber sold in China as

Philippine 44

Borneo woods, strength of 84

Botanical publications 86

Boxes and dry measures 40

Brazil wood 54

Brea 56

Bridges 39

Bureau of Forestry publications 85

Buri 60

Busain (tanbark) 53

Cabinetwork, furniture and 40

Caingin making 13

Calaanan 13

Calorific power of mangrove woods.... 51

Camachile (tanbark) 53

Canes 40

Carabaos used for logging 45, 46

Carriage building 41

Carving and engraving 40

Cascalote (see also Barks) 52

Castilloa 57

Ceara rubber 57

Cedar, West Indian : 36

Characteristics of forest types, table

of 34

Charcoal 52

Charges for forest products 62

Charges for minor products 63

China market for timber 44

Chinese wood oil 56

Classes of vegetation 12

Climate 15

Climbing ferns 58

Climbing palms 58, 59

Cross-bending strength, tests of 66-73

Cogon 13

Compressive strength along grain,

tests of 74-79

Consumption of timber, total, 1909-10 43

Cost of transportation 49

Cutch 52

Cutch manufacture, opportunities for.. 52

Cutting regulations 64

Dalingdingan-isak sold as Mangacha-

puy 33

Danling-aso (bast) 54

Davao Gulf, volume of trees 30

Decks 39

Diameter limit, minimum 64

Diameter of Philippine trees 10

Diliman 58, 59

89

90

Page.
Dipterocarp family :

Abundance of 11

Importance of 9

Dipterocarp resins 55

Dipterocarp types 18

Dipterocarps, uses of 32

Disposal of forest products 61

Dita, yields rubber 58

Dogbane family (see also Gutta-
percha and Rubber) 57,58

Domba oil 56

Doors 40

Dry season 16

Dugtung-ahas, rubber vine 58

Durable timbers 37

Dyebarks 53

Total production, 1909-10 54

Dyeing (see also Barks) 52

Dyewood 54

Edible rattans 58

Elemi, Manila 56

Engraving, carving and 40

Exclusive licenses 62

Exports of timber, 1909-10 44

Felloes (see also Carriage building).. 41

Ferns, climbing 58

Fig family (see also Gutta-percha and

Rubber) 57

Finish, interior (see also Interior

trim) 40

Fires, prairie and forest 15

Firewood 51

Amount cut, 1909-10 43

Price of 52

Fishtail palm 60

Floors 40

Forest fires 15

Forest products :

Charges for 62

Disposal of 61

Gathered with charge 62

Obtained free of charge 61

Forest reserves, legal status of 60

Forest, types of 17

Forest types, table of characteristics

of 34

Forests :

Second-growth 14

Virgin 15

Virgin, area of 12

Framing (see also House construc-
tion) 39

Fuel :

Total cut, 1909-10 51

Woods used for 51

Furniture and cabinet making 40

Furniture, rattan used for 59

Girders (see also House construction) 39

Gogo (soap bark) 54

Gogong-toko (soap bark) 54

Grass lands 13

Groups of timber 63

Guava (see also Bayabas) 52

Guisoc resin 55

Gulsoc sold as yacal 33

Gums (see also Resins and oils) 54

Gutta-percha and rubber 57

Hagnaya 58, 59

Hand sawing 47

Handles 41

Hardness :

Table of 43

Weight and 41

Harigues (see also House construc-
tion) 39

Hat materials 58

Hats, rattan used for 59

Heating power of agoho 51

Heating power of mangrove woods 51

Height of Philippine trees 10

House construction 39

Hubs (see also Carriage building) 41

Illuminating oils (see also Other

resins and oils) 56

Imports of timber, 1909-10 43

India rubber :... 57

Instruments, musical 41

Interior trim 40

Ipil a substitute for teak 37

Ipil-ipil (firewood) 52

Joists (see also House construction).. 39

Jungle 15

Kalipaya 57

Kauri resin (see also Almaciga) 55

Keels 38

Keelson 38

Kilns, charcoal 52

Labor 49

Langarai (tanbark) 53

Late 13

Lauan-apitong type 24

Lauan-hagachac type 21

Lauan type 19

Lauans, uses of 32

Lefias 52

Lianas in dipterocarp type 18

Lianas, minor products from 58

License agreements, exclusive 62

Licenses < 62

Licenses issued, 1909-10 45

Lignum-vitse, substitute for 39

Logging operations 44

Logging railroads 47

Logging, steam 47

Lumbang nuts, crop of, Mindanao,

1907-08 56

Lumbang oil 56

Lumbayao, stand of, in Mindanao H

Lumber, forest charges on 62

Lumbering in the Philippines 43

Lumbering, opportunities for 50

Madre-cacao (firewood) 52

Mahogany, Borneo 3 °

Mahogany, Philippine 33,36

Mahogany, substitutes for 36

Malayacal sold as yacal 33

Malubago (bast) 53

Mangrove barks, percentage of tannin

In 53

Mangrove cutch 52

91

Page.

Mangrove swamps, area of 51

Mangrove swamp in Mindanao, vol-
ume of trees in ' 29

Mangrove swamps (see also Mangrove

type) 28

Mangrove type 28

Mangrove woods 51

Mangrove woods, calorific power of.... 51

Manila elemi 56

Manila, prices of lumber in 44

Markets for timber 44

Masts 38

Match making 41

Measurement of logs in Philippines.... 12

Measurement of logs in United States.. 11

Measures, boxes and dry 40

Mechanical tests, tables of 65

Methods of logging 45

Metric system, equivalent in board

feet 12

Milling operations 47

Mindanao, volume of trees :

In mangrove swamp 29

In Port Banga region 23

On delta plain in eastern 21

Mine props (see also Mining timbers).. 39

Miner's licenses 62

Minimum diameter limit 64

Mining timbers 39

Minor forest products 51

Minor products, forest charges on.... 63

Minor products from vines 58

Moisture content of timber (see also

Appendix I) 65

Molave a substitute for teak 37

Molave type 26

Mossy-forest type 31

Mountain forests 31

Museum of Bureau of Forestry 64

Musical instruments 41

Narig sold as yacal 33

Nigi (dyebark) 53

Ningpo varnish 56

Nipa 60

Nito 58, 59

Oil:

Lumbang r 56

Palo maria 56

Oils, resins and 54

Ordinary licenses 62

Operations :

Tracts suitable for large 50

Tracts suitable for small 50

Opportunities for cutch manufacture.. 52

Opportunities for lumbering 50

Padouk 36

Paints, lumbang oil used for 56

Palma brava 60

Palm cider (see also Erect palms).... 60

Palm vinegar (see also Erect palms).. 60
Palms :

Climbing 58, 59

Erect 60

Palo maria oil 56

Palosapis oil 55

Panao oil 55

Page.

Para rubber .. 57

Parang 15

Paving blocks 40

Philippine mahogany 33, 36

Philippine woods, strength of (see

also Appendix I) 65

Pili resin 56

Piling, salt-water 38

Pine resin 56

Pine, stands of 31

Pine type 30

Poles, telegraph and telephone 41

Posts (see also House construction).. 39

Pototan (tanbark) 53

Pototans (firewood) 51

Prairie fires 15

Prices of lumber In Manila 44

Protective forests (see also Mossy-
forest type) 31

Public forest, legal status of 60

Publications :

Bureau of Forestry 85

Systematic botanical 86

Pugahan 60

Rafting 49

Railroads, logging 47

Railroad ties 39

Rails, ship's 39

Rainfall, average annual 15; 16

Rainy season 15

Rajas 52

Rattan, total product, 1909-10 59

Rattans 58, 59

Edible ,.. 58

In dipterocarp type 18

Regulations for cutting 64

Resin, pine 56

Resins and oils 54

Resins, dipterocarp 55

Ribs of ships 38

Roofing, nipa 60

Rope made of barks 53

Rubber, gutta-percha and 57

Rubber vines 57, 58

Rudders 38

Sagasi 60

Salingkugi (soap bark) 54

Salt-water piling 38

Samal, dipterocarp forest in Island of 27

Sarawag 60

Sash 40

Sawing, hand and steam 47

Sawkerf of hand and steam saws 48

Seasons, dry and rainy 15, 16

Seaworm 38

Second-growth forests 14

Shafts (see also Carriage building).. 41

Shearing strength, tests of 80-82

Shipbuilding 38

Shipworm, woods that resist 38

Shoes, wooden 41

Sibucao (dyewood) 54

Sides of ships 38

Singapore timber sold in China as

Philippine 44

Size of timber trees 10

Page.

Soap barks 54

Soap manufactured from lumbang oil 56

Soil, topography and 16

Spanish cedar (West Indian cedar).. 86
Spokes and felloes (see also Carriage

building) 41

Stairs 40

Stand of lumbayao, Mindanao 11

Stands of pine 31

Stand of timber:

Bataan 24

Davao Gulf 30

Delta plain, eastern Mindoro 21

Mangrove swamp, Mindanao 29

Port Banga region, Mindanao.... 23

Steam logging 47

Steam sawing 47

Strength of American woods 83

Strength of Philippine, Borneo, and

American woods 84

Strength of Philippine woods (see

also Appendix I) 65

Stumpage charges 63

Stumps of posts (see also House con-
struction) 39

Substitutes for:

Lignum-vitae 39

Mahogany 36

Teak 37

Tabango, rubber vine 57, 58

Tabigi (dye bark) 53

Talahib 13

Taloktok (bast) 54

Tanag (bast) 54

Tanbarks 52

Total production, 1909-10 54

Analysis of 53

Tangal :

Dye bark - 53

Firewood 51

Tanoark 53

Tanguile-oak type .. 25

Tannin 53

Percentage of, in mangrove barks 53

Taxes, timber land exempt from 64

Teak, substitutes for 37

Telegraph and telephone poles 41

Teredo, woods that resist 38

Termites, woods that resist (see also

Durable timbers) 37

Tests, mechanical 65

Thatching, nipa 60

Ties, railroad 39

Ties for bales (see also Rattan) 59

Timber :

Commercial, number of species.... 32

Exported, 1909-10 44

Groups of 63

Trees, size of 10

Tool handles 41

Page.

Topography and soil 1$

Torches (see also Dipterocarp resins) 55

Torches (see also Manila Blemi) 56

Tracts suitable for:

Large operations 50

Small operations 50

Transportation 48

Transverse strength, tests of 66-73

Tree species, number of 32

Trim, interior 40

Trusses (see also House construction) 39

Tuba (palm cider) 60

Turpentine 56

Tying :

Barks used for 53

Vines used for 58

Types of forest 17

Types, table of area of 17

Uses of apitongs 33

Uses of dipterocarps 32

Uses of lauans 32

Uses of woods 32

Uses of yacals 33

Varnish, Ningpo 56

Vehicles (see also Carriage building) 41

Vinegar, nipa 60

Vines or lianas, minor products from 58

Vines producing rubber 57, 58

Vines used for tying 58

Virgin forests 15

Volume of timber :

Cut, 1909-10 43

Imported, 1909-10 43

Volume of trees :

Bataan 24

Delta plain in eastern Mindoro.... 21

Port Banga region, Mindanao 23

Wagons (see also Carriage building).. 41

Walking sticks (see also Canes) 40

Wheels, ship's 38

Weight and hardness 41

Weights, table of 42

Whip sawing (see also Hand sawing) 47
White ants, woods that resist (see

also Durable timbers) .'. 37

Wood oil, Chinese 56

Wood oils (see also Resins and oils).. 54

Wood oils, total production 1909-10.. 55

Wood, uses 32

Woods :

Commercial, number of species.... 32

Used for charcoal 52

Used for dyeing 54

Wooden shoes 41

Yacal a substitute for teak 37

Yacal-lauan type 22

Yacal resin 55

Yacals :

Uses of 33

Woods sold as 33

>age.
16
55
56

50
50
48
3-73
32
40
39
60
56

53
58
17
17
33
32
32
32
33
56
41
60
58
,58
58
15

INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES.

Page.

Acronychia laurifolia 32

Adenanthera intermedia 24

Agathis alba 26, 54, 55

Aglaia clarkii 27

Aglaia spp 25

Albizzia acle 22, 27

Albizzia procera 14

Albizzia saponaria 54

Aleurites moluccana 56

Aleurites trisperma 56

Alstonia scholaris 25

Alstonia spp 54, 57, 58

Amoora spp 25

Antidesma ghaesembilla 14

Anisoptera thurifera 24, 54

Anisoptera sp 23

Apocynaceae 58

Artocarpus communis 23

Avicennia officinalis 28

Barringtonia speciosa 29

Bauhinia malabarica ±4

Bischofia javanica 25

Bruguiera caryophylloides 28, 53

Bruguiera eriopetala 28, 53

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 28,' 53

Bruguiera parviflora 28, 53

Caesalpinia echinata 54

Caesalpinia sappan 54

Calamus spp 59

Calophyllum blancoi 25

Calophyllum inophyllum 29, 54, 56

Calophyllum sp 23

Calotropis gigantea 57

Canangium odoratum 22

Canarium luzonicum 54, 56

Canarium spp 22, 23, 25

Cassia javanica 27

Castilloa elastica 57, 58

Casuarina equisetifolia 29, 51, 53

Caryota spp 60

Celtis sp 22

Ceriops tagal 28, 53

Chonemorpha elastica 57, 58

Cinnamomum mercadoi 26

Columbia serratifolia 14, 54

Corypha elata 60

Cyathocalyx globosus 24

Cyclostemon grandifolius 23

Dacrydium spp 32

Decaspermum spp _ 32

Dillenia philippinensis 22

Diospyros pilosanthera 25

Dipterocarpaceae 23

Dipterocarpus afflnis 21

Page.

Dipterocarpus grandiflorus 54

Dipterocarpus vernicifluus 54

Dipterocarpus spp 20

Dracontomelum cumingianum 25

Dracontomelum dao 22

Dysoxylum spp 25

Endospermum peltatum 25

Englehardtia spicata 32

Entada scandens 54

Erythrina indica 22, 29

Erythrophloeum densiflorum 23

Euphorbiaceae 22

Eugenia jambolana 14

Eugenia spp 23, 26, 32

Euphoria cinerea 23

Excoecaria agallocha 28

Picus elastica 57, 58

Ficus variegata 24

Ficus spp 57, 58

Garcinia spp 23

Gliricidia sepium 52

Gordonia luzonica 26

Heritiera littoralis 28

Heterospatha sp 60

Hevea brasiliensis 57, 58

Hibiscus tiliaceus 29, 53

Helicteres hirsuta 54

Homalanthus populneus 14

Hopea acuminata 25, 26

Hopea philippinensis •. 22

Hopea plagata 54, 55

Hopea sp 23

Imperata exaltata 13

Intsia bijuga 27

Kalipaya sp 57

Kleinhofla hospita 52

Lagerstroemia piriformis 23, 27

Lagerstroemia speciosa 25

Lauraceae 22

Leptospermum amboinense 32

Leucaena glauca 52

Liriodendron tulipiferum 18

Livistona spp 60

Lumnitzera littorea 28

Lygodium spp 58, 59

Maba buxifolia 27

Macaranga 22

Macaranga bicolor 14, 25

Macaranga tanarius 14, 25

Manihot glaziovii 57, 58

Mallotus 22

Mallotus floribundus 27

Mallotus moluccanus 14

Mallotus ricinoides 14

93

94

Page.

Mangifera altissima 25

Meliaceae 22

Mimusops sp 27

Myrica spp 32

Myristica philippinensis 24

Nauclea sp 23

Nipa fruticans 26, 60

Octomeles sumatrana 22

Oncosperma spp 60

Osbornia octodonta 29

Pahudla rhomboidea 24

Palaquium luzoniense 25

Palaquium tenuipetiolatum 25

Palaquium spp 23, 57

Pandanus 29

Parameria philippinensis 57, 58

Parashorea plicata 20

Parinarium grifflthianum 23

Parkia timoriana 23, 24

Pemphis acidula 29

Pentacme contorta 20

Pinanga insignis 60

Pinus insularis 14, 31, 54, 56

Pinus merkusii 31, 54, 56

Pithecolobium dulce 53

Podocarpus spp > 32

Pometia pinnata 22

Pongamia glabra 29

Pterocarpus echinatus 27

Pterocymbium tinctorium 23

Pterospermum spp 27

Psidium guajava 52

Pygeum glandulosum 24

Quercus spp 32

Reinwardtiodendron merrillii 25

Rhizophora conjugata 28, 53

Rhizophora mucronata 28, 53

Page.

Saccharum spontaneum 13

Santiria nitida 25

Sarcocephalus cordatus 23

Shorea balangeran 54, 55

Shorea furfuracea 20

Shorea polysperma 20

Shorea SQuemata 20

Shorea sp 20

Sindora supa 27, 54

Sonneratia pagatpat 28

Sonneratia sp 28

Stenoclaena spp 58, 59

Sterculiaceae 22

Strombosia philippinensis 24

Swietenia mahagoni 36

Symplocos sp 32

Tarrietia sylvatica 27

Taxotrophis ilicifolia 27

Terminalia catappa 29

Terminalia spp 25

Ternstroemia toquian 32

Thespesia populnea 29

Trema amboinensis 14

Tristania decorticata 26, 32

Toona calantas 22, 27

Vatica sp 20

Vitex aherniana 23

Vitex parviflora 23, 26

Wallaceodendron celebicum 27

Wrightia calycina 23

Wrightia laniti 27

Xanthostemon verdugonianus 27

Xylocarpus granatum 28

Xylocarpus obovatus 28, 53

Xylopia dehiscens 24

Zizyphus zonulatus 23

O

'age.
13
25
23

1,55
20
20
20
20

r, 54
28
28

J, 59
22
24
36
32
27
27
29
25
32
29
14

1,32

:, 27
20
23

t, 26
27
23
27
27
28

1,53
24
23

THE FORESTS OF THE PHILIPPINES

Part II
THE PRINCIPAL FOREST TREES

BY

H. N. WHITFORD, Ph. D.

"FORESTER, CHIEF OF DIVISION OF INVESTIGATION

Department of the Interior
Bureau of Forestry

Bulletin No. 10

Major GEORGE P. AHERN
Director of Forestry

108654

MANILA

BUREAU OF PRINTING

1911

Lett
Fam
pr
Key
Abbi
Note
Pine

Yew
Pain

Oak
Elm

Fig ,

Taim

Magi
Pawj
Kutn
]
Cinnj
Mam;
e
]

Locus
2
]
<;

I

(

J

I

1

Wo
Canai

CONTENTS.

Page.

Letter of transmittal 11

Families, species, official common names, and usual trade names of the

principal trees 13

Key to the principal timber trees of the Philippines 18

Abbreviations used for provinces, subprovinces, islands, and dialects 22

Notes on the common names of trees 23

Pine or Saleng family 25

Almaciga 25

Benguet pine 26

Yew family 26

Palm family 27

Agoho or Casuarina family 27

Agoho 27

Oak or Katabang family 28

Elm or Malaikmo family 28

Fig or Antipolo family 28

Anubing 28

Antipolo 29

Nangka 29

Tamayuan family 30

Tamayuan 30

Magnolia or Champaca family 31

Pawpaw or Ilang-ilang family 31

Nutmeg or Duguan family 31

Duguan 31

Cinnamon or Baticulin family 32

Mamalis family 34

e or Liusin family 34

Liusin 34

Locust or Narra family 35

Narra 35

Batete 36

Supa 37

Ipil 38

Tindalo 39

Cupang 39

Acleng-parang 40

Salinkugi 41

Banuyo 41

Acle 42

Lemon or Camuning family 44

^nary or Pili family 44

3

Page.

Mahogany or Calantas family 44

Calantas 45

Santol 46

Malasantol 46

Tucang-calao 46

Tabigi 47

Piagao 47

Rubber or Binunga family 48

Sumac or Mango family 49

Amuguis 50

Dao 50

Balinghasay - 51

Buckthorn or Balacat family 52

Balacat 52

Soap-berry or Alupag family 53

Alupag 53

Malugay '. 54

Bladdernut or Anongo family _ 54

Linden or Anilao family 55

Mallow or Malubago family 55

Cotton tree or Malabulak family 55

Cacao or Dungon family 55

Dungon 55

Dungon-late 56

Lumbayao 57

Taluto 57

Catmon family 58

Catmon 58

Tea or Bikag family 59

Mangosteen or Palo-maria family 59

Palo-maria 59

Dipterocarp or Lauan family 60

The lauan group 61

White lauan 61

Almon-lauan - 62

Bagtican-lauan - 63

Malaanonang-lauan — 64

Kalunti-lauan 64

Mangasinoro-lauan - — - 65

Mayapis-lauan 60

Red lauan ^

Tanguile 67

Tiaong-lauan ..
The apitong group

Apitong

Panao

Hagachac

Guijo

The yacal group ....

Yacal

Guisoc

Dipterocarp or Laiian family — Continued.

The yacal group — Continued. Page.

Black yacal 73

Malayacal 74

Guisoc-guisoc _ dmmm 74

Mangachapuy 75

Dalingdingan-isak 76

Narig 76

Karig 7 6

Yacal bianco 77

The palosapis group 77

Palosapis 77

Aranga family 7g

The arangas 7g

Binuang family 79

Banaba family _ _ 79

Batitinan 79

Banaba 80

Pagatpat family 81

Pagatpat 81

Putat family 81

Mangrove or Bacauan family 81

The bacauans 82

The pototans 82

Tangal 82

Key to the principal trees of the mangrove swamps 83

Talisay family 83

Calumpit 83

Dalinsi 84

Talisay-gubat 84

Sacat 85

Talisay 85

Binggas - 86

Toog 86

Eucalypt or Macaasim family 87

The macaasims 87

Mancono 88

Kulis family 88

Ginseng or Malapapaya family 89

Malapapaya 89

Dogwood or Malatapai family 89

Gutta-percha or Betis family 89

Betis 89

Bansalaguin 90

Nato 91

Malacmalac 91

Manicnic 92

Persimmon or Ebony family ' 92

Ebony 92

Camagon 93

Bolongeta 93

Ata-ata - 94

Page.

Strychnine or Urung family 94

Dogbane or Dita family 94

Dita 95

Batino 95

Lanete 96

Anonang family 96

Teak or Molave family 97

Molave 97

Sasalit 98

Teak 98

Catalpa or Banai-banai family 99

Coffee or Bancal family 99

Bancal 99

Calamansanay 100

General index 101

Index to scientific names Ill

X

Page.
94
94

95
95
96
96
97
97

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate. Facing page—

I. Almaciga (AgatJUs alba) 16

99 II. Benguet pine (Pinus insularis) : a, Cluster of leaves; 6, un-

99 opened cone; c, opened cone. 16

99 III. Benguet pine (Pinus insularis) 16

100 IV. Agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia) : a, Branchlet showing reduced

101 leaves _ 16

HI V. Grove of agoho trees 16

VI. Anubing {Artocarpus cumingiana) : a, Young fruit; b, mature

fruit 16

VII. Cultivated form of antipolo (Artocarpus communis) : a,

Fruit 16

VIII. Balete (Ficus sp.) .. 16

IX. Tamayuan (Strombosia philippinensis) : a, Fruit 16

X. Duguan (Myristica philippensis) : a, Flowers; 6, fruit 16

XI. Tambalao (Knema heterophylla) : a, Fruit; b, different forms

of leaves 16

XII. Marang (Litsea perrottetii) : a, Cluster of flowers and young

fruits; 6, mature fruits 16

XIII. Malacadios (Beilschmiedia cairocan) : a, Fruit; 6, flower
cluster 16

XIV. Liusin (Parinarium griffithianum) : a, Flower cluster; b,
fruits _ 16

XV. Leaves and lower portion of the trunk of liusin (Parinarium

griffithianum) 16

XVI. The narras: a, Spiny narra (Pterocarpus echinatus) ; 6, fruit
of Blanco's narra (Pterocarpus blancoi) ; c, fruit of narra

(Pterocarpus indicus) 16

XVII. Lower portion of the trunk of a large narra (Pterocarpus

indicus) showing root buttress 16

XVIII. Batete ( Kingiodendron alternifolium) : a, Flower cluster; 6,

fruit 16

XIX. Lower portion of the trunk of batete (Kingiodendron alterni-
folium) 32

XX. Supa (Sindora supa) : a, Flower; 6, fruit 32

XXI. Ipil (Intsia bijuga) : a, Flower; 6, partially open fruit pod.... 32
XXII. Lower portion of the trunk of Merrill's ipil (Intsia acuminata) 32

XXIII. Tindalo (Pahudia rhomboidea) : a, Seed; &, fruit 32

XXIV. Cupang (Parkia timoriana) : a, Pinnae; 6, fruit pod 32

XXV. Lower portion of the trunk of cupang (Parkia timoriana)

showing character of bark; leaves attached to the trunk 32

XXVI. Acleng-parang (Albizzia procera) : a, Fruit pod; b, cluster of

young flowers 32

7

8

Plate. Facing page-

XXVII. Portion of the bark of acleng-parang (Albizzia procera) ;

leaves attached

XXVIII. Salinkugi {Albizzia saponaria) : a, Fruit pod: 6, cluster of

flowers

XXIX. Banuyo ( Wallaceodendron celebicum ) : a, Fruit pod ; 6, flower

cluster

XXX. Acle (Albizzia acle) : a, Fruit pod 32

XXXI. Portion of trunk of acle (Albizzia acle) ; cluster of leaves and

fruit attached

XXXII. Calantas (Toona calantas) : a, Closed fruit; 6, opened fruit;
c, seed

XXXIII. Young trees of calantas (Toona calantas) 32

XXXIV. Santol (Sandoricum indicum) : a, Fruit; 5, cross section of

fruit 32

XXXV. Malasantol (Sandoricum vidalii) 32

XXXVI. Tucang-calao (Aglaia clarkii) : a, Fruit

XXXVII. Amuguis (Koordersiodendron pinnatum) : a, Fruit

XXXVIII. Lower trunk of amuguis (Koordersiodendron pinnatum) ; with

leaves attached

XXXIX. Dao (Dracontomelum dao) : a, Flower cluster; 6, fruit cluster..

XL. Lower portion of the trunk of dao (Dracontomelum dao)

XLI. Lamio (Dracontomelum cumingianum) : a, Flower cluster; 6,

fruit 48

XLII. Balacat (Zizyphus zonulatus) : a, Fruit cluster

XLIII. Balacat (Zizyphus zonulatus)

XLIV. Alupag (Euphoria cinerea) : a, Flower cluster; 6, fruit

XLV. Malugay (Pometia pinnata) : a, Flower cluster; 6, flower; c,

fruit

XL VI. Dungon (Tarrietia sylvatica) : a, Fruit

XLVII. Bark characters of dungon (Tarrietia sylvatica) 48

XL VIII. Dungon-late (Heritiera littoralis) : a, Fruit

XLIX. Dungon-late (Heritiera littoralis) ; bark and leaves

L. Lumbayao (Tarrietia javanica) ; bark characters 48

LI. Lumbayao ( Tarrietia javanica) 48

LII. Lumbayao (Tarrietia javanica) : a, Fruit; 6, flower cluster....
LIII. Taluto (Pterocymbium tinctorium) : a, Flower cluster; 6, fruit

cluster 64

LIV. Palo-maria ( Galophyllum inophyllum) : a, Flower cluster; b,

fruit _ 64

LV. Small tree of bitanhol (Galophyllum blancoi) ; leaves attached

to the bark 64

LVI. White lauan (Pentacme contorta) : a, Fruit 64

LVII. Bark and leaves of white lauan (Pentacme contorta) 64

LVIII. Almon-lauan (Shorea furfuracea) 64

LIX. Bark and leaves of almon-lauan (Shorea furfuracea) 64

LX. Bagtican-lauan (Parashorea plicata) : a, Fruit 64

LXI. Bark of bagtican-lauan (Parashorea plicata) 64

LXII. Kalunti-lauan (Vatica sp.) 64

LXIII. Mayapis-lauan (Shorea squamata) _

LXIV. Red lauan (Shorea sp.) : a, Flower cluster 64

LXV. Bark and leaves of red lauan (Shorea sp.) 64

LXVI. Tanguile (Shorea polysperma) : a, Flower cluster; b, fruit....

9

page^B Plate. Facing page —

LXVII. Bark and leaves of tanguile (Shorea polysperma) 64

LXVIII. Apitong (Dipterocarpus grandifiorus) : a, Fruit 64

LXIX. Bark and leaves of apitong {Dipterocarpus grandifiorus) 64

LXX. Panao (Dipterocarpus vernicifluus) : a, Fruit 80

LXXI. Bark and leaves of panao (Dipterocarpus vernicifluus) 80

LXXII. Hagachac (Dipterocarpus affinis) : a, Fruit 80

LXXIII. Bark of hagachac (Dipterocarpus a/finis) 80

LXXIV. Guijo (Shorea guiso) : a, Fruit 80

LXXV. Bark and leaves of guijo (Shorea guiso) 80

LXXVI. Yacal (Hopea plagata) : a, Fruit 80

LXXVIJ. Bark of yacal (Hopea plagata) 80

IAXVIII. Guisoc (Shorea balangeran) : a, Flower cluster 80

LXXIX. Guisoc-guisoc (Hopea philippinensis) : a, Fruit 80

LXXX. Mangachapuy (Hopea acuminata) : a, Fruit 80

LXXXI. Karig (Vatica mangachapoi) : a, Fruit 80

LXXXII. Palosapis (Anisoptera thurifera) : a, Fruit 80

LXXXIII. Bark and leaves of palosapis (Anisoptera thurifera) 80

LXXXIV. Batitinan (Lagerstroemia piriformis) : a, Fruit cluster; 6,

flower cluster ; 80

LXXXV. Bark, leaves, and flowers of banaba (Lagerstroemia speciosa).. 80
LiXXXVL Bacauan (Rhizophora conjugata) : a, Flower cluster; b y seed-
ling, with fruit attached 80

LXXXVII. Busain (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) : a, Flower; b, young seed-
ling with remains of the fruit attached 96

LXXXVIII. Calumpit (Terminalia edulis) : a, Fruit 96

LXXXIX. Talisay-gubat (Terminalia oocarpa) : a, Fruit 96

XC. Binggas (Terminalia comintana) : o, Flower cluster; 6, fruit.. 96

XCI. Bark of binggas (Terminalia comintana) 96

XCII. Toog (Terminalia quadrialata) ; large tree on the left 96

XCIII. Mancono (Xanthostemon verdugonianus) : a, Flower cluster;

b, fruit cluster 96

XCIV. Betis (Illipe betis) : a, Fruit cluster; 6, flower cluster with

young leaves 96

XCV. Bark of betis (Illipe betis) 96

XCVI. Bark and leaves of malacmalac (Palaquium philippense) 96

XCVII. Bark and leaves of manicnic (Palaquium tenuipetiolatum) 96

XCVIII. Bolongeta (Diospyros pilosanthera) : a, Flower cluster; 6,

fruit cluster 96

XCIX. Molave (Vitex parviflora) : a, Flower cluster; 6, flower; c,

fruit cluster 96

C. Bark of molave (Vitex parviflora) 96

CI. Sasalit (Vitex ahemiana) - 96

CII. Teak (Tectona grandis) : a, Flower cluster; 6, fruit 96

^ CJIII. Bancal (Sarcocephalus cordatus) : a, Flower cluster 96

64

64
64
64
64
64
64

S:
For*
H. ]
reco

P
was

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

Department of the Interior,

Bureau op Forestry,
Manila, November 29, 1910.
Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith a report entitled, "The
Forests of the Philippines: Part II. The Principal Forest Trees," by
H. N". Whitford, Ph. D., forester, chief division of investigation, and to
recommend its publication as Part II of Bulletin No. 10.

Part I of this bulletin, dealing with The Forest Types and Products,
was submitted for publication on November 11.
Very respectfully,

George P. Ahern,
Director of Forestry.
The honorable,

The Acting Secretary of the Interior, Manila.

11

Tl

Pii

Cai
Fa

Uli

Mc

Oh
Ma

My

La

Pit
Ro

THE FORESTS OF THE PHILIPPINES: Part II.

THE PRINCIPAL FOREST TREES.

FAMILIES, SPECIES, OFFICIAL, COMMON NAMES, AND USUAL.
TRADE NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL TREES.

Family.

Pinaceae .

Casuarinacese.

Fagacese

Ulmaceae

Moraceae .

Olaeaceae

Magnoliaceee

Anonaceae __.

Myristicacese.
Lauraceae

Htto8poraceae

Species.

Agathis alba (Lam.) F. W. Foxw.

( Agathis philippinensis Warb. ) .
Pinus insularis Endl

Pinus merkusii J. & de V.

Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. _
Quercus spp

Celtis philippensis Blanco .
Trema amboinensis Bl

Allaeanthus glaber Warb.

Artocarpus communis Forst...
Artocarpus cumingiana Tree.
Artocarpus integrifolia L. f. ..

Castilloa elastica Cerv.

Ficus elastica L

Ficus minahassae Miq

Ficus variegata Bl

Streblus asper Lour

Taxotrophis ilicifolia Vid. _

Strombosia philippinensis (Baill.) Rolfe

Michelia champaca L.

Talauma villariana Rolfe _

Anona muricata L

Anona reticulata L

Anona squamosa L

Canangium odoratum Baill.
Cyathocalyx globosus Merr.

Knema heterophylla Warb. _
Myristica philippensis Lam. _

Beilschmiedia cairocan Vid.

Cinnamomun mercadoi Vid.

Cinnamomum mindanaense Elm.

Cryptocarya bicolor Merr

Dehaasia triandra Merr.

Eusideroxylon zwageri T. & B. __

Litsea perrottetii (Bl.) F.-Vill

Litsea spp

Neolitsea vidalii Merr

Phoebe sterculioides (Elm.) Merr. .

Pittosporum
Merr.

pentandrum (Blanco)

Parinarium griffithianum Benth.
Pygeum preslii Merr

Official name.

Almaciga

Bengu6t pine.

Tapulao

Agoh6

Oaks

Malaikmo.
Anabi6n

Malambingan

Antip61o

Anubing

Nangka

Castilloa.*

Hagimit

Tangisang-baya-

wak.
Kali6s

Kuyus-kuyus

Tamayuan.

Champaca _
Patangis ..__

Guanabano _

An6nas

Atis

llang-ilang _
Dalinas

Tambalao .
Dugiian ___

Malacadi6s _

Kalingag.__
Cinnamon..
Dugkatan __
Baslavan ___
Tambulian.

Marang .

Puso-puso .
Malaya

Mamalis.

Liilsin Liusin.

Lago

Usual trade
name.

Almaciga.

Benguet pine,
saleng.

Agoho.

Antipole
Anubing.cubi.
Nangka.
Castilloa.
India rubber.

Kuyus-kuyus.
Tamayuan.

Ilang-ilang.

Duguan.
Duguan.

Macaladios,
cubi.

Malacadios?
Baticulin.
Billian or
Borneo iron-
wood.
Baticulin.
Do.
Do.
Do.

13

14

Families, species, official common names, etc. — Continued.

Family.

Leguminosse _

Rutacese .

Burseraceae .

Meliaceae .

Euphorbiaceae

Species.

Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd

Adenanthera intermedia Merr.

Albizzia acle (Blanco) Merr

{Pithecolobium acle Vid.)

Albizzia procera (Roxb.) Benth.

Albizzia retusa Benth

Albizzia saponaria (Lour.) Blume__.

Bauhinia malabarica Roxb

Caesalpiuia sappan L.

Cassia javanica L

Cassia siamea Lam.

Delonix regia Raf . ( Poinciana regia Boj . )

Enterolobium saman (Jacq.) Prain

(Pithecolobium, saman Benth.)

Erythrina indica Lam

Erythrophloeum densiflorum (Elm.)

Merr.

Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Steud

Intsia acuminata Merr

Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) O. Ktze. {Afze-

liabijuga A. Gray).
Kingiodendron alternifolium (Elm.)

M. & R.

Leucaena glauca (L.) Benth

Ormosia calavensis Azaola

Pahudia rhomboidea (Blanco) Prain__

Parkia timoriana (DC.) Merr.

(Parkia roxburghii G. Don)

Peltophorum inerme (Roxb.) Naves .
Pithecolobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. _
Pithecolobium scutiferum (Blanco)

Benth.

Pongamia mitis (L.) Merr

Prosopis vidaliana Naves

Official name.

Ar6ma

Xanglin __
Acle

Acleng-parang _
Kasai

Salinkugi

Alibangbang

Sibucao

Cafia-fistula

Fire tree__
Rain tree..

Pterocarpus blancoi Merr

Pterocarpus echinatus Pers.

Pterocarpus indicus Willd

Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers

Sindora supa Merr. ( Sindora wallichii

F.-Vill, non Benth.)
Tamarindus indica L

Wallaceodendron celebicum Koord. _.

Citrus hystrix DC.

Fagara integrifoliola Merr. .
Murraya exotica L

Canarium luzonicum A. Gray.

Canarium villosum F.-Vill

Garuga abilo (Blanco) Merr. _
Santiria nitida Merr.

Aglaia clarkii Merr.

Aglaia harmsiana Perk.

Dysoxylum sp.?

Lansium domesticum Jack

Sandoricum indicum Cav.

Sandoricum vidalii Merr

Toona calantas M. & R.

Xylocarpus granatum Koen. _.
Xylocarpus obovatus A. Juss. .

Aleurites moluccana Willd

Aleurites trisperma Blanco

Antidesma bunius Spr.

Antidesma edule Merr.

Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn.

Aporosa sphaeridophora Merr

Aporosa symplocosifolia Merr

Baccaurea tetrandra Muell.-Arg.

Bischofia javanica Bl

Cyclostemon bordenii Merr.

Cyclostemon grandifolius C. B. Rob.

Cyclostemon microphyllus Merr.

Endospermum peltatum Merr

Hevea brasiliensis Muell.-Arg.

Homalanthus populneus Pax

Jatropha curcas L

Dapdap___
Kamatog _

Madre cacao .
Merrill's ipil_.
lpil

Batete ._.

Ipil-ipiL.
Bahai___.
Tindalo .
Ciipang..

Camanchile .
AiiHgap

Bani

Philippine me

quite.
Blanco's narra.
Prickly narra _.

Narra

Katiirai

Supa

Sampalok.
Banuyo

Kabviyao _.
Kayutana _
Camiining_.

Pili

Pagsahingin.

Bog6

Kamingi

Tucang-calao_

Malasaging

Agaru

Lansones

Sant61

Malasant61

Calantas

Piagao

Tabigi

Lumbang

Balukanad

Bignai

Tanigi

Binayuyu

Bignai lalaki

Malabignai

Dilak

Tiiai

Tinaan-pantai__

Banawi

Butong-manuk.

Giibas

Para rubber

Balanti

Tuba

Usual trade
name.

Ipil.
Acle.

Acleng-parang.

Salinkugi.

Sibucao.

Acacia.

Ipil.
Do.

Batete.

Santa elena.

Tindalo.
Cupang.

Camanchile.

Narra.
Do.
Do.

Supa.

Banuyo.

Camuning.

Tucang-calao.

Santol.

Malasantol.

Calantas.

Lumbang.
Do.

Tinaan-pantai.

Gubas.
Para rubber.

r~

Eui

Rha

Stap
Tilie

Mai)

Bom

Sterc

Dille
Thea

Gutti
^ipte

ade

irang.

15

Families, species, official common names, etc. — Continued.

Family.

Species.

Official name.

Usual trade
name.

Euphorbiacese

Anacardiaceae

Rhamnacese .
Sapindacese_.

Staph yleacese

i Tiliaceae

j

Malvaceae

Bombacaceae_
! Sterculiaceae..

,\&o.

Dilleiiiacese_
Theaceae

Guttiferae .

Dipterocarpacese_

Macaranga bicolor Muell.-Arg

Macaranga tanarius Muell.-Arg.

Mallotus moluccanus Muell.-Arg

Mallotus philippinensis Muell.-Arg. .

Mallotus ricinoides Muell.-Arg

Manihot glaziovii Muell.-Arg

Anacardium occidentale L

Buchanania arborescens Blume

Dracontomelum cumingianum Baill._

Dracontomelum dao M. & R.

Koordersiodendron pinnatum (Blan-
co) Merr.

Mangifera altissima Blanco

Mangifera indica L

Semecarpus perrottetii March

Spondias lutea L.

Spondias pinnata Kurz

Zizyphus trinervia Poir

Zizyphus zonulatus Blanco .

Arytera littoralis Bl

Euphoria cinerea Radlk.

Harpullia arborea (Blanco) Radlk..

Litchi philippinensis Radlk.

Pometia pinnata Forst.

Turpinia pomifera DC.

Columbia serratifolia (Cav.) DC._

Diplodiscus paniculatus Turcz

Grewia stylocarpa Warb

Bombycidendron vidalianum (Naves)
M. & R.

Hibiscus tiliaceus L

Thespesia populnea Corr

Bombax malabaricum DC

Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn..

Heritiera littoralis Dry. .

Kleinhofla hospita L

Pterocymbium tinctorium (Blanco)
Merr.

Pterospermum spp

Sterculia blancoi Rolfe

Tarrietia javanica Bl

Tarrietia sylvatica (Vid.) Merr

Dillenia luzoniensis (Vid.) Merr. .

Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe

Dillenia speciosa Gilg

Adinandra luzonica Merr

Eurya spp.

Gordonia luzonica Vid

Ternstroemiatoquian (Blanco) F.-Vill.
Thea montana (Blanco) Merr

Calophyllum blancoi PI. & Tr

Calophyllum inophyllum L

Cratoxylon celebicum Blume

Garcinia benthami Pierre

Garcinia binucao Choisy

Garcinia mangostana L

Kayea paniculata (Blanco) Merr._

Anisoptera curtisii Dyer .

Anisoptera thurifera Blanco

Anisoptera sp

Dipterocarpus affinis Brandis

Dipterocarpus grandifiorus Blanco .
Dipterocarpus vernicifluus Blanco..
Hopea acuminata Merr

Hamindang __

BJnunga

Alim

Banato

Hinlaiimo

Ceara rubber _

Kas6i

Balinghasay_

Lami6

Da6

Amuguis

Pahutan.
Mango __

Ligas

Ciru^las _
Libas

Ligaa

Balacat_.

Alasin

Alupag_.

Uds

Malugay..
Anongo _.

Anilao

Balob6 _„.
Susumbik .

Lanutan.

Malubago .
Banalo

Malabulak __
Kdpok

Dungon-late_.

Tanag _
Taliito_

Bay6k

Magalipak _
Lumbayao .
Dungon

Malacatm6n___

Catm6n

Catm6n-carabao__

Bikag .

Bitanhol

Palo maria

Guyong-guyong.

Bun6g

Binukao

Mangosteen

Kaliwas

Malapaho _

Palosdpis

Afu

Hagachac

Apitong. _

Panao

Mangachapuy.

Ceara rubber.

Balinghasay.
Dao.

Do.
Amuguis.

Mango.

Balacat or li-
gaa.

Alupag.

Do.
Malugay.

Lanutan.

Lanutan or ba-
nalo.

Dungcrn-late
or dungon.

Taluto.

Lumbayao.
Dungon.

Catmon.
Do.
Do.

Palomaria.
Do.

Mangosteen.

Palosapis, ma-
yapis.

Do.

Do.
Apitong.

Do.

Do.
Manga cha-

§uy, daling-
ingan.

16

Families, species, official common names, etc. — Continued.

Family.

Species.

Official name.

Usual trade
name.

Dipterocarpacese..

Hopea philippinensis Dyer_.
Hopea pierrei Hance

Flacourtiaceae .

Datiscacese

Lythracese

Sonneratiacese ._
Lecythidacese...
Rhizophoraceae _

Combretacese _

Hopea plagata Vid.

Hopea sp.

do

Parashorea plicata Brandis .

Pentacme contorta (Vid.) M. & R. (Sho-
reacontorta Vid.)

Shorea balangeran Burck

Shorea furfuracea Miq

Guisoc-guisoc ___.
Dalingdingan-

Yacal

Black yacal

Malay acal

Bagtican-lauan__

Shorea guiso (Blanco) Blume

Shorea malaanonan (Blanco) Blume .

Shorea polysperma (Blanco) Men.

Shorea sp.
do

-do..

Shorea squamata (Tcz.) Dyer.

Vatica sp. .

do

do

Flacourtia inermis Roxb

Homalium luzoniense F.-Vill..

Octomeles sumatrana Miq

Lagerstroemia piriformis Koehne (La-
gerstroemia batitinan Vid.).

Lagerstroemia speciosa(L.) Pers..

Sonneratia pagatpat Blanco

Sonneratia sp

Barringtonia racemosa Roxb.._.

Barringtonia speciosa Forst

Planchonia spectabilis Merr. __.

Bruguiera caryophylloides Bl. _.

Bruguiera eriopetala W. & A

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Lam

Bruguiera parviflora W. & A

Carallia integerrima DC.

Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C. B. Rob..

Rhizophora conjugata L

Rhizophora mucronata Lam.

Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt

Lumnitzera racemosa Willd.

Terminalia calamansanai (Blanco)
Rolfe

Terminalia catappa L

Terminalia comintana (Blanco) Merr. .

Terminalia edulis Blanco..

Terminalia nitens Presl

Terminalia oocarpa Merr.__
Terminalia pellucida Presl.

White lauari.

Guisoc

Alm6n-lauan

Guijo

Malaa n 6 n a n g -

lauan.
Tanguile

Mangasin6ro-

lauan.
Red lauan

Tiaong-lauan

Mayapis-lauan

Kaliinti-lauan__.
Narig

Yacal bianco

Aranga

Biluang __
Batitinan.

Banaba

Pagatpat .
Pedada

Putat.__
B6tong _
Lam6g _

Pot6tan-laldki__.

Pototan

Busain

Langarai

Bacauan-gubat..
Tangal

Bacauan

Bacauan-lalaki.

Tabao .

Malacalumpit.

Talisay _.
Binggas .

Calumpit

Sacat

Talisay-gubat .
Dalinsi

Dalingdin-

gan, mang.

chapuy.
Yacal.
Do.
Do.
Almon, white

lauan.
Lauan, white

lauan.
Yacal.
Almon, white

lauan.
Guijo.
Lauan, malaa-

nonang.
Tanguile, ma-

yapis, balak-

bakan.
Lauan, man-

gasinoro.
Red lauan, red

almon, tan-
guile, balak- !

bakan. |

Tiaong-lauan, j

red lauan. i
Mayapis, red J

lauan. j

Yacal. |

Yacal bianco. ]

Aranga.
Biluang.

Bati ti n an,
Philippine
teak.

Banaba.

Pagatpat,

montol.
Pagatpat.

Bacauan.
Do.
Do.
Do.

Tangal, baca-
uan.
Bacauan.
Do.

Tabao.

Talisay.

Bunglas, bing-
gas, molave,
batitinan.

Calumpit.

Sacat.

Talisay.

Dalinsi.

•ade

JV Ua ,

Wrtan

Plate II. — BENGUET PINE (Pinus insularis).
a, Cluster of leaves ; &, unopened cone ; c, opened cone.

Plate III.— BENGUET PINE (Pinus insularis) .

Plate IV. — AGOHO (Casuarina equisetifolia) .
a, Branchlet showing reduced leaves.

^^^^^^^^^

Plate VI. — ANUBING (Artocarpus cumingiana) x
a, Young fruit ; fc, mature fruit.

JVit an a»\,

Plate VII.— CULTIVATED FORM OF ANTIPOLO (Artocarpus communis).

a t Fruit.

Plate VIII. — BAL.ETE (Ficus sp.).

J.Vttan del

Plate IX. — TAMAYUAN (Strombosia pliilippinensis) .
a, Fruit.

Plate X. — DUGUAN (Myristica philippensis) .
a, Flowers ; b, fruit.

AVH„

Plate XI. — TAMBALAO (Knema heterophylla) .
a, Fruit; b, different forma of leaves.

IVit,

Jvi\ %l v a»\

Plate XII. — MARANG (Litsea perrottetii).
a> Cluster of flowers and young fiuits; b, mature fruits.

J-Vitan 4*1.

Plate XIII. — MALACADIOS (Beilschmiedia cairocan).
a, Fruit ; b, flower cluster.

Plate XIV. — LIUSIN (Parinarium griffitUianum) .
a, Flower cluster ; &, fruits.

Plate XV.— LEAVES AND LOWER PORTION OF THE TRUNK OF LIUSIN

(Parinarium grifftthianuin) . "■

Plate XVI.— THE NARRAS. , ',

a, Spiny narra (Pterocarpus echinatus) ; b, fruit of Blanco's narra (Pterocarpus
blancoi) ; c, fruit of narra (Pterocarpus indicus).

^Viu n d e i

Plate XVIII. — BATETE (Kingiodendron alternifoliufn) .
a, Flower cluster ; b, fruit.

17

Families, species, official common names, etc. — Continued.

Family.

Species.

Official name.

Usual trade
name.

Myrtacese— .

| Melastomataceae

Araliacese

Cornacese

Stpotaceae

Ebenaceae

Lagoniaceae__
Apocynaeese _

Borraginacese
Verbenaceee _

Bignoniacese.
Rubiacea

Decaspermum blancoi Vid.

Decaspermum paniculatum Kurz .

Eucalyptus naudiniana F. Muell.
Eugenia bordenii Merr

Eugenia calubcob C. B. Rob._

Eugenia jambolana Lam.

Eugenia jambos L

Eugenia javanica Lam.

Eugenia luzoniensis Merr. ___

Eugenia spp. .

Leptospermum flavescens Smith

Osbornia octodonta F. Muell

Psidium guajavaL.

Tristania decorticata Merr.

Xanthostemon verdugonianus Naves .

Memecylon edule Roxb.

Polyscias nodosa Seem.

Alangium longiflorum Merr..

Malaruhat na
pula.

Kalubk6b

Duhat

Tamp6i

Mak6pa

Malariihat na

pula.
Macaasim, mala-
ruhat.

Malasulasi

Tawalis

Bayabas

Malabayabas

Mancon6

Achras sapota L.

Illipe betis (Blanco) Merr. .
Illipe ramiflora Merr.

Kulis

Malapapaya _
Malatapai ___

Chico„
B6tis __
Baniti .

Mimusopssp

Palaquium luzoniense (F.-Vill.) Vid. _
Palaquium .philippense (Perr.) C. B.

Rob.
Palaquium tenuipetiolatum Merr

Bansalaguin_

Nato

Malacmalac _

Manicnic

Sideroxylon spp

Diospyros discolor Willd.

Diospyros mindanaensis Merr. .
Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco _

Maba buxifolia Pers

Fagraea fragrans Roxb

Alstonia macrophylla Wall —
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. .

Wrightia calycina R. Br

Wrightia laniti (Blanco) Merr.

White natos _

Camag6n

Ata-ata

Bolong6ta

Ebony

Urung

Batino.
Dita ___.

Lan^te .

Cordia blancoi Vid.

Premna nauseosa Blanco_

Tectona grandis L. f

Vitex aherniana Merr

Vitex parviflora Juss. ( Vitex littoralis
Decne.).

Vitex pentaphylla Merr

Vitex pubescens Vahl.

Vitex turczaninowii Merr. .

Anonang _

Alagao

Teak

Sasalit

Molave_

Kalipapa aso

Hairy-leaf mola-

ve.
Lingo-lingo

Dolichandrone spathacea (L. f.) K. Sch.
Oroxylum indicum Benth

Radermacherapinnata (Blanco) Seem..

Nauclea spp.

Tui

Pinkapinkahan _
Banaibanai

Sarcocephalus cordatus Miq

Sarcocephalus junghuhnii Miq._

Bancal __.
Mamb6g_.

Macaasim,
malariihat,
binolo.

Malaruhat,
macaasim.

Malaruhat,
macaasim.
Do.

Bayabas.

Mancono, palo
de hierro.

Malapapaya,
malasapsap.

M alatapai,
guntapai.

Betis.

M anionic,

mayapis.
Bansalaguin.
Malac-malac.
M an i cnic,

nato.
M a n i cnic,

m a yapis,

amuguis.

Camagon, ebo-
ny.

Bolongeta, ca-
magon.

Bolongeta, ca-
magon.

Ebony, ebano.

Dolo, teca.

Batino.
Dita.

Lanete.
Do.

Mulawin-aso.
Teak.
Sasalit, mola-

ve.
Molave.

Mulawin-aso.
Molave.

Mulawin-aso.

Calamansa-

nay.

Bancal.

Do.

103554—2

18

KEY TO THE PRINCIPAL, TIMBER TREES OF THE PHILIPPINES.

1. Wook or bark, or both, resinous.

2. Leaves needle-like Benguet pine (p. 26)

2. Leaves not needle-like.

3. Leaves simple, opposite or nearly so Almaeiga (p. 25)

3. Leaves simple, alternate (Dipterocarpacese) .
4. Bark ridged.

5. Bark black, less than 5 millimeters in thickness; axils of basal veins

of leaves with glands Black yacal (p. 73)

5. Bark brown to black, more than 10 millimeters in thickness; axils of

veins with or without glands.

6. Glands only in axils of basal veins or wanting; leaves 4.5 to 8

centimeters long, 2 to 2.5 centimeters wide.. Mangachapuy ( p. 75)

6. Glands in axils of all secondary veins; leaves 3 to 8.5 centimeters

long 1 to 3.5 centimeters wide — . Dalingdingan-isak (p. 76)

5. Bark brown, cinnamon brown to nearly black; more than 10 milli-
meters thick; leaves without glands.
6. Leaves hairy beneath.

7. Hairs coarse, star shaped; stipules large; leaves 10 to 30 centi-
meters long; wood light red Mayapis-lauan (p. 65)

7. Hairs not so coarse, star shaped; stipules smaller than preceding;
leaves 9 to 17 centimeters long, wood with a very light red

color Almon-lauan (p. 62)

7. Hairs fine; bark with reddish tinge; wood dark red.

Red lauan (p. 66)

7. Hairs fine and scattered, giving leaves a slightly rusty brown

appearance; wood light brown with a reddish to yellowish

tinge Malaanonang-lauan (p. 64)

6. Leaves without hairs.

7. Leaves with a white glaucous bloom beneath.

Bagtican-lauan (p. 63)
7. Leaves without glaucous bloom.

8. Leaves 7.5 to 23 centimeters long; 3.5 to 10 centimeters wide;

widely distributed White lauan (p. 61)

8. Leaves 7 to 12 centimeters long, 3 to 6 centimeters wide, re-
ported only from Mindanao Xalunti-lauan (p. 64)

4. Bark not ridged.

5. Bark brown, cinnamon red, to nearly black; inner bark stringy.
6. Bark brown to cinnamon red, inner bark tan red; less than 10
millimeters thick; leaves without glands.
7. Leaves 5 to 14 centimeters long, 3 to 6 centimeters wide, bluntly

wedge shaped at the base Tanguile (p. 61)

7. Leaves 8 to 19 centimeters long, 3 to 8 centimeters wide, rounded

at base Guijo (p. 70)

6. Bark brown to black, less than 6 millimeters thick; inner barK
brown with pinkish tinge; leaves with prominent glands in axils;

sharp-pointed stipules Guisoc-guisoc (p. 74)

6. Bark gray-brown, cinnamon brown to nearly black; inner barK
yellow; 10 millimeters or more in thickness.
7. Bark gray-brown to cinnamon brown; some leaves with glands i D

axils of veins _... Yacal (p. 72)

7. Bark darker than preceding; no glands; leaves slightly rusty
brown beneath Guisoc (p. 73)

19

7. Bark like yacal; tree shorter and stockier; no glands; leaves like
guijo and larger than guisoc and yacal.... Malayacal (p. 74)
5. Bark light gray, 8 millimeters or less in thickness; inner bark very
brittle and red.
6. Leaf blade smooth; petiole 5.5 to 7 centimeters long.

Apitong (p. 68)
6. Leaf blade finely hairy beneath; petiole 2.5 to 3 centimeters long.

Panao (p. 69)

6. Petiole and midrib of underside of leaf coarsely hairy; leaves larger

than apitong and panao (18 to 53 centimeters long, 7 to 22

centimeters wide) Hagachac (p. 70)

6. Tree smaller than preceding; resin scanty; leaves smooth, smaller
than apitong, panao, hagachac (4.5 to 10 centimeters long, 3

to 5.5 centimeters wide) Narig and Karig (p. 76)

5. Bark yellowish gray, 15 to 25 millimeters thick; inner bark granular

yellow Palosapis (p. 77)

3. Leaves compound, alternate; bark resinous.

The pilis, kamingi, and bogo (p. 44)
I. Wood and bark not resinous or at least not prominently so.
2. Bark with white sap.
3. Leaves opposite or whorled. (Apocynacese.)

4. Leaves in whorls of 4 to 7; each 5 to 20 centimeters long, 1 to 6.5

centimeters wide; wood soft Dita (p. 95)

4. Leaves in whorls of 3 to 4; 10 to 20 centimeters long, 3 to 7.5 centimeters

wide; wood moderately hard Batino (p. 95)

4. Leaves opposite The lanetes (p. 96)

3. Leaves simple, alternate; sap flows sparingly when bark is cut from layer
next the sapwood; woods lather readily when rubbed with saliva or
water. ( Sapotacese. )

4. Wood light brown or creamy white The white natos (p. 92)

4. Woods reddish.

5. Leaves with dense mat of golden-brown hairs beneath.

6. Bark 10 millimeters or less in thickness; brown to reddish brown

in color; wood very hard and heavy Betis (p. 89)

6. Bark more than 10 millimeters in thickness, grayish brown in
color; wood moderately hard and moderately heavy.

Malacmalac (p. 91)
5. Le'aves smooth or nearly so.

6. Bark nearly black, ridged; leaves 4 to 12 centimeters long, 2 to
4 centimeters wide; wood very hard and heavy.

Bansalaguin (p. 90)

6. Bark gray to brown; leaves 9 to 17 centimeters long, 4 to 7

centimeters wide; wood moderately hard and moderately heavy.

Nato (p. 91)

6. Bark dark gray to dark brown; leaves 6 to 12 centimeters long,

2.5 to 4.5 centimeters wide; wood moderately hard and moderately

heavy Manicnic (p. 92)

3. Leaves simple, alternate; sap flows freely when bark is cut. (Moraceae.)
4. Fruit a fig.

5. Trees entrapping other trees The baletes (p. 30)

5. The trees not entrapping other trees; trees usually small; fruit often
growing on the trunk or limbs Many species of Ficus (p. 30)

20

5. Tree not entrapping other trees; tree large, with smooth yellow bark.

Tangisang-bayawak (p. 30)
4. Fruit very large, not a fig.

5. Leaves very large (up to 90 centimeters in length), usually deeply

lobed, hairy beneath and on veins above Antipolo (p. 29)

5. Leaves 18 to 35 centimeters long, hairy beneath and on veins above.

Anubing (p. 28)
5. Leaves small, entire, less than 18 centimeters long, smooth.

Nangka (p. 29)
. Bark with yellow sap; leaves opposite. ( Guttif erae. )
3. Leaves yellowish green in color; bark yellow, ridged.

4. Leaves 9 to 16 centimeters long, 5.5 to 10 centimeters wide; wood with

twisted grain; tree of seacoast Palo maria (p. 59)

4. Leaves longer and narrower than the preceding; wood straighter in

grain; tree of the forests Bitaahol (p. 60)

. Bark with red sap.
3. Sap very thin; bark dark colored; leaves simple.

4. Leaves 13 to 36 centimeters long, 6 to 13 centimeters wide, rusty hairy

beneath; tree larger than the following Duguan (p. 31)

4. Leaves 14 to 24 centimeters long, 5 to 8 centimeters wide, white beneath,

Tambalao (p. 32)
3. Sap rather sticky, flows freely from tubes and hardens quickly; bark gray;

leaves compound, 6 to 11 leaflets The narras (p. 35)

3. Sap flows sparingly; leaves compound.

4. Leaves trifoliate Tuai (p. 49)

4. Leaves pinnately compound Malugay (p. 54)

. Bark with black sap which flows sparingly; leaves simple, alternate.

Ligas (p. 52)
. Bark without resin or black, white or colored sap.

3. Leaves reduced to bracts Agoho (p. 27)

3. Leaves simple.

4. Leaves opposite; bark without purplish layer next to sapwood.
5. Trees of the mangrove swamps.

6. Trees with prominent stilt roots The bacauans (p. 82)

6. Trees without stilt roots.

7. Bark black : The pototans (p. 82)

7. Bark dark red Tangal (p. 82)

6. Trees with aerial roots.

7. Leaves white beneath Api-api (p. 98)

7. Leaves orbicular, not white beneath Pagatpat (p. 81)

5. Trees not of the mangrove swamps.

6. Leaves with interpetiolar stipules Rubiaceae (p. 99)

7. Wood yellow with greasy feeling The bancals (p. 99)

7. Wood deep red when fresh cut, changing to rose color.

Calamansanay (p. 10°)

6. Leaves very large (19 to 33 centimeters long, 13.5 to 22 centimeters

wide) , hairy beneath, without interpetiolar stipules.. Teak (p. 98)

6. Leaves smaller than the preceding, smooth, without inter petiol& r

stipules The macaasims (p. 87)

4. Leaves opposite, sometimes alternate; inner bark with purplish lay e
next to the sapwood. ( Lythraceae. )
5. Leaves 6 to 12 centimeters long, 2 to 5 centimeters wide.

Batitinan (p. 79)

21

5. Leaves 7.5 to 24 centimeters long, 3.5 to 11 centimeters wide.

Banaba (p. 80)
4. Leaves alternate; bark without purplish layer next to the sapwood.

5. Leaves with serrate margin Catmon (p. 58)

5. Leaves with wavy margin The arangas (p. 78)

5. Leaves with entire margin.
6. Leaves silvery white beneath.

7. Tree of the beach and mangrove swamp Dungon-late (p. 56)

7. Tree not of the beach Dungon (p. 55)

6. Leaves white beneath.

7. Leaves heart shaped Hamindang and binunga (p. 48)

7. Leaves not heart shaped Malacadios (p. 33)

6. Leaves not white nor silvery white beneath.

7. Leaves large, usually more than 18 centimeters long.

8. Trees with branches in horizontal planes Talisay (p. 85)

8. Trees with branches not in horizontal planes.

9. Bark inclined to be ridged Talisay-gubat (p. 84)

9. Bark not ridged Toog (p. 86)

7. Leaves less than 18 centimeters long.

8. Bark 5 millimeters or less in thickness Binggas (p. 86)

8. Bark more than 5 millimeters thick.

9. Leaves with two prominent glands at base of blade.

liusin (p. 34)
9. Leaves without glands.
10. Leaves obovate.

11. Heartwood reddish brown Dalinsi (p. 84)

11. Heartwood gray to brownish yellow Sacat (p. 85)

10. Leaves not obovate. Inner bark yellow with white con-
centric rings Tamayuan (p. 30)

10. Inner bark yellow without white concentric rings.

Calumpit (p. 83)
3. Leaves compound.
4. Leaves opposite, palmately compound.
5. Leaflets smooth.

6. Leaflets usually 3; wood very hard Molave (p. 97)

6. Leaflets 3 to 7 (usually 5) ; wood very hard Sasalit (p. 98)

6. Leaflets 5, wood soft or moderately hard Mulawin-aso (p. 98)

5. Leaflets hairy, usually 3 Hairy molave (p. 98)

4. Leaves alternate.

5. Leaves palmately compound.
6. Leaves trifoliate.

7. Fine velvety hairs beneath Santol (p. 46)

7. Smooth or nearly so Malasantol (p. 46)

6. Leaflets 3 to 5 Lumbayao (p. 57)

5. Leaves simply compound, pinnate.

6. Leaves more than 1 meter in length Malapapaya (p. 89)

6. Leaves less than 1 meter in length.

7. Leaflets with white hairs beneath; more than 10 pairs.

Tucang-calao (p. 46)
7. Leaflets with white bloom beneath; less than 10 pairs.

8. Bark more than 8 millimeters thick Tindalo (p. 39)

8. Bark less than 8 millimeters thick Alupag (p. 53)

7. Leaflets neither hairy nor white beneath.

22

8. Leaflets 5 pairs or more.
9. Bark without cedary odor.

10. Bark black, ridged Amuguis (p. 50)

10. Bark steel gray, not ridged Dao (p. 50)

9. Bark with a distinct cedary odor Calantas (p. 45)

8. Leaflets less than 5 pairs.

9. Bark gray with a yellowish tinge ; sapwood contains a greenish

black oily sap Batete (p. 36)

9. Bark brown to nearly black; fruit with oily spines.

Supa (p. 37)
9. Bark light or steel gray with an orange tinge .... Ipil (p. 38)
5. Leaves doubly compound.
6. Leaflets white beneath.

7. Leaflets less than 1 centimeter long; leaves large and fern-like.

Cupang (p. 39)
7. Leaflets 2 centimeters or more long; leaves not fern-like.

Acleng-parang (p. 40)

6. Leaflets hairy beneath Salinkugi (p. 41)

6. Leaflets neither white nor hairy beneath.

7. Usually 3 pairs pinnae Banuyo (p. 41)

7. Usually 1 pair pinnae Acle (p. 42)

ABREVIATIONS USED FOR PROVINCES, SUBPROVINCES, ISLANDS,

AND DIALECTS.

Ab.

Abra (subprovince) .

Mas.

Masbate Island.

Ag.

Agusan ( subprovince ) .

M.

Mindoro Province.

Al.

Albay Province.

Mind.

Mindanao Island.

B.

Bicol dialect.

Mis.

Misamis Province.

Bal.

Baler ( subprovince ) .

N.

Negrito dialect.

Bas.

Basilan Island.

N. E.

Nueva Ecija Province.

Batn.

Bataan Province.

N. Luz

. Northern Luzon.

Bat.

Batangas Province.

N. V.

Nueva Vizcaya Province.

Ben.

Benguet Province.

Neg.

Negros Island.

Bui.

Bulacan Province.

Pal.

Palawan Island.

Bur.

Burias Island.

Pam.

Pampanga Province.

But.

Butuan (subprovince).

Pan.

Panay Island.

Cag.

Cagayan Province.

Pang.

Pangasinan Province.

Cam.

Ambos Camarines Province.

Riz.

Rizal Province.

Cav.

Cavite Province.

Rom.

Romblon Island.

Cot.

Cotabato district.

S. Luz.

Southern Luzon.

Dav.

Davao district.

Sam.

Samar Island.

Guim.

Guimaras Island.

Sor.

Sorsogon Province.

11.

Ilocano dialect.

Sp.

Spanish.

I. N.

Ilocos Norte.

Sur.

Surigao Province.

I. S.

Ilocos Sur.

T.

Tagalog dialect.

lb.

Ibanag dialect.

Tar.

Tarlac Province.

Ig.

Igorot dialect.

Tay.

Tayabas Province.

In.

Infanta ( subprovince ) .

Tic.

Ticao Island.

L.-B.

Lepanto-Bontoc Province.

U.

Union Province.

Lag.

Laguna Province.

V.

Visayan dialect.

Lan.

Lanao district.

Z.

Zambales Province.

Ley.

Leyte Island.

Zam.

Zamboanga district.

Mar.

Marinduque Island.

23

NOTES ON THE COMMON NAMES OF TREES.

The matter of establishing a uniform common name for a given species
is a difficult one even in the United States where there is one universal
language. It may be easily imagined how much more complicated this
becomes where there are, as in the Philippines, languages and dialects
numbering, according to various authorities, from thirty to eighty. The
confusion arising from this source leaves the average man helpless, in
so far as recognizing a given tree by its local name is concerned.

The variations in local names fall principally into three classes : First,
the case where various forms of a single name are applied to one species,
or often to two or more species within one genus. The most familiar
instance occurs in the case of molave, such widely varying forms as
mlawin, amugduan, hamurduon, etc., being found in different regions
for the two or three species of Vitex that produce a hard, durable wood.
Second, where radically different names are applied to one and the same
species. A familiar instance of this is furnished by tindalo (Pahudia
rhomb oidea) ; the official name is Tagalog, but in northern Luzon it is
known as magaldyao, in southern Luzon and the Yisayas as barfiyong or
Mdyung. Third, where one name, instead of being confined to one
species or even genus, is transferred to a different genus or even to
plants of different families. Besides these, there are a number of cases
where several names are applied to all or several of the species within
one or two genera of a given family, but are rarely found outside that
family. Two of the most striking instances of this are in the Gutta-
percha and Talisay families. The names sdcat, calumpit, ddlinsi, and
my are applied almost indifferently to half a dozen species of the
genus Terminalia, of the latter family, but very rarely to other trees,
unless with some distinguishing prefix or suffix. Similarly, the names
jrilacp&laCj malacmdlac, alacdac, dulitan, tagdtoi, and manicnic are found
associated with a number of species of Palaquium, and certain species of
Wipe and Sideroxylon, of the Gutta-percha family.

When we consider, in addition to this, that most of the names (obscure
even to the Filipino as soon as he leaves his own province) are meaning-
less to the foreigner, and that there is as yet no uniform system of
orthography for the Philippine languages, it is easy to see that any
attempt to bring uniformity out of this chaos will ,be as difficult as it is
desirable.

Nevertheless, the attempt has been made in the following pages. The
following principles have been used as guides : To select, from the various
fl ames used for a given species, one either already well established in
Uerature or in commerce, or if none such exists, the most widely known
Qa me as recorded in botanical collections, etc.; to select in cases where
(he meaning is known, such a name as would apply well to the species
111 question; and, finally, to adopt as nearly as possible, a uniform,

24

phonetic system of spelling. In regard to the last rule, it has been
necessary to make one considerable exception; it has not been considered
advisable to change radically the spelling of those names that are
included in the classification of the four groups as given in the Forest
Manual.

A matter that would be of interest and even an appreciable aid to the
botanist or forester is that of the meanings of common names, but,
valuable as it might be, the average collector has little time to devote to
this point. Aside from the fact that our knowledge on this side of the
subject is still far from extensive, there is no place in a work of this
kind for detailed linguistic studies. However, a few notes on some of
the words commonly occurring in plant names would not be out of place.
The words recurring most frequently are color adjectives, among which
the following are common : puti, pulau or pur an, mitld (white) ; puti
(red) ; dildu or duldu (yellow) ; an obscure and very variable, but
frequently occurring word ngisit, ngitit, ngitngit, innitit (black) ; Mm
or itom (black) ; dgta, dta, eta or ita (all related to A eta, "Negrito/'
and meaning "black"). LaldJci (male) and babde (female) are fre-
quently used to indicate great or less size, or, in other cases, greater or less
hardness and durability. Malahi and maliit mean "large" and "small/'
respectively. Ddgat and Idut (sea), pantdi (beach), baibdi and buhdngin
(sand) are often used in names of plants growing on the beach or even on
low coastal hills. Bunduk, buhid, and gubat (forest or mountain) are
used either to indicate that a plant grows only in the mountains or,
sometimes, to distinguish a wild species from a cultivated one. Tubiy
sdlog, Hog, etc., mean "water" or "river." Sdhing, sdleng, etc., mean
"resin," "pitch," "gum." Dugu is "blood." Parang, found in various
compounds, means land covered with the open second growth on aban-
doned clearings. The very common element bolong, baling, etc., found
in many compounds, equals "leaf" and has, in Bicol at least, the derived
meaning "medicine." The name taluto is derived from lutu, "red/'
"clotted blood." Various names come from the root Una, "to dye.
Macadsim is from Tag. dsim, "acid," "sourness." Many names of animals
are used, such as dso and dyam (dog) ; usd (deer) ; baydwah and butih
(lizard); nuang, halabdu, and damulag (carabao) ; Jcambing (goat);
pusa, ihus, huting (cat) ; habdyo (from Sp. caballo, "horse") ; aliban$'
bang (butterfly); manuh (chicken). Bat 6 ("stone, rock") is generally
used for trees producing very hard woods; tigds, tugds, tigd, tras mean
"hard." Many prefixes are used, of which the commonest and the one 01
most constant signification is mala, which means "resembling" and * s
used as are the English words "false" or "bastard;" names compounded
with this prefix generally signify that the plant so named resembles
another either in general habit or in some particular feature, as leaves,

it e

bin
aln
con
om

25

flowers, fruit or bark, color, taste or odor, etc. In the case of timber trees,
it sometimes refers to similarity of the wood.

In the matter of spelling, the most important changes made are the
substitution of Jc for c or qu, c being retained as a rule only in the com-
bination ch and at the beginning of certain names, like camuning, that are
already well known; and the substitution of i for y, unless the latter is
consonantal as in yacal. Also the Spanish orthographic u has been
omitted between g and i, except, as above stated, in names found in the
classified list of the Forest Manual.

PINE OR SAL.ENG FAMILY.

( Pinaceae. )

This family, while the most important in temperate regions, where it
furnishes the greatest bulk of lumber, is comparatively unimportant in
the Philippines. Generally speaking, few representatives are found be-
low 400 meters elevation. The members of the family can be readily
distinguished by the resinous woods, combined with the character of the
fruits, which are of the familiar type of the pine cone.

almaciga. (PL I.)

Almaciga reaches a height of 40 to 45 meters and a diameter of 180
to 200 centimeters. It has a straight, regularly cylindrical bole without
buttresses, which reaches a length of one-half to two-thirds the height
of the tree. It is found scattered throughout the mountain regions from
Cagayan to Davao. While usually above an altitude of 400 meters,
scattered specimens sometimes occur as low as 200 meters. It requires
fairly deep soil and somewhat protected situations. It seldom, if ever,
occurs on exposed peaks or ridges, and is found associated with tanguile
and the oaks. It is fairly tolerant of shade.

The bark is 10 to 15 millimeters in thickness, brittle in texture, light
greenish to brownish gray in color, sheds in scroll-shaped patterns, and
is thickly set with corky pustules ; the inner bark is brown streaked with
red, grading into a creamy color near the sapwood. The leaves are simple,
opposite or nearly so, of a leathery texture, from 3 to 9.5 centimeters
long and from 1 to 2.5 centimeters wide.

The sapwood has a light brownish creamy color; the heartwood is
light brown, straight grained, soft in texture and light in weight. The
wood, probably because of the comparative inaccessibility of the trees,
w not found in the markets. The tree is valuable because it yields a resin
known locally as almaciga and commercially as dammar. A closely
related species yields the kauri resin and lumber of New Zealand. Alma-
C1 ga resin is either gathered from the trunk, where it hardens after the
hark of the tree has been cut, or from the ground at the base of the tree

26

where it has accumulated, or more commonly is mined where trees have
stood previously and have long since died and decayed, leaving only
large masses of resin in the ground.

The following regions are credited with having almaciga: Luzon
(Cagayan, Abra, Benguet, Zambales, Bataan, Tayabas, Camarines, Albay,
Sorsogon) ; Mindoro; Negros; Palawan; Mindanao (Davao and Zam-
boanga) .

Almaciga has the scientific name of Agathis alba. Besides almaciga,
this tree has the following common names: Adiangao (T., B.) ; baltik
(Pal.) ; bidiangao (Neg.) ; bunsog (Ben.) ; dadiangao (T., B.) ; galagala
(Pal.) ; litao (Ab.) ; makao (Mis.) ; saleng (II., Tay.) ; titao (Ab.).

benguet pine. (Pis. II and III.)

Benguet pine reaches a height of 30 meters and diameter of 140 centi-
meters. The bole is straight and clear; the crown is narrow with the
lateral branches weakly developed. It is found in the high mountain
region of central and northern Luzon. It reaches an altitude of 3,000
meters. It does best in deep rich soils, is intolerant of shade, and is
found in patches sometimes of considerable size scattered throughout
extensive grass areas.

The bark is 10 to 25 millimeters in thickness, yellowish or reddish
brown in color, and broken into sections by vertical and horizontal fissures.
The needle-like leaves, grouped in bunches of three or sometimes two,
are 8 to 30 centimeters in length. The sapwood is yellowish white;
the heartwood is light reddish brown with alternate light and dark rings,
and very resinous. The wood is moderately hard and moderately heavy,
resembling the yellow pines of the United States. It is used locally for
house construction, mine props, and coffins.

Benguet pine has been reported from the following regions of Luzon:
Ilocos Sur; Abra; Lepanto-Bontoc ; Benguet; Pangasinan; Zambales.

The scientific name is Pinus insularis. It has the general Ilocano
common name of saleng. Other names prevailing are bel-bel (Ig-)J
boo-boo (Ig.) ; ol-ol (Ig.) ; palanpino (Cag.) ; parna (II.) ; talanpino
(L.-B.); tapulao (Z.).

Under the name of tapulao or salit another species of pine (Pinw
merkusii) is found in the mountain regions of Zambales and western
Mindoro. This differs mainly from Benguet pine in having two needles
instead of three.

YEW FAMILY.

( Taxacese. )

Species of Podocarpus, Dacrydium, and Taxus are found on the mountain tops
throughout the Philippines. On some mountains the former two genera fori 11
almost pure stands on exposed ridges and peaks. The trees are usually low with
short stocky trunks. The woods, though hard, are little if at all used in the
Pbihppiaea.

27

PALM FAMILY.
( Palmae. )

The members of this family reach their best development in the dipterocarp
forests where the dry season is not pronounced. The trees are more valuable
for their by-products than for their wood. The leaves of nipa (Nipa fruticans),

mangrove swamp product, is a universal thatching material, and the fermented
sap of the inflorescence is the chief source of vinegar and alcohol. In regions
where bamboo is scare, split trunks of the anahao palm and palma brava
[hivistona spp.), anibong (Oncosperma spp.), and others replace that product
for general house construction, and other domestic uses. Climbing palms ( Calamus
spp.) also furnishes the rattans of commerce which are known locally as "bejuco."
(See Part I, p. 59.)

AGOHO OR CASTJARINA FAMILY.

( Casuarinacese. )

While this family produces several species, agoho is the only one of
commercial importance.

agoho. (Pis. IV and V.)

Agoho is a tree reaching a height of 20 to 25 meters, and 50 to 60
centimeters in diameter, though it is usually much smaller. The bole is
variable, being sometimes cylindrical and sometimes irregular. The
crown is conical in shape and open. It is found scattered throughout the
Philippines, where it usually occurs in groups on newly formed sand
beaches or sand bars of the large rivers. It is distinctly an intolerant
species.

The bark is 5 to 10 millimeters in thickness, brown to dark brown in
color, smooth when young, roughening in old trees into fine ridges of
greater or less length; the inner bark is bright rose in color and has a
bitter taste. The leaves are reduced to small scales; in their place are
thickly set jointed branchlets, which give the tree the general appearance
°f a pine.

The wood of agoho is very hard, very heavy, difficult to work and is
considered durable. The sap wood is slightly lighter in color than the
reddish brown to dark brown heartwood. It has large pith rays resem-
Ming those of oak. It has the following uses: Posts; railway ties;
firewood.

Agoho has been collected from the following regions : Luzon (Cagayan,
flocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Abra, Benguet, Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, Tar-
^ Pampanga, Zambales, Laguna, Baler, Infanta, Tayabas, Camarines,
Sorsogon, Albay) ; Palani Island; Camiguin Island; Polillo Island; Ticao
Wand; Masbate; Mindoro; Palawan.

The scientific name of agoho is Casuarina equisetifolia. It has the
general Tagalog name of agoho. Various forms of this name are agoso,
a goo, and aroo. Karamutan (Moro) and malabohok (V.) are other local
n &mes.

28

Other species of Casuarina are present in the Philippines, principally
in the mountains. These can be readily distinguished from agoho by
their finer pith rays.

OAK OR KATABANG FAMILY.

( Fagacese. )

About twenty-five species of oak have been described as belonging to the
Philippines. Trees of this genus occur at low altitudes, but are more abundant
at 500 meters or more above sea level, where they often form a quite prominent
feature of the forest. The wood is little used and can be readily distinguished
by the prominent pith rays. The following common names are recorded for the
various species of oak: Bangai (Ley.); basakan (Cam.); bultiok (Cag.);
diraan (Pan.) ; kataban (Batn.) ; kotilik (Ben.) ; makabingao (N. V.) ; manaring
(N. V.); olayan (Al.) ; pangnan (Batn.); palaien (Ab.) ; palonapoy (Z.);
tiklik (Cag.); ulian (Cag.).

ELM OR MALAIKMO FAMILY.

(Ulmacese.)

The wood of malaikmo or malagibuyo {Geltis philippinensis) comes from
a medium-sized tree scattered throughout the dipterocarp forests. This tree
can be readily distinguished by its prominently three-veined leaves and by
the black flecks of the inner bark. The wood is soft and light in weight and
is used locally for various classes of light constructions. To this family belongs
anabion or hanagdon {Trema amboinensis) , a very small rapidly growing tree
that sometimes forms almost pure stands in places where caingins have been
abandoned. The wood is used only locally.

FIG OR ANTIPOLO FAMILY.
(Moraceae.)

While the number of species and individuals of this family is large,
only a few produce wood of any great value. The members can be readily
recognized by the fact that the bark when cut exudes freely a thin milky
sap. This character combined with alternate leaves distinguishes the
family from all others. (See Betis family, p. 89.)

anubing. (PI. VI.)

Anubing is a tree of medium height with a straight regular unbut-
tressed bole. It is found scattered on the edges of the dipterocarp type
and on the moister slopes of the molave type.

The bark is 5 to 8 millimeters in thickness, light orange to dark orange
red in color, in young trees papery in texture, in older ones harder and
shedding in small patches. The inner bark is pink in color. On being
cut, it exudes freely a milky sap which thickens rapidly on coming in
contact with the air. The leaves are from 18 to 35 centimeters long and
from 9 to 16 centimeters wide, hairy beneath and on the veins above.

The sapwood is a creamy white; the heartwood bright yellow when
fresh cut, turning on ageing to a chocolate brown or greenish black. B
is straight grained, moderately hard, moderately heavy, very durable, and

29

the pores generally contain white deposits. It has a disagreeable odor and
tas te especially when fresh. It has the following uses: House construc-
tion ' (especially posts and rafters); railroad ties; canoes; naval con-

St Tnubing has been found in the following regions: Luzon (Ilocos Sur,
Abra Bontoc, Eizal, Zambales, Bataan, Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines,
Albay, and Sorsogon) ; Ticao Island; Masbate Island; Mindoro; Ma-
rinduque Island ; Negros Occidental ; and Surigao.

The scientific name of anubing is Artocarpus cumingiana, though some
other species of Artocarpus produce the wood which passes for anubing.
This tree has the general Tagalog name of anubing and the Visayan
name of cubi. This latter name must not be confused with the cubi oi
Zamboanga, which is malacadios. (See p. 33.) Other names for
anubing Ire bayuko (V.) ; kalulot (M.) ; nerek (N. Luz.) ; panganamaen
(II.); ubien (II.).

1 ANTIPOLO. (PI. VII.)

Antipolo is a tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 meters and a diameter
of 60 to 100 centimeters. The bole is regular and gives lengths up to 15
meters. It has a dense crown, * to § the height of the tree. The tree is
found scattered throughout the dipterocarp forests, growing best in deep
soils. It is slightly tolerant of shade.

The bark is 10 to 15 millimeters in thickness, very dark m color tinged
with red, and with obscure irregularly broken ridges; the inner bed. : is
salmon red, yielding when cut a milky sap. The ^™ ™ J*^
usually deeply lobed and very large, sometimes reaching 90 centimeters

m The gt s h apwood is light creamy and the heartwood is bright yellow in
color. The wood is softer than anubing and ess durab le. It ha th
following uses: Bancas; flooring; keels and planks of ships, ordinal}

fU TheTee is widely distributed throughout the ^^T Irtolr^
gayan to Mindanao. The scientific name of antipolo » ^«^
coLunis. A cultivated form of it produces the bread fruit Beside
antipolo it has the following names: Pakak (II.) ; f^^k (T ) •
tivated forms are known under the names of bread fruit, kamangsi (T.) ,
rima (T.) ; ugob (B.).

NANGKA.

Nangka (Artocarpus integrifolia) is a small to ™diumW * J
cultivated for the jack fruit. It has roundish leaves from 6.5 to 10 cen-
timeters long and from 4 to 9 centimeters wide. The wood is softer and
more even in texture than anubing; golden yellow m color turning dark
brown with age. It is used principally for the back and sides of stringed
instruments and for furniture.

30

Besides the above named the forests contain many species of the genus Ficus,
A number of these under the common name of "balete" start upon other trees
and finally entrap them entirely. Some of the baletes produce an inferior
quality of rubber. Some of the species like tangisang-bayawak {Ficus variegata)
are large and can probably be utilized for match woods. Hagimit (Ficus mina-
hassce), with its long pendulous fruit stalks, is a conspicuous tree of the
river bottoms, especially in second-growth forests. The woods of species of
Ficus are soft, light, and of inferior quality, and the trees usually have ill-formed,
short boles. The India rubber tree (Ficus elastica) and castilloa (Gastilloa elas-
tica) are cultivated to some extent for rubber.

Kuyus-kuyus (Taocotrophis ilicifolia) is a small tree with prickly leaves,
whose wood is used extensively in making walking sticks. It is hard and heavy;
the heartwood is streaked or mottled with green or dark brown and is sometimes
almost black. Malambingan (Allceanthus gldber) is a medium-sized tree with
a nearly white sapwood subject to the attacks of beetles; the outside heartwood
is brilliant red, which grades into a light grayish brown; light in weight to
moderately heavy and soft to moderately hard. Closely related species have
the common names of himbabau (T.) and aplit (Pam.). Kalios (Streblus asper)
is a small tree common in second-growth forests.

TAMAYUAN FAMILY.

( Olacacese. )

This family is represented in the Philippines by one commercial species.

TAMA YUAN. (PL IX.)

Tamayuan is a small to medium-size tree reaching a height of 20 to
25 meters and a diameter of 50 centimeters. The bole is short and
usually somewhat irregular in shape. The crown is dense and rather
elongated. It has a prominent place as a second-story tree in some dip-
terocarp forests. It does best on slopes with a fairly deep soil and is
distinctly tolerant of shade.

The bark is 5 to 12 millimeters in thickness, smooth, dark brown to
nearly black in color, and is thickly set with corky pustules. It is shed
in large irregular patterns, the freshly exposed portions being cinnamon
brown in color. The inner bark is yellowish with whitish rings. The
leaves are simple, alternate, smooth, from 5 to 16 centimeters long and
from 2 to 8 centimeters wide.

The sapwood has a light gray color and is sharply distinguished from
the reddish brown heartwood. The wood is moderately heavy to heavy,
hard, very fine and straight grained, and durable. It has the following
uses: House building (especially posts, joists and rafters) ; ax handles;
mining props; railway ties.

The tree has been found in the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan,
Ilocos Norte, Isabela, Bulacan, Bataan, Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines,
Sorsogon) ; Catanduanes Islands; Masbate; Mindoro; Leyte; Mindanao
(Lanao and Zamboanga) . The scientific name of tamayuan is Strombosia
philippinensis. It has the general common names of tamayuan and
kamayuan or some forms of these.

31

p . _ MAGNOLIA OR CHAMP ACA FAMILY.

tfttfl ( Magnoliaceae. )

ferioiL

Among others this family is represented by the champaca ( Michelia champaca ) ,

wticultivated for ornament, and patangis {Talauma villariana) , a small tree occur-

tb ring occasionally in the dipterocarp forests.

PAWPAW OR ILANG-ILANG FAMILY.

( Anonacese. )

With some practise the species of this family can be distinguished by the
prominent pith rays in the bark and woods. They have alternate, simple leaves.
The trees are usually small to very small and occur as undergrowth in the
dipterocarp forests. A number of the species have the common name of lanutan.
Among the more prominent is ilang-ilang {Canangium odoratum) whose blossoms
are the source of the famous ilang-ilang perfume. It occurs in the dipterocarp
forests and is cultivated to some extent. Dalinas or latuan (Cyathocalyx globo-
is a medium-sized tree whose small heartwood is purplish brown in color,
hard, and heavy. So far as is known it is used only locally.

This family also contains the following introduced species cultivated for their
fruits: Anonas or custard apple {Anona reticulata) ; atis or sweetsop {Anona
squamosa) ; guanabano or soursop {Anona muricata).

NUTMEG OR DTJGUAN FAMILY.

( Myristicaceae. )

The trees of this family can be readily distinguished from all others
by the abundant flow of a thin red sap when the bark is slashed. The
leaves are simple and alternate. Two species seem to furnish timber that
reaches the markets in small quantities at least and is used rather more
extensively locally. A number of species of this family have the common
name of duguan, but this name is most commonly applied to Myristica
philippensis.

DUGUAN. (PL X.)

Duguan is a small to medium-sized tree reaching a height of 15 to 25
deters and a diameter of 60 or more centimeters. The bole is usually
somewhat irregular, slightly buttressed and yields lengths up to 12 meters.
the crown is irregular and somewhat dense, about one-third the height
°f the tree. This species is found scattered throughout the dipterocarp
wrests. It requires good soil and is fairly tolerant of shade.

The bark is 4 to 6 millimeters in thickness, nearly black in color with
ught brown patches where freshly shed; the inner bark is brown to red-
dish brown in color, and when cut exudes a thin red sap. The leaves are
a tternate, simple, rusty hairy beneath, from 13 to 36 centimeters long and
ir om 6 to 13 centimeters wide. The sapwood is very light creamy pink
^ color ; the heartwood is slightly darker in color, soft, moderately heavy,
J!°t durable, and somew r hat spongy in texture. It is used locally for
^ht and temporary construction, boxes, and dry measures.

32

Duguan has been reported from the following regions: Luzon (Ca-
gayan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Abra, Benguet, Pangasinan, Baler,
Bizal, Bataan, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas/ Camarines) ; Camiguin
Island; Mindoro; Leyte; Palawan; Culion; Mindanao (Zamboanga,
Lanao) ; Basilan Island.

The scientific name of duguan is Myristica philippensis. Tambalao
(Knema heterophylla) also furnishes some of the wood known as duguan.
This tree is somewhat smaller than Myristica philippensis, with small
leaves (from 14 to 24 centimeters long and from 5 to 8 centimeters wide)
white underneath. Besides duguan (T.) and tambalao (Z. and Batn.)
species of this family have the following common names: Anapias
(Pang.) ; anis-kahoi (T.) ; anis-moscada (T.) ; balintua (Z.) ; dumadara
(Cag.) ;durugo (Lag.) ; hindang-atian (Ley.) ;lanot (Cag.) ;malamabolo
(Pang.) ; palong (II.) ; pao (II.) ; saging-kahoi (T.) ; talang-talang
(T.) ; talihagan (Cag.). (PI. XL)

CINNAMON OR BATICULIN FAMILY.

( Lauraceae. )

This family, while it contains a large number of tree species, yet
yields only a few of little value, principally because the species are
small or are so scattered that quantities can not be obtained in any
one place. The members of the family (at least the species men-
tioned here) have simple alternate leaves. The principal woods are
known as baticulin and malacadios. Except in a few cases it is impos-
sible with our present knowledge to refer a number of similar woods
to definite species. There seem to be three grades with transition forms
between them.

Marang or white baticulin: This is a medium sized-tree with a straight
cylindrical bole. Though scattered, it is widely distributed. The wood
is very pale yellow fading to a dirty white. It is soft, light in weight,
coarse grained, and not as resistant to the attacks of insects as the yellow
baticulins. The species that produces this wood is Litsea perrottetu.
While formerly thought to be the tree that produces baticulin of com-
merce it is now known that little if any of the baticulin of the sculptors
comes from this species. (PI. XII.)

Yellow baticulin: The woods known as baticulin to the cabinetmakers,
carvers, sculptors, etc., are soft to moderately hard, light in weight to
moderately heavy ; pale straw color to deep yellow with reddish or greenish
tints ; generally with a distinct odor similar to camphor, and rarely at-
tacked by insects. Certain species referred to the genera Litsea, Phoebe,
Dehaasia, and perhaps Neolitsea and others produce yellow baticulin.
Baslayan (Dehaasia triandra) is a medium-sized tree producing a wood

Plate XIX. — LOWER PORTION OF THE TRUNK OF BATETE (Kingiodendron

alternifolium) .

Plate XX. — SUPA (Sindora supa).
a, Flower ; I), fruit.

^

w

Plate XXI. — IPIL (Intsia bijuga).
a, Flower ; &, partially open fruit pod.

Pi ate XXII. — LOWER PORTION OF THE TRUNK OF MERRILL'S IPIL (Intsia

acuminata).

X
X

J

Plate XXIV. — CUPANG (Parkia timoriana).
a, Pinnae ; &, fruit pod.

p iAT E XXVII.— PORTION OF THE BARK OF ACLENG-PARANG (Albizzia procera).

Leaves attached.

g

<

I— t w.

> .

I I

O

>*

<
n

x

H
H

3

2

Plate XXX. — ACLE (Albizzia acle).
a, Fruit pod.

I .-■' /

1

■i

1 •■ ^

m ***"'

J y

e-...;-h " ;•*> '

i*4 SB # ,r 1. til I 4 ■ * #IP '

-■^>:.--;- ;-€r : ';;; # > f .• " ». *' ■

A 'W " : '' ' ' '■ '*-' • • ' * ' • - f " ■• ** ■

f V 7V^', ; ^ ; " V -'. •""'■■ " ■■■,

-■; ..; \- ' ^ ■ • V^v^

1

f •"

Plate XXXI.— PORTION OF TRUNK OP ACLE (Albizzia acle).
Cluster of leaves and fruit attached.

liWati-

Plate XXXII.— CALANTAS (Toona calantas).
a, Closed fruit ; &, opened fruit ; c, seed.

Plate XXXIII.— YOUNG TREES OF CALANTAS (Toona calantas).

Plate XXXIV. — SANTOL (Sandoricum indicum).
a, Fruit ; b, cross section of fruit.

Plate XXXV. — MALASANTOL (Sandoricum vidalii.)

33

^eep yellow in color, soft, light to moderately heavy that is undoubtedly
accepted by sculptors as baticulin. Malaya (Phoebe sterculioides) has a
somewhat heavier and slightly darker wood than the average baticulin.
Pusopuso (Neolitsea vidalii) produces a wood that is greenish yellow,
streaked and mottled with brown, moderately heavy and moderately hard.
It would perhaps be accepted as baticulin. Some species of Litsea produce
wood so similar to the description given above that they will undoubtedly
pass for baticulin. •

Dugkatan (Cryptocarya bicolor) has a dark brown heartwood sharply
marked off from the dull yellowish sapwood; it is hard, moderately heavy,
rather fine and straight grained and has a good reputation for durability.
It is known only from Mindanao. It is used for house posts. In
mechanical properties and durability this wood might be classed with
malacadios.

Malacadios (Beilschmiedia cairocan) is a tree that reaches a height
of 30 meters and a diameter of 70 or more centimeters, with a bole 16
to 20 meters long. The bark is 15 to 20 millimeters in thickness, is gray
to a dirty brown in color and distinctly ridged. Beneath the cork is a
white spongy layer, very thin and pitted; this grades into a brown or
dark brown color near the sapwood. The leaves are simple, alternate,
whitish beneath, from 9 to 20 centimeters long and 3 to 8 centimeters
wide. The wood is yellow, moderately heavy to heavy, moderately hard
to hard, rather fine grained, when fresh has an odor much like aromatic
vinegar and is said to be difficult to burn. The wood has the following
uses: House construction (flooring, posts) ; furniture; shipbuilding.
This tree has the following known distribution: Luzon (Ilocos Norte,
Ilocos Sur, Tayabas, Camarines) ; Ticao Island ; Masbate ; Panay ; Zam-
boanga. Besides malacadios, a name that is used in the northern islands,
it has the local name of cubi in the Zamboanga region. (PI. XIII.)

Tambulian (Eusideroxylon zwageri) is the Tawi Tawi name for the
ironwood or billian of Borneo. The wood is yellow, on exposure turning
^ a glossy brown; very hard and very heavy and generally straight
grained. It is difficult to saw, but is not hard to finish. It is said to
be the best wood in the world for piling and is used for heavy construc-
tor, bridges, telegraph and telephone poles, and railway ties. In the
Philippines it is known only from the Island of Tawi Tawi.

Kalingag (Ginnamomum mercadoi) is a medium-sized tree usually found in
^e tanguile-oak type. The wood is dull reddish brown, with dark mottlings
aiK * streaks; soft to moderately hard; moderately heavy; both bark and wood

ave a strong taste and odor of sassafras. The camphor wood ( Ginnamomum cam-
Pwra) i s no t na tive to the Philippines and has only recently been introduced.

Jflnamon is gathered and used locally in Mindanao from Ginnamomum minda-

103554 3

34

MAMAL.IS FAMILY.

(Pittosporacese.)

Mamalis {Pittosporum pentandrum) is a small tree growing in open places
with the common names of basuit (II.) ; darayao (Pal.) ; dili (N. V.) ; mamalis
( T. ) . It yields a light colored wood, moderately hard, that is used only locally,

ROSE OR LJUSEtf FAMILY.

( Rosacese. )

This family yields only one timber tree of commercial importance.
liusin. (Pis. XIV and XV.)

Liusin is a medium-sized tree reaching a height of 25 to 30 meters an
a diameter of 70 to 100 centimeters or larger. The bole is usually
regular and straight, slightly buttressed. The crown is irregularly conical
and dense. It is very scattered throughout the dipterocarp forests, found
both on moist and dry soils and is intolerant of shade.

The bark is 5 to 8 millimeters in thickness, light brown or slightly
gray in color; smooth and, where freshly shed, often very light gray
with a tinge of green. In Mindanao, at least, the bark is shed in large
elongated plates turned out below. This gives the tree a striking ap-
pearance. The inner bark is tan red in color, very brittle, and when
cut exudes a sweetish watery sap. The leaves are simple, alternate, free
from hairs, with two more or less prominent glands at the base of the leaf
blade. They are somewhat leathery in texture, from 9 to 15 centimeters
long and from 3 to 7 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is creamy brown in color; the heartwood is light reddish
brown, heavy, very hard, extremely difficult to saw, fine and usually
straight grained. It is very durable in contact with salt water. Liusin
is especially valuable for piling, and also used for shipbuilding i
house posts.

The following regions contain liusin: Luzon (Cagayan, Ilocos Sur,
Abra, ISTueva Ecija, Pangasinan, Eizal, Zambales, Bataan, Tayabas, Ca-
marines) ; Mindoro; Samar; Leyte; Guimaras Island; Mindanao (Zam-
boanga, Lanao and Davao) .

The scientific name of liusin is V armarium griffithianum. Other
species of the genus produce wood indistinguishable from liusin. Uvw
recently the tree seemed to be little used and was first known under the
name of liusin from Bataan and Zambales. The following local names
are known: Aningat (Cag.) ; bakayo (Pang.); bingao (II.) J bi n £
(Pang.) ; dungon-dungonan (Tay.) ; kankangan (Dav.) ; kapgang an
(M.) ; kulatingan (Tar.) ; malafuga (Tay.) ; maluktuk (Moro) ; man-
talingan (Zam.) ; matamata (Ley.); olayan (Sam.); pasak; sabong*
kaag (II.); sampinit (Guim.) ; sarangan (Sam.); tabun-tabun (Ah)
tadian-manuk (Eiz., Ab.) ; tiga (Sam.).

35

Lago or liusin-gubat {Pygeum preslii) and other species of Pygeum are
sometimes used as lumber. An extract from the bark of lago is employed

locally to dye cloth.

LOCUST OR NARRA FAMILY.

( Leguminosae. )

The Nana family is, next to the dipterocarp family, the most important
one from a lumber standpoint in the Philippine Islands. With the
exception of cupang, it is preeminently the family of fine and durable
furniture woods. A group of six of these, viz: narra, tindalo, banuyo,
supa, acle, and ipil, have a beautiful grain and color, and for furniture
and cabinetmaking will compare with any six other woods in the markets
of the world. Nowhere appearing in any considerable quantity, the
members of this family are encountered isolated here and there in situa-
tions with dry or sandy soils (tindalo, supa, ipil, and banuyo) or occupy

aces on moist flats or along streams (acle, ipil, and narra). Cupang,
salinkugi, and acleng-parang are usually confined to the open parang
country. All of the species mentioned are intolerant of shade, and
associated with this they are found destitute or nearly destitute of leaves
(luring a portion of the dry season. All of them also show seasonal
rings of growth. The members of the Narra family mentioned here have
simply or doubly compound leaves. The fruit is a one-seeded pod
(batete), a winged pod with or without spines (various kinds of narra) ;
apod with oily spines (supa), or the usually long pod so characteristic
of the family. The trees are usually medium size with short thick trunks,
often large buttresses (narra and cupang) and broad spreading, open,
vase-shaped crowns. They often give character to the vegetation, be-
cause they overtop the surrounding low growth and during the dry
season their bare, or nearly bare, branches stand out in sharp contrast.

narra. (Pis. XVI and XVII.)

Narra is a medium-sized tree, 20 to 30 meters in height with an average
aneter of 70 to 80 centimeters, though exceptional trees will reach a
diameter of 150 to 200 centimeters. The bole has a merchantable length
U P to 15 meters, is usually angular and irregular and has flat buttresses,
from which one-piece table tops 1.5 to 2 meters in diameter are made. It
tos a low-branching, wide-spreading, vase-shaped crown which is about
°*e-half the total height of the tree.

Narra is found throughout the Philippines, principally in the forest
re gions where the dry season is not pronounced, nearly always occupying
feces on flat coastal plains behind mangrove swamps, or very scattered
ai ° n g streams in the low hills near the coast. In the former situation,
^ small areas, as high as four or five trees to the hectare may be found.
^Mle- it prefers low, damp soils, occasional trees may be found on drier

36

slopes. It is decidedly a light-loving tree and is nearly deciduous for a
short time during the dry season.

The bark is 3 to 5 millimeters in thickness, soft to the touch, grayish
yellow to brownish yellow in color, with fine longitudinal lines about
centimeter apart. It is often shed in small thin flakes. The inner bark
is light red, streaked with darker red short tubes united in vertical rows.
These, when cut, exude a crimson liquid which on solidification becomes
a very dark reddish brown. This liquid is said to have medicinal
dyeing properties. The leaves are simply compound, alternate, with 6
to 11 leaflets, which are smooth, from 5 to 13 centimeters long and
from 2 to 8 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is nearly creamy white. The heartwood is yellow, red,
or nearly white. It has a faint, sweet cedary odor, and chips soaked in
water turn it fluorescent blue. The wood is moderately heavy, moderately
hard to hard, with coarse and sometimes twisted grain, and durable, the
heart being rarely attacked by insects. It has fine parallel cross lines
("ripple marks") in longitudinal sections.

Narra has the following uses: Bancas; bridge construction; cabinet-
making; carabao yokes; carriage making; carving; doors; door panels;
finishing of houses; floors; furniture; posts; railway ties; store fronts
table tops; walls; window sills.

The scientific name of narra is Pterocarpus indicus. Closely related
species are prickly narra (Pterocarpus echinatus) and Blanco's narra
(Pterocarpus blancoi) which are much like narra in all particulars except
character of the fruits.

The distribution of the narras is as follows: Luzon (Cagayan, Ilocos
Norte, Ilocos Sur, Abra, Union, Benguet, Pangasinan, ISTueva Ecija,
Tarlac, Zambales, Bulacan, Bataan, Eizal, Laguna, Baler, Tayabas
Camarines, Sorsogon, Albay) ; Palani Island; Marinduque; Mindoro
Masbate; Samar; Leyte; ISTegros Occidental; Palawan; Balabac Island
Camiguin Island; Mindanao (Surigao, Misamis, Lanao, Zamboanga ;
Davao) .

Narra is the most common commercial name for the wood in t.
Philippines. It is also known as Philippine mahogany, and is practical
the same as the padouh of India and Andaman rosewood. The following
local names are also known: Agana (T.) ; antagan (lb.) ; apalit (Tar.
asana (T., II.) ; daitanag (Pam.) ; dungon (Kalinga Ig.) ; magalaj
(II., lb.) ; naga (B., V.) ; nala (Moro) ; naya (Z.) ; odiao (Pam.) ; saga*
(Cag.) ; sangki (II., V.) ; tagga (lb.) ; urian (Pam.).

batete. (Pis. XVIII and XIX.)

Batete is a tree which reaches a height of 30 to 35 meters and a dia-
meter of 80 to 100 centimeters. It has a regularly cylindrical unbu'
tressed bole which has a clear length of 18 to 20 meters. The crown ,fl
globular and quite dense and is about one-third the height of the tree.

37

Batete is confined to the drier soils of the regions where the dry season

not pronounced. It is usually associated with molave or supa on lime-
stone ridges, or with yacal on volcanic hills near the sea. It is slightly
tolerant of shade, more so than any other member of this family, and
occupies shallow soils usually on the top of ridges.

The bark is 7 to 10 millimeters in thickness; gray to gray-brown in
color, with a yellowish tinge; sheds in large scroll-shaped patches. The
inner bark is red. The leaves are alternate, simply-compound with from

to 7 usually alternate leaflets, which are smooth from 8 to 19 centimeters
long and 4 to 9 centimeters wide.

The sap wood is light red, exuding a dirty, dark green, oily sap. The
ieartwood is reddish brown in color, streaked with black which is due to

dark colored oil. The wood soaked in water produces a brown color,
tinged with purple. It is moderately hard and moderately heavy, easy

work and fairly durable. Batete is used for furniture, flooring, interior
finish, and siding.

It is known from the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan, Tayabas,
Camarines, Albay) ; Ticao Island; Masbate; Samar; Leyte; Mindanao
(Zamboanga, Davao) :

Batete has the scientific name of Kingiodendron alternifolium. The
following local names are known: Danggai (B., V.) ; duka (Ley.) ; mag-
balago (Sam.) ; palo maria (Zam.) ; palina (Dav.) ; salalangin (Al.) ;
talabangon (Sor.).

supa. (PL XX.)

Supa is a tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 meters, and in exceptional
cases a diameter of 150 to 180 centimeters. The bole is regular, straight,
and unbuttressed. The crown is very large, usually flattened vase-
shaped, open, and with heavy limbs having a diameter of 25 to 40 centi-
meters. Supa seems to be confined to a limited part of regions without
a distinct dry season. Here it occurs on the low limestone ridges near
&e seashore. It is intolerant of shade.

The bark is 7 to 10 millimeters in thickness, brown to nearly black in
color, and sheds in large scales. Where freshly shed, pink colored patches
ar e exposed. The leaves are alternate and simply compound, with
usually three pair of leaflets, each smooth, leathery in texture, from 3.5
to 9 centimeters long and from 2.5 to 5 centimeters wide. The fruit is
a Pod, covered with straight, stiff spines, on the ends of which sticky drops
°f oil accumulate.

The sap wood is cream colored or pinkish; the heartwood is yellow
when fresh, changing on exposure to a yellowish brown, often having a
oddish tinge. It colors water a dark-reddish brown, and has a faint
P e ppery odor. The wood is heavy, hard, fairly durable, slightly cross-
Seined, and rather difficult to work. It has the following uses : House
instruction (flooring, interior trim, door frames, posts) ; baseball bats ;

38

bridge construction ; naval construction ; railroad ties ; furniture ; cabinet-
making. (For a discussion of supa oil see Part I, p. 54.)

Supa has been found in the following regions: Luzon (Baler, Taya-
bas, Camarines, Sorsogon, Albay) ; and Mindoro.

The scientific name of supa is Sindora supa. Besides supa, the follow-
ing names for this tree are known: Malapaho (T., V.) ; manapo (Bal.);
parina (B.) ; yacal dilao (Tay.).

ipil. (Pis. XXI and XXII.)

Ipil is a tree reaching a height of 30 to 45 meters and a diameter of
150 to 180 centimeters, though usually it is between 60 and 120 centi-
meters. The usually unbuttressed bole is sometimes straight and regular,
though more often crooked and deformed. The tree often forks a short
distance above the ground. Exceptionally large trees will have a clear
length of 15 to 18 meters. The crown is large, and irregularly vase
shaped. Ipil is found scattered throughout the Philippines along the
coast, on flood plains near the mouths of large rivers, and occasionally on
low hills. It seems to prefer a sandy soil with the ground water level not
far below the surface. It is intolerant of shade.

The bark is 5 to 8 millimeters in thickness, gray with an orange tinge
in color. The shallow saucer-like depressions made where bark is shed
show a tan gray color until exposed for some time. The inner bark is
light brown, mottled with pinkish brown specks. The leaves are al-
ternate, simply-compound, composed usually of two pairs of leaflets ; these
are smooth, from 8 to 12 centimeters long and from 5.5 to 8.5 centi-
meters wide.

The sapwood is creamy in color, the heartwood is yellow when freshly
cut, but turns reddish brown on exposure, and in old well-seasoned pieces
it is chocolate colored. The pores frequently contain sulphur-colored
deposits. The wood is heavy, hard, stiff, and not difficult to work.

It is one of the most desirable of the common hardwoods because of
its great durability. It is used principally for house construction (doors,
posts, flooring); railroad ties; paving blocks; telegraph poles; bridge
construction; shipbuilding; high class furniture and cabinet work.

The following is the distribution of ipil: Luzon (Cagayan, Baler,
Zambales, Bataan, Tayabas, Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon) ; Camiguin
Island; Ticao Island; Masbate; Mindoro; Leyte; Guimaras Island;
Dinagat Island; Panay; Negros; Palawan, Mindanao (Zamboanga, Da-
vao, Cotabato, Surigao) ; Basilan Island; Tawi Tawi.

The scientific name of ipil is Intsia bijuga. Another closely related
species, with usually three pairs of leafllets instead of two, is Merrill's
ipil {Intsia acuminata). Ipil is the widespread common name for this
wood in the Philippines; others recorded are: Labing (Tay.); sangai
(II.); tanglangao (Cam.). Equivalents of this wood are known in

39

Samoa as ifi-lele, in Guam as ifil, in Borneo as mirabow, and in the
Federated Malay States, as merbou.

tindalo. (PL XXIII.)

Tindalo is a tree reaching a height of 25 to 30 meters and a diameter
of 60 to 80 centimeters, occasionally up to 120 centimeters. It is usually
without buttresses and has a somewhat regular bole 12 to 15 meters in
length. The crown, one-half the height of the tree, is broad spreading,
vase shaped, semiopen, and partly deciduous during the dry season. Tin-
dalo has a wide distribution throughout the Islands, but is not abundant.
It is found scattered usually on dry, shallow, or rocky soils on the low
ridges and hills along the coast. Less frequently it is scattered in the
edges of the dipterocarp forests.

The bark is about 10 millimeters in thickness, creamy yellow in color,
and has an uneven surface due to the saucerlike depressions made by the
shedding of the outer layers. It is covered with numerous corky pustules,
and sheds in scroll-shaped patterns. The inner bark is brownish yellow
in color. The leaves are alternate, simply compound, with 3 (sometimes
4) pairs of leaflets. These are smooth with a white bloom beneath, from
3.5 to 10 centimeters long and from 3 to 5 centimeters wide.

The sap wood is white to creamy brown ; the heartwood is yellowish red,
becoming very dark with age. It is heavy, hard, durable, not difficult
to work, has a fine, usually straight grain, takes a beautiful finish, and is
almost free of the defect of warping.

Tindalo has the following uses: Fine furniture; cabinetmaking ; fine
interior finish (doors, floors, stairways, panels, etc.) ; railway ties; ship-
building; general construction purposes.

The following regions are known to contain tindalo: Luzon (Cagayan,
Isabela, Ilocos Norte, Pangasinan, Zambales, Eizal, Bataan, Tayabas,
Camarines, Sorsogon) ; Palani Island; Polillo Island; Ticao; Masbate;
Marinduque; Mindoro; Culion; Leyte; Cebu; Mindanao (Zamboanga,
Cotabato, Surigao).

The scientific name of tindalo is Pahudia rhomb oidea. Besides tin-
dalo the most common names are as follows: Apalit (Pang.) ; Balayong
or some form of it (V.) ; barayong (B.) ; magalayao (N. Luz.) ; pintok
(Z.); uris (II.).

cupang. (Pis. XXIV and XXV.)

Cupang reaches a height of 35 to 40 meters, and a diameter of 150 to
180 centimeters. The bole is 15 to 20 meters in length, strongly but-
tressed, but otherwise fairly regular. The crown, about one-half the
height of the tree, is large, vase shaped, widespreading, and open. Cu-
pang is preeminently a tree of the rather open and second-growth forests
*here the dry season is pronounced, and is very scarce or entirely absent

40

in those parts where a pronounced dry season is wanting. It prefers good
soils, requires a great deal of light, and therefore is found in the parang
or on edges of untouched forests, or in open places of dipterocarp forests.

The bark is 6 to 12 millimeters in thickness, brown to russet-brown in
color, often gray where exposed to sunlight. It has a roughened ap-
pearance due to shallow vertical broken lines, and is covered with small
brown corky pustules. The inner bark is dark brownish red in color.
The leaves are alternate, doubly compound, large and fern-like in ap-
pearance; the leaflets about 0.5 centimeter in length, and whitish beneath.
The tree is bare of leaves from one to six weeks during the dry season.

The large sapwood is creamy white when fresh and then has a very
disagreeable odor. On exposure it discolors rapidly. The heartwood is
light brown, but is found only in trees 60 centimeters or more in diameter.
The wood is light and soft, and decays rapidly.

Cupang has the following uses: Light and temporary construction;
packing boxes; wooden soles of shoes; matches. It is known to be good
for paper pulp.

The scientific name of cupang is Parhia timoriana. Besides cupang
and some forms of it, the only known other name in use is butarik (N.
Luz. ) .

Cupang is known to occur in the following regions, though no collec-
tions have been made in some of them : Luzon ( Cagayan, Isabela, Ilocos
Sur, Abra, Benguet, Pangasinan, Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Bu-
lacan, Zambales, Bataan, Bizal, Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines) ; Mindoro,
Marinduque; Palawan.

acleng-parang. (Pis. XXVI and XXVII.)

Acleng-parang is a medium-sized tree reaching a height of 20 to 22
meters and a diameter of 60 to 90 centimeters. It has a straight, un-
buttressed, regular bole about one-half the height of the tree. The crown
is vase shaped, rather broad spreading and open. The tree is usually
confined to the regions where the dry season is pronounced. Here it is
found on the edge of the forest or in the more or less open parang type
of forest. It resists fire well, and is intolerant of shade. It will grow
in shallow or deep soil, but is seldom found in the latter. It is usually
destitute of leaves from two to six weeks during the dry season.

The bark is 5 to 10 millimeters in thickness, smooth, and light gray
when young, but on ageing it becomes slightly roughened and brownish
gray to yellowish in color. The inner bark is pink, streaked with radiat-
ing lighter colored lines. The leaves are alternate and doubly compound
with about 3 to 5 pairs of pinnae, each with 6 to 10 pairs of leaflets; these
are whitish beneath, from 2 to 6 centimeters long and from 1 to 2.5
centimeter wide.

The sapwood is large, creamy white ; the heartwood is chocolate colored,
shining, with alternate belts of darker and lighter color. The wood is

41

hard, moderately heavy, fairly durable, and sometimes substituted for acle.
It is used for sugar-cane crushers, rice pounders, wheels, agricultural
implements, carving, railroad ties, and house construction.

The tree is known from the following regions: Luzon (Ilocos Norte,
Ilocos Sur, Abra, Benguet, Union, Pangasinan, Tarlac, Pampanga, Eizal,
Zambales, Bataan, Camarines) ; Mindoro.

The scientific name of acleng-parang is Albizzia procera. The follow-
ing local names are known: Adaan (II.); alalangad (T.) ; aninapla
(T.) ; kalai (Ig.) ; karial (Z.) ; palatangan (II.)-

salinkugi. (PI. XXVIII.)

This is a small to medium sized tree attaining a diameter of 80 centi-
meters and a height of 25 meters, especially in the southern islands. The
bole is one-half the height of the tree, usually somewhat irregular, but
without buttresses. The crown is broadly vase shaped to globular and is
open. It is found throughout the Philippine Islands generally in the
parang or open forest.

The bark is about 5 millimeters in thickness, light gray to dark gray
in color and densely covered with corky pustules; the inner bark is
slightly pink in color and somewhat spongy in texture. The leaves are
alternate, doubly compound, consisting usually of 2 pairs of pinnae, each
with 2 to 4 pairs of leaflets ; these are from 5 to 14 centimeters long, and
from 2.5 to 8 centimeters wide, and are covered beneath with fine velvety
hairs.

The sapwood is creamy white; the heartwood is dark brown to nearly
black streaked with lighter and darker belts and resembles that of acleng-
parang. It is moderately hard and moderately heavy. The wood is used
locally for general house construction, and, especially in the southern
islands, for furniture and fine interior finish.

Salinkugi has the following distribution: Luzon (Ilocos Norte, Ilocos
Sur, Benguet, Pangasinan, Pampanga, Bataan, Eizal, Laguna, Tayabas,
Camarines, Albay) ; Mindoro; Ticao Island; Masbate; Guimaras Is-
land; Samar; Negros; Mindanao (Zamboanga, Surigao) ; Basilan.

The scientific name of salinkugi is Albizzia saponaria. Besides the
Visayan name of salinkugi, or some form of it, and the Tagalog one of
gogong-toko, the following local names are known: Gogo (T.) ; gogo-
kasai (Tay.) ; malatoko (Riz.) ; maratika (II.) ; pipi (Neg.) ; tigian

(v.).

BANUYO. (PL XXIX.)

Banuyo is a medium to large sized tree with a short, often irregular
bole and an open crown. It is scattered throughout the molave type of
.forest on the dry coastal hills. It is intolerant of shade and seems to
thrive best in dry places.

42

The bark is 5 to 8 millimeters in thickness, gray to brownish-gray in
color, not ridged but roughened somewhat by irregularly shaped shallow
pits, due to the depressions left where it is shed; the inner bark is dark
reddish brown. The leaves are doubly compound with 3 pairs of pinnae
each having about 5 pair of leaflets; these are smooth, from 3.5 to 8
centimeters long and from 1.5 to 4 centimeters wide.

The wood is golden brown in color and resembles acle, but is coarser
grained, lighter in color and somewhat softer. It is moderately heavy,
moderately hard, durable and is easily worked. Banuyo is used for
furniture, cabinetmaking, carving, carriage bodies, picture frames, and
fine interior finish. It is also employed for various classes of house
construction work, especially flooring and siding.

The tree has been reported from the following regions: Luzon (Ca-
gayan, Isabela, Benguet, Tayabas, Camarines) ; Camiguin Island; Mas-
bate; Burias Island; Ticao Island; Samar; Negros.

The scientific name of banuyo is Wallaceodendron celebicum. Besides
the Tagalog name of banuyo the following names are used: Balayong
(V.) ; dauer (Cag.) ; lupigi (N. Luz.) molina (Cag.).

acle. (Pis. XXX and XXXI.)

Acle is a tree of medium height with usually a somewhat irregular
bole, 70 to 100 centimeters in diameter and one-half or less than one-half
the height of the tree. The trunk has root swells, but no buttresses.
The crown is broad spreading, open, and is decidedly thinner during
the dry than the wet season. It is a very scattered tree, and is usually
found along streams where its roots can easily reach the ground-water
level. It is intolerant of shade.

The bark is 8 to 12 millimeters in thickness; is dark brown to almost-
black, and is covered with thick small scales giving it a very characteristic
appearance. When rubbed with saliva or water the bark produces a
lather. The inner bark is reddish brown in color, and brittle in texture.
The leaves are doubly compound, usually with one pair of pinnae, each
with 3 to 6 pair of leaflets, the terminal pair being much larger than the
others. The leaflets are from 4.5 to 18 centimeters long and from 2 to
7 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is creamy white and perishable; the heartwood is a rich
dark brown color, fine and curly grained, moderately heavy and hard,
and gives water a dark brown color. It has a decided peppery odor.
Acle is highly valued for fine furniture and cabinet making, and also
has the following uses: House construction (posts, flooring, siding, in-
terior finish) ; naval construction; ties; sides of guitars; carving.

Acle has been collected from the following regions : Luzon (Ilocos Sur,

43

Union, Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, Kizai, Zambales, Bataan, Tayabas, Ca-
marines, Sorsogon) ; Masbate; Mindoro; Negros; Palawan.

The scientific name of acle is Albizzia acle. The wood resembles some-
what the pyingadu of India (Xylia dolabriformis Benth.). Besides the
Tagalog name of acle, the wood is known under the following names:
Kita-kita or quita-quita (II., Pam., Pang.) ; langip (V.) ; tabalangi (V.).

Besides the above the following members of this family need mention:
The raintree (Enterolobium saman) is extensively cultivated for ornament
and shade throughout the Philippines. It is also known as acacia or monkey pod.
Camanchile (Pithecolobium dulce) is a small to medium sized tree introduced
from tropical America, whose bark is used for tanning leather, and the fleshy
aril around the seeds is eaten. Anagap or bansilak {Pithecolobium scutiferum)
is a small to medium sized tree, with large red, deeply lobed and curved pods,
whose wood is used to some extent. Kasai (Albizzia retusa) is a small tree
usually found in the beach type. Aroma {Acacia farnesiana) is a small bushy
introduced tree found in the second-growth forests or scattered in the grass lands.
Ipil-ipil or santa elena (Leucaena glauca) , introduced from tropical America,
is widely distributed in the second-growth forests and is sometimes planted to
kill out the cogon grass. It is a small shrubby tree used extensively for fire-
wood. Philippine mesquite or aroma {Prosopis vidaliana) is a small prickly
tree, introduced from Mexico, that often forms thickets in the beach type. Tanglin
{Adenanthera intermedia) is a medium-sized tree found scattered in the forests.
Its wood is much like ipil and is often sold for it. Kamatog (Erythrophloeum
densiflorum) is a medium-sized to large tree very scattered in the dipterocarp
forests. The wood is not well known. Alibangbang (Bauhinia malabarica) is
a small-sized tree very common in the parang. The common name signifies
butterfly, from the shape of the leaves. Cana-fistula (Cassia javanica) is a small
to medium sized tree usually found in the molave type. Its wood resembles banuyo
in color, but has a structure similar to tindalo. The foreign name, cafia-fistula
is applied to the introduced Cassia fistula L. but most of the wood that reaches
the market probably comes from Cassia javanica. The following native names
also occur: Anahuhan (Tay.) ; bagiroro (Bur., Sor.); balayong (V.); dulaueng
(Is.) ; tualing (Z). Cassia siamea and Peltophorum inerme are introduced trees
extensively cultivated for ornament and shade. Both have brilliant yellow flowers.
Fire tree (Delonix regia) is a small to medium sized cultivated tree introduced
from Madagascar. Sibucao or sappan (Cmsalpinia sappan) is a small shrubby
tree semicultivated as a dyewood. (See Part I, p. 54.) Bahai (Ormosia cala-
vensis) is a medium-sized tree found very scattered in the dipterocarp forests.
The wood is red, but is little known on the markets. Madre-cacao or kakawati
{Gliricidia sepium) is a small bushy tree introduced from tropical America. It
occurs in the parang and is one of the principal woods used for fuel. Katurai
or katudai (Sesbania grandiflora) is a small tree with large white flowers used
as salad or vegetable. It has probably been introduced into the Philippines. Sam-
palok or tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is a medium-sized tree growing m or.
near towns, probably introduced from Africa. The fruit is eaten raw or cooked
with meat to flavor it. Bani (Pongamia mitis) is a small tree usually growing
on the sandy beaches. The wood is used locally. Dapdap (Erythrina indica)
is a medium-sized tree with a white, very soft wood, growing along the seashore.
The tree is cultivated for its large red flowers and as a shade tree in hemp
plantations. It is sometimes erroneously called the fire tree.

44

LEMON OR CAMUNING FAMILY.

( Rutacese. )

This is a family of small trees, representatives of which are found throughout
the Philippines. The species usually have compound leaves which are full of oily
droplets (pellucid dots). Camuning (Murraya exotica L.), the principal one
worthy of mention, is a small tree, furnishing a very hard, very heavy, yellowish
wood, used for canes, kris handles, and carvings. It is said to be a good substitute
for boxwood. It is also known as banasi or banati. Species of the genus Citrus
furnish the native cultivated orange (dalandan or cajel), the native cultivated
grape fruit (suha or lukban) and two varieties of lime (dayap and kalamansi.)
Citrus hystrix (kabuyao) is a wild species whose fruit is used for washing
hair and bleaching clothes. Kayutana (Fagara sp.) is a small to medium sized
tree whose wood is pale yellow, hard, and heavy.

CANARY OR PILI FAMILY.

( Burseraceae. )

The trees of this family have alternate compound leaves and resinous barks.
Pili {Canarium luzonicum) is the tree that produces the resin that is known as
the Manila elemi of commerce (known locally as pili resin, brea, or brea blanca).
A form of this tree (perhaps a different species) produces the pili nut, an edible
nut with a rich oily flavor resembling the almond. (See Part I, p. 56.)
Pagsahingin {Canarium villosum) produces a resin similar to that of pili. The
wood of both these Canariums and that of twenty or more other species is
usually moderately hard, light to moderately heavy, and light grayish brown,
sometimes pinkish, in color, fairly fine and straight grained; not very durable,
but said to make good house posts if the portion in the ground is charred. The
wood of kamingi (Santiria nitida) is pale brown, heavy, hard, rather tough, does
not check much, but warps considerably, and is somewhat difficult to work. Bogo
or bagulibas ( Garuga abilo ) , another tree of this family, is usually found growing
with molave. It has a short bole, large in diameter, and wide spreading branches.
The sapwood has a pale dull brown color; the heartwood dark reddish brown with
almost black streaks and mottlings, moderately heavy, moderately hard, rather
coarse irregular grain, and not difficult to work.

MAHOGANY OR CALANTAS FAMILY.

(Meliaceae.)

While this family has many representatives in the Philippines, the
wood of only four species are commonly found in the lumber market.
The woods of a large number of species are used, but the identifications
are so obscure that it is impossible to discuss them at this time. Outside
the Philippines this family furnishes to the lumber market the West
Indian cedar (Cedrela odorata L.), the toon tree of India (Toona spp.),
the true mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni L.), the satinwood of India
(Chloroxylon swietenia DC. 1 ) and the African mahogany (Khaya
senegalensis) .

With some practise the members of the Calantas family can be dis-
tinguished by the large compound alternate leaves, grouped at the ends

1 Placed in Rutacese by Engler.

45

of short, stout branchlets. The trees are small, medium sized, and some-
times large in diameter, though usually short boled. The wood of many
species have a faint to distinct odor.

calantas. (Pis. XXXII and XXXIII.)

Calantas is a tree that will reach a height of 40 to 50 meters and a
diameter of over 150 centimeters, though the trees are usually much
smaller. The bole is straight and cylindrical and about one-half the
height of the tree in length. The crown is wide spreading and rather
open. This tree is found scattered throughout the Philippines and can
not be said to be abundant in any place. It occurs along small streams in
the molave type, on flood plains in the lauan-hagachac type and some-
times in drier situations. It is not tolerant of shade.

The bark is 5 to 10 millimeters in thickness, brown to reddish brown
in color and breaks into rough rectangular scales, the ends of which turn
slightly outward. In small trees the bark often has longitudinal lines.
The inner bark is reddish brown, slightly streaked with lighter bands,
and has a distinct cedary odor. The leaves are compound, alternate,
bunched at the ends of the twigs. There are 7 to 11 pairs of leaflets,
each smooth or nearly so except when young, from 5 to 13 centi-
meters long and from 3.5 to 6 centimeters wide.

The sapwood of calantas is very light red; the heartwood is pale to
dark red in color. The wood usually has a strong cedary odor. It is
soft in texture and light in weight, and is coarse and straight grained.
It is durable and resists the attacks of white ants and fungi very well.
A form of calantas (probably a distinct botanical species) is found in
Mindanao and Palawan. The wood of this, while in other respects like
calantas, has no distinct odor except when fresh, and some of it has the
bird's-eye grain, when it is known as bird's-eye or curly calantas.

Calantas is closely related to the West Indian cedar and like it is
especially valuable for fine furniture, cabinetmaking, and cigar boxes.
It is sometimes sold as Philippine mahogany. It is also used for pattern
making, carvings, ceilings, doors, partitions, sides of guitars, and for
bancas.

The present knowledge of the distribution of calantas is as follows:
Luzon (Cagayan, Isabela, Bontoc, Pangasinan, Zambales, Bataan, Taya-
bas, Camarines, Sorsogon) ; Mindoro; Samar; Leyte; Negros; Palawan;
Mindanao (Zamboanga and Basilan).

The scientific name of calantas is Toona calantas. Other species of
Toona probably occur. Besides the general Tagalog name of calantas
the following local names are known: Balongkauit (B.) ; bantinon (N.
V.) ; danga (Is.) ; danigga (N. Luz.) danupra (II.) ; kalantad (Pang.) ;
Kantingen (Z., II.) ; lanigda (V., B.) ; lanipga or some form of it (V.,
B.) ; porak (II.) ; sagged (Pal.) ; sandana (Y.) ; taratara (T.).

46

SANTOL. (PI. XXXIV.)

Santol is a medium-sized tree reaching a height of 20 meters and a
diameter of 70 centimeters. The tree has a straight, regular, but short
bole. The crown is fairly dense and compact.

The bark is 4 to 7 millimeters in thickness, gray to grayish brown in
color, rather smooth with fine longitudinal lines, and covered with corky
pustules. Just beneath the surface the color is mottled green; the inner
bark is pinkish red nearest the surface, but shades into a very light pink
next to the sapwood. The leaves are compound and alternate. There
are three leaflets, each from 13 to 16 centimeters long and from 6 to
9.5 centimeters wide, and covered below with fine velvety hairs.

The sapwood and heartwood are brownish pink in color. The wood
is moderately heavy and moderately hard and has a very faint aromatic
odor. When soaked in water it gives a reddish tinge. It is straight
grained and easily worked. Santol is used for light construction pur-
poses, especially house building, also for carving, sacred images, blocks
for shaping hats, and furniture.

The scientific name of santol is Sandoricum indicum. It has the gen-
eral common name of santol and besides growing wild is cultivated
throughout the Philippines for its edible fruit.

MALASANTOL. (PL XXXV.)

Malasantol is a medium-sized tree reaching a height of at least 20 to
25 meters and a diameter of 80 centimeters. The bark is 4 to 7 milli-
meters in thickness and gray to grayish-brown in color ; the inner bark is
tan red in color. The leaves are alternate and trifoliate. The leaflets
are from 6 to 18.5 centimeters long and from 4 to 9 centimeters wide
and smooth or nearly smooth.

The sapwood is creamy white to salmon pink in color; the heartwood
is reddish brown with a violet tinge. The wood is somewhat harder and
heavier than santol and is straight and coarse grained. It has an odor
similar to santol.

It has been recorded from the following provinces: Luzon (Nueva
Vizcaya, Tarlac, Zambales, Bataan, Eizal, Laguna, Tayabas) ; Mindoro;
Samar; Negros; Zamboanga.

The scientific name of malasantol is Sandoricum vidalii. It has the
following local names: Biot (K V.) ; bok-bok (Tay.) ; magsantol (Z.) ;
malabobonao (Sam.); santol (Neg., Eiz.).

TUCANG-CALAO. (PI. XXXVI.)

Tucang-calao is a tree usually reaching a height of 20 to 25 meters
and a diameter of 60 to 80 centimeters. The bole is regular and about
one-half the height of the tree. The tree grows on the dry coastal hills,
usually scattered through the forests in which bansalaguin and dungon
occur.

47

The bark is 5 to 10 millimeters in thickness, light gray to gray in
color, distinctly ridged. The inner bark is tan red in color. The leaves
are alternately compound, composed of about 12 pairs of leaflets, each
from 10 to 24 centimeters long and 2.5 to 8 centimeters wide, densely
covered with whitish to rusty-brown hairs beneath.

The sapwood is grayish in color; the heartwood is brownish red with
a fine and curly grain and a pungent cedary odor. The wood is heavy
and hard. For beautiful color and grain this wood is of a mahogany
grade. It is used for furniture, flooring, general house construction
(especially interior finish), and shipbuilding.

This tree has been reported from the following regions: Luzon (Pan-
gasinan, Batangas, Tayabas, Camarines, Albay) ; Masbate; Burias; and
Cebu.

The scientific name of tucang-calao is Aglaia clarkii. The general
commercial name is tucang-calao. Other local names are as follows:
Alamog (Al.) ; balui (Pang.) ; kansuyod (AL, Bur.) ; makopa (Bat.) ;
saldana (Cebu).

TABIGI.

This is a medium-sized tree with a short, thick, irregular bole and
a spreading semiopen crown. It is found scattered throughout the
mangrove swamps of the Philippines. The bark is 2 to 4 millimeters in
thickness, smooth, cinnamon brown in color, sometimes with parallel
curved lines of corky pustules. The inner bark is pink. The leaves are
alternately compound; the leaflets are obovate, smooth, from 8 to 12
centimeters long and from 3.5 to 6 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is light brownish red. The heartwood is dark red in
color, moderately hard, moderately heavy, and with fine ripple marks.
It is very fine grained, durable, and shrinks but little in drying. It is
used for furniture, sandals, and locally for construction of small houses
and as firewood. The bark is used extensively for dyeing. (See Part I,
p. 53.)

The scientific name of tabigi is Xylocarpus obovatus. It has the
following local names: Lubanayong (Cag.) ; nigi (T.) ; tawigi (Mind.).

PIAGAO.

This is a medium-sized to tall tree with a fairly regular bole that will
yield poles up to 18 meters in length and 60 to 80 centimeters in diam-
eter. It is found throughout the mangrove swamps of the Philippines
and seems to do best in the Davao region of Mindanao, where for very
small areas it forms almost pure stands.

The bark is 3 to 7 millimeters in thickness, gray to dark brown with
a reddish tinge, often with vertical bands of gray alternating with
reddish brown, and inclined to be irregularly ridged or at least much
roughened; the inner bark is red. The leaves are alternately compound;

48

the leaflets are smooth, leathery, from 9.5 to 12 centimeters long and from
3 to 7 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is brown, lightly tinged with red; the heartwood is
dark red, with ripple marks. It is moderately hard, moderately heavy,
durable, and said to last well as salt-water piling. It makes fine furniture
and is of a mahogany grade.

The scientific name of piagao is Xylocarpus granatum. A third
species of Xylocarpus is found in the Philippines.

A number of species of the genera of Aglaia, Amoora, Chisocheton, and Dys-
oxylum are scattered throughout the Islands, especially in the dipterocarp
forests. It is impossible at the present time to describe these trees so that they
be referred to definite species. Agaru (a species of Dysoxylumt) yields a light-
colored, golden-yellow, fine-grained, hard, and moderately heavy wood, found in
small quantities on the Manila market. It takes a beautiful finish like that of
satinwood. Woods similar to this in hardness and other characteristics are known
under the Tagalog name of kuling-manuk and the Visayan name of miao. Mala-
tumbaga is the Bataan name usually applied to Aglaia harmsiana. A wood
similar to this, known as malasaging, and possibly the same species, comes
from Tayabas and Camarines. It is dark red in color (resembling somewhat
tucang-calao) and very durable. While the harder species of the genera men-
tioned above are valuable woods, they will never find much of a place in the
markets because they are scattered and usually have ill-formed short boles. Lan-
sones {Lansium domesticum) is a tree cultivated for its fruit.

RUBBER OR BINUNGA FAMILY.

( Euphorbiaceae. )

While not of much importance from the standpoint of producing lumber, yet
this family contains a large number #f tree species, nearly all of which are small.
These usually occupy a conspicuous place in the undergrowth of the dipterocarp
forests, or are the "weed" trees of the second-growth forests.

The leaves are usually alternate and simple, but Hevea brasiliensis and Bischofia
javanica are trifoliate and Manihot glaziovii has deeply three to seven palmately
parted leaves.

Undergrowth species: A number of species occupy a conspicuous place in the
undergrowth of some of the dipterocarp forests. Among the most important of
these are bignai lalaki {Aporosa sphceridophora) , malabignai or kaping-gubat
{Aporosa symplocosifolia) , butong-manuk or talimorung {Cyclostemon micro-
phyllum), dilak {Baccaurea tetrandra) . These are all strictly undergrowth trees,
seldom reaching a diameter of over 15 centimeters and a height of 10 meters.
They are all tolerant of shade.

Caingin species: Hamindang {Macaranga bicolor) and binunga {Macaranga
tanarius) are among the first trees to enter newly made clearings, forming with
Homalanthus species (especially balanti, H. populneus) almost pure stands.
The Macarangas reach as scattered trees in some dipterocarp forests the dimen-
sions of dominant or subdominant trees. They have peltate leaves. Balanti,
with heart-shaped leaves, is a small spindly tree. All of these, with hinlaumo,
{Mallotus ricinoides) and alim {M. moluccanus) are rapid growing trees, produc-
ing seeds at a very early age. Binayuyu or inyam (Antidesma ghaesembilla) >
tanigi {Antidesma edule) , and bignai {Antidesma bunius) and other species of
Antidesma are small trees found in the open grass lands. A special characteristic

J VvUn d.l

Plate XXXVI.— TUCANG-CALAO (Aplaia clarkii).
a, Fruit.

JViUn del

Plate XXXVII. — AMUGUIS (Koordersiodendron pinnatum).
a, Fruit.

Plate XXXVIII. — LOWER TRUNK OF AMUGUIS (Koordersiodendron pinrtatfin&l? I
With leaves attached.

€rr

Plate XXXIX. — DAO (Dracontomelum dao).
a, Flower cluster ; b, fruit cluster.

Jviun a„i.

Plate XLI. — LAMIO (Dracontomelum cumingianum) .
a, Flower cluster ; h, fruit.

J V.Ian <Ul

Plate XLIL— BALACAT (Zizyphus zonulatus).
a, Fruit cluster.

'{> f

###v*i Ufa

,1 V*

/ \"^

K rCS~

Plate XLIII. — BALACAT (Zizyphus zonulatus).

J.Vitan del.

Plate XLIV. — ALUPAG (Euphoria cinerea).
a. Flower cluster; T), fruit.

Plate XLV. — MAL.UGAY (Pometia pi?mata).
a, Flower cluster ; &, flower ; c, fruit.

Wfon <M

Plate XLVI.— DUNGON (Tarrietia sylvatica).
a, Fruit.

Plate XLVII.— BARK CHARACTERS OF DUNGON (Tarrietia sylvatica) .

J-Vltun del.

Plate XLVIIL— DUNGON-LATE (Heritiera littoralis).
a, Fruit.

Plate XLIX. — DUNGON-LATE (Heritiera littoralis).
Bark and leaves.

'fry As' *

f PW:

hShHh^pH

Plate L. — LUMBAYAO {Tarrietia javanica).
Bark characters.

Plate LI. — LUMBAYAO (Tarrietia javanica).

Plate LII— LUMBAYAO (Tarrietia javanica).
a Fruit ; &, flower cluster.

49

of binayuyu is its power to resist fires. Fire-swept cogonales often show scattered
specimens of this tree nearly to the exclusion of all others.

Rubber-producing species: Para rubber (Hevea brcisiUensis) and ceara rubber
(Mamhot glaziovii) of this family have recently been introduced into the Phil-
ippines. (See Part I, pp. 57, 58.)

Lumber species: Tuai or toog (Bischofia javanica) is a tall tree found
scattered throughout the Philippines, usually isolated along streams. The tree
has a fairly regular, unbuttressed, short bole with a wide-spreading crown. It
is intolerant of shade. The bark is dark brown, soft to the touch, shedding in
large thin scales. The inner bark is red with a thin, dark-red latex. The
leaves are alternate, trifoliate and smooth, with the edges of the leaflets toothed.
The sapwood is light creamy color; the heartwood is red, moderately hard, and
moderately heavy.

Gubas or binuang (Endospermum peltatum) is found very scattered in
some of the dipterocarp forests of Luzon and Mindoro especially. It is a tall
tree, codominant with the dipterocarps and has a straight regular bole without
prominent buttresses. The bark is 4 to 10 millimeters in thickness, light gray,
with a tinge of orange. The inner bark has a golden yellow color with a dis-
agreeable odor. The leaves are alternate, peltate, and hairy. The sap and heart
woods are light yellow in color. The wood is soft and light in weight and used
principally for making matches or for light boxing material.

Hamindang and binunga, usually small trees in second-growth forests, some-
times attain the size of subdominant trees in virgin forests. They both have
smooth, alternate, peltate leaves, white beneath. The bark is brown to light
brown in color. The wood is light colored, light in weight, and sometimes used
in making matches.

Some species of Cyclostemon, especially tinaan-pantai or dila-dila (O. bordenii)
of the northern provinces and banawi (<7. grandifolius) of Mindanao, attain the
size of subdominant species in the dipterocarp forests. Banawi has a straight
regular bole, strongly buttressed. The bark is about 10 millimeters in thickness,
brown or slightly yellowish brown in color; thickly set with corky pustules,
otherwise smooth. The inner bark is mottled yellow, with concentric lines of
white, and is very brittle. The sapwood is slightly lighter in color than the
heartwood, which is a rich creamy yellow when fresh cut and changes on drying to
a brown streaked with black. The wood is moderately heavy and moderately hard.
It is used locally for general construction purposes. Tinaan-pantai is a somewhat
smaller tree than banawi, but in other respects similar to it.

Other species: The seeds of lumbang or biao (Aleurites moluccana) and
balukanad or lumbang {Aleurites trisperma) produce the candle-nut oil of
commerce. ( See Part I, pp. 54, 56. ) Under the name of bignai several species of
Antidesma (principally A. bunius) produce edible fruits. Tuba or physic nut
tree {Jatropha curcas) is an introduced species, extensively planted for hedges,
whose nut is used in medicine and for bleaching clothes. Banato {Mallotus
philippensis) , whose fruit yields a powder used for dyeing and medicine, is a
small tree growing in the virgin and second-growth forests.

SUMAC OR MANGO FAMILY.

( Anacardiaceae. )

This family contains a few prominent timber trees, and some cultivated
for their edible fruits. The members of the family have simple or com-
pound alternate leaves.

103554 4

50
amuguis. (Pis. XXXVII and XXXVIII.)

Amuguis is a medium to large sized tree reaching a height of 30 to 40
meters and a diameter of 120 centimeters. It has a merchantable length
of 18 to 20 meters. The bole is usually quite straight and cylindrical,
though sometimes slightly crooked and irregularly cylindrical. It is
strongly buttressed, especially in old trees. The crown is about one-half
the height of the tree and is quite dense. Amuguis reaches its best
development in the lauan-hagachac type, though it is scattered through
the lauan-apitong type, especially near the streams. It requires con-
siderable ground moisture and can be classified as an intolerant species.

The bark is 8 to 15 millimeters in thickness, dark brown to nearly black
in color, and rather strongly ridged. The inside bark is pink to red,
with vertical bands of very light color beneath the furrows.

The leaves of amuguis are compound, closely alternate, and bunched at
the ends of twigs. There are 13 to 16 pairs of leaflets, each from 7 to 16
centimeters long and from 2 to 5 centimeters wide. These are smooth and
glossy green above, yellowish green below, with the veins usually light red
in color. The main leaf stalk is hairy. The tree is evergreen, though
during the dry season the canopy is considerably thinner.

The sapwood is pale red; the heartwood red, moderately heavy, hard,
and durable where not in contact with ground or much exposed. This
wood ranks among the first for general house construction. It is espe-
cially desired for flooring. Other uses are furniture, partitions, naval
construction, carriage making.

Amuguis is found scattered everywhere throughout the Philippines.
The scientific name is Koordersiodendron pinnatum. Besides the general
Tagalog name of amuguis the following names occur : Ambogis (V.) ;
ampopot (Cag.) ; bankahasi (II.) ; bankalari (II.) ; dangilo (T.) ; gagil
(Moro) ; karogkog (B.) ; lako-lako (Vis.) ; magalibas (Moro) ; mar-
santog (Cag.) ; palosanto (T.) ; sambulauan (V., B.) ; urisan (Cag.).

dao. (Pis. XXXIX and XL.)

Dao is a tree reaching a height of 35 to 40 meters and a diameter of
100 centimeters or more. It has a bole 18 to 20 meters in length and
is strongly buttressed. The bole above the buttresses is usually regular,
but often fluted near their attachment and that of the larger branches.
The crown is about one-half the height of the tree. It is wide spreading,
open, and with heavy branches. Dao is a widely distributed tree and is
usually associated with amuguis, occupying a position in flats and along
streams, though found on moist slopes. It thrives best in damp soils
and is intolerant of shade.

The bark is 8 to 10 millimeters in thickness, nearly smooth, light
steel gray in color on the older bark and light brown where freshly shed.
It scales in scroll-shaped pieces either large or small. Just beneath the

51

cork is a thin red layer, under this is a very light pink spongy layer,
which becomes red in color next to the sapwood. The inner bark is
stringy in texture.

The leaves are alternate and compound, closely bunched at ends of
stout twigs. There are usually 5 to 7 pairs of leaflets, each from 5 to
15 centimeters long and from 3 to 4.5 centimeters wide, glossy, light
green in color, and smooth.

The sapwood is very light in color and large. The heartwood is
brownish gray, streaked with black. The wood is moderately heavy and
moderately hard. It is used locally for light construction work, bancas,
rafters, and flooring. The small heartwood takes a beautiful polish and
is used to some extent for furniture.

Dao is found throughout the Philippines, probably occurring in every
province. It has the scientific name of Dracontomelum dao. It is well
known everywhere under the Tagalog name of dao. Other local names
are as follows: Batuan (Y.) ; kamarak (N. Luz.) ; lamio (T.) ; malaiyao
(T.) ; mamakao (Davao).

BALINGHASAY.

Balinghasay is a tree of medium height, reaching in exceptional cases
25 to 30 meters. It has a straight, fairly regular bole 15 to 18 meters
in length. It has a fairly open crown, which is partly deciduous in the
dry season. It occurs usually with amuguis and dao and is intolerant
of shade.

The bark is 8 to 10 millimeters in thickness, quite smooth, but some-
times roughened with many small knobs; it is brownish in color with
grayish yellow tinge. The inner bark is red. The leaves are simple
and alternately bunched at the ends of rather stout twigs. They are
from 10 to 30 centimeters long and from 3 to 9 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is light in color and large. The heartwood is reddish
brown in color, moderately heavy, soft to moderately hard, rather fine,
straight grained, often with numerous very small knots, and very easy
to work. It is used for boxes, light construction purposes, cheap fur-*
niture, cigar boxes, dry measures, and is sometimes subtituted for amu-
guis, but is lighter in weight and color, softer, and coarser grained.

Balinghasay is widely distributed throughout the Philippines in the
lowlands. It has the scientific name of Buchanania arborescens. Besides
the common name of balinghasay or some form of it the following names
are known: Anam (V.); aranges (Cag.); bagulibas (M.) ; balanga
(Guim.) ; balayohot (T.) ; baligohot (Cam.) ; bankalauan (T.) ; beoba-
yano (Sur.) ; boroan (Pang.) ; dilaan (Z.) ; ganga (Cag.) ; hupong-
hupong (Tay.); kaming (Z., Pang.); kanteng (Ab.) ; ligas (Cam.);
Hngabunu (Bas.) ; malabalunu (M.) ; malaligas (Tay.) ; paleng (Cag.) ;
pusopuso (M.) ; tangantang (Tic, Mas., Tay.).

52

Besides the above, the family contains the following species worthy of mention:
Lamio {Dracontomelum cumingianum) is a large tree very much resembling dao,
but with much larger leaflets that are very hairy below on the midrib. Pahutan
(Mangifera altissima) is a large tree, usually found in the river bottoms, with
alternate, simple leaves and a wood much like that of balinghasay except for its
small dark brown heartwood. Libas {Spondias pinnata) yields a soft wood used
for making matches. Ligas {Semecarpus perrottetii) is a medium-sized tree with
alternate, simple leaves and yields a wood much like amuguis. The leaves of
this tree are poisonous to the touch and act much like those of the poison ivy.
Kasoi, balubad, or cashew nut {Anacardium occidentale) is cultivated for its
fruit. Mangifera indica yields the well-known mango or manga. Ciruelas {Spon-
dias lutea) is cultivated for its fruits.

BUCKTHORN OR BALACAT FAMILY.

(Rhamnacese.)

This family contains trees with alternate (sometimes opposite) leaves,
with (those mentioned here) three prominent veins.

balacat. (Pis. XLII and XLIII.)

Balacat reaches a height of 30 to 35 meters and a diameter up to
100 centimeters or over. It has a straight regular bole up'to 20 meters
in length, which is strongly buttressed. The crown is open, and for a
short time during the dry season is sometimes destitute of leaves or nearly
so. It is intolerant of shade. It is found scattered in the lauan-apitong,
yacal-lauan, and sometimes the molave types ; it occurs also in the moister
soils of river valleys.

The bark is grayish brown in color, where freshly shed of a lighter color,
and is ridged. In young trees it has sharp spines. In older trees,
especially at the base between the buttresses, there are occasionally
present large, thick and short spines. The inner bark is brownish red with
white vertical lines beneath the furrows. The leaves are simple and alter-
nate, usually smooth, sometimes hairy, especially when young, from 7
to 15 centimeters long and from 4 to 9 centimeters wide, prominently
three veined.

The wood is creamy white to light brown in color, soft, light to moder-
ately heavy in weight, and not durable. The heartwood is usually
slightly darker than the sap, but in very large trees is red. It is coarse
and straight grained. It is used for light and temporary construction,
cheap furniture, and boxes.

The following are the regions from which this tree is reported. No
doubt further explorations will extend its range. Luzon (Ilocos Norte,
Ilocos Sur, Cagayan, Nueva Ecija, Pangasinan, Zambales, Bataaii, Kizal,
Tayabas, Camarines) ; Masbate; Mindoro; Leyte; Mindanao (Surigao,
Zamboanga, Davao) ; Palawan.

It has the scientific name of Zizyphtts zonulatus, though a hairy leaved
form may be considered a distinct species. The commercial name is

53

balacat. Other names collected are as follows: Agguk (Cag.) ; aligamen
(II.) ; bigaa (T., V.); dagaa (Pal.); danlik (Tay.) ; diraan (II.) ;
duplak (Pang.) ; ligaa (T., V.) ; lumangud (Ley.) ; maglanka (Pal.).

Ligaa (Zizyphus trinervia) is the name of a small tree common in
certain subtypes of the parang. It has spines or spiny warts arranged
in circular rows around the tree.

SOAPBERRY OR ALTJPAG FAMILY.
( Sapindacese. )

This is a family of trees with alternate compound leaves; the boles
are usually irregular in shape; the barks are smooth. While there are
a number of small trees, only two are commonly known in the lumber

markets.

ALUPAG. (PL XLIV.)

Alupag is a medium-sized tree reaching exceptionally a height of 25
meters, though usually much smaller, and a diameter of 80 contimeters.
The bole is 10 to 12 meters in length and is usually irregular in cross
section and crooked. The crown, about one-half the height of the tree,
is broad spreading and semiopen. It is found scattered throughout the
Philippines, especially in the molave type and in the drier portions of
the dipterocarp types. It is intolerant of shade.

The bark is 3 to 5 millimeters in thickness, ashy gray in color, and
sheds in scroll-shaped scales; the inner bark is brownish red with alternate
rings of light and dark colors. The leaves are compound and alternate ;
the leaflets (3 to 4 pairs) are whitish beneath, from 7 to 16 centimeters
long and from 2 to 6 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is very light red in color; the heartwood is darker red
to dark brown, heavy, very hard, durable, fine and straight grained, and
very difficult to work. It has the following uses: House construction
(flooring, rafters, posts) ; tool handles; carriage making; parts of ship;
piling; cogwheels; carabao yokes.

Alupag has the following distribution: Luzon (Cagayan, Ilocos Norte,
Ilocos Sur, Benguet, Pangasinan, Baler, Pampanga, Zambales, Bataan,
Rizal, Batangas, Tayabas and Camarines) ; Marinduque; Masbate; Min-
doro; Samar; Leyte; Mindanao (Zamboanga, Cotabato, Davao).

The scientific name is Euphoria cinerea. Besides the Tagalog name
of alupag, or some form of it, the following names have been recorded :
Alupay (T., Z.) ; apalong (Cag.) ; bagiles (Pang.) ; bait (Tay.) ; bakalao
(II.) ; bolik (Zam.) ; buanubai (Cot.) ; bulala (B.) ; dagindigan (Sam.) ;
hahipag (T.) ; himlaloang (Pam.) ; kandongisal (Mas.) ; lasilasan (II.) ;
malaresa (Pam.) ; marutong (Cag.) ; moling (Pang.) ; pamito (Mas.) ;
day an (Ley.) ; usao (Ley.).

54

MALUGAY. (P1.XLV.)

Malugay is a tree reaching a height of 25 to 35 meters and a diameter
of 90 to 100 centimeters. The bole is 18 to 22 meters in length, usually
somewhat fluted and sometimes slightly crooked. The crown is about
one-third the height of the tree and semiopen. The tree is slightly
intolerant of shade. It is found scattered throughout the drier portions
of the dipterocarp types and reaches its best development on the Island
of Mindoro ; also found in the lauan-hagachac type.

The bark is 6 to 8 millimeters in thickness, and sheds in circular pat-
ches; the old bark is reddish brown in color with a purplish tinge; the
new is brown to khaki color. The inner bark is reddish brown with rings
of lighter color alternating with the darker. At certain seasons of the
year the bark and sapwood exude sparingly a red sap. The leaves are
compound, closely alternate, bunched at the ends of twigs, with 5 to 10
pairs of leaflets, each slightly serrate, from 8 to 24 centimeters long- and
from 3.5 to 8.5 centimeters wide, the basal ones reduced to bracts.

The sapwood is creamy red; the heartwood is pale red, moderately
heavy, moderately hard, fine and straight grained, and tough. It has
the following uses: General construction; cabinetwork; interior finish;
ribs and planking of small boats ; tool handles.

The tree is lumbered principally from Mindoro. It is recorded from
the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan, Ilocos Norte, Bataan, Laguna,
Camarines, Albay) ; Camiguin Island; Masbate; Mindoro; Ticao Island;
Samar; Leyte; Negros; Mindanao (Zamboanga, Agusan, and Lanao);
Palawan, and probably occurs in many other provinces. The scientific
name is Pometia pinnata. Besides the common Mindoro name of malu-
gay, the following have been recorded: Agupanga (M.) ; alauihau
(Sam.); balambanan (II.); bantangali (Ag.) ; ibu (Keg.); kabakabat
(II.) ; karunyan (M.) ; kogik (Al.) ; madalo (Cag.) ; mansanab (Neg.);
quia-quia or kia-kia (Ley., Sam.),; sidao (Cam., Is.) ; takugan (Mas.) J
tigawi (Tic, Cam., Mas.) ; tugoran (Mas.).

Besides the above-mentioned species the family furnishes a number of smaller
trees, among the most important of which are alasin (Arytera litt oralis ) , alahan
(Guioa perrottetii) , uas {Harpullia arborea) , and Litchi philippinensis. The
wood of the latter resembles very closely that of alupag.

BLADDERNUT OR ANONGO FAMILY.
( Staphyleacese. )

This family furnishes but one tree, anongo {Turpinia pomifera) . It is &
medium-sized tree in the undergrowth of dipterocarp forests. It has opposite,
compound leaves, a light and soft wood, and is said to be used for household
utensils.

55

LINDEN OR ANILAO FAMILY.

(Tiliace*.)

This is a family of small or medium sized trees with simple, alternate leaves,
whose woods are used locally for fuel and light construction work. Anilao (Oo-
lumbia serratifolia) is a small quick-growing tree common in second-growth
forests. Its bark is used for tying purposes. Susumbik or kamuling {Greuria
stylocarpa) and other species of Orewia are small to medium sized trees found
as undergrowth in the dipterocarp types. Balobo (Diplodiscus paniculatus)
is a small to medium sized tree fairly abundant in some dipterocarp forests. The
wood is grayish or pale reddish brown, moderately hard, moderately heavy, and
is used locally.

MALLOW OR MALUBAGO FAMILY.

( Malvacese. )

This is a family containing few trees of commercial importance. The leaves
are simple, alternate, usually palmately nerved, at least those mentioned here.

Lanutan ( Bombycidendron vidalianum) furnishes a heavy wood that is purplish
in color and is used for carriage shafts and backs and sides of guitars and
mandolins. Malubago (Hibiscus tiliaceus) is a tree of the sandy beaches and has
a brown wood with a purplish tinge, very light in weight, used for floats for fish
nets. The bark is used for making rope and cloth. Banalo or Portia tree
[Thespesia populnea) is a medium-sized tree of the sandy beaches and yields a
hard, moderately heavy, dark red heartwood that is used for backs, sides, and
necks of musical instruments. This is the rosewood of the Seychelles Islands.

COTTON-TREE OR MALABULAK FAMILY.

(Bombacacea^.)

The species mentioned in this family have alternate, palmately compound
leaves. Malabulak (Bombax malabaricum) is a very large tree with light-
colored, very soft wood. It is found scattered principally in the dry regions,
where it is entirely deciduous for a short time. Kapok, doldol, or the cotton tree
[Ceiba pentandra) is cultivated throughout the Philippines for the cotton it
produces. It is used extensively for telephone or telegraph poles. Fresh cut
poles of it placed in the ground take root and become trees. The wood is very
soft, light colored, and is little used.

CACAO OR DUNG ON FAMILY.

(Sterculiacese.)

The species mentioned in this family have alternate and simple leaves
(except lumbayao), and yield a variety of woods. While a large number
of species are present, only a few produce lumber found in the general
market.

dungon. (Pis. XLYI and XLVII.)

This tree reaches a height of 30 to 35 meters and a diameter of 100
or more centimeters. It has a regular to irregular, strongly buttressed
bole, in exceptional cases reaching 18 meters in length, but usually much
shorter. ' The crown is one-third to one-half the height of the tree and

56

open. The tree is scattered throughout the molave type, sometimes in
drier situations of the dipterocarp types. It is intolerant of shade.

The bark is 6 to 10 millimeters in thickness, ashy gray to cinnamon
brown in color, sheds in irregular small flakes, and has small tan-colored
pustules. The inner bark is pink in color with fine lighter concentric
rings. The leaves are simple, alternate, from 7 to 20 centimeters long
and from 3 to 9 centimeters wide, silvery white beneath.

The sapwood is pinkish; the heartwood is dark chocolate brown, very
hard, heavy, tough, fine and cross grained, and very difficult to saw. It
often contains white stony deposits in old knots and heart cracks. It
is used for all sorts of construction purposes where great durability is
desired. It is especially valuable for salt-water piling. Other uses are
as follows : Naval construction (anchors, boat ribs, keels of ships, hoists) ;
railroad ties; telegraph poles; wheels; cogwheels; bridge building; house
construction (posts, beams, pillars) ; hemp presses.

The following regions are reported to contain dungon: Luzon (Ilocos
Norte, Ilocos Sur, Pangasinan, Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, Zambales,
Bataan, Eizal, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas, Camarines, Albay) ; Masbate;
Marinduque; Mindoro. The scientific name of dungon is Tarrietia sylva-
tica. The local names are as follows: Malarungon (T.) ; palmegapoy'
(II.) ; palogapig (II.) ; palonapin (II.) ; palonapoy (Z.).

dungon-late. (Pis. XLVIII and XLIX.)

Dungon-late is a tree reaching a height of 20 meters and a diameter
of 80 to 90 centimeters. It has an irregular bole, strongly buttressed. It
has an open crown and is confined to the beach and the upper limits of
the mangrove types. It is intolerant of shade.

The bark of dungon-late is 5 to 8 millimeters in thickness and is gray
in color; in old trees it splits into rectangular patches, otherwise it is
smooth; the inner bark is tan red in color and stringy in texture. The
leaves are simple and alternate, from 9 to 25 centimeters in length and
from 4 to 12 centimeters wide, silvery white beneath.

The wood in nearly all respects is like that of dungon, and it is
difficult to tell them apart. Dungon has winged fruits, is found usually
on the coastal hills some distance from tide water and is a larger tree.
Dungon-late usually has a larger amount of sapwood, a large woody fruit
strongly keeled and adapted for floating, and is found in or close to tide
water. Dungon-late has much the same uses as dungon, and is no
doubt substituted for it in many instances. The relative merits of the
durability of the two woods is in doubt. Good specimens of both woods,
free from sap, will probably withstand the attacks of teredo, white ants,
and fungi equally well. Besides those given for dungon it has the
following uses: Canoes (outrigger supports) ; firewood; charcoal.

Dungon-late is found in every province in the Philippines bordering on

57

tide water. It has the scientific name of Heritiera littoralis. Besides
dungon-late it has the common names of dungon, especially in regions
where dungon is unknown, paronapin or some form of it, and magayao
(Cag.).

lumbayao. (Pis. L, LI, and LIL)

This is a tree that reaches a height of 40 to 50 meters and a diameter
of 80 to 120 centimeters. The bole, 20 to 25 meters in length, is
regular and straight, though strongly buttressed. The crown is open,
evergreen (slightly thinner during the dry season). It is slightly
tolerant of shade. The tree is reported only from the southern islands,
where it forms an important element of the yacal-lauan type, occupying
with yacal the ridges and drier slopes.

The bark is 5 to 7 millimeters in thickness; in young trees gray in
color, mottled with different shades; in older trees light gray, with
brown patches where freshly shed; sheds in more or less regular, square,
oblong, and rhomboidal pieces. The inner bark is reddish brown in color.
The leaves are alternate, palmately compound, with 3 to 5 leaflets, each
smooth, from 6 to 16 centimeters long and from 3 to 7 centimeters wide.
The fruit is winged.

The sapwood is very pale red merging gradually into the red to
reddish brown heartwood. The wood is moderately heavy, soft to moder-
ately hard, coarse and straight grained, fairly durable, and is easy to
work. It has the following uses : House construction (partitions, siding,
doors, interior finish) ; furniture; canoes; boxes. It is one of the woods
now being sold ior Philippine mahogany in the United States.

The tree is reported from Mindanao (Zamboanga, Cotabato) and Ba-
silan. The scientific name is Tarrietia javanica. So far only the com-
mon Moro name of lumbayao has been reported. Another species (Tar-
rietia riedeliana) resembling this one in general respects is reported from
the Lanao district of Mindanao.

TALTJT0. (PL LIII.)

Taluto is a very tall tree reaching a height of 45 to 50 meters and a
very large diameter. It has a straight, regular, unbuttressed bole up to
25 or 30 meters in length. It usually has surface roots extending as
much as 8 or more meters from the base of the trunk. The crown is
open and deciduous for a short period during the dry season. It usually
occupies the drier soils, and is found in the apitong-lauan, yacal-lauan,
and molave types.

The bark is 25 to 30 millimeters in thickness, brittle in texture, brown
in color, fissured with short vertical lines, otherwise smooth; the inner
bark is bright red, streaked with white vertical plates arranged radially.
The leaves are simple, alternate, heart shaped, prominently 5-nerved,

58

usually hairy beneath, from 10 to 14 centimeters long and from 9 to 13
centimeters wide.

Both the sapwood and heartwood are creamy white in color, light,
soft, and with prominent pith rays. It is used principally as a match
wood, also for boxes and as buoys for rafts.

While it probably occurs well scattered throughout the Philippines, it
is recorded at present only in the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan,
Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, Zambales, Eizal, Bataan, Laguna, Tayabas, and
Camarines) ; Mindoro; Leyte; Mindanao (Surigao, Zamboanga) ; Pala-
wan. It has the scientific name of Pterocymbium tinctorium. Besides
the common Tagalog name of taluto or some form of it (taoto, teluto),
the following names occur: Bangat (Z.) ; fanginhan (Kiz.) ; huligano
(N., E.) ; libtuk (Cag.) ; malasapsap (Pamp.) ; takung (Surigao).

Besides the above the following trees deserve mention. Tanag or taloktok
(Kleinhofia hospita) occurs in open places, yields a light yellow wood little
used and a bark used as rope. Kalumpang (Sterculia fcetida) has palmately
compound leaves (7 to 9 leaflets), and a gray, soft wood little used. The tree
is cultivated for its seeds, which yield a valuable oil. A number of species of
Pterospermum under the general name of bayok are small to medium sized trees
occurring throughout the dipterocarp and molave types. They yield woods light
in weight and moderately hard that are used locally. Magalipak (Sterculia
blancoi) is often quite prominent in the molave- type and some portions of the
dipterocarp type. It yields a soft wood that is easily attacked by insects and
fungus.

CATMON FAMILY.

(Dilleniacese.)

The forest trees of this family are confined to one genus (Dillenia).
The leaves are simple and alternate. The wood has prominently twisted
pith rays.

CATMON.

This is a small to medium sized tree with a short bole and dense crown.
It is found along streams or on moist slopes and ridges. The bark is 6
to 10 millimeters in thickness, irregularly blotched with gray to brown
patches, the latter color occurring in the shallow depressions where freshly
shed; the inner bark is light reddish brown. The leaves are simple,
alternate, smooth, with edges coarsely toothed, from 13 to 18 centimeters
long and from 5 to 8 centimeters wide. The leaf stalks of young leaves
are winged. The sapwood is pale reddish; the heartwood dark red
to dark brown, hard, heavy, brittle, with a coarse and twisted grain. The
wood stains water a pale reddish color. The pith rays are broad and
crooked. The vessels contain white deposits. The wood is used for
furniture and general construction work.

The tree occurs throughout the Philippines. The scientific name of
catmon is Dillenia philippinensis. Catmon carabao (Dillenia speciosa)
has a larger leaf. Both the above have white flowers. Malacatmon

59

(Dillenia luzoniensis) is a large tree with yellow flowers. The following
local names are known for the species of Dillenia: Alato (N. Luz.);
anagao (Sur.) ; calocatmon (Tay.) ; magalapalali (N". Luz.) ; magatli
(Cag.) ; palali (V., B., N". Luz.) ; pamalalian (Pang.).

TEA OR BIKAG FAMILY.

( Theacese. )

This a family of small to medium sized trees common in the tanguile-oak and
mossy-forest types. None are important from the lumberman's standpoint.
Bikag {Ternstroemia toquian) furnishes a bark commonly used for poisoning fish.
Adinandra luzonica, Gordonia luzonica, Thea montana and Eurya spp. are com-
mon in the higher mountain regions.

MANGOSTEEN OR PALO-MARIA FAMILY.

( Guttif erse. )

This family of trees contains a yellowish sap in the bark. It has
opposite leaves, usually with fine, closely set veins. The family can be
readily distinguished from others by these characters.

PALO-MARIA. (PL LIY.)

This is usually a medium-sized, scraggly tree with a very short bole and
a wide-spreading rather dense crown. It is found on the sandy beaches
throughout the Islands.

The bark is 12 to 20 millimeters thick, brown in color with a decided
yellowish tinge, and has a tendency to divide into distinct ridges, which
are often broken into irregularly rectangular plates by cross fissures ; the
inner bark is pink to yellowish with concentric lines of darker color.
When cut the bark exudes a yellowish sticky sap. A valuable oil known
as oil of palo-maria is extracted from the seed. (See Part I, p. 56.) The
leaves are simple, opposite, yellowish green in color with a very yellow
midrib, and vary from 9 to 16 centimeters long and from 6.5 to 10
centimeters wide.

The wood is reddish brown in color, hard, moderately heavy, easy to
saw, but difficult to finish on account of the twisted grain. It has the
following uses: Fine furniture; turnery; general construction; house
construction (flooring, interior finish, posts); bridge building; naval
construction (masts, spars, decks, futtock timbers, oars, ships' booms,
bowsprits, spars, and keels) ; carriage making (hubs and wagon shafts).

While probably nearly all provinces, especially those bordering the
coast, have palo-maria, the records show it from the following regions:
Luzon (Cagayan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Abra, Infanta, Pangasinan,
Nueva Ecija, Zambales, Bataan, Kizal, Tayabas, Camarines, Albay) ;
Palani Island; Batanes Island; Camiguin Island; Polillo Island; Mas-
bate Island; Burias Island; Mindoro; Culion Island; Cebu; Bohol;
Negros; Mindanao (Zamboanga, Davao) ; Basilan; Palawan; Balabae

60

Island. The scientific name is Calophyllum inophyllum. Besides the
common Spanish name of palo-maria, the following are recorded : Ban-
sangal (II.); biroi (II.); bitangol (V.) ; bitaog (II., V., Pam., T.) ;
bitaoi (Z., Pam., II., V.) ; dankalan (T.) ; pamitlaten (II.) ; pamitaogan
or some form of it (V., II.) ; Zarumayen (II.). It is sometimes known
on the markets from Borneo as Borneo mahogany.

The dipterocarp types contain a number of other species of Calophyllum
with about the same common names, whose wood passes for palo-maria. As a
rule, however, these trees are small to medium sized, though one, bitanhol or
palo-maria del monte (Calophyllum blancoi), attains in some cases the size of a
dominant tree. The tree can be told from palo-maria by the straight grain,
of the wood, the narrower leaves ( 2 to 6 centimeters wide ) , and by the fact that
it does not grow on the beach. All Calophyllums can be easily recognized by
their distinctly yellow bark. A number of species of Garcinia are small to
medium sized trees scattered through the dipterocarp types and produce woods
used locally. The wood of bunog {Garcinia benthami) is reddish brown and
hard and durable. It is lumbered and used locally on the Island of Palawan.
The fruits of binukao (Garcinia binucao) and other wild Garcinias are edible.
The mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) is cultivated in the southern islands for
its edible fruit. Guyung-guyung (Cratoxylon celebicum) and other species of
Cratoxylon, usually under the same common name, are small to medium sized
trees that yield reddish woods used locally. Kaliwas (Kayea paniculata) is a
small tree scattered along water courses.

DIPTEROCARP OR IiATJAN FAMILY.
( Dipterocarpacese. )

This is by far the most prominent family of trees in the Philippines.
It not only produces the largest trees containing the greatest bulk, but,
counting all trees in the virgin forests from seedlings up, there are
probably more dipterocarps than all other individual trees. Our knowl-
edge concerning the number of species is still far from complete. So
far there are recognized about 40 distinct species. This number will
probably reach more than 50. About 12 species produce the bulk of the
lumber found on the market, and are considered the most successful ones
because they compose the largest stands.

The leaves are simple, alternate, and hairy or smooth. The wood is
conspicuously oily (except Vatica spp. where it is obscurely so.) These
oils, known as wood oils, harden into resin on exposure to the air.
Deposits of resin often visible to the naked eye are arranged irregularly
in incomplete concentric lines having the appearance of growth-rings,
but they do not represent periods of growth. When the bark and sap-
wood are cut, the oil exudes more or less freely and usually hardens into
forms having the appearance of candle drippings. While other families
in the Philippines have resinous or oily woods, yet in none is this char-
acter so prominent as in the dipterocarps. The only other trees that
approach the dipterocarps in this respect are members of the pili family
(Burseracece) , whose resin is usually in the inner portion of the bark (the

61

bast). The members of the pili family can readily be distinguished
from the dipterocarps by their compound leaves. The dipterocarp fruits
are usually globose or ovoid in shape and have, attached above or below,
two or more longitudinally veined wings.

As a rule the trees are tall, many of the species reaching a height of
50 meters or over, though generally mature trees are between 40 and 50
meters. The boles are straight and regular, and usually have a merchant-
able length of 20 to 30 meters. They are generally strongly buttressed,
though this is not always the case, especially in species of the* genus
Dipterocarpus.

From the lumberman's standpoint the woods can be divided into four
groups as follows: The lauans, the apitongs, the yacals and palosapis.
(See Part I, p. 32, for the distinction of these groups.)

THE LATTAN GROUP.

The principal trees that furnish the woods belonging to the lauan
group are as follows: Almon-lauan; bagtican-lauan ; kalunti-lauan ; ma-
laanonang-lauan ; mangasinoro-lauan ; mayapis-lauan ; red lauan; tan-
guile ; tiaong-lauan ; white lauan.

white lauan. (Pis. LYI and LVII.)

White lauan is a tree usually reaching a height of 40 to 45 meters and
a diameter of 150 centimeters. It has a regular bole which reaches a
length of 25 to 30 meters. Old trees are strongly buttressed. The crown
is fairly dense and irregularly dome shaped. It is tolerant of shade, but
seedlings do best in semiopen situations. It is widely scattered through-
out the Islands in flats and on hills up to 700 meters, but reaches its
best and most abundant development in the lauan-apitong and lauan-
hagachac types. In many places it forms the principal tree of the dep-
terocarp forests.

The bark is 10 to 20 millimeters in thickness, brown to nearly black,
or when exposed to sunlight is gray. There are distinct longitudinal
ridges, especially in the upper part of the bole, which connect diagonally
with each other. The ridges are 3 to 5 centimeters in width ; the
grooves are about 1 centimeter wide, lighter brown in color, and some-
times filled with corky pustules, especially in the young trees. In very
old trees the bark at the base of the tree loses its ridged appearance and
becomes more or less scaly. The inner bark is brown to slightly pinkish
in color and stringy in texture. Beneath the grooves there are vertical
cream-colored bands. The leaves are simple, alternate, and entirely free
from hairs. They vary in size from 7.5 to 23 centimeters long and from
3.5 to 10 centimeters wide.

Both sapwood and heartwood are grayish white in color. The wood is
light in weight, soft, with a straight and coarse grain, not durable, and
easy to work. It is used for all purposes where cheapness and easy work-

62

ing are more important than strength and durability. It has the follow-
ing uses: Cheap furniture; shipbuilding (canoes, lighters, masts, planks
for ships) ; house construction (panels for doors, partitions, siding) ;
boxes ; concrete forms.

It is reported from the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan, Ilocos
Norte, Ilocos Sur, Abra, Bontoc, Benguet, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, Pan-
gasinan, Bulacan, Eizal, Zambales, Bataan, Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines,
Sorsogon, and Albay) ; Polillo Island; Marinduque Island; Mindoro;
Masbate; Samar; Negros; Mindanao (Agusan, Zamboanga, Lanao,
Davao) ; Basilan Island. It is probably present in all provinces.

The scientific name is Pentacme contorta. The most common name
is lauan (white lauan, lauan bianco, lauan puti). The following local
names are the most common: Apnit (lb., B.) ; balabak (Cag.) ; bayukan
(Lag., Z.); bugis (Davao); danlog or some form of it (V.) ; diraan
(Ig.) ; hapnit (B.) ; lauaan (T., V.) ; malaanonang (Kiz., Cam.) ; ma-
lakayan (Moro) ; mangasinoro (S. Luz., Mas.) ; sandana.

almon-lauan. (Pis. LYIII and LIX.)

This is a very large tree, reaching a height of 45 to 50 meters and
a diameter of 150 centimeters. The bole is usually regular in shape and
of even taper, in old trees is rather strongly buttressed, and has a max-
imum length of about 30 meters.

The crown is about one-third to one-half the length of the bole. It is
wide spreading, flattened cone shaped to irregular and rather dense. The
tree is found on gentle to medium steep slopes, usually requiring a good
well-drained soil, and is confined to the regions where there is no pro-
nounced dry season. It is tolerant of shade, and to this is attributed its
success in holding its own in dense forests. It occurs associated with
other lauans and the apitongs, with which it forms almost pure stands in
some places.

The bark is 15 to 20 millimeters in thickness. In young and medium-
sized trees it is cinnamon brown in color, in older trees it is darker, and
when weathered in strong light it becomes lighter in color. In medium-
sized trees it has long furrows between which are flat ridges 3 to 4
centimeters wide. These are checkered into irregular rectangular patches
by cross lines connecting the furrows. The ridges are not usually prom-
inent in the lower part of the tree, where the furrows are merely shal-
low fissures of the bark; in older trees, especially near the top, the fur-
rows are deeper and then contain lines of corky pustules. The middle
bark is very thin and has a pitted dark purple layer. The inner bark
is light brown to slightly yellowish beneath the ridges, alternating with
vertical creamy bands beneath the furrows, and is stringy in texture.

The leaves are simple, alternate, from 9 to 17 centimeters long and
4.5 to 9 centimeters wide, smooth above, with a dense mat of hairs beneath.

The petioles and young twigs are covered with hairs like those on the

leaves.

The fresh sapwood is creamy in color, when exposed becoming light
brown; the heartwood is light creamy brown to a pale red. The wood
is light in weight and soft. It is used in all sorts of light and temporary
construction and is especially valuable for interior finish. It has the
same uses as white lauan.

It is reported from the following regions: Luzon (Laguna, Tayabas,
Camarines, Sorsogon, Albay) ; Negros, Mindanao (Surigao, Zamboanga) ;
Basilan Island.

• The scientific name is Shorea furfuracea. The wood is sold in the
Manila market under the names of almon and white lauan. The follow-
ing are the most common local names: Danlig (Tay.) ; lauan (T.) ;
malakayan (Moro) ; mangasinoro (Sor., Al., Cam.); mayapis (Tay.).

bagtican-lauan. (Pis. LX and LXI.)

This is a very large tree reaching a height of 40 to 45 meters and a
diameter of 150 to 180 centimeters. The bole is regular, usually strongly
buttressed, and 20 to 30 meters in length. The crown is irregularly
vase shaped, one-fourth to one-third the length of the bole, and somewhat
dense.

This tree is found throughout the regions of the Philippines where the
dry season is not pronounced and is probably more abundant than any
other species. It extends from the subprovince of Baler to Davao, Min-
danao. While doing best in deep soils on gentle slopes it occurs on fairly
shallow soils from near sea level to 500 meters in altitude. It is found
principally in the lauan type. It is a tree tolerant of shade, but will
reproduce best in partially open places. Seedlings having become well
established in such places during the wet season will be able to flourish in
fully opened places during the short period of dry weather.

The bark is 10 to 20 millimeters in thickness. In young trees it has
longitudinal cracks; in older trees it is distinctly divided into ridges which
are long or short, finally connecting diagonally with each other, making
a network. The grooves between the ridges usually contain rows of brown
corky pustules. The bark is brown to nearly black in color, and in trees
exposed to strong light is much lighter. The thin middle bark beneath
the ridges is purplish red. The inner bark is tan colored with whitish
vertical bands beneath the grooves, and is fibrous in texture. The leaves
are simple and alternate and usually covered with a white glaucous bloom
beneath. They are from 9 to 21 centimeters in length and from 4.5 to
11 centimeters in width.

The sapTvood is grayish; the heartwood. is dirty brown in color when
fresh, but on exposure may change to a pale reddish brown. It is soft,
light in weight, and not durable, but like the other lauans when quarter

64

sawn shows a fine figure. It has the same uses as the other light-
colored lauans.

Bagtican-lauan is reported from the following regions : Luzon (Baler,
Bulacan, Rizal, Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines, Sorsogon, Albay) ; Catan-
duanes Islands; Polillo Island; Masbate; Leyte; Negros; Mindanao
( Zamboanga, Davao ) .

The scientific name of this species is Parashorea plicata. Bagtican-
lauan is marketed usually under the names, of lauan or almon. The
following local names are reported: Apnit (S. Luz.) ; bagtican-lauan
(JSTeg.) ; bayukan (Lag.); danlig (Tay.) ; hapnit (S. Luz.); lauan
(T., Ley., Mas., Sur.) ; lauan puti (Kiz.) ; malaanonang (Kiz.) ; man-
gasinoro (Mas.); mayapis (Bal.).

MALAANONANG-LAUAN.

This name is applied to a tree that strongly resembles white lauan in
general appearance. Herbarium specimens show that the tree is con-
fined to central and northern Luzon and extends as far south as Tayabas
Province. The bark is 10 to 20 millimeters in thickness and is prom-
inently ridged. The wood is light brown with a yellowish and sometimes
reddish tinge. It is moderately hard and light to moderately heavy. It
is used for all purposes to which lauan is put. The leaves are from 5 to
12 centimeters long and from 4 to 7.5 centimeters wide, and when dry
are slightly rusty brown beneath, due to scattered fine hairs. Malaano-
nang-lauan is reported from the following provinces: Luzon (Pangasinan,
Nueva Ecija, Rizal, and Tayabas).

This tree is referred to Shorea malaanonan. The usual market name
is lauan. The following local names are most common: Danlig (Tay.);
Lauan puti (N". E.) ; malaanonang (Riz.) ; lauan (Riz., Tay.) ; pamaya-
wasen (Pang.).

KALUNTI-LAUAN. (PI. LXIL)

Kalunti-lauan is a tree reaching a height of 50 to 55 meters and a
diameter of 180 centimeters. It has been reported only from the Zam
boanga district of Mindanao, where it grows associated with yacal on the
ridges and upper slopes. In silvicultural habits it closely resembles yacal.
The bole is fairly regular, 30 to 40 meters in length, and strongly
buttressed in old trees. The crown is narrow to fairly wide spreading
and semiopen. The bark is 10 to 25 millimeters in thickness. In young
trees it has a fairly uniformly smooth, brown color with short gray
vertical lines; this characteristic sometimes holds in trees up to 75
centimeters in diameter in places. Trees from 20 centimeters up in
diameter usually have a bark breaking into ridges 3 to 8 centimeters
broad; horizontal cracks divide these into fairly regular pieces six to
eight times as long as wide. In young trees the middle bark is green;

J.VlUn.del.

Plate LIII

TALUTO (Pterocymbium tinctorium) .
a, Flower cluster ; b, fruit cluster.

Plate LIV.— PALO-MARIA (Calophyllum inophyllum).
a, Flower cluster ; b. fruit.

Plate LV.— SMALL TREE OF BITANHOL (Calophyllam blancoi) .
Leaves attached to the bark.

Platb LVL— WHITE LAUAN (Pentacme contorta).
a, Fruit.

Plate LVIL— BARK AND LEAVES OF WHITE LAUAN (Pentacme conldrta)** •

J.Vilan del,

Plate LVIII. — ALMON-LAUAN (Shorea furfuracea).

J-ViUn d«l.

Plate LX. — BAGTICAN-LAUAN (Parashorea plicata).
a, Fruit.

Plate LXI. — BARK OF BAGTICAN-LAUAN {Parashorea plicata) y

Plate LXII. — KALUNTI-LAUAN (Vatica sp.).

Plate LXIII— MAYAPIS-LAUAN (Shorea squamata).

JVxtan del
Platb LXIV.— RED LAUAN {Shorea sp.)
a, Flower cluster.

jVilan del

Plate LXVI. — TANGUILE (Shorea polysperma).
a, Flower cluster ; b, fruit.

Plate LXVIL— BARK AND LEAVES OF TANGUILE (Shorea polysperma).

4tfUnd

Piatb LXVIII. — APITONQ (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus) .
a, Fruit.

Plate LXIX. — BARK AND LEAVES OF APITONG (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus) .

65

in older ones it is a thickened brown layer. The inner bark is yellow to
brownish yellow, diagonally fibrous, and very stringy.

The leaves are simple, alternate, and leathery in texture, from 7 to 12
centimeters long and from 3 to 6 centimeters wide, dark green above,
lighter green below, smooth.

The sapwood is dirty creamy color when freshly cut, soon turning to
a light brown; the heartwood is light yellow in color. The tree exudes
a brown oil, which quickly hardens into jet black brittle resin.

The wood is light in weight, soft, coarse, and straight grained. At
present it is little used, but will undoubtedly find its way into the market
in some quantities and be sold for lauan.

It is reported only from the district of Zamboanga, Mindanao, but
probably occurs in other parts of Mindanao and neighboring islands.

From the character of the leaves the tree is provisionally referred to
Vatica sp. The only local name reported for this wood is kalunti
(calunti).

MANGASINORO-LAUAN.

While the name mangasinoro is applied to several kinds of lauan, there
is a species of Shorea found in southern Luzon that produces a yellowish
white, soft, and light wood that has a structure different from the other
lauans. From a lumberman's standpoint the timber would be classed as
a white lauan. There are not sufficient data to describe the tree. It is
probably not abundant nor widely distributed.

MAYAPIS-LAUAN. (PI. LXIII.)

This is a tree which reaches a height of 40 to 45 meters or more and
a diameter of 150 centimeters. The tree is strongly buttressed and has a
regular bole with a length up to 25 or 30 meters. The crown is spread-
ing, flatly conical in shape, and dense.

The tree is one of the constituents of the lauan and lauan-hagachac
types. It is found more or less abundantly from the northern part of
Luzon to the southern part of Mindanao. It does best on rich, deep,
but fairly well-drained soils in the lowlands, and seldom reaches an
altitude of over 300 meters. It is distinctly a tolerant tree. It grows
with the other lauans, apitong, and sometimes hagachac. It is confined
to regions where the dry season is not pronounced.

The bark is from 8 to 16 millimeters in thickness; it is brown to
dark brown or cinnamon brown in color, gray when exposed to strong
light and black when wet. It is rather prominently ridged, especially
above. The inner bark is stringy in texture and brown to slightly pink
in color, especially a distinct vertical band beneath the furrows.

The leaves are simple and alternate, from 12 to 30 centimeters in
length and from 6 to 11 centimeters wide. They are coarsely hairy

66

beneath, especially along the midrib and veins. These hairs are set in
bunches and to the naked eye appear star shaped. The leaf is coarse
in texture and has large prominent stipules which are for a time
persistent.

This tree resembles closely almon-lauan, but can be distinguished
from it by its darker colored bark and much coarser, larger leaves and
more prominent hairs. The wood, also, is redder in color.

The sapwood is creamy brown to pinkish in color ; the heartwood is
light red to red. It is slightly resinous, has a straight regular grain,
and is light to moderately hard and soft. It is used in all classes of light
and temporary construction purposes, especially where contact with the
ground is not necessary. It is valuable for interior finish and light fur-
niture and shows a good figure. Locally it is used for bancas and all
classes of house building.

It is reported from the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan, Isabela,
Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines, and Sorsogon) ; Polillo Island; Marin-
duque Island; Mindoro; Samar; Mindanao (Misamis, Lanao, Agusan,
Zamboanga) ; Basilan Island.

Mayapis-lauan has the scientific name of Shorea squamata. The
wood is sold in the Manila market under the name of mayapis, lauan,
red lauan, and tanguile.

The following local names are the most common: Alam (Mangyan
name of M.) ; balabak (lb.) ; danlig (Tay.) ; lauan (T.) ; malacacao
(Tay.) ; malakayan (Moro) : malasinoro (Sam.); mayapis (T.) ;
oghayan (Sam.) ; tabak (Tay.) ; ubanan (Manobo name of Ag.).

red lauan. (Pis. LXIV and LXV.)

Red lauan is a tree reaching a height of 40 to 50 meters and a maximum
diameter of 200 centimeters. It has a straight cylindrical bole with a
slight taper and is strongly buttressed. The bole reaches a maximum
length of 33 meters. The crown is one-fourth to one-third the length
of the bole, and is irregularly dome shaped.

The tree is much like almon-lauan in all its requirements and is asso-
ciated with it, apitong, tanguile, and bagtican-lauan in forming the
dipterocarp forest of Negros. It is found on very gentle to fairly steep
slopes in good soil. It is tolerant of shade, but develops best in young
stages in partially open places.

The bark is 10 to 20 millimeters in thickness, dark brown to nearly
black with a reddish tinge, and has ridges with shallow furrows, more
prominent in the upper portions of the trunk. The bark is shed in
rectangular plates, 10 to 20 centimeters long; freshly exposed patches are
purplish black, brownish tan, or even gray in color and covered with
thickly set corky pustules. At the base of large trees between buttresses
there are often large, irregular, very thin flakes. The inner bark is dull

67

tan or reddish in color with white fibers and stringy in texture. The
leaves are simple and alternate, from 5 to 19 centimeters long and from
4 to 8 centimeters wide, and somewhat leathery in texture. The midrib
above, the entire surface of the underside of the leaves, the petioles, and
young twigs are covered with whitish velvety hairs.

The fresh sapwood is creamy in color near the bark, and gradually
grades though a tan to the dark red color of the heartwood. The wood
is light to moderately heavy and soft to moderately hard. It is used in
all classes of temporary construction. Fine grades of it (with tanguile
and other lauans) are used for interior finish and furniture and are
shipped to the United States under the name of Philippine mahogany,
where it is sold in competition with quarter-sawn oak. There it is find-
ing great favor as a fine interior finish wood. Locally the wood of this
tree is used for bancas and for all grades of house construction.

It is reported only from Occidental Negros and Agusan, but is probably
present in other neighboring provinces. It is an undescribed species of
Shorea. It has the local names of balakbakan, mangachapuy, and red
lauan in Negros, and the wood is sold in the Manila market under the
names of balakbakan, tanguile, red almon, and red lauan.

tanguile. (Pis. LXVI and LXVII.)

Tanguile is a tree that reaches a height of 45 to 50 meters and a
diameter of 160 centimeters. The bole is regular, little to strongly
buttressed, and reaches lengths of 25 to 30 meters. The crown is wide
spreading, irregularly dome shaped and dense, and from one-third to one-
half the length of the bole. This is one of the principal trees of the
tanguile-oak and lauan types, but reaches its best development in the
former type.

The bark is 5 to 6 millimeters in thickness, light red in color, and sheds
in small to medium sized flakes. In old trees fresh bark for a time is
nearly smooth or free from scales, when it is soft to the touch. The inner
bark is red and stringy in texture.

The leaves are simple and alternate, from 5 to 14 centimeters long and
from 3 to 6 centimeters wide, usually thin in texture, dark green above,
a lighter green below, and smooth.

The sapwood is creamy in color, on exposure turning to a dirty brown.
The heartwood is light red to reddish brown in color. The wood of trees
grown in dry shallow soils is moderately hard and moderately heavy;
that grown in the deeper soils is softer in texture and lighter in weight.
The former is known as tanguile in Bataan and Zambales; the latter as
balakbakan in Negros, and mayapis in Tayabas. The trees in dry exposed
situations are shorter boled than those grown in moister places.

Tanguile resembles guijo in general character of the bark and leaves.
Usually, however, they are not found growing together. The shape of the

68

leaves is slightly different. The wood of tanguile is red in color, soft to
moderately hard, and light to moderately heavy. The softer grades of
tanguile resemble red lauan, and for most purposes there is little or no
difference, but the harder grades are superior to it. It has the following
uses: House construction (flooring, doors, interior finish); furniture;
shipbuilding; canoes; boxes. With red lauan, it is the chief export
material known as Philippine mahogany.

Tanguile is reported from the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan,
Ilocos Norte, Pangasinan, Zambales, Bataan, Tayabas, Camarines, Al-
bay) ; Polillo Island; Marinduque Island; Mindoro; Cebu; Negros. It
is the equivalent of the wood known as klapak in Dutch East Borneo and
obar suluk of British North Borneo.

It has the scientific name of Shorea polyspermia. The following local
names for tanguile are the most common: Abuhungan (Al.) ; adamui
(B.) ; araka (II.) ; balakbakan (Neg.) ; balagayan (Mangyan name of
M.) ; damilang (lb.) ; manaog (Cebu) ; mayapis (Tay.) ; pata (Pang.).

TIAONG-LAUAN.

This name is applied to a species of Shorea yielding a soft red wood
which will pass on the market as red lauan or mayapis lauan. The tree
resembles red lauan in general character, but has leaves something like
tanguile. It is reported from the lauan forests of portions of the Tayabas
and Laguna region, where it is very abundant. There is not sufficient
information concerning it to warrant a derailed description. It has the
same uses as red lauan.

THE APITONG GROUP.

The woods that belong to this group are as follows: Apitong, panao,
hagachac and other species of Dipterocarpus, and guijo. (See Part
I, p. 33.)

apitong. (Pis. LXYIII and LXIX.)

Apitong is a tree that reaches a height of from 40 to 45 meters and
a diameter of 180 centimeters. It has a straight regular bole with a
length of from 25 to 30 meters. The crown is roughly fiat-conical or
irregular and semiopen. The tree is found throughout the Visayas and
the northern islands and is especially abundant in the region where the
dry season is pronounced. Here it occurs on ridges from near sea level
to an altitude of 300 to 350 meters. It occupies somewhat drier situa-
tions than panao, and although tolerant of shade it does better in slightly
open places.

The bark is 6 to 8 centimeters in thickness and brittle in texture. B
varies from a brown-gray color in dense shade to a light gray color where
exposed to strong light. It sheds in large scroll-shaped plates and has
many corky pustules. The inner bark is reddish in color. The leaves
vary in size from 19 to 30 centimeters in length and from 9.5 to VI

69

centimeters in width, are leathery in texture, and smooth. The petioles
are from 5.5 to 7 centimeters in length. The tree resembles panao
greatly in appearance, but can be readily distinguished from it by the
character of the leaves, a somewhat shorter bole, longer bark scales, and
longer leaf stalk. (See Panao.)

The heartwood is dark with a reddish tinge, the sapwood grayish
brown. On cutting, the wood exudes abundant quantities of oil, which
changes rapidly to a thick fluid resin on exposure to the air. This
resin is known locally as balao, and is used principally in calking small
boats. (See Part I, p. 55.) The wood is moderately heavy, moderately
hard, with a straight but coarse grain. It is the most abundant heavy
construction timber in the Islands, but can not be classed as a durable
timber. It has the following uses: House building (interior finish,
rafters, doors and windows, joists, sills, flooring, and sometimes parts of
house posts spliced on top of more durable timbers) ; ship building
(bancas, planks, bottoms, sides) ; piling; ordinary furniture; wagon beds;
bridge timbers; charcoal.

Apitong is known to exist in the following regions : Luzon ( Cagayan,
Isabel a, Ilocos Sur, Abra, Benguet, Pangasinan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija,
Bulacan, Zambales, Bataan, Kizal, Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines, Albay) ;
Mindoro; Masbate; Leyte; Negros; Palawan. It probably occurs in a
number of other provinces.

The scientific name of apitong is Dipterocarpus grandiflorus. The
following local names have been recorded: Anahauon (B.) ; balao (T.) ;
damalalian (Cag.) ; duko (N~. Luz.) ; hagachac (Cam.) ; kamuyao (V.,
II.) ; malapaho (T.) ; pagsahingin (Lag.) ; pamalalian (Cag.) ; paman-
tuling (Pang., II.) ; panao (T.).

panao. ( Pis. LXX and LXXI. )

Panao is a tree that reaches a height of 40 to 45 meters and a diameter
of 160 to 180 centimeters. It has a straight regular bole attaining a
length of 28 to 32 meters, usually with very prominent buttresses. Panao
is especially abundant in the regions where the dry season is pronounced.
Here it occurs in slightly more moist situations than apitong, usually
occupying the slopes of the ridges up to an altitude of 600 meters. It
is a medium tolerant species; seedlings, however, thrive best in fairly
open situations.

The bark is 5 to 8 millimeters in thickness. It is light brown to gray
in color, scaling off in large patches, and is covered with very numerous
corky pustules; the inner bark is brown to reddish brown, stringy in
texture. The leaves .are from 10 to 23 centimeters long and from
6 to 13 centimeters wide with velvety hairs beneath. The petioles are
2.5 to 3 centimeters long and hairy. (For the difference between this
tree and apitong see apitong.)

The sapwood is pale brown in color; the heartwood reddish brown,

70

and the grain coarse. Both sapwood and heartwood are very resinous.
(See Apitong for further description.)

Panao is reported from the following regions : Luzon ( Cagayan, Ilocos
Norte, Ilocos Sur, Pangasinan, Pampanga, Bulacan, Zambales, Bataan,
Bizal, Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines) ; Polillo Island; Marinduque; Min-
doro; Leyte; ISTegros. It probably occurs in many other provinces.

It has the scientific name of Dipt ero carpus vemicifluus. The fol-
lowing local names are recorded: Afu (II.); apitong (T.) ; kamuyao
(Cag.) ; malapaho (Polillo) ; pagsahingin (Lag.).

hagachac. (Pis. LXXII and LXXIII.)

Hagachac is a tree of the apitong group that reaches a height of 45
to 50 meters and a diameter of 150 to .170 centimeters. It has a
straight, regular bole upward of 30 meters in length, usually without
buttresses. The crown is broadly conical, medium compact. This tree
is uniformly distributed throughout the Philippines where the dry season
is not pronounced, on flood plains of the large and small rivers, and
occasionally occurs on the low hills bordering these.

The bark is 6 to 8 millimeters in thickness. It is light gray and
smooth in young trees; in older trees it sheds in thin, irregular flakes
about three times as long as wide. The inner bark is reddish brown,
about the same color as the heartwood.

The leaves are variable in size and shape, running from 18 to 53
centimeters in length and from 7 to 22 centimeters in width. The
petioles are covered with coarse hairs, which also occur on the midrib of
the underside of the leaves.

The wood resembles closely that of apitong, for which it is sold on
the market. It also has the same uses.

It is reported from the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan, Laguna,
Tayabas, Camarines); Marinduque Island; Mindoro; Masbate; Samar;
Leyte; Mindanao (Surigao, Zamboanga, Davao).

This tree is usually referred to Dipterocarpus afjinis, though there may
be more than one species. Besides the common name of hagachac, the
following local names have been collected: Anahauon (B.) ; apitong
(Mas., Ley., Sam.); bayu (Sur.) ; kamuyao (Cag.); liput (Sur.).

Other species of the apitong group, usually referred to Dipterocarpus
liasseltii and Dipterocarpus speciosus, and unknown species occur in
many regions throughout the lauan types. These have the general habits
of apitong and panao and yield woods much like them. Our informa-
tion concerning them is not sufficient to warrant detailed descriptions.

guijo. (Pis. LXXIV and LXXV.)

Guijo is a tree that will reach a height of 40 to 55 meters and a dia-
meter up to 180 centimeters. It has a straight, regular bole, strongly
buttressed, that is from three-fifths to two-thirds the height of the tree.

71

The crown is irregularly globular in shape, somewhat open, especially
in the dry season. Guijo is found in all the dipterocarp types. While
it is tolerant of shade it does better in slightly open places.

The bark of guijo is 5 to 6 millimeters in thickness. Long exposed
bark is light brown in color with corky pustules and sheds in scroll-
shaped or nearly rectangular patches. Freshly exposed bark is cinnamon
brown in color. The inner bark is light reddish brown in color and
stringy in texture.

The leaves are simple, alternate, from 8 to 19 centimeters long and
from 3 to 8 centimeters wide, and usually smooth. They closely re-
semble those of tanguile, though they are more rounded at the base.

The sapwood is very light in color ; the heartwood is ashy red to brown-
ish red. It is fairly straight grained and inclined to warp when not well
seasoned. Better grades of apitong closely resemble guijo and are often
sold for it. It is moderately heavy and hard, and is one of the most
useful timbers in the Islands. It is more durable than apitong, but
considerably less so than yacal. It has the following uses: House con-
struction (flooring, joists, rafters, posts joined above durable timbers,
partitions, doors, sills, window frames, and interior finish of all kinds) ;
shipbuilding (beams, booms, decking, keels, masts, outrigger supports,
oars and paddles, side planking) ; carriage making (hubs, wheels,
especially rims and spokes, and all other parts); furniture; docks;
telegraph poles; piling; agricultural implements; vats; barrels.

Guijo is recorded from the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan, Isa-
bela, Abra, Nueva Vizcaya, Bontoc, Pangasinan, Pampanga, Zambales,
Bataan, Eizal, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas, Camarines, Sorsogon, Albay) ;
Marinduque Island; Mindoro; Masbate Island; Ticao Island; Samar;
Leyte; Occidental Kegros; Mindanao (Zamboanga, Cotabato, Davao) ;
Basilan.

The scientific name of guijo is Shorea guiso. Besides the common
name of guijo (or guiso) the following local names are recorded: Betik
(Lag.) ; guisoc (V., Moro) ; katapang (K V.) ; litan (Cag.) ; niquet
or niket (II.) ; sarai (II.) ; yamban (II.) ; zitan or some form of it (II.) .

THE YACAL GROUP.

A great deal of confusion yet exists concerning the correct determina-
tion of the species of trees that produce the woods of this group. Some
of these are described here, in others there are not sufficient data to
warrant description. As a rule the woods can be divided into two
groups — the yacals proper and the mangachapuy group. Two grades
of the mangachapuys are known on the market — the one hard and only
slightly less durable than yacal, the other much less hard and durable.
These latter are sometimes sold as mangachapuy, and have resulted in
giving the harder varieties of the woods of the same name a bad repu-

72

tation. As yet there is insufficient information to warrant a full descrip-
tion of the trees of the softer varieties. (See Part I, p. 33.)

yacal. ( Pis. LXX VI and LXX VII. )

Yacal is a large tree with a height of 45 to 55 meters, though often
mature trees are less than 45 meters. They will measure from 80 to 180
centimeters in diameter. The bole of yacal is regular, free from knots,
and mature trees are usually strongly buttressed. The crown is semi-
open, broad, with a few heavy branches, and is one-fourth to one-third the
height of the* tree. It is evergreen, but during the dry season there is a
period when there are fewer leaves than during the wet season. It is
found growing on the low coastal hills, usually of volcanic rock, and is
especially abundant on headlands projecting into the sea. In these
situations it occurs almost exclusively on the ridges and upper slopes
where the soil is well drained and fairly shallow. Occasional trees are
found scattered in the deeper soils of the more gentle slopes, though they
do not occur in moist soils. It is partially tolerant of shade. Young
trees develop best in open places, provided they can survive exceptionally
dry periods. The altitudinal range is from near sea level to about 200
meters.

The bark is 10 to 15 millimeters in thickness. It is gray brown,
cinnamon brown, to brown in color and is shed in small or large plates;
weathered bark is somewhat lighter in color. The fresh bark of old trees
is sometimes seamed; in young trees the bark is darkbrown, smooth, and
sometimes seamed. The inner bark is yellowish brown when freshly
cut, but changes rapidly to brown on exposure.

The leaves of yacal are simple, alternate, from 6.5 to 12 centimeters
long and from 3 to 6 centimeters wide. In some leaves the axils of the
secondary veins contain glands, which are absent in mature leaves of old
trees. The old leaves are leathery and smooth.

The sapwood is light yellowish brown, changing rapidly to a color
slightly lighter than the yellowish brown to brown heartwood. Old wood
becomes dark brown. The wood is rather coarse grained and crossed
fibrous, and splits quite easily tangentially, but with difficulty radially.
It is hard and heavy and is very durable. When cut the tree yields an
oil which quickly hardens into a brittle dirty black resin. (See Part
I, pp. 54 and 55.)

Yacal is the most abundant of the heavy, hard, and very durable
timbers. It is especially valuable in all classes of construction work
where contact with the ground is necessary, but it is readily destroyed by
teredo. It is used for the following purposes : House construction (posts,
joists, rafters, flooring, doors, walls, sills) ; shipbuilding (keels, decking,
sides, masts, rudders) ; bridge construction; railway ties; cabinetmaking ;
furniture; carriage making (especially spokes and fellies).

73

This species (probably including others closely allied in leaf and wood
character) is reported from the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan,
Nueva Vizcaya, Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, Zambales, Camarines, Tayabas,
Sorsogon) ; Mindoro; Mindanao (Zamboanga, Cotabato).

The species described above is referred to Hopea plagata. Besides the
name of yacal it has the following local names: Betik (II.) ; guisoc (B..
V., Moro) ; papolongan or some form of it (T.) ; sapolongan (T.) )
siggai (II.); taggai (II.).

guisoc. (PI. LXXVIII.)

Guisoc, with yacal, furnishes most of the lumber known on the
market as yacal. The habits of the tree are very similar to yacal. It
attains a height of 35 to 45 meters and reaches a diameter of 150 to 170
centimeters. The bole, compared with trees of the same diameter of
yacal, is usually shorter, the tree being consequently more stocky in ap-
pearance. The bark is reddish brown to brown where freshly shed, chang-
ing on weathering to dark brown or nearly black. It sheds in usually
much larger irregular patterns. The fresh bark and that of young trees
becomes seamed. The leaves are simple and alternate, from 8.5 to 15
centimeters long and from 2 to 6 centimeters wide. They, with the
twigs and petioles, are covered beneath with fine brown hairs, which be-
come rusty brown as the leaves age, so that the crown of the tree looked
at beneath has a rusty brown appearance. During the dry season the
canopy is much thinner between the time of the beginning of the shedding
of the leaves and before the new leaves begin to develop. The tree, how-
ever, is not wholly deciduous, probably not losing more than a third of its
foliage at any one time.

The wood is much like yacal in general appearance, and furnishes a
considerable part of the yacal of commerce. The specimens examined
have a slightly finer texture than that of yacal, but are equally hard and
heavy. It has the same uses as yacal.

The tree has been reported from Tayabas, Camarines, Albay, Masbate,
Samar, and Leyte, though it doubtless occurs elsewhere. From incom-
plete botanical specimens this tree has been referred to Shorea balangeran.
It has the common names of guisoc, guisoc-amarillo, guisoc-guisoc, and
yacal. It may be that the species from Pangasinan and Zambales furnish-
ing wood under the names of guisoc Colorado and yamban that are classed
as yacal belong to this species.

BLACK YACAL.

Black yacal is a tree reaching a height of 30 or more meters and a
diameter of 60 to 90 centimeters. The bole is usually irregular and
spirally twisted. The bark is thin (3 to 4 millimeters) and nearly black
with a reddish tinge. It is distinctly ridged. The inner bark is light
brown in color. The sap wood is one-fourth the radius in thickness,

74

turning to the color of the heartwood on exposure. The heartwood is
chocolate brown in color. The wood is similar to yacal, but harder.
This tree is found scattered singly or in groups on low, dry coastal ridges
in the Zamboanga district of Mindanao. So far it has not been reported
from any other region. It belongs to the yacal group and is sold as yacal.
As yet, no fruiting and flowering specimens have been collected from it,
and it has provisionally been referred to the genus Hopea.

MALAYACAL.

Malay acal is a tree reaching an average height of 30 to 40 meters, and
a diameter of 60 to 80 centimeters or more. This tree resembles yacal
so closely in characters of bark that it at first sight is easily mistaken
for it. It differs from yacal in being shorter boled, and less inclined to be
buttressed. The crown is denser and more compact, in contrast with the
open crown of yacal. The bark is usually thinner (6 to 10 millimeters).
The leaves are larger, thinner, and of a different shape. While yacal is
found on the upper slopes and ridges (on the lower slopes in rocky dry
soils), malayacal is confined to the lower slopes, coves, and on flood plains
along streams or arroyos of the low-hill region bordering on salt water.
It is distinctly a tolerant species.

The wood of malayacal resembles closely that of yacal and is used for
it. It is reported so far only from the Zamboanga district of Mindanao.
From leaf specimens it has been referred provisionally to a species of
Shorea.

guisoc-guisoc. (PI. LXXIX.)

Guisoc-guisoc is a medium-sized tree reaching a height of 20 to 25
meters and a diameter of not more than 50 centimeters. The bole is
fairly regular, usually slightly buttressed, and is apt to have persistant
dead twigs near the base. The crown is semiopen and fairly wide
spreading. It is distributed throughout the Philippines in the region
where the dry season is not pronounced, usually very scattered on lower
slopes and streams. It is a tolerant species and grows in dense dipterocarp
forests. The weathered bark is dark brown to black, when fresh it is
light brown. It is 3 to 5 millimeters in thickness, and sheds in large
scaly patches; the inner bark is brown with pinkish tinge. The leaves
are simple, alternate, from 10 to 26 centimeters long and from 4 to 7
centimeters wide, with very hairy glands in the axils of the secondary
veins and with sharp-pointed stipules.

The sap wood is creamy when fresh cut, soon changing to brown. The
heartwood is brown to chocolate brown and in places has dark brown
streaks. Because of its small size and consequently large proportion of
sap to heart the tree is infrequently cut because the sapwood is not dur-
able. The heartwood is hard and probably as durable as yacal, and could
be substituted for it. The tree has the following distribution : Luzon

76

(Tayabas, Camarines, Albay) ; Leyte; Occidental Negros; Mindanao
(Agusan). The scientific name of guisoc-guisoc is Hopea philippinensis.
Other common names reported are barakbakan ( Ag.) ; makitarim or some
form of it (B., V.) ; paina (B.).

An undescribed species of Hopea, under the common Moro name of
mangasusu, occurs on the Zamboanga Peninsula of Mindanao. In habit,
color, and character of the bark, in shape of leaves and presence of glands,
and in fruit it is similar to guisoc-guisoc. The tree is uniformly larger,
however, reaching a height of at least 35 meters and a diameter of 60
centimeters. The leaves vary in size from those of guisoc-guisoc to some
two to three times their size. The wood shows irregularly concentric
bands of nearly black, otherwise it is like guisoc-guisoc.

MANGACHAPUY. (PL LXXX.)

Mangachapuy is a tree that reaches a height of 30 meters and a
diameter of 80 to 100 centimeters. It has a regular bole reaching 20
meters in length and a dense crown of small leaves. It is found on slopes
associated with tanguile, more abundant above altitudes of 300 meters.
It is a tolerant tree.

The bark is 10 to 15 millimeters in thickness. It is distinctly divided
into ridges, but these are short and join diagonally, forming a more
or less regular network. The furrows are usually filled with lines of
corky pustules. The ridges are brown to nearly black in color, the
furrows light brown and yellowish. The middle bark is brown ; the inner
bark is a light yellowish cream color, very stringy in texture and resinous.
The leaves are simple and alternate, smooth above and below, thin in
texture, usually with glands in the axils of the secondary veins; these
are more prominent near the base of the leaf. The leaf blade is from
4.5 to 8 centimeters long and from 2 to 3.5 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is light creamy in color when fresh, changing to dirty
brown on exposure. The heartwood is light yellowish brown when fresh,
darkening on weathering. The wood is hard and heavy, and is con-
sidered nearly as durable as yacal. It has a straight and moderately fine
grain.

It has the following uses: House construction (partitions, ceilings,
moldings, rafters, posts, joists, flooring, sills, doors) ; shipbuilding (masts,
decks, sides); piles; railway ties; wharves.

This tree is reported from the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan,
Ilocos Norte, Bataan, Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines, Sorsogon, Albay) ;
Mindoro; Leyte; Negros; Basilan.

Mangachapuy has the scientific name of Hopea acuminata. Besides
the common name given above it also goes under the name of daling-
dingan, under which it is very often sold.

76

DALINGDINGAN-ISAK.

This is a tree resembling mangachapuy in most particulars. It can
be distinguished from it by the fine and closely set veins and the prom-
inent hairy glands in the axils of the veins. The leaves are from
3 to 8.5 centimeters long and from 1 to 3.5 centimeters wide. The
wood of this tree is much like that of mangachapuy. It is usually found
scattered through certain subtypes of the lauan type and is reported
from the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan, Pangasinan, Laguna, In-
fanta, Tayabas, Camarines, Sorsogon, and Albay) ; Polillo Island; Min-
doro; Negros.

It is referred to Flo pea pierrei. Besides the common name of daling-
dingan-isak this species has the following local names: Dalingdingan
(T.) ; lito (Sor.) ; makitarem (Sor.) ; mangachapuy (T., V.) ; pisak
(Cag.).

NARIG.

JSTarig is a medium-sized tree between 20 and 30 meters in height. It
reaches a diameter of 70 centimeters. The bole is quite regular, usually
moderately or little buttressed, about two-thirds the height of the tree.
The crown is semiopen. It is found on dry coastal ridges and is a
constant associate of yacal in the yacal-lauan type of certain parts of
Mindanao.

The bark is 5 to 7 millimeters in thickness. The outer bark is light
gray in color when weathered ; the fresh bark is brown to brownish-gray.
It sheds in scroll-shaped patterns; the inner bark is very light pink
with dark brown flecks, and is hard and brittle. The leaves are simple,
alternate, and leathery in texture. They vary in size from 4.5 to 10
centimeters long and from 3 to 5.5 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is creamy to light brown in color and not durable. The
fresh heartwood is pale yellow in color and when weathered becomes dark
brown with a reddish tinge and often dark greenish streaks or mottlings.
It is finer grained than yacal. The chief objection to narig is its small
size and comparatively large proportion of sapwood.

The tree is reported only from the Zamboanga and Davao districts of
Mindanao and from Basilan Island. Doubtless it occurs elsewhere in
Mindanao and adjacent islands. A wood, probably narig, comes from
Palawan under the name of atpai.

This tree is referred to a species of Vatica and may be the same as
karig (Vatica mangachapoi) , which it resembles in many respects.

karig. (PL LXXXI.)

This is a tree resembling narig in many respects. It seems to be
confined to western Luzon where it is usually found at altitudes of from
350 to 700 meters. The tree differs mainly from narig in having smaller

77

leaves and a pale-yellow wood without the greenish mottling. Like
narig it turns to a dull reddish brown on exposure.

This species has been collected from the following regions: Luzon
(Cagayan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Benguet, Bataan, Eizal). It is
referred to Vatica mangachapoi and seems to be the species that pro-
duces the wood that was formerly known as mangachapuy. It has not,
however, been collected under that name. Besides karig the following
common names are recorded for it : Aniga (Ben.) ; aningat (Pang.) ; dangi
(Riz.); labang (II.).

YACAL BLANCO.

Yacal bianco is the name applied to a tree that resembles closely narig
and karig. It occupies a place usually in the yacal-lauan type of Luzon
and Leyte, that is, on the low coastal hills in the regions where the dry
season is wanting or not pronounced. It is reported from the following
regions: Luzon (Cagayan, Baler, Tayabas, Camarines, Albay) ; Polillo
Island; Leyte. Besides the common name of yacal bianco the following
local names are recorded: Bani (Cag.) ; bibit (Bal.) ; durog (Ley.);
siongsiongan (Ley.) ; tapurao (Al.) ; yacal (Polillo).

The heartwood of narig, karig, and yacal bianco are hard and heavy
timbers probably equal to yacal and are often substituted for it. The
general characters of the trees are so nearly alike that they can scarcely be
distinguished from each other. They have a smoother and finer grain
than yacal.

THE PALOSAPIS GROUP.

The genus Anisoptera produces woods quite distinct from any of the
above.

palosapis. (Pis. LXXXII and LXXXIII.)

This tree reaches a height of 40 to 45 meters and a diameter of 120
to 180 centimeters. It has a straight, regular, unbuttressed bole that
is three-fifths to two-thirds the height of the tree. The canopy is dense
in the rainy season and open in the dry, when it changes leaves. Trees
in very dry situations may become entirely destitute of leaves for a few
days. It is slightly tolerant of shade. Palosapis reaches its best develop-
ment in the lauan-apitong type of regions where the dry season is pro-
nounced, though it is scattered in various types of the other dipterocarp
forests.

The bark is 15 to 25 millimeters in thickness, in young trees smooth
with a yellowish tinge ; in older trees, especially at the base, it is broken
into choppy pieces, dirty brown in color. The bark just beneath the
surface is a reddish brown color; the inner bark is granular brownish
yellow, the granular appearance being due to broken concentric rings
of yellow. The leaves are from 7.5 to 16 centimeters long and from 3

78

to 7 centimeters wide, often yellowish in color and usually free from
hairs.

The sapwood is light creamy in color, staining on exposure to dirty
gray; the heartwood pale yellow, often with rose streaks, changing on
exposure to uniform yellowish brown. It has a coarse and fairly straight
grain and is moderately heavy and soft to moderately hard. When
fresh cut it has an unpleasant odor and yields abundant resin. The
following are the uses of the wood : General construction ; house construc-
tion (joists, rafters, flooring, siding); bancas; boxes; rice mortars;
furniture ; dry measures.

Palosapis is recorded from the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan,
Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Abra, Nueva Yizcaya, Pangasinan, Tarlac,
JNTueva Ecija, Zambales, Bataan, Eizal, Laguna, Camarines, Sorsogon,
Albay) ; Masbate Islands; Mindoro; Cebu.

The scientific name of this species is Anisoptera thurifera. Besides
the common name of palosapis the local names recorded are as follows:
Dagang or dagum (Lag., Eiz., Al.) ; duyong (II.) ; letis (Mas.) ; mayapis
(T.); paihapi (Z.).

A number of other species of Anisoptera yield wood that will pass on the
market as palosapis. Malapaho or dagang (Anisoptera curtisii) , with leaves
very yellow beneath, is reported from Tayabas, Camarines, and Laguna. An
undescribed species of Anisoptera (afu) from Cagayan and Ilocos Norte is much
like palosapis, but with larger fruits. Another species (probably undescribed)
occurs in the Zamboanga district of Mindanao.

ARANGA FAMILY.
( Flacourtiacese. )

THE ARANGAS.

Several species of the genus Homalium produce the wood known
as aranga. The following description applies to Homalium luzoniense.

This tree reaches a height of 30 to 40 meters and a diameter of 80 to
90 centimeters. It has a fairly straight and regular bole that is strongly
buttressed. It is a very scattered tree which is found principally in the
Provinces of Tayabas and Camarines. The bark is 8 to 12 millimeters in
thickness, gray to brown in color, and has a slightly uneven surface,
sometimes with vertical lines. The leaves are simple and alternate,
smooth, with slightly wavy margins, varying from 7 to 20 centimeters
long and from 3.5 to 12.5 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is yellow, merging gradually into a yellowish or reddish
brown heartwood, which in large trees has often irregular streaks of
chocolate color. It is very hard, heavy, and fine grained. It is one of
the most durable timbers in salt water and in the ground and is
consequently much valued for piling and naval construction. It is also
used for house construction (flooring, interior finish, posts, rafters) ;
cabinetwork ; railway ties.

79

It is impossible at the present time to give the gross characteristics of
the following species, which also produce the wood known as aranga:
Homalium bracteatum, bara?idce, panayanum, and villarianum. Besides
the general name of arajaga for the woods that come from these species
the following local names are recorded: Ampupuyot (V.); arangan,
kamagahai (Cam.); kamuyon (Ab.) ; laing (Eiz.) ; matangbokal (II.);
puyot (V.)- O ne or more of the species above mentioned are reported
from the following provinces: Luzon (Ilocos Sur, Pampanga, Bulacan,
Bataan, Tayabas, Camarines) ; Guimaras Islands.

Flacourtia inermis is known as calamansanay in Zambales Province, but it
seems that the wood of this species is not found in the Manila market and that
the market calamansanay comes from another species in a different family.
(See p. 100.)

BINUANG FAMILY.

( Datiscaceae. )

This family is credited with one very large timber tree, binuang or biluang
{Octomeles sumatrana) . This reaches its best development along streams, and
where the main body of the virgin forest has been removed it often occurs in
groups. The bark is 12 to 18 millimeters in thickness, and grayish brown to
reddish brown in color. The wood is light in weight and soft. It is used as
buoys for rafts and sometimes for making matches.

BAN ABA FAMILY.

( Lythracese. )

The species of this family have opposite or nearly opposite leaves. The
inner bark when cut and thus exposed to the air turns rapidly to a
purplish color. This enables one to distinguish the timber trees of the
family from those of others.

BATITINAN. (PL LXXXIV.)

This is a large tree that reaches a height of 30 to 40 meters, with a
diameter of 80 to 90 centimeters. The bole is crooked to fairly straight
and usually angular in cross-section. It is very strongly buttressed.
The crown is about two-fifths the height of the tree, irregular, wide
spreading, often flattened in one plane, and open. It is intolerant of
shade and occurs very scattered on dry hills, in the yacal-lauan and
molave types, and on coastal plains in certain portions of the lauan-
hagachac type.

The bark is 4 to 5 millimeters in thickness, ashy gray in color, splitting
into long obscure ridges about 5 millimeters in width. The newly formed
bark is brown, covered with curling papery flakes, either .square, rhom-
boidal, or rectangular. The inner bark has concentric rings of yel-
low alternating with gray; next the sapwood it quickly turns to a
very dark purple on exposure to the air. The leaves are opposite or

80

nearly so, smooth, from 6 to 12 centimeters long and from 2 to 5
centimeters wide.

The sapwood is grayish, the heartwood greenish gray to dark brown.
It is hard, heavy, very durable, and has a fine straight grain; seasonal
rings are distinct. It has the following uses : House construction (posts,
flooring,-* joists, rafters, interior finish); shipbuilding (keelson, masts,
sides, decks) ; ties; piles; telegraph poles; furniture; tool handles.

Batitinan is reported from the following regions: Luzon (Rizal, Ba-
tangas, Tayabas, Camarines, Sorsogon, Albay) ; Samar; Leyte; Occidental
Negros; Mindanao (Zamboanga, Davao) ; Basilan.

The scientific name is Lagerstroemia piriformis. Besides the name
batitinan, the following local names are recorded: Bagunaum (Dav.);
bugaron (Sam.); dinglas (Tay.) ; linan (Sor.) ; mantalinga (Zam.);
tinaan (Cam.). The names binggas and lasila from northern Luzon,
often credited to batitinan, apply to the wood of Terminalia comintana,
which sometimes passes for batitinan. (See p. 86.) Batitinan is also
known as Philippine teak.

BANABA. (PI. LXXXV.)

This a medium-sized tree reaching a height of 25 to 28 meters and a
diameter up to 80 centimeters. It has a short, usually irregular bole,
with a wide-spreading, semiopen crown which is deciduous, or nearly
so, during the dry season. It is intolerant of shade and is scattered along
streams in open places in the forest, and often occurs in the second-
growth forests.

The bark is 2 to 4 millimeters thick, gray to brown in color, with a
yellowish tint, has fine vertical lines and is sometimes scaly. The bark
next to the sapwood quickly .turns to a purple color on exposure to the air.
The leaves vary in size from 7.5 to 24 centimeters long and from 3.5 to
11 centimeters wide. They are smooth and opposite or nearly so.

The sapwood is light pink in color; the heartwood reddish brown.
The wood is hard, moderately heavy, straight grained, and durable. It
has the following uses: House building (posts, rafters, joists, flooring,
sills, partitions, interior finish); boat construction; wharves; piling;
furniture; carabao yokes; barrels; railroad ties; tool handles.

It has been reported from the following regions : Batanes Islands ; Lu-
zon (Cagayan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Abra, Benguet, Pangasinan,
Nueva Ecija, Baler, Zambales, Pampanga, Bulacan, Bataan, Rizal, La-
guna, Batangas, Tayabas, Camarines) ; Mindoro ; Samar ; Leyte ; Gui-
maras; Occidental Negros; Mindanao (Misamis) ; Palawan.

The scientific name is Lagerstroemia speciosa. Besides banaba, the
following local names are recorded: Danioura (N". Luz.) ; kanilan
(Guim.) ; makabalo (Pang.) ; mitla (Pam.) ; pamarauagon (Sam.) ; pa-
rasabuking (Mis.) ; tabangao (II.) ; tanaganan (Cag.).

jV\Un del,

Plate LXX. — PANAO (Dipterocarpus vernicifluua) .
a, Fruit.

A

&

O £

»-< U
P &

(—1

X

a

>

Plate LXXV— BARK AND LEAVES OF GUIJO (Shorea guiso). '• •' '.•* I '

J.Vitan del.

Plate LXXVI. — YACAL (Hopea plagata) .
a, Fruit.

-f

* <4*l

*» »

Plate LXXVII. — BARK OF YACAL (Hopea plagata).

v JVUan_del.

Plate LXXVIIL— GUISOC (Shorea balangeran).
a, Flower cluster.

JV.ta.x del ?

Plate LXXIX.— GUISOC-GUISOC (Hopea philippinensis) .
a, Fruit.

J.Vitan del.

Plate LXXXI. — KARIG (Vatica mangachapoi) .
a, Fruit.

Plate LXXXIII— BARK AND LEAVES OF PALOSAPIS (Anisoptera thurifera).

JVtt»n d«L. a

Plate LXXXIV. — BATITINAN (Lagerstroemia piriformis),
a, Fruit cluster ; 6, flower cluster.

' M .Will-"

% ■

HB^iiv

wJfc&W

1 ^

• 1

HiLar".^.^^ !

iHfl

^ **o^

1^ ';■■■

.1

r Ai *f*l||

fir* )

k\ 1L s

*\

^j^»*^, '■ ^L

y ■• » -* "

?,;

r AP' 1f^

■HK29B0IH * •VJIbktC

%* f3r \ ■'

y^

'■;■ ■ ' r „ : ' ■■'■ • &

'&

*.

m

Plate LXXXV.— BARK, LEAVES, AND FLOWERS OF BANABA {Lagerstroemia

speciosa).

Plate LXXXVI. — BACAUAN (Rhizophora conjugata).
a, Flower cluster ; b, seedling, with fruit attached.

81

PAG ATP AT FAMILY.

( SonneratiacesB. )

PAGATPAT.

Pagatpat is a medium-sized to tall tree, usually with a straight regular
bole. It is found throughout the Islands in the mangrove swamps. It
is the largest of the species growing in the mangrove swamps. It cop-
pices well, yielding good-sized logs in this way. The bark is 8 to 12
centimeters in thickness, brown to gray in color, inclined to be ridged
and scaly; the inner bark is reddish brown with lighter colored fibers.
The leaves are opposite, varying in size from 6 to 12 centimeters long and
from 4 to 8 centimeters wide, sometimes nearly circular, thick, and
leathery in texture.

The sapwood is light brown ; the heartwood dark brown, heavy, durable
and fine grained. It contains a large amount of salt and will rust nails,
discoloring the wood in contact with them. It has the following uses:
House building (flooring, siding, interior finish) ; bridge building; tele-
graph poles; planking for boats; furniture; ties, musical instruments.
The air roots, known as daluru, are used for razor hones.

Pagatpat is found in all tidal swamps in the Philippines, where it
usually occupies the outer zone; it reaches its best development in size
and numbers in the southern islands. The scientific name of pagatpat
is Sonneratia pagatpat. It is sometimes sold under the copyrighted
name of montol.

Another species (Sonneratia sp.), has the common name in the Min-
danao region of pedada. This tree has narrower leaves than pagatpat
and occurs usually in the interior of the swamps.

PUTAT FAMILY.

( Lecythidacese. )

This family, with alternate simple leaves, has a number of species of trees,
but none of very great importance from a commercial standpoint.

Botong (Barringtonia speciosa) is a medium-sized tree with large leaves,
flowers, and fruits (the latter adapted for floating) that occupies a conspicuous
place on the sandy beaches throughout the Philippines. Barringtonia racemosa
and other closely allied species have the common name of putat. They are usually
found back of the mangrove swamps or along streams where the ground-water
level is very near the surface. The woods are light colored, very soft, and porous
and are used only locally. Lamog or apalang [Planchonia spectabilis) is a
medium-sized to tall tree found very scattered in some portions of the dipterocarp
forests. Its wood is dark reddish brown, fine grained, hard, and moderately heavy
to heavy.

THE MANGROVE OR BACAUAN FAMILY.

( Rhizophoraceae. )

This in many respects is the most remarkable tree family in the world.
With a few exceptions it is confined to the tidal-swamp regions, where its
members form the principal elements of the mangrove swamps. The

103554 6

trees all have simple, opposite, and leathery leaves; the seeds (those of
the tidal-swamp species) germinate on the trees, developing seedlings
without leaves, which drop, and are carried by the tides until they reach
a lodging place, where they rapidly develop into trees. The woods of
the trees are hard and heavy with prominent pith rays. The mangrove
trees are the principal source of firewood and tan barks of the Philippines.
The principal trees of the swamps may be divided into three groups:
The bacauans, the pototans, and tangal.

THE BACAUANS. (PL LXXXVI.)

These trees can be distinguished from the others by the prominent
stilt roots. There are two species, bacauan (Rhizophora conjugata),
and bacauan lalaki (R. mucronata).

Bacauan is a tree reaching a height of 20 to 22 meters and a diameter
of 40 to 45 centimeters, though usually much smaller. The bark is
20 to 30 millimeters thick, nearly black, rough and usually scaly. The
leaves vary in size from 11 to 14 centimeters long and from 3 to 7 centi-
meters wide. The flower stalk is 5 millimeters long or nearly sessile,
and usually two-flowered.

Bacauan lalaki is a tree slightly larger than bacauan. It differs from
it in having a flower stalk 2.5 centimeters long, usually three flowers, and
larger leaves, varying in size from 11 to 18 centimeters long and from 5
to 12 centimeters wide.

THE POTOTANS. (PI. LXXXVII.)

These reach a height of 20 to 25 meters and differ from the bacauans
in having smaller leaves and no stilt roots. Their bark is dark colored,
nearly black; the inner bark thick and yellowish brown in color.

The following are the species : Busain (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) ; lan-
garai (Bruguiera parviflora) ; pototan (Bruguiera eriopetala) ; pototan
lalaki (Bruguiera caryophylloides) .

TANGAL.

Tangal (Ceriops tagal) is a much smaller tree than the others and
has a brown to nearly black smooth bark, except the large, scattering,
nearly round pustules. The inner bark is reddish in color and thick.
The leaves are from 4.5 to 9 centimeters long and from 2 to 4.5 centi-
meters wide.

Bacauan-gubat (Camilla integerrima) is found very scattered in the
forests outside the swamps.

The following is a key to the principal trees of the mangrove swamps,
including species of the other families.

83

KEY TO THE PRINCIPAL TBEES OF THE MANGROVE SWAMPS.

I. Trees with prop roots.

A. Leaves 11 to 14 centimeters long by 3 to 7 centimeters wide; flower stalk

5 millimeters or less in length, usually two-flowered 1. Bacauan.

B. Leaves somewhat larger, 11 to 18 centimeters long, 5 to 12 centimeters

wide; flower stalk 2.5 centimeters long, usually three-flowered.

2. Bacauan lalaki.
II. Trees without prop roots.

A. Leaves simple, opposite, not white beneath.

1. Apex of leaf acute.

Flowers 2.5 centimeters long or more.

Leaves 7 to 14 centimeters long, 2.5 to 5.5 centimeters wide,

flowers usually red 3. Pototan.

Leaves 7 to 15 centimeters long, 3 to 6 centimeters wide, flowers

usually yellow 4. Busain.

Flowers less than 1.25 centimeters long.

Leaves 5 to 9 centimeters long, 1.5 to 2.5 centimeters wide;

flowers usually yellowish green to white 5. Langarai.

Leaves 7 to 11 centimeters long, 3 to 5.5 centimeters wide;

flowers usually yellow 6. Pototan lalaki.

2. Apex of leaf obtuse or rounded.

Leaves 7.5 to 10.5 centimeters long, 3 to 5.5 centimeters wide;
small tree with red bark, with prominent corky pustules.

7. Tangal.
Leaves 6 to 12 centimeters long; 4 to 8 centimeters wide;
medium sized to large tree with flaky bark and many short air
roots springing from underground roots.

8. Pagatpat. (See p. 81.)

B. Leaves simple, opposite, white beneath 9. Api-api. (See p. 98.)

C. Leaves simple, alternate.

Leaves white beneath 10. Dungon-late. (See p. 36.)

Leaves not white beneath 11. Tabao. (See p. 87.)

D. Leaves compound, alternate.

Leaflets ovate 12. Tabigi. (See p. 47.)

Leaflets obovate 13. Piagao. (See p. 47.)

TALTSAY FAMILY.

( Combretacese. )

This is a family of alternate simple leaves. The genus Terminalia has
eight species that produce wood known in the markets. Five of these
are so nearly alike that they are undoubtedly mixed and sold under
the name that happens to be known by the dealers. The leaves of the
Terminalias are usually obovate and more or less closely bunched at the
ends of the twigs.

calumpit. (PI. LXXXVIIL)

This is a medium-sized to tall tree that reaches a height of 25 to 30
meters. The bole is usually regular, straight, and about one-half the
height of the tree. It is very slightly if at all buttressed. The crown is

84

widespreading and semiopen. The tree is tolerant of shade and is very
scattered.

The bark is 10 to 12 millimeters in thickness, dirty brownish black in
color, irregularly but obscurely ridged, and in old trees scaly. The inner
bark is yellowish with a thin watery sap. The leaves are simple, alternate,
smooth, loosely bunched at ends of twigs, varying in size from 5 to 15
centimeters long and from 2.5 to 6 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is pale yellowish brown to yellow; the heartwood is
pale reddish brown. The wood is moderately heavy to moderately hard,
with a fairly straight to twisted grain, and takes a glossy finish. It
colors water a pale dirty straw color. It has the following uses: House
construction (pillars, rafters, siding, interior finish) ; cabinetwork; ship
knees.

It is reported from the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan, Ilocos
Sur, Lepanto-Bontoc, Nueva Vizcaya, Zambales, Bataan, Eizal, Tayabas,
Camarines) ; Polillo Island; Masbate; Mindoro; Guimaras Island; Pa-
lawan; Zamboanga.

It has the scientific name of Terminalia edulis. Besides calumpit or
some form of it, the following local names are recorded: Barasus (Pal.) ;
gayumayen (Z.) ; gisit (N". Y.) ; kalautit (N. V.) ; kalumanog (Mas.) ;
magtalisay (Mas.); tayataya (Guim.).

DALINSI.

This is a tree reaching a height of 25 to 30 meters and a diameter
of 80 to 100 centimeters. The bark is gray to brown, with an inclination
to be ridged. It resembles closely talisay-gubat, with which it is often
confused. It, however, has smaller fruit and leaves; the latter vary in
size from 5 to 9 centimeters long and from 3 to 6 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is yellowish gray to yellow ; the heartwood reddish brown.
The wood is moderately hard, moderately heavy, coarse and straight
grained. It colors water a pale yellow. It has the same uses as calumpit.

It is recorded from the following regions: Luzon (Pangasinan, Tar-
lac, Zambales, Tayabas) ; Palawan.

The scientific name of dalinsi is Terminalia pellucida. The follow-
ing local names are recorded: Aritongtong (II.); hakit (Z.) ; kalautit
(Tar.); Manaong (Pang.); subosubo (Z.) ; and many of the names
applied to talisay-gubat.

TALISAY-GUBAT. (PL LXXXIX.)

This is a medium-sized tree reaching a height of 25 to 30 meters,
and a diameter of 80 to 90 centimeters. The bole is unbuttressed,
fairly straight and regular. The crown is irregular in shape, somewhat
compact and semiopen. It occurs very scattered in the dipterocarp
forests, usually in river bottoms or on lower slopes. The bark is 8 to

85

10 millimeters in thickness, brown, inclined to be obscurely ridged,
and in old trees sheds in long flakes; the inner bark is brown with
wedge-shaped pink patches near the outer surface. The leaves are
simple, alternate, obovate, smooth, varying in size from 10 to 20 centi-
meters long and 6 to 10 centimeters wide.

The wood is a dull reddish brown, moderately hard, moderately heavy,
and fairly straight grained. It has the same uses as calumpit.

It has the following distribution: Luzon (Cagayan, Ilocos Norte,
Kizal,. Laguna, Tayabas, Infanta, Camarines) ; Mindoro; and probably
many other provinces.

The scientific name is Terminalia oocarpa. Besides talisay-gubat.
the following local names are known: Balinsil (In.) ; calumpit (Tay.) ;
dalinsi (Cam., Tay., Cag.) ; kalautit (II.) ; malagabi (M.) ; malaputat
(Kiz.) ; sacat (Cag.) ; talisay del monte (Batn.).

SACAT.

This is a tree that reaches a height of 25 to 30 meters and a diam-
eter of 70 to 90 centimeters. It is intolerant of shade, and is scat-
tered through the lighter portions of the dipterocarp forests.

The bark is 5 to 8 millimeters in thickness, gray to brown in color,
sometimes with a yellowish tinge, and has fine longitudinal lines, some-
times with scattered corky pustules. The inner bark is brown with
red tinge and yellow next to the sapwood. The leaves are simple,
smooth, bunched alternately at the ends of the twigs, varying in size
from 7 to 15 centimeters long and from 3 to 8 centimeters wide. The
sapwood is light brown; the heartwood gray to brownish yellow, moder-
ately heavy, moderately hard, coarse and straight grained, and colors
water a pale yellow. It is used for all classes of light construction.

The following is the recorded distribution: Luzon (Ilocos Norte,
Ilocos Sur, Pangasinan, Tarlac, Zambales, Bataan, Eizal, Batangas,
Tayabas) ; Masbate; Mindoro; Zamboanga.

The scientific name is Terminalia nitens. The following local names
are recorded: Calumpit (Batn.) ; dalinsi (Tay.) ; kalautit, (II.) ; mag-
talisay (Mas.); subosubo (Z.).

It will be seen from the common names given above that calumpit,
dalinsi, talisay-gubat, and sacat are confused and often mistaken for
each other. It is sometimes difficult to separate them even with botan-
ical specimens.

TALISAY.

This tree has two forms, the beach form and the river-bottom form.
The beach form is a medium-sized tree seldom over 20 meters in height
and often much less. It has a knotty bole, dirty gray in. color. The
river-bottom form is a tall tree with a grayish brown bark, 10 milli-

86

meters in thickness, which splits in longitudinal ridges, the furrows
filled with corky pustules. The inner bark is pink, streaked with
green-colored longitudinal lines. Both forms have the branches whorled
in horizontal planes, with a flat, very broad crown. The leaves are large
and coarse, varying in size from 14 to 33 centimeters long and from
10 to 20 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is light brown, sometimes with yellowish tints ; the heart-
wood is reddish brown, moderately heavy, moderately hard, with a glossy,
usually somewhat crossed grain (straight in river-bottom form). It
colors water a pale yellow.

The tree is found distributed along sandy beaches everywhere; in
deforested flood plains it often forms groups characterized by the whorled
branches.

The scientific name is Terminalia catappa. The coast form has the
common name of talisay; the river-bottom form, talisay, and lumanog
or lanipao.

binggas. (Pis. XC and XCI.)

This is a tall tree reaching a height of 35 to 40 meters and a diameter
of 80 to 100 centimeters or more. It is found very scattered through
the drier portions of the dipterocarp types.

The bark is 3 to 5 millimeters in thickness, light gray, and smooth;
beneath the outer bark there is a papery layer, ashy gray in color; the
inner bark is brown. The leaves are simple, alternate, smooth (young
leaves downy), varying in size from 6 to 15.5 centimeters and in width
from 3 to 6.5 centimeters.

The sapwood is yellow to very pale brown; the heartwood brown to
dark gray with purplish streaks. The wood is hard, heavy, fine, and
straight grained, and probably durable. It often passes for molave and
batitinan and has the same uses as these.

It has been recorded from the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan,
Ilocos Sur, Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, Zambales, Bataan, Eizal, Cama-
rines) ; Ticao Island; Mindoro; Leyte, Zamboanga.

The scientific name is Terminalia comintana. Besides the name of
binggas, the following are recorded: Batitinan babaye (Tieao) ; dinglas
or some form of it (T., V.) ; hinabusi (M.) ; lasila (II.) ; maglalopoi
(Pang.) ; malatagum (Zam.) ; naghubo (Riz.) ; palang (Riz.) ; saplungan
(Eiz.) ; tiroron (Cam.).

toog. (PL XCII.)

This is a tall tree reaching a height of 35 to 40 meters and a diameter
of 80 to 100 centimeters. It has a straight regular bole usually without
buttresses. The crown is semiopen, the tree is semitolerant of shade.
It occupies a conspicuous place in the dipterocarp forests of some regions.

87

The bark is 10 to 12 millimeters thick, dark red, nearly black when
wet, with irregular lines of corky pustules. It is scalloped with irregular
shallow depressions as large as saucers which mark the places of newly
shed bark. The inner bark is tan red in color and very stringy. The
leaves are simple, closely alternate at the ends of the twigs, smooth,
varying in size from 15 to 25 centimeters long and from 4 to 10 centi-
meters wide.

The sapwood is grayish to very pale red in color ; the heartwood bright
reddish brown, moderately heavy, moderately hard, rough in texture,
fairly straight grained, but warping badly when green.

The tree seems to be confined to a definite region, being reported only
from Sorsogon, Masbate, Samar, and Leyte. The scientific name of it
is Terminalia quadrialata. Only the local name of toog is recorded for
it. It should not be confused with Bischofia javanica (tuai) which also
has the name of toog and whose wood is very similar to it.

Malacalumpit or calamansanay (Terminalia calamansanai) was supposed to
furnish some of the wood on the market known as calamansanay, but it is
practically certain that the wood of this species is not the calamansanay of com-
merce. Tabao (Lumnitzera littorea) is a small to medium sized tree found in
the mangrove swamps. The wood is yellowish or brownish gray, sometimes with
a reddish tinge, hard, heavy, fine grained, strong and durable. It has the follow-
ing uses: House construction; posts; piling; axles. In Borneo it is considered
second only to billian for piling. This species has red flowers with inflorescence
axillary. Another species, L. racemosa Willd., has white flowers with inflorescence
terminal.

EUCALYPT OR MACAASIM FAMILY.

(Myrtaceae.)

This is a family that produces a large number of small, medium-sized,
and tall trees. The leaves are usually opposite and often contain more
or less distinct oil glands (pellucid dots). Tree descriptions have not
been collected and only a brief mention will be made of the species im-
portant to the lumber trade.

THE MACAASIMS.

From local names the following species are credited with producing
the wood known as macaasim: Eugenia benthamii; E. mimica; E. phi-
lippensis; E. bordenii; E. vidaliana; and Decaspermum paniculatum.
Of these, malaruhat (E. bordenii) seems to be the most abundant.

The wood of the macaasims is generally grayish brown, occasionally
with yellowish, greenish or reddish tinge, and rather fine grained, hard,
heavy and durable. The wood has the following uses : House construction
(beams, posts, flooring, window sills) ; cabinetwork and furniture; boat
building (rudders, decks, sides); telegraph poles; tool handles; wash-
bowls ; ties ; piling.

88

The species of Eugenia are a constant element in all types of the
dipterocarp forests, where they occur very scattered, occasionally as
codominant trees, more usually as subdominant or undergrowth trees.

mancono. (PL XCIII.)

This is a medium-sized tree with an irregular bole reaching a diameter
of 80 to 100 centimeters. The leaves vary in size from 5 to 8.5 centi-
meters long and from 3 to 6 centimeters wide, smooth and slightly
whitish beneath. The sapwood is light reddish ; the heartwood is yellowish
brown turning to chocolate brown on exposure. The grain is fine and
twisted. It is very hard and very heavy and exceedingly durable. It
is undoubtedly the hardest and heaviest wood in the Philippines and is
probably a good substitute for lignum- vitse. 1 It has the following uses:
Posts; piling; wooden tools; tool handles; pulleys; bearings.

Mancono reaches its most successful development in the northeastern
part of Mindanao and the adjacent islands. It is recorded from the
following regions: Ticao Island, Eomblon; Leyte; Culion Islands; Pa-
lawan: Dinagat Island; Tinago Island. The scientific name is Xan-
thostemon verdugonianus. Besides the local name of mancono or mag-
kono, it is called palo de hierro (Sp.), and tugas (V.).

Besides the above, the following deserve mention: Sudyang is a very hard,
very heavy, and durable wood found in Surigao and islands adjacent which has
provisionally been placed in this family. Malabayabas or tiga (Tristania de-
corticata) is a tree growing on dry coastal hills, and in the tanguile-oak type,
where it sometimes occurs gregarious over small areas on very dry ridges or tops
of low mountains. Its bark sheds frequently leaving a smooth gray surface like
that of bay abas, whence the name malabayabas. It has a hard and heavy, dark
reddish brown wood resembling mancono. Bayabas or guava (Psidium guajava)
is introduced and escaped from cultivation. It produces an edible fruit and
a good firewood. In many places it gives a decided tone to the second-growth
forests. One species of eucalyptus (E. naudiniana) is reported from Zamboanga.
It may have been introduced there. Malasulasi (Leptospermum flavescens) occurs
gregarious on many mountain tops. Two species of Decaspermum, D. blancoi
and D. paniculatum, are found, usually near the tops of the mountains, where
the latter is nearly gregarious. Tawalis or sagasa (Osbornia octodonta) is a
small tree with a hard durable wood, occurring on the edge of the mangrove
swamps and on sandy beaches. The following species of Eugenia produce edible
fruits: kalubkob (E. calubcob) ; duhat or lumboi (E. jambolana) ; makopa (E.
javanica) ; tampoi (E. jambos) and others.

KULIS FAMILY.

( Melastomataceae. )

This family contains a number of undergrowth trees and some small ones.
Kulis {Memecylon edule) is a small or undergrowth tree occurring in certain
regions of the dipterocarp types. It yields a hard durable wood that has been
suggested as a substitute for boxwood.

1 Hutchinson, W. I. A substitute for Lignum- vita. Bull. 9, Bureau of Foresty,
1908.

f 89

GINSENG OR MALAPAPAYA FAMILY.
(Araliacese.)

MALAPAPAYA.

This is a tree that reaches a height of 25 to 30 meters and a diameter
of 50 to 60 centimeters. It has a straight bole 15 to 18 meters in height.
Young trees are usually crowned with one group of large compound
leaves, older ones have several branches, each similarly crowned. The
bark is 12 to 15 millimeters in thickness, light gray to brown in color,
with vertical lines; the inner bark is white with yellow rays and very
brittle. The leaves are closely alternate, compound, 1 meter or more
in length, with many leaflets, each with margins serrate and varying in
size from 12 to 25 centimeters long and from 5 to 10 centimeters wide.
The wood is yellowish white in color, light and very soft, straight
grained, and easy to work. It is considered one of the best match woods,
and is also used for very light construction purposes, match boxes, packing
cases, and rafts.

It is recorded from the following provinces: Luzon (Pampanga, Ba-
taan, Eizal, Laguna, Tayabas) ; Surigao; Basilan Island. It doubtless
occurs in almost every province. It is usually a tree of the second-growth
type, but occurs scattered in dipterocarp forests, especially the apitong-
lauan type.

The scientific name is Polyscias nodosa. Besides malapapaya it has
the following local names: Bias-bias (T., V.) ; bongling or some form
of it (T., V.) ; malasapsap (Pam. and neighboring provinces) ; mano-
mano (Bas.) ; tukud-langit (Batn.).

DOGWOOD OR MALATAPAI FAMILY.

(Cornacese.)

Only one tree, malatapai or guntapai (Alangium longiflorum) is of any im-
portance to the lumberman. The sapwood is clear light yellow, very sharply
distinguished from the dark coffee-colored heartwood. The wood is moderately
hard, moderately heavy, very fine grained, and easy to work. It is used locally
for construction purposes and is occasionally made into furniture and canes.

GUTTA-PERCHA OR BETIS FAMILY.

( Sapotaceae. )

This is a family of large trees with alternate leaves and inner barks
that contain a sticky milky sap which exudes sparingly when the bark
is cut. The woods make a lather when rubbed with water or saliva.

betis. (Pis. XCIV and XCV.)

This is a large tree reaching a height of 35 to 40 meters and a diameter
of 80 to 100 centimeters. It seems to be confined to the Island of Luzon,
where it occurs as very scattered trees.

90

The bark is 5 to 8 millimeters in thickness, brown to reddish brown in
color and is nearly smooth with light-colored vertical lines in young
trees, but in older trees ridged ; the inner bark is brownish red in color.
The leaves are simple, alternate, closely bunched at ends of twigs, covered
with dense brown hairs beneath and usually on the veins above, varying
in size from 10 to 33 centimeters long and from 5 to 10 centimeters wide.

The wood is dark red in color, very hard, heavy, has a bitter taste, and
is clear and straight grained. It is very durable and is especially valuable
for piling. It also has the following uses: Shipbuilding (keels, stern
posts); house building (posts, flooring, doors, rafters); railroad ties;
wooden tools; tool handles; wharf building.

It is reported from the following regions : Luzon ( Cagayan, Eizal, Ta-
yabas, and Camarines) ; Samar. The scientific name of betis is Illipe
betis. Besides betis or some forms of it, the following common names
have been recorded: Bakayao (II., Pang., T.) ; duyog-duyog (V.) ; la-
migien (N. Luz.) ; pappagai; pasak (T., Z.) ; pianga (Cag.) ; talipopo
(V.) ; urien (Cag.). A wood under the name of manilig from Cotabato
seems to be betis, but may be a closely related species.

BANSALAGUIN.

This is a medium-sized tree reaching a height of 25 to 30 meters and
a diameter of 80 to 90 centimeters, and usually has a straight, unbut-
tressed, regular bole less than half the height of the tree in length. The
tree is intolerant of shade and is found in the dry soils of the coastal hills,
where it is usually a constituent of the molave type.

The bark is 8 to 10 millimeters in thickness, black or nearly so, with
prominent ridges broken by cross fissures into rectangular or rhomboidal
patterns ; the inner bark is red with white vertical lines beneath the fur-
rows, brittle in texture, and next the sapwood exudes sparingly a thick
milky sap. The leaves are simple, alternate, smooth, usually varying in
size from 4 to 12 centimeters long, and from 2 to 4 centimeters wide,
bunched at ends of twigs. The fruit is yellowish red in color.

The sapwood is light red in color; the heartwood dark red. The wood
is very hard, heavy to very heavy, has a very fine grain and a bitter taste,
and produces lather when rubbed with water or saliva. It is very much
like betis, but takes a glossier finish and is finer, darker, heavier, and
harder than betis. It is a first-class construction timber, and is especially
valuable for salt-water piling. It also has the following uses: Tool
handles; house construction (posts, beams, flooring); turnery; ship-
building (keels, treenails, marlin spikes, belaying pins; spokes and
handles of ships' wheels).

It has the following distribution : Luzon ( Cagayan, Ilocos Sur, Nueva
Ecija, Zambales, Bataan, Batangas, Tayabas, Sorsogon) ; Polillo, Ticao
Island; Masbate; Mindoro; Culion Island; Samar; Mindanao (Zam-
boanga, Cotabato,) Tawi Tawi Island; Palawan.

91

Bansalaguin is a species of Mimusops. It has the following common
names: Anak-batu (Tawi Tawi) ; duyog-duyog (V.) ; gatasan (N. E.,
II.) ; cabiqui or kabiki (T.) ; ligayan (Moro) ; pappagan (Cag.) ; pat-
saragon (Sam.) ; pisek (II.) ; talipopo (V.).

NATO.

Nato is a large to very large tree reaching a height of 35 to 45 meters,
with a diameter of 90 to 120 centimeters. It has a fairly straight, but
usually rather strongly buttressed, bole that is one-fourth to one-half the
height of the tree. The crown is irregular and semiopen. The tree is
partially tolerant of shade. It is found scattered throughout certain
portions of the dipterocarp types.

The bark is 15 to 25 millimeters thick, gray to brown in color, split
by vertical fissures, usually filled with raised lines of corky pustules,
giving it the appearance of being ridged. The inner bark is granular,
salmon red in color, brittle in texture, and exudes a milky juice on
being cut. The leaves are simple, alternate, smooth or nearly so, varying
from 9 to 17 centimeters long and from 4 to 7 centimeters wide.

The wood is a pale dull red in color, moderately hard, moderately heavy
and with fine, often wavy grain. It is used for about the same purposes
as the red lauans and tanguile, which it resembles in color and general
properties.

Nato is reported from the following regions: Luzon (Ilocos Sur,
Abra, Pangasinan, Zambales, Eizal, Bataan, Laguna, Tayabas) ; Min-
doro; Guimaras Island.

The scientific name of nato is Palaquium luzoniense. Besides nato
the following local names are recorded: Bitanhol (Guim.) ; dulitan
(Tay.) ; gatasan (II.) ; palok-palok (Batn.) ; tagatoi (Batn.) ; takaran
(Pang.); uakatan (M.).

MALACMALAC. (PI. XCVI.)

This is a tree which in size and general characteristics is much like
nato. The bark is 15 to 20 millimeters thick, grayish brown in color,
with disconnected vertical lines, or furrows, and inclined to be ridged.
The inner bark is red with lighter streaks beneath the furrows and next
the sapwood exudes a thick milky sap. The leaves are simple, alternate,
densely covered below with soft, golden brown hairs and vary in size
from 14 to 28 centimeters long and 6 to 14 centimeters wide. The
wood is much like that of nato and has the same uses.

Malacmalac is credited to the following regions : Luzon (Tarlae, Nueva
Ecija, Zambales, Pampanga, Bulacan, Bataan, Eizal, Laguna, Batangas,
Tayabas, Albay) ; Mindoro; Palawan.

It has the scientific name of Palaquium philippense. Besides malac-
malac, it has the following local names: Alakaak (T.) ; baniti (Batn.) ;
tayogong (Z.).

92

MANICNIC. (PL XCVII.)

Manicnic is a large-sized tree reaching a height of 33 to 35 meters
and a diameter of 80 to 90 centimeters. It has a straight, regular, but
medium buttressed, bole that reaches a length of 20 meters. The crown
is flatly irregular. The bark is 18 to 25 millimeters thick, dark gray to
dark brown, with longitudinal furrows about 3 centimeters or less
apart; the inner bark is red, and when cut, exudes a milky sap. The
leaves are simple, alternate, smooth, varying in size from 6 to 12 centi-
meters long and 2.5 to 4.5 centimeters wide. The wood is red in color,
fine grained, moderately heavy, and moderately hard. It has the uses
of the other Palaquiums.

The distribution of this tree is as follows: Luzon (Cagayan, Bataan,
Laguna, Tayabas) ; Masbate; Mindoro. The scientific name is Pala-
quium tenuipetiolatum. Besides manicnic the following local names are
known: Betis (Mas. and Tay.) ; mayusip (M.) ; pango (Cag.).

Besides the above, there are a large number of species of Palaquium about
which there is not sufficient information to warrant description. Some species
•of this genus produce the gutta-percha of Mindanao. (See Part I, p. 57.)

Baniti (Illipe ramiflora) , sometimes known as tanguile, is a medium-sized
tree with wood much like the Palaquiums. Several species of Sideroxylon (Nato
puti, or white nato) yield wood of much the same texture as the Palaquiums but
not red in color. Information concerning these is too meager to permit their
description.

PERSIMMON OR EBONY FAMILY.

( Ebenaceae. )

This family is important because it produces the ebony of commerce.
The leaves are simple and alternate, usually leathery in texture. The
trees are small to medium-sized, with rough black bark. The sapwood
is grayish white or red; the heartwood in many species sometimes of the
same color, but more often the color of the sap streaked with black, or
black streaked with red or grayish white, or jet black. Species with
a jet-black heartwood are known as the true ebony in the Philippines,
those with black streaked with another color are called camagon or
bolongeta. Many species of Diospyros with or without black hearts are
not described below because there are not sufficient data at present to do
so. It is said that streaked black ebonies can be changed to wholly
black by burying them in the salt mud of the mangrove swamps.

The ebonies are used in the Philippines principally for musical in-
struments, fine furniture, cabinetmaking, and canes. The supply is
limited and so far as known little or none is exported. Locally the
species with little or no black heart are used for all sorts of purposes.

EBONY.

This is a small tree occurring on dry coastal hills and sometimes on
the edge of mangrove swamps. It seldom reaches a height of over 20

93

meters and a diameter of more than 40 centimeters. The bark is 4 to
10 millimeters thick, shiny black, with steel gray patches where recently
shed. The inner bark is brownish red. The leaves are simple, alternate,
smooth, leathery, varying in size from 2 to 6.5 centimeters long and
1 to 4 centimeters wide. The sapwood is grayish or creamy white, large,
sharply distinguished from the small jet-black heartwood. It is used
in the Philippines for canes, inlaying, frames, hilts, tool handles, fine
furniture. It is not at all abundant.

The distribution is as follows: Luzon (Cagayan, Baler, Pangasinan,
Zambales, Tayabas, Camarines) ; Batanes Islands; Mindoro; Masbate;
Leyte; Panay; Mindanao (Surigao, Zamboanga, Davao) ; Tinago Island;
Dinagat Island. The scientific name is Maba buxifolia. The Spanish
name, "ebano," seems to be widespread. The principal Philippine name
is bantulinao or some form of it; others are galarigal (T.) ; kaloyanan
(Pam.) ; luyong (T.) ; malatalang (T.) ; tangintin (Sur.).

CAMAGON.

Camagon is usually a medium-sized to large tree reaching a height of
25 to 32 meters and a diameter of 60 to 80 centimeters. It is extensively
cultivated for its fruit, which is usually known as mabolo. It occurs,
however, scattered on coastal hills and sometimes in the deeper soils of
the dipterocarp types.

The bark is 3 to 5 millimeters thick, brown to nearly black in color,
with a rough surface; the middle bark is black, the inner light pink.
The leaves are simple, alternate, leathery in texture, densely covered with
fine white hairs beneath, and vary in size from 10 to 22 centimeters long
and 4 to 9 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is large, grayish to pale red in color; the heartwood
is black with brown, ashy gray, or red streaks. The wood is very hard,
very heavy, and very fine grained. It is used for the same purposes as
ebony and is much more abundant.

As previously stated, camagon is cultivated; probably almost every
province in the Islands contains it. The scientific name is Diospyros
discolor. Besides camagon and mabolo (the name of the fruit), the
following local names occur: Amaga or some form of it (T., V.);
bantulinao or some form of it (T.) ; ituman (Ley.) ; kalangtapai (T.) ;
kaloyanan (Pam.) ; talang (Kiz.).

BOLONGETA. (PI. XCYIII.)

Bolongeta is a tree resembling camagon in many respects, except it
is smaller in size and forms a conspicuous part of the undergrowth of
some of the dipterocarp types. The bark is 3 to 5 millimeters thick,
nearly black in color, with an uneven surface, having jagged, short spinous
projections. The middle bark is black, the inner light red. The leaves

94

are alternate, simple, nearly smooth, or with a few scattered white hairs
beneath, hardly visible to the naked eye; they vary in size from 9 to 17
centimeters long and 2.5 to 8 centimeters wide.

The sap wood is light red in color, the heartwood often has the same
color, but may be black with reddish streaks. When large it is practi-
cally indistinguishable from cam agon. It is used for the same purposes
as camagon, but both sapwood and heartwood are locally used as structural
timber. It is very heavy, very hard, and fine-grained.

The tree is reported from the following regions: Luzon (Cagayan,
Ilocos Forte, Ilocos Sur, Nueva Ecija, Pangasinan, Baler, Zambales,
Bataan, Eizal, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas, Camarines) ; Camiguin Is-
lands; Masbate; Mindoro; Samar; Tinago Island.

The scientific name is Diospyros pilosanthera. Besides the common
name of bolongeta, or some form of it, the following local names are
recorded: Alintatao or some form of it (T.) ; anam (B.) ; ata-ata (V.) ;
bantulinao or some form of it (T.) ; camagon (T.) ; dambuhala (Eiz.) ;
ebano (Sp.) ; galangan (Pang.) ; malatalang (T.).

ATA-ATA.

This is a tree that in size, form, and bark characters closely resembles
bolongeta. It seems to be more abundant in the Visayan Islands and
Mindanao, and there replaces bolongeta as a medium-sized tree in the
dipterocarp types. The leaves are nearly smooth with a whitish bloom
beneath and vary in size from 10 to 17 centimeters long and 2.5 to 5
centimeters wide. The sapwood is grayish white, the heartwood some-
times of the same color but often black with or without whitish streaks.

This tree is referred to Diospyros mindanaensis. Besides ata-ata, it
has the local names of bolongeta; anang (Tay.) ; and tapilak (Moro).
The heartwood of the above and many other species may be sold as ebony,
camagon, or bolongeta, depending on the color ; if black, ebony ; if black,
slightly streaked, camagon; if much streaked, as bolongeta.

STRYCHNINE OR URUNG FAMILY.

( Loganiacese. )

The only representative of this family is urung (Fagraea fragrans) . The
wood is yellow when fresh and on exposure turns to a light brown. It is heavy,
hard, fine grained, and very durable. It has the following uses: Posts; ship-
building; piling; house construction. It is found principally in Palawan and
has the common names of dolo and teca.

DOGBANE OR DITA FAMILY.

(Apocynaceae.)

This family can usually be distinguished by the abundant milky sap
in the bark and the opposite or whorled leaves.

95

DITA.

This is a medium to large tree reaching a height of 25 to 35 meters and
a diameter of 80 to 100 centimeters. It has a fluted bole, weakly if at all
buttressed. It is found very scattered in the dipterocarp forests, espe-
cially in the regions where the dry season is pronounced. It frequently
occurs in the parang type as a small tree. It is intolerant of shade.

The bark is 8 to 10 millimeters thick, grayish to 'brownish yellow in
color and sometimes covered with fine corky pustules; the inner bark
is granular yellow in color, brittle, and exudes when cut an abundant
thin milky white latex which has the taste of quinine. The leaves are
smooth with glaucous bloom beneath, are usually arranged in whorls of
4 to 7, and vary in size from 5 to 20 centimeters long and 1.5 to 6.5 centi-
meters wide.

The wood is creamy white, light, soft, has a very bitter taste and
discolors easily. It is used for light construction work, furniture,
wooden soles for shoes, musical instruments, scabbards, and floats for
fish nets.

The following is the distribution: Luzon (Cagayan, Ilocos Norte,
Isabela, Abra, Bontoc, Union, Bataan, Rizal, Laguna, Tayabas, Cama-
rines, Sorsogon, Albay) ; Mindoro; Samar; Leyte; Zamboanga; Palawan;
Balabac Island. The scientific name is Alstonia scholaris. Besides
dita or ditaa, it has the following local names: Alipauin (N\ Luz.) ;
andarayan (N. Luz.) ; dilupaon or some form of it (1ST. Luz.) ; lanitan
(V.) ; oplai (Cag.) ; polai (Pang.); tanitan (V.)-

BATINO.

Batino is a medium-sized tree resembling dita in many respects, but
somewhat smaller. It usually occurs on dry hills and is tolerant of
shade. The bark is 6 to 8 millimeters thick, gray in color, with slightly
yellowish lines of corky pustules; the inner bark is yellowish brown in
color with a milky sap. The leaves are simple in whorls of 4 (some-
times 3), sparingly hairy below, and varying in size from 10 to 20
centimeters long and 3 to 7.5 centimeters wide.

The wood is creamy white, moderately heavy and moderately hard,
with a fine grain, has a bitter taste and disagreeable odor. It is used
for house building (posts, rafters, siding, etc.) ; ties.

The following is the recorded distribution: Luzon (Cagayan, Ilocos
Sur, Pangasinan, Baler, Rizal, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas, Camarines) ;
Mindoro; Guimaras Island; Lanao.

The scientific name is Alstonia macrophylla. Besides batino the fol-
lowing names are recorded: Itang-itang (Guim.) ; kalatuchi (Pang.);
Pangolakloen (N. Luz.) ; tangitan (V.) ; ughayan (V.).

96

THE LANETES.

A number of species with similar characteristics as regards bark, size,
and form of the tree, but with differences in character of the leaves,
flowers, and fruits have the general name of lanete.

LANETE.

This is a tree that will reach the height of 20 to 25 meters and a
diameter of 60 centimeters or more. It has usually a fluted and some-
times crooked bole and a rather open and irregular crown. It is found
very scattered in semiopen portions of the dipterocarp types.

The bark is 4 to 8 millimeters in thickness, light gray to yellowish
brown in color, and rather smooth; the inner bark is granular yellow
in color, and when cut exudes rather freely a milky sap. The leaves
are simple, opposite, with a more or less distinctly toothed margin, with
velvety hairs beneath and sometimes above, and vary in size from 7 to
12 centimeters long and 2.5 to 5.5 centimeters wide. The wood is a
pale cream color to that of old ivory, with no distinction between heart-
wood and sap wood. It varies in hardness from soft to moderately hard,
and is moderately heavy.

It is one of the favorite carving woods of the Philippines. Other
uses are as follows: Light construction purposes; furniture; soles of
wooden shoes; kitchen utensils; chairs; parts of musical instruments;
chests; turnery; window sills; scabbards.

The following is the recorded distribution of lanete: Luzon (Cagayan,
Abra, Ilocos Sur, Lepanto, Union, Benguet, Nueva Ecija, Pangasinan,
Zambales, Bataan, Eizal, Laguna) ; Mindoro ; Culion Island. The
scientific name is Wrightia laniti. Besides the Tagalog name of lanete
or laniti, the following are recorded: Anotong (Z.) balubat (N. Luz.) ;
lamisi or lamusi (II.) ; laniteng (Eiz.) ; lanoti (II.) ; tanghas (V.) ;
tigig (V.).

Wrightia calycina differs from the above species in having leaves with
few, if any, hairs, varying in size from 5 to 16.5 centimeters long and
1.5 to 6.5 centimeters wide. This tree in Mindanao attains a much
larger size than Wrightia laniti. No common name except lanete is
recorded for it. It seems to be confined to the regions where the dry
season is not pronounced, and is recorded from Tayabas, Masbate, Leyte,
Guimaras, Occidental Negros, Palawan, Zamboanga, Lanao.

ANONANG FAMILY.

( Borraginacese. )

No trees of this family are of any importance from the lumberman's stand-
point. Anonang {Cordia blancoi) deserves mention because it occupies a prom-
inent place in the second-growth type and often occurs as isolated trees in grass
patches, which position is due to the fact that it resists fairly well the effects of
fires.

Plate LXXXVII. — BUSAIN (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) .
a, Flower ; b, young seedling with remains of the fruit attached.

J.ViUn del.

Plate LXXXVIIL— CALUMPIT {Terminalia edulis).
a, Fruit.

Plate LXXXIX. — TALISAY-GUBAT (Terminalia oocarpa).
a. Fruit.

J.VxUn. atl

Plate XC. — BINGGAS (Terminalia comintana).
a, Flower cluster ; t>, fruit.

Plate XCII. — JTOOG (Terminalia quadrialata) .
Large tree on the left.

J.Vttan del.

Plate XCIII. — MANCONO ( Xanthostemon verdugonianus) .
a, Flower cluster ; b, fruit cluster.

Plate XCIV.— BETIS (Illipe betis).
a, Fruit cluster ; b, flower cluster with young leaves.

Plate XCV— BARK OF BETIS {Illipe betis).

Plate XCVI. — BARK AND LEAVES OF MALACMALAC (Palaquium philippense) .

Plate XCVII. — BARK AND LEAVES OF MANICNIC (Palaquium tenuipetiolatum) .

J.Vil-an <M

Plate XCVIII. — BOLONGBTA (Diospyros pilosanthera) .
a, Flower cluster; &, fruit cluster.

.J.Vltan del.

b °

Plate XCIX.— MOLAVE (Vitex parviflora).

a, Flower cluster ; b, flower ; c, fruit cluster.

Plate C. — BARK OF MOLAVE (Vitex parviflora). i I ' \

Plate CI. — SASALIT (Vitex aherniana).

JYiUo 4«L

Plate CII. — TEAK (Tectona grandis).
a, Flower cluster ; b, fruit.

J.Vikn M.

Plate CIII. — BANCAL. (Sarcocephalus cordatus).
a, Flower cluster.

9?

TEAK OR MOLAVE FAMILY.
(Verbenacese.)

This is a family that has opposite, simple or palmately compound
leaves.

molave. (Pis. XCIX and C.)

Molave is a tree that in exceptional cases will reach a height of 35 to
38 meters and a diameter up to 200 centimeters with a bole of 16 to 20
meters. Usually, however, it is below 30 meters high and may form in
severe conditions a scraggly tree with a bole 2 meters or less in length.
The bole is usually crooked, fluted, and buttressed. It has an open, wide-
spreading crown. It is found throughout the Islands, especially on the
low coastal hills, usually on limestone, but may occur on volcanic rocks.
It is intolerant of shade, and partially or wholly deciduous during the dry
season.

The bark is 8 to 10 millimeters in thickness, yellowish brown to gray
in color, velvety to the touch, sometimes shedding in small thin flakes,
otherwise smooth. The inner bark is light yellow, with darker yellow
rings when freshly cut, but rapidly turns brown on exposure. The leaves
are opposite, usually trifoliately compound; the leaflets are smooth, and
vary in size from 4 to 15 centimeters long and 2.5 to 7 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is creamy white ; the heartwood a pale yellow often turn-
ing to dull brown on expomree. It has a fine, usually crossed grain, with
short and brittle fibers, making it easy to work. It is hard and heavy.
It turns greenish yellow when treated with an alkali, and has a bitter
taste and a slight odor. It stains water a greenish yellow color.

Molave is one of the best high-grade construction timbers in the
Islands and is a good substitute for teak. It resists well the action of
fungi, teredo, and white ants. The following is an enumeration of its
uses : House construction (posts, doors, interior finish, flooring, joists,
siding, sills) ; shipbuilding (knees, cutwater, sternposts) ; wagon making
(axles, wheel rim, spokes); bridges; cabinetmaking ; carabao yokes;
cogwheels ; docks ; salt-water piles ; pillars ; plows ; rice mortars ; railroad
ties; sugar mills; paving blocks; furniture; balusters and other turned
work; hemp presses; sculpture; wooden tools; plane stocks; tool handles.

Practically all the provinces in the Philippines contain molave, though
in many it is no longer in commercial quantities. The scientific name
of molave is Vitex parviflora. The name molave is a corruption of the
Tagalog name mulawin. The following local names are also recorded:
Agubarao (V.) ; aguherao (V.) ; amurauon (B.) ; amugauan (II., V.,
B.) : bangongon (V.) ; bulaon (V., T., Pam.) ; bulauen (Pang.) ; bu-
lauisan (II.); bulaun (Z., Pam.) ; buyog tongon (Sur.) ; danigga (II.) ;
hamuraun (Y.) ; hamulaon (T., B.) ; hamurauon (B.) ; hamursan (B.) ;

103554 7 ;

98

kalibayan (V.) ; kalipapa (Moro) ; kulipapa (Moro) ; lanahan (B.) ;
maraun (V.) ; sagad (II.) ; salingkapa (Guim.) ; tugas (V.).

The hairy leaf molave ( Vitew pubescens ) produces a wood so similar to molave
that it is sold for it. It is recorded from the following regions: Mindoro;
Guimaras; Culion Island; Palawan. A number of woods in the Philippines
pass under the name of mulawin-aso and female molave as opposed to the hard
molave (mulawin-bato) or male molave. The names of male and female are, of
course, only a means of designating hard from soft molave. It is probable, as is
maintained by some, that the wood of some trees of the same species (V. par-
viflora) is softer than the others. Young trees often have much softer wood than
old trees and those growing in rich soils may be softer in texture. However,
there are a number of distinct species of this family that do have the general
name of mulawin-aso. One of the most important of these is kalipapa -aso or
mulawin-aso {Vitex pentaphylla) which is a medium-sized tree usually found
scattered in rich bottoms. This has a much softer wood than molave and has five
leaflets instead of three. Another is lingo-lingo or mulawin-aso (Vitex turc-
zaninowii) also with five leaflets. This tree is found scattered throughout
Luzon and adjacent islands. A third species is alagao or mulawin-aso (Premna
nauseosa) which has simple, opposite leaves, covered above and below with fine
velvety hairs.

SASALIT. (PL CI.)

This is a medium-sized tree which reaches a height of 25 to 28 meters
and a diameter of 75 centimeters, though usually it is considerably
smaller. The bole is buttressed, usually crooked and fluted. It is found
scattered in open places or as undergrowth in certain dipterocarp forests.
The bark is 8 to 10 millimeters in thickness, gray to brown in color,
slightly roughened by shallow saucer-like depressions; the inner bark is
brittle. The leaves are opposite and palmately 3 to 7 compound; the
leaflets are usually smooth, varying in size from 5.5 to 28 centimeters
long and 2.5 to 12.5 centimeters wide. The wood of sasalit is light
yellowish brown to dark yellowish brown. It is very heavy, very hard,
durable, and less brittle than molave. It has practically the same uses
as molave and is often sold for it.

Sasalit has been recorded from the following regions : Luzon (Cagayan,
Pangasinan, Principe, Zambales, Tayabas, Albay, Sorsogon) ; Ticao Is-
land; Samar; Negros; Zamboanga. It has the scientific name of Vitex
aherniana. The following local names are known: Dalipapa (Cag.) ;
dungula (Neg.) ; gualberto (II.) ; igang (Principe) ; kalipapa (Sam.,
AL).

Api-api (Avicermia officinalis) is a small tree common in the mangrove
swamps. It has opposite leaves, white beneath. The wood is hard, heavy, very
brittle and with a very peculiar structure.

TEAK. (PL Oil.)

Teak is not native to the Philippines. Small plantations of it occur
in the southern islands, especially in Zamboanga district, Basilan Island,
and Sulu. Here it has been planted long enough to reach sizes up

99

to 80 centimeters or more in diameter. It is intolerant of shade. The
bark is 8 to 20 millimeters thick, light brown to gray, with vertical lines,
giving it an indistinct ridged appearance, the outside being a soft papery
layer shedding in long thin flakes. The inner bark is light colored with
prominent brown pith rays,' on exposure it turns rapidly to a yellowish
brown. The leaves are simple, opposite, with a dense mat of velvety
hairs beneath, and vary in size from 19 to 33 centimeters long and 13.5
to 22 centimeters wide, though sprout leaves are much larger.

The sapwood is light colored; the heartwood is dark golden yellow,
turning brown and finally black with age. It is moderately heavy, moder-
ately hard, with a coarse and straight grain. It has a distinct aromatic
odor. Teak is the best known wood of the Tropics. It is used for ship-
building ; high-class construction of all kinds ; furniture ; carving.

Teak (teca, Sp.) has been collected in the Philippines in the following
regions: Rizal; Zamboanga; Basilan Island; Jolo Island. The scientific
name is Tectona grandis.

CATALPA OR BANAI-BANAI FAMILY.

( Bignoniacese. )

This family is of little importance to the lumberman. Three trees are common,
however, and need a brief mention in this place. Banai-banai (Radermachera
pinnata) is a small to medium sized tree with doubly compound leaves and
large showy flowers. It and other species of Radermachera are found scattered
usually in open places. Pinkapinkahan (Oroxylum indicum) is a small to
medium sized tree with large doubly compound leaves and long, flat, broad pods
containing winged seeds. It seems to be confined to the region where the dry
season is pronounced, and so far as observation goes is bare of leaves longer
than any other tree in the Philippines. The wood is soft, light in weight and
is used for matches. Tui {Dolichandrone spathacea) is a small tree usually
confined to the sandy beaches and along tidal rivers. It has a soft light-colored
wood used principally for making wooden shoe-soles.

COFFEE OR.BANCAL FAMILY.

(Rubiacese.)

This family contains a large number of undergrowth, small and
medium sized trees and a few that can be classified as large. The trees
have opposite leaves with interpetiolar stipules (small leaf-like ap-
pendages between the leaf stalks of the opposite leaves) by which the
trees can usually be readily distinguished from those of other families.

BANCAL. (PI. CIIL)

Bancal is a small to medium sized tree with a straight regular bole,
the length of which is about one-half the height of the tree. It is intol-
erant of shade, and is found usually along streams, in coastal plains,
and occurs as scattered trees in grass lands in the deforested areas of
the lauan-hagachac type. It owes its success here to the fact that it

100

resists well the effects of fires. The bark is 14 to 18 millimeters in
thickness, grayish yellow to ashy red in color, very rough and scaly and
has a bitter taste; the inner bark is yellow. The leaves vary in size
from 12 to 24 centimeters long and 6.5 to 18.5 centimeters wide.

The sapwood is light yellow; the heartwood darker yellow in color.
It is soft to moderately hard, moderately heavy, and has a decided waxy
feeling. It has the following uses : House construction (partitions, posts,
rafters, flooring, ceilings) ; small boats; furniture (chairs, desks) ; barrel
staves; tubs; paddles for beating clothes (palopalo), and kitchen and
other household implements ; firewood ; carving.

This or closely related species occur in nearly all provinces. The
scientific name is Sarcocephalus cordatus. Besides bancal, it has the
Ilocano name of bulala.

A number of other species much like bancal in many respects produce
bancal lumber. Of these, mambog or bancal (Sarcocephalus junghuhnii)
is confined to regions where the dry season is not pronounced. It differs
from bancal in having smaller leaves.

CALAMANSANAY.

This name seems to apply to a number of species of this and, perhaps,
other families that have a light rose-colored wood. (See pp. 79, 87.) The
lumber on the market in Manila, however, comes from several species. of
Nauclea found in many parts of the Islands. The following description
applies to a specially large species found in the Zamboanga district of
Mindanao.

It is a tree tbat reaches a height of 40 meters and a diameter of 70
centimeters. The bole is straight and regular with slight buttresses. It
is intolerant of shade and is very scattered. The bark is 8 to 10 milli-
meters in thickness, light gray to brown in color, with a surface broken
into more or less continuous lines of corky pustules. The middle bark
is brown; the inner bark is bright yellow when freshly cut, but on ex-
posure quickly turns to brown. The leaves are simple and opposite.

The sapwood is yellowish with a tinge of pink; the heartwood when
freshly cut is a brilliant red, but soon changes to the same color of the
sapwood. The wood is heavy and hard, close and straight grained.

Calamansanay has the following uses: House construction (flooring,
beams, posts, siding, window sills) ; masts for boats; furniture; telegraph
poles ; ties ; tool handles.

While the above applies to a particular species of Nauclea, yet the
character of the bark seems to be rather uniform for a number of species.
The following is a list of common names of calamansanay : Bankalauag
(V.); bayaho (II.); bisal (Pang); himbabalut (II.); kalamansauan
(T.) ; kalumagon (B.) ; kamansak (Z.) ; malatumbaga (Zam.) ; subo-
subo(Z.).

GENERAL INDEX.

[NOTE.-

-Official common names are in heavy-faced type; local names not official (i. e.,
synonyms), In Roman type.]

Page.

Acacia 43

Acle 35, 42

Acleng-parang 35, 40

Abbreviations

Abuhungan

Adaan

Adamui

Adiangao

African mahogany

Afu (Anisoptera sp.)

Afu (Dipterocarpus vernicifluus) ..

Agana

Agaru

Agguk

Agoho

Agoho family

Agoo

Agoso

Agubarao

Aguherao

Agupanga

Alagao

Alahan

Alakaak

Alalangad

Alam

Alamog

Alasin

Alato

Alauihau

Alcohol

Alibangbang

Aligamen

Alim

Alintatao

Alipauin

Almaciga

Almon (Shorea furfuracea)

Almon (Parashorea plicata)

Alupay

Alupag

Alupag family ..

Amaga

Ambogis

Anongo family

Ampopot

Ampupuyot

Amugauan

Amuguis

Amuravon

53
53
53
93
50
54
50
79
97
50
97

Page.

Anabion 28

Anagao 59

Anagap 43

Anahao 27

Anahauon (Dipterocarpus affinis) 70

Anahauon (Dipterocarpus grandi-

florus) 69

Anahuhan 43

Anam (Buchanania arborescens) 51

Anam (Diospyros pilosanthera) 94

Anang 94

Anapias 32

Andaman rosewood 36

Andarayan 95

Anibong 27

Aniga 77

Anilao family 55

Aninapla 41

Aningat (Parinarium griflithianum) .. 34

Aningat (Vatica mangachapoi) 77

Anis-kahoi 32

Anis-moscada 32

Anonang family 96

Anonas 31

Anotong 96

Antagan 36

Antipolo family 28

Antipolo 29

Anubing 28

Apalang 81

Apalit (Pterocarpus sp.) 36

Apalit (Pahudia rhomboidea) 39

Apalong 53

Api-api 83, 98

Apitong (Dipterocarpus affinis) 70

Apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus) 68

Apitong (Dipterocarpus vernicifluus) .. 70

Aplit 30

Apnit 62

Araka 68

Arangas, The 78

Aranga family 78

Arangan 79

Arbol de fuego (see also Fire tree).. 43

Aritongtong 84

Aroma 43

Aroo 27

Asana 36

Ata-ata (Diospyros mindanaensis) 94

Ata-ata (Diospyros pilosanthera) 94

Atia 31

101

102

Page.

Bacauan family 81

Bacauan 82, 83

Bacauan-gubat 82, 83

Bacauan-lalaki 82, 83

Baganaum 80

Bagiles 53

Bagiroro 43

Bagtican-lauan 61, 63, 64

Bagulibas (Buchanania arborescens) .. 51

Bagulibas (Garuga abilo) 44

Bahai 43

Bait 53

Bankahasi 50

Bakalao 53

Bakayao 90

Bakayo 34

Balabak (Pentacme contorta) 62

Balabak (Shorea squamata) 66

Balacat family 52

Balagayan 68

Balakbakan (Shorea polysperma) 67,68

Balakbakan (Shorea sp.) 67

Balambanan 54

Balanga 51

Ba.'.anti 48

Balao 69

Balayohot 51

Balayong (Cassia javanica) 43

Balayong (Pahudia rhomboidea) 39

Balayong (Wallaceodendron celebi-

cum) 42

Balete 30

Baligohot 51

Balinghasay 51

Balintua 32

Balinsil 85

Balobo 55

Balongkawit 45

Baltik 26

Balubad 52

Balubat 96

Balui 47

Balukanad 49

Banaba family 79

Banaba 80

Banai-banai family 99

Bancal family 99

Banasi 44

Bangai 28

Banati 44

Banato 49

Banalo 55

Banawi 49

Bangat 58

Bani (Pongamia mitis) 43

Bani (Vatica sp.) 77

Baniti (Illipe ramiflora) 92

Baniti (Palaquium philippense) 91

Bankalari 50

Bankalauag 100

Bankalauan 51

Banaalaguin 90

Bansangal 60

Bansilak 43

Bansog 26

Bantangali 54

Page.

Bantinon 45

Bantulinao (Diospyros discolor) 93

Bantulinao (Diospyros pilosanthera) .. 94

Bantulinao (Maba buxifolia) 93

Banuyo 35, 41

Barakbakan 75

Barasus 84

Barayong 39

Basakan 28

Baslayan 32

Batete 35, 36

Basuit 34

Baticulin family 32

Batino 95

Batitinan 79

Batitinan-babaye 86

Batuan 51

Bangongon 97

Bayabas 88

Bayaho 100

Bayok 58

Bayu 70

Bayukan (Parashorea plicata) 64

Bayukan (Pentacme contorta) 62

Bayuko 29

Bejuco 27

Bel-bel 26

Benguet pine 26

Beobayano 51

Betik (Hopea plagata) 73

Betik (Shorea guiso) 71

Betis family 89

Betis (Illipe betis) 89

Betis (Palaquium tenuipetiolatum) .... 92

Biao 49

Bias-bias 89

Bibit 77

Bidiangao 26

Bigaa 53

Bignai 48

Bignai lalaki 48

Bikag family 59

Billian 33

Biluang 79

Binayuyu 48

Bingao 34

Binggas (Lagerstroemia piriformis).. 80

Binggas (Parinarium griffithianum) .. 34

Binggas (Terminalia comintana) 86

Binayuyu 48

Binuang (Endospermum peltatum) .... 49

Binuang family 79

Binuang (Octomeles sumatrana) 79

Binukao 60

Binunga (Endospermum peltatum).... 49

Binunga family 48

Binunga (Macaranga tanarius) 48

Blot 46

Bird's eye calantas 45

Biroi 60

Bisal 100

Bitangol 60

Bitanhol (Calophyllum blancoi) 60

Bitanhol (Palaquium luzoniense) 91

Bitaog 60

Bitaoi 60

103

Page.

Black yacal 73

Bladder nut family 54

Blanco's narra 36

Bogo 44

Bok-bok 46

Bolik 53

Bolongeta (Diospyros mindanaensis) .. 94

Bolongeta {Diospyros pilosanthera) .. 93

Bongling 89

Boo-boo 26

Borneo mahogany 60

Borom 51

Botong 81

Boxwood, substitute for 44, 88

Brea 44

Brea blanca.- 44

Bread fruit 29

Buanubai 53

Buckthorn family 52

Bugaron 80

Bugis 62

Bulala (Euphoria cinerea) 53

Bulala (Sarcocephalus cordatus) 100

Bulauisan 97

Bulauen 97

Bulaun 97

Bulaon 97

Bultiok 28

Bunog 60

Busain 82, 83

Butarik 40

Butong-manuk 48

Buyog-tongon 97

Cabiqui 91

Cacao family 55

Cajel 44

Calamansanay (Flacourtia inermis).. 79

Calamansanay (Nauclea sp.) 100

Calamansanay (Terminalia calaman-

sanai) 87

Calantas family 44

Calantas 45

Calocatmon 59

Calumpit (Terminalia edulis) 83

Calumpit (Terminalia nitens) 85

Calumpit (Terminalia oocarpa) 85

Calunti (see also Kalunti-lauan) 64

Camagon (Diospyros discolor) 94

Camagon (Diospyros pilosanthera).... 94

Camanchtle 43

Camphor wood 33

Camuning family 44

Canary family 44

Candle-nut oil 49

Cafia-flstula 43

Castilloa 30

Cashew nut 52

Catalpa family 99

Catmon-carabao 58

Catmon family 58

Ceara rubber 49

Champaca family 31

Chico 17

Cigar boxes, Calantas 45

Cigar boxes, Balinghasay 51

Cinnamon family 32

Page.

Cinnamon 33

Ciruelas .-. 52

Coffee family 99

Cotton-tree family 55

Cubi (Artocarpus cumingiana) 29

Cubi (Beilschmiedia cairocan) 33

Custard apple 31

Cupang 35, 39

Curly calantas 45

Dadiangao 26

Dagaa 53

Dagang 78

Dagindigan 53

Dagum 78

Daitanag 36

Dalandan 44

Dalinas 31

Dalingdingan (Hopea acuminata) 75

Dalingdingan (Hopea pierrei) 76

Dalingdingan-isak 76

Dalinsi (Terminalia nitens) 85

Dalinsi (Terminalia oocarpa) 85

Dalinsi (Terminalia pellucida) 84

Dalipapa 98

Daluru 81

Damalalian 69

Dambuhala 94

Damilang 68

Dammar 25

Danga 45

Dangi 77

Danggai 37

Dangilo 50

Danigga (Toona calantas) 45

Danigga (Vitex parviflora) 97

Danioura 80

Dankalan 60

Danlig (Parashorea plicata) 64

Danlig (Shorea furfuracea) 63

Danlig (Shorea malaanonan) 64

Danlig (Shorea squamata) 66

Danlik 53

Danlog 62

Danupra 45

Dao 51

Dap-dap 43

Darayao 34

Dauer 42

Dayap 44

Digaa 53

Dilaan 51

Dila-dila 49

Dilak 48

Dili 34

Dilupaon 95

Dinglas (Lagerstroemia piriformis).. 80

Dinglas (Terminalia comintana) 86

Dipterocarp family 60

Diraan (Pentacme contorta) 62

Diraan (Quercus sp.) 28

Diraan (Zixyphus zonulatus) 53

Dita family 94

Dita 95

Dogbane family 94

Dogwood family 89

Doldol 58

104

Pplo

Dugkatan

Duguan family

Duhat ,

Duka

Duko

Dulauan

Dulitan

Dumadara

Dungon (Pterocarpus sp.)

Dungon family

Dungon (Tarrietia sylvatica) .
Dungon-dungonan

Page.
94
33
31
88
37
69
43
91
'12
36
55
55
34

Dungon-late 56, 83

Dungula 98

Duplak 53

Durugo 32

Durog 77

Duyog-duyog (Illipe betis) 90

Duyog-duyog (Mimusops sp.) 91

Duyong 78

Ebano (Maba buxifolia) 92

Pbano (Diospyros pilosanthera) 94

Ebony family 92

Ebony 92

Elemi 44

Elm family 28

Eucalypt family 87

Eucalyptus 88

Fanginhan 58

Fig family 28

Fire tree 43

Gagil 50

Gala-gala 26

Ualangan 94

Galarigal 93

Ganga 51

Gatasan (Mimusops sp.) 91

Gatasan (Palaquium luzoniense) 91

Gayumayen 84

Ginseng family „ 89

Gisit 84

Gogong-toko 41

Grape fruit 44

Gualberto 98

Guanabano 31

Guava 88

Gubas 49

Guijo 68, 70

Guiso 71

Guisoc (Hopea plagata) 73

Guisoc (Shorea balangeran) 73

Guisoc (Shorea guiso) 71

Guisoc-amarillo 73

Guisoc Colorado 73

Guisoc-guisoc (Hopea philippinensis) 75

Guisoc-guisoc (Shorea balangeran) .. 73

Guntapai 89

Guttapercha family 89

Gutta-percha 92

Guyung-guyung 60

Bagachac (Dipterocarpus afflnis) 70

Hagachac (Dipterocarpus grandi-

• florus) 68, 69

Hagimit 30

Haklt 84

Page.

Halupag 53

Hamindang 48, 49

Hamulaon 97

Hamuraon 97

Hamurauon 97

Hamursan 97

Hanagdon 28

Hapnit (Parashorea plicata) 64

Hapnit (Pentacme contorta) 62

Hatblocks (see also Santol) 46

Himbabau 30

Himbabalut 100

Himlalaong 53

Hinabusi 86

Hindang-atian 32

Hinlaumo 48

Huligano 58

Hupong-hupong 51

Ibu 54

Igang 98

Ilang-ilang family 31

Inyam 48

India rubber tree 30

Ipil 35, 38

Ipil-ipil 43

Iron wood 33

Itang-itang 95

Ituman 93

Jack fruit 29

Kabakabat 54

Kabiki 91

Kabuyao 44

Kakawati 43

Kakgangan 34

Kalai 41

Kalamansanan 100

Kalamansi 44

Kalangtapai 93

Kalantad 45

Kalatuchi 95

Kalautit (Terminalia edulis) 84

Kalautit (Terminalia nitens) 85

Kalautit (Terminalia docarpa) 85

Kalautit (Terminalia pellucida) 84

Kalibayan 98

Kalingag 33

Kalios 30

Kalipapa (Vitex aherniana) 98

Kalipapa (Vitex parviflora) 98

Kalipapa-aso 98

Kaliwas 60

Kaloyanan (Diospyros discolor) 93

Kaloyanan (Maba buxifolia) 93

Kalubkob 88

Kalulit 29

Kalumagon 100

Kalumanog 84

Kalumpang 58

Kalunti-lauan 61, 64

Kamagahai 79

Kamangsi 29

Kamansak 100

Kamarak 51

Kamatog 43

Kamayuan 30

Kamullng 55

105

Page.

Kamuyao (Dipterocarpus affinis) 70

Kamuyao (Dipterocarpus grandi-

florus) 69

Kamuyao (Dipterocarpus vernicif-

luu8) 70

Kaming 51

Kamingi 44

Kandongisal 53

Kanilan 80

Kankangan 34

Kanteng 51

Kantingen 45

Kansuyod 47

Karamutan 27

Kaping-gubat 48

Kapok 55

Karial 41

Karig 76

Karogkog 50

Karunyan 54

Kasai 43

Kasoi 52

Katabang 28

Katapang 71

Katurai 43

Kayutana 44

Key to principal timber trees 18

Key to Principal Trees of Mangrove

Swamps 83

Kia-kia 54

Kita-kita 43

Kalapak 68

Kogik 54

Kotilik 28

Kulatingan 34

Kuling-manuk 48

Kulipapa 98

Kulis family 88

Kuyus-kuyus 30

Labang 77

Labing 37

Lago „.. 35

Lako-lako 50

Lamigien 90

Lamio (Dracontomelum dao) 51

Lamio (Dracontomelum cumingia-

num) 52

Lamisi 96

Lamog 81

Lamusi 96

Lanahan 98

Lanete 96

Langarai 82, 83

Lanigda 45

Langip 43

Lanipao 86

Lanitan 95

Laniteng 96

Lanot 32

Lanoti 96

Lansones 48

Lanutan (Anonaceae) 31

Lanutan (Bombycidendron vidali-

enum) 55

Lasila (Lagerstroemia piriformis).... 80

Lasila (Terminalia comintana) 86

Lasilasan 53

Page.

Latuan 31

Laua-an (Pentacme contorta) 62

Lauan family 60

Lauan group 61

Lauan (Parashorea plicata) 64

Lauan (Shorea furfuracea) 63, 64

Lauan (Shorea malaanonan) 64

Lauan (Shorea squamata) * 66

Lauan bianco (Pentacme contorta) .... 62

Lauan puti (Parashorea plicata) 64

Lauan puti (Pentacme contorta) 62

Lauan puti (Shorea malaanonan).... 64

Lauan, Red 66

Lemon family 44

Letis 78

Libas 52

Libtuk 58

Ligaa 53

Ligas (Buchananie arborescens) 51

Ligas (Semecarpus perrottetii) 52

Ligayan 91

Linan 80

Lignum vitae, substitute for 88

Linden family 55

Lime 44

Lingabunu 51

Lingo-lingo 98

Liput 70

Litan 71

Litao 26

Liusin family 34

Liusin-gubat 35

Locust family 35

Lubanayong 47

Lukban 44

Lumbang 49

Lumbayao 57

Lumangud 53

Lumanog 86

Lumboi 88

Lupigi 42

Luyong 93

Mabolo 93

Macaasim family 87

Madalo 54

Madre-cacao 43

Magalapalali 59

Magalayao (Pahudia rhomboidea) .... 39

Magalayao (Pterocarpus sp.) 3e

Magalibas 50

Magalipak 58

Magatli 59

Magayao 57

Magbalago 37

Magkono 88

Magnolia family 31

Maglalopoi 86

Maglanka 53

Magsantol 46

Magtalisay (Terminalia edulis) 84

Magtalisay (Terminalia nitens) 85

Mahogany 44

Mahogany family 44

Mahogany, Borneo 60

Makabalo 80

Makabingao 28

Makao 26

106

Page.

Makitarim (Hopea philippinensis) .... 75

Makitarim (Hopea pierrei) 76

Makopa (Aglaia clarkii) 47

Makopa (Eugenia javanica) 88

Malaanonang (Parashorea plicata) .. 64

Malaanonang (Pentacme contorta) .... 62
Malaanonang-lauan (Shorea mala-

anonan) 61, 64

Malabalunu 51

Malabayabas 88

Malabignai 48

Malabobonao 46

Malabohok 27

Malabulak family 55

Malacacao 66

Malacadios 33

Malacalumpit 87

Malacatmon 58

Malacmalac 91

Malafuga 34

Malagabi 85

Malagibuyo 28

Malaikmo 28

Malaiyao 51

Malakayan (Pentacme contorta) 62

Malakayan (Shorea furfuracea) 63

Malakayan (Shorea squamata) 66

Malaligas 51

Malamabolo 32

Malambingan 30

Malapaho (Anisoptera curtteii) 78

Malapaho (Dipterocarpus grandi-

florus) 69

Malapaho (Dipterocarpus vernici-

fluus) 70

Malapaho (Sindora supa) 37

Malapapaya family 89

Malaputat 85

Malaresa 53

Malaruhat 87

Malarungon 56

Malasaging 48

Malasantol 46

Malasapsap (Polyscias nodosa) 89

Malasapsap (Pterocymbium tincto-

riutn) 58

Malasinoro 66

Malasulasi 88

Malatagum 86

Malatalang (Diospyros pilosan-

thera) 94

Malatalang (Maba buxifolia) 93

Malatapai family 89

Malatoko 41

Malatumbaga (Aglaia harmsiana) .... 48

Malatumbaga (Nauclea sp.) 100

Malaya 33

Malayacal 74

Malubago family 55

Malugay 54

Maluktuk 34

Mallow family 55

Mamalis family 34

Mamakao 51

Mamaog 68

Mambog 100

Page.

Manaong 84

Manapo 37

Manaring 28

Mancono 88

Manga 52

Mangachapuy (Hopea acuminata).... 75

Mangachapuy (Hopea pierrei) 76

Mangachapuy (Shorea sp.) 67

Mangachapuy (Vatica mangachapoi) .. 77

Mangasinoro (Parashorea plicata) .... 64

Mangasinoro (Pentacme contorta) .... 62

Mangasinoro (Shorea furfuracea) 63

Nangasinoro-lauan 61, 65

Mango 52

Mango family 49

Mangosteen 60

Mangosteen family 59

Mangrove family 81

Mangrove swamps, key to the prin-
cipal trees of the 83

Manila elemi 44

Manilig 90

Manicnic 92

Mano-mano ~ 89

Mansanab 54

Mantalingan 34

Mantalinga 80

Marang 32

Maratika 41

Maraun 98

Marsantog 50

Mata-mata 34

Marutong 53

Mayapis (Anisoptera thurifera) 78

Mayapis (Parashorea plicata) 64

Mayapis (Shorea furfuracea) 63

Mayapis (Shorea ploysperma) 67,68

Mayapis (Shorea squamata) 66

Mayapis-lauan (Shorea squamata).... 61,65

Mayusip 92

Merbou 39

Merrill's ipil 37

Mesquite, Philippine 43

Mia© 48

Mirabow 39

Mitla 80

Molave family 97

Molina 42

Moling 53

Monkey pod 43

Montol 81

Mulawin 97

Mulawin-aso (Premna nauseosa) 98

Mulawin-aso (Vitex pentaphylla) 98

Mulawin-aso (Vitex turczaninowii) .. 98

Mulawin-batu 98

Naga 36

Naghubo 86

Nala 36

Nangka 29

Narra 35

Narra family 35

Narig 76

Nato 91

Nato puti 92

Nato, white 92

107

Page.

Naya '. 36

Nerik 29

Nigi 47

Niket ~ 71

Nipa 27

Niquet 71

Nutmeg family 31

Oak family 28

Obar suluk 68

Odiao 36

Oghayan 66

Olayan 28

Olayan 34

Ol-ol 26

Oplai 95

Orange 44

Oranges 51

Padouk 36

Pagatpat 81, 83

Pagatpat family 81

Pagsahingin (Canarium villosum) .... 44
Pagsahingin (Dipterocarpus grandi-

florus) 69

Pagsahingin (Dipterocarpus vernici-

fluus) 70

Pahutan 52

Paihapi 78

Pakak 29

Palaien 28

Palali 59

Palang 86

Palanpino 26

Palatangan 41

Paleng 51

Palina 37

Palma brava 27

Palmegapoy 56

Palm family 27

Palo de hierro 88

Palogapig 56

Palok-palok 91

Palo-Maria del monte 60

Palo Maria (Kingiodendron alterni-

folium) 37

Palo Maria family 59

Palonapin 56

Palonapoi 28

Palonapoy 56

Palong 32

Palosanto 50

Palosapis 77

Palosapis group 77

Pamalalian 59

Pamalalian (Dipterocarpus grandi-

florus) 69

Pamantuling - 69

Pamarauagon 80

Pamayawasen (Shorea malaanonan) .. 64

Pamitaogan 60

Pamitlaten 60

Pamito 53

Panao (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus) .. 68, 69

Panao (Dipterocarpus vernicifluus) .. 69

Panganamaen ~ 29

Pangnan . — 28

Page.

Pango 92

Pangolaklain 95

Pao 32

Papolongan 73

Pappagan 91

Para rubber 49

Parasabuking 80

Parina 37

Parna 26

Pasak (Illipe betis) 90

Pasak (Parinarium griffithianum) .... 34

Pata 68

Patangis 31

Patsaragon 91

Pawpaw family 31

Pedada 81

Persimmon family 92

Philippine mahogany (see also Ca-

lantas) 45

Philippine mahogany (see also Lum-

bayao) 57

Philippine mahogany (Pterocarpus

spp.) 36

Philippine mahogany (see also Red

lauan) 67

Philippine mesquite 43

Philippine teak 80

Physic-nut 49

Piagao 47, 83

Pianga 90

Pili family 44, 60

Pili nut 44

Pili resin 44

Pine family 25

Pinkapinkahan 99

Pintok 39

Pipi 41

Pisak 76

Pisek 91 '

Polai 95

Pototan 82, 83

Pototan lalaki 82, 83

Pototans, The 82, 83

Porak 45

Portia tree 55

Prickly Narra 36*

Principal trees of the mangrove

swamp, key to the 83

Puso-puso (Buchanania arborescens) 51

Puso-puso (Neolitsea vidalii) 33

Putat family 81

Pyingadu 43

Quia-quia 54

Quita-quita 43

Kaintree 43

Rattans 27

Red Almon (Shorea sp.) 67

Red lauan (Shorea sp.) 61,66

Red Lauan (Shorea squamata) 66

Rima 29

Rose family 34

Rosewood, Andaman 36

Rosewood, Seychelles Islands 55

Rubber 30

Rubber family 48

108

Page.
Rubber (see also Hevea brasiliensis

and Manihot glaziovii) 49

Sacat (Terminalia nitens) 85

Sacat (Terminalia oocarpa) 85

Sabong-kaag 34

Sagad 98

Sagasa 88

Sagat 36

Sagged 45

Saging-kahoi 32

Salalangin 37

Saldana 47

Saleng 26

Saleng family 25

Salingkapa 98

Salinkugi 35, 41

Salit 26

Sambulauan 50

Sampalok 43

Sampinit 34

Sandana 45

Sandana 62

Sangai 37

Sangki - 36

Santa elena 43

Santol (Sandoricum indicum) 46

Santol (Sandoricum vidalii) 46

Saplungau 86

Sapolongan 73

Sappan 43

Sarai 71

Sarangan 34

Sasalit 98

Satinwood 44

Seychelles Islands rosewood 55

Sibucao 43

Sidao 54

Siggai ?3

Siongsiongan 7?

Soapberry family 53

Soursop 31

Spanish cedar (see also West Indian

cedar) 45

Strychnine family 94

Subo-subo (Nauclea sp.) 100

Subosubo (Terminalia nitens) 85

Subo-subo (Terminalia pellucida) .... 84

Sudyang 88

Suha 44

Sumac family 49

Supa 35, 37

Susumbik 55

Sweetsop 31

Tabak 66

Tabalangi 43

Tabao 83, 87

Tabangao 80

Tabigi 47, 83

Tabun-tabun 34

Tadian-manuk 34

Tagatoi 91

Tagga 36

Taggai 73

Takaran 91

Takugan . 54

Takung 58

Pagt.

Talabangon 37

Talang - 93

Talang-talang 32

Talanpino 26

Talihagan 32

Talimorung 48

Talipopo (Illipe betis) 90

Talipopo (Mimusops sp.) 91

Talisay 85

Talisay del monte 85

Talisay family 83

Talisay-gubat 84

Taloktok 58

Taluto 57

Tamarind 43

Tamayuan family 30

Tambalao 32

Tambulian 33

Tampoi 88

Tanag 58

Tanaganan 80

Tangal 82, 83

Tangantang 51

Tanghas ^„ 96

Tangisang-bayawak 30

Tangitan 95

Tanglangao 37

Tanglin 43

Tanguile (Illipe ramiflora) 92

Tanguile (Shorea polysperma) 61,67

Tanguile (Shorea squamata) 66

Tanguile (Shorea sp.) 67

Tanguitin 93

Tanigi 48

Tanitan 95

Taoto 58

Tapilak 94

Tapulao 26

Tapurao 77

Tara-tara 45

Tawalis 88

Tawigi 47

Tayataya 84

Tayogong 91

Tea family 59

Teak family 97

Teak 98

Teak, Philippine 80

Teca (Fagraea fragrans) 94

Teca (Tectona grandis) 99

Teluto 5S

Thatching material 27

Tiaong-lauan 61, 68

Tiga (Parinarium grifflthianum) 34

Tiga (Tristania decorticata) 88

Tigawi 54

Tigian 41

Tigig 96

Tiklik 28

Tinaan 80

Tinaan-pantai 49

Tindalo 35, 39

Tipolo 29

Tiroron 86

Titao 26

Toog (Bischofla javanica) 49

109

Page.

Toog (Terminalia quadrialata) 86

Toon 44

Tuai 49

Tualing 43

Tucang-calao 46

Tuba 49

Tugas (Vitex parviflora) 98

Tugas (Xanthostemon verdugonia-

nus) 88

Tugoran 54

Tui 99

Tukud-Iangit 89

Uakatan 91

TJas 54

Ubanan 66

Ubien 29

Ughayan 95

Ugob 29

Ulayan 53

Ulian 28

Urian 36

Urien 90

Page.

Uris 39

Urisan 50

TTrung family 94

Usao 53

West Indian cedar 44, 45

White Baticulin 32

White lauan (Pentacme contorta) 61, 63

White Lauan (Shorea furfuracea) .... 63

White Nato 92

Yacal (Hopea plagata). — 72

Yacal, black (see also Black yacal).. 73

Yacal-blanco 77

Yacal dilao (Sindora supa) 37

Yacal group 71

Yacal (Shorea oalangeran) 73

Yacal (Vatica sp.) 77

Yaraban (Shorea balangeran?) 73

Yamban (Shorea guiso) 71

Yellow Baticulin 32

Yew family 26

Zarumayen 60

Zitan 71

INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES.

Page.

Acacia farnesiana 43

Adenanthera intermedia 43

Adinandra luzonica 59

Aglaia clarkii 47

Aglaia harmsiana 48

Aglaia spp 48

Agathis alba 26

Alangium longiflorum 89

Albizzia acle 43

Albizzia procera 41

Albizzia retusa 43

Albizzia saponaria 41

Aleurites moluccana ...„ 49

Aleurites trisperma * 49

Allaeanthus glaber 30

Alstonia macrophylla 95

Alstonia scholaris 95

Amoora spp 48

Anacardiacess 49

Anacardium occidentale 52

Anisoptera curtisii 78

Anisoptera thurifera 78

Anisoptera sp 77, 78

Anona muricata 31

Anona reticulata 31

Anona squamosa 31

Anonacese 31

Antidesma bunius 48, 49

Antidesma edule 48

Antidesma ghaesembilla 48

Apocynaceae 94

Aporosa sphaeridophora 48

Aporosa symplocosifolia 48

Araliacese 89

Artocarpus cumingiana 29

Artocarpus communis 29

Artocarpus integrifolia 29

Artocarpus spp 29

Arytera littoralis 54

Avicennia officinalis 98

Baccaurea tetrandra 48

Barringtonia racemosa 81

Barringtonia speciosa 81

Bauhinia malabarlca 43

Beilschmiedia cairocan 33

Bignoniace® 99

Bischofia javanica 48, 49, 87

Bombacaceae 55

Bombax malabaricum 55

Bombycidendron vldalianum 55

BorraginacesB 96

Bruguiera caryophylloides 82

Brugulera eriopetala 82

Page.

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 82

Bruguiera parviflora 82

Buchanania arborescens 51

Burseraceae 44, 60

Caesalpina sappan 43

Calamus spp 27

Calophyllum blancoi 60

Calophyllum inophyllum 60

Canangium odoratum 31

Canarium cumingii 44

Canarium luzonicum 44

Carallia integerrima 82

Cassia fistula 43

Cassia javanica 43

Cassia siamea 43

Castilloa elastica 30

Casuarinaceae 27

Casuarina equisetifolia 27

Casuarina spp 28

Cedrela odorata -\ 44

Ceiba pentandra 55

Celtis philippensis 28

Ceriops tagal 82

Chisochiton spp 48

Chloroxylon swietenia 44

Cinnamomum camphora 33

Cinnamomum mercadoi 33

Cinnamomum mindanaense 33

Citrus hystrix 44

Citrus spp 44

Columbia serratifolia 55

Combretacese 83

Cordia blancoi 96

Cornacese 89

Cratoxylon celebicum 60

Cratoxylon spp .' 60

Cryptocarya bicolor 33

Cyathocalyx globosus 31

Cyclostemon bordenii 49

Cyclostemon grandifolius 49

Cyclostemon microphyllum 48

Dacrydium spp 26

Datiscaceae 79

Decaspermum blancoi 88

Decaspermum paniculatum 87, 88

Dehaasia triandra 32

Dehaasia spp 32

Delonix regia 43

Dilleniace® 58

Dillenia luzoniensis 59

Dillenia philippinensis 58

Dillenia speciosa 58

Dillenia spp 58

111

112

Page.

Diospyros discolor 93

Diospyros mlndanaensis 94

Diospyros pilosanthera 94

Diospyros spp 92

Diplodiscus paniculatus 55

Dipterocarpaceae 60

Dipterocarpus afflnis 70

Dipterocarpus grandiflorus 69

Dipterocarpus hasseltii 70

Dipterocarpus speciosus 70

Dipterocarpus vernicifluus 70

Dolichandrone spathacea 99

Dracontomelum cumingianum 52

Dracontomelum dao 51

Dysoxylum spp 48

Ebenaceae 92

Endospermum peltatum 49

Enterolobium saman 43

Eucalyptus naudiniana 88

Eugenia benthamii 87

Eugenia bordenii 87

Eugenia calubcob 88

Eugenia jambolana 88

Eugenia jambos 88

Eugenia javanica 88

Eugenia mimica 87

Eugenia philippensis 87

Eugenia vidaliana 87

Eugenia spp 88

Euphorbiaceae 48, 49

Euphoria cinerea 53

Eurya spp 59

Eusideroxylon zwageri 33

Erythrina indica 43

Erythrophloeum densiflorum 43

Fagaceae 28

Fagara sp 44

Fagraea fragrans 94

Ficus elastica 30

Ficus minahassae 30

Ficus variegata 30

Ficus spp 30

Flacourtiaceae 78

Flacourtia inermis 79

Garcinia benthami 60

Garcinia binucao 60

Garcinia mangostana 60

Garuga abilo 44

Gliricidia sepium 43

Gordonia luzonica 59

Grewia stylocarpa 55

Grewia spp 55

Guioa perrottetii 54

Guttiferae 59

Harpullia arborea 54

Heritiera littoralis 57

Hevea brasiliensis 48, 49

Hibiscus tiliaceus 55

Homalanthus populneus 48

Homalanthus spp 48

Homalium barandae 79

Homalium bracteatum 79

Homalium luzoniense 78

Homalium panayanum 79

Homalium villarianum 79

Homalium spp 78

Page.

Hopea acuminata 75

Hopea philippinensis 75

Hopea pierrei 76

Hopea plagata 73

Hopea sp 74 j 75

Illipe betis 90

Illipe ramiflora 92

Intsia acuminata 38

Intsia bijuga 38

Jatropha curcas 49

Kayea paniculata 60

Khaya senegalensis 44

Kingiodendron alternifolium 37

Kleinhofia hospita 58

Knema heterophylla 32

Koordersiodendron pinnatum 50

Lagerstroemia piriformis 80

Lagerstroemia speciosa 80

Lansium domesticum 48

Lauraceae 32

Lecythidaceae 81

Leguminosae 35

Leptospermum flavescens 88

Leucaena glauca 43

Litchi philippinensis 54

Litsea perrottetii 32

Litsea spp 32, 33

Livistona spp 27

Loganiaceae 94

Lumnitzera littorea 87

Lumnitzera racemosa 87

Lythraceae 79

Maba buxifolia 93

Macaranga bicolor 48

Macaranga tanarius 48

Magnoliaceas 31

Mallotus moluccanus 48

Mallotus philippensis 49

Mallotus ricinoides 48

Mangifera altissima 52

Mangifera indica 52

Manihot glaziovii 48, 49

Malvaceae 55

Melastomataceae 88

Meliaceae 44

Memecylon edule 88

Michelia champaca 31

Mimusops sp 91

Moraceae 28

Murraya exotica 44

Myristicaceae 31

Myristica philippensis 31, 32

Myrtaceae 87

Nauclea spp 100

Neolitsea vidalii 33

Neolitsea spp 32

Nipa fruticans 27

Octomeles sumatrana 79

Olacaceae 30

Oncosperma spp 27

Ormosia calavensis 43

Oroxylum indicum 99

Osbornia octodonta 88

Pahudia rhomboidea 39

Palaquium luzoniense 91

Palaquium philippense 91

113

Page.

Palaquium tenuipetiolatum 92

Palaquium spp 92

Palmae 27

Parashorea plicata 64

Farinarium grifflthianum 34

Parkia timoriana 40

Peltophorum inerme 43

Pentacme contorta 62

Phoebe sterculioides 33

Phoebe spp 32

Pinaceae 25

Pinus insularis 26

Pinus merkusii 26

Pithecolobium dulce 43

Pithecolobium scutiferum 43

Pittosporaces9 34

Pittosporum pentanarum 34

Planchonia spectabilis 81

Podocarpus spp 26

Polyscias nodosa "- 89

Pometia pinnata 54

Pongamia mitis 43

Premna nauseosa 98

Prosopis vidaliana 43

Psidium guajava 88

Pterocarpus blancoi 36

Pterocarpus echinatus 36

Pterocarpus indicus 36

Pterocymbium tinctorium 58

Pterospermum spp 58

Pygeum preslii 35

Pygeum spp 35

Radermachera pinnata 99

Radermachera spp 99

Rhamnacese 52

RhizophoraceaB 81

Rhizophora conjugata 82

Rhizophora mucronata 82

RosacesB 34

RubiaceaB "

Rutaceae 44

Sandoricum indicum 46

Sandoricum vidalii 46

Santiria nitida 44

Sapindacese 53

Sapotaceae 89

Sarcocephalus cordatus 100

Sarcocephalus junghuhnii 100

Semecarpus perrottetii 52

Sesbania grandiflora 43

Shorea balangeran 73

Shorea furfuracea 63

Shorea guiso 71

Shorea malaanonan 64

Shorea polysperma 68

Shorea squamata 66

Shorea sp 65, 67, 68, 74

Sideroxylon spp 92

Sindora supa 38

103554 8

Page.

Sonneratiacese 81

Sonneratia pagatpat 81

Sonneratia sp 81

Spondias lutea 52

Spondias pinnata 52

Staphyleacess 54

SterculiaceaB 55

Sterculia blancoi 58

Sterculia foetida 58

Streblus asper ..... 30

Strombosia philippinensis 30

Swietenia mahagoni 44

Talauma villariana 31

Tamarindus indica 43

Tarrietia javanica 57

Tarrietia sylvatica 56

Taxaceae 26

Taxotrophis ilicifolia 30

Taxus spp 26

Tectona grandis 99

Terminalia calamansanai 87

Terminalia catappa 86

Terminalia comintana 80, 86

Terminalia edulis 84

Terminalia nitens 85

Terminalia oocarpa — -. 85

Terminalia pellucida 84

Terminalia quadrialata 87

Terminalia spp 83

Ternstroemia toquian 59

Theaceae 59

Thea montana 59

Thespesia populnea 55

Tiliaceae 55

Toona calantas 45

Toona spp 44

Trema amboinensis 28

Tristania decorticata 88

Turpinia pomifera 54

Ulmaceae 28

Vatica mangachapoi 76, 77

Vatica sp. 1 76

Vatica spp 60, 65

Verbenaceae ~ 97

Vitex aherniana 98

Vitex parviflora 97, 98

Vitex pentaphylla 98

Vitex pubescens 98

Vitex turczaninowii 98

Wallaceodendron celebicum 42

Wrightia calycina 96

Wrightia laniti 96

Xanthostemon verdugonianus 88

Xylia dolabriformis 43

Xylocarpus obovatus 47

Xylocarpus granatum - 48

Xylocarpus sp 48

Zizyphus trinervia ~ - 53

Zizyphus zonulatus 52

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