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AN* ADDRESS

FARM PESTS,

INSECTS, FUNGI, AND ANIMALCULES,

DELIVERED AT A MEETING OF THE

NEW HAMPSHIRE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE,

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HIRAM A’ CUTTING, A.M., M.D., *

STATE GEOLOGIST OF VERMONT.

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JUL 11 1887

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MANCHESTER, N. H.:
PRINTED BY JOHN B. CLARKE.
Si, 92

PESTS OF THE FARM,

INCLUDING INSECTS AND MICROSCOPIC FUNGI.*
BY DR. HIRAM A. CUTTING, LUNENBURG, VT.

INSECT PESTS.

Ir seems proper, as an introduction to the study of farm pests,
that I should say something of the general nature of the objects
of which I speak. As I first speak of the visible pests called
insects, I will define them. Perhaps it would seem almost
superfluous to define the meaning of the word “insect,” yet I
seldom find among the young a perfect understanding of the
classifications of life as found in the animal kingdom. This
kingdom is divided into four great classes :—

1. Animals of all kinds that have back-bones, or “ Verte-
brata,” and then again they are subdivided into four classes ;
viz., mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes.

2. Animals made up of segments or joints, “Articulata.”
These are again subdivided into —

“Tnsects,” a term from the Latin that signifies “cut into,”
which expresses that peculiar segmented form. They generally
have six legs when adult.

“‘ Arachnida,” as spiders, mites, etc., having eight legs.

* This lecture was illustrated by nearly two hundred colored drawings, two:
by two and one-half feet in size, several of which have been engraved for
this work.

1

“Crustacea,” as crabs, lobsters, etc., with from ten to four-
teen legs.

“ Myriapoda,” as thousand-legged worms, or those having
more than fourteen legs.

* Annelida,” or true worms without legs, as the earth-worm.

3. Animals with soft bodies, called “ Mollusca.” ‘These are
without distinct joints, and have no internal or external skeleton.

4. Animals that radiate from a central point like stars,
called “ Radiata.”

But we will return to our special class. Insects are further
known by having their bodies divided into three distinct parts,
as follows: The head, containing the organs of sense; the
thorax, which bears the organs of locomotion ; and the abdomen.
They also undergo a series of molts or changes, and usually
exist in four distinct stages, known as the egg; next as the
“larva,” or masked or hidden form, usually so unlike as not to
be known by its appearance, though an active stage of its life ;
then, as the ‘ pupa” or “chrysalis,” which is an inactive state ;
and lastly, as the “imago,” or perfect and usually beautiful
insect.

To sum up, an insect is a thirteen-jointed, six-legged animal,
divided into three distinct parts, as above described, and may
be with or without wings ; with an external skeleton, and under-
going transformations, breathing through little breathing-holes
in its sides, known as “spiracles,” which lead to air tubes,
answering to our lungs, and known as trachea.

This short explanation shows how we may best prepare our-
selves to fight this common enemy. If we can in any way stop
their breath, by dust or any viscid substance that stops the
spiracles by filling them, we drown them as we would drown in
water. With many, this method is very effective, as breath is
much more necessary than food. In fact, to the adult insect
food is not always necessary, while breath ever is.

But our insect is further classified : —

1. ‘‘ Hymenoptera,” meaning clear or membrane winged, as
flies, bees, etc. Some insects of this order have mouths fitted
for biting and sucking, with a complex structure, as the honey-
bee.

5

2. ‘Coleoptera,’ meaning sheathed or covered wings.
These are known as beetles, and go through a complete trans-
formation. The ‘Colorado potato-bug” is a beetle of this
class.

3. ‘‘Lepidoptera,” meaning scale wings, or wings with
microscopic plumage, as butterflies and moths ; transformations
also complete.

4. ‘‘ Hemiptera,” or half-winged. The insects of this order
are known as bugs. Some have no wings, or only rudimentary
ones, while others are winged and feed upon plants only.

5. “ Diptera,’’ meaning twice-winged or two-winged. This
order is very troublesome to man, and is found everywhere upon
the earth’s surface where inhabitable; the mosquito, gnat,
wheat-midge, cabbage-maggot, onion-maggot, etc., belonging to
this order.

6. ‘ Orthoptera,” or straight wings, meaning straight-winged
insects, including grasshoppers, locusts, etc.

7. “‘Neuroptera,” or nerved-winged insects, their wings
resembling net-work, as the dragon-fly.

Many of this order are beneficial, and few really injurious, to
man.

The time was when any person that attempted the study of
the insect world was derided and laughed at ; the derisive term
of “ bug-hunter ” was applied to him, and every person supposed
that to run after and catch bugs was the insane idea in his life.

More than a century ago, the Swedish authorities became
greatly alarmed at the fearful destruction of the timber in their
dock-yards by a minute boring-beetle. They at length applied
to that renowned “ bug-hunter,”’ Linnzus. He told them that
the perfect beetle, that laid the eggs for the borer, only appeared
in the month of May, and if they would submerge their timber
that month, they would be free from its ravages. The govern-
ment did this, and by this simple and inexpensive method saved
their timber, and at the same time brought the “ bug-hunter”’
into respect as an entomologist, a term from the Greek, mean-
ing ‘one who discourses upon insects,” or treats of them and
their habits.

In Prussia and Germany the rudiments of entomology are

6

taught in their common schools, and I would ask if, in a country
where the damage from insects is variously estimated from one
hundred million to one billion of dollars per annum, and the
extermination of insect pests becomes almost imperative, it is
not worth while for us to look about us for the necessary
information to intelligently fight our foes ?

In a letter before me, I am asked, ‘“ What is science good
for, if scientific men are baffled by one little insect which they
cannot devise means to exterminate ?”’

Science is not baffled, but, like Hercules in the old fable of
the Wagoner, can help you and will help you, only when you
help yourselves. I may now hear you ask, How may we help
ourselves? or, How can New Hampshire alone help herself?
We may safely calculate that the insect ravages in New Hamp-
shire for one year will exceed three millions of dollars. Now is
it too much to say that a concerted action on the part of all
agriculturists would decrease this damage one-half? Did
science have full control of our legislatures, law would require
and enforce the necessary concert of action ; and while agricul-
turists would groan under imaginary tyranny, they would reap
the reward. As _ agriculturists control the legislature, ought
they not to take their best interests under consideration, and
do something for themselves ?

Concerted action is the only way to combat insect foes, and
the law must protect this concerted action from the thriftless
ignoramus that don’t care for himself or neighbors. The fact
is, that the ravages of hostile insects represent a condition of
war, and it is only by organization, and appropriate weapons,
that they can be conquered. The proper subjects for considera-
tion are the materials to be used, and the best time to make the
attack in force, and the weapons to be employed. It is entirely
useless for us to fold our arms and exclaim, “It is the will of
God!”

It is to lead the farmer to realize his position, and to show
him how easy it is to study natural history for his personal
benefit, that I presume to stand before you to-night. I will first”
introduce to you the ten-lined pctato-beetle.

Fig. 1.

TEN-LINED POTATO-BEETLE,— COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE.
Doryphora Decemlineata. SAy.

@, a, eggs; 3b, b, b, larve of different ages; c, pupa; d, perfect insect; e, right wing-cover
enlarged ; 7, leg enlarged.

This bug, so called, is, strictly speaking, a beetle, and is
known to naturalists under the name of Doryphora decemlineata.
It was first described by Thomas Say, who was then with Long’s
exploring expedition to the Rocky Mountains. The specimens
from which his description was written, were collected in the
region of the upper Missouri, and it was found there quite
common. Its food in its native place was the wild potato, so
common to this mountainous region.

As civilization advanced toward this far western section,
carrying the cultivated potato within its reach, this insect
acquired the habit of feeding upon it; it even seems to thrive
upon the cultivated potato better than upon the wild ones, and,
as a result, its numbers vastly increased. In 1859, it had spread
eastward to a point one hundred miles west of Omaha city, in
Nebraska. Prof. Riley says that in 1861 it had invaded Iowa,
and during the next four years it had reached the Mississippi
River. In 1864 and 1865, it crossed that river, invading Illinois,
from which time it has gradually but surely spread over all the
Middle and Northern States.

8

The first account of its destructive propensities was published
in the Prairie Farmer for August 27, 1861. From this time un-
til the present, frequent reports and descriptions have been pub-
lished.

In 1874, it was found upon the sea-coast in New Jersey, but it
was in 1876 that the advance guard invaded New England.

Like other higher species of the Coleoptera, it passes through
a complete metamorphosis, but, unlike many other beetles, it
confines itself during its entire life to the same species of vege-
tation, and, unhappily, selects as its first choice the potato.
This beetle, however, is not, like many of our pests, an importa-
tion, but an original native, of the Far West. Its name would
indicate Colorado as its birthplace, but historical facts, as I
have before stated, would indicate upper Missouri. Yet Prof.
Riley thinks it also existed in Colorado. It, however, seems
true that this beetle committed severe depredations in Nebraska
and Kansas before it was ever seen by the farmers of Colorado,
and when it infested that section the people there considered it
of eastern origin ; but its exact birthplace does not matter.

‘That it is a great lover of the potato-plant is certain; yet it
can exist upon other food when potatoes fail, but first selects
the tomato and other plants nearly allied in properties to the
potato-leaf ; but such plants are seldom attacked until the po-
tato-fields are fully devastated. The eggs of this beetle are
deposited, to the number of seven or eight hundred, by each
female, at intervals during from twenty-five to forty-seven days,
on the leaves of the potato, in regularly arranged clusters of
from twenty to sixty eggs each. They are of an orange color,
and always on the under side of the leaf. In a week after they
are deposited they hatch into larva, which feed upon the foliage
about two weeks, though some fix the period at seventeen days.
When full grown they descend to the ground, where they change
into a pupa state near the surface. The perfect beetle appears
ina little less than two weeks, pairs when about one week old, and
a week later commences the deposit of eggs, as before described.
From two to four broods may be hatched in a season, Thé
statements of the time are, however, liable to vary, being longer
or shorter, according as the weather is more or less favorable to
their development.

9

The mature beetle, as its name indicates, has ten lines of
black lengthwise of its wing-covers, five on each side, the
ground being a medium yellow. It has several black spots upon
its head and thorax, also six legs, and pink gauze wings under
the striped wing-covers. It passes the winter in the perfect
beetle state, burrowing in the ground beneath the frost, coming
out in the spring, just in season to lay its eggs on the young
potato-plant.

The statement is sometimes made that the mature beetle does
not feed, and that they infest the potatoes as soon as they break
through the ground to lay eggs only. This is untrue. The bee-
tles do feed, not as ravenously as the larva, but coming upon
the young plant just as it breaks ground, it has little to eat to
spoil the crop, and if in abundance it will certainly do so, as the
crop of larve from the eggs come on so soon that what they
leave is at once appropriated by them. It is at this stage of the
crop that the farmer needs to be on the alert ; though more
numerous later in the season, when the tops are mature, they
do very little damage.

Bad as these beetles are, they are not as bad as popular opin-
ion makes them. Their first onset is the mostsevere, and farm-
ers accustomed to give up to imaginary evils will talk about the
extermination of the potato. Of that there is no danger from
this cause. In Iowa, in 1870, the beetles were very abundant,
so much so that they swarmed over barns and outhouses, and
also entered dwellings so that you could hardly sit down or walk
without crushing them ; yet the crop of potatoes was the largest
ever known, and they were retailed in the streets for twenty-five
cents per bushel. This abundant crop was raised by every one
planting in anticipation of high prices, thus bringing the opposite
result.

By some this beetle is considered poisonous, but from no just
cause, as it can be picked from the potatoes day after day, by
whole families, with no bad results. Large quantities of them
in a state of putrefaction, like all other animal matter, are disa-
greeable, and doubtless unhealthy, and they should never be
left to putrefy, but be burned or destroyed with boiling water
and then buried. As they are voracious feeders, they may be

10

killed with poison like Paris green, mixed with flour, and dusted
on the potato-leaves. A much better way is to brush them off
into a tin “catcher,” made on purpose, to encircle half the hill.

We have much in New England to favor us in our persecution
of this pest, by way of its natural enemies.

Fig. 6.
ENEMIES OF THE POTATO-BEETLE.

The lady-birds, — Coccinella 9-notata and pupa (Fig. 2), Aip-
podamia 13-punctata, larva and pupa (Fig. 3),— destroy multi-
tudes.

The eggs of the lady-birds are very much like those of the
potato-beetle in color, but are smaller, and not so many in a
cluster, but always laid in close proximity to those of some other
insect. As soon as they hatch they commence their war of
extermination, and, as they are voracious feeders, they follow
it up almost unceasingly. This lady-bird is about two-thirds ~
the size of the potato-beetle when fully grown, of a yellowish
red color, with two or more black markings on each wing-cover,

11

being shorter and more thick-set than the potato-beetle. In fine,
they are about the size and the shape of a half pea. (See Figs.
2 and 3.) ‘There are several varieties, but all are the friends of
the farmer, and should have special protection.

So of the many-banded robber, Harpactor cinctus (Fabr.)
(Fig. 4). It is ever actively on the lookout for food, and woe
to the potato-beetle that falls into its sharp claws.

So of the spined soldier-bug, Avma spinosa (Dallas) (Fig. 5 ;
a, its beak) ; ¢, the beak of the Avschistus punctipes (Say), which
closely resembles the Arma. Doubtless, both species do a
great work, as they are wholesale depredators, not alone upon
the potato-beetles, but upon many farm pests.

There is also a parasitic fly (Fig. 6), Zachza, that not only de-
stroys myriads of the larva of the potato-beetle, but also those
of many other pests. The marks at the bottom of the cut denote
its actual size.

There is also another deadly foe in the Phzlonthus, which
Dr. Packard found to creep even into his hatching-cases and
kill not only enough for food, but all ; just as the weasel or mink
_ will kill more chickens than they need for food. This beetle is
black, with short wing-cases, and is, perhaps, the most terrible
enemy of the Colorado beetle. It is a member of the family
Staphylinide.

There are, perhaps, no natural enemies that will entirely kill
them out, and so, like the farmers at the West, we are inclined
to Paris green. Itis, however, much more dangerous here than
there. All know it is a deadly poison, and not rendered inert
by being eaten by the beetles. Showers wash it from our hill-
sides, together with the dead beetles, into our streams, where it
kills the fish and doubtless poisons the water, so that cattle are
more or less injured by it. On level land it can be used with
much greater safety. If used at all it should be dusted on the
leaves when wet with dew, while the beetles are in their larval
state, or mixed with water at the rate of one tablespoonful of the
green to a pailful of water. When applied dry it is better to mix
with ten parts of flour, by weight ; and great care should be taken
not to inhale the dust, as it is very poisonous. When in solu-
tion it must be almost continually stirred, or the green will sink

12

in the bottom of the sprinkler, as it is not soluble in the
water.

Prof. Riley, of Missouri, says that quite as good results may
be obtained in using the ingredients from which green is made
as from the finished article. The Paris green costs, say thirty-
seven and one-half cents per pound, and the demand is often so
great that it cannot be obtained just when wanted, especially in
back towns. The following directions for making green, from
Brande’s Chemistry, are practical: Dissolve two pounds of sul-
phate of copper (blue vitriol, costing fifteen cents per pound, or
thirty cents) in a gallon of hot water, keeping it in a stone jar.
Dissolve in another large jar, one pound of common white arsenic
(costing about six cents) and two pounds of saleratus or pearl-
ash (costing sixteen cents) in forty-four pounds of hot water,
stirring well till thoroughly dissolved. These articles, costing
fifty-two cents, will make about five pounds of Paris green, which
would cost $1.88.

This can be kept in solution and mixed in proportion of one
part of the first and five of the last solution, as they are needed.
The green immediately begins to precipitate in a fine powder,
and is much more convenient for use in solution than the dry
article. Prof. Riley says that Paris green can be in this way
used without danger ; and all agree that in solution, or mixed
with flour when dry and dusted on, it is the unfailing remedy.

Dr. Leconte advises the use of large atomizers, for not only
the destruction of the potato-beetle, but of all insects that can be
killed by a solution. ‘This idea is worthy of consideration, and
it may doubtless prove invaluable.

When this beetle first came among the farmers, all birds, like
themselves, were suspicious of it, and it has often been reported
that no bird would touch them. Such is not true. Ducks will de-
vour them greedily. Turkeys and all fowls soon learn to like
them for food, and chickens frequently take them in preference to
any other insects. The crow not only takes the beetles and
larvae from the vines in great numbers, but late in the season
digs for the beetles in the ground, and captures thousands of
them. The rose-breasted grosbeak and many other birds have
also a great liking for them. Skunks, toads, and snakes, even,

15

prey upon them ; then our winters are more severe than the
winters West. Jack Frost creeps deeper into the ground, and
must overtake many of the ten-liners that supposed themselves
safe from cold.

Fig. 9.
THE BLISTERING BEETLES. Canxtharide.

These beetles are also great eaters of the potato-plant.
For several years they have done great damage in New England,
but only in special localities. They have not become general.
Those most injurious are the striped Cantharis, Lytta vittata
(Fabr.) (Fig. 7), the margined Cantharis, Cantharis marginata
(Olivier) (Fig. 8), the ash-colored Cantharis, Zytta cinerea (Fabr.)
(Fig. 9, 2, male), and the black Cantharis, Zy/ta marina (Leconte)
(Fig. 9, 2) ; ¢ and @ show the magnified antennz of the male and
female, rendering it easy to distinguish them. These beetles,
while they will make short work of the potato-leaves, when
abundant, are not very fastidious about their food. They will
eat beets as soon as potatoes, and also pig-weed, or almost any
kind of green leaves when the potatoes and beets fail.

There is another species, being a species of oil-beetle, Me/oe

14

angusticollis (Fig. 10), which when plenty are a great foe to po-
tatoes, tomatoes, beets, and various other vegetables ; but they
are vulnerable to insect enemies, and so are only now and then
abundant. They may be killed by Paris green as the potato-
beetle, but cannot be picked off, as they are too spry for the
fingers.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.
STRIPED SQUASH-BEETLE. WDiabrothica Vittata. FABR.

r. Back view of the grub that eats the root and stalk. 2. Side view; both magnified. The
marks show the actual length. Beetle natural size.

This beetle appears on cucumber and squash vines as soon as
they are through the ground, and frequently they penetrate
through the cracks made in the ground by the swelling and
sprouting of the seeds of melons, cucumbers, or squashes, and,
biting off the young sprout, destroy the plant before it is out of
the ground. These beetles need little description. The cut
shows the beetle in outline, and he is well known by the yellow-
ish stripes upon his wing-covers. Their subsequent work, also,
when the leaves appear above the ground, is well understood,
but the biting off the young sprout, thus preventing the devel-
opment of leaves, is frequently not known, and the seeds are
thought to be poor, or other causes are assigned for their non-
appearance above ground.

The gardener watches his plants until he thinks them bese
danger from this beetle, and then is surprised to see them wilt

15

and die without apparent cause. No wound or injury is found
above ground, and so the destruction is looked for in the root.
Here we soon discover the true cause of death, for the roots are
found to be pierced here and there with small holes. In fact so
many are found, that the root presents a corroded appearance.
Upon closer examination the authors of the mischief are easily
detected, either in the root or lurking in the corroded furrows.
They are little whitish worms, about the length of the lines beside
the enlarged view of the worms in this figure.

They are, as found, about the thickness of a good-sized pin.
The head is blackish, brown and horny, and there is a plate of
the same color on the last segment of the worm. These are the
young of the beetle, or “ striped bug,” which was so troublesome
on the leaves earlier in the season, and the eggs from which
they hatched were laid low down on the stalk at that time. In
this masked stage of worm life they do more damage than when
in the beetle form on the leaves. When the worms are full
grown, which is about a month from the time they hatch, they
forsake the root, and retiring to the earth, by continually turn-
ing around they form for themselves a little cavity, or minute
cave, with solid earthy walls, in which they throw off their skin
and become a pupa. ‘This pupa is much shorter and thicker than
the worm ; they remain inactive for about two weeks, taking no
food. At the end of this time they throw off their skin again,
and the perfect beetle is seen, still however in a soft condition,
incapable of movement. Remaining in its cell till these soft
parts have acquired solidity and strength, it breaks through the
walls of its little house, and working itself slowly through the
soil, appears in the light of day a perfect beetle. We have two
generations each year, the second remaining in its dormant or
pupa state through the winter. This generation, doing little
damage, is not often noticed. Many vines not killed by the
worm are so much injured that their value is nearly destroyed.

Covering the vines, with a box covered on top with muslin, has
been considered the only sure remedy, though powdered char-
coal, lime, and sometimes ashes can be used with benefit. In
many cases, however, the material sprinkled on the leaf is as bad
as the beetle. If a handful of shavings be burned near the hills

16

in the evening, many of them will fly into the flames. After
various experiments I have become satisfied that covering the
hills with common newspapers is much the best means to be
used; besides, you get an accelerated growth of the plants.
Just as soon as the seeds are planted, or, at any event, a day or
two before the plants appear, open a newspaper to its full size,
and spread it over the hill, letting it lie close on the ground, and
fasten it in place by hoeing the dirt on the edges, so that no gust
of wind can disturb it. The plants thus covered will grow at least a
third faster than those not covered, are safe from the beetle, and,
what is more, safe from the egg that produces the worm, or
masked stage of the pest. The plants kept covered until the
danger is past are more healthy in every way, producing blos-
soms several days sooner than those not covered. It is seldom
that once covering will not answer all purposes, but should one
be torn off from any cause, it can easily be replaced. I have
tried different colors of paper, and find white or blue paper best
adapted to the purpose. Other colors seem to give a pale green
or sickly appearance to the plants. Newspapers are easily ob-
tained, and are just as good as clear white paper. It will be
seen, also, that this is a protection against late frosts, and I be-
lieve that every person who tries this method of protection will
ever use it with entire satisfaction.

TENT-CATERPILLAR OF APPLE-TREES. Clisiocampa Americana.
HARRIS.

What farmer in New Hampshire is not familiar with the web
nests of this caterpillar, glistening in the rays of the spring sun,
before the trees are in blossom? Yes, before the leaves are
one-half grown, these little white web nests speak volumes.
They tell of a negligent, slovenly farmer, whose spare hours are
got rid of as useless time, and the pests of his orchard revel in
his neglected trees, among which the caterpillar holds conspicu-
ous place. This small white glistening web, if unmolested, soon
spreads over several branches, and the caterpillars strip the
tree of its leaves, to the great damage of it, if not entailing
death, which is ever liable to occur from this cause alone.

This caterpillar is well known to all, yet all do not understand

fee

Ne

Fig. 13.

All natural size; a, larva full grown, side view; 4, larva full grown, back view ; c, cluster
of eggs on a twig; d, cocoon.

its habits. The eggs are laid by a night-flying moth (Fig. 14).
Its color is a dull, yellowish brown, or something inclined to the
reddish tint ; it is unusually thick-bodied and hairy. Its wings
are characterized chiefly by the front wings being divided into
three nearly equal parts, by two transverse whitish or pale
yellowish lines, and by the middle space being paler than the
rest of the wing, in the male, while it is often the same color as
the rest, or even darker, in the female.

Riley says the color is very variable in the Western States.
Dr. Fitch notices great variations, but in this section I do not
find the variations very great, and think all will readily recog-
nize the moth from the foregoing description.

The moth here described lays her eggs in the night, when she
may be found hovering about the tree, in August, or, in the

2

18

southern part of the State, doubtless in the last part of July.
She lays her eggs in oval rings, round the smaller twigs, as seen
in Fig. 13, ¢ These rings contain some three hundred eggs
each, and are covered over with a mucilaginous coating which
answers the double purpose of keeping out the water, and
serving as food for the young when they hatch, to give them
sufficient strength to crawl down the limb to the first fork, where,
by crawling back and forth, they weave from a spinneret in
their mouths the tent in which they live. From this tent they
sally forth twice a day for food, eating voraciously. On an
average, each caterpillar will eat two apple-leaves a day, and no
tree can long live under such a vital drain, As the weather
gets warm, when they return from a meal, instead of going into
their tent, they go to rest upon the outside, as @ and 4. Those
coming in later and finding no room, will crawl over the sleepers,
spinning all the time, until they are covered, and another story
is added to their tent.

Thus from time to time it is increased with their growth,
until their food gives out, or their caterpillar life is spent, when
they lose their social habits, and wander off to find other food,
which they are seldom able to do, or find suitable places in
which to spin their cocoons. These are light-colored, with a
tinge of yellow, and may generally be found attached horizontally
to the under side of fence-rails, or other protected places. They
remain in these about three weeks, when such as have not fallen
a prey to the ichneumon-fly, as many do, come forth to lay their
eggs, as before described. The question so often asked is, How
to destroy them? I will first tell you how you ought not. Some
flash gunpowder on their nests ; others burn them with a torch ;
while some put on kerosene and burn ; and others saturate with
oil to kill them. All these methods are destructive to the trees,
and should never be employed. Upon a moment’s reflection it
will be seen that the easiest and quickest way is to cut off the
twig containing the eggs.

As they are laid in July or August, there is a long period in
which the farmer may destroy them ; and as they are found upon
small twigs, near the end of a branch, they can be found with a .
little careful looking, and cut off. After the leaves have fallen,

19

on a frosty morning the eggs may be readily seen as a dark
band on the twigs, as the frost does not so readily adhere fo
them. When you cut them off always burn them. If this -
method is neglected; watch your trees when they first hatch, and
with a stick remove the entire nest early in the morning, or just
at night, — as they-feed, and are consequently scattered over
the branches, both in the middle of the afternoon and the middle
of the forenoon, and some stragglers are absent all day. If they
are still neglected, as they should not be, there is no sure way
to rid your trees of them but to put on gloves and clean them
off with your hands. You can kill by crushing, or have an
attendant with a pail of hot water, and put in such branches as
you can cut away, or do not crush. Every tent found, whether
on orchard or forest tree, should be destroyed.

The black cherry (Cerasus serotina), so common throughout
the State, is a favorite tree with this caterpillar. If I could
have my way in the matter, as they are a useless tree, I would
cut them all down, or else pass a law fining the owner of
premises where the caterpillars’ nests were not destroyed. Con-
certed action would soon put an end to its ravages; and the
thousands of bushels of apples annually destroyed, together
with damage to trees for the ensuing crop, would well repay the
amount of time and labor necessary for their extermination.

Where apple-trees are overrun, it will feed upon the plum,
thorn, rose, willow, common red-cherry, poplar and white-oak,
and even sometimes upon witch-hazel and beech trees. But it
will ever be found in the greatest numbers upon the black-
cherry and apple trees.

FOREST TENT-CATERPILLAR. Clisiocampa Sylvatica. HARRIS.

This caterpillar (Fig. 15), the representation of which is a
back view, is often erroneously called the “army-worm,” and
may sometimes be seen in vast numbers, marching along a
hard road in the hot sun, or crawling in great numbers along
the railroad track. When closely examined it will be found to
resemble the apple-tree. tent-caterpillar, and is often confounded
with that also. The following difference, however, will be
apparent :—

20

Ss Fig 16.
LPS
“iS
Fig. 15.
a, eggs; 4, female moth, natural size; c, enlarged view of egg from top; d, enlarged view of

eggs from side.

The eggs, as may be seen from the above cut, are distin-
guished from the common tent-caterpillar by being of uniform
diameter in the entire mass, which is docked off squarely at the
ends. They are usually composed of about four hundred eggs,
the mass being of a creamy white color. These eggs are de-
posited in circles around the twig, and with each egg is deposited
a brown varnish ; the second circle is closely fitted into the first,
so the eggs stand like rows of cells in honey-comb. In this.
section, the eggs are deposited in July, or the first of August,
the larvae are quite fully formed by the time winter commences,
and the warm days of spring bring them into being, even before
there are any leaves on the trees; and it is a singular fact in
their nature, that they may not only be frozen, but they actually
exist for two or three weeks without food, standing any amount
of inclement weather, waiting for the leaf-buds to develop into
leaves, which they then eat with hearty relish. As soon as they
are born they commence spinning a thread wherever they go,
yet as the web is beneath them, close to the bark of the tree, it
is often overlooked. They live more or less in company, like
the common tent-caterpillar, but go through four successive
molts before they arrive at maturity, and at such times huddle -
in bunches, remaining for a day or two inactive. At their fourth

21

molt, they quite unwittingly court destruction by collecting in
masses upon the trunks of trees, often within a few feet of the
ground. After this molt, it may be seen (as before mentioned,)
wandering about to find a suitable place to form its cocoon.
Why it wanders in such places, and then takes up with a leaf
that it can draw together, or several leaves all combined to
cover it, we can hardly tell. It, however, frequently spins its
cocoons under fence-rails, boards, or any sheltered protection.

The cocoon is much like that of the common tent-caterpillar.
Three days after its completion, the caterpillar again casts its
skin, and becomes a chrysalis, of a pale reddish brown color,
dusted all over with a pale powder, and densely clothed with
short and yellowish hairs. In a couple of weeks more, or
usually in this State from the first to the tenth of July, the moth
issues, being of a brownish yellow, and having two oblique
transverse lines across the front wings. It is quite like the
moth of the common tent-caterpillar. The most marked differ-
ence is, that the transverse bands upon the front wings are
darker in this, and lighter in the other species.

__ There is one noticeable fact about this pest; that is, that for
several years we see few, if any, of them, and then there is a
year or two of great plenty. The reason of this is, that our
insect friends, and we fortunately have many that live upon this
caterpillar, gain ground upon it, and come near exterminating
it ; but, with a dearth of food, they die out also, and the cater-
pillar then gains again, to become a prey to his persecutors.

By their aid we get along nicely, only now and then a year,
when we have to kill them to save our trees. If you jar the
tree or branch upon which they are feeding, they will spin down
a few inches, and may then be picked off. At their fourth molt,
they may be killed as. they congregate upon the leeward side of
trees, as before noticed ; but, as they have already eaten up the
foliage, it is not so necessary to kill them as it was earlier, yet
always kill them when you can. If you search your trees for
eggs in the winter, and destroy them, you will never have much
trouble.

When one tree is denuded of foliage the caterpillar travels to
another and ascends it. This can be prevented by putting tar

to

2

or printers’ ink upon a band about the trees not infested. The
cocoons may also be sought for and many killed.

SS

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WEB-WORM. Ayphantria Textor. HARRIS.
All natural size. a@, caterpillar; 4, chrysalis; c, moth.

One of the most common and destructive of our insect pests
is the little caterpillar known by the name of the “fall web-
worm,” or perhaps more commonly as the “web-worm.” The
web of this, which at first look seems an insignificant caterpil-
lar, frequently, in the months of July and August, covers the
limbs of many trees —a web enclosing leaves seared and dead,
from the ravages of this pest. They are more often seen upon
elm and apple trees, but other trees are not exempt ; and often,
towards the end of summer, most of our fruit and shade trees
show the ominous web enclosing dried leaves. The eggs from
which these caterpillars proceed, are laid by the parent moth in
a cluster upon the end leaf of a branch. When these eggs
hatch, they are generally on the third or fourth leaf from the end
of the twig, as since the eggs were laid the limbs have usually
extended their growth to that extent.

As soon as they hatch they begin to spin. To provide a shel-
ter for themselves, they cover the top of the leaf with a close
web, which is the result of their united labors. They feed in
company beneath this covering, devouring only the upper skin
and pulpy portions of the leaf, leaving the veins and lower side
untouched. The leaf withers, and they enlarge their web, tak-
ing in other leaves, first to the end and then downward on the
branch, and taking in other branches, — frequently destroying
the entire amount of foliage on the tree.

23

When fully grown, this caterpillar measures a little more than
one inch in length, having a body rather more slender than other
similar feeders, very sparsely covered with hairs of a grayish
color, intermingled with a few that are black. The general color of
the body is greenish yellow, dotted with black. There is a brown-
blackish stripe along the top of the back, and a bright yellow
stripe on each side. The warts from which the hairs proceed
are black on the back and rusty yellow on the sides. The head
and feet are black. Of course their age has much to do with
the distinctness of the markings, and the adult worm only will
be found perfectly marked.

In the last of August, or more generally in the month of
September, they leave the trees and disperse, wandering about,
eating a little of almost all plants they happen to find in
their way, until they find a suitable place for concealment, where
they make their thin, almost transparent cocoons, composed of
a slight web of silk intermingled with the cast-off hairs from
their bodies. If this place is not found they bury themselves

just beneath the surface of the ground, where they spin as be-
fore, and remain in all cases through the winter in this latitude ;
- but farther south they are said to be two-brooded.

The pupz are transformed to moths in the ensuing June or
July. These moths are white and without spots in New Hamp-
shire, but at the South are said to possess rudimentary spots
upon the first pair of wings. The fore legs are tawny yellow,
and their feet blackish. Their wings expand about one and
one-fourth inches. The antennz and feelers do not differ from
those of other moths ; but the females have two rows of minute
teeth beneath the antennz, which is a distinguishing feature.

_ From the foregoing description of its habits and transforma-
tions, it is evident that the time to exterminate these destructive
insects is when they are first hatched from the egg, or while but
few leaves are involved. This can be done at any time of the
day, as they do not go about the tree for food, like the tent-cat-
erpillars, but are always on the leaves covered with the web. If
you carefully pick the leaves, it is sufficient ; or you can cut off
the branch affected, if you choose. In any event they must be
destroyed, and the surest and best method is to burn them.

24

Take a basket into your orchard, gather in it all the leaves on
which the web is found, take them to your stove and burn them.
Close attention to your premises for a few years will almost en-
tirely rid you of this pest. On no account delay, as, if you do,
they will slip through your fingers and very much increase your
labors the next season. If they are neglected until they cover
more than you desire to prune away, kill as you do the tent-cat-
erpillar. .

Some consider this the second brood of the tent-caterpillar,
but from the foregoing account it will at once be seen how wide-
ly they differ. It hibernates in the pupa state, they in the egg
state ; it appears in midsummer and fall, they in the spring ; its
moth is pure white, theirs reddish brown ; its eggs are deposited
on the leaf and are hatched ina few days, theirs are deposited
on the twig, so as to pass the winter on the tree; this feeds
solely upon the soft part of the leaf under its web, they devour
the whole leaf always on the outside of their tent. It will thus
be seen that the only time and best manner of extermination
must be as above given.

CODLING-MOTH. Carpocapsa Pomonella. LINN.

a, apple eaten by larva; 4, spot where egg is laid andthe young worm enters; c, cavity
made by larva; d, chrysalis; e, larva full grown; _/, moth with wings folded; g, moth with
wings expanded; 4, head and first joint of larva (enlarged); 7, cocoon.

25

This insect is, doubtless, found everywhere, where apples are
raised. Inthe month of June, in this State, the night-flying
moth comes from his silken cocoon, which was hid under some
bit of bark, or sliver, on the fence near by. After pairing, the
female may be seen in the dusk of night flitting around the
apple-tree, laying her eggs in the blossom-end of the little
apples.

There are two broods each season. The first brood is very
small, but the second is fifty to one of the first, or even more.

The worm when young is whitish, with usually an entirely
black head, and a black shield on the top of the first segment.
When fully grown it acquires a flesh-colored or pinkish tint, espe-
cially on the back, and the head and top of first segment, as at
4, become more brown. It is sparsely covered with very minute
hairs, which take their rise from little elevated points, of which
there are eight on each segment. The cocoon is invariably of
a pure color on the inside, but is disguised on the outside by
being covered with minute fragments of whatever substance the
worm happens to spin to. The chrysalis is yellowish brown,
with rows of minute spines upon its back, by the aid of which
it is enabled to partly push itself out of its cocoon, when its
time to issue as a moth arrives.

The moth is a beautiful object, yet from its habits not being
known it is seldom seen in this State ; and the apple-grower, as
a general thing, knows no more of the insect that gives him so
many wormy apples than he does of men in the moon. Its fore
wings are marked with alternate, irregular, transverse, wavy
streaks of ash-gray and brown, and have, on the inner hind an-
gle, a large, tawny-brown spot, with streaks of bright bronze or
gold. As apples are raised in almost all sections of our coun-
try, and wherever apples are raised this insect is a dreadful pest,
it becomes us to be well acquainted with its habits, and I shall
therefore speak more at length of it than of most other insects.

Riley says, that in Missouri, as well as elsewhere, it is mostly
two-brooded ; the second brood of worms hibernating in the
larval state, inclosed in their snug little silken home, under
some fragment of bark or other protection. The spring weather
that causes our apple-trees to burst into blossom, releases this

26

imago from its pupal tomb, and though its wings are at first
damp, they soon dry under the rays of the sun that waked them
into their full existence, and they seek their companions. They
soon pair, when the male dies, and the female deposits, as be-
fore stated, thousands of tiny yellow eggs. As the fruit begins
to form, the egg hatches, and the worm develops in the little
apple. In from one month to six weeks it has become full
grown, Eating its way out, as may be seen in the plate, it
leaves the apple, and, spinning its cocoon in some crevice,
changes in about three days to a chrysalis, and issues in about
two weeks as a moth, same as before, only this time they do not
always lay their eggs at the calyx, as they are often found now
to enter at the side of the apple. This brood causes the wormy
apples in the fall of the year. This second brood always passes
the winter in a larval] state, either as a worm in the apple, or as
a cocoon, and it makes no difference with the time of its matur-
ity whether it goes into its cocoon in September or any time in
the fall, or not until spring. Neither does it matter whether it
is in a warm room, or frozen, as in proper time, — that is, when
the trees are in blossom, — it comes forth to propagate its kind.

Riley says that when in a warm room they are active enough
in winter, and will always fasten up any cuts made in their co-
coons, though the cuts may be often repeated. These active
worms perfect themselves at the proper season, just as well as
those that have had a dormant stage, so we may conclude that
the dormant stage is not a necessity with this insect.

As this pest destroys millions of dollars’ worth of fruit every
year, of course it is worth our while to do all in our power to
rid ourselves of it. This is a somewhat difficult thing to do,
but a great deal can be done to mitigate the evil.

Various authors recommend catching the moth with plates of
sweetened vinegar or sweetened water, to be left standing about
the trees in spring-time. A few may thus be caught, but at
least twenty of our friends may be caught, and usually are, to
one of our enemies, so that method is useless.

The first crop of worms, as I have before said, is much the
smaller, and as the development within the little apple prevents
the full development of the apple, it withers and at length drops

27

off, usually before the worm leaves it. If this apple could al-
ways be destroyed, of course the worm would reap the same
destruction. Hogs in orchards in sufficient numbers would do
this, by eating all the little windfalls, but hogs are not always at
hand. A much better way is to spread a large cloth, prepared
for the purpose, beneath the tree, just as the first apples begin
to fall, and then by jarring the tree most can be jarred off, and
then boil them. This operation, repeated once in three or four
days, for, say three times each season, will destroy almost all the
first brood, and prevent further trouble that year.

No definite date can be given for this treatment, as some years
the season varies many days; watching the fruit, and gath-
ering as directed, as soon as the first signs of exit of the worm
can be found, or as soon as they begin to fall, will be sufficient
direction.

Another method, as given in the Country Gentleman, June 15,
1871, is also valuable. The writer recommends knocking them
off with a pole. He says: “Two men with poles usually knock
off the wormy specimens about as fast as one boy can gather in
a basket.’’ I suspect that this would usually be done too late,
as after the worm has eaten its way out of the apple, thus show-
ing the wormy ones, they might as well remain, for the worm is
what we want to destroy, not its home. The exudations re-
ferred-to are not indications of the presence of the worm, but,
on the contrary, are sure indications that it is zof there. I will
observe that the gathering of the withered fruit in New Hamp-
shire would probably always need to be in the month of July,
and, to do good, must always be before the exit of the worm. If
this is not done, cloths laid in the crotches of the branches to
shelter the worms and entice them to build their cocoons, wisps
of hay or straw wound round the trees, folded or twisted paper
bands put around the trees, or any attachment that will afford
shelter to the worm and entice it to spin its cocoon, in sucha
way that it can be destroyed, is beneficial. These bands or
cloths, after the cocoons are formed, should be burned, so as to
make the destruction sure. They should first be placed about
the trees about one month after the tree is in full blossom, and
from this time to the time the apples are picked they should

28

be kept in order, being examined every week, and if cocoons
are found they should be at once destroyed, and new bands put
in their places, or if but a few they may be crushed, and the old
protectors remain.

In a letter received this season, I am asked the philosophy of
the hay or straw bands. I can only say, with Prof. Riley, that
the straw or hay bands simply afford an enticing shelter for the
worm when seeking for a place to build its spun-up house. The
hay band is just the thing wanted, as it affords the requisite
shelter, and in ninety-nine cases in a hundred will be accepted.
There are many patent traps for the same thing, but I am at
least safe in saying that none of them are any better than the
straw band ; many not half as good.

Of the second crop of wormy apples, which are found so
often in the barrels that find their way to market, I can only say
that a careful examination in early spring of the barrels and the
cellar in which they are kept, and the careful killing of all the
cocoons that are found, will do much towards preventing the
early brood. Though they have a few natural enemies, they are
not in such abundance as to allow the orchardist to depend upon
them in the least, and so I need make no mention of them.

4
\

t
\\

iw i.

Fig. 19.
ROUND-HEADED APPLE-TREE BORER. Saferda Bivittata. Say.
Figures all natural size. a, larva full grown; 4, pupa; c, perfect beetle.

This is a native American, born and bred in the mountains;
feeding upon the wild crab, mountain ash, and various other trees.
It comes out of the trunk, usually in June, and always by night,

29

in its perfect state. Resting by day, in the night-time it flies
from tree to tree for food and companions. Though they feed
upon the bark of branches where it is tender and succulent, they
lay their eggs on the bark at the foot of the tree, where the
young, as soon as hatched, commence to burrow in the bark.
For the first year, they live mostly in the bark, but, towards the
last of the season, advance into the sap-wood. Frequently, in
young trees, the bark over them will crack and allow their cast-
ings to fall out, and thus they may be detected. They remain
in the trees three years. As the time comes for their exit, they
eat their way to the bark, thin that somewhat, and go into the
pupa state, to emerge perfected in about four weeks. Fifty years
ago, large, thrifty, long-lived apple-trees were exceedingly com-
mon, and were grown with comparatively little effort on the part
of our ancestors. This borer in the apple-tree was then entirely
unknown to the farmer, and the first specimen ever seen was.
found and described by Thomas Say, in 1824; and it was not
till some time after, that its destructive powers became evi-
dent in the apple-tree. © Yet it is to this borer, almost entirely,
that the short and precarious life of the apple-tree is due.

All understand this borer to be a dreadful pest, but how to
deal with it is the question; and to show more fully its habits,
and how it may be exterminated, I will briefly review its history.
The eggs when laid, as before mentioned, soon hatch, and the
tiny worm, differing from the adult in no essential point but
size, eats into the bark, and then follows between the bark and
wood, sometimes entering the sap-wood low down towards the
root the first season. While eating its way in lengthy furrows
beneath the bark, the bark sometimes cracks, and the castings.
of the worm tumble out, revealing its presence. When such is:
the case, they may be killed with a sharp wire, or carefully cut
out with the point of a knife. If left alone they will remain in-
active through the winter, to commence their work again early
in the spring. The second season they spend mostly in the sap-
wood, or near the bark, getting two-thirds their size, and this.
year doing their greatest damage, as five or six of them will fre-
quently girdle or nearly girdle the tree, making death sure ; they
again winter low down in the body of the tree, and eat the next

30

season deeply into the wood, sometimes quite through the tree,
finishing its gnawing work at the commencement of the third
winter. At the close of its work it extends its passage invaria-
bly to the bark, and thinning that somewhat, stuffing the upper
end with wood, like sawdust, and below with soft wood fibres, it
rests from its labors, remaining motionless as before through the
winter. The following spring it casts off its skin, becoming a
pupa ; rests in this condition about three weeks ; and then, as a
beetle, gradually gets strength, and after nearly two weeks more,
cuts its way through the sawdust piled against the bark, and then
the bark, to issue through a round hole as an adult beetle, ready
to propagate as before. The time from its entry to its egress, is
about one month short of three years.

Few ever take the trouble to hnnt for this beetle, and as it
flies in the night, lying concealed during the day, it is not often
seen in the adult state. As will be seen in the cut, it has two
stripes its entire length, and is rather handsome.

There is still another species, called the flat-headed species,
as the head of the larva is flat, but, as it is never very abundant
and is of small size, it seldom does much harm, and the same
treatment is destructive to both species.

The best remedy is to prevent the successful laying of eggs,
which may be done by smoothing and then soaping the bark.
If such is done near the ground only, they will lay their eggs at
the juncture of the largest limbs, or higher up on the trunk, so
scraping and soaping must be thorough. If the borers are
really in the trees, there is no way except to kill them, or cut
them out one at a time. A small piece of whalebone is the best
to kill them with, by pushing it into their holes. A piece of
wire will answer. When the bark is killed over them it is just
as well to cut them out. The application of the soap is neces-
sary in May. Either soft or hard soap will do, but if hard soap
is used a thin piece had better be crowded down into each prin-
cipal crotch of the tree, so that the rain may wash it down the
trunk. Do this, of course, after having washed the tree with
strong suds. ‘

Fig. 20.
THE CURRANT-WORM. WMematus Ventricosus. KLuG.

@, @, a, different stages of grqwth; 4, a single segment of the caterpillar magnified.

Fig. 21.

Adult specimens enlarged.» The:matks at the side represent the actual measurement with
wings spread. a, male; 4, female.

This worm is so common and so well known in New Hamp-
shire that it needs no description. It affords an excellent ex-
ample of the wonderful rapidity with which an important insect

32

may increase and flourish in this country. It was imported from
Europe in 1860, into nurseries, in Rochester, N. Y. Since that
time it has not only spread eastward throughout New England,
but to the Far West. It is a dreadful pest to the currant and
gooseberry bushes, and in sections where it has been left to do
its work. unchecked such fruits are numbered as things of the
past.

Though near fifty species of the Vematus are natives of this
country, this little foreigner has forced himself so disagreeably
to our notice that we almost forget the ravages of the native
varieties.

Though the worm is so well known, the fly that causes the
mischief is seldom noticed. The female is of a bright honey-
yellow color. The head is black, with all the parts below, as
well as between, the origin of the antennz, except the tip of the
jaws, a dull honey-yellow. The antennz are brown-black, often
tinged with reddish above, except toward the base, and beneath,
entirely dull reddish, except the two basal joints. They are four-
fifths as long as the body; the third joint, when viewed side-
ways, is four times as long as wide; the third, fourth, and
fifth joints slowly diminishing in length. On the thorax are
four conspicuous black spots and other smaller ones. The legs
are bright honey-yellow ; the hip joints whitish, with the extreme
tips of the hind shanks, and the whole of the hind toe joints
are blackish brown. The wings are glossy, with dark veins, and
expand a little over one-half inch. It is stated in the American
Entomologist, that in Europe she is known to lay eggs which
have not been fertilized, and from them young caterpillars are
hatched. It is probable, however, that they do not have the
power of again propagating the race, and that the eggs hatch
and the worms eat it just as likely as in the case of the silk-worm
and other moths, as well as of some insects, including the
honey-bee.

The male (Fig. 21, @) is rather smaller and is black. The
head is dull honey-yellow. The antenne are brown-black, often
a little reddish beneath, except toward the base; they are as-
long as the body; while longer than in the female, they are
also somewhat flattened out. The under side of the thorax and

33

abdomen are honey-yellow. I have given this minute description
of the fly, as, if seen and killed, hundreds of the worms may
be saved. The eggs are laid about the 2zoth of May in New
Hampshire, in regular rows, along the under side of the veins
of the leaf, at the rate of about two a minute. The embryo
escapes from the egg in from four to ten days, and immediately
commences feeding. ‘They continue their work upon the bushes
until they are bare of leaves, and then, whether fully grown or
not, go down into the ground and form little black pupee, vary-
ing in size according to the way the worm is fed. Emerging in
about two weeks, they lay their second brood, which pass the
pupa state in the ground, as before, but do not emerge until the
following spring. The fly lives about nine days.

For their destruction, we first look to the birds. While a few
only will catch the fly, none are found to eat the worm. Thus
we are deprived of our most powerful ally. We never half
realized the good done by insectivorous birds until we have an
enemy they disregard. Among the natural enemies of this pest
are three kinds of ichneumon-flies, of which one is an egg
parasite. From this aid three-fourths of the eggs are destroyed ;
‘but the other fourth give us much trouble.

The first method of destruction is to pick off the worms and
destroy them. This, if there are but few bushes, can be done
quite easily, and is really the most practicable method.

The next in use is to dust on the leaves powdered white helle-
bore, from a muslin bag. Used in this way, it is not sufficiently
poisonous to render dangerous the use of the fruit. This is
recommended by Walsh and Riley.

A solution of a pound of copperas to six gallons of water has
been used with success. It blackens the leaves, but does no
injury to them. Suds made of carbolic soap may be sprinkled
on from a common sprinkler. Any dust that touches them is
lodged in the spiracles, or breathing-pores, and soon produces
death. Dust from the road, dried fine plaster of Paris, or any
finely pulverized substance will answer. The Grafton fertilizer,
which was finely pulverized quartz, was the best material I ever
saw for killing them. It possessed the requisites of great fine-
ness and perfect dryness, so it would make a dust easily,

3

34

Gum aloes are, when fine, equally penetrating, and less danger-
ous than the white hellebore.

By a little attention in time this pest can be easily stayed, by
any of the means spoken of, but Zhe Boston Fournal of Chemis-
try says this worm can be immediately destroyed by the use of
carbolate of lime. This is certainly less costly and more agree-
able to use than the hellebore, so to those that must buy some-
thing to use, instead of using road-dust, I would recommend it.
With two or three applications the work would be done.

CABBAGE-WORM. Pieris Rape.

Fig. 23, butterfly of the cabbage-worm, male. Fig. 24, female. The female is distin-
guished from the male by having two round spots, rarely three, on the wings. The body of
this butterfly is black above, with white wings. a, cabbage-worm; 4, chrysalis.

This worm, the product of the rape-butterfly, is the great pest
of the cabbage-grower, and doubtless the worst of all our
imported insects. It was imported from England to Quebec in
1857, as it is supposed, with a quantity of cabbages ; but it was
so sparse that none were seen until 1859, and so rapid was its
increase that in 1864 it had extended at least forty miles in
every direction from Quebec, and it was estimated that it caused

35

a loss of the cabbage crop that would have sold for at least two
hundred and fifty thousand dollars.

In England and Europe, it is he butterfly everywhere common ;
its larva is the dread of every cook, as she expects to cook
several with every cabbage, notwithstanding her utmost care.
Its chrysalides are so abundant in the winter-time that they seem
present upon everything that affords them the least protection ;
even upon the doors of dwellings in constant use several may
often be found. America had two native species, which some-
times appeared upon the cabbage, but they were content with
the outside leaves ; but while this important species riddle the
outside leaves, they secrete themselves in the head also, and
render it necessary to pull the same to pieces before cooking,
and then you are not sure, for many times they appear cooked
with the leaf. The color is so near that of the leaf upon which
they feed that they are ever liable to appear as unwelcome
visitants. The use of the cabbage among all is rapidly de-
creasing from this cause. It has already spread over large
sections of the country, being taken in Vermont in 1866, in
Maine in 1868, and around New York and Boston in 1870. It
is now almost as wide-spread as the cabbage is cultivated.

The butterflies have their bodies black above, with wings
white, as may be seen in the cuts.

The female may be distinguished from the male by having
two round spots, rarely three, instead of one as in the male,
upon the front wings. Underneath both sexes are alike, and
have two spots on each front wing, but none on the back ones,
which are usually yellowish, yet sometimes with a greenish tint.
They vary much in color, but the above general description will
be sufficient to enable one to recognize them, as the first
impression will be white or nearly so, and the slight variations
of tint, from yellow to green, will not be likely to much confuse.

This butterfly deposits its eggs upon the leaves of the cabbage,
usually upon the under side. They are exceedingly beautiful
when magnified, having a delicate tint, variable as in the butter
fly, and seemingly etched with a beautiful network of lines. The
larva, as seen in the cut at a, is pale green, finely dotted with
black, with a yellowish stripe down the back, and a row of yel-

36

lowish spots along each side in a line with the breathing-holes.
As the stripes and spots are somewhat obscure, some farmers do
not notice them, and think they have another variety, which is
possible, as we have two native species that sometimes feed
upon the cabbage, but they are sparse in numbers, and seldom
seen in New Hampshire.

When about to transform, it leaves the plant upon which it
feeds and takes shelter under the rails of fences, in stone-walls,
or any place convenient, and changes to a chrysalis, which,
though variable in color, is usually pale green, speckled with
minute black dots, as seen at 4.

The second brood pass the winter in this condition, this
species, like our native ones, having two broods a year.

The first remedy that occurs to most when they see their
cabbages destroyed, is to quit raising them, and starve them
out. This cannot be, as they feed upon several plants, and
even upon the willow, when other food is not at hand.

The first method of attack is to cover the young plant with
mosquito-netting, held off from the leaves by sticks, usually four
of them, set in the ground, and a piece of netting pinned on.
This is done in various ways, according to the tact of the person
doing it, and, when properly done, prevents the eggs being laid
upon the leaves, and so the cabbage grows in security. This
costs, besides the labor, from one to two cents for each cab-
bage.

If this is not done, picking the eggs is the next method.
They can be easily found, and, if attended to often, they may all
be destroyed. Children can easily do this, and are usually led
to do it by the promise of a small reward for any certain number
found. When the butterflies are seen about your garden they
can easily be caught in a net, as they are slow, lumbering fliers,
and easily killed, thus crushing hundreds of eggs without hunt-
ing for them.

If the eggs have not been destroyed, poultry, if in numbers,
will pick off most of the worms, as they are considered by fowls
as a sweet morsel, very desirable. But we can not fully depend
upon them to do the work, though they will help greatly. As
they get into the very heart of the cabbage-head, hand-picking

37

will not amount to much more, but yet it will decrease their
numbers so that cabbages can be raised.

Paris green or white hellebore will, of course, kill the worms,
but should never be used, as it will lodge in the growing head
and endanger the lives of those making use of the cabbage.
Dust sprinkled on it is also effectual, but will leave grit in the
head so as to injure it for eating, yet is without danger.

Carbolic soap-suds are destructive to them, and if not too
strong will not injure the plant. Fine sawdust impregnated
with carbolic acid is one of the best things for their destruction.
Superphosphate of lime, fine salt, ashes, and lime have all been
used with effect, yet nothing of the kind is sure to kill all the
worms. Close attention to the plant, or perfect protection by
netting, as first spoken of, is the only way to secure a crop of
cabbages.

If, as estimated, at least half a million dollars’ worth of
cabbages were destroyed by it around New York City alone,
last year, and an average of two hundred and fifty thousand
dollars’ worth are annually destroyed around Boston, Montreal,
-and other cities, it shows beyond question, that we have, in
spite of our warfare upon it, an implacable foe.

We have thus far but one insect that lends us substantial aid.
This is a species of chalcid-fly, and so rapid has been its work
that of one hundred and ten chrysalides, collected by F. W. Put-
nam, of Salem, Mass., at least two-thirds were infested, and
brought forth chalcid-flies instead of cabbage-butterflies. In
most sections, however, this help has not yet arrived, but will
become general, doubtless, in a few years.

By placing boards elevated a few inches from the ground
about your cabbages, the worms will select these places for their
change to the chrysalis state ; and as those infested by the chal-
cid-fly can be easily distinguished by the livid and otherwise
diseased appearance of the body, and left to produce flies, while
the healthy are destroyed, you can aid your friends and destroy
your enemies. If the chrysalides are all found healthy, you can
make a general destruction.

Fig. 26; Larva.

Fig. 25; Tongue.
COMMON HOUSE-FLY. Musca Domestica. LINN.

This fly, in fact, needs no introduction, as it is well known
everywhere, so I do not as much as give its portrait.

There is, however, in the study of the proboscis and tongue-
like organ, as seen in the cut above (Fig. 25), much for study.
The maxilla are minute, and their palpi (7p) are single-jointed,
and the mandibles (m) are comparatively useless, being very
short and small compared with the lancet-like jaws of the mos-
quito. But the structure of the tongue itself (/abium, 7) is
most curious. When the fly settles upon a lump of sugar, or
any other eatable substance, it unbends its tongue, extends it,
and the broad, knob-like end divides into two broad, flat, muscu-
lar leaves (7), which thus present a sucker-like surface, with
which the fly laps up its food. These two leaves are supported
upon a frame-work of tracheal tubes, which act as a set of
springs to open and shut the muscular leaves. These, it will be
seen from the magnified cut, end in hairs projecting externally.
Thus the inside of this broad, fleshy expansion is rough, like a
rasp, and so is easily employed by the insect in scraping or tear-
ing delicate surfaces. It is by means of this curious structure
that the house-fly occasions much injury to the covers of books,
or any polished surface that owes its polish to albuminous mate-
rial. It is by means of these, also, that it teases us in the heat
of summer, when it alights upon the hands or face, to sip the
perspiration as it exudes from, and is condensed upon, the skin.

Doubtless all have noticed that house-flies are more numerous

39

about barns, but few trace the transformation of the fly. Where
the house-fly comes from, is often asked, yet seldom answered,
as its habits have not been much observed. The barn and its
vicinity are usually its birthplace, and about such places may be
seen in June, now and then, stray flies, the remnant of last year’s
brood, that have in some sheltered nook survived in a dormant
state the cold of winter. The excrements of the horse are the
most desirable on which to deposit its eggs, and yet they may,
for want of that material, deposit them on other refuse of the
barn, and sometimes even on sand or loam that is made rich by
the wash of the buildings. The eggs hatch almost immediately,
producing a maggot, fleshy, smooth, and shining, about one-
third of an inch in length, and yellowish white (Fig. 26).
After feeding for some time it goes into the pupa state, shorten-
ing up as in @ (Fig. 26). It is a reddish brown case, two-thirds
the length of the maggot, and, as seen in the cut, thicker and
stouter. In this transition case it remains from six to ten days,
— according to the warmth of the weather, — emerging there-
from a perfect, full-grown fly. JI have frequently called the
attention of the farmer to the pupa case, asking him what it
was. He almost invariably answers that he supposes them un-
digested oats that have passed his horse; and in several
instances they were dosing horses for indigestion, having taken
these pupz for the signs of such. From inquiry thus, I have
concluded that most farmers notice the pupa cases, but do not
understand what they are. I have never known the house-fly
to lay its eggs upon meat, or anything about the house, though
they sometimes do about a sink-spout, or other places where
slops are thrown out. With a little concerted action among our
population, the house-fly might be greatly decimated in numbers.
All barnyard fowls are fond of the larva and the pupa also, and,
if yarded where they have full access to their breeding-grounds,
will greatly aid in their destruction. As fowls are given to
much wandering, they will seldom eat the pupa unless shut up
in a yard where the manure from the barn is thrown, or where
it usually lies ; as the dirt in such locations is rich enough in the
necessary larval food to produce them if no manure is at hand.
We will now turn our attention to microscopic pests.

40

MICROSCOPIC PESTS.

At the present time, every one who possesses any love of na-
ture, or even a love simply for marvelous things, desires some
knowledge of the minute mysteries of nature. To follow out
the peculiar character of animal or plant when too small singly
for the human eye to study, requires a microscope. At the prices
they are now sold for, they are within reach of almost every one.
With our microscope complete, wherever we search, be it our
own dwellings, the meadow or the upland, the grasses or the
forest, the ruin crumbling into dust or the sands of the sea-
shore, even in the waters of our marshes, rivers, lakes or ocean,
there may be discovered plants and animals which are unknown
to our unaided vision, yet endowed with organs perfectly adapted
to their respective necessities ; and with regard to the latter, of-
ten, if not always, for their enjoyment. Even in the aqueous
vapor and dust of the atmosphere are germs of living beings,
both animal and vegetable, though the latter much predominate,
that the microscope alone enables us to contemplate with any
satisfaction,

It is true that when near sundown a beam of sunlight strug-
gles through the thick foliage of a forest, or enters our room by
means of some small aperture, we can see, floating in that beam
of light, numerous particles of apparent dust, yet what its form,
or its ultimate destination, our unaided eye could never inform
us. It is the microscope alone that gives us aid, and that shows
us countless spores, or seeds to reproduce minute vegetation, as
well as plants actually flourishing in the atmosphere. Also the
germs of animal life are often, yes, very often, there ; and, judg-
ing from analogy, we find thus an easy method to propagate by
germ various diseases in the human family ; and that such is
often true is beyond reasonable doubt, though such germs have
never been fully identified. In our limited survey of those won-
ders of life and organization, which are thus revealed to us, itis
natural to first turn our attention to the vegetable kingdom.
And the largest number, as well as the most interesting, of the
peculiar plants thus revealed in all their beauty, yet perhaps

41

the most difficult to understand, on account of their varied ap-
pearance and intermediate forms, are the

FUNGI.

Their sudden appearance and growth, their ephemeral nature,
and the multiplicity of their forms, have always been a source
of trouble to investigators, and even the most indefatigable of
modern mycologists have been able to lift but partially the veil
which hangs over the life and development of these organisms.
Almost every one, however, supposes that there can be no doubt
as to what a toadstool, a mildew, or a mold is, and some may
even correctly call them fungi, but many others are entirely un-
acquainted with that Latin word which denotes them. Rust on
grain, and smut on Indian corn and other cereals, are also familiar
to farmers ; but a vast multitude of other all too numerous fungi
are known only to the botanist by name, and only to the mycol-
ogist in their habits and structures, and to him only after long
and patient study. In fact, it is to the researches of many emi-
nent men and women, in Europe, Great Britain, and in this
country, both among the dead as well as among the living, that
the structure, habits and mode of growth, relation to the various
departments of industry, injurious effects and general utility of
these smaller fungi in nature, are collected and known. As
plants, although of a low order of organization, they are of great
interest as mere objects of beauty ; but to attain a full compre-
hension of this fact we must have recourse to the microscope,
as the peculiar portions of these structures are beyond the reach
of unaided vision. No one that has not had his eye upon them,
aided by magnifying power, could possibly conceive that the lit-
tle specks of brown or black, seen on the brilliant ripening fo-
liage of the maple in September and October, or on the skins of
apples, pears, and other fruit; on the dry stalks of plants or
straw, on old decaying matter, on the buildings and fence-rails,
on the panes of the window, or the bodies of diseased insects,
like bees and house-flies,— in fine, on almost everything,— are re-
ceptacles of exquisitely sculptured and carved seed-vessels,
called spores ; often beaded thread-like strings of pearls ; again,

42

consisting of myriads of the most fantastic shapes that the
genius of man could imagine, but could never imitate.

A subject so broad and so varied, one which can be investi-
gated at any season of the year, inviting the naturalist, more es-
pecially the botanist, forth from earliest spring to latest autumn,
to search for forms of beauty on every living or ripening leaf
and fruit, and in winter rendering the evening lamp more at-
tractive in studying the collected treasures of the summer’s
gleanings ; even if such collections have not been made, the
barn with its harvested treasures is at hand, and from that may
be taken specimens which can never fail to interest as well as in-
struct every thoughtful person in some way or other ; and would
ever be of the greatest interest, if presented in an agreeable
manner, and shown with regard to their reference, or connec-
tion, with the industrial pursuits of society.

Not only is such study of interest to the botanist, whose spe-
cialty is the study of fungi, but it possesses more than ordinary
interest to the husbandman whose crops often lie at the mercy
of some of this class of parasites, and to his family, as their wel-
fare often depends upon these minute organisms. Even aslight
acquaintance with a few of these wonderful little plants, would
render the walk for exercise or pleasure ten times more valuable,
and often remunerative. Who, even without special thought
upon the subject, has not noticed along the roadside early as
June, where blackberry-bushes are found among weeds and grass,
that their leaves were powdered underneath with rich golden
dust, which might be shaken from little orange cups? Many
times from children, and often also from the middle-aged and old,
has come the query as to what it was. On other bushes also,
when yielding fruit, even, to tempt women, men, boys, and
maidens ; yet would they turn aside, because the dust was omi-
nous, but in what way or from whence it came none knew.

Those dusty-looking lilac-bushes, so dusty ere the close of
summer that no rain could wash them clean, or ever will, so long
as that peculiar white egg-mold riots on the upper surfaces of
their leaves,

The crystalline drops of permanent dew, on some refuse mat-
ter, often attract attention as they glisten in the sun, but few stop

43

to examine and see the white threads in countless numbers that
permeate them. Though such things often attract attention,
they are'soon forgotten when we know nothing about them, and
no one is there to tell an anecdote from their history. Cun-
ningly, wisely, and full of secret hidden meaning, a thousand
forms of lower vegetable life look up into our faces, while we, with
repressed curiosity and not quite willing, tread them under our
feet. How few even ever stop to think that they are leaves in
the great book of nature, and consequently worthy the reading,
and that to every one who will study those pages and translate
the hieroglyphics, that the time and trouble of deciphering would
be richly rewarded by the knowledge obtained.

“ How thankful I am to you, ” said a friend, “that you have
told me so much about the lichens in our pastures. They are
now a great source of happiness to me; formerly I detested
them.”

“The best lectures on botany,” said a well-known and _ highly
appreciated educator, “are lessons upon every plant we meet.”
Yes, within reach of all of us is study for a life-time, and we may
thus not only please ourselves, but by and by be considered
benefactors. With an intention to introduce a fewof these little
parasitical growths to the attention of the reader, and to make
plain and easy what at first seems so obscure and mysterious, I
will bring forward some of the more common species, and, ex-
plaining by word and figure their form and habits, endeavor to
interest you to such an extent that you will be willing at least to
acknowledge their power for good or evil, and know where to
find your enemy, when pet plants, or fields of grain, grasses, or
potatoes, are likely to fail under the evil so wide-spread and
fatal.

CLUSTER CUPS.

M. C. Cooke, the great English writer on fungi, divides them
into six families. In one of these families the spores are the
principal feature. This family is called the “dust fungi”
(Coniomycetes), Of course it contains many groups, called
families or orders, which are analogous to the natural orders of

4

flowering plants. Without enumerating any of the various
characteristics of these orders, I will select one typical plant.
The spores are inclosed in a distinct peridium (covering for the
seeds). This is a cup-shaped excrescence on the infested leaves.
This order is called 4£cidiacet, They are always developed on
living plants, sometimes on the flowers, fruit, or stems, but
usually on the leaves; occasionally on the upper surface, but
almost always on the under side of the leaf.

The different species are distributed widely over the entire
world. They may be found on every continent, and on almost
every island. When examined they look like minute cups upon
the leaf, and hence we call them “ cluster cups.” Besides the
generic name they have also added a specific name, generally
derived from some plant they are known to infest ; but this must
not lead the student to suppose that one species is only found
on that particular plant, for most of them infest many plants,
yet some, of course, to a greater extent than others.

We must therefore look to the actual differences in the fungi,
not in the plants they infest.

The leaf may be truly said to be the lung of the plant.
Through the stomata (minute holes) on the under side of the
leaf, the plant obtains nourishment from the atmosphere, which
is as necessary to them as our breath is to us.

Anything that clogs or injures the stomata of any plant
directly injures the growth of that plant. This little fungi, when
the plant has become infested, breaks through the epidermis,
destroying many of the breathing-pores (stomata), and also
draws its own nourishment from the life-juices of the plant it
infests. Before it breaks through the under surface of the leaf,
the infested leaf, if closely examined, will appear to be covered
with little elevations or pustules, paler at the apex ; these soon
become ruptured, and the fungus pushes its head through the
opening, at the same time bursting by radiating fissures. The
teeth thus formed resemble those of the peristome of some
mosses. All around the orifice the teeth, or fringe, become re-
curved, and the orange spores (fungi seed) are exposed, crowded
together within. At first, and in fact while contained in the

.

45

peridium (cup), these spores are connected together as a string
of beads, but when dispersed they are scattered singly about
the orifice, often mixed with colorless cells arising from the
partial breaking up of the teeth, or fringe, of the peridium. Let
us now for a moment examine the manner in which these cups
are distributed upon the leaf. They are scattered without any
apparent order over the under surface, with now and then one
upon the upper surface, but they nowhere touch each other,
unless at the margins of the leaf, but then they are never joined,
only crowded. Generally there is a space greater than the width
of the cups between them. The leaf is not thickened by their
growth, and the upper surface gives you no indication of what is
going on beneath. Ifa leaf be taken fresh, and the epidermis
from the under side be stripped off, as it is often easy to do, the
orifices through which the fungi have burst will appear in
irregular holes, and the fungi will be left rooted still upon the
leaf, showing that they are not confined to the surface, and thus
we see why the damage is so great to the plant upon which they
subsist.

The spores in this species are orange in color, but variable
both in size and form, though the majority are comparatively
large. Each of these spores is capable of reproducing its
species, and if we compute two thousand cluster cups as occur-
ring on each leaf, and many leaves have double this number,
and supposing each cup to contain two hundred and fifty thou-
sand spores, which again is much below the actual number, then
we shall have not less than five hundred millions of reproductive
bodies on one infected leaf, to furnish a crop of parasites for the
plants of the succeeding year. As we thus so soon reckon by
millions, our figures and capacities fail in appreciating the
myriads of spores which compose the orange dust produced from
one infected cluster of plants. Nor is this all, for it is found
that one of these spores is not only capable of producing a
plant, but is in itself a bundle of vegetative spores, which are
exceedingly minute, and yet, small as they are, they have the
capability to produce fresh crops of cluster cups.

Naturally enough, our reader will ere this be debating in his

46

own mind how these spores, which we have seen are shed in
such profusion, can enter the tissues of the plants which give
subsequent evidence of infection, as I have described ; in fact,
how the yellow dust with which the atmosphere may be filled
to-day can inoculate the young plants of next year. If one or
two of these spores are sprinkled upon the cuticle which has
been removed from the leaf, as we have before indicated, it will
be seen that they are very much larger than the stomata, or
breathing-pores, which stud the cuticle ; hence it is clear they
cannot gain admittance there. There remains but one other
portal to the interior of the plant, and that is through the
extremities of the roots. Here another difficulty arises ; for the
spores are as large as the cells through which they would there
have to pass. This difficulty is, however, much lessened when
we remember that these spores are a bundle of infinite particles,
each particle of which is probably capable of infecting a plant.
Even under this consideration, there is much need of an active
imagination, to invent hypotheses to cover the points upon
which we as yet know nothing definite.

“The Rev. M. J. Berkeley proved many years ago that the
spores of bunt, for example, may be caused to infect all the
plants the seeds of which had been placed in contact with
them.” But this did not prove that the seeds absorbed them,
as it is probable they did not, but they would adhere to the
seed and thus be conveyed to the ground, where infection to the
sprout would be probable. Much has been done to elucidate
this mystery, but much remains a mystery still. No spores
have ever been seen traversing the tissues of growing plants.

The stems and leaves of violets, sweet-scented and scentless
all alike, are often distorted and ruined altogether by a variety
of cluster cups ; the stinging nettle does not escape ; the hardy
dock, the useful currant, the wild geraniums, alike feed with
their juices fungi of this description.

It has long been a popular belief in England (says F. B.
Hough in his report on Forestry), that the barberry-bush (Ber-
beris vulgaris) has some agency in the propagation of rust in
wheat and other grain, and the researches of botanists have

47

somewhat tended to confirm this belief. The spores from grain-
rust (Puccinia graminis) are said to find their way to the leaves
of the barberry, germinate, and form cluster cups on the under
surface of the leaves, and the spores from these in turn germi-
nate on the grain by alternate generation. The fact that rust
sometimes appears in fields where there are no barberry-bushes
capable of bearing the intermediate form, appears to indicate
that there are other plants having the same capability of bearing
the intermediate growth. The clearing off of barberry, or other
plants or bushes, near wheat-fields, has, it is claimed, been pro-
ductive of good results; and if it should be proved beyond
doubt that there is a direct relation between this and grain-rust,
the use of the barberry as a hedge-plant, as well as that of other
bushes, should be discontinued. Cooke, on the other hand, says
that while this statement long ago had credit among the people,
it has no foundation in fact, as the genera are distinct and per-
fect in themselves ; while some others, perhaps equally eminent,
claim intermediate and spurious forms. Professor CErsted, it is
said, has recently determined

their zdentity as one and the AS
‘same plant. In this figure eS
(Fig. 27), @ shows a leaf of the ‘ ie |
barberry, with cluster cups upon NOE:

it (4cidium herberidis); b, a
portion of the leaf magnified ;
¢, the same fragment seen side-
wise.

The leaves of the pear show
other species, and very singular
and curious clusters of excres- |
cences occur on the leaves of
the apple-tree and mountain
ash, and are also very promi-

big. 27.
nent on the leaves of the quince-tree, and especially of the wild

apple-tree of the West, consisting of large peridia, pointed at
the tops, and so swollen below as to bear a rude resemblance to
urns, the edges split into long, contorted threads. They are a

48

species of Restelia, The R&. lacerata is seen in Fig. 28, a,
natural size, living on the leaves
and fruit of the hawthorn ; 4, a
portion magnified. The spores
are also of a light orange color,
but the plant, by comparison, or
even by comparison of the cuts,
may be seen to widely differ in
its appearance. The fir and
pine also suffer, as they are
often attacked by the Perider-
minum, which changes the foli-
age, and spoils the effect of their
branches, rendering them un-

Fig. 28. sightly. Unfortunately but little
is known of this fungus, but it is well worthy of attention from
those that are interested in the minute ‘aspects of nature, and
those who can recognize the hand

“That sets a sun amidst the firmament,
Or molds a dewdrop, and lights up its gem.”

But we must not stop for reflection, but slightly notice another
class. The spores of the smaller fungi have thus far been
spoken of as seeds, but this is not strictly true, and several novel
and interesting points for consideration and inquiry arise.

If we should place some of the yellow dust, which fills the
cup-shaped peridia, in a drop of water, and prevent its evapora-
tion by covering it with a watch-crystal, or any other glass would
do as well, we should find in a few hours that each particle of
the dust had swollen, and bursting at some point had given out
a little thread, at the apex of which it is crowned with delicate
curved appendages, which soon become connected by lateral
threads, thus forming a kind of latticed network, and from the
sides of these filaments little cells sprout, which in turn germi-
nate and reproduce the plant. Those of our readers who are
familiar with the early stages of the ferns, can trace a striking
analogy in the process.

In many of the smaller fungi the spore is present in another
form, constituting what is termed the spermagone (pustules and

49

depressions like pockets), often in shape of a minute dot near
the peridium, and sometimes on the other side of the leaf. In
fact it may be like a little blister filled with threads, throwing
off little curved bodies called spermatia (germinating filaments),
which escape through an orifice provided for the purpose.

Before the nature of these singular objects was known, sper-
magones were mistaken for distinct kinds of fungi, and many
species were thus described. In the Feriderminum Pini, before
spoken of, they are white, few in number, and are developed not
only in the spring, but sometimes re-appear in the autumn upon
the same leaves that produced them at the commencement of
the year. The evident effort of nature, then, in this process, is
to produce an ultimate condition of fungal life, which shall be
sure to continue indefinitely the presence of the parasites upon
the leaves and other parts of the higher plants. And this is
done with certainty by the mycelium, a system of the most sub-
tile threads, which can enter the tissues by attacking the seed
when sown, and whose persistence of vitality enables it to
endure the most trying circumstances unharmed. So vitalized
. indeed is the mycelium, that any fragment of it will vegetate
‘and grow after long periods of desiccation. And its luxuriance
of growth is in nowise dependent on any higher development,
such as, were it the stems and leaves of a flowering plant, would.
be necessary to cause it sooner or later to push forth blossoms
and fruit.

This wonderful vitality is taken advantage of in the cultiva-
tion of the edible fungi, such as the mushroom for example,
where lumps of dry earth permeated by the mycelium, or
“‘ spawn,” as it is called, are planted in prepared soil and agood
crop realized. It is familiar to nurserymen, and all those who
cultivate trees for shade or otherwise, that they often languish
and die, owing to their roots reaching spots deep in the ground,
where decayed wood or other vegetable remains are filled with
this subtile fungal spawn, which inoculates the tree with the
destructive fungus, causing its death. Fortunately, the awaken-
ing and full vigor depends much upon the atmospheric condi-
tion, else we should live in fear that every plant would be
blasted. From this cause fungi of every form are often regarded

4

50

as meteorological phenomena, and wet and foggy weather are
complained of as harbingers of various fungoid evils.

MILDEW OR RUST.

Peculiar hot and damp days will be dreaded by nearly all on
account of ‘mildew,’ but “ mildew ” is one of those loose terms
that represents no definite idea, or a very different one to vari-
ous individuals.

Talk of mildew of grain to a farmer, and he tells you of the
rust which appears in lines or irregular spots upon the wheat-
stalk, indicating Puccinia graminis, which is known to him and
generations before him in many sections as mildew.

Talk to a New England housewife of mildew, and she will
describe a minute species of fungus which attacks damp linen,
as true mildew, and will ask if you know what will remove the
spots occasioned by it.

Ask the hop-grower of New York about mildew, and he will
point out a species of mold that infests the hop-vine, but which
differs as much from the mildew of the South as does the mildew
of linen. The librarian will tell you of mildewed books and
papers, and the housemaid of mildewed cellars, —all meaning a
fungous growth, but as wide in their significance as the poison-
hemlock and hemlock-tree.

Mildew in England means in literature but one thing, and that
is the rust upon wheat and other grain, known scientifically as
Puccinia graminis.

But let us look into the history of this pest. In view of a
clearer understanding of this peculiar pest, so long supposed to
be several separate species, and which under the present light
of science seems fast merging into one, we will suppose a fine
day in June dawns upon our resolve to learn of mildew, or rust,
and we stray away from the village to gain the chance to exam-
ine a wheat-field. Having reached the field, there is no appear-
ance of anything but a healthy crop; we walk into it perhaps
fifteen or twenty yards before we find a single fungus of which
we are in quest. But let us look closely down at the green
leaves at the very bottom of the wheat-plant, and we are soon —

51

rewarded, as we shall find one or two that look rusty. The sur-
face seems powdered with red ochre, and to have grown sickly
under the operation. Pluck it carefully, and examine it with
low magnifying power ; a pocket lens will do. Already the cuti-
cle of the leaf is traversed with numerous longitudinal cracks
or fissures, within which and around which you discern an orange
powder, to which the rusty appearance on the leaf is due.
Further examination reveals also portions in which the cuticle is
distended into yellowish elongated pustules, not yet ruptured,
and which is an earlier stage of this same disease. This is the
rust of the New England agriculturist, the Z7ichobasis rubigo
vera of the botanist, or the first phase of the mildew.

To know more of this parasite we must take it to our micro-
scope, and by careful manipulation we shall find that the vege-
tative system of this, as well as of all similar fungi, consists of a
number of delicate simple or branched threads, often intertwin-
ing and even uniting one to the other by little branchlets. These
threads, as we have before explained, are called the mycelium ;
. they penetrate the intercellular spaces and insinuate themselves
_ in a complete network among the cells of which the leaf or other
diseased portion of the plant is composed, We may regard the
whole mycelium of one pustule, or spore-spot, as the vegetative
system of one fungal plant. At first it might have originated
as several individuals, which afterward become combined as
one, for the production of fruit, and by their combined effort a
cluster of fruit, or spore-spot, is produced.

In the first instance, a number of minute, transparent, color-
less cellules are developed from the mycelium ; these enlarge,
and are filled with an orange-colored endochrome, and appear
beneath the leaf as yellowish spots. As a consequence of this
increase of bulk, the cuticle becomes distended in the form of
a pustule over the yellow cellules, and at length, unable to with-
stand the pressure from beneath, ruptures in irregular, but more
or less elongated fissures, and the yellow bodies, which I will
call spores, break from their short pedicels and escape ; to the
naked eye presenting the appearance of an orange powder.

On the first of August we will again visit our wheat-field,
Rusty leaves are more common than before. A little careful

52

examination, and here and there we shall find a leaf or two
with decidedly brown pustules intermixed with the rusty ones.
If we remove from the browner spots a little of the powder by
means of a sharp-pointed knife, and place it in a drop of water,
and cover it with a thin glass, and place it under our microscope;
a different series of forms will be observed. There will still be
a portion of one-celled yellow spores, but the majority will be
elongated, mostly with short stalks, and either decidedly two-
celled or a tendency to be so.

These two-celled spores are another form of the mildew called
Puccinia graminis, which may be produced in the same pustules
and from the same mycelium as the rust previously described,
and is generally considered at the present time to be the same
fungus. Other grain and various other plants are likewise
affected.

Fig. 29 represents at a, wheat-straw inefcted
with this rust ; 4, cluster of spores magnified ;
¢, single spore magnified 300 diameters.

This rust is so common and so much alike
P on all plants, that this plate will answer to rep-
resent the fungus wherever found.

Let us now for the third time visit our wheat-
field. It is ripe, or else much damaged, possi-
bly destroyed, by the fungi.

On the straw we shall find black lines, or
blackish spots, from the size of a pin’s head to
an inch in length ; this is the mildew, rust, or
Puccinia,—it matters not what name it is
called, — in full maturity, and when once seen
it is never forgotten. Botanists may dispute
about its intermediate stages ; may give it dif-

Dh at ferent names when found on other plants,—
but it still remains the great pest of the husbandman. ‘There
are no lingering doubts in the minds of agriculturists, bot-
anists, savans of science, or laborers, that the rust is not injuri-
ous, because the most casual observation shows it in the sickly
condition of all plants affected through the season.

The manner of impregnation is unknown, or, if known, is in

53

dispute. Some believe, as the stomata or breathing-pores of
the plant are open in damp weather, that the infinitesimal germs
enter these pores and gain a foothold, and push their rootlets
into the cellular tissue of the plant. Others think they enter
from the ground through the roots, and others still do not be-
lieve that they enter the plant at all, but that the seeds are poi-
soned by the touch of their spores. Be it as it may, we well
know that it exists, and of course desire to have as little dam-
age from it as possible. Observation has shown that rich land,
or that manured by old manure, is much more likely to have the
grain crop injured than land not so rich, or manured by green
manure or some of our fertilizers. This should teach care in
the preparation of our land. Some claim that an admixture of
sulphur in sowing, and others that if it is sifted on the leaves, is
a preventive. Careful experiments have shown all such reme-
dies useless. Ashes are good to produce a healthy condition of
the crop, while they have no effect upon the fungi.

The state of the atmosphere conducive to very rapid growth,
is usually liable to develop the pest. We believe that all straw
- infected to a large extent should be burned, and all grasses and
weeds standing around such fields should share the same fate.
In this way the principal danger might be avoided.

Another instance of the two-formed condition of the smaller
fungi can be traced in the delicate condition of moldiness
which frequently covers the leaves of the lilac, the grape, the
fruit of the gooseberry, and various other plants. It looks like
strings of beads made of colorless cells. In this condition it is
known and described as Ozdium.

Fig. 30, a, tufts of conidia of the Ozd-
ium Monilioides ; b, portion of grass leaf
with same species of blight, the spores
being the self-same beads and egg-shaped
bodies, whence the generic name, but
careful observation will show us that this
is not its perfect condition; and when,
later in autumn, these threads become
more compact, and are surmounted on
their horizontal surfaces by shining black

Pig. 3.

54

capsules, or perithecia, each of which is filled with elegant
elliptical and elongated cells, and each in turn containing sev-
eral spores, we shall find in Zrisyphe that we have arrived at the
conclusion of the dimorphism of this fungus, so injurious in its
effects.

The famous grape mildew, so destructive to the grapes of Eu-
rope, and known as Oidium Tuckeri, is also only an imperfect
form of some common £Zrisyphe; so of the grape fungi of New
England, as well as of various other fungal plants.

Even the cluster cup first described is quite likely to turn out
but one form of the rust, on some other plant. Some, as I have
before said, even now suppose it identical with the Puccinza,
and with good reason.

SMUTS.

Another of the fungal diseases of grain, long and widely
known among agriculturists, is here called smut. Different
names have been given it in different localities. In some it
is “ dust-brand,” in others, “ bunt-ear,” ‘ black-ball,” etc. All
the names refer to the blackish, sootlike dust with which the
infested and abortive heads are covered. This fungus in New
England does not generally excite much alarm among the farm-
ers, yet it often injures the crop. Perhaps it is not so extensively
injurious as rust, yet it destroys every infested head of grain
upon which it establishes itself, and is also thought to be poison-
ous to people, or animals, that feed upon it. In Johnson’s work
on the grasses of Great Britain, he says “that diseased wheat
examined by Sir H. Davy, when good, had an average of .955
parts of nutritive matter to 1,000: sometimes from disease, or
smut, rust, or mildew, it was reduced as low as .210in 1,000.” The
consequence of using such diseased wheat for food would be a
step towards starvation, even though no greater evil resulted.
It is, however, well known to be highly prejudicial to health ;
and the higher standard of living among the poorer classes of
our population, compared with those of some continental coun-
tries, is the only cause of their exemption from the dreadful
diseases resulting from the use of bad grain. That such dis-
eases might occasionally prevail among them here, from similar

55

causes, under a more restricted diet, is evident from a record in
the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1762. The case in
question occurred in the village of Wallisham, about fifteen or
sixteen miles from Bury, St. Edmond’s, Suffolk, and the report
of it was forwarded to the Royal Society by Dr. Wollaston,
attested by the Rev. Mr. Bone, the curate of the parish, and is
abridged as follows :— Some of the wheat belonging to a farmer
in the neighborhood, being laid or beaten down by bad weather,
and diseased, the grain much damaged in consequence, it was
collected and threshed apart from the remainder. Being unfit
for the market, it was sold at a low price to any of the farm la-
borers, and other people of the village, who would purchase.
The sale of this wheat commenced about Christmas, and to one
poor family, whose chief and possibly sole support it was for
some time, the result was most alarming and unparalleled. It
appears that the consumption of this poor wheat by the father,
mother, and five children, was about two bushels in a fortnight ;
the same being eaten in the form of bread and puddings, both
of them very indifferent in quality.

But to poverty, cheapness and sufficiency of food are always
irresistible inducements, and this unwholesome fare was con-
tinued without intermission until the mother and her children
were attacked within a few days of each other with a gangre-
nous disease. The first indication of the disease was intense
pains in the lower limbs. It first occurred on the tenth of Jan-
uary, and was thought to be rheumatism, but when this pain sub-
sided it was followed by numbness and insensibility of the parts
which terminated in mortification. The condition of the family
at the time Dr. Wollaston made his report to the society is here
subjoined : —

“Mary, the mother, aged forty. Right foot off at ankle; left
leg mortified, a mere bone but not off.

“ Elizabeth, aged thirteen. Both legs off below the knee.

“ Sarah, aged ten years. One foot off at ankle.

“ Robert, aged eight. Both legs off below the knee.

“Edward, aged four. Both feet off at ankles.

“ An infant, aged four months. Dead.”

The father was not attacked until about a fortnight after his

56

wife and children, and in a slighter degree. In his case the
pain was confined to two fingers of his right hand, which turned
blackish and withered. Another laboring man in the same par-
ish, who had eaten of this bread, suffered from numbness in
both his hands for upwards of a month. They were constantly
cold, and his finger-ends peeled; one thumb he says remains
without any sensation.

In several instances where bread made from the same wheat
was eaten in the farmer’s own family, as well as by other per-
sons, no prejudicial effects were noticed, probably in conse-
quence of such bread being used only occasionally, and as an
adjunct to other and more wholesome food. The nature of the
disease with which the wheat was affected does not appear to
have been fully ascertained, but the circumstances are well au-
thenticated. It is of course possible that the want of proper
nourishment in the wheat may have had a share to do with the
disease ; but smutty and mildewed grain has always been con-
sidered unhealthy to man, and many cases of disease in animals
have often been traced to this cause.

With such examples before us, too great caution cannot be
used regarding the use of grain and flour of suspicious character.

These fungi, like many of the others that infest our fields and
gardens, belong to the family in which the spores are the dis-
tinctive feature, and is regarded as fixed in the genus Ustilago
(or smut of grain), and the specific name segetum (standing). So
we have the name Ustilago segetum, or the smut of standing grain.

Another kind of smut known in this country is Ustlago mag-
dis (the maize smut). It is even more common than the other,
as no corn-field is without more or less of it. It forms a peculiar
thickened and abnormal growth, that is full of the characteristic
black spores represented as magnified four hundred diameters in
Fig, 31:

The spores in this fungus are very numerous,
simple, deeply serrated, springing from delicate
threads or in closely-packed cells, ultimately
breaking up into a powdery mass. A species of
this smut affects some grasses slightly in this
country, but in France it frequently affects grass

57

to such an extent as to produce disastrous consequences on the
hay-makers, such as violent swellings of the head and face, with
poisonous irritation over the whole system. Threshers are some-
times thus affected in this country, when at work on smutty oats,
although not all are equally affected.

The spores of this species are so immense in number, that it
would seem impossible to guard corn or other grain against its rav-
ages, but it seems like others of this class — they are quite easily
destroyed, and in that way are kept in check. They adhere to
the grain in threshing, but if the grain is washed with clean
water, and then with a solution of Glauber’s salts, and while
still moist dusted with quicklime, these spores will be destroyed,
and the rust spores also, and the crop will be improved, as the
caustic soda is set free by the sulphuric acid of the salts com-
bining with the lime, and converting it into sulphate of lime
(plaster of Paris) which is beneficial to the young sprout, while
the caustic soda is fatal to the spores of rust and smut.

Other washes, as of chloride of lime, at the rate of one ounce
‘to the gallon of water, or of aqua ammonia in same proportions,
- are probably also beneficial to kill the spores, and aid germination
of thegrain. Experience has also taught us that a wet season is
much more prolific of fungi than a dry one; and thick-sown
grain than thin-sown.

The direction of the wind when grain is sown is of no effect,
notwithstanding old people, many of them, think that an east
wind is deleterious.

THE ONION SMUT.

- This fungus, called by Prof. C. C. Frost, of Brattleborough, Vt.,
Urocystis Cepule, since its first appearance in New England in
1870 has caused much damage to that crop. It is thought to be
allied to the rust on Indian corn, but not exactly thesame. The
damage caused to single towns in Massachusetts from this smut
alone is estimated at several thousands of dollars. There is as
yet very little known about the development of this fungus. It
has never been known in Europe, and is supposed to originate
from some of our wild species of onions, and of course is as yet

58

but imperfectly known here. It changes the onion to the pecu-
liar dark sooty powder so well known as smut, and the infected
onions at once cease to grow; and though the black may often
be peeled off apparently with one or two of the layers of the
onion, they are not considered healthy, and great loss is en-
tailed to those raising them. As the spores doubtless remain in
the ground, and nothing put on the ground would be likely to
eradicate them, the only known help is to change the locality,
giving the onions ground on which they have not been previously
raised, and using the onion-bed for other purposes, or for such
crops as the spores would not injure.

After a time, perhaps four or five years, the old beds might
probably be again planted, as doubtless the spores would have
lost their vitality.

As this smut at the present time is principally confined to
Massachusetts and Connecticut, with a little care on our part, it
will be a long time before New Hampshire will materially suffer
from this fungi.

Should it appear among us, it should be at once stamped out
by burning over the land, and not trying to raise onions on it
for at least four years, as a trial would not only be useless but
would endanger whole townships by the increase of the spores.

It should as much be the law to stamp out by legal proceed-
ings such pests, as to keep small-pox out of our towns, as the
diseases resulting to the human family are none the less to be
dreaded because slow and insidious in their workings.

Those who desire to know more of this disease we will refer
to the Massachusetts Agricultural Report for 1876-77, where it
is fully described.

WHITE RUST.

The idea we have thus far of rust and smut is, that it is dark
colored, or like the rust of iron; but as I speak of white rust
that opinion must be overthrown, as the white rust of the cab-
bage, turnip, and all similar plants is one that the gardener has
often to contend with. I bring it in to show that fungi must be
looked for in every place and under all colors. This white rust

59

is called Cystopus candidus. It
is represented in Fig. 32 as it
occurs on shepherd’s-purse, @
showing the fruit with the rust
upon it ; 4, portions of the cab-
bage-leaf with the same species
upon it; and «¢, conidia of the
same. (See Cooke’s treatise on
fungi.)

Upon the leaf of the cabbage
it appears as engraved, in white
patches ; the leaves become de-
formed and swollen or blistered,
even before we can make out
fully the cause of the mischief
outside. These blistered pus-
tules have a minute system of
branching threads, which traverse the pulpy parts of the leaves,
and which threads, insinuating themselves between the cells that

constitute the pulp, take their nutriment at the expense of the
growing foliage.

It is after the pustules assume the white color and are visible
on the skin or cuticle that the reproductive parts termed conidia
can be detected. (See Fig. 32.) From the multitudes of these
beads or spores forming the white powdery dust, the term comz-
dia is applied, which means dust-like. Other plants, besides,
are often affected, as the water-cress, pepper-grass, radish, and
even the weed purslane does not escape its ravages. Its mode
of vegetation is one of peculiar interest, in fine one of the most
curious phenomena of plant life, and indicates in this low order
of vegetation a relation to higher structural forms, not only in
plants but even in animals. Thus, if a few particles of the white
dust be immersed in a drop of water, and examined under the
microscope, they will be seen to rapidly absorb water, and swell-
ing, a large and obtuse papilla resembling the neck of a bottle
is produced, and a seeming empty space is formed in the con-
tents of each spore. As these disappear, the whole granular
substance becomes separated by fine lines into five to eight por-

Fig. 32.

60

tions each, with a small, faintly colored, empty space in the
center. These portions are so many zoospores. ‘These are soon
expelled one by one, and soon afterwards begin to move, being
provided with seeming fins or fringes by which they are enabled
to swim about like an animalcule ; but they are only buds en-
dowed with motion, same as many other plants have. These of
course are capable of infecting plants, as we have seen.

The prodigal provision of nature is here, as everywhere, espe-
cially in its lower orders, signally manifested, when we are told
that the immense number of zodspores capable of being pro-
duced from a single infected plant is almost beyond calculation.

It is easy for a million of conidia to be developed from one
such plant, each producing five to eight zodspores. It can
scarcely be considered marvelous that the white rust should be
so common on plants favorable to its development, the marvel
being rather that any escape.

THE POTATO DISEASE.

Mold is a word in common use, and all will tell you what
mold is, yet each will perhaps tell you of a different kind. This
very numerous family are called Hyphomycetes ; that is, fungi that
grow by throwing out delicate threads.

Of course there are several distinct groups.

To the common eye, unaided by the microscope or observa-
tion, mildews, moldiness, and similar microscopic plants would
be readily confounded. But the mildew is a much more highly
developed fungus, and though apparently as dangerous, is not
so to the same extent. The egg-mold (Ozdium), which covers
and suffocates the young gooseberry, or the grape, readily yields
to agents which will destroy it, and set free from its threads the
swelling fruit ; but the potato-mold, for instance, is the inception
of the potato-rot, which is so dreaded. The ‘‘ molds,” then, as
Russell says, ‘‘are fearful parasitic plants, which riot on the
tender tissues of other plants and eventually cause their death.”
There are in this country as many as ten known fungi infesting
the potato. It is on this account that those attempting to
describe the potato disease have differed so widely from each

61

other, while all have brought up some facts. The true potato-
mold, causing so much mischief, is now generally admitted to
be the Feronospora infestans, and were it not for its effects it
would be regarded as a thing of beauty. Were the flies or
insects, which are so liberally endowed with eyes, and quite
unconcerned about crops, — to investigate, the leaves of the
potato would be quite a pretty set of objects to examine,
presenting white, many branched, and beaded twigged plants,
with egg-shaped seed bodies on the tips of the branches. These
vegetable growths issue from the stomata (breathing-pores) of
the leaves, choke up the internal and external passages, and
prevent a healthy action from being maintained. Soon the
leaves become paler, or yellow, then discolored spots appear,
and the stems are covered with dark patches ; even the stalks
become filled with clotted substances, and sooner or later
putrefy, and lastly the tuber suffers, and the rot rapidly increases,

It was towards the close of the summer of 1845 that the world
awakened to what they supposed a new disease in the potato
crop; and one which threatened its entire destruction. Early
_in September its ravages in Ireland threatened starvation to the
people. It extended to Scotland, England, and the continent,
and rewards were offered for detection of the cause ; and a host
of observations were made with no valuable results.

It is only by long years of patient study that nature’s works
are found out, and it will be longer still before any sure pre-
ventive will be reached. There are, however, some things
that tempt this fungous growth that is so destructive ; as close
_ planting, damp land, weeds that shade the crop, etc.

As there are some differences of opinion in relation to the
actual condition of the potato, favorable or otherwise, to the
rot, I copy from the observations of others.

“‘ Some eminent chemists, such as Dr. Lyon Playfair, believe
that the potato-plant when healthy, is not subject to attacks
from fungi. In a lecture delivered by the doctor before the
Royal Agricultural Society of England, December g, 1845, he
remarked that ‘much had been said and written with regard to
the source of the disease, and since minute fungi had been
assigned as its cause, potatoes, apples, and other fruits had been

62

inoculated with fungous spores, and had become diseased ; but if
there was not some previous disease in the potato itself, how
was it that some varieties of potatoes escaped while growing in
the immediate vicinity, while others were attacked?’” The
disease, he believed, arose from structural or chemical causes.

When a decayed potato was examined it was found that the
diseased spots were always in the region of the spiral vessels
whose function it is to carry air into the tissue of the plants.
He believed the disease originated in the oxidation of the tissue.
The Rev. M. J. Berkeley, the leading mycologist of England, on
the other hand, contends that the fungus Botrytis infestans, or,
as now classed under the new genus, Peronospora infestans, will
attack the healthy tubers ; but the question arises just at this
point, What means have we of ascertaining the perfectly healthy
structure, and chemical state of tubers? Every farmer plants
what he deems sound tubers, yet in the majority of cases, since
1845, the crop during very moist seasons has been more
generally affected than it was prior to that date.

The severity of attacks of fungi on plants will depend in some
cases on the density of their organic structure and the solubility
of their nitrogenous matter. The nitrogenous principle of
potatoes,.for example, is soluble in water ; that of turnips nearly
insoluble. The former, therefore, ferments more readily than
the latter. The leaves of a healthy peach-tree, when placed in
a moist atmosphere at about 75° Fahrenhzit, resist fungoid fer-
mentation for months, while those of a peach-tree affected with
the “yellows,” placed under the same general conditions, will
quickly ferment and become covered with the fruit of the fungous
mucor. ‘The first possess an antiseptic property, the second are
deficient in it. If two blocks of wood, one of boxwood and the
other of soft pine, are placed in a fungoid solution, the first will
resist the action of the mycelium for a long time because of its
density, while the second will quickly decay. The first absorbs
very little water, the second a great deal. A certain amount of
moisture is always necessary to the growth of fungi. The
presence of an excess of water is highly favorable to the growth
of the common molds and some other forms of fungoid plants,

In years previous to the noted potato-rot of 1845, the average

63

amount of water found in healthy potatoes, according to Professor
Playfair, was 72 per cent; that of unhealthy tubers since that
date, 80 per cent. The tendency to ferment is therefore in-
creased. It was observed by Professor Playfair, in his lecture
alluded to, that a peculiar state of the weather had been
observed all over the north of Europe where the disease had
been seen, as well as in America. The wide-spread use of the
potato as an article of diet, especially among the laboring
classes throughout Europe, must have led to the extensive
planting of diseased potatoes in 1846, because healthy seed could
not be found. Indeed, Professor Playfair, in his second lecture
of the roth of December, 1845, recommends “ the planting of
diseased potatoes as seed rather than none.” He further states
that there was no prospect of obtaining healthy seed from
abroad, and that he had permission of the late government
authorities for stating that this was the result of their consular
returns. The unavoidable adoption of this advice tended to
establish hereditary disease in after years, whether it arose from
chemical, structural, or fungoid conditions.

If a healthy potato is so dug out on its opposite ends that it
- will resemble a double egg-cup, and placed erect on one end for
about six days in an atmosphere at the temperature of 70° Fahren-
heit, its under cavity will become covered with mildew, and its fruit
will appear in the form of blue mold, Penicillium glaucum. In
this case the inverted cavity will retain the moisture, and as a
consequence slight fermentation will ensue, the fungus deriving
its nutriment from the potato ; but the upper surface, although
fully exposed to the floating germs in the atmosphere, will not
sustain a fungous growth, in consequence of the free evaporation
of the moisture from it. This form of fermentation should not
be confounded with that produced by the fungus of potato-rot,
Peronospora infestans. The chemical action of the blue-mold
fungus is slow, and its odor is simply that of sour paste, while
the destructive action of the potato-rot is very rapid, producing
a higher state of decomposition and very offensive odors. The
mycelium and fruit of each fungus also differ essentially from
each other. Both forms of fungus produce oxidation of the cel-
lulose structure, but with very different results. Consequently

64

potato-rot consists of more than the “ mere decay of the tissue
by its absorption of oxygen.” The purely fungoid theory, on
the other hand, will not account for the many exceptions pointed
out by those who favor the chemical theory ; since it may be
shown that as the chemical constitution and density of any veg-
etables vary, so will the genus and species of fungi be found to
vary with the proximate principles of the plants on which they
subsist.

If there is truth in these remarks, the value of sound, hearty
seed is one great preventive. Farmers should therefore exer-
cise great care in their selection, and never plant a diseased tu-
ber. Yet to my mind the fungus is the chief mischief, and so
plenty of room, good care, and, I might add, early planting,
should go hand in hand with the selection of seed. Russell
says entire destruction by fire of all diseased tops should be
imperative.

THE BRISTLE MOLD.

One more species of mold, known as the “‘ buttercup-blight,”
is so common and so peculiar in its growth, that I can not pass
it by.

It is represented in Fig. 33. Its
varieties are all known as bristle
mold, and attack damp paper or
books ; damp specimens in the col-
lections of our botanists are fre-
quently nearly ruined, and like
other fungi they are dreaded pests.

RAPID GROWTH OF FUNGI: YEAST-
PLANT.

Fig. 33-

a, conceptacle of Erisyphe communis; Yeast is a well-known substance
4, sporangium of the same highly magni- +4 ]] housekeepers, but all do not
know that it is a plant that thrives on sugar or nitrogenous mat-
ter. When the plant is examined under the microscope it is
found to be composed of myriads of minute cells, about one
twenty-four-hundredths of an inch{jin diameter. During the
progress of fermentation these cells*rapidly, increase in number,

65

until all the material necessary to their growth is used up. Its
rapid growth, and the evolution of carbonic acid gas from such
growth, makes it convenient for the housewife to raise her bread.
She prepares her material, puts in her seed, which is some of the
spores of the plant either dry or in fluid, and they immediately
commence their growth.

The cells grow together in chains, and when stirred they some-
times appear like threads, which are in reality bundles of the
fibers of the yeast-plant.

If the yeast is not used in this condition, the plant nourish-
ment is soon used up, putrefaction commences, and with it comes
a swarm of animalcules, countless as they are minute, and vo-
raciously devouring all in their way, until they also die from
want of food, changing the yeast frequently to a mass of animal
and vegetable putrefaction. This soon subsides, and vinegar
is the result.

This can be more fully exemplified by milk-yeast, which
sooner, as every housewife knows, passes through its various
‘stages, and sometimes is not baked until the putrescence is such
as to be hardly endurable to many persons.

With this example of fungous growth before their eyes, who
can wonder that the various fungi in the State of New Hampshire
alone cost the agriculturist many millions of dollars. They blight
his fruit-trees from the seed ; they blight his grain crop more or
less every year ; they blight his fruit from the blossom to its
end, pursuing it with a determined hate ; they mildew his beans
and peas ; they impair his corn and potatoes ; they poison his
hay, and disease his cattle ; they destroy his loved ones, often
with insidious disease, and then rot out his store-houses, his
dwelling, and even fastening upon himself, claim him at last as
fit ground on which to ripen their spores for deadly work on
others. No pest is so deadly, none so insidious in its workings,
none so varied, meeting us everywhere and under almost all con-
ditions. Insignificant in themselves, their very obscurity gives
them the best chances to do us injury.

They have their enemies, — countless animalcules feed upon
their various forms, yet no family is rendered extinct. The very
atmosphere we breathe is often hazy with the spores of various

5

66

fungi. The only wonder is, why anything, or any condition
of plant or atmosphere, can hold the various families of fungi in
check. Some suppose them of spontaneous growth. Why is
there need of such a supposition, when their minute spores ca-
pable of producing their like cannot even be excluded wherever
the atmosphere is present? The wonder is quite the other way,
for it is a wonder that they don’t destroy more than they do.

ANIMALCULES.

It is but a step from the microscopic plant to the animal.
The variety of form peculiar to microscopic life is truly wonder-
ful. It is so different from what we have been accustomed to
meet in our visible world that we are at once struck with its pe-
culiar varieties. ‘The number of these creatures exceeds all
human calculation. In every pond and ditch, and almost every
puddle, in vegetable infusions, in paste and vinegar, on honey,
sugar, and all sweet substances, on almost every leaf and flower,
even on those fungi only visible through the microscope, and in
rivers, seas, and oceans, these creatures are found in such num-
bers and varieties as to almost exceed belief.

“ The shapely limb and lubricated joint,
Within the small dimensions of a point,
Muscle and nerve, miraculously span
His mighty work, who speaks, and it is done,
The invisible in things scarce seen revealed
To whom an atom is an ample field.”

Of these wonderful creations, I will only bring forward a few
examples.

THE MITE FAMILY.

Comparatively few naturalists have studied up the habits and
peculiarities of the mite family. But few of our readers in nat-
ural history text-books learn from their pages anything definite
in relation to them, either regarding the affinities of these hum-
ble creatures, their organization, or frequently singular meta-

67

morphoses. We shall, therefore, only mention a few typical
forms which we have had the pleasure of examining.

Mites are lowly-organized Arachneds. This order is divided
into four families ; viz., the scorpions, spiders, harvestmen, and
mites; the scientific name of
which is Acarina. They have a
rounded oval body, without the
usual division between the head
and abdomen observable in spi-
ders ; the head, thorax, and ab-
domen being merged in a single
mass. When mature, there are ,
four pairs of legs, and the mouth __/
part consists, as seen in the ad- |
joining figure of a young tick,
of a pair of maxillz (c), which, bs
in the adult, terminate in two Venn teal oem
or three jointed feelers; a pair
of mandibles (4), often covered with several rows of fine teeth,
and ending in three or four larger hooks, and a serrated labium
(a). These parts form a beak, which the mite can insinuate
into the flesh of its host, upon the blood of which many species
subsist.

While very many of the mites are parasitic on animals, some
devour eggs of insects. The JVotherus (Fig. 35) destroys mil-
lions of the eggs of the canker-worm, and it is said that it also
sucks the eggs of the chinch-bug.

A few of this species are injurious to
man, as the Sarcoptes, that burrows under
the skin of filthy people, causing a disease ~
once so common, —the itch. The cheese-
mites, that swarm over the cheeses in our
cities, and sometimes in the country, have
six legs when young, but eight after a molt.
I have scraped a full pint of them off a sin-
gle cheese in Boston, and, putting my hand
into the mass, I could distinctly feel the an-
imal heat produced by aggregate millions of living, burning fur-
naces, the same as from higher organizations.

68

The harvestmen, known in this section as ‘“ daddy-long-
legs,” almost always have numerous parasites belonging to the
mite family. They also live parasitic on various water insects,
and on thie gills of the fresh-water mussel.

These species are very minute in size. Some species have
been found in the lungs and blood vessels of various animals.

THE SUGAR MITE.

Many people have been startled by statements sometimes
read, or that they have heard from authoritative sources, as to
the immense number of mites (Acarus Sacchari, Fig. 36,) found
in unrefined or raw sugar, but those state-
ments generally fall below rather than above
the truth.

Dr. Hassel, who first discovered them,
found them upon sixty-nine out of seventy-
two samples, and found sixty or seventy
mites to one grain of sugar, in most of the
samples. Mr. Cameron counted five hun-
dred on ten grains, which would be one
hundred thousand to the pound. This
would really be quite an adulteration, but,
under favorable circumstances, that is, with warmth and moist-
ure, I have seen one-half the bulk, at least, animal life. This
would, however, only be the case upon small lots of sugar.
When in barrels, their number is frequently immense, but they
are much more plentiful at the top of the barrel, or nearest the
light, though light is in no way necessary to their production.

The disease known as “ grocer’s itch,” is undoubtedly due to
the presence of this mite, which may now and then work its
way under the skin of the hand.

Plentiful as these mites are on the damp brown sugars, I have
never detected them on dry white sugar, though I almost always
find them on figs, dates, honey, if grained, and often on the
’ comb when not; in fine, they may be found on all sweet sub-
stances that are sufficiently exposed. :

They are a jolly, playful race of beings, and seem to live and
eat for enjoyment ; when frightened they play dead, curling up
their legs, and remaining inactive for some time.

Fig. 36.

69

Another singular mite, and of the lowest order, burrows in the
skin of dogs, and also in the diseased follicles of the a
face, and more especially the nose of j
man. (See Fig. 37.) It is a long, slen--
der, wormlike form, with eight short

Fig 47.
legs, though like many other mites it has but six in the larval

state. Washing the face in water to which has been added one
teaspoonful of strong aqua ammonia to the quart, will usually
remove them.

WATER ANIMALCULES.

Perhaps no class of objects that are visible to us only through
the microscope engage our attention so often, or amaze us so
much, as the various forms and peculiar habits of the water
animalcules. .

For the first time it is an amazing spectacle to view an as-
semblage of dissimilar forms in a drop of stagnant water.
They are from one thousandth to one ten-thousandth of an inch
in diameter, and I once saw them so crowded that the spaces
between them were not much larger. Several hundred forms
have been studied and described, but I shall only mention three
or four of the more common species. Remember, while pond or
river water will contain now and then specimens, that it is stag-
nant water alone that is crowded, and the pure spring-water of
New Hampshire never contains any animal life.

The motions of these creatures are varied, I might say almost
endless, in variety ; but amid their diversified gambols all have
the power of avoiding obstacles in their course, and their neigh-
bors, which are in such close proximity to them. Some species
are far more commen than others, but the more uncommon vari-
eties may frequently be obtained in midsummer, by exposing a
decoction of any dried leaves to the sun for three or four days ;
such exposure must be in the open air. A few species I will
describe.

The Rotifer, or wheel-bearing animalcules, are so termed from
the appearance of certain wheels, often seen rapidly rotating in
various situations on the anterior part of the body near the

TO

mouth. We say wheels, because they were so considered by
early microscopic observers who could not account for the motion
in any other way; but an improvement in instruments has
shown that it is an incessant muscular action, giving an appa-
rent rotation ; but that wheels could revolve in any part of an
animate body, would be quite inconsistent with the laws of ani-
mal organization. These wheel-shaped muscles are used to aid in
the motion of the animalcule and in supplying its food. They
are entirely subservient to the power of will, as they can stop
the motion instantly or increase it as they choose.

Their body, though so small, in one species, is shielded by a
shell into which this rotating apparatus can be drawn at will.
It is by the whirlpool, formed by the before-described rotations,
that its food is drawn into its mouth as a vortex, where it is mas-
ticated by three tiny teeth, and swallowed into a prepared
receptacle where it is ground by muscles working vigorously on
each other. Minute and curious as these organs are, the ani-
malcule is so small that like all other microscopic creatures they
are transparent, and with a moderately high magnifying power
this car. as well be seen as the workings of asteam engine made
of glass.

This species enjoy sunshine, and on dark, cloudy days are
only found at the bottom of the pond or ditch in which they
reside.

Again another of this same species, called Zardigrade, have
so great a tenacity for life that they may be put upon a
glass slide and dried for days, yes, for months or years, and then
at once resuscitated by a drop of water. Dr. Carpenter, one of
the most renowned microscopists of Europe, states that their
tenacity of life goes even further, as he has kept them in a
vacuum for thirty days with sulphuric acid and chloride of cal-
cium, thus causing them to suffer the most complete desiccation
that the chemist can effect, and yet they have not lost their
capability of revivification. For this reason they have been
styled the resurrectionists, and it seems for good cause. ‘This

wonderful power of resuscitation, and the fact that the rapidity -

of their reproduction, as estimated by Prof. Erenberg, being
from the egg at the rate of seventeen millions per month, is cer-

T1

tainly sufficient for their remarkable appearance in almost every
situation, and under almost all circumstances.

It has been supposed by some that they were the result of
spontaneous production, but from what I have said you can see
there is no necessity for such a conclusion. The many curiosi-
ties connected with the life and introduction of the Rotifer, into
almost all places, of course will excite the amateur in micro-
scopical investigation to search for them. That he may not be
disappointed, I will state that in the leaf-cells of the Spagnum,
generally known as bog-moss, there is a very curious departure
from the ordinary type of vegetable growth. Instead of the
usual cell-tissue their leaves contain spiral fiber, loosely coiled
in their interior, and in the membranous covering of the stem
there are nicely rounded holes, or apertures, by which there is
free communication with the interior, as well as with each other.
These natural caverns are appropriated by the Rotifer, and used
as dwellings. It is here you are sure to find them at home.

Another species, called Aurelia, are covered with cilia, or mi-
nute hairs around the mouth in a circle; by their agitation ani-
malcules much smaller are drawn into their mouths and de-
voured.

Again the Hydra, which may be found in ponds and rivulets
adhering to the leaves of aquatic plants, or twigs and sticks that
have fallen into the water, is a wonder among wonders.

It may be subdivided many times and yet every part will in a
few hours become a perfect Hydra. This name is given them
because they have many long arms, which were supposed to re-
semble the heads of the fifty-headed water-serpent, called Hy-
dra, which fabulous history informs us was destroyed by Her-
cules, in the lake of Lerna. They are by no means vegetarians,
and have the capability of swallowing creatures as large as
themselves.

In the ordinary mode of multiplication little budlike protu-
berances are developed on their external surface, which are soon
observed to resemble the parent in character, possessing a di-
gestive sack and mouth.

For a time, however, this cavity is connected with that of the
parent, but at last the communication is cut off, and the young

.
—

i
Hydra quits its attachment and goes in quest of its own main-
tenance.

A second generation of buds are, however, frequently seen on
the young before quitting its parent, and I have counted as many
as eighteen in different stages of development on one original
stock. Again, in taking its food, it sometimes happens that the
same morsel will be seized upon by two Hydra, when a struggle
for the prey ensues, in which the strongest gains the victory.
Sometimes each will begin to swallow the same morsel, until the
mouths of the pair come in actual contact, when, if the morsel
does not break, the larger deliberately swallows his opponent,
sometimes partially, so as to compel the discharge of the food
by the smaller, but frequently the entire polyp is engulfed. But
Hydra is no fit food for Hydra, and his capacity for endurance
saves him from a living tomb, for after a time, when the food is
sucked out of his mouth, the sufferer is disgorged with no other
loss than his dinner.

Yet perhaps the greatest curiosity is in the reproduction of its
parts. Split one open, and the separate parts will soon take
food, and in twenty-four hours are as perfect as ever.

Strange as it may seem, all these processes can be watched
with unerring certainty, and so interesting are the developments,
that I always dislike to close the scene, though aching eyes will
at length gain the mastery.

TRICHINA SPIRALIS.

As the Zrichina Spiralis is an animalcule liable to infest man
to his injury, and often a disease of swine, rendering the pork
dangerous to the consumer, I have selected it as of peculiar
interest. It is a small spiral worm, like a pin-worm, which has
ever been found now and then in muscles of various animals.
It is supposed by some to originate in the rat, and to have been
from them spread over the country as they gained a foothold,
as it is often found in their muscles, and frequently in those of

cats that devour them. How it comes to infest pork is uncer-.

tain, but probably by their food, as a hog is none too particular
upon what it feeds, and might eat portions of rats or any other
dead animal.

73

The immature parasites, as seen in muscle under the micro-
scope, are worms about one twenty-fifth of an inch in length,
spirally coiled up within globular, oval, or lemon-shaped trans-
parent cysts, which, according to the length of time they have
been formed, are more or less covered with calcareous matter.

From various experiments, I have been led to believe that
after they are completely covered with this calcareous concre-
tion, sealed as it were in a stone sarcophagus, that they are
destroyed ; such flesh containing them will not contaminate
other individuals, as I have fed young rats with it without effect,
when they were always contaminated when fed with diseased
meat in which the cysts were not calcareous, though the cysts
themselves are to be considered rather as abnormalities, de-
veloped some little time after the larva have reached their
destination, as hundreds of specimens have been seen to co-exist
entirely free from cysts.

Fig. 38 shows the Trichina when thus in-
cysted in the muscles (magnified).

The number found in any one subject varies,
but Leuckart estimated that one ounce of cat-
flesh which he observed must have harbored
more than 300,000 parasites. Even if we as-
sume that the forty-five pounds of muscle
which an ordinarily healthy man possesses
were infested with only 50,000 Trichinz to the
ounce, they would still contain more than
thirty millions. Fig 38.

The adult Trichina magnified is shown in
Fig. 39.

The sexually mature male Trichina, accord-
ing to Cobbold, is about one-eighteenth of an
inch long, while the adult female is one-eighth ;
the body is rounded and slender, and the head
very narrow and sharply pointed. The mode
of reproduction is viviparous. The muscular
parasite, when introduced into the alimentary

Fig. 39. canal of man or animal, is set free in the
process of digestion, and in two days’ time reaches the adult

T4

condition. Leuckart states that in six days more the female
brings forth a numerous brood of minute, hairlike larvz ; these
soon begin their wanderings by piercing the intestinal walls,
after which they proceed through the system till they reach the
muscles, into which they penetrate ; here they develop so that
in two weeks more, that is, in about three weeks from the time
the infested food was taken, they present the appearance of the
ordinary muscular Z7ichina Spiralis, as shown in Fig. 38.

The sexually mature worms probably produce more than one
brood of young ; they have been found alive in the intestines
eight weeks after the infection of the flesh in which they were
contained. The larvae remain in the muscles they have reached,
and shortly become incysted as heretofore mentioned. Smoking
the meat does not kill the parasites it contains ; brine, if very
strong and long applied, probably does; thorough cooking
certainly does. Time also has its effect on them, though they
are endowed with wonderful vitality. In some healthy subjects
who died from accident, the larvee and their inclosing cysts have
been found to have undergone calcareous degeneration ; but it is
probably months, and even years, before death of the parasite
occurs ; in illustration of which, Virchow states that in one case
he found them alive eight, and in another thirteen and a half,
years after infection.

When a person is infected, which infection usually takes place
from eating partially cooked sausages or raw bacon, in three or
four days there is lassitude, depression, sleeplessness, loss of
appetite, and fever. Then there supervenes excessive pain in
the muscles, especially of the limbs, contractions of the knee
and elbow, swelling of the limbs with apparent pneumonia, and
frequently mania with death.

On post-mortem examinations, the muscles are found crowded
with the parasites, and to be in a state of fatty degeneration. If
they recover, after three or four weeks of the same symptoms,
with less severity, convalescence commences, and in six or eight
weeks more the patient is quite well, and the incysted Trichinze
seem to give him no further trouble. The virulence of the at-
tack seems to depend considerably on the number of parasites
introduced into the patient’s stomach, yet the previous constitu-

T5

tion and strength of the patient have much to do with final
recovery.

The true safeguard is to eat no pork unless thoroughly cooked 5
yet microscopic examination will reveal the disease, even if ever
so small a section of a muscle be examined, and it should be in-
cumbent upon all butchers here as in Germany, to make such
examination, and they should be punished here, as there, for
selling Trichinous meat.

For this time I will present no further microscopic wonders.
What I have said is sufficient to show you, that around us all
exist immense fields of study, easy of access, and yet pregnant
with wonderful facts, with but few of which we are as yet con-

versant.
“ Has any seen
The mighty chain of beings, lessening down
From infinite perfection to the brink
Of dreary nothing ?”

Until we have, let us be ever ready to grasp truth, wherever
found, and lend idle hours to investigation.

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