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SPRUCE LAND ON WHICH THE LARGE TIMBER HAS BEEN CUT AND THE SMALL TREES LEFT TO GROW. THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE A STUDY OF THE FOREST IN NE-HA-SA-NE PARK WITH TABLES OF VOLUME AND YIELD AND A WORKING-PLAN FOR CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING BY GIFFORD PINCHOT t ‘Ge ee, Be NEW YORK 29 h NEW YORK Er, Giger. CO: 1808 Neh ee time F PS FS Copyright, 1898, By GIFFORD PINCHOT PREFACE THE owners and operators of Spruce lands in the Eastern United States will find within the covers of this little book a collection of facts and figures which is intended first of all to be of practical use. The infor- mation it contains is the product of a prolonged in- vestigation conducted throughout with that intention. If its results have any merit, therefore, it must be be- cause they are capable of assisting American lumber- men to get better returns from their investments in Spruce lands through conservative lumbering and suc- cessive crops than they could by considering the pro- ductiveness of these lands as of merely temporary in- terest. In the attempt to be of use in this way, some departures from established methods of study and state- ment have been necessary. Such changes are inevi- table. As yet forestry in America is young. In its progress toward maturity it must develop new meth- ods to meet the unfamiliar conditions with which it has to deal. Rules and practices which were devised with- out reference to American forests cannot always be counted on to fit American needs. Perhaps nothing has done more to retard the progress of forestry in America than the disregard of its intimate and friendly relation to lumbering—a relation which was almost wholly overlooked for years after the advocates of forest ili 1V PREFACE protection first brought their cause to public attention. In the eyes of many of its early friends the lumber- man was a vandal whose inordinate greed called for constant denunciation, while to the lumberman the ideas of the forest reformer had no relation whatever to the affairs of practical life. Since that early day lumbermen and foresters have been drawing together, and much progress has been made toward the right opinion, which may be expressed by saying that lum- berman and forester are as needful to each other as the ax and its helve. Without the ax the helve has little weight; without the helve the ax is lacking both in reach and in direction. As the aim of the book is wholly practical, much ma- terial of chiefly theoretical interest has been necessarily excluded from its pages. A little of it, either closely connected with the main object of the book or other- wise of special interest, has been printed in small type, Only so much of it has been included in the body of the book as is necessary to show the way by which results were reached. Hence, ‘The Adirondack Spruce,” considered as a general discussion, is extremely defec- tive. To mention but a single instance, no account is given of the age of the Spruce in relation to size, be- cause the plan of work here proposed does not require a knowledge of it. It is a fortunate fact that this plan of work is already undergoing practical trial. Dr. Webb was the first to adopt it, for Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, a tract of 40,000 acres, including the land hereafter described. A statement PREFACE V of it laid before the Hon. William C. Whitney and Mr. Patrick Moynehan met with their approval, and led to its introduction on land contiguous to the Park, belonging to Mr. Whitney and operated jointly by Mr. Whitney and Mr. Moynehan. An account of the detailed working-plans under which this work is being done, together with the results of the first year’s cut, will be published early in the coming year by the Division of Forestry, United States Department of Agriculture, by which the plans were prepared, and under whose supervision they are being carried out. The total area now being managed in the Adirondacks under the plans of the Division is slightly more than 100,000 acres. I wish to express in this place my high sense of the public spirit and practical wisdom which led Dr. Webb to sustain the investigation whose results are now pub- lished, and to approve and apply the plans of work which it has produced. My sincere thanks are also due to Mr. Edward M. Burns, Manager of Ne-Ha-Sa- Ne Park, for his unfailing interest and assistance, and to the men to whose constant and loyal efforts whatever has been accomplished is so largely due. GIFFORD PINCHOT. WASHINGTON, D. C., Oct. 24, 1898. 40 ii oon , & owliyt i CONTENTS PART I. THE SPRUCE CHAP. PAGE Oe Sd 0 ge ee eee eee I nem WCRI S02 roa' ds ks s.h 4 one eet ws bd ms chvualdaaenesenas 4 MING RE ROCH ot gde Fe ao 90s cad nies a pawen tanned anaes 16 SEIS TN MM OUR 010400: Soa avn sv dncaacks wanooe cules 22 NIC IA THY CR BEG C.F 675) vere dic cvnd cide ee uaeietetee tees 24 a ey oe aeee Pre Petre hin re heer res 31 6 THE BASIS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT...., .......-. 34 PME AES 6 oy wel e scone Vad vinvadd ss laeadasndex sees 50 Me RESTA TRI MIMVEY SS 655 acetic deen sense due svvnnen anes 59 ee ER UP so aids, Serta vise uduar wehsine daden wees 75 i.e TRLD OF ASSOCIATED SPECIES:. 20.0. 65 6.6.0.h2c005. 87 II 12 13 14 15 16 PART II. THE WORKING PLAN OROGRAPHY AND CEMMAPE. on... ss5du fede Veee dew 95 PCE APUG, otk Oy mone Re IOI REASONS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT ......,......... 102 (PREATMENT OF THE FOREST... : 5.225. c0ccsccsases 105 CUTTING....... MRE Role tae fin Sax bxeus cine bh’s sates uee 110 he SIR BE laa ne ae eee Tee ner arn 114 ur, ie Pe he’ te wy iy ne) tat ‘Oe Batak Pe ae ru 4 7 ie ens ° ay : = 5 PART I 4HE. SPRUCE \ 1 - 1 < re c ; j a ae r a jw tar hee pdia ie. a (he i y aft ’ INTRODUCTION THE study whose results are here presented had its origin in a conversation between Dr. W. Seward Webb and the writer in November, 1896. The arrangement then made contemplated a division of responsibility according to which Dr. Webb’s contribution should consist of the funds necessary for the pay of assistants and the necessary field expenses, while my share in- volved the planning and supervision of the work, and the preparation of its results for publication. The whole undertaking was to have for its object the ‘« pres- ervation and proper management of Spruce lands in the northeastern United States.” It was evident at that time, and it is still more evident now, that the original forests cannot long suffice to supply the increasing demands for Spruce which are made upon them. To provide fora second, and for suc- ceeding crops of Spruce is the obvious and necessary way to prevent a scarcity of this valuable tree, and the consequent crippling, in the comparatively near future, of the industries which depend upon it. The purpose of the present study was to acquire such a knowledge of the laws which govern the growth of the Red Spruce that the main facts necessary for the conservative treat- ment of Spruce forests might be put within the reach of the men most likely to undertake it. I 2 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE Under this plan instructions were prepared, and field-work was begun early in December, 1896, and was continued for nearly two months. It was the in- tention to confine it chiefly, but not altogether, to Ne- Ha-Sa-Ne Park, the property of Dr. Webb. To sup- ply data which could not there be obtained, it consisted at the outset chiefly in tree-analyses on land belonging to the Santa Clara Lumber Company, near Santa Clara, Franklin County, N. Y., which was being cut over the second time for Spruce. Sincere thanks are due to the officers of this company for their constant courtesy and most valuable assistance. Mr. Henry S. Graves was charged with the execution of the work, and was assisted by two volunteers, Mr. U. F. Bender and Mr. Henry Farnham, and by two woodsmen hired for the purpose. The field work was interrupted for some months, when this part of it was completed, and was resumed about the middle of May at Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne, Hamilton County, N. Y. Mr. Graves was again in charge, and was assisted by Messrs. W. McClintock and W. S. Walcott, both volunteers. During the first week of July Mr. E. M. Griffith replaced Mr. Graves, who had been called away on important Government work in the West. Mr. Griffith was assisted by Messrs. W. McClin- tock, W. S. Walcott, T. H. Sherrard, F. E. Olmsted, F. Mosle, G. M. Leupp, and S. Woodruff, all volunteers. The work at Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne was completed early in September, 1897. The work of stating the results, and preparing them for publication, has occupied the inter- vening time. Acknowledgments are due to the men INTRODUCTION 3 who gave their services to the investigation, and special mention should be made in this place of the efficient and accurate work of Mr. Graves, to whom was en- trusted the execution of plans in the making of which he shared, and of Mr. Griffith as his assistant. The field work done comprised the counting and measurement, on 1046 acres, of all Spruces down to a diameter of two inches, and of all other trees ten inches or more in diameter. All Spruces below 2 inches were counted under the head of ‘ tallies.” On twelve of these acres the trees other than Spruce were also measured and counted down to two inches. Each of the twelve acres was a square, while the remainder (1034) were taken by the chain method described later on. In addition, fourteen sample plots, of rather more than an acre in average size, were carefully sur- veyed at Santa Clara, and their trees counted, and all the Spruces over 5 inches in diameter, to the number of 2,006, were analyzed. At Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne the number ot tree-analyses reached two hundred and ninety-eight. These materials, together with the silvicultural and other notes collected by Mr. Graves and myself during several years, have furnished the data presented in this book. It is believed that they represent accurately the average conditions of the region with which they deal. I THE FOREST THE forest of Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, except for a small strip on the southern side, has never been lumbered. In places along the railroad the Spruce has been culled for ties, and near camp sites and rangers’ cabins there has been some cutting for fuel and other local uses. But for the most part the Park is covered with a virgin forest. A virgin forest is the product of centuries of struggle among the trees for the occupancy of the ground. This competition takes place between individuals of the same species, as well as between the different species, and its result determines the character of the forest. Nature does not provide for the survival of those trees alone which are of greatest use to man, or for the destruction of the valueless. The valueless species enter the con- test with as much vigor as the more technically valu- able, and often win in the race. A natural forest, then, contains alike valuable timber, unsound and worthless trees, and species which have at present no merchanta- ble use. From a technical point of view the condition of the virgin forest is not good, because much of the land, which might be producing marketable timber, is occupied by scrubby and worthless trees. The important species of Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park are all 4 -HA-SA-NE PARK. NE TYPICAL VIRGIN FOREST. Prete a a Ws al THE FOREST 5 tolerant of shade to a considerable degree. As a con- sequence, the forest is composed of trees of all ages and sizes, for the younger trees are able to survive beneath the shade of the older ones. Such a forest is said to have the selection form. A selection forest is usually composed of species tolerant of shade. This does not mean, however, that intolerant species are wanting, for these maintain their existence by prolific reproduction, rapid growth, and the ability to live on poor soil, rather than by overcom- ing their rivals in the struggle on the ground. Thus where openings are made by windfall or fire, such species often take possession of the land, coming up in fairly even-aged bodies, sometimes of very considerable size. On fire slashes in the Adirondacks, for example, the Poplar, a tree very intolerant of shade, but with very light seed easily carried by the wind, rapidly takes pos- session of the soil. White Pine comes up in openings after fire. Tamarack, the most intolerant of all, grows rapidly in height, and so maintains its place. It starts in openings, and, by growing faster than Spruce or Balsam, forms an upper story above them. In the long run, other things being equal, the tolerant species will win, and the intolerant will be forced to retire to the openings caused by fire, wind, insects or disease. The species which occur in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park are Spruce, Birch, Hard Maple, Soft Maple, Beech, Balsam, Hemlock, White Pine, Tamarack, Cherry, Black Ash, White Ash, two Poplars (distinguished as the Aspen and the Largetooth Aspen), and Bird Cherry. Of these, 6 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE Spruce, Hemlock, Balsam, the Maples, Beech, and Birch are tolerant. White Pine is intermediate, and the re- mainder of the trees are intolerant of shade. A pro- visional scale of tolerance is as follows, beginning with the species which demand most light : —Tamarack, Pop- lar, Bird Cherry, White and Black Ash, Black Cherry, White Pine, Birch, Soft Maple, Balsam, Spruce, Hem- lock, Beech, Hard Maple. These species occur in mix- ture of varying proportions, the preponderance of one tree or another depending primarily on the situation and soil. In general, the forest may be divided into four dis- tinct types, named from thesituations where they grow; Swamp land, Spruce flat, Hardwood land, and Spruce slope. Further subdivision would be possible, but it is unnecessary for the purposes of this report. From an examination of the land, from the topographi- cal map, and from the 1046 valuation surveys, these four classes of situation are estimated to have approximately the following proportion in the Park : Swamp lands, 22 per cent. Spruce flats, 10 per cent. Hardwood lands, 42 per cent. Spruce slopes, 26 per cent. An excellent mental picture of the forest may be ob- tained from the following table, which gives for each species the average number per acre of trees over ten inches in diameter breast high, and the percentage of each species in the mixture, as well as the average and maximum diameters. These figures represent the aver- THE FOREST rs age of the 1046 valuation surveys taken in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park. The proportionate number of acres of each of the four situation classes corresponds quite closely with the actual proportion of each kind of land in the Park. TABLE I Average number of trees per acre, percentage in mixture, and average and maximum diameters of all sound trees over ten inches in diameter breast-high. Average of 1046 acres Av. No. Percent. of Trees of each per Acre Species Hard Maple MMs nt 2 ose. 55s eee Balsam Soft Maple White Pine Average of all species... ght of allspecies ex- cept Spruce 8 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE SWAMP LANDS Under this head are included all the swamp and marsh lands of the Park. In certain places, on low, flat, wet ground, there is an almost pure growth of small, spindling, narrow-crowned Spruce, which ap-. parently does not reach a merchantable size. The general aspect of thistree,in habit and color of foliage, is in marked contrast to those about it. On close ex- amination, it is found to be Black Spruce (Picea mart- ana (Mill) B.S. P.), while the merchantable tree is Red Spruce (Picea rubra (Poir) Diet.) The Red Spruce also occurs almost pure in low swampy ground, but it is more often found in mixture with Balsam. In such places it is usually short and scrubby. The following summary gives the average condition of the forest on swamp land in the Park. SPRUCE SWAMP. THE DEAD TREES ARE TAMARACK. NE-HA-SA-NE PARK. TABLE 2 SWAMP LANDS Average number of trees per acre, percentage in mixture, and aver- age and maximum diameters of all sound trees over ten inches in diameter breast-high. Average of 225 acres Av. No. Percent. of Trees | of each per Acre Species high. Inches iat Hard Maple Hemlock Balsam Soft Maple White Pine Average of all species.... Average of all species ex- cept Spruce IO THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE SPRUCE FLATS These are level and rolling flats, usually near ponds and swamp lands. The soil as a rule is fresh and deep, although frequently the ground is covered with glacial boulders. The humus is fairly deep and the leaf-litter thick. The Spruce is of medium height and usually ot medium diameter, with an occasional veteran of very large proportions. On areas covered with rocks, and where the soil is moist, the danger from windfall is considerable. The second-growth after these windfalls is frequently Birch and Soft Maple. The trees in mixture on Spruce Flats are Birch, the Maples, Beech, Hemlock, Balsam, White Pine, Cherry, and Ash. Like the Spruce, the Birch is here of a quality and development intermediate between that of the higher ground and that found in swamps. These flats form the lower limit of the Hard Maple. Itis common on higher ground, but on the lower and moister flats it gives way to Soft Maple. The Hard Maple is here inferior in quality to that found on high lands. Here, as elsewhere in the Park, the Soft Maple is very unsound. On the higher flats Beech of excellent quality iscommon on good soil ; on the lower land it is unsound and of inferior development. Some of the best Hemlock in the Park occurs on Spruce flats, es- pecially. where the soil is fresh and not far above the level of streams and ponds. The Balsam for the most part is small, and other species have little importance. C> seca | neg rahe PURE EVEN-AGED STAND OF SPRUCE SPRUCE FLAT. Y. N. SANTA CLARA, ABOUT 120 YEARS OLD, TABLE 3 SPRUCE FLATS Average number of trees per acre, percentage in mixture, and average and maximum diameters of all sound trees over ten inches in diameter breast-high. Average of 106 acres Ay. No. | Percent. —~ Diam. | of Trees | of each Lacparigs | per Acre | Species igh, Inches Hard Maple Hemlock Gath Maple ......-..-+--<1 White Pine Average of all species... Average of all species ex- cept Spruce [2 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE HARDWOOD LANDS Hardwood lands comprise the elevated flats and slopes where the hardwoods are the characteristic species, among which the Spruce grows in considerable quantity, both scattered and in groups. The soil is richest on high flats and moderate slopes, and here the largest Spruce and the best hardwoods grow. The humus is good and the fall of litter heavy. In general the Spruce is somewhat larger on the more level hard- wood lands than on the slopes, but the crown is apt to be longer and the clear length shorter. The propor- tion of Spruce in mixture is nearly the same in each. The characteristic trees in mixture are the Birch, Hard Maple, and Beech, with scattered Hemlock, Soft Maple, Pine, Cherry, and Balsam. The first three attain their best development on these lands, while the Hem- lock is of inferior quality to that found on the moister soil of lower ground. While Soft Maple is not a charac- teristic tree of the hardwood forest, it is found scattered there in considerable numbers, and the largest speci- mens frequently grow on high ground. The other species are not important. -HA-SA-NE PARK. N t e fey =) © = = % < 4 phy Al Typ TABLE 4 HARDWOOD LANDS Average number of trees per acre, percentage in mixture, and average and maximum diameters of all sound trees over ten inches in diameter breast-high. Average of 442 acres | eas Av. No. Percent. | Av. Diam.| Di: ofTrees | ofeach | One bora per Acre Species high. Max. Inches Inches 13.1 17.8 13.7 Hard Maple : 14.3 Hemlock | =a 17.4 Balsam 2. Lief Soft Maple White Pine Average of ail species... Average of all species ex-| cept Spruce 14 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE SPRUCE SLOPES These are usually steep rocky slopes with meagre soil, bearing a forest chiefly of softwoods. In general the exposure is to the south. The Spruce is here ot excellent quality, tall and clear boled, the largest specimens on benches and in hollows, where the soil is deeper and the growth of the trees more rapid. The danger from windfall on such rocky slopes is very great. A fair amount ot young growth and seedlings occurs on Spruce slopes, and in openings and windfalls the reproduction is very fine. Spruce seed finds an excel- lent germinating bed on the moss-covered soil. Hemlock grows here in considerable quantities, and is often grouped at the brow of the ridge. Birchis the most abundant of the hardwoods in mixture, and is of excellent quality. Beech and Hard Maple are found, but less abundantly. There is frequently a small cluster of Pines on the brow of southern slopes. K -HA-SA-NE PAR Se Se NE SPRUCE SLOPE. ——— TABLE 5 SPRUCE SLOPES Average number of trees per acre, percentage in mixture, and average and maximum diameters of all sound trees over ten inches in diameter breast-high. Average of 274 acres . | Max. Av.No. | Percent, | AY. Diam.) pio ofTrees | of each breast- | janet Species per Acre | Species high, | nigh Inches REI erp ose han RSPEI TE 4 ee nal laes's Beech lata Maple. s 2052-4 scn Hemlock Balsam Soft Maple White Pine Average of all species. | Average of all species ex: cept Spruce II ins OF UC HABIT IN favorable localities and in crowded forest, the Spruce forms a long, clear, full bole, and a rather com- pact, short, and blunted crown. It attains in Ne-Ha- Sa-Ne Park a height of one hundred feet and a di- ameter of thirty-four inches. These dimensions are, however, rare, and the average for large trees is not over ninety feet in height, and, for the diameter, from twenty-four to twenty-six inches. On low swampy ground Spruce has a long crown, and is comparatively short. The average length of crown for all situations and soils in the Park is about forty feet, and the average clear length from twenty-five to thirty feet. The average length of merchantable log was found to be forty-six feet. The root system is flat and superficial, and the tree, in consequence, is able to thrive on shallow soils. SOIL AND SITUATION The influence of situation and soil on the character and distribution of the Spruce is very marked. In general, the Spruce may be divided into three classes with fairly distinct lines, according as it is found on 16 ‘MUVd AN-VS-VH-AN ‘“LSANOY AHL NI ADANdS ONAOX AO aNoUAD THE SPRUCE 17 hardwood lands or Spruce slopes, on swamp lands, or on the intermediate Spruce flats. Occasional groups of Spruce on the narrow tops of high ridges belong also to the latter class. While the character of the tree varies according to the situation, yet the Spruce is not fastidious, for it occupies all situations and soils; the tops of mountains and ridges, abrupt rocky slopes, and low wet swamps, as well as good soil. The best Spruce is found on rich flats or moderate slopes with rich fresh soil. Any aspect is good if the soil is suita- ble. It must not be wet or acid. Thus the largest Spruce is found on low moderate slopes, in sheltered coves, along the benches or hollows of steep slopes, and on rich flats. On low swampy land it is short and of slow growth. Spruce of intermediate growth occurs on Spruce flats, where the soil is fresh or even moist, but not wet. Aside from these general considerations, the pres- ence or absence of the Spruce in certain places is de- termined chiefly by accidental distribution and by the struggle with other species for possession of the ground. On steep southwestern slopes it is found in great abundance, and sometimes almost pure. This is not because the soil and aspect are here most favorable to the growth of Spruce, but because many of the hard- woods will not grow on such rocky, thin soil, and the Spruce is thus left almost without competitors. In the same way Spruce often predominates on poor, low, moist, or even wet, lands, because in such places also it is almost without competition. Spruce is then most 18 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE abundant not necessarily where situation and soil are best suited to its development, but in many cases where the soil is so poor that no other tree will grow. It is most abundant on the brows of ridges, on knolls, steep slopes, along the edges of lakes, and often on low moist ground. On high land it must contend with the numerous and persistent hardwoods, which, in capacity to bear shade, in height-growth, and in reproductive capacity, are fully equal to it. REPRODUCTION There are two qualities which enable the Spruce to maintain itself in fairly uniform proportion in the Adirondack forest. These are its ability to live under the heavy crowns of other trees, already referred to, and its remarkable power of reproduction. The latter depends first of all on the great quantities of seed which are produced year by year. The seeds of the Spruce are winged, and as they ripen and fall from the cones the winds catch and spread them widely throughout the forest. In this way the chance to take possession of suitable localities can be used whenever it arises. For the best reproduction of Spruce a good seed bed and a certain amount of light are required. Large quantities of seed fall annually which never germinate, and thousands of small seedlings perish through the lack of proper conditions of light and soil. Where there is light enough, Spruce seedlings germinate and grow easily on deep Spruce or Pine duff and on heavy beds of moss. Thus on Spruce slope seedlings are REPRODUCTION OF SPRUCE IN A WINDFALL, NE-Ha-Sa-NE Park. wenat ak ore. - ae) —_ he we” rae THE SPRUCE 19 abundant on the moss-covered rocks and logs, and in- deed wherever a break in the forest canopy admits suf- ficient light. A heavy matting of leaf litter, on the other hand, such as is found on hardwood land, seems less thoroughly adapted to their requirements, but they are found scattered in greater or less numbers almost throughout the forest. In small openings, especially those made by windfalls, they are most frequent, and here they occur in dense groups, growing rapidly under the influence of the light. In other still smaller open- ings in the forest such groups of greater or less extent are very common, and form one of the distinguishing features of the reproduction of this tree. In larger openings, caused by fire, the return of the Spruce to land from which it has been burned away is often slow. Commonly it is preceded by a growth of herbaceous plants, and vines, followed by Poplar and Bird Cherry, and then, when a suitable seed-bed has been prepared by the waste from these trees, the return of the Spruce itself takes place. TOLERANCE The fact that young seedlings and small trees are so widely distributed through the forest is due in part to the ability of this tree to grow under heavy shade. This does not mean that the Spruce will not flourish in the light, but merely that it is tolerant ot the heavy cover which isa distinguishing characteristic of the hard- wood forest in the Adirondacks and throughout New England. Specimens from too to 150 years old, and 20 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE less than six inches in diameter, are common. Such trees have survived on the little sunlight which could penetrate the heavy crowns above them, and, although not in vigorous health, are capable of continuing the struggle to an advanced age. This ability to tolerate heavy shade is common to large numbers of forest trees, among which both the Beech and the Hard Maple excel the Spruce in this regard. But few trees possess the wonderful capacity of the Spruce to recover from long years of suppression and grow almost or quite as vigorously and rapidly after it is ended as though all the conditions of life had been favorable from the be- - ginning. It is to this capacity more than to any other that the Spruce owes its presence in the Adirondack forests. Slow of growth in youth, and germinating for the most part under heavy shade, the Spruce could not survive in the hardwood forest, where it reaches its best development, except by the combination of these two qualities, the ability to bear shade, and the power to flourish when the suppression is over as vigorously as though it had never been. This power of tolerance is not restricted to early life, although very marked at that time, but continues into age as well. Thus, at Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne several trees but nine inches in diameter were found to have more than 200 annual rings on the stump, and of eighteen Spruces with diameters ranging from 8.5 to 9.4 inches, but seven were younger than I50 years, and none were younger than 100. One Spruce stump 4.5 inches in diameter had 121 annual rings. These trees had grown for years SMALLSPRUCE WHICH WAS FOR MANY YEARS SUPPRESSED. THE LEADER WAS BROKEN OFF; A SIDE BRANCH TOOK ITS PLACE, BECAME THE MAIN SHOOT, AND NOW, WITH A FAIR DEGREE OF LIGHT, IS GROWING VIGOROUSLY. NE-HA-SA-NE PARK, THE SPRUCE 2I crowded and shaded by their more thrifty neighbors. Under such circumstances it is common to find small trees still alive, but with flattened and umbrella-shaped crowns. Even such trees are not beyond the possibility of usefulness. If the shade be removed they will usually begin to grow as vigorously as though they had never been suppressed. If the leading shoot has been killed, which is sometimes the case, a side branch will turn upward and take its place, and the growth, although somewhat retarded by the accident, will go rapidly on. A considerable proportion of all the large Red Spruce in the Adirondacks is found, on examina- tion, to have passed through this umbrella stage. On old windfalls in certain sections, for example, and par- ticularly on low flats, many of the old Spruces carry clusters of very numerous persistent branches growing close together at ten or fifteen feet above the ground. Such branches mark a period when the crown was flattened and umbrella-shaped. The present size of these Spruces shows plainly how when the old trees above them were blown down they shot up and grew thriftily in spite of the severe circumstances of their youth. It is true that when trees have attained such a size before being set free the injury to the lumber is serious, for the persistent branches entail the loss of a certain amount of clear stuff. If, however, the tree is small when freed, the knots from which these branches grew may be covered over in time, and lumber of good quality may be produced. peg KG SPRUCE IN MIXTURE THE forest on the Park has been described as a mixed selection forest composed of species which for the most part are extremely tolerant of shade.. The distribution of different species in different places is de-. termined primarily by the situation and soil. In local- ities suited to the growth of a number of species the factors which govern the preponderance of one tree overanother are: First.—Accidental distribution, under which head are grouped such facts as may result from the wind blowing in a particular direction just as ripe seeds are ready to fall, from a windfall taking place just before an abundant seed-year, or from similar acci- dental happenings by which one species is given special opportunities or advantages for reproduction. Second.— The peculiar power of each species to contend with its neighbors for space and light. As different trees start together or in succession on any given tract, the strug- gle for existence begins and will be determined by the power of the different species for carrying iton. It is the outcome of this struggle which fixes the char- acter of the forest, and in it without accidental aid the tolerant species must win in the long run. If the intol-: erant species can get the start, being often rapid of growth, they may hold their position by growing above 22 SPRUCE IN MIXTURE 23 the other trees about them, as do Tamarack and Pine. Under average conditions on large areas, the propor- tionate numbers of different trees, equal in tolerance and other qualities, would be fairly evenly maintained. Allspecies, however, are not equal in their tolerance of shade, their resistance to storm and disease, in ten- acity of life and power of reproduction, so that an even mixture is seldom either achieved or maintained. We have already seen that Spruce grows in all situa- tions and soils. While in most portions of the Park it is mixed with other species, there are certain situations where Spruce occurs nearly pure. Thus, on south- western slopes the soil is frequently so stony and the slope so abrupt that such trees as Hard Maple and Beech find difficulty in obtaining a footing. In such places Spruce reproduces itself abundantly; Birch and Hemlock come up to some extent; but, in comparison with the forest on northern slopes and high flats, Spruce has almost undisputed sway. The same is true on certain ridges and knolls where the growth is almost entirely softwood, and on certain lowlands where its competitors are reduced to a few species with which the Spruce is abundantly able to cope. In such situa- tions, and wherever Spruce predominates, its future is assured. That 1s to say, under conservative treatment there is or there will be young growth enough to take the place of whatever merchantable timber may be cut, and hence the reproduction is sufficient to maintain the present proportion of Spruce. With proper care the latter could, on the whole, be increased. IV ASSOCIATED TREES BIRCH YELLOW BIRCH (Betula lutea, Michx. f.) is the char- acteristic hardwood tree of the Park. With an average diameter of fifteen inches when mature, in some cases it reaches a diameter of four feet and a height of go to 100 feet. When growing at its best in dense forest it forms a long, clear, full trunk and a narrow crown. It inhabits a great variety of soils and situations, but attains its best development on hardwood flats. Al- though it occurs on low marshy ground, Birch avoids wet swamps, where it is short, scrubby, and unsound. It has a shallow root system, well adapted to meagre, stony soil, and it frequently appears on bare rocks, spreading its roots over the edge into the soil below. Seedlings often come up on logs and stumps, so that when the latter rot away the tree is supported only by its prop-like roots. In general the Birch is more abun- dant on southerly than on northerly slopes. Yellow Birch is decidedly tolerant of shade, but not to the same degree as Hard Maple, Beech, and Spruce. Under dense hardwoods its seedlings are less abundant than those of Beech or Maple. In open woods and in blanks in dense forest it springs up abundantly, with 24 NE-HA-SA-NE PARK. YELLOW BIRCH. NE-HaA-SaA-NE PARK. TH SPRUCE. XTURE WI MI CHIN EE B ASSOCIATED TREES 25 a marked tendency to associate in groups. Birch re- produces itself prolifically. The seed germinates better on moss-covered soil than where there is a thick layer of leaf litter. It is frequently abundant in windfalls. Thus, on Spruce flats, after windfalls, Birch with Soft Maple often forms the second-growth. It is common on Spruce slopes. The average rate of growth was found to be, for the 78 trees measured, one inch in diameter in twenty years. Youngtrees are plentiful, and, as in the case of Spruce, there is a regular gradation in. number of trees from the small to the large diameters. BEECH The Beech (Fagus americana, Ait.) reaches a diam- eter of nearly three feet, and in dense stands produces a long, clear, smooth trunk and a narrow compact crown. In its choice of soil and situation it is moder- ately fastidious. It reaches its best development on moderate northeastern slopes, where it often occurs in nearly pure patches. On high land it is abundant, and it is found also on Spruce flats, and even in some marshy situations. It is extremely unsound on low ground, and indeed throughout the forest the proportion of unsound Beech is large. It reproduces itself abundantly. Young trees spring up in dense thickets where the hardwood forest is thinned, and are capable of living under heavy shade. Compared to other hardwoods the growth in diameter is fairly rapid. The average current rate of growth for 26 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE sixteen trees, with an average diameter of 13 inches, was one inch in thirteen years. HARD MAPLE Hard Maple (Acer barbatum, Michx.) reaches a height of go to 100 and a diameter of nearly 3 feet. Of Hard Maples over 1o inches in diameter there are in the Park about six sound trees per acre, with an average diameter of 14 inches. In favorable situations these trees form long clear trunks and narrow compact crowns. They grow on high ground in fresh and rather deep soil, but not in swamps, and are most abundant on northerly slopes and high flats. Hard Maple reproduces itselt prolifically, and is tol- erant of heavy shade both in youth and in later life. When the hardwood forest is thinned dense thickets of Hard Maple come up, often to the exclusion of all other species. The growth in diameter under the present conditions is slow. Measurements were taken of sixteen trees which averaged 15 inches in diameter, and the average current rate of growth was found to be one inch in di- ameter in sixteen years. HEMLOCK The Hemlock (7suga canadensis, (Linn.) Carr.) is found in all parts of the Park, but reaches its best de- velopment on the borders of streams and on the low flats above the swamps. In such situations it is usually PARK, NE-HA-SA-NE HEMLOCK IN MIXTURE WITH SPRUCE, ASSOCIATED TREES 27 more sound than when growing on high slopes and ridges, although in general its timber is of inferior qual- ity and suffers severely from windshake. On the 1046 acres measured there were four Hemlock trees over 1o inches in diameter per acre, with an average diameter of 17.5 inches. Hemlock is very tolerant of shade both in youth and in later life, but in the Adirondacks it is inferior in this respect, as it is in reproductive capacity and quality of timber, to that foundin Pennsylvania. The reproduc- tion is poor, and the tree grows very slowly both in diameter and height. The current rate of growth in diameter of 141 trees averaging 16.6 inches in diameter was found to average one inch in twenty-five years. BALSAM Balsam (Adies balsamea (Linn.), Mill.) is for the most part a small tree in the Park. One specimen measured 2 feet in diameter, but the average of trees over ten inches in diameter is between r1 and 12 inches. A very large proportion of the whole stand is under Io inches. Balsam is most plentiful in swamps, although the largest specimens are found on the knolls above them. On wet soil it is frequently almost pure, but in such cases the trees are small. It reproduces itself well, and the young growth bears a considerable amount of shade. The rate of growth was determined, for 63 trees averaging 10.5 inches in diameter, to be one inch in diameter in thirteen years. 28 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE SOFT MAPLE The Soft Maple (Acer rubrum, Linn.) reaches a di- ameter of nearly two feet, and, when growing at its best, has a fair clear length. A very large proportion of the trees are unsound. In the Adirondacks Soft Maple is most abundant in low moist situations, but avoids acid soil. It is found, however, on high ground, and the largest specimens observed were on hardwood land. It reproduces itself well, as a rule, andin some places, notably on Spruce flats, young growth is very abundant after windfalls. The rate of growth in diameter of twenty-one trees, averaging 11 inches in diameter, was one inch in seventeen years. PINE WHITE PINE (Pinus strobus, Linn.) is found in small groups scattered over the Park, but is nowhere abund- ant. It is most frequent on slight elevations in swamps, and is common on Spruce flats and southerly slopes. Nearly all the trees bend away from the prevailing wind. They form long clear trunks, and reach a height of about 120 feet, with a maximum diameter of sixty inches. On Spruce slopes the average diameter was found to be 21.9 inches, on swamp land 17.1 inches, and on Spruce flats 21.9 inches. The White Pine now standing in the Park is very old, and, as a rule, un- sound at the butt. There are a few patches of second- PARK. NE-HaA-Sa-] PINE IN MIXTURE WITH SPRUCE. ASSOCIATED TREES 29 growth near lakes and on ridges, where forest fires ap- parently have burned, but the small amount of young growth in the Park is chiefly confined to scattered in- dividuals coming up in windfalls and on the edge ot streams and lakes. Compared to the other trees with which it grows, White Pine is not tolerant of shade, and this is probably one of the important reasons why its reproduction is so poor. ASH Black Ash (Fraxinus nigra, Marsh.) occurs scat- tered in low moist situations, but nowhere forms an important element in the forest. It is apt te be rather crooked, and is often unsound. It has an average diameter of 12.9 inches. White Ash is very rare in the Park. CEDAR There isa small amount of Cedar (7huya occidentalis, © Linn.) in the Park, for the most part confined to swamps, although it occurs also to some extent on Spruce flats and on moist soil at the foot of Spruce slopes. Trees over ten inches in diameter were found to have an average diameter of 14.5 inches, and a height of 50 to 60 feet. Where the forest is open the Cedar has a long crown and short body. In crowded woods the crown is much shorter, and the timber is valuable for telegraph poles. 30 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE CHERRY Black Cherry (Prunus serotina, Ehrh.) is not com- mon in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, since measurements give an average of but one tree to twelve acres. It is most frequent along the line of the. old military road be- tween Lake Partlow and Gull Lake, where its presence is due to the light admitted by the cutting of the road. Black Cherry stands about midway in the scale of tolerance among the trees in the Park, and reaches its best development in fresh, deep soil. Its reproductive power is rather poor, but the rate of growth is fairly rapid. The average diameter of all trees measured was 15.6 inches, and the average rate of increase one inch in thirteen years. | | Black Cherry reaches a good height, and forms a long clear trunk and a well-developed crown. Its timber is more valuable than that of any other tree in the Park. V LUMBERING LUMBERING, as at present practiced in the Adirondacks, affects the forest to its injury, because, in the first place, it decreases the number of valuable trees. The Spruce, which at best is only scattered here and there through the hardwoods, is removed, and no provision of any kind is made for its reproduction. The less valuable trees remain to perpetuate their kind, and the final effect on the forest is to leave it less valuable in com- position and promise than when the lumbering was begun. The trees which, for the most part, are spared by lumbermen at present are the hardwoods, the less valuable conifers—chiefly Hemlock and Bal- sam—and the defective Spruce that cannot be used for pulp. Underneath these trees the young Spruces may live for many years, but in the end they find it exceedingly hard, or in many cases impossible, to penetrate the dense cover of foliage above them and reach the light. Until they do they must remain stunted and of little value. It often happens, by the removal of the sound Spruce, that not enough mature trees remain in any locality to provide seed for the future forest, and in this way the reproduction of Spruce is hampered or made impossible. Cutting for pulp does far more harm than cutting for lumber, be- cause it takes a vastly greater number of trees. To re- 31 32 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE duce the diameter of the smallest tree cut from Io to 6 inches is to double the number of individuals taken. In addition, the growth which would have taken place in the young thrifty Spruces in the next years is lost, and the ground produces hardwoods instead. In felling under the present system the loss is very serious in broken-top trees (not to be confounded with trees which have merely lost their leading shoots), which have been found to gain very slowly in diameter and height as compared with sound specimens, in young trees smashed and destroyed, and in young trees whose soundness is injured by the loss of bark. Not only are small trees broken and smothered by the tops of felled trees, but in heavy cutting the tops are often a serious hindrance to the germination of new seedlings. Further, where the soil is exposed to the sun and wind the moss and humus dry up and disappear, the small seedlings whose roots have not yet become established in the mineral soil are killed, and the germination of new seed is seriously delayed. At present this injury to the capital value of the forest receives no attention. Practical work in the woods has demonstrated that the cost of the care required to prevent this loss is so small as to be altogether insignificant, and wholly out of proportion to the value of the result. Many young trees, where skidding is going on, lose pieces of their bark by contact with the harness or the logs, and afterward become unsound. Young trees of merchantable species are commonly cut to build skid- ways when it would be almost as easy to take less Erre r Ol LUMBERING FOR PULP. ay E. ne tz 7 SANTA CLARA, N. Y. LUMBERING 33 valuable kinds. In road-building the destruction of useful young growth is particularly noticeable. Young Spruce is often cut where other species are at hand and would answer the purpose just as well. In general, the amount of damage done under the present system of lumbering is in direct proportion to the number of trees cut per acre. Almost the whole of this damage is unnecessary, and could be easily pre- vented at very small expense. The influence on water-supply of cutting for logs and pulp-wood—not for charcoal—as at present practiced in the Adirondacks is small, except as lumbering in- creases the spread of fires. So few trees are taken per acre in the Pine and Spruce forests that, as a rule, the forest cover is but little interrupted, and is capable of re-establishing itself within a few years. When, how- ever, the forest is completely removed, as in places where Spruce occurs nearly pure or where the timber is cut for charcoal, the consequent drying up of the forest floor and washing of the soil has a decided and harm- ful influence on the flow of streams. The same result is brought about by the forest fires which have ravaged portions of the Adirondacks, and for the majority of which lumbering hitherto has been directly or indi- rectly responsible. VI THE BASIS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT It would be unfair to condemn all lumbering because the present method is not wholly right. The qualities of the Spruce, and the general circumstances which surround its utilization in the Adirondacks, make it plain that better methods are possible from every point of view. It is the purpose of practical forestry so to modify the present systems of cutting that the harm now done may be avoided and the removal of the old crop be of permanent benefit to the forest which re- mains. At the same time the question of revenue is kept prominently in view. Better methods of lumbering affect the forest chiefly through the kind and amount of the reproduction and growth which follow cutting, and through the condi- tions under which the trees develop to marketable size. They affect the owner through the sustained and increased value of his property and its yield. YOUNG GROWTH IN THE FOREST Attention has been called, in the chapters on Repro- duction and Tolerance, to the large amount of small Spruce found throughout the forest. Not only in those portions where Spruce is the prevailing species, but also on hardwood lands, groups and single specimens 34 THE BASIS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT 35 of young Spruce are very abundant. There are, it is shown later, on an average 75 Spruce trees per acre from 2 to 6 inches in diameter, and 143 trees under 2 inches which are large enough to be readily seen. Hitherto the young growth has been disregarded entirely or looked upon merely as a hindrance to lum- bering operations. These young trees, with such seed- lings as may spring up later, are the material which is to form the next generation of merchantable Spruce. Much of the young growth, especially among the single specimens, has come up in deep shade and has been so suppressed that the crowns spread out like mushrooms, the leading shoot growing very slowly. But such suppressed Spruce trees possess the ability to recover when the shade isremoved. If the plant is still small, the knots formed by the spreading branches will eventually be covered over, and timber of good quality will be produced. But if the tree has already reached some size, the branches may be so numerous and so well developed that it will never be of much value for lumber. The best advance growth is that which grows in groups, and the denser the group the more promis- ing are the young trees. There is enough small growth already in the forest to maintain the present proportion of Spruce, under right treatment, for at least one more generation, but the problem of increasing its proportion is a difficult one, especially where Spruce is the only species which can be marketed. In such a case the forester is ex- pected to perform a difficult feat, namely, to remove 36 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE the old timber of one species from a mixed forest and yet increase the proportion of the same species in the next crop. If it were possible to cut the other species gradually, the unsound as well as the lumber trees, the reproduction of Spruce would be simple. Under the present conditions, however, only merchantable trees can be cut, and in some cases probably the Spruce alone, and the desired result must be accomplished by the judicious selection of the trees to fall, leaving cer- tain specimens to distribute seed. On swamp land, on most Spruce flats, and on Spruce slopes, where the . Spruce forms nearly 50 per cent. of the merchantable crop, this result is entirely within reach from both the silvicultural and the economic points of view. It will also be possible on a considerable portion of the hard- wood lands. But in certain situations, especially mod- erate northerly slopes, where Beech, Hard Maple, and Birch far outnumber the Spruce, the openings made in the forest will probably be seeded up to hardwood species. This is abundantly evidenced at Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Station and south of the Lodge, as well as along the old military road between Partlow and Gull Lakes. Under such conditions the young Spruce cannot compete with hardwoods of the same age. The latter come up in dense thickets, and grow in early youth more rapidly than the Spruce. In time, when the hardwoods are old and the forest cover high, doubtless the Spruce will gradually return, but in the first generation the hard- woods will have the best of it. But where the hard- woods also can be marketed not only will the repro- 5 ae ED I IE LE SY FES 6. Oi emene arrewret. — ptr: vere ees “i AN an slay a 2 See ee seth aie tenis “mn ee Fs | RON aS eames weitew > NEAR NORTH UCE, SPR LE > A — > =] 4 << Zz HEAVY STAND OF Zz Rl PD = = ie } Lia ere De eS ig Ee a , ot eS eS es . : i ae yee ri os é p ae” es pee a ‘ 4 “ . " i" . Py ys - ¢ THE BASIS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT 37 duction of the Spruce be simplified, but on lands where the hardwoods have possession the cuttings can be so directed that the inferior species will greatly decrease in the new crop. THE EFFECT OF THINNING The advantage of conservative lumbering is, how- ever, not confined to the protection of young trees and the encouragement of new growth. The trees which remain after lumbering may be made to grow more rapidly than before. When a piece of ground is fully covered with forest trees, the latter stand so close together that they crowd each other, and a struggle follows in whichsome trees are suppressed and checked in their development and others are so shaded that they die, and the rate of growth in diameter of every individual in the forest falls behind that of trees in like situations in the open. But while the rapidity of growth of the individual tree is less, the total product is greater than it would be if the ground were covered with scattered trees only, and it is far better in quality, for in the deep shade of crowded woods the lower branches of the trees die and fall off, and long trunks clear of knots are produced. It has been found that when a crowded stand is thinned the trees which remain grow more rapidly than before. This accelerated growth is caused : First, by the more rapid disintegration of the humus and the consequent liberation of an increased amount of availa- 38 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE ble food material; and, Second, by the increased spread and efficiency of the roots and crowns. In the Adirondacks, where the forest is dense and the climate cool, a deep layer of humus accumulates. When the forest is thinned the humus disintegrates more rapidly on account of the admission of the sun’s rays and the freer circulation of air, and an increased amount of food material is made available for the growth of the trees. The immediate increase in growth is probably due to this cause. How long it will last depends upon the length of time before the humus disappears. Professor Hartig, of Munich, estimates this period, under favorable conditions, at about ten years. The effec of openings in the forest on vigorous and suppressed trees alike is to give them more room for development, a larger and better apparatus of roots and leaves for gathering and digesting food, and so to increase their rate of growth in diameter and height. The practice of thinning is based on this capacity for increased growth on the part of trees which have been more or less vigorously set free, or, in other words, on the part of the members of a piece of forest which has been thinned. The removal of a certain number of trees from overcrowded woods increases the final product, instead of decreasing it, and an additional product is obtained from the wood cut in the thinning. In this way the total output of a piece of forest in final cuttings and thinnings together is greater than it would be without silvicultural attention. THE BASIS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT 39 INCREASED GROWTH AFTER LUMBERING In the Adirondacks the forest to be dealt with does not consist of one species, but is a mixture of deciduous and coniferous trees of all ages. The cutting there has been governed by the distribution of merchantable tim- ber, and such considerations as have just been described have been left entirely out of account. In this way it happens that a considerable amount of old Spruce may be removed with very little benefit to the young trees of that species. Old Birch and Maple and other hardwoods may remain, and the effect of the cutting may not be to free any considerable number of young Spruce trees from the heavy cover overhead. In other cases the merchantable Spruce may stand in groups of old trees without young growth, so that their removal will have little or no effect on the young trees which remain. The best results are attained only when the timber removed was well distributed above the young trees. Where but a single merchant- able species is cut from the mixed forest this can not often be the case. Just what the effect of the cutting will be on the remaining trees depends then on the character of all the species in mixture as well as on the number and distribution of the old trees which were removed. It is therefore difficult to reach figures more than approximately exact. The following method of study was employed as a means of at- tacking this question: On areas of definite size, usually of one acre each, on cut-over land, all trees which would make pulp-wood were cut and analyzed so that their exact contents were known. 40 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE The stumps and tops of trees taken at the first cut, and the dis- tance between them, were then measured, and the number of logs and the amount of timber removed at that time were thus closely ascertained. All trees left by the second cut were then carefully measured with callipers. The date of the first cut was known, and it served, together with the measurements and counting of rings carried out in the second cut, to re-establish the history of the stand for about thirty years back. Fourteen such small plots were laid off, and over two thousand trees were carefully analyzed. The valuation surveys which were carried out upon them will be found in detail in the Appendix. The object in taking these stem-analyses was to determine the present rate of growth in diameter of trees of all sizes and to ob- tain measurements of enough trees to make volume tables (or tables of solid contents). The stem-analyses were, therefore, not as complete as would have been the case had the intention been to make tables of growth according to the German methods. The following measurements were taken of each tree: Diameter at 4.5 feet from the ground. Diameter on the stump inside and outside the bark. Diameter at the top of each log inside and outside the bark. Height of stump. Length of each log and of the top. The rings were counted on the stump and at the upper end of each log for thirty years in from the bark, and the distance to each ten- year point was measured. From these measurements it was easy to determine which trees had increased in rapidity of growth after the lumbering, and which had not. Other measurements were taken, but, as they did not contribute directly to the results here presented, no further mention of them is required. The great labor involved in collecting such data made it impos- sible to extend the present inquiry beyond the 2006 trees analyzed. This number, however, is great enough to establish a trustworthy basis, and the figures derived from it are used as such in the pres- ent study. The reasonableness of these figures, their number, and THE BASIS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT 41 the fact that the effect of the probable removal of hardwoods from Spruce lands during the next few years has been neglected, com- bined to give assurance that any error resulting from their use wil be in favor of the forest owner, not against him. The following table gives the percent. of small trees whose growth was found to have been increased by the cutting of the old trees. It will be noticed that the causes of irregularity mentioned above have acted so powerfully as to prevent the statement of any exact ratio between the per cent. of trees affected and the amount of timber removed. In general the former may be taken at about twenty per cent. | poyeIE[OINe | zh SBM [MOIS Oso A S9O1] [[VUIS | jo "yued 10g spiepueyg Pge | “dUIyqWNO yeIy ye Sr (aTe SS A J esa | GIs Seite SOrnTale or Ping ceabr eee peaomoel JanOmMYy rade) I I Gon Sr I I 6°0 I go ‘qo[d efdares JO oly | | | | Sel1dV | | "YIOX MON ‘VIeTD eyuULS je sjoTd afdures ud03zINO}J UO ‘pazerB[I0Ne SEM YRMOIF SSOYM SUIPUPYS JO SPOT] [[LUTS JO “Ua Jed pue ‘suI}jNd 4YsIY 4e PAAOUIAI SpIepuUr}s UT JoquUIT} Jo JUNOWY 9 AIAVL 42 o aie ‘ le ee eo OWL tae < J Shee £ LUMBERING FOR PULP (TOO SMALL OR TOO CROOKED AND UNSOUND TO Cl AND DE r OF EFFEC SPRUCE FREES ARE STANDING THI N. Y- ARA, K. SANTA CI TAMARA‘ AD MAPLE, BALSAM, BIRCH, THE BASIS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT 43 The area chosen for the study just described was at Santa Clara, Franklin County, New York. Here the first lumbering operations took place in 1882, the next in 1888 and 1891, and the final crop was removed in 1896. In 1882 probably only the largest and best trees were taken, and in consequence the number cut was small. At least it was not possible to find any small trees showing an increased growth from that date. The cuttings of 1888 and 1891 were much closer, and the effect on the small trees was very marked. In most cases the increased growth began with the first season after the cutting. On the areas cut over in 1888 there were but a few trees which showed an ac- celerated growth beginning after that year. In these cases it was not possible to determine whether the new start had been delayed, or whether it was due to wind- falls following the cutting. On the area cut over in 1891 a considerable number of trees showed a small increase in growth the first year, and a much more rapid increase the following years. In generalit may be said that the increased growth takes place, as a rule, the first year, and that it will in all probability continue until the next cutting, for ifthe first cause (the rapid decompo- sition of the humus) ceases after a few years, the roots and crowns will have begun to spread, and the second cause will thus have come into operation. The average rate of growth of 1593 trees in diam- eter on the stump is found in the following table. It was determined for all the trees together for the periods just before and after the previous cutting, and sep- 44 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE arately for those whose growth was accelerated. These trees occurred on eleven of the sample plots which were studied at Santa Clara. The other three plots were omitted because only a very few trees were taken at the first cut, and almost none of the remaining small trees showed accelerated growth. These measure- ments exhibit the rate of growth under various condi- tions of situation and soil. The figures of diameter growth given in the following table were derived from measurements of the last ten rings. For example, the third column gives the average rate of growth of all trees just before the last cutting, and was found in each case by subtracting the increment for the period since lumbering from the increment for the last ten years, and dividing by the nnmber of years during which the growth thus ascertained was made. The fifth column gives the average rate of growth of all trees since the lumbering, whether they show an increased growth or not. The column which gives the current annual growth in diameter after the values have been made regular by a curve also requires a word of explana- tion. When a series of averages are made out it often happens that the successive figures do not follow quite regularly. It will be noticed in the table that this is true of the lower part of the fourth column, and that it is probably explained by the lack of enough trees of 15 inches in diameter to get a fair average. In such cases the values are plotted on cross-section paper and a regular curve is drawn through or near the points which represent them. The points through which the curve actually passes are then taken as the true values. In this way accidental irregularities are avoided, and the results are brought much nearer the truth. TABLE 7 Average rate of growth in diameter on the stump of 1593 trees on cut-over land at Santa Clara, New York. Current annual Current | 8Towth in No. eooeth diame- rs No. of | Current if n ter since L L dice first showing|growth in koe since cutting. increas- | diameter Current ter just before first Values | ed _ {since first made growth | cutting egular bya curve. Inches Inches | Inches | Inches first cutting | CUMS | 5 No. years to grow one inch Total No. trees—1593. No, trees showing increased growth—294, or 18 per cent. 45 46 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE GROWTH IN THE ORIGINAL FOREST It is interesting to compare the growth in diameter of trees growing in the original forest with the figures just given for cut-over land. Stem analyses were made on 208 trees in original forest near Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne, from which the table given below has been compiled. These measurements were taken at the lumber job of Patrick Moynehan, who was cutting on the southerly edge of the Park and on the Brandreth tract. The results differ considerably from those given by the present writer in a report made for Dr. Webb, and published in the final report of the Special Committee of the Assembly whose chairman was Hon. Thomas H. Wagstaff and whose report was transmitted Feb- ruary 15,1897. The rate of growth there given was derived from measurements printed in a State report, and was considerably more rapid than that which is now found to exist. This further study makes it evident that the estimate previously reached was too large. qouUl 9UO MOTIF 03 peiinbed 8180S jo ‘ON seqoU, *1eJeUTEIp UL TAL [VNUUG ULE seqouy “19}0UITIC] ‘HIV ON-¥S-BH-ON Je S901} Q6z JO SJUSWTOINSvOW WIOAy ‘sIROA UD} YSPT AY} AOJ JOZ9OUIeIP UT MOIS Jo 93ey 8 HIaV.L 47 48 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE GROWTH IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF A TREE. An exceedingly interesting question is the rate of growth in dif- ferent parts of the same tree. It must be borne in mind that the material for growth is elaborated within the crown from material derived from the air and the roots, and that this elaborated sap comes down in the inside of the bark. It is not difficult to see that within the crown the rate of growth must be more rapid at the lower part than near the top, because each branch adds a certain amount of material for the growth below which the stem above did not have. In general, except close to the ground, the growth falls off below the crown. In the case of trees very much suppressed it may happen that not enough material for growth is formed in the crown to reach the lower part of the stem, and in some cases the number of annual rings on the stump will not represent accurately the age of the tree, because for some years there may have been no growth whatever in the lower part of the stem. This happens, however, usually only in the case of dying trees. The width of the annual rings is smaller at the lower part of the stem than above, even if the same amount of material is brought down, because it has to extend over a larger surface. The results of the measure- ments taken on about 2,000 Spruces show the largest growth in the crown, the smallest at the top of the first log, and a medium growth on the stump. Where the trees had an increased growth after thinning, the largest growth was at the stump. The fact that the increased growth at this part of the stem is out of proportion to that above has led some observers to believe that it is not necessary for all the food materials to be digested in the crown before they can be usedin growth. This theory is the result of the phenome- non just mentioned, and of the fact that those roots of a tree which are in the richest soil grow to the largest size. In order to present more clearly the relation of the rate of growth at the different parts of the tree under the new influences of light and space after thinning, the following table has been made from fifty-nine trees, all of which showed accelerated growth on the stump: TABLE 9 MEAN ANNUAL DIAMETER GROWTH On the Stump Top of Ist Log Top of 2d Log . No. ot Diam. = Inches >. ai Le ee trees ——— ee ee ee eee 6 140 .20 12 12 I 7 105 24 12 14 15 16 12 8 125 .20 12 15 16 20 12 9 TIO -20 II 12 14 16 15 10 130 21 Jd 16 15 22 10 II 105 17 10 II 12 16 5 12 170 23 08 14 20 22 4 59 Average| .13 21 IL 13 oa 18 id 3 oS = These results make it clear that measurements taken at the top of the first or second log cannot safely be used in reasoning about growth on the stump, or vice versa. 49 Vil VOLUME TABLES VOLUME tables show the contents of standing timber. The primary object of the construction of such tables in this case was for use in working up the results of the 1046 acre measurements taken in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, | but it will be seen that they supply in addition the means of estimating standing timber with accuracy and despatch whether the result is desired in standards, board feet, cubic feet of merchantable timber, or in cords. They are based on measurements of the product of trees of different sizes actually cut in the woods. Mention has already been made of the 2006 stem an- alyses of small timber cut for pulp at Santa Clara, New York, and of the 298 analyses of trees cut into logs on the edge of the Park. The volume tables have been computed from the results of these stem analyses. Since this study is primarily for use in practical forestry, only tables of merchantable yield were made. For this purpose tables have been calculated which show the number of standards, board feet, merchantable cubic feet, and cords contained in trees of different heights and diameters. 4a : ’ \ 5 7 POR ba he yrs Sepa 2 Be ANALYSES AT SANTA CLARA, N. Y. MEASURING CREW, MAKING STEM VOLUME TABLES 51 VOLUME TABLE OF STANDARDS The number of standards in each tree was deter- mined by Dimmick’s Rule, which is the common scale used in the Adirondacks. The trees were worked up together by grouping them in diameter classes differing by one inch, and in height classes differing by five feet. It was found that the average results were so regular for the trees of different diameters and heights that it was possible to make a table by merely eliminating the irregularities by means of curves. (Seep. 44.) At first the results of the trees cut for pulp at Santa Clara were kept separate from the results of the large trees cut in the Park, but the two series were found to cor- respond so exactly that they were thrown together into the single table of standards given below. The diame- ters in this table are taken breast-high, or four and one- half feet from the ground. Lumbermen usually refer to the diameter inside the bark on the stump, but that is an unsatisfactory measure, since the height of the stump varies greatly. In dealing with standing timber meas- urements must be taken outside the bark. A com- parison of the diameter inside the bark on the stump with the diameter breast-high showed that, in the trees analyzed, the former was on the average three-quarters of an inch (exactly 0.79) larger than the diameter breast-high. Batrs e . SS See Re NN ANDO OMOWM BENCHING DOK N Nw OO NOH O SSG AARD SRS EF NN AAN _ g[NY Ss, Horung Aq sprVpurjyg UI ULe9IS oY} JO 83U0zZMO/) oe) LOdd NI HAUL FHL AO LHOIGH I—-gonuds YOR WTAVL ANNTOA OI WIV. 52 VOLUME TABLES 53 VOLUME TABLE OF BOARD FEET To construct this table the contents in board feet was determined for each of the 298 trees analyzed near Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne by means of the well-known Scribner’s Rule. The relation between the board feet and the standards was then found for each tree by dividing the number of board feet from Scribner’s Rule by the num- ber of standards from Dimmick’s Rule. The average results for the different diameters, with the irregulari- ties eliminated by means of curves, are given in the following table: TABLE It Diameter Number of Breast-high. Board feet in one Inches, Standard. Ns Se ol ad sd 12 A I4I ia Reed eA! SLOTS gl Oe eee aA 146 BEE) io a ee ak oS Vara 150 EA ohare Hd ER ERR alias) was aeons 154 RF). ec oss 5 a ae 158 BA", Si, ea ik cg an 161 is ROR) 1/02 eS Mam 28 1's 164 Neransk RRA 8 168 hy eae aed a. et ) <) o 171 ae ke te hee .... ss See 174 (2 SASS eae OF AES 5) 177 Pe ge ons Sy 180 TET Sh en 183 2 RIS NGO. ee ae ee nae Pee 186 Ne: uae An oe 2) cs < oe 189 SAD yeas oa) altati ats +; odo SMR ae 192 64 “THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE The table of standards was then converted into board feet by multiplying the number of standards of each di- ameter by the factor corresponding to that diameter in the small table. These factors do not correspond closely, except for the largest diameters, with those adopted by common practice in the Adirondacks. The latter range from 190 to to 200 board feet to the stand- ard. The present figures, however, are taken directly from the logs by the use of the two rules, and therefore show the actual relation between Scribner and Dim- mick. Since Scribner undervalues small logs, such logs scaled in standards would also overrun these figures, because they are made directly from the rules, Soz iz biz 61 £21 €Sr Laon | Sir £6 a £§ LIGA NT AWUL AHL AO LHSIGH II—HONUdS YOU ATAVL ANNTIOA cl ATAVL 56 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE VOLUME TABLE OF MERCHANTABLE CUBIC FEET. This table was constructed for the purpose of com- puting the number of cords of pulp-wood in trees of different diameters and heights. It was determined in the same manner as the table for standards, except that only trees which had been cut for pulp at Santa Clara were used. The merchantable cubic feet represent the amount of wood in each tree actually used for pulp. TABLE 13 VOLUME TABLE FOR SPRUCE—III HEIGHT OF THE TREE IN FEET. Diam. b Ste high | 2 | 30 55 Inches 5 | s|* MERCHANTABLE CUBIC FEET OF PULP-WOOD. 1.1 1.2 tg 1.4 1.5 1.6 wey 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.8 Be 3.6 4.0 5 6 7 2.1 2.5 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.8 5.4 6.0 6.6 8 ON 3.9 4.8 5.6 6.5 hes 8.0 8.8 9 3.8 4.9 5.9 6.9 8.0 9.0 9.9 | II.0 10 6.0 WG 8.4 OWey |i Pious) Ipaeeeo |pae: II Fol Si6\") tor |) 17.6.7) 131) 14.0) | oaGee 12 TOO, | UL 443.5 Hl T5210, 27.00 ee 13 1354 h/XS5e4y i) izes onl) Oud 21.5 14 15.0 | L763, [19-5 |, 2T.G 5] eae SANTA CLARA, N.Y. SKIDWAY OF SMALL SPRUCE CUT FOR PULP. VOLUME TABLES 57 VOLUME TABLE OF MERCHANTABLE CORDS. In order to convert solid cubic feet into cords it is necesssary first to divide by one hundred and twenty- eight, the number of cubic feet in one cord, and then to divide by a factor which shall represent the relation be- tween solid and stacked wood. In Germany this factor has been found from a large number of experiments to be 0.65 for round billets stacked in the woods. In con- sequence of irregularities in shape due to roughness of the bark and to swellings where the branches entered the trunk, this figure seems to give results too large for rossed billets. Forthe casein hand,o.7 is more accu- rate. When the results of dividing the number of cubic feet found in Table 13 by the factor 0.7 are compared with those obtained by dividing the values in the table of standards by 2.92, which is the number of standards in one cord, determined by the Santa Clara Lumber Company from several thousand cord measurements, they are found to correspond almost exactly. After this confirmation of the factor 0.7, it was adopted, and the table of cords was constructed by dividing the values in the table for cubic feet by one hundred and twenty- eight and the result by 0.7. TABLE 14 VOLUME TABLE FOR SPRUCE—IV HEIGHT OF THE TREE IN FEET. Diam. | | | ; breast) 25 | Boi, 1635 | 40 | 45 | so | 55 | 60 | 65 Inches. fis Pens xa peculie we MERCHANTABLE CORDS OF PULP-WOOD c LL a | 5 6012 | .013 | 014 | .015 | .017 | 018 | .019 | 6 019 | .020 | .023 | .026 | .030 | .035 | .040 | .044 | 74 | 023 025 | .033 | .040 | .047 | .054 | -060 | .067 | .074 8 | | .035 | 043 | .054 | .062 | .072 | 08: 089 | .098 9 | 042 | .055 | .066 | 078 | .o89 | 100 | .110 123 10 | | °067 | .080 | .094 | 107 | .122 | .136 | .150 11 | | .079 | .096 | ier2) || 108s) eas | 163 .180 12 | ebacoene| oa ta | 150 | .768 | 190 | .210 VU VALUATION SURVEYS. {N making a working plan, the first step is to determine the amount and condition of the growing stock. In order to do this and to obtain data which would permit the prediction of future crops, the trees were counted and measured on 1046 acres on different parts of the Park. Since there are approximately 27,533 acres in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, not including the lakes and the tenced portion, these measurements cover about one in every twenty-eight acres, and supply the basis for a very thorough acquaintance with the standing timber. Each acre was run out in a strip ten chains long and one chain wide. The length was actually chained off in every case and all the trees were measured for one- half chain on each side. The latter distance was either chained, paced off, or estimated. The measuring crew speedily became expert in. estimating the distance at a glance. The sound Spruce was callipered down to two inches and the smaller trees were counted. Other species were callipered down to ten inches when ap- parently perfectly sound. The strip method (or chain method, as this modification of it is called) has the advantage of giving a very fair representation of a large area, because it traverses so much ground. Square acres, where the lines and corners are carefully measured, are more ac- curate for single cases, and a number were taken for illustrative 59 60 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE purposes, but each acre is confined to a single situation and the possible number is so small, on account of the length of time re- quired to take them, that the general average is not as good as by the chain method. After the valuation surveys were completed in the field their results were worked out, with the object of finding the stand of Spruce on the area surveyed. To this end the average diameters and heights of the trees were first ascertained for each acre, then the general average was found for all the acres, first massed in groups and then all together, and finally the last result was used to get from the Volume Tables and the aver- age number of trees per acre the amount of standing timber on all the acres taken together. From this sum it was easy to find the average stand per acre. The average diameters and heights were calculated as follows: The average diameters were computed for all trees on each acre six inches and over in diameter, ten inches and over, twelve inches and over, and fourteen inches and over. The heights correspond- ing to these diameters were determined from the large number of height measurements which were taken throughout the Park in connection with the, valuation surveys. Eight hundred such measurements were made with a German instrument, Faustmann’s Spiegelhypsometer, and recorded in connection with the acres on which they were made. The height measurements for each group of acres were entered on cross-section paper, the diameters being laid off on the horizontal and the heights on the vertical lines, and a regular curve was drawn through the points which represented the measurements. From these curves the heights corresponding to the various diameters were found. For the purpose of working them up, the valuation surveys were grouped in two ways: First, according to the situation, under the heads of Swamp land, Spruce R WITH CALLIPERS. SEI a — MEASURING VALUATION SURVEYS 61 flat, Hardwood land, and Spruce slope ; and second, ac- cording to the yield in thousancs of board feet of all trees ten inches and over in diameter. Within each class of these groups the average number of trees per acre of each inch in diameter was first calculated, and then the average diameter, height, and number of trees per acre were com- puted for trees six inches and over in diameter, ten inches and over, twelve inches and over, and fourteen inches and over, as well as the average number of trees per acre under two inches and from two to six inches in diameter. The average diameters and heights and the average number of trees per acre being known, it was possible to determine the yield in board feet and standards from the Volume Tables already given. The yield was found first for trees fourteen inches and over in diameter by multiplying the number of trees by the value in the Volume Tables corresponding to the average diameter and height. In the same manner the contents of trees twelve and thirteen inches in diameter, ten and eleven inches, and six to nine inches were computed and added to that found for trees over fourteen inches, and the total contents of all trees six inches and over, ten inches and over, and twelve inches and over were found by ad- dition. The following tables (15 and 16) give the condensed results of the 1046 valuation surveys as to number of trees, dimensions, and yield, per acre, classified ac- cording to situation. ede1oAY edojs sonids puvy poompiey yep eonids puey dweas UOTENgIS yi al \o 2s fo joog pivog sprlepurys 4997 "JY Soy osvIOAY seyouy “YSly -Jsvoerg I9JIWICIP OSVIOAY I9AO PUB SOYA! OT eonids S901} JO ‘ON \ Spaepueys “Vy soy OSBIOAY soyuoay “‘Ysty-Jsvoig IOJIUIVIP ODVIOAYV 19A0 PUB SOYOUL 9 gonads C1 AIAVL $901} JO “ON SOUDUI 9 04 Zz SOOIY, I9A0 PUB SOYOUI Z sOOLL seyout Z Jopun SOOLL SOqOU! g iepun eonids S010B JO “ON ISCIOAY edo[s sonid¢ puey] poompiey yeTy vonidg puey dweng moenis S6°gr | zd | esvisAy 6oroz | SriZ adojs sonaidg eSesraay || oobz | Szbr | g*o4 edojs sonidsg g6Sz | cbs 6g" br | 6S°61 | 9°SZ puey poompieyy WY anidg Zoiz | Shzr | 9S*g1 | S*69 yp vonide b6oz | Ofer 'epdr | 12g | puey dweas | puey poompieyzy SoSz puey dues ees |__| - -\sRo1q uONBNgIS 1904 ey osRIOAY WOIVNgIS seqouy I "ydiq 19j9UIBIP OSBIOAY $0108 JO "ON seyouy "q31g-js¥e1q 19}9UIBIP OABIOAY 499} prvog splepueis e903 plvog spiepurys 9001} JO “ON “445 3997 "JQ 31ey osvIEAY I9AO PUB SeYOUI FL GONUAdS I9AO PUB SeYIUL Zl EONIdS "UOTJENPS 0} Surpsr0d9v o19e Jad sasvIOae ul SAVAINS UOT}ENyTRA Jo ATeWUTUING Ol ATAVA 64 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE It will be noticed, in the precedjng tables, that the average diam- eters and heights have been determined only for trees six, ten, twelve, and fourteen inches and over, in each type of forest. In computing the number of board feet and standards by the method just described it was necessary to know the average heights and diameters of alltrees from six to nine inches, ten and eleven, twelve and thirteen, and fourteen inches and over in diameter in order to get the totals by addition as before. The diameters were computed directly from the table giving the average number of trees for each inch in diameter, and the heights were determined in the following way: Having already the average heights for all trees six, ten, twelve, and fourteen inches and over, these values were entered on cross-section paper, laying off the diameters on the horizontal and the heights on the vertical lines. A curve was drawn through the points, and the heights corresponding to the diameters in the following table were obtained by interpolation. Table 17 gives the average dimensions of all trees within certain specified limits of size in diameter, on four kinds of land. Table 18 gives a complete summary of the Spruce over two inches in diameter measured on the 1046 acres. In this case the acres are grouped with refer- ence to the total yield, cutting to ten inches, accord- ing as it rounds up to 1000 feet, 2000 feet, 3000 feet, etc. In each class the total number of acres in- volved is given, and the average number of trees per acre. For the sake of accuracy fractions of trees have been given. In the case of the large diameters there is less than one tree of each diameter per acre, and the result is often avery small fraction. The fractions have been rounded off. gl $$ bb sedo[s sonidg gl 6S bb pure] poompiepy gl $$ gt s}e[ J ends gl 1S Ze puey duremsg 4004 seqouy 400. seyoul 400 soyouy 4907 seqouy “yaiq “qa “qaIy “gay -qsRoiq ~4svoiq ~48BO1q -4sBoiq nonengig “SOqOUL F[ | SeqOUl FT| ‘seouT seqoUr *soqoUl se0UL “*seqoUl soqoul ; JeA0 oso =| EL PUBZTL | SL PUBZT | IT puvor | Irpuvor | 6099 6019 8901) Jo $ee1} Jo $0013 JO 800.13 JO $9013 JO se01} JO 800.1] Jo 890.19 JO WAFOY “AV “MIP “AY |9qF!04 “AY| “WBIP “AV [FSI “AY| ‘UEIP “Ay |3qSI0q ‘Ay| ‘UIeIp “Ay *sado[g aonidg pue ‘puey poompary ‘syzep.q aonidg ‘puey] dwemeg uo ‘sojourerp UT I9AO pue SoyoUT hr puv ‘fr pue zr ‘rr puvol ‘6 039 Saal} JO ‘jJooj puvL SOUT OF popuNol ‘s}YSIoy pue sidjJOUILIP osvI9AY Zi WIaVL 65 TABLE Average number of trees per acre of different diam ing to the yield in board feet of all trees ten inches and 1000 (139 acres) 2000 (213 acres) 3000 (223 acres) YIELD OF ALL TREES TEN INCHES AND OVER 4000 (204 acres) 5000 6000 (106 (71 acres) acres) 22.30 18.70 17.90 12.80 10.90 8.70 6.80 5-30 4.60 3-20 2.10 1.40 1.30 0.90 0.50 0.60 0.30 0.20 0.20 0.08 0.04 AVERAGE NO. 20.50 19.30 18.10 13.00 10.60 8.30 7.40 5-40 5-30 3.80 3.60 2.60 1.90 1.50 1.20 O 90 0 60 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.03 0.04 20.00 18.20 12.90 12,10 9.20 7.80 6.50 6.80 4.60 4.10 3.60 2.80 2.40 1.80 1.30 1.00 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.20 0.07 66 19.10 18.30 13.90 12.20 10.20 8.20 7.50 6.90 5-50 5-20 4.20 3.50 3.30 2.40 1.80 1.20 0.80 0.50 0.40 0,10 0.10 21.50 | 24.90 19.90 | 23.30 19.70 | 2540 14.60 | 16.90 13.60 | 13.60 10.60 | I1.90 8.90 9.70 7.30 8.80 7.80 8.70 6.50 6.80 5-60 6.60 4.70 5.10 4.40 5.10 3.80 4.00 2.60 2.90 2.40 2 20 1.80 1.90 1.00 1.20 0.70 0.80 0,50 0.60 0.20 1.30 0,20 0.10 0.03 0.07 0.04 O.OI 18 eters, and number of acres measured, classified accord- over in diameter breast-high. IN DIAMETER BREAST-HIGH, IN BOARD FEET 7000 8000 gooo 10,000 11,000 12,000 beeen’ (37 acres) | (21 acres) | (4 acres) | (5 acres) | (1 acre) | (2 acres) high. OF TREES Inches 26.30 | 24.20 | 23.50 | 23.00 16.0 49.0 2 24.30 | 24.10 | 18,20 | 24.40 9.0 41,0 3 2a) 25.90.) 14.50 | 18.40 | 20,0 34.0 4 18.40 | 18.50 | 13.00 | 17.80 15.0 23.5 5 14.50 | 13.20 | 13.00 | 16,00 25.0 75 6 iz.80 | 12.90 || 12.70 | 12.60. | 17:0 19.5 7 10,60 9.80 | II,00 8 40 20.0 13.5 8 10, 30 9.40 7.20 8.60 10.0 13.0 9 g. 80 9.60 | 11,00 8.20 8,0 14.0 10 9.60 7.40 8.50 8.60 12,0 15.0 II 7.80 6.40 7.20 8.60 18,0 | 17.0 12 6,40 7,10 7.50 6,60 13.0 14.0 13 6.30 5.80 7.00 6.40 12,0 8o 14 4,00 4.90 6.20 7,00 4.0 7.5 15 3.30 4.10 7.00 4,20 5.0 5-0 16 3.00 2.30 4,00 5.60 2.0 6,0 17 2,00 2.20 3.20 3.20 1,0 2.5 18 I, 10 1,30 1,70 2.40 1,0 2.0 19 0.90 I, 10 1,50 2.00 2.0 1.0 20 0,60 1.00 1,70 1,20 1,0 a 21 1,30 1,00 1.20 oO 50 22 0 20 0,30 1.20 0.40 23 0, 10 0, 10 0,70 0.40 | 24 0 03 0, 10 0,20 0,20 25 0,03 0,10 0.5 26 0,03 0.05 27 28 30 31 34 67 68 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE Tables 15 and 16 give the results of the 1046 valua- tion surveys classified according to situation. The following tables (19-22) show the average diameters, heights, number of trees, and yield per acre of the 1046 valuation surveys classified according to the yield per acre of Spruce ten inches and over in diameter. The average diameters and heights were determined, as is fully explained on page 60, by averaging the values found for the indi- vidual valuation surveys. The number of trees per acre was determined directly from Table 18, which gives the average num- ber of trees per acre of each inch in diameter. The method described on page 60 was used to compute the yield per acre. It was first determined for trees fourteen inches and over in diam- eter by multiplying the number of trees by the value in the Volume Tables corresponding to the average diameter and height. The contents of trees twelve and thirteen inches in diameter, ten and eleven, and six to nine inches, were computed and added to that found for trees over fourteen inches, and the total contents of all trees six inches and over was found by addition. TABLE Ig SPRUCE 6 INCHES AND OVER Yield of all _ trees 10 Average inches and diameter | Average Fogle No. of | «No. of eee height. | Board | Standards breast-high Acres Trees igh. Feet leet in thousan Inches feet, board measure I 139 ry ke 9.0 48.6 1860 12.04 2 213 54-6 9.6 53.2 2796 17.95 3 223 65.8 10.0 55.0 3943 25.42 4 204 73.2 10.2 57.3 5066 32.22 5 106 82.7 10.6 58.2 5738 36.42 6 71 91.6 10.4 61.2 7061 45.68 7 37 104.4 10.7 60.4 8466 56.35 8 21 98.6 10.0 63.3 8956 56.39 9 4 113.8 11.4 64.0 10019 62.43 10 5 110.6 11.0 64.0 11502 68.39 II I 151.0 10.3 60.0 12679 76.81 {2 2 157.5 11.0 62.5 12598 70.18 TABLE 20 SPRUCE IO INCHES AND OVER Yield of all _ trees 10 Average Mover in No. of No. of “breast. eq Board | Standards preasthigh,| 2¢res | trees a Feet ees ia measure I 139 15.6 223 2 213 22.8 12.7 3 223 30.2 13.0 4 204 35.1 13.3 5 106 42.3 13.5 6 71 47.6 13.6 7 37 56.2 13.6 8 21 53.3 13.8 9 4 69.9 13.7 10 5 65.0 14.1 II z 79.0 13.3 12 2 94.0 13.5 TABLE 21 SPRUCE I2 INCHES AND OVER Yield of all _ trees 10 Average | Average inches and diameter.| height. | Board |Standards| No.of | ,0Ver it I feet acres |, diameter in thousand feet, board measure 71 TABLE 22 SPRUCE I4 INCHES AND OVER Yield of all trees 10 inches and Average | Average aeettes No.of | No.o: | diameter.| height. Board | Standards breast-high,| TS trees Inches Feet in thousand feet, board measure I 139 4.3 15.9 72.4 & 213 75 15.9 75-9 3 223 11.1 16.4 76.5 4 204 1312 16.7 76.4 5 106 17.8 15.6 76.7 6 7X 19.4 16.4 78.5 7 37 22.6 16.7 VP] 8 21 22.8 17.0 81.4 9 4 35-7 16.6 82.0 10 5 33.2 16.6 82.0 II I 28.0 OSE. 83.0 12 2 34.0 16.0 82.5 72 VALUATION SURVEYS 73 In Tables 19-22 the average diameters and heights are given for trees six, ten, twelve, and fourteen inches and over in diameter. As was the case in computing the yield in Tables 15 and 16, it was necessary to know the average diameters and heights of trees six to nine, ten and eleven, twelve and thirteen, and fourteen inches and over in diameter in order to obtain the totals by addition. The diameters were computed directly from Table 18, and the heights were determined in the following way: Having already the heights for alli trees six, ten, twelve, and fourteen. inches and overt in diameter, these values were entered on cross-section paper, laying off the diameters on the horizontal and the heights on the vertical lines. A curve was drawn through the points and the heights corresponding to the diameters in the following table were obtained by interpolation. zl ZI ZI 3 ¢ + rat ZI f1 ZI f1 ZI N00 0000 IN INININ IN ININSO re ce soyouy 4907 seqouy 490.7 seyouy JOO soyouy einseeul pavoq ‘yoo3 “qSIt “ysty "GsTy “ysty puesnoy} ut -JSBVO1q -ysBo1q, -4SvO1q -4Svo1q *ySIy-4svoiq *BOqoUL soyout *SOqoUL seyoul *SoqoUL seyoUL ‘SeqouL seyout 10}9U1BIp FI 10A0 PL 1OAO | EL PUBS | EIT PUBZT | IL PUBOT | IT puroT 6 049 6949 Ul 19A0 $901} JO | S001} JO | soot} JO | seo} JO | So013 Jo | Se01, Jo | Ssa0I} Jo | soo} Jo puw soyoutr BIG Poh Cle | 19}9UIBIp YS 10 1940 WeIp 1YSLoly I9JeuIvIp 4y Sey, 19}9UIvIp OL 89013 OSBIOAY | OSVIOAV | ODBIOAV | OSvIEAY | OSvIOAW | EDSBIOAY | OSBIOAY | OSvICAY Il@ JO plotz $9108 gho'l Jo ade1NAV *y29J preoq ‘949 ‘ooo'€ ‘ooo'z ‘ooo'r SurpparA saioe uo ‘19J9UIeIP UL JOAO pue SeyouT br pure ‘EI pu ZI ‘11 pur o1 ‘6 0} 9 Saar} Jo ‘yaa puv Soyout 0} popunos ‘szYZ10y pue sioJOWEIP OSeIOAY Cz G15 Val 74 IX YIELD TABLES THE material given in the tables in this and the pre- ceding chapters has been prepared for the purpose of predicting future crops of timber after cutting to a given limit on lands yielding a known amount of Spruce. It is of great importance to the land owner to know how soon he can return to a certain tract of land after cutting and obtain the same yield as at first, and to what minimum diameter it will be most profitable in the long run to cut. There can be no doubt that the best immediate returns are obtained by cutting down to five inches. Forest management is out of the ques- tion for the lumberman who wishes to make all the money possible out of his property at once and without regard to its value in the future, for it rests on the premise that forest land is so much productive capital and that its productive capacity should not be impaired. It is easy to show that, if the Spruce is cut down to five inches, so long atime must elapse before there will be merchantable Spruce on the area again that it will not pay to hold the land for the next crop. In such a case there would be no timber worth cutting even for pulp in less than fifty to seventy-five years. Interest charges, taxes, and the cost of production cannot be 75 76 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE met for the sake of so meagre a crop as would result from the present system of cutting at the end of that period. Many lumbermen are now cutting, from lands lum- bered ten, fifteen, or twenty years ago, a yield as large as the first cut. As arule, they are cutting to a smaller diameter than at first, as, for example, in some cases where the first cut was to about ten inches, the second cut is removing everything down to five inches. Even where the limit is said to have been the same at both cuts, and the product the same, it must be remembered © that, while no trees may have been taken under ten inches ateither cut, many trees over ten inches which would now be merchantable at the time of the first cut were considered unfit for market. Nor is it probable that the cutting to the limit at first was as close as it would be now. The yield tables have been made in order to give definite information as to the production of cut-over Spruce lands. They embody the results of measure- ments on the 1046 test acres classified according as the yield was nearest 1000, 2000, 3000 board feet, etc., per acre. They give the number of acres in each class, the exact average yield of these acres, and the amount of timber which would be obtained in ten, twenty, and thirty years after cutting down to ten, twelve, and four- teen inches. The number of years which must pass before the land will yield exactly the same amount as at the first cut is also stated. These figures have not been evened off by curves in order to obtain regular HEAVY TiMBER NEAR NORTH WoopstTock, N. H. SLOPE. SPRUCE Yue é 3th Tr lk An AS oes » s ae fa YIELD TABLES 77 gradations, but represent the exact results from the 1046 acres. The method used in determining the number of years which must elapse before the same yield can be obtained as at the first cut, and the amount of the cut in board feet per acre after ten, twenty, and thirty years was as follows: The table on page 45 gives the average rate of growth in thickness of trees of different diameters on cut-over land, and the tables on pages 66 and 67 give the average number of trees per acre of each diameter. Knowing the average number of trees of each diameter for the different class_ es of Spruce land, on acres scaling from 1000 to 12,000 board feet, and the rate of growth of trees of all diameters from five to four- teen inches, it is possible to predict the number of trees of merchantable size per acre, with their exact diameters, after any given number of years, and from these, by the use of the Volume Tables, the number of board feet per acre, cutting down to ten, twelve, or fourteen inches. Similarly, it was possible to predict the number of years which must elapse after the first cut (whether the limit was ten, twelve, or fourteen inches) before the land will produce again the same amount at the same limit. It will be noticed that no allowance has been made for the death of trees spared by the first cut. All dead trees two inches in diameter and over were callipered on 563 acres, and were found to average a fraction over three trees per acre. Of these about one tree per acre was between six and ten inches in diameter. The number of trees over five inches which will die in the next twenty-five to thirty years under the new condi- tions is believed to be so small that it may be neglected altogether. 78 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE. TABLE 24 Average number of dead = Prt. on 563 acres at Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne ark. Diameter. Inches. No. of trees per acre. ’ . ; 0.37 0.26 oat | 0.14 Diameter. Inches. No. of trees per acre. General average per acre—3.12. The yield tables on the next pages are followed by examples which explain their use. YIELD TABLES Present yield per acre of Spruce, amount which can be cut in ten, twenty, and thirty years after lumbering, and the number of years which must elapse before the same amount can be obtained again, cutting down to ten, twelve, and fourteen inches. einseoul pavoq ‘4o0] uBvsno ul soo1L Sool siuseverd sivox || Splep| yooy e1qe Spivp | 300J a spriep | jooy co) Splvp | Joos || 899V | jojoureip “syno “uBYS | plBoOg | -quByol1EW || -uvjg |prvog | -yuBqo1ey || -uvIYy | plvog | -JuByoIEeP || -uvjg | prvo0g || JO°ON Ul J@AO yenbe JO "ON JO "ON JO°ON puv sorout m90M30q OT 890.13 peinbel ue jo PLOlTA [BALOzU] SUVaA ALUIN, SUVAA ALNAML, SUVAA NAL Lap Lsaly UALAy LAO anooas UALAY LAO anoows UILAY LAD aNooas 40 LNOOWY HOIH-LSVAUNd UALANVIG NI UAAO ANV SAHONI OI ANOV UAd AONUdS I AIAVL ATAIA Sc AIAVL SOOLL elqe -juByoIEW JO “ON spiep| joo] s1v9 x -ueyg |pi1v0g “synod jenba 190M430q perimnbel [BA.10}UT SUVA ALYIAL UaLiIy LAO aNooas es ¥g6z Bok ozte ae Cx11z : Cr ap Sool, e1qe -yUBqOIEW JO "ON sprep | yeey -uejg |prvog SUVAA AINTM UGLAY LAQ aNnoows SOOLL e[qe -JUBYOIEW jO°ON oo] pirs0g SUVaA NOL UqLay LAD GNoogds spiep Ub) Lag Isa 40 INQONY oINnsveul pavoq ‘4003 puvsnoy} Ul ‘US1q-Jsvord 19j0UvIp Ul 19A0 pu seqout OI 89°13 118 JO PL9IA HOIH-LSVaAuUd AUALANVIG NI WHAO ANV SHHONI CI AYOV Add AONUdS Il HTaVL ATHIA Qt ATIAVL 80 sooly Sool, SIvOx SplBp | Joo 91qB Spilep | Joo} e[qe Sp1vp | Joo} e[qu 5 -uByIg | PAvog } -JuvoIEW || -uejig | prvog | -yuRyotey || -ueyg | pavog | uryqo19p synod jo ‘oN Jo ‘ON Jo ‘ON yenbe m00A30q peaimnbel [BAsezuy SUVAA ALUMI SUVAX ALINE ATL SUVAA NAT, UsILay LAO aNooas YaLay LADO aNoogs UALAY LAO anooas HOIH-LSVaAuUd AALANVIG NI UAAO GNV SAHONI VI ANOV Ill ATAVL AIA Lt AIAVL e1nsBeul pavoq ‘j00] puvsnoy) ul “USL -sBveig SPIEp | 30eF 19}0UIBIp -uvyg | prvog UI J0A0 puv seyour OT $0013 118 JO PIOIX Lap Isxy dO INQOKY ddd AOnUAdS 8x 82 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE EXAMPLE NO. I. A man owns 30,000 acres which yield on an average 3500 board féet per acre of Spruce ten inches and over in diameter. To what limit will it be most profitable in the long run for him to cut, how much can he cut annually if he wishes to obtain a sustained annual yield, and how soon can he return to the portion cut over the first year and cut the same amount of timber above the same diameter limit as at first ? Look in Yield Table I, column a, for the amount nearest 3500 board feet. 3480 in line 3 is the closest figure. All the desired information will be obtained on this line in the three tables. If the diameter limit is ten inches, the total stand is 30,000 3500—105,000,000 board feet; the same yield can be obtained in thirty-seven years (Yield Table I, column /); the area lumbered annually will be 30,000—37—811 acres; the annual cut will be 105,- 000,000——37=2,837,838 board feet. If the diameter limit is twelve inches, the average stand per acre is about 3000 feet (Yield Table II, column a), the total stand is 30,000 3000— 90,000,000; the same yield can be obtained in twenty-five years (Yield Table II, column 7); the area lumbered annually will be 30,000—25—1200 acres; the annual cut will be 90,000,000—2 5—= 3,600,000 board feet. If the diameter limit is fourteen inches, the average stand per acre is about 2000 board feet (Yield Table III, column a); the total stand is 30,000>%<2000— 60,000,000 YIELD TABLES 83 _ board feet; the same yield can be obtained in twenty years (Yield Table III, column 7); the area lumbered annually will be 30,000—20—1500 acres; the annual cut will be 60,000,o00—20— 3,000,000. By comparing these results it appears that it will be most profitable to cut to twelve inches, since the an- nual cut is then largest. The area lumbered annually is about four hundred acres greater than if ten inches were the limit, but the annual cut is about 800,000 board feet larger. Lumbering under these conditions would nevertheless be profitable, inasmuch as the aver- age stand per acre for trees twelve inches and over in diameter is about 3000 board feet. EXAMPLE NO. 2 A man owns 1000 acres yielding 1000 board feet per acre of Spruce twelve inches and over in diameter. To what limit will it be most profitable in the long run to cut, if he lumbers the entire tract in one year, and how soon can he return for a second cut equal to the first ? Look in Yield Table II, column a, for the amount nearest 1000 board feet. The closest figure is 1073 feet, in line 1. All the desired information will be ob- tained on this line in the three tables. If the diameter limit is ten inches, the average stand per acre is, in round numbers, 1500 board feet (Yield Table I, column a) ; the total stand is 10001500— 1,500,000 board feet; the same cut can be obtained in twenty-seven years (Yield Table I, column 7). 84 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE If the diameter limit is twelve inches, the average stand per acre is 1000 board feet. (See example.) The total stand is 1000<1000—1,000,000 board feet ; the same cut can be obtained in sixteen years (Yield Table II, column 7). If the diameter limit is fourteen inches the average stand per acre is about 750 board feet (Yield Table III, column a ); the total stand is 10007 50=7 50,000 board feet ; the same cut can be obtained in fifteen years (Yield Table III, column 7). If ten inches is the limit, the tract will yield at pres- ent 1,500,000 board feet, and in twenty-seven years the same amount again, or together 3,000,000 board feet. If twelve inches is the limit, 1,000,000 board feet can be cut now, and the same amount every sixteen years, making a total in thirty-two years of 3,000,000 board feet. If fourteen inches is the limit, 750,000 board feet can be obtained now, and an equal amount in fifteen, and again in thirty years, or altogether 2,250,000 board feet. It will therefore be most profitable to cut to ten inches. Aside from the question of profit, it would be better for the forest to cut to twelve rather than to ten inches. EXAMPLE NO. 3 A man owns 20,000 acres of Spruce land from which he has cut 6000 board feet per acre twelve inches and over in diameter. How much can he obtain in twenty years if at that time he cuts to ten inches ? YIELD TABLES 85 Look in Yield Table II, column a, for the amount nearest 6000 board feet. It is found in line 7. In twenty years there will be about 3320 feet per acre cut- ting down to twelve inches (Yield Table II, column g). What is wanted now is the corresponding cut down to ten inches. Look in Yield Table II, column a, for the amount nearest 3320. It is found to be about midway between the amounts given in lines 3 and 4. Now look for the corresponding point in the ten-inch table (Yield Table I, column a). Midway between lines 3 and 4 gives the final answer, or about 4000 feet. EXAMPLE NO. 4 A man owns 10,000 acres of Spruce land from which he obtained 1500 board feet per acre ten inches and over in diameter ten years ago. How soon can he cut the same amount? Look in Yield Table I, column a, for the amount nearest 1500 feet. Itis found in line 1. In this table, column /, twenty-seven years is given as the time to obtain about 1500 feet at the second cut. The land having been lumbered ten years ago, it will require seventeen years more for the required amount to grow. EXAMPLE NO. 5 A man cut his Spruce land twenty years ago, getting 2000 board feet per acre twelve inches and over in diameter. How much can he get now? 86 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE Look in Yield Table II, column a, for the amount nearest 2000. It isfoundin line 2. The same amount can be taken out in twenty-three years after the first cut (Yield Table II, column 7). At the present time, there- fore, the land owner can obtain nearly the amount of his original cut. EXAMPLE NO. 6 A man cuts his Spruce land yielding 5000 board feet per acre ten inches and over in diameter, and wishes to return in ten years. How much can he get? Answer: About 365 board feet per acre (Yield Table I, column d, line 5). Xx YIELD OF ASSOCIATED SPECIES IN the discussion of the composition of the forest it was shown that, with the exception of some swamps and certain steep slopes and ridges, the hardwoods form an important element in the forest. Forty-two per cent. of the entire tract is classified as land on which hardwoods predominate. Until recently there has been comparatively little market for the Adirondack hardwoods, with the exception of Black Cherry. This has been largely due to the fact that hardwood lumber is difficult to handle, and because the demand has not been sufficiently great to make lumbering profitable. There is, however, an increasing demand for Birch and Maple, and many lumbermen are now cutting the hard- wood timber where the haul to the railroad is not too long. In view of the fact that the Adirondack and St. Lawrence Railroad runs through the Park it is im_ portant to know the amount of available hardwood timber. In the 1046 valuation surveys all species other than Spruce were callipered down to ten inches breast-high, great care being taken to measure only such trees as were apparently perfectly sound. The large hard- wood timber is, however, very old, and there are probably many trees apparently sound which in the end 87 88 - THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE would be discarded by the lumbermen. The propor- tion of unsound hardwood trees varies considerably in different -parts of the Adirondacks, and it is extremely difficult to determine what proportion of cull should be allowed in the Park, because no satisfactory figures could be obtained for hardwoods cut in this immediate section. The number of board feet of apparently sound hardwood timber was first computed without making any deduction for cull, suitable allowance being made later in the estimate of yield. For the estimate of Birch the following table, recom- mended by Mr. James L. Jacobs, Superintendent of the Santa Clara Lumber Company, was used. TABLE 28 STANDING BIRCH Diameter Contents in in inches. board feet. 16 157 18 292, 20 302 a2 400 24 499 The average number ot trees per acre and the aver- age diameter were determined from the valuation surveys, and the yield in board feet was found by mul- tiplication from the table given above. Only trees over fifteen inches in diameter were used in the estimate for Birch and Maple, as this is the average limit of the LARA, N.Y: . SANTA ELLOW BIRCH, r ' PT as + 4 YIELD OF ASSOCIATED SPECIES 89 lumbermen, but in the case of the other species in mixture twelve inches was made the minimum diam- eter. Mr. Jacobs, from whom the table for Birch was obtained, estimated that although Hard Maple would contain more feet of wood than Birch, the amount of merchantable timber per tree would be from five to ten per cent. less, on account of the greater proportion of cull. The estimate for Hard Maple was accordingly made by deducting eight per cent. from the contents of the trees as given in the table for Birch. The yield of White Pine was determined by the use of the volume table for board feet contained in the study of that tree by Pinchot and Graves. The table given below, which was employed in determining the amount of Hemlock in the Park, is used by the lumber cruisers in northern Michigan. TABLE 29 STANDING HEMLOCK Diameter No. of trees _in per 1000 inches. board feet. 18 4 20 3 22 24 ~_— F 26 1% 28 1y% gO THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE In the absence of a scale for estimating Cherry and Ash, the following table, which is used by Michi- gan lumbermen for estimating basswood and elm, was used: TABLE 30 STANDING BASSWOOD AND ELM Diameter No. of trees in per 1000 inches. board feet. 14 8 16 ain 6) 18 4 20 2% 22 2 24 13¢ 26 1Y 28 I In the case of Cedar no estimate was made, because it is used for so many purposes that it was impossible under the circumstances to obtain a satisfactory scale. There is at present but little market for Beech, and therefore this tree, together with Soft Maple and Bal- sam, was left out of the estimate. The average yield per acre is given in the table be- low, both for the entire 1046 acres, and for each of the four classes of situation. From this table it appears that there are 3004 board feet of Birch, 464 feet of Hard Maple, 982 feet of Hemlock, 74 feet of Pine, 15 feet of Cherry, and 16 feet of Black Ash per acre on the 1046 YIELD OF ASSOCIATED SPECIES gI acres measured, if no reduction is made for unsound trees. The percentage which should be allowed for cull in hardwoods has been variously estimated by dif- ferent lumbermen in the Adirondacks at from five to forty per cent. Probably about thirty per cent. of the Hemlock lumber will be found to be unfit for market. For the allowance actually made for cull in the various species see the estimates in the working plan on p. 114. I zo" 4 go"o ogr | oro goor | of"g 16z_ | 06°2 00gf | og’Zx PEGE | OS'0f SOLDY F$1Z JO ODVIOAY || SOLOV ZFP JO OSVIOAY GHdOTS gaonadS GNVT doOMaduVH s9e1y, punos Ajjueieddy | SOLOY 90 JOOSRIOAY LYTY do0ddS SOLDV 6ZZ JO OSVIOAY GNV'T dNVYMS [IND 410; uoTJONpeq ynoyyM *SOIDV QhoI uO satdedg a[qejJULYoIBJ 10j INV Jod plelA osv19AY 1€¢ WIaVL pilvog seqouy “WARIp wmnut “TUL SO1OV 9FOT JO OSBIOAY YUHHLAVOL SNOILVOLIS TITY seroedg ‘ YIELD OF ASSOCIATED SPECIES 93 It has been said that the species mixed with Spruce were callipered down to ten inches. In order to de- termine the number of trees per acre of diameters smaller than ten inches, twelve square acres, selected as a fair average, were surveyed, and the trees of all species other than Spruce were measured down to two inches. The following table gives the average number of trees of the small diameters found on these acres. ber f°Sx z*0z [210], go’. A119yD YSV ould ede, 30S $*9 wes[eq *1 git ; qOOTMUS HT °z Sz rz oz : ade prey rE rp La gb : yooog g’r 6°1 1G gz gr yoig HAOV UAd SAAUL AO AAHWON AOVUAAV ‘SHHONI ‘HDOIH-ISVEUA UALANVIA SAUYOV AUVNOS AATAML NO ‘AONUdS NVHL UAHLO ‘AALANVIG TIVWS JO SAAUL zl ATAVL 94 YIELD OF ASSOCIATED SPECIES 95 On page 80 twenty-five years is shown to be the length of time which must elapse after cutting the first crop of Spruce down to twelve inches before the same amount can again be obtained. It is desirable to know what the condition of the hardwoods will be at the end of that time if the merchantable timber is cut now. It was not the purpose of this investigation to make an exhaustive study of the growth of the hardwoods, but in order to gain some slight knowledge of their develop- ment a number of measurements were taken by means of Pressler’s Zuwachsborer. This is a short hollow auger, fitted with a fine wedge, by which a narrow cylin- der about an inch long may be bored from the trunk of a tree, to show its present rate of growth in diameter. With the help of this instrument a number of measure- ments were taken of the growth of trees commonly found in mixture with the Spruce. The number of trees measured, their average diameters, and the num- ber of years required to grow one inch in diameter are given in the table below. It was found that the growth for the different diameters varied so greatly that an av- erage was taken of the trees of all diameters. It will be seen that the rate of growth of the hardwoods is very slow. Thus, the time required for Birch to grow one inch in diameter is twenty years, and for Hard Maple sixteen. 96 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE TABLE 33 THE RATE OF GROWTH IN DIAMETER OF ASSOCIATED SPECIES Average diam-| No. of years No. of trees eter of trees required to Species measured measured. | grow one inch Inches. in diameter Birch 12.5 Beech 12.7 Hard Maple 15.0 Hemlock 16.6 Balsam 10.5 Soft Maple 10.5 Knowing the number of trees of the small diameters and their rate of growth, it is possible to make a fair forecast of the future crops. It seems, however, that, in view of the fact that a large number of the Birch measured were very old, twenty years is too slow a rate of growth for the small trees, which would enjoy after the cutting a considerably larger amount of space than at present. Fifteen years seems to be a conserva- tive estimate for the rate of growth of young hardwoods from ten to fifteen inches in diameter, and this estimate is confirmed by observations made on the same species in northern Michigan. If the Birch and Maple are cut down to fifteen inches they will yield 3468 board feet per acre. Atthe end of YIELD OF ASSOCIATED SPECIES 97 twenty-five years, assuming that the trees left standing will grow one inch in diameter in fifteen years, the second cut would yield about 400 board feet per acre. If, however, eighteen inches were made the lower limit or the first cut, 2440 feet could be taken out now, and, in twenty-five years the land would yield 1057 board feet per acre if the second cut took all trees down to fifteen inches. From these figures it appears that the hardwoods, considered as producers of stumpage, are far less effective than the Spruce. It should be noted, however, that the estimate of yield (p. 116) is based on a first cut of but half the standing hardwoods. It is therefore certain that in actual practice the second cut would be far better than the estimate given above, and altogether probable that both in stumpage and in cash value it would exceed the first. PAT THE WORKING-PLAN XI TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE NeE-HaA-SA-NE PARK is a body of forest land, roughly triangular in outline, with the longest side to the north. It lies in the west central portion of the Adirondack Mountains of northern New York, and is traversed in a northeasterly direction by the Adirondack and St. Lawrence Railroad. About two-thirds of the area is in townships 37 and 38 of Hamilton County, while the western third lies in Herkimer County, townships 42 and 43 From east to west the Park stretches from Little Tupper Lake to Big Rock Lake, and includes the latter, together with Lake Lila, Lake Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne, and a portion of the headwaters of Beaver River. Other waters of the Park drain through Little Tupper Lake to the Raquette River, and through Cranberry Lake to the east branch of the Oswegatchie. Both these lakes are outside its boundaries. The general elevation is from 1700 to 2000 feet above sea level. The whole Park includes an area of about 40,000 acres. Of this total about 10,000 acres are fenced and have been omitted from the investigation. The area covered by the working plan is then about 30,000 acres. The general character of the country is hilly and 98 EDGE OF LAKE LILA. THE PARK, E Z ©) Z. Z. < Nn mm YN) NE-Ha-Sa-N OF GROUP ae ee ; a i - 4 4 7 is 4 4 ts ‘ ‘2? am om P cetage 7 FERISTIC A CHARAC THE WORKING-PLAN 99 somewhat broken, with low swampy tracts near the streams and lakes. Numerous knolls and ridges, from a few yards to over three hundred feet in height, rise from the lower ground. In general the ridges or series of ridges run northeast and southwest. Low rounded knolls rising above swampy ground are very frequent. More level areas, or flats, are of considerable extent ; some of them low and rolling and covered with glacial boulders. There are numbers of broad flat ridges. The higher hills are for the most part conical, with small tops, or consist of long narrow ridges. A glance at the map will indicate that the southerly slopes are apt to be rocky, abrupt, or often even precipitous. The northerly slopes are more gradual. The country shows in many ways the effect of the ice with which it was once covered. The soil is a glacial drift, and the man- ner in which the rocks have been smoothed off and the rounded boulders deposited on the flats and on the south slopes affords similar evidence. The shape of the ridges is due to glaciation. Granite, varying much in color and texture, is the principal rock. The typical soil of the Park is glacial gravel or sand, replaced by loam in richer situations. On steep slopes it is thin, and what there is usually collects in hollows, on benches, on the uphill side of rocks and trees, or in rocky crevices. On moderate slopes and high flats the soil is deep, fresh, and porous ; on low flats moist and often deep; on less level flats thin on account of the boulders ; and in swamps a deep muck. 100 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE The conditions of heat, moisture, and ventilation are such in the dense and damp Adirondack forest that the waste materials which drop trom the trees and other forest vegetation decay slowly after falling. The result is a mass of partially disintegrated vegetable matter which has been accumulating for years, and which may cover the ground to a depth of several feet. This layer, deeper on low than on high ground, often becomes acid humus in the swamps. Rain is abundant. An indication of its amount is supplied by the rainfall of the upper Hudson, which is given by the State Engineer as follows, with the remark that in 1895 it was somewhat deficient : DOA SY. Ue Reever este ite Sosa 41.37 inches EDO S . A — x x» Nee yo ars ae IN THE FOREST. SANTA CLARA, N.Y. YOUNG SPRUCE REASONS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT 103 is to say, the unproductive portion of the capital has been converted into money to be invested elsewhere, and the forest has been put into such a condition that its power of growth is utilized. The presence of a large amount of young growth and the prolific reproduction of the valuable trees makes it possible to manage the forest in such a way as to ob- tain a considerable profit now, and a very much greater profit in the long run. The latter is assured by the sustained and increased value of the forest capital, and by the opportunity to harvest successive crops at com- paratively short intervals. The present working-plan is based on the fact that the Spruce above an average diameter ot twelve inches can be removed without injury to the forest, and that a satisfactory reproduction can be brought about by the cutting. As has been emphasized elsewhere, this limit is not a hard-drawn line, but, on the contrary, only an average figure to aid in the determination of the yield, and to serve as a guide to the forester in marking the trees to fall. It will be necessary, for silvicultural rea- sons, to leave many trees above this diameter, and to cut many which are smaller. But a careful silvicul- tural study of the Spruce has made it clear that an amount of timber equal to the yield above twelve inches can be removed safely and in such a way as to bring about the desired reproduction. The working-plan is concerned chiefly with the yield, growth, and reproduction of the Spruce. Spruce is the most abundant species. Except Pine, Cherry, and per- 104 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE haps Cedar, it has been the most profitable tree to lumber, and, on account of its ability to grow more rapidly than the hardwoods, quicker returns can be ob- tained from it under forest management. The lumber- ing of hardwoods must, then, be subordinate in the general plan. All marketable hardwoods may be cut now, for their reproduction is abundant and secure, but in this case no provision is possible to assure a sec- ond equal yield in hardwoods at the time of the second cutting of Spruce. The present study was made primarily for the Spruce, and the hardwoods were worked up only in their relation to it. Their growth and behavior can only be described provisionally until some study is made on lumbered hardwood lands. The objection will probably be made that if the mer- chantable Spruce and hardwoods are cut the remain- ing trees will be blown down. In certain places this is true, and in them it must be guarded against in the location of the cut. A large part of the hardwoods are on fairly deep soil, and are not easily uprooted, and in many cases the large number of trees which must be left because not perfectly sound or straight will prevent an undue thinning of the forest. In the statement of financial results ample provision and allowance have been made for leaving a large number of trees to, furnish seed, for the protection of the soil, and to guard against damage by wind. In practice, the protection of the forest against windfall must be left to the man who marks the timber to be cut. XIV TREATMENT OF THE FOREST FOREST management in the Adirondacks by owners other than the State must meet two conditions : Ist. The returns must be substantial enough to make it a profitable real property investment. Other- wise the lumbermen, most clubs, and nearly all private land owners will be unwilling to adopt it. The State may be satisfied with two per cent. interest on the capital invested, but the lumbermen could not consider such a proposition. 2d. The system of management must secure the establishment of a crop of trees to take the place of the timber cut, and it must improve the condition of the forest. Ordinary lumbering pays a high interest now, but it leaves the forest in a very bad condition. Intensive forest management would secure most desirable results in the next crop, but it would pay too low a rate of interest now. A practicable system of management must then be a compromise, bringing sufficient returns to the owner to make it profitable for him to undertake it, and yet insuring an ample reproduction to establish new crops. The cost of building and maintaining permanent roads is so great that the lumbermen could not afford to keep all parts of the forest always accessible for logging. It will not be possible to continue the cutting 105 106 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE on the same ground during a number of years, as is done in European regeneration cuttings and as would be necessary in the Adirondacks if the best possible reproduction were to be obtained without regard to expense, but each portion must be lumbered once for all, and the cutting must be so located that the repro- duction will take care of itself. 3 It is essential to large companies with extensive milling plants that they should have a regular annual production of timber on which they can confidently rely. Such companies cannot afford to give up their business or to move their plants to new places as soon as the tributary land is exhausted. Forest management must secure for them a sustained annual yield by a suitable distribution of the cutting and by enabling them to cut the same land a second time in a reasonably short period. On the other hand a private individual or a club owning a small tract would in many, if not in most cases, prefer to cut the entire tract at once and then wait the required period before cutting a second time. Technically it will do no harm to the forest to lumber it. entirely in one year, provided due care is taken to spare the small trees and to secure reproduction. On the contrary, it will place the whole tract at once in a condition favorable for rapid growth, whereas if some portions were left uncut for 15, 20, or 25 years, they would remain for that time in the condition of the virgin forest, where the decay and growth are about equal, and would thus be producing nothing. Further, . TREATMENT OF THE FOREST 107 the lumber operations would be much cheapened by cutting the entire tract in a short time, and the expense of extra rangers and expert superintendence would be saved from the time the lumbering was finished till the second cutting. The working-plan for Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park has been made on two assumptions—one that it will be desirable to insure a sustained annual yield, and the other that it will not. The former would be accomplished by cutting an approximately equal portion of the forest each year. The area lumbered yearly would then be equal to the total area divided by the number of years which must elapse before any one portion can be lumbered a second time. If, however, for any reason the owner of the Park should desire to cut the entire area as quickly as the means at hand would permit, the plan would in no essential way be changed, except that the tract must be left for the allotted period before the second cutting without yielding any more return. From the yield tables the period between equal cuts on the same area is determined to be twenty-five years, if, as is shown below, twelve inches is the minimum diameter to which Spruce should be cut in the Park. The yield per acre for the trees ten inches and over is 3703 board feet; the total stand is 101,954,699 board feet ; the same cut can be obtained again in thirty- seven years (Yield Table I, column /, line 3); the area lumbered annually would be 27,533 37 =744 acres; the annual cut would be 101,954,699 — 37 =2,755,532 board feet. 108 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE With twelve inches as the limit, the yield per acre is 3045 board feet; the total stand is 83,837,985 board feet ; the same cut can be obtained in twenty-five years (Yield Table II, column /, line 3); the area lumbered annually would be 27,533—25—=1101' acres = 7m annual cut would be 83,837,985 — 25 = 3,353,519 board feet. With fourteen inches as the limit, the average yield per acre is 2400 board feet; the total stand is 66,079,- 200 board feet ; the same cut can be obtained in twenty years (Yield Table III, column /, line 3); the area lumbered annually would be 27,533 —-20= 1377 acres ; the annual cut would be 66,079,200 ~ 20 = 3,303,960 board feet. By cutting down to twelve inches the annual yield would be 597,987 board feet greater than if ten inches be made the limit. It would be necessary to lumber 357 acres more for this additional amount, but this would pay inasmuch as there are about 3000 board feet per acre over twelve inches. Technically it would be far better for the forest to cut to twelve rather than ten inches. It would be more profitable to cut to twelve rather than to fourteen inches, because slightly more timber could be cut annually and the area lumbered would be smaller. : In order to facilitate the location of the cuttings on the map the Park has been divided into six watersheds, as follows : Lake Lila, 7470 acres, comprising the area draining into , that lake, as well as a small section drained by Bog Lake. Hind “AN'OD NOLIINWH ‘BE dIHSNMOL $ op ACN"O9 MBWIMHIH “Ze dIHSNMOL « 7. " . Ee diHSNMOL ~~ a> ae (iN - 2 . HitON TREATMENT OF THE FOREST IOQ Lake Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne, 4160 acres, including the area drained by the main part of this lake and the river between it and Lake Lila. Rock Lake, 6014 acres, comprising the watershed of the river emptying into the extreme lower part of Lake Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne from the North, and the portion of Beaver River below this lake, including the Rock Lake system. Nigger Lake, 2221 acres, covering the area drained by that lake and Beaver Dam. Gull Lake, 3206 acres, including the watershed of this and the other ponds in the northwest corner of the Park. Partlow Lake, 4,461 acres, comprising the area about this pond and the river into which it empties. If the Park is to be managed for a sustained annual yield, these watersheds may be subdivided, to suit the conditions of lumbering, so that about one twenty-fifth of the entire tract is cut each year. Otherwise they may be lumbered within whatever period is deter- mined upon by the owner. XV CULTING THE object of forest management may be said to be the production of the largest amount of the most valu- able timber in the shortest time on a given area. This is often best accomplished for a given species by form- ing dense even-aged pure forests. The largest amount is thus produced because there are no other species occupying the ground. The timber will be most valu- able because in such a forest the natural pruning is very uniform and complete, and the trunks are long and clear. The timber is produced in the shortest time because there are no spreading trees overhead to suppress and hold back the young growth, which de- velops without hindrance except for the natural crowd- ing within the stand. At Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park it will not be possible to pro- duce a pure forest of Spruce over any large area. The hardwoods, which are intimately mixed with the Spruce now, forma constant factor which cannot be eliminated; and without doubt in time their value will have in- creased to such an extent that their presence will be extremely desirable. In the original forest, however, the mixture is chiefly promiscuous, whereas if the trees were mixed in patches the advantages of both the mixed and pure forest would be attained. It should, there- ore, be the ultimate aim in locating the cuttings to re- p @ ce) CUTTING III produce the Spruce as well as the hardwoods in groups. There is a very large amount of unsound and worth- less timber in the forest at Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne, and one of the aims of the forester should be to increase the pro- portion of the valuable species and to bring the forest into sound condition. The land should be made to pro- duce only sound individuals of valuable species. This condition is far in the future, it is true, but the forester should have it constantly in mind. With this ultimate aim in view, and with the knowledge gained of the capacity of the Spruce under present conditions and of its silvicultural character, we are in a position to dis- cuss the immediate treatment of the forest and the principles that should govern the cutting. No detailed rules, but only general ones, can be laid down, because the conditions vary with each individual case. The application of such general rules to specific cases is the province of the forester. The imperative need of this skillful adaptation is the fundamental reason why rules of thumb, such as a rigid limit of twelve inches, cannot safely be put in force, and why the mark- ing of trees to fall must be done by some one well versed in the requirements of the forest. There are certain localities where the cutting of Spruce should be very heavy and where everything mer- chantable should be removed. These places are on thin rocky ground and exposed situations, where the danger from windfall is very great, and where, in the event of a partial cut, the uprooting of the remaining trees by wind would be inevitable. Such areas should be chosen LLZ THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE with great care, and a sufficient number of seed trees should be left on the edge of each opening to seed the area to Spruce. Such conditions are found on certain Spruce slopes and on the tops of ridges and knolls. They are nowhere extensive. There are other localities, particularly swamps, where trees twelve inches in diameter are not plentiful, and where many trees under that limit can be removed with decided advantage to the forest. In general most large Spruce trees, say over fifteen inches, are ready to cut. The doubtful trees are those close to the limit, whether it be ten, twelve or fourteen inches. The trees which should be cut under the size limit are: First, those which show signs of decline and are more valuable at present than they ever will be again; Second, crooked or scrubby trees which can be utilized now for pulp, but which are crowding promis- ing young growth. Trees which should be left above the limit are sound, thrifty, growing trees, which ought to remain in order to seed up an area in Spruce, or to protect the soil. The general rules which should govern conservative lumber operations in Spruce timber are as follows: 1, Only trees marked by the forester must be cut, and each tree marked must be cut unless a reason sat- isfactory to the forester can be given for leaving it. 2. Notimber outside the line of a road shall be used for corduroy, culverts, or other road purposes, until all timber cut for the clearing of the road has been utilized; and when more timber is necessary, all available trees CUTTING 113 of other kinds within reach must be used before any Spruce is taken. 3. All lumber roads must be marked out by the con- tractor with the codperation and assistance of the forester. 4. As a protection against fire all tops must be cut or lopped so that the thin branches will be brought in contact with the ground by the weight of the winter’s snow. 5. Extreme care must be taken to prevent fire. No fire must ever be lighted where it can get into a rotten log or into the duff. 6. Great care must be taken not to injure young growth in felling timber, or to bark valuable young trees in skidding. 7. Felled trees must be cut into logs at once, to re- lease young growth crushed by their fall, unless a rea- son satisfactory to the forester can be given for some other course. 8. Any young growth bent over by felled trees must be released and allowed to straighten without delay. g. Provision for carrying out these regulations should be made in all contracts with lumbermen, and fines should be imposed by the contracts for failure to com- ply with them. XVI RETURNS ALTHOUGH none but apparently sound trees were measured in the valuation surveys, in making the final estimate of stand the following percentages were allowed for unsoundness which did not appear on the surface: Bircheanad WMaplenets =... .4. bes 40 per cent. Hieml@Gkes -b wie See 6 a's vine 30) anise The low stumpage price given for Spruce and Pine is believed to equalize fully the loss through unsound- ness. Beech, Cherry, Ash, and Cedar are left out of account entirely. With this allowance for cull, the total stand of merchantable timber of the species named in the Park, taking 27,533 acres as the total wooded area, is as follows; 114 SANTA CLARA, N, Y. > HARDWOODS. SKIDWAY OF TABLE 34 MERCHANTABLE TIMBER IN NE-HA-SA-NE PARK Ave. mer- Total Limit. pomehese merchantable inches | stand. Board Board feet. Species Spruce 3,703 101,954,699 Spruce 3,045 83,837,985 Spruce 2,400 | 66,079,200 Birch 1,802 49,614,466 Maple | 7,654,174 Hemlock 18,914,171 | | Pine 2,037,442 116 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE According to conservative estimates the stumpage value of the various species is as follows: Per thousand board feet. Sprucey 5 cin veneceeee ae ss ee Sr 75 Birches. 4.4 oS ace eee co. sg eee 3 00 Maples. 2 i c.1t ema: ane «eran I 50 BMG yj c0d do poe eso « 2 oO Hemlock (including bark)........ Tho If one-twenty-fifth of the standing timber, cutting the Spruce to twelve inches, were removed and sold as above, with allowance for cull, the receipts for the first year would be: Board feet. Spruce.) 2h. 2a Baa5 BS... biter $5,868 65 IEC... oy) oe PR eR a Or c<... tena 5,954 73 Maples io icga ) aema@OMUO7 5. 5:2 nee 459 90 Pine, eee eee: Vc ae 163 OO emlocki. sats. 1/1 ON Oy SER Oe ie etre $13,581 13 In order to be entirely safe, it may be assumed that on account of the necessity of leaving certain trees for silvicultural reasons, because of difficulties of transporta- tion or a poor market, only fifty per cent. of the above receipts for the species other than Spruce and Pine would be obtained. The gross receipts for the first year would then be; ‘MUVd AN-VS-VH-AN “GNV’] MOT NO ANId ALIHM RETURNS 117 Cis sf eek Os oe se al eM hie $5,868 65 PAE 5S Mist. arash eo « cian borne 163 00 SU Gy Pay Se ne Der eee a 774i an PE ay ck + ns: nin os aE $9,806 39 The cost of administration for the first year is esti- mated to be: OS Ee a eee $1,500 00 ame Catiacs AN ACHE)... \.. 4 o)a44- LO} 32 Marking and inspection at 5 per gentsot gross receipts, ... 2.94 .- 487 28 RN oh Peasiaar dec wigs eee Re 53,088 60 Net receipts—$9,806.39 less $3,088.60 $6,717.79, or for the area cut (1101.3 acres), $6.09 per acre. In order to determine what rate of interest on the capital value of the property the forest is producing annually, it is necessary to place a definite value on the land. The highest price paid for virgin forest by the New York Preserve Board in 1897 was $7.00 per acre. It is, therefore, fair to use this figure for the sale value of the property in the present case. On this basis the present value of the property is: $7.00X27,533—$192,7 31.00, on which sum the net receipts for the first year repre- sent a return of 3.5 percent. During the succeeding years the taxes as well as the value of the cut-over por- tions will be less than at first, until the timber shall _ have again attained merchantable size, and the price 118 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE of the timber will necessarily vary considerably; so that a statement of the financial results cannot safely be made. A return of at least 3.5 per cent. can, how- ever, be obtained; for the decrease of the cut-over land in value as property will be followed by a decrease in the amount of taxes. This diminution in the cost of maintenance, and the probable increase in the price of timber, will both be to the advantage of the owner, and the rate of interest on the capital invested will in con- sequence be increased. If the entire area were cut in one year, which for many reasons would be impossible, the gross receipts would be: | $9,806.39X25—$245,159.75, or $8.94 per acre. The expenses of administration during the year in which the land is cut over are estimated to be: IPROtCCtOn e ¢ spmemesre 5 o200) eee $2,000 00 Waxes (at Ae “per Acre)... 5 sale. 1; 1OL 32 Marking and inspection (at 2 per cent. of gross receipts)... .< 5a 4,872 84 $7,974 16 Net receipts, $243,642.00, less $7,974.16 $235,667.84 or $8.56 per acre. In this case the value of the land is not equal to the actual sale value of the timber, but this discrepancy is equalized by the cost of administration and the danger to the property through fire and windfall and other contingent risks which the owner must assume. ’ RETURNS 119 It would then be necessary to hold the land twenty- five years before an equal crop could be reaped. Dur- ing this period there would be a necessary annual ex- penditure for taxes and protection, for which $2,000.00 per annum would be ample. This amount invested annually would amount in twenty-five years, at four per cent: compound interest, to $86,623.46. At the end of this period the land can be cut over a second time with the same yield of Spruce as at the first cut, and it is probable that on account of the rise in the value of Spruce much larger returns can then be secured than at present. If the Park were cut over in five years the annual gross receipts for these years would be: $9,806.39 5—$49,031.95, or $8.90 per acre. It is estimated that the expenses for the first year would be: PEE CHOU Ge a ee PA Poe $2,000 oo Manes (at 4c; Per aere).. 05s. 6 £,1OL (32 Marking and inspection (at 3 per cent. of gross receipts) ......... 1,461 85 $4,563 17 Net receipts, $49,031.95, less $4,563.17—$44,468.78, or $8.07 per acre. During the following four years a slightly better showing would be made on account of the decrease in taxes on the cut-over land. There would then be twenty years in which an I20 THE ADIRONDACK SPRUCE annual expenditure of about $2,000.00 for taxes and protection would be necessary. In twenty years these payments, at four per cent. compound interest, would amount to $62,887.80. APPENDIX \ FOURTEEN valuation surveys, measured on cut-over land at Santa Clara, N. Y., in different situations and soils. In each case the amount of timber removed at the first cut was estimated by measuring the old stumps and tops; and the Spruce suitable for pulp was cut and analyzed, the contents determined, and the rate of growth in diameter computed before and after the first lumbering. *JU1}4Nd 4s1y 104;8 qi mors POSBEIOUI MOYS S901} ON ‘010B OY} JO Opls oUO UO poyoUNg AporyD Wes|eq “poeuAOIO SuO] paw j104qs eonidg “40 :[10g “dUIBAS OONIdY :MOLIENY “peaOued SBA PIBPULIS OF SUIP[OLA OONAdG OO OUI} YOIYA 7B “[68] UL 1OAO JNO SVAL PUB] SIGL wm N OO AUMO PCO OD qe0y “900 968T “‘soyouy aepop | olde | you | westeg | eonids ‘geyoul sieoF | aysreq | urgno | “1030 ‘sv04 OT ISI Q0D | asevraay| eonidg | -weid IoJOWeIp Ul Y}AMO1S [VNUUB UOT ‘O68I NI LOO IVINALVN “ONILLNO WALAV LAAT TVIXALV AN MUOA MAN ‘VUVIO VINVS LV GNVI dNVMS WHAO-LND NO GHANSVAW AAYOV ANO tf (ON SLo0dd 122 “Sayyno 1OYyE YIAOIZ PesBEIDUT AOYS 8007} 0 ‘919¥ OY} JO OPIS CUO UO poYyoUNn WeS[Vg “Joa [10g ‘“dwwAs donIdg :uoTENyIIE ‘PEAOMIOL O1OM SPIVPUBYS OT JO P[OLA pOyBUIIyse UL GITA $901} OONAdS OMY OUIIY YOIGA 7B ‘[6Ql UI 1AAO JNO BBA PUB] SIU qoiig Iv pep uvs[eg eonidsg “ONILLOO UALAV LAAT TVINALYR MAYOA MAN ‘VUVTIO VINVS LV ‘999A 9681 ‘seqouy spiv 7995 : 4 ‘seqou -pue o1qn stey | ULINs 1030 ‘uae nT _ ees nano OSBIOAY| OONAdS | -wIBICG 19}0UIRIp UT —_—_—_ qjAo1s5 [enuue UB, 968L NI LAO TVINALVR SGNVT dNVMS UYAAO-LND NO GaAUNSVAW AYOV ANO cf ON LO'ld 123 PLOT ONE ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 Mean annual Diam.|Spruce} Ave. growth cut |height| Cubic | Stand- | in diam. Ls Inches} in ards 1896 Inches Mean annual growth in diam.| i 92 -96 Inches I 2 3 5 6 g 8 9 Mean annual | No. of trees show- ing in- creased 92-96. | growth Inches This land was cut over in 1891, at which time 30 Spruce trees with were removed. Situation: intermediate between Spruce swamp and Spruce rather scrubby. 124 NO. 3 FLAT AT SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING eee | Diam. Dead | Spruce | Spruce | Balsam | Birch | Maple | Cedar | Cherry | Inches OO ONT Quik WN an estimated yield of 13.8 standards, and 8 Pine with 13.4 standards, Spruce flat. Soil: moist. Humus: deep. Seedlings: abundant. £25 PLOT ONE ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE FLAT AT CUT OVER MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 Mean Mean Mean | annual | No. of Diam.|Spruce} Aver. annual | annual | growth| Trees cutin |height} Cubic | Stand-| growth | growth |in diam.| show- Inches] 1896 feet ards |indiam.|indiam.| of70 ing in- Feet 87-88 89-96 Trees | creased Inches | Inches 89-96 | growth Inches I 2 3 4 5 6 12 39. 41.3 0.74 .09 10 .09 3 7 48 43.8 | 309.7 6.19 09 IIS 18 14 8 61 49.5 | 524.5 II.81 |° .09 FI 19 19 9 49 51.4 | 593.4 13.54 -IT5 15 -205 14 10 30 52.0 | 456.7 10.12 5) aTO | eee 14 II 15 57.4 | 269.6 6.59 14 165 a7 4 12 2 57.1 42.0 -94 aTe 185 .26 I 13 I 56.2 2507, .63 .05 135 135 I 14 I Byatey Pela, .49 .10 .10 ro) Total | 219 2289.6 | 51.05 70 This land was cut over in 1888, at which time 37 Spruce with an were removed. Situation: Spruce flat. Soil: deep, fresh, rich. Humus: 0.8. Many young seedlings. 126 NO. 4 SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH HAD BEEN IN 1888. MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING ° | | | | Dead : Diam Spruce i | Balsam Birch | Maple Cedar Spruce | | Inches | | | | 4 I 7 2 13 2 20 5 9 3 22 3 II 4 2 3 | I 5 1 I 6 | 6 I 2 | 1.2 2 I Lyd: 2 2 } 9 | 2 I | Io | 2 I II | I 12 13 | y | go 14 54 5 | 4 2 | Total estimated yield of 17 standards, and one Pine yielding 1.7 standards, deep. Character of Spruce excellent. Nearly even aged. Density 127 PLOT 0.2 ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE FLAT AT CUT OVER MATERIAL CUT IN 1896. Mean : Mean Mean | annual} No. of Diam.|Spruce| AVer- : annual| annual| growth | trees cut in fei SS Cubie | Stand- | growth | growth |in diam.| showing Inches} 1896 Fest feet, ards jin diam.jin diam.| of 13 in- ee 87-88 89-96 trees | creased Inches | Inches | 89-96 growth Inches | | | OW ON DUIS WN -nokP OO This land was cut over in 1888, at which time 11 Spruce, with an as in Plot 4. ras NO. 5 SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH HAD BEEN IN 1888. MATERIAL LEFT AFTEK CUTTING. Dead : Diam. Balsam Birch Maple Cedar Spruce Inches Spruce estimated yield of 4.4 standards, wereremoved. Situation and soil 129 . |Spruce cut in 1896 PLOT ONE ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE FLAT Aver- heig Fee e ht t Cubic feet MATERIAL CUT IN 1896. . CUT OVER Mean ’ Mean Mean | annual | No. of annual | annual | growth | trees growth | growth |in diam.| show- in diam.jin diam.| of 20 | ing in- 87-88 89-96 trees {creased Inches | Inches 89-96 | growth Inches This land was cut over in 1888, at which time 13 Spruce with an removed. Situation: Spruce flat. Soil: deep, rich, moist. Humus: Old stumps chiefly bunched on western end. 130 NO. 6. AT SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH HAD BEEN IN 1888. MATERIAL LEFT AFTER COTTING. Spruce Dead | Balsam| Birch | Maple | Cedar | Pine. Spruce _—_—_—_—_— |X“ | ——— | — | —_——_————_ ee ee, estimated yield of 13 standards, and 6 Pine with 9 standards, were deep. Very gentleslope N.E. Spruce with moderately long crowns. 131 PLOT ONE ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE FLAT AT CUT OVER MATERIAL CUT IN. 1896 Mean Mean Mean annual | annual | annual! No.of growth | growth | growth] trees Cubic | Stand- |in diam.|in diam.|in diam.| show- feet ards 87-91 92-96 of 45 | ing in- trees | creased Inches | Inches 92-96 | growth Inches Diam.|Spruce| Ave. cut |height nches| in 1896 | Feet 1195.0 This land was cut over in 1891, at which time 34 Spruce with an removed. Situation: Spruce flat. Nearly level. Soil: deep, rich over the ground. 132 NO. 7 SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH HAD BEEN IN 1891 MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING Dead Diam. Spruce Spruce | Balsam! Birch Maple | Cedar Pine |tnches I 5 5 19 2 25 8 21 3 14 3 21 I 4 19 3 16 2 6 I I 3 I 2 I 2 g estimated yield of 10.4 standards, and1 Pine with .5 standard, were moist. Spruce ef excellent quality. Old trees evenly distributed 133 PLOT ONE ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE FLAT AT CUT OVER MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 Mean Mean Mean annual | annual] annual | No. of Diam.|Spruce} Ave. growth | growth| growth| trees cut jheight| Cubic | Stand- | in diam.) in diam.| in diam.| show- Inches] in feet ards 87-91. 92-96. |of9 trees} ing in- 1896 | Feet creased 92-96. Inches | Inches | Inches | growth This land was cut over in 1891, at which time ro Spruce with an were removed. Situation: Spruce flat. Soil: fresh, rich. Spruce of 134 NO. 8 SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH HAD BEEN IN 1891 MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING Spruce Balsam Birch Ash Cher Cedar | 37 I 2 36 80 2 47 69 a 37 51 I 13 50 8 I 24 I 2 I 20 I | 6 9 I 6 10 I r I I estimated yield of 2.6 standards, and 1 Pine with 1.5 standards, excellent quality. . 135 PLOT ONE ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE FLAT CUT OVER MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 Mean Mean Mean No. of annual | annual} annual] trees Diam.|Spruce} Ave. | Cubic | Stand- | growth] growth | growth| show- height] feet ards |in diam.jin diam./in diam.| ing in- 87-90. 92-96. of 12 | creased Feet trees | growth Inches | Inches 92-96. Inches oe I | SC LC |) | | I 2 5 5 I 6 27 2 7 22 8 28 6 9 28 Io a II 12 I 13 14 Total | 147 1609.2 | 33.86 12 This land was cut over in 1891, at which time 11 Spruce with an were removed. Situation: Spruce flat. Level. Soil: moist, rich. NO. 9 AT SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH WAS IN 1891 MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING e Diam. Spruce Balsam Birch Maple Cedar Cherry Inche I 28 33 5 2 26 21 2 3 25 | I 5 iu 4 I 3 21 I I 2 20 I 12 I II I g 5 I I 9 4 a I I 10 I I II I 12 2 13 I 14 98 146 9 7 6 I Total estimated yield of 2.6 standards, ard 6 Pine yielding 11.3 standards Spruce of good quality. 137 BLOT 0.8 ACRE MEASURED ON A SPRUCE SLOPE CUT OVER MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 Mean Aver- Mean Mean | annual] No. of Diam.|Spruce ‘ annual | annual | growth | trees cut in height Cubic | Stand- | growth} growth jin diam.| show- Inches| 1896 | Feet feet ards jin diam.jin diam.| of 38 ing in- 87-88. 89-96. trees | creased Inches | Inches | 89-96. | growth Inches I 2 3 4 , 3 34.6 57 on) 10 .10 .10 I 13 42.2 50.2 0.9 Ai 115 -09 I 2 46.2 | 162.0 3.50 085 Be 18 6 2 48.5 | 252.5 5.59 .09 145 185 16 9 15 52.5 | 160.0 3.99 “fin A) 18 9 10 7 VSB" /TOLe 2.06 12 185 17 5 11 2 54.6 32. 0.63 .23 .23 12 13 14 I 8 I 8 20 Total| 93 796.17 | 16.88 38 This land was cut over in 1888, at which time 34 Spruce, with an slope. Soil: rather thin. Slope: 138 S. W. about 109-15°. Spruce of NO. Io AT SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH HAD BEEN IN 1888. MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING Spruce Balsam Birch | Maple + Lok NNN CWO HF DH estimated yield of 38.4 standards, were removed. Situation: Spruce excellent quality. 139 PLOT ONE ACRE MEASURED ON CUT OVER MATERIAL CUT IN 1896. Mean Mean Mean | annual | No. of Diam. |Spruce} Aver- annual | annual | growth trees cutin}| age Cubic |Stand-| growth | growth |in diam.| show- Inches| 1896 |height} feet ards |indiam.|indiam.| of 14 ing in- Feet 87-88 89-96 trees | creased Inches | Inches 89-96 | growth Inches I 2 3 4 5 I 35-0 3.4 | 0.06 14 14 6 12 39.2 44.9 | 0.77 .09 II 222) 2 g 36 42.9 PHeMoy Ny Quip .I0 IIS 195 5 32 47.6 287.3 5.78 .I0 anes .23 3 9 I 47.9 177. 3.66 .10 .10 se) I 55.0 206.6 | 5.92 itil 14 255 3 II II 53-6 201.5 | 4.27 115 125 625 I 12 I 4.5 21.0 | 0.2 20 20 13 3 2.2 83.0 | 1.61 18 18 14 I I I I Total | 129 1298.5 | 26.07 | 14 This land was cut over in 1888, at which time 27 Spruce with an were removed. Situation: partly Spruce slope and partly Spruce flat. 140 NO. II LAND AT SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING. Spruce | Dead | Balsam| Birch | Maple |Cedar! Pine | Ash Digm. Spruce Inches | I es Io 4 9 I | 2 25 4 12 I 3 27 5 8 I 2 4 27 3 4 6 I 3 ; 12 2 5 13 2 I 4 3 I II 2 10 é 5 20 3 3 I I I 7 2 4 9 2 13 6 2 10 I 5 4 I II 4 2 12 I I 13 2 14 2 I I I I I I I I 107 22 47 89 24 34 I 1 | Total estimated yield of 9.8 standards, and 5 Pine with 7.9 standards, Spruce of good quality. 141 PLOT 0.9 ACRE MEASURED ON HARDWOOD: LAND CUT OVER MATERIAL CUT IN 1896. Mean Mean, Mean annual | No. of Diam. Aver- ‘ annual | annua rowth | trees iv epee age | Cubic | Stand-| growth] growth = diam.| ,show- 1g96 |height) teet ards jin diam.jin diam.| o0f4 ing in- Feet 87-88 89-96 trees | creased Inches | Inches 89-96 | growth Inches 41.2 | 0.61 08 08 161.6 | 2.94 .07 .08 205 Z 107.5 2.23 II 12 sou I 145.4 3.15 13 145 20 I 106.4 | 3.52 atte II 20.9 | 0.4 10 | 10 28.7 | 0.61 a5). byl eas | | P | 671.7 | 13-54 | 4 _ This land was cut over in 1888, at which time 20 Spruce with an with 1.14 standards, 2 Cherry with 1.09 standards, were removed. good quality. 142 NO. ip AT SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH HAD BEEN IN 1888. MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING. Diam. Spruce Stas Balsam | Birch | Maple | Cedar sag Cherry eee I 3 I I 5 I 7? 3 1 19 5 I 4 I I I 7 I 3 2 2 I 2 2 I I I I 6 4 if 2 I 7 ze I 3 5 5 3 5 5 I I 4 I 3 77 9 15 69 | 2 7 3 I estimated yield of 12 standards, 2 Pine with 3.7 standards, 2 Balsam Situation: hardwood land. One corner: Spruce flat. Spruce of 143 PLOT 1. ACRES MEASURED ON HARDWOOD LAND AT OVER MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 Mean ‘ Mean Mean _| annual | No. of Diam.|Spruce} Aver. annual | annual | growth | Trees cut in |height} Cubic | Stand- | growth | growth jin diam.| show- Inches] 1896 feet ards jin diam.jin diam.| of15 |! ingin- Feet 87-88 89-96 Trees |creased Inches | Inches 89-96 | growth Inches I 2 3 4 5 6 5 | 43.4 ey 0-94 .056 .056 7 16 | 44.4 | Jor.0 1.80 065 085 20 2 3 25} 40.5 | 220.0 4.27 .07 .09 30 10 9 14 50.0 | 246.6 4.91 115 125 .19 2 10 14 57.0 225.0 4.07 Il 13 -30 I II 5 59.1 9o.5 2.09 12 128 12 2 54.3 ey 89 17 17 13 3 51.1 7.6 1.70 -14 14 14 I 0 I 8 19 Total] 84 1014.5 | 20.87 <5 Land cut over in 1888. 24 Spruce with an estimated yield of 11.4 removed. Situation: hardwood land. Soil: rather rocky and thin. 144 13 SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK, WHICH HAD BEEN CUT IN 1888 MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING yee Balsam} Birch | Maple |Cedar| Hem- Spruce) spruce lock | Cherry p I I 5 2 I I 4 I 2 1 I 2 2 I I 3 2 r I I I 2 4 2 é 5 z | 3 5 5 I Ir 3 4 I 7 I : 10 I I 6 I I ; | 2 I 4 I oo ” standards, 1 Pine with 1.4 standards, and 5 Cedar with 1.1 standards, Character of Spruce: good. T45 PLOT I.5 ACRES MEASURED ON A SPRUCE MATERIAL CUT IN 1896 Diam.|Spruce er ; ve 1D | height Inches} 1896 Feet Mean annual growth in diam. of4 trees 89-96, Inches No. of trees show- ing in- creased Mean Mean annual} annual growth} growth in diam.|in diam. 87-88. 89-96. Inches | Inches This land was cut over 1n 1888, at which time 13 Spruce trees, with ards; one Balsam with .6 standards, and 2 large Hemlocks cut for Old stumps chiefly bunched at one end of area, 146 NO. 14. FLAT AT SANTA CLARA, NEW YORK. MATERIAL LEFT AFTER CUTTING Spruce Balsam Maple 16 23 28 39 20 27 33 20 12 26 7 25 2 13 II s 2 2 118 19] an estimated yield of 11.15 standards; 2 Tamaracks with 1.8 stand- bark, were removed. Situation: Spruce flat. Soil: fairly rich and moist. 147 ia Ol 7 v He eee tel oe ig a ¥ a ae i p hee : % Br ° . - . a \ a ? rr : * * fy ¥ ~ } ‘at . i” aan ; ie 5 ! Mae ; ; ANA * a } a r ; t f t aid / | Par ie 4 ’ 7 ia : Ss , i fp’ i f ee :: Tee Soe rive ras heey a vee ani Fa ta aS att ah La Uo Pui cee oa h jae ibes Le a i at Aart doles a acahncns (va ea ie 4 H nl f \ y if aA * Ray ¢ : q j - i j P ; a , bis ; " * ) 4 # a, ’ i [> Mes igo Pat ry * at ia ea A j : PP “= ~ ae. A 2 INDEX Abies balsamea, see Balsam. Acer barbatum, see Maple, Hard. Acer rubrum, see Maple, Soft. Adirondack and St. Lawrence Railroad, 87, 98, 101. Administration, Cost of, 117-120. Amount of merchantable timber in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 115. Annual yield, see Yield, Annual. Area of Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 59, 98. Ash, Black. Habit of, 29. in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne-Park, 5, 7, 29. Proportion of, in different situ- ations, 9, I1, 13, 15. Shade tolerance of, 6. Yield of, 90, 92. Ash, White, 5, 6, 29. Aspen, 5. Assembly of N. Y. State, Special committee of. Final report, 46. Balsam. Habit of, 27. in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 5, 7. Proportion of, in different situa- tions, 9, I1, 13, 15. Rate of growth, 27, 96. Shade tolerance of, 6, 27. Basswood, Yield of, go. Beech. Habit of, 25. in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 5, 7. Proportion of, in different situa- tions, 9, II, 13, 15. Rate of growth, 25, 26, 96. Shade tolerance of, 6, 20, 25. Bender, U. F., 2. Betula lutea, see Birch. Birch. Habit of, 24-25. in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 5, 7. Market demand for, 87. vt value of, 116. Per cent. of unsound trees, among, I14- Proportion of, in different situa- tions, 9, IT, 13, 15. Rate of growth, 25, 95-96. Shade tolerance of, 6, 24. Yield of, 88, 90, 92, 115. Bird Cherry, 5-6. Black ash, see Ash, Black. Black spruce, see Spruce, Black. Board feet. Number of, in a standard, 53. Burns, Edward M. VII. Cedar. Habit of, 29. in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 7. on swamp lands, 9. Yield of, 92. Chain method of measuring land, 59-60. Cherry. Habit of, 30. in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne-Park, 5, 7, 30. Market demand for, 87. Proportion of, in different situa- H1OTISEG) 23 135715: Shade tolerance of, 6, 30. Yield of, 90, 92. Cherry, Bird, 5, 6. Climate of Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, too. Composition of forest. Determining factors in, 23. Effect of cutting on, 31, 36, 39. in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 5-7. 150 Composition of forest—cont’d. on hardwood lands, 12-13. ‘* spruce flats, 10-11. r ‘* slopes, 14-15. swamp lands, 8-9. Crops, see Future crops. Crown. Rate of growth, 48. Shape of, 16, 21, 35. Cull, Allowance for, 87-88, 91, 114. Cuts, Intervals between, in relation to yield, 75-76, 79-86, 95,107-108. Cutting. Effect of, on composition of forest, 31, 36, 39. Increased growth after, (with tables), 39—45- Limit of diameter in, 75-76, 79- 86, 96-97, 103, 107-108, 112. Principles which should govern, 110-113. Dead trees, Number of, per acre, (with table), 77-78. Diameter, see Dimensions. Diameter limit in cutting, see Limit of diameter in cutting. Dimensions. of ash, 29. of balsam, 27. of beech, 25. of birch, 24. of cedar, 29. of cherry, 30. of hemlock, 27. of maple, hard, 26. of maple, soft, 28. of pine, 28. of spruce, 16. ‘« Average ; computation and tables, 60-74. ee INDEX Dimensions-—cont’d. of spruce, influenced by light, 20. Dimmick’s rule, 51-54. Distribution of species, Determin- - ing factors in, 22-23. Distribution of spruce, Determin- ing factors in, 17-18. Elm, Yield of, go. Examples of use of yield tables, 82-86. Expenses of forest administration, 117-120. Fagus americana, see Beech. Farnham, Henry, 2. Felling, Need of carein, 32, 113. Fires, 33, 101, 113. Forest management. Basis for, 34-41. Reasons for, 75-76, 102-104. Working plan of, 105-113. Forest, Virgin, see Virgin forest. Forestry in relation to lumbering, V-VI. Forestry division, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, VII. Form, see Habit. Fraxinus niger, see Ash, Black. Future crops. Lumbering in relation to, 31-32, 36-37. Necessity of providing for, 2, 105. Prediction of, 59, 75, 96. Young growth in relation to, 35-37. Graves, Henry S., 2, 3, 89. Griffith, E. M., 2, 3. Growth, Rate of, see Rate of growth, a/so Increase of growth. Habit. of ash, 29. INDEX Habit—cont’d. of balsam, 27. of beech, 25. of birch, 24-25. of cedar, 29. of cherry, 30. of hemlock, 26-27. of maple, hard, 26. of maple, soft, 28. of pine, 28-29. of spruce, 16. * influenced by shade, 21, 35. Hard maple, see Maple, Hard, Hardwood lands. Condition ot forest on, 12-13. Proportion of, in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 6, 87. Spruce on, 12, 36. Valuation surveys on, 60-63, 65, 142-145. Yield of different species on, 92. Hardwoods. in competition with spruce, 17- 18, 36-37. in relation to lumbering of spruce, 103-104, IIo. Market demand for, 87. Number of small trees, per acre, 93-94. Proportion of unsound trees among, 87-88, «14. Rate of growth of, 95-96. Yield of, 88-91, 96-97. Hartig, Prof., 38. Height, see Dimensions. Hemlock. Habit of, 26-27. in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 5, 7. Market value of, 116. 151 Hemlock—cont’d. Per cent. of unsound trees among, QI, 114. Proportion of, in different situ- ations, 9, II, 13, 15. Rate of growth of, 27, 96. Shade tolerance of, 6, 27. Yield of, 89, 90, 92, 115. Humus, 37-38. Income, see Returns. Increase of growth after lumbering, (with tables), 39-45. Intolerance of shade, see Shade tolerance. Jacobs, James L., 88, 89. Lakes in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 98, 108-109. Largetooth aspen, 5. Leupp, G. M., 2. Light, Influence of, see Shade tol- erance. Limit of diameter in cutting in re- lation to yield, 75-76 , 79-86, 96-97, 103, 107-108, 112. Lumber. Fitness of young growth for, 21, 35. Market value of different kinds of, 116. Quality of, affected by suppres- sion of growth, 21. Quality of, affected by thinning, 37- Transportation of, in Ne-Ha-Sa- Ne Park, ror. Lumbering. Better methods of, 34. Effect of bad methods of, 31-33. in relation to forest manage- ment, V-VI, 75-76, 102-194. 152 Lumbering—cont’d. in relation to future crops of spruce, 31-32, 36-37. Increased growth after, (with tables), 39-45. Working plan of, 105-113. McClintock, W., 2. Management of forests, see Forest management. Maple, Hard. Habit of, 26. in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, §, 7. Market demand for, 87. fs value of, 116. Per cent. of unsound trees among, 114. Proportion of, in different situa- tions, 9, II, 13, 15. Rate of growth of, 26, 95-96. Shade tolerance of, 6, 20, 26. Yield of, 89, 90, 92, 115. Maple, Soft. Habit of, 28. in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 5, 7. Proportion of, in different situa- tions, 9, II, 13, 15. Rate of growth of, 28, 96. Shade tolerance of, 6. Market value of different woods, 116. Marsh lands, see Swamp lands. Measurement of standing timber, 59-60. Measurement of land, 59-60. Merchantable timber in Ne-Ha-Sa- Ne Park, 114, 115. Mixed forest. Compared with pure forest, 110. Determining factors in composi- tion of, 22-23. Spruce in, 23. INDEX Mosle, F., 2. Moynehan, Patrick, VII, 46. Natural forest, see Virgin forest. Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park. Amount of merchantable timber in, 114—115. Area of, 59, 98. Composition of forest in, (with table), 5-7. Condition of, 4, 102. Lakes in, 98, 108-109. Topography and climate, 98-100. Transportation facilities in, ror. Watersheds in, 108-109. New York State Assembly, Spe- cial committee of. Final re- port, 46. Number of dead trees per acre, (with table), 77-78. Number of merchantable trees per acre, 90-92. Number of small trees, other than spruce, per acre, 93-94. Number of trees, per acre, 35, 62- 64, 66-72. Olmsted, F. E., 2. Picea mariana, see Spruce, Black. Pinchot and Graves. ‘‘ White pine,”’ 89. Pine, White. Habit of, 28-29. in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, §, 7, 28. Market value of, 116. Proportion of, in different situa- tions, 9, II, 13, 15. Shade tolerance of, 6, 29. Vield of, 89, 90, 92, 115. Pinus strobus, see Pine, White. Poplars, 5, 6. Pressler’s Zuwachsborer, 95. INDEX Price. of different woods, 116. of virgin forest land, 117. Profits, see Returns. Prunus serotina, see Cherry, Black. Pure forests, 110. Quality of lumber, affected by suppression of growth, 21. affected by thinning, 37, Railroad in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 87, 98, Iol. Rate of growth. as affected by thinning, 37-38, 48. in diameter in cut-over forest, (with tables), 43-45, 121-147. in diameter in original forest, (with tables), 46-47. in different parts of tree, (with table), 48-49. Increase of, from lumbering, (with table), 39-45. Method of ascertaining, 39-41, 44 of balsam, 27. of beech, 25-26, 96. of birch, 25, 95-96. of cherry, 30. of hemlock, 27, 96. of maple, hard, 26, 95-96. 1 soft, 28, 96. of spruce, 39-49. Recuperative power of spruce, 20- 21, 35- Reproduction. in relation to lumbering, 36, 103- 104. of balsam, 27. of beech, 25. of birch, 24-25. 153 Reproduction—cont’d. of cherry, 30. of hemlock, 27. of maple, hard, 28. of maple, soft, 28. of pine, 29. of spruce, 18-19, 31-32, 36. Returns. a requisite of forest management, 105. from annual cutting, 116-118. ‘* cutting whole area in one year, 118-119. from cutting whole area in five years, 119-120. Road-building, Choice of wood in, 33,2 2-223 6 Roads in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, tor. Santa Clara, N. Y., Valuation surveys at, 3, 39-45, 50, 121-147. Santa Clara lumber company, 2, 57. Scribner’s rule, 53-55. Seed bed, 18-19. Seedlings. of birch, 24. of spruce, 18-19. Selection forest, 5, 22-23. Shade tolerance. a factor in the distribution of species, 22-23. of species in selection forest, 5-6, of ash, 6. of balsam, 6, 27. of beech, 6, 20, 25. of birch, 6, 24. of cherry, 6, 30. of hemlock, 6, 27. of maple, hard, 6, 20, 26. <= soft, 6. of pine, 6, 29. 154 Shade tolerance—cont’d. of poplar, 5, 6. of spruce, 6, 19-21. of tamarack, 5, 6. Sherrard). Hi: Situation. Composition of forest according to, 6-15. in relation to cutting, 111-112. tf ‘** distribution of species, 22-23. in relation to yield, (with table), 92. Influence of, on ash, 29. x: “) “balsam 27% beech, 25. birch, 24-25. cedar, 29. cherry, 30. hemlock, 26-27. maple, hard, 26. ot 3 et soft, 28. pine, 28. spruce, 16-18, 23. Valuation surveys grouped by, 60-65. Skidding, Injury to trees in, 32, 113. ; Soft maple, see Maple, Soft. Soil. favorable to ash, 29. ii balsam, 27. beech, 25. birch, 24-25. cedar, 29. cherry, 30. hemlock, 26. maple, hard, 26. ae HaeesOnts. 25. pine, 26. INDEX Soil—cont’d. in relation to cutting, 111-112. Influence of, on distribution of species, 23. Influence of, on spruce, 16-19. of Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 99-100. Special committee of N. Y. State Assembly. Final report, 46. Species of trees in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park. Distribution of, 22-23. Enumeration of, 5. on hardwood lands, 12-13. on spruce flats, 10-11. on spruce slopes, 14-15. on swamp lands, 8-9. Spruce, Black, 8. Spruce flats. Condition of forest on, (with table), 10-11. Proportion of, in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 6 Spruce on, 10, 36. Valuation surveys on, 60-63, 65, 124-137, 146-147. Yield of different species on, 92. Spruce slopes. Condition of forest on, (with table), 14-15. Proportion of, in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 6. Spruce on, 14, 36. Valuation surveys on, 60-63, 65, 138-139. Yield of different species on, 92. Standard. Number of board feet in, 53. Standing timber. Measurement of, 59-60, INDEX Standard timber—cont’d. Merchantable, Amount of, in Ne- Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 115. Volume tables of, 50-58. Stem analysis, 40, 46. Strip method of measuring land, 59-60. Swamp lands. Condition of forest on, (with table), 8-9. Proportion of, in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 6. Spruce on, 8, 36. Valuation surveys on, 60-63, 65, 122-123. , Yield of different species on, 92. Tables. 1. Composition of Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne forest, 7. 2. Composition swamp lands, 9. 3. Composition spruce flats, rr. 4. Composition of hardwood lands, 13. 5. Composition of forest on spruce slopes, 15. 6. Per cent. of trees whose growth was increased by lum- bering, 42. 7. Average rate of growth in cut-over forest, 45. 8. Average rate of growth in original forest, 47. 9g. Meanannual diameter growth, 49. 10. Volume table in standards, 52. 10'4. Board feet ina standard, 53. 12, Volume table in board feet, 55. of forest on of forest on forest on 155 Tables—cont’d. 13. Volume table in merchant- able cubic feet, 56. 14. Volume table in merchant- able cords, 58. 15-16. Average number of trees, dimensions, and yield per acre, classified by situation, 62-63. 17. Average dimensions classi- fied according to situation, 65. 18. Average number of trees per acre, classified according to yield, 66. 19-22. Average dimensions, num- ber of trees and yield per acre, classified according to yield, 69-72. 23. Average dimensions classified according to yield, 74. 24. Average number of dead spruce trees per acre, 78. 25-27. Yield tables, 79-81. 28. Yield of birch, 88. 29. Yield of hemlock, 89. 30. Yield of basswood and elm (used for cherry and ash), go. 31. Average yield per acre for merchantable species, 92. 32. Average number of trees of small diameter, other than spruce, per acre, 94. 33. Rate of growth in diameter of associated species, 96. 34. Merchantable timber in Ne- Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 115. Tamarack, 5, 6, 23. Temperature of Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 100. Thinning, Effect of, 37-38, 48. to Thuya occidentalis, see Cedar. Timber, Standing, see Standing timber. Tolerance of shade, see Shade tol- erance. Topography of Ne-Ha-Sa Ne Park, 98-99. Transportation facilities in Ne-Ha- Sa-Ne Park, ror. Tree analysis, 4o, 46. Trees. Dead, Number of, per acre, (with table), 77-78. Number of, per acre, 35, 62-64, 66- 2. of small diameter, other than spruce, Number of, per acre, 93-94. Tsuga canadensis, see Hemlock. United States Department of Agri- culture—Division of Forestry, Ville Unsound trees, Proportion of, 87- 88, 91, 114. Valuation surveys. grouped by situation, (with tab- les), 60-65. grouped by yield, (with tables), 60-61, 64, 66-74. Method of making, 59-6r, 64, 68, 73. on cut-over land at Santa Clara, 121-147. Value of different woods, 116. Virgin forest. Economic value of, 4, 102. Price of, per acre, 117. Rate of growth of trees in, 46-47. Volume tables. in standards, 51-52. in board feet, 53-55. INDEX Volume tables—cont’d. in merchantable cubic feet, 56. of ee cords, 57-58. Wagstaff, Thomas H. 46. Walcott, W.S. 2. Watersheds in Ne-Ha-Sa-Ne Park, 108-109. Water supply as affected by lum- bering, 33. Webb, W. Seward. VI, VII, 1, 46. White ash, see Ash, White. White pine, see Pine, White. Whitney, William C. VII. Windfalls, Prevention of, 104, 111- 112, Winged seeds, 18. Woodruff, S. 2. Working plan, 102-120. Yellow birch, see Birch. Yield, Annual, Lumbering with reference to, 106-109. Yield per acre. of ash, 9o, 92. of basswood, go. of birch, 88, 90, 92, 115. of cedar, 92. of cherry, 9o, 92. of elm, go. ot hemlock, 89, 90, 92, 185. of maple, hard, 89, 90, 92, 115. of pine, 89, 90, 92, 115. of spruce, 60-63, 92, 115. = Valuation surveys class- ified by, 61, 64, 66-74. Yield tables of spruce, 79-8r. Object of, 75-76. Computation of, 77. Examples of use of, 82-86. Young growth in the forest. as affected by lumbering, 39. INDEX 157 Young growth, etc.—cont’d. Young growth, etc.—cont’d. Fitness of, to produce lumber, 21, Number of trees per acre, 35. 35. ig ‘* “other than spruce in relation to future crops of per acre, 93-94. spruce, 35-37- Occurrence of, 19, 34-35. Injuries to, from felling and under heavy cover, 35- skidding, 32, 113. Zuwachsborer, Pressler’s, 9s. evrtenical Varocen QL ] 21 P45 P5_ hie: gen (UT 5185 00058 8291 3 i i set . . I ates tae ty nf = i : 3; ty > be te 7, is ,. I. He 3 . 1 i i er a tintets z, $3 tes) T} : rt i Hit Thiel besast 7) u 7. v4 ates ah tet sat tite . et * tee seisianieaet Itet 2 i stint uy i . ; : 1 ? BED rf Tithe # sities Bisiataiats Bett Tih hia et 73%, * 7 af i ; 4 tate . gy if 3 2, a That ee is i 2 1 iets! tit