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ADDRESSES DELIVERED

AT THE CONVENTION OF THE

NATIONAL SHELLFISHERIES ASSOCIATION

Old Point Comfort, Virginia

June 7-8-9, 1949,

2K 2 aK RK OK

Druveecon Lythoosanort,
President

James B, Engle,
Secretary

Dr, J,Nelson Gowanloch,
Vice President,

David H, Wallace,
Treasurer,

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1949 Addresses

Titie Page
What Can Science Offer the Oyster Grower, 1

Dr, Thurlow C, Nelson

Varying Characteristics of Oyster Bottoms, 10
Allan A, Sollers

Variations in Intensity of Setting of Oysters
in Long Island Sound, 14
Dr, Victor L, Loosanoff

Plans and Progress of Oyster Investigations
in Florida 25
Robert M, ingle

Intensity and Distribution of Oyster Set in 28
Chesapeake Bay and Tributaries,
Fred W, Sieling

On the Culture of Oyster Larvae in the a5
Laboratory,
Harry C, Davis

The Oyster Industry of North Carolina and
Some of Its Problems, 39
Dr, A, F, Chestnut

Growth Observations of Oysters Held on Trays
at Solomons Island, Md, 43
G. Francis Beaven

Fish and Wildlife Service Clam Investigations, 50
John B, Glud

The Spawning of Quahaugs in Winter and Culture
of Their Larvae in the Laboratory, — : 58
Dr. Victor L, Loosanoff and Harry C, Davis,

Growth Studies in the Quahaugs, Venus mercenaria 67
Dr, Harold H, Haskin

Practical Problems of the Propagation of the
Soft Shell Clam, Mya arenaria,
Harry J, Turner, Jr, 76

A Study of Duck Farm Pollution of a Shellfish
Area j
Dr, M, H, Bidwell and C, B, Kelly.

Preliminary Observations on the Predation of
Commercial Shellfish by Conchs,
Dr, Melbourne R. Carriker 86

Toxic Effects of Oil Mixed with Carbonized Sand 93
on Aquatic Animals,
Dr, Walter A, Chipman, Jr., & Dr, Paul S, Galtsoff,

78

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"WHAT CAN SCIENCE OFFER THE OYSTER GROWER"
Thurlow C, Nelson, Ph.D.,D.Sc.

Professor of Zoology, Rutgers University,
Biologist, New Jersey State
Division of Shellfisheries,

In Charge, New Jersey
Oyster Research Laboratory.

INTRODUCTION

As we gather here today on the shores of historic
Chesapeake Bay to discuss the problems of the great shell-
fish industry I am deeply conscious of the debt we owe to
this area, It was here in Chesapeake Bay that the great
biologist, the late Dr, William Keith Brooks of the Johns
Hopkins University, undertook the first studies of the
oyster in America, In 1878 he organized the Chesapeake
Zoological Laboratory and during the following twenty-
eight years during warm weather he was always at the
seashore accompanied by a party of students, In keeping
with the early traditions of the Johns Hopkins, the
available money was mostly put into brains, not into
buildings and boats, Starting with a vacant warehouse
at Fort Wool* and three rowboats furnished by the Secre-
tary of War, the group moved the next year into three
barges of the Maryland Fish Commission at Crisfield,
Maryland, In 1883 the laboratory was located in a buiid-
ing leased from the Normal School in Hampton, Virginia,
put a few moments drive from where we are now gathered,

Thus we meet today in the very heart and home of
oyster research in America, May we pause for a moment to
pay tribute to this great scientist, As Chairman of the
Maryland Oyster Commission Dr, Brooks submitted to the
General Assembly of Maryland in 1884 a comprehensive re-
port on "The Development and Protection of the Oyster in
Maryland." If his recommendations had been followed there
would be only one oyster problem for Chesapeake Bay today;
where to find markets for the vast numbers of oysters pro-
duced on the prolific reefs of this area,

Of greater value to the country as a whole, however,
has been the legacy Dr. Brooks left us in his students;
Dr, James L, Kellogg long of Williams College Massachuset-
ts whose work on molluscs has yet to be surpassed and
whose student, David Belding, made such substantial con-
tributions to the oyster, quahaug and scallop fisheries
of Massachusetts, Dr, Caswell Grave for some years bio-
logist of the Maryland Oyster Commission whose student,
Dr, E, P, Churchill initiated the program of research on
oyster larvae of the Fish and Wildlife Service. Tastly
the even greater work and influence of my father, the late
Dr. Julius Nelson at Rutgers, who lives on not only in
your speaker but in William H. Dumont and in Jim Engle of
the Fish and Wildlife Service, in Dr, C. A, Perry of the
Maryland State Department of Health and Dr, C. Roy Elsey

i=)

of British Columbla,° in Dr, L, A, Stauber,.Dr, H, H,
Haskin, and Dr, M, R, Carriker now at Rutgers, and
Dr. A. F.. Chestnut of the University of North Caro-
linats new Institute of Fisheries Research at More-
head City, Here also I must include my brother,
Mr, J, Richards Nelson, who while still a student
at Rutgers fell under the influence of the Brooks
tradition and switched his loyalties from poultry
husbandry to oyster farming. Through these men
may this great scientific tradition carry on in
ever widening circles,

The needs of the industry and the accomplishments
of Science :
The primary and. basic needs of the oyster
industry are: ’

1; <A dependable supply of seed

2, Protection from enemies

3; Good growing and fattening grounds

4, Protection from industrial and
domestic pollution,

What has science actually contributed thus
far to the welfare of the industry and what pro-
spects are there for the future?

‘1. Obtaining seed oysters

During the first decade of the present century
Dr, Stafford in Canada and my father, the late Dr,
Julius Nelson of Rutgers College in New Jersey,
studied and described the free swimming stages of
- the oyster larvae and the conditions under which
they are able to attach, The slide shows the ~
first photograph ever taken of an oyster larva,
It was made by my father in 1908 and published
- in his annual report in 1909, It represents:a
larva 9-10 days old, . To these two scientists
must be given credit for first demonstrating
‘the importance of clean shells as cultch, They
showed that spawning of the American oyster be-
gins at a temperature close to 70 degrees Fah-
renheit and that it is possible through
microscopic ex amination of the’ water to de-
termine the probable time and intensity of the
expected oyster set,

Following the death of Dr, Julius Nelson in
1916 his work was expanded.in that year at the
New Jersey Station to include the world's first
survey of an oyster bearing area to determine
the abundance and age of oyster. larvae at dif-
ferent points, This survey of Little Egg Har-
bor, published in 1917, demonstrated: first,,
that the oyster larvae work up-stream away from
the sea, and second, that through determining
the age of the larvae the time of expected set
could be predicted ten days in advance,

(=2-)

The advent of the first World War interrupted all
oyster research, but the decade beginning in 1920 saw
greater progress in oyster research and wider applita-
tion of its findings than in any comparable period in
our history, Lack of time prevents me from more than
mentioning some of the more important discoveries,
Churchill and Gutsell of the U. S, Bureau of Fisheries,
working in Great South Bay, Long Island, confirmed our
findings in Little Egg Harbor and Barnegat Bay, paving
the way for the outstanding work of Prytherch and Engle
and their associates at Milford, Connecticut, Mean-
while Joe Glancy and Wm, Firth Wells working quietly
for the New York Conservation Department were the ~
first to raise oysters from the egg to setting size.
Dr. Galtsoff, newly arrived in this country from the
marine station at Sebastopol on the Black Sea, joined
the Bureau of Fisheries and plunged into a study of
the oceanography of Long Island Sound especially as
related to the oyster industry,

The story is an exciting one, typical of what we
like to think as being truly American, Great industrial
expansion incident to the First World War let loose a
flood of industrial wastes that threatened by 1924 to
wipe out the great oyster setting grounds of Bridgeport
and New Haven harbors,

The personnel and financial resources of the U, 5,
Bureau of Fisheries were thrown into the struggle, in which
they were joined by two men of outstanding ability and
vision, To them we scientists and oyster growers of
America owe eternal gratitude, The vision and the in-
dustry of Mr, Howard Beach gave us the Oyster Institute,
His confidence in Dr, Radcliffe as its Director has been
abundantly justified in the years that have followed.

The Institute, and the Milford Laboratory are monuments
to these two men,

Supported by the valiant work of our late lamented
Captain "Shang" Wheeler in Connecticut, and of Dr,
Connelly in Rhode Island, pollution was greatly abated,
inshore spawning areas were restored and the great Long
Island .yster industry was saved, How typically Ameri-
can is this story, science and industry working together
hand and hand to solve our common problems, The very
valuable bulletins issued by Dr. Loosanoff at Milford
are the latest evidence that through the aid of science
oyster sets of abundance can be obtained in nature,

Of vital interest in the possible role of spawning
sanctuaries in increasing seed production is the important
question of how far may oyster larvae travel during their
. two weeks of free-swimming existence,

The only unquestioned proof of distance traveled by
an oyster larva of which I know is that of Dr, Roy Elsey
of British Columbia who found a spat of the Japanese
oyster attached to a boulder estimated at approximately
five tons and situated some five miles from a bed of
Japanese oysters introduced the preceding summer, There
were no other Japanese oysters in the area and that boulder

(-3-)

certainly wasn't dropped off an oyster boat!

In Delaware Bay we have indirect evidence that in
some seasons vast numbers of oyster larvae may be carri-
ed upstrean as much as fifteen miles from the planting
grounds to set on the natural beds above,

Where spawning sanctuaries have been set up we
have repeatedly found much heavier sets up and down-
stream from the parent oysters, This would seem to
support Prytherch's findings at Milford that larvae re-
main close to their parents throughout the entire two
weeks larval period, Another explanation, however, is
possible, In 1921 I described and pictured 62 mature
oyster’ larvae ready to set from the stomach of an adult
oyster, Such larvae do not remain long in the digestive
tract of the adult oyster, but are quickly carried out
of the intestine, On emerging from their accidental
prison they have frequently been seen to push out foot
and velum and to swim away, Two years ago a group of
large oysters were brought to Surf City, Barnegat Bay,
from a distance of some eight miles, Less than two
weeks later a heavy set approximately two weeks old
was found on the oysters themselves and upon nearby
gravel, There were no parent oysters in the area save
a couple of bushels of small oysters in trays. The
heavy set, confined to the shells of the large oysters
and the gravel all within a few feet strongly suggests
that there were larvae in the guts of the big oysters
when brought here and that on planting, the large
oysters liberated their load of captured young which
promptly set in the immediate neighborhood, With
hundreds of thousands of oysters each pumping twenty,
thirty or more quarts of water an hour vast numbers of
oyster larvae must be captured and subsequently liber-
ated. Absence of such capture by the adults may well
be an important factor in the failure of a depleted
oyster bed to rehabilitate itself, It deserves much
further study. Here is a field where radioactive
tracer elements can be used to great advantage.

After twenty years experience on the Cape May
shore of Delaware Bay we can give you the following
as definite facts, During eighteen of these twenty
years intensely heavy sets of oysters have occurred
upon the flats within a few feet of our laboratory.
Setting has taken place continuously night and day
for from four to as much as ten weeks as determined
from shells placed and removed each 24 hours, As
high as 600 spat per concave surface of a quahaug
shell have struck within a single 24-hour period,
with over 100 per shell each 24 hour period for more
than two weeks, Since the flats run bare each low
tide to a distance of 2500 feet, the larvae must be’
carried at least that distance with each flood tide,
The only oysters seaward from our laboratory are on
a small depleted natural bed -- the Drum Beds in the
public quahaug area, We are forced to conclude there-
fore, that the bulk of these larvae are produced on the

(-4~)

planted beds above us and are carried seaward during
early development, By successively sinking on the
ebb and rising on the flood they return to our New
Jersey shore, Due to the effects of the rotation

of the earth they are carried toward the Delaware
shore during ebb tide while being borne toward the
New Jersey side as the tide swings to the right with
the flood,

Outside the bar, situated some 3000 feet from
the high water mark, and in 14 to 20 feet of water
are hundreds of acres of oyster bottom which have
been heavily shelled year after year, In the main
these shells have caught fewer spat in an entire
summer than attach to similar shells in one tide
close to the shore, It is evident therefore that
with each flood tide these larvae by countless bil-
lions pass by these shells to attach to shells in
shoal water on the flats, We have had excellent
success moving such heavily set shells offshore in-
to deeper water when the oldest are but 10 days of
age,

It is my opinion that no more important pro-
blem faces the Chesapeake Bay area than to deter-
mine the role of parent oysters in capturing their
young and finding out how far the larvae ere
carried, Here is a field in which radioactive
tracer elements or even staining as used by Dr,
Loosanoff could be employed to great advantage.

It is understood that Dr, Chipman has recently
completed the training required in handling radio~
active elements, May I urgently recommend the
tracing of oyster larvae for his early considera-
tion.

2. Oyster enemies

Much has been learned about the enemies of the
oyster but so far science has yet to give us methods
for the control of oyster enemies comparable to those
developed for the eradication of insect pests, for
example, Since boring snails are also molluscs,
breathing through gills, they are so close to the
oyster that it is very doubtful if any method of
poisoning them can be found which will not harm
the oysters or render them unfit for human food,

The plan to kill oyster drills through corrosive
sublimate, or bichloride of mercury, as recently
proposed appears highly dangerous through the
habit of the oyster loading up with heavy metals
such as zinc, bismuth, lead, mercury or copper
whenever these occur appreciable quantities
in the surrounding waters,

The six year study of the oyster drill,

Urosalpinx, carried on by Dr, L, A. Stauber at
our laboratory with the aid of W, P, A, and P.W.A,

(-5-)

funds showed conclusively that three methods of control
are effective and that their use will pay dividends,
Where much new shell growth is present on the oysters
the drill trap should be used, This is a chicken wire
bag filled with oysters younger than those which it is
desired to protect, Oysters growers have long known that
drills will attack the youngest oysters available while,
Dr, H, H, Haskin in our laboratory proved that drills
can distinguish between the excurrent water coming from
oysters of different year classes up to four years of
age, Bags of young oysters strung on trot lines will
confer much protection to oysters on the bed, If

placed around a bed comparatively free from drills

such bags if frequently shaken. to remove the drills

will largely prevent invasion from adjoining beds,

For use in transplanting we, strongly recommend either
the deck screen or deck -plate of steel with holes
closely bored to let the drills through, For cleaning’
a ground before planting we recommend the drill dredge,

Starfish are destroyed by quick lime but this can-
not yet be considered a substitute for mopping. Much
of the difficulty comes from vast populations of star-
fish on barren bottoms from which the free swimming
larvae may be carried long distances in a few days,
Discovery of an economic use for starfish would stimu-
late a fishery for them thus keeping down their nun
bers on the barren bottoms, A few years ago I was
greatly interested as well as amused to overhear a
well known zoologist who spends his summer at the
Woods Hole Laboratory on Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts
express the fear that inroads on the starfish of that
area to supply biological laboratories would soon so
reduce the number of these animals that it would be
difficult to find enough for his own research work,
You men from the Long Island Sound area will smile
at this, but does it not hold a lesson for us; that
steady pressure on any species over an extended per-
iod will reduce the population to small proportions?

Great hope for oyster pest control in the fu-
ture lies in the work of Dr, Sewell H, Hopkins and
of his numerous associates of the Texas A and M
Research Foundation working in the Gulf, I look
forward also with anticipation to what Dr, Prytherch
will tell us shortly of his control of oyster enem-
ies in North Carolina, Of this much we can be cer-
tain, When oysters are planted on new bottom rela-
tively free from enemies the returns are often very
large, With each succeeding year, however, the
oysters! enemies increase and unless these are
brought under control may ultimately put the oyster
grower out of business, The boom years of 1920 to’
1930 in Maurice River Cove are a good illustration,
New bottoms were being taken up where oysters had
not previously been planted and hence were compara-.
tively free from drills, Aided by the wettest
year in New Jerseyts history more than five mil-
lion dollars worth of oysters were shipped from
the Cove in 1928, putting New Jersey in third

(-6-)

place among the states with a production of one seventh
of tHe total oyster crop of the United States,

With the onset of the depression new grounds were
not taken up, three of the driest years of record plus
a hurricane took their heavy toll, with drills and the
mud worm, Polydora, reducing the oyster crop by approxi-
mately one half, New Jersey slipped back into fifth
place among the states, Return to our former position
can only be accomplished through vigorous control of
oyster pests; especially the drill.

3, Favorable growing and fattening grounds

Here science has been of little help; the oyster
grower has had to depend almost wholly upon his own
experience and that of others, We do not yet kmow
why oysters grow well on some grounds, poorly on ad~
joining grounds. Even on the same ground, as every
oyster grower well knows, growth and fattening may be
good one year, poor the next, Much scientific work
has been done in this field but as yet there is little
that science can tell you of practical value, From
our experience in New Jersey we know that when the
diatom Skeletonema is abundant we have had fat oysters
of excellent flavor, We have seen oysters increase in
yield almost a pint per bushel in one week following
a heavy invasion of this diatom, When associated with
objectionable forms such as the "gremlin" Bicoeca in
Great South Bay in 1943 oysters may remain thin and
poor even in the presence of abundant Skeletonema,

Our experience in New Jersey does not support the
conclusion of Dr, Loosanoff and his coworkers that oysters
in nature will not feed'in the presence of thick suspen-
sions of food organisms, We have found oysters to feed
actively throughout dense swarming of the dinoflagellate
Amphidinium fusiforme, when the water had turned red and
was a veritable soup of these algae and of their
zobspores, Since Dr, Loosanoff's observations were made
under laboratory conditions while ours were made in the
open waters of Delaware Bay it is probable that poison-
ous substances produced by the algae at Milford were
either not present in Delaware Bay or were quickly des-
troyed in our open waters, I have to be shown before I
will believe that oysters will starve and die in nature in
the midst of abundant food.

4. Protect from industrial and domestic pollution
Although in the past some oyster growers have looked
upon bacteriologists as their worst enemies, we must all
agree that in the main sanitary standards have aided and
protected the industry, It is encouraging to find the
United States Public Health Service now engaged in active
research looking toward new techniques for identifying
objectionable bacteria and to sounder more reliable
methods of determing the sanitary quality of shellfish.

(-7-)

Federal and state attack on aquatic pollution is being
actively pushed in many quarters, industry is coopera-
ting as never before, ready to spend money liberally
for research on waste disposal, Noteworthy is the two
million dollar project of the U. S, Public Health
Service which will be launched July lst for the con-
trol of stream pollution,

Concrete evidence of improvement of the waters
of New York Harbor is seen in a group of oysters on
exhibit in this room, The late Captain Will Elsworth
told me in 1923 that he had caught his last oysters
in the lower Hudson River in 1917 close to the Statue
of Liberty, Exhibited here today is a group of ex-
cellent oysters dredged last December on Robbin's
Reef within the very shadow of the Statue of Liberty,
One is tempted to become sentimental, and to suggest
that even the lowly oyster is enjoying the protection
of our Goddess of Liberty,

Finally we shall lsarn during this convention
of the excellent progress made by Dr, Loosanoff and
his associates in raising oyster and quahaug larvae
to setting size at the Miiford Laboratory, Armed
with such technique there is every reason to hope
that through selective breeding we can obtain oysters
an) quahaugs capable of attaining market size in half
ths time now required, From the growth studies of
Martin and ourselves in New Jersey and of Dr,
Loosanoff at Milford we know that certain oysters in’
any lot will outgrow others by as much as ten to one,
In my own studies of water pumpage by cysters it has
been found that two year old Cape May oysters select-
ed through rigorous competition in the heavy sets of
that area, can out-pump eight year old Barnegat Bay
oysters, grown from non-selected seed, by at least
two to one, Since the oyster must obtain the mter-
ials for growth and fattening from the water which
it pumps, it follows that ability to pump water is
probably the most important characteristic of a
vigorous oyster. Unless the oyster is very dif-
ferent from most other animals such vigor is inheri-
ted in at least a portion of the offspring. Select-
ion of the fastest growers in each succeeding genera-
tion should soon give us an oyster comparable to the
large Pacific oyster imported from Japan which has
in eighteen months reached a size where eight of
them will make a pint, This may sound fantastic
but science has produced equally miraculous results
with other domestic and game animals such as trout;
why not with oysters? To accomplish our goal re-
search positions in the shellfisheries field must
be made sufficiently attractive in salary and in
tenure to interest young men of ability and with
adequate training, Above all they must have com-
plete independence of, and protection from, politi-
cal interference, Looking back over half a century
it is clearly evident that bad politics has been a

(-8-)

far worse enemy of the oyster than pollution, star--
fish, drills and all other »atural enemies combined,
You in this industry have the political power to
protect the scientists who are ready and eager to
serve you; their fate is largely in your hands in

a future that is bright with promise,

(-9=)

Varying Characteristics of Oyster Bottom

Allan A, Sollers, Commissioner
Maryland Department of Tidewater Fisheries
Annapolis, Md.
seok oh 22k

An oyster, Mr, Chairman and friends, is the one
thing in the world that I envy, The lazy rascal
spends just about his entire life lying in bed, To
complicate the matter further, this fastidious gentle-
man is a bit particular about the kind of bed he lies
in. If it is too soft he settles in and dies, If the
bed is too hard and shifting he likewise is covered up
and departs for the oyster spirit world, Hence we are
compelled to take due notice of these eccentricities
of our exacting bivalved associate; our personal eco-
nomic welfare is dependent on it,

The uniniated, though otherwise well informed,
might quickly ask, "Why haven't physical and chemical
analyses been made of the submerged lands, the sever-
al classes established, and these classes correlated
with their capacity to grow oysters?" He would doubt-
less substantiate his question by pointing out the
work done by the agricultural experiment stations
ashore and refer to the glib way that farmers speak
of loams, clays and sandy soils, marls and the host
of other classifications in that book,

Such a classification might be useful; I have
discussed the question with those qualified and have
never discouraged such an attempt. I have by the
same reasoning never strongly advocated such an ef-
fort for fear of oversimplification, There is more
to the problem than would show in a simple physical
analysis of the ground in question, I will discuss
variations, complications and exceptions later.

If an attempt were made to classify the sub-
merged lands, the Chesapeake Bay would be a good
place to make it; surely we have every combination
in the world there, and maybe one over for good mea~
sure,

Three general classificatims would be immediate-
ly apparent,

The first to attract attention would be the sands
along the shore lines, They feel relatively hard and
firm to the bare feet of bathers but they lack any ad-
hesive or cohesive qualities and shift about with the
pounding of the surf. Their extent off shore is de-
pendent on the degree to which the area in question is
exposed to heavy seas,

Second, just beyond the shifting sands, we again
find sand, but something has been added, Mixed with
the coarse grains of sand, are smaller particles that
possess definite adhesive qualities, I am not sure

(~10-)

what these smaller particles are, probably some type of
clay. In any event they hold the grains of sand ina
fixed position in much the same manner that the crystals
in babbit bearings are held by the soft mental around
them. The relative amounts of the component materials
vary widely, but as long as both are present we have a
firm, stable ground that remains amazingly constant,
This is the combination of constituents of the natural
oyster rocks of Maryland, Here we find the seventh |
heaven or the happy home of the oyster in our State,

Third, beyond these reefs or bars the percentage
of sand sharply diminishes and we are on the mud, ;
Generally the mud bottoms are definitely not the best
places to grow oysters, I hasten to concede that there
are great differences in the quality of mud bottoms, but
do not feet that I should take the time at this point to
discuss even the little that I know about these varia-
tions, I leave the point with the admonition that mud
bottoms are bad places for uninitiated oyster planters
who are long on ambition and capital and short on ex-
perience,

If the three classifications set forth above make
the problem seem easy and simple, I hasten to dispel
that illusion, For instance, there is another class,

I set it forth as an exception because it appears

pretty much without rhyme or reason in relation to the
pattern set out above, The geologists call it Plum
Point Marl, There are more local names for it in Mary-
land than there are sinners in Hades, Some of the local
names are Fullers Earth, Blue Clay, Foolish Earth, etc,;
you may take your choice, Generally it is excellent oys-
ter ground, It will not shift under the most severe
pounding of the seas, Again, generally, it appears in
pure form; that is, not mixed with sand or mud, I know
of a couple of exceptions, In Poplar Island Narrows in
Maryland and off Port Mahan in the Delaware Bay is to be
found an admixture of this blue clay and mud, The com-
bination is somewhat softer than the pure clay and the
blue color is lost, The mixture is black or nearly so
and is called mud, locally. The combination makes an
excellent oyster bottom in spite of the fact that those
a anand concerned appear to be at a loss to explain
why.

I said a moment ago a’simple classification as in-
dicated might be deceptive, Mr, Engle of the Fish and
Wildlife Service has prepared a paper describing a
splendid piece of research work he has done in Eastern
Bay, a tributary of the Chesapeake, The paper will be
worth your attention, A brief discussion of the kind
of oyster ground found there might be worthwhile for it
shows the influence of another environmental factor and
definitely does not fit the pattern set forth, Eastern
Bay is simply an oversized sand pit filled with water,
In the state service I have had to deal with it, and I
frankly say that the place kept me talking to myself

(-11-)

until I finally figured it out,

Here I found oysters growing on loose sand, the
type of sand that sensible oysters would not be caught
monkeying with, Contradictory or not, they do grow —
there, Here are the observations and the conclusions,
Eastern Bay has a very irregular shore line and is
dotted with several small islands, Long narrow penin-
sulas nearby bisect it, There are many oyster bars,
It was noted that the bars began at varying distances
from shore, In some instances the bars began in two
or three feet of water, in others it was necessary to
go off shore until a depth of fifteen or sixteen feet
was reached before oysters and the inner edge of the
bars were found, When this depth factor was correla-
ted with the depth and extent of the open water to
windward, the answer was apparent, The oysters grew
on the loose sand as soon as the depth of the water
became sufficient so that the impact of the seas
would not shift the sand about,

This paper would be incomplete without some men=-
tion of the loess of the sea, In some arid regions
of the earth, interior China for instance, this ma-
terial drifts about the winds, In our element, the
water, we call it quicksand, It is death to oysters
and forms the building material for the siliceous
tube worms, sand coral or coral sand according to
where you live,

It would be fine if one could pick up a sample
of some oyster bed, run to a laboratory and receive
definite and final assurance on the survival of
oysters on it, Your speaker, in the absence of more
precise methods, has learned to determine the quality
of oyster ground with the simple devices generally
at hand, These include sounding poles, orange peel
bottom samplers and tongs, He would be glad of a
more precise system of determination, but is wonder-~
ing how long it would take him to get use to the
new method,

The situation reminds me of a story told years
ago, in steamboat days, about a waterman in my
section who had spent most of his time on old schoon-
ers and work boats, He married and decided to go to
Baltimore by steamboat for a honeymoon trip, The
transition from simple sail to the luxury of steam
presented problems, The first to bedevil him was
the purser, Recognizing him as the bridegroom, the
purser asked, "Do you want the bridal suite?" Ap-
preciating the fact that this trick would cost him
money, our friend asked, "What is the difference
between that and the others?" "Oh, the bridal
suite has a private bath,‘ was the pursers answer,
After a monent's hesitation the waterman replied,
"Just a minute, Mister, I'11 go ask my wife, for
my part if I get seasick or something I'11l run
to the rail like I been doing."

(-12-)

I have never insisted on the study in-
dicated in this paper, for I might be too
much like the waterman just referred to,
Confronted with the problem of determining
the quality of a piece of oyster ground, I am
afraid I would grab a sounding pole, go over
the area in question and make a final deci-
sion without further ado,

The absence of the information and the
classifications indicated in this paper are
no fault of the scientific organizations,
They are biologists and chemists not mind
readers, It is up to the industry to make
its wants known, If you fellows think that
such a study would be useful, let's ask
that it be made, It might prove useful be-
yond our wildest expectations.

(-13--)

VARIATIONS IN INTENSITY OF SETTING OF OYSTERS IN
LONG ISLAND SOUND

-by-

Victor L, Loosanoff, Director
U, S, Fish and Wildlife Service,
Milford, Connecticut

OE AE 2 2B oR OK

A good set of oysters in northern waters, in-
cluding those of Connecticut, is not a rule but an
exception, For example, of the past twelve seasons
only four gave commercially important sets, Light-
ness and irregularity of setting are the chief
handicaps of the oyster cultivators of Long Island
Sound because the latter can never be assured that
a new generation of oysters will be available to
repopulate the beds,

At present the causes responsible for varia-
tions in the intensity of oyster setting in Long
Island Sound are not fully determined and under-
stood, Nevertheless, during the last twelve years,
1937-1948, enough new data have been collected which
may help clarify some aspects of this important and
interesting question, It is the purpose of this
article to discuss some of the causes that may in-
fluence the intensity of setting,

We know that any species, in order to re-
produce, should have a sufficient number of individ-
uals to act as parents, Were our oyster beds de-
pleted to such an extent that not enough spawners
were present, lack of set could be ascribed to
that cause, However, this probably has never
occurred in our waters because there are always
several million bushels of adult oysters in and
near the area of the setting beds guaranteeing
enough spawners, We cannot, therefore, consider
the lack of spawners a cause responsible for the
lack of set,

In some areas the failure of oysters to
Spawn could be advanced as a reason for the fail-
ure of setting. As a matter of fact, in some
earlier articles discussing spawning of oysters
opinions were expressed that in the deeper water
of Long Island Sound oysters spawned only once
in ten years (Nelson, 1928), Our observations
showed, however. that this is not so, We found
that oysters develop gonads and spawn every year,
While the thickness of the gonads may vary from
year to year, nevertheless, each year enough spawn
is accumulated at the beginning of the spawning
season,

(-24-)

There is no reason why the oysters in Lofg Is-
land Sound should not spawn annually, Our records
show that the summer temperature of the Sound is
always high enough for the development of gonads and
for inducing spawning, In depths up to about 40 feet
a temperature of 20.0°C, or higher is maintained from
about July 20 to September 15 or 20, i.e., approxi-
mately 55-60 days, a period long enough to permit the
oysters to discharge their gonads completely. Even
at the depth of .100 feet the temperature reaches 20,1
or 22,0°C, The majority of the oysters complete their
spawning by about the first of September, approximate-~
ly 15 or 20 days before the temperature begins to de-
crease below 20,0°C, (Loosanoff and Engle, 1942).
Thus, failure of setting in our waters cannot be at~-
tributed to the failure of oysters to develop gonads
and to spawn,

The failure of some aquatic species to propogate
has been explained by the reason that a large number
of the eggs discharged remained unfertilized and
later perished (Thorson, 1946), This explanation can-
not be applied to our oysters because, in their case,
usually a large number of individuals spawn simultan-
eously, and this mass spawning insures fertilization
of the majority of the eggs, On several occasions we
observed spawning of oysters on the shallow bed of
Milford Harbor, During the spawning the water over
the bed was rendered milky with the discharged eggs
and spermatozoa, Examination of the eggs showed that
all were fertilized, thus indicating that there was
no appreciable waste of eggs, A similar situation
probably exists in the deep water beds, It is doubt-
ful, therefore, that failure of fertilization is a
cause responsible for the production of the small
number of larvae,

On the basis of the presented considerations we
may conclude that in Long Island Sound a sufficient
number of oyster larvae is produced each year, These
larvae are planktotrophic with a long free-swimming ;
or pelagic life which, in our waters, is about 18 days,
Larvae of this type, as Thorson (1946) points out, are
"Cheap" because the eggs from which they develop are
small, containing little yolk and, therefore, they can
be produced in extremely large numbers, However, the
initial advantage possessed by the oysters in produc-
ing a large number of eggs and larvae is counter-
balanced by several disadvantages the first of which
is, perhaps, the long larval period, During this
period the larvae are exposed to the attacks of their
enemies and are entirely dependent in their develop-
ment upon the presence in the water of certain plank-
ton forms which serve them as food, Furthermore, dur-
ing this period the larvae are also exposed to con-
tinuous changes in their environment some of which
may cause heavy mortality or the complete disappear-~
ance of broods of larvae,

(-15-)

Before proceeding to discuss the conditions
that may, or may not, be responsible for the mass
disappearance of larvae we should, perhaps, be-
come familiar with the major events of the pro-
pagation of oysters in Long Island Sound, In the
past a rather complex formula was offered for pre-
diction of the time of the beginning of spawning
and setting (Prytherch,1929). We find, however,
that the situation is less complex than it ap-
peared to earlier investigators, Our observations
showed that spawning in Long Island Sound always
begins either during the last few days of June or
during the first days of July, The earliest date
of spawning recorded was in 1945, or June 26, and
the latest, in 1937, on July 3. Thus, in twelve
years the beginning of spawning was confined to
a calendar period of only eight days, We may be
justified, therefore, to conclude that in Long
Isiand Sound the beginning of the oyster spawn-
ee season should be expected on June 30 +

days.

The beginning of spawning occurred at every
lunar phase ranging from new moon to the last
quarter, It was not related to definite tidal
changes and, therefore, to the changes in hydro-
static pressure,

The earliest beginning of setting was re-
corded in 1941, on July 15, and the latest, in
1943, on July 23, Thus, in twelve summers the
beginning of setting was confined to only about
nine calendar days, Although it most often took
place on July 17 we may, nevertheless, suggest
that, for all practical purposes, in Long Island
Sound the beginning of oyster setting should be
expected on July 19 plus 4 days, The beginning
of setting also happened at every moon phase and
was not confined or even closely related to a
definite tidal condition,

The formulae offered are based upon our
observations which, I believe, are extensive
enough to justify suggesting them, They should
be found correct in the majority of instances
but, nevertheless, we do not maintain that they
should remain forever infallible, Some extreme-
ly abnormal conditions, not encountered thus far
in our experience, may either hasten or retard
spawning, or shorten or prolong the larval per-
iod to such an extent that the beginning of
spawning or beginning of setting would take
place outside the limits given in our formulae,

The setting season in Long Island Sound is
of comparatively long duration, It usually ex-
tends from the third week of July to the end of
September, and sometimes even to the first days
of October, However, the intensity of setting

(-16-)

in time does not follow a rigid pattern from year to
year but shows several variations, For example, in
1940 the first wave of setting was extremely heavy
while the second wave was relatively light, In 1942,
however, heavy setting came late in the season as
part of the second wave, In 1944+ setting continued
almost uninterrupted during the summer but again the
first wave was much heavier than the second, Final-
ly, as in 1948, there may be two waves of setting of
almost equal importance, In the latter case two
distinct waves with pronounced peaks or maxima were
especially well demonstrated,

The date of the peaks of setting showed no re~
lation to the date of the beginning of spawning. In
twelve years of observations the periods elapsing be-
tween the beginning of spawning and the day of mximum
setting of the first wave varied from 16 to 40 days
and averaged 30 days, and the beginning of the second
wave varied from +7 to 66 days and averaged 56 days
after the beginning of spawning. In time the date of
maximum setting of the first wave varied from July
19 to August 10 and the second wave, from August
25 to September 12, These variations show that it
is difficult to predict with any degree of accuracy
the dates of maximum sets,

In search of signs of periodicity in the occur-
rence of the peaks of setting the number of days
elapsing between the dates of maximum settings of
the two waves of each year were determined (Table 1).
The number of days for the year of 1938 is not shown
in the table because the late setting in that year
was a complete failure, The longest period between
the two peaks was recorded in 1937, when 53 days
elapsed between these two events; The shortest per-
iod of 23 days was noted in 1944+, In the remaining
years the period between the two peaks ranged be-~
tween 28 and 38 days, Thus, as can be seen, setting
of oysters not only varies in intensity from year to
year but the peaks of the setting also do not show
a definite time pattern,

What are the conditions responsible for the
survival of larvae and, therefore, for variations in
intensity and in the time of setting? Because our
voluminous data are still not completely analyzed
we can offer at this time only a general discussion
of some factors without a complete evaluation of their
importance, We hope, nevertheless, that later on,
upon completion of a thorough statistical analysis
of the mterial already available, we shall definitely
establish the presence or absence of correlations
between some of the ecological factors and intensity
of setting,

Temperature is the first factor that always
comes to mind when considering oyster propagation,

(-17-)

PAB Bh

Number of days elapsing between the dates of maximum
setting of first and second waves, Long Island Sound,
1937-1948

YEAR DAYS YEAR DAYS
1.937 53 1943 =o=
1938 30 1944. 23
1939 36 1945 28
1940 31 1946 Ci
1941 38 1947 a5
1942 38 1948 37

(-18-)

It cannot be denied that low temperature
prolongs the larval period, thus exposing
the larvae for several more days to their
enemies and other unfavorable conditions,
However, we do not think that fluctuations
in temperature in Long Island Sound during
any particular summer or, as recorded dur-"
ing different summers, may kill the larvae,
The old conception that a sudden decrease
in temperature of 2 or 3° would kill the
larvae has been disproven by our field ~—
observations (Loosanoff and Engle, 1940).
Recent observations at Milford Laboratory
by my colleague, Harry C, Davis, showed
that if larvae kept at a steady temperature
of about 22,0°C, were placed directly in
cold water of about 8,0°C,, and after be-
ing kept there for 30 minutes were again
transferred back to 22,0°C,, they would
survive this treatment, even if it was
repeated several times at two-day inter-
vals, The work of Sparck (1927) also
showed that the larvae of 0, edulis with-
stood quick cooling from approximately
20.0 to 0,0°C,, and were even able to
survive at the latter temperature for

at least 24 hours, Obviously, small
fluctuations in temperature, as obser-

ved in the summer time in Long Island
Sound, should not result in mass mortal-
ity of larvae,

Although temperature may affect the
larvae by prolonging their swimming peri-
od or by affecting the quantity or quali-
ty of their food supply, no clear-cut re-
lation was found between the departure
of temperature from the mean during the
periods between July 1 and September 30
and intensity of setting, It is interest-
ing that the heaviest set of twelve years,
which occurred in 1940, was during the
year when the temperature departure was
considerably below average, It is em-
phasized, however, that a further and more
detailed analysis of our data may indicate
that although no correlation between tem-
perature and setting was noticed when long
periods were considered, certain correla-
tions may be found when the data are ex-
amined on a monthly, semi-monthly or week-
ly basis,

The changes in salinity in Lons Is-
land Sound are so small that they certain-
ly cannot be regarded as responsible for
the mortality of the oysters, Roughly,
our salinity range is between 25,0 and
28.0 parts per thousand, Usually the
changes in salinity of the water for the

(~19-)

same period of the year seldom exceed 2,0 parts per
thousand, and not in a single case did we find that
the salinity for the corresponding week in twelve
years exceeded 3.0 p.p.t. However, although these
changes are not great enough to cause mass mortality
of larvae they may, nevertheless, reflect on the pro-
duction of the food on which larvae exist, This phase
has not been thoroughly investigated as yet,

The percent of sunshine during the breeding per-~
iod of oysters should also be considered as one of the
factors which may have an important influence on the
survival of larvae, This, of course, does not mean
that intensity of light itself may kill or stimulate
the growth of larvae, Its effect is largely confin-
ed to the growth of plankton forms which may serve
as food for oyster larvae, Again, preliminary analy-
sis of the data showed that in Long Island Sound the
intensity of setting for the entire season was not
cerrelated with the percent of sunshine during the
period from July 1 to September 30, Nevertheless,
it is possible that later on, upon a more detailed
analysis, some correlation may become apparent,

Since, at present, none of the above discussed
causes appears to be dominant in causing mass mortal-
ity of larvae, one, naturally, turns to look in an-
other direction for an explanation why larvae dis-
appear in our waters, We shall discuss two of the
possible reasons, the first being extermination of
larvae by their enemies and the second, death of
larvae because of lack of food,

There is no doubt that a high percentage of
larvae is eaten by their enemies, and that, in.
some cases, the presence of a large number of ene-
mies may be the primary cause of failure of oys-
ters to set, It is doubtful, however, that the
failure of set in’Long Island Sound is primarily
due to that cause, Were we to assume that oyster
larvae disappear because they are eaten, we would
naturally expect to notice a similar disappearance
of the larvae of closely related species of mollusks,
such as clams, mussels, teredos, etc,, which live in
the same environment with oysters and have the same
enemies, Our observations show that this is not the
case, During several summers, including that of
1948, while oyster larvae were relatively few in
number, the larvae of all ages of the clam, Mya
arenaria, and of some other lamellibranchs were
numevous, Furthermore, while the oysters failed
to set in extremely small numbers, heavy setting
of Mya and mussels continued throughout the summer,
Thus, since, regardless of the presence of common
enemies, the larvae of many lamellibranchs survive
in large numbers to the setting stage, we should
expect’ a similar rate of survival among oyster
larvae, This, however, was not borne out by our
observations,

(-20~)

We all know that in the southern states the fouling
of shells with various organisms presents a definite pro-
blem because these organisms deprive the larvae of set~
ting space, Most of these organisms are also larvae eat-
ers, Furthermore, in addition to the bottom forms there
are large numbers of jellyfish and other pelagic larvae~
eating organisms, Yet, regardless of such a large vari-
ety and the large number of larval enemies heavy oyster
sets occur rather regularly.

In Long Island Sound, on the other hand, the bottom
fouling forms are fewer in species and numbers ‘than, for
example, in Chesapeake Bay or in the Carolinas, Although
a few of our shells, planted in early July, may be found
silted by the end of the season, very few of them would
be encrusted with barnacles, ascidians, etc., as is al-
most always the case in southern waters, Obviously, the
larvae enemies in our waters are not as numerous as in
some other areas where good sets are, nevertheless, pro-
duced regularly. Thus, even if the larval period in’ our
waters is longer than in the South, it still is improb-
able that the failure of our sets would be due almost
exclusively to the activities of the larval enemies,

I can cite another example of the same type, In
Connecticut waters the best and most consistant sets oc-
cur in the small, rather well- protected area of the
Thimble Islands, The slopes of the shore of these is-
lands are extremely heavily populated with different
organisms which are plankton feeders, Large sections
of the bottom are also heavily populated with larvae-
eating invertebrates, Yet, regardless of such a pre-
dominance of enemies the oyster larvae there survive and
set in large numbers, while the Sound proper experiences
one failure after another, Obviously, if larvae enemies
were the chief causes of failure of setting, the Thimble
Islands area should not be a good place for the propaga-
tion of oysters.

We may conclude after the above discussion that while
the importance of larval enemies is understood, and while
it is recognized that the damage they do to the popula-
tion of oyster larvae is rather extensive, it still seems
improbable that in our waters, where the larval enemies
are not as numerous as in other oyster-producing areas
failure of sets should be ascribed mainly to the activi-
ties of these enemies,

The final cause which we wish to consider in this
article is that of lack of proper food for the oyster
larvae, At first the suggestion that under natural con~
ditions oyster larvae may perish’ from starvation in large
numbers sounds highly improbable, Several years ago I
would not even have considered such a suggestion because
I know that, as a rule, the waters of Long Island Sound
are comparatively rich in plankton. Yet, during the
last few years, especially since the work on cultivation
and physiology of oyster larvae was begun at our labora-
tory, more and more evidence is accumulating that oyster

(-21-)

larvae cannot utilize most of the forms of ultraplankton
regardless of their small size, A more detailed discus-
Sion of this subject will be given to you by my colleague,
Harry C, Davis, who did work on oyster larvae, while I
shall limit myself to only a few remarks,

It has been found that the addition of mixture of
laboratory cultures of ultraplankton forms measuring
from 2 to 5 microns in size, thus small enough to be
swallowed by the larvae, will not make oyster larvae
grow, Apparently the mixture of plankton given to the
larvae did not contain forms which could be assimilated
by them, Yet, the same food given at the same time to
cultures of larvae of other lamellibranchs was readily
utilized by them, Thus, while, regardless of the pre-
sence of numerous ultraplankton organisms, oyster
larvae refused to grow, the larvae of other species of
lamei.libranchs thrived on the same forms, This, of
course, indicated the inability of oyster larvae to
assimilate the ultra plankton forms which were present
in the food cultures,

I think this phenomenon is extremely well il-
lustrated by the experiment which I devised and which
I asked my colleague, Mr, Davis, to perform for me,
Last winter oysters and clams, Venus mercenaria, were
made to’ spawn on the same day but in separate con-
tainers, A day or so later, after the larvae of both
species had reached the straight hinge stage, we
placed the larvae of the clams and oysters in the
same container and began to feed them with a mixed
culture of laboratory-grown food culture containing
a large number of ultraplankton, Three days later
the clam larvae had grown in size to 10)4while the
oyster larvae were still 754. Five days after
fertilization some of the clam larvae were already
measuring 1254, while the majority of the oyster
larvae were practically at the same stage as at
the beginning of the experiment, After eight days
the clam larvae were over 140 while the oyster
larvae were still between 75 and 804/the majority
showing no growth whatsoever, At the end of the
ninth day the clams were growing very vigorously
showing almost no mortality and measuring about
160/while the oysters were dying in large numbers
and those living were still measuring only between
75 and 80“, After 12 days the clam larvae were
finishing their free-swimming period and were
setting in large numbers while all the oyster
larvae were dead or dying. None of the oyster
larvae were longer than BOK.

Several variations of this experiment were
run to be sure that the oyster larvae were not de~
prived of their food by the larger and more vigor-
ous clam larvae, To achieve this some cultures
were composed of a large number of oyster larvae
and relatively few clam larvae, Regardless of the

(-22-)

ratios between the clam and oyster larvae and the ratios
in number of larvae per given volume of water the re-
sults were always the same, namely, that the clam larvae
grew very rapidly on the food they were given while the
oyster larvae showed no growth,

Similar experiments were repeated by Mr, William
Miller and me but instead of using hard shell clam larvae,
the larvae of the surf clam, Mactra solidissima, were
used, The results were the same - while the clam larvae
grew, the oyster larvae remained approximately the same
size they had reached upon entering the straight hinge
stage. These experiments clearly demonstrated that oyster
larvae cannot grow and survive on forms of ultraplankton
thaich can be utilized by the larvae of other related
species,

It is interesting that our observations on the food
of oyster larvae are indirectly supported by a pioneer
in larval culture, W, F, Wells, Weils established a
hatchery at Cold Spring Harbor for the cultivation of
oyster larvae but was unable to obtain any sets until
the hatchery was moved to another location where the
character of the water was different, Although at that
time Wells did not realize the reason for his initial
failure it is probable that the water of Cold Spring Har-
bor contained no micro-organisms which could be utiliz-
ed by the oyster larvae, The new location, however, was
probably rich in such forms,

Our field observations support our contention that
there may be a difference in the ability of various ~—
mollusk larvae to utilize the food found in the water,
For example, to any investigator familiar with the ccn-
ditions in Long Island Sound it always appears peculiar
that while clam larvae of all stages are almost found
during the summer, oyster larvae seem to disappear with-
in a few days after they hatch from the eggs, Is it
not possible that this disappearance is due to the fact
that during those periods our waters lack the food which
can be assimilated by oyster larvae? Since it has been
clearly demonstrated by our laboratory experiments that
oyster larvae are unable to utilize many forms of ultra-
plankton, we are led to believe that the absence of
proper food may be the cause of the failure of oyster
larvae of Long Island Sound to live to the setting stage,
This conclusion coincides with the opinion of Thorson
(1946) who also thinks that lack of food is probably the
chief reason responsible for the fluctuations of the
larvae population in the sea,

Of course we still are very far from offering the
final answer to this interesting and important problem,
We know that in the first place it still is undetermined
what forms in the plankton of Long Island Sound are utili-
zed by oyster larvae, Secondly, the appearance or dis-
appearance of such food forms would be very closely re~
lated to the environmental factors, such as probably

(-23-)

temperature, solar radiation, presence of certain nutri-
tive substances, such as phosphates, nitrates, etc, These
relations remain to be determined, and all the data should
be more fully analyzed and studied, Nevertheless, I think
we are now approaching the solution of the problem why the
intensity of oyster sets in northern waters varies so great~
ly from year to year,

BIBLOGRAPHY

LOOSANOFF, V. L. and JAMES B, ENGIE, 1940. Spawning and
setting of oysters in Long Island Sound in 1937, and
discussion of the method for predicting the intensity
and time of oyster setting, U. S. Bur, Fish,, Bull. 33,
Vol, 49, pp. 217-225,

LOOSANOFF, V. L,, and JAMES B, ENGLE, 1942, Accumulation
and discharge of spawn by oysters living at different
depths. Biol, Bull., Vol. 82, No. 3, pp. 413-422,

NELSON, THURLOW C,, 1928, Relation of “spawning of the
sebe he temperature, Ecology, Vol, IX, No. 2, pp.
145-154,

PRYTHERCH, H. F., 1929, Investigation of the Physical
conditions controlling spawning of oysters and the
occurrence, distribution, and setting of oyster larvae
in Milford Harbor, Connecticut, U., S, Bur, Fish. Bull.,
Vol, 44, Doc, No, 1054, pp, 429-503,

SPARCK, R., 1927. Studies on the biology of the oyster
II, The feeding and growth of the pelagic larvae of the
common oyster (Ostrea edulis),

Rep. Danish Biol, Stat,, Vol. 33, pp. 46-56,

THORSON, GUNNAR, 1946, Reproduction and larval develop-
ment of Danish marine bottom invertebrates,
Meddslelser Fra Kommissionen For Danmarks Fiskeri -
Oz favundersgeiser, Serie: Plankton, Vol. 4+, pp.
tees

(-24~)

PLANS AND PROGRESS OF OYSTER INVESTIGATIONS

IN FLORIDA
=by-
Robert M, Ingle, Assistant
Director - Oyster Division,

Apalachicola, Florida,

ME AK cok a HK

The great decline in oyster production of the State
in latter years prompted the 19+7 legislature to appro-
priate $100,000,00 to begin the rehabilitation of the
evaney voter: of the State and to encourage greater

arvests,

Dr. F. G, Walton Smith, Director of the Marine Labora-
tory of the University of Miami was made director of the
newly created Division of Oyster Culture to serve without
pay. Mr, Robert Ingle, shellfish researcher of the Marine
Laboratory, was appointed as Assistant-Director on a full
time basis, Both men were given broad powers to make rules,
regulate closed seasons,

Although the money was appropriated in 1947, actual
setting up of the new activity did not begin until February
of this year (1949) when the above appointments were mde
by the newly nominated Superintendent of the State Board
of Conservation, Mr, George Vathis,

Progress thus far has been mostly in setting up a
research program designed to establish some of the basic
facts concerning the Florida Oyster, This survey will
try to throw light on such subjects as these:

(1) How long do oysters spawn within Florida waters?
When do they start, quit?

(2) If there are peaks in the spawning, can they be
predicted, or do they follow any regularity?

(3) What is the growth rate during each year of life?
(4) What is the length of larval life?

(5) How do the spawning seasons of competitors for
setting space compare with oysters?

(6) What are the optimum eclogical conditions, What
extremes of salinity, temperature, etc,, can
be tolerated by larvae and adults?

In order to answer these questions a broad research
program has been started with the center of activity _
located in Apalachicola Bay, A field laboratory has been
set up and equipped in one of the local seafood houses,
Nine stations have been established at which fall of spat,
salinity temperature, turbidity and other hydrographic
data are obtained each week, In addition, growth rate
of young spa is being studied and at two of the stations
(-25-)

the growth rate of larger size oysters is being care-~
fully watched,

A weather station is located in Apalachicola which
enables us to correlate facts obtained from the nine
stations with meteorological finds such as air tempera-
ture, wind direction and intensity, precipitation,

Meteorological data for a period of thirty-five
years is available to us in judging the normaley of
the weather during the investigation and, hence, whe-
ther or not the findings of the investigations can be
deemed typical,

In addition the U, S, Weather Bureau, maintains
a river station at Blounstown, fifty miles up the
Apalachicola River from the site of the investigation,
Accurate data is obtainable from this station on flood
stages, rate of fresh water discharge,

Thus we can surround ovr studies of oyster biology,
especially spawning, by quantitative data on a great
number of physical and chemical environmental factors
even to the amount of sunshine received by Apalachicota
Bay.

This information, as it is received, is translated
into constructive measures for the rehabilitation of
the oyster bottoms, For instance, the discovery that
spawning occurred much earlier than was anticipated
has enabled us to beging the planting of cultch at an
early date with the assurance that it would attract
a substantial number of oyster spat,

Also, since spawning occurs in a greater density
in different parts of the bay at separate time we are
able to adapt our cultch planting operations to the
areas which enjoy an intensified spawning during any
particular week or month,

Coorelative studies are being carried out ona
smaller scale in Cedar Key, Florida, a location at
some distance from Apalachicola on the west coast of
the State of a latitude of about 60 miles more south-
erly. It is expected that there might be slight dif-
ferences in spawning habits of the oysters of this
region due to greater temperatures on an overall, year
around basis, although this contention remains to be
proven, Several experimental plots of seed oysters
have been planted in the waters south of the Suwanee
River to ascertain which of these areas hold the great-
est potentialities for oyster culture,

It will be interesting from an academic stand-
point to compare the findings of this investigation
with the knowledge already available on the same ;
animal in other parts of the United States and Canada,

(-26~)

But more important will be the help these facts
will provide in actual cultivation, In February 1949
there were only 1738 acres of oyster bottoms leased to
private concerns, By consultation with interested
planters and by encouragement it is hoped that this
acreage can be doubled within the next year,

Closed seasons, management, (including the plant-~
ing of cultch) and close observation are expected to
increase the yield from natural bars,

(-27-)

INTENSITY AND DISTRIBUTION OF OYSTER SET IN
CHESAPEAKE BAY AND TRIBUTARIES
Fred W, Sieling
Oyster Biologist,
Maryland Department of Research & Education,
3K IK OK coe

The intensity and distribution of the commercial
oyster set in the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries
has been studied for some years now by biologists of
the Department of Research and Education at Solomons,
the Fish and Wildlife Service and recently by the
Virginia Fisheries Laboratory, Setting of previous
years has been reported at these meetings thus only
the 1947 and 1948 oyster set will be described. Ob-
viously it is important to know what number of spat
has set, so that future production plans may be form~
ulated both for seed and marketable oysters, For the
purpose of this report, the Maryland part of the
Chesapeake Bay is divided into three distinct areas,
each having its own particular characteristics, These
areas may be defined as follows: The Upper Bay is
that portion lying above Sandy Point on the Western
Shore and Love Point on the Eastern Shore, The lower
part of the Chesapeake Bay is divided by the ship
channel into the western and eastern half, These two”
are quite different in their physical characteristics,
The Main tributaries of the bay react as individual
units and will be treated as such, The seed areas are
sharply defined and have certain distinct characteris-
tics which will be described later,

Very detailed observations are being taken on
each oyster bar visited and a standard form filled in
by the biologists of the several agencies working in
the field, These forms have been developed jointly
and all the groups working in the Chesapeake area are
making uniform observations, so that information ob-"
tained in different areas can be compared accurately,
In this way, there is being built up records of actual
populations and the physical characteristics of the
oyster bars,

Many areas are visited but once a year, so that
it is important to have as complete a picture as can
be made at that time, Other areas, notably seed areas,
are under intensive observation and detailed informa-
tion obtained at frequent intervals is available,
ee be discussed in some detail later in this
report,

The counts of oyster spat used in this report
were made on one half bushel random samples from the
oyster bar, Usually several samples were taken on
each bar and the counts averaged,

(-28-)

Most of the Chesapeake Bay bars show a remarkably
poor setting record for both 1947 and 1948. However,
if the record is broken down according to areas, it will
be seen that one area, the eastern shore of the Bay from
Love Point to Tangier Sound had a rather consistent set-
ting record, Several areas along this shore show sett-
ing characteristics comparable to seed areas, One such
ee 1948 had a set of 743 Spat per bushel on natural
cultch,

The figure used in the following averages were de-
rived by averaging only bars which were visited both in
1947 and 1948,

The average set on the eastern Shore side of the Bay
for 1947 was 61:2 spat per bushel and for 1948 was 15.5
spat per bushel, This figure does not include the two
high setting areas visited in 1948, These counts are
too low to make good self-sustaining bars, The western
shore of the Bay has an even lower setting record, The
average set on bars visited in both years showed a set-
ting average of only 2.2 spat per bushel in 1947 and 3.4
spat per bushel in 1948,

The upper part of the Bay in which ten bars were’
visited both years showed in 1947 an average set of 5.5
spat per bushel, In 1948 this figure dropped to 0,3 spat
per bushel, These figures show that the future populations
of the upper and western parts of the Chesapeake Bay, barr~
ing an unusually heavy set, will be of practically no com-
mercial value, This low setting rate combined with the
low population level presents a very poor outlook for the
near future of public oystering in the Bay proper, The
bars mentioned are all Bay dredging bars.

In general, the 1948 setting record was even lower
than the 1947 set, possibly reflecting the general lower-
ing of the population level,

The picture in the tributaries is not good, but it
is materially better in most cases than in the Bay proper,
One of the large producing tributaries is the Choptank
River, This area has in the past been largely self-
sustaining but the population level is being gradually
lowered, In 1947, the average number of spat per bushel
was 28, In 1948 this figure fell to 9 spat per bushel.
This set will not add materially to the production of
the river, The tributaries of the Choptank are, however,
rather heavy setting areas and can be expected to contin-
ue to produce,

Tangier Sound, one of the important producing areas,
still has a good population of mrket oysters, These
oysters are predominantly of the 1945 set which was ex-
cellent, This area in 1947, excluding the seed area of
Holland Straits, has an average surviving set of 45 spat
per bushel, In 1948, the set was slightly higher averag-~
ing 55 spat per bushel, Tangier Sound has many very ex-
cellent tributaries which are heavy oyster producing

(=29-)

areas and which may contribute materially to the set
in the Sound, These tributaries receive good oyster
sets each year and are good self-sustaining areas,

Pocomoke Sound, a fine self-sustaining area, show-
ed a great drop in spat per bushel setting in 1948, In
1947, the record was 308 spat per bushel on natural
cultch and in 1948 it was 197 spat per bushel, There
is, however, an excellent population of oysters on the
small area of natural rocks, on

The Potomac River, excluding the tributaries,
presents a rather discouraging picture as the popula-~
tion level is low on nearly all the major bars and it ~
has received a very poor set during the last two years,
In 1947, the average set was 10,8 spat per bushel and
in 1948 the average set was only 7 per bushel, The
tributaries of the Potomac River, however, present an
entirely different situation, Excluding the St, Mary's
seed area, the average set in the tributaries was 178 ~
spat per bushel in 1947 and 86 spat per bushel in 1948,
These records, again, cover producing bars and not
shell plantings, However, there was a drop in 1948
almost proportional to the drop in setting in the
Potomac River,.

The Patuxent River, typically a poor setting area,
continued its record of low setting with an average
in 1947 of 15,spat per bushel, In 1948, the set was
even lower, being 7 spat per bushel. Unlike some of
the rivers, the Patuxent lacks oyster producing tri-
butaries, The Patuxent must depend on plantings of
seed oysters from the: State's seed areas to maintain
its bars in production, .There is a low level of
marketable oyster present in the population now, so
the. outlook is not bright for next year,

jes
The three main seed areas of Maryland bear a

rather striking resemblance in many of their physi-

cal characteristics, They are all nearly land-locked,

-~. fave heavy populations of adult oysters and typically

are not deep, There are many smaller potential seed
. areas which have not been developed and utilized but
' which are now excellent self-sustaining areas,

Eastern Bay is perhaps the largest potential
; seed area in the state, At this time only a fraction
Of its acreage is being used for seed purposes, It

a has a consistent record of heavy setting, Close

study of this area is being made by the Fish and
Wildlife Service, Examination of the shells planted
there disclosed that the surviving set was 2002 spat
per bushel in the fall of 1947, In 1948, the catch
was lower, being 776 spat to the bushel on planted
shells, Slag which has been planted as cultch in

the Eastern Bay seed area for several years was found
in 1947 to have a surviving set of 2280 spat per
bushel, The 1948 planting of slag had a set of 944
spat per bushel, These counts are higher than those

(-30-)

on planted shells in the same area, There is how-
ever, a higher’mortality in moving the spat on
Slag than there is in moving the spat on shells
due to the rolling of the particles of Slag in the
dredge which crushes the small spat. The natural
oysters bars in the Eastern Bay area annually re-
ceive a good catch of spat, This area probably
will be used more in the future by the State as

a seed area,

Holland Straits is a large area which is not
fully developed at present, It has had a some-
what more spotty setting record than Eastern Bay,
but it is a good seed area, The last two years
were below average in spat per bushel, In 1947,
the surviving set was 153 spat per bushel and
in 1948 the set was 408 spat per bushel. There
is a possibility that too much brood stock is
being removed and that an area should be estab-
lished in which the oysters would be left to
mature and breed, Such a sanctuary might, it
appears, increase the average set materially.
This area will be studied more closely during
the coming setting season,

The area which has been studied most in-
tensively by the Chesapeake Biological Labora-
tory is the St, Mary's River, a tributary of
the Potomac River, This river has a consis-
tently good setting record, but there is not a
very large area available for development, The
area here is much less than that available
either in Holland Straits or Eastern Bay. There
is an abundance of adult oysters on it which do
not grow to a large size becuase, presumably,
of overcrowding, The average surviving set
in the St, Mary's River seed area on planted
shells in 1947 was 1807 spat per bushel. This
figure in 1948 feel to 788 spat per bushel.
The natural bars in the river also receive a
good catch of spat, Many types of experiment-
al cultch have been tried here, including slag
of three different sizes, tin scrap, broken
plaster molds and porcelain insulators, Also,
intensive observations of oyster setting and
of fouling organisms have been carried on from
June until September and weekly records of
salinity and temperature have been taken,

This concludes an area by area analysis
of the distribution and intensity of setting
in Maryland waters of the Chesapeake Bay for
1947-1948, The year 1948 was below average for
setting in most cases and in almost all cases

\-34-)

was below 1947 in average set of spat, As can be
seen from the foregoing report, the need in Maryland
is to develop the seed areas to a point where we can
begin to build up the population on the now barren
natural oyster bottom, The population level in the
Bay proper and in many of the western shore tribu-
taries, has reached a point where it now appears
unlikely that they will return to a commercial level

of production under natural conditions in this genera-
tion,

(~32=)

ON THE CULTURE OF OYSTER LARVAE IN THE LABORATORY
Harry C, Davis, Aquatic Biologist
Fish and Wildlife Service,
Milford, Connecticut,
aR a ak

In a study of the effects of the various conditions
which the oyster larvae may encounter in nature, it is
desirable to be able to maintain cultures of the larvae
in the laboratory during as many months of the years as
possible, Observations on these cultures will undoubt-
edly reveal many of the conditions responsible for the
death of larvae in nature and may finally explain why
the oyster set is a complete failure in certain locali-
ties in some years,

Using methods developed at Milford Laboratory for
inducing gonad development out of season, it is now ©
possible to obtain larvae almost throughout the year,
During the last year larvae have been reared to the
setting stage not only in summer but also in winter get-
ting sets as high as several hundred spat per 16 liter
(approximately 4,2 gallon) culture jar at either season,

The standard method for rearing oyster larvae has
previously been described in detail, Briefly, it con-
sists of changing the sea water in the culture jars,
every second day, through stainless steel screens that
retain the larvae. The cultures are constantly aerated
and supplementary food is added daily, Our experience
indicates that this offers the larvae the best condi-
tions attainable, at the present time, in the labora-
tory, When more frequent changes have been made, ex-
cept in rare instances, no improvement has been noted
either in rate of growth or in survival of the larvae,
They do not do as well if changed less frequently how-~
ever, probably an accumulation of waste products causes
the slower rate of growth and poorer survival of larvae
noted in these cases,

In using the methods for inducing gonad development
out of season and rearing larvae in the laboratory ab-
normal larvae were occasionally encountered, Some of
these abnormal larvae were apparently due to immature
eggs, obtained by induced abortive spawnings of females
that were not fully ripe. In some cases such spawnings
appeared to be quite normal and large quantities of eggs
were released, more frequently, however, comparatively
few eggs were released. If, for example, oysters were
spawned after relatively short conditioning periods at
temperatures only slightly above 20,0°C,, the eggs some-
times developed only to the late gastrula or early tro.
chophore stages, At these stages they became so "sticky"
that they adhered to each other and to the walls of the
culture jar, particularly at the water line where they
normally congregate in large numbers, After 24 hours
in such a culture, a gummy ring was found at the water
line and all the larvae were dead, With somewhat more
advanced but still immature eggs, the larvae developed

te33r)

shells more or less normally but were quite small
measuring only 60 to 704%at the 48-hour straight
hinge stage,

A situation, which may have a similar explan-
tion, was encountered with oysters from the natural
beds in Milford Harbor and Long Island Sound in the
summer of 1948, During the period of July 5-15
five groups of oysters from these beds were spawned
with none of the five batches of spawn collected
giving more than few very small straight hinge larvae,
even though on July Ist and 2nd similar groups of
oysters had been brought into the laboratory ad
spawned and the resulting larvae developed normally.
Also on July 19 some of the oysters of the July 15
group spawned again and these larvae developed
normally, Probably most of the oysters involved
had spawned on the natural beds just prior to being
brought in and possibly at the time of their first
spawning in the laboratory had not again accumula-~
ted fully mature eggs,

Overcrowding the larvae in the culture jars
may also result in abnormal larvae, In most cul-
tures that contained 500 or more eggs per cubic
centimeter, if the larvae developed to the shelled
stages at all, the shells formed were abnormal and
the larvae soon died, In some cases, however,
using daily changes of water and the addition of
large quantities of supplemental food, such cultures
have been carried for 15 days and more, and the
larvae have shown some growth,

Another possible cause of abnormal larvae is
the use of sea water in which adult oysters have
been kept. Eggs collected from the conditioning
tanks and trays after a mass spawning usually gave
a poor percentage of shelled larvae many of which
were abnormal in shape, Fewer abnormal larvae are
obtained when large numbers of eggs are spawned in
a small vessel so that the sea water containing the
eggs can be greatly diluted with fresh sea water in
preparing the cultures, Parallel cultures, one of
which was diluted with fresh sea water, while the
other was diluted with water from an aquarium in
which adult oysters were being conditioned, showed
that the sea water in which adult oysters had been
kept gave a much lower percentage of shelled larvae
and many of them were abnormal in shape.

Regardless of the cause of the abnormality,
such larvae rarely grow satisfactorily, even though
the conditions causing it are later corrected and
the larvae may live for several days,

_..... Healthy larvae, however, appear to be quite
hatdy and capable of withstanding many of the tem-
porary chahges Im the physical conditions they are

(-34-)

%

Healthy larvae, however, appear to be quite hardy
and capable of withstanding many of the temporary
changes in the physical conditions they are likely to
encounter in natural waters, While our laboratory
cultures that show the best growth are those constantly
kept at temperatures of 21.09 to 23,0°C., nevertheless,
oyster larvae have lived for periods up to 33 days and
grown, even when’ subjected every 48 hours to a sharp
drop from 20,0°C,, to temperatures of 8.0 or 10,0° C,,
for periods of 15 to 30 minutes followed by an equally
abrupt rise in temperature back to 20.0°C, In fact
some of these larvae lived and later set after being re-
turned to constant temperature conditions at 21,0° to
23.09 C, It would seem unlikely, therefore, that the
ordinary fluctuations in temperature occurring in
natural waters could directly account for any appreci-
able mortality of larvae, Loosanoff and Engle (1940)
in their study of spawning and setting in Long Island
Sound observed that larvae lived and set at temperatures
ranging from 16,69 to 28,09 C,, and likewise concluded
that oyster larvae can withstand rather drastic changes
in temperature,

Larvae are also apparently able to tolerate very
low dissolved oxygen values, at least for short peri-
ods, For example, on one occasion a number of healthy
larvae was accidentally left overnight in a small
pipette of sea water, yet these larvae were found to
be alive and healthy next morning although the oxygen
content of the water must have been almost completely
exhausted,

In another case a large oyster larva of setting
size failed to get washed from a screen during a change
of sea water only to be found alive and healthy after
a six~hour exposure to air,

There is considerable evidence, however, that
larvae of our Eastern oyster, Ostrea virginica, do not
utilize as wide a variety of foods as do larvae of the
hard clam, Venus mercenaria, or the Olympia oyster,
Ostrea Jurida, and that food is the limiting factor
in the growth of our oyster larvae, at least in labora-
tory cultures,

Although an occasional culture of our Eastern
oyster larvae has been grown to the setting stage with-
out supplemental food, in no case have we been able to
get larvae of the hard clam to grow under similar con-
ditions, Nevertheless, any of several mixed plankton
cultures serves quite well as supplemental food for clam
larvae, while with oyster larvae, on the other hand, only
occasionally have we been able to get a mixture that the
early larvae can utilize, It is interesting that none
of the pure cultures of green flagellates, colorless
flagellates, or algae tried to date has given as good a
rate of growth with either oyster or clam larvae, as do
the mixed cultures,

(-35-)

That clam larvae do utilize foods that the oyster
larvae cannot has been demonstrated by mixed cultures
of clam and oyster larvae in which their living condi-
tions must be the same. Supplemental foods were used
that permitted the clam larvae to grow normally and
set in the regular 12 to l-day period, The oyster
larvae, however, grew very little or not at all, and
eventually died, These results were not due to the
clam larvae, which are larger, robbing the oyster
larvae of food since the results were the same even
when only a half dozen or so clam larvae were present
in the mixture, Similar results were also obtained
using parallel cultures of clam and oyster larvae
that received the same food,

The fact that cultures of clam larvae can re-
gularly be reared to the setting stage, while many
of our cultures of Eastern oyster larvae cannot ap-
pear to be due solely to the ability of the clam
larvae to utilize a much wider variety of supplemen-
tal foods,

Likewise, larvae of our Eastern oyster cannot
utilize foods that larvae of the Olympia oyster can
use, Cuitures of the Olympia larvae have been reared
to the setting stage, while parallel cultures of our
Long Island Sound larvae receiving the same food grew
very slowly, with one culture all dead in 10 days, the
second culture almost all dead at 15 days and the re-
maining culture showing a very wide range of sizes,
from 75A straight hinge larvae to medium umbo stages,
by the time the Olympia larvae set,

In laboratory cultures, at least, food seems to ©
be the limiting factor in the growth of oyster larvae,
While occasional cultures have been reared to the set-
ting stage merely by changing the sea water cvery 48
hours, throughout most of the year supplemental feed-
ing is ncessary,

Evidence that it is lack of food that limits the
growth in our cultures of oyster larvae was obtained
from parallel cultures one of which received supple-
mental food while the other did not. Most of the
cultures in which the larvae reached the setting stage
were those that received supplemental food, and in most
cases larvae in the parallel unfed cultures grew very
little and eventually all died, In many cases, of
course, both cultures grew very little and died in about
10 days, apparently becuase the supplemental foods used’
in those cases were not utilizable by the oyster larvae,

Another indication that it is lack of proper food
that prevents many of our cultures of oyster larvae
from growing is that it is possible to duplicate, with
clam larvae, the slow rate of growth, wide variations
in size and high mortality, so characteristic of many

(-36-)

of the cultures of oyster larvae, merely by supply-
ing insufficient quantities or the wrong type of
food to the clam larvae,

Finally, it is difficult to conceive any other
factor than lack of proper food that would so pro=-
long the free-swimming period of our Eastern oyster
larvae while by using the same techniques hard clam
larvae and Olympia oyster larvae are regularly rear-
ed to the setting stage in relatively normal time,
Although in one experiment our Eastern oyster larvae
were reared to the setting stage in 23 days, in most
cases it required 36 to 40 days for the larvae to
reach the setting stage, and in a culture from eges
spawned January 6 it required 50 days for the first
larva to reach the setting stage, the most profuse
Setting was between the 52nd and 54th days and some
setting continued until the 60th day,

Two conclusions, therefore, seem warranted - first,
that our Eastern oyster larvae are not able to utilize
as wide a variety of foods as can the larvae of the
hard clam or the Olympia oyster, and second, that it
is food, at least in laboratory cultures, that is the
limiting factor in growth of oyster larvae,

Preliminary experiments are in progress to ex-
plore the possibilities of interspecific hybridization,
On several occasions active Olympia sperm have be»
added to unfertilized eggs of our Long Island Sound
oysters but fertilization did not occur, Such eges
held for as long as eight hours showed no evidence
of fertilization. In some instances active sperm from
our Eastern oysters were added two or more hours after
the addition of the Olympia sperm and in such cases
fertilization by the Eastern oyster sperm and the sub-
sequent development of the eggs was equally as good as
for unfertilized control eggs held for similar periods
before the addition of Eastern sperm, The Olympia
sperm, therefore, probably does not even enter the
egg of our Long island Sound oyster since it does not
cause the formation of a fertilization membrane nor
does it interfere in any way with the fertilization
by Eastern oyster sperm,

Although crosses have been made between the
Eastern oyster and the Japanese oyster, Ostrea gigas,
and between the Eastern oyster and the Kumamoto oyster
(probably a variety of 0, gigas) and reciprocal fer-
tilization is obtained, no conclusions ean be drawn as
to the viability of the resulting larvae, The adult
Japanese and Kumamoto oysters were shipped to us from
the State of Washington in the fall and apparently had
not spawned in the Washington waters last summer since
all were found to contain large quantities of spawn,
Although some of these oysters were induced to spawn
and their eggs and sperm used in the crosses, we are
in some doubt that such Spawn was normal, Hence, in

(-37-)

those cases where the larvae did not live, it re-
mained undetermined whether it was an incompati-
bility of sexual products or simply the poor con-
dition of the held-over spawn that caused the mor-
tality. Even at the present time many of these
oysters have not yet resorbed the old spawn and so
cannot be induced to develop new gonads,

SUMMARY
It is now possible to obtain oyster larvae,
in the laboratory, throughout most of the year
and to rear the larvae to the setting stage both
in winter and in summer,

In general, healthy larvae are quite hardy
and can withstand at least temporary exposure to
such conditions as low temperatures, low oxygen
content of the sea water, and even exposure to
short periods of drying.

It appears, however, that food is the limit-
ing factor in the laboratory culture of oyster
larvae and that supplementary feeding is required
during most of the year, The ability to supply
the proper food determines the success of rearing
them in the laboratory, That larvae of the Eastern
oyster, Ostrea virginica, are unable to utilize
foods that some other larvae can use has been shown
by comparative feeding experiments,

Preliminary studies to explore the possibili-
ties of interspecific hybridization show that the
Olympia oyster, Ostrea Jurida, will not cross with
the Eastern oyster but that the Japanese and
Kumamoto oysters (varieties of Ostrea gigas) are
capable of reciprocal fertilization with the
Eastern oyster, Tests of the viability of the
larvae from these latter crosses have not been
concluded,

(-38-)

THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF NORTH CAROLINA AND SOME OF
ITS PROBLEMS ,

A, F, Chestnut,
Institute of Fisheries Research,
Morehead City, N. C.
kok aE

According to the available statistics, North
Carolina has maintained a rather modest position in
oyster production over the past fifty years, In 194e,
for example, it was third or fourth from the bottom of
the list of oyster-producing states along the Atlantic
and Gulf coasts, Since 1930 production has only twice
exceeded 500,000 bushels in a single season, At least
four surveys have been made of North Carolina waters
concerning the possibilities of oyster culture (Win-
slow, 1886; Grave, 1904; Coker, 1907; Galtsoff and
Seiwell, 1928). Rach survey appears to express the
opinion that potentialities exist for a great industry.
However, tn= industry has been slow to develop, and
the oyster continues to represent one of the great
undeveloped natural resources of the state,

The oyster-producing areas are located in the
numerous sounds of the state, bound on the ocean
side by the so-called "banks", making these sounds
almost landlocked bodies of water, Albemarle and
Currituck Sounds are considered too fresh for oysters,
Oysters are found growing from Roanoke Island to the .,
South Carolina border, Pamlico Sound produces the
bulk of the oysters marketed in the state, This is
not surprising when we consider that this body of
water with approximately 1, 100,000 acres is seven
times greater than Roanoke, Croatan, Bogue and Core
Sounds combined, Pamlico Sound, some seventy miles
long by thirty miles wide at its greatest length and
breadth, is a relatively shallow body of water aver-
aging 18 feet in depth, with the greatest depth at ~
25 feet, Several sheals extend from the mainland
into the sound, Brant Island Shoal with a depth of
2 to 8 feet extends in a northwest-southeast direction
about half way across the sound, Bluff Shoal ex-
tends in a north-south direction from the northern
shore of Pamlico Sound with a depth of 7 to 11 feet
overlying the shoal, It merges into Royal Shoal which
extends to Ocracoke Inlet, The bottom of Pamlico
Sound varies from mud to hard sand with the mud bot-
tom confined chiefly to the channels of the various
' tributaries, The salinity in the immediate vicinity
of the inlets averages about 30 parts per thousand,
progressively diminishing toward the mouths of the
Pamlico and Neuse Rivers on the western side of the
sound, The currents are determined largely by the
winds, and the tidal fluctuations are found in the
vicinity of the inlets.

(3-)

Winslow (1886) estimated 10,000 acres of natural
beds for the state with 7,700 acres located in Pamlico
Sound, Ten years after Winslow's survey, extensive
beds were discovered in Pamlico Sound about two miles
off shore in deeper water, Grave (190%) states that
some beds surveyed by Winslow in Hyde County had in-
creased in area due to extensive dredging and estima-
ted the natural beds in this county from 18,000 to
36,000 acres in 1900, No recent surveys have been
made, but many of the areas surveyed by Winslow were
found this past year to be productive, Occasional re=-
ports are received from shrimp trawlers that beds are
located in the lower south-east Pamlico Sound Area,”

A survey is planned of this area in the near future,

The oyster industry of North Carolina became
of importance in 1889 when decreased oyster produc~
tion in the Chesapeake region led to the establish-
ment of branch houses in the coastal areas, It is
of interest that the oysters processed at the time
were shipped to Baltimore and sold as Chesapeake
oysters, This still exists at the present day, Many
oysters are shucked, packed and reshipped by Chesa-
peake dealers,

Within the past few decades some changes have
occurred in the area, The hurricane of 1933 opened
twenty-eight inlets between Beaufort and Ocracoke
Inlets and completely ruined the oyster beds at
Harbor Island, Most of the new inlets have closed
except Drum Inlet, The salinity in the vicinity of
Drum Inlet has increased to over 30 parts per thou-
sand as compared to an average of 23 parts per thou-
sand reported by Galtsoff and Seiwell (1928), Clams
are now abundant in an area where oysters were pro-
duced in marketable quantities,

More oysters are being shipped out from shucking
houses instead of in the shell. Since 1946 at least
35 new shucking houses have been constructed, These
are modest but clean, efficient plants, a marked con-
trast to the sheds of past years, According to Mr,
Caldwell, chief sanitarian, the trend has been toward
smaller plants located as near as possible to the
oyster-producing areas, instead of larger houses near
a railroad center, This past season there were 63
shucking houses in the state, with 28 certified for
inter-state shipping, Twenty-five shucking houses
are located in the Pamlico Sound area, Two steam
canneries operated last season, utilizing the "coon"
oysters from the Baufort Inlet area,

Regulations requiring dredging with sail power
and limitations on sizes of vessels were repealed
in 1948. Heretofore, vessels over 32 feet in length
were required to dredge with sails,

(-40-)

The legislature of 1947, upon the recommendation
of a committee appointed by Governor Cherry, passed
a law imposing a tax of 50¢ on every bushel of oys-
ters going out of the state in the shell, Attempts
to repeal this measure were defeated during the
1949 session, Opponents of the tax believe that
North Carolina could be developed into an important
seed-producing area and believe that such a tax is
hindering this program, There are areas where an
abundance of seed could be procured in Bogue, Core
and Pamlico Sounds, A question arises whether the
available seed be used within the state to maintain
and encourage the industry or be allowed to leave
the state, There may be sufficient for both pur-
poses, The legislature of 1947 also passed a regu-
lation Usa Ege return of 50 percent of the
shells accumulating at the shucking houses, thus
inaugurating a definite shell-planting program,

A tax on oysters harvested from the natural beds
was increased from + to 8¢ per bushel, The in-
creased revenue is to aid in meeting the expenses
of shell plantings, In 1947, 63,258 bushels of
shells were planted, In 1948, this amount was in- .
creased to 95,919 bushels, In 1949, 119,517 bushels
of shells were planted as the state's quota with an
additional 34,000 bushels of shell purchased, Ten
thousand bushels of seed oysters were transplanted
as an experimental procedure in three counties,

The private leasing of grounds for oyster
culture has been emphasized since the time of
Winslow's survey in 1886, This supposed solution
to the problem of increased oyster production and
development of the industry has not been too popu~
lar, Leasing of bottom is permitted within the
state with limits of 50 acres in the tributaries
and 200 acres in Pamlico Sound, However, the
counties of Hyde and Pamlico prohibit leasing of
bottom, There are at present but 3,232 acres
under lease, The majority of these grounds
average ten acres and are used to raise oysters
for family use or to supply oyster roasts, These
leased areas are found chiefly in the tributaries
of Core and Bogue Sounds,

Many factors appear to favor North Carolina as
an oyster-producing area, There is an abundance of
seed in some areas, Potentialities exist in Core
and Bogue Sounds for greater utilization and develop-
ment of oyster seed, The quality of oysters is, in
general, good and can compare favorably with oysters
from other areas, The fact that North Carolina oys-
ters have since 1890 been sold as Chesapeake oysters
cannot be overlooked, North Carolina is situated
about in the geographical center of the extreme
ranges of the eastern oyster, Weather conditions
favor rapid growth, making it possible, in some
localities, to produce a marketable oyster in two
years, The numbers of enemies are not as great as
in other oyster-producing areas; Pamlico Sound is

(k]-) NOS RMIT ey UM CS NAL SOIR

virtually free of predatory enemies, The boring
sponge, Cliona, does not cause damage to oysters
in North and New Rivers, In the upper regions

of Middle Bay and Caffee Bay the shells of all
oysters examined, over two years old, were heavily
riddled with sponge, Polydora is prevalent in
widely separated localities with heavy infesta-
tions in the oysters growing on the shoals at
Ocracoke Inlet, Mussels (Mytilus recurvus)cover
oyster to form large masses in the head of Jones
Bay, Swanquarter Bay and other localities, In-
dustrial and domestic pollution are of minor con-
sequent in Pamlico Sound. Over 27,000 acres of
shellfish-producing area were restricted in North
Carolina because of pollution during the 1948-49
season, However, there were no areas closed in
Pamlico Sound during the same season due to
pollution,

The Institute of Fisheries Research is act-
ing in an advisory capacity to the North Carolina
Department of Conservation and Development in the
rehabilitation and development of the industry,

(-42-)

GROWTH OBSERVATIONS OF OYSTERS HELD ON
TRAYS AT SOLOMONS ISLAND, MARYLAND
G. Francis Beaven

Oyster Biologist
Maryland Department of Research and Education

It is a common observation that oysters growing on dif-
ferent bars may differ widely in rate of growth. Deepness of
the cupped shell, ratio of length to width, and general ap-
pearance also may differ markedly. The reasons for slow
rates of growth are not always apparent. On some of Mary-
land's seed areas, few oysters reach legal size even when
six or more years old. This condition might be attributed
to crowding. However, the most rapid growth observed in
Maryland's portion of the Chesapeake area occurred in upper
Pocomoke Sound where a very heavy set on shell plants pro-
duced many individuals around 5 inches in length by late fall
of the year when they set, and numerous 6 inch oysters by the
second fall. Crowding caused these oysters to be rather e-
longated but they had good meats with shells so thin they
often broke in two at the muscle when shucking. The slow
growth characteristic of oysters on the Head of the Bay bars
probably results largely from frequent periods of low salin-
ity when little if any feeding activity occurs. It is dif-
ficult, however, to correlate a higher rate of growth with
inereased salinity. In Chincoteague Bay, where salinities
normally are just under 30°/00, growth was extremely poor in
1945 and exceptionally fast during 1948-49,

Numerous measurements of State transplanted seed were
made from 1945 to 1946 using random samples of about 400 in-
dividuals. Seed from St. liary's River transplanted to the
upper Patuxent increased from a length of 28 mm. in April,
1944 to 85 mm. in October 1945 when the bar was opened, a
gain in length of 196%. Holland Straits seed planted in
three different bars in Tangier Sound all grew rather uni-
formly with an increase from 36 mm. in April 1944, to about
69 mm. in September 1945, a gain in length of only 92%.
Yearling seed oysters grew 151% faster in length in the Up-
per Patuxent River than in Chincoteague Bay during 1944-45,
but grew 26% faster in Chincoteague Bay than on a mid-Pat-
uxent River bar during 1946. Similar wide variations have
been observed among other State planted bars where growth
of the seed was followed. Obviously varying environmental
conditions play a very important part in the growth and con-
dition of oysters. Among the factors which may influence
growth are variations in salinity, temperature, turbidity,
species of food organisms, abundance of food organisms, cur-
rent flow, bottom texture, toxic organisms such as those
producing the red tide, organisms competing for food, or-

(-43-~)

ganisms competing fer food, organisms competing for space,
pollution, natural decomposition products and others.

Oyster planters often report that seed from one area
will grow faster than that from another and that survival
also may vary. Dr. Nelson has postulated that enforcement
of a three inch cull law may tend to produce a slower grow-
ing racé of oysters by returning the runts or "dumpy" oys-
ters to the bars where they form an increasingly higher
proportion of the brood stock. Dr. Korringa has stated
that the Dutch have produced a faster growing oyster in
Holland than the same species grown along the coast of
France by putting back the faster growing individuals as

brood stock. In areas of intensive setting such as along
the Gulf, portions of the South Atlantic Coast, and certain

seed areas further north, the older oysters are quickly
covered over and smothered out by the younger set with only
the fastest growing individuals able to survive. Such con-
ditions would seem favorable to a natural selection of a
quick growing race of oysters.

Observations of growth on various plantings such as the
ones previously quoted are so influenced by environmental
factors that it is difficult if not impossible to evaluate
the effect of any inherent tendency towards a rapid or slow
rate of growth. Measurement by random sampling of a plant-
ing may have considerable error and possesses the further
disadvantage that a given group or year class tends to lose
its identity after the second year. By following the growth
of the same individuals held on a tray, or identified in some
other manner, a much more accurate record of growth and mor-
tality may be obtained. This method has been followed by a
number of observers. Dr. Loosanoff measured the length,
width, depth and volume of marked groups of oysters and de-—-
termined the decreasing rate of growth with age under con-
ditions prevailing in Long Island Sound at the time of the
experiments. (Southern Fisherman, January, 1047). He later
compared the survival and growth of Maryland Eastern Bay seed
with the native Long Island Stock and reported that the Mary-
land set grow somewhat slower but survived better than the
natives, (Oyster Institute Bulletin, February 7, 1949).

In an attempt to throw additional light on the question
of whether or not oysters from certain areas may possess in-
herent characteristics favoring their growth and survival un-
der given conditions, batches of oysters from various areas
were planted at Solomons under as nearly the same environmen-
tal conditions as practicable. During early observations, dif-
ference in survival and growth can be expected to occur as a
result of the extent to which the oysters must become adjust-
ed to a different environment. Data aé@umulated over a num-
ber of years, however, should afford an indication as to the
presence and extent of inherent characteristics. Practical

(-44—-)

value of the results of such observations lies in the desig-
nation of those seed sources from which oysters do best when
transplanted to typical Maryland conditions. If seed from
certain areas should show superior growth and survival char-
acteristics then effort can be made to establish them as
brook stock in the state seed producing areas.

All oysters in these experiments have been grown on trays
of the Sea Rac type placed on the bottom under the Laboratory
pier in the Patuxent River, Depth of water over the trays is
about four feet, the trays being placed side by side in a
line extending at right angles to the shore and with a com-
paratively weak tidal current flowing across them. All oys-
ters were placed by hand at a slight angle leaning on the
left valve with the bills up. This position insures a uni-
form exposure but seems to have produced a somewhat more
elongate oyster than those grown flat down on the left valve.
Tigal amplitude averages 1.2 feet and salinity approximately
14°/00 varying from a normal of about 11 in late spring to
16.5 in the fall. Considerable variations from normal may
occur from year to year.

The initial plantings consisted of groups of 500 oysters
divided between two trays. Later plantings have employed
somewhat smaller numbers. Each tray had 2 x 4 timbers wired
to its bottom to prevent settling. These timbers were aban-
doned after the first year since it was found that they were
destroyed by shipworms in one season and no apparent differ-
ence resulted from resting the trays directly on the bottom.
Measurements of the length and width of each oyster were
made, usually at bi-monthly intervals. Depth was not meas-
ured because the difficulty encountered with fouling organ-
isms and erosion of the shell made it impractical to attain
sufficient accuracy where so many animals are measured,
Boxes were measured and a correction for their size was ap-
plied to the preceding measurement since it was observed
that typically those which died had made little or no recent
growth, Occasionally a few individuals disappeared from the
trays and could not be accounted for. The series under ob-
servation was added to in 1948 and again in 1949. Similar
plantings have been started in a prong of the Maryland por-
tion of Chincoteague Bay.

Growth and mortality curves for the various groups
have been plotted. The patterns of growth at Solomons dur-
ing 1947, 1948 and the spring of 1949 have been somewhat
aifferent. Growth during the spring of 1947 was good but
levelled off with little or no growth occurring during July
and August. Rapid fall growth followed. The interval be-
tween late fall and early spring measurements was too great
to show any cessation of growth during the winter months.
Growth during the spring of 1948 was again rapid and of an

(-45-)

open frilly nature with the thin growing edges somewhat re-
flexed. This growth period was followed by an. upturn in
mortality particularly among one group of local seed. Dur-
ing the summer months much of this growth eroded away so
that the oysters generally dropped back in both length and
width. Very good fall growth then followed and continued
through December. During January and February of 1949, a
moderate recession in growth again occurred. This spring
the new growing edge or bill remained back within a fold of
the old growth so that the overall measurements up to early
May had failed to increase and in some cases dropped back
slightly. The oysters, however, were in good condition
and the new growing oor was about even with the margin of
the older growth.

Ratio of length to width of tray grown oysters has
tended to approach 1.5 with young round shappd oysters
showing an increasing, and long coon-type oysters a de-
creasing ratio. In comparing the groups, the product of
the length in millimeters times the width in millimeters
was selected as the most satisfactory index of growth from
the available data. For the purposes of this paper een
tailed growth during the year will not be shown.

Table 1 gives the late spring, early fall and winter
length measurements of selected groups of seed. It com-
pares two groups of similar size composition which show
the more marked differences in growth. These also illus-
trate the greater fall growth as compared with spring
growth, the very poor summer growth of 1948 and the lack
of growth this spring. Average length by age groups is
quite similar to that given by Loosanoff for Long Island
Sound,

To illustrate that environmental and seasonal dif-
ferences may affect growth to a much greater extent than
is apparent between the different groups growing together
at Solomons, the lengths of oysters in a tray planting in
Chincoteague Bay and in an older seed planting in the Pat-
uxent River are given.

TABLE 1

LENGTH IN MM. OF TRAY GROWN SEED

Source Dominant May Sept.Winter’May Sept.Winter May

year class '47 '47 : '48 §'48. - ‘ 449
(Holland Straits 1945-46 46 55° “9 75 75. wee 85)
(Maurice River 1945 48 53° «65 6B «66873 72)
(Gull Rock 1944-45 67 71 884 86 86 92 92)

(Mullica River 1944-45 67 OR ae CA © aaa 83)

Fishing Bay 1945 planted. in Chincoteague

ee EY Bay 73 102 112 118
re eS Oe aaa ee

LENGTH IN MM. OF RANDOM SAMPLES
OF PATUXENT PLANTING

Seed from shell Year class April July Dec. July Oct.
plants in "44 "44 ‘44 '45 '45
St. Mary's River 1943 27 43 i 74 83

(marketed in 3rd year)

Tables 2 and 3 show the growth of all groups started
on trays in 1947 and 1948 as indicated by the product of
length and width for cne year periods. The cumulative per
cent of mortality observed is also given. It will be noted
that the mortality of established oysters during the second
year is less than during the initial year. Higher mortality
generally occurred among oysters transplanted from waters
of greater salinity and among those of the smaller sizes.
The best survival at Solomons, 5% mortality, has been among
Gull Rock, N. ©., seed, which were of comparatively large
Size and from water subject to periods of fairly low sal-
inity. The greatest mortality, 58.4% was among the Long
Island Sound Oysters from waters of a comparatively high
and stable salinity. The seed transplanted from Chesa-
peake salinities of around 12 tc a portion of Chincoteague
Bay, where salinities range from 20to 30 have shown better
survival and growth than any of those planted at Solomons.

TABLE 2
GROWTH AND MORTALITY OF SEED OYSTERS
PLANTED AT SOLOMONS IN MAY, 1947:
SIZE EXPRESSED AS MM. LENGTH X MM. WIDTH

Source of Seed Initial Size in % Mort. Size in % Mort.

Size 1 year 1 year 2 years 2 years
Gull Rock, N. C, 2995 5047 2.8 5450 5.0
Mullica River, N. Jo 2846 4289 7.0 4442 12.6
Milford, Conn. 2745 4599 40.8 4701 58.4
St. Mary's River, Md. 2625 4527 22.8 5256 26.2
James River, Va. 2594 4250 9.8 4410 13.4
Delaware River, N.J. 2094 6625 14.0 3982 25.2
Maurice River, N. J. 1649 S261 16.4 5484 20.4
Holland Straits, Md. 1584 5793 6.2 4901 15.0
Eastern Bay, Mad. 13548 5410 15.4 4559 17.4

(=47-=)

TABLE 3

GROWTH AND MORTALITY OF SEED OYSTERS
PLANTED AT SOLOMONS IN APRIL-MAY, 1948

Source of Seed Initial Size in 4% Mortality
Size 1 year 1 year
New Haven, Conn. 56735 4095 27.6
Edisto River, S. C. 2954 5066 14.9
Green Point, L. I. 2854 5575 57.0
New River, WN. C. 2047 2830 25.7
Beaufort, N. C. 1906 2522 22.0
Delaware River, N. J. 12135 1637 41.6
Eastern Bay, Md. 431 1678 48.6

Seed planted in Chincoteague Bay

Harris Creek, lid. 4054 85035 5.0
Fishing Bay, Md, 5885 8646 2.8

Duration of the experiment has been too brief to fur-
nish conclusive evidence as to whether or not significant
differences in growth exist among the groups of surviving
oysters after adjustment has been made to the environmental
conditions prevailing at Solomons. That initial differences
in growth and mortality are evident has been pointed out.
Seed from the local state seed areas and that from Gull
Rock, have thus far proven superior for planting under local
conditions. However, differences in growth among individuals
within a group have been observed to be much greater than
those amdng the group averages. A greater or less number
of runts which have made little noticeable growth during
the period of measurements has been present in all groups.

The two plantings in Chincoteague Bay shown in Table 3
present an interesting feature in that the Harris Creek seed
are native to water which is typically clear and seldom
roiled by wave action while the Fishing Bay seed are from
a shallow water area frequently roiled by wave action ren-
dering the water rather turbid and silt laden. The latter
condition of the water is very pronounced over the soft
textured shoals of Chincoteague Bay. Although both groups
have made very rapid growth, the ones native to turbid water
have done somewhat better in both growth and survival.

These observations in general offer some indication that
oysters which have grown for many generations in a given en-
vironment may thrive somewhat better in that or a similar
environment than will stock transplanted from areas where
aifferent conditions prevail. This does not preclude the

(-48-)

assumption that sparseiy populated bars where reproduction

is slow may have a larger proportion of adult runts or dumpy
oysters due to the lack of their elimination through compe-
tition. Also, it may be found that certain areas have de-
veloped a population which will thrive better when trans-
planted to a similar habitat than do the oysters native to
it. Plantings made this spring have included seed from areas
of the Gulf Coast. Future plantings of oysters that have
demonstrated rapid growth in their native habitats are
plannted.

(-49-)

FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE
CLAM INVESTIGATIONS
John B. Glud

Fishery Research Biologist
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

The Clam Investigation was authorized by Public Law
556 of the 1948 Congress which was sponsored by the Atlan-
tic States Marine Fisheries Commission and which reads as
follows:

("Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Repre-
sentatives of the United States of America in Congress
assembled,) THAT, the Fish and Wildlife Service of the
Department of the Interior is hereby authoriged and di-
rected to undertake, in cooperation with appropriate State
and interstate agencies, comprehensive studies of the soft-
shell clam, Mya arenaria, and the hard~shell clam, Venus
mercenaria, with particular respect to the biology, prop-
agation, and methods of cultivation of such clams. Such
Service shall from time to time recommend appropriate
measures for (l)arresting depletion in existing produc-
tive beds; (2) restoring to production beds formerly pro-
ductive but now barren or unusable; (3) developing new
areas which may be found suitable; (4) improving methods
and techniques of digging, transplanting, and handling;
and (5) otherwise increasing production and improving the
quality of such clams for the benefit of both producers
and consumers."

The first step in planning this five year investiga-
tion was a survey of the problems in each area along the
entire Atlantic Coast. Conferences were held with repre-
sentatives of the industry, state conservation depart-
ments, universities. Particular thanks are due the clam
specialists committee of the Atlantic States Marine Fish
eries Commission for their valuable guidance in establish-
ing this Program. The results of this survey were used
to establish a research program which would attack the
most urgent problems in each area to provide the greatest
benefit to the industry and to the agencies charged with
the responsibility of conservation of this natural resource,

For practical purposes the Investigation has been
divided into two parts: (1) Soft-shell Clam Investigation
north of Cape Cod; and (2) Hard-Shell Clam Investigation
south of Cape Cod. Apologies are hereby made to the Rhode
Islanders who like to call their hard-shell clams quahaugs
and to the Southerners who like to call their soft-shell
Clams "long necks" or "mannanoses."

(-50-)

SOFT CLAM INVESTIGATION:

The State of Maine has great quantities of soft-shell
clams and an intense commercial fishery. The principal
problem of the State of Maine Sea and Shore Fisheries Com-
mission is the management of this fishery so that it shall
not become depleted. In places the digging can be greatly
increased, in other places it must be curtailed if the in-~
dustry is to continue.

Seca eee eee ee EN ee ee

Boothbay Harbor has been selected as headquarters for
the Clam Investigation as laboratory facilities are avail-
able there and also as it is about the center of the soft
clam producing area. Three biologists are stationed there
at the present time and two bays have been chosen for study
to develop methods for management of the clam fishery.
These two bays, Sagadahoe Bay and Robinhood Cove, are lo-
cated at the south and north side, respectively, of George-
town Island. Sagadahoe Bay is a wide, flat, sandy bay,
facing the open ocean. Low tides expose an area of flats
three-quarters of a mile long and haif a mile wide. From
six to twelve diggers work in this area during the Winter
and twenty to twenty-five during the Summer. Robinhood
Cove which opens at the north side of Georgetown Island
is a long, narrow, deep bay with rather steep muddy banks,
A relatively small area is exposed at low tide but the
shore line is about seven miles long and clams are quite
abundant. The same men dig in both Robinhood Cove and
Sagadahoe Bay are sell their catch to one or two clam buy-
ers. ‘These buyers have kept daily records of the number
of bushels each man has dug for the last three years. They
will give us these records and will continue to keep them
for us in the future which will enable us to determine
catch per unit of effort, or bushels per man tide in both
areas.

Hach bay will be handled as a separate management
osroblem to determine the amount of clams which can be re-
moved each year without depleting the stock. To determine
this we must first learn how fast the clams grow and how
many clams are now present in the bay. We must determine
how many young clams are added each year by setting and
how many die of natural causes, such as predators, silting,
freezing, disease, or old age. We have to know how many
small clams are killed by the commercial digging and how
many eggs are produced by clams of different ages and sizes.

Balancing all of these factors will tell us the amount
of clams which can be removed safely each year. This figure

(aat=)

will be compared with the actual production from records
kept by the clam buyers. The clam population census will
be taken twice each year to check the accuracy of our pre-
dictions. We may find, for example, that the diggers are
removing fifteen thousand bushels per year when cur estim-
ate of sustained yield is ten thousand bushels per year.

A decline in the abundance of clams over a period of sev-
eral years would confirm our predictions that too many
Clams were being removed.

These studies will also enable us to determine the
extent of natural fluctuations in abundance which can then
be compared with the changes in abundance caused by digging.
These investigations are being conducted jointly by the
State of Maine Sea and Shore Fisheries Commission and the
Fish and Wildlife Service as pilot plant studies of the
Management problem. When methods have been perfected the
State of Maine will be able to apply these techniques to
all of her coast line,

In addition to the management studies at Sagadahoc
Bay and Robinhood Cove other problems of mutual interest
to the industry, the State, and the Service will be inves-
tigated, such as methods of clam farming, cause of "water
belly", effect of thinning stunted clams, methods of catch-
ing seed clams, best time and methods of transplanting
seed, etc.

NEW HAMPSHIRE AND MASSACHUSETTS:

The story of the disappearance of the soft clam in
New Hampshire and Massachusetts has received much publicity
and is responsible in a large measure for the present in-
vestigation. Flats which formerly supported three hundred
fifty to four hundred diggers now support thirty-five.
Areas which were once productive are now barren. Sewage
pollution has closed many of the best areas. The problems
in Massachusetts are varied because of the different envi-
ronmental conditions. Management of the fishery by closed
areas and seasons and catch limits seems ineffectual where
depletion has become so serious. Farming of soft clams,
using methods similar to those developed in Japan, may be
a partial answer. Town nlanting programs may provide enough
Clams for tourist digsing. Perhaps eventually a combination

@ managed commercial Fishery will solve the problem,

FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE MASSACHUSETTS PROJECT:

The Parker River Wildlife Refuge near Newburyport has
been chosen for the location of clam research in Vassachu-
@geotts. Plum Island Sound, resulting from the estuaries of

(-52=)

the Ipswich, Parker and Plum Island River's, was once a
center of clam production and still has great poten-
tialities. Most of this area is free from pollution and
lies within the Refuge where experimental plots are easily
protected.

An office has been established at Newburyport and
three biologists are stationed there. Arrangements have
also been made for cooperative studies with Harvard Univ-
ersity in this area.

The Newburyport Unit will establish experimental clam
farms and determine their commercial practicability,
Spawning and setting of the larvae will be followed to de- .
velop methods of obtaining seed clams. Growth rates and
mortality of the young clams will be determined. The
effects of predators and means for their control will be
studied.

In addition, investigations will be made to establish
the reasons for the decline in abundance of clams. Past
catch records from the town shellfish wardens and the dig-
gers themselves will be obtained to determine if overdig-~
ging can account for the decrease or if it could be a
periodic fluctuation as some believe. Observations of
areas closed because of sewage pollution should yield some
valuable information concerning changes in abundance where
there is no commercial fishery. The Joppa Flats, at the
mouth of the Merrimack River, are full of large clams but
have no small ones. This may indicate that no setting has
occurred during the last three years or that some unfavor-
able. condition has killed the smaller clams. Spawning and
setting will be studied here during this Summer to deter=
mine if reproduction is normal.

All of this work will be in close cooperation with
the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution project at -
Barnstable and the Shellfish Program of the Marine Fish-
eries Division of the Massachusetts Department of Conser-
vation.

(-55-)

HARD CLAM INVESTIGATIONS:

The great range of Venus mercenaria from New England
to Florida and the variety of conditions under which it
exists makes the selection of sites for research very dif-
ficult. Eleven states are involved and each would like to
have a project located within its borders. The limited
appropriation makes it necessary to concentrate the work in
a few representative areas where the most valuable results
can be obtained. Cooperative studies with State Conser-
vation Departments and universities are planned to utilize
existing research facilities as much as possible.

NEW JERSEY:

The extensive hard clam fishery of New Jersey, plus
the research project of Dr. Thurlow Nelson and his group
at Rutgers University, present many opportunities for joint
studies. A cooperative agreement has been established be-
tween Rutgers University and the Fish and Wildlife Service
to facilitate research on quahaugs in this State. During
the Summer of 1949 two graduate students will be assigned
to work with Dr. Nelson's group on certain phases of the
problem. (1) One man will try to develop methods of ob-
taining seed clams from natural reproduction. We know that
clean shells placed in the water at the proper time will
catch oyster spat, but how can we catch clam spat? Until
methods of obtaining seed clams are developed commercial
clam farming can never be feasible. In Japan loosely wo-
ven palm fiber matting is hung in the water and the ark-
shell clams attach as heavily as fifteen hundred per square
foot. Maybe similar methods will be successful here with
the hard shell clam. Perhaps changing the character of
the bottom in certain places like the Woods Hole Oceano-
graphic Institution is doing at Barnstable will induce
setting of quahaugs also. It may be possible to locate
areas where natural setting is very heavy and where seed
clams can be strained from the sand. These are the pos-—
sibilities that one of the biologists at Rutgers will ex-
plore this Sumner.

(2) The other graduate student working with Dr. Nel-
son's group will investigate the basic problem of identify-
ing the organisms used as food by hard clams in New Jersey
waters. This information is necessary for a complete under-
standing of the growth rates in different areas.

VIRGINIA:
A preliminary survey of the clam fisheries of Virginia
has been made and conferences have been held with the bi-

ologists of the State Fisheries Laboratory. Cooperative

(-54-)

studies are planned for the future and it is expected
that the results of clam farming experiments can be
adapted for use along the Eastern Shore.

NORTH CAROLINA:

A preliminary survey of the clam fisheries of
North Carolina was made during February. Plans have
been made to base Southern Clam Research at the Beau-
fort Laboratory of the Fish and Wildlife Service. A
fairly good clam industry is located in the vininity
of Beaufort and a great variety of environment conditions
are to be found,

Fundamental studies of the rate of growth, age at
maturity, and salinity tolerance, as well as development
of practical methods for increasing and managing the
fishery will be conducted here. It may be possible to
develop methods of commercial clam farming near Beau-
fort which will be applicable to the southern part of
the Atlantic Coast.

SOUTH CAROLINA:

The problem of developing the fishery is important
in South Carolina as in North Carolina. Clams are pres-
ent in some abundance along most of the coastline, but
the fishery is limited by economic factors.

The development of hard clam farming may offer an
opportunity for increasing production at some future
date, but the demand must increase before farming can
become profitable.

FLORIDA:

A survey of the clam fisheries of Florida mas made
during February with interviews of representatives of
the industry and research agencies. The present fishery
is very limited although great quantities of clams were
once taken by dredge in the Ten Thousand Islands. The
cannery at Naples is now closed and the dredge has sunk.
The beds among the islands still contain many clams and
it is important to know the true extent of this resource
for proper management and development of the fishery.

CONNECTICUT:

The quahaug fishery of Connecticut is small but might
be expanded by farming in connection with the oyster in-
dustry in Long Island Sound.

(-55-)

No field work is anticipated here at present but finds
have been allocated to Dr. Loosanoff at the Fish and Wild-
life Service Shellfish Laboratory at Milford to develop
methods of artificial propagation. This work will explore
the possibility of producing seed clams in hatcheries
while the field units in Rhode Island and New Jersey in-
vestigate seed production from natural spawning and set-

ting.
RHODE ISLAND:

An intensive quahaug fishery by tonging, raking and
power dredging methods is located in Rhode Island. Tong-
ing is conducted the year around in every clean part of
Narragansett Bay by about thirteen hundred diggers. Power
dredging is permitted only in part of the Sakonnet River
from December lst to March 3lst and supports less than
thirty-five boats. A serious controversy has developed
over the relative merits of these two methods and the Fish
and Wildlife Service has been asked by the industry and
the State Conservation Department to settle it. Tongers
claim that power dredges tear up the bottom killing the
seed and breaking many of the marketable sized clams.
Dredgers claim their operations cultivate the bottom pre-
venting silting and increasing setting. Dredgers want
additional beds which are too deep for hand tongers opened
for the use of power dredges.

Two biologists are now stationed at Wickford, R. I.,
and have just completed a survey of the hard clam popula-
tion throughout the Bay in cooperation with the Narragan-
sett Marine Laboratory of the Rhode Island State College.
This information will be used to select a representative
area for experiments to test the effect of hand vs. power
methods on adult clams, juvenile clams, setting, and re~
lated bottom forms such as fish and scallops.

Part of the test area will be hand tonged or raked
and another part will be dredged. Equal amounts of hard
clams will be removed from each plot. Periodic examina-
tions will show the effect of each method.

The results of this experiment will find application
all along the coast wherever controversies exist between
hand and power methods of clam fishing.

Seed production from natural spawning will be inves-
tigated this Summer by the Rhode Island unit as a beginning
of quahaug farming studies, Although clam farming is not
permitted in Rhode Island at present, the methods developed
here should apply in other places.

(-56-)

A management study area is also planned for Narragan-
sett Bay. One part of the bay which Supports a small fish-
ery will be observed and records will be kept of actual
catch, Methods similar to those described for the soft
Clam studies in Sagadahoc Bay and Robinhood Cove in Maine
will be used to arrive at an estimate of the sustained
yield. This estimate will then be compared with actual
production and correlated with quahaug population trends
in the bay. j

Management methods developed here can be applied wher-
ever a State Conservation agency has the Yesponzibility of
regulating the fishery.

I would like to close with this thought, The program
of the Clam Investigations is flexible and can he shaped
to fit the needs of each area, We would welcome sugres—
tions of the industry to help us establish studies which
Will provide the most benefit to all concerned.

(-57-)

THE SPAWNING OF QUAHAUGS IN WINTER
AND CULTURE OF THEIR LARVAE IN THE LABORATORY

V;. L. Loosanoff and H, C, Davis
U, S, Fish and Wildlife Service
Milford, Connecticut

The success of any shellfishery, including that
of the hard shell clam, Venus mercenaria, depends
to a large degree upon the availability of a supply
of young individuals, commonly called set or seed,
which can later be grown to marketable size, In
some areas sets of young clams are heavy enough to
take care of local needs; in others, which unfor-
tunately are more common, the sets are usually ir-
reguiar and light, Realizing the importance of
having a good supply of seed Belding (1912) tried
to raise young hard shell clams by artifical means
under laboratory conditions, Unfortunately, Beld-
ing was not successful, because most of the larvae
in his cultures died either before they reached the
straight hinge veliger stage or soon afterwards,
Belding concluded that there was no practical
method for raising hard shell clams to the setting
stage because of the small size and delicate na-
ture of the eggs, Nevertheless, several years
later Wells (1927) showed that by using a certain
technique clams could be propagated artificially
from the egg to the setting stage, Wells, however,
was mostly interested in oysters and did not con-
tinue the clam work,

Our entrance into the field of raising clam
larvae was motivated by several considerations,
First, we still believe that by developing proper
and efficient methods artificial.production of
clam ssed may be economically feasible, Second~
ly, if we could succeed in keeping clam larvae
of different ages in the laboratory, a wide field
would be opened for studies of the physiological
requirements of larvae, and also for studies of
the effects of different factors of environment
on larval growth and survival, Such information
should be extremely important for understanding
why some areas produce heavy clam sets while
others fail. Finally, the methods developed
for raising larvae to the setting stage will
offer us the opportunity to enter the field of
selective breeding by crossing the individuals
with certain desirable characters, such as un=
usually rapid growth, etc, The latter may ap-
pear somewhat far-fetched at this time but we
believe, nevertheless, that selective breeding
of commercial mollusks will become a reality
within a few decades,

Working with the hard shell clam is not new
to Milford Laboratory because one of us has been
studying intermittently various aspects of the

(-58-)

clam's biology for the last 16 years, Our first
extensive experiments on raising clam larvae were,
however, undertaken some time last summer, Clams
were stimulated to spawn under laboratory conditions
and several cultures of larvae were grown to the
setting stage,

Obtaining spawn in the summer time is rela-
tively a simple procedure, During the summers of
1933, 1934 and 1935 many clams were induced to
spawn simply by raising the water temperature a
few degrees (Loosanoff, 1937). However, because
the spawning season of clams in our waters is
confined to a period of approximately 2 or 3 months,

experimenting with their eggs and larvae were
necessarily also confined to the same period of
time, Fortunately, since a method has been
recently devised to induce cysters to develop
spawn in the winter time (Loosanoff, 1945), we
decided to apply this method to clams also, hoping
in this way to extend considerably the period
during which ripe eggs and sperm could become
available for laboratory work, The method was
successful, and by using it we are now able to
make clams spawn, thus obtaining their eggs and
spermatozoa, throughout the winter and spring, —
The method was successfully tried by other groups
of investigators to whom we described it,

It should be remembered that under natural
conditions there is a marked difference in the
condition of the gonads of oysters and clams
during the winter time, As has been shown
(Loosanoff, 1942), the oysters of our waters
resorb remnants of their gonads after spawning,
pass through a stage when the follicles are free
of all but the indifferent cells, and then, just
prior to hibernation, enter a brief period of
gametogenic activities during which ovogonia
and young ovocytes are formed in females, while
in males a few spermatocytes may be found in
some follicles, In general, however, tle gonad
remains undeveloped consisting of a few fol-
licles scattered in the form of small islands
_ throughout the connective tissue which lies
in the area between the body wall and the di-
gestive gland, In this stage the oysters en-
ter into a long period of hibernation, which in
our waters lasts approximately from the end of ..
November until April,

In hard clams, on the other hand, an active
and very rapid gametogenesis begins soon after
the completion of spawning, and by the end of
October active spermatozoa can be found in virtu-
ally all the follicles of the miles (Loosanoff,
1937a). Thus, excluding a brief post~-spawning

(22>)

period the gonads of adult males of Venus mex-
cenaria contain spermatozoa that appear to be
morphologically mature at all seasons of the
year,

In the females the proliferation of follicles
and growth of young ovocytes is also very rapid
during the latter part of October, Towards the
end of November and in December the ovaries al-
ready contsin mostly large ovocytes of mature
appearance, Thus, the gonads of female clams
collected late in the fall or in the early winter
appear morphologically ripe, Therefore, if we
compare the gonads of clams and oysters in the
late fall or in the winter, we shall find a
striking difference between them because while
in oysters they are in typical winter condition,
containing only a few immature sex cells, clams
already have either fully developed sperm or
large ova, It is possible that this difference
explains somewhat the better viability of eggs
and larvae of winter-conditioned clams, as com~
pared with those obtained from oysters condition-
ed in the same way,

Our method for conditioning clams to spawn
in the winter time can be briefly described as
follows: Clams brought from their natural beds
in Long Island Sound, where the temperature of
the water in the winter time is near 0,0°C,, are
placed in trays of running sea’water having a
temperature of approximately 5,0 to 7,0°C, Then,
at intervals of 3 to 5 days the temperature in
the trays is increased by several degrees,
Eventually the temperature is raised to about
22,0°0C,,-and the clams soon become ready for
spawning. The entire conditioning period usual-
ly takes about 3 weexs, but can be made even
shorter if the intervais between the increases
in temperature are shortened to about one day,
or if the clams are placed directly into water
of a temperature of about 20,0°C, Under the
latter condition we were able to make clams Spawn
on the eighth day of the conditioning period.

Conditioned clams are induced to spawn by
raising the temperature of water to about 32,0°or -
34,0°C, If the temperature is raised above 34,0%,,
most of the clams usually withdraw the siphons
and close the shells, It was often noticed that
spawning begins during a decrease in temperature,
i,e., if the temperature is first raised to
about 35,0°C,, and then gradually decreased to
32,0 or sometimes even to 28,00,

In several instances cases of spontaneous and
apparently unprovoked spawning were. observed at
temperatures several degrees lower than 24,0°C,,
which had been considered the minimum at which

(-60-)

clams could spawn, For example, on February 7
and March 4, 1949 clams were seen spawning at
22,0°C,, and on March 28 and April 5 large
groups spawned in the trays having a tempera-~
ture of only 21,0 and 20,6°C,, respectively.

In all cases both males and females were
spawning, many of them quite profusely, The
eggs from these spawnings were collected and
cultured, the larvae reaching the setting stage,
In the first two cases the clams had been used
earlier in the day in spawning experiments dur-~-
ing which they were subjected to a temperature
of about 34,00C,; however, after that they had
been moved back to the tray of running water at
21,0 to 22,0°C,, and remained there for about
six hours before beginning to spawn, The third
group, however, had not been exposed to a temp-
erature higher than 22,0°C, for at least 11 days
prior to the spontaneous spawning, and the ;
last group, which spawned on Aprit Die eO norte.
was just transferred there several hours before
from the conditioning tray of 15.0°C, Regardless
of the nature of the factors that caused the
spawning it is important that it took place at
such comparatively low temperatures, thus sug-~
gesting that in nature clams can also spawn
under the same condition,

While conducting the spawning experiments
it was established that spawning of an individual
clam is not completed in one day but is spread
throughout a long period, For example, in one
of our groups a marked female was induced to
spawn on six different occasions between February
2 and March 3, Many other animals of the same
group spawned several times, In general, this
group provided us with spawn for a period of
approximately 5 or 6 weeks, before the majority
of the clams became spent,

Contrary to observations on oysters, spawn-
ing of which can be induced by the addition of
a suspension of sperm or eggs, clams do not
react sharply to this type of stimulation, The
mijority of ripe clams could not be induced
to spawn by the addition of a suspension of
sex products, However, many would respond if
the temperature was raised several degrees,
Apparently temperature was a more important
factor than chemical stimulation,

Not all the eggs discharged in our experi-
ments by the spawning females possessed the
same vitality, Probably some clams were con-
pelled by the strong temperature stimulation
to abort the eggs even if the eggs were not
fully ripe, Such eggs usually developed into
feeble larvae which soon died, The last batches

(-61-)

of eggs discharged by virtually spent females also
gave feeble larvae that grew slowly and showed a
high mortality, With a little experience, however,
-an: investigator can learn to recognize various
types of spawnings and select only those batches
of eggs that are suitable for cultivation, We
found it rather difficult to induce spawning of
clams, which were about 4 inches or more in size,
Smaller clams, measuring about 3 inches, usually
responded better than the larger individuals,

The eggs used for cultivation of the larvae
were fertilized as soon as they were discharged,
To separate them from the debris accumulating in
the spawning dishes the eggs were run through a
stainless steel sieve, which allowed the eggs
to pass through but retained the larger parti-
cles, After that the egg suspension was filter-
ed once more through another sieve, which was
fine enough to retain the eggs but let the
water containing the sperm, blood cells, etc.,
pass through, The retained eggs, now free of
all impurities, were placed in fresh sea water
in the hatching jars, which were continuously
aerated,

The eggs and later young larvae remained
undisturbed until they developed into early
veliger, Then the water in the jars was renewed
about every second day, To accomplish this the
content of the jars was strained through fine
sieves, which retained the larvae but let the
water pass through, The jars were then filled
with new water and the larvae returned to them,

To feed the larvae small quantities of mixed
plankton cultures, consisting primarily of forms
of about 54 in size, were added daily to each
jar, When the larvae were reaching the setting
stage old oyster shells were placed on the
bottom of the jars to provide a place for attach-
ment, or the larvae were transferred to special
aquaria on the bottom of which a layer of sand
was spread,

A description of the development of the egg
and clam larvae has already been given by Belding
(1921), Therefore, it is not necessary here to
go into most of the details, Instead we shall
offer a comparatively brief account of the
development from fertilized eggs to the dissoconch
stage, as observed in our laboratory on good
batches of eggs kept at about 22,0,

(~62-)

The egg of the clam measures about 70”7in diameter
(Figure 1,4), It differs from the eggs of many other
lamellibranchs because it is surrounded by a thick
gelatinous envelope the diameter of which varies from
approximately 163 to 170A, We noticed on many
occasions that this membrane continues to surround
the egg past the blastula stage and, sometimes, until
trochophore larvae are formed, If at fertilization
spermatozoa are numerous, many can be seen imbedded
in the outer portion of this envelope,

The fertilized egg will reach the two-called stage
in about 45 minutes (Figure 1,B), and the four-celled
stage is reached in about an hcue and a half (Figure 1,C).
In about 6 hours the embryo becomes a well developed,
rotating, ciliated blastula, The early gastrula stage
is reached 9 hours, and finally the larva enters into
the trochophore stage which is reached about 12 hours
after fertilization (Figure 1,D). This form, roughly
pear-shaped, moves through the water with a spiral
motion, propelling itself by a circlet of cilia around
the anterior end, aided by a velar tuft of longer
cilia at the extreme anterior, In this respect it
differs from the gastrula stage during which almost the
entire body of the larva was covered with small cilia,
Furthermore, the trochophore larva begins to form a
primitive mouth and develops a shell gland, The larva
at this time measures about 90 x 654,

As the development progresses, a small thin shell
is secreted by the shell gland and is gradually extended
to cover the entire animal, This usually occurs from
24 to 36 hours after fertilization and the larva is now
in the early veliger or early straight hinge stage
(Figure 1, E). Its size at this time is approximately
105 x 804%, About 8 to 12 hours later a true veliger
or straight hinge stage is attained, (Figure 1, F).

At tris stage the larva, which is approximately 110
x 90%in size, becomes quite a proficient swimmer
using for this purpose its highly developed velun,

If conditions are favorable, the veliger continues
to grow reaching the size of about 122 x 98 by the end
of the fourth day, but still remaining in a stright
hinge stage (Figure 1, G). By the sixth day it is
already in the early umbo stage and measures approxi~
mately 154 x 143 (Figure 1,H). In 8 days some rapidly
growing larvae may reach the size of 205%, while the
average are in the medium umbo stage measuring 195 x 1784
(Figure 1,1). After about 10 days after fertilization
many individuals in good cultures are in the late umbo
stage, measuring about 214 x 192” (Figure 1,J) and after
12 days some of the mature, ready-to-set larvae may be
as large as 227 x 2104 (Figure 1,K),

(-63=)

Just prior to this stage clam larvae begin
to undergo very prominent changes, The velum begins
to disappear and some of its functions are taken
over by a foot which is eovered with numerous cilia,
At first this ciliated foot aids in swimming, but
gradually is used more in gliding over the bottom
and in crawling, Eventually the velum entirely dis-
appears, thus ending the free-swimming period,

In our cultures many larvae reached the set-
ting stage in about 12 days attaining at that time
the size of about 2104, Young clams of this size
were often seen attaehed by the byssus to the shells
which were placed on the bottom of the aquaria,
Thorson (1946) states that the veligers of Venus
gallina also very often set when they are only about
2104, although the length of the prodissoconch vari-
es between 210 and 2254, We found even greater
variations in the size of the prodissoconch shell of
Venus mercenaria grown in our cultures, some of them
being as large as 240%, However, none of the prodis-
soconch of our cultures ever approached the size of
3204 as reported by Sullivan (1948) for the Venus
Larvae of Malpeque Bay. Nevertheless, as Jorgensen
(1946) showed, the size of the larvae at the time
of setting may vary considerably according to the
conditions of the environment and, therefore, the
measurements made at setting are only of relative
importance,

After the attaehment the young clam begins to
form the adult or dissoconch shell, Successive
stages of growth showing the increase in size and
formation of adult shell are given in Figure 1,

L, M, N, 0 and P, The sizes of these small clams
were 240 x 223, 260 x 245, 313 x 308, 366 x 340

and 463 x 423 Mrespectively, The oldest individual
shown was 28 days counting from the day of fertili-
zation, In general, under laboratory conditions”
the growth of recently set clams was rather slow,

Significant variations in the sizes of the
individual larvae of the same cultures were very
often noticed, For example, while some of the
largest larvae were approximately 2104 in size
and were ready to metamorphose, the other larvae
of the same culture were only 150 or 160” long
and were still far from the end of the free-swimm-
ing stage, Sometimes, because of overcrowding, a
ditt erence tn temperature or other factors, the
average size of the larvae of two parallel cul-
tures carried in two different jars would also
show significant differences,

Occasionally, almost all individuals of
some cultures would appear to be abnormal, These
abnormalities were usually caused by unfavorable
conditions, such as low temperature, lack of food,
etc. Sometimes, if these conditions were corrected

a ea aL cg CET EAS Se A

while the larvae were still in the early stages, some of
them would survive and eventually develop into normal in-
dividuals which would reach the setting stage,

We found that the method for staining oyster larvae,
which we described some time ago (Loosanoff and Davis,
1947) is also applicable to clam larvae. By using a weak
solution of Neutral Red clam larvae were stained and thus
became easily distinguishable from the normal indviduals,
It is believed that this method will help, later on, to
study the dispersal of larvae from the place of origin,
their rate of growth under natural conditions, etc,

Our experiments showed that clam larvae are not too
selective in their food and will survive and grow on:
different diets composed of different micro-organisms, in-
stead of being confined to a few forms, as the larvae of
QO, virginica seem to be, The execption was when the
clam larvae were fed almost a pure culture of Chlorella,
The larvae so fed grew more slowly and showed a heavier
mortality than these which were fed mixed plankton cul-
tures containing different green algae, flagellates,
bacteria, ete,

In conclusion it may be said that our experiments
showed rather conclusively that cultivation of clam larvae
to the setting stage is comparatively an easy matter, By
following the few simple principles and rules given in
this article mature sperm and eggs can now be obtained
on almost a year-round basis, and the resulting larvae can™
be grown to the setting stage even in the middle of winter,
In other words, as far as research work is concerned, we
can now accomplish in one year as much as could previous-
ly be accomplished in three or four, With the method well
developed and with the possibility of using it in summer
and winter we are now looking forward to carrying on a num-
ber of experiments devised to study the ecological and
physiological requirements of clam larvae, and to begin
preliminary work on selective breeding of clams,

SUMMARY

The method is described by means of which hard shell
clams (V, mercenaria) can be made to form ripe gonads and
to spawn under laboratory conditions in winter, The me~-
thod of raising clam larvae to the setting stage is also
described in detail.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BELDING, DAVID L,, 1912, A report upon the quahaug
and oyster fisheries of Massachusetts, The Commonwealth

of Massachusetts, Dept, of Conservation, pp. 1-134,

JORGENSEN, C. B., 1946. Reproduction and larval
development of Danish marine bottom invertebrates,

9. Lamellibranchia, Meddelelser Fra Kommissionen For
(-65-)

Danmarks Fiskeri-Og Havundersogelser, Serie:
Plankton, Voi. 4, No, 1, pp. 277-311.

LOOSANOFF, V. L., 1937. Spawning of Venus

mercenaria (%.). Ecology, Voi. 18, No. 4, pp. -
06~ Ge

LOOSANOFF, V. L., 1937a. Seasonal gonadal
changes of adult clams, Venus mercenaria (L.)

Biological Bulletin, Vol, 72, No. 3, pp. 406-
iehe

LOOSANOFF, V. L,, 1942, Seasonal gonadal
changes in the adult oysters, Ostrea virginica,
of Long Island Sound, Biological Bulietin, Vol,
S25 Noini2,' pp.) 95-206,

LOOSANOFF, V. L,, 1945, Precocious gonad
deveiopment in oysters induced in midwinter by
high temperature, Science, Vol. 102, No. 2640,
Pp. 124-125, i

LOOSANOFF, V. L. and H, C. DAVIS, 1947,
Staining of oyster larvae as a method for
studies of their movements and distribution,
Science, Vol. 106, No. 2763, pp. 597-598.

SULLIVAN, C, M., 1948, Bivalve larvae
of (Malpeque Bay, P. BE. I. Fisheries Research

Board of Canada, Bulletin No, 77, pp. 1-36.

THORSON, GUNNAR, 1946. Reproduction and
larval development of Danish marine bottom in-
vertebrates, Meddelelser Fra Kommissionen For

Danmarks Fiskeri-Og Havundersogelser, Serie:
Plankton, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 1-523.

WELLS, W, F, 1927, Report of experimental
shellfish station. Report, Conservation Com-
mission, State of New York, 1926, pp. 1-26.

(-66-)

Growth Studies on the Quahaug, Venus mercenaria

Narold H, Haskin, Rutgers University
The State Universiyt of New Jersey,

2 9k kak 2k

Two years ago commercial funds were made available to
us through Rutgers University to examine the problem of
hard clam farming, Specifically it was desired to know
whether or not it would be practical to establish hard
clam farms on the same stable basis of culture employed
in the oyster industry, As you undoubtedly know, the
hard clam industry at present is based on the exploita-
tion of a wild crop and is consequently characterized by
great fluctuations in yields, prices, etc,

Our thinking in attacking this problem was guided by
the experience of Dr, Thurlow Nelson along the lines indi-
cated by many of the papers on oyster problems discussed
at these meetings, Obviously to establish hard clam cul-
ture, it is necessary to insure a supply of seed and
secondly to be able to raise it to marketable size with-
out excessive mortalities, I will not discuss our efforts
to secure seed clams - we have had some success in arti-
ficial spawnings and some slight success in trapping na-
tural spawn, but we are looking to the techniques of the
Milford Laboratory, as described here by Dr, Loosanoff
and Mr, Davis, to supply us with seed, I will consider
briefly here some aspects of the second group of problems
i.e., the raising of seed clams to marketable size, In
simplest terms the problem is "How long does it take to
raise a marketable clam?"

When one thinks of measuring a growth rate, the
first question that arises is, "What dimensions are
best used?" In ou® first year of work we made measure=-
ments of length, height, thickness, volume and weight
of clams of all sizes available,

The first slide indicates the results of measure-
ments of over 2000 clams with length, height, thickness
and weight measurements averaged for groups of ten, It
is seen here that when height, width or the cube root
of the weight is plotted against length, a straight
line is obtained, This shows that there is no change
in proportions of these clams as they grow larger,
These data plots are particularly useful in that if
one average dimension for a group of clams is known the
other dimensions may be obtained directly from the graph.
For example one can weigh a group of 10 clams and im-
mediately read off the average length, width and thick-
ness of the group with an error of less than 5%, Be-
Cause of the relative ease of obtaining weights as con-
trasted with caliper measurements, weights are now used
in most of our growth studies,

(-67-)

One way of studying growth rates of clams is to
make experimental plantings of all sizes available,
measure the increase for each size for a single grow-
ing season and then add all these increases together
to get a composite curve covering the growth of the
clam from seed to chowder size, This is essentially
what we have done,

The second slide shows the growth curves for five
different sizes of clams for the 1947 growing season
on the tide flats of Delaware Bay, Pierces Laboratory,
Cape May County, New Jersey, The sizes planted here
ranged from 10,000 per bushel to less than 200 per
bushel, Note that the smallest clams showed the great-
est percentage gain in weight - about 570% - while the
largest clams gained only about 7% in the season.

The third slide shows these percent-gain data
plotted to show a relative growth curve for the hard
clam for the conditions obtaining at the Cape May
location in 1947, This curve enables us to compute
yields and sizes of clams obtainable from seed of any
given size, assuming that a succession of similar grow-
ing seasons will occur, For example, 1 bushel of seed
clams weighing about 1/3 of an ounce apiece, would
yield 18 bushels of medium-sized clams in 5 such grow-
ing seasons, This checks almost exactly with growth
rates obtained by Dr, Belding at Wellfleet, Massachuset-
ts in 1906-1909,

This slide shows also the relative growth curves
for this area in 1948 and for 4 other areas in 1948,
Note that in none of these cases do the growth rates
equal the first figures obtained in 1947,

The: fourth slide shows these growth data plotted
in the form of the more conventtonal cumulative growth
curves, These show for example that 1 02, seed clams
planted under the conditions existing in the Cape May
area in 1947 would grow to chowder size in an addition-
al three to five years, Under the conditions exist-
ing here in 1948 about 7 years would be required,
Growth curves are also shown for the Jarvis Sound,

Edge Cove, Surf City and Raritan Bay areas,

The fifth slide represents an attempt to gain
further information from these growth data, Here
for each area the logarithm of the initial weight
at the beginning of a growing season, is plotted
against the logarithm of the ratio of the final
weight to the initial weight, A series of parallel
straight lines results, with each line representing a
certain planting area, The approximate formula for

(-68-)

these lines is

F= I 2/3 x Constant
final weight at end of growing season
initial weight at beginning of growing

where F
Ty

season,

The constant depends on the intercept of the line,

The exponent of I (approximately 2/3) depends on
the slope of the lines,

Since a two-thirds power of a weight is an expression
of surface area, this empirical relationship between
initial weight and final weight at the end of the growing
season suggests that some exchange between the clam and
its environment, limited by the surface area of the clam,
is controlling the season's growth, With increasing size
of the clam the ratio between its surface area and volume
becomes more unfavorable and this is accompanied by a
Slower growth rate,

The intercepts of these straight lines with the
zero axis of log F enable us to calculate a theoretical
all C

limiting size for each of the areas investigated, This
limit indicates a size beyond which the clams would grow
only in more favorable growing years, For the Cape May
area in 19+7 the limit is 250 grams, for the Surf City
area in 1948 it is 150 grams and for the Raritan Bay area
in 1948 it is 64 grams,

It is interesting to consider what will happen to
clams transplanted into an area which has a limiting value
less than the size of the transplanted clams, This was
actually done in the Raritan Bay area in 1948, ‘Five sizes
of clams were planted in the area in the spring, All |
were of uniformly high meat quality (approximately 18% wet
weight), The three smaller sizes, ail below the theore-
tical limit of 64 grams for the area, held their high
meat quality. The two larger sizes, clams "too big for
their new environment," declined sharply in meat quality
to about two-thirds the initial meat level,

(o7-)

This study of hard clam growth is being continued
in various New Jersey waters, To date it has shown
several things which promise to be of considerable
value to the prospective "clam farmer",

1, The approximate times required to raise
seed clams to market sizes,

2, The great differences in growth rates for
the same year in different locations and
from year to year in the same location,

3, That the growth in any one season is limit-
ed by a surface area to weight relation-
ship which indicates control of growth by
environmental exchanges,

4, The size limit for a given area will in-
dicate whether the clam-farmer should
attempt to grow "cherry-stones", or
"chowders" or neither in that area.

5, <A low theoretical size limit for a
given area indicates that it is un-
suitable for "laying-out" larger clams
for any considerable period of time.

(=70=)

(Page 71)

- WIDTH IN CENTIMETERS

‘4

HEIG

wb

10

erent Ue er Se ee nS ie oe re rae ee Oe
os SLIDE #1
QUAHAUG DIMENSIONS

Wie rane IN CENTIMETERS

ee | | =
1 4 —} 4-4,

ROOT OF WEIGHT IN {GRAMS

15?

WEIGHT PER CLAM IN GRAMS

SLIDE #2 |
| 6.9%

sr 1%

May 7) ep
TIME IN MONTHS
(-72-)

ee et

PER CENT WEIGHT GAIN ONE SEASON (SLIDE #3)
[ i

D 10

O Cape Shots ry)
Q@ Ditto 4.8
® Jarvis Sound
| @ Surf City
| ® Raritan Bay

(-73-)

Grams (Slide #4)

ight in

Wei

CAPE SHORE 47

JARVIS SOUND

(-7-)

SLIDE #5

O Cape Shore

® Jarvis Sound
@. Surf City
® Raritan Bay
F = 1-2/3 x Const,
26
ot
p
elt
4
a2
Pla
rf
Ele
diet
Fal G
=]
cat
= 2
4 :
LY OY
a \
y A oO
& A .
\ | \ S40
| \ \ \
2he0) 20

LOG INITIAL WEIGHT
(-75-)

Practical Problems of the Propagation of

the Soft Shell Clam, Mya arenaria

2k > 2 2k :
Hatry 7di) lures.) dts.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts,
A

The needs of the clam farmer are essentially the
same as those of the oyster grower, He must have some
sort of title to control a suitable plot of ground,

He must also have some means of seeding or populating
that ground with stocks of clams, Finally he must
have some idea as to what to expect in the way of
losses from predators, natural mortality, and destruct-
ion caused by other agencies,

In New England, clam farming has never been ~
developed to the same extent as has oyster growing,
It would appear that tradition and nature have con-
spired against the clam farmer to prevent him from
attaining his primary needs, The traditional idea
of free fishing in the intertidal zone has mde it
very difficult for private individuals to secure con-
trol of suitable ground, In addition, factors which
control setting are unknown to that once ground is
secured, the clam farmer has no way of getting his
plot seeded, Finally, the effects of numerous en-
emies are difficult to evaluate since they operate
below the surface of the sand,

In 1947, several residents of the town of
Barnstable, Massachusetts obtained leases on a
barren flat in Barnstable Harbor and requested the
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution to conduct a
series of investigations on propagation and growing
of soft shell clams, A seven-acre plot, adjacent
to the leases, was set aside for experimental pur-
poses,

Two methods of populating barren areas ap- .
peared promising, The first involved transplanta-
tion of contaminated stocks which could be obtained
from polluted areas at a reduced price, It was found
that transplantation could be satisfactorily effected
by simply broadcasting the clams on untreated flats,
and the majority of the clams would dig in and estab-
lish themselves quickly. It did not appear necessary
to plow or otherwise treat the surface before trans-
planting,

The second method involved treatment of the sur-
face to induce setting, There were a few records of
intense sets which occurred on new flats created as
a result of dredging operations, There wes. also a
former clam grower who claimed to have induced set-
ting by resurfacing his flat'with sediments taken
from a special thatch island, Several test plots

(-76~)

were resurfaced with a variety of mterials and it was
found that setting occurred on most of them, The most

satisfactory soils were composed of very fine sediments
which also contained roots and other fibrous mterial,

Certain soils would induce setting but lacked physical

properties to withstand winter storms and ice, It has

not been determined as yet how these new sediments in-

duce setting, but the mtter is under investigation,

The problem of predators turned out to be much more
serious than had been expected, It was know that certain
crabs, crab-like organisms, and boring snails subsisted
on soft clams but there was very little information as
to how much damage these organisms actually did, Dur-
ing the spring of 1948, severe losses occurred in the
stocks which had been experimentally transplanted and
careful observations indicated that the common horse-
shoe crab was the responsible predator, Laboratory
tests confirmed the field observations, It was final-
ly determined that a large horseshoe crab could prob-
ably destroy as much as a square foot of well popula- .
ted flat per day. Sinee horseshoe crabs were very
numerous it became apparent that clam farming could
not possibly be successful until methods of protect-
ing beds could be devised, The problem of horseshoe
crab control is now under investigation,

It would appear that the prospect of developing
clam farming in New England is promising. Municipali-
ties are becoming less resistant to leasing barren
flats, There is a plentiful supply of seed stock in
the extensive polluted areas which will rapidly puri-
fy itself after being transplanted in clean flats,
Surface treatment to induce setting also shows promise,
If methods of controlling predators can be devised, it
is entirely possible that the clam farmer may be able
to expect the same success as the oyster grower has
enjoyed for many years,

77)

A STUDY OF DUCK FARM POLLUTION OF A SHELLFISH

AREA
“fil 75 2K 3k -
M. H, Bidwell and C, B, Kelly
*

M, H, Bidwell, Shellfish Bacteriologist; C, B. Kelly

Sr., Sanitary Chemist, Sanitation Unit, New York State

Conservation Department, Freeport, L,I., New York,
FORK

Under the provisions of the Conservation Law of the
State of New York, shellfish sanitation is a function of
the Conservation Department, The chief problems of shell-
fish sanitation ennsist of: (1) the determination of safe
production areas from which shellfish may be taken for
food without danger to the public health, and (2) the in-
spection of plants opening or packing shellfish to assure
the continued safety of the product being shipped,

This paper deals with the study which has been made
of one small area of Long Island for the purpose of de-
ciding its potential safety as a source of production,
The area in question is known as the Peconic, Reeves,
and Flanders Bays area, It consists of about 3,500 acres
from which some oysters and large quantites of hard clams
are produced annually,

The usual procedure of studying an area of this type
for the purpose intended is to consider two main factors:
(1) the sanitary survey of the watershed, and (2) the
results of laboratory examination of samples of water for
the presence of organisms indicating pollution,

The Sanitary Survey

The Peconic River is about 12 miles long with ap-
proximately 40 square miles of watershed, The average
daily run-off of fresh water from this watershed is esti-
mated at about 40 M, G, The watershed is sparsely « °7:
settled and is mostly farm and woodlands, The river
is a fresh water stream above the village of River-
head, Sources of human or industrial pollution in
this part of the river are insignificant, There are,
however, a number of duck farms along the river and |
its tributaries contributing pollution, The pollution
from these latter sources is greatly intensified dur-
ing the Summer when duck production is at its peak,

‘In addition to the fresh water entering these
bays, they are subjected twice a day to the in-
fluence of some 4,500 M.G. of clean salt water due
to the rise and fall of about 4 feet of tide, The
tidal waters enter this area from the east and the
fresh water from the west,

The tidal areas are subject to some pollution

of human origin in and around Riverhead, The vil-
lage of Riverhead has a public sewerage system and

7e-)

treatment plant and discharges effluent about halfway be-
tween the village and the mouth of the river, The treat-
ment plant was placed in operation about 1938, It is an
activated sludge plant of modern design and of adequate
capacity, Samples collected at various times indicate
that it is well operated, Typical results are as follows:

Results at Riverhead Sewerage Treatment Plant
September 27, 1948

q
Raw Prim, Ef Removed Final Eff Removed
Total Solids Oo Heleeieg es py 304 66

Suspended Solids 616 106 83 24. 96
B,0.D.(5 day-200)500 350 35 ae eninge
Coliform in Effluent = Maximum M.P,N. per 100 ml, -330
Total Bacteria in Eff, -=- " per mil, 610

The river also receives the discharge from a laundry
at Riverhead. Admittedly, the discharge of untreated
laundry wastes may have some effect on the river and may
be a violation of the Conservation Law, Serious damage
to the river from this source, however, has not been de-
monstrable by laboratory tests,

The greatest source of pollution of this area is the
numerous duck farms located at various points along the
river and near its entrance to the bay. These ducks are
of the White Pekin variety and grown in large numbers dur-
ing the Spring, Summer, and early Fall. Only a relatively
few ducks are kept on the farms for breeding purposes dur-
ing the winter months, A survey of duck farms made by
this Unit in 1937 indicated some 21 farms producing more
tae 1,000,000 ducks annually contributed pollution to

is area,

The sources of pollution tributary to this area may,
therefore, be summarized in order of their importance as
follows: :

1, The duck farms, especially in the Summer,
2, Miscellaneous sources of human pollution in
' and around Riverhead,
3, The Riverhead Laundry,
4, The effluent from the Riverhead Sewage Treatment
Plant,

Laboratory Results

Samples of water have been collected from this area
many times, and under various conditions, since 1937.
Fourteen (14) separate surveys have been made during these
studies, It is the usual procedure to collect four samples
at each sampling station -=- one at each quarter stage of
the tide, These are examined for coliform organisms and
total bacteria,

Results of these surveys show that in the Spring the
pollution is restricted to those waters adjacent to the

(=/2-))

duck farms, During the Summer, this pollution ex-
tends throughout the entire area and even into
Peconic Bay, In the Fall, it recedes to the immedi-
ate duck farm locations,

Chart I shows a twelve-year summary of coliform
results in this area, It is interesting to note,
particularly, the vast extent of polluted waters in
the summer months,

Based upon these studies, the Department has
adopted a policy of closing the entire area during
the Summer and allowing the use of most of the area,
except around the months of the River and Meeting
House ana Sawmill Creeks, during the winter months,

The Sanitary Significance of the Findings

It has generally been accepted in the past
that pollution of animal origin was not as poten-
tially dangerous as pollution of human origin, Re-
cent studies of the relatioship of pathogens to
coliform in duck polluted waters, however, would
seem to require a revision in this thinking. It
appears quite obvious from these studies that duck
pollution may have considerably greater importance
from a public health angle than was previously as-
sumed, The balance of this paper will be devoted to
ane discussion of this particular aspect of the pro-
en,

Discussion ‘of Sanitary Significance of Pollution

from Ducks,

Although there is no record of the presence of
the typhoid organism ever having been isolated from
waters tributary to duck farms or from duck "droppings"
themselves, there is quite an extensive literature on
the isolation of many members of the paratyphoid group
now generally known as Salmcnella, This group of
organisms is capable of producing quite wide-spread
and rapidly progressing outbreaks of intestinal dis-
ease which, in many respects, resemble typhoid
fever -- the death rate from these outbreaks ex-
tending to something in the order of 6%, On the
establishment of the presence of Salmonella in
domestic ducks, Edwards! reports on 56 outbreaks
of Salmonelosis in ducks, from which 13 types were
isolated All of these types are recorded by
Seligman and Edwards3, of the National Salmonella
Centers, as having at sometimes been associated with
outbreaks in humans, The pathogenicity of Salmonella
eae ace from ducks is ee demonstrated by
Mallamt+, Scott5, and Snapper®, who cite cases of
human Salmonellosis resulting from the ingestion of
ducks' eggs or products prepared from ducks! eggs,

(-80-)

Of particular significance from the stand-
point of pollution is the method of infection of
these eggs, Both Mallam and Scott agree that the
eggs become infected either by introduction of
contaminated material into the oviduct during
copulation, or by direct contact of the egg with con-
taminated fecal material on the ground, Thus, the
prime origin of Salmonella in eggs is fecal material,
These observations are also confirmed by Solowey/ who
found that eggs with adhering fecal material were in- _
fected with Salmonella more often than clean eggs, The
infection could not be attributed to contamination dur-
ing the opening since pre-washing in heavily chlorina-~
ted water, or wet or dry scrubbing did not reduce the
incidence of infected eggs, Although Hilbert reports
that Salmonellosis is not a major factor among flocks
on Long Island, he does report occasional S, anatum
infections, Further, there is no reason to believe
that the situation is any different from that prevail-
ing in other parts of this country and in Europe in
which the ducks are rather heavily infested with 10
Salmonella, Hansen? reports a 5% infection; Clarenberg
reports at least 1%. Further evidence available from the
literature certainly indicates that ducks should not be
excluded from the statement of Edwardsll that "birds
constitute the greatest reservoir of paratyphoid in-
fection among domestic animals,"

In order to place the responsibility for the pollu-
tion of these bays more directly on ducks, there remains
only the necessity to demonstrate the possibility of
transmission of these pathogens by water and the question
of the degree of survival of the pathogenic organisms as
compared to the index organisms, the coliform group,

Attempts have been mde in this laboratory to iso-
late Salmonella from discharges of duck farms and to
trace these Salmonella downstream through the heavily
polluted areas into the moderately polluted and reason-
ably clean sections, Results of these investigations
will be found in Tables I, II, and III, 1t will be
noted that efforts were concentrated in Flanders Bay
and, more particularly, in Meeting House Creek, This
area was chosen primarily because of its proximity to
shellfish grounds and to the rather heavy pollution
emanating from the duck farms in the area, and also be-
cause there is little, if any, pollution of human origin
associated with these discharges, It was not difficult
to recover viable strains of Salmonella from either
branch of Metting House Creek, and all types of Salmon-
ella recovered are listed by Seligman? as having been’
associated with many outbreaks of human Su imoneitesis)
It was also possible to recover Salmonella from the
water a quarter of a mile below these discharges, but
of more significance is the recovery of Salmonella
from a specimen of oysters taken from a private oyster
bed which, during the winter, is considered of satis-
factory sanitary quality.

(-81-)

Possible Solution of the Problem

It has been shown that duck farm pollution is
menacing extensive areas of productive shellfish
grounds. The New York State Conservation Department
is not content with having found this condition to ex-
ist and closing the affected areas to shell fishing.
It is believed that the source of this pollution can
and must be corrected,

Analyses of the wastes from these farms and pre-
liminary experimental work indicate that the simplest
methods of treating sanitary sewage--namely, plain
settling for, perhaps, one (1) hour and chlorination--
will be effective in substantially correcting this
condition and that it can be done at a cost well with-
ing reasonable limits,

Therefore, for the immediate future, the Depart-
ment will maintain seasonal closed areas as indicated
by the surveys and try to interest one or more duck
farmers in cooperating in the development of a waste
treatment plant, the operation of which may be observed
and thus find the ultimate solution to this problem --
i.e., the elimination of the pollution,

CONC LUSION

In conelusion, it appears from the studies made of
duck farm pollution of shellfish areas that:

1. Pathogenic organisms are present in water
discharged or flowing from duck farms,

2. Such organisms -- potentially dangerous to
man -- have been recovered in shellfish taken
from watef polluted by duck farms,

3, Therefore, public health agencies in charge
of shellfish sanitation must give as much
consideration to the presence of excessive
numbers of coliform organisms originating
from duck farms as they would if such organ-~
isms were of human origin.

4, That elimination of this pollution by reason-
able and economical means appears possible,
and is certainly necessary in the public
interest,

é2=)

TABLE I
ISOLATION OF SALMONELLA FROM WATERS TRIBUTARY TO DUCK FARMS

Coliform Volume of
Date ' “Station MPN Salmonella Isolated _Sampze _
872/48 5,1, Flanders 4,600,000 S, bredeney, S, give 10 ml,
SAS aie 2: 2, Flanders 2,400,000 S; bredeney 10 ml,
elartae 2083 Flanders "930, 000 S; bredeney 100 ml,
8/2/48 5,2, Flanders 4, 600, ,000 S,; bredeney 10 ml;
9/27/48 ne, Flanders 2 5400, ,»COO S, bredeney 10 ml,
7/12/48 5,2A, Flanders 930,000 S: typhi-muriun, 10 ml.
S, bredeney
Oyster
7/12/48 4.1, Flanders 24,000 S, typhi-murium 10 mi,
9/27/48 Saw Mill Creek 11,000,000 S, Typhi-murium 10 ml:
9/27/48 Saw Mill Creek 460, 600 S, typhi-murium 10 ml,
6/8/48 8,6 Peconic 2,100 S, bredeney, 10 ml,
River S, anatum

Sample #

18135
18136

VSi37
18138
18139

TABLE IT

ISOLATIONS OF SALMONELLA FROM WATER DISCHARGED FROM DUCK

FARMS IN MORICHES BAY AREA
Samples Collected May 10, 1949,

Coliform
barn ene

A 9,300,000
B 9,300,000

Cc 930,000
D 15,000,000
E 2,400,000

(~

Volume of

ee tnonelts Isolated Sample Tested

anatum Omer,
a typhi-murium TO. mas
S, meleagridis 100 ml.
S, bredeney (4 isolations) 10 m1,
S. typhi-murium 10 ml.
S, typhi-murium LO: mi.
none isolated 100 & 10 mil,

83-)

TABLE III

INCIDENCE OF SALMONELLA TYPES ISOLATED IN INFECTIONS OF
MAN AND DUCKS

Heke eK
Man_
Edwards-

No, No, No.
Type Outbreaks Cases Fatalities
Total =-,Al1 Types .1677 29597
S, typhi-murium 357 469 12
S, derby 4.9 126 1
gS: bredeney 16 34 )
S, panama 73 124 4
S. give 36 Z fe)
S; anatum 64 165 iT
S, meleagridis 16 43 0

Man Ducks
Seligman® No, Edwards3
No No, No,

Type Outbreaks cases Fatalities Outbreaks
Total All types O41 TOV - 56
S, typhi-murium 307 356 ‘epee 32
S; derby 34 37 2. 1
S. bredeney re 4 re) 2
6, panama 46 57 1 a
S. give 27 L/ ) 2
S; anatum Lye) 64 ay 8
S, meleagridis 13 13 (0) 10)

Ok OK OK Ok OK Ok OR OR Ok Ok OK OK ok OK Ok
REFERENCES

1. PP, R. Edwards, D. W. Bruner, and A. B. Moran
Further Studies on the Occurrence and Distribution
of Salmonella Types in the United States,

J. Infectious Diseases 83 220-231 (1948)

2. HE, Seligman, I. Saphra, and M, Wasserman
Salmonella Infections in the United States,
J, Immunology 5u 69 (1946)

3.. P, R, Edwards, O, W,. Bruner, and A. B, Moran

Salmonella Infections of Fowls
Cornell Veterinarian 38 247 (1948)

(-84-)

Jamesport |

WINTER- HIGH TIDE ames port j
3 sae As _ WINTER “LOW TIDE
Aquehouse, : Y/ Aquebogue

afi
ae te |
we 2 Pt.
= 4 pin Ge ers Miamogue Pt,

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Flanders Bay Flanders Bay

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‘

(

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Red Cedar ee

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Sa H i
= ad > ON, as 5 Lita
es : / \ Va
Flanders oe ‘,

|M.P.N 0 to 2!

" 25 to 75

ft : L to

at

! -—O Black represents 2 23 £8 2800
SUMMER - High Tide

(-85-)

Aquebouge Jamesport, Aquebogte
! /

. «i Je aamogue Pt, A

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See A

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erhead Ya ‘

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS OF THE PREDATION
OF COMMERCIAL SHELLFISH BY CONCHS
3 2s 3c 2k 2k
Melbourne R, Carriker, Ph. D.
Zoology Department, Rutgers University and
New Jersey Oyster Research Laboratory

INTRODUCTION

Baymen from many estuaries along the northeastern
coast of the United States credit the conchs (Busycon
carica and B. canaliculatus) with severe predation
of oysters on native bay bottoms, Thus conchs capt-
ured by them in their tonging and dredging operations
are thrown up on banks to perish or are destroyed in
some other way, Colton (1908), an early investiga-
tor of bivalve predation by these conchs, from obser-
vations of these snails in marine aquaria, concluded
that they may not be as serious a pest to the oyster-
men as previously reported, In view of this variance,
it seemed desirable to make further investigations
which will ultimately indicate the extent of such pre-
dation, particularly on commercial shellfish, The pre-
sent report is concerned with a study of conchs in
captivity; studies of the conch in its native habitat
are anticipated for the coming summer,

METHODS

These studies were begun in the fall of 1947 and
were carried out in the Rutgers University Vivarium in
a number of 10 gallon marine aquaria, These tanks were
connected in series with large siphons permitting the
circulation of the sea water by means of a simple air
lift pump placed at one end of the chain of aquaria,
Further aeration was provided by the release of com-
pressed air into each tank through thin cross sections
of wooden dowel, Sand used in some of the aquaria was
obtained at a local ocean beach, Clean bay water was
collected in Shark River Basin, and in the Vivarium
aquaria ranged in salinity in the course of the obser-
vations from 26,4 to 28.59/00, Water temperatures
ranged from 63 to 77°F, Hydrogen ion concentration
was found to drop after a time from approximately
8.0 to 6.0 as organic wastes accumulated in the water;
sodium bicarbonate was added to return the pH to ap-
proximately 7.5. No filter was required in the cir-
culating sea water system since the numerous shell~
fish used to feed the conchs provided excellent na-
tural filtration, Six conchs, 4 knobbed (B. carica)
and 2 channeled (B. canaliculatus)collected in Great
Bay, N. J., and in Peconic Bay, Long Island, N.Y.,
were used in the study, The conchs ranged in length
from 2,7 to 6,2 inches and during the course of the
observations in the last year added a maximum of 0.5
inch of shell at the outer lip, Conditions in the
aquaria were sufficiently: favorable to permit oysters

(-86-)

and quahaugs to add as much as 0,2 inch of new shell.
The shellfish used in feeding the conchs were obtained
in Shark River, with the exception of the oysters which
were collected in Delaware,

OBSERVATIONS

METHOD OF PENETRATION OF SHELLFISH BY THR CONCH,
Copeland (1918) has shown that the conch responds
very quickly to the blood of a fresh oyster, This mark-
ed response is observed again in the readiness with
which a conch will locate an oyster or even a clam buried
in the sand in an aquarium. The snails creep at a rela-
tively fast rate, attracted by the water pumped from the
excurrent siphon of the bivalves, Nor are shellfish
such as quahaugs which normally occur buried shallowly
in the bottom, safe, since conchs readily dig them out.
It is not known whether they can dig up such deeply
buried molluscs as adult clams,

Colton (1908) observed that these conchs will
penetrate and consume such shellfish as quahaugs,
mussels, oysters, razor clams and soft clams, Magal-
haes (1948) found that in North Carolina’ these conchs
consumed 8 additional kinds of shellfish, Colton's
findings were confirmed in the course of the present
observations, It was also noted that they consume
such molluscs as the soft clam (Mya_arenaria), in
which portions of the soft parts are unprotected by
the valves, merely by tearing out the flesh bit by
bit until the valves are clean, Such thin-shelled bi-
valves as the edible mussel (Mytilus edulis) are en-
veloped by the foot of the conch to the extent per-
mitted by the size of the conch foot and of the mussel,
leaving the portion of the mussel valves farthest from
the hinge exposed and oriented directly under the outer
lip of the snail shell, The conch by contracting the
columellar muscle (that muscle connecting the foot
with the shell at a point within the shell spire) then
very slowly and forcibly brings its outer lip to bear
between the bills of the mussel, This pressure either
forces apart or chips off a portion of the valves,

The curvature of this part of the conch shell aids in
spreading the mussel valves, and the concavity of the ©
valves leaves a ready entrance for the conch proboscis,
In one experiment 3 conchs were placed in an aquarium
with an assorted collection of shellfish. Within 10
minutes each of the conchs had a mussel enclosed in
its foot; 4 1/2 hours later the 3 conchs had opened
and consumed 7 mussels (0,9-1.2 inches long),.1 clam
(0.8 inch), 1 razor clam (2 inches) and 1 quahaug

(1.6 inches), Throughout, the conchs showed a decided
tendency to prey upon the thiner-shelled molluscs
first,

(-87-)

As Colton has pointed out and as confirmed in
these observations, the conchs readily attack oys-
ters, A conch creeps onto one valve of an oyster,
again, in such a manner as to bring the outer lip ~
of its shell directly over the bills of the oyster,
The oyster at first closes its valves tightly, then
opens them gradually, inadvertently permitting the
conch to thrust its shell between the valves, The
curvature of the conch shell when pressed between
the oyster valves pries the valves apart; the conch
then introduces its proboscis under the protection
of its own shell and eats its fill. Inspection of
oysters opened by conchs in many instances reveals
very little if any detectable chipping of the bills,
If a portion of the oyster valve is broken away, a
conch will not attempt to pry the valves open but
will introduce the proboscis directly, The ventral
surface of the foot of the conch secretes a highly
viscous mucus while attached to prey and this may
play a part in the great effectiveness of the conch
foot in retaining its hold, Magalhaes incorrectly
Suggests that this mucus is probably saliva, A
conch once attached to a bivalve is not easily ~
driven off, In these experiments bivalves to which
conchs were adhering were moved about, and the conchs
themselves were handled, with no effect on the conchs
other than to cause them to bring their shells down
more closely over the foot, From the point of food
conservation, the method of feeding employed by
conchs has much in its favor, since in small bivalves
the snail foot almost entirely envelopes the bivalve
so that none of the flesh is lost and potential poa-
chers are kept away, In the case of larger bivalves,
although the foot does not entirely envelope the
animal, the conech's shell is wedged between the
valves thus affording considerable protection
against raids by other animals,

Of all shellfish, the quahaug-like bivalves
offer the greatest resistance to the predation of
conchs, and yet these are also readily opened and
consumed, It is in the penetration of the quahaug
that the conch displays best its highly specialized
mechanical method of opening shellfish, The conch
mounts the quahaug and holds it, as Colton express-
ed it, "in the hollow of its foot", so oriented that
the bills or the quahaug lie directly under the outter
lip of the conch shell, Then the conch, by very slowly
and strongly contracting the columellar muscle, brings
the margin of its own shell to bear on the slight de-
pression present between the junction of the two qua-
haug valves, and presses against the edge of the qua-
haug vaive farthest from it, Such pressure is suf-"
ficient to chip a portion of the quahaug valve away.
The couch then slowly relaxes its columellar muscle
and draws its shell margin back from the bills of
the quahaug. This slow chipping away of the quahaug
bills continues until an opening of sufficient size
is made to permit the conch to wedge its shell margin

(-88- )

between the quahaug valves. Warren (1916) recorded a
rate of chipping of 6 times per minute, During this
chipping attack the conch occasionally ceases its

Slow hammering to check the extent of damage inflicted:
the rim of the anterior portion of the foot, held just
under the bill of the valve to which the conch is at-
tached, is brought over the damaged area and numerous
tiny lobe-like projections of this rim are passed back
and forth over the erroded shell as if in examination.
If the pressure from the conch is severe enough to
crack off a large opening, as often happens, or if one
or both of the quahaug valves crack from the pressure
exerted by the quahaug in an attempt to keep its valves
closed, as occasionally happens, the conch makes no
attempt to wedge its shell between the valves, How-
ever, more commonly it takes repeated chipping to ex-
pose a small opening, The conch attempts to wedge its
shell between the valves as soon as an opening suf-
ficiently large to permit penetration is chipped, Some
victims, for example, showed chipped holes only 0.197
inch in width, The bluntness of the conch shell margin
also determines the size of hole necessary for penetra-
tion of the conch shell; and this bluntness varies from
time to time as considerable wear of the conch shell
takes place during attack, The conch apparently adds
new shell during resting periods at which time it
generally remains buried in the bottom. Such rest
periods have extended as long as 16 days in aquaria,
Thus the conspicuous indented nature of the lines of
shell growth along the body whorl of the conch shell
are explained on the basis of the periodic erosion
which occurs during attacks, It happens in some in-
stances that the chipping of the quahaug valves Tre-
sults not in the formation of an opening but in the
smoothing off of the quahaug bill, particularly of

the valve edge farthest from the conch, and/or in the
formation of an opening which is too small to permit
wedging, In such cases the conch eventually deserts
the quahaug, In one such instance a conch worked al-
ternately between two quahaugs for 7 days without pene-
trating either, and finally deserted them, Out of 37
quahaugs which were placed with one large conch in one
experiment, 15 quahaugs were opened and 10 were attack-
ed but could not be opened, In only 2 cases in these
observations did a quahaug victim show two areas of
attack, in which apparently the first attack failed,
and then the conch returned on a subsequent day ina
second attack which was successful,

In 31 quahaugs opened in one series of observations
by conchs it was noted that 52% of the sites of attack
were located posteriorly over the siphons, 27% over
the midventral region, and 21% over the anterior por-
tion of the quahaug opposite the siphon, It is sug-
gested that the selection of the sites of attack may
be influenced by the flow from the excurrent siphon
of the quahaug,

(-89-)

It was reported to me by members of the crew of
the "Quinnipiac" during a trip on Peconic Bay, Long
Island, that in the course of examining the material
pumped off the bay bottoms and passed down the con-
veyer they had observed two cases in which large conchs
still affixed to quahaugs and with proboscides extend-
ed into the quahaugs also had the operculum wedged
between the quahaug valves, The use of the operculum
in this way has not been observed during these experi-
ments; it may well be a further means of facilitating
penetration,

It was interesting to note that although shell-
fish are helpless against conchs, small sea anemonies
on these shellfish are not as ready victims: one oys-
ter on which a conch was creeping held a small sea
anemone, As the foot came close to the anemone that
portion of the foot nearest the coelenterate was sud=
denly withdrawn, The conch approached several times,
each time retracting, Eventually it passed over the
anemone, carefully elevating that portion of the foot
over the anemone, Apparently, the nematocysts shot
out by the anemone were effective defense,

Colton in his brief description of how quahaugs
are opened by conchs, wrote that there are three ways
in which penetration is effected: "First, it may
flatten out its proboscis so that it will go through
the crack; secondly, it may pour in a secretion be-
tween the valves which kills the clam; and thirdly,
it may wedge its shell between the valves." The
first and third ways mentioned by Colton agree with
the observations herein reported; however, there is
no evidence (nor did Colton present any) substantia-
ting his statement that the conch may pour a secre-
tion into the prey to kill it, nor Magalhaes!' sug-
gestion that the conch may initiate digestion ex-
ternally. On the contrary, there is evidence against
such a statement: in some of the attacked but unopen-
ed quahaugs, holes as large as 0.4 x 0,47 inch were
left and yet apparently no secretion had been poured
into the quahaugs since they were vigorous healthy
animals weeks later, Some observers believe that
the valves of shellfish are pulled apart by suction
of the foot, However, Magalhaes has shown that a
pull of 4 to 6 pounds is sufficient to dislodge a
conch firmiy attached to a surface, whereas Reese
(1942) has estimated that a force of 23 to 26 pounds
is necessary to force open a quahaug,

Extent of Conch Predation on Shellfish in
Captivity. in the first feeding experiment all 6
conchs were placed in an aquarium of slate bottom,
23 x 12 inches, covered with about 1/2 inch of
sand, in the presence of numerous quahaugs and edi-
ble mussels, and a few salt oysters, razor clams
and soft clams, The temperature of the water re-
mained in the vicinity of 68°F, and the salinity,

(=90-)

fe)
28 /oo, In the course of 23 days the following shell-
fish were opened and consumed:

Edible mussels (Mytilus edulis), 0.6-1.6 inches long 69
i 1

Quahaugs (Venus mercenaria), 0,8-2 " 7
Clams (Mya arenaria), 14-2, 3
Razor Clam (Ensis), 2 inches long Bee i
50
Shellfish consumed per conch per week ...ccccccecs 45

Conspicuous here is the fact that between the qua-
haugs and the mussels which were present in large num-
bers, the conchs made greater inroads on the mussels,

In a second experiment the 5 smaller conchs were
placed in the same aquarium with an excess of oysters
of various sizes, Ina period of 99 days from December
29th to April 7th these conchs opened and consumed the
following Ostrea virginica:

Ostrea Size Range, - Longest Dimension Number Consumed

O.4-0:7 inch aeteute @ Yeu) e: Dette See en iaee| eee 28
DAL Talal eto ual ker aay EAM GRA rama og 9
Mee=3 ou inch Ok ee, Nip elt tel ferret |) oh ver erste) Ae) we 22

59

Or one oyster consumed per conch every 8 days.

In a third experiment the same 5 smaller conchs
were placed in the same aquarium with an excess of oys-
ters of various sizes, Ina period from April 8th to
May 8th for the 5 smaller conchs, and April 25th to
May 8th when the larger conch was added to the tank, or
a total of 163 conch days, these conchs opened and con-
sumed the following Ostrea virginica:

Number of oysters consumed per conch per week 2,7

The threefold increase in consumption of oysters
in the second period may be attributed to the increase
in the temperature of the water, In the first oyster
experiment above the temperature of the water remained
between 64 and 68°F,, whereas in the second experiment
the temperature remained between 68 and 75°F., or higher,

In a fourth and final experiment it was hoped to
check the extent of predation of quahaugs that were
permitted to bury in sand, since in the previous ex-
periments the shellfish were lying directly on the
bottom, exposed to the conchs, The largest conch
(Busycon carica) was placed alone in an aquarium with
slate bottom 2 x 1 feet in area covered with approxi-
mately 2.5 inches of beach sand, Thirty-seven quahaugs

91.)

varying in length from 0.8 to 3.0 inches (nicks
to chowders) were allowed to bury in the sand
of the aquarium, In a period of 131 days,
from December 15th to April 25th, the conch
opened and consumed 15 quahaugs ranging in
length from 1.3 to 2,2 inches or one qua-
haug consumed per conch every eight days,

In this same period eleven detectable un-=
successful attacks were made on quahaugs, If
this figure is added to the 15 quahaugs con-
sumed, the consumption per conch becomes one
quahaug every 5 days,

CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY

It can be agreed with Colton and
Magalhaes then that these conchs do prey
upon a variety of shellfish; and with minor
exceptions it can be said that Colton's
brief description of the method of penetra-
tion employed by the conchs fits the obser-
vations herein reported, The extent of pre-
dation on quahaugs, oysters and edible mus- -
sels, as studied under artificial conditions,
is, however, of much greater potential con-
sequence than Colton's report would indicate,
Final conclusion will come from actual field
studies,

- REFERENCES CITED
Coron. i. poe 1908. How Fulgur and Sycotypus eat
oysters, mussels and clams,”
Proc, Acad... Nat. Sci. Phila.
60; 3-10,

Copeland, M, 1918. The olfactory reactions and
organs of the marine snails
Alectrion obsoleta (Say) & ~
Busycon canaliculatum (Linn, )
dn, eps ZOOL, 252°2177-227.

Magalhaes, H, 1948, An ecological study of snails
of the genus Busycon at Beau-
fort, North Carolina, Ecol,
Monog, 18: 377-409.

Reese, A, M, 1942, The old star=fish clam pestis
Seience N, 8.96: 513-51 ap)

Warren, S, 1916. Feeding habits of Busycon,
Nautilus 30: 66-68,

C2)

TOXIC EFFECTS OF OIL MIXED WITH
CARBONIZED SAND ON AQUATIC ANIMAIS,
Walter A, Chipman,Jr., and Paul S, Galtsoff
U, S. Fish and Wildlife Service,

ak 2k ok KK

(A paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Nation-
al Shellfisheries Association at Old Point Comfort,
Virginia, on June 9, 1949.)

22k

Oil pollution of inshore coastal waters is a prob-
lem of major importance for the conservation of our
quatic resources, Aside from being destructive to
aquatic animals and plants, oil and other organic
liquids floating on the water are a great nuisance to
such recreational activities as boating and bathing
and create a serious fire hazard, especially around
piers and other structures built of creosoted wood,

After a damaging fire at the Norfolk Naval Ship-
yard, resulting from the accidental ignition of oil
floating on the water, the Chemical Laboratory of the
shipyard undertook a comprehensive study of the exist-
ing methods of removal of oil slicks and began a search
for better ones, The experimenters of the Navy found
that a carbonized sand can be prepared simply and
cheaply by roasting creosote and sand in a specially
designed kiln and that this has remarkably good organo-
philic and hydrophobic qualities, The sand, with its
carbon coating, is sprayed on the surface of an oil
slick, Coming in contact with oil, the carbon coating
forms a stable bond with the oil. The mixture may
then be readily removed, If on the surface of the
water, the combined sand and oil may be sunk by a
stream of water under pressure or by some other method
of agitation, The bonding of the oil and carbon sur-
face of the sand is permanent and an oil slick thus
treated remains anchored on the bottom.

A popular account and graphic story of this new
way of removal of oil slicks appeared in "Life"
(1947, Vol. 23, No, 19), The caption to one of the
photographs accomvanying this article stated that the
submerged sludge “is lethal to most marine life", Since
there was no corroborative evidence of thetoxicity of
oil bound by carbonized sand, the United States Navy,
through its Bureau of Ships, asked the cooperation of
the Fish and Wildlife Service in a study of the prob-
lem, The present report summarizes the results of the
experiments conducted in compliance with this request,

Oils discharged into coastal waters do not remain
floating indefinitely, They are absorbed by particu-
late matter suspended in the water, Agitation of the
water by currents and wave action helps the settling
of the oil-saturated material on the bottom, but the
oil slick is not securely fixed and may be carried to

I a TES eS a FED PTO IR v7 ey Vee AO rd) a eee eee ES

distant places, This characteristic behavior and its
importance in aquatic life has been emphasized by
Nelson (1925) and Gowanloch (1925),

Injury caused to ducks and other water birds
by oil floating on the water is well-known, since
many instances have been recorded of the finding of
oil-smeared birds unable to fly (Lincoln, 1936; Adan,
1936). Likewise sedentary animals living within
the tidal zone and coming in direct contact with
oil may be destroyed,

The toxicity of oil in sea water, due to
water soluble substances extracted from oil has
been demonstrated many times experimentally using
fishes and marine invertebrates, (Seydel, 1913;
Nelson, 1925; Roberts, 1926; Gardiner, 1927;
Ministry of Transport and the Ministry of Argi-
culture and Fisheries, Joint Committee on Damages
to Fisheries, 1930; Gowanloch, 1934; Galtsoff
et al., 1935; Galtsoff, 1936; Veselow, 1948; and
others),

Since there is convincing evidence of the
leaching out of toxic substances from oils pre-
sent in sea water, it is desirable to ascertain
whether the combination of oil with carbonized
sand would alter this action. The combination
may either lessen the toxicity of the oil, or
it may increase it by bringing the poisonous oil
closer to the bottom-dwelling forms, permanently
anchoring it there, and allowing a slow and con-
tinued extraction,

For our study we selected for experimen-
tal animals such forms that would normally live
attached to submerged objects, or on the bottom
in estuaries and harbors where this type of pollu-
tion is most apt to occur, We chose in particular
animals of known economic importance, but also in-
cluded others which aptly land themselves to the
experimental procedures desired, We used the follow-
ing organisms: the hydrosoan Tubularia crocea, which
grows attached to pilings and docks; the barnacle
a very common form growing abundantly on rocks and
structures near low tide mark; the embryos of the
toadfish Opsanus tau, one of the common bottom-
dwelling fishes in harbors and bays which attach-
es its large eggs to wood, rocks, and other sub-
merged objects; the hard shell clam Venus
mercenaria, which inhabits the mud flats; and
the oyster Ostrea virginica, found on rocks and on
the bottom in all coastal waters,

The oils tested were supplied by the Navy,
these included crude oil, Navy Grade Special Fuel
Oil, lubricating oil (SAE 20), and Diesel oil,

(-94~)

Because of the necessity of making this paper
short, only a brief summary of the many experiments
performed can be presented, A more complete des-
cription of the experiments and the results obtain-
ed in each is soon to be published,

EXPERIMENTS WITH TUBULARIA CROCEA

Weakend or dying polyps of Tubularia lose their
dark pink color and become Slightly opaque, Their
tentacles fail to respond to touch and, finall, the _
entire hydranth, with its whorl of filliform tentacles,
separates and drops off, leaving dense tufts of tangl-
ed stems, This characteristic change makes it con- :
venient to employ colonies of Tubularia as test animals,
The death point of an individual hydranth may be takne
as the time when it drops off the stem and the pro-
gress of mortality in the group can be easily express-
ed in the number of lost hydranths,

The tests made with Tubularia consisted in de-
termining the survival of this organism in standing or
in running sea water containing known quantities of
mixtures of various oils and carbonized sand, and in
its survival in water to which an extract of crude oil
was added, Relatively dilute concentration of oil or
oil mixed with carbonized sand were toxic to Tubularia
in standing solutions, a strenght of 1:1000 killed
about 33% within 24+ hours, Apparently there is suf-
ficient toxic material leached out in a short time to
be deleterious to this organism. When this is made
more dilute by a flow of sea water, the injuriousness
is less pronounced, With a flow of 65 to 75 liters
per hour a toxic effect becomes apparent after 48 hours
if 5 ml. or more of oil mixed with sand are placed in
the immediate vicinity of Tubularia in a 2-liter jar.

The results comparing different oils show that
lubricating oil was least toxic, while crude oil ap-
peared to be the most toxic, The toxicity of the
crude oil apparently resulted from something leached
from the oil by water, for extracts were found to be
toxic to Tubularia,

EXPERIMENTS WITH BARNACIES, Balanus balancides(Ag,)

Adult barnacles can be conveniently used in
toxicological tests, The barnacles can be easily
arranged in a desired position in the experimental
set-up, The effect of a toxic substance can he
studied by observing and timing the Sweeping of their
cirri, In running sea water or in containers in which
the water is renewed daily, they remain active and
apparently in good condition in the laboratory for
many days and weeks,

The test performed clearly demonstrated the toxic
effect of crude oil and sand mixtures placed in the
immediate vicinity of barnacles, A slowing of the cirri

(2955)

was observed within 6 hours in the weakest concentra-
tion tried, 1:50. Poisoning was progressive and com-
plete death of 80 to 90% of the barnacles took place
Within) /O hours.

EXPERIMENTS WITH TOADFISH EMBRYOS, Opsanus tau Linn,

Toadfish embryos present excellent material for
bioassay; they are large, fairly transparent, and
are attached by egg membranes to pieces of wood, stone,
shells, and similar objects, Normally they are quite
active in the laboratory jars and the beating of
their hearts and the circulation of blood can be easily
observed with adequate illumination and suitable op-
tical equipment,

Crude oil mixed with carbonized sand was found
to be quite toxic, Even the lowest concentration of
1:200 was sufficiently toxic to kill all the embryos
in 11 days. The mortality of embryos in’water with
greater quantities of oil was more rapid, If the
log of the survival time is plotted against the log
of concentration, the toxicity curve approximte a
straight line, The linear relationship obtained by
such plotting can be approximately represented by
a general equation of type y = a x© and the constants
a and c may be computed from the empirical data,

The relative toxicity of the different oils
mixed with carbonized sand was ascertained, Crude
oil added in the ratio of 1:40 killed three out of
five test embryos within 473 hours, Toxicity of
Diesel oil was noticeable within 52 hours in the
concentration of 1:20, while lubricating oil was
ineffective even in the concentration of 1:10
(50 hours),

EXPERIMENTS WITH HARD SHELL CLAMS,
Venus mercenaria Linn,

The hard shell clam, chosen for experiments
because of its economic value, is frequently found
in polluted bottoms of harbors and bays, Because
of their ability to close themselves within their
shell, clams, like oysters, are capable of slowing
down their activities to a’ low minimum for rather
protracted periods of time, In this way they may
reduce the immediate effect of unfavorable condi-
tions,

In the one experiment performed, the sea
water supply to the clams flowed at the rate of
21 liters per hour through containers containing
20 ml. of an oil or an oil and sand mixture,
None of the clams died during the 123 days of the
test in the sea water containing crude oil, fuel
oil, Diesel oil, or lubricating oil or mixtures of
these oils with carbonized sand, There was no evi-
dence of their weakening.

Cees)

EXPERIMENTS WITH OYSTERS, Ostrea virginica em,

Because of its great economic importance, the
oyster has been studied more than most marine inverte-
brates, Consequently its physiology, habits, and life
history are better known than other lamellibranchs,
Living attached to rocks or lying on the bottom it is
frequently affected by oil wastes discharged into waters,
Having no means of moving from unfavorable environments, ©
the oyster protects itself by tightly closing its valves,
If the inimical condition persists, the oyster is even-
tually damaged or killed,

Tests of the toxicity to oysters were made of
standing water to which were added crude oil in a
dilution of 1:500 and Diesel oil in strengths of 1:200,
and similar strengths in which the oils were sunk to
the bottom mixed with carbonized sand, In the test
with Dissel oil the first death occurred on the third
day with an oil layer on the surface, and on the fourth
day in the aquarium with the oil and sand mixture, By
the end of the test on the 13th day, the mortality was
67 per cent in the test with oil on the surface against
25 per cent with the oil treated with carbonized’ sand,
There was no mortality among the control oysters, Ex-
periments with crude’oil added in the ratio of 1:500
gave similar results, In these first death was ob-
served in the ninth day and the mortality was less pro-
nounced, due probably to the small quantity of oil
used,

In experiments with oysters kept in large tanks
of running sea water and exposed to a mixture of crude
oil and carbonized sand, no toxicity was observed in
35 days of the test, It was found that 500 ml. of oil
introduced into a water system running at the rate of
180 liters per hour and anchored by carbonized sand
were insufficient to cause mortality or to inhibit
the growth of the shells of adult oysters,

The maintenance of a steady flow of water through
the gills of an oyster is essential for its feeding
and respiration, The measurement of the rate of
filtration of water is a very sensitive means of study-
ing the effect of changes in the environment of the
oyster, for the organism rapidly reacts to the pre-
sence of toxic substances which may be introduced into
natural waters, Methods are available at present for
measuring the efficiency of the ciliated mechanism
concerned with pumping alone or for obtaining the over-
all picture of the function of the entire numping sys-
tem involving also the mantle and shell, Experiments
were performed with each method, the former known as
the carmine-cone technique and the latter the apron
method (see Galtsoff, et.al., 1947).

It is impossible in this short paper to describe
in detail the numerous experiments performed and the
results observed using the various oils, these oils

(27>)

mixed with carbonized sand, and extracts of these
Olis in experiments in the physiology of oysters,
We conclude from the various tests we performed
that there was a realease of physiologically ac-
tive substances which suppress the activity of
the ciliated epithelium of the gills of the oys-
ter and that the anchoring of oil by carbonized
sand does not prevent this release,

SUMMARY

We found that crude oil, Diesel oil, and
Navy Grade fuel oil added to sea water are toxic
to the various animals normally inhabiting estu-
arine environments, the more sensitive forms be-
ing killed rather promptly when compared to the
forms known to be more hardy, The toxicity of
these oils is apparent whether they are present
as O11 slicks on the surface of the water or are
held on the bottom bound to carbonized sand, This
toxicity results from material leached out of the
oil by water, The oyster responds to relatively
weak concentrations of the toxic materials leach-
ed from oil by a marked reduction in the amount
of water filtered for respiration and feeding and
a decrease in the number of hours open,

There is definite advantage in the use of
carbonized sand in treating oil slicks for its
localizes the oil pollution, prevents the spread
of oil over the surface of water, and submerges
and permanently anchors the oil near the source
of pollution, In view of the fact that bottoms
of harbors and bays near inductrial ports are
grossly polluted and non-productive, the sinking
of oil in these localities will not increase the
damages to the fisheries,

Dusting with carbonized sand is a highly
efficient method of removal of oil from the sur-
face of the water, It is useful around docks and
piers to combat fire hazards and also has distinct
advantage in preventing the movement of oil slicks
to productive areas where great injury to sea food
resources may occur, We hope that the method will
be adapted in some way to have more general use in
combatting oil pollution in coastal waters,

(98=)

LITERATURE CITED

ADAM, N. K.,
1936, The pollution of the sea and shore by oil.
22 pp, London: Harrison and Sons, Ltd,

GALISOFF, P.S,.
1936, "Proc, North American Wildlife Conferences,
BED, 3-7, 1936. pp. 550-555.

CALTSORR, Psiogs) PRETHERCH, Hs Hie: citi, ReOs. and
KOEHRING, Wie oso... Bugal: wy Sie) Buenas, 48: 1423210,

GALTSOFF, P. S.¢ CHIPMAN, JR.: W.A.: ENGLE, J.B: and
CALDERWOOD , HN, 194-7 .: Fish. Bul of ae Fish and
Wildlife Service 51:59: -186.

GARDINER, A. C.
1927. Fish, Invest, secon Britain) Series I, Vol. III,
No, 2, 14 pp-

CORANLOCH, J. 5
1934, "11th Biennial Rout: td noe Conserv,
pp. 67-127,

1935. Trans. Amer, Fish, Soc, 65:293-296,

LINCOLN, F. C. : ;
1936, Proc, No, American Wildlife Conf. Feb, 3-7,
1936, pp 555-559.

MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT AND MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND

FISHERIES, 1930. Detailed Biological and Chemical
Reports on Tars Used for Road Surfacing, 171
pp., London,

NELSON, T. C., quoted by LANE, F. W,: BAUER, A. De
FISHER, H.F.: AND- HARDING, Pes
1925, Rept, of Ui. “Si Comm, of Fish, for 1925,
Appendix V,

SEYDEL, E,.
1913. Mitteilungen d, Fischerei - Vereins
fur dic Provins, Bradenburg, 5,
No. 3, PD. 26-28

VESELOV, E.A.
1948, Rybnoe Khoziaistvo 12:21-22

(ee)

ee

_—

LIBRARY

fanns
tC OF

C J WS. FIsE rate

0 “ciee BCF BTOoT, vicy 0

N P N

Vv Vv
ADDRESS ES oo ase a 2 5: Sea tS a a ARC ok oR ERR G2 22 2 aa a kK EAR ko EF A EE I I ADDRESSES

; N W

4 Some Addresses :

fe) Given at 0

N N

Fina, 1949 JOINT ANNUAL CONVENTION %

* 8:

* es

4 Oyster Growers & Dealers Association of North America, Inc, 2

s Oyster Institute of North America -

i National Shellfisheries Association **

i:

* “

* Chamberlin Hotel, Old Point Comfort, Virginia, June 7 - 9

: :

x Table of Contents *

‘ Title Speaker

x History of the Oyster Growers and Dealers

* Association of North America, Ince eecscecccecesee VOseph Ne Thompson :

* *

*

: The Oyster Institute Annual Report eseeceeeeeceseeee Lewis Radcliffe a

* 3

* We Can Get Our Share eevcccscssccccscccrscvesseccees He Gordon Sweet *

% **

*

* Point of Salo Merchandising c.cccscecccccacccesecseee Malcolm Ay Thompson 2

* : Eo

#

* What Fish and Wildlife Service is Doing to Increase zi

* Production and Consumption of Oysters eecveeeseece ifilton C. James ry

* 4

*

: How to Increase Consumption of Oysters esseseessseeee Mrs. Rose G. Kerr i

* *

‘ A Review of the Fisheries Industry's Transportation &

z Problems @eecseoeeoereoeeeeoecseecaeweooese7sooeeee@ eseoc0ese Vv. Be Hodges ‘a

% a

‘ The Frozen Oyster Industry Cec eceores eens esesteeroeese Clifford H's Evers +

* a

* What Can Science Offer the Oyster Grower seeecseseeee Dre Te C. Nelson *

* a

: Varying Characteristics of Oyster Bottoms eesee.es.e5e Allan A. Sollers *€

* c

x Variations in Intensity of Setting of Oysters *

7 4 in Long Island Sound @eeeovoeeveeeeoceeeecoee Beeoeoeeseeosd Dr. Wie Tile Loosanoff °

* Toxic Effects of 0i] Mixed with Carbonized Sand *

x on Aquatic Animals secevsecsseeverseccscecsccsese DNe We As Chipman -

* iL

* &

* Report of the Resolutions Committee ........e+...+. James E. Munson, ‘i

C , Chairman C

0 - John L. Plock 0

x N We Re Woodfield i

a Vv
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HISTORY OF THE OYSTER GROWERS AND DEALERS ASSOCIATION OF NORTH AMERICA, INCe
Joseph N. Thompson

Chamberlin Hotel, Old Point Comfort, Virginia, June 8, 1949

A couple of years ago the Elks held a Convention in Salamanca, N. Ye, a town
near Lake Erie. To the Convention they invited all the Townsfolk because they were
going to have a great Orator from New York City address them.

Never having heard a great orator before, the Tovnsfolk packed the Community
Hall to the rafters. ‘shen the great orator arrived he was escorted down the central
aisle to the stage amidst thunderous applause. ‘When he started delivering his ora-
tion he had a peculiar habit of keeping his eyes shut and walking up and down the
stage, and kept doing this all through the oration till he finished.

To use a Shakespearean expression, the speech was the "lousiest" the towns-
folk, including the Elks, had ever heard, So while he was talking they gradually
silently filed out. When the great Orator finished he opened his eyes and saw only
one man in the audience. He said to the man "\yhere has the audience gone?" and he
replied, "why they filed out long ago." The orator said, "What the Hell are you
doing here?" and the man replied, "I am the next speaker."

Well I hope you will not disappear during my speech, because there is a
real Orator and Humorist succeeding me = Colonel Houston - whom I have listened to
for over 25 years, and I know you will be well rewarded for your patience.

Be that as it may to the knowledge of the writer, he is the only man living
who was present at the Organization Meeting of the Oyster Growers and Dealers Asso-
ciation of North America, and who has been a member ever since. This apparent,
unusual circumstance was due to his being from ten to twenty years younger than
anyone else present, and not that I am an octogenarian.

Because of this fact, I was asked by. Jim Darling and Dr. Radcliffe at the
last Convention to write a short history of the founding, and of the development of
this unique and wonderful Organization over the past 41 years of its existence -
two wars to the contrary, notwithstanding.

Unfortunately, as I kept no notes, the facts I relate will be just from me-
mory and therefor necessarily limited in number.

It was over 45 years ago that the far-seeing Planters and Shippers of, and
Dealers in Oysters were beginning to see that only through unity and ccoperation
could their mutual interests be advanced and protected.

Previous to that time each locality was a law unto itself, and its members
knew very little about what the other fellow in another locality was doing, except
when he sold at a lower price. Their world was small like that of the Oyster itself.
The problems of one section were practically unknown to another, It was a case of
Dog eat Dog, and the Devil take the hindermost.

ont, JACUReMA B weno to norearDocs am ae Cita, eanet bi aAeTO ane 0

worecgonentt a dn 20%,

Gber .8 smut ,stotanty -oaobaal tatot bf0 Me | ni CreduedD

WE Baek if wonemntet mL gofdne wie). e hiet aii off eye etecy to alg
pew vets carnoed wfotanwot est Ife heativnk yerdt notondvmg) ets of .eR
sat mcd arethhe, yee ane! wal mott tote toerg se

i ert henleoag afotenwel ed? ,etoted toteto taetn & hiner patved |
1) Laines ett awob bedroges eaw sit ew tty Noten testy outs Oh” 9 BOF teh
~nig old anksevifeh, bettedta ed mei! ,eesetqqe esotebuett Sablon egeve aa }
ond nob bre qu grtdlen tae cote, eoye aid griqaed to tidad tativoag ai
shedaiak ef [Lf) uobate edd. dysomls Ife atdé as | am

enact add “Pastawol™ od? aaie dovegs, odd geokeoriqxe aaotmegqeetede ‘ei sau :
Vi Lauber yoad cp sow ed oli of sixeed tove bat gate edd am
visio. wee bug seyo eid Samego of baieialt todeq dootg off pet! -gtuo
bres "Vanos eenethun oft asd eroll” mam 7 fl o¢ Sia0 ef gopmetban)
woy ote Chor orlt, to" bias ee ee anol #20 hell? yedd 4
“elec ster oft sm eo ot iown muse exit bos "eq

"9 SS

4 al sveit sagaced .dooeqa ye gatsed amoqqaeth ton [fiw soy eqod 2th
b Mamet ak ovat I mode « notauct forofod ~ em authesoony de lromt fae See
sGonoktsy wey tot bebuawes ties ed fliw soy weed I base sotaay

SekvEl aem ylro ert ut on grotine ot to egbeiwond edt of yom FE oe rae
sORkA arelestl boa exsword tetey ole to gnkteoll noitasinegt) edt te dem
eterna 8, aiff .oomfe tave sodgna 6 meed eal odw bos ,aetsemk Mitel
add seaciny ataey wnewt o¢ mod motl. guied etd of wh saw oonadeam
Meltaiegotoo ta we T tet tow hus ironed 8

vee,

Od? te @1%klohed 10 bee antivel wilh.yd beng aaw I ytovt etd? te oe
to THemolLoweb edt to bre yarbbevot edt to ytedaid diode 2 otiew of moltae
‘ln @titerealwe ad ‘ia ‘to ateey If teaq afy tow mokteninwnt) (whisbeow baw
#8 Rhinos a: thet M,- sali icy ont

wom wort tans ed fiber e¢afon I atoa? ond greton on Fqgext I aa guted vals
Bie radi nf betiail yiltaaassen soled

etedien adt hie vitendi ote wal 0 enw ve bhewot dese: pit, Sack ont neo
pee akie- wattob aww ythiaoel warttonus 4 wolfe? wortdte od dace Suede

wilentt “edayo oat to dad okt There ear binow meade eandtg wewol @ te Bho
‘QW wee e caw SE ehwrltone of moni peeing al orn ano ‘to —

History of OGDA -2- J. N. Thompson

As is now evident, such a policy would inevitably lead to chaos. So
thought the progressive men in the business at that time, and they decided to do
something about it. Consequently, some of the larger Planters resolved to take the
initiative and form an Association for mutual protection through exchange of ideas
and adoption of measures that would promote the interests of all.

Prominent among these pioneers were Henry C. Rowe of New Haven, Captain
Frank Darling of Hampton, Virginia, Rufus Miles and Isaac Ballard of Norfolk,
Senator Homans of Rhode Island, R. R. Higgins, and William Atwood of Boston,Massa-
chusetts, Agel Merrell and Henry C, Elsworth of New York City, Andrew Radel, Sre,
of Bridgeport, Connecticut, Frank Mansfield of New Haven, Roy Lewis of Bridgeport,
William Killian of Baltimore, Ernest Ball of New Haven, N. S, Ackerly of Northport,
William Mills of Greenport, William Merwin of Connecticut, Thompson & Cole of South
Norwalk, Stanley Lowndes of Northport, Capt. H. I. Reynolds of Wickford, Rhode
Island, Jacob Ockers, Fred Ockers, and Henry Vanderburg of West Sayville, Mr.
Beardsley of Stratford, Shang Wheeler of Bridgeport, and others whose names have
escaped my memory.

The most powerful man in the Oyster business at that time was Henry C,
Rowe of New Haven, who owned the largest acreage of oyster ground in the country
and the biggest oyster plant. It was he who initiated the correspondence among the
various growers that led to the first meeting of the oystermen mentioned above,
most of whom attended. It was held at the Old Ashland House, Twenty-seventh Street
and Madison Avenue, New York City. At this meeting on or about June 1908, the
Oyster Growers and Dealers Association of North America was formed,

The main rival of Mr, Rowe, not as an oyster planter, but as a speaker and
organizer, was Senator Homans of Rhode Island, Both men were formidable, but of
diametrically opposite temperaments and dispositions.

The former was an introvert, strong, cold, calculating, determined, very
capable and aggressive, and of Bull Dog tenacity. The latter was an extrovert,
suave, disingenuous, persuasive, sarcastic, and of the rapier type of fighter.
Neither one would compromise his idea as to what the policy of the Association
should be, and as to how it should be carried out. It was a case of an irresist-
ible force meeting an immovable body. Both wanted to be the first president, but
neither one had sufficient adherents to bedected, Hence a compromise candidate
was chosen, Mre Azel Fe Merrell of New York City. He reigned about five years and
was succeeded by Mre Henry C, Rowe, who presided for another five years. Mr. Rowe
was followed by Mre William Killian of Baltimore, for about ten years, then Mr,
Howard Beach for about thirteen years, who upon his death was followed by Mr. Jim

Darling in 1941, until the present time,

The Association's first Vice President, elected in 1908, was Captain Frank
Darling, who remained as Vice President until his death in early 1941 and who was
‘succeeded by his son, Jim, for two months, when the latter was elected President.
Jim was suceeded by Paul Mercer as Vice President, who still reigns. The original
Treasurer was Mr, R, Re Higgins, who held office for about five years and was
suceeded by the writer, who was Treasurer for about the same length of time. His
Successor was lr, Herbert Brown of New Haven, who held the job for many, many years
until his death when Dr. Radcliffe took over.

o waaily ot bel yldativent bfuow qolte, » deve Ghkebtve wor ek

ee Dedivob yor tie amit to io voontend oft mt gem oviaser gor,
wht eda. ‘ot be wioaet -atodnelt wogt tel off to ames yx lineupeanod ett deodie
“geht ko euneNona dynords Hottoedoyy Leuttue tot no ltatodass ae ato?”
fie to ateoretud oft otomorg. blocw. hedd wotienom Ww «

Abetgas yoewol wort 4 'o owot .0 yarell over atockalg seedt mama dog
giiatctt ‘to bien tal Casal bin eof iy acts watery ,codtqnstl to
ARAM OOF YO hoow mall het tina .aakestH Hi .H ybexadel wbowh to an
get ylehet worbea vio stroY wet to dirowel® 6) ytrel bao [lexvten fog
ig tages Ze to oiwey yo yreval Woli lo bLeitene Xnort «daolteorig) gf og
‘ogi to yltetod (a +h evs Wok to Med Pyotr yoromttiatl to matt
Aguoe ‘te olod & moaqmod? ,Pieftoento0 to miwte{ hice yetoqdeerD Qo
ohols ,StottolW Yo abfonyed .1 oh etged ytxogdd-clf to ashawog yok
wt yollives? teeW te srudtwhaey virel ban ,stste0 bott savediok %
e¥ad comen saodw atetto boa .trogosybitg to safe arate botiaete |

oO ‘Utero sew omit todt ta aanntaud veteyoO off at aam ftrowng .
serio’ ait ni Bbituotg teheyo to ogse1os daoyre! oft bonwo. crit yp
odd yon wonehnogeet too edt heteitial cilw od aaw tt ythalq s0dito F tne
sovode hemolktrem meatetayo out) Te mikteen tert aft of bef Headz |
Foot? Amevessyorow? yoavel braliies 10 oft te blot aaw 4 sbebmradta,
t eit ,B08T onvt tuoda 1 no gittveem aint tA .yetd Poy wet cORTORA th
yhoo ‘saw sofiemkh Mhaoll to noklatoones aretsol bia 8 be

a
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to tud yoldebinnet eter tem Atoa ybun te) shows Yo take vodahet wae
sbnoitteoqa-t brea ad ni dita eu tod sii

raw: bontoriateh yantietivelee yhloo eitrertta witeovorntnit ce Rey ‘ae
tievovine t, anw toda! ‘of? syitosted “kod {fed ‘to ‘bane oven
wtodigis to sy ‘ality oft to bts yoivesbten ov tehodrey qavounegt
Hoftal oees ait TY) xoEfeq ett dadw of ka bobs eae ‘oa tontitqnob btvew
wtetaowd sta “to seed & GAW FT 4duo Defevas ed Pivoda ok worl ot Be
(Gud gtrebleetq tatlt ot ed ‘ot boduem Sfo yybot eLdawomat me gale
eteh thrive oa tmorga@od a sore ,bovooehbed od Bthyrotedhs dwotedt tye pad |
bea atuey ovil tvodes borgtes oH 4 ht aro well Qo fereot eT Tesh ool GM
‘Swot vaM sateey evit wsritom +07 Hohiosrg ofw ,ewol .9 Yiaell +t wd be hoe
tM mode Wtasy not Weds 17 ashatplakiysotoy to mettre matiliW ax yd Sew
ohL .ut yd bowollo? anew Wiheeb eid og: ow .ameey needitdd tuoda 10% dom

~amkt trong ond Lidow fbOL a
4 mit

anew fketge) sew AOR BE betoole wiebtaat? epev darit saott eivonak oat
ow ‘ori bos (68 yfiae wk deo Bly ihtay dreblges] exc¥ se bonkase. outer
yinehieowd hetesle saw rectal edt mod edtiom ‘out “a ymit noe sk ve
‘datkutvo ed? s.eayter lide ow inshiaow? #olV aa YeereM foes yd bebes
aon dae erecy orit dvoda vot ooftto bled oAw yotna en of (3 ot eew
BEL -pemie Lo athghel omae edt duods tot tonbesen? ear oll yiodicer ont yd oy
mires AN y yoo OF gok -vit ior oAw, otewell wall "ho awit tun duak we i e
gare adda elon ve auld 6h

History of OGDA -5- J. Ne Thompson

The first Secretary was Mr. William Atwood of Boston, who was succeeded
after four or five years by Mr. Eugene 1D. McCarthy of New York City, a pseudo-
Christian Scientist and the comedian of all Conventions. Many a meeting was thrown
into stiches of laughter by his apt witticisms, They always created a pleasant in-
terlude to an otherwise serious meeting. lcCarthy remained as Secretary until his
death. Later Dr. Radcliffe assumed his duties, and in addition to his many other
functions, still holds this office.

In passing, some comments might be made concerning the characteristics of
the various presidents who guided the course of the Association since its inception,

The first President, Mr, Azel Merrell, as mentioned, was a compromise cane
didate. He was made for the job, which at that time was mainly a healing of the
wounds between the faction headed by Mr. Rowe and that by Senator Homanse In a new
Association, harmony above all was essential to carry it through its early stages,
and Mr. Merell accomplished this end with the help of Captain Frank Darling = the
father of Jim = who was a great pacificatore

Then when Mr. Rowe assumed the authority, the way had been paved for accom=
plishment of unity of action and progress along constructive lines. A national
advertising campaign, pointing out the indispensability of oysters in the diet of
the nation, was immediately instituted and proved very successful. The beginnings
of national and state cooperation by the Government in the problems of the Industry
were inaugurated. The force that Mr. Merrell lacked and Mr. Rowe possessed was
being reflected in the forward strides the Association was making.

Then came Mr. Killian, who was loved by everyone. He came into office be-
fore the first ‘orld War and successfully carried us through it. There were times,
however, when only the Board of Directors met in place of the annual convention,
due to war conditions. Because of the war, it might be said that the Association
had to some extent retrogressed, and the death of Mr. Killian did not make this
Situation any better,

During the administration of Mr. Killian a revolutionary change took place
in the type of package used in the shipping of shucked oysters. Previous to that
time shucked oysters were shipped in a tub with a cake of ice in the center, As
the ice melted, the oysters would absorb the water and lose a lot of their natural
flavor and properties for which oysters are noted and eaten.

To remedy this situation, a Company called the Sealshipt was organized by
a Mr. Brooks and the firm of Hornblower and Weeks, the last gentleman being Secre-
tary of War at that time. They put out a container of galvanized iron in which the
oysters were put and sealed in, Such container was inserted in an outer wooden
carrier and surrounded with cracked ice, not in contact with the oysters. The car-=
rier and container were to be returned to the shipper after being emptied by the
customer and used continuously in this way until worn out,

The Sealshipt Company furnished the customers without any expense to the
shipper, except the latter was to buy stock in the Company for the value of the
hMumber of carriers used, but a dividend was paid each year on this amount. The
Shipper was to charge ‘}.10 per gallon extra of the tub price and such amount was to
be remitted each inonth to the Sealshipt Company.

jmenick Gbont oti vonts colt aktoaga odd Yo vation odd bebiap ore sdrohing z

Aoadateut? i .%

hehe a onus nar ors foteed to tinea met EW weld enw eaten
ohaeet: Yl yOro Nok inh Yo udtianet ot: onda? lad enemy !
shane eons): pow! et ister ant Ay at pe ry cut ire tin Yo tetheneo eid boa detoa
aah devnsoiq a botaato aypmha. poll sonekotidite tue afd ve setinge.
Abe fide oyusdered dh bemdemea yal revolt, -uiticem suotuep esktemite
norte yaa eid ot cofétbhe mi tra yeokstib ats borusean Stbhlobal +a
oodt'te .elnt. obfod LfE

sya) goss ttod ented ard gelrdoneo obas od tdulm adnoomos enon . yates

thee nedksomiien - aaw -poaodeeen oS. 9h Sertay Iaeh th gtnobtasrt Ser
ae ee Oe ee | not z yln lan aan ORs todd, ta dotew vdat orld 12% ebaaes
(an opt ~itariol tote? yt. dehy oe owes ea wa hobaed nobtan? jsarit ae

inegets efieo whi danowl? ht yrtas ov (rtineeeo em tie, evedas “erential
ety « gerd Ertan drake olnteeti ta qfoed 9: Avie bre, = iit borletr ebote ke lay Lis
‘ody an EY thea ae by 4 answ ie | 2

win ote #0% beveq ooad hai ope seth ge Protas edt De JEL wines srt: tie
VFongitagt A .rertt ovitenideno> aio ' Toe TA Ss hee nokden to, ghbawh
Sq 4046 oft nt atolave to Gt sdeareseiitt off tue gabtinteq sth Logg
apr tn Lat = rr » Corks s2Sadim qaw. bovoig bee boteditank ~isdehbemal ae

Wise ube to somitow. oa af Sneemi vo oty yd ao Renegqooe) Marag
ae hekabiec ‘ art, 2M Bita Seto “10th sate Gotoh, ett. -she

qikvom Gow take lognud iit. eobiste bers? of nd

ced entito ofvl omen Gh 4 eeroeiere Yo bovot. sew ote meth itt sa onee

eR OG? Otay eset? af? gagomdit av Selita yi iviasescum fre sat! bho \

rotwiewos J yentta Ot “to eoally vt Jom ototoanht 2 h“sot ols ude: p ey .

Ment etoons), ont Jedd blew ed @hginm gL. ,tew sith To eawaned eostadt Ron a
eiee sileo com bth ppbhhhh ark to aéaad sf4 bow phoametgorsor done

» toddodk a

rex

hoe la: Root eynato wionohtulavet a anil lin 1 ‘to anttate iatkaie asbt gk
fatto agotvest ,aveteawe hedewds to untqgide adt at hoes tpeloay 10
SA a tetneo oft ad cod Fo gee # ativ dat a md. begqdae etew nruoherge.
heresies ahedt to. tof « obeh few todew en! drouds bivow avodey ingle! J
! wedteo bao bedec oc atectayo dolde vol Reddy

nt boxkanato, saw tp tne took off Bells y tomo a gro beading staat 4
were atiod manafiren Scot ene (nates hie Tew Eforor “te ape eit aie

ais wt of mont bostna ving 1h veolodnas » tt 2e5 vent seme thaxtt’ ta *
fabaow redie mo xt beta maw tani ad: dows. .at fefeos ‘here Fay err
ween ST gatstayo oft Mob Jones Fivdorn cot hodtaete ithe hebaortes,

edt wd bettors goted sac te eeggcd, } hapeectis: ad oF eteM % .
othe bow Shine date: abdd wt sUfeuoue tditon buan

att oF onneme ye § Saye ae fw gto ‘ar Pyareba her wt “pnts tte Saati
wet ke COe Cay ot yond eat al voochs seed eae Vom re i a

ad?’ Madness oie xo. Ane ne Disa ae Dec hleny a ated, Pagel

od nee Feusre touy bre 9 stig Hk ith Ma SF (his hn Stag meh Sep 6) ro

oe LatDWsD de tite Paves oe tt troy

History of OGDA -4- Je Ne. Thompson

This carrier business flourished tremendously for several years until the
present single shipment can was adopted, which is more sanitary and removes the ne~
cessity of keeping track of returnable carriers,

Next to the Presidency came the beloved lir. Howard Beach who had the most
difficult task of all his predecessors in keeping the Association together because
of the Oyster Scare that broke out during his term. This was nationwide, and for
many months no one struck a blow. Mr. Beach was instrumental in bringing about the
Organization of the Shell Fisheries Commission of the various oyster pioducing sta-
tes, and having them meet annually with our conventions, Another national adverte
ising campaign was promulgated during his regime, and the Cyster Institute was
founded. Through pronouncements by prominent governmental health officials brought
about by Howard's intercession, confidence in the oyster was restored. Then later
on, to add to his troubles, the nightmare of trying to adapt the conduct of the oys-
ter business to the NRA monstrosity was foisted upon him and the Association. How-
ever, through the able assistance of Mr. Cordon Sweet in the North and Capt. Frank
Darling and others in the South, the task was progressing rapidly, when the Supreme
Court declared the act unconstitutional. But no one was reimbursed for the love's
labor lost.

Besides these things, Howard induced Dr, Radcliffe, former Deputy Commission-
er of Fisheries of the United States, to take the post of our Director - an accom-
plishment I believe every oysterman joyfully appreciates, Because of the Doctor's
introducing the practice of sending out bulletins every few weeks, informing us of
matters relevant to the oyster industry, we are kept up to date on improved methods
of operation, impending legislation, what is going on in other sections, and every-
thing that helps us to improve our own businesses and increase the influence of the
Association. These bulletins also play an all important factor in cementing the
Association between conventions, at which time we have the advantages of social and
business contacts, together with the renewal of old friendships not only among the
men but among the ladies also.

Howard Beachts untimely death was greatly lamented and brought into sharp
focus all the benefits for which the Association and the oyster business, in gene-
ral, were indebted to him. It would be no exaggeration to say that his passing was
unduly precipitated by his devoted, unselfish, and conscientious efforts to better
the Industry.

Now, in conclusion, a few words about our present incumbent, Jim Darling,

I have attended practically all the conventions since the foundation of the Associa-
tion, to wit Norfolk, Baltimore, Washington, D, C.,0ld Point Comfort, New Haven,

New York City, Atlantic City, Providence, Milford, Woods Hole, and Asbury Park. At
some of these cities two and three and more conventions were held during this period,

At none of these conventions have we had a presiding officer more gracious
and with as mellifluous a voice, as Jim Darling, to say nothing of his patience, his
placating spirit, and his competence, With each convention he improves. As Mre
Killian carried us through the first World War with the aid of Jimts father as Vice
President, so has Jim done the honors during the second World War with the aid of
Dr. Radcliffe as Director and Paul Mercer as Vice President. In both cases has the
cooperation of the members been engendered by the character and example of the pre-
Siding officers, Of course, with the change of the times and competiition of other
food products at a cheaper price for the place in the stomach formerly occupied by
oysters, the necessity for a strong Organization is more evident now than ever be-
fore, Purification of the waters to bring about greater production of oysters seems
to be the most crying need to-day, and nothing less than a large, active, and virile
Association can bring this about. May such an Association continue to live and
function effectively and harmoniously for many many years to come,

ba WE Ip ”» Wel) A AV Wate: Toa Nien >) } o GY)
Pak t | Hen He rive inet ¢ 4 .

| atid (hire arose Letowen to? ylawobmomert bovis Suse Pt esentaud
| wea ort cevemet baa yretines evom at ttolcw .batqob a saw mee de

Pa)

th) viebrien a idenanter to alone ke is

Mi dance ote Dat odw dosed haath ett fevo fed eT Be FO eid od Bo i
“oo. (eppeoed redteyot noid stoosds odd antyned ot aeoeeeoebexg et fle Yo west be
Pa “at bua aes than aa @idT .orres cid yniawb too edord tadd evan tom
| qt trode anionio€ af tatwomtenc sow dosed. mold « Atonttn eee om
i | nee usb ovb- i yetayo avelter edd to cobestmmod asftedefd (Let? end to ts
eiveube Lanotter tettodd ,apolimemos ino atiw yliseins seon seeds ge 7
in? ) pp ahiutideand tatow ont bow ,ondyen ate. peixeb Seceglumony caw pe
tye alatorlio ddfeed Ladmemrsave, cvemceoig yd atten onuosotg «Quon
DUO pedtt ) shorted saw serayo oc nik oy sonoblicos ,wotesootednh eth
niyo, ait %o tovbnoo ot tqehe ot gat. /3 to etentdipia edd ,sofduowt atte

“WO smpttabooeas, edt bro med aogs botckolt saw yieoatamom A aft oF
lo) eee eae be ise ont ph doows beh ) th to sanateloes olde ont a
1) PMP RqNR, ede cow aylblae? andevetso%) aaw toot ont doen edd me eterno’

devo! odd sot hoetudmtiet sew eno of ind ¢lanoituvitamoons vor edd beg

|| meokee kame yiuqed remro% yettkiobn i sul heowhot braroh ,eankdd osedt 208

witerOs 1A = TtotoerH? tno to taoq ott oled oF _~sotat® bed ing edd tol ratte
eixotoad eat to eguneef ,aotatooicds ylivtvok meutetago yrere ovelfed I
tony entarotat ,ateow wet yieve aritelind tw golheee Yo softest, |
dbortom bevowgmt no ated of qu ta! ote on aviteobe! tedevyo ott oF i
nf aYiave bus yanottoes teddto Ak no aoloy ot bade vinitelalgel gatbnoqml
ent to ooneultat oft panetont bre aecaenlewd awe tuo evesqak o¢ ec aqk
edd guitnenwo nl totost tnatican! Ile me yalq aslo entieifsd szatt
pte Letooa Yo eoxatnavha afd ovat ow ott doldw te snottesumoo baste
4 mii Stome yino tor agtdaielst bio to Sawenes edd dtiw tedtonos
oats seaifel ole

le ofa tdggoid baa bogmems f yitaorg ean dtaeb Liomtsieg atdomed h
rp onog AE ,saenteud tefeye edd bas noivsioonsA off doldw to) et ftemed «
ey a gttagaq eid Jedd yaw oF notteto.gsx0 on ad bivow JL smka of bode
. “atdod of attotte avoltmoloamos bre ,daliloanw ybodoveb afd we hodad tg
oy 4s

egokinad ait gtredasent dnever, 10 tuadp shiow wet s ,okanfornoo az co
| mfilowasa end Xo moftabauot edt sorta asoiiaevnes odt Ifa yilecktousg de r)
ghoval wo gtto%mo) dmtoT HLO.05 24 yrotantdaal’ ,stomts {a8 piloTrett +
fA ated winded bao yeloH aboot! ,bt0l lin ,oomeblvord .ytid obimeiss we
‘gba hroe ghit yariteh bied ovew enoktne von stom bea aout bre om Bell fo,

aso tons ston IoLT bo so kbieerg « bat ew eval snokics mos eeorty to oso
ait owe tdog abt to gutdtonm yaa of guckinaG mit as ,oolov 5 euou stil Lom
ace aA ppevorgek of nothnemos does dtiY ,eometeqmoo atd baa gt itty
@o1¥ 24 Yosdutd efabt to bka odd ritiw +a bfegW Foti? edt dgvowd av Be
Yo bke odd adler sa bixo frooea oft sakuwl stoned edt emob ait, ast os.
one wast aeteo ddod nl .teobinetd cojT aa teoteit lua fae Yotoethd ee OFF
sot eit Ye efymexe bie te¢oetedin cit vd bovebuegne need etedaem odd To o
“edto to noktitteqmoe boa eemkt edt Yo sqmerto edt Atiw yeetuoc 1D sates
yd heiguooo yf vento? foamot ott of seat off sok eottg tegqaedo a te ato

wed tove mad wor foobive evom at xottyalmeaxO gnowte « tot ytlaaoeen

amees enedayo to mottouborg tetrexy Fuode getid o9 atedow edt to aot

ofbaky bie ,ovites yogtel a matt ego! yctiiton bne obwot Beer spt,
bow ovkl of ouktdnos mottehoosad ae sows Yo .ddoda elt antag
<omoe of stesy Yarn yaw tot yLewotmomtad hie ati

THE OYSTER INSTITUTE ANNUAL REPORT
Lewis Radcliffe, Director

“Chamberlin Hotel, Old Point Comfort, Virginia, June 7, 1949

We are gathered here to develop a program to check the downward trend of
consumption of oysters, to increase production to a point that will enable us to
sell our product at lower price levels and still make a reasonable profit, and to
educate our people to the high nutritional values of oysters, We fully appreciate
the fact that for over two thousand years oysters have been held in high esteem as
one of the finest delicacies of the sea and we propose to maintain that reputation.

For the achievement of these ends, special emphasis needs to be placed on

_ two objectives - the first and most immediate of these is to develop an educational
program to include use of dealer helps, market research, the services of home eco-
nomists and other aids which will assist us in focusing the eyes of the homemakers
of the nation on the place of our product in the nation's diet. Gordon Sweet will
lead in the discussion of this phase. Our second objective is to develop and apply
the fruits of scientific research, particularly in the field of biology, to increase
the supply of seed and market oysters and reduce the losses from oyster pests. To-=
morrow morning Dr. Nelson will discuss this approach.

As American business is passing from a seller's market to a buyerts market,
each of you must engage in a higher degree of salesmanship than you have had to
exercise in more than a decade. It has been aptly stated that you tve got to start
working on your feet instead of from your seat. Each of you has to maintain a re-
putation for marketing oysters of high quality while offering up a prayer that those
who water their oysters will awaken to the evil of their ways and resolve to sin no
more. You need to educate your buyers as to ways of maintaining high quality of
_ your oysters even if you have to indulge in a bit of expense by supplying them with
_ dealer helps in order to secure their cooperation, Better and more attractive pack-
aging and better displays will prove to be helpful aids, Gordon will have a real
message for you as to how to do this and Mr. James, Assistant Director of Fish and
Wildlife Service, will discuss the many ways in which the Service can be of help.
The next step will be to formulate a definite course of action and proceed to its
accomplishment, Sach of you should determine how much you can possibly do to lift
us out of this era of decreasing demand and not only restore consumption to former
levels but reach new goals. With the supplies of pork, beef, poultry, eggs, and
canned goods increasing, with the prices of agricultural products falling off, and
with the possibility of the Brannan plan to let agricultural staples seek their own
level, your job of increasing the demand for oysters promises not to be an easy one,
but it can be done. Letts will to do it.

Legislation and Related Matters

Wage-Hour Law = One of the greatest services ever rendered the fishing industry was
the inclusion of Section 13(a)(5), the fishery exemption clause, in the wage-hour
law, fathered by Congressman Bland. You are familiar with recent attempts to limit
this to offshore operations, Fortunately for you, strong sentiment from all parts

sfodttem atteyud » of todaam 9? toi Loe a mort aiteang of 2 dented nsottemh, '

| ie ae
ROI LAURA TUTTI Te eee eae:

sotoo red pAVebivbas 2iwey

Lone wf onvt , stedyekv deo lmot deted bf favor metredmadd

So birett breech eft aoeto of matyotg » qofeweb of sre betoridag
OF sh eftarie {litw tert <dotog e ot motdovborvy eusetont ut ,etediyo-
‘ot dre gtitorg efifancanot 8 etam fiiva bre afeual sory rowol die Ponti
odatsenyge yiiut of wateteys to moulev Lanobitttun dgic eid oO olgoeg
ga meotse rigift ot bfed meet oval atelzvo exsey baaaeesay owt rev soto
ite Bhatiogent ted? xbedr Pen ot eecqovg of bane ass ody “bo aelonot leh gae roam

to hecaly ed od sheen ataarqny fstoogn ,abre cxett Yo dremevolios ent 3E
fenottaosbe no cofeweh ot wi enorlt Yo otethecutt- team bre tari? edt = oon
aoe emod lo saotvies oft gdtotasse, toaliam ,scfor vefweb to soy abet
etetemenod ot to soyo edt yrfavoct st ev toteee Mitw sotdw ob bo tend
(ftw deewS mobtod .teth ataottar adt ai tombeng tHo te ooalg oct im,
ylage bre qofevob of ef evitootdo bnooee te .omadg sidd to wolsane
enawtont o¢ .yeolotd to hfe kt oft cl ylislucliing gdovasaet oft ttnofog Bap
=oT .acvaey istoyo mor) seavol sé eoshot Ine anetayo dodien ina Goes 0’
sfoactys elt omvoedbh Lftw poulet «20 Geel

. of bad evar oy, madi qidanamsion Io eotyeb tedgid 8 at o_egme them 4
dyads ot don os? poy tadd hotata yiiqe ooo’ wm af oebaooh » cat eto
=ot # xiedniss oF nal soy to dosk ytaor xuoy moth to beotark doot me

| goods Jett reyows « qu grbwetto alidw yitesp init To eressyo anktewae o

(Gf mite of eviobes bee aqew cthedd "to Live ord of oowe Dftw oretayo ti
to yYtifep dott setetedatam Yo ayow at 2.2 eraqed “moy srwonhe oF Be
iiiw medt aatylacwa vd eaneque to Sid a wt oytatet of evel soy 2 move:
atesy evidoa whe sion hie t6ttel wtottateqoos thodd etuooe of téebto mk"
Tot @ ovad [fiw sober abto Ieighed ed of ever fLtw oyalqeth wedied
fem MOT YO sodroetid sosdetoed gvomet avid toy abet Gb oF vol ot aa gong
eqied to od mio coivie? off dotdw mt ayew yrem odd sanoals Ctiw yook ;.
att of bogoertg bar cottes to setcoo edintioh » efalmol of od i Liw gota
deel o¢ ab vidPenoq neo voy Hosen woul vakerteded bf{worls soy Lo Agate am
“oor od nottamumanos stodees ylam dot hue Baanieh gatesotosb Te ete
bern une geutledg ,iesd yhtoq to aekieque. edt atey alos wer a

hea ,Yto sablist adowbow Tent ivotsas to senteg edd dtlw ,siitesotomt
sar. “abertt deon ae fqete LertacdToutigs tal of maiq mammend oft To Sree Fu
,atho yee a od of ton asatenty vretayo tot hnamah aft yutsnevedt %o dot
otf ob oF [ftw afted ~senob:

DA
be

pretial fou lot baw nottatle iyo] ‘ay

saw scitevhot gekind? edt bereiecit seve aotivter tastneyg afd to en0, «)
*orl-agaw eit ot ,oamale wokhgmene yrodalt oft <(8) (aL anitoee
ddatl od odumetto Freoet dtl varihysl oi oy’ Roars hameser god’
atvad [fe went tnamisvvse grétts yooy tl windanadiel aanotiavege

Oyster Institute Annual Report - 2-6 Lewis Radcliffe

of the country opposing any increased coverage of the Act by other groups as well

as the fisheries has staved off change for the time being with the possibility that
the only change in the law at this session will be to ircrease the minimum wage from
40 to 60 or 65 cents per hour. Those of you who opposed cnange in the fishery exemp-
tion are to be commended, As efforts to amend the sectzon will undoubtedly continue,
you may wish to formulate plans during this convention for greater participation with
other groups to oppose increasing the coverage of the Act.

Consolidated Fisheries Case - Most of you will recall the many ways in which the
Wase-7 -r Administrator by arbitrary rulings has succeeded in limiting the coverage
of the Act, by such rulings as refusing to grant exemptions to those engaged in the
pearl button industry, also office help, watchmen, cooks, and the like in fishery
plants. The ruling of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third District,
made on March 31, 1949, in the case of a menhaden firm, Consolidated Fisheries of
Lewes, Delaware, upholding the position that "all of its employees who are necessary
to the carrying on of its fishery and fish processing activities are exempt by the
plain language of Section 13(a)(5) of the Act" constituted a signal victory for the
Sisheries.

Fishery Exemption under the Motor Carriers Act of 1935 = Congressman Bland succeeded
in writing into this Act an exemption in Section 203(b)(6) for motor vehicles used
exclusively in carrying livestock, fish (including shellfish), ete. In the Monark
Egg case first submitted to the Interstate Commerce Commission on April 27, 1942,
the Commission ruled that fish as it came from the water, oysters in the een
etc. were subject to the exemption, headed or eviscerated fish, shucked eysneeee ete .
were not. Without going into the lengthy hearings given this subject, in the Love
case the U. S. Court of Appeals upheld the opinion of the District Court in Louisiana
that beheading shrimp and freezing them did not remove them from the exemption, The
first move of the Interstate Commerce Commission was to recognize the nation wide
application of this decision insofar as it applied to shrimp. As a result of this
action, shrimp may be transported by motor vehicles not licensed by the Interstate
Commerce Commission if such vehicles are not used for carrying for compensation, any
passengers or property other than exempt property as defined in the exemption. On
Avril 11, 1949 the Interstate Commerce Commission reopened the case for further con-
sideration as to its application to all fishery products, It is now anticipated
that a final ruling will be made before mid-June and it appears we may receive a
favorable decision. This would be another victory in restricting the activities of
_those who would read into lew interpretations not warranted,

Canadian Embargo = The heavy increase in fishing vessels, shore plant facilities for
pockaging, freezing, and storing is creating a marketing problem, particularly for
those nations which are able to consume only a minor share of their catch at home

and must therefore seek export outlets. It is not surprising that they should look
with envy on our markets as an outlet for these surpluses. With their low operation-
al costs as compared with our own, they create a real problem for our fishermen whose
costs of production are much higher.

Fortunately for our oyster industry, as the largest producer of oysters in
the world, while our neighbors’ production is wholly inadequate to meet their own
domestic needs, we are in a favorable bargaining position. Immediately following
our last year's convention at your direction I began negotiations through governmen-
tal channels to have the embargo lifted, In this effort, thanks are due our State
Department, Canadian importers, fishery associations, and members of the trade for
their splendid cooperation which resulted in the lifting of the embargo the first

ertifobai aiwe! vain.

ij vad ae AqVOIy wenite yi oA oft to Opatevoc heasetomk Agnus. ore inaeregeo- 3
hint? if bdkomog od¢ dite gited eat walle eck pag Tto beveis, ead pit
‘tosh sae ances kor” ‘bat eneotort of od Ifiw ao feaée
re See eds af ene d hesogne ony oy tr anadh. , eA ioT | Pee. Pony 32.
sunitnoe ylbetdudiag {fiw anoicosa eit brome of ado? io. aA boheme ed-odat
dd bw wre bitoen dis kibstsn, ‘nedourtg tet solimevwtion gitlt goiawh eamaly ace tuavett ot dete

4

aaa _ Rok ort To ogatevoo wilt. sakeesiont ohoggo OF eam

”

oft doksiw ci ayow ynam et [fener Jikw uy to tao + e890 aohiedad
engtoves ond ‘anidimts ot bebsedous aad vgntinr vwrards ee Yd tote td ei
ont wt beueane egoeds of pio +eqite x6 dinates of grievter as nga kt pt some a
wieded? mt cuit oft brie ad 709 somos .gieod soltto oafe- eywtaubak :
~tokttalc oric? ent ast aleecdA Do dwod, se¢et2 hodinU odd to gnbigg
‘golterdegi betebtfoariod .mttt aebadnem 2 to esas eft mb gehOl ft sie
visnesoon exe ode acoyolques att te [fe" sad? soitisog end gett iodqu . vam
axe ein aoktivitos ankenocor; ds Fi ine presiee? ect. To ao GAR
ods tot. ytotolv fangis » bediuthtanoo "tod esit to (8). nobtooeg toa

|
botpencva belt aamesetgrod. « SERI to t¢sA eto ittel) toto ef? tebnu noktem
boay gefothtey + dom wt, 5) (BIRO 1 fi wives® Rr solsquexe > “Fon ek ¥
Pano eit ol «ove =i! il svlvr tee rs
~590L 478 {219A mo a Sirk odd of beddiodam §
,iivde o i at eels. “ytotew eid mort ego ti ve. daft doit Se lot eee
,o%e.,bteteyo betoua ,felt bedotoon fvo to, Debheos ,ro Lames eit od soohaanll ras
owt oft mi .dootdue aldt aevin oyetiood whtgne!l edt odat goiog drone
stake ted a2 tavod soliteax eft Yo weg edit £ fertge etnetah % Pre Of): aot
eA] - ,todtgqoex ely ovort mond evomey tom bh most athseort fae qebedte
opin wokien edd extetgocer oF sar ‘teeta sotemnmoS whe ; erp edt to #8
efit to Hurst e 0A .ombuth of oilgge th ap tHloant nolotosh elit Be
odatetesnl odd vd heeteets ton aelotdev tages yd betroqenst? od yam-@
yun groktpenoqmoy tol gaiyrres to? Lene don ot aeioidev rows 12 mobames
ih.” sttotitqmexs oft xk hendted en wiisqe td tqmexe red? srenge wore
fom sedi to? «abo oft heneqos? aolssiney® sesommoD etsderodak erltj
kn in 3 wor et tI .adooborg yretie ft fifo ee rroftac. trad wok oe:
y eviose: yom bw. ateeqos Jf bro enyl-bin otcted oben od itv anime
‘to sed Sh vidos afd aektotadaey wi vioteiv vedtoma of bivew etd? yagbets
pbod ett Rw sore anodsatorgretat wel odnt Soot Bp

notaay
h ao y

t tnalq otoda ,ofeesey ides? s nk sarqtort yyeed ect « omtad
Pore hteq’ me [fotg eer tear f gr idacts at poke bas ,R2¢ fee
amod ge dotee tledt “Yo etsde mmker a-yinc omvanoco ot efda ete dotmr
t Divers yor sadt yuta don ei $l .utelt uo, oe 1oqxe oy szoTetnese
wmotiarceco wel atordtt Aer 3h alana sa ests 0% teltuo ma pe ater ion. kn 464 wt
it 4 5 otesio ved? ,awo wo mae boseqnem Bay
ay todgid doum ome eotdouberg to
vi atredave te te 9vboswg teental end sc st reread setayo. tio OF yfedenudsod ©
cen dies toom ot) ataupoheart yiforw sf aokteuhon ' pinyin 106 elie
sd (a0 bé-tood. tihonied eidenvet es of wie ow _ehoor
etemrteves dywotdd amo.t siaged f nn thon fb wot tae mods now9 atiooy
nese epoceubd ete esicnck? Graotle nb. at ybed tet opradae edd -omaihor alot
Hot ‘Bhawd ech bo a eerdtie or bas 5 0 ALoonas yt oriak? , ered regs aed harad: #
tl. off ‘ak bedineot dotdw rofsexeqaos sping

odie ft) ar Leuk nb le

r

. wb oh seme Nae 4
t4akh. eit ontadaws eds Te

Oyster Institute Annual Report - 3-6 Lewis Radcliffe

of the year. We would add a word of caution to those who for what appears to be
selfish reasons are seeking to have the embargo restored September 1 to December 31,
“We hope that Canadian authorities will recognize their greater stake in the fishery
trade with us and not jeopardize their own market needs, Let us not weaken our po
sition by shipping into Canada poor quality oysters.

Canadian Tariffs on Oysters - As noted in a recent bulletin we were surprised at the
wide variation in rates on imports of oysters into Canada. For example oysters fresh
in cans of one gallon or more, the tariff is 5 cents per gallon, while for pints or
less the duty is 2 cents, equirvient to 20 cents per gallon, and for quarts or two
quarts 4: cents per quart, eaquitaient to 18 cents per gallcn as compared with 5 cents
for fresh stock. Obviously these rates militate against the use of individual cone
sumer packages, and frozen stock, but the Canadian trade is seeking corrective mea-
‘sures. As previously stated we have only words of praise for the cooperation of the
Fisheries Council of Canada and members of the trade in solving these problems. The
rslations between the respective health agencies have been marked by good will and
en effort to amicably settle all matters up for consideration. Our packers of oys-
‘ters can make an important contribution to this situation by exercising greater
care in handling imports into Canada. Every shipment of oysters of poor quality can
‘be used against you by Canadian packers who would like to have the embargo restored
‘and incidentally will tend to discourage the consumption of our oysters in Canada.
Therefore may I urge extra care in the preparation of your exports to Canada and thus
build up the demand for our product among our neighbors consuming population.

The Hoover Commission Report

This report can be made the basis for important and far reaching changes in
the present set up of the federal government with savings estimated at several bil-
lions of dollars. President Truman has strongly urged the Congress to grant him
authority to put such changes into effect. Dean Acheson, Secretary of State, has
taken the initiative in securing epproval for the reorganization of his Department.
It is reported that Secretary of Interior Krug is making his recommendations to the
President to be used as the basis for legislation for the reorganization of his De-
partment. The Natural Resources Committee under the capable chairmanship of former
Governor Miller of Wyoming has made a magnificent contribution to the needs for group-
ing conservation agencies under a single Department of Natural Resources. The leaders
in the fishing industry have an excellent opportunity for constructive effort by
reaching an agreement as to the policy they desire adopted with respect to separation
Bena location of the fisheries work of Fish and Wildlife Service. Sound policy would
“dictate that it belong in a Department of Natural Resources, but if there is to be
bickering and lack of initiative among the various conservation units, then it might
be preferable to seek to have fisheries work transferred to the Department of Come
Merce. I am deeply appreciative of the efforts of those members of the industry who
aided in having me appointed Consultant to the Natural Resources Committee.

Need for a Definite Fisheries Policy

As long as the leaders in the fishing industry remain without a definite poe
licy as to whether a Fisheries Branch separate from Wildlife should be established
and in what department of government it should be located, we shall be like a vessel
without a rudder. As long as the fishery associations sponsor legislation for the
Sake of expediency without agreement among the loading associations or even without
the general supvort of the membership of each we shall remain weak. Every time a

otielebed atwal

od od aiimeqqe term vo one sacs of colsems to fier

a he ‘eich ent oe “£ rodaetq od betiedaet watiedne ant eral

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tones ‘ko gidenenitnado. oldeqeo add isha: eottiawed seotwonel Lanny at
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duty tee ti mods gation wy Rave: AES O89 avofliey edd stome eviteitial to toal |
ew Be treamattag 90 odt ot bovvetuned Axow seftedatt ovad of aeea ott
aww utaubot wit Th exedaem eso se to adtete edd? Yo ovitatootaqe yiga
ssottiqned avewoned Latte ett oF daativenc’ evatogas ont 3

at

yot tod setzorie i ne tok ted & Tol beat

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‘ep oo eoitafaineal toenoqa madre tong ee viedoil odf aa prtol 8A. - fo
wituitthe aeve so stotiebootes wihsel oct qaomd daemegipe tuodtiw gen .
east yew. qalawwr atom {fate ow lowe To. banaue ih me sf 2 ona

eae sat Ns

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1
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Oyster Institute Annual Report - Lewis Radcliffe

rider covering the work of the Fisheries Division is introduced into an appropriation
bill for the conduct of work by some other department which properly belongs to the
Fisheries Division, we are confusing members of Congress when we should be educating
them to think of the Fisheries Division whenever they think of a fisheries problem.
Whenever any such measures of expediency is proposed, every member of the industry
should oppose it. If you think little of the work of the Fisheries Division, you
can't escape blame in part, for each of us should contribute all possible aid to
making its work effective, Let us remain united on this subject.

Mechanization of the Industry

Commendable progress is being made in the mechanical handling of oysters by

dredging, unloading, etc. There have been improvements in the regular dredge to in-

erease its effectiveness. Of greater importance are the developments represented by
hydraulic dredges developed by Flower, Nelson, Sweet, and Bailey, and the harvester
_type of Brown and Jurisich. These provide means of dredging oysters or the enemies
of oysters on a scale hitherto undreamed of and should contribute materially in re-
dacing the cost of production.

One important field with great labor-saving potentialities has scarcely

ecen touched - the mechanical shucking of oysters, More labor is employed in this

operation than in any other branch of the industry. Shucking costs have risen withe

in your memory from 15 to 20 cents per gallon to 85 cents to 1 dollar or more per

gallon. Under proposed wage-hour legislation you are confronted with proposals that
Can wreck the industry.

A cost of production survey made by ‘VePeA. for Maryland oysters in 1936
= that shucking labor represented 25 per cent of the cost of production. The
shucking of oysters is not a type of work to attract tabor. It requires special
| skills not easily mastered by some workers. As time passes we may expect it to bee
come less attractive and your difficulties in obtaining the necessary labor may be
expected to increase. It appears obvious that efforts should be made to overcome
these difficulties by perfecting mechanical means for doing this. How shall we pro-
“ceed to attain this objective? Is it a proper function of your Washington office
to try to aid in this accomplishment? These are questions to which I would appre-
“ciate your giving consideration and advice.

ok KKK EEE

Your Washington office personnel has had one of the most trying years of
memory. Efforts to keep the work current have necessitated your Director putting
in a 7-day week much of the time. Through the Institute bulletins you have been
kept acquainted with current matters affecting your business. You have received
12 trade reports containing valuable information on a variety of subjects. An un-
usually large number of bills affecting the fisheries have been introduced into Con-
gress. We have endeavored to keep you fully informed on the progress of those up for
hearings and placed before the Congress for action. -Our relations with the Fish and
Wildlife, the Food and Drug Administration, the Ue S. Public Health Service, and
other executive branches of the Government have been most pleasant. Requests from
feature writers for printed matter and photographs have received particular attention
with the result that a number of articles publicising oysters have appeared in print
and your Washington office commended for the excellence of the material supplied.
Our relations with other trade associations have been pleasant and helpful. With

sil IM

oth Pinbeh, viwow

owen Abn eringa re wid: Lenten, ee. sro tuber eedeiinlth wk ke 26
odd et oun tod wreoqesy dw. deveuob “rdite. ems We aro ho: ee
hm wey Mints ost cei pede yo’) tho. aed one tat mage: SLB Sor wrois p

ye gat toa to Seed vert severcdw apkeren eedvedatt edd te

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rie ‘ ioe to. drow ode ag efi othe fo tlt “ + wt

int pain oh coh bch Spey: halle ar hat

yitesbar ord: to _molfasinaton'
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ert oo agheth «sluget odd of etnomvouget need ovat etadh ode pith
T! bodmosptqex adnempofovuh. edt ets const toqak tateery IO Laveanridew
tostnevned ed? fie ,yefiad hue ,teew?. ginalol gremo Pi yd beqoleveb se
simone writ tw steteyo gnigtoth to oawen chtvorg geod adoketioh fam
+0 of yolietam. atudintnos bluode ine Yo bemeothus. ofyedtit olese ae
eottoubo wn Yo see

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eins Hi heyolqae al todel onoM. »steceve 3o wefiienda Isotasdoom edt wit

wiitiw mealx eoved etaoe antioud2 ‘.vitechnk oat to domeed tenito wa ak:
weg wtom Yo Teifob {oF atreo 38 of colias teq adawe OS of Of ween

SHAS Diesogerq Atiw Sedrottooc ais. yoy nolldatuine!: upid-seaw- (ea09 Oty TeRat
2 outta yb e + rt

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ent wihettouborg. ‘te t300 edt to trom ae Of hegmenenqe todel on
fehooge aesiupet IL .toaf Sostite of Drow Yo eayy a gon 42 ate
one OF Sh Joexe yom sw eeseey oaks oA .wtetvew emo vi Soxodemm GEE
yan todal yrarescem edt naintatco acl aekdieelttt sev baa evious
CaeO1evS of ohan od Hieara stro? ty ti Di cdo Radeqacs FF phen
“OIG. 04 Liens wom. ealitt anted vot anes Dentaatsag anbiootter vii aot fk
OPETIS. cotgat des apy Te. roft on’ 1eqO% a oSal tevidestd aidt a
wemion bivew T solde-oF anoltneuc ots oaed? feremdintiqvosss widt ink!
,Sotvha bae optdare bileneo gps

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to utasy gutyyt From ond Yo ero hart aest fommosteq cortito sodgntdcaW
Witt tomy Kotatt inoy bedatteeseer ovat trettes stow cde good of # P
food ovat gory antvel fut ehutitent et daspeal somite ott Xo dou
jowlepe: over met ,seavtaud awey gabvootts etetten dnerwo dtiw Be ;

“tt aA vocoottms ‘to wtektey- 0 ao node! ofdeefar siicladuoo eda
HOO) urn bepmborgek good oval so tvedallt oft gabtootia- clitd to ted &
a0. qe oxost To neetyorg oct mo bexnotnt iit cov good of Setoveebae ore
hei ely ete rioiw ano efee wo: .1oftee ret acenaged add ototed beded
bee ,solvree dvfoett offdw? 12 oP oft .metiowelatebA Sut bee booed

Movt atpaupet ~drngaela too qesd. yyod teomrierop ‘edd Yo waders ee

me eee fp varyolitiag hbeovieos: orad ehwiettotora haw bag ap betnixe nok et
heyy Wl Seidouea ever) stadarn an tule it
eho tia yee Latrotant ott 26 werelidexe

He Sy) atin ton bre aitvaeedd, seed. axed

Oyster Institute Annual Report -5e Lewis Radcliffe

three of the leading fishery associations with headquarters in Washington, the in-
terests of the fishing industry are being better cared for than ever before in our
history. The leading fishery journals have greatly improved during the past decade
by their increased coverage of scientific and trade developments and space devoted
to Washington events.

One of the most gratifying features of the year's work is your loyalty and
faith in our program as evidenced by the promptness with which you have paid your
dues, the amount of outstanding dues being the lowest of record, and also by the
greater use many of you are making of our services. I have never understood why so
many of our members, particularly those in the lower due brackets fail to bring
their problems to us especially as we consider this to be one of our most important
function and welcome all such requests, Incidentally another bright spot is the
vo'wne of halpful correspondence with buyers of oysters at home and abroade We
he-s encouraged such correspondence with the result that we receive much helpful
ma*erial recounting their experiences and receive many requests for information on

8 weriety of subjects. These are a few of the many ways in which we have tried to
serve you, but I will not burden you with further details at this time.

Reference should be made to those who have passed to the beyond, Among
these was Joseph N. Fowler, who died on October 4, 1948, at the age of 70, who served
the oyster industry of his native state, New Jersey, in many ways. Also Charles E.
Wiseler, who died on March 19 of this year at the age of 79. "Shang" as he was ge-
nevaily called, for many years was one of the most colorful figures in the oyster
lnlustry.

There are not a few visitors at this convention who if they were made ac-

“quainted with the work of the Institute would undoubtedly appreciate the importance

cf membership in the Institute family. I hope regular members will make their ac-

qu:.intance and explain the need for wider representation from all oyster producing
—earcas.

And finally I wish to thank our officers, directors, and members of the
‘Association and the Institute for your loyalty and efforts to make a success of our
“prezeam. Your letters of commendation and, yes, those containing constructive cri«
ticisms are always welcome in your Washington office. You are urged to make greater
use of the services offered. By so doing you materially aid in making us acquainted
“th your problems which are usually shared in by others,

AEN

hae yiievel sev ai stsow afapey edd lo oovuedas® asmiytivatg daca ont

wei Bhar even voy doitw atin aventqne uy edt yf Seomphive ee meng

; odd yd ole bue ybio00r to ¢eowol eft pited eeoh aitiaatadyo So dnb

90 ele hootatebagd vewen eval § eseotvues we to sailor ete soy do Yoee

aeiid ot [tet atedoasd esh towel oft of epodt ylisteoteteq .etec Sim

deatrequdé jaca x09 to oro of of aifd sebhanoo a Be. piiahsogas ak of 4

nat wh toqs Higted serdonn yitedaebient <edseupet dooa Lin sopolem

aH hao tae Ringe ont se pear eyo to atovnd Abin porshsaquertos int Le

Evigier down eviaoo't eve ted: aici sie ods Atle eonebrogeettoo. done

no nokteanotnt wt ataeypet yram oviocs: bee aaongbaegxe Ttodt suit :

ot belot eved ow doitw ot evaw yam edt to wrt « ote bed? .edoel dam
omit eft? to silateb wedswt deiw poy abt dom Oibw, I

apnerd »beovyed ond ot heraaq evad odw seed? of obam ed bluode gone
bevied ot .Ov to age oft dn .ePCl go wodotsd no bo odw yratwod i a
of acttadS oafA .eyaw yrem ah ,ventel, cet petots evidart ehit to ciseae a
ee: aon of ae “aneda” .0T To ose edd dx aney aift to OF doteM ao box
reteyo ott sk setwakt fgtxo lov tacn oft Yo ome mew otacy yom to bs

a won whom stow yoRt 2 ofw moktnewico sldt ga atotlaty we @ Jom. ome ¢
Wi eonadrogml. odd etstooiqae yihetduchuy bloow etetitani off to drow off
b> te ahedt elem [Ike arodeom ssigsot oqod I «elias odabitanl add a
aikobesg vodeyo Ife mart cobtetissowges tebie ‘ot boon odt ofalqxs

ony 2c srodmom hea yatogoert> ,o7cefTo sto snst of Madw T hia
tHe te apeospe 2. oma oF adolte ine grlaeyol uoy sot otebivent ont
wine evivewitavoo muintatios © ody Taos gous id aboommon to atedtel |
totnory @iaw ot hegww oss aoY .sollio sotgnidesd” xsoy at omgelow ay
hednievoos av suidem at bta yt iM atom woe yitiob om yf ~bexeTio seoly Om |
,atendo vd of borede vilamen ota doldw ametde

ae Od

Se

6

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9.

10.

ll.

The Oyster Institute of North America

WE CAN GST OUR SHARE
Digest of Address of H, Gordon Sweet

Convention at Chamberlin Hotel, Old Point Comfort, Virginia, June 7, 1949

The change from a seller's to a buyer's market poses critical problems.
We must not expect the Government to solve these, for they will not do so.

The remedy lies largely within the industry and above all, in the intelli-
gence, foresight, and courage of the individual members,

The first requirement is to demand of ourselves the highest possible stan-
dards in the quality of the oysters we offer to the public, This means pro-
tecting the consumer in the greatest possible enjoyment of our product,
ONLY in this way can we deserve and get our share of the food dollar,

We must each make a detailed study of our business operations for the year
ahead, including a target figure for the gallons and bushels we propose to
turn out, together with all items of cost, direct, operating and overhead,
This will involve certain assumptions, some guesswork and so forth, but much
of the essential data is available. This sives us the price we should get
for our output.

With this price always in mind, and realizing that the determination of

each one of us is what gives “tone" to the market price, we must confront
the buyer of oysters. Out of this pressure results the actual prices at
which oysters of different localities, sizes and characteristics will change
hands.

If, in selling, we take the line of least resistance and solve every problem
by reducing the price, we shall bring on a panic which will put every one of
us in the red, Our costs will remain high and the supply is, for the country,
limited, There is no reason why we may not ask and receive a cost price for
our 1949-1950 output. THERE IS NO GLUT HANGING OVER US.

The budget suggested above will change from month to month but is of value if
the figures are adjusted in the light of current developments.

The buyer is not anxious to pay a fair price for your merchandise unless you,
collectively and individually, compel him to do so.

The consumer, the retailer, jobber and wholesaler WILL take our oysters IF
we produce, pack,gnd ship a product which we as lovers of good food serve
with pride on our own dinner table and offer with satisfaction to our friends,

The Oyster Institute can, for a limited sum, engage the services of public
relations counsel to publicize every newsworthy aspect of the oyster industry,
to the end that our product will be continually brought to the attention of
the public. JI believe there is a tremendous opportunity here which has never
been fully explored,

ote sacuttn iil sesait

toow® sober alt

OME Le anus ‘peti Baer a ae prbhinod Sncto% bie ,levor. wtivediando ‘tn fo]

Liar fore feoke lbp ‘pono foci 2 lhteyud: es oF oMtet Ise a mort oy

40° ob fon 7 1B itd | Popa sorts ‘ovion oF taamepteved ofF donque vm

stésfesad ond ‘ak ete ers ‘hiie “ittaubek ‘add akdttw ylestel eeke -
edredmen foubivtbat ef¥ te -SyaW08S bre - attighuas

abate ofdiiacd ‘Fon hd “oi ‘gevfooti ve’ to’ Grand’ ad ak Saometteoey
wor euanm abi?’ ,o2fdiq end ‘od tetbo ow avetive ek te- <WELano ont |
et obo | “1490 te siromyotne eppreerie Oy taadsoen ode ot: "TEMBBNOS O. ort 4

etal tob hoot ott to etadle< tiie deg how erred: aw TAO Yar. ohdd a

seo ont ‘90% atts ating aaonkayy sty to ybots betintetl a: otes lai
od veogoty ow efedaxd: bie woffan ort aot ewogtt tetind. 2 authiy
sbaodieyve bie qn tort: 10 hoot tt: stase to siedt: fin Atle vedsexad
Messen tud (Assy on be’ itoweaouy, onto gorckiqavgas: tiatieo evlovik, |
te Bigede aw eoitg edt eo sovit alft setdaltovn et eda feton 6

= apenas u

ty moldanfutedeh elt stadt grtsitont ive fate ok ovewie vote ae
daorinos taum ow seodty soolram or!) ot aowly dadw at on to. ein
fay nook tiy Isuton on? ativaet oiwaieta 2htt ‘to dn) .etedeye to ae
exrodo cite soldd brad omtadts Sap desta ysetsefood!' Fees Tt H Yo .

on kabhi yiove evios bitg Sonntdises anc! Yo ankf ety ated ow Janttte
te oae yiere Foq ike dotde dies 6 ue nistind ifade ow ,ootty
Oredeies odd “01 nt yiaque ond fete dahil otonet Iitw ageoo 100
yt woke: Jn0o 6 ovtenot Bie Yes doe yan omieiiw @benet on af ont
80 TBVO OMIA PISO al Sf MAMET temydng ROL

cy # tee 46 at seed Aeon of ditrom wort egnaiis (ftw evoda bodnoy see Peal
‘edeeomnga' ‘foveh amestan To tants “OMe Bt botmithe ete aoe

| cay below Cathmaiionein iloy tot soitg aft o gag oF atotxce ton af
,o8 Ob of wibt foqona ol Sant fvibat bee views

artes. boot boas vad ais wot -¢ a: 6s baler: seimedy | ‘A. pin aa daa 090 .
intent tv OF aobtadteldsn vistw veto Sue-efded eentth nwo aH 1810" obey

‘gibt ribenny, "Bo ‘ae ewe Sita aban aes Sod tink. «10%. 290 ete hoody: weds
Wirtonbat erate ort to foo a KRPKORwOR yhowe oe bod due: ot fearwpe ame dds
8 Hotdaye de orlt ot trignernd ek tous tt ao ad {fiw dovborg ao dart bre Ome ®
Awiin got iottdw eyed atten eigen ois yrmd goal -erett is rcotesi bh saps

We Can Get Our Share merle H. Gordon Sweet

ie.

135,

14.

15.

16.

17.

18,

Oysters are an impulse food. They are ONLY consumed when the restaurant has
them ready and listed on the menu, when the retailer has them in his store
ready for the housewife. But even then, they are not consumed until the re-
staurant patron orders and eats them, until the housewife buys them, takes
them home, cooks, and serves them on the table.

Therefor, in addition to seeking national publicity for oysters so that the
word OYSTER will recur in a newsworthy context as many times during the sea-
son as possible, the Oyster Institute should provide certain Selling Aids

at point of sale, to give the restaurant patron and the housewife at the mar~
ket or grocery, the impulse to buy, at the place and time where sale and con»
sumption result,

The decision of how to do this should rest with experts, subject to the appro-
val of the Institute Directors.

The public relations work should be done for one year at the expense of the
Institute, After that, the work should be evaluated and continued or not,
depending on results obtained and demonstrated, After the first year, the
expense should be covered by the Industry, not the Institute.

The Selling Aids should be devised by experts to sell OYSTERS at the point
of sale. They should be procured by the Institute and sold to members at
cost, for distribution through their regular trade channels. It will take a
good selling job to move these promotional items, get them purchased by mem-
bers and used. They will not sell themselves, no matter how good. This is
a job the Institute can and should do.

Conclusion; We can get our share of the business IF;

We pack a fine product and get it to the consumer in perfect
condition, and if

We work out a clear figure for the price each one of us must
get for his output, and if

We make a determined effort to get this price in the face of
buyer resistance, and if

We stimulate demand through nationwide publicity, and if

We provide material at the point of sale that OYSTERS are for
sale,

Food prices are trending down because of abundant supply. However, the vo-
lume of retail trade is high, people buy what they want within reasonable
limits, and the supply of oysters is not so great but what there will be a
healthy demand for the Industry's output in the season ahead.

aed PRO art? certo ena VKO orn weit hall Di eha ne ote a
| etede etd af oedt snd toltetet, ont aordw .werom ott ma bade if bra vb.
1 at Iiden bemvenoo dom ers Yort ,sedd move tua otkweanod ond tot
Tusa mds eyud eliweeugod ot {tine goodd adtee be erebio novted -
.ofdat alt to mad? sovtes baw yetane “ ;

ped dard on orotuyo tol ythoifdeq Sanmktan guidece of pottthbe af
i eaten ond ankuch comtt yom an txednoo yarowswen a of suoet I ftw
@bta gniffes mtatyeo ebtvetg blaode ettentivanl natay) odd, eich
wr 658 do otiwoauctd ont fee sotdag dnetwetaer ott ovtg of .oLa8 to
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Goines

The Oyster Institute of North America

POINT OF SALE MERCHANDISING

Malcolm A. Thompson, Sastern Sales Manager
He Le Peace Publications, "Southern Fisherman"

Convention at Chamberlin Hotel, Old Point Comfort, Virginia, June 7, 1949

Point of Sale Merchandising isn't designed to confuse or mystify. It adds
up to two things ... sales and profits, both vitally important to any business.
And, it can be applied to the shellfish industry.

Point of sale merchandising, like charity begins at home ... at the point
of production. Right here at home where shellfish are produced is where any sales
program is started. Poor or inferior merchandise automatically precludes any
successful sales program,

Specifically, point of sale merchandising or advertising is that certain
something that stimulates a latent desire for merchandise on the part of the con-
sumer, Within every shopper or consumer es. nine times out of ten a woman...
there is a subconscious urge to buy. This same woman buys about 90 per cent of
the ties we men wear and en equal percentage of all foods. Merchandising at the
point where she makes her purchase stimulates an impulse’ to BUY.

Many times Itve heard an oysterman say: “If only I could reach the consumer."
The same oysterman readily admits that good trade journals materially help move
produce to the wholesaler, "But," he asks, "how can I reach the consumer?" This
is a good question and frankly, gentlemen, one that is not easily answered. There
is, however, one solution that could come close to solving the whole problem.

Yes, I refer to "Point of Sale Merchandising" ... that point of purchase
where the impulse to buy is stimulated and the final purchase is made.

Val Bauman, sales manager of the National Tea Company, establishes three
steps in merchandising any product. They are; (1) Production, (2) Distribution,
‘and (3) Point of Sale,

Both production and distribution ... distribution in the sense of a movement
of goods from plant to wholesaler .,. are problems which are rapidly being solved.

_ The point of sale to the consumer is a more pressing problem and one which
I hope to help alleviate.

Mr, Bauman explains that the National Tea Company classifies all advertising
used in one market as "point of sale" advertising. Newspaper and radio advertising
are included in this classification along with posters, counter displays and other
material used in the store.

I prefer, in consideration of certain limitations imposed on the shellfish
industry,to discount for all practical purposes newspaper, radio, and magazine ad-
vertising. Because of many individual marketing and production problems it is,

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Point of Sale Merchandising -2- Malcolm A. Thompson

as I see it, virtually impossible to subscribe funds sufficiently large to undere
take a comprehensive national consumer advertising program via radio, newspaper,

or magazine, The National Fisheries Institute has met with only limited success

so far as building any substantial and lasting advertising program is concerned.

The Institute is being beaten by a lack of money.

The American Meat Institute will spend more than two and a half million
dollars for advertising in 1949, And, whether we like it or not ... a leg of lamb
or a roast of pork is meat whether it comes from Texas or New York. On the other
hand a pint of oysters from Maryland or Virginia is not the same ... so far as
your customers are concerned ... as a pint of oysters from Long Island, New Jer-
sey, or Connecticut. The record you heard, although made in fun, indicates a keen
rivalry among our oyster producing areas ..«. a difference of opinion that must be
considered.

Just as there is a difference in package tastes so is there a difference
in sales methods, One firm may work entirely thru restaurant suppliers ..e another
thru wholesalers or brokers. It is right that each individual in the seafood in=
dustry should play an active part in any advertising program no matter how big or
how small he may be ... and regardless of his method of operation.

Point of Sale Merchandising can give the individual an opportunity to ex-
press himself and to institute a program directly in line with the money he wants
to spend and can spend. If XYZ firm in Long Island has only 50 customers he won't
want to spend the same amount of money for advertising as a firm with 300 cus-
tomers.

A program such as I em sugresting takes into consideration some of the pit-
falls that have confronted attempts by the seafood industry to build a successful
advertising program. I am suggesting it in the interests of harmony and greater
benefits for everyone concerned. A point of sale campaign is designed to give
every packer of shellfish a proportionale share of responsibility. There can be
no taxation without representation; everyone must benefit in direct proportion
to how much he can spend.

There seems to be no available statistics on shellfish in relationship to
buying habits, "Chain Store age" devotes 60 pages to meat, fish, and poultry in
its November 1948 issue. Of this total of 60 pages ... less than half a page is
devoted to shellfish. Why? Probably because this was all the information that
was available. A point of sale advertising program could very easily make the
food industry aware of the undeniable fact that shellfish IS a major factor in the
American food plan.

The POINT OF PURCHASE INSTITUIS, in New York, however, provided me with
information on the use of point of sale material. Their survey of 150 national
advertisers clearly indicates that more than 85% of the material supplied to gro-
cers is used to sell more merchandise at higher profits.

I browsed thru the New York public library long enough to dig up some in-
teresting information. The Department of Commerce shows that fish and shellfish
ARH included among a retailer's high profit items. Fish, shellfish, vegetables,
meats, and dairy products are listed as the top five.

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Point of Sale Merchandising BN Malcolm A. Thompson

Retailers will, therefore, work with you thru a point of sale program because they
know there is a profit ... anda relatively high one ... to be made thru the sale
of shellfish,

In an intensive survey conducted recently in Syracuse and Rochester using
carefully controlled test stores, the "Point of Purchase Institute" proved that
stores using point of sale material showed an increase of from 20 to 113 per cent
on those items utilizing the material, There was a marked increase in sales over
those stores not using point of sale material.

We must have faith, therefore, in the power of advertising at the point of
sale ... the place where the consumer makes her decision to BUY. It isn't diffi-
cult to recognize that the consumer, in about 75 out of 100 times, makes up her
mind only when she is in the store. She is governed by eye appeal ... pack, neat-
ness of pack, and whether or not the last XYZ package was good or bad. If it was
bad then no amount of advertising will induce her to repeat her original purchase.
The pack must be good. If it is ... point of sale material will give you a steady,
well paying customer, .

Assuming that the pack is good ... what next? What about brand packing?

Beyond a shadow of a doubt the consumer is governed in her purchases by
brands. This fact should be a foregone conclusion. A branded pack seems to give
her confidence in the product and speaks her language of purchasing. However,
again we must admit our limitations, We cannot make shellfish products as nation-
ally brand famous as Heinz Soup or Cambells Beans. We must, then do the next
best thing. We must, when humanly possible, make shellfish packs so attractive
that they spell one word to the consumer ee. quality.

Branded packs help sell merchandise, If youtre selling in gallon lots,
then provision can be made for the retailer to repack with your branded label eee
or branded containerg The pickle barrel and the cracker box have gone with the
horse and buggy. Still, in many stores, the retailer ladels out your carefully
packed oysters in a wooden spoon and doles them out to the customer in blank,
white paper containers,

How can you as wholesalers and producers carry your brand right thru to
the consumer? It isntt going to be an easy task to whip horse and buggy methods.
-Byt nothing is easy until you start doing it. You can make it possible for the
retailer to use a waxed paper container with your label on it. The manufacturer
of these containers will work with you. He will print a branded container for
your distributors ... or he will work with you in preparing labels for the dis-
tributor to stick on every container he selis, Believe me, gentlemen, irs. Con-
sumer likes to repeat her purchases. She would much rather ask for "Southern
Fisherman" brand oysters ... than just plain oysters.

The Sealright Company,of Fulton, New York, has been cooperative in helping
with display material. Although not new in other industries, the counter display
with place for a container -- in this case a Sealright “ThermoKing" waxed paper
container -- is a new idea for the shellfish industry. It's an idea that can sell
more of your products at increased profits. It indicates the possibilities of
this type of seafood container for repacking by the retailer. He can and, I be-
lieve, will repack in your branded container if given the incentive.

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Point of Sale Merchandising -4- Malcolm A. Thompson

This is point of sale merchandising via the wholesaler and the retailer,
Whatever you do to make it easier for the wholesaler and the retailer to sell
MORE produce at greater profit will surely help you build sales and profits. It
is as inevitable as night and day.

Now ... another question. Should a point of sale program be designed to
push individual brands, The answer, I think, should be NO. What benefits the
shellfish industry as a whole benefits the individual. It is impossible to build
a national brand advertising campaign. Shellfish, then, should be sold under
one banner ... the Oyster Institute of North America, an old and respected rame
in the annals of American business. Individuals can benefit by using their own
brands, but advertising should be designed to do one thing ... sell more shellfish.

An attractive series of point of impulse material (display) will boost the
sales of shellfish. There is an equal opoortunity for small and large packers,
A point of sale program is designed for the individual. Provision can easily be
made without increasing costs to permit an individual packer to establish his
brand at the point of sale. Here again is the opportunity expressed earlier for
the small packer.

I have with me a number of sample "point-of-sale" displays created by
Palmer Associates of New York. One, the shapely and beautiful girl you see, may
be a little too expensive for some packers, But, believe me, she would make a
mighty attractive window or floor display for some retail store or restaurant eee
and shetd help sell more shellfish in the bargain.

I hope you'll appreciate these sales promotion displays ... not for the
work involved in making them ... but for the opportunities presented by the use
OL Wehem ies

Oysters have been sold since time immemorial. The Romans, Anthony and
Cleopatra included, ate them with great gusto, served with lemon and red pepper.
Lord Byron refers to them as an “amatory food," and Dr. Samuel Johnson prescribed
them as a sure-cure for most anything. And Shakespeare writes in the “Merry
Wives of Windsor," "hy not then, the world's mine oyster which I with sword will
open." An ode published in 1806 referring to Lord Nelson's conquest of the seas
refers to oysters in rhyme: "Nelson has made the Seas Our Own, Then Gulp Your
Well Fed Oysters Down ... And give the French the Shell."

The mid 1800's were banner oyster years in this country. A group of Balti-
more packers started the first national advertising program. A wagon train run
was established between Baltimore and Pittsburgh long before the Baltimore & Ohio
came into being. The Union Oyster Company was formed in Baltimore in 1878 to com-
bat unfair trade practices ... namely to vrevent watering of oysters in, yes, un-
labeled cans. And, in 1865 and thereafter special trains of from 30 to 40 cars
moved daily from Baltimore as far west as Detroit. In 1856 Levi Rowe & Company
in Fair Haven, Connecticut, operated 20 vessels in filling their orders; employed
100 shuckers; sold about 150,000 gallons of oysters yearly as far west as Chicago.
Rowe & Company in the roaring 80's used as many as 150,000 kegs in a single year
at a purchase cost of $15,000.

A federal government book printed in the 1800's, commenting on advertising
and oysters quotes: "Packers of New Heven became equally well known along ‘the Che-
Sapeake, and, through wide advertisements, over the whole country. (From the"His-
tory and Present Condition of the Fishery Industry" by Ernest Ingersoll.)

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| ff bu Sows itiw F déidw tatayo oity Fie stbinow artf aodt ton ya” " wdalte
ea0e e428 Lo testdnos 2! toafoM htod of ahixietet B0BL mf batelhidug abo
i aweY giv aont .fwO a0 seed oli whine nar soe Low” i sang rt siedayoum
aN Wftede ott donewt ot ovtg tal ..s mwol ened oF

Oi

| wtEod Ae quote A eyitnens etdt at awtacy toFeye “tenmad etow etOo8t hw
i hat nome A .ntgot mi lati: wes ieno tian ge1ft odd bodiade, a
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Aer ON ot O8 mort to safett Letoogs st taotodyt fine G08L ak lista. sane
AA yragien & owe fred Stel at rb io not ae den 403° a oromid led aye A ;
a} “howe. ddrebts whedd VPI ab wloaoay os fosanaqo’ etookstuarnad
HORN ga teow 422 do yrraoy aes to duolfes 000,00 duode Slot “ane
nae efsette a mt eget OOO.08T as Yen on bean BOG ariqsot edt mk yo
.000 £2 to teoo wanton

bahia: fra antsersenad peOOeT | Ae ek beste Beg dood srORerEvE Leste
an ttt wio Li worst slow mien Oricon ne went want, "ko anedoet® raotoup
Mian mond) .vttawoe eLorw od yews. ¢sdreaamia et rarbel ob bw. dgyoidd:
i (- ii ‘onrtergerd aor hi Yves hiatal art %e rumen

Point of Sale Merchandising - 5 = Malcolm A. Thompson

So, you see, gentlemen ... advertising of shellfish isntt new. If the
truth be know chances are that oysters were among the first of this nation's
products to be nationally advertised.

Believe it or not ... advertising need not be expensive to be effective,
A national program in the usual run of consumer magazines, newspapers, and radio
programs is out of the question. There just isn't the money. The next, and I
suggest the ONLY alternative is something relatively inexpensive that will reach
the consumer at the point of purchase. This next best thing ... and it's really
a good thing eee is POINT OF PURCHASE MERCHANDISING. ~

I'm willing to bet a Long Island oyster against a Chesapeake oyster that
there isn't one of you here who doesn't find some stimulation just by looking at>
these displays. Believe me, gentlemen, if used by the shellfish industry, they
WILL stimulate an urge to buy more oysters, crabs, clams, and shrimp. They can
boost your sales to a new high.

By utilizing ... new methods of seafood transportation such as the Church
Container ... new packaging methods (the paper container) ... and point of dis-
play material for your retailers ... you can help to build a better shellfish
industry at least so far as sales are concerned.

Sok ROK Nk

Gentlemen, Itve known most of you for quite a few years. I feel that as
an outsider with an insider's view that I can appreciate some of your problems.
I know there are limitations to what you can and will do. Believe me, I've spoken
with the utmost sincerity hoping that you will give some very serious considera-
tion to point-of-sale merchandising. It can do all of you a whole lot of good
and seems to me an excellent way to sell more shellfish.

In closing Itd like to quote from an organization that knows the answer.
The "Point of Purchasing Institute" of New York says:

"Popeye" will sell more of your products, too. Whether you sell cosmetics,
blowfish, oysters, coal, or rugs, well-planned point-of-sale material will
sell MORE of your product, Regardless of the type ... window or counter
displays, wire hangers or wall cards ..o.e POPeye is a volume booster that

no sales or advertising plan can afford to omit. For special tests or con-
tinuous use o«.. in ten stores or ten thousand, plan on important sales gains
with important point-of-display advertising and merchandising."

ook

“et Sr ayemieemal- av tnt ted ate ogee biwowhe- 5.0 0m
etnoitad afed-to gett ont amome oow apn

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ta Menkiook vel daw aoktefumtds emoa oul F*meeob Onw ered soy to end ie
yee erehe oft E Hatt lade edt yo hea “ii, joemeldineg ..om eveiles vay

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sigid win es oF ir,

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ot Phi Lode totded 8 bs Lise! at afot 60 -nOy ce» Btebiaget thoy 0
wboriesmo O1a-a0tee ap tat o¢ Janel:

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sHadtifeda cxom [ben ot ‘yaw tce{Teoxe ne Om

itt bce nies aad award dad? soddestrey ia sa moth etoop ot odtl bYt yekootd
ar yayen 4anY wel) ‘to "adwtiy ant Bite a aS Ye

_eacbiomoe fies Hoy nattiiod® ood ,atovhowg wwey to otem Plea iilw ity

| EP ive Ladredtern efsa-to~ta tog benrtaly~ i low ,ager w feod ; gotadayy galt
iN sehen HO 0 4o Wobmke eas Sat emt Yo 2 salhtenet stouboug Wwoy to Madi
Pads weteodd omfoy a el oye ... airae flow eo atogearl ot bi gaye
| eto to eddies [rboora You i yatime of bectta kao niedig aniaiiteria tO ool a
aakey bn eal ft per Sq ghana woris, 4 iat io eetote ped wi s.t saw et
* gt te Ebetad ovtou hie syria tisrhs search eect senlrnaae

Point of Sale Merchandising - 6 - Malcolm A. Thompson

ADDED NOTES: STATISTICS ON “POINT OF SALE MERCHANDISING"

W, P. Lillard, Sales Promotion Manager, General Foods: "“Three-fourths of all wos
men shop from memory without written lists, and about two thirds of all pur-
chases are made on impulse." General Foods spent about $1,000,000 in 1948 on
point-of-sale material.

Survey by DuPont Based on Interviews with 1778 Shoppers in Seven Cities from

Atlanta, Ga.,to San Francisco = Proved conclusively that 66 per cent of the
"impulse bought” items were on display.

Survey by Point of Purchase Institute ~ A recent survey of 150 national adver-
tisers indicated that grocery stores throughout the country utilize more than
85 per cent of the point-of-sale merchandise supplied them.

Another Survey - Of 1448 shoppers at service grocery stores showed candy leading
the list of unplanned or "impulse"purchases ... followed by fish and shellfish.

Another Survey - By a business group shows that 75 per cent of shoppers buy at
least one item which they had not planned to buy and that more than 25 per cent
of all items are bought on impulse at the point of display ... or sale.

Survey By Progressive Grocer (Magazine) = Of 1247 independent merchants shows
that 65 per cent of these merthants will use more displays; 2 per cent will use
fewer; and 33 per cent will use the same.

Direct Inquiries to Mailing Piece Offering Displays to Watch (Jewelers) - In res-
ponse to about 10,000 inquiries ... more than 3600 jewelers wrote in and reques-
ted point-of-sale material for their stores.

From "Tell" Magazine - "One prewar survey showed that 75 per cent of food store
shoppers bought, on impulse, at least one item they had not intended to buy.

The number of impulse sales in these outlets totaled 24.6 per cent. An identical
postwar checkup showed sales to be up 50 per cent, so that unplanned purchases
account for 35,8 per cent of all food items.

New Rochester-Syracuse tests again prove that "point of purchase" produces
immediate important (20% to 113%) sales gains.

No other medium can measure efficiency this way. How much a display sells,
not how many see it, was the basis of tests conducted by Facet Finders Associates
for the Point of Purchasing Institute. Leaping sales of eight nationally adver-
tised products proved the immediate sales power of window displays. In this two
city test of comparable yet not overlapping markets, 160 stores indisputably
proved substantial gains in sales where displays were used, and surprising drops
in sales of identical and competitive items in most test stores without displays.

After the test period was over ... there was a “hangover" period of effect.
ivness after displays were removed when stores showed gains in sales up to 76 per
cent,

Cost Factor - In cities of 250,000 and more population, a window display cost per
1000 consumers is estimated at 50 cents. Costs increase up to #1.00 a thousand
in cities of less than 25,0Q0 population.

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(Dasewodt @ 00.1% of qu sasotest afeot) <atmes 02 ta. botsmitse, ial

WHAT FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVIC% IS DOING TO INCREASE
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF OYSTERS

Milton C, James, Assistant Director, Fish and Wildlife Service

Chamberlin Hotel, Old Point Comfort, Virginia, June 7, 1949

. At your 1946 Convention, with the bloom still on my commission as Assistant
Director, I appeared before you with a slight feeling of trepidation since, outside
of the salmon packers, your's was the first important fishery trade group which I
had faced, I already knew what kind of punch the salmon packers packed, but you
“were an unknown quantity. At that time I could seek your indulgence on the basis of
lack of time to familiarize myself with your problems. I can no longer fall back

- on this cushion, if I wanted to, which I don't.

. In 1946 I was forced to indulge in some doleful comments with respect to
the possible curtailment of certain Fish and Wildlife Service functions as an out-

_ come of some very sharp pruning applied to our appropriations by the Congress. The
“severity of these cuts was lessened somewhat, later on, and those curtailments which
-were obligatory were applied ¢lsewhere than in the shellfish studies. Today I think
I can note in the present Congress a distinctly different attitude which seems to

_ point to a genuine recognition of the significance of the fisheries as a whole, and
_ to acceptance of the Government's responsibilities to the fisheries,

The Hoover Commission Report, starting with its original Natural Resources
Task Force recommendation and carrying through to its final reports, repeatedly

_ pointed out the importance of improving and even expanding the Government's services
to the fishing industry. I can assure you that, in contrast, the Hoover Commission
Report was very conservative in supporting any expansions of other Government sere
vices in general. While there are differences of opinion as to some of the conclue
sions reached by the Commission with respect to matters of organization, there can
be no quarrel with the basic policy with reference to the fisheries as reiterated in
the Commission reports. All this has an encouraging sound. It is no secret that
your spokesman, Dr. Radcliffe, can properly be credited with some of the responsi-
“bility for this state of affairs.

I am scheduled to speak upon the functions and activities of the Fish and
Wildlife Service as they pertain to the oyster industry. These studies and activi-
ties are not wholly satisfactory to the oyster industry, to officials of the Ser~
vice, or to the Fish and Wildlife Service staff engaged in the activities. This
sounds like a splintered, cracked springboard from which to dive into a discussion,
but it is a purely natural, normal manifestation of the complications of getting
Government and industry together on details.

In using the term "not wholly satisfactory" I do not want to concede that
the program as a whole is materially deficient. I simply want to recognize the fact
that it is not ideal - particularly as to extent of coverage. I know that various
Segments of the industry believe that greater emphasis should be placed on certain
local problems. I know that members of our staff are eager to embark on many new
Studies and activities, feeling that with more adequate funds they could chalk up

PAO Re On Maio. at esr meme CP tare
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di f « {Wrtatie lo state ‘eb

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wh ert Mix afatottio- od etaabas ts ara Oo ands od yviotodtattaa ifort
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ptioteeveos tha otal. evih of KA briw mors brAo an tgs hefoaw ,bivotntiqn a ©
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Set Epteb 0° veitdonad iach ii aay roi

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Wee! pita no Atadae oF Toa OTe iho Rh hed Hkh od worst x

Ge Made bined werd ebavl sdaupobp ye ied:

Fish and Wildlife Service I ae Milton C. James

”

accomplishments of vastly increased value. Finally, as an official of the Service

I must admit that the constant effort to balance off our funds and resources in meet-
ing the constantly increasing demands from all segments of the fishing industry
leaves us with a feeling of frustration and a sense that first things have not al-
ways been placed first.

Thus the program on which the Fish and Wildlife Service is now engaged in
behalf of the oyster industry is a compromise, as are the major part of the activi-
ties of any Government agency. With this preface, which is not an apology, but
rather an X-ray of what is behind or within, I am glad to enumerate the highlights
of the Fish and Wildlife Service functions of interest to the oyster industry.

First, there is the provision of statistics which is the life blood of any
‘industrial enterprise. The collection of statistical data on the oyster industry is
of course merged into a much broader program of collecting and tabulating figures.
I think we are in position to achieve some broader coverage in this field in the
succeeding year, particularly with respect to the southern arease There is nothing
“spectacular about this, and I would like to dismiss it with a comment that we look
‘upon the statistical work as fundamental to any appraisal of any of the specialized
‘fisheries, Your comments and recommendations as to improvements in this field will
always be welcome,

? The Service has been somewhat more active in the last several years in con-
nection with the marketing and merchandising of your product. Among these activi-
ties, which we hope have gotten some results, and which may be of interest to the
. industry, has been the matter of the containers utilized in marketing oysters.
_ Effort has been made to promote on the Fast Coast the use of glass jars in place of
pasteboard cartons, which is really the transplanting of a West Coast idea to the
‘East. We have also been plugging the use of pliofilm bags for packing oysters in
, their own liquor, since it was felt that such a method of merchandising would be
particularly advantageous in the swiftly developing field of self-service merchandis-
ing. I am sure you will recognize the advantages in this method, including the
attractiveness of the package, the readiness with which the-consumers can see what
Benes are buying, and the flexibility in container sizes to meet varying purchaser
f needs. There is indication that this method of packaging is taking hold. Also, on
_ the merchandising side we have been advocating, through Market Development Bulletins
and by personal contact, the dating of shucked oysters handled at retail outiets.e
Several firms, notably a large chain store in the mid-West, are reported as adopting
this modern method of handling a perishable product. We are trying to stimulate
other progressive marketing practices, such as the preservation of oysters by freez-
ing as a means of levelling out peaks and valleys in the supply situation. Maybe
the Market Development activity in which we can take the most pride is the fact that
we have kept Mrs. Rose Kerr, of "How to Cook Oysters" fame, and her capable staff
on the job. I expect Mrs, Kerr to present to you in person an outline of what she
is doing and the hows and whys of her program. It would be an imposition for me to
give a second-hand recital of what she can so competently explain herself, and I am
yielding this part of my discussion to here It should be said that the Service great-
ly appreciates the advice and suggestions of Dre Radcliffe which were forthcoming at
@ meeting a number of months ago when the Service undertook to overhaul its Market
Development program in line with the suggestions and comments of various representa-
tives of the fishing industry.

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Lakh Dec ffator Ja bo finaiveteteyve: Hwiomia ‘to yathah ont etisdnoe fF
aniicehe op betirogat str taolatite och nk eente akatio ostel » yideturs
aval t. oF Bebers ete wh. stoubeng of dadeLted a ant finer. Nes boriden
eaoert yl ateter To noktarregetq add ae ‘itoos .eeehtoa ny ge btontener rere
odin snoktomtia wogim edd of ayolfov-tom steed duo yatifews! Go-2
‘Sait See ett ot obing tact oft oad pd ow dddde a2 iivicos dmenge fovet
Wats oidaqao wos har <emel “ered 0 thot of BOR" to yitol seem gate
OA Unde: to antigo Me Noateq mf Hoy oo Ake Seng: oF ok sail Josue f
od ber oh dadtfecgad ow od Sluovw 4. i@eayong Nen hevogde baa leer aie, ores
ie: T hoe ~tieated ateloxe witreteqnos ‘on ney side Sonw [ip Lat toon freee, theneg 4
mtteets golvie? ont ted boa of Biwors sieht “ed od doftpawpeth ym'to Poy aka
Sea pa eames eth shoet enow dott, oti hiobes . ihe rarer csblowi binges calif nade
eatin! etictuedters of sbodvehad volytot ‘att mod oge eddmom To fe dns r
mitieRorioss anotiew to wate bos obciches aoe edt mht ell ak agony
wyrtant wt etna

Fish and Wildlife Service - 5 - Milton C. James

» When it comes to outlining the Servicets program of biological research I
shall eliminate reference to the newly inaugurated program of clam investigationse
Clams have staked out their legitimate claims to be called shellfish, and I see many
individuals in the audience whose interests encompass al] shellfish, but I recognize
that primarily this is a gathering of oystermen. Briefly the objectives of the
oyster research are to acquire information on the physiology, propagation, growth
and fattening of the oyster, on environmental conditions required for the optimum
propagation and growth, on experimental cultivation, and on protection against natu-
ral enemies and parasites. This information can be used by the industry itself as
a basis for improvement of its production techniques, or can be utilized by: Federal
and State agencies in formulating laws and regulations pertaining to the conservation
and management of the resource, the harvesting of the crop, and the sale of the pro-
duct, It hardly seems necessary to say that regulations will be sounder and saner
to the extent that they are based upon hard facts and precise knowledge.

Running quickly over the work-sheet I would like to mention that in coope-
4 ration with the Maryland Department of Tidewater Fisheries a long-term study of
factors controlling the yield and quality of oysters, and the evaluation of Chesa-

_ peake Bay oyster grounds, is based at Annapolis, Maryland. For the purpose of de-
veloping a practical system of shell planting by studying factors controlling the

_ time and intensity of setting, studies are under way at Pensacola, Florida, Mil-
ford, Connecticut, and Annapolis, with cooperation by various State agencies, The

; same laboratories are also devoting attention to the effects of salinity, temperae=

_ ture, turbidity and other factors on spawning, setting and survival. Complicated
studies on the physiology of oysters are centered at College Park, Maryland. The

_ theory back of all this is the belief that the more we know about what makes an

_ oyster tick, the better able the industry will be to make oyster production a plan-
ned operation, rather than a matter of chance. The ever present question of enemies,
predators and parasites is under review at all of the shellfish centers, including
Milford, Woods Hole, College Park, and Pensacolae

k This is a grimly technical review and it might be well to humanize the exe
planation a little, I think the Chesapeake Bay studies can be cited as an outstande
ing example of joint Federal-State cooperation with the long-term objective of ime

_ proving oyster conditions on all of the oyster bars in Maryland waters, This pro-
@ram does not necessarily stop at the Maryland boundary, but looks upon the Chesa-=
peake Bay as an entity. Probably the principal contribution has been the provision
of general technical services of a high order of competence in an area where oyster

production has for a long time been undergoing serious vicissitudes.

Efforts to produce seed oysters of good quality in sufficient abundance in
the Chesapeake Bay have been just one facet of this undertaking. I was greatly gra-
tified to receive within the last month, from Maryland State officials, several un-
solicited expressions of commendation of the Fish and Wildlife Service staff engaged
on this program. Marylanders know whet they need and want, and it is pleasing to
feel that they think they are getting it.

In Long Island Sound the biological approach to the promotion of oyster
produetion has been somewhat different. There one of the principal enemies of the
oyster is the starfish, and one of the principal biological deterents to a healthy
condition for the industry has been the enormous and violent fluctuations in the
Success of setting. Here Service biologists have been maintaining a close check on
the presence, migration and abundance of starfish so that control methods developed
by the Service or by others may be put into effect as the need arises and at the

somal 60 comreM WEIMAR UIA a

dotagser Lento te be ho matgon 6 to a ‘ab pees od ‘gana +
. sanoktaghinownt mele Yo aathponq 5 ie anon yfworcdtt ot -oonmetebor, of
Ne) oe T baa pea Pri feds hekien ed of ; wie Wi odemtt trod “eit tue bos
-gatonooet Tt: Hod tales fore fa avegmoane etwetodet saorw wonekbing demth at
ak Hod “lo eevetonide off yf'Teitd. wicca sti ‘To: aotrertag eo at: wit ¥
By, ana he ottagadom . wolotaydy odd so doldomte ted on inpaa, OF oma doe
MeMiegO et Xo'k horkwpet ane ltthaos Ladaeamotives mo. wetege et, Fog
en tartage ey ttootora no. bra: .sottevittim Lediwomitegae ma: advotg ee’
VE ARO RINE ytha nies 2 athe vd beso ed ao nobtemolnt ala? aed heaven te
CeeeboR ye heatiisy od Ma EO, ess isp test rN ro rtowborg nee to vmewevongung ‘
- phouishinrnes sre « ee ott wird kebad ten - anakielus hee awh ft auivetumipy of sekomeg
Ay wen Ott. Yo oles oft ; Det « won ont: Lo, cer ent <sotsoret ont Tote
! | ie baw tehiwea ed a fh. sholtealuset tatt yaa of -ytessecen snoop yiba
“A high she Dnenh ob oer shite atéa't baat: foge beead ota yout dede '

in
cay
‘

agaunoo mit dadt. nolteom of etth bluow 1 teoranctow sft: tove Ylatotup saris
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eMveds. lo noldouleres of%- boa yerote yd to, ytilauf baa bioty od’ pot iiow
meh To eaagteg oid cot |, brits, git vei te bosad ef .obreorg. todege
ong -antifowtnoo «txtost: anivhute Vd soicoslq fede 20 aeteye tsohio 1 Ss
(Leh -gettsol) .alevemet-te yaw. shen ote aothata ~stiiven to hha’
a? geotorega: etate -evolrow vo wottoisdeso: min, ,etloqgerna: bra, "food
emrogme? .viittiee ‘to stodtte ett ot noltnotta getdoweh cole ota wodtods
betsotlgrod , .faetvidr-bre sriiies, cesar eae fo wuvtevt vordo Ren YORE
OAT whoa fetal yale -ovel foo ta bovetree ‘ete stetevo Tooysole hayg
fie poclam dade:.tunde wank ow ovom oxd ppl Yolied ed% af ative She Bel
Miia wets LG, & soitaubo xy Yedteyo: Pallant ot.-od Tl fw pittewbet edd etde sodded. odd aie
| potmere To. nolteovo dmapoig save oft . «ooredo to. soda 2 ech! sente'y, . vr bey f
gaibutont ,steineo' deftiiede oft. lo tla ta wetven rebar ef ootlagiag, & f
», #ALOOR ane? baw, tet enet tod oO an

‘, ake OAS oxinesint oF flow od: drintee OL Dae were Laimbarion ) Ying 8 ak
ebiicatadio ga ae botio od anc -ssttiuty yad otveqamed): ont wanidt I. «alare
afte’ ee, send. out do otadh= ano f aye cttw noldetegoos oteddelotobe’l, tabag tin
eouy ait? .axodtew boalyteM. mk -etéad ictayo of? to fla-ao. anoftibnoe te
mpe etd. oft cogu: exoof dud, .yaobeniod baalytal wit $e qote: yl itetaeocr a ¢
‘fiiteteore ond: sood amb aoktediztnes lettonitqg eff yidadevt .yittae ta ®
tidevo-oxere opie ne. nk somotoqmon Yo sebto Agld » Io ecotwron Isotmng

. -patasd tepfoly suofien gntonpehban nped emt? jpaol s:10T a

wt @iehaoda. tere ko kk tan wk rangle toon to axeceyd: bees soyhotq of od
any yiderty sau It ..gholediehrn eldy to Jose? ono deut ated oved yale

mt Laeves: st aboeiehe, ohet? ‘Dai a tye mort, Addntom Jacl ot mist ov toni -
Hwee Khas mink le et hrosl? aa ata. ont) “bes: pols, aBoomitin to ceb tubal Ni 5
ot re ple af cf hes “Beals aias heat yore Sariw work: a vebaelipien } ote fy

Pee Raho hing ora odd wns .

“cotevo to nottomong att of donougaa Lestyotold .ott birwok Sratal tat i
Kit Ro aetersire Ceahoriiq add Lose otet? . gtrietet2 th danwasioa mae: apie
| Yidtaan a: ot nook fopthotord Leqtow tg. odd So eno Bore, y(t nade evit
Holt Wa Ridaidancthoant fbiw Han avortone ont-aned aad: gatagbel eno: tot
A Me ech hah me ves ee i cn eed aditigolotd, so feieg eel |) 9 oi
heyoloweb abortion fo yi te pane: 2 o He sala wa: iid! ppp sk a ,

Fish and Wildlife Service = 4 « Milton C, James

®

proper time. The industry also has been kept informed currently of the degree of
the maturity of the oysters, the water temperature regime and the presence and abun-
dance of oyster larvae in the water in order that oystermen may put out cultch for
the collection of spat.

Oysters in the Gulf of Mexico always have seemed to offer tougher biological
problems than elsewhere because of a series of natural hazards of the hurricane belt,
and almost inexplicable and sudden mass mortalities on the beds. I say inexplicable
because, although many theories on causes have been offered, any one of which might
sound reasonable at the time, there really seems to be a complexity of causes, or at
least a great many different causes for this mortality in different places. During
the past two years there has been an unusual group of scientists engaged in really
Ybasic studies of oyster biology and ecology in the Gulf. I refer to the large group
working in the Service's marine laboratory near Pensacola, Florida. There are two
agencies represented besides the Fish and ‘fildlife Service, and from all I have been
‘able to learn these eight or nine biologists and technicians have worked harmoniously
and productively in an isolated situation where scientific temperaments might be ex-
pected to clash. I cannot speak for the work of the other agencies, but so far as
the Service is concerned we are hoping to continue and even to expand our work on
the Guif. We have made some preparations toward that end through an informal agree-
ment with the State of Florida, which will make possible a test in a large and for-
merly productive oyster growing area near Pensacola, to determine whether such an
area may be restored to production and continue as an economically and biologically
sound propositione

| This general outline depicts a group of continuing projects which interlock
rather closely, although retaining identity of purpose and scope. There is nothing

Sacred about any feature of this program. Changes can be made. However, if changes
and shifts are to be undertaken, it should be done on the basis of sound and logical

cies, To put it another way, we have been trying too often to diagnose and treat
ilinesses without actually knowing how to recognize a state of good health. That's

or Federal programs of shellfish research.

In closing I want to pay tribute to the Fish and Wildlife Service staff mem-
bers who are carrying on this program. If it proves valuable and effective the cre-
dit is theirs. The quality and caliber of biological research, technologral studies,
and Market Development activities are determined by the people who are actually on :
the job. However, if it turns out to be ineffective the deskebound officials - but
on second thought Itll not even finish this sentenee. Anyway, a goodly number of
our staff are here, I hope you will take this opportunity to meet them, discuss your
problems with them, and offer freely your comments, ideas, suggestions and recommend-
ations. Although my stey at this convention will be short, that goes for me also.

sk ok ok ale ok

| Moy

sonal, oD. woolly ais tolvtat

to nerd orth to videvigy boar tnt aged feed ead oeta yateubek ot
annda turn oomedeny oft be ertgey ourhivedtot todaw eft ,etedevo elt 40
“0%, Hodis duo dwe ven mearetors tond sveiwo-ni tetaw oot at eerie! ted
tae to soktem

HAOROR teiggod ttt. ot herwoe ovad eyewls obkxe ta Tlyd art sig arete
qeded Gractsiit oft to chtdent faniten to esiies a To Fenont etonweaie 8 a
Pldaaiicxent vee I sehod off co antetletdem eam mebbue tra of: S@et foxend oe
iim votive to ono yun bode Tio deed sya sebven ne ashiood? yosun ise
dp %o Reeves to ixelqmoo A ad oF emmod Gllaet sredt omit odd da mids
alg diovett hh af Cad fit 10% seedie dnone lt ib uae

vitses ni boyagne ataktnetos to

faery ta Abed dad eters e1t8ey)
Meety Saial ocd ot toTer I y tion

Gc. 2.

~

add st Ynofooe bie PRofotd seysyo To Me
Gwe oti ovo? ,abitold gelobasaeT itsoa yrotaxodad eniren stogivied arid
Seed ero I [Le mot bra ,eolrips oti Ibi bis dait of} nebiaodl iedncastgem
Slewokrorset hesww eved auateterfoot bas bt dainn fod eriin xe tiyte baect .
ate 60 orinti steemers gered oftitesatan avrediv fokfortts Lets fort na ee yfeve
Ba “Satos tud ,aotorans tedds ads to atow edt tot dooge tomas | = oa alg
RO Siow a0 htaqcxe o¢ srove baa ouridroo of go ldo of ot OW honcteoshe at 4
epemge Lentini ae tguotit ba oa binwad erobts “ege%g @moa ebac bvarlee
ee bas opie! o ot taot 2 ofdts olan SJiw doldw .#bidolil to efate
he ddtie reiltedw enisrete 7 a sasaaae? taen seta Qilworn sotayo of
¢ldeatyol i¢ bua yfleotmorobe mi as siinivcon baa neksoihorg at Matis
hit S stone

- dodivetat oid atoetory yikintttioo ‘bo got 6 etd kioh etiidve Lateicoa D: a
_peitton si oted? ,oqooe bra seoqity to ytNnebs antikedesy riawogdt ia «yhee ,
beanies ti yrevowoH .eban ei mm sods re Toke | sist? 20 Ox we DL yaw.

i ret - , 4, iy
Seoteof bie brent to alaad eft no onmd otf blooda gf yrotettetre ad of ots
-anoe bem dot to Rsidgtow emt

trems ‘Yo abdaanteew gsorg elt Ter
}

i Senes 4 t
tier bie we nidoor bwswot betoetth mesd aad HE
Pa

feed brad Sw .ynw totter Se
atdy gan! ndttecd boon to etats a eaineedet ot sor Sr bwond (il econ) Oem
eases 7 Sitis of segcets bedup sea Jaogeds nofties Lo brow atitt veTig ae
| sfotaoses dei oiler “to a.
mem Tinta ostvres eLffhCiy tow dett ott od otud tnd vou of tnew i oxteofe 4
were ett ove bat ofdewlay asvoan 7i tL soe Tae had oo SARA
wpeshinte. f fadaolondee? totacass ofyoiekd on tedifen bre ydtiaup ed? ry
5 ty. ott eo food i> yd bertoreteb ote acttividen thongolevsy #
bavetatdoh Git ewites tion’ od of two anid tt ‘LE tovewor ©
a 4 wewvnil ,eenéinves gidt datett geve son Ofer tinwott &
fliv vou oged I ated san
ebrtonioon See Ryottecigia ysacht yatuoce «wot ¥feor? bape hand ghreid ont,
poste wm 0' fant drode ad i! hw moisaeunoo ebnt ta yore ea -AgoE S

. f . ‘ ~ i ’ os nae
Ate eit Seon at yor fnttonge oe fis onary

4 03 &

HOW TC INCREAS® CONSUMPTION OF OYSTERS
Mrs. Rose G. Kerr, Home Economist, Fish and Wildlife Service

Chamberlin Hotel, Old Point Comfort, Virginia, June 7, 1949

It is a pleasure to be here at your annual convention. Mr. James, our director,
has just told you "What the Fish and Wildlife Service is Doing to Increase the Pro-
duction and Consumption of Oysters." Dr. Radcliffe asked me to tell you a little
more in detail what the Home Economics unit of the Service is doing since it ties in
with your industry-wide promotion campaign.

How to increase the consumption of oysters and shellfish is something that is
almost constantly uppermost in the minds of most of us connected with the fishing in-

dustry regardless of whether we have a hand in actually hauling the catch aboard ship

or merely play a related part in getting it to the ultimate consumer. How to make
the public aware that there are such things as oysters and shellfish, that they are
plentiful, nutritious, relatively easy on the family's pocketbook, and are delicious

when properly prepared; these are just a few of the things that come under the head-

ing of fishery education.

And what part have the Home Economists of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

played in this picture? During the last three years since the formation of the Home
_ Beonomics Unit as a part of the Branch of Commercial Fisheries, we have given 191]

seafood cookery demonstrations for approximately 12,500 persons in 22 states; con-.
ducted 13 exhibits for approximately 80,000 prospective consumers representing every

_ state in the Union; distributed approximately 75,000 fishery publications; coope=
rated in the filming of HOVE COOKERY OF FISH; and issued cookery bulletins entitled
_ FISH COOK=S2Y FOR ON HUNDRED, BASIC FISH COOKERY, and HOW TO COOK OYSTERS.

At the inception of our program of exhibits the question naturally arose as to

_ where they would prove the most effective taking into consideration the limited funds

available. National conventions, particularly those whose members are responsible in
some way for the serving of food, appeared to be one solution. As a result, thirteen
exhibits to date have been conducted at the following conventions: American Home Eco-

nomics Association Convention - Cleveland, St. Louis, Minneapolis; National School

Cafeteria Association - Chicago, Dallas, Baltimore; National Restaurant Association
- Cleveland, Atlantic City, Washington; American Dietetics Association - Boston;
National Fisheries Institute - Chicago.

As previously mentioned, approximately 80,000 consumers and potential consumers
have viewed these exhibits. About 8,000 of these have indicated further interest by
sending in written requests for additional information.

In preparing these exhibits, it was felt that as wide a variety of species and:
market forms of shellfish and fish as possible would have more appeal and be of great
educational value, Therefore, the following species were usually displayeds

Lobsters, scallops, and fillets from New England
Oysters, crabs, and clams from the Middle Atlantic
Shrimp and frog legs from the Gulf

Salmon and halibut from the Pacific

Seasonal lake fish from the Great Lakes

, motu ib “vivo gecinn ®t cro LSre MO LAR “ny to sored od of otvenel¢ a
(mime? Gtt esaercat od ako at sokvtee OLiferiy be Mert ott vot” pag Bee
pee eaty ti voy [fad of om be i n ELE /w wrtedaw) to: ro, Siopntetog) 4

wee Bele fF ec mkob af eorr ; imontach eno act ot arte tis
sjmeo woktomotg shi wetewbak

3
ra
r

*

of dads anthtomoa & dares feite bua sxodave Yo BaSdtaw M198 10 9 ‘end soso
«te Mekal). ods ad tw f ido ereeo. Buy to gacr Yo ebwta ed m2- Paanerergi y Doma
Gide teeta dotao ent an Wiond yi ‘fautoe at bad *® evel ew steddade: * > 220 am
ole of wo. .temienoe of wm kd fy od? of Sf galdtes mk dtag sae 1 e yale
ote Yen ted? and iifeda baw aiothy fe 60 anniddy dows oxy etend tant otawe 4
i) wyekotied ein bins stoorntstoog ‘ef iT kate’ emt mo yone 7 fevitatot onto tobataee
‘abaet ont cobs enoo tals a anidt ‘ed¥ to wet o Saw!.ova eget? ther Ba | aa
nabtanaeal aoe

ano" ;

eerrie* ett ipite bea. dayvt .& <0 off to eta tito roe emat ent oved dag Sam

@mol! BAY to. roltermict ed corks ‘staey o ) Jeal oft nofinl feuusoiq See

PO feL werty oved ew ebredart faiorortigd to tlonact off to Yong #8 Ge tints

Oy aged). ceptete SS of -atigateg 008 SI ~lotarixnctqqa 16? suetivrtecomed yore"
yiove guictneactcot “Testy a evisoore Oty God 08 ; yiotemixnotyas -10t otic idve %
. wINGS anottact. cing yitodtel’s OOO ST el tami tygn hetud beds £6 nota? oi
belerano anita llud wreloos ; he wnak Bae cHPTY BW YHRHOOO SWON “to anhel ks

,PHOTeYO HOOS Of WoH fae TSAO Hei OFRAd CLI. TWO SOF

4
y Of BH @rove vifoueten sre bia uo ef wi ine to mnttioty vo to moidty oor’ am
i ehunnss fad tre) i 43 “mn F. a at Hoo © tri tf ao ay Oe Se i} 3 To aT ed VC ty if gow
@b oldbetiogee: v4 etodmoum opodw enor? ylralvolitag ganoktaewmes Lodo Bat
@eoteine .Ffuset 2 4A stuttifos ono of o¢ besaegqs ~boot to saivroa eae
WOOT Suet Keaokiond yacoktae was aniwoflot edd ta DeYoubooo coed ovat ataby
i Boat meee PY si mIM cabnod g22 beaters? ~ nottsovied nottates
\ Wetiptecesa tneviy pit gan fanottalt .jovomidfeA ,oaffall ,opsoliS - sot aioonm
biedtoid Has F*s Os srosanridsee® eV LD o ofa rok *

.onssid? =» edutitenl asiroter

wovlsod » moksaioonaé 80

araimistion (olsnodog bin. eteeweroe DOOQGR y pies: sikxoteya ybanodtear yharor

“ Jeorednt rode? hoteorbat ares | past? to 000.8 woth padidcitixe egodd
“HO te pire ak fasottthbs ¢ol ateeepet nodvetw

i asw ti yaiididxe secon qndweqexg,
efdinac es Hees tra -teltt foie Qo: &
e aniwotlo? et? ,d@xoteresiT sauicsias f)

Holl? boe -..eqol isos eretadat

+A bAM 200 er? pew 9 Diner. RAR 48 SOT ay:
‘ Lied edd cost aqel sot bia qari,
Mt Sttiow® wile mde? dedttent bre rien Fa
wore doin dd? oe Halt etal Sacobeee

How to Increase Consumption of Oysters - Page 2 Mrs. Rose G, Kerr

Each species in turn was shown in its various market forms. Shellfish, such as oyster
clams, and scallops were displayed in the shell and shucked; shrimp was shown in the
four forms from raw to ready-to-eat; lobsters and crabs were displayed alive and
cooked. Besides the fresh fishery products display, a representative group of canned
and frozen fishery products were usually shown.

It should be noted that in earrying out these exhibits, splendid cooperation has
been given us by the fishing industry who contributed generously of their time and \
supplied the seafood for the displays.

Several things are of interest in regard to these exhibits. Foremost is the
fact that the display of fresh fish and shellfish attracted the greatest attention.
Many of the foods teachers and cafeteria managers had never seen a scallop, had no
idea where they come from and were somewhat skeptical that they were shellfish. Anothe
thing was the genuine interest in seafood shown by most of the visitors and the marked
desire to know how to prepare and serve it. This was borne out by the written re-

' quests of 7,975 persons for additional information. Approximately 75,000 Fish and

Wildlife Service publications have been required to answer these requests and those

emanating from the fish cookery demonstration.

In regard to the 19] seafood cookery demonstrations,which have been given for
12,500 persons in 22 states, it is agreed that the number of people contacted is

smaller than at the exhibits; however, it must be remembered that most of those
12,500 persons are directly responsible in some manner for serving food to others who

in turn have thus been indirectly influenced by the demonstrations. The demonstra-

_ tions were given before the following groups:

Women's organizations and university and college food classes .. 93 demonstrations

School lunchroom managers and Cooks ....cecc-eeccecesvevecsecves 86 demonstrations
National and state restaurant association meetings ......ecoeee. 7 Gemonstrations
fie Ws S. Army Subsistence School ....cscecccccavcecesveseessees § Gemonstrations

What is meant by a demonstration? It might be termed a “working lecture."

“Not only is information given on the various types of seafoods, their nutritive value,

what to look for in buying them, storage, preparation, etc.,but six recipes using both
shellfish and fish are actually prepared before the audience who then samples the pre-
pared dishes.

Such remarks following the demonstrations, as "Have you any more of those shell-
oysters? I have never seen one before. I would like to taste one." or "Oh! that was
easy to do. I wouldn't be afraid to try that at home. You make it look so simple!" .
or such questions as "What's the difference between the red and the brown lobster?" ‘
forcibly illustrate the need for additional educational work in increasing the use
of shellfish.

While the exhibits and demonstrations have proven tops as far as initial "Inter-
est catchers," there is a real need for something of lasting interest and use in the
home and institutions. The answer to this, of course, is fish and shellfish cook-
books ~ cookbooks for the family, cookbooks for institutions, cookbooks that are well
illustrated, easy to follow, and contain a wealth of recipes and information that
the homemaker and institution cook feel they can rely upon. In answer to this demand
the ultimate plan of the Fish and Wildlife Service is to issue one such cookbook that
Will cover all phases of fish cookery. However, in order to fill numerous requests
and to get the information to the consumer as soon as possible, it has been decided

ike.

WIG8 yO eel Gat

“geen ‘wha mene ye PEd Lori? nro Perales nt inhi vet oh Awoxte Ben ies

| ete ok wees eam qinttte “chet once bana Th octal ony td

| hep evils beyalayth crew adexs Da atin: Not ‘i Phir OF Mary pee
\ Hemuse ka cvoty iF eoconsiges “A yatyals ‘arout OIG ieteLlt leeth ens sebs
i niweme vl lavew Brew at oniorey yie: ats

Ue keareo09 bihoralge + etid fide svedd sno datvires wt dad boston act: ie Dice
1 Bove Sandy *e.berls ‘to viauonoteg botud Sto. ortr Piste: 3 ent sane iene i)

rawr
aint

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edt Ks | Len teetodn?t settee! Ic acidoamon tot, teem Iso a af arent Fy

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. d Dn yi

How to Increase Consumption of Oysters = Page 5 Mrs. Rose G, Kerr
»

to divide the book into sections, with each section applicable to some phase of fish
or shellfish cockery, AS soon as a section is finished, it is published as a Test
Kitchen Bulletin and is available for filling requests immediately.

The bulletins published to date, which include FISH COOKERY FOR ONS HUNDRED,

BASIC FISH COOKERY, and HOW TO COOK OYSTERS met an instantaneous response, so much

so that the Service has been unable to meet all demands due to limited funds available

for publications, The original 51,000 copies disappeared like the proverbial hotcake,

As a result the Oyster Institute of North America and the National Fisheries Institute

stepped in and had 25,000 reprints of HOW TO COOK OYSTERS and 10,000 reprints of FISH
COOKERY FOR ONS HUNDRED published; but again this spring demand exceeded the supply
and the problem of securing additional reprints of all three bulletins again con-
fronted us. However, during April and May we saw our way clear to have an additional
10,000 copies of each of the above bulletin printed.

With regard to future bulletins, the Home Economics Unit has been working dili-
gently on those which appear to be the most in demand and which consist of the follow-
ling: HOW TO COOK CRABS, HOW TO COOK SHRIMP, HO TO COOK CLAMS, HOW TO COOK SALMON,
»HOW TO COOK ROSZSFISH, HOW TO COOK FISH IN A PRESSURE SAUCE PAN.

Each of these bulletins will be similar to HOV TO COOK OYSTERS. The bulletins
will contain pertinent information on the market forms, purchasing, shucking or clean-
ing, and approximately thirty recipes for that particular species of fish or shelle |
fish. The bulletins will have pictures illustrating the steps in preparing one or
‘more of the recipes together with other pictures of the finished dishes ready to serve.

Educational films, we have been told, rank second only to a demonstration and
“since it is impossible to give demonstrations for all the high schools, colleges, and
women's groups interested in fish and shellfish cookery, films have an important
place in our educational program. HOME COOK=RY OF FISH prepared in cooperation with
Encyclopedia Britannica Films, Inc.,is the Home Economics Unit’s contribution in this
field. The film depicts three basic methods of cooking fish, tells the homemaker what
to look for when purchasing fish, and shows the resulting attractive dishes when pro-
perly prepared, I believe that you will agree with me that a similar film showing
the cooking and serving of oysters would have an important place in demonstrating to
the homemakers, or the future homemakers of America, the attractive, palatable, and .
Nutritious ways oysters may be served.

& In conelusion, it should be emphasized that there is still much educational
“work to be done in increasing the use of oysters and shellfish in this country. The
“Home Economics Unit of the U. §. Fish and Wildlife Service will continue, to the
best of its ability, to increase the use of oysters and shellfish by giving seafood
cookery demonstrations, sponsoring exhibits at national conventions, preparing and
disseminating test kitchen bulletins, and aiding in preparing educational films.

feel # ae Pedetideq ef tf .6 seta beck et ‘ey tecig Pec Bh ese
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ud dePtt fede. domo sted ove ap, BBS aanovonl oc VS Elida
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T fanothaoshe seiveqetq of ack te hile 1 nk taifad mosomin teed ani

A RSVIEW OF THE FISHERIES INDUSTRY'S TRANSPORTATION PROBLEMS
V. Le Hodges, Chairman, Oyster Institute Transportation Committee

Chamberlin Hotel, Old Point Comfort, Virginia, June 8, 1949

I shall try to briefly review transportation matters of the past year that may
have direct bearing upon the ultimate marketing of oysters. Some developments during
the year may eventually prove to be advantageous but, as a whole, they have not been
favorable to the interest and welfare of the Oyster Industry.

During the past few years, while prices of oysters were showing a very definite
trend toward a lower level, transportation costs were increasing at almost every turn.
Rail Freight Rates already have increased approximately 60 percent since 1940. The
end is not yet in sight! So far as I know, the Interstate Commerce Commission has
not yet handed down a final decision in Ex Parte 168 wherein the Railroads are seek-.
ing to obtain a further increase of 15 percent in freight rates, It is my guess,
however, that they will get substantially all they asked for.

"xpress rates have also increased sharply during the same period. Oysters have
not fared quite as badly so far in Express rates as have other seafoods. But with
our Oyster Tariff - ICC 7350 - expiring with August 31, and the trend being as it a
I feel there is just cause for concern.

Just to show you what may happen, Express rates on fish and shellfish, other
than oysters, have already increased in a range of 50 to 115 percent since 1940, with
the greater increase applying to points within 750 miles distant.

Not satisfied with these increases, Railway Express Agency issued Classificatior
Docket No. 5 last June, proposing to increase billing weights on fish and shellfish,
other than oysters, by an additional 25 pounds per hundred.for the weight of ice.

This would result in a further increase of 20 percent in transportation charges on
fish, and a further increase of approximately 17 percent in transportation charges on
shellfish. They had, no doubt, expected to put this change in effect under the rule
of publication of notice. However, upon receipt of this notice, members of the fish-.

eries industry got busy in a manner I have never seen displayed before. Following

numerous protests and conversations with officials of Railway Express Agency, a meect-
ing was arranged with industry members in Boston around the middle of last September.
Despite our best efforts at this meeting to have them withdraw this proposal, we were
unsuccessful in having them do so. Subsequently, they filed Supplement No. 24 to
Official Classification No. 33 with Interstate Commerce Commission to become effectiv«
November 22, 1948. Once again the fisheries industry displayed unified action. I am
told that the Commission was flooded with petitions for suspension from all over the
country, and, as a result, a hearing was ordered.

Following several postponements, the hearing got under way in Chicago on April .
20 before Yxaminer Rice. No doubt Railway Sxpress Agency had expected to see interest
among the fisheries industry to die down in the meanwhile, because I am told they had
Calculated that the hearing would not extend beyond two to three days. Here again
they must have been surprised, This hearing lasted nine days and consumed about
1500 pages of testimony, Not léss than 50 industry witnesses were on hand, of which
26 actually presented testimony at the hearing, Witnesses were present from every
major producing point in the United States, including Alaska, and from a large ae
of inland points.

STR ORD WOE TARAOT OAR

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fone) bisdroqanent . , fovel sovel's

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;

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wry

Fisheries Industry's Transportation Problems - Page 2 V. Le Hodges

Just what will be the Commission's decision remains to be seen. Final briefs
were scheduled to be filed by June 15 but it is most likely that an extension will be
required. Based upon the evidence presented at this hearing, I am somewhat inclined
to feel that we have better than a 50-50 chance of a favorable decision. But, win or
lose, the fact remains that unified action by the fisheries industry will result in
this being delayed upwards to a year. Since it has been estimated that the resulting
increase in transportation charges from Supplement No. 24 would cost the fisheries
industry approximately $400,000 annually, this shows that the fight was worthwhile.

Regulated Truck Lines have also been active during the past year in trying to
obtain I.C.C.*s permission to increase rates. So far they have not been successful
to any large extent, It does show the trend, however. Obviously, they are anxious
and willing to increase their rates also, if and when permission can be obtained. The
higher other transportation rates go, the more will be the tendency of Trucks to press
for an increase in their rates.

The only encouraging development in this turbulent transportation situation is
the possible outcome of the Chester Morton Love Case. Perhaps I should highlight
this for the benefit of those who may not be familiar with it. Briefly, the history
is this: The I.C.C. brought suit in the United States District Court, Hastern Dis-
trict of Louisiana, New Orleans Division, under provisions of the Motor Carrier Act, |
to enjoin and restrain one Chester Morton Love from transporting property by motor
carrier in Interstate Commerce, for compensation, without holding a certificate or
necessary permit. In defense of this suit, Love contended that the vehicles which he
operated fell within the partial exemption provision provided in Section 203(b)(6) of
the Act. The Court said in part; :

"The Commodities exclusively carried by vehicles of defendant are: (1) fresh

headless shrimp, packed in ice; (2) frozen headless shrimp; (3) whole fish;
and (4) potatoes. It is rightly conceded by both parties that whole fish and
potatoes are exempted commodities.

"Thus the narrow question presented for determination is whether or not the
term "fish (including shellfish)" as used in Section 203(b)(6) of the Act em-
braces fresh headless shrimp, packed in ice, and frozen headless shrimp.

"One of the cardinal rules of interpretation is that the meaning of a statute
is to be ascertained from the words used and the subject matter to which it re-
lates, The words used are to be taken in their usual and popular sense, except
where they are technical, and then according to the acceptation of those learned
in the art. The term "ordinary livestock" as defined in Section 20(11) of the ,
act has a definite and fixed meaning but the term "fish(including shellfish)"
is not defined in the statute and since Congress has not limited the meaning

of the word "fish" as was done in the case of “agriculture commodities," it
follows that the intention of Congress must be gathered from the words unless

a literal interpretation would lead to a manifest absurdity.

"Shrimp as handled by the defendant, either fresh headless shrimp packed in ice,
or frozen headless shrimp, continued to be shrimp in their natural state. They
still remain, and continued to be known as, shrimp. If the Commission's hold-
ings were followed, they would nullify the exemption accorded motor vehicles
transporting shrimp, by virtue of the shrimp being beheaded, because no shrimp
are transported to the market which are not beheaded. In this way, and through

wbebd ore wees ed oF enfant mois hook - evince hemes ‘odd od Det sna
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w RL kslwesisr oe ‘ga teed? oth daatt aworle elas aiei Louaies 200,002 ylasam

ov arikyrt mL agey teaq. edt gattud ovitos need cols: overt pomtt Mowe?’
iwipasoess: nood: dom: ‘avad ‘yer? ast of .oetat esaetont ot teres ace a 2
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Fisheries Industry's Transportation Problems - Page 3 V. Le Hodges

such an interpretation, the Commission has given no effect whatever to the
exemption provided in the statute for fish, insofar as it affects the transporte
ation of shrimpe

"The dissent of Commissioner Lee in the second Division 5 Report fully expresses
the views of this court *« « *."

The decision of the District Court was affirmed by the United States Court of _
Appeals, I.C.C. vs. Love, 172 Fed. 2nd 224, The Commission decided not to seek a re-
view by the United Syates Supreme Court,

Following the decision of the United States Court of Appeals, effort was prompt]
made by members of the fisheries industry to have the Commission recognize and accept
this ruling on a nationewide basis on ali fish and shellfish traffic, other than truly
manufactured products thereof. The Commission indicated at an early stage during thes
conferences that it would be willing to recognize the decision as applying nation-wide
on shrimp only. This was a partial victory, but by no means sufficient; it was rea-
lized by members of the industry that it would be necessary to have the Commission to
broaden its interpretation to also include other fish and shellfish, including shucked
oysters; otherwise, we would be confronted with the risk of similar suits on each
item of fish and shellfish until we had completely ran the gauntlet. Accordingly,

Ray Steele, representing the National Fisheries Institute Traffic Committee, and James
K. Knudson, Chief Counsel of the Department of Agriculture, continued to pursue the
matter.

As a result of these conferences, the following action has taken place: Upon
order of the Commission, a report has been filed with I.C.C. by Examiner Michael T.
Corcoran, who has worked with Commissioner Lee extensively. The report is entitled,
"Report on Further Consideration Proposed by Michael T. Corcoran, Examiner," and pro
poses further consideration in No. MC89207, Monark Egg Corporation Contract Applicatio:
only as far as "fish (including shellfish)" is concerned. This report was circulated
to parties of interest in the Monark Egg Case, and persons desiring to file exceptions
were required to do by May 3, 1949.

| When the deadline of May 3 passed without any exceptions being filed, we were
beginning to feel that we were lucky. It has developed, however, that exceptions
were later filed by the Eastern Railroads, by the Class I Carriers in the Western
‘District, and by Railway Express Agency, which were accepted by the Commission. Anothe
exception was filed by the New England Motor Rate Bureau but this was not accepted by
the Commission because it lacked the necessary certificate of service,

Raymond E. Steele, General Counsel for National Fisheries Institute, responded
to the exceptions noted by the Carriers. At this point we do not know what will be
the outcome, or what further proceedings in the matter will become necessary. This
we do know, however: The Chester Morton Love decision has established a precedent
that should be favorable to the entire fisheries industry in event any further suits
arise for alleged violations.

Unfortunately, too few members of the fisheries industry display any apparent
interest in transportation matters. In saying this, it is not my desire to accuse
anyone; I merely wish to awaken the interest of all in transportation problems.
Therefore, if I should tread upon your toes, I would like to remind you of any old
‘saying that goes something like this: "Only among true friends do you find one sin-
cere enough to tell you disagreeable truths."

‘it ot Mavet air onthe om wavty cal. melee Smarty a ye kts
iy cat ot eteattis +h 28 ystoont fart wt otutate att af beb vera
itt aq rife | iss $s

Ae 24000 gotad? begtee ert wed bowitts aay giee stotvbett ond to solie
Pe eres eo for bebtovh aereareey od? SSS bat whet STL .eved «av se
wD Ge GUE Betas? bot eas

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Uneors Pas Caingooot goten tnd aie overt ot yess sion werekeks ent to wm
[yisres nat nontg soit ont dePiilody bas dedl ifs se atend obiwenodher » HOG
. dad grtiyh agate yftee ae ta bodsolhat cotasinmed ont -<Yoorwds atooborwqy
eb iwenoiten ansivigges es aotsteed att exzingosot of pitti fiw ad Bhiow $2 vat
waent anw ot edo holt annem on ud gud ,vrotofe Teidied a saw ddl yy
ot avtentmoed ont ovad of ytesesoen o¢ bei $2 sac? ertetion’ off Te at
hodouda gerkbu Pont piaetifonte bifjq Heit redto obufoat oats 69 pee
yf Hoge 4° ating taliats Yo siaty edt >in botnovt tnoo ef bine ow see rH

wesae btooph ,doFinnng ofd mot efor: ylemoe bart ow fEdew SaPii loch Guta
wit ‘bys eoodd Lmao aftter? etetisvect seliedsw Iasodtat ortf yi biioeoiget 4
inte anetng act ne agg pero euaipetrss Io trem eget off ‘a- fociieS Moray

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let feadoih tenimex? ye .8«9.0 tiw bellt res sf gal Pwoqoe # ‘sto hae Lala
belt itao eh dnoges oft wEfovlnsedes ook romotewiamed “’iw booltew ead
y fig hoe © exon tmexe ero! «7t foatoli yd Sescqo eT roatatebiaced tegen
“elinohtaqa SOMERS. Fe Were « OM <o4, af aofsaieh an00 4

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; / Ree FS wel yt ob oF)

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Re betgenor ton gaw. atitt dod! ugerrag ofall wodeM Beaty well edd wi belie
souivise TH. steartrtiwe viserensy edt: Detox? 4 Gusteoad at

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ad -ifte. dade wont, jou.ch ew. datog elit c2 .axetiep® odd yd bedi anokta
Akal > yviaageoor smooed {fiw vettau oi obi agmtheesony teddast cedw to 96
srabeopsg a. vetetddates. ap -aoteives' “rod nediaet eteotd eT aid tusans
—adlug. Tontiey wis deave ngs crtanbal. 96 AaOnaa % avtdue.ofs oF efdatovet t
,ariivale iy: pogent

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envoes of ,erioch, yrtomedig. aide yelysacm). ede? tam ‘adltettogenesd «
ae Lel yo aE. gobi axynedantats west ia. ip: “ pepemonhind * etkt etait at. (ety vierem
bio. yor Yo wey hakastso8 oft blwow I yeeod oy eae hyactin ‘Sivedte eee

lathes ONO PRET wor ob aba eye Joteet yoows y, enti

Fisheries Industry's Transportation Problems - Page 4 V. L. Hodges

It has been my observation that many are entirely too complacent for either thei:
own welfare, or for the welfare of the industry. I do not know the cause for this
apparent lack of interest. It may be that some have completely lost sight of the fact
that transportation in one form or another is the connecting link between production
and consumption of oysters. Most of you realize, I am sure, that the availability and
the cost of transportation can be, and frequently is, the difference between marketing
your products profitably or at a loss. Transportation and sales are as inseperable as
Siamese Twins. Another thing to remember is this: The consumer is fast getting in
that position where he can dictate the price he will pay; consequently, every in-
crease now in transportation costs will have to come largely from your own pockets.

There may be some who feel they have no common interest in the industry's trans-
portation problems because they largely use their own equipment in the distribution
of their commodities. Yven if this is so, aren't you losing sight of the fact that
the Common Carriers - the Railroads, the Steamship Lines, the Franchise Truck Lines,
the Air Lines - have all in some manner taken a toll, and have contributed materially
to the basic cost of most every commodity you use or consume,

Beyond this, unless I.C.C. should now declare fish and shellfish traffic exempt
in a manner they heretofore have not recognized, does a producer or distributor really
know where he stands in the operation of his own transportation system? Perhaps many

have felt it was their undeniable right to haul their commodities on their own equip-
ment anywhere they wanted, and to include a freight charge in the delivered price if
they chose to do soe Strange as it may seem, that question is now debatable. That
question is now pending before the Interstate Commeree Commission (the Lenoir Chair
Company Case). The issue involved is whether a seller who delivers in his own trucks,
and charges the Customer for delivery, is a Common Carrier under I.C.C. regulations.

Beyond this, if those who deliver with their own trucks should elect to not in-
clude any freight or transportation cost in the delivered price, is there not then a
possibility of violation of the Federal Trade Act? The Supreme Court's recent de-
cision certainly does leave delivered-pricing questions in a muddle. Mind you, I am
not expressing an opinion on this; 1 am mercly trying to point out to you that you
probably have a bigger stake in industry's transportation problems than you fully re-
alize.

Fortunately, the fisheries industry is far better prepared now to cope with its
transportation problems than ever before, One major development was the inclusion of
the fisheries industry to obtain certain benefits under the Agriculture Marketing Act.
Assistance that has already been given the fisheries industry by the Transportation
Division of the ifarketing Facilities Branch of the Department of Agriculture cannot
be valued in terms of dollars. I know wherein I speak. I have worked with these
fellows very closely during the past three years; I have seen them in action. In
James K. Knudson, Chief Counsel; Charles B, Bowling, Chief of Transportation and
Rates Section; and J. 7%. Bourke, Chief of the Fisheries Section, we could not ask for
more staunch friends or more capable assistance. In addition to these, we have Dr,
Richard Kahn, of Fish and Wildlife Service, capable and tireless in his efforts, who
has been on hand in every emergency with a vast store of statistical figures and eco-
nomic data. I dovbt we could raise enough money among the fisheries industry to employ
talent such as these men have freely given us in their capacity, We owe these gentle-
‘Men an expression of gratitude for having gone far beyond any normal requirement of
duty to render us the necessary assistancee

We now have within the National Fisheries Institute a Trafffic Committee which
I feel is a credit to the industry. This Traffic Committee is composed of members

i

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Fisheries Industry's Transportation Problems = Page 5 V. L, Hodges

from each regional zone in the United States. These members freely and willingly con-
tribute their time and talent toward traffic and transportation problems affecting the
entire fisheries industry, without any compensation from the Association for either
their services or expenses. But the job has grown to be bigger than the Traffic Com-
mittee can handle successfully. The real need now, as many members of the Traffic Com
mittee see it, is for a full time Traffic Man on the staff of the Association who can
coordinate the efforts of industry traffic members and of Government traffic and trans
portation officials. This we hope to eventually obtain.

The Oyster Institute, as some of you may know, also set up a Traffic Committee
at last year's convention, of which I was named Chairman, I suspect members of the
Institute's Traffic Committee may feel that I have been asleep on the job. They would
have a perfect right to feel so, based upon my lack of contacts with them, WNever-
theless, if any such thought does exist, I should like to assure all that my seeming
negligence has been due entirely to a lack of time, and most certainly not because of
any lack of desire to work closely with them. Furthermore, I should like to assure
you all that oysters have not been neglected in any traffic or rate matters that arose
during the past year, In all such hearings or meetings, oysters have been given con-
sideration comparable with fish. This you can readily understand since two members of
the N.F.I. Traffic Committee, and possibly others, are fully as much concerned in
transportation matters involving oysters as they are in fish or other seafoods,

I believe it to be practical, and I should like to recommend it here and now to
the Director and to the Directors of the Oyster Institute, that the Oyster Institute
N.F.1. Traffic Committee. in doing this there is no reason why the Oyster Institute
should lose its individuality or identity; it is merely a matter of trying to get in
a stronger position than we are now in. Generally speaking, traffic problems of each
segment of the fisheries industry overlap and are just about the same nature. Cone
sequently, what I propose should work out in this way; Any member of the Oyster In-
stitute Traffic Committee who may happen to be exclusive Oyster Man would lend their
support in combating traffic problems involving any segment of the fisheries industry.
In return, if there should ever come a time when oysters alone become the focal point
of attack in any traffic matter, I feel fully confident that you would have the sup-
port of substantially every member of the NeF.I. Traffic Committee. I want to make it
clear that N.eF.I. has not been consulted about this; therefore, if you should think
well of my suggestion, it would then become necessary to negotiate this arrangement.

In concluding, I should like to remind you again that it is encumbent upon each
member of the oyster industry to give more serious consideration to traffic problems.
Give the members of both the Oyster Institute Traffic Committee and the N.F.I. Traffic
Committee your fullest cooperation. Please remember, theirs is a difficult and thank-
less job at its best; they are busy in their own jobs the same as you are; they fre-
quently find it necessary to do a large part of the work involved on their own time.
Therefore, whenever any major problem arises where you are needed, be sure to lend
your support, your time, and your money - if need be ~ to see it through. If you are
willing to do this, you can have a Traffic Organization within the fisheries industry
of which you can feel justly proud. If you are not willing to do this, then please
do not expect too much of your Traffic Committee,

I thank you.

ee ye RPh they.)

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tb ore MoktytiogsA ont to Ttate ests So eM BIVTatT out {fut a rot ak ° is !

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Abicat of Sttia ad behebn etm gay

SOB Hoy UT vradoad we eed of -~ on |}

THE FROZEN OYSTER INDUSTRY

Clifford F. Evers, Technologist in Charge
Fishery Technological Laboratory, College Park, Maryland

Chamberlin Hotel, 014 Point Comfort, Virginia, June 8, 1949

Before discussing your particular industry, it might be well to review briefly
the history of the frozen food industry. The freezing of foods as a means of preser-
vation is not new, At least in real northern climates it is probably as old as man.
However, the frozen food industry is comparatively recent in origin.

Fish were first frozen commercially about 1865; however, it was not until
1922 that packaged haddock fillets were frozen for the retail market. Unfortunately,
no information is available to indicate when oysters were first frozen on a commer-
cial scale. It is known that they were marketed in 1929 when a study was made of
the possible acceptance of frosted foods by the homemaker,

Although oysters are highly perishable and are harvested only at certain seae
sons of the year, relatively small quantities are preserved by freezing. It is esti-
mated that during the year 1945 approximately 75,000,000 pounds of oyster meat were
produced and of these, about 7,000,000 pounds were canned and only about 900,000
pounds were frozen,

According to the most recent figures covering only the nearby area known as the
Chesapeake Bay Region, approximately 9,700 pounds of oyster meats were frozen during
the month of April of this year and the amount in cold storage on May lst, 1949, was
about 105,000 pounds. Those are not very high figures when compared with those co-
vering other frozen foods.

Canning changes the flavor of oysters greatly, whereas freezing changes the
flavor only slightly. One would expect that frozen oysters would be in great demand
during the summer months, but apparently eating habits are not easily changed,

Perhaps your industry should undertake an educational and promotional campaign.
Surely some attempt should be made to acquaint the public with the excellent quality
of frozen oysters, and the fact that they are available 12 months of the year. Until
this is done the market for the product will be very limited, Since oysters contain
only small amounts of fat and carbohydrates and thus yield few calories when utilized
by the body, the oyster is truly an excellent hot weather food, and for that matter,
is an excellent food at any time of the year.

The freezing preservation of oysters is neither a difficult nor costly project.
There are a few simple rules that are commonly applicable to all frozen products, and
if these are followed, a high quality product is bound to be the end result. Select
fresh, first quality oysters, pack them under sanitary conditions in packages inper-
Vious to air and moisture-vapor, freeze them by methods known to yield satisfactory
results and store them at low temperatures until delivery to the consumer.

There is little need of discussing the harvesting and handling of oysters in
the preparation of oyster meats, The product up to this point is practically in the
Same condition whether it is to be packed in a can to be sold on the fresh market,
or in a package for freezing.

‘omar ae rey wasort eat

MM et mpd a Hes Gomnst ost | eater’ iT) paoibitis ”
Byatt, rail Apel Loo. ytd etoded Ls8.tg¢ tomatoe? et

Ohl 8 sow, ,sictorgl Fact Setod bf0 , fesal ieEr odin

igtiwind eeives, od flew od tdgie tZ .yitenbat on kaabhiiiie TU0%. sit testion 2
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Ketel ae bio sa -yldedow ef Dh eodtamifle nvotdcron aet nt tenel TA, yee
ft EQEUO. srk scsi ylevitateqaoo ot “yrgeubirt boo" nokont Oe

' ideas tom ag th seein a08 toda ei istoronnaio fesord to tit o7
oonamabaliiiad stosxen Ifeder eft 101 sesott etpw moll toobted Sogm
eaten @ io a0 sork destt oxow etedeye sedw otesthal ot oid at brs pf ip
in Ro spam 28w qoute n eoiw. Q801 ak betedianm ete@ yest gens nwomd si F

»telamenmod end yd eboot betaorl to oonadgeo

\mete ninines de yine botgevian ots fia ofdedatweq yidgtd ots ovedtays
nbn ed $i. sgndseert yd bevtesat, ove etittimeup [fom ylovisalo's (yu
Srew aeom yodayo to sbougd 000,000,cF xf ‘octamixe-wgA daei aaoy anid garde
000,008 suoda yino bre beasas otow abayvoq 000,000,) dudds yonaat *

, ftohos

elt oe nwort sete yvdireen att vino mikievoo seteglt tnpoes ager rit of
MeL HP Urorgort ove etwenr yoteye, To aheting OGF,2 ylodomixetyds eotged y
Paw yueel qral yal: 10, asetgte bfoo ak dnvoms ot? bain teoy widt ‘to Sang
(men emer dct tw hotaqnoe nadw eetunlt @y ie yer tom ote eaodt neato

aboot fe

> elt wonmads notseert agoteriy oy lcsors avetaye to teva lt colt vomané t
breath Hoos RE od blyow wretayo-. motos). tude Hoogxe bLaow on? op foin es
ehonn ‘ado, yltane, tor ots. atided. yee yitnetegga tod oriticos 100m

eamRacuine ‘Parte te ramon bra. Lenobtaouio ce oledtetnn bfvedi: vitaybs st wil 7
“ht Laup. tae Tivoxe, ent Awiw obfeleg oil Bitieess od obam od DI nortis dgmet
Vibda SHERI. ont Yo avSeom Sf eidelleva oxy yods tate Pept ett “bas amie
fikaitinog atetayo conta .betitmiy yrev.od [fiw tovbotq sit wot todien ett |
hestigde nodw voitoine wed hlety esde bus cotath unodiag bers tot to odin
eden, Haett 19%. bm, boot tedtaow god trellbexe ma -yiat af roteyg ont
aitnay, oft Do omtt ye da boot J

Wy » isang video. ton chy stodtior- af avetaya to. aéitavressta whee
yitonbory menott (fn ot oldacthiga xinemipo ora tade soley efqaty
foster ad ye ey bao eait.od of Bagod. ag Pong: Git foun aye e homo tfot/@
tenga t- agaadong me nuoke cArroo- yisdinae Tohte mond ‘nag ere oe Yt Eta
mere iantes hioty o¢.wiwordl-shodterm yd medd ospett, togev~o ite Loar ‘Dra

emperos oct ot yrovblab f idan: aened wegmed wol fa. agehe oToty,

roy atadayo to get Cran bee gnignoviad ‘ody: “Seek da moa Lb “wo bode ofssel ‘ek
“odd ak i faedtoaya ot fibey abcd oF qi idubesy otf Vabhom ab¢eave th ha: t.
afoot deoxt- ork oo blow od ot tap o-at Bitlorq od oP at dF eodvedw st
HAAR ee at base ata Mies AK ise oy

The Frozen Oyster Industry mee C. F. Evers

In the Zast, the most popular size of oyster meat for freezing is the select,
and they are of such size that one gallon contains more than 210 oysters, but not
more than 300 oysters. Freshly opened oysters are passed over a skimmer or a riffle
board, where they are given a preliminary washing to remove loose sand and pieces of
shell. Here they are thoroughly inspected and all discolored or otherwise objection-
able meats are removed, From the skimmer the oyster meats flow into stainless steel
or monel metal tanks, usually in batches of about twenty gallons, where they are
usually washed with water or brine while being agitated with compressed air. Some
packers prefer fresh water for this washing and others use salt water. Obviously
a packer will increase his yield if the oysters are blown in fresh water. Such treat-
ment just prior to freezing yields a product that will have excessive leakage or
drip, on thawing and such oysters will be rather flat in flavor. However, if the
oysters are blown in water of a salinity slightly higher than that in which they are
grown, their original flavor will be maintained and less leakage will occur on thaw-

ing. Here we are at the old argument again, quality versus quantity and it is up to

the individual packer to decide which he wants, A happy medium is ideal, but very
difficult to attain,

Following agitation, the oyster meats are drained free from water and are then
packaged for freezing. As with all frozen foods, proper packaging of oysters to be
frozen is of great importance. The product must be protected from loss of moisture
during storage. Otherwise there will be desiccation or freezer burn. Also, the pro-
duct must be protected from contact with air in order to prevent the oyster meats
from discoloring and turning dark.

Most packages for frozen foods consist of two or three separate parts, a con=

tainer, an inner bag or liner, and quite often, an overwrap. Rectangular waxed

paperboard containers, also called folding boxes, are the type of container most com-

monly used. Some are end opening or end fill, whereas others are top opening or top

“fill. Heavily waxed tubs and cups may also be used and likewise tinned containers,
although in recent years, none of these have been very popular for frozen oysterse

The inner bag may be made of cellophane, specially coated paper or parchment,

or of other moisture vapor proof material. The use of a cellophane inner liner in

a]

place of a bag will supply the necessary protection during cold storage, but in that
Case one must be certain that the outer container will hold the liquid part of the

package before and during freezing and during thawing,

When a bag is used, it must be thoroughly opened out at the base before being
filled. After filling, all air should be carefully forced out and the top of the
bag should be folded and heat sealed.

The outer wrap adds little to the protective quality of the package but is used
either to protect the appearance or for brand identification purposes. Carton wrap-

pers may be cellophane, waxed paper or aluminum foil.

The new metal end paperboard containers now being produced by the leading can
Companies have had wide acceptance for frozen fruits, and perhaps studies should be
made to test their adaptability to frozen oysters. The use of these containers makes
possible high-speed, automatic filling and closing operations, thereby resulting in
& Considerable saving in labor.

The use of a packing medium, such as the strained liquor from the shucked
Oysters, will do much to eliminate the danger of surface desiccation and also

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The Frozen Oyster Industry - 3 Cc. F. Evers

fill up the voids, thereby preventing contact of the surface of the oyster meats with
air. The use of a packing medium is a very controversial point and may lead to prob-
lems involving federal and state laws. Nevertheless from the standpoint of good
freezing preservation, it is something that might well be investigated from a legal
angle.

With or without the use of a packing medium, care must be taken not to fill
the packages completely. During freezing, oyster meats expand about seven percent
and headspace must be provided to take care of this expansion or else the containers
may bulge badly and even burst.

The freezing of oyster meats is really a very simple matter and the speed of
freezing is not nearly as important for oysters as it is for most frozen foods.
Slow frozen oyster meats will be a little less tasty and will give a somewhat great-
er leakage, but neither to the extent that good quality is completely lost. However,
if reasonably quick freezing processes can be used, they are highly recommended. Ex-
¢luding patented processes, each packer has his own little ideas and improvements on

how to freeze packaged products, and in all probability, most of these individual

systems of freezing are doing a good job. In this brief talk, time does not permit
a full description of freezing machines, but I will be only too glad to answer your

questions in a discussion period or later in the day.

Following freezing, the frozen packaged oyster meats should be cased either for

_ temporary storage or subsequent shipping, and stored at O°F. It is a generally
accepted fact that the lower the storage temperature the less noticeable are the

changes occurring during storage, At O°F, storage, properly packaged oyster meats
should remain in a satisfactory condition for one vear.

Frozen oyster meats should never be permitted to thaw until required for use,
Therefore, great care must be used during transportation and marketing to insure that

_ they reach the consumer in a frozen condition.

eaten eal

7

Frozen oyster meats may be used for all purposes for which raw shucked oysters
are used, By packing and selling frozen oyster meats of good quality, your industry
should have an excellent opportunity to expand the market for oysters. The freezing
preservation of oyster meats should do much to steady the market and prevent gluts
and the losses that go with overproduction. However, as a word of caution, do not
attempt to freeze oysters that are on the verge of not being saleable; in fact stop
your selection far ahead of that point, and freeze only those oyster meats that are

absolutely fresh and in the prime of condition. During the war years many in the

frozen food industry packed some mighty poor quality merchandise and the industry as
a whole suffered a terrific set-back. Always remember that quality and quality con.
trol pay dividends,

Before concluding this talk, I would like to add another project for possible
study. You will perhaps recall that I mentioned one under packaging, namely, a study
of the adaptability to frozen oyster meats of the new metal end paperboard containers.
Another study worthy of consideration involves the use of antioxidants. Some ten
years ago, Tressler and DuBois discovered the value of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) for
retarding the discoloration of frozen peaches. More recently other investigators
have experimented on the use of ascorbic acid for retarding rancidity in frozen fish.
Still more recently DuBois reports that the addition of ascorbic acid to oyster meats
prevents the discoloration that is sometimes found in the defrosted product. Further
Studies along these lines should be made for the benefit of your industry.

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’

WHAT CAN SCIENCE OFFIR THE OYSTER GROWER

Thurlow C. Nelson, PheD., D.Sc.
Professor of Zoology, Rutgers University
Biologist, New Jersey State Division of Shellfisheries
In Charge, New Jersey Oyster Research Laboratory

Chamberlin Hotel, Old Point Comfort, Virginia, June 8, 1949

Introduction

' As we gather here today on the shores of historic Chesapeake Bay to discuss
the problems of the great shellfish industry I am deeply conscious of the debt we
owe to this areae It was here in Chesapeake Bay that the great biologist, the late
Dr. William Keith Brooks of the Johns Hopkins University, undertook the first stu-
dies of the oyster in America. In 1878 he organized the Chesapeake Zoological La-=
boratory and during the following twenty-eight years during warm weather he was al-
ways at the seashore accompanied by a party of students. In keeping with the early
traditions of the John Hopkins, the available money was mostly put into brains, not
into buildings and boats, Starting with a vacant warehouse at Fort Wool and three
rowboats furnished by the Seeretary of War, the group moved the next year into three
barges of the Maryland Fish Commission at Crisfield, Maryland. In 18835 the labora-
tory was located in a building leased from the Normal School in Hampton, Virginia,
but a few moments drive from where we are now gathered.

Thus we meet today in the very heart and home of oyster research in America.
May we pause for a moment to pay tribute to this great scientist. As Chairman of
the Maryland Oyster Commission Dr. Brooks submitted to the General Assembly of Mae
ryland in 1884 a comprehensive report on "The Development and Protection of the
Oyster in Maryland." If his recommendations had been followed there would be only
one oyster problem for Chesapeake Bay today; where to find markets for the vast
numbers of oysters produced on the prolific reefs of this area.

Of greater value to the country as a whole, however, has been the legacy
Dr. Brooks left us in his students; Dr. James Le Kellogg, long of Williams College
Massachusetts, whose work on molluses has yet to be surpassed and whose student,
David Belding, made such substantial contributions to the oyster, quahaug and scal-
lop fisheries of Massachusetts. Dr. Caswell Grave for some years biologist of the
Maryland Oyster Commission whose student Dr. E. Pe Churchill initiated the program
of research on oyster larvae of the Fish and Wildlife Service. Lastly the even zrea--
er work and influence of my father, the late Dr. Julius Nelson at Rutgers, who lives
on not only in your speaker but in William H. Dumont and in Jim Engle of the Fish
and Wildlife Service, in Dr. C. A. Perry of the Maryland State Department of Health
and Dre C. Roy Hisey of British Columbia, in Dre L, A. Stauber, Dr. H. H, Haskin,
and Dr. M. R. Carriker now at Rutgers, and Dr, Ae F. Chestnut of the University of
North Carolinats new Institute of Fisheries Research at Morehead City. Here also I
must include my brother, Mr. Je Richards Nelson, who while still a student at Rutgers
fell under the influence of the Brooks tradition and switched his loyalties from
poultry husbandry to oyster farming. Through these men may this great scientific
tradition carry on in ever widening circles.

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What Can Science Offer the Oyster Grower ery) as Dre Te C. Nelson

The Needs of the Industry and the Accomplishments of Science
The primary and basic needs of the oyster industry are;

1. A dependable supply of seed

2. Protection from enemies

53. Good growing and fattening grounds

4, Protection from industrial and domestic pollution

What has science actually contributed thus far to the welfare of the in-
dustry and what prospects are there for the future?

1. Obtaining seed oysters

During the first decade of the present century Dr, Stafford in Canada and
my father, the late Dr. Julius Nelson of Rutgers College in New Jersey, studied and
described the free swimming stages of the oyster larvae and the conditions under
which they are able to attach. The slide shows the first photograph ever taken of
an oyster larva. It was made by my father in 1908 and published in his annual re-
port in 1909. In represents a larva 9-10 days old. To these two scientists must
be given credit for first demonstrating the importance of clean shells as cultch.
They showed that spawning of the American oyster begins at a temperature close to
70 degrees Fahrenheit and that it is possible through microscopic examination of the
water to determine the probalbe time and intensity of the expected oyster set,

| Following the death of Dr. Julius Nelson in 1916 his work was expanded in
that year at the New Jersey Station to include the world's first survey of an oyster
bearing area to determine the abundance and age of ovster larvae at different points.
“This survey of Little Ege Harbor, published in 1917, demonstrated: first, that the
oyster larvae work upstream away from the seas; and second, that through determining
the age of the larvae the time of expected set could be predicted ten days in advance.

i The advent of the first World War interrupted all oyster research, but the
decade beginning in 1920 saw greater progress in oyster research and wider applica-
tion of its findings than in any comparable period in our history. Lack of time pre-
vents me from more than mentioning some of the more important discoveries. Churchill
-and Gutsell of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, working in Great South Bay, Long Is=
land, confirmed our findings in Little Egg Harbor and Barnegat Bay, paving the way
for the outstanding work of Prytherch and Ungle and their associates at Milford, Con-
necticut. Meanwhile Joe Glancy and Wm. Firth Wells working quietly for the New York
Conservation Department were the first to raise oysters from the egg to setting size.
Dr. Galtsoff, newly arrived in this country from the marine station at Sebastopol on
the Black Sea, joined the Bureau of Fisheries and plunged into a study of the oceanv-
graphy of Long Island Sound especially as related to the oyster industry.

The story is an exciting one, typical of what we like to think as being truly
American. Great industrial expansion incident to the First World War let loose a
flood of industrial wastes that threatened by 1924 to wipe out the great oyster set.
ting grounds of Brideport and New Haven harbors.

The personnel and financial resources of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries were
thrown into the struggle, in which they were joined by two men of outstanding ability
and vision. To them we scientists and oyster growers of America owe eternal gratitude

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SRY OO. We 0 yeorngs taxtt at hls phen abwfort. owt. nogtas3. Yor al, Wo, OAR e
pia bod feo tibh ae sew satay sa 23 bap asnatesda, odd en larregeh jot

OAd tad .gtatit . .bevert gnormob Viel co ok spares at Nees “gl olee er
‘ eg terns ob Anrqtudt tad? abi oove bea ass ’
DY) goonevha tt eyeb ted betethers. of ines ies hed

Ora) tod .hoyesesy tesayo {fa hedqurcied o3- ml biten, tentt ont - 36 sae
weotigan sobhe bine, dote onoy. rode wo se AIVIRE HT TOIKOTH. wae OSer nk ange
wimg damit To dont. cvtedta lane Sr bod eq ofdertaqmon ye gh. darts acho ;
Plidewidd .coive woos th teativogn! sian of. to seg. guigofinem gaily .etem
mee BOs). awe atwe &. deere nf sefaiiow, pelyoadosd To meted »o of arch \
qiver Sit gu iveg:, (woe tagediag fia. regan} east efhhiy afoe gi bee ph TAS: boa
eet bte Tl iM eo) Ta yet abog aga “ieds baw. eisat fro .forsddeed Do-dtow aa An ad
; i nol yitelue gation, alied, Aree. ntl] hae yousl) sol ofidunns
: tow, oF sme. deht mace: aiede to aelet. ot atk? tad sau cveuerenle
HO Moupreedia gi goliose. agfnam odd sonk ettoven etdk af bevkvia 4 Sven ig
bnneee oft Io yoote.« otar Seanul¢ baa pets eat i to seoved odd. Be cot 3
witenhnl sotayo pm od boraiey af vifetopqe » Saver Erne ye

hel i

| unted ea. cridde oft exit aw tadw.jo faoiqy? ,—oin, gat? hoa tA ps “wtote
may Lii@agondt dot tel) Ofte wealt off oF .ccebiont polenaqxe falutenhbak teste)
Lo iia lee Seer, edd tein. ogi od S806 vo beneteetstt ddd eotauw Dated ;
pie Huta vrodiad coma jolt bre togebise to,

Ry vet lh woktorlal® Ao ceed of todd 20 yoornapen. Lekomenkh pom Lexnouona ha
Uae yeti snibyateyuo Io nem od vd bentet, axow yoddi.dokdy ah) ye lpaeia aay
ANAK phone Shows Lenrade ore an bensiah to exergy, rote peta aan a4 ey, sss at

What Can Science Offer the Oyster Grower ~ So Dr. T. C. Nelson

The vision and the industry of Mr. Howard Beach gave us the Oyster Institute. His
confidence in Dr. Radcliffe as its Director has been abundantly justified in the
years that have followed. The Institute, and the Milford Laboratory are monuments
to these two men,

Supported by the valiant work of our late lamented Captain "Shang" ‘Wheeler
in Connecticut, and of Dr. Connelly in Rhode Island, pollution was greatly abated,
inshore spawning areas were restored and the great Long Island oyster industry was
saved. How typically American is this story, science and industry working together
hand and hand to solve our common problems. The very valuable bulletins issued by
Dr. Loosanoff at Milford are the latest evidence that through the aid of science
oyster sets of abundance can be obtained in nature.

Of vital interest in the possible role of spawning sanctuaries in increasing
seed production is the important question of how far may oyster larvae travel during
their two weeks of free-swimming existence.

The only unquestioned proof of distance traveled by an oyster larva of which
I know is that of Dr. Roy Elsey of British Columbia who found a spat of the Japanese
oyster attached to a boulder estimated at approximately five tons and situated some
five miles from a bed of Japanese oysters introduced the preceding summer. There
were no other Japanese oysters in the area and that boulder certainly wasn't dropped
off an oyster boat?

In Delaware Bay we have indirect evidence that in some seasons vast numbers
of oyster larvae may be carried upstream as much as fifteen miles from the planting
grounds to set on the natural beds above.

Where spawning sanctuaries have been set up we have repeatedly found much
heavier sets up and downstream from the parent oysters. This would seem to support
Prytherch's findings at liilford that larvae remain close to their parents throughout
the entire two weeks larval period. Another explanation, however, is possiblee In
1921 I described and pictured 62 mature oyster larvae ready to set from the stomach
of an adult oyster. Such larvae do not remain long in the digestive tract of the
adult oyster, but are quickly carried out of the intestine. On emerging from their
accidental prison they have frequently been seen to push out foot and velum and to
Swim away. Two years ago a group of large oysters were brought to Surf City, Barnegat
Bay, from a distance of some eight miles. Less than two weeks later a heavy set
approximately two weeks old was found on the oysters themselves and upon nearby ©
gravel. There were no parent oysters in the area save a couple of bushels of sméll
oysters in trays. The heavy set, confined to the shells of the large oysters ..sthd
the gravel all within a few feet strongly suggests that there were larvae in the
guts of the big oysters when brought here and that on planting, the large oysters
liberated their load of captured young which promptly set in the immediate neighbor-
hood, With hundreds of thousands of oysters each pumping twenty, thirty or more
quarts of water an hour vast numbers of oyster larvae must be captured and subse-
quently liberated, Absence of such capture by the adults may well be an important
factor in the failure of a depleted oyster bed to rehabilitate itself. It deserves
much further study, Here is a field where radioactive tracer elements can be used
to great advantage.

After twenty years experience on the Cape May shore of Delaware Bay we can
Bive you the following as definite facts. During eighteen of these twenty years in-
tensely heavy sets of oysters have occurred upon the flats within a few feet of our

SRR ohne Steet oun and ae ovAy Haneg. ie, »
ant honed i syste desamagenuni rageay al hie Higsveldey’ av

ter Mattatc” ciedged hodwenal otal. vo ko Siow teptior ett yt pesto
Otade yitsoin asw moitetloq. pbnalal ebome at ellen? .17- to Bia) ae
uae sata woievo Buetal grol.daets edd bre betotzet otew aaota anda
mien dtoges f gniarow caveat baa sensios \y1eta sidt at aaoinech A yi Teorey
Mat ewan s wang Gig eidaslar grow ofl gametdo+q homens imo ovios, oF
; st Le at Axwomy att sonobive deetel eid ofa Prot lin Fad
tten wf benteddo:dd sae -conetouds By

‘gn iewoxont ct aelvoytonna- srtmeigqe to dlo1isldtaeog wid wi deovednt Dadi
Raith fevers oavtal -seteyo yom -ta% wor To molteaup Maytogur eit wt Ap)
svonevatxe nixinmiwa-ce1e to gall

okie iin evIDi: teva oo yd befevenh eonetadh to toote Bana licousay Eto |
| pubReral, ad? to feqe # Bagot ofw eiduufod meltiid to yealS yor . 10 2a)
emda betoutia hints atot ovit-“iedwmtxorg¢a ta fetamitac tebiood 2 # &

Phen. »tegmta gaibeoetg oft Desibotduh exataye sdutsqey to bed
hagiors J sesw-vJMaltatien tohlusod gadt ban aote. oft nP atetsve hieaiat

wieder tsav emoeass- amos. ni grt oorobive Jooilibrt ovestow. vad oto fot
(Batsnety wi? mort selina neogTit eo doud 2 meotteqy Soitteo od gem em
-ovada’ abod Léa odd no de

osm bine. xr! betaegen. evar-er qu tea need evad eeitautonna’ ar inwagn on
Peoggns oF. moss. tlwaw atdT <atedryo taeonsq oft mort erp ie bee so
Meadgiviss atcoise short: of exolo-cksact eaviel dads sroti rd te aga k
Qi peicienoy af .spvewod yrolgansiqze taisogk —Bolteq: taht?
Hosnete. ert codvt.ves ot vhost. esves! accveyo eiataiy 50° Deis ote
et 20 tot? prigangib oft ais gaol aiac0ot Gon ob enriat don a es 4
the ne, Mot) .yatguom.¢O ,stiteotut odt Qe suo befrtas ¢ fio ing Sita dud-
gi Brie deter bing oooh iii Heun of cede noed viimeupett even: yodd, déatam
, Pegounn8 arty en od tiquotd evew svedayo eguef to quote a one atsey owt
i | gee yraet a nedal adeow owd sadd auod--.eotim diigte eas ‘lo cornea Lh
"% i ig ron nuqe Sra aevfoamedt atetevo ate nn. beuot enw &fo sfoow¥ one y
Ein > pier bed aeh srt, ese 8 Ole 29a a Hh arsdeko theted. of- OTOH Os
Ti eotovo west, oct to elloda oct oF bontteos foe. vieot ott ways
‘Ons of ie ieaet -ovew evedt deat ate onus 2 fairer Jest wot 2a oldsiw Ling
“gyevave omar ad? ,aaisneld mo det lode ovat Hetggort nedw osoveys: ald of D,
sinha on odethom? oA n2-doe yltqyno a | ‘ober Wiwoy Sesudqes to heol shea
fom Ye Yaidt ywdrowd kame duce areteye: to abaaaweds to abeahmeds
Dative teed. Betatiwed ed: Seine svn ie f havin Sn ako dion thyay vudd ie Sadar
via moctime te: ef fyeew yer edivhe ent oiugyes ‘sove: ty stxeedaA bedetodee
eons meu On withogeh ekarh ithaca Oe £ of ee beta tqeh*s to orelin't on {
Dk ad Kus akteneto Yeoart-eretosotbay: otedw bkekt ~ biel Phe se) 34 ‘o Wate Tom

tf

Wyo

ated ‘whesy Agro -omett 26 gasdigie: gr dent
re Ae ta tp RBA EWE Seah ete oe)

What Can Science Offer the Oyster Grower -~4- Dr. T. C. Nelson

laboratory. Setting has taken place continuously night and day for from four to as
much as ten weeks as determined from shells placed and removed each 24 hours. As
high as 600 spat per concave surface of a quahaug shell have struck within a single
24-hour period, with over 100 per shell each 24 hour period for more than two wecks,.
Since the flats run bare each low tide to a distance of 2500 feet, the larvae must
be carried at least that distance with each flood tide. The only oysters seaward
from our laboratory are on a small depleted natural bed - the Drum Beds in the public
qQuahaug area, We are forced to conclude therefore, that the bulk of these larvae
are produced on the planted beds above us and are carried seaward during early de»
velopment. By successively sinking on the ebb and rising on the flood they return
to our New Jersey shoree Due to the effects of the rotation of the earth they are
earried toward the Delaware shore during ebb tide while being borne toward the New
Jersey side as the tide swings to the right with the flood.

Outside the bar, situated some 5000 feet from the high water mark, and in
14 to 20 feet of water are hundreds of acres of oyster bottom which have been heavily
shelled year after yeare In the main these shells have caught fewer spat in an ene
tire summer than attach to similar shells in one tide close to the shore. [It is evi-
dent therefore that with each flood tide these larvae by countless billions pass by
these shells to attach to shells in shoal water on the flats. We have had excellent
success moving such heavily set shells offshore into deeper water when the oldest
are but 10 days of age.

It is my opinion that no more important problem faces the Chesapeake Bay
area than to determine the role of parent oysters in capturing their young and find-
ing out how far the larvae are carried. Here is a field in which radioactive tracer
elements or even staining as used by Dr. Loosanoff could be employed to great advant-
age. It is understood that Dr. Chipman has recently completed the training required
in handling radioactive elements. May I urgently recommend the tracing of oyster
larvae for his early consideration.

2. Oyster Unemies

Much has been learned about the enemies of the oyster but so far science
has yet to give us methods for the control of oyster enemies comparable to these de-
veloped for the eradication of insect pests, for example. Since boring snails are
also molluscs, breathing through gills, they are so close to the oyster that it is
very doubtful if any method of pdsoning them can be found which will not harm the
oysters or render them unfit for human food. The plan to kill oyster drills through
corrosive sublimate, or bichloride of mercury, as recently proposed appears highly
dangerous through the habit of the oyster of loading up with heavy metals such as
ginc, bismuth, lead, mercury or copper whenever these occur in appreciable quantities
in the surrounding waters,

The six year study of the oyster drill, Urosalpinx, carried on by Dr. Le A.
Stauber at our laboratory with the aid of J.P.A. and P.W.A. funds showed conslusively
that three methods of control are effective and that their use will pay dividends.
Where much new shell growth is present on the oysters the drill trap should be used,
This is a chicken wire bag filled with oysters younger than those which it is de-
sired to protect. Oyster growers have long known that drills will attact the young-
est oysters available while, Dr. H. H. Haskin in our laboratory proved that drills
Can distinguish between the excurrent water coming from oysters of different year
classes up to four years of age. Bags of young oysters strung on trot lines will
confer much protection to ovsters on the bed. If placed around a bed comparatively

Pe eee i

08 ae neo moe’ 165% ae brow Seat ylecnan hort o. venta thet aod ‘gh ido
en pweiaged $2 does bdveuey, tae feos fe ai Sects ‘seh ben karetiok | ae atoan
Cane nde tor tbat svat Sloda cuanedy a Yo oontaNe Ss yeEOR neg
patuer ont gach oro tot bokteq swod 8S deae ffode “oq GOL Keve Ae ay
aki sovinl att test C088 to eomade th la ot sptt wol dose evad nit sone
it ‘berries & aveodeayd vito a? ,ObEP boolt dose dtiwedoadeth cady Peso he
Sane tah a abe it *y anon ott ~ bed Landa exvelgeb [Leu « do ets “yiotean
arte! Seard Yo Wied odd DANe Lotototadd ‘Obulenoo od Sonrot ene oF
aah vy Pago an wake Stevtaoe befrrag eva has eo evoda-abed: botan lg ond mek
Heaton you? Gok? oft no gettialt bis ddo ehe no aokinte yheriavacave ¥
ped rests ditse ¢4% Yo moktetot ot Yo atoeTte-ont of off “gevote yout
Wa witt Deowat onttad noted efidw shit die snixuh etede otomered oat Baa
—oolt oft dita digit < ont of aya iw whet att aa 9b

f-hon iiten totew tyid oft mort tool 0008 conloa bedandia yiad cit 66
Viivesd noed eva cstdw mottod votmro Io eevon to sbevhngd ora ietaW: To
ie ane ge ut tae towe't tiggss ovad @ffode ocacht mtan oft pl gteey tette a
whee ei 4% \otode end oF o8olo oh it oro of affords validate of Aoadds ‘cea a pl
Vd Beag Bonolflid sevltnyos vd odvial onedt obhtt boolt dese dite da
deifeoxe Sat oved of Jjadelt oN io sotew Teoma NE efforts od doaddp’

sep lo edt nodw tetaw teqood ofnl cotutto effede toa yilvaod stove,

: eCan ‘to,

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MSR bee yryoy ytadd saktwiqes mt ‘stedayo fadieq to. fer of? Cakes
wets dvitoscotie:y sofde at bfelt o al ov ,bolttao otf4 cavisl off “HE
eranIhs vavtn ot bovoflems of bryoo iota: mage ett Vo boon ae aoieten nove
bouton anirtowt adh badefqaon wihtnodst enn mmmatdd ott cat hoods aia

iv) Owettawe to acktoets ale boommoat ylvwenty T wal .ntrera lo svitenam

» ALP eOh £aeo yitse %
phe (t
.

AX 20 bere:

evretoa «et ox fud vetavo off to actmono oft “teeda bansesl mood aad
woh Heath of oliatngtios xetmane tetayo To [ottigo odd tot -nbodtan ax
orn Biiena giivod eonka .ofqeem ict ,sdaed Poeint to moliteotbar-<
SPR ALS Sa aes srkt GF eaoto o8 ots vers weilts myuomdts yebitoond: am
pith aittiitoton fiw dotdw beoel ed moo medd ohinogny Yo hosiem yne TE)
eos eLfirh wmdave [fist od maka ae Boot near! “tot Fx tes mrockt toh
risa etnedqe besoqot: ylioreoet ae yytuvotem To ebfroltotd x6 ee

#8 Hoke niaven ese Atiw qu atibsol to tedeyo edd Io Pided oe
Beis ineup ettaioeupye of two00 enarit terenede Ps be TO YRRO TS
it »rretaw ait A)

cA pe i Nd no bolttws ..2igtesotd _l itab tetaeye ait ‘lo ybota) taey bei
Nieviasiis noo Leworts abrmvt sayWel fae .A.da to bbs ond dtiw yiotasods fh ame
wahaebivih yer. [fiw ean ahedt dade bon evkenette. ow fowtaos De abortem,
phead ed Gfnods qa fli et etoteyo odd mo taeaety af ddwots {Lede wen f
ane yiith dotde owotsd meth teyroy stetaye vite balled gad te at
‘manoy as toatde [iw aliieh dadt awond mot evad arama set bYO,;
Bet Pve sacle aero ytotarodas wo of urtatiteh ab all at qed eldalieya 2
Oe OMT EE to acetate mnt: jus Lento: eae sree ong ae om Bs i
Leer BAM EL) hots ne nwo + pig god ‘ae fag et) a i

What Can Science Offer the Oyster Grower -~ 5 & Dr. Te. Ce Nelson

free from drills such bags if frequently shaken to remove the drills will largely

prevent invasion from adjoining beds. For use in transplanting we strongly recome
mend either the deck screen or deck plate of steel with holes closely bored to let
the drills through. For cleaning a ground before planting we recommend the drill

dredge.

Starfish are destroyed by quick lime but this cannot yet be considered a
substitute for mopping, Much of the difficulty comes from vast populations of star-
fish on barren bottoms from which the free swimming lervee may be carried long dis-
tances in a few days. Discovery of an economic usefor starfish would stimulate a
fishery for them thus keeping down their numbers on the barren bottoms. A few years
ago I was greatly interested as well as amused to overhear a well known zoologist
who spends his summers at the Woods Hole laboratory on Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts,
express the fear that inroads on the starfish of that area to supply biological la-
boratories would soon so reduce the number of these anizals that it would be diffi-
cult to find enough for his own research work. You men from the Long Island Sound
area will smile at this, but does it not hold a lesson for us; that steady pressure
on any species over an extended period will reduce the population to small propor-=
tions?

Great hope for oyster pest control in the future lies in the work of Dr.
Sewell H. Hopkins and of his numercus associates of the Texas A and M Research Found-
ation working in the Gulf. JI look forward also with anticipation to what Dr. Pryt-
herch will tell us shortly of his control of oyster enemies-in North Carolina. Of
this much we can be certain. When oysters are planted on new bottom relatively free
from enemies the returns are often very large. With each succeeding year, however,
the oysters* enemies increase and unless these are brought under control may ultima-
tely put the oyster grower out of business. The boom years of 1920 to 1930 in Maus
rice River Cove are a good illustration. New bottoms were being taken up where
oysters had not previously been planted and hence were comparatively free from drills.
Aided by the wettest year in New Jersey's history more than five million dollars
worth of oysters were shipped from the Cove in 1928, putting New Jersey in third
place among the states with a production of one seventh of the total oyster crop of
the United States,

With the onset of the depression new grounds were not taken up, three of the
driest years of record plus a hurricane took their heavy toll, with drills and the

mud worm, Polydora, reducing the oyster crop by approximately one half. New Jersey

slipped back into fifth place among the states, Return to our former position can

only be accomplished through vigorous control of oyster pests; especially the drill.

5. Favorable growing and fattening grounds

Here seience has been of little help; the oyster grower has had to depend
almost wholly upon his own experience and that of others, We do not yet know why
oysters grow well on some grounds, poorly on adjoining grounds, Even on the same
fround, as every oyster grower weil knows, growth and fattening may be good one year,
poor the next. Much scientific work has been done in this field but as yet there is
dittle that science can tell ycu of practical value. From cur experience in Wew
Jersey we know that when the diatom Skeletonema is abuudant we have had fat oysters
of excellent flavor. We have seen oysters increase in yield almost a pint per bushel
in one week following a heavy invesion of this diatom. When associated with object-
ionable forms such as the "gremlin" Bicoeca in Great Sout Pay in 1943 oysters may
remain thin and poor even in the presence of abundant Skeletonema.

asa tttw erred aa ovenet ae bia seni eee poet
reo yignotta ew maténelqecad neh ean tet - johod gh ChB a)
it sali b idaehin nefort i hie re to ata lq stone ei) neot98, deb

d dee stoetioo eidt dod om f xobup yd beyoutaeh ove dadt

thay mort eamoo yhiwetttib edt to mont » gatdaom: Bi

vam earned gt Lowe kore eext eat sodde: mos? ce rod
pte iwdloay ohwosoce ta ‘to yxrsvoo:kd avai

snitodtod “stied odd artodeue +tedd awob myigeex amid. me
foes oon. Dfow, 2 toda

avg of SDosume. ve. {few aa, hetesiodas utes
i Hon udeaea oll Ged sbtassch ae yrodeiedsl elo abooW edt se axons
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HSivew $f dade. tiacine seer! to. secur orth eothet. oa aoog BE

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mmqorg El aim oF 06 Hels [iiw holieq bebnetxe na 2e¥O

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ietont voy aa gud bfoLl sist of eroh aved. gat sow oltijdeaion ouM
owe Mie earax waters yo saat seuiey Leottaawy Ro ae Psa, suse gonate
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Bat ey "eq hire tas Sh iy Hues Tce ag

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siaeiopbhea

What Can Science Offer the Oyster Grower - 6 - Dr. IT. C. Nelson

Our experience in New Jersey does not support the conclusion of Dr. Loosanoff
and his coworkers that oysters in nature will not feed in the presence of thick sus-
pensions of food organisms. We have found oysters to feed actively throughout dense
swarming of the dinoflagellate Amphidinium fusiforme, when the water had turned red
and was a veritable soup of these algae and of their zoospores. Since Dr, Loosanoff'ts
observations were made under laboratory conditions while ours were made in the open
waters of Delaware Bay it is probable that poisonous substances produced by the algae
at Milford were either not present in Delaware Bay or were quickly destroyed in our
open waters. I have to be shown before I will believe that oysters will starve and
die in nature in the midst of abundant food.

4, Protection from industrial and domestic pollution

Although in the past some oyster growers have looked upon bacteriologists as
their worst enemies, we must all agree that in the main sanitary standards have aided
and protected the industry. It is encouraging to find the United States Public Health
Service now engaged in active research looking toward new techniques for identifying
objectionable bacteria and to sounder more reliable methods of determing the sanitary
quality of shellfish. Federal and state attack on aquatic pollution is being actively
pushed in many quarters, industry is cooperating as never before, ready to spend money
liberally for research on waste disposal. Noteworthy is the two million dollar projec?
of the U. S. Public Health Service which will be launched July lst for the control of
stream pollution.

Concrete evidence of improvement of the waters of New York Harbor is seen in
a group of oysters on exhibit in this room. The late Captain Will Elsworth told me
in 1923 that he had caught his last oysters in the lower Hudson River in 1917 close
to the Statue of Liberty. Exhibited here today is a group of excellent oysters dred-
ged last December on Robbin's Reef within the very shadow of the Statue of Liberty.
One is tempted to become somewhat sentimental and to suggest that even the lowly oys-
ter is enjoying the protection of our Goddess of Liberty.

Finally we shall learn during this convention of the excellent progress made
by Dr. Loosanoff and his associates in raising oyster and quahaug larvae to setting
size at the Milford laboratory. Armed with such technique there is every reason to
hope that through selective breeding we can obtain oysters and quahaugs capable of
attaining market size in half the time now required. From the growth studies of Mar-
tin and ourselves in New Jersey and of Dr. Loosanoff at Milford we know that certain
oysters in any lot will outgrow others by as much as ten to one. In my own studies of
water pumpage by oysters it has been found that two year old Cape May oysters selected
through rigorous competition in the heavy sets of that area, can out-pump eight year
old Barnegat Bay oysters grown from non-selected seed, by at least two to one. Since
‘the ovster must obtain the materials for growth and fattening from the water which it
pumps, it follows that ability to pump water is probably the most important characte-
ristic of a vigorous oyster. Unless the oyster is very different from most other ani-
mals such vigor is inherited in at least a portion of the offspring. Selection of the
fastest growers in each succeeding generation should soon give us an oyster comparable
to the large Pacific oyster imported from Japan which has in 18 months reached a size
where 8 of them will make a pint. This may sound fantastic but science has produced
equally miraculous results with other domestic and game animals such as trout; why not
with oysters? To accomplish our goal research positions in the shellfisheries field mu
be made sufficiently attractive in salary and in tenure to interest young men of abilx
and with adequate training, Above all they must have complete independence of, and prc
tection from, political interference. Looking back over half a century it is clearly
evident that bad politics has been a far worse enemy of the oyster than pollution, sta:
fish, drills and all other natural enemies combined. You in the industry have the poli.
tical power to protect the scientists who are ready and eager to serve you; their fate
is largely in your hands in a future that is bright with promise.

Ponders oe to ea odd dors sony
wagon | 219 hl Jo eemomnnny erie mh bent gon flaw e
+ Manele a vaptyabeg agen sh Ningtios bwet od tatiana hen’ oni. ow oo Rrra:
het pemiet bad aostew att py eee oortot ing aig her hh Raye deal fogalton tb
oon ag ripe noni , ghd) {ishY 4c ba saala oasdd Yo quos aide
aig Ofte enekthbsos yrotetodel sehay ebam sored
avexasadtie ev wind epee no $k, yee btu

dadh anrak fod ae 7 " pilaeiodl ‘epee ee ot we t

aboot tnghadds ‘to tabie att we |

moloullog bisseme. bie DaixPanors ont
a a lah dalled bce ein en eel rem mhen

migrratond nogy bitool evat etounts “etero eimoa Feuy oe ict
+) Re eval ahishiets ywistinsa giam ett ot tadd eetas. fis tam ow .2otrem
(eben efke.d asdede: bos ies! oF antsarwmone ef Hh .rtterinl eh

s eriys forbs ot ssupinidoss wer Sravwod sitios! -feseeue? evitoa nt hexs .
eer lise. aus set Env: ys Hbortem ofdetist otem tebanos oF tie eiroteag

anted Bt wos i oiidactea so seatte otete tine Petohet «eit fe
YS hayaire of ne ae prone om teven cn twitter epovo sf. retail reragp
| enh ose wer lob ell limo oft vf wilivowetoy{ >. fens one £b otaaw av Hataiess
To corned wit wot Pek vint. herders fl

4

RE reo: el rode woot went ® stehew off to doemevorantt: to Gone hive eae
‘em bhatt dt sows P.fLEY adbavaed etal eff :gmot aitt ai Sididxe ao wx
whit areyeet xsowof or mr evetevo taal afd syiguen) Dat en

Ree tH faoxe 46 quéi e ot vebod oted host this .,.virodly Fe
We (HES in outed Ofé to wohede yrov afd midsiw toot ataiddol no ee
aye vivo l xt cove Padt soengue. of bro latnemténes Jatwomes, ancsed ght
NG eae ‘ytiodht to anehbot sto to softeevorg ont ae
iin teva is tieffonte- sit to cotinowioo eine selush mteel ' lade’ ow
a Perea: sequal sate aitesag brea sodtsvo. savigtan vf sotalbooses wan hate tt
ti egnet yrove wt Biedt expindoed dove défw fomA wyrotatodal ‘protes ae
VO OLR te Sainte Dam pietsye mihetdo. mop ow Bf ihe ovito ion AAgoe
wae te: ve tbuse mrwory ety met®G@ vbexinoa: wor ookd off Bled of os te Se
SMES ee Yond worl ow frotitit te ttermtood. wt? Io hag yeatot well mk serr fe
Mo wathaye nem ver nt .ono of mot og déum ea td cierto wetadwo Eiiw dog
Regweiee UTEtayo Yall oqgad hfe taey ont dod? foam? rood eal +h arednee be
: ig > 2 by rete es aete todd to otha qe etre voli si euao ee
TOMER 4 ean oF owt taws! ca yd ,booe Sbtorssnanon mortd. asrota exedgaye ry
PE ati tet ae : iwoxa vot afalnedcem ott ninddo ®
miededrart } mw qa of ¥ytkilda Jatt ate
eRe Rodd Jove ot ageiay. .veduvo. euowoaee
: oy o deret te mi heditedas, of, te
rods Sigortk ihpvanrey. gakbosoors done wh a
dad dotdu Angel cost being’ sede yo (OPE ie
RIN Bitvod Vite Stee wet qa estan SE wh te
omnia tite ‘ottvamdh vartto titi atindet pate
aro ke feod dstawwet einge +o faitqmoeas. gt
FOS ek enentead ah bein Yaaion oh eviree tess witaets
ote ly ‘out Lin: eveds wiinttant! ey

19 | Ova, Peo et

f i Thad ery soad, a kagowt psseeahr e feats tLe:
idtog rele iedeve ads Po gdioce | ome a a ned iin in oon ce ed
j bee ako § i bankdnse odes Bese hiner ‘fhe

aon booty ahbw

VARYING CHARACTERISTICS OF OYSTER BOTTOM

Allan A. Sollers, Commissioner
Maryland Department of Tidewater Fisheries

Chamberlin Hotel, 01d Point Comfort, Virginia, June 8, 1949

An oyster, Mr. Chairman and friends, is the one thing in the world that I envy,

The lazy rascal spends just about his entire life lying in bed. To complicate the
matter further, this fastidious gentleman is a bit particular about the kind of bed
he lies in. If it is too soft he settles in and dies. If the bed is too hard and
shifting he likewise is covered up and departs for the oyster spirit world.

Hence we are compelled to take due notice of these eccentricities of our exact-
ing bivalved associate; our personal economic welfare is dependent on it. The unin-
-iated, though otherwise well informed, might quickly ask, “Why haven't physical and
ehemical analyses been made of the submerged lands, the several classes established,
and these classes correlated with their capacity to grow oysters?" He would doubt-
less substantiate his question by pointing out the work done by the agricultural ex-
“periment stations ashore and refer to the glib way that farmers speak of loams, clays
-and sandy soils, marls and the host of other classifications in that book.
HM
% Such a classification might be useful; I have discussed the question with thos¢
“qualified and have never discouraged such an attempt. I have by the same reasoning
“never strongly advocated such an effort for fear of oversimplification. There is
‘more to the problem than would show in a simple physical analysis of the ground in
“guestion. I will discuss variations, complications and exceptions later.

If an attempt were made to classify the submerged lands, the Chesapeake Bay
“would be a good place to make its surely we have every combination in the world
there, and maybe one over for good measures. Three general classifications would be
immediately apparent.

The first to attract attention would be the sands along the shore lines. They
feel relatively hard and firm to the bare feet of bathers but they lack any adhesive
or cohesive qualities and shift about with the pounding of the surf. Their extent
off shore is dependent on the degree to which the area in question is exposed to heavy

seas.

Second, just beyond the shifting sands, we again find sand, but something has
been added, Mixed with the coarse grains of sand, there are smaller particles that
Possess definite adhesive qualities. I am not sure what these smaller particles are,
probably some type of clay. In any event they hold the grains of sand in a fixed
position in much the same manner that the crystals in babbit bearings are held by the
Soft metal around them. The relative amounts of the component materials vary widely,
but as long as both are present we have a firm, stable ground that remains amazingly
constant. This is the combination of constituents of the natural oyster rocks of
Maryland. Here we find the seventh heaven or the happy home of the ovster in our
State,

wi

MoViOs ATA tO RITTATATOAMAMO ONLYRAY

one tee tmmod “yerolio® A malta -
seltorda it ‘natawobl? To onsmdtiage! bislyys -

Sher ,8 stwh yates i) (dread siffot H1O yhoo ait dome

| gievite X Yedt blrow edt mt gains ono ont Gt ,ehosint tae aaeakedd «1M ¢

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/ wtine ed? gti no trobnsqeh af etatfew ofmonoss [ansereq tao jotatoonss”
ban Lentevdy dtrevrad yi" oleae yftoivp -traim bearo'tet Ifow ou lwiaitte 7
,badatidetos woseefo Iatevos etd ,abael beytémdue ott To obam mood ‘aa
atitiob bivow oH “vateteyo wots ‘od yilonqio thedt Atiw betalertoo weeem
(mk Letdlooinge ert yd enob stow odd duo sittmtog yd cottavap att evsH
' ayelo .tmol to veoge’ atemint teat yow -dilp odd o¢ teter bas eidrite Smo a
hood duit af anoltactbtesalo zerto to faod edt Sar -ofxam parte

ino tt iw noiteeip: ett besaveath eved I. i intenu od digin rotteottteselo af
griepaaey omae eft yd eve I .tamedts ne dows bogetvoon th towsn ovad
et stent .nottactttfqmtaters t6 120% vot dretts mai dots botacovha

he bowery oft Yo shayfara Leoteytg ofqmle s at worn bfuow madd mofdow
srodal anobiqeoxe baw aroitsoliqavs ,anoktpitey eavocth [fiw TE

ynd elesqenedd edt ,ebnal fégioadiva “ort yiersis of ebsm'etor peyneed
Kinow ect of nokttenkdamo yews’ ovat ow yiotwa 43? edam of omila B
ed bivow anoktaolttaasto Lotoneg oott? .otwieod béog to? ew ono’ a6 i
otretg

iN eodt souelt erdde oft yoole nbs eid. ed bi aow mobditedts doantis od 9
wwinedba te toa! yodt tud atedtad to Juve? sted ode OF arth? bree bapa uf
iy) taotee thedt tree coh to antbaey ed ttiw suede Tita bas soli tL

vine o¢ heaogne at nokteoup af aorte: odd dotdw of wongeb edt mo trebneged

aed getrttomos dud .fxioe batt mings on ahaa yeittine oft bhaoyed tent, |
todd mefodiney telfaem orp’ otodt’ heise “lo ‘ankatg eeteoo edd dttw mere

1 ite eelntctuag telfeme oeedt teder erg: tom ma I” soltiinwp’ ovieodbs evimty
0) bewett « gt hes So entetg odd Sfod yous trove wre at ..yalo to ogy Omee
edd yd bfod ota agaitaod ¢idded. nd eladayro. odd Dadt Tenmain ona ott foun nk
() gufebiy yaw elatietemn sromogmoo eft Io etavome eviteles off |, sort bawote
Hiiniaone artemos add beweva eidedta yartt a) ovat ow trogen ots diod ey |
he atloot teteyo fenutan edt Yo atreonditemon: To soktanidmos odd al eidt 4
niio nt aodtavo odt te ‘omort-yaqerd oft ve néveaed mhrewee one bald er etek

\

Varying Characteristics of Oyster Bottom - Page 2 A. Ae Sollers

Third, beyond these reefs or bars the percentage of sand sharply diminishes and
we are on the mud. Generally the mud bottoms are definitely not the best places to
grow oysters. I hasten to concede that there are great differences in the quality of
mud bottoms, but do not feel that I should take the time at this point to discuss even
the little that I know about these variations. I leave the point with the admonition
that mud bottoms are bad places for uninitiated oyster planters who are long on ambi-
tion and capital and short on experience.

If the three classifications set forth above doubtless make the problem seem
easy and simple, I hasten to dispel that illusion. For instance, there is another
class. I set it forth as an exception because it appears pretty much without rhyme
or reason in relation to the pattern set out above, The geologists call it Plum Point
Marl. There are more local names for it in Maryland than there are sinners in Hades.
Some of the local names are Fullers Earth, Blue Clay, Foolish Earth, etc.; you may
take your choice. Generally it is excellent oyster ground, It will not shift under
the most severe pounding of the seas. Again, generally, it appears in pure form;
that is, not mixed with sand or mud. I know of a couple of exceptions. In Poplar
Island Narrows in Maryland and off Port Mahan in the Delaware Bay is to be found an
admixture of this blue clay and mud. The comoination is somewhat softer than the pure
clay and the blue color is lost. The mixture is black or nearly so and is called mud,
locally. The combination makes an excellent oyster bottom in spite of the fact that
those immediately concerned appear to be at a loss to explain why.

I said a moment ago a simple classification as indicated might be deceptive.

Mr. Engle of the Fish and Wildlife Service will read you a paper describing a splendid
piece of research work he has done in Eastern Bay, a tributary of the Chesapeake. A
brief discussion of the kind of oyster ground found there might be worthwhile for it
shows the influence of another environmental factor and definitely does not fit the
‘pattern set forth. The place is simply an oversized sand pit. In the state service
I have had to deal with it, and I frankly say that the place kept me talking to my-
Self until I finally figured it out.

Here I found oysters growing on loose sand, the type of sand that sensible
oysters would not be caught monkeying with. Contradictory or not, they do grow there,
Here are the observations ,nd the conclusions. Eastern Bay has a very irregular shore
line and is dotted with several small islands. Long narrow peninsulas nearby bisect
it. There are many ovster bars. It was noted that the bars began at varying distan-
ces from shore. In some instances the bars began in two or three feet of water, in
others it was necessary to go off shore until a depth of fifteen or sixteen feet was
reached before oysters and the inner edge of the bars were found. When this depth
factor was correlated with the depth and extent of the open water to windward, the
answer was apparent, The oysters grew on the loose sand as soon as the depth of the
water became sufficient so that the impact of the seas would not shift the sand about.

This paper would be incomplete without some mention of the loess of the sea.
In some arid regions of the earth, interior China for instance, this material drifts
about with the winds. In our element, the water, we call it quicksand. It is death
to oysters and forms the building material for the siliceous tube worms, sand coral
or coral sand according to where you live.

It would be fine if one could pick up a sample of some oyster bed, run to a
laboratory and receive definite and final assurance on the survival of oysters on it.

a.

eS ee Se

— ets me

Pan ww gp eee | pe

atellod

imitonn at. stedt. oot ra %

eum

oe mia *— od a
ie. preidany. oft, sota

jyodsie dost yetetg
Mates oth tt [feo adatgoloog eat. 2¥9C8 tie
subali at etoants ota etesd. nedt bmalyeslt ae: $2
i wa MOY te O79

sobry otidu °
A etuq nt patti ¢t gyileseneg gitiagh «2008 vAs to gathawoq pose ‘oi

oft ® A

yvigteds tue to emebneotog et 2% ad. tt BRees aaond saoyed

bes, sarnnio nth

ar eboaly Seed ame tom viotialteh ota saattoc. but. at vitesse? .bum
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mite. beuoxio.ot tetoy atdd te emit wit eolet bly do Litadd, feet fon ob tad
ita Prin nen ait tie tulod and evant 1 ~oiotintiey osedt Jugda-w oat 1
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.oowe ktogze. a trode bae ledigem
7

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« yt 6 detioel weld onli .ied arelivt ota somes +820)
ton Ii tt bnvowg wotayo troellpexe, #1: of. yt fetegen ecko:

of ft

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% tor asob qlotintieh bas totosd Latnamentvae tedtona Io oopay

stew to toot cers to ows ab meged sad ada neonarart ene af 0

as yolo.auld angie
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athge mi: modtad t070'7o Jreffenxe oa sien soltes kiego4

ewdw alefoxc of eaol w Jae of teeeqe bentondos. Liate

ad digi Koteolbni as ao Baoltissslo efauta” a 93a- Senos. a”

wwosh
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# anidtxoveh seqaq » wey bao

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a
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fyot oontq off Suit sa. qistiovk I tua ,dt tte
feo Sf betayitt ve coal i

Io .
gadd brae to oayt od? gbnae ea: col mo aniwots sw 1oereyo bro? is
tom to yrotol bansuad thie antgednon tiyuee od tom Be
~utginufonos edt bi, niohtarreg do i
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nis ybod retaye omos
a lack? bem esi ttob vipesietii baa:

ateyo ‘to favivrya odd ao sonegine

Varying Characteristics of Oyster Bottom = Page 3 A. A. Sollers

Your speaker, in the absence of more precise methods, has learned to determine the

quality of oyster ground with the simple devices generally at hand. These include

sounding poles, orange peel bottom samplers and tongs. He would be glad of a more

precise system of determination, but is wondering how long it would take him to get
used to the new methode

The situation reminds me of a story told years ago, in steamboat days, about
a waterman in my section who had spent most of his time on old schooners and work
boats. He married and decided to go to Baltimore by steamboat for a honeymoon trip.
The transition from simple sail to the luxury of steam presented problems, The first
to bedevil him was the purser. Recognizing him as the bridegroom, the purser asked,
"Do you want the bridal suite?" Appreciating the fact that this trick would cost a
money, our friend asked, "What is the difference between that and the others?"
"Oh, the bridal suite has a private bath," was the purser's answer. After a moment's
hesitation the waterman replied, "Just a minute, Mister, I'll go ask my wife, for my
part if I get seasick or something I'll run to the rail like I been doing,"

I have never insisted on the study indicated in this paper, for I might be
too much like the waterman just referred to. Confronted with the problem of deter-
Mining the quality of a piece of oyster ground, I am afraid I would grab a sounding
pole, go over the area in question and make a final decision without further ado,

The absence of the information and the classifications indicated in this paper
are no fault of the scientific organizations. They are biologists and chemists not

mind readers. It is up to the industry to irake its wants known. If you fellows

think that such a study would be useful, let’s ask that it be made. It might prove
useful beyond our wildest expectations.

‘gneLten iz ca

odd onlmmadeb ot bamteet ean. gabediioor oe ae evrort sonseda .
-ebnfoat eced? bead ts floaters: oeotvel efanta oats AF by. bive tg +e
Biin' a to balg ed Siuow ef - ,agmod. Den ere lqmas motdog ieeq egneto- ga
(Peg of mis clad bite 42 anol wor. gubvebnow ot tod stoldanteristeh to meget
Ry ate a went

| tuoda yogeb teodapete nt, gone atasy blot ywota 4 to em sini sto kt

) gow bre axeaooroa blo ao omiy eid To Jeom Saege had oxy soliose ym.
Ny seat goomyenat nv tot teodmsete vd oromis Lat ot 0g of bebiseb bre be tte ¥
Seth At ,amoldorg ‘betwooetq meota Yo ciwaul odd oF ftas elqckes mort |
ghee teatig edt -ymoortnehiad eft an mid soisingooe= .x9etuq oft eam”
i tzid feo binow acits-eidt Sad? tont ols 4: ftn Lowa "totiua {nbiid on
i "earotto odd boo tart goewdsd. conn iTIib ent af Sat” gems Frets Be ‘th
\ etonemem ec 1497A J rewang- a seaqeq ont ssw * dad stevia a sad efine Sape
/ Me 4ok olin ya dan og LINE ,tetett ot un km e tout? botlqos nemeser ot
" nuke meed ¥ stil: hes ods og ae gmt sntdyemos 1 Apiaase ¢

*

ed ‘tdyim T 4c? pyeqey otdt et betactdal ybutea eld mo bodetert adv
eode6 26 metderg oft atiw betnotincd 40% bortetes “tent mentite neh
/ ga tbruoe e datg bidow I biarie ms 1 .bavory redaya to evetq o to wiht
dail woddiut tyoddie noleteoh Lankt a odem bra nekdno cy" at one.

roigng ald? mt bedaolibet snckienttineslo est baw mobtamriotni ont Yo gat
For Btilivodo bas-statgofcid ore yon? .anobteataggzo oftttasloe alt to
TY ewolket wor it _ -awornl- atoan nt! ov me: od yvtepiot oft of qu ef $T
eyo Fale tI .shem od-G) tant dab steel Ivtoan od Gloow youta an ows i

- onotsat peaxs taobitw “we be

VARIATIONS IN INTENSITY OF SETTING OF OYSTERS IN LONG ISLAND SOUND

Dr. Victor Le Loosanoff, Director, Ue S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Milford, Connecticut

Chamberlin Hotel, Old Point Comfort, Virginia, June 8, 1949

A good set of oysters in northern waters, including those of Connecticut, is
not a rule but an exception. For example, of the past twelve seasons only four gave
commercially important sets. Lightness and irregularity of setting are the chief
handicaps of the oyster cultivators of Long Island Sound because the latter can never
be assured that a new generation of oysters will be available to repopulate the beds.

At present the causes responsible for variations in the intensity of oyster
setting in Long Island Sound are not fully determined and understood. Nevertheless,
during the last twelve years, 1957-1948, enough new data have been collected which
may help clarify some aspects of this important and interesting question. It is the
purpose of this article to discuss some of the causes that may influence the inten-
sity of setting.

We know that any species, in order to reproduce, should have a sufficient number
of individuals to act as parents, Were our oyster beds depleted to such an extent
that not enough spawners were present, lack of set could be ascribed to that cause.
However, this probably has never occurred in our waters because there are always se-
veral million bushels of adult oysters in and near the area of the setting beds gua-
ranteeing enough spawners. We cannot, therefore, consider the lack of spawners a
cause responsible for the lack of set.

In some areas the failure of oysters to spawn could be advanced as a reason for
the failure of setting. As a matter of fact, in some earlier articles discussing
spawning of oysters opinions were expressed that in the deeper water of Long Island
Sound oysters spawned only once in ten years (Nelson, 1928). Our observations showed,
however, that this is not so. We found that oysters develop gonads and spawn every
year. While the thickness of the gonads may vary from year to year, nevertheless,
each year anough spawn is accumulated at the beginning of the spawning season.

There is no reason why the oysters in Long Island Sound should not spawn annual-
ly. Cur records show that the summer temperature of the Sound is always hich enough
for the development of gonads and for inducing spawning. In depths up to about 40
feet a temperature of 20.0°C. or higher is maintained from about July 20 to September
15 or 20, i.e.,approxivately 55-60 days, a period long enough to permit the oysters
to discharge their gonads completely. “ven at the depth of 100 feet the temperature
reaches 21.0 or 22,0°C. The majority of the oysters complete their spawning by about
the first of September, approximately 15 or 20 days before the temperature begins to
decrease below 20,0°C. (Loosanoff and Engle, 1942). Thus, failure of setting in our.
waters cannot be attributed to the failure of oysters to develop gonads and to spawn.

The failure of some aquatic species to propagate has been explained by the reaso:
that a large number of the eggs discharged remained unfertilized and later perished
(Thorson, 1946). This explanation cannot be applied to our oysters because, in their
Case, usually a large number of individuals spawn simultaneously, and this mass spawn-
ing insures fertilization of the majority of the eggs. On several occasions we

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Variation in Intensity of Setting of Oysters - Page 2 Dr. V. L. Loosanoff

observed spawning of oysters on the shallow bed of Milford Harbor. During the spawn-
ing the water over the bed was rendered milky with the discharged eggs and spermatozoa

Examination of the eggs showed that all were fertilized, thus indicating that there wa

no appreciable waste of eggs. A similar situation probably exists in the deep water
beds. It is doubtful, therefore, that failure at fertilization is a cause respon-
sible for the production of the small number of larvae,

On the basis of the presented considerations we may conelude that in Long Island
Sound a sufficient number of oyster larvae is produced each year, These larvae are

_ planktotrophic with a long free-swimming or pelagic life which, in our moteres is

about 18 days. Larvae of this type, as Thorson (1946) points fee are "cheap" bee
cause the eggs from which they develop are small, containing little yolk and, there-
fore, they can be produced in extremely large numbers, However, the initial advant-
age possessed by the oysters in producing a large number of eggs and larvae is counter
balanced by several disadvantages the first of which is, perhaps, the long larval pe-
riod. During this period the larvae are exposed to the attacks of their enemies and
are entirely dependent in their development upon the presence in the water of certain
plankton forms which serve them as food. Furthermore, during this period the larvae
are also exposed to continuous changes in their environment some of which may cause
heavy mortality or the complete disappearance. of broods of larvae.

Before proceeding to discuss the conditions that may, or may not, be respon~

sible for the mass disappearance of larvae we should, perhaps, become familiar with

the major events of the propagation of oysters in long Island Sound, In the past a

rather complex formula was offered for prediction of the time of the beginning of

spawning and setting(Prytherch, 1929). We find, however, that the situation is less
complex than it appeared to earlier investigators. Our observations showed that
spawning in Long Island Sound always begins either during the last few days of June
or during the first days of July. The earliest date of spawning recorded was in 1945,
on June 26, and the latest, in 1937, on July 3. Thus, in twelve years the beginning
of spawning was confined to a calendar period of only eight days. We may be justi-

fied, therefore, to conclude that in Long Island Sound the beginning of the oyster
_ Spawning season should be expected on June 50 © 4 days.

The beginning of spawning occurred at every lunar phase ranging from new moon to
the last quarter, It was not related to definite tidal changes and, therefore, to the
changes in hydrostatic pressure.

The earliest beginning of setting was recorded in 1941, on July 15, and the
latest, in 1943, on July 25, Thus, in twelve summers the beginning of setting was
confined to only about nine calendar days. Although it most often took place on July
17, we may, nevertheless, suggest that, for all practical purposes, in Long Island
Sound the beginning of oyster setting should be expected on July 19 ¥ 4 days. The
beginning of setting also happened at every moon phase and was not confined or even
closely related to a definite tidal condition.

The formulae offered are based upon ovr observations which, I believe, aré ex-
tensive enough to justify suggesting them. They should be found correct in the major-
ity of instances but, nevertheless, we do not maintain that they should remain forever

infallible. Some Secu; abnormal conditions, not encountered thus far in our ex-

perience, may either hasten or retard spawning, or shorten or prolong the larval perio
to such an extent that the beginning of spawning or beginning of setting would take
Place outside the limits given in our formulae.

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wmlat bfyow giitdees fo snisetaed tc sxiuxegs Yo .yakaedged, out Ad tate,

Variation in Intensity of Setting of Oysters ~ Page 3 Dre Vs) Le Loosanoff

The setting season in Long Island Sound is of comparatively long duration. It
usually extends from the third week of July to the end of September, and sometimes
even to the first days of October, However, the intensity of setting in time does not
follow a rigid pattern from year to year but shows several variations, For example,
in 1940 the first wave of setting was extremely heavy while the second wave was rela-
tively light. In 1942, however, heavy setting came late in the season as part of the.
second wave. In 1944 setting continued almost uninterrupted during the summer but
again the first wave was much heavier than the second. Finally, as in 1948, there may
be two waves of setting of almost equal importance. In the latter case two distinct |
waves with pronounced peaks or maxima were especially well demonstrated.

The date of the peaks of setting showed no relation to the date of the beginning
of spawning. In twelve years of observations the periods elapsing between the begin-
ning of spawning and the day of maximum setting of the first wave varied from 16 to
40 days and averaged 30 days, and the beginning of the second wave varied from 47 to
66 days and averaged 56 days after the beginning of spawning. In time the date of
maximum setting of the first wave varied from July 19 to August 10 and the second wave.
from August 25 to September 12, These variations show that it is difficult to predict
with any degree of accuracy the dates of maximum sets.

In search of signs of periodicity in the occurrence of the peaks of setting the
“number of days elapsing between the dates of maximum settings of the two waves of cach
year was determined (Table 1.). The number of days for the year of 1938 is not shown

in the table because the late setting in that year was a complete failure. The long-
est period between the two peaks was recorded in 1957, when 53 days elapsed between
these two events. The shortest period of 25 days wes noted in 1944. In the remain-
ing years the period between the two peaks ranged between 28 and 38 days. Thus, as
“can be seen, setting of oysters not only varies in intensity from year to year but

n

the peaks of the setting also do not show a definite time pattern.

TABLE 1. ‘Number of days elapsing between the dates of maximum setting of first and
second waves, Long Island Sound, 19357-1948;

Year Days Year Days Year Days
1937 53 1941 58 1945 28
1958 30 1942 58 1946 34.
1939 36 19438 -- 1947 35
1940 31 1944 238 1948 37

am so ee nnn senna et FR te

What are the conditions responsible for the survival of larvae and, therefore,
for variations in intensity and in the time of setting? Because our voluminous data
are still not completely analyzed we can offer at this time only a general discussion
of some factors withovt a complete evaluation of their importance. We hope, never-
“theless, that later on, upon completion of a thorough statistical analvsis of the ma-
terial already available, we shall definitely establish the presence or absence of
“Correlations between some of the ecological factors and intensity of setting.

a

Temperature is the first factor that always comes to mind when considéring
Oyster propagation, It cannot be denied that low temperature prolongs the larval pee
riod, thus exposing the larvae for several more days to their enemies and other un-
favorable conditions. However, we do not think that fluctuations in temperature in
Long Island Sound during any particular summer or, as recorded during different summer
may kill the larvae, The old conception that a sudden decrease in temperature of

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Variation in Intensity of Setting of Ovsters - Page 4 Dr. V. Le Loosanoff

2 or 3° would kill the larvae has been disproven by our field observations (Loosanoff
and Engle, 1940), Recent observations at Milford Laboratory by my colleague, Harry

C. Davis, showed that if larvae kept at a Brees temperature of about 22.0°C. were
placed directly in cold water of about 8. 0° Ce,and after being kept there for 30 minu-
tes were again transferred back to 22,0°C., they would survive this treatment, even
if it was repeated several times at two-day intervals, The work of Sparcek (1927) also
showed that the larvae of O- edulis withstood quick cooling from approximately 20.0
to 0.0°C. and were even able to survive at the latter temperature for at least 24
hours. Obviously, small fluctuations in temperature, as observed in the summer time
in Long Island Sound, should not result in mass mortality of larvae.

Although temperature may affect the larvae by prolonging their swimming period
or by affecting the quantity or quality of their food supply, no clear-cut relation
was found between the departure of temperature from the mean during the periods be-
tween July 1 and September 3O and intensity of setting. It is interesting that the
heaviest set of twelve years, which occurred in 1940, was during the year when the tem
perature departure was considerably below average. It is emphasized, however, that
a further and more detailed analysis of our data may indicate that although no corre-

lation between temperature and setting was noticed when long periods were considered,
certain correlations may be found when the data are examined on a monthly, semi-monthl
or weekly basis.

The changes in salinity in Long Island Sound are so small that they certainly
cannot be regarded as responsible for the mortality of the oysters. Roughly, our
salinity range is between 25,0 and 28.0 parts per thousand. Usually the changes in
salinity of the water for the same period of the vear seldom exceed 2.0 parts per

thousand, and not in a single case did we find that the salinity for the correspond-
ing week in twelve years exceeded 3.0 p.ep.te However, although these changes are not
great enough to cause mass mortality of larvae they may, nevertheless, reflect on the
production of the food on which larvae exist. This phase has not been thoroughly
_Anvestigated as yete

i

The percent of sunshine during the breeding period of oysters should also be
considered as one of the factors which may have an important influence on the survival
of larvae. This, of course, does not mean that intensity of light itself may kill or
stimulate the growth of larvae, Its effect is largely confined to the growth of plank
ton forms which may serve as food for oyster larvae. Again, preliminary analysis of
the data showed that in Long Island Sound the intensity of setting for the entire sea-
son was not correlated with the percent of sunshine during the period from July 1 to
September 50. Nevertheless, it is possible that later on, upon a more detailed analy-
‘sis, some correlation may become apparent.

Since, at present, none of the above discussed causes appears to be demanane in
‘causing mass mortality of larvae, one,naturally, turns to look in another direction
for an explanation why larvae disappear in our waters. We shall discuss two of the
possible reasons, the first being extermination of larvae by their enemies and the
second, death of larvae because of lack of food.

There is no doubt that a high percentage of larvae is eaten by their enemies,
and that, in some cases, the presence of a large number of enemies may be the primary
Cause of failure of oysters to set. It is doubtful, however, that the failure of set
in Long Island Sound is primarily due to that cause. Were we to assume that oyster
‘larvae disappear because they are eaten, we would naturally expect to notice a similar
disappearance of the larvae of closely related species of mollusks, such as clams,

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Mjavistion in Intensity of Setting of Oysters -Page 5 Dr. Ve. Le Loosanoff

mussels, teredos, etc.,which live in the same environment with oysters and have the
same enemies. Our observations show that this is not the case. During several sum-
mers, including that of 1948, while oyster larvae were relatively few in number, the
larvae of all ases of the clam, Mya arenaria, and of some other lamellibranchs were
numerous. Furthermore, while the oysters failed to set, or set in extremely small
numbers, heavy setting of Mya and mussels continued throughout the summer. Thus,
‘since regardless of the presence of common enemies, the larvae of many lamellibranchs
‘survive in large numbers to the setting stage, we should expect a similar rate of sur-
vival among oyster larvae. This, however, was not borne out by our observations,

We all know that in the southern states the fouling of shells with various or-
fanisms presents a definite problem because these organisms deprive the larvae of
setting space, Most of these organisms are also larvae eaters. Furthermore, in
addition to the bottom forms there are large numbers of jellyfish and other pelagic
larvae-eating organisms. Yet, regardless of such a large variety and the large num-
-° of larval enemies heavy oyster sets occur rather regularly.
|

In Long Island Sound, on the other hand, the bottom fouling forms are fewer
in species and numbers than, for example, in Chesapeake Bay or in the Carolinas. Al-
_ though a few of our shells, planted in early July, may be found silted by the end of
_ the season, very few of them would be encrusted with barnacles, ascidians, etc., as
_ is almost always the case in southern waters, Obviously, the Larvae enemies in our
_waters are not as numerous as in some other areas where good sets are, nevertheless,
_ produced regularly. Thus, even if the terval period in our waters is longer than in
the South, it still is improbable that the failure of our sets would be due almost

_ exclusively to the activities of the larval enemies,

I can cite another example of the same type. In Connecticut waters the best
and most consistent sets occur in the small, rather well-protected area of the Thimble
Islands. The slopes of the shore of these Islands are extremely heavily populated
“With different organisms which are plankton feeders. Large sections of the bottom
are also heavily populated with larvae-eating invertebrates. Yet, regardless of such
a@ predominance of enemies the oyster larvae there survive and set in large numbers,
while the Sound proper experiences one failure after another. Obviously, if larvae
enemies were the chief causes of failure of setting, the Thimble Islands area should
“not be a good place for the propagation of oysters.

We may conclude after the above discussion that while the importance of larval
enemies is understood, and while it is recognized that the damage they do to the po-
pulation of oyster larvae is rather extensive, it still seems improbable that in our

1. *

waters, where the larval enemies are not as numerous as in other oyster-producing
areas, failure of sets should be ascribed mainly to the activities of these enemics.

The final cause which we wish to consider in this article is that of lack of

_ proper food for the oyster larvae, At first the suggestion that under natural con-
ditions oyster larvae may perish from starvation in large numbers sounds highly im--
probable. Several years ago I would not even have considered such a suggestion be-

_ Cause I know that, as a rule, the waters of Long Island Sound are comparatively rich
in plankton. Yet, during the last few years, especially sinee the work on cultivatio:
“and physiology of oyster larvae was begun at our laboratory, more and more evidence i
accumulating that oyster larvae cannot utilize most of the forms of ultraplankton re-
Gardless of their small size, A more detailed discussion of this subject will be giv:
to you by my colleague, Harry C. Davis, who did work on oyster larvae, while I shall
limit myself to only a few remarks.

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Variation in Intensity of Setting of Oysters = Page 6 Dre Ve. Le Loosanoff

; It has been found that the addition of mixtures of laboratory cultures of ultra-

plankton forms measuring from 2 to 5 microns in size, thus small enough to be swale
lowed by the larvae, will not make oyster larvae grow. Apparently the mixture of
plankton given to the larvae did not contain forms which could be assimilated by them
‘Yet, the same food given at the same time to cultures of larvae of other lamelli-
-branchs was readily utilized by them. Thus, while, regardless of the presence of
“numerous ultraplankton organisms, oyster larvae refused to grow, the larvae of other
species of lamellibranchs thrived on the same forms. This, of course, indicated the
inability of oyster larvae to assimilete the ultraplankton forms which were present
in the food cultures.

I think this phenomenon is extremely well illustrated by the experiment which

I devised and which I asked my colleague, tir, Davis, to perform for me. Last winter
oysters and clams, Venus mercenaria, were made to spawn on the same day but in sepa-
rate containers, A day or so later, after the larvae of both species had reached the
straight hinge stage, we placed the larvae of the clams and oysters in the same con-
_tainer and began to feed them with a mixed culture of laboratory-grown food culture
containing a large number of ultraplankton. Three days later the clam larvae had
grown in size to 105,’ while the oyster larvae were still 754. Five days after fer-
tilization some of the clam larvae were already measuring 125, while the majority of
_the oyster larvae were practically at the same stage as at the beginning of the ex=
periment. After eight days the clam larvae were over 140,. while the oyster larvae
were still between 75 and 80,4, the majority showing no growth whstsoever. At the end
of the ninth day the clams were growing very vigorously showing almost no mortality —
and measuring about 160 4. while the oysters were dying in large numbers and those
living were still measuring only between 75 and 80... After 12 days the clam larvae
were finishing their free-swimming period and were setting in large numbers while
all the oyster larvae were dead or dying. None of the oyster larvae were larger than
BOK.

: Several variation of this experiment were run to be sure that the oyster larvae
were not deprived of their food by the larger and more vigorous clam larvae. To
“achieve this some cultures were composed of a large number of oyster larvae and rela-
tively few clam larvae, Regardless of the ratios between the clam and oyster larvae
and the ratios in number of larvae per given volume of water the results were always
‘the same, namely, that the clam larvae grew very rapidly on the food they were given
‘while the oyster larvae showed no growth.

Similar experiments were repeated by Mr. William Miller and me but instead of
“using hard shell clam larvae, the larvae of the surf clam, Mactra solidissima, were
‘used. The results were the same - while the clam larvae grew, the oyster larvae re-
mained approximately the same size they had reached upon entering the straight hinge
“stage. These experiments clearly demonstrated that oyster larvae cannot grow and
“survive on forms of ultraplankton which can be utilized by the larvae of other re-
lated species,

It is interesting that our observations on the food of oyster larvae are in-
directly supported by a pioneer in larval culture, W. F, Wells. Wells established a
hatchery at Cold Spring Harbor for the cultivation of oyster larvae but was unable

© obtain any sets until the hatchery was moved to another location where the characte
of the water was different, Although at that time Wells did not realize the reason fo
his initial failure it is probable that the water of Cold Spring Harbor contained no

| Micro-organisms which could be utilized by the oyster larvae, The new location, how-
ever, was probably rich in such forms.

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Variatiorsin Intensity of Setting of Oysters - Page 7 Dr. Vo Le Loosanoff

Our field observations support our contention that there may be a difference in
the ability of various mollusk lervae to utilize the food found in the water. For
example, to any investigator familiar with the conditions in Long Island Sound it
always appears peculiar that while clam larvae of all stages are almost always found
during the summer, oyster larvae seem to disappear within a few days after they hatch
from the eggs. Is it not possible that this disappearance is due to the fact that
during those periods our waters lack the food which can be assimilated by oyster
‘larvae? Since it has been clearly demonstrated by our laboratory experiments that
oyster larvae are unable to utilize many forms of ultraplankton, we are led to believe
that the absence of proper food may be the cause of the fatiure of oyster larvae of
ong Island Sound to live to the setting stages This conclusion coincides with the
‘opinion of Thorson (1946) who also thinks that lack of food is probably the chief
‘reason responsible for the fluctuations of the larvae population in the sea,

Of course we still are very far from offering the final answer to this inter-
esting and important problem. We know that in the first place it still is undeter-
“mined what forms in the plankton of Long Island Sound are utilized by oyster larvae.
‘Secondly, the appearance or disappearance of such food forms would be very closely ©
‘related to the environmental factors, such as probably temperature, solar radiation,
“presence of certain nutritive substances, such as phosphetes, nitrates, etc. These
‘relations remain to be determined, and all the data should be more fully analyzed and
‘Studied. Nevertheless, I think we are now approaching the solution of the problem why
the intensity of oyster sets in northern waters varies so greatly from year to year.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

LOOSANOFF, V. De and JAMES B. ENGLE, 1940 = Spawning and setting of oysters in Long
Island Sound in 1937, and discussion of the method for predicting the intensity
and time of oyster setting - U.S. Bure Fish.,Bull. 33, Vol. 49, pp.217-255.

LOOSANOFF, V. L. and JAMES B. ENGLE, 1942 - Accumulation and discharge of spawn by
oysters living at different depths.- Biol. Bull.,Vol. 82, No. 3, pp. 413-422,

NELSON, THURLOW C.,1928 - Relation of spawning of the oyster to temperature. -
Ecology, Bole IX, Noe 2, pp. 145-154.

|

PRYTHERCH, H. Fe, 1929 - Investigation of the physical conditions controlling spawning
of oysters and the occurrence, distribution, and setting of oyster larvae in
Milford Harbor, Connecticut - U.S. Bur. Fish. Bull.,Vol. 44, DoceNo. 1054,

pp. 429-503

SPARCK, Ro, 1927 - Studies on the biolory of the oyster II. The feeding and growth
of the pelagic larvae of the common oyster (Ostrea edulis). - Rep. Danish Biol.
Stat., Vol. 35, ppe 46-56.

THORSON, GUNWAR, 1946 - Reproduction and larval development of Danish marine bottom
ibs invertebrates - Meddelelser Fra Kommissionen For Danmarks Fisheri- Og Havun=
y dersfégelser, Serie; Plankton, Vole 4, ppe 1-52

Mi Vonsa oor, Pd Ae i

tet songte TLE 9 06 ean. enodt.cta cit ahttibeinae HO. pe
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bout ayewle dacmia sta sopata ff to savdes made, of tde todd Hea
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wetaye.y “9 hevalinteesn ad geo detdw boot odd. doal exstaw to abst
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. bherod ot bel.ava ew yrotinalgettiv to aprtot yoam estiion ot eldany ota
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YRIAMMOL IES

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,

TOXIC BFFSCTS OF OIL MIXED WITH CARBONIZED SAND ON AQUATIC ANIMALS

Walter A. Chipman
Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Department of the Interior

Chamberlin Hotel, Old Point Comfort, Virginia, June 9, 1949

Oil pollution of inshore coastal waters is a problem of major importance for the
conservation of our aquatic resources, Aside from being destructive to aquatic ani-
mals and plants, oil and other organic liquids floating on the water are a great nui-
sance to such recreational activities as boating and bathing and create a serious fir:
hazard, especially around piers and other structures built of creosoted wood,

After a damaging fire at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, resulting from the accie#
dental ignition of oil floating on the water, the Chemical Laboratory of the shipyard
undertook a comprehensive study of the existing methods of removal of oil slicks and

gan a search for better ones. The experimenters of the Navy found that a carbonizer
sand can be prepared simply and cheaply by roasting creosote and sand in a specielly
designed kiln and that this has remarkably good organophilic and hydrophobic qualities
The sand, with its carbon coating, is sprayed on the surface of an oil slick. Coming
in contact with oil, the carbon coating forms a stable bond with the oil. The mixe
ture may then be readily removed. If on the surface of the water, the combined sand
and oil may be sunk by a stream of water under pressure or by some other method of
agitation. The bonding of the oii and carbon surface of the sand is permanent and
an oil slick thus treated remains anchored on the bottom.

A popular account and graphic story of this new way of removal of oil slicks

“appeared in "Life" (1947, Vol. 23, No. 19). The caption to one of the photographs

)
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.
.
4
f

‘accompanying this article stated that the submerged sludge "is lethal to most marine
life." Since there was no corroborative evidence of the toxicity of oil bound by
‘carbonized sand, the United States Navy, through its Bureau of Ships, asked the coe

Operation of the Fish and Wildlife Service in a study of the problem. The present

‘report summarizes the results of the experiments conducted in compliance with this

request.

Oils discharged into coastal waters do not remain floating indefinitely. They

“are absorbed by particulate matter suspended in the water, Agitation of the water
by currents and wave action helps the settling of the oil-saturated material on the

bottom, but the oil slick is not securely fixed and may be carried to distant places.
‘This characteristic behavior and its importance in aquatic life has been emphasized

by Nelson (1925) and Gewanloch (1935).

Injury caused to ducks and other water birds by 011 floating on the water is
well known, since many instances have been recorded of the finding of oil-smeared
birds unable to fly (Lincoln, 1936; Adem, 1936). Likewise sedentary animals living
within the tidal zone and coming in direct contact with oil may be destroyed.

The toxicity of oil in sea water, due to water soluble substances extracted fra
_0il, has been demonstrated many times experimentally using fishes and marine inverte-
brates. (Seydel, 1913; Nelson, 1925; Roberts, 1926; Gardiner, 1927; Ministry of Trans.
port and Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Joint Committee on Damages to Fisheri

1930; Gowanloch, 1954; Galtsoff et al.,1935; Galtsoff, 1936; Veselov, 1948, and other

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Toxic "ffects of Oil Mixed with Carbonized Sand ~ Fage 2 W. A, Chipman

Since there is convincing evidenee of the leaching out of toxic substances from
oils present in sea water, it is desirable to ascertain whether the combination of
oil with carbonized sand would alter this actions The combination may either lessen
‘the toxicity of the oil, or it may increase it by bringing the poisonous oil closer
to the bottom dwelling forms, permanently anchoring it there, and allowing a slow and
continued extraction.

For our study we selected for experimental animals such forms that would normal
‘ly live attached to submerged objects, or on the bottom in estuaries and harbors wher
this type of pollution is most apt to occur, We chose in particular animals of kno:
economic importance, but also included others which aptly lend themselves to the expe
‘rimental procedures desired. We used the following organisms; the hydrozoan Tubular*
erocea, which grows attached to polings and docks; the barnacle Balanus balanoides,
@ very common form growing abundantly on rocks and structures near low tide mark; the
embryos of the toadfish Opsanus tau, one of the common bottom-dwelling fishes in har.
Yrors and bays which attaches its large eggs to wood, rocks, and other submerged object
the hard shell clam Venus mercenaria, which inhabits the mud flats; and the oyster
Ostrea virginica, found on rocks and on the tottom in all coastal waters,

The oils tested were supplied by the Navye These included crude oil, Navy Grade
‘Special fuel oil, lubricating oil (SA 20), and Diesel oil.

Because of the necessity of making this paper short, only a brief summary of the
many experiments performed can be presented, A more complete description of the ex-
periments and the results obtained in each is soon to be published,

_ Experiments with Tubularia crocea

Weakened or dying polype of Tubularia lose their dark pink color and become
slightly opaque. Their tentacles fail to respond to touch and, finally, the entire
hydranth, with its whorl of filliform tentacles, separates and drops off, leaving dens
tufts of tangled stems. This characteristic change makes it convenient to employ coe
donies of Tubularia as test animals. The death point of an individual hydranth may be
taken as the time when it drops off the stem and the progress of mortality in the grou
ean be easily expressed in the number of lost hydranths.

The tests made with Tubularia consisted in determining the survival of this or-=
“fanism in standing or in running sea water containing known quantities of mixtures of
various oils and carbonized sand, and in its survival in water to which an extract of
Grude oil was added. Relatively dilute concentration of oil or oil mixed with carbo-
“Mized sand were toxic to Tubularia in standing solutions, a strength of 1;1000 killed
“about 33% within 24 hours. Apparently there is sufficient toxic material leached out
ina short time to be deleterious to this organism. When this is made more dilute by
a flow of sea water, the injuriousness is less pronounced. With a flow of 65 to 75
liters per hour a toxic effect becomes apparent after 48 hours if 5 ml. or more of oil
mixed with sand are placed in the immediate vicinity of Tubularia ina 2-liter jar.

The results comparing different oils show that lubricating oil was least toxic,
while crude oil appeared to be the most toxic. The toxicity of the crude oil appa=
rently resulted from something leached from the oil by water, for extracts were found
to be toxic to Tubularia,

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‘Toxic Effects of Oil Mixed with Carbonized Sand - Page 3 Ne Ae Chipman

Experiments with Barnacles, Balanus balanoides (Ag.)
enemy castes ee een ne aA ta

Adult barnacles can be conveniently used in toxicological tests. Being sessile,
the barnacles can be easily arranged in a desired position in the experimental seteup.
‘The effect of a toxic substance can be studied by observing and timing the sweeping of
their cirri. In running sea water or in containers in which the water is renewed dail
they remain active and apparently in good condition in the laboratory for many days
and weeks,

The test performed clearly demonstrated the toxic effect of crude oil and sand
“mixtures placed in the immediate vicinity of barnacles. A slowing of the cirri was

observed within 6 hours in the weakest concentration tried, 1:50. Poisoning was pro-
gressive and complete death of 80 to 90% of the barnacles took place within 70 hours.

Experiments with toadfish embryos, Opsanus tau (Linn.)

Toadfish embryos present excellent material for bicassay; they are large, fair-
ly transparent, and are attached by egg membranes to pieces of wood, stone, shells,
and similar objects. Normally they are quite active in the laboratory jars and the
beating of their hearts and the circulation of blood can be easily observed with ade-
‘quate illumination and suitable optical equipment,

Crude oil mixed with carbonized sand was found to be quite toxic. Even the low-
est concentration of 1:200 was sufficiently toxic to kill all the embryos in 11 days.
The mortality of embryos in water with greater quantities of oil was more rapid. If
“the log of the survival time is plotted against the log of concentration, the toxicity
eurve approximates a straight line. The linear relationship obtained by such plotting
Can be approximately represented by a general quation of the type y = a x® and the’
constants a and © may be computed from the empiricel data.

The relative toxicity of the different oils mixed with carbonized sand was as-
me oened. Crude oil added in the ratio of 1:40 killed three out of five test embryos
within 47 hours. Toxicity of Diesel oil was noticeable within 52 hours in the con-
centration of 1:20, while lubricating oil was ineffective even in the concentration

‘of 1:10 (50 hours).
Experiments with hard shell clams, Venus mercenaria (Linn.)

The hard shell clam, chosen for experiments because of its economic value, is
frequently found in polluted bottom of harbors and bays, Because of their ability to
close themselves within their shell, clams, like oysters, are capable of slowing down

their activities to a low minimum for rather protracted periods of time. In this ney
they may reduce the immediate effect of unfavorable conditions,

In the one experiment performed, the sea water supply to the clams flowed at the
a of 21 liters per hour through containers containing 20 ml. of an oil or an oil
and sand mixture, None of the clams died during the 124 days of the test in the sea
water containing crude oil, fuel oil, Diesel oil, or lubricating oil or mixtures of
these oils with carbonized sand, There was no evidence of their weakening.

Experiments with Oysters, Ostrea virginica (Gm.)

Because of its great economic importance, the oyster has been studied more than
lost marine invertebrates. Consequently, its physiology, habits, and life history are
better known than other lamellibranchs. Livine attached to rocks or lying on the

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Toxic tffects of 041 Mixed with Carbonized Sand ~ Page 4 W. Ae Chipman

bottom 4t ww frequently affeeted by oil wastes discharged into waters. Having no

means of moving from unfavorable environments, the oyster protects itself by tightly

closing its valves, If the inimical condition persists, the oyster is eventually
damaged or killed,

i Tests of the toxicity to oysters were made of standing water to which were ad-
_ ded erude oil ina dilution of 1:500 and Diesel oil in strengths of 1:200, and simils:
_ strengths in which the oils were sunk to the bottom mixed with carbonized sand, In
the test with Diesel oil the first death occured on the third day with an oil layer
on the surface, and on the fourth day in the aquarium with the oil and sand mixture.
By the end of the test on the 13th day, the mortality was 67 percent in the test with
oil on the surface against 25 percent with the oil treated with carbonized sand,
There was no mortality among the control oysters, Experiments with crude oil added
in the ratio of 1;500 gave similar results. In these the first death was observed
in the ninth day and the mortality was less pronounced, due probably to the smaller
quantity of o1i1 used.

In experiments with oysters kept in large tanks of running sea water and expose
to a mixture of crude oil and carbonized sand, no toxicity was observed in the 35 day:
of the test. It was found that 500 ml. oil introduced into a water system running at
the rate of 180 liters per hour and anchored by carbonized sand were insufficient to
cause mortality or to inhibit the growth of the shells of adult oysters.

The maintenance of a steady flow of water through the gills of an oyster is ese
sential for its feeding and. respiration. The measurement of the rate of filtration
of water is a very sensitive means of studying the effect of changes in the environ-
ment of the oyster, for the organism rapidly reacts to the presence of toxic substane
ces which may be introduced into natural waterse Wethods are available at present for
measuring the efficiency of the oiliated mechanism concerned with pumping alone or for
obtaining the overeall picture of the function of the entire pumping system involving
also the mantle and shell. Experiments were performed with each method, the former
known as the carmine-cone technique and the latter the apron method (see Galtsoff,
et al.,1947).

It is impossible in this short paper to describe in detail the numerous experi-
ents performed and the results observed using the various oils mixed with carbonized
sand, and extracts of these oils in experiments in the physiology of oysters. We con-
clude from the various tests we performed that there was a release of physiologically
active substances which suppress the activity of the ciliated epithelium of the gills
of the oyster and that the anchoring of oil by carbonized sand does not prevent this
release,

“Summary

We found that crude vil, Diesel oil, and Navy Grade fuel oil added to sea water
are toxic to the various animais normally inhabiting estuarine environments, the more
sensitive forms being killed rather promptly when compared to the forms known to be
More hardy, The toxicity of these oils is apparent whether they are present as oil
slicks on the surface of the water or are held on the bottom bound to carbonized sand.

This toxicity results from material leached out of the oil by water. The oyster rese

ponds to relatively weak concentrations of the toxic materials leached from oil by a

marked reduction in the amount of water filtered for respiration and feeding and a
decrease in the number of hours open.

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rot 20 enole yatgmeq rivhw howtontoo ominedonm betakfte oft to youetoltte e
solvlovet meteys gntqeuq stltno ott io wottomw? oft to etwtotg {Lowneta)
jemet edt ,bodtem doao Adtw buetotieg stow atnonivegx®. .floddea, bra |

. Vhoed {ev 028) hottem moje edd tattel edt bre auploricet pana rest

* ie

3 Nas % Bi ‘é
«kxogqxe avotomun ed? (ietoh nt edtrosob of togeq dior abd af eidtaaoq ”
baskwodise déiv bexte alto avottay ott gnfew bewreeds stivget eiv onan B

affin ort Io mutledtige bessetito edd to ytivitoa ‘ent eastggie doliw ee
aid? taeverq Jon asob brea hos imedise yd Ike to gakrorions adt tans: bean

totaw sow od babbe Ifo fevt ober) yveli Sua ,ffo foaoht? .tho ebite dade
etont edd yatnemmotivve aniientas gektidedat yilacron elemiae avoktay ond oy
ed ot awoed amio't edt ot betagmoo node yitqmong tedter boll bf grterd hi
tho se geese ets yedt tetortw tretadqs eb allo onerlt to ottoixot off)
-basn bealnodtan ot bawed aotted sid ne Slot ote 10 setew ont 90 eoeting
enor totayo enT .tetaw vd fhe oft to Jvo horioast Lakvotan mov ad ivaet ttiok
wd Lo wort bevoael alatiotem otrot ont to entobtandwoonod Aagow ieutdasey o oF
& bie sethee? base io Roethgiars an boved Skt tadmw to towome odd nk 2 .
000 rr ‘to beer ot at

Toxic Effects of Oil Mixed with Carbonized Sand - Page 5 W. Ae Chipman

There is definite advantage in the use of carbonized sand in treating oil slicke
for it localizes the oil pollution, prevents the spread of oil over the surface of
water, and submerges and permanently anchors the oil near the source of pollution, In
‘view of the fact that bottoms of harbors and bays near industrial ports are grossly
“polluted and non-productive, the sinking of oil in these localities will not increase
‘the damages to the fisheries.

Tusting with carbonized sand is a highly efficient method of removal of oil fro
the surface of the water, It is useful around docks and piers to combat fire hazards
and also has distinct advantage in preventing the movement of oil slicks to productiv:
‘areas where great injury to sea food resources may occur. We hope that the method wi’
be adapted in some way to have more general use in combatting oil pollution in wane
waters.

RICK

LITERATURS CITED

‘ADAM N. K.,1936 - The Pollution of the Sea and Shore by Oil = 27 pp.,London:
Harrison and Sons, Ltd.

GALTSOFF P. §.,1936 - Proc. North American iJildlife Conference, Feb. 3-7, 1936,
pp. 950+555

GALTSOFF P. S. = PRYTHERCH H. F. - SMITH R. O. - KOEHRING V. - 1935 - Bull. U. S.
Bur. Fish, 48: 142-210

GALTSOFF P. S. - CHIPIMAN, Jr.,W. A. - ENGLS Je Be = CALDERWOOD H. W. ~ 1947
Fish. Bull. of the FWS, 51:59-186

GARDINGR A. C.,1927 - Fish.Invest. (Great Britain) Series I.,Vol. III, Noe 2, 14 pp.

GOWANLOCH J. N., 1934 - 11th Biennial Rept.,La. Dept. Conservation, pp. 67-127
1935 - Trans. Amer. Fish. Soce 65;295-296

LINCOLN F. C.,1986 ~ Proc. North American Wildlife Conference, Feb. 3-7, 1936,
pp. 555-559

MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT AND MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURZ AND FISHERIES, 1930 - Detailed Bio-
logical and Chemical Reports on Tars Used for Road Surfacing, 171 ppe,London

SON T. Cs,quoted by LANE F, W. = BAUER A. D, - FISHER H. F. - HARDING P. N.,1925,
Rept. of U,. S, Com, of Fish. for 1925, Appendix V.

‘SEYDEL Be» agate - Mitteilungen d.Fischerei ~ Vereins fiir die Provinz Brandenburg 5,
No. 3, ppe 26-28

-VSSELOV E. A.,1948 - Rybnoe Khoziaistvo (Fish Husbandry), 12:21-22

pmmgaee ah 4 a shad =" baa’ _—

alotie ito gabtned? at bina” ees o oe oa at edt)
rh ‘te ovetine eid 1808 Tho “to ' beh ita edt miiene: vhte:
ttt’ stRdut log to voted” ott" vhad" (26 oft: ary coc
Ylavorg eta adtog. fakitaeenh stom eyed baw até po ype ‘tan ¥e
ooraorrion f doo Litw eokdtThohT cvatt ah Lo te se hieha ‘ ett * eV'tdoubor j
aokrede tt

ak: Eto. % Licvoe's * to“ bo rit ein’ ahs ETS itata® ‘a ot: baka! ph atwodtab td be

“otiaher! oft tadméo of azelg bie’ mised’ baitste Leos at gt gtédaw ont
wae oubo'ry od adotla- f2o- ‘te teiesor doit” sit eves me ogee yi-s Tottteek
Tit hod ent’ oid tant sqoH oY ,virhod ysat acotuore?t hoot aon oF Yuet at due
‘adgsoe wt nobtvtlog [fo- srtidadase wh eno Laveiey enter over of yaw onion A

48 ae .
nike’ che

Ob AGL $4: w¥°- rho: ed otdde baw att oft! Ye eettut lor i “ 3 et.
OT pane?

BOCI: Mek WOT ,wometsiast: oti rere’ maestro Aston . ook = wei
' ace.

92.0 of fod « 88@r's .v onthe 10 7 WING + 19 sievarine = |
Ora shy 88 at
1

ee Oe ie GW ol aoa TAO + of sh CIM aod Watt tei

atta Of QS so rit steve eotios (mtedixd seed)’ hownTh et « ter |

Tata's eokteresne® tae ond, ier ‘ tether adore seer; e
BES.208 39,008 told .vawA -ewbtt ~ CteL

aber . Tah .wet vonoueino? oth Lhle avot tial: dro word = OF,

“pote hetteted « ofey! estadnory dWk cap TIvorioa to VRTeREM OHA, TRO

tebriod. oq {Vf mat eaeiu0 adit xot- beg evel 0 attingell’ Ledtmed® sand ?
OSCR. OeNIAAR ~ TN aero oe RR SW TOMAS yd beioug eg .’
if vt xbbrogyA g@Ser: «3 AST UE .siOD gt o's

@ axrodistaaet anivsrt oth aWh anton «° iottddatiab segity LRotdTM « &. ,

4 Dee 64 2, i. Re eAietbinsi “ta vay overt ioutt pic n a

REPORT OF THE RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE

At the Closing Session of the Annual Convention at Hotel Chamberlin,
Old Point Comfort, Virginia, June 9, 1949

The Resolutions Committee, consisting of John L. Plock, William R. Woodfield,
and James ©. Munson, Chairman, was asked to consider several topics. All were of
‘importance, but in some cases we decided that a resolution was either out of order
or unnecessary. In this latter category was the suggestion made by V. L. Hodges in
his excellent address on transportation matters in which he asked that the Oyster
Institute's Traffic Comnittee be empowered to cooperate with a similar committees
of the National Fisheries Institute and any other such organization with the idea of
“Co-ordinating our traffic work with that of other sections of the fishing industry.
‘Your Resolutions Committee believes that our Traffic Committee was given these pow-
ers to be used at its discretion when it was originally formed, and hence no sepa-
‘rate resolution is necessary at this time, though the merits of cooperation and co-

i i ie A 5
ordination are plainly evident.

Five resolutions, unanimously adopted, are as follows:

WHEREAS, Almighty God has seen fit to take from this world one of the most charming
and gracious of women, Mrs. Lewis Radcliffe, whose sweet character and unfail-
ing graciousness were known to all with whom she ever came in contact, and

“WHEREAS, We who were privileged to know her well are also well aware of the courage
and comfort and inspiration she gave not only to her immediate family but also
to her vast circle of friends in all walks of life,

BE IT RESOLVED, That this convention mark its sincere sense of loss by tendering its
deep sympathy to our director, Lewis Radcliffe, whose personal loss so far
surpasses our own, and to whom we say in all humbleness that May Radcliffe's
memory will live in our hearts forever.

HOKE

IHEREAS, Since our last convention Death has removed from our ranks two of the oyster
industry*s most stalwart champions, Joseph N, Fowler of New Jersey and Charles
BE. Wheeler of Connecticut, and

n BREAS, These men were outstanding in the vigor and effectiveness of their work on
behalf of oyster growers of New Jersey, Connecticut, and the country as a whole,
notably in the tremendously important fields of legislation and water sanitation.

IT RESOLVED, That the Oyster Growers and Dealers Association pay tribute to these
valiant warriors and indicate our public recognition of our distinct loss by
the unanimous adoption of this resolution of respect and gratitude, with in-
struction to our Secretary to inscribe this on the minutes of the convention
and to send copies to their surviving families.

RK

foot, is spoibehsiliniitr
ener 2 enh casi sor

nt fredmedt®

“St aut 2 pn beet wel ftilol. te yrtdatinos.- mods Baud ano ti
opgtaroah croak Laeesr ee. ‘qobtared ot heolee Mew .mamrkax) ui

ghferetos
mo ere 20a yy
eee he! das wetho -aae “‘ipid lower a tevit bebiooh ex aeaao emma mF
rk Meso: ye V eed who sipigs Heeanue ait? ‘oaew se yatta wettnt wit nt
“Heddy ait tad? besleg ses Moketer ah at sshehene iO Lat togeiatt na fae
goddiamon taliski:o atiw.edeieqoos of hutordqae ed Gettiwmed oft
“%e pote ott ndtw motvesinegsy, foun redio vo Gao odes teat da ttad oP:
evitenbok sake lt st. to aro tt oss tate Ye! tach ae be trom offs hard, tHe
"ellie Gants mov iy: ape viper of %e4) whe Foes adeet fed, sets Enused
“wages on sdred baa ,foartot yffaxtyirvo sow $f modw mobtegastd att gm)
eae fan agivetecooo to atinom edt dusod sents ahd ae Visa TOM ek:

? “deeb ive intel ;

,awolfet ay ete ,betoolsn elenomitiens <asto bite

fi

ge.terce do +aom eft Yo oo. bftow afd mort exat of #22 mo08- aad et }
wikwtea bar teteatady toowe oon gO ML Lob al aivo.T . ait: gremow te on

bra .tostnoo nt emo teva oe modw ddin fle od nvord stow ne ete

agininog ett fo othe “tow outa wre Ifow aed wont of hegeliviiq: orem
od te dud Ni aimet ot Mpocwak “res! ‘ot vino Jon oveg one nokta cteank Bar +
ones ™ aliew ffa af abaetsy to oferta.

eft sotisbusd os aeot ‘te snes atoouts of? oie neitmevao 9 abi da
aat ov aac! faaoateg cacitw wertiiohad ulwo.t gtodorrdb two od ys
AOTLELOb om yar todd avers idennl [le wf yan oe mo me of Ree sitive "9 8

~i ePR soworet sdtast wo af ney w

fo
See

3 ants ‘ert fo owe @iney Teo moTt bevomss sa Atos! colin wires dual ao |
wala ha younel, well i ‘se ona of AQoe ot ysttobgmto stanladn f20c8, 9h
Mp ; Ati heen ytusEtoared to 4
Sine nome Pork Tov, agenetiy etre saa waly fd né gtthaadetvo ever com
\ Jo toie 2 on yijaded add ine ,duattsoniad yyeetey: wel) ‘to etewotg iedayo Bo
tn tad ines sigh? Dinan senda tataer. 1o wbieht we hemettoget ylewohnant tt. nat an
ne ot osudiet gog REEFALOORRA StH Loyl ‘bee atoued? wateart | edt hea rf
oe not Baska By. nad. To rasa ‘oiféng sos otsotbhad, bre atolrew
us et BE, gobesthtas a heme eeqnet ‘lo sotdofoaot abtt Io aektgobs pom
are linea id hi qatar add tte “ahd ottupant oF wredeteed a0:
i pmrted Strait smaybenve biel bid nee

eke

Resolutions - 2-6

WHEREAS, The greatest need of industry today is a reduction in government expenses,
and oné of the most effective ways of accomplishing this would be by effectuat-
ing the recommendations of the Hoover Commission, and

ed ee ae

WHEREAS, There was lack of accord as to whether the fisheries division should be set
up as a separate entity and as to whether it should be retained within the De-
partment of Interior or transferred to some other department, such as Commerce,
and

WHEREAS, The fishing industry itself has as yet arrived at no definite policy with
respect to these matters,

THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED, That those assembled in this convention on this ninth day
of June 1949 urge that immediate steps be taken by the various trade associa-
tions and the members of the industry to formulate and agree upon a specific
policy and take the necessary steps to see that it is put into effect, and

B® IT FURTHER RESOLVED, That we commend a study of the proposals presented by Mr,
David Meyers, Publisher of Fishing Gazette, at this convention.

KK

WHEREAS, AS so ably portrayed by Gordon Sweet there exists the need for a study of
ways of increasing the consumer demand for oysters with particular reference
: Gorthe field of public relations,

} "THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED, That this group in convention assembled requests its Presi-
dent to appoint a committee to make an immediate study of this subject and re-
port its conclusions to him at the earliest practicable date, and

:

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED, That upon the completion of this report the President be re-
quested to call a meeting of the Directors to determine the policy that should
be adopted to effectuate these proposals, and

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED, That we commend Mal Thompson of Southern Fisherman for his
! presentation of "Point of Sale Merchandising" as one of the approaches to the
solution of this problem.

#KK

WHEREAS, Over the past several years there has been a strong and increasing trend ir
the food industry towards the development of packaged frozen foods of all typ -,
and

WHEREAS, Many members of the oyster industry have been working individually on the
problem of suitable containers and freezing methods with the aim of turning
out the finest possible pack,

BE IT RESOLVED, By the Oyster Growers and Dealers Association in convention assemb-
led that to aid in the further development of this branch of the oyster industry
the United States Fish and Wildlife Service be urged to have its fishery techno-
logists (1) make studies to determine the adaptability of the newer packaging
materials to frozen oysters and (2) conduct research on the use of vitamin C
(ascorbic acid) to prevent discoloration in the frozen prodyct.

ORR

i orn ry ce Se ah meee: her pean %
A bilan had ae fener | te gut lide Ricpnoyon hi, eyew amet ye :
Satie. afte. bea Lomo’ tewood exit %
. ooo tid ition ache byes siolinenbnt ony “tacidierive of aa braves %o hank Sie
bl “eit odd AE hw hewkater ad Bfvore 44 codtedw ot @a bres qt idan ode taigee
niannaai Be oul: ition eneb: wetto' woe od bevewtanatd to bd pain to

4 ial

a Yeeloy saneried ois de hewhitd oy $6 and Eleatl ehh teeth sy $e
eeredtan ea +o Mit

aol urbe tor eta Ty achinwwes alt ak bepeneras en ont tant onion 7;
esfebues what nue trav awd sess wef. eqeve atatbomet tadt oar SSO Ha
Pehteieqe e Page eens bra/oy y fuarrbt of vitawbrt ond To evodtagm eds by

basa ght aeats ott dug at $f dedé ons oh gqedta ytacsopen sa? saad bas,

ae ws Nadie cate a Lesogona oat 3 yoni a basamoo aw tant As jorra
i" soktnowiod Sint te ~ocdened Antdeld to dod Pttya ha:

Kea ie | weil

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4d ghote. a wt boon oft ‘phe lxd o1bdy foawe soht0d ie ‘beget Bis vida:
Conese tay infwikivea: dtiw stetago cg} boas TU ORTOD okt mitdasrORe
gore fd af we. pt i deg ta Fe

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a% RIE ateevpot Hofditeate molinsemes of quo, ald? dott CR VEOBEA .
; bina foot ioe atdt to ybets etatboent ne adam of cedtiamwo 2 tnkoggawg
Hf ih x bee: Vorsh Aitionteoang ueiited en? ta mic oF Seer aa

} oh Bek sudidioor4 ed deoges afdd Io poivelym» eft sogn tad? .OVWIOG 1
idaho ina yoetne ony aAinvetoh of Brodomt NT oft Wo “Serktoem & 4g oe
t eM a stoutoagty oF be

min, dot famereital® rsertuos to moagmost! [atl herommos' ew DacT cee som §
eehod weloaoiqaa af Yo ono ae “yuiehbntdorey ofee to tr rho be node
smeidon wilt To

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or Oo UL Leet sherk pest hivaia ude’ ovat vrtenbhth Tet ave on to eteitiion "
ns tio mks aye’ hikw ab cians gn teow bow evenbetaco pidat tas lo. owt
elosy ofdlaeoy toon kt ott

SHU SHS te a sek ere Weneo 1" ‘att nd Bt ntawean, wre >t cunt baw anseotd modugo! wckt we my
eatin ata gs rv bite. Ho. emia @ bik th tno feweb seddtasrt ons: ist! ‘bie OF | "deed
ale 1 el wore: i wat sinnat! of hogte, od. caavie?, WEMEELIM: bre Rett -endade ports
, gn ietbed sosrets tints Ae wt titdet ate aprit ‘weltrinens ott ad eofbighe elas (f) sdek
i) pari ho aan ent oo Kothonen codhooe : (3) hina arbod wept pepoT? ov 8 ak 2
ot oborng sida ond ial soils oki hes) eigenen

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