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IMPERIAL INSTITUTE HANDBOOKS

THE AGRICULTURAL AND ~ FOREST
PRODUCTS OF BRITISH WEST AFRICA

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE SERIES OF HAND-

BOOKS TO THE COMMERCIAL RESOURCES

OF THE TROPICS, WITH SPECS

REFERENCE TO BRITISH WEST AFRICA

ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETARY
OF STATE FOR THE COLONIES

EDITED BY

WYNDHAM R. DUNSTAN, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S

DIRECTOR OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE; PRESIDENT OF THE INTER-
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR TROPICAL AGRICULTURE

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IMPERIAL INSTITUTE HANDBOOKS
THE
AGRICULTURAL AND
FOREST PRODUCTS OF
BRITISH WEST AFRICA

BY

GERALD..C. DUDGEON, C.B:E.

LATELY CONSULTING AGRICULTURIST AND DIRECTOR-GENERAL
OF AGRICULTURE IN EGYPT; PREVIOUSLY INSPECTOR OF
AGRICULTURE FOR BRITISH WEST AFRICA

WITH A PREFACE BY
WYNDHAM R. DUNSTAN, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

DIRECTOR OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE
SECOND EDITION

WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
a gs |
pe 3% re
42-°
LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W.

1922

ALL RIGHTs RESERVED

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

Srnce the first edition of this book appeared, British
West Africa has experienced a serious set-back in its
development through the occurrence of the Great European
War. From that war, however, many lessons will have
been learnt, which will, it is hoped, make the course of
progress in the future more sure and perhaps more rapid.

The cultivation of cotton has now been shown to be
successful and profitable in Nigeria. In the Northern
Provinces great progress has been made in perfecting
a cotton originally grown from ‘‘ American Upland”
seed, whilst the Southern Provinces have produced in-
creasing quantities of an improved native cotton of the
type of ‘“ Middling American.” The future of cotton
production in Nigeria is now assured, and its further
development chiefly depends on effective action being
taken on commercial lines.

The products of the oil palm and especially palm kernels
have been in increased demand for edible purposes, the
war having led to a far greater use of margarine and similar
materials. The perfection of processes for the better
extraction of palm oil from the fruits which had nearly
reached success at the outbreak of war now awaits com-
pletion, when a large additional source of edible oil will
be available. In the meantime the trial cultivation of
this palm in other countries has been attended with re-
markable success, the growth of the palm in plantations
having been entirely satisfactory and furnished yields of
oil which exceed those given by the wild palm in West
Africa. The Dutch East Indies, where large plantations
have been made, and also British Malaya, where similar
enterprise has been shown, may before long be formidable
rivals to West Africa in the production of palm kernels
and palm oil. The neglect in West Africa of the wild
trees, the imperfect methods followed in extracting the
palm oil, and the large number of palms unutilised are
questions which now need renewed attention, and in
fact the entire subject of the development of the palm-
oil industry in West Africa demands the most serious

v

vi PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

study in all its aspects if the industry is not to be sup-
planted by the enterprise of other countries.

In this and other directions where the continuous
acquisition of new knowledge is requisite, it is satisfactory
to learn that the staffs of the Agricultural Departments
in West Africa are to be extended and better remunerated.
In addition to this step, and perhaps equally important,
will be the increased interest and activity of those mer-
chants and manufacturers who utilise the raw materials
of the country, and to whom the commercial development
of West Africa has hitherto owed so much.

There are many other subjects which, it will be seen from
the new edition of this book, have come to the front since
the first edition appeared, and nowneed increased attention.

The only rubber tree which has survived as a producer
in the years of strenuous competition is Hevea brasiliensis,
from which Para rubber is obtained. Successful planta-
tions of this tree have been established both in the Southern
Provinces of Nigeria and in the Gold Coast, and from the
former commercial rubber is now being produced of
quality equal to that of the rubber plantations of the East.

The Gold Coast has become the chief cocoa producer
of the world, but it is clear that unremitting care and
attention in connection with the cultivation and the
preparation of cocoa in that country will be necessary
if that supremacy is to be maintained.

In connection with the production of fibres, cinchona
bark, cinnamon, tobacco, and many other materials,
there are promising possibilities in various parts of West
Africa, including those new territories for which, as a
result of the war, Great Britain is now responsible. Above
all, there is the dominant problem of the growth of food-
stuffs sufficient to maintain the native populations of
these countries.

Mr. Dudgeon, within the limits imposed in the pro-
duction of a revised but not greatly enlarged edition,
has successfully brought this Handbook up-to-date,
and it is hoped that it will continue to serve as a standard
guide to all those who require general information respect-
ing the agricultural and forest products of West Africa.

WYNDHAM R. DUNSTAN.

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE,
March 1921,

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

THE present series of Handbooks is intended to present
a general account of the principal commercial resources
of the tropics, and has been written with special reference
to the resources of British West Africa. These Hand-
books will furnish a description of the occurrence, culti-
vation and uses of those tropical materials, such as cotton
and other fibres, cocoa, rubber, oil-seeds, tobacco, etc.,
which are of importance to the producer in the tropics,
as well as to the manufacturer and consumer in Europe.

Without attempting to include all the detailed in-
formation of a systematic treatise on each of the subjects
included, it is believed that these Volumes will contain
much information which will be of value to the tropical
agriculturist as well as to the merchant and manufacturer.
They will also be of importance to Government Officials
in tropical Colonies where the advancement of the
Country and the welfare of its inhabitants depend so
largely on the development of natural resources. In
recent years those candidates who are selected for
administrative appointments under the Colonial Office
in British West Africa are required to pass through a
short course of instruction in tropical cultivation and
products, which is now arranged at the Imperial Insti-
tute. For these prospective officials the present series
of Handbooks will be helpful in the study of a large
and generally unfamiliar subject. Similarly it is believed
that the series will provide a valuable aid to the teaching
of commercial geography. It is hoped also that the
Handbooks will not be without interest for the student
of Imperial and national problems.

The increase in the productivity of the tropics, and
especially of the tropical regions within the British

vu

Vili PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

Empire, is important, not only for the natives of those
countries, and others who are actually engaged in tropical
enterprise, but for the merchant and manufacturer at
home. The preparation for general use of cotton and
other fibres, of tea, coffee and cocoa, of oils, of tobacco,
and of numerous other products exported from the
tropics, provides the means of employment and liveli-
hood for a very large proportion of the working popula-
tion of this country, whilst every one at home is interested
in securing an adequate supply at a moderate cost of
these necessaries and luxuries of life.

The subjects of these Handbooks, treated as they will
be, as far as possible, in non-technical language, should
therefore appeal to a large class of readers.

The present Handbook deals with the Agricultural
and Forest Products of British West Africa and serves
as an introduction to thisseries. Mr. Dudgeon, who until
lately was Inspector of Agriculture in the West African
Colonies and Protectorates, writes with an unrivalled
knowledge of his subject, and gives a comprehensive
account of the vegetable products of that country, which
will afford to the general reader some idea of the
enormous possibilities of this British territory now in
the process of rapid commercial development.

WYNDHAM R. DUNSTAN,

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, S.W.
March 1914.

CONTENTS

PART I

PAGES

Tue GAMBIA E a : : _ F 1-14
PARP TE

SrpRRA LEONE . ; ; _ A i 15-42
PART Tit

THE Goitp Coast, ASHANTI, AND THE NORTHERN

TERRITORIES ; ‘ ‘ y : 43-92
PART IV

NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES . . . -" 93-119
PART V

NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES . ‘ , 120-164

INDEX . : : ° . 2 . 165-176

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LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

SxetoH Mar or British WEST AFRICA . . Frontispiece

GAMBIA AND SIERRA LEONE

OPPOSITE PAGE

JOLAH WITH NATIVE HAND-PLOUGH, BULLELAI, Foant
CanARY ISLAND PLOUGH, AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL, ABUKO

RvusBBER TREE (Ficus vogelit) AT BATHURST . : °
RuBBER VINE (Landolphia heudelotii) ar Koroo . A
CearRA RUBBER TREE (Manihot glaziovit) at BAKAU 4
RvusBer TREE (Castilloa elastica) at Koroo . ° °
Fruits oF Or Paums, SIERRA LEONE ‘ e
Sweet Cassava, WITH BAaoBAB TREES, BAKAU 3 -
Inpico Dyers, Mecartuy ISLAND a ; : =
SxetcH Map oF GAMBIA AND SIERRA LEONE = 2
Om Pats (Hleis guineensis), MAFOKOYIA . - 5
NATIVE COLLECTING Or Patm Fruit, BLAMA ; F
Kora TREE at Mano . 3 . = ~

NATIVE WEAVER AT PENDEMBU . :

GOLD COAST

KUMASSI, THE CAPITAL OF ASHANTI

STONE VAT FOR POUNDING PALM FRUITS, WITH SURROUND-
ING GUTTER AND Or WELL, Krospo PLANTATIONS .

SkretcH Map or Goip Coast : 2 2 ;

Cocoa aT MRAMRA ATTACKED BY BLAcK Cocoa-BARK Bua .

Dryine Cocoa BEANS AT MRAMRA P : :

NativE Taprine INDIGENOUS RuBBER TREE (Funtumia
elastica), OBOAMANG, ASHANTI 3

“Opum”’ Trees (Chlorophora excelsa) . E

x1

xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

OPPOSITE PAGE

Para RUBBER TREE (Hevea brasiliensis), taPpPED AT ABURI

RUBBER TREE TAPPED, HERRING-BONE SySTEM IMPERFECT,
ABURI

NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES

SxetcH Map or SourHEeRN NIGERIA A :
SrRaArNine OIL FROM THE FrsRovus PULP oF THE Or Pato,
OsHOGBO . F F . : ;:
Cotton Bates, MARLBOROUGH GINNERY, IBADAN .
AFrarRA TREE (Terminalia superba) at OLOKOMESI .
DwarF CATTLE, ILLARA 3 ;. ° ‘ ~
Owo . ; 4 : i A ‘ ; . .

NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

HaAvssaA CULTIVATING IMPLEMENTS (LEFT TO Ricur: {f.
Fatatnya, II. Garma, III. Saneumr), NeorrHern
PROVINCES : ;

SxketcH Map or NorRTHERN NIGERIA 3 : ;
SHEA-BUTTER TREE (Butyrospermum Parkii), wirn Not-
COLLECTORS, [LORIN ‘ : ‘

YIELDING GuM TREE (Acacia ae) AT KONTAGORA

Locust-BEAN TREE (Parkia filicoidea) at ILORIN

VILLAGE OF FOGOLA, BUILT OF GUINEA-CORN STALKS

OUTSIDE THE Emtr’s PaLacre, Kano

NEAR THE SOUTHERN GATE, ZARIA 4 ;

BritisH Corron GRowina ASSOCIATION GINNERY, OGUDU,
ILoRIn . - ‘ : : :

Gwart Town, OPPOSITE MINNA, Sain OF ZARIA .

Cow Furtant WomMAN SELLING MILK aT GWARI ° .

61

61

93

97
97
97
119
119

119
120

130
130
130
137
137
137

155
155
155

THE GAMBIA

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Geographical Position.—
The Gambia Colony and Protectorate consists of a
narrow tract of country following the winding course
of the river from which it takes its name, for a distance
of about 250 miles, and extending approximately four
miles from the river on both banks.

The whole country lies between 12° 10’ and 13° 15’
north latitude and 13° 50’ and 16° 40’ west longitude.
It is the most northerly of the British West African
possessions.

Area and Population.—The extent of territory is said
to be 3,619 square miles, much of which consists of
low-lying land intersected by creeks and rivers, which
under tidal influence are often densely afforested with
mangroves.

According to the census of 1911 the Colony and Pro-
tectorate had populations of 7,700 and 138,401 respec-
tively, totalling 146,101. The total of 90,404 given in the
previous census is now admitted to have been below the
actual amount. A large migratory farming community
exists, coming annually from the adjoining countries, for
the purpose of raising groundnut crops. This in 1911
numbered 3,367. Many of these immigrants are reported
to have remained and established themselves permanently
under the British flag.

Tribes.—The principal tribes inhabiting the Gambia
are the Mandingoes, Foulahs, Jolofis, and Jolahs. The
first-named are the most numerous, and are, generally
speaking, Mohammedans, although there are many
“Sonninkis” or spirit drinkers among them. The
Foulahs are identical with the Fulanis of the Gold Coast
and Northern Nigeria, and are frequently fair-skinned

H

2 THE GAMBIA

without negroid features. They are said to be strictly
Mohammedan, and to have originated from the country
near the source of the Senegal river. The Jolofis occupy
the northern bank of the Gambia river, and extend
well into Senegal. The Jolahs inhabit the province of
Fogni, and spread into the confines of French territory
towards the Casamance river. They are a curious race,
given to living in small family villages, and are said to
be vindictive. They are of a lower type than the
three other tribes mentioned, and are jealous of their
rights.

Political Divisions—The Protectorate is divided into
five districts, each under the control of a Travelling
Commissioner. These districts are named in accordance
with their positions : North Bank, South Bank, M‘Carthy
Island, Kommbo and Fogni, and Upper River.

Natural Conditions—The climatic conditions of the
country are favourable to the breeding of cattle and
horses, although in the vicinity of the river and creeks
two species of tsetse fly are common. By carefully
preventing animals from straying into these infested
tracts the spread of fly-borne disease is held in check,
and cases are comparatively rare.

During the dry season, which often occupies seven
months in the year, from November to May, the highest
maximum and the lowest minimum temperatures are
recorded; the range being from 41° (lowest minimum,
March 1909) to 105° (highest maximum, March 1909 and
April 1911). The rainfall, of which official records are
kept at Bathurst, varies considerably, as the following
extract will serve to show :

1901 . . 45°31 inches 1910 . . 44-00 inches
1902: + 2) 2am LOE Ly 6, 25: h ee
E903)... cs Dion ess 1912 . 38:60 oe
1902; 5 38:02, 95. 1913. 4, 2s 6saae
1905.5") .cs 66-07 1014. |. | 46-01 ae
1906... 64:36, OI a I GSO or
1907 . 32-00" ae 1916 . . §8-02
MONS ca; 48-54-_,, igig. .. ST-Os cme
1909. * D6:59 1918): . 84-03

Soil—The soil generally is of a light sandy nature,
becoming stiffer as the undulating regions of the upper

GAMBIA

JOLAH WITH NATIVE HAND-PLOUGH, BULLELAI, FOGNI.

pis

ep:

s 2 ge <2 ae =P hotea
CANARY ISLAND PLOUGH, AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL, ABUKO.

RUBBER TREE (Ff/CUS VOGELI1) AT BATHURST.

Fig. 3, p. 9.

CROPS AND IMPLEMENTS 3

river are approached. The low countries are subject
to flood in the rainy season, and are only favourable
for rice cultivation.

Chief Crops.—The country is rather sparsely populated,
but, on the whole, the people are fair cultivators and
prepare their lands in a careful manner. Practically the
only crop grown for export is the groundnut, monkey-
nut, or earth-pea (Arachis hypogea), which forms by far
the most important article of cultivation. Alternating
this with the staple food-crops of the country, namely,
guinea-corn, maize, millet, and cassava, a fairly useful
form of rotation is obtained.

Implements.—Cultivation among the Mandingoes and
Joloffs is performed by means of a large wooden-bladed,
iron-shod hoe, with which the loose earth ridges are
thrown up. A small iron hoe is used for keeping down
weeds and clearing. In the Jolah country a _ hand-
plough is employed, consisting of a flat blade attached
to a pole, and pushed in front of the operator, so as to
throw up a shallow ridge. This is shown in the picture
which represents a native with the implement at
Bullelai (Fig. 1).

Ploughing.—Cattle are plentiful, even to the extent of
there being an insufficiency of fodder for them in the dry
season in some localities. They are chiefly kept for the
purpose of displaying the wealth of their owners, and are
not employed for any kind of farm work. Notwith-
standing the shortage of manual labour and the successful
demonstrations made by the Government, through the
agency of the Roman Catholic Fathers at the Abuko
Agricultural School, to prove the value of substituting
animal draught for manual labour in tilling the land, the
prejudice on the part of the natives against the use of
their cattle for ploughing or cartage has not been over-
come. A photograph is given showing a native with a
Canary Island plough drawn by locally-trained bullocks
(Fig. 2). Owing to the failure attending the efforts to
introduce ploughing and cattle breeding at Abuko, where,
for the latter purpose, some Ayrshire bulls were provided,
the Government withdrew the provisional subsidy in
1911.

Land Tenure—Land ownership is hereditary and
descends from father to son among the Mandingoes and

4 THE GAMBIA

Joloffs. No fees are paid or presents given to chiefs
when a transfer is made. Europeans can rent land
from Government in cases where it is not held or claimed
by a native. Grants are apparently issued for various
periods, but freehold rights are not given.

The rules regarding the itinerant, so-called “ strange
farmers,” who annually visit the country to plant
groundnuts, vary to some extent in different parts of
the Protectorate. Where hereditary ruling chiefs exist,
a tax of 4s. per head is paid to them. In other places,
half of this tax goes to Government, one-quarter to the
chief, and one-quarter to the farmer’s landlord. The
landowner generally gives the groundnut seed and food
as well as a piece of land to be cultivated. In payment
for the seed and food, it is a rule to give one-tenth of
the crop. During the time the strange farmer is in
occupation he is expected to give one or two days’ work
each week on the landowner’s own farm.

Labour.—There is no fixed rate paid by the Govern-
ment for labour. All the work on a farm is done by the
owner and his own boys, but occasionally others come
in to assist from the neighbouring farms, but no pay-
ment is made—only a present of kolas being usually
given.

Agricultural Schools—An agricultural school, previ-
ously referred to, was started at Abuko, near Lammin,
under the Roman Catholic Fathers there, and a subsidy
was granted by the Government especially for the pur-
pose of educating the sons of large cultivators and chiefs
in the use of ploughs and other labour-saving implements.
A stipulation was made that the work should be in-
spected by a Government officer from time to time.

In spite of this a fear was expressed at the outset that
the attendance at these schools would be disappointing,
in view of the fact that Mohammedan chiefs would be
restrained by their mallams from sending their children
where there might be a risk of their religious conversion.
Although it had been specially laid down that no religious
teaching would be insisted upon, the fear proved justified
and the school never became a success, the attendance
being only of a few aliens. Since the closing of this school
no renewal of agricultural instruction seems to have
been made.

GROUNDNUTS 5

Chief Exports.—The following table gives the average
amounts and values of the chief exports for 1900-10, and
the individual figures for the remaining years to 1918.

Groundnuts Rubber Beeswax Palm Kernels

Year tons and value Ibs. and value Ibs. and value tons and value

1900-10 Av. 39,000 tons 46,000 lbs. 45,500 lbs. 255 tons
£250,000 £3,500 £2,000 £2,260

1) I . 47,931 tons 10,733 lbs. 33,871 Ibs. 443 tons
£437,472 £836 £1,514 ~ £4,758

UOUZe . 64,169 tons 4,335 lbs. 30,830 lbs. 445 tons
£502,069 £409 £1,164 £6,518

19S. - 67,404 tons 12,995 lbs. 31,518 lbs. 546 tons
£622,098 £1,027 £990 £9,026

iia. . 66,885 tons 3,548 Ibs. 15,513 Ibs. 495 tons
£650,461 £102 £473 £7,815

W9l5. . . 96,152 tons 1,171 lbs. 9,563 Ibs. 326 tons
£400,435 £31 £311 £5,457

L916; . 46,366 tons 355 Ibs. 6,950 lbs. 669 tons
£506,098 £23 £104 £14,671

Touts . 74,300 tons 1,753 lbs. 3,962 lbs. 532 tons
£869,790 £187 £247 £7,994

1918 . .- 56,489 tons 564 Ibs. 8,626 lbs. 644 tons
£800,319 £40 £501 £9,800

Note.—Cotton exports were 59,828 lbs. and 2,572 lbs. in 1904 and
1905 respectively. None has been exported since.

GROUNDNUTS.—This commodity is by far the most
important exported product, and is alone subject to a
duty levied by the Administration.

Uses.—The undecorticated nuts are shipped, chiefly,
to the French ports and to Hamburg, for the expression
of an oil of excellent quality, of which they yield on
an average about 30 per cent., estimated on the
weight of the raw material. This is equivalent to
about 44 per cent. of the weight of the extracted
kernels.

The mode of extraction in general employment in
France is to grind the kernels into a fine meal, from
which the first quality of oil is extracted by cold
expression, yielding about 18 per cent. The meal is
then moistened with cold water, and at the second
expression 6 per cent. more is obtained. Both of these
oils are useful for alimentary purposes. A third ex-
pression is made from the residue treated with hot
water, and gives a further 6 per cent., which is chiefly
employed for lighting purposes, lubricating and soap-
making. The fine oils are substi‘uted for, or mixed
with, the olive-oils of commerce for salad oils, and enter

6 THE GAMBIA

into the manufacture of oleo-margarine. After these
expressions of oil have been made, the meal is pressed
into cakes and used for cattle-food and manurial
purposes.

Classification and Description of the Groundnut Plant.—
The groundnut belongs to the Sub-Order Papilionacee,
of the Order LEGUMINOS#, and is termed Arachis
hypogea, Linn.

The plant cultivated in Senegal and the Gambia
grows in a spreading form, with branches of from 12 to
18 inches in length, and possesses oval leaflets given off
in double pairs. A large number of conspicuous yellow
flowers appear from the upper leaf axils, but are not
capable of fertilisation. Those springing from the lower
leaf axils nearest the ground are small and generally
hidden, but produce fruitful pods. After fertilisation
the stems of these flowers become elongated, and are
directed downwards, forcing the ovary into the ground,
in which it commences to swell to the mature size,
frequently penetrating to a depth of two inches beneath
the surface.

The fruit is a pale straw-coloured, irregularly-cylindrical
pod, with the surface of the shell pitted and longitudinally
ribbed. In the Gambian variety, which is identical
with the common Senegalese kind, there are usually
two kernels in each pod, but three or one are also
found.

The plant is of doubtful origin, but it is generally
supposed that it may have been introduced into Africa
from Brazil (where the genus Arachis is well represented)
nearly four centuries ago, by the Portuguese slave-
traders.

About 1840 groundnuts began to attract the attention
of European manufacturers, on account of the value of
the oil obtained from them, and, in common with the
Senegalese, the Gambian natives were induced to under-
take cultivation upon a large scale.

The nuts grown in the Gambia and in Saloum, in the
French territory adjoining on the north, are classed
as of second quality; those from Cayor and Rufisque
holding the first, and those from the Casamance and
Portuguese Guinea the third, places.

The seeds are sown upon ridges with flattened tops,

GROUNDNUTS 7

and the crop occupies the ground for about four months
—July to October—corresponding to the period of
heavy rainfall in the country. When the branches
commence to wither, the whole plant is carefully pulled
up, so that the pods, which are then mature, remain
attached. The plants are then stacked in the fields, and
are often covered over with the leaves of the fan-palm.
The green parts dry into a hay, which, when the pods
have been beaten out, is used as horse-fodder. The
advent of rain after stacking often does great damage
to the crop, but the occurrence is so rare that it has
been found difficult to induce the native to take common
precautions against it. During the last two years,
however, the Government have taken steps to enforce
a regulation with regard to this, and in consequence
drains are now generally cut around the stacks, and
coverings of palm-leaves are left on until the nuts are
ready to be beaten out.

In the Jolah country raised platforms are constructed
for stacking this crop as well as others. After the nuts
have been beaten out from the dried plants, they are
winnowed by allowing them to fall from a slight eleva-
tion in a gentle breeze.

A good crop of nuts in the Gambia is estimated at
about 44 bushels per acre, equivalent to over half a
ton, but larger yields are frequently obtained. The
Government standard bushel is used throughout the
country, and may contain from 25 to 31 lbs. of unde-
corticated nuts.

Experiments have been made from time to time, to
establish a three-kernel nut instead of the two-kernel
one, but the results obtained have not shown that any
advantage could be gained in this way. Other varieties
of nuts have been introduced and cultivated, but no
extensive planting of new kinds has yet been found
worth adoption.

The plant seldom suffers from severe attacks of disease,
although a white fungus was prevalent in some localities
in 1906. This affection was termed “tio jarankaro ”’ by
the Mandingoes. In the succeeding year it completely
disappeared, and has not been reported to have occurred
since. The extermination of this disease was doubtless
in a large measure due to the careful way in which

8 THE GAMBIA

the selection and distribution of seed had been carried out.
For several years the Government has been accustomed to
purchase a certain quantity of the best nuts each season,
and to distribute these at sowing time to the cultivators,
on credit. Without this precaution, in a season when the
prices for nuts were high, the thriftless native would be
induced to sell every nut, reserving nothing for sowing
the next year. The system adopted is greatly appreci-
ated by the cultivators and merchants alike, and has
without doubt contributed largely to the prosperity of
the country. Seed is not only interchanged, in this
manner, with advantage between different districts, but
fresh seed is sometimes also provided from Senegal.

The immigrant or “strange farmers” are generally
welcomed by the land-owners, who usually manage to
lease them the fields which require the most cleaning.
After the immigrant farmer has reaped his groundnut
crop, the field is left in a good state of tilth for the owner
to sow his guinea corn.

The occurrence of ruinous competition among mer-
chants at Bathurst induced them to form a ‘“‘ combine ”’
to regulate the buying price of nuts; the purchases being
pooled and then divided according to a fixed scale. A
recent attempt to divert Gambian nuts to Senegal ports
for shipment, by the levy of an import tax at Mar-
seilles, was opposed by the French and British merchants
alike, and the fear that the produce might only be
diverted to another destination led to its abandonment.
For further information regarding the cultivation, varieties
and uses of groundnuts, see Bulletin of the Imperial
Institute, vol. viii. (1910), pp. 153-72.

RUBBER.—A good quality of rubber is produced in
the Jolah country, in particular, from Landolphia Heude-
loti, an apocynaceous vine, which grows commonly in
the grass lands of Fogni.

The vine is tapped by women, who, after digging a
hole near the root of the plant, make a number of trans-
verse cuts upon the root-stem. The latex flows rapidly
from such cuts, and is coagulated by throwing salt
water on the wound. The scrap rubber which forms
is collected the following day, and the pieces are attached
to one another, forming an open sponge-like ball of a
pinkish-white colour. Sand is often present in these

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VIANVO

RUBBER 9

balls owing to the fallen latex being added to the
rest.

In addition to the inhabitants themselves collecting
rubber, natives belonging to a tribe from Portuguese
Guinea, called ‘‘ Manjagos,” travel through the country
for the purpose; the rubber which they obtain being
sold in the French Colony to the south of the Gambia.
The “‘ Manjagos”’ are said to make a semicircular cut
upon the thick vine-stems just above the ground, to
induce the better flow of latex. This, they maintain,
is not a destructive method, and that, as the root
stock is uninjured, the plant continues to yield latex
for a long time. At one time the rubber vine must
have been plentiful, but the rush for it which occurred
at the beginning of the present century has had the
effect of exterminating it, except in the more inaccess-
ible places. The export has declined and is now in-
significant. The plant is known to the Mandingoes as
“ Folio.” An illustration is given showing this plant at
Kotoo (Fig. 4).

Landolphia florida, Benth., is common in places similar
to those where the last-mentioned vine occurs, but the
latex is not used in any way to adulterate the good
rubber, nor is inferior “paste ’’ rubber made from it,
as in other places in West Africa. Ficus Vogelit, known
as ‘‘Kobbo”’ (Mandingo), has recently been used for
extracting an inferior rubber, which has been shipped
in smal] quantities. This tree is found growing in
Bathurst as well as in many of the large towns, where
it often attains a large size, and affords an excellent
shade for native markets, etc. A view of a tree in
Bathurst is shown (Fig. 3). Information regarding the
composition and value of the rubber of Ficus Vogelic
is given in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vii.
(1909), p. 260.

Some of the South American species of rubber trees
have been planted at different places, but for the most
part the climatic conditions have proved unsuitable
for their establishment. An exception to this is the
Ceara rubber (Manihot Glaziovir), large trees of which
were to be seen in Bathurst and at Bakau, but in the
latter locality appear to have been cut down during
recent years. It is generally acknowledged that Ceara

10 THE GAMBIA

rubber has not proved successful in plantations made in
different parts of West Africa, for, although rubber of the
finest quality can be easily prepared from the latex, the
tree furnishes an extremely inconstant yield of latex. In
the Gambia the tree reproduces readily, and, as far as
can be judged, produces a latex capable of being coagu-
lated into goodrubber. Asa shade tree it is recommended
to be grown along public roads, and it might prove
expedient in the country to make small experimental
plantations, in the manner adopted in Togoland and
elsewhere. By this system, tapping is continued for
a few years, and whole blocks of trees are cut out
as they cease to yield latex—the seedlings which
have sprung up beneath these trees being permitted
to take the place of the original trees. An illustra-
tion showing a Ceara rubber tree at Bakau is given
(Fig. 5).

One specimen of Castilloa elastica, of which a photo-
graph is given (Fig. 6), is growing in the Kotoo farm,
about 12 miles from Bathurst. This tree has not, so
far, proved successful in West Africa, and the example
photographed is apparently in better condition than
those grown in the Botanic Gardens of the Gold Coast
and Southern Nigeria.

Funtumia elastica, the Lagos silk rubber tree, does
not thrive in the Gambia, and the rainfall has been
found to be insufficiently distributed for the cultivation
of the Para rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis).

The observed facts point to the conclusion that further
experimental trials of certain species of rubber trees
in the Gambia should be made.

BEESWAX.—It will be observed that a large quantity
of beeswax is annually exported, the quality of which
is high. The native bee is a small form of Apis mellifera,
var. Adansonit. It is found in a wild state forming
nests in hollow trees or rock cavities. The Mandingoes
collect the wild swarms and confine them in basket-
hives, cylindrical in form and sometimes plastered over
with mud. These are placed in high trees or in abandoned
huts. The wax is sold in a crude form to the Bathurst
merchants, who boil it down and strain it previous to
shipment. The European market value of the cleaned
wax is from £5 to £6 per cwt. A detailed description

COTTON 11

of methods for the refining of wild bees’ wax for export
is published in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute,
vol. viii. (1910), pp. 23-31.

PALM KERNELS.—The West African oil palm, Eleis
guineensis, is found commonly in some parts, but the
heads produced are small and carry small fruits, con-
taining little oil. This oil is used locally, and the kernels
from the nuts alone are shipped. The palm is chiefly
valued for the production of palm wine, which is tapped
from the base of the fruiting stems into funnelled
gourds, hung beneath the holes. ‘The tree is appa-
rently never felled for the purpose, and, by limiting
the amount of wine extracted, it survives for a long
period.

COTTON.—The Mandingoes and Jolahs cultivate
cotton for making the yarn used in their native looms,
in which they weave the strips of cloth called “ pagns.”
These strips are afterwards sewn together along their
lateral edges and made into gowns.

The native cotton plant varies somewhat in appear-
ance. In Kommbo, a long straggling form occurs,
which is retained for two seasons to produce cotton,
but in the Jolah country a smali annual is most
frequently seen. The former is grown as a mixed crop
and the latter in separate patches.

In quality, from the European spinner’s point of
view, the Mandingo cotton lint compares favourably
with the commercial type called ‘‘ middling American”
as far as length of staple is concerned, although it is not
so white, nor is there so much silkiness apparent. It
has been rightly remarked that the native variety, if
properly cultivated, would probably give a better result
than would be obtained from the introduction of American
seed. The Jolah cotton is short-stapled and woolly,
though whiter than the Mandingo. It would be more
difficult to improve this kind sufficiently to suit the
European demand.

Egyptian cotton seed was tried in the Gambia about
twenty years ago, and the variety was at first considered
suitable; the cultivation was, however, not proceeded
with, owing to local difficulties.

The obstacles which hindered the development of
cotton-growing in the Gambia for export were the same

12 THE GAMBIA

as those experienced in Sierra Leone. The local demand
for raw cotton precluded it from being obtained at a
sufficiently low price to leave a margin of profit to
exporters, and in addition to this, labour was not suffi-
ciently abundant, nor were the natives familiar with
labour-saving methods in cultivation. Attempts to
establish an interest in the matter produced a fair amount
of raw cotton in 1904, but since that year the exported
quantity rapidly diminished and has now ceased alto-
gether. For reports on the quality of the cotton pro-
duced in the Gambia see Professor Dunstan’s British
Cotton Cultivation (Colonial Reports—Miscellaneous Series,
Cd. 3997, 1908), p. 26, and Bull. Imp. Inst., 1921. Sam-
ples may be seen in the Imperial Institute Collections.
GRAIN CROPS.—No grain is exported, as owing to the
work of the scanty population being so largely applied
to the cultivation of groundnuts, scarcely sufficient food-
stuff is grown for their own requirements. Guinea-corn
(Sorghum vulgare), the two most important varieties of
which are known as “ Bassi” and “ Kinto” in the
Mandingo language, are commonly used for food, but
during recent years, owing to the repeated annual attacks
on the crop by Aphis sorghi, maize-growing was sub-
stituted in some parts of the country. White maize
seed was obtained from Lagos, and yellow maize seed
from the Canary Islands, but the grain is not appreciated
to the same extent as Guinea corn. Pennisetum typhoi-
deum, the large millet, of which the commonest variety
is known in Mandingo as “‘Sannio,” is alternated with
Guinea corn or maize, but is often badly affected by a
‘“‘smut fungus” (Ustilago sp.), which also attacks the
‘**Kinto ”’ variety of Guinea corn. A small grass is
often grown in the millet fields, yielding a crop of fine
seed which is made into flour for the preparation of
a kind of porridge. This is termed “ Findi” locally.
Rice (Oryza sativa) is somewhat extensively grown in
the swamp lands, but the success of the crop is very
largely dependent on the distribution of the rainfall.
Whole tracts of rice fields are destroyed in some years,
owing to excessive floods, as no precautions are taken
to guard against them. It is chiefly on account of the
uncertainty of the grain crops, that a large quantity of
tice has to be imported annually to supplement that

SIERRA LEONE AND GAMBIA

FRUITS OF OIL PALMS,
SIERRA LEONE

Hig. Vos eds

TREES, BAKAU.

WITH BAOBAB

Fig. 7, p. 13.

INDIGO DYERS, MCCARTHY ISLAND.

Fig. 8, p. 13.

[p. 13

ROOT CROPS AND TIMBER 13

produced in the country. These imports often amount
to six or seven thousand tons.

ROOT AND OTHER CROPS.—Sweet cassava (Manihot
palmata) is frequently planted as a terminal crop in the
crude rotation employed. This variety can be eaten
without previously washing or cooking. An illustration
of a cassava field is given (Fig. 7). Two or -three
kinds of beans are planted, though not extensively in
spite of a good local demand for them. Okra (Hibiscus
esculentus), cultivated for the edible fruit pods, indigo
(Indigofera sp.) employed for making the local blue
dye, and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), are planted near
houses. A photograph is given exhibiting the different
utensils required for the preparation of indigo, and
cakes of the dried and fermented indigo stalks, in the
form in which they are preserved, are shown suspended
in the illustration (Fig. 8). The tobacco prepared
is usually ground into snuff, in which form it is used
for chewing as well as for smoking.

TANNING.—Goat-skins are tanned in the manner
similar to that employed by the Haussas ; Acacia arabica
pods being used in the process. The people who perform
the work of preparing and working leather are termed
*“Korankos.”” Red and black inks, purchased from
the European merchants, are used for staining the
leather, which is inferior to that produced in Northern
Nigeria (see p. 142).

FIBRES.—The country seems to be plentifully supplied
with fibre plants in a wild state, chiefly belonging to
different species of Hibiscus. These are of the jute class,
and are used throughout the country for making native
ropes. Indian jute (Corchorus capsularis) has been tried
experimentally at Kotoo, and excellent samples were
obtained, but the quantity of fibre per acre turned out
to be small, and the working proved to be too expensive.

The preparation of piassava, which had been abandoned
for many years, is said to have been taken up again by a
British firm in 1915. The fibre is obtained from the leaf
sheath of a palm (Raphia vinifera) which grows plentifully
along the banks of the Gambia in places. For further
information see Selected Reports from the Imperial Insti-
tute, Pt. I., Fibres, and Bull. Imp. Inst., 1915.

TIMBER.—-There are no trees of commercial import-

14 THE GAMBIA

ance, accessible for felling for export, although Gambian
mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) and Gambian rosewood
(Pterocarpus erinaceus) occur in many parts of the country.
In some remote districts the former tree is said to attain
large dimensions (Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. viii.
(1910), p. 244).

TRADE.—The following extracts from the Colonial
Reports show the diversion of destination of Gambian
exports which has occurred in recent years. For this
purpose groundnuts are regarded as representing the
whole of the trade, of which they normally constitute
about 90 per cent.

PERCENTAGES OF EXPORTS FROM THE GAMBIA
Destination 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917

Great Britain
and = British

Possessions . 6:30 9:00 6:72 9:92 39:45 53:56 79-56
France and

French Pos-

sessions . 84:80 76:00 59:10 79:34 48-60 36-58 20:35
Holland . : 3°20 9:00 6:03 — — 4-20 —
Germany. 4 _ 3°64 24:56 6-80 — — a
Denmark . : — —- — 1:99 7:68 5:63 -
Spain 5 5 = = = 35 9 4-24

Other countries 5-70 2-36 3-59 1-60 0-03 0:03 0-09
100 100 100 100 100 100 100

From the above it will be noted that Germany began
to appear in the market in 1912, and, in 1913, had taken
nearly one-quarter of the output. This is probably
accounted for by the rapid growth of the vegetable oil
industry in Germany and the attempt on the part of
Hamburg crushers to capture the Gambia trade from
Marseilles. It will be seen that a proportionate decrease
occurred in exports to French ports coincident with the
increased shipments to German ports. The European
war put Germany out of the market, and in 1914 France
took nearly her normal share. In°1915 and 1916, how-
ever, Great Britain felt the lack of imported vegetable
oils to such an extent that factories for their extraction
sprang up in the country; thus it is seen that in 1915
Great Britain took nearly 40 per cent. against France’s
434 per cent., and in 1916, Great Britain, for the first
time in the last fifty years, took a larger portion of the
Gambian groundnut crop than France.

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SIERRA LEONE

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Geographical Position.—
The Colony and Protectorate of Sierra Leone are bounded
upon the north and west by French Guinea, and upon the
east by Liberia. The Colony is confined to the hill country
of the Sierra Leone Peninsula and Sherbro Island; the
remainder being Protectorate.

Area and Population.—The area of the country according
to the Blue Book of 1911 is 31,000 sq. miles. The greater
part is undulating, well watered and fairly fertile, traversed
by short ranges of mountains, mostly running north and
south. The population of the Colony, by the census taken
in 1911, was 75,572, and of the Protectorate 1,327,560.

Administrative Divisions—The country is divided into
seven administrative districts, two of which are in the
Colony and five in the Protectorate. The latter have been
formed primarily in accordance with tribal settlements,
due to the expediency of recognising in each the native
customary law; the exception to this is the Railway
district, in which other considerations of greater import-
ance are involved.

Natural Features.—Although the country is largely of a
slightly undulating type, in the north a curious formation
of hills exists, in the Koinadugu district; each hill
bearing a curiously-formed pinnacle of rock on its summit,
and presenting a most striking appearance. The valleys
between these hills contain some of the richest soil found
in the country. Farther north, above the 9th degree of
latitude, the country is composed chiefly of grass land
interspersed with stunted trees. Approaching the coast,
secondary forest or scrub occurs, which is constantly being
cleared for farms; being so used for a year or two and
then allowed to revert to ‘‘ bush ” for long periods.

15

16 SIERRA LEONE

Natives.—The inhabitants of the Colony are chiefly the
descendants of liberated slaves from North America and
the West Indies, but a number were rescued by British
war-vessels from slave ships, and represent races from
all parts of West Africa. The language adopted by these
people is a “‘ pidgin English” of a peculiar kind, and is
easily understood after a few of the curious idiomatic
phrases have been learnt.

The most important tribes are the Mendis, Timanis,
Limbas and Sherbros. These are followed in number by
the Konnohs, Port Lokkos, Susus, Korankos, Bulloms,
Krims, Yalunkas, Mandingoes, Gbemas, Foulahs, Gallinas
or Veis and Gpakas. The Mendis are the largest tribe,
and are entirely pagan; they cultivate in a wasteful
manner and are otherwise improvident. The Timanis
are more intelligent and careful, and the Veis, occupying
the sea coast to the south, who have recently adopted
cocoa planting, are not only considered the most intelli-
gent, but, alone among West African natives, have a
written language.

Land Tenure.—The land in the Colony is held by the
Crown, and is granted on the authority of the Governor.
All grants made contain reservations with regard to roads
and other public requirements. The tenure of Crown
lands is fee simple, but occupation is also sanctioned
under squatters’ licence at a nominal rent, and the tenure
is then in the nature of a tenancy at will. Under Ordi-
nance No. 14 of 1886, real and personal property may
be taken, acquired, held or disposed of by any alien in
a manner similar to that allowed to a British-born subject.

Fields or waste lands outside town or village limits in
the Sierra Leone Peninsula and Sherbro Island must be
taken up in lots of not less than 20, or more than 200,
acres. Such lots are disposed of at auction, at an upset
price of 4s. 2d. per acre in the former, and 8s. in the latter
locality. Up to 1902 the question of land grants in the
Protectorate was unsettled, but arrangements may now
be come to with the chiefs for the lease of tracts of land
for long periods on an annual rental, agreed to between
the applicant and the tribal council; the title requiring
the confirmation of the Government. According to
native law, it is generally recognised that the lands of
a chiefdom are not the property of the chief, but are

METHODS OF CULTIVATION 17

held in trust by him for the tribe. A chief has no power
to alienate any portion of the land of a chiefdom, or
to grant to any one perpetual rights to any portion, but
the lease of land by an arrangement with the tribal council,
and with the approval of Government, should be satis-
factory for all requirements with regard to legal title.

Labour.—-Plantations worked by chiefs at the instigation
of Government are usuallysupplied with labour by thechief,
although monetary assistance in the form of bonuses is
occasionally given. Under such conditions experimental
plantations of fibre, rubber, kola, etc., have been made.
There is no fixed rate of pay for labourers, but the usual
wage for an adult man, when hired, is from 6d. to ls. per
day.

Cultivation.—Throughout the country a shallow type
of cultivation is common, and one in which the bush
stumps and roots are not removed. The seeds of a
number of different kinds of agricultural crops are gener-
ally mixed together before being sown broadcast over
the lightly scraped soil of the burnt bush area.

The object of retaining the bush stumps and roots
in the fields is that, after two or three years of culti-
vation, the bush may be easily reinstated, and again
after ten or fifteen years, when cut down and burnt,
it furnishes a supply of wood ash for the fertilisation of
the field. This application of ash constitutes the only
form of artificial renovation which the soil ever receives.

Recently experiments have been made in the presence
of natives, in order to show the advantages of deep
cultivation. To effect this, without the employment of
ploughs, the fork kodalli hoe, reeommended by the writer,
has been introduced and generally adopted. The sub-
stantial increase in the production of their rice fields
obtained by the use of this implement made a fortunate
impression among the natives.

The native agricultural implements consist of a straight-
handled, narrow-bladed hoe called “ kari’? (Mendi), or
“katala’”’ (Timani), and one formed from an angled
stick with a charred point, called ‘‘ baowe’’ (Mendi),
or “kalal” (Timani). This last is used for drilling. In
addition to these, a large broad-bladed hoe, called ‘ karu
wai” (Mendi), or “ katala kabana ” (Timani), is employed
for cleaning out weeds and scraping the soil surface ;

2

18 SIERRA LEONE

the latter being the only cultivation the growing crop
receives. These implements are illustrated below.

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A. ‘KARI’? (MENDI), “‘ KATALA”’ (TIMANT),
B. “‘ KARU WAI’ (MENDI), ““KATALA KABANA”’ (TIMANT),
co. ‘“BAOWE”’ (MENDI), “‘ KALAL”’ (TIMANT),

Agricultural Schools, ete. Chiefs’ Sons’ College.—In 1906
a college for the sons of chiefs was established at Bo,
and it was intended that, in addition to the ordinary
course of instruction, the rudiments of improved agri-
culture should be taught. This was subsequently found
to interfere with the teaching of other subjects which were
considered more necessary, and was abandoned in conse-
quence. The omission of agricultural training from the
course did not preclude the scholars from cultivating
small patches of vegetables for their own use, upon
ground allowed to them for the purpose.

Thomas Agricultural College—In 1908 the erection of
an Agricultural College was commenced at Mabang, under
the terms of the will of Mr. Thomas, a native who
bequeathed a large sum of money to be devoted to this
purpose. The College was expected to be completed in
June 1910, when a commencement of lectures and general

OIL PALM 19

instruction was to be made. Scholarships and some
official control were provided for by the terms of the trust,
but the project was never developed, and the buildings
were not even completed.

Principal Crops.—The most important food crop is rice,
but two varieties of maize are also cultivated for local
consumption; one of these is quick maturing, and
is probably identical with the white variety which is
exported from Lagos, from which country it is said to
have been introduced into Sierra Leone. The other kind
is of slower growth, and bears a yellow grain. Yams,
sweet potatoes, and cassava are grown, especially where
there is a heavy rainfall.

Forest Products.—Besides the agricultural crops, the
forests yield palm oil and kernels, and kola nuts are
planted for the much appreciated seed which their pods
contain. The latter nut is said to have a stimulating
effect, and to allay hunger and thirst when chewed. The
nut is in such great demand throughout Northern Africa
that a large trade exists between Sierra Leone and the
coast countries to the north.

The more important exported products are accorded
the foremost positions in the following account.

OIL PALM. Localities and the Influence of Position.—
Eleis guineensis is found generally throughout the coun-
try from the sea-board towards the interior, diminishing
in those districts where the climate becomes drier or
where rocky and mountainous tractsintervene. In places,
owing, doubtless, to the wasteful methods of treatment
and the carelessness in burning the “bush” for farms,
extensive areas without palms are occasionally met with,
even where the soil and climatic conditions are not un-
favourable to their growth. In the extreme north, where
the rainfall diminishes, the tree is only found in the
vicinity of streams. The most suitable situation for
growth seems to be one in which the soil is generally
rather moist, although swampy, ill-drained land is not
favourable. In those parts of the country where a
gravelly laterite appears as a surface soil over a deep
substratum of syenite, trees may often be met with in
considerable numbers, but it is observed that the trunks
of such trees do not acquire the same thickness as those

20 SIERRA LEONE

growing in a damper and lighter soil. It is probable,
although no experiments have yet been made affording
direct evidence for the conclusion, that the fertility
and yield of fruits of the trees growing upon the flat
lands are greater than those established upon the higher
undulating country because they are subject to less wash
and more natural irrigation. It is also quite possible
that the variety of palm fruit produced in the former
places will be found to furnish better commercial results.
No distinct varieties are, however, recognised by the
natives, although distinctive names are applied to the
same fruit in different stages of development.

The oil palm does not appear to be able to thrive in
heavy forest, and in a natural state occupies open valleys
with low undergrowth, but upon the clearance of primary
forest it soon becomes established.

The seeds or nuts, which are large and heavy, are
distributed by the agency of frugivorous birds and
mammals. The grey parrot, for example, may be ob-
served extracting the ripe fruits from the heads or picking
them from the ground where they have fallen, and, after
conveying these to a convenient tree, carefully removing
the oily pericarp before dropping the nut in a new position.
Monkeys doubtless convey the fruits to even greater
distances in their cheek-pouches.

Owing to the presence of rocky and swampy strips of
country in the Protectorate, and the direction in which
farm fires have been carried by the prevailing winds,
the distribution of palms has been thought to assume
the character of “ belts,”’ defined by fairly well-marked
boundaries. When looked into more closely, however,
the distribution appears to be better described as con-
sisting of dense patches linked sometimes by almost
unrecognisable chains of widely scattered trees, and often
broken into by short ranges of hills which are completely
destitute of palms.

The patches referred to may eee 500 palm trees to
the acre, and these may represent 80 to 100 per cent.
of the total tree-growth on the patch. The area of such
a patch may be roughly estimated at from } acre to
15 sq. miles, or even more, but it should be added that,
where such extensive tracts as these occur, the difficulties
of transport and the scarcity of the population have

SIERRA LEONE

ae as

OIL PALMS (£L-EIS GUINEENSIS), MAFOKOYTA.
Fig. 10, p. 21.

NATIVE COLLECTING OIL PALM
FRUIT, BLAMA. KOLA TREE AT MANO.
Fig. 11, p. 22. Fig. 12, p. 29.
{[p. 21

OIL PALM 21

constituted obstacles to working, and to the means of
preserving the trees. Oil palms near Mafokoyia are
shown in the picture (Fig. 10).

The appearance of a young tree is that of a thick stem
throwing out annulate series of long feathery leaf fronds,
upon petioles, which bear roughly-formed spines. As the
tree increases in height the lower petioles are shed, and
the trunk assumes a narrower but more regular form ;
indistinct rings being traceable, formed by the bases of
the fallen leaf stems. A mature tree will measure about
one foot in diameter at four feet from the ground, and
at the ground surface the diameter will be two and a half
to nearly three times as much. The male flowers are
collected in the form of a number of tassel-like pendants,
springing from a common stalk, and one such bunch is
usually found above and upon each side of the female
inflorescence. Both sexes of flowers usually occur upon
the trees, but the natives recognise the existence of a
non-fruiting tree, and one which only produces male
flowers. The number of fruit heads and the weight of
these vary according to the position, age, and treatment
of the tree. An idea may be given of the fruitfulness
of trees, from the accounts obtained from natives in
different parts of the country. The palm has two fruiting
seasons, one during the dry weather and another during
the rainy season, the latter being generally the lighter
crop. It is estimated that a tree in full bearing will
yield from twelve to twenty fruiting heads in one year,
each of a fairly large size. A younger tree may only
produce four to eight heads, but usually of a larger size ;
and a tree of only five or six years old may give about
the same number of heads, but of smaller dimensions.
From very old trees small heads with fruits of a dimin-
ished size are obtained. The weight of a moderately
large head will be about thirty pounds, and will contain
about twelve hundred fruits weighing roughly 23 lbs.
An illustration showing two fruiting heads is given
(Fig. 9).

The ripe fruiting heads are gathered by a man using
a climbing sling, with which he encircles the tree and
his waist, and by means of a skilful manipulation of the
part in contact with the trunk and remote from the
body, he proceeds to ascend the tree rapidly, almost

22 SIERRA LEONE

as though walking up it. On reaching the crown,
a number of dead leaves have to be removed in order
to get at the fruit stem. These are cut by means of a
‘* cutlass ’’ or ‘“‘ machete,’’ which the climber carries, and
are thrown to the ground. Only one head ripens at a
time upon each tree, and the time occupied in climbing
and cutting out the fruit head is estimated at about
eight minutes. A photograph showing a native climbing
a palm tree is reproduced (Fig. 11).

Both the Mendi and Timani races distinguish the fruit,
at different periods during the advance towards maturity,
by special names given with regard to the appearance.
Identifications of the same series of fruits by different
individuals have shown that these names are widely
used.

Although it will be seen that in the Gold Coast and
Nigeria the natives recognise a number of different
varieties of fruit, this does not appear to be the
case in Sierra Leone. The thin-shelled forms, so well
known to the natives of the former countries, appear
unknown, except around Sherbro, where there are a few
trees recognised as productive of this type of fruit. In
the appearance of the mature fruit, the presence or
absence of black at the apex seems to be of equally
common occurrence, but no importance is attached to
this feature.

The Sierra Leone form appears to be at a disadvantage
with regard to the proportion of oily pericarp covering
the nut, as well as in the great thickness of its shell.
Comparing it with the varieties obtained in the Gold
Coast, it is probably nearest to, if not identical with,
that called ‘ Abe pa.”

When the percentage of oil extracted from the fruit
of the Sierra Leone trees is compared with that from
other parts of West Africa, it at once becomes apparent
that the amount is small. The results of three series
of experiments, made in different parts of the country,
showed that the fibrous pericarp, which contains the
oil, constituted only about 30 per cent. of the whole,
the nut containing the kernel being large and approxi-
mating 70 per cent. Palm oil extracted by native
methods gave 1:201, 5°47, 5°637, and 8326 per cent.
respectively in four tests. If these results are compared

OIL PALM 23

with the extractions of oil from the several Gold Coast
varieties, the deficiency is very marked. Compare
Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vii. (1909),
pp. 364-71.

A close examination of the local fruit shows that the
outer fibrous portion or pericarp, which alone contains
the palm oil, is very thin, whereas the hard shell sur-
rounding the kernel is thick. The kernel represents about
15 per cent. of the total weight of the fruit, and is largely
exported from the country for the extraction of another
kind of oil.

Small Export of Oil compared with Kernels.—The propor-
tionately larger weight of kernel than of palm oil capable
of extraction, accounts for the large quantities of kernels
exported compared with palm oil. Asanexample of this,
it may be mentioned that in the year 1906 Sierra Leone
exported only 124 gallons of palm oil to each ton of
kernels, whereas Southern Nigeria figures for the same
year showed 142 gallons of oil per ton of kernels. Since
this date, up to the beginning of the war, a comparison
of the annual exports of oil and kernels shows a fluctua-
tion between about 12 and 19 gallons of pericarp oil for
every ton of kernels; the latter still remaining dis-
proportionately high.

Proposal to introduce New Varieties.—Since it has begun
to be realised that the local variety of palm is probably
constantly inferior as an oil producer to some of the
varieties found farther to the south, it has been sug-
gested that some of the forms, with a thicker fibrous
pericarp and a thin-shelled kernel, should be introduced
and planted upon an extensive scale. It is assumed that
by doing so, a better type would become established.
Experiments made in the Kamerun show, however,
that the progeny of palms having a thin-shelled fruit
(Lisombe) do not necessarily retain their important
characters. Dr. Strunk hassuggested that, in the variety
mentioned, the characters are not fixed or susceptible
of transmission, but the experiments are not con-
sidered as yielding conclusive evidence, and it is advisable
that experimental plots should be planted with the
more useful forms in Sierra Leone and elsewhere,
the seed being obtained from artificially fertilised
sources.

24 SIERRA LEONE

Improvements in the Loca! Manufacture.—During recent
years great efforts have been made by the Adminis-
tration to increase the exports of both palm oil and
kernels by opening up the previously rather inaccessible
areas in which palm trees were found growing almost un-
touched. The first step in this direction was the exten-
sion of the Sierra Leone Railway line from Boia, a small
village just beyond the Headquarters District boundary,
to Mafokoyia, lying a short distance to the north. From
here a road was made eastwards towards Yonnibannah,
passing through country fairly well studded with oil
palms. Later from Yonnibannah the objective of the
railway became Baga, a town on the Maybole river,
again to the north. At the present time this line has
reached Kamabai, at the foot of the Koinadugu mountains
and to the west of Bumban, passing the town of Makump
on its way there. The whole of this route has been chosen
in order to make the oil palm regions more accessible, and
the increase in exports of both oil and kernels between
1907 and 1913 is almost entirely attributable to this
development.

Not only was it desirable to open up new areas from which
palm fruits could be gathered, but, owing to the deficiency
of pericarp oil shipped from the country in comparison
with palm kernels, it was thought that, by the introduc-
tion of improved methods for extracting the pericarp oil,
more of this commodity might be obtainable in the
future.

The prospect of working a large area both experi-
mentally and commercially for oil extraction in situ,
attracted Messrs. Lever Brothers, who installed ample
mechanical apparatus at Yonnibannah in 1914. The
Government had granted this firm a concession to work
several hundred square miles on the understanding that
the local traders and merchants were not thereby to be
debarred from buying the hand-prepared oil from the
natives as before. The scheme was intended to demon-
strate the advantages of mechanical means of extraction
over those of hand power; and it was thought that, by
the introduction of these greater facilities for dealing
with the oil palm products, labour would be liberated and
would be employed to a greater extent in the less heavy
and more remunerative direction of plantation and field

OIL PALM 25

work. Messrs. Lever Brothers’ factory was one designed
to be equipped both from a mechanical and research
standpoint, and a special shunting yard on the railway was
leased to the firm by the Government to deal with the
anticipated work. The project seemed so promising that
local firms were contemplating following Messrs. Lever
Brothers’ example in other localities. 'The whole scheme
was, however, abandoned after a short trial; Messrs.
Lever Brothers having probably discovered two facts in
connection with the oil palm industry in Sierra Leone
which had been lost sight of. The first is that the peri-
carp of the common type of palm fruit found in Sierra
Leone, as pointed out in the first edition of this book, is
very thin and therefore contains very little oil, and that
the shell of the nuts in this thin-pericarped fruit is
extremely thick. The common Sierra Leone kind is
therefore of less economic value both in respect to peri-
carp oil and kernel contents than the common kind found
in the Gold Coast, Nigeria and Kamerun. The second
point is that the Mendis and Timanis occupying this part
of the Protectorate are a lower type and generally poorer
workers by comparison with the Fanti tribes of the Gold
Coast or the Yorubas of Nigeria.

One explanation given for the failure of Messrs. Lever
Brothers’ effort in Sierra Leone was that they did not
offer a sufficiently high price for the oil palm fruit heads
to induce the natives to collect and carry them to the
factory. As the chiefs and villagers saw that by selling
the fruits to the factory the main occupation of their
wives (the preparation of palm oil and the cracking of
nuts for the extraction of palm kernels) would be
taken away, they were said to be averse to the establish-
ment of a new condition of enforced idleness, which
would impose greater difficulties on them of keeping
their wives in order. The offer by the factory to return
the nuts for cracking in the villages, did not dispose of
this difficulty, as the villagers only saw in it an arrange-
ment involving them in extra transport. Messrs. Lever
Brothers have now transferred their work to the Belgian
Congo, where, by reason of the better type of palm fruit
commonly obtainable, the conditions are more satisfactory
for the development of the mechanical extraction of palm
oil on a commercial scale, and where the inhabitants are

26 SIERRA LEONE

less independent and more accustomed to co-operate with
European enterprise.

Export Figures.—The average annual export of palm
oil and kernels for the first nine years of the century,
and the annual total of the subsequent ten years are
given :

Siar Palm oil Palm kernels
Gallons Tons
1900-1908 Av. : 5) ela. 26,630
POU Ge ea One ‘ . 851,998 42.897
LOVO es, 4 ° . 645,339 43,031
ON ST eis x : . 725,648 42,892
1) IPs - ° . 128,509 50,751
EONS... 5 s - 617,088 49,201
1914. . 4 A . 436,144 35,915
1916: 5 Z . 481,576 39,624
19TGey =. 5 A 2. DOU hol 45,316
TOV aie s ; . 543,011 58,020
TOES. : 5 . 260,442 40,816

RUBBER.— Until 1907 the African tree rubber (Funtu-
mia elastica) had not been recorded from any part of
the country, although its congener, F. africana, was
found everywhere. A number of trees of the first-named
species have been recently discovered in the Panguma
and Gola forests, and have been carefullyexamined. The
latex, from trees tapped in the former locality, yielded
a good quality of rubber when boiled with three volumes
of water.

Native Method of Preparation.—The tree is known to
the Mendis as “‘ Gboi-gboi,”’ and in order to obtain the
latex it is customary to fell the tree, afterwards ringing it
at intervals of about one foot. The latex, which flows, is
collected in leaf cups or other receptacles, and is heated
in an iron pot. When in a state of semi-coagulation,
induced by heat, it is poured upon plantain leaves,
placed on the ground. Another plantain leaf is then
used to cover the mass, which is stamped out with -
the feet into a rough sheet. The sheet is hung up to
dry in a hut, in which it obtains the benefit of the fumes
from the wood fires used by the occupants. The next
process is to cut the sheet into strips, which are subse-

RUBBER 27

quently wound into large oval balls and enter the Free-
town market under the name of “‘ Manoh twist.”

Owing to the wasteful method of tapping the trees,
the species has been exterminated in many places, and
the local Government have had under consideration the
formulation of an ordinance to prevent the continuance
of such destruction. As the existing trees are now
practically only found in the dense forests near the
Liberian frontier, and are probably widely scattered over
a large area, it will prove a difficult matter to enforce
any regulations with regard to collection.

Vine Rubber: Method of Preparation.—Landolphia
owariensis, var. Jenje, is said to be the species of vine from
which the Sierra Leone “‘ Red Nigger ’”’ rubber is obtained.
The Mendi name for the plant is “‘ Djenje.”” A very de-
structive method is usually employed in the preparation of
the rubber. The vine is cut down and the roots dug out,
both of which are cut into small pieces and soaked in
water for several weeks. The bark is then removed, and
the wood is pounded and washed repeatedly until a
reddish mass of rubber remains, which usually contains
a large amount of woody matter. This is sold in the
form of balls. It is less common for the native to tap
the vine and to coagulate the latex upon the wound with
the addition of salt or lime juice, but this is occasionally
done, and balls of scrap rubber collected in this way are
sold in some localities.

Another vine (Clitandra laxiflora), which yields an in-
ferior rubber by means of boiling the latex, is termed
“ Jawe”’ by the Mendis. This was at first considered
to be Clitandra Manni, but more recent investigation
has proved that C. Manni, although called by the same
native name, produces a latex incapable of coagulation.

The Quality of Indigenous Rubbers and the Export.—
The prices obtained for Sierra Leone rubbers compare
favourably with those of the other British West African
countries. Funtumia rubber, which is generally largely
adulterated in the Gold Coast and Nigeria, is apparently
not so in Sierra Leone, when prepared in the form of
“ Manoh twist.” The vine rubber, made from the scrap,
is also of good quality, and the root rubber is not inferior
to that shipped from the other countries. The trade of
Sierra Leone is, however, small, and it is probable that

28 SIERRA LEONE

the larger part of that exported from Freetown is obtained
from the adjoining countries of Liberia and French Guinea.
The export of rubber declined since 1906, when it amounted
to 107 tons, to only 6 tons in 1913, while in 1916 and 1917
none was exported. The composition and quality of
Sierra Leone rubbers is given in the Bulletin of the Imperial
Institute, vol. iv. (1906), p. 29; vol. vi. (1908), p. 24; vol.
vill. (1910), p. 16; and vol. xii. (1914), p. 371.

Rubber Plantations—No plantations of Funtumia
rubber have been made although small plots have been
planted with the South American Para tree (Hevea brasi-
liensis) on an experimental scale at different times and in
various parts of the country and a mixed plantation of
rubber, cocoa, coffee and fruit has beem made near
Waterloo. Up to 1909, it should be remarked, the work
was in the hands of the Agricultural Service, but from
1910, on the formation of the Forestry Department as well
as the reorganisation of an Agricultural Department, all
forest and plantation work was transferred to the first-
named Department. No plantation rubber has yet
reached the commercial stage, although further trials are
still in progress, and much experience has been gained.

A few Para trees were planted at the beginning of the
present century in the Botanic Gardens at Freetown,
but the locality was found unsuitable, and the trees grew
slowly and yielded unsatisfactorily. A small plantation
was made at Moyamba by Madam Yoko, the late chief
of the Mendis, and was well looked after until she died,
since when it seems to have been somewhat neglected.
At Mano, the chief of the town made a good plantation
in 1906, and, as the locality was apparently well selected,
the trees have shown satisfactory growth. Small plots
have been put out under Para at the Roman Catholic
Mission station at Serabu, at Segbwema, Tinainahun and
the Bo school, with variable success, in accordance with
the cultivation and care bestowed on the plants. Except
in the gravelly positions the tree succeeds well.

Landolphia owariensis and L. Heudelotii have been
planted in forested patches in different parts of the
country, the supervision of such planting having been
entrusted to a native who had seen similar work per-
formed by the French authorities in the neighbouring
colony. Near Batkanu, a few plants can still be seen.

KOLA NUTS AND RED PEPPER 29

KOLA NUTS.—The importance of the kola nut in West
Africa is very high. Sierra Leone produces generally a
better quality, for local consumption and export, than
other countries. The kola trees (Kola acuminata and K,
vera) do not, however, occur in a wild state in the country,
and the whole produce is obtained from plantations, which
are to be seen near almost every village in the moist region.
A photograph is given showing a kola tree at Mano
(Fig. 12). The destination of the exported kola is
chiefly Bathurst (Gambia), Dakar (Senegal), Bissao
(Portuguese Guinea), and to a small extent Dahomey.
The exports of this commodity in recent years are given
below as well as their average annual values per ton,
which, as will be seen, exhibit great fluctuation.

Tons Valued at Equal to £ perton
1906. oy eo £104,084 £90
1907. abated Sef £113,674 £83
1908 . Beg |B key £108,895 £94
ro. Sot ey £153,848 £116
ToL” 7. . 1,508 £191,878 £127
Pou » Love £194,260 £121
ror” a lero £276,473 £167
ibe": =, 166Gb £328,003 £176
Pore. . 1,924 £279,185 £145
POL... . 2,041 £233,388 £119
rato . 2,484 £302,720 £122
ik Wy ae ated ey Ab £321,105 £188
tis. . 2,302 £397,726 £173

Kola nuts are second only to palm kernels in Sierra Leone
in importance as an export, although they are practically
entirely consigned to other coast ports ; an insignificant
amount of dried kolas only being destined for Europe.

RED PEPPER.—Capsicum annuum and C. frutescens
are both grown among the multitude of plants, the seeds
of which are mixed and broadcasted in the farms; but
whereas most of the other plants are annuals, these are
left in the ground for two years or more, and yield almost
continuous crops during that period. The country of
origin of these plants is probably South America, but
the date of their introduction is unknown.

Beside the extensive local use of the pods, the export
statistics of 1909 show that 41 tons were shipped.

30 SIERRA LEONE

GINGER.—Zingiber officinale is not found in a wild
state in Africa, but has been widely introduced through-
out the tropical portions, although in Sierra Leone, alone
among the West African countries, has it reached the
important position of an export.

Owing to the defective methods of agriculture em-
ployed in the Colony, where for the most part ginger
is cultivated, the roots or rhizomes do not attain a large
size, and, in consequence, present great difficulties in
decortication.

The common native method of preparation is to rub
the washed and partially dried rhizomes in sand, and
then to dry them more or less completely in the sun.
The effect of this treatment is to remove a small portion
of the outer skin from those prominences which come
into contact with the sandy surface more readily, the
depressions being left untouched. The native has found
that the weight of the prepared ginger is increased by
the adhesion of sand, and therefore prefers to employ
this method to that of using a knife. The result is a
very inferior product.

During the last few years attempts have been made
among the ginger growers to deal directly with the
European buyers, and a Farmers’ Association was
formed with this object in view. Government assistance
was obtained on the assurance that better methods of
cultivation and preparation would be adopted, and this
was done to a certain extent, but greater dependence
seems to have been placed upon the supposed advantage
to be obtained from shipping ginger of the usual inferior
quality, without it passing through the local merchants’
hands. The result was, that a small quantity of selected
ginger was sold at a good price, and a large quantity of
common grade obtained a lower price than previously.

Recent experiments have shown that good results
can be obtained with ginger in Sierra Leone if care be
taken to deep-hoe the ground and then plant out the
selected eyes from clean rhizomes. The custom of
attempting to grow a crop in hard laterite gravel with-
out proper cultivation is the chief cause of the malformed
and small rhizomes usually obtained in native cultivation.
Under improved conditions a crop of five tons per acre
of good quality ginger has been procured.

GINGER AND FIBRES 31

Export Trade.—The following amounts of ginger have
been shipped during the last decade:

Tons Value Tons Value
1906 A 579 10,879 1913 ; 2,048 35,468
1907 ‘ 618 11,578 1914 2 1,213 15,639
1908 - 637 LL. Sik, 9ts i 567 8,091
1909 : 722 14,147 1916 , 971 25,814
1910 4 1,093 33,288 1917 , 1,136 25,863
1911 : 1,692 44,668 1918 s 1,576 39,306
1912 . 2,200 44,864

It is reported that, owing to the decline in price paid for
Sierra Leone ginger in 1913, about one-third of the crop
was left unharvested, and that the depreciation experi-
enced was due to the competition from other sources of
a better marketed product. It would be a pity if the
promising opportunity of the country to become estab-
lished as a large producer of ginger were altogether
lost, owing to the want of a little care in cultivation and
preparation of the product for the market.

The plant is essentially suited to certain parts of the
Colony and Protectorate and is not subject to any
serious diseases, the only recorded one being a fungus
which attacks the rhizomes and causes yellowing of the
leaves. This can be prevented from spreading if the
plants be removed and burned as soon as the signs of
attack are apparent on them.

FIBRES. Jute Class.—In the last few years several
fibre plants indigenous to the country have been experi-
mented with at the Imperial Institute, in order to
ascertain whether any were capable of being exported
for use as substitutes for Indian jute.

Honckenya ficifolia, known by the Timani name of
“Napunti,” a plant which occurs in great profusion in
the swamps and low lands, yields a fibre of excellent
quality, but owing to the difficulties experienced in the
extraction of it, further experiments are necessary to
devise a means by which it can be economically prepared.
The analyses of the fibre from this plant which have
been madeat the Imperial Institute (see Selected Reports
from the Imperial Institute, Part I. [Cd. 4588], Fibres,
p. 40) are very satisfactory, and this, combined with the
fact that the natural supply of the plant is very large

32 SIERRA LEONE

in districts which are quite useless for agricultural pur-
poses, renders it important that the methods of extraction
should be more carefully studied.

Among the other fibres of this class which have shown
promise, Hibiscus quinquelobus, to which the Mendis give
the name of “ Korwey,” is found in a wild state in variable
profusion throughout thecountry. Unlike the last, which
produces erect stems growing close together, this plant
has stems of an almost scandent character, growing under
the shade of moderately large trees and perforating the
upper branches, so that the flowering stems are often
seen fifteen feet or more above the ground. Under culti-
vation the experiments seemed to show that the elongated
character of the stems was not maintained, and this
defect requires to be remedied if the fibre is to be prepared
upon a commercial scale. The extraction is easily done
by retting, and experimental shipments to Europe of
several tons have shown that the product is quite market-
able and is classed with, or a little below, medium jutes
(ibid. p. 39).

Recently experiments were carried out in the extraction
of fibre from Hibiscus esculenius, the “‘ okra ”’ of tropical
countries. A specimen of the fibre having been exam-
ined at the Imperial Institute and favourably reported
upon (bid. p. 35), a plantation was made at Kangahun,
in order to endeavour to produce a crop, which should
have the additional advantage of yielding a marketable
supply of the vegetable okra pods before being cut down
and made into fibre. In order to do this, the seed was
sown at close intervals, thereby introducing a straight
growth of stem, and care was exercised not to permit
the fruiting to continue long enough for the stems to
become coarse. The fibre was extracted in the same
manner as that of jute, except that the stems were
immersed in a solution of caustic soda before retting to
remove the thin outer bark. The marketed fibre from
the first of these experiments realised an unsatisfactory
price, but it was estimated that the crop of pods yielded
£3 per acre.

Corchorus capsularis, one of the Indian jutes, was intro-
duced and planted out in 1906, but the existing native
methods of cultivation and the absence of manure ren-
dered the conditions so different from those obtained in

COTTON 33

India, that a successful result was not brought about.
Two species of Corchorus are found in the country, and
are used only as vegetables.

Ramie Fibre.—Plantations of Ramie fibre or China
grass were recently made in various parts of the Pro-
tectorate, but although the plant grows well during the
rainy season, the long period of dry weather is detri-
mental to it.

Piassava.—This fibre is produced from the sheath of the
leaf stem of Raphia vinifera, the wine palm, and is pre-
pared at several places, especially in the swampy districts
near the coast. The method of extraction is merely that
of steeping and beating out, and the resulting fibre is,
in appearance, somewhat similar to fine whalebone. The
largest amount was exported in 1915, when the figure
reached 1,283 tons. The price in this year attained £61
per ton. The fibre is chiefly employed for the manu-
facture of stiff brooms.

COTTON.—The native cotton of Sierra Leone showed
promise, at one time, of great development, but in-
surmountable difficulties met the efforts of the British
Cotton Growing Association in their attempt to establish
cotton growing for export upon a large scale.

The native mode of growing cotton is in combination
with a number of other agricultural crops, the seeds of
all being mixed before being broadcasted ina field, which
has been lightly tilled. Cotton sown in this manner is
permitted to yield crops for two seasons, but the second
crop is generally much inferior. Owing to this irregular
manner of planting, the amount of cotton available for
use is small, and is nearly all absorbed for the supply of
the native looms ; being readily saleable in the weaving
districts at about 2d. per lb. of seed cotton, or about
twice as much as the British Cotton Growing Association
were prepared to pay.

The inefficiency of the quality of the local cultivation,
and the disinclination on the part of the native to adopt
better methods, effectually prevented more cotton being
grown, and the British Cotton Growing Association were
unable to obtain sufficient material to keep their ginnery
employed.

In connection with the cotton ginnery, erected at
Moyamba, a large plantation was made; the indigenous

3

34 SIERRA LEONE

as well as many exotic varieties of the plant being put
in. The site, however, proved unsuitable, labour was
found to be expensive, and the climatic conditions were
complained of. In consequence of these adverse con-
ditions, the Association were reluctantly obliged to
abandon the work. The export of cotton was never
significant and ceased altogether in 1909.

Indigenous Varieties. —Three well-marked types of cotton
are found throughout the country, and are known by the
native (Mendi) names of (1) Kwonde, (2) Fande Wa,
(3) Dhoole. The first of these has a white lint and a seed
covered with white wool. An examination of this at the
Imperial Institute showed that the lint from it was the
most valuable of the three; the staple measured about
1”, and was compared with very good quality ‘‘ Indian
Broach.”” Two samples, valued in 1907, were priced at
53d. and 53d. respectively, with good Broach at 53d.,
and Middling American at 6°18d. ‘The Fande Wa variety
has a creamy lint and a green woolly seed. It was said
to be of good quality, but the colour was not so good as
the last, and the value was consequently lower. Dhoole
is rather rarer than the other two, and has a brick-red or
brown lint and a bare seed. Khaki or red cottons are not
in demand upon an European market, but locally they
are somewhat sought after.

Native Weaving.—A native cloth woven from the three
different varieties of indigenous cottons is frequently seen ;
the careful arrangement of the naturally coloured yarns
yielding a distinct pattern. More often, perhaps, only
the first two kinds are used, and the yarn made from
them is dyed with the local indigo. In width the native
cloths are usually narrow, and the strips are sewn together
in order to form gowns, etc. A photograph is given
showing a native weaver at work at Pendembu (Fig. 13).
In a few localities wider cloths are woven, but of no great
length. These are often elaborately designed, and com-
mand a high price among the natives, being preferred
to imported materials.

Exotic Cottons.—‘“‘ Cambodia” and ‘‘Sea Island”
have been tried experimentally. The latter, though with-
standing the heavy rainfall well, was found to be very
susceptible to attacks of the local cotton stainer. There
is still no prospect of the revival of cotton exportation.

SIERRA LEONE AND GOLD COAST

a

NATIVE WEAVER AT PENDEMBU.
Fig. 13, p. 34.

KUMASST, THE CAPITAL OF ASHANTI.
Fig. 14, p. 43.

STONE VAT FOR POUNDING PALM FRUITS, WITH SURROUNDING GUTTER
AND OIL WELL, KROBO PLANTATIONS.
Fig. 15, p. 68

S
co
oc

RICE 35

RICE.—Two forms of rice are grown in the Protec-
torate ; one under irrigation or in swampy ground, near
rivers, etc., and the other entirely without any con-
servance of water, depending on the rainfall.

The use of rice is general throughout the country—
in fact, it is probably the most important food crop; and
although, as mentioned above, there are two forms,
divided according to their mode of cultivation, each form
contains many varieties distinguished by different native
names.

In the Timani country and the vicinity of Port Lokko
the finest quality is grown, and the husking of this is
said to be a prolonged process of drying, without pre-
viously parboiling or soaking. This rice only requires
to be thoroughly dried before the husk will separate on
pounding.

In the Mendicountry, the heads of rice at the harvesting
are cut and tied in small bunches to dry in the fields.
The grain is then beaten out, and the chaff winnowed
on a tray or in a gentle breeze. The next step is to
parboil the grain while yet in the husk, during which
operation the interior swells up so as to split the husk.
The rice is then again thoroughly dried in the sun upon
mats, and finally lightly pounded in a wooden mortar
in order to separate the loosened husk, which is removed
by winnowing. From the time of harvesting until the
rice is ready for sale, the work is performed by women.

In spite of the fact that a very large quantity of rice
is grown, it frequently happens that in a good season
much remains unharvested, owing to the improvidence
of the native. The price just after harvesting may fall
as low as ls. 6d. per bushel, but a few months later it
may reach three times that amount. It is customary for
the Protectorate native to realise at once upon his crop,
without taking the precaution to lay in a store for his
future requirements. In consequence of this he is com-
pelled to buy back supplies for his own consumption at
a very much enhanced rate. The native at the Coast
takes advantage of this improvidence and profits con-
siderably by it ; buying up the cheap product at harvest-
ing and realising a handsome profit after a few months.

In quality the local rice is excellent, but in appearance
it is somewhat reddish, only a few of the finer qualities

36 SIERRA LEONE

being nearly white. The imported rices are usually white,
but are said to contain less nutriment than the local kinds.

Rice has always constituted the staple food of the
aboriginal tribes of the Protectorate, for which reason its
cultivation and the weather conditions necessary for its
successful production locally are matters of great import-
ance. No precaution is taken to plant any other crop as
a stand-by in the event of an unfavourable rice season. In
1910 a disaster actually occurred, for the rainy season
of 1909 set in so early that it prevented many farms
being burned in time to sow rice. Most of the local
varieties mature their grain from three to five months
after sowing, the earlier producing approximately 15, and
the later from 30 to 40 bushels, per acre. Owing to the
failure of the rice crop in 1910, the commodity should not
have been allowed to be exported in that year, but the
importance of this was lost sight of in view of the re-
munerative trade in it which had become established with
different coast ports to which it was shipped. In the
previous edition of this volume a recommendation was
made to foster the export of surplus Sierra Leone rice to
the Gold Coast, where it was much appreciated, and
doubtless this trade may yet become important when
existing restrictions are removed, and if it is found
possible to induce a larger number of the population in
the Protectorate to engage in pure agriculture, and grow
crops in excess of their immediate personal requirements.
The exports for the last nine years were as follows:

Bushels Value £
1910 ‘ : 5 Hao. Tia 5,925
1911 3 A » | 22.621 4,716
1912 : : a0, 4Lo 5,712
1913 : é . 21,548 3,991
1914 . 18,705 4,855
1915 A < - 19,600 7,228
1916 é 5 : 3,192 1,364
1917 x - ; 1,022 697
1918 4 ; 176 93

In 1915, owing to the falling off of imports, it was
found necessary to exercise control over the exports, but
in spite of this the amount exported was higher than in
the previous year. In 1916 the urgency of the matter
became even more pronounced and exports were restricted.

CAMWOOD AND COPAL 37

The Agricultural Department conducted several com-
parative trials with Indian and local varieties of rice.
The Indian rices were much smaller in size of grain and
were generally not considered so suitable as the local
kinds, with respect to which it was found that, with a
sufficiency of seed used in sowing and deep cultivation,
excellent crops could be secured. The native method of
using less than half a bushel of seed to sow an acre is
accountable for much of the resultant crop becoming full
of weeds. Excellent results were obtained in sowing
14 to 3 bushels per acre, when the weeds were choked out.

CAMWOOD.—This material, from which red dye is got,
is obtained from the leguminous tree Baphia nitida.
The use of it in European countries has somewhat
diminished during recent years, owing to the substitu-
tion for it of artificial red colouring-matter, but a small
quantity is still exported, and is made use of for
colouring sausage skins. The amount of camwood ex-
ported in 1915 is given as 635 tons, valued at £8,761.

COPAL.—The tree identified as Copatfera Guibourtiana
is tapped, in the Mendi country especially, for copal.
The method in general practice is to cut small square
patches of bark from the main trunk and branches
in the month of January, and to permit these to exude
resin until April, at which time the flow has ceased, and
the resin hardened sufficiently to be collected.

The tree has been recorded from a few localities in
Sierra Leone, but recently plantations have been made
near Moyamba and elsewhere. In the Kwalu district,
where clusters of large trees occur, much damage has been
done by overtapping, and many dead trees are to be seen.

The value of Sierra Leone copal is high, sometimes
attaining over two shillings a pound in the European
markets. The quality is, however, somewhat irregular,
and the local grading is frequently inefficient. Informa-
tion as to the quality and value of Sierra Leone copal in
comparison with other varieties is given in Selected
Reports from the Imperial Institute, Part II., Gums and
Resins [Cd. 4971], pp. 170-82.

About thirty tons were annually shipped to Europe for
making varnish, but owing to the destructive methods of
collection, the Government has prohibited trade for five

years.

38 SIERRA LEONE

GROUNDNUTS.—Practically no trade at present exists
in this crop, but efforts are being made to reintroduce
the cultivation into Bullom, where at one time a large
quantity was grown for export.

The cultivation of groundnuts for local consumption
is carried on, but the ridge system of planting, which is
in vogue in the Gambia, is not adopted in Sierra Leone,
and the groundnut stalks are removed from the ground
without the nuts attached to them. The nuts in Sierra
Leone are permitted to remain in the ground and de-
preciate in quality through insufficient drying. The
success of groundnut cultivation depends largely upon
the plant being grown on a loose bed of friable soil,
and, where such conditions exist, the Gambian method
should prove satisfactory.

Experiments show that the nuts should be decorticated
before sowing. The usual local method of sowing is to
scatter the nuts upon the unbroken ground and then
cover with loose earth. Some damage is done by rats,
bushpig and termites, and in 1914 a fungoid disease
(Cercospora personata) appeared in Karene. The Agri-
cultural Department has obtained 12 cwts. to the acre
in its trials.

The variety of nut grown is apparently identical with
that of the Gambia, from which country the seed has
probably been obtained in the past.

COCOA.—Some years ago cocoa was introduced into the
Colony, but, although some of the Colonial planters had
received their training in the cocoa estates of Fernando
Po and San Thomé, no success attended their efforts in
Sierra Leone. The heavy rainfall, combined with the
long period of drought peculiar to the country, is detri-
mental to the industry. More recently experiments have
been conducted in the Protectorate, where a lighter
rainfall occurs ; but here also the conditions are not
generally favourable, as the long period of dry weather
is not compensated for by humidity in the atmosphere.

Importance of Correct Climatic Conditions.—Cocoa plan-
tations, in order to be successful, require atmospheric
moisture fairly constantly throughout the year, and will
not thrive if exposed to excessive and prolonged drought,
or too much rain. Meteorological records taken at Bo, a
place not far distant from that where cocoa experiments

COFFEE, INDIGO, AND FRUIT 39

were made, show that the conditions in respect to distribu-
tion of rainfall, humidity and temperature are un-
favourable there. Many attempts have been made in
other localities, but only in Northern Sherbro has there
been any appreciable success. The soil in this locality
is deep and is kept in good tilth by the Gallinas. The
price obtained locally for their cocoa beans was, in 1913,
from 3d. to 4d. per lb. ; in 1914 there was an increase in
the number of plants put out, as the price rose in that year
to 6d. per lb. A sample of native cocoa was submitted to
the Imperial Institute for examination and report in 1916,
and was found to be incompletely fermented with a rather
harsh flavour. The trade valuation, however, was equal
to the standard price ruling for Accra beans at the same
time (cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., 1916, p. 589). Although the
outlook for Northern Sherbro is promising, cocoa cannot
attain much success in the country generally, on account
of unsuitable climatic conditions and general ineptitude
of most of the native tribes.

COFFEE.—A few years ago coffee was grown in the
Colony for export, the indigenous variety, Coffea steno-
phylla as well as C. Liberica being planted. The former
bears a very small berry and yields an excellent, strong-
flavoured beverage. The latter is better known and has
a large berry. Throughout the hill villages of the Colony
a great number of trees are seen, but, owing to a fall
in the price of the product, most of the crop remains
unpicked, although it should not prove unremunerative
even at the present prices to continue the export.

INDIGO.—Species of Indigofera and a scandent shrub,
Lonchocarpus cyanescens, or “‘ Gara’? (Mendi), are used
for the extraction of the blue dyes commonly employed
in the country. The leaves of the latter plant are said
to be in such demand that a quantity is annually
imported from Southern Nigeria. A description of the
method of dyeing with “ Gara,” and an explanation of
the process, are given in the Bulletin of the Imperial
Institute, vol. v. (1907), p. 129.

FRUIT.—Some parts of the Colony seem favourable for
the cultivation of various tropical fruits, such as bananas,
oranges, mangoes, and pineapples, and it is possible that
the proximity of Sierra Leone to European ports might
enable some of these to be grown for export.

40 SIERRA LEONE

BEESWAX.—A small amount of beeswax is collected
in the Protectorate, and instruction has been given to the
natives in some localities with a view to the improvement
of the methods employed by them. The Government has
arranged for the instruction of some of the local officials
while on leave in England in practical bee-keeping.

The bee found in Sierra Leone is identical with the
variety of Apis mellifera found throughout West Africa,
and is named var. Adansonii. It is rather small, but
produces an excellent honey, which is much appreciated.

OIL SEEDS.—A tall tree bearing a large flattened
legume, known to the Mendi people as “ Fai,” or
““Fawe,” has been sent for examination to the Imperial
Institute on account of the oil contained in the seed.
This tree was identified as Pentaclethra macrophylla,
and, although common throughout the forested zone,
is not seen in profusion anywhere. The oil has been
tested, and is said to be capable of utilisation for the
manufacture of soap and candles, but not for alimentary
purposes. The difficulties in connection with the collec-
tion of the seed in large quantities and the extraction
of the kernel from the outer horny shell, hinder the
creation of a remunerative export trade.

Another vegetable oil is that obtained from the fruit
of Pentadesma butyracea, a tree found in some parts of
Bullom and in the Port Lokko district. The fat extracted
from the ripe fruit is occasionally brought for sale to
Freetown, where it is known as Mandingo butter. It
does not occur in sufficient quantities to be commercially
useful, although it yields an edible oil.

Lophira alata, which is widely distributed throughout
the grass country in the north, and is replaced by a
nearly allied species, L. procera, in the forest zohe, bears
a@ seed which contains a large percentage of oil, which
can be used for soap manufacture. The difficulty of
decorticating the seeds and their preservation during
transport are disadvantages in the establishment of
an export trade.

Analyses of the fats or oils yielded by these and other
West African oil seeds, and information as to their quality,
possible uses and value will be found in Selected Reports
from the Imperial Institute, Pt. V., Oil Seeds (cf. also Bull.
Imp. Inst., 1912, 1913, 1915, 1917, 1918).

AGRICULTURAL PROGRESS 41

Progress in Agriculture—In 1910 the Agricultural
Department was reorganised on a better basis than
formerly, and the purely forestry work, which had been
previously carried on by the Agricultural Superintendent,
in addition to his other duties, was then transferred to a
Forestry Department formed in that year.

Briefly, the scheme of work laid down by the new
Department of Agriculture may be said to be on the follow-
ing chief lines :

(i) The introduction of a cheap and effective organic
manure, and the demonstration of its value in such a
manner as to induce the people to use it on their land,
and thereby to employ more economical means for the
production of food, etc.

(ii) The institution of a proper rotation of crops suitable
for each district or locality.

(iii) The demonstration to natives of the fact, that, by
the proper employment of manuring and crop rotation,
they would be able to farm the same piece of land for an
indefinite number of years, during which time it should
increase rather than diminish in fertility. By such de-
monstration it should be possible to put an end to the
wasteful and permanently destructive methods at present
employed of shifting cultivation.

The Agricultural Department has a piece of land on
the Experiment Farm at Njala, which has been under
crops annually for the past eight years, and the condition
of it at present is said to be a more fertile one, owing to
the system of manuring and rotation employed, than it
was at the commencement of work. This is mentioned
here, as it is in contradiction to the well-worn native excuse
for changing the site of farms annually, 7.e., that it is
essential for the maintenance of the fertility of land that
after a few years’ cultivation the “ bush” be allowed to
become re-established so that, on burning, a sufficient
amount of wood ash may be obtained to renovate it.

(iv) To encourage the natives in the formation of
permanent plantations of fruit and other economic trees.

To these ends, in the first place, analyses of soils from
various parts of the country have been made by the
Imperial Institute. At the same time samples of the soil
taken from localities where kola, cocoa, rice and ground-
nuts were grown, have been compared with that from

42 SIERRA LEONE

uncleared “‘ bush.” The result of the examination, in
the latter case, showed the soil had a deficiency of lime
and phosphoric acid. A special analysis was also made
of the soil of the Banana Islands, which was found to have
an adequate quantity of nitrogen but to be deficient in
potash and phosphoric acid.

With a view to producing a more satisfactory condition
of soil in some parts, different leguminous crops have
been cultivated and alternated with Sorghum millet
(Guinea corn), maize and rice. Among the species tried
by the Agricultural Department are: soya beans (Glycine
soja), black gram (Phaseolus mungo), pigeon peas (Cajanus
indicus), Java beans (Phaseolus lunatus), cowpeas (Vigna
catjang), sword beans (Canavalia ensiformis) and horse-
beans (Dolichos lablab). Yams and groundnuts have
also been tried, and a yield of 6 tons 3 cwts. per acre of the
former crop was obtained at the experimental farm at
Njala in 1914.

Forestry.—On the formation of a Forestry Department
in 1910, a survey was at once proceeded with, and active
steps were taken to save from extinction the small extent
of forest remaining in the Colony and Protectorate,
From the survey it appeared that some 99 per cent. of the
Protectorate primary forest had already been destroyed
by the wasteful methods of farming generally practised.
Intervals between the clearing of the bush for farms
was from nine to five years, the effect of which was to
entirely eliminate the primary forest areas. Where
patches still remain, however, many useful species of
timber trees are found. By the introduction of regular
forest control and reafforestation, it is hoped that con-
ditions may be improved to some extent, and economic
trees especially preserved. Jorest legislation has already
been introduced to insure the preservation of copal trees.

GOLD COAST

0
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100 Miles

Territory held by Great Britain under Mandate is hatched in Red. 77 Stanford's Geog! Fstabt London.

THE GOLD COAST, ASHANTI
AND THE NORTHERN
TERRITORIES

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Geographical Position.—
The Gold Coast Colony, with the dependencies of
Ashanti and the Northern Territories, forms a nearly
oblong tract of country, bounded on the north by the
llth parallel of north latitude and the French Sudan,
on the south by the Gulf of Guinea, on the east by Togo-
land, and on the west by the Ivory Coast (French).
The course of the Black Volta forms the natural boundary
on the north-west, and that of the Daka, continued as
the main Volta river, a large extent of the eastern, which,
however, is in course of realignment.

Area and Population.—The area of the whole country is
estimated at about $2,000 sq. miles, and the population
at upwards of 1,500,000.

Divisions.—The Colony proper forms the most southern
of the three divisions of which the country is composed,
and is bounded on the north by anirregular line dividing
it from Ashanti. This line commences upon the western
frontier at a point about 6°40’ N. and 3°7’ W.,
and runs to a point on the Ofin river about 6°30’ N.
and 2° W., continuing southward along the course of
the Ofin to its junction with the Pra river, whence it
follows the last-named river in a north-easterly direction ©
to near Abetifi, and continues in an irregular line to the
Volta, meeting it below the junction of the Assuokoko
stream. Ashanti is separated from the Northern Terri-
tories by an irregular boundary-line from east to west,
on the south side of the Black and main Volta rivers.
It is almost entirely forested up to the boundaries of the
largest towns. A view of Kumassi, the capital, is given,
showing the proximity of the forest (Fig. 14).

43

44 THE GOLD COAST

From a climatic as well as an agricultural standpoint
the country is more conveniently divided into two parts
by a line which sharply defines the limits of the region
of dense forest from that of the grass lands with few
trees, which is characteristic of the country to the north.
This line is probably the northern limit of the tract of
country subject to a prolonged rainy season, and owing
to the density of the forest south of it seems to have con-
stituted the extreme distance to which the Mohammedan
conquerors from the north were able to penetrate, when
attempting to subdue and convert the pagan tribes to
their south. The improved methods of agriculture found
among the tribes inhabiting the ultra-forest country of
the Northern Territories may be attributable to the
teaching of these conquering people. On account of the
marked differences in the conditions and the agricultural
development of the forest and ultra-forest regions, it
appears to be more convenient to refer to the products
from the Northern Territories in a separate part, and
this course has been followed here.

PART I.—GOLD COAST AND ASHANTI

Origin of Tribes.— Tradition among the natives maintains
that the two great tribes of Fanti and Ashanti were
originally from the same stock, and it is probable that
this was also the case with regard to the people of Tufel,
Denkera, Assin and Aquapim, who are said to speak a
dialect of the same language as that of the Fantis and
Ashantis. Completely different languages are, however,
spoken by the Appolonias, Ahantas, Agoonahs, Accras,
and Adampes living near the coast, and these are supposed
to represent the remains of an earlier race.

The native belief is that the whole people were origin-
ally composed of twelve families or tribes, and that each
was called by a separate name in some way indicating
the occupation. According to Bowdich, those calling
themselves after animals of the forest probably repre-
sented the families employing their time in hunting, and
those bearing such names as cornstalk (Abrotoo) and
plantain (Abbradi) applied themselves to agriculture.
The name Agoonah, implying “ oil-palm locality,’ seems to
have been applied to all those who were traders. Indi-

BACKWARD CONDITION OF AGRICULTURE 45

viduals are still said to assume these distinctive names
without regard to their usual tribal affinities.

The probable reason for the backward condition of
agriculture in the forest region is that a food supply
was procurable from the forest itself, and the continual
intertribal warfare, in which the people seemed to have
been engaged, was opposed to the cultivation of crops,
which might become an incentive to a covetous attack.
More recently, since these conditions have become altered,
through the pacification of the country, some of the
tribes, who were the first to become settled, have adopted
a form of cultivation which, although wasteful, seems to
be common among the forest people of West Africa. By
means of imperfect clearing of the ground before culti-
vation, and superficial turning up of the soil, small crops
of grain (maize) and roots (yams and cassava) are raised,
and the land is usually left to revert to a state of weeds
and “‘ bush” after two or three years’ use. This resem-
bles the “Chena ”’ system in Ceylon. The tribes who
have developed a better and more economical form of
working are those in whose districts the advent of cocoa
planters has so raised the value of land that they are
compelled to utilise the same plot more frequently for their
annual crops. As an indication of this, the best culti-
vated fields are those of the Krobos, Akims, Krepes, and
Kwahus, while the least advanced tribes are the Ashantis.

Owing to the remunerative return from cocoa cultiva-
tion in parts of the country, this commodity has attained
the first place among exported agricultural and forest
products. In recent years, moreover, development has
been so rapid that the country is now the largest producer
of cocoa in the world. Among exports, rubber, palm oil,
palm kernels and timber follow it in order of importance.

COCOA.—As a preliminary to an account of the cocoa
industry in the Gold Coast, it may be considered useful
to refer briefly to the botanical position of the tree which
produces cocoa, as well as to the varieties which are
cultivated. A comparison of the methods employed in
the Gold Coast with those adopted elsewhere seems also
necessary.

The tree is a native of Trinidad and the north-eastern
part of South America, and is botanically classified
in the Natural Order STEROULIACE#®, sub-Order

46 THE GOLD COAST

DBuettneriee, under the name of Theobroma cacao of
Linneus.

In the West Indies, from which the cultivation has
spread into several tropical countries, three fairly well-
marked varieties are recognised as commercially useful,
and these bear the local names of “‘ Criollo,”’ ‘‘ Forastero,”’
and ‘Calabacillo.” The first of these is said to be
identical with that occurring at Caracas, in Venezuela,
and is usually called by the name of that place when
exported from South America. The Criollo variety is
the source of some of the highest-priced produce, but
Forastero has some points in its favour for general culti-
vation, the chief of which appears to be greater hardi-
ness. For this reason it seems to have become easily
established in the islands of San Thomé and Fernando
Po, where the sub-variety known as Amelonado is that
of general occurrence, and to have spread from there
to the mainland of West Africa. In Ceylon the Forastero
variety is also much grown in plantations. The third
variety, Calabacillo, yields an inferior product and does
not appear to have been introduced into the eastern
hemisphere.*

Cocoa, as shipped from the plantations, is the dried
bean or seed, which has been removed from the fruit
pod of the tree, and may or may not have been fermented
before drying. The properly fermented seeds or beans
find more favour in European markets than those which
have not undergone the process, but it is chiefly in an
imperfectly fermented condition that cocoa beans are
exported from the Gold Coast. Attempts are being made
to alter this, so as to produce a better quality.

Cocoa forms a very nutritious food, and beverage after
preparation by the manufacturer, entering the markets
in a manufactured form under the names of cocoa or
chocolate. No native manufacture is employed in the
Gold Coast, although cocoa butter has been extracted
on a small scale at Odumase.

The following account is that which is generally ac-
cepted regarding the first introduction of the tree into

* Hinchley Hart, in Cacao, 1892, pp. 48-52, discusses the three
varieties mentioned here, and shows that intermediate forms exist
which connect all three. The Forastero class includes all the cocoas
which have thick skins and large pods with rather flat beans.

CULTIVATION OF COCOA 47

the Gold Coast. About the year 1879 a native trader,
named Tete Quasshi, brought some of the seed from
Fernando Po and made a small plantation at Mampong,
which is situated about ten miles north of Aburi in the
Volta River District. The trees grew well, and the first
crops of pods were said to have been disposed of to
other natives at £1 per pod. Following the example of
this trader, the Basel Mission Trading Association im-
ported more pods from Fernando Po, and for some time
they were able to dispose of them at a large profit. The
variety introduced was Forastero-Amelonado, and was
found to thrive extremely well under the local conditions
prevalent in the districts of the Volta River, Kwahu, and
Eastern Akim.

The first shipment of cocoa from the Gold Coast was
made in 1891, when 80 lbs., valued at £4, were exported.
From that time onward the annual exported quantity
has increased somewhat irregularly until the returns for
1919 show 176,833 tons, worth more than £8,000,000.

No estimate can be given of the area at present under
cocoa cultivation, for the reason that a large number of
the cultivators only possess a few trees standing near
their houses or scattered in their farms. Where planta-
tions exist they are usually small, and, owing to the
irregularity of the planting, no efficient idea of the possible
production could be obtained by measurement of the
planted area alone.

Since the settlement of the Ashantis into more peaceful
modes of living, and the adoption by them of agricultural
work, cocoa planting has rapidly spread through Ashanti-
Akim, and new plantations may be found even westward
of Kumassi. From Axim also there is an extension of
cocoa-growing towards the north, and it has recently been
stated that the most promising land for the cultivation
of the tree is to be found to the west of the railway,
between Sekondi and Kumassi. The once proverbially
truculent and warlike Ashantis have recently, to a large
extent, become peaceful cocoa planters. Plantations are
also found under European control, often in combination
with rubber or kola; but cocoa does not combine with
rubber as satisfactorily as coffee, which is more frequently
employed. Under “‘ Rubber” some particulars of the
plantations, whose returns are available, are supplied.

48 THE GOLD COAST

In common with many other cultivated plants, cocoa
requires certain definite combinations of climate and soil
to ensure remunerative cultivation, and unless these exist
the introduction is not to be recommended. With regard
to climate, a considerable rainfall is generally thought
necessary, the intervals of dry weather not being too
prolonged. The drainage of the land should be good,
for if the water cannot drain away within a reasonably
short time, the trees will be adversely and often severely
affected. Although it is recognised that cocoa can sus-
tain itself under conditions of drought for a short time,
districts subject to periodical absence of rain for a month
or more are unsuitable, and trees planted in such places
will generally die after a brief period. The annualrainfall
in the cocoa districts of Trinidad averages about 72 inches,
but a much heavier fall is experienced in the plantations
of Ceylon. In neither of these countries, however, is
there an annual long period of complete drought, which
is a feature common in most parts of West Africa; and
even when an interval without rain occurs, the humidity
of the atmosphere compensates for the absence of it.
Ceylon is visited by a double monsoon or rainy season,
which is also the case in a less marked degree in the
Gold Coast. The next requirement of importance is a
soil of suitable quality. It is generally considered best
to select land which possesses a moderate amount of
loose clay mixed with sand, and, if the surface be thickly
covered with vegetable deposit, so much the better.
Steep hillsides, stiff, boggy, sandy, or rocky land are to
be avoided. The presence of low scrub on uncleared
land is an indication of poverty of soil, although the
presence of heavy forest does not necessarily guarantee
the suitability of the locality, as imperfectly drained land
often bears a heavy forest growth. Good natural drainage
is essential, and is nearly always found where the land
slopes and the rock underlying the soil is friable or deep.
Natural drainage can often be improved by artificial
means. The last important condition necessary is the
selection of a position where shade and wind protection
can be obtained naturally to as great an extent as possi-
ble. Plantations in valleys, sheltered by mountain spurs
or by belts of high forest, are suitable, and such formations
are met with in many parts of the Gold Coast and Ashanti,

COCOA 49

In these localities the climate as well as the positions
and soil obtainable are generally so well adapted for the
fruitful growth of cocoa that, even where the average
annual rainfall is as low as 41 inches (the average at
Aburi), plantations are proving successful, the regular dis-
tribution, humidity of the atmosphere, and the natural
shade constituting a compensation for the shortage.
The native planter sows the seeds in small patches or
in roughly prepared beds in the vicinity of water, often
in such proximity to one another as to choke a number
of the young plants. This form of nursery is met with
throughout the forests, and it is common to find circular
patches containing two or three hundred plants adjoining
a road. In addition to this, a large number of seedlings
are grown at, and distributed from, the Government
Botanic Gardens. Native plantations are for the most
part formed of irregular lines of trees, generally planted
too closely. The evil effect of this does not become
apparent until the trees attain a large size, when the
excessive shade they afford to their fruit-bearing branches,
which in cocoa consist of the trunk and main structure,
prevents the fruit from forming and induces rot through
want of evaporation of moisture. The native planter is
slow to recognise this,and disinclined to remedy thematter
by removing some of the trees. The distance at which
cocoa trees are planted by the native is roughly from
7 to 10 feet apart, whereas that recommended for planta-
tions in the West Indies and Ceylon varies, with the
quality of the soil and the elevation, from 12 to 15 feet;
the latter would be more suitable for most of the Gold
Coast plantations. The advantage which the native
planter sees in his method of planting is, that in addition
to getting a larger number of trees into a given space,
the density of their foliage soon becomes so great that
weeds cease to grow beneath, rendering cultivation un-
necessary. Until such a state has been arrived at, the
cutting of weeds is an operation which may have to
be performed twice, or even three times, in the year.
This is the only form of cultivation given, no manure
being used or any breaking of the soil done. In the
West Indies it is not customary to disturb the surface
soil, except in so far as it may be necessary to apply
manure or remove catch crops; but even in these cases

4

50 THE GOLD COAST

great care is exercised, as it is found that the cocoa tree
is to a large extent a surface feeder, and spreads lateral
fine roots at very little depth below the surface. Shade
is obtained naturally to a large degree, but in the early
years of the tree’s existence, cassava and plantains are
planted to afford it. The plantation of Para rubber
with cocoa has been recommended in such a manner
that each would occur alternately in a diagonal line.
This does not appear a very satisfactory plan, owing to
the fact that Para rubber trees in West Africa shed their
leaves annually at about the time that cocoa most needs
shade. In the small patches of cocoa trees, which con-
stitute most of the native plantations, permanent and
sufficient shade is generally given by the surrounding
forest trees, and it is of small importance in such cases
to consider the plantation of permanent shade trees.

Pruning, in the West Indies, is attended with the greatest
amount of care, and is performed for the purpose of
producing a vigorous tree by the removal of all useless
wood, and of encouraging fruiting branches to increase
their production. In order to do the latter it is essential
to remove any superfluous number of primary branches,
three or four being considered sufficient for one tree.
A similar regulation of growth is required with regard
to the secondary and tertiary branches. In addition to
this, care is given to retain the correct balance for the
tree, and, when cutting out branches, to avoid making
jagged cuts or slashes. The West African native does
not prune with these objects in view, but employs a
‘cutlass’ or “‘machete’’ to cut out those branches
which seem to be giving too much shade or which have
become interlaced, regardless of their value to the tree
or of the wounds inflicted in the operation. Efforts have
been made to teach pruning at the Botanical Stations,
but the demonstrations have not been largely attended,
and a great deal of damage continues to be done through
ignorance of the objects and effects of pruning. Many
of the older plantations, owing to bad treatment and too
close planting, are yielding an annually diminishing crop,
but new ones are springing up in increasing numbers each
year, which is an obvious indication that the industry is
proving a profitable one.

Insect Pests and Vegetable Parasites—Wounds, such as

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COCOA 51

those described above, often render the tree more sus-
ceptible to the attacks of insect pests; but, although it
has been stated that cocoa trees in the Gold Coast are
seriously affected in this way, such is not often the case.
Beetles of the Longicorn group are found damaging the
tree to some extent wherever it has been planted. Two
species are recorded from the West Indies: Steirastoma
histrionica, White, from Trinidad, and S. depressa, Linn.,
from Grenada. On the trees in the Gold Coast Armato-
sterna buquetiana, White, and a Glenea sp. have been found
doing similar damage. These insects deposit their eggs
in crevices of the bark or on wounds, and the grubs which
emerge bore into the trunk, living and growing in size
in the interior of the wood until mature, when they
change into pupe, and finally into beetles. The presence
of these grubs is easily detected by the quantity of fine
particles of wood or “‘frass”’ which are thrown out of
the entrance hole; and, if a flexible wire be inserted until
it reaches and impales the grub, it will often prevent
the damage becoming serious. The nests of large red ants
(cophylla sp.), which feed upon the saccharine juices
which exude from the pods, may often be observed on
cocoa trees, butas the ants viciously bite any living thing
which may venture upon the tree, they are probably a
safeguard against the depredations of rats and squirrels
that eat out the contents of the ripe fruit while still on
the tree.

In 1909 the writer drew attention to a black hemip-
terous insect causing destruction to plantations in the
Ashanti-Akim region, where careless cultivation prevailed
(cf. Bull. Entom. Research, vol. i. pt. vili. 1910). This
insect, known as the “ Black cocoa-bark bug” or “ San-
konuabe,” was named Sahlbergella theobroma, Distant,
and subsists in all its stages upon the sap of cocoa branches
obtained through punctures made by its proboscis.*
The attacked trees are atrophied or killed outright
(Fig. 16). Spraying with petroleum-soap emulsion has
proved an effective remedy, but native planters do not
readily adopt it. Recently the insect has been found
sapping the silk cotton tree, and planters are warned
against having this tree in their plantations.

* S. singularis, a nearly allied insect, is common in certain localities
and does similar damage.

52 THE GOLD COAST

Another insect, which belongs to the same Order as
the last, and the genus Helopeltis, has been observed
puncturing the pods and causing them to become black-
spotted, distorted, and sometimes killed by the attack.
This is allied to H. Antoni, Sign., which punctures cocoa
pods in the same manner in Ceylon. The insect does not
appear to be numerous at present, but should be sought
on damaged pods and killed at every opportunity, as
some species of the same genus have developed into
the worst enemies of tea and cinchona in other parts
of the world.

Fungoid parasites appear to be rare in the Gold Coast,
although they have been observed commonly in other
places in Africa. In some of the damper parts of Ashanti
a fungoid thread blight was observed on cocoa, and was
found to be common upon several forest shrubs in the
same places. This is perhaps Stilbum nanum, Massee;
it should be treated by means of scraping with a wooden
knife combined with spraying with Bordeaux mixture.

Harvesting and Preparing.—The native cocoa grower
collects the pods from his trees at the time when he esti-
mates he can gather the most, and, in consequence, many
over-ripe and under-ripe fruits are taken with the ripe.
The effect of this is to give an irregular product which can
never possess the attributes of a good cocoa. The pods
are usually pulled off the tree, a knife being seldom used ;
and in the action of pulling off, the cushion, upon which
the pod is borne, is often torn andinjured. As it is from
this point, or near it, that the successive crops of flowers
and fruits proceed, the bearing power of the tree is fre-
quently diminished in this way. The use of a knife and
the necessity for frequent pickings, to ensure the pods being
taken when mature, are among the most important lessons
which the native planter should be taught. The pods
after collection are thrown into a heap upon the ground,
and are often left without further attention for two or
three days, after which they are broken open with the aid
of a “cutlass,” and the contents are scooped out into a
basket. The result is a mixture of beans, in their sur- —
rounding pulp, in different stages of maturity. The
length of time that the beans remain in the basket is
generally only regulated by the convenience of the col-
lector. The next operation is to remove as much of the

COCOA 53

pulp as possible by washing in a stream, and this is more
easily effected with the over-ripe beans or with those
which have been allowed to “sweat” or ferment. After
washing, the beans are spread thinly upon mats, raised
upon rough frames, in order to dry them in the sun. An
illustration is given showing this process (Fig. 17). Such
is the crude and irregular method employed by the
natives of the Gold Coast, who until quite recently had
little or no knowledge of the advantages of fermentation.
Owing to the small quantities with which they worked
at one time, it is probable that the fermenting action in
the pulp was seldom set up. During the last few years
attention has been given to this by the more intelligent
planters, and it is not uncommon to find that boxes and
barrels have been brought into use by them, and that
fermentation has been allowed to proceed for from four
to ten days with satisfactory results. Drying is still
conducted in the manner described above, and is often
incomplete, but, to remedy the defects of this, one of the
European buying firms has erected a drying machine,
in which all the cocoa bought is thoroughly dried before
shipment.

The skilled cocoa planter of the West Indies and Ceylon
is careful to pick only those pods which are quite mature,
and, in order to do this, he is obliged to go over his
plantation frequently. Mature pods are those which have
assumed a yellowish or reddish colour, and considerable
experience is necessary to judge this with accuracy.
The pods are removed by means of a cutting instrument
called a “‘ cocoa hook,” with which care can be more
easily given to the preservation of the cushion. The
pods are placed in heaps and, in the case of small estates
where one day’s picking is insufficient to procure a fer-
mentation, they are left for, perhaps, two days until a
sufficient quantity has been obtained. Sorting, according
to variety and degree of maturity, is resorted to before
opening, and, again, when cut open, care is taken to
separate such beans as are found over-ripe. This practice
is strictly adhered to in Ceylon, but is often disregarded
in the West Indies. No washing is done at this stage,
but the beans, with their pulp attached, are placed in
barrels, boxes, or vats for the purpose of fermentation,
which is brought about by the decomposition of the pulp,

54 THE GOLD COAST

and is complete when the liquor, thus formed, has im-
pregnated the interior of the bean and changed the colour
of it from purple to rich chocolate brown. ‘The shell
becomes toughened, and the remaining pulp is more
easily removed after this process has been undergone.
Washing, if it is considered necessary, is then proceeded
with, and is generally done in Ceylon, though not in the
West Indies. Drying is chiefly done in the sun in the
West Indies, and the beans are spread thickly and turned
constantly. Drying houses, which have roofs capable of
being slid over the cocoa on the approach of rain, are
used. In Ceylon hot air distributed by centrifugal fans
is the common method. Polishing, which is often em-
ployed in the West Indies, is done by sifting finely pow-
dered red earth over the partly dried beans while they
are exposed to the sun, when, it is maintained, the earth
assists to remove the remaining pulp as well.as to absorb
the moisture, at the same time giving the surfaces of
the beans a polished exterior. Annatto is said to be
used instead of red earth in Venezuela, but the addition
of this is, presumably, with the object of colouring, rather
than polishing. “‘ Dancing” is an operation designed to
prevent the development of mildew, and consists of
treading the beans with the bare feet.

Some of the large manufacturers in Europe have
recommended that the Gold Coast planters should
ferment their produce, but should not wash the beans
after fermentation.

Markets.—Certain large cocoa-buying centres are recog-
nised, which, in the Volta River district, are situated at
the foot of the hilly country, in positions convenient for
transport to the ports of shipment. In addition to these,
however, a good deal of buying is proceeded with at smaller
places in the midst of the growing districts, but these
probablyrepresent the localities for the transactionscarried
on by agents or middlemen. Until the produce is actually
in the hands of the shippers, the conveyance of cocoa
is almost entirely done by head-loads of about 60 Ibs.
The head-load is the standard for trading, and the local
price quoted is always with reference to it. It is cus-
tomary for the buying shippers to send out their agents
to the cocoa districts to arrange for the purchase of the
crops, and it is always necessary that such purchases

COCOA 55

should be paid for in silver, no notes or cheques being
accepted. Owing to competition during the past few
years, the agents have often paid the grower a sum of
money long before his crop was ready for picking, in
order to guarantee that it may be bought by no one else.
This has had the effect of making the grower careless
in the preparation of his crop, and has caused the pro-
duction of much bad material. The report that at
another town, often distant by many days’ journey, a
higher price is being paid than that obtained in a market
close at hand, will frequently induce a native to convey
his head-loads to the distant market, regardless of the
fact that the extra shilling or so he may receive does
not appear to be sufficient compensation for the additional
labour and time expended. This points to the fact that
the native does not put the same value on his time and
labour when he is working for himself as he does when
he is employed by others.

The buyers of cocoa pack it in bags for shipment, and
these are conveyed to the ports by motor lorries or
placed inside large casks, similar to those used for palm
oil, and rolled along the roads. Some of the shipments
are conveyed in river steamers on the Volta, and, more
recently, owing to the growers having found a better
market for a short time at Kumassi, a considerable amount
was sent by rail from that place to Sekondi. In conse-
quence of the imperfect state of dryness in which the
cocoa is often sold by the planter, a great amount of
care should be exercised before mixing and packing.
Sorting is not much practised, and some of the beans
often become attacked by mildew before reaching Europe,
which depreciates the value of the whole package. It
is partly owing to the disregard of the precautions of
sorting and final drying that the West African cocoa has
earned such a bad name, and if more shippers were to
follow the example set by the one firm that has erected
a drying apparatus, it would do much to improve matters
in this direction. Cocoa is difficult to dry completely
in the growing districts by means of the sun, as the
atmosphere in these localities is often so humid that the
beans absorb moisture when removed from the sun’s
rays, and it is for this reason especially that the final
drying should be done by the shippers. Transport to

56 THE GOLD COAST

the ports of shipment from the growing districts will be
facilitated by the construction of a short railway, which
it is contemplated making from Accra, and until this is
ready the carriage by head-loads, cask-rolling, and motor
lorries will probably continue. The presence of the
“tsetse ’’ fly throughout the growing districts prevents
the possibility of draught cattle being used.

A system of pooling purchases was agreed upon some
years ago by a number of leading shippers, in accordance
with which competition among themselves was sup-
pressed, and a fixed price was to be given for all cocoa.
This action was doubtless taken in order to prevent
ruinous competition, but had the effect of checking im-
provement in the quality, as no encouragement was given
to the planter to prepare the cocoa with greatercare. The
few shippers who did not join in this “combine” were
enabled to obtain the better qualities at a very slightly
enhanced price. In 1906 the general quality of Gold
Coast cocoa had so deteriorated that the merchants were
asked by the Government for their assistance to improve
it. This led to an inquiry which revealed the state of
affairs mentioned above. The obvious remedy of paying
@ price according to quality did not find favour with the
combine, who appear to have argued that it would not
profit them to pay a higher price for the small variable
lots of improved produce which might result. It was
stated by some of the local merchants in Accra that
Gold Coast cocoa was generally suitable for sale in
certain European markets, where it was adapted for
the manufacture of a cheap form of sweetmeat, and
that, if the quality were improved and the price raised
in consequence, damage would be done to a new and
rapidly growing trade. The merchants ultimately agreed
to endeavour to improve the standard of quality, and it
was arranged that all the cocoa brought in to the markets
at Aimensa and Dodowa should be graded, with a view to
regulating the price according to grade. ‘This plan fell
through at the last moment, asa test sample of picked
cocoa was said to have been priced at only ls. 6d. per ewt.
over ordinary “ Accra” in the European market. The
fall in the value of the residue was said to be uncom-
pensated for by the small increase mentioned.

Improvement of Quality.—Inquiries conducted by the

COCOA 57

Imperial Institute pointed to the fact that well-prepared
Gold Coast cocoa could obtain high prices in Europe. In
1907 a consignment was sent to the Imperial Institute for
examination and report, and proved to be of good quality,
and when subsequently sold, it obtained a high price. This
established confidence with regard to the possibility of fine
grades being prepared in the country. During this year,
owing to the action of the Fernando Po and San Thomé
growers, in withholding their crop, a greater demand
was created for Gold Coast cocoa, and the advent of
large buyers, working outside the “combine,” forced
the local price to a high figure. This did not assist in
the improvement of the quality, as the competition in-
duced native buying agents to buy the produce in almost
any form, in consequence of which large quantities of
imperfectly dried stuff were obtained. On the market
becoming steadier, many of the more intelligent natives
realised the advantage of careful preparation, to which
they are now turning their attention.

Towards this latter result Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd.,
rendered great assistance. This firm sent representatives
into the country, who proved to the natives that they
were willing to pay an enhanced price for cocoa prepared
in a manner suitable for their requirements. A fair
amount of cocoa was purchased by them, and demon-
strations were made in some places with regard to the
proper mode of fermentation. In addition to this a
number of seedlings of the Criollo variety were given to
the Agricultural Department for experimental work at
the Aburi Botanic Station.

The Forastero-amelonado variety, a hardy but com-
mercially inferior kind, has been mainly employed in
plantations, and experiments have been carried on for
some years at Aburi with Pentagona, Caracas and Cun-
deamor besides Criollo mentioned above. Such good
results were obtained with Cundeamor that, in 1913, keen
competition was aroused among planters to obtain seed.
The years 1913 and 1914 are said to have shown an im-
provement in the quality of the cocoa produced. The
attention of the Agricultural Department has been given
to the general instruction of the natives in improved
methods of cultivation and preparation, both by means
of lectures and demonstrations at the Botanic Stations

58 THE GOLD COAST

and by the issue of pamphlets in English and the Twi
language. There was at first an insufficient staff for
instruction to be given except at the Botanic Stations,
and only those growers who lived in the vicinity were able
to obtain benefit from it. After holding several confer-
ences with chiefs and planters in the cocoa districts it
became evident that the appointment of European Travel-
ling Instructors was necessary, and following this the
Government detailed certain officers for the work; the
object being that they should occupy a large portion of
their time in travelling through the country in order to
give personal instruction to the natives in correct methods
of treating cocoa and other agricultural products. Persons
selected by chiefs are now trained to act as instructors in
planting in their own native towns.

The preparation of a large quantity of cocoa of even
quality is so greatly dependent upon the similarity of
the treatment and conditions at a time when the material
is undergoing fermentation and drying, that it is almost
imperative that a large quantity should be prepared at
one operation. This is an important consideration in
British West Africa, where native plantations range in size
from afew trees to about five acres in extent, the average
being perhaps about a hundred trees, or, roughly, one-
tenth of an acre. The production of each plantation is
at present prepared independently, and the result of one
picking of pods, if all mature, is often quite inadequate
to yield sufficient for fermentation purposes, it being
recognised that a few hundredweights of beans in their
pulp are necessary for the satisfactory accomplishment
of the operation. The same difficulty has presented itself
in the West Indies with regard to the crops picked by
owners of small plantations, and arrangements are usually
made by some larger concern in the neighbourhood to
purchase the pods from them. The establishment of
central fermenting and drying houses, controlled by the
shippers themselves, would perhaps get over the difficulty
on the Gold Coast and result in a superior class of cocoa
being produced. The planters would doubtless consent
to sell their pods, instead of performing the laborious
work of preparation themselves, and would probably be
able to extend the size of their individual plantations,
which, by reason of their inability to prepare more

EXPORTS OF COCOA 59

cocoa, single-handed, they have been unable, hitherto,
to do. The efforts of the Administration to improve the
preparation have been somewhat handicapped by the
system employed by some merchants of securing the crop
for themselves, by money advances, with but little
regard to its preparation, and of pooling the produce.

Cocoa planting has revolutionised the native system of
land titles. Where only annual crops were under con-
sideration, a short, temporary occupation with subsequent
reversion to tribal ownership seemed an adequate pro-
vision, but with the establishment of permanent cocoa
plantations the planter claimed perpetual and undivided

roprietorship.
x Further Saamation regarding Gold Coast cocoa will be
found in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1907, p.
361; 1912, pp. 240, 556; 1913, p. 154; 1914, p. 387;
1915, pp. 149, 645 ; 1916, p. 123; 1917, p. 117; 1919, pp.
49, 102; and Johnson’s Cocoa, 1912.

Exports of Cocoa.—The exports of cocoa from 1900
to 1919 are as follows:

Year Tons Year Tons Year Tons
1900 ; 536 | 1907 ‘ 9,355 | 1914 . 52,888
1901 _ 980 | 1908 .. 12,743 | 1915. 77,278
1902 . 2,396 | 1909 ae Ak teh Oar 72,162
1903 - 2,276 | 1910 SP 70425 WE 0 hy 90,964
1904 a Le | LOL . - 39,126) 1918 . 66,342
1905 meses | LOL? id, oo, O4n | 19To. — 176,155
1906 - 8,975 | 1913 . 50,554

RUBBER. Indigenous Species—The most important
source of rubber in the Gold Coast and Ashanti is the
indigenous tree locally called “ Ofruntum”: a compara-
tively small amount is also derived from some of the
vines belonging to the same Natural Order, and from
one or more of the wild trees of the Ficus Order.

Reports on the quality and commercial value of some
of the principal kinds of rubber obtained in the Gold
Coast are published in the Bulletin of the Imperial Insti-
tute, vol. v. (1907), p. 248.

Botanical Position of the « Ofruntum ” Tree.—The “ Ofrun-
tum,” or African rubber, is botanically placed in the
Natural Order APocynAcE«#, under the specific name

60 THE GOLD COAST

of Funtumia elastica, Stapf. Until recently it was referred
to as Kicksia africana, Benth. and others (a genus which
is not known to occur in West Africa), and it was also
confused with a very nearly allied species, occurring in the
same localities, and now known as Funtumia africana,
Stapf. Owing to the great similarity which these species
of Funtumia bear to one another, it is important that the
differences between them should be recognised, F. africana
not furnishing any but very inferior rubber. The most
reliable method of testing the species which produces
rubber, is by rubbing a small quantity of latex between
the finger and thumb, when small particles of rubber
should be quickly formed, the latex of F. africana be-
coming only a sticky mass under the operation. The
leaf of F. elastica can usually be recognised by the presence
of a small pit at the origin of each secondary nerve or
vein on the under-surface, which feature is not character-
istic of the leaf of F. africana, although recently indi-
vidual trees have been found exhibiting this peculiarity.
The flower bud of F’. elastica is typically much shorter than
that of F. africana, and the double seed pod of the former
species is shorter and more blunt than that of the latter.

Distribution of F. elastica—The Funtumia rubber tree
occurs in a wild state in the forests throughout the Gold
Coast and Ashanti, although it has been nearly extermin-
ated in some parts. It appears to be most plentiful in
the dense forest regions of Northern Ashanti.

Native Methods for Preparing.—Funtumia rubber is ex-
ported under the names of ‘‘ Ashantilump” and “Niggers,”
which consist of much adulterated, evil-smelling sub-
stances, for which a low price is procurable in comparison
with that paid for pure rubber. In certain years the
demand for this has been maintained, but the adequate
supplies of good rubber from elsewhere, and the rapid
expansion of the cocoa industry, have caused a diminution
in the export of native-made rubber, which has been
replaced to a small extent by plantation rubber.

The wild trees grow from 50 to 100 feet in height, and |
often have a girth of three feet at four feet from the
base ; the trunk being commonly without branches for
a considerable height. The native ascends the trunk by
means of a sling passed round it, to one end of which
is a loop which fits over his right thigh and to the

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RUBBER 61

other a stirrup in which he keeps his left foot. By
moving the rope up the tree the ascent is quickly accom-
plished, and when stationary, both hands are left free.
The climber carries a gouge, or semi-cylindrically-faced
chisel, with which he cuts vertical as well as transverse
oblique grooves, forming a rough “ herring-bone ”’ pattern,
which may be continued for the whole length of the
trunk, and even extend on to the main branches. To
make the cuts the tool is either used in one hand or is
held in the left and driven by blows on the end of the
handle, given with the palm of the right hand. The
flow of latex commences at once, and is directed down
the vertical channel into a calabash placed at the base
of the tree, into which the latex is guided by a lip of
clay or a chip of wood. The illustration shows a native
in Ashanti tapping a tree (Fig.18). The quantity of latex
procured at the one tapping varies; an exceptionally
large amount being about two quarts from a large tree.
The tree is not tapped again for several months and until
the wounds have healed. On the second tapping the
same form of cuts is made upon the opposite side of the
tree, and the transverse channels often intersect those
made previously ; besides this, owing to the want of
regulation in the depth of the cuts, the inner or cambium
layer of the bark may be so damaged that the intersecting
cuts may ring the tree and cause death. Few trees
probably survive the third or fourth tapping.

If the herring-bone cuts were made carefully upon the
lower part of the trunk, and attention given to their
depth and direction, the tree might be preserved for a
longer period. An illustration given shows the incorrect
mode of tapping, where the transverse cuts are opposite
instead of alternate (Fig. 21). Experiments seem to show
that there is not the same “‘ wound response ”’ in the case
of Funtumia trees as is found in that of the “ Para”
tree (Hevea brasiliensis) ; the paring of the wounds some
days after tapping yielding no flow of latex similar to
that procured in the first instance. On cutting the bark
area between the transverse channels, the latex cells
appeared to be empty and to indicate that a large area
is drained on the first tapping. Further investigation is
necessary in order to compare the results obtained from
this tree with those of Hevea,

62 THE GOLD COAST

The latex of Funtumia will remain in an uncoagulated
state for a longer time than that of Hevea, but it may
become damaged by fermentation if a quantity is kept
in bulk for a lengthened period. The native does not
usually produce a pure Funtumia rubber, but mixes with
the latex the latices of several other plants, among which
may be named “ Odum ” (Chlorophora excelsa), ‘‘ Osese ”’
(Funtumia africana), “‘ Ofo,” “‘ Okre,” ‘‘ Sindru ”’ (Cono-
pharyngia crassa and Alstonia sp.). Having mixed some
of these latices with that of the Funtumia, the whole is
heated and poured into a hole in the ground, which has
been prepared to serve as a mould. Coagulation and
decomposition proceed together at a slow rate, and finally
produce a rubber containing a number of holes which
serve as receptacles for the liquefied decomposed con-
stituents. The rubber mass is black outwardly, but
whitish within, andis more or lesssticky. It is said that
the latex of Landolphia owariensis, the vine from which
** Krepi ball ” rubber is made, is sometimes mixed with
the rest to hasten coagulation.

Improved Methods.—In 1906 attention was drawn to the
use of a plant called *‘ Niama ”’ in the Ivory Coast, by which
Funtumia rubber latex was coagulated by adding a hot
decoction of the leaves. This plant was subsequently
found to be Bauhinia reticulata, which bears the name of
* Otakataka ”’ in the Gold Coast. Experiments with this
afforded excellent results. An examination of the plant
made at the Imperial Institute proved that the tannin
contained in the leaves was responsible for the coagulation
of the latex, and that the infusion of any plant con-
taining tannin is equally effective. The obstacle to
the general use of B. reticulata for coagulation, is that
the plant does not occur in the same localities as the wild
Funtumia tree. Doubtless other tannin-yielding plants
may be found in the rubber forests which would
answer the purpose equally well, among them the pods
of Acacia arabica. A simple method of coagulation,
which was demonstrated to the chiefs and rubber
collectors in 1908, is that of diluting the latex with
about four or more times the volume of water, straining
and boiling it, when the rubber quickly separates and
can be collected from the surface of the water by means
of a stick and immediately pressed into a rough biscuit.

RUBBER 63

The rubber made in the manner mentioned above has
been valued at more than twice the price obtained for
the adulterated stuff, but it appears difficult to persuade
the local merchants to offer a higher price for it, and it
therefore suits the rubber collector better to make the
inferior quality. So long as this state of things continues,
it is to be feared that instruction in the improvement of
quality will not lead to the adoption of better methods.

In 1908 a Commission of Enquiry was appointed and
made certain recommendations for legislation for the
protection of the industry. Articles on Gold Coast rubber
will be found in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute,
vols. viii. (1910), x. (1912), xi. (1913), xii, (1914), xii.
(1915) and xv. (1917).

Plantations.—Large numbers of Funtumia seedlings have
been grown at and distributed from the Government
Botanic Gardens at Aburi, Tarkwa, and Kumassi, and
some of the Ashanti kings and chiefs, who have expressed
a wish to attempt to renovate their rubber forests, have
obtained assistance from the officers of the Agricultural
Department, who have conducted planting operations in
the forests in the presence of those interested. Plantations
under European management and with European capital
are in progress in the vicinity of Axim and Sekondi.
Most of the recently made plantations are said to consist
more of Para than of Funtumia rubber trees, although in
1913 one of these in the Dunkwa district of Ashanti was
reported to contain 20,000 trees of the latter kind. The
tree appears to thrive well when planted closely, and
straight trunks are soon formed.

Insect Pest.—At Aburi and elsewhere the Funtumia tree
is found to be attacked by the larva of a moth of the family
Pyralide, identified as Glyphodes ocellata, Hampson, which
denudes it of leaves. No severe damage seems to be
done by this pest, which has only been observed in
plantations, and was destroyed at Aburi by repeated
applications of lime and ashes.

Fungoid Pest.—A sooty fungoid growth is sometimes
seen upon the leaves, similar to that occurring on orange
trees in the country, and probably belongs to the genus
Meliola. It is destroyed by the application of sprays
of Bordeaux mixture.

Rubber Machinery.—A fully equipped installation of

64 THE GOLD COAST

rubber-washing and crépeing machinery was exhibited
at the Kumassi Agricultural Exhibition of 1908, and was
subsequently taken over by one of the leading mercantile
firms at that place, where the local rubber is now washed,
créped, and pressed before export. It might prove ad-
vantageous to come to an arrangement with the rubber
collectors to bring the latex to Kumassi, where, under
proper supervision, it could be made into rubber of high
quality. As the latex will remain for a considerable time
without alteration, it should not be difficult to bring it
in from places several days’ journey distant.

Vine Rubber.—Several species of vines, belonging to the
Natural Order APOCYNACEZ, produce rubber in Africa,
but the only one of commercial importance occurring in
the Gold Coast is Landolphia owariensis, Pal. Beauv., from
which “‘ Krepi”’ or ‘‘ White ball ” is obtained. Unless
the plant is observed during the flowering as well as the
fruiting season, it is difficult to distinguish it from some
nearly allied, but useless, species of the same genus, which
are found commonly in the same localities.

The vine is found throughout the forest region of the
Gold Coast and Ashanti, climbing over and interlacing
the main branches of large forest trees ; but an apparently
terrestrial form of the same species has recently been
discovered in the ultra-forest region, where the stunted
habit in which it grows is probably occasioned by the
annual grass fires.

Under different atmospheric conditions the latex of
L. owariensis behaves differently. In the drier regions
it coagulates upon the wound almost immediately upon
exposure to the air, whereas in other and moister places
it runs from the cut in such a manner as to allow it
to be collected in a vessel. The acid juices of some of
the local wild fruits are added to hasten coagulation,
when this is necessary, or the collector is said to smear
the fresh latex upon his naked body, until enough has
been coagulated to form a small ball, which serves as a
nucleus for winding on the strings of fresh latex as the
new cuts are made. There is a quantity of “‘ scrap rub-
ber ’’ formed on the wedge-shaped cuts which it is usual
to make, and this is added to the ball, which attains a
diameter of three or four inches when complete. The
crushing of the root and stem for the manufacture of

RUBBER 65

so-called “‘ root-rubber ”’ does not appear to be practised
in this country, although common elsewhere in West
Africa.

On account of the colour and form of this rubber,
the name of “ White ball” is usually applied to it,
although, from the fact that the Krepi tribes, living
on the east bank of the Volta river, produce a large
quantity of it, the name of “ Krepi ball” is frequently

iven.
i White ball rubber is seldom adulterated by the addition
of other latices, as these would retard coagulation and
interfere with the preparation of it in the manner men-
tioned. For this reason the rubber sold under this name
usually obtains a higher price than other rubber.

Landolphia owariensis presents many disadvantages for
cultivation in plantations, and the yield is small in pro-
portion to the space which the plant occupies. Several
species of this and allied genera are being grown experi-
mentally at the Aburi Botanic Gardens.

“Flake rubber” is a name given to a very inferior quality
of rubber which is produced upon a small scale in many
parts of West Africa, but it has not been determined
from which species of vine that exported from the Gold
Coast is obtained. In Northern Nigeria Carpodinus
hirsutus, Hua, is said to be the source of the exported
rubber of this name.

Fig Rubber.—One or more species of wild fig trees (Ficus
sp.) are tapped for the production of what is locally termed
‘“‘Memeluku ” rubber, and it is generally supposed that
F, Vogelit is that mostly employed. The trees attain a
large size, and the rubber is composed of the scrap,
collected from a large number of small cuts made on
the trunk and branches. This scrap rubber is pressed
together into thick biscuits. The rubber has usually
little resiliency and breaks easily ; it is, in consequence,
of small value.

Introduced Species—Experiments have been carried on
for several years with “ Para’ rubber (Hevea brasiliensis),
* Ceara ” (Manihot Glaziovii), and Castilloa elastica, all in-
digenous to South America. The last-named has been so
badly attacked in the Botanic Stations by boring beetle
Jarve that it has shown no promise of success. Ceara grows
goribat for some reason the production of latex from

66 THE GOLD COAST

it is uncertain, and this has caused little value to be
attached to it in the Gold Coast, although in the drier
region of Togoland this species is being planted. Para
rubber seems to show much better results, although, up
to the present, no extensive experiments to ascertain the
yield of rubber have been made. Tapping two trees
growing at Aburi, Mr. Johnson obtained a larger quantity
of latex than from Funtumia elastica under the same
conditions ; and following this an extensive area was
planted with Hevea trees at the Tarkwa Botanic Gardens,
where the experiment appears to be proving successful.
Views are given of a tree at Aburi (Fig. 20). Large
plantations of Hevea are being made near Tarkwa, Axim
and Sekondi as well as in the Kwahu district, where
the tree seems to thrive remarkably well. A few of these
plantations made returns in 1913 showing promise of
success. At one, on the Offin river, there were said to be
90,000 Para trees of different ages, 20,000 Funtumia and
6,000 coffee (C. robusta). At another the yield of rubber
from a number of mature trees gave an average of 1-08 lb.
of dry rubber per tree in eight months’ tapping, and a
third had 22,000 Para trees of which about 8,450 had
been tapped and yielded 10,565 lbs. of rubber, or 1} Ib.
per tree tapped. Labour was reported plentiful and
good. There are said to be many more rubber planta-
tions in the country from which returns had not been
received. Up to 1913 the Agricultural Department
had distributed 250,000 Para seedlings and 1,500,000
seeds.

Commenting on the fluctuation in the exported amounts
of rubber, His Excellency the Governor (Sir Hugh
Clifford), in his message to the Legislative Council in
October 1918, explained the recrudescence during 1916
and 1917 as due to the development of rubber plantations
under European control. It remains to be seen whether
the Gold Coast will be able to successfully compete in
this work with the Far East. Articles on Para rubber
from the Gold Coast are to be found in the Bulletin of
the Imperial Institute, vol. x. (1912), vol. xi. (1913),
vol. xii. (1914), vol. xv. (1917) and vol. xvii. (1919).

PALM OIL AND KERNELS.—Records are available
showing that the export of palm oil from West Africa has
continued for over one hundred years, but the quantity

PALM OIL 67

shipped from the Gold Coast during the last fifteen years
shows a rapid decrease from the average of the twenty
years previous. ,

The tree which yields the oil of commerce is known
as Hlewis guineensis, Jacq., and is placed in the Tribe
Cocorven of the Natural Order Paz, together with
the genus Cocos, to which the Coconut palm belongs.
(Cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., 1909, p. 357; 1920, p. 209.)

Habits of the Oil Palm—The oil palm occurs most
plentifully in the moist regions near the coast, although
it will not thrive on land which is perpetually marshy.
The palm becomes scarcer when the dense forests of
Ashanti are reached, but it is not entirely absent until
the uitra-forest tract commences.

The tree often bears fruit when it has only attained
the height of ten feet, which it is said to do about the
seventh year, but the yield is supposed to increase
annually until the tree is thirty or more years old, often
continuing for a much longer time. It is not possible
to give any positive assurance on this point, as observa-
tions have not been recorded for any length of time.

Although the oil is principally obtained from wild trees,
one extensive plantation in the Krobo Hills has been
successfully carried on for many years by the chief of Odu-
massi. His trees are planted at regular intervals and care
is given to their upkeep and cleanliness. Concessions have
recently been granted to Europeans for planting as well as
exploiting the wild palms, and experimental work in the
mechanical extraction of pericarp and kernel oil have
given some promise. Two British companies that have
erected extraction plants in the Western Province have
laid tram-lines designed to keep them constantly supplied
with the palm fruit.

Trees that have become old and practically barren are
usually tapped for the extraction of “‘ palm wine,” being
frequently cut down for the purpose. In some parts of
the country fruitful trees are tapped while standing, and,
as this necessitates the base of the terminal shoot being
cut into, the tree is generally killed in consequence.

Two crops of fruiting heads are yielded by a tree in full
bearing each year, but the autumn crop is heavier than
the earlier one, and the aggregate weight of fruit yielded
by a tree in one year is generally estimated at 40 lbs.

68 THE GOLD COAST

The fruiting heads consist of large bunches which hang
from near the crown of the tree, and each fruit is partly
enveloped in a husk-like covering. When removed from
this it is found to be smooth, somewhat conical or irregu-
larly compressed, tapering towards an abrupt point. The
colour when fresh varies from orange-red to nearly white,
with a more or less broad black apex. In section it
appears to be composed of a thick fibrous layer over a
hard, somewhat rounded stone, which contains a whitish
kernel. It is from the fibrous portion, which is included
in what is botanically termed the pericarp, that the oil
is obtained, but the kernel also contains another valuable
oil, for the extraction of which it is shipped to Europe
to a large extent.

Preparation of Palm Oil.—When the ripe head has been
cut from the tree, it is left upon the ground for a few days
in order that a shrinkage in the fruits may occur, which
renders them more easily dislodged from their husk-lined
places. The fruit also becomes slightly dullin colour. The
heads bearing the fruit are often beaten to remove the
latter, or they are individually broken out by hand. In
order to facilitate the extraction of the fruit kernels, the
fruits are usually buried in the ground in a pit lined with
plantain leaves. Here they remain for from three weeks
to a month, during which time decomposition is set up.
The subsequent quality of the oil is dependent upon the
degree to which this is allowed to proceed, rancid and
thick oils resulting when it has been overdone. On the
other hand, the higher the state of decomposition the
greater is the facility for separating the fibrous pulp from
the stones. On removing the fruits from the ground
they are placed in an open vat (Fig. 15) and pounded by
a number of people using long poles, after which they are
covered up for several hours in order that the oil may
drain into the small well shown at the side. Several
consecutive poundings are applied, until the fibrous pulp
is quite separated and most of the oil has drained out,
after which the stones are combed out with the fingers,
and the pulp is placed in a bag and pressed on a horizontal
bar until the oil flows from it into a pit below. The oils
from these extractions are boiled and cleared, and the
residual pulp is often placed in the boiling pot so as to
extract as much oil as possible. This is the method

PALM OIb AND KERNELS 69

employed at the Krobo Plantations, but the operation
varies slightly in different districts.

Kernel Oil.—The value of the kernel for the extraction
of oil was recognised at a much later date than the
pericarp, although, in a few places in the Gold Coast,
oil had probably been expressed from kernels for local
consumption for some time. Among the Krobos the
medicine-men prevented the trade in kernels from
becoming established for several years, but they were
finally overruled by the chiefs. A large and increasing
trade in kernels continued for a number of years, but
this has fallen off to a small extent more recently.
The shell of the variety of kernel which appears to be
the most common in this country is usually thick, and
the laborious work of cracking each stone individually
between two stones, in such a manner that the kernel is
extracted in an unbroken state, prevents a larger quantity
being prepared for sale, and results in much waste.
Nut-cracking machines have been brought into the
country, and are said to prove successful to some extent,
but the native is not in a position to use machinery,
and most of the material shipped is extracted in the
primitive method mentioned. Cf. Bulletin of the Imperial
Institute, vols. vii., viii. and xv. (1909-17). Before the
cracking can be accomplished without breaking the
interior, the kernel requires to be exposed to the sun
and thoroughly dried. Kernel oil prepared in a native
way is of two kinds, one which expressed without heat
being white, whilst that made from the roasted kernels
is dark brown. Both are made by pounding and
grinding the kernel into fine meal, the extraction of the
one being effected by cold and the other by boiling water.

In 1916 a Special Committee was appointed to consider
the position of the palm-kernel trade, chiefly with refer-
ence to the protection of the newly-established British oil-
crushing industry against German competition ; and it
was considered advisable to recommend the imposition
of a differential export duty of £2 per ton on all palm
kernels from British West African ports. The Colonies
concerned imposed the duty at the rate mentioned and
in some instances have since supplemented it by a direct
revenue-producing tax.

Commercial Uses.—The chief commercial uses of the oils

70 THE GOLD COAST

are for the manufacture of soap, candles, and glycerine,
some qualities of palm oil being made use of in the
manufacture of tin plates. With improved methods the
supply of palm oil and kernels could be largely increased.

Varieties of Oil Palms.—In 1907 information was ob-
tained from the Imperial Institute that a variety of oil
palm was being propagated in the Kameruns the fruit
of which contained a thin-shelled kernel and was called
““Lisombe.”’ Further investigation in the British West
African countries led to the discovery that a number of
well-marked varieties of Hleis guineensis were distin-
guished by the natives, and were called by distinct names.
Among these one possessed a thin-shelled kernel, and,
together with about eight others, has been under investi-
gation at the Imperial Institute, with the object of
ascertaining their respective merits. The thin-shelled
‘““Lisombe”’ and the “ Gamopale”’ varieties from the
Kameruns have recently been tried experimentally in
the Gold Coast, and the advantages they possess over
the cther kinds have been clearly established. From the
descriptions given below of the more important varieties
found on the Gold Coast, it will be seen that particulars
of the comparative weight of the fruit crop and the
quality of the oil yielded are required to determine the
relative values. In addition the proportions of fruit-
and kernel-oil of each as well as the facilities for ex-
tracting the kernel must be considered.

A reference is given below to six varieties, which have
been fully examined at. the Imperial Institute. The native
names are given, and the percentages have been calculated
for comparison, from the more elaborate figures which
have been published (Bulletin Imperial Institute, vol. vii.
[1909], p. 366; cf. also vol. xi. [1913], p. 208).

The characteristic variations of each variety are as
follows :—

1. “Abe-pa.”? Fruit large, orange-red, with or without
black tip, pericarp thin, nut large with thick shell. This
is the commonest form in the country, and is probably
identical with the variety found in Sierra Leone.

2. ““ Abe-dam.” Fruit of irregular shape, fairly large,
bright red, pericarp slightly thicker than the last, nut
large with a thick shell. This is not uncommon.

3. “ Abe-tuntum.” Fruit moderately large, dark pur-

VARIETIES OF OIB PALMS 71

plish-black, pericarp very thin, and nut with thick shell.
Uncommon.

4. “‘ Abe-bobe.”’ Fruit usually rather small, red and
black, pericarp thick and soft, nut with a thin kernel
(easily broken in the teeth). Trees rather scarce. This
is probably identical with the ‘‘ Lisombe”’ variety from
the Kameruns.

5. “‘ Intermediate form between 2 and 4.” Similar to
the last but with a thicker shell to the nut.

6. ‘“‘Seedless kind.” A very rare kind, nearly corres-
ponding with the “Difumbe” variety from Angola,
which, however, possesses a kernel but no shell.

The following are the percentages based on the total
weight of the fruit, in each case taken as 100:..

Name Pulp Contg. Fibre Nut Contg. Shell
oil etc. Kernel

1. “ Abe-pa”’ ae 0 20°13 9-87 70 19°6 50°4
2. *“* Abe-dam ”’ eo oe OS 13:14 62°5 16°87 45°63
Sec Ane-tONntwM, © «. oto 14°33 WS 20s 2 Gicb 17°55 49°95
4. “* Abe-bobe ” a (OS 36°02 °26°98° 37 19-98 17:02
5. “Interm. 2and4” 51 30°34 20°66 49 20°58 28°42
6. ‘‘ Seedless ”’ =. LOO 76:00 24:00 rarely a trace

Nos. 4 and 5 seem to be most valuable from a com-
mercial standpoint, although at present Nos. 1 and 2
are the most commonly used, owing to the comparative
scarcity of the first two mentioned. No. 6 is chiefly
interesting from a botanical aspect, and is probably
incapable of reproduction. The sacred palm known
in the Gold Coastas ‘‘ Abe-ohene,”? and identical with
“* Ope-Ifa”’ of Southern Nigeria, belongs to a new species
called H. Thompsonii, Chev., but the fruits are not
employed for the extraction of oil.

OTHER OIL SEEDS.—Experiments were conducted at
the Imperial Institute in 1908 with the kernels of the
“Crabnut ’? (Carapa procera, D.C.). The kernels were
found to contain nearly 50 per cent. of oil, which was
reported to be worth about £20 10s. per ton, but the
residual cake could not be used for feeding purposes,
owing to the presence in it of a bitter constituent, and,
on account of the rather low manurial value, was esti-
mated as worth only £2 per ton (Bulletin of the Imperial
Institute, vol. vi., 1908, p. 362).

The oil seemed to be well suited for soap-making, but

72 THE GOLD COAST

would not be suitable for lubricating or for edible purposes.
The nut does not occur in such profusion as to warrant
profitable exportation from localities where the oil palm
is found. ;

TIMBER. Mahogany.—The most valuable and commonly
exported timber is that known in the European and
American markets as “‘ African Mahogany.”? The value
of that shipped from the Gold Coast in 1913 was estimated
at £366,000.

Several red woods are included under the name of
Mahogany, but the best quality is said to be obtained
from Khaya senegalensis, a large tree of the Natural
Order MELIACE#. ‘This tree is known by the native
(Fanti) name of “ Dubini.” In the same language the
names “ Okumankra” and ‘“ Akwabohori” are applied
to two trees which are said to be exported as Mahogany,
but of these the identity has not yet been determined.

Other Timber-trees.—The “Odum” tree (Chlorophora
excelsa) produces a hard and useful wood, which is much
used in the forest region, but is not often shipped (Fig. 19).
In the dry country of the Northern Territories Pseudo-
cedrela Kotschyi may be found of value as a red wood for
decorative purposes.

Among the other trees which show evidence of yielding
hard and useful woods are “‘ Ahedua ”’ (Cyanothyrsus sp.),
*Opapeh ” (Afzelia africana), and ‘‘ Bako ”’ (Mimusops
sp.). Information about the working-quality and suit-
ability for export of these and other Gold Coast timbers
is given in the bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. viii.,
1910, p. 232.

The largest, and consequently the most valuable, trees
belonging to the different species mentioned, are found
in the western part of the Gold Coast and Ashanti, and
most of the mahogany logs are shipped from Sekondi,
Axim, and other places farther to the westward. The
Pra and Ankobra rivers are utilised to float down the
squared logs, which are then moored at the river mouths,
to await shipment. The export of logs is only limited
by the facilities with which they can be brought to a
river or the railway, and large, valuable trees are plentiful
in many of the forests, although they would be unprofit-
able to fell and trim in some cases, owing to their remote
situations and the difficulties connected with conveyance.

KOLA 73

KOLA.—-Kola-nut is the name usually applied to the
fruit of a tree belonging to the Natural Order STEZRCU-
LIACE4, and the wild as well as the cultivated forms
found in the Gold Coast and Ashanti are, probably, all
referable to the species Kola acuminata, R. The fruits or
nuts are borne in large pods, each of which contains a
variable number. The nuts themselves are irregular in
form, and have an inconstant number of cotyledons, or
seed divisions, varying from two to five. Some confusion
seems to have been caused owing to this variation, as
well as on account of the colour and shape of the nuts.
In some trees they are red, in others white, and others
again pink, and they may be elongate or nearly round.
These, however, are not reliable as distinguishing char-
acters, since nuts of the three colours have been found on
the same tree, and even in the same pod. Analyses and
commercial valuations of several varieties of kola nuts
from the Gold Coast are published in Selected Reports
from the Imperial Institute, Part III., ‘‘ Foodstuffs ”
(Colonial Reports, Misc., Cd. 5137, 1910), pp. 259-61 ; wide
also Bull. Imp. Inst., vols. x. (1912) and xvii. (1919).

In the forests to the north of Kumassi large wild kola
trees are found, and the nuts are collected by the natives
inhabiting the villages in the vicinity, where they are
sold at from 6d. to 9d. a hundred. In other places the
trees are planted, commonly on the outskirts of villages,
especially in Akim and Kwahu.

Kola nuts are used in tropical Africa in the same
manner as betel nuts arein Asia. Their taste is somewhat
bitter, and the mastication of fresh nuts seems to increase
the flow of saliva. Chewing kola nuts is resorted to by
the natives in order to allay thirst, or even hunger, and
for this reason they are in great demand among the
inhabitants of the Sudan, to which country they are
largely exported, being carried by men and donkeys in
caravans, which travel from the forest limits of Ashanti
through the Northern Territories. The donkeys, which
are chiefly used to transport the nuts, do not generally
enter the forests, but the kola nuts are packed in elon-
gated head-loads, in bamboo or palm-stalk frames, in
which form they are carried to the place where the
donkeys have been left. The caravans bring shea-butter,
guinea corn, cattle, and skins, which they exchangefor kola.

74 THE GOLD COAST

The weight of nuts exported from the Gold Coast is
about 50 per cent. above that of Sierra Leone, but, in
value, the latter are worth from three to five times as
much per ton. The fresh nuts are shipped to Lagos
and are transported far into the interior by Haussa
traders.

C N.—No record is available to show when the
tribes of the forest country commenced to cultivate and
use cotton for local requirements. It has been stated
that the people of the kingdoms of the Western Sudan
were acquainted with the uses of the fibre, and have
cultivated the plant, from a remote period, and it is
probable that contact with these people. during their
expeditions against the tribes to their south, led to the
adoption by the latter of cotton-growing upon the smail
scale in which it still remains at present. Cruickshank,
writing of the Fantis in 1853, says: “‘ They spin the
thread from the cotton which grows in the country, but
they more commonly make use of the thread out of
English cloths, which they pick to pieces.”” In speaking
of the Appolonians, a tribe inhabiting the coast region
near Axim, Cruickshank remarks that they “‘ make fine
grass cloths, which are strong and durable.” In
Ashanti, until recently, a cloth was commonly made
from the inner bark of a tree, generally supposed to be
Antiaris toxicaria var. africana, which was produced by
the removal of the woody portions by beating, leaving
a pliable material composed of the interlacing fibres.
These instances are cited to show that the value of
cotton for cultivation has not been recognised by some
of the large and dominant tribes in comparatively recent
times. Since cotton clothing has begun to be appreciated,
the necessity of growing the plant and weaving has been
somewhat checked by the large imports of finished material
from Europe.

Throughout the forest region occasional plants of
cotton may be seen growing near villages, but the sys-
tematic cultivation of the plant is only met with on the
outer northern boundary of the dense forest and in
the Krepi country to the east of the Volta river. The
inhabitants of the northern forest boundary are a mixed
people, many of whom have probably been driven from
the countries farther north, where cotton is a recognised

COTTON 75

field crop, whence they have introduced the cultivation.
The adoption of cotton-growing by the Krepi tribes may
be due to similar reasons, although there appears to be
no evidence in support of this conjecture.

In the last-named places the seed is sown in rows on
the tops of ridges, on the sides of which maize plants
may be also grown, but it is not uncommon to find
cotton plants growing alone. This is especially the case
on the northern limits of Ashanti. The large varieties
grown in these places are often left in the ground for a
second season and produce two crops, the last of which
is said to be inferior. No system of rotation has been
observed, although it is probable that the cotton is planted
during the early years of cultivation immediately following
the yam crop, which is the practice in some other West
African countries.

Three distinct forms or varieties of cotton are culti-
vated in the forest region. The first variety is usually
referred to as ‘“‘ Green seed,’? and is the commonest
one grown. The lint is long-stapled and nearly white,
but experiments seem to show that this form does not
yield heavily. The second form is recognised by the
seed being dark brown or black, without any fuzz, except
a small brown tuft at the apex, which has a sharp spike.
The lint of this kind is creamy white, and the plant is
known as “ Volta.’’ The third form differs in having
the dark brown seeds adjoining one another, and
forming a conical mass, from which it is difficult to
separate the individual seeds. At the point of connection
each seed bears a smal] light brown patch. This form is
generally known to the officers at the British Cotton
Growing Association plantation as “‘ Kidney.” All these
varieties are cultivated throughout the forest country,
and extend to some distance beyond ; being replaced in
the drier parts of the Northern Territories by a small
plant with a white woolly seed. No cotton in a wild
state has been seen in the country, and isolated plants,
found springing up in open places surrounded by forest,
are generally easily traceable to formerly existing culti-
vation.

The “‘ Green seed,”’ ‘‘ Volta,’’ and ‘‘ Kidney ”’ cottons,
which are grown in the Gold Coast, are different in habit
from the American and Indian plants, although in form

76 THE GOLD COAST

they are similar to Sea Island and Egyptian, having,
perhaps, arisen from the same original stock. The forms
mentioned as cultivated locally attain the height of from
seven to ten feet in nine months from the time of planting,
and the stem near the base is often thicker than a
man’s wrist. The cotton bolls continue to open for three
months or more, and often as many as two hundred
bolls are produced on a single plant in one season. If
left for a second year the bolls are generally diminished
in size. The soil which appears most favourable for
growth is a sandy loam containing much humus.

From January to April the bolls ripen continuously,
and the cotton is placed in the sun as soon as it is
picked, in order that the “‘Seed bugs’ may be driven
out. In native markets small quantities are usually
exposed for sale in an unginned form throughout the
harvesting season. No gin seems to be in use in the
Gold Coast for native work, and the lint is pulled
off the seeds by hand when a supply is required for
spinning.

The greatest damage is done by “‘ Seed bugs ” of three
species—Oxycarenus hyalinipennis, O. Dudgeoni, and O.
gosstpinus—that infest the lint as soon as the bolls open,
and undergo their complete and rapid metamorphoses
during the period between the opening and the throwing
out of the cotton, feeding meanwhile upon the juices
which they suck from the seeds. The injury caused by
the puncturing of the seed often renders it unfertile. A
‘‘cotton stainer”’ is also common on the plants, and
damages the unopened bolls by puncturing, and the
. lint by a yellowish stain which it makes. This insect
is known as Dysdercus nigrofasciatus, and it is at least
four times as large as any of the species of Oxycarenus,
on which it may possibly feed to some extent.

An attempt was evidently made, in the middle of the
last century, to establish the cultivation of cotton for
export, and Cruickshank mentions that an association
had taken the matter up, and that several of the native
chiefs were beginning to give it their attention about
that time. Very little success seems to have attended
these efforts.

About 1903 the Government of the Gold Coast com-
menced the plantation of an area in the Krepi country,

COTTON 77

at a place called Anum, and, under the control of the
Agricultural Department, this was transferred to a better
site soon afterwards, at a place named Labolabo on the
east bank of the Volta river. In addition to the extension
of about two hundred acres of land, which were planted
with native and American varieties of cotton, encourage-
ment was given to the natives in the vicinity to grow
more, on the understanding that their crops would be
purchased from them at one penny per pound. Unfor-
tunately no arrangements had been made to store or
gin a large quantity of seed cotton, and the entire native
crop could not be taken over when brought in. This seems
to have induced the native growers to convey most of
their cotton into Togoland, where they were able to
dispose of it at a fair price. Arrangements had to be
made with a local firm possessing a ginning machine,
which was erected about sixty miles lower down the Volta
river, by which, on payment of a certain rate, the seed
cotton grown on the Labolabo plantation was ginned
and prepared for shipment. It was soon recognised that
the expense of transport of the seed cotton for this dis-
tance, and the price charged for ginning, prevented the
production of cotton for export except at a heavy finan-
cial loss. The co-operation of the British Cotton Grow-
ing Association was asked for, in order to supply gins
at Labolabo, and in 1906 three hand gins were sent
from the Gold Coast Exhibition, which had just been
held. The machines were much damaged in transit, and
it was some time before the large stock of seed cotton,
which had accumulated, could be worked off. Soon after
this the Labolabo plantation was transferred entirely to
the British Cotton Growing Association, and an annual
grant was made by the Government to assist in the
working. In 1907 a large steam-power ginnery was
put up, and the native farmers again began to bring in
their seed cotton for sale, but still a considerable quantity
was reported to be diverted to Togoland, where the
price offered was a fraction higher than that paid by the
Association.

The cotton bales are transported from the ginnery by
means of native canoes as far as Amedika, which is the
highest point on the Volta to which small steamers can
ascend, but great risk is entailed in decending the rapids

78 THE GOLD COAST

between Labolabo and this place. The cost of carriage
by native canoe is arranged at twenty shillings a ton,
and the bales are pressed into a suitable form for con-
veyance.

American and other Exotic Cottons at Labolabo.—A
large number of different kinds of American cottons have
been tried at Labolabo, but most of them have proved
unsuccessful. Those which yielded a good crop for the
first year have generally been found to produce seed,
which, owing to the greater susceptibility of the plants
to the attacks of insects, refused to germinate in the
following year. Some of the lint produced was, appar-
ently, of excellent quality and sold well, but the necessity
for the renewal of seed each year formed a serious
obstacle to the establishment of a new variety. The
plants from American seed are not so hardy as those
from native seed, and the necessity for greater care in
cultivation renders them unsuitable for use by the natives.
Sea Island and various Egyptian cottons have not proved
successful. See British Cotton Cultivation, by Professor
Dunstan (‘‘ Colonial Reports,’ Miscellaneous, Cd. 3997,
1908, pp. 28-30), and the Bulletins of the Imperial Institute,
vols. vil., X., X1., Xill., xiv. (1909-16).

Attempts at HybridisationIn the early days of the
plantation the Agricultural Department made several
experiments with a view to the establishment of a
cross between the native and the American plants, but
the subsequent changes in the management of the plan-
tation resulted in the disappearance of most of these ;
subsequently several others were attempted in 1906 and
1907 by Mr. Fisher.

In all cases plants of the “Green seed” or the
*‘ Volta ”’ native forms were made use of as female parents,
and the descendant plants partook of the characters of
the native forms in every way for the first generation,
but in later generations seem to have produced a number
of various types, from which it is now necessary to make
a careful selection. The quantity of lint yielded by the
first generation of plants, from the experiments made
by Mr. Fisher in 1906, is said to have reached a higher
figure, per acre, than that of any other form grown on
the plantation, and the quality was satisfactory ; but
that of the second generation appeared to be unequal in

COTTON 79

type, and could scarcely be compared for quantity owing
to the unfavourable season. The American plants used
for pollination in the 1906 crosses were those which have
given the best results among the exotic forms planted,
and are called ‘‘ Black Rattler”? and “‘ Richmond.” Of
the four crosses attempted in that year, that of “ Black
Rattler ” x ‘ Volta ’’ was said to have proved the most
successful in point of yield.

Small plots of native and American cottons have been
planted at Kumassi, and experimental plants at Aburi,
but the conditions have not been so favourable at these
places as at Labolabo. At Obuassi, in Ashanti, an
attempt was also made, but the soil seemed too stiff
and the plants were not healthy. Land suitable
for native cotton farms seems to be that on the
west bank of the Volta river, north of the Labolabo
plantation.

Valuations of Samples examined at the Imperial Insti-
tute—The following selection of specimens of Gold
Coast cottons examined and reported on at different
times by the Imperial Institute will give some in-
dication of the relative values :—

Standard at

Place Variety Staple Value ors meee
Amer,” i
Labolabo . Volta clean-seed 08-14 5-54d. 505d.
3 . Green-seed : . <5 114 5d. 5:05d.
x . Black Volta, small woolly
seeded from N. Terr. 1-1-4 53-6d. 6°43d.
i . Black Rattler 1:2-1°8 7d. 6°7d.
s . Native x Allens 1-2-1°6 6d. Pr
5 . Native x Russels 1:2-1°5 41d. ~“
by « Native x Peruvian . 1-2-1°6 7d. se
aS . Native x Culpepper 1-1-1°5 63-7d 93
a - Volta x Black Rattler 1-1-1°5 5d. +5
= . Volta x Richmond ou eo l—1-6 6-64d .
4 . Greenseed x Black Rattler 1-1-4 5d. 43
es . Greenseed x Richmon 1-1-4 7d. os
Tamale, N. Terr., Native > : 0°7-1°0 54d. =

The cottons from native varieties crossed with American
represent the first generation only, as in no case were the
following generations found constant.

The large profits which have been made from cocoa
in the forest country have caused cotton-growing to be
neglected, and it seems improbable that large quantities

80 THE GOLD COAST

of cotton will be exported from this region during the
next few years. In the same part of the country palm
oil and rubber are easily collected, and, besides being more
remunerative products, require comparatively small exer-
tion in preparation. An attempt to establish cotton
cultivation upon a commercial scale, among the in-
dustrious people of the Northern Territories, was made by
the British Cotton Growing Association, but the immense
distances of the inhabited tracts from a shipping port
and the consequent expense of transport, combined
with the uncertainty of the rainfall in these ultra-forest
regions, compelled the abandonment of the venture
in 1916.

FIBRES.—Piassava fibre, which has sometimes been
called ‘‘ vegetable whalebone,” is prepared from the
sheath of the lower parts of the leaf-stem of a tree
belonging to the Natural Order PALMA, and classified
as Raphia vinifera, P. Beauv. This tree is found growing
in the vicinity of streams, and occurs commonly in the
forest regions near the coast.

The natives prepare the fibre, which is sold in the
European markets under the name of “ Piassava,’’ by
cutting the stem-sheaths and steeping them in water for
a considerable time until the fibrous strands are easily
separated by beating. After being extracted in this
manner they are dried in the sun. Only a small quantity
is exported from the country, but it is a more important
article of export from Sierra Leone and Liberia. As the
specific name denotes, wine is extracted from the tree,
by tapping the standing or felled tree, in the last case
with the aid of fire.

On the estate of the African Plantations, Ltd., near
Axim, a fibre of excellent quality, commercially allied to
jute, has been prepared from the stems of a herbaceous
plant, which was supposed to be T'riumfetta semitriloba,
Linn., but which has since been determined at Kew to be
T’. cordifolia var. Hollandii, Sprague. The plant belongs
to the same Natural Order as Indian jute—namely,
TILIACEH. A description of this fibre is given in
the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vi. (1908), p. 241.

This species has been observed commonly in a wild
state in the forests near Sekondi and Axim, but does
not seem to be present in the interior of Ashanti or in
the country towards the Volta river.

SILK AND COPAL 81

Experiments made at the estate of the African Plan-
tations, Ltd., are said to show that the best fibre is
obtained from stalks which have been retted or steeped
in water for five days, but it will probably be found that
the period required for the operation is dependent to a
great extent upon the age of the stalks used.

The fibre may be prepared by stripping the bark layers
from the soaked stalks and beating these upon the surface
of the water until the actual bark is removed, when the
fibre may be dried in the sun; being finally picked over
to get rid of the small remaining bark particles.

The plant exhibits some advantages for cultivation
over jute, in that it may be cropped twice in one year
and treated asa perennial. Collection of the wild growths
would be unsatisfactory for the production of the fibre
upon a large scale, owing to the time occupied in searching
for the plants, but it seems probable that the plant would
repay planting, especially if some better method of ex-
traction were devised.

The composition, quality, and commercial value of a
large number of fibres obtained from plants indigenous
to, or cultivated in, the Gold Coast are discussed in
Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute, Part I.,
“Fibres ” (Colonial Reports, Miscellaneous, Cd. 4588,
1909), pp. 43, 51, 84, 89, 90, 115.

SILK.—A species of wild silkworm is commonly dis-
tributed throughout the forests to the north of Kumassi,
and has been identified as Anaphe venata. The silk
cocoons of this species and those of Anaphe infracta are
used in Nigeria for spinning into yarn for weaving the
“Sanyan ” cloths of that country, but no use is apparently
made of them in Ashanti. The worms live in small
colonies, and form their cocoons in a common envelope
of silk, from which two or three somewhat tubular pro-
cesses project to enable the moths to emerge when the
time arrives. The food plant of the silkworm has not
been definitely ascertained, but, as the cocoons are found
on a large number of herbaceous plants as well as trees,
it seems probable that several plants are eaten by it.
The quality of the silk is said to be good, and the colour
is usually a golden or light brown. *

COPAL.—The tree which produces this resin, often
miscalled “gum,” which is commercially known as

* Cf. Bull. Ent. Res., vol. i. (1911), p. 83; Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. viii.
(1910), p. 150; vol. xiv. (1916), p. 174; vol. xviii. (1920), p. 319.

6

82 THE GOLD COAST

** Accra copal,”’ occurs throughout the forests of Ashanti
and Akim, and has not yet been specifically determined.
Investigations have shown that it is allied to Cyanothyrsus
oblongus, Oliver, which yields the “‘ Ogea ”’ resin of Lagos,
and which belongs to the Natural Order LEGUMINOSZ.
The flowers obtained from the Ashanti trees are of a
similar construction to those of Cyanothyrsus.

Locally the resin is commonly used for torches and
for the preparation of a scented pigment called ‘* Krobo,”
which is used for elaborating patterns upon the skin,
being commonly employed by the Akim people for this
purpose. For export the chief value is for the prepara-
tion of varnish.

The quantity exported reached 178 tons in 1907, after
which it declined, and now no longer reaches a significant
figure. The overwhelming interest attracted by cocoa has
led to its disappearance. Cf. Selected Reports Imperial Insti-
tute, pt. ii., “Gums and Resins” (Col. Rep. Misc., Cd. 4971,
1909), pp. 172-5 ; Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. xii. (1914), p. 220.

The copal-yielding trees are generally of immense size,
and the resinous liquid may be observed exuding from
the main trunk as well as the branches, in such a way
as to form elongated “tears” or slabs, which harden
on exposure to the air. When these become brittle they
are broken off by wind and fall to the ground. Often
the flow of resinous liquid seems to be so profuse that
quantities reach the ground and form what is termed
‘fossil copal, ’? owing to the fact that it is dug from the
ground beneath the trees.

There is evidence to show that in some instances the
original flow of the resinous liquid is caused by deep
borings in the sap wood made by insect larve (probably
Coleoptera—beetles), signs of which are commonlyapparent
on old trees, which yield the most copal. Specimens of
branches, which have been tunnelled by these larve,
have been collected, exhibiting all the cavities filled with
hardened resin.

Compared with the copal produced by Copazfera
Guibourtiana, a tree which is found in Sierra Leone, the -
Ashanti product is much inferior, although the price paid
renders it sufficiently valuable for collection and export.
Several different types of the Accra copal are known,
some of which appear to be of less value than others,

COPRA AND DYES 83

although apparently yielded by the same tree. That
which is deemed preferable is clear and pale yellow;
milky pieces should be sorted out, as they are valued
at a lower figure. Blocks have been obtained which
weighed over twenty pounds. Sorting is said to have
been adopted by some of the local merchants, and as
high a price as 60s. per cwt. is reported to have been
obtained for sorted copal.

COPRA.—Some special attention has been given to the
extension of the copra industry on the coast, and it will be
observed that the average annual exports have nearly
doubled during the last eight years. The coconut
(Cocos nucifera) is found on the greater part of the coast-
line, and the dried contents of the nut constitute the
product known as copra. (Cf. Oil Seeds and Feeding
Cakes, Imp. Inst. Monograph, 1915.) No use is appar-
ently made of the fibrous covering of the nuts, which is
exported from other parts of the world under the name of
coir. Locally the nuts are cut down in an unripe condi-
tion, and the “ milk ” from the interior is used as a drink.

DYES AND PIGMENTS.—Camwood is the trade name
applied to the wood of a tree known as Baphia nitida,
Afzelius, belonging to the Natural Order LEGUMINOSZ.
It has been suggested that the bright red colouring-matter
is produced by decomposition on exposure to air, the
material shipped from different places in West Africa
being apparently in this condition, but investigations in
other parts of West Africa show that the fresh wood is
frequently used in making the colouring-matter. <A
very small quantity is exported from the Gold Coast,
but the natives make some use of it for staining different
materials.

Indigo.—This is prepared from two or three species of
Indigofera, which are found growing near villages, but
the process of preparation in the Gold Coast does not
appear to have been recorded, though probably similar
to that employed in the other West African countries.

The resin from the copal tree, mentioned above, is
crushed, together with the bark of a tree called “‘ Krobo,”’
in Akim especially, and the balls formed from this mixture
are rubbed down, with the addition of a little water,
into a fine sort of lather, when a greenish-grey-coloured
thin paste is procured. With this designs are traced

84 THE GOLD COAST

upon the body and arms as an adornment for women,
the resin imparting to the mixture a pleasant odour.
FIELD CROPS.—The soil throughout a large part of
the forest country is very fertile, and no difficulty is
experienced in producing sufficient crops for local needs
from a small area of ground. The usual method is to
cut down a piece of forest, leaving those trees which are
too large to be removed or burnt, or which may yield
one of the wild fruits which is appreciated. The stumps
and roots are not removed when only maize (Zea mays)
is intended to be grown, but are, to some extent, when
yams (Dioscorea sp.), or groundnuts (Arachis hypogea),
are to be cultivated. The cut “bush” is permitted to
dry in the sun for several weeks, when it is burned, and
the ashes are sometimes scattered over the land. For
plantations of maize, the soil is only turned up at the
spots where the seed is to be put in, and very little culti-
vation is given for the remainder of the year, although
weeding and earthing up are resorted to in a few places.
For the cultivation of yams or groundnuts, the larger
roots are dug out, and the whole field is dug with small
hoes, the soil being scraped together into small mounds,
on the top of which the yams or groundnuts are planted.
In the case of the former, stakes are also put in, upon
which the yams are trained to grow. In addition to this
it is usual, in most places, to plant maize upon the sides
of the mounds, and okra (Hibiscus esculentus) and peppers
(Capsicum sp.) in various parts of the field. Guinea
corn (Sorghum vulgare) is rarely seen within the forest
limits. Between the mounds, at wide intervals, plan-
tains (Musa sapientum) are generally grown, and occupy
the ground after all the other crops have been removed.
In the country near the coast, as well as in the Volta
district, cassava (Manihot utilissima) is a common terminal
crop, although it is not frequently grown in Ashanti.
The length of time during which the land usually con-
tinues to yield a grain or root crop, of the kinds above
mentioned, seems limited to about three years. Koko
yams (Colocasia antiquorum) are planted in damp places
near the villages or beside streams, and, in the Volta
district, sweet potatoes ([pomea batatas) are cultivated
to a small extent. Small gourds (Cucurbitacew) are
cultivated in the villages, but are not common, and

FIELD CROPS 85

pineapples, paw-paws, guavas, oranges, custard apples,
sour-sops, and limes may be found growing in the places
near the older European settlements.

Plantains and yams seem to form the chief food of
the people in the interior, but maize is largely used by
those near the coast, who are better cultivators. Plan-
tains are prepared by roasting or by chopping up and
boiling. In some parts, especially in the Krepi country,
the fruits are split and cut in pieces, after which they
are dried in the sun. They become hard and white in
the process, and can be kept for some time. Yams of
several kinds are cut up after peeling, and boiled with
peppers or made up with palm oil, when they form a
favourite dish. They are sometimes pounded in a wooden
mortar and made into balls. Maize is ground on flat
or grooved stones by means of a stone hand-roller, after
which the flour is made into dough and baked, a little
palm wine having been added to make it rise. Cassava
is treated in the same manner as yams, but the former
requires long soaking before cooking. Palm oil or ground-
nut oil is generally used for cooking, and the pulp of the
palm fruit, after the oil has been removed, is eaten. A
fermented drink is made from maize, which is said to
taste like weak beer, but the chief intoxicant made
locally is the fermented juice of the oil and the fibre
palns.

With the exception of cotton, which has been separately
referred to, groundnuts appear to have been the only field
crop of importance that has been exported. In 1908 a
substantial figure was reached, but has since declined.

PART IJ.—THE NORTHERN TERRITORIES

Tribes.— The country which is included under the
Northern Territories is inhabited by a number of tribes,
now chiefly located in the northern half; the central portion
being liable to inundation at certain times, and therefore
almost unoccupied, and the southern being, perhaps, con-
sidered unsafe owing to the proximity to the warlike
Ashantis. The more important tribes are the Mamprussis,
under the king of Gambaga ; the Gonjas, under the king
of Kombe ; the Walas, under the king of Wa; and twa

86 THE GOLD COAST

sections of the Dagombas, under the chiefs of Savelugu
and Karaga (formerly under the king of Yendi, in
German territory). The Lobis, Dagartis, Grunshis, Kus-
sassis, and several others were dispersed by Samory and
Barbetu in 1896 and 1898, and have now only nominal
chiefs. (See Colonial Reports—Annual, No. 566, ‘‘ North-
ern Territories of the Gold Coast,” 1907, p. 8.) The
Moshis, whose country extended into the northern limits
of the Northern Territories, were employed at one time
as native levies, but since they were disbanded they have
interfered with the tribes on the Gambaga-Kumassi road,
in the Sapari Hills, and made trading by that route
unsafe. (See Colonial Reports, loc. cit., p. 10.) Steps
have been taken to expel them from the country, and it
is hoped that the people living in the hills, who are said
to be good agriculturists, will now come into closer
contact with civilisation. The Dagombas are apparently
the most industrious tribe in the country, and they seem
to be numerous.

Although there does not appear to be any actual record
of the invasion of the eastern part of the country by
the Mohammedan rulers of the Western Sudan, they are
said to have overrun the pagan countries between them-
selves and the region of dense forest on several occasions.
In 1483 the kingdom of Mossi (Moshi) was conquered by
Sonni Ali, King of Songhay, who was a native of the
Eastern Sudan, and had come from Egypt. Two years
later he extended his conquest through the mountain
territory to the south and far into the pagan belt.
Sonni Ali was followed by Askia, who again overran
Mossi, in order to abolish paganism and establish the
Mohammedan faith. This occurred in about the year
1500, and doubtless the people learnt to adopt the im-
proved methods of agriculture which the conquerors had
introduced into the Western Sudan from Egypt and the
east. Many of the tribes have relapsed completely into
paganism, but amongst others there is a mixture of
Mohammedanism and paganism, which is evidence of the
impression made. More recently, Samodu Almami of
Ouassoulou, generally known as Samory, was driven
from his kingdom in the Western Sudan by the French,
and overran the Northern Territories with his Sofa troops ;
subduing Wa, Bole, and the whole of the western part

FIELD CROPS AND COTTON 87

of the country. It is, however, unlikely that agriculture
was further improved by his invasion, as large tracts of
country were devastated to feed his troops.

FIELD CROPS.—The soil is of a lighter and more sandy
nature than that generally found in the forest region, but
it is well adapted for the cultivation of many different
kinds of crops, notably Guinea corn, millet, groundnuts,
and cotton, while it is less satisfactory for yams. The
latter are consequently of smaller size.

Cotton—The cotton grown by the Dagombas is
whiter than those found in the south, and the plants are
of small stature; the species has a wide-opening pale
flower, and has been grown at Labolabo from seed pro-
cured in the Northern Territories. The cotton fields are
planted with regular lines of plants, and the ground
appears to be exclusively used for the crop during the
season. The seed is sown upon ridges which have been
constructed from the high conical mounds, upon which
the combined crop of millet (Pennisetum spp.) or Guinea
corn and yams were grown in the previous year. Culti-
vation is performed by means of a short-handled hoe,
and the ridges are kept clear of weeds and grass until
the crop isready. The seed-cotton is sold in the markets,
and is in good demand for the manufacture of native
cloths. No insect pests have been observed attacking
the plants, and it is probable that if an outside demand
were established for the produce a large quantity could
be grown. It might be necessary to introduce a better
variety than that at present cultivated, as this yields
a rather coarse and short staple. If cotton from this
part of the country is to become an article of export,
the difficulties at present experienced in transport will
first have to be overcome ; indeed, this applies to all the
produce capable of being grown in the country. The
navigation of the Volta river and the two main branches
seems to suggest a means which might be employed,
for, although there are several rapids in the course from
Daboya and Bole to Labolabo, only one is impassable
for canoes, even in the dry season. This rapid is at
Krachi where a short line has been laid for transporting
loaded canoes. The cost of the hire of canoes for
making the journey would probably be prohibitive, but
if the British Cotton Growing Association undertook

88 THE GOLD COAST

the carriage by their own canoes of the salt and
stores required by the merchants who have commenced
business in Yeji and Tamale, the freight on these in the
journey upwards would probably be found to cover the
cost of bringing cottondown-stream,and the export trade
in it could be developed in this manner. The British
Cotton Growing Association made an effort to act upon
the suggestion made here, but discontinued their opera-
tions in July 1916, when they handed over their buildings,
at Tamale, to the Government, as it was shown that under
the existing conditions and with but one European repre-
sentative to further its interests, cotton-growing in the
Northern Territories could not hope to become a re-
munerative export business (Colonial Reports, Northern
Territories, G.C. 1916, No. 956). The irregularity of the
rainfall is a matter which must be borne in mind in any
future attempts to develop the industry here, but the
possibilities of providing artificial irrigation should not be
overlooked, as large tracts of flat land exist near the
White Volta river capable of becoming fertile under proper
irrigation and drainage.

Other Field Crops.-Yams are grown as a primary
crop on mounds, and three different kinds are common,
probably referable to D. alata, D. sativa, and D. colo-
casicfolia, the last being what is termed the water yam
and the first the winged yam. Guinea corn is the most
important food grain grown, but millet is sometimes
planted. A red species of sorghum (S. guwineensis, var.
robustum) is cultivated on a small scale for use in
staining leather, but is not used for food. Rice (Oryza
sativa) is grown in the vicinity of the large rivers, but is
said to suffer damage from elephants and hippopotami.
The variety seems to be similar to the red rice grown in the
Gambia and Sierra Leone. Very little maize is planted,
but some is grown near Salaga. Cassava is only seen
in the south near the forest boundary, and groundnuts
are not plentiful, owing, perhaps, to the fact that cooking
oil is obtainable from shea butter trees, which are common
in a wild state. Pigeon peas are often planted round the
borders of fields, and are left to yield more than one crop,
This pea is identical with one of the common “ Dhalls ”
of India (Cajanus indicus) ; the origin of the introduction
is obscure. Small beans are grown as well as I ndigofera

GUMS AND WOOD OIL 89

spp. Sweet potatoes, okra, capsicum-peppers, sorrel-
hibiscus (H. Sabdariffa), and the Fra-Fra potato (Plec-
tranthus, sp., ‘‘ Tumuku”’ of the Haussas) are also grown.

Fibre.—Plants belonging to two species of Hibiscus are
used for the extraction of fibre for the preparation of
cordage, the cleaned fibre being similar to jute. These
plants grow, with perfectly straight stems, to eight or
ten feet in height, bearing short thin branches with
axillary flowers.

Tobacco.—The tobacco grown is used for smoking or the
manufacture of snuff in many parts of the Northern
Territories, and is prepared in a special manner. For
smeking tobacco the green leaves are pressed into small
gourds until a quantity of juice exudes, the mass being
rolled in this until it assumes an oval form, in which it
is sold in the markets before drying. For snuff it is
ground up between heated stones until the requisite
fineness has been obtained, and is then mixed with a
small quantity of the powdered seeds of Monodora
myristica. The tobacco fields are usually confined to
small patches near houses, and wood ashes as well as
sweepings are applied as a top dressing. This appears
to be the only crop to which manure or fertiliser is given.
The leaves always seem to be stripped off the stems at
one operation, whereby old and immature leaves are
mixed with mature.

GUMS.—Two species of Acacia (A. arabica and A.
Sieberiana) are found, especially in the uninhabited tracts
in the centre of the country, and the last named appears
to yield a large flow of gum, which, however, is not
collected. Examination of this at the Imperial Institute
has shown it to be about equal in quality to inferior Sudan
grades ; A. arabica does not seem to yield gum with such
frequency in this locality as elsewhere. Burkea africana
and Pseudocedrela Kotschyi produce a quality of gum
comparable with “‘ Talh”’ from the Sudan. (Cf. Selected
Reports from the Imperial Institute, Pt. II., Gums and
Resins, pp. 153, 165-7.) .

WOOD OIL.—By cutting deeply into the base of a tree
known as ‘‘ Neou”’ (Dagomba), and “‘ Kawa ” (Haussa), a
rather copious flow of resinous liquid is induced, which,
when solidified, is a resin somewhat similar, but in-
ferior, to copal. The tree from which this is procured
is botanically known as Daniellia thurifera, Oliv., and

90 THE GOLD COAST

the so-called “oil”? obtained was at one time shipped
from Northern Nigeria under the name of African
Balsam of Copaiba. It is used in the Northern Territories
for lighting purposes, as well as medicinally. The tree
yields a handsomely grained timber. (Cf. Bull. Imp.
Inst), T9Vas)

SHEA BUTTER.—A tree known botanically as Butyro-
spermum Parkiit bears a fruit, from the kernel of
which this valuable vegetable fat is procured. The
fat forms the cooking oil of the ultra-forest country,
taking the place of palm oil in this respect. The mode
of preparation in the Northern Territories is, doubtless,
similar to that employed in Northern Nigeria. The pre-
pared butter is one of the products carried by the Haussa
traders, who visit Ashanti for the purpose of purchasing
kola, and is much appreciated in Kumassi, where it
obtains a high price. A small quantity is carried down
the Volta river by the canoes which bring salt from
Adda to Yeji and Daboya. An analysis made at the
Imperial Institute of Shea butter from the Northern
Territories showed that the material is in no way inferior
to the better-known “‘ Shea butter ”’ of Northern Nigeria.
Cf. Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vi. (1908), p. 370.

RUBBER.—Recently some species of Landolphia were
found growing in the district of Wa and elsewhere, and,
upon examination, one of these proved to be L. owariensis,
P. Beauv. This was at first thought to occur plentifully,
and to assume the underground habits of L. Thollonii,
one of the most important sources of root or rhizome
rubber in the Congo. Specimens, which were found
growing near the south bank of the Black Volta river,
in grass land, exhibited a trailing form of growth owing
to the absence of supporting trees, but, although the
plants were probably dwarfed by the annual grass fires,
no development of root growth was observed in excess
of that ordinarily produced within the forests. The plant
is now reported to occur rather rarely in the Northern
Territories ; another nearly allied, though useless, species
having been mistaken for it.

DYES.—For dyeing the yarn made from the native
cotton, indigo is made from a species of Indigofera, or
from the young leaves of Lonchocarpus cyanescens, but
the process of preparation employed in this country has
not been carefully observed. It is, however, probably

BEESWAX—CATTLE AND POULTRY 91

similar to that in common use in Sierra Leone, Northern
Nigeria, and the Gambia.

BEESWAX.—Bees are attracted to hive in calabashes
placed in trees, the honey and wax being taken from them
and sold in the markets. The bee belongs to a small
variety of Apis mellifera, known as var. Adansonii. A
sample of beeswax obtained at ‘Tamale was examined at
the Imperial Institute, and proved to be of excellent
quality and worth £6 15s. per ewt. (Dec. 1908).

LEATHER.—Tanning of sheep and goats’ skins is done
to a small extent, the same process as that described for
the preparation of Kano leather in Northern Nigeria
being followed. The Acacia pods used for the purpose
are obtained from trees often found planted in the
middle of towns.

CATTLE AND POULTRY.—A large breed of cattle
with a dorsal hump exists in the Salaga district, and a
straight-backed smaller kind throughout the country to
the north. Although “tsetse ”’ flies of three species are
common on the stream banks, the cattle seem to be
healthy for the most part, and often form part of a
caravan travelling to the forest belt, where a good price
is said to be obtained for them from the Ashantis. They
are usually killed for food very soon after entering the
forest, where they can no longer be kept free from the
attacks of the three species of “‘ tsetse’ (Glossina morsi-
tans, G. palpalis, and G. pallidipes), all of which seem to
attack them. Horses are bred in some parts, but not to a
large extent. Wire-haired sheep and goats are seen every-
where, and can be obtained in many places at a low
price.

Fowls and Guinea-fowls are reared in several villages,
and are carried to the south for sale. Long open-work
baskets are used, and the fowls are usually conveyed as
head-loads. Guinea-fowls, purchasable for threepence
each in some of the villages south of Daboya, are sold at
four or five shillings each near the coast. No coops
seem to be employed in the villages to confine the
guinea-fowls, which habitually roost upon the house-tops
and which may frequently be seen in the adjoining fields.
They are scarcely distinguishable from the wild birds
which occur usually in the same localites. There is,
however, a marked tendency on the part of the domesti-

92

THE GOLD COAST

cated examples to acquire white feathers upon the
breast or wings to a greater or lesser extent.

It should be recorded that a considerable local trade is
carried on in the country in the sale of a flour-like sub-
stance obtained from the interior of the pods of Parkia
jilicoidea. This is made up with the seeds of the plant
into an edible paste, locally termed “‘ Dawadawa.”’

EXPORTS.—Excluding cocoa, which is treated sepa-
rately in its place, the following table shows the progress
of the export trade between 1910 and 1919 :—

YEAR.

1910 ..
1010 %.
1902
LOUD er
1914 ..
LOU...
LONG:
LOT exe
LOUS 2.
LOTO RT.

LOLOM
it) We
LOT
IOUS) 7:
194 ~.
1915 ..
1916 ..
1917 .

1918 ..
1919 .

1910...
AOU ee
1912 ..
1913 ..
1914 ==
OMS c:
ee
LIU aie
LOLS i:
1919 .

KOLA.
Lbs. £
5,156,500 | 77,716
5,791,931 | 93,099

7,133,165 | 134,231 ||
7,024,868 | 144,705 ||

7,862,414 | 142,190
8,267,100 | 139,163
6,760,898 | 130,566
11,985,645 | 239,134
13,254,538 | 262,144
16,319,972 | 350,249

RUBBER.

Lbs. £
3,223,265 | 358,876
2,668,667 | 219,447
1,990,699 | 168,729
1,317,369 | 87,915

654,133 | 21,631
647,982 | 25,167
2,215,973 | 78,865
2,961,204 | 110,272

2,
i,
1,

1,391,097 | 57,006 |
721,588 | 33,637 |

LUMBER.
Feet. £
14,938,749 | 148,122

| 13,973,396 | 138,821
| 23,573,651 | 228,745
| 37,391,848 | 366,094

| 24,587,217 | 240,878 |

9,217,622 | 90,661 |

| 10,334,793 | 93,980

7,481,468 | 69,128
14,680,823 | 137,649

10,432,250 | 103,238 ©

COPRA.

Tons. £
155) |e 135032
779 | 13,257
620} 11,841 ||
629 | 14,292
656| 11,825
770] 12,821
633 | 14,384
735] 19,916

99 2,772
984]! 30,091
PALM OIL.

Galls. £
044,868 | 161,388
610,209 | 128,916
444,432 | 112,885
860,155 | 65,652
495,763 | 37,646
330,990 | 25,769
450,360} 38,299
198,900 | 24,770
670,867 | 83,689
938,595 | 140,163

COTTON
Lbs. £

11,421 | 263

9,701 238

20,395 506

27,497 688

23,514 588

12,016 300

17,896 447

43,870 227

20,640 212

|

| 1907

COPAL.

Lbs. £
53,847 647
80,042 1,110
67,133 1,077
38,205 555

18,549 265
28,888 405
12,549 132
2,306 24
1,693 35
13,748 174
PALM KERNELS.
Tons. £

14,182 | 185,058
13,254 | 175,891
14,628 | 205,365
9,744 | 159,128
5,633 | 88,671
4,064) 50,512
5,857 | 85,899
4,768 | 74,911
8,933 | 152,922
9,892 | 253,243

GROUNDNUTS.
Tons. £

197} 1,815
not given

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NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Administrative Divisions.—
On January 1, 1914, the countries, hitherto administered
separately under the names of Northern and Southern
Nigeria, were amalgamated and placed under a Governor-
General. It is, nevertheless, convenient, from the point
of view of their agricultural and commercial interests, to
deal with them in this place separately. The inhabitants
of the Northern and Southern Provinces are to a very
large extent dissimilar in languages, religion and customs,
and the climatic conditions, by which distinct varieties of
life are so much influenced, are so suitably defined by the
artificial boundary which, until recently, divided Northern
and Southern Nigeria, that little excuse need be offered
for the maintenance of old division in the discussion of
the subjects within the competence of this book. Follow-
ing then the plan adopted in the first edition, Southern
Nigeria, referred to now as the Southern Provinces, is
being first dealt with and treated, as far as possible, inde-
pendentiy of Northern Nigeria, now entitled the Northern
Provinces, the separate account of which follows.

Geographical Position—Pending the adjustment of the
eastern frontier, occasioned by the outcome of the recent
war, the Southern Provinces of Nigeria extend from
2° 45’ E. to 10° 15’ E. long. ; the Western Province reaching
9° 10’ N., and the Central and Eastern about 7° 15’ N. lat.

Area and Population.—The estimated area of the country
before adjustment was 94,000 sq. miles, and the census of
1911 showed the population as 7,857,983.

Natural Divisions—The Southern Provinces are con-
veniently divided for agricultural considerations into wet
and dry zones. In the former the rainfall ranges from
about 90 inches at Bendi to 250 inches at Opobo. In the
latter zone the highest rainfall is reached in Lagos Town,
where about 75 inches are annually registered ; the lowest
reading being that of 40 inches at Olokemeji. The

93

94 NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES

densely forested area is practically entirely within the wet
zone ; this also including a tract of brackish-water forest
(mangrove) and swamp. In the dry zone grass-land and
open ‘‘ bush,” with trees peculiar to such localities, occur,
and it is in this portion of the country that most of
the agricultural people are found. The inhabitants of the
forested area in the wet zone give more attention to the
collection of forest products, such as palm oil and rubber,
and only grow suflicient grain and roots for their own
consumption.

Inhabitants.—-The tribes found in the Western Province
are chiefly Yorubas, and among these are some of the
most intelligent people in the country. In the Central
Province there are a large number of tribes speaking
different languages, but among these the Benis are perhaps
of most importance. The Ijoas, Ibos, Aros, and many other
tribes inhabit the Eastern Province, and are generally
of a lower grade of civilisation than the others mentioned.
The country between the northern part of the Cross river
and the Niger is populated by other pagan tribes, who
seem to be careful cultivators, but very little is known
of them at present.

Cultivation.—The Yoruba race are industrious cultiva-
tors, and show considerably more ambition than most of
the other West African peoples. The country in which
they live is particularly adapted to farming, and the
climatic conditions are suitable for the cultivation of
cotton and fibrous plants, in addition to the various grain
crops. In some parts cocoa, rubber, and kola are being
cultivated, but these are not so suitable under the pre-
vailing conditions as they would be within the wet zone—
the Western Province, which these people inhabit, being
entirely within the dry region.

Although farming is so extensive, continuous cultiva-
tion is not found, and the use of manure is practically
unknown. The usual practice is to farm a piece of land
for a few years, and to permit it then to return to a wild
state for a long period. In their want of knowledge
concerning the value of manure and the application of
artificial irrigation, the Yoruba farmers are behind the
Haussas of Northern Nigeria, but are more careful than
the Nupes of the same country. The depth of the Yoruba
cultivation is greater than that of the northern Haussa,

PRINCIPAL CROPS 95

and this in some measure compensates for the non-
employment of manure, etc.

The people of the Central Province are generally less
careful in their farming methods; the Benis often
planting their grain crops in only partially cleared land.
Farther to the north in the same province a better
system is noticeable among the Ishans, Ifons, and
the people of Agbede. During recent years, owing to
the energetic efforts of the Forestry Department, the
cultivation and better treatment of the indigenous rubber
tree (Funtumia elastica) have been extensively adopted,
especially by the people in the neighbourhood of Benin
City, where the climate is well suited to the species. In
addition to rubber, cocoa and kola plantations might
prove successful in the same localities, but as yet no
large plantations of either exist.

In the Eastern Province farming is generally of poor
quality until the region of heavy rainfall is left, when
extremely large areas are met with, highly cultivated,
with the earth thrown up into loose mounds, often five
or six feet in height, for the purpose of growing yams,
maize, pepper, okra, Guinea corn, pumpkins, etc., all of
which are found planted upon each mound; the yams
being carefully trained to climb along fibre strings towards
central poles.

Principal Crops.-—The chief crops grown in the Western
Province are maize, cotton, cassava, yams, sweet potatoes,
groundnuts, and to a small extent Guinea corn, sugar-
cane, tobacco, Colocasia yams, peppers, okra, rice, egg-
plant, and native beans.

Indigo is extracted from Lonchocarpus cyanescens, which
occurs in a wild state, and is preserved when making
clearances for farms. The Indigofera spp. are used to a
smaller degree for the same purpose. (See Sierra Leone
Section, p. 39; also Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1909,
p. 319; 1918, p. 11; and 1919, p. 31.)

_ Fruits are not grown plentifully, and are generally left
in an uncultivated condition. The chief kinds are pine-
apples, bananas, pawpaws, akee apple (Blighia sapida),
oranges, and guavas. ‘There are several fruits and spices
which are collected from the forest strips, but, taken
generally, the Western Province people are not great
fruit eaters. On the sea coast and for a considerable

96 NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES

distance inland, coconut plantations are common, and,
near Badagry, copra is prepared from them for ship-
ment.

The crops cultivated in the Central Province are similar
to those of the Western, but yams become more, and
groundnuts less prominent. Large quantities of palm
oil are prepared, and rubber is collected, the labour
available for farm work being thereby reduced.

The most important product of the Eastern Province
is undoubtedly palm oil, but fairly large quantities of
yams and maize are grown outside the forest zone and
are transported by native canoes to the coast ports, in
the vicinity of which there is very little cultivation.

With the exception of the oil palm, which is of general
occurrence throughout the country, the Lagos silk rubber
tree (Funtumia elastica) is of the most importance from
a commercial standpoint. Rubber vines of the genera
Landolphia and Carpodinus are also valuabie wild plants,
from which some of the finest rubbers are at present
extracted. Copal, known as “ Ogea ”’ gum, and collected
from a tree which has been determined as Cyanothyrsus
oblongus (syn. ogea), is exported in varying quantity
according to the market value. A fairly extensive local
trade is done in ‘‘ chew-sticks ”’? in the Western Province ;
the sticks being cut from a tree which occurs in the grass
country, and is recognised as Anogeissus leiocarpus. The
ash made from the wood of the same tree is sold for use
as a mordant in indigo dyeing. Camwood is a red dye-
wood prepared from at least three different species of
trees—Baphia nitida, Pterocarpus tinctorius, and Ptero-
carpus sp.—and is almost entirely used locally for staining
the human skin or dyeing leather. Fibre plants do not
appear to be cultivated in any part of the country, but
occur to some extent in all the forested parts. Hibiscus
guineensis and Dombeya buettneri are usually employed
for native ropes, and the bark of Sterculia barteri is said
to be prepared for the same purpose.

OIL PALM.—A description of this tree and information
in connection with the principal characteristics and
mode of propagation have been given in the Sierra
Leone portion of this work, and it may merely be remarked
that there is no difference in a general way between trees
grown in the two localities. With regard to the form of

"STL ‘d ‘pa °3 "sIL ‘d “Ea “Sta “16 *d “GG “ot [16 *d
TICHWOMOTO LY ‘NVGVdI “AUANNID ‘“OMDOHSO “WIVd TIO AHL FO dtond

(raugaas VITVNIWUGL) AAWL VUVAY HOAOUMOATUVIL ‘SUTVa NOLLOO SQOUKIE AHL WONT TIO YNINIVULS

SHONTAOUd NYAALOAOS_VIYHOIN

OIB PALM 97

fruit, however, that of Southern Nigeria is separated into
several kinds, varying in the relative proportion of
pericarp and kernel, and these will be referred to later.

The method of preparing palm oil varies to a large
degree in the different localities. The best quality of
oil is that produced in the Western Province. The oil,
which on the market is classed as ‘‘ Lagos fine grade,”
and obtains the highest price among West African
oils, is made from the fresh fruits boiled and pounded
in the manner described for the Sierra Leone oil,
but the extracted oil is further cleared by straining and
boiling until a uniformly clear and limpid product is
obtained.

An inferior quality is that made at Oshogbo and north
of Ibadan generally. The fruits, after having been boiled
for about three hours, have the fibrous pulp sufficiently
loosened, so that the whole is easily separated from the
nuts by pounding in a wooden mortar. The fibrous mass
thus obtained is then put into a pit, which is filled to
a depth of about eighteen inches with cold water, and the
oil is expressed by women and young girls, who tread
it out with their feet. After leaving the water undis-
turbed for a short time, the oil rises to the surface, from
which it is skimmed, or it may be precipitated, by the
removal of a plug placed in the side of the pit, into a
vessel placed to receive it. The treading process is re-
peated until most of the oil is extracted. The oil is then
separated from the water which it contains by boiling.
The fibrous pulp is next removed, strained in baskets,
and is placed upon rocks to dry in the sun, after which
it is pressed into large balls, which are sold in the local
markets at Id. each. Much of this finds its way to
Lagos Town, where it is sold for fuel at the rate of 8d.
for 84 1b. In this connection it may be mentioned that
there appears to be no foundation for the statement
which has been made to the effect that this residual
pulp is exported in large quantities from Lagos for the
further extraction of oil by chemical means in Europe.
An illustration is given showing a girl straining fibrous
pulp in an oil pit at Oshogbo (Fig. 22).

In the Central and Eastern Provinces “‘ hard ”’ oil is
the commercial name applied to the kind which is gener-
ally aa At Onitsha the natives may be seen bringing

98 NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES

in this oil, which is of such a consistency that even at
an atmospheric temperature of 90° it remains in a solid
wax-like condition. The earthen vessels in which such
oil is conveyed to the factories, when accidentally dropped
and broken, do not necessarily occasion the loss of any
oil. The thickened condition is entirely due to the
method of preparation, during which important chemical
changes occur, which appear to be detrimental to the oil
for some of its most important uses, especially that of
soap manufacture, while rendering it suitable for employ-
ment for making candles. The important difference in
the preparation of this oil lies in the fact that instead
of the fresh fruits being used, the pericarp is separated
from the nuts by means of partial decomposition, induced
by burying the fruits in the ground for a period varying
from three weeks to two months. The semi-decomposed
pericarp is then easily removed by pounding or treading
out in a canoe-shaped receptacle, after which the fibrous
mass is boiled, and the liquid oil is skimmed and allowed
to set in earthen jars, in which it is carried for sale to
the factories.

The extraction of kernels from the nuts is one of the
usual occupations of the women and children of a village,
when not assisting in the preparation of oil. The nuts
are spread in the sun for about a week or more until a
shrinkage of the kernel occurs, which renders the nut-
shell capable of being easily cracked without damage to
the interior. It is said that in the Jebu district, to the
north-east of Lagos, the local price paid for kernels ranges
from 4d. to 44d. for a filled tin bowl having the diameter
of nine inches.

The primitive method of extracting kernels, by means
of cracking the nut-shell between stones and picking out
the contents, has not yet given way to the employment
of the various machines which have been introduced from
time to time to supersede it.

A black oil is extracted at Oshogbo by roasting
the kernels in an earthen pot until black, and stirring
meanwhile until the whole mass becomes covered with
exuded oil. A small quantity of cold water is then
sprinkled into the pot after removing it from the fire,
and the contents are pounded in a mortar until an oily
meal is produced. This is boiled, and, when the mixture

OIL PALM 99

is cool, the oil is skimmed from the surface of the water
which has been added for the boiling. This oil is appar-
ently only used locally.

The existing native social system, under which the
male head of a family receives almost exclusive con-
sideration, is opposed to native co-operation in any
mechanical process, whereby a relief from labour of his
numerous dependants—wives, children, and aged or in-
firm relatives—would be incurred at the expense of his
enhanced personal labour ; he being the carrier and dis-
poser of the produce at the market. By the conveyance
and sale of nuts instead of kernels, a much smaller re-
turn in value would be obtained for the same weight of
material, 7.e. a similar amount of personal energy. The
dependants, incapable of assisting in transporting, would
remain idle, unless some similar work could be found
for them. Up to a short distance from the delivery
point (which would determine itself) the nuts instead
of the kernels would be brought in for sale, and, limited
by the capabilities of the available palm-tree climbers,
the family dependants would be able to prepare larger
quantities of pericarp oil; but the increased accumulation
of kernels would further decrease the radius from the
selling centre at which the carriers would be able to
work.

If the entire fruit were to be buaght up for mechanical
extraction of pericarp oil as well as kernels, the carrying
labour would be still further enhanced, and the work of
the oil-manufacturing communities would resolve itself
into three operations—viz. climbing trees, chopping out
fruit, and transporting—which would mean the exclusion
from work of all but the strong adults, or the reduction
of workers by 30 to 50 per cent. perhaps. The number
of skilled palm-tree climbers is said to be decreasing in
many districts, and, owing to the sparsity of the popula-
tion in some localities, a very large proportion of the
annual yield of fruit remains unharvested.

The investigation of the several varieties of the oil palm
of the country is in progress at the Imperial Institute,
and the characters of the most important are now well
known, and may be compared here with the varieties
from the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, Gambia, and Northern
Nigeria. The typical form, which, although subject to

100 NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES

some variation, possesses certain marked characteristics,
may be said to fall under the following general description:

Fruiting heads generally large. Fruit large, orange to
scarlet in colour, with a variable amount of purplish black
suffusion at the apex, which may extend over more than
half of the fruit or may be altogether absent. Pericarp
thin, kernel large with a thick shell. Names: ‘“‘ Ope
yope ” or “Ope pankora ”’ (Yoruba), “‘ Ok-poruk-pu ”
(Ibo), ‘“‘ Udin” (Beni), “‘ Ak-porro-jub ” (Efik), “‘ Irék-
Eyop ” (Ibibio), “‘ Abe pa” and perhaps “‘ Abe dam ”
(Fanti, Gold Coast), ‘‘ Tug bore’? (Mendi, Sierra Leone),
** Tabel-tiloli ’’ (Timani, Sierra Leone), “‘ Tengo’? (Man-
dingo, Gambia), ‘‘ Kabe-kalako”’ (Jolah, Gambia),
“Neul” (Joloff, Gambia), “‘ Qua-qua’”? (Haussa, N.
Nigeria), “‘ Yi-ku-niche ”’ (Nupe, N. Nigeria). Only the
typical form has as yet been observed in Sierra Leone,
Gambia, and Northern Nigeria.

The other particularly important variety is that com-
monly referred to as the “‘ soft-shelled ’’ or “‘ thin-shelled ”’
palm fruit, which has been recorded from many localities
in West Africa. The following description will include
the forms contained in this group :

Fruiting heads often large. Fruits large or small,
generally the latter, dark coloured. Pericarp thick,
kernel rather small, with a thin shell. Names: ‘“ Ope-
Arunfo ”? (Yoruba), ‘‘ Au-su-ku ”’ (Ibo), “‘ Ivioronmila ”
(Beni), ‘“‘ Asoge-e-jub ”’ (Efik), ‘‘ Eduege Eyop ”’ (Ibibio),
“ Abe-bobe”’ (Fanti, Gold Coast).

The third kind is that frequently called the ‘‘ Fetish ”
or “‘ King’? palm nut. It is rare wherever it occurs, and
is scarcely worth consideration from an economic stand-
point. The tree which bears this fruit has been described
under the distinct specific name of Hlais Thompsoni,
Chevalier.

Fruiting heads generally small. Fruits medium-sized,
red with black markings occasionally present. Pericarp
moderately thick, kernel and shell medium. The nuts,
which possess four eyes, are not used in the manufacture
of commercial oil, but are employed in connection with
the worship of the deity Ifa (Dennett). Names: ‘‘ Ope
Ifa’ (Yoruba), “‘ Ojuku”’ (Ibo), ‘‘ Oged-udin ” (Beni),
“* Affia-ko-jub ” (Efik), ‘‘ Efiako-Eyop ” (Ibibio), “‘ Abe-
ohene”’ (Fanti, Gold Coast).

OIL PALM 101

The above are the three most marked forms of oil
palm recognisable, although other varieties are given
special names by natives in different parts of the country,
distinctions being frequently made between the fruit from
trees which assume a tall growth and those which remain
stunted. (Cf. also Bull. Imp. Inst., 1909, p. 362; and
1920, p. 223.)

As far as investigations have progressed, the advantage
with regard to yield of oil as well as quality is maintained
by the thin-shelled variety, the greater proportion of
pericarp enabling a larger amount of pericarp oil to be
expressed, while the thin kernel-covering facilitates
the extraction of the kernel. Before being able to
definitely state that this variety is of the greatest
economic value, it is necessary that a comparison of
the weight of the annual crops from all varieties should
be made.

The advisability of planting any particular variety of
oil palm would in the first place depend on the results
obtained from the complete investigation of all; but at
the present time such a project on a large scale is not
likely to be practicable, as it is generally acknowledged
that only a comparatively small proportion of the existing
wild trees are at present utilised.

Experiments in the Kamerun, with different varieties
of oil palms, seemed to indicate that the thin-shelled
character was not a fixed one. In 1910 a forest officer
in Nigeria was detailed to study the distribution,
cultivation and preparation of the oil, of the most
appreciated varieties, and a quantity of nuts of the soft-
shelled “‘ Lisombe” kind from the Kamerun were dis-
tributed for planting among the natives of the Eastern
Province.

The export figures of this trade from 1910 to 1918 are
tabulated below. Up to the year 1914, those of Northern
were separated from those of Southern Nigeria. In this
account, subsequent to that year, the two sets of figures
have been taken together. A quantity of kernels is im-
ported from Dahomey for re-export, amounting in 1910
to 21,120 tons. The figures indicate that the increase
has been irregular, and, during the last few years, has
been influenced by the war. In 1919 here, as in the other
W. African Colonies, a differential export tax of £2 per
ton was imposed, with respect to palm kernels,

102 NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES

Palm oil in tons

Year (280 galls. =1 ton) Palm kernels in tons
1910 . . 76,850 172,998
1911 ° - 09,337 176,390
1912 . - 16,994 184,624
1913 ° - 83,088 174,718
1914 ° « #2030 162,452
1915 ; - 712,994 153,319
1916 . - 67,422 161,439
roy . - 74,619 185,998
1918 ° - 86,425 205,167
1919 : . 100,967 216,913

It is interesting to compare the amount of oil produced
in proportion to kernels collected, there being a marked
difference in this respect between the output of the
Western Province (Lagos) and the Central and Eastern
Provinces. A previous series of thirteen years’ exports
from the former showed an average of 60-9 gallons of oil
to the ton of kernels; while for the latter a twelve-year
period at the same time gave 219-6 gallons of oil to the
ton of kernels. The mean for the whole was 140-25 gallons
at that time, but during the last seven years it has fallen
to 125-7 gallons. In 1912 the first shipments of kernel oil
and cake were made from factories established under
European control at Opobo and Lagos, the amounts ex-
ported being 500 tons of oil and 635 tons of cake. In the
following year the value of both products turned out by
these factories is given as £161,000, and in 1914 as
£72,000, when, without any assigned reason, both fac-
tories were closed down.

Articles on the African palm-oil industry in the Southern
Provinces of Nigeria will be found in Bulletin of the
Imperial Institute, 1909, 1911, 1912, 1913, 1914, 1915,
1919.

An interesting article appears in the Bulletin of the
Imperial Institute, vol. xviii., No. 2 (1920), entitled ‘‘ The
Cultivation of the African Oil Palm, with special reference
to the East Indies.” From this it appears that the
tree thrives and yields very satisfactorily, especially in
Sumatra; the oil content of the fruit and kernels being
both high. Attention is drawn in this article to the
extension of the use of palm oil in Europe as an edible fat,
in addition to its present uses.

Other Oil Seeds.—Excluding the shea nut tree, which

RUBBER 103

will be referred to later on, three trees have been con-
sidered of sufficient importance for their seeds to be
shipped to Europe in order that their value may be
determined. These are Pentaclethra macrophylla (Cutlass
bean), Irvingia Barteri (African mango), and Lophira
alata. Although the trials proved that the oils of all
might be valuable for the manufacture of soap and
candles, none of the trees occur in sufficient profusion
to permit a large export trade in the seeds being estab-
lished. (See Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. v.
[1907], pp. 10-14, and vol. vi. [1908], pp. 243, 354-80.)

RUBBER.—Following the progress made by the
Forestry Department in re-establishing the indigenous
rubber tree (Funiumia elastica) in places from which it
had almost disappeared, an excellent system of communal
plantations was established. This system, which has
been largely adopted by the chiefs, is one to encourage the
village inhabitants to re-establish rubber trees in their
proximity ; the planting and tapping and preparation of
the rubber being under the direction of the Government
officers. The resulting rubber is marketed by the Govern-
ment, who retain one-third of the sale price to cover the
cost of supervision, etc. ; the remaining two-thirds being
paid to the village community. In this manner a large
number of communal plantations have now been estab-
lished. In 1911 over 400 new plantations of this kind
were made ; about 100,000 Funtumia plants being put in.
At the same time 129,000 Para rubber seeds and some
4,000 seedlings were distributed under the same scheme,
while Ceara plantations were made in the drier parts
of the country. Licences to collect wild rubber were
simultaneously made compulsory.

The rubber produced on the Government plantation at
Mamu Forest, by the boiling method, proved very satis-
factory. In 1910 such rubber was sold at 6s. 6d. per lb.,
being only 6d. less than the best Para fetched at the
same time. Three hundred communal plantations yielded
rubber in 1911 against eighty-four in the previous year,
the average yield per tree being 1°59 oz. against 1°406
oz. In 1912 communal rubber amounted to 3,031 Ibs.,
which sold at about 3s. 4d. per lb. ; and in the same year
Government plantation rubber was 3,501 Ibs., which
realised 3s. 10d. per lb.

104 NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES

The next rubber plant of importance is the vine,
Landolphia owariensis, which is somewhat variable in the
form of growth. The latex at certain seasons coagulates
almost instantaneously, but at other times it runs freely,
and can be collected for coagulation by heat, the ad-
mixture of acid, alkali or alcohol, or by spontaneous
exposure. The scrap rubber, which is collected from
that coagulated upon the stem, is made into balls, and
comes into the market under the name of “first Niggers,”
and commands a high price.

The native has discovered that a larger amount of
rubber can be obtained at one time if the roots and stems
are cut and pounded up. The result is a product known
as “root rubber,” the collection of which can be justified
only where the plant, from which it is obtained, develops
an extensive rhizome or subterranean growth, capabie of
being partially removed without killing the plant. Such
vines, although found in some other parts of Africa, do
not occur in Southern Nigeria, and the collection of
so-called “root rubber” from L. owariensis only leads
to the complete destruction of the plant, and should be
discouraged. The small yield of latex from this species
after many years of growth, and the difficulties in con-
nection with the collection of the rubber, render its culti-
vation in plantations unprofitable, although planting has
been attempted in the French and German Colonies.

Clitandra elastica is another vine said to yield a copious
supply of latex, capable of being coagulated by means
of heating after dilution with water. In appearance the
vine is somewhat similar to L. owariensis, but does not
appear to be common. The rubber produced from this
species is reported to be of excellent quality.

Carpodinus hirsutus, a common vine in the dry zone
and on the Niger river banks, furnishes a plentiful supply
of latex of inferior quality, and is made into “root”
and “‘ paste ”’ rubber by boiling ; the latter being a sticky
product of the consistency of birdlime, and only saleable
in Europe at a low price.

The latices of Landolphia Thompsonii and L. senegal-
ensis are used similarly. Both species are nearly allied to
L. florida, which is prepared elsewhere.

A number of latex-yielding plants are employed in the
adulteration of good rubber, among which the following

EXPORT OF RUBBER 105

may be mentioned as the commonest: Funtumia afri-
cana, Conopharyngia sp., Alstonia congoensis, and Holar-
rhena Wulfsburgit. The admixture of these is usually
detected by the stickiness which they impart to good
rubber.

The introduction of licences for permission to collect
wild rubber and that of the communal plantation system,
previously referred to, have rendered the position more
secure than previously, and insured the preservation of
the wild plants which were threatened with extinction.
This has moreover been effected in the most economical
manner.

The results of the tappings on the Para rubber planta-
tions in different parts of the country are of interest. In
1911 at Ebute Metta, trees eighteen years old yielded
3 lbs. 54 oz. per tree; at Calabar six year old trees gave
an average of 6 oz. per tree; while at Sapele in the same
year, five year old trees yielded from 14 oz. to 1 lb. 63 oz.
per tree. In the following year the same trees at Ebute
Metta gave 7 lbs. 43 oz., while those at Sapele yielded from
1 Ib. 43 oz. to 1 lb. 113 0z. In 1915 from two Para rubber
estates at Sapele 94,413 Ibs. of dry rubber was harvested.
(C£. Bull. Imp. Inst., 1910, 1912, 1913, 1918.)

Export of Rubber.—The Commercial Intelligence Officer
of Southern Nigeria, in his report on the trade of the
country for 1907, gives a table showing the rubber ex-
ported from Southern Nigerian ports from 1900 to 1907;
but as these figures include large quantities of the pro-
duct from Northern Nigeria, shipped through Southern
Nigerian ports, they do not represent the output from
the latter country alone. Until 1907 apparently no
record of the Northern Nigerian rubber exported was
kept, but in the year mentioned 1,187,588 lbs., valued
at £91,074, were recorded as having passed the cus-
toms post of Northern Nigeria at Ida, on the Niger.
The amounts, in tons, exported from the Southern
Provinces alone were: 1907, 690; 1908, 545; 1909,
620; and from the whole of Nigeria from that time:
1910, 1,180; 1911, 966; 1912, 705; 1913, 510; 1914, no
figures; 1915, 248; 1916, 396; 1917, 392; 1918, 157:
1919, 398. The rubber production of the country is to
some extent controlled by the market price, which is at
present very low (1921),

106 NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES

COPAL.—Some quantity of a kind of copal resin is
collected from Cyanothyrsus oblongus (syn. C. ogea), and is
exported under the name of “‘Ogea gum.” The quality
appears to be similar to that obtained from the Gold
Coast Cyanothyrsus sp., and which is sold under the name
of “‘ Accra copal.” Both are obtained in a fresh and a
fossil state. Owing to the recent fall in the price of
ogea gum, the collection of it has diminished, but there
are said to be large quantities available which would be
collected as soon as a better demand occurred. (See
articles on ‘‘ Copal Resins from British West Africa,”
Bull. Imp. Inst., 1908, p. 245; and 1914, p. 218.)

COCOA.—The good fortune which has recently attended
the planters in West Africa, owing to a sudden demand
for their cocoa, has encouraged them, especially to the
north and north-east of Lagos, to make more extensive
plantations. The climatic conditions in the Western
Province, however, are not favourable, and the repeated
failures of trees, due to the exhausting effect of the long
dry seasons, give the plantations an irregular appearance.
The trees in the plantations made at Agege, where many
well-to-do planters have made farms, are stunted, and
planted in too close proximity, mostly without permanent
shade trees. In some instances the trees showed disease
from the sapping of the bark juices occasioned bya Capsid,
the species of which is as yet undetermined. The chief
cause of their sterility and death seems, however, to be
the unfavourable climatic conditions. In the direction of
the Abeokuta-Ibadan boundary, better planting seems
to have been done and permanent shade trees preserved.

It is said that the Agege planters are dissatisfied with
the prices they obtain for their cocoa, which they main-
tain is properly fermented and of better quality than
that of their neighbours. An association of the local
planters was recently formed to ship their own produce
direct to the European markets. The Agege cocoa gener-
ally, however, does not appear to be more carefully
prepared or of better quality than the other local kinds.
Fermentation is certainly practised in many places, and is
becoming popular throughout the Western Province,owing
to the discovery that the fermented pulp juice forms a
beverage, which is said to be used as a substitute for palm
wine, but the beans are frequently improperly dried.

COCOA 107

In the Eastern Province the climatic conditions appear
to be more favourable for the plant, and there are now a
number of small plantations near Eket, Old Calabar, and
Itu. The product is still improperly prepared and usually
unfermented, but time and experience will remedy this.

In the Central Province from 1915 some activity in
cocoa planting has occurred in the Benin district, but
attention there is still mainly devoted to rubber planting.

See also Bull. Imp. Inst., 1914, p. 213; 1915, p. 553;
and 1919, p. 289.

The exports of cocoa have been as follows :

Year Pecos (W. Province) S. Nigeria (C. & E. Provs.)
value £ lbs. value £
1890 Pa 322 No record
189i 15,254 332 -
1892 15,820 390 aa
1893 18,027 488 46,977 655
1894 39,177 929 58,180 992
1895 48,187 832 bias) 1,520
1896 27,968 442 109,399 1,532
1897 101,186 1,528 101,214 1,393
1898 76,965 1,579 120,633 1,459
1899 157,708 3,411 142,235 2,548
1900 256,234 5,913 196,455 2,710
1901 229,952 5,042 230,726 3,139
1902 385,540 7,530 302,305 3,677
1903 341,461 6,705 288,614 3,653
1904 821,732 13,892 367,728 4,982
1905 896,350 10,889 388,479 6,019
1906 1,153,439 20,893 466,548 6,161
1907 Combined 2,089,225 47,840
1908 ox 3,060,609 50,587
1909 a 5,019,417 T1917
1910 ss 6,567,181 101,150
1911 be 9,858,774 164,664
1912 es 7,593,711 130,542
1913 - 8,111,920 157,480
1914 oa 5,000 tons app. 171,751
1915 == 9,105 a 313,946
1916 7 8,956 . 393,101
1917 “: 15,442 “ 499,009
1918 ae 10,219 235,870

39
1919 a 25,711 » 1,067,675

108 NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES

COTTON.—Reviewing the work which has been done
in inducing the agricultural population of the country
to cultivate cotton for export, by far the greatest promi-
nence must be given to the untiring efforts of the British
Cotton Growing Association, who are gradually sur-
mounting all the obstacles which retarded their progress.
The condition of the industry, especially in the Western
Province, is extremely favourable, and shows signs of
further development.

In every Yoruba market sales of cotton are now con-
ducted as a part of the regular transactions of the day,
and cotton from distant villages filters through from
market to market, increasing in value as it approaches a
ginnery, where the full price for it may be ultimately
claimed by the trader who has collected it.

On account of this system of passing from one market
to another, chiefly in the form of barter for other produce,
it becomes nearly impossible to accurately determine the
origin of the supplies brought to the ginneries; and, by
reference to the records kept, very large quantities of
cotton often appear as having been sent from towns
which are little more than accumulating centres, and
in the vicinity of which there is little or no cotton grown.

Experience in the plantation of cotton under European
control has shown that without combining the work of
a general trader, farmer, and ginner with that of grower,
such an attempt is not likely to prove remunerative.
The British Cotton Growing Association have abandoned
development upon these lines, directing their attention
solely towards buying, ginning and inducing the native
farmers to cultivate the plant in their ordinary field rota-
tions. Such plantations as still exist are now under the
direct control of the Government and are maintained
for the purpose of experimental work and for the propaga-
tion of improved types.

The local varieties of cotton may be roughly classed
under five heads, which are easily recognisable by the
characters of the seed and lint. These are :

1. Black, clean-seeded with a brown tuft or brown
woolly and a brick-red lint.—‘*‘ Eponkon.”’

2. Black, clean-seeded, with a creamy white lint.—Com-
mon Western Province kind; rarer in the Central Pro-
vince (Ishan).

COTTON 109

3. Black, adhering seeds, “kidney” kind, lint creamy.—
Common Central Province.

4. White or brownish woolly seeded, lint creamy.—
Meko and Agbede kinds.

5. Green woolly seeded, lint creamy.—Rather uncom-
mon except at Agege.

The characters of the above classes do not appear to
be sufficiently constant to render it easy to give each
class a specific position, although some of them are
doubtless separable. All native forms of plant are
constantly of greater stature than American, and in this
particular resemble Egyptian kinds.

The red-linted form known as “‘ Eponkon ”’ is identical
with the ‘Dhoole” of Sierra Leone, and, although
prolific, yields a cotton which is of little value for export.
The other four kinds are those from which the Southern
Nigerian output of exported cotton is almost wholly
obtained, and the price realised varies from 4d. under
to ld. or more over Middling American. The finest
cottons are those grown at Agege and Meko; the former
being supposed to be a hybrid with an American variety,
and the latter a constant local variety. Some of the
shipments, from Illushi, of cotton grown near Agbede
appear to have been of equally desirable quality.

A large number of specimens of cotton have been
examined at the Imperial Institute, and the length of
fibre is generally found to be over one inch in average,
but the colour is yellowish, and there is less lustre than
is found in the American kinds. Although the price
obtained is often somewhat higher than that of the
standard Middling American grade, Manchester spinners
do not regard West African cotton as quite suitable
for their ordinary requirements, and it appears that
the higher prices have only been paid for small
quantities which were capable of being used for special
purposes.

For the reason mentioned, efforts have been made to
replace the indigenous cottons by American kinds, or
to hybridise the two, but the results have not yet been
successful, the tendency being to produce an irregular
mixed lint, which is commercially inferior. American
and Egyptian cottons seem to be less capable of with-
standing the attacks of the local insect pests, and a

110 NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES

large proportion of the seed is rendered sterile by the
cotton seed bug. Grown experimentally on a small scale
at Olokemeji, the following results were obtained from
several exotic and local cottons (American Middling at
6°64d. per lb.) :—

Variety Yield per A. lbs. Lint % Staple average Value

1. Black Rattler . . 82°65 36°36 1°3 in. 638-6 3d.
2. Richmond . e . 140 28°5 ile ee 3 68-63d.
3. Eponkon . = e bZb 24°7 oe no demand
BO Anam. P85) 2! OG 31 15 ,, Tid.
5. Ashmouni . 5 -») 600 3o:0 Lea es 6¢d.
6. Jannovitch . ° .- 120 33°3 1:0. Gs 63-62d.
7. Kidney : - - 040 41 pj 9s 63d.
8. Georgia 5 ° of EO 36°6 Ls 63-63d.
9. Ogudu : : . 490 28°5 1 oy. 7d.
10. Sea Island . : “60 RRs) I:4 55 63d.
11. Allen’s Improved pe LOG 30°7 ISG: tes 74d.
12. Culpepper B. Boll. . 150 33°3 12s 68-63.
13. Jannovitch . , - 240 33°3 Wedges 7d.
14. Peruvian . 2 . 400 17°5 2s, 6—-63d.
15. Abassi : : . 320 34°4 143% 74d.
16. Jones’ improved . - 82°5 36°36 1-4 6d.
17. Russell’s B.B. .. . Crop entire failure

18. Hawkins’ Extra Prolific ,, 3s 53

19. Sunflower Box Staple - 5 “

Of the above Nos. 1, 2, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18,
and 19 are American varieties, and were grown from
seed supplied by the British Cotton Growing Association ;
Nos. 4, 5, 6, 13 and 15 are Egyptian ; No. 9 is a Northern
Nigerian variety from North Ilorin, and Nos. 3 and 7
appear to be local kinds. These cottons are referred to
in Professor Dunstan’s Report (1907), ‘‘ British Cotton
Cultivation.”

In addition to the susceptibility of the American
varieties to the attacks of the local insect pests, the seed
produced from plants grown in the country is often
sterile. In the districts in the vicinity of the British
Cotton Growing Association’s ginneries American and
native cottons are often seen growing in the same field,
but as the time of reaching maturity ciffers in the various
forms, and the cotton is not easily kept separate in the
native methods of harvesting, a mixed crop is obtained.
Experimenting at the Moor Plantation at Ibadan, the
British Cotton Growing Association have obtained occa-
sionally satisfactory results from the American plots, as
appeared to be the case in the 1908-9 season, when
an American “‘ Upland ”’ variety is said to have yielded

COTTON 111

800 Ibs. of seed cotton per acre. In the previous year an
indigenous variety called ‘‘ Meko”’ is recorded as having
produced over 900 lbs. to the acre. These results are
largely dependent upon the season and the time of
sowing.

Artificial pollination of the female flowers of the local
forms with pollen taken from American kinds has not
yet succeeded in producing a permanent hybrid, although
the result in the first generation has frequently shown
great promise. There is no doubt that the establishment
of a hybrid which would carry the lint of the best
American kind and retain the hardiness and_blight-
resisting powers of the indigenous forms would be very
desirable, but such a type could only be evolved after
careful experiment and selection for a prolonged period.
Suck work may probably be undertaken by the Agri-
cultural Department in the future. Until this can be
scientifically taken up, the improvement of the existing
forms by a more gradual means should be attempted,
namely by a careful selection of seed and elimination of
undesirable forms of plants in the field.

Where cotton is planted by natives, the cultivation is
usually carefully carried out. Planting takes place in
June, July, or August, and the crop is harvested from
January until April. For the most part cotton is grown
by the Yorubas as a separate crop, although occasionally
it may be found in conjunction with maize. No manuring
is carried on, but the crops are generally fair, except in
the proximity of the Niger, for an unexplained reason.
No estimate can be made of the yield per acre from native
cotton fields, but from 60 to 80 bolls are frequently
found upon a single plant.

Before passing to other matters in connection with
the condition of the cotton plant in the country, and
the appliances in use for the preparation of the lint for
export, it seems advisable to emphasise the main points
which require attention in the field. 1. Improvement
of the indigenous forms, by the careful selection of seed
at the ginneries, for distribution, and the subsequent
elimination of undesirable types of plant in the field.
2. Demonstration to the native farmer of a useful method
of combination of cotton with the existing field crops,
and especially the advantage of introducing leguminous

112 NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES

crops into the rotation with cotton. 3. Special efforts to
be made in those countries outside the oil palm dis-
tricts, where the natives have little else capable of being
produced for barter for imported material. After a series
of experimental trials it was decided in 1915 to encourage
the planting of Georgia cotton in the Western Province.
In the year mentioned this American variety had yielded
800 lbs. of seed cotton per acre at Ibadan.

A number of insect pests of a more or less serious
nature attack the plant at different periods of growth.
The American boll-worm (Chloridea obsoleta) does some
damage annually in the Central Province (Ugboha,
Agbede and Ishan); Farias insulana, F., the Egyptian
boll-worm ; #. imbricata, an allied species, and Diparopsis
castanea Hamp., the Sudan boll-worm, are common at
Ibadan. The immature boll is often punctured by a
scarlet and brown bug, identified as Dysdercus super-
stitiosus, Fabr., which enters the opened bolls also, and
exudes a yellowish liquid, which stains the lint. The
opened boll is also infested with three species of cotton-
seed bugs—Oxycarenus hyalinipennis, O. gossipinus, and
O. Dudgeoni—which do a large amount of damage in
sapping the juices from the seed and rendering it un-
productive. The most satisfactory method of dispersing
this insect is to place the seed-cotton in a hot sun for several
hours. Both Oxycarenus and Dysdercus may be trapped
by placing piles of seed in the field at intervals, and
treating them with kerosene when the insects have
collected on them. A small caterpillar belonging to the
family Gelechiade * is often found in the boll feeding on
the seed, and a leaf-blistering blight, probably Chlorita
flavescens, appears to be common in several places.
A malady, chiefly on stems of exotic cottons, and known
as ‘“‘ black-arm ” in Georgia, U.S.A., is seen occasionally.
The affection is not attributed to any animal or vegetable
parasite. ;

The ginneries erected by the British Cotton Growing
Association are probably some of the best equipped in
the world. The Marlborough Ginnery at Ibadan (Fig. 23)
has at present the largest output, although the Jones
Ginnery at Oshogbo is larger, and is expected to receive

* This has since been identified with Gelechia gossypiella, Sanders,
an insect which subsequently effected such enormous damage in Egypt.

COTTON 113

a greater quantity of cotton for treatment in the future.
The third, which is working in the Western Province, is
the Churchill Ginnery at Lafenwa, near Abeokuta.
Smaller ginneries have been erected at Eruwa Road,
Iwo, Oyo, and Agege in the Western Province, but are
at present unused. In the Central Province the Illushi
Ginnery on the Niger is capable of treating all the cotton
of the adjoining districts. A photograph of cotton bales
at Ibadan is reproduced (Fig. 23).

At Ibadan an oil mill has been erected in connection
with the Marlborough Ginnery, and the expression of
oil from the seed is regularly carried on. The seed cake
which is turned out is found to be of rather inferior
quality for European consumption, as the excess of
woolly seed renders it undesirable for cattle food. A
very economical local use for this cake has recently been
discovered—namely the employment of it to generate
gas to drive the machinery of the ginnery. It has been
found that 6 cwt. of cotton-seed cake is sufficient to
generate gas to drive the 30 h.p. oil-mill engine for nine
and a half hours. This discovery suggests the possibility
of doing without coal entirely at the ginneries, which
would mean a very large saving in the cost of production
of cotton.

The cotton ginned by the British Cotton Growing
Association is baled for the most part in rectangular
oblong form, each bale weighing approximately 400 lbs.
The production of the country has shown a rapid increase,
especially in the earlier years, though more recently one
of the seasons proved a short one owing to adverse climatic
conditions.

Weight cwts. Weight cwts. Weight cwts.
1982. 110 | 1908 20,485 | 1914 no figure given
1903. 2,588 | 1909 . 44,937 | 1915 . 24,081
1904 . 10,255| 1910 . 22128] 1916 . 66,555
1905 . 12,275 | 1911 . 19,984 | 1917 ee 708 |
1906 . 24,071 | 1912 . 39,043 | 1918 . 13,214
1907 . 36,513 | 1913 . 56,796 | 1919 - 60,221

The exports of cotton-seed in 1912 and 1913 reached
4,058 tons and 5,887 tons respectively. (‘ Cotton
Varieties,” cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. xv. [1917]). Much
is expected from this new development.

8

114 NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES

MAIZE.—In the last few years the cultivation of a
short-season ‘‘ white ’’ maize has been taken up, especi-
ally among the Yorubas, in the Western Province,
although the variety is also found in the fields farther
to the east. (See Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol.
vii. [1909], pp. 145-8.)

Shipments since 1907 are given below :—

Tons Value £ Tons Value £
1907 ; 9,891 28,520 1913 . 11,841 40,349
1908 . 15,529 51,695 ORE te, —- 5,803
1909 - 10,917 34,335 LOTS?» 98 272 941
1910 : 5,096 16,689 TOUGH (423 981 5,064
1911 4 867 3,128 LOT POL VE 876 4,367
TOUS i. 899 2Etio dy LOLS Wee 405 3,696

A difficulty has arisen in connection with the prepara-
tion of the crop for shipment ; it having been found that
very large quantities arrive in Europe in a weevilly con-
dition. Various methods have been suggested to remedy
this, including disinfection with carbon bisulphide, but
the use of this last is dangerous.

A restriction with regard to the time of buying the
July—August crop is recommended for adoption by the
merchants, in order to prevent immature, insufficiently
dried corn being shipped. It is insisted, however, in some
quarters, that, until the holds of ships are systematically
cleaned out before loading, no amount of precaution on
shore will prevent shipments becoming weevilled during the
voyage. (See article on “ The Cultivation and Marketing
of Maize ”’ in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vi.
[1908], pp. 261-77.)

Experiments were carried out in 1911, 1912 and 1913
to determine the most profitable time for sowing maize.
The results were, however, conflicting, and no definite
recommendation could be made owing to the irregularity
of rainfall.

CASSAVA.—Among the more important field crops,
cassava has to be reckoned. Two well-marked forms
oceur, which are readily recognised by the different
characters of their leaves, one having the leaflets digitate
and pointed, and the other digitate and spathulate, with
the central leaflet shortened. Cassava forms an impor-

YAMS—SHEA NUTS AND BUTTER 115

tant food in many parts of the country, and is widely
cultivated, especially in the Western Province. No
tapioca is prepared from the root in Southern Nigeria,
such as is the case in the West Indies and elsewhere.

YAMS.—In many parts of the country, more especially
in the Central and Eastern Provinces, the various forms
of yam (Dioscorea) are extensively cultivated alone or
with maize, but the presence of five or six other crops
growing upon the heightened yam mounds is not un-
common, in the Cross River districts particularly. From
the latter locality quantities of yams are sent by river
canoes to the large ports in the vicinity of which culti-
vated land is often scarce.

The Koko yam (Colocasia antiquorum) is also common
in the wet zone.

GROUNDNUTS.—The cultivation of groundnuts (Ara-
chis hypogea), upon a more extensive scale than at present,
is to be recommended, as there are too few leguminous
crops grown in the local rotation. The colour of most
of the Southern Nigerian nuts is probably an obstacle
to their ready sale in Europe; the shell being usually
a dirty greyish instead of a light straw colour. The
kernels are, however, satisfactory. It would, perhaps,
therefore be advantageous to ship decorticated nuts, as
is done in the Northern Provinces. Although new seed
and instructors have been brought recently from the
Gambia, very little more is grown than formerly.

The variety seen in the Western Province is a larger
one than that of the Gambia, and has generally two
kernels. The market price for groundnuts at Lapita near
Oyo was 200 for ld., which will indicate the scarcity of
the product.

SHEA NUTS AND BUTTER.—The export trade in
shea nuts (Butyrospermum Parkii) was expected to develop
with the extension of the railway through Ibadan and
Tlorin to the Northern Provinces, but the exported pro-
duct still has its main source from localities north of the
Niger. The demand does not seem sufficient to induce ex-
pansion to a great extent (Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. vi. [1908)).

The butter or fat is much appreciated in the country
for culinary purposes, and has been found of value in
Europe for soap and candle-making, as well as for the
manufacture of vegetable butter.

116 NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES

KOLA.—Two species of kola (K. acuminata and K. vera)
are cultivated, the latter being the indigenous Gold
Coast form, the fruit of which is said to be especially
valued in the Haussa countries to the north. The
local native names are, respectively, ‘‘ Obi abatta’’ and
“Obi gbanja.”’ In general appearancethe trees are similar,
except that the former has narrower and smaller leaves.
The ‘‘ gbanja ”’ form of nut is generally pink and divisible
into from two to three parts (cotyledons), whereas the
‘‘abatta’’ form may vary in colour from deep crimson
to white and be separable into from three to five parts.
The price paid for kolas in Lagos is said to vary from
ls. 3d. to 5s. per hundred.

Although a considerable number of trees have been
planted and are bearing fruit in the Western Province,
the demand for kolas for native consumption is so great
that there is a large import trade from the Gold Coast.

The kola nut is chewed in much the same manner as
the betel nut in the East. It is greatly appreciated for
its sustaining qualities, and forms a token of friendship
exchanged among high-grade natives, as a preliminary
to an important discussion of any kind.

FIBRE.—Experiments have been made at the Oloke-
meji Botanic Station with indigenous fibres, and a small
factory has been erected at Ilaro, where a machine
capable of extracting fibre is said to have been insti-
tuted. The reports upon some of the local Hibiscus
fibres have been satisfactory. These are capable of
utilisation as jute substitutes, and it may be possible to
grow them in the crop rotation of the country at some
future time for the purpose of export. (See Selected
Reports from the Imperial Institute, No. 1 “ Fibres,”
pp. 38, 52, 83, 89, and 114.)

Piassava (Raphia vinifera) fibre is prepared and shipped,
especially from Uwet in the Eastern Province, the export
amounting to 319 tons in 1910.

LEATHER.—A small trade in leather is done among
the Yorubas, and tanners may be met with chiefly in the
north of the Western Province. The process employed
in the preparation of the goat and sheep skins used
is similar to that of Northern Nigeria. (See Report
on ‘‘ Leather from Lagos,” Bulletin of the Imperial In-
stitute, vol. iv. [1906], p. 366, and articles on ‘‘ Native

TOBACCO—MAHOGANY AND EBONY 117

Leather of West Africa,” Bulletin of the Imperial Institute,
vol. vi. [1908], pp. 175-81 and vol. viii. [1910], pp. 402.)
TOBACCO.—Tobacco is produced near Ibadan, and
large quantities are sold in the King’s market of that
town. It is probable that the curing of the leaf is done
completely in the sun, as the prepared material is of a
rather light colour and has a mild flavour. The leaves
are apparently rather mixed, and old or immature ex-
amples are frequently included in the same grade.

Experiments will be taken in hand with a view to the
improvement of the quality, but at present the local
demand is so great that there is little prospect of an
export trade becoming established. Recent work in Nyasa-
land has shown that good pipe smoking tobacco, suitable
for consumption in England, can be produced in Africa.

SILK.—The preparation of a silk yarn, carded and spun
from the boiled cocoons of wild silkworms, is a common
occupation of some of the women of Ibadan. The iden-
tity of the insects producing the silk has been determined
to be Anaphe infracta and A. venata, both of which form
congregated masses of cocoons. The yarn is of a brown
colour, and is woven with cotton into a cloth which
is called locally ‘““Sanyan.” It is much valued by the
natives on account of its durability. The silkworms
show some sign of becoming scarce owing to the utilisation
of the pupez as food. (See Bulletin of the Imperial In-
stitute, 1910, p. 150; 1916, p. 168; and 1920, p. 319.)

COCONUTS.—The preparation of copra is carried on
at Badagri, where a large coconut plantation exists.
Great alarm was recently caused to the proprietors
through the attack of a scale insect (Aspidiotus destructor),
which destroyed the leaves of a very large number of
trees. The advent of this pest was, however, quickly
followed by the vast multiplication of the numbers of
a species of large ladybird beetle, which soon checked
the spread of the scale. The directions issued by the
Forestry Department with regard to the means of
destroying the infected leaves also assisted in the exter-
mination of the blight.

MAHOGANY AND EBONY.—Among the valuable ex-
ported products from the country, mahogany and ebony
must be regarded as occupying an important place. The
largest proportion of the timbers exported to Europe

118 NIGERIA--SOUTHERN PROVINCES

and sold under the name of mahogany are obtained in
the Central Province, and are cut from trees belonging to
the genera Khaya, Pseudocedrela, and Entandrophragma,
of the Natural Order Mezracz#. Mr. Thompson, Con-
servator of Forests, remarks that a fair number of logs cut
from a species of Guarea, of the same Natural Order, have
been shipped, and have obtained good prices in Europe.

A red wood, called locally ‘“‘ Iroko”’ (Chlorophora ex-
celsa), which is in good demand in the country for making
furniture, etc., has been shipped to Europe, but at present
there is little demand for it. A photograph of another
timber tree (Terminalia superba) is given (Fig. 24).

Mahogany cannot be relied upon as a product capable
of permanent exportation, as trees are only useful for
felling in the vicinity of creeks and rivers, whence the
logs may be inexpensively transported to the sea. The
rate at which the available trees are becoming worked
out is much greater than that at which they can be re-
placed by nature.

The export values for some recent years are as under :—

1910 5 . £60,191 | 1973. be . £54,559
1911 : . £55,575 LOG + ii « a0 3561
1912 : . £78,007 GTR ke ae ‘ £21,282
1913 : . £105,440 1ObS- er . £68,480
1914 : . £86,522 EOTO 7 & . £116,820

The ebony exported from the country is chiefiy ob-
tained in the Cross River District of the Eastern Province,
but during recent years the trade in it has diminished,
and it is said that immature trees are frequently felled.
The sources of ebony are two species of trees belonging
to the genus Diospyros. The value of ebony exported
during the two years 1909 and 1910 is stated to have
been £1,298 and £166 respectively.

Several other trees have recently been examined for
export value, most of them coming into the mahogany
or red-wocd class. (See articles on ‘Timbers from
Southern Nigeria,” Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. vi. [1908], p.
144, vol. xviii. [1920], p. 199, and note on next page.)

CATTLE.—The greater part of the moist zone is almost
devoid of cattle, partly owing to the prevalence of
‘tsetse’ fly, although mainly, perhaps, to the less
advanced condition of the inhabitants. As soon as the

NIGERIA—SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN PROVINCES

at ae
ir ali ae
DWARF CATTLE, ILLARA.
Pig. 25, p. 119.

HAUSSA CULTIVATING IMPLEMENTS (LEFT TO RIGHT: I. FATAINYA, II. GARMA,

Lil. SANGUMI), NORTHERN PROVINCES.
Fig. 27, p. 120. {p. 119

CATTLE AND POTTERY 119

intermediate and dry-zone country is entered, small
herds are frequently seen. That the presence of tsetse
fly is not entirely accountable for the scarcity of cattle
in the forested region is shown by the occurrence of the
peculiar dwarfed variety with short legs, which is found
in Ondo, Ilesha, Ifon, Ishan, and even in the Bassa
Province in Northern Nigeria, in all of which districts
“tsetse” flies of at least two species are met with.
(Glossina palpalis and G. pallidipes.) It is stated by the
natives that the dwarf cattle are immune from fly disease,
but that introduced animals succumb toit. The appearance
of these animals, an illustration of one of which is given,
reproduced from a photograph taken at Illara (Fig. 25),
is remarkable. The prevailing colours are black and
white, black, and more rarely fawn-coloured. There is no
dorsal hump, and the forequarters are generally lower
than the hind. A second illustration, from a photograph
taken at Owo (Fig. 26), gives an idea of the relative size
of a full-grown animal compared with that of a boy.
Another peculiarity of the above-mentioned districts is
that the goats occurring there are similarly short-legged
and diminutive ; there is also said to be a stunted variety
of horse, which is bred for use at Ondo. When the open
country is reached, two varieties of cattle are seen, one
of the Indian zebu type, with a large dorsal hump, the
prevailing colour of which is white, and another with a
straight back. The latter kind is seen as far south as
Onitsha, on the east bank of the Niger.

POTTERY.—Earthen pots are made in several parts
of the country, and are usually symmetrically formed,
although no wheel is used in their preparation. The
large earthen jars made at Abeokuta are used in the
palm oil, native beer, and indigo industries.

FOREST RESERVES.—These are now being formed
everywhere in order to replace the destruction of recent
years. The irregular rainfall renders natural regenera-
tion very poor, and artificial regeneration by means of
planting by leaseholders for trees cut down has proved
unsatisfactory. In 1913 some villages in the Central
Province started small mahogany plantations, and trees
for fuel are now being grown in several districts. The
value of such trees as Afzelia africana and Triplochiton
johnsoni has been recently demonstrated.

NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.—Until 1914 the Northern
Provinces of Nigeria were separately administered
under the designation of Northern Nigeria, and were the
largest as well as the most recent of our West African
Colonies. They lie between 7° 3’ and 13° 54’ north lati-
tude, and 2° 50’ and 14° 5’ east longitude, and are bounded
on the north by the French Sudan, on the east by the
Kameruns and on the west by Dahomey and French
Guinea. The Southern Provinces of Nigeria almost com-
pletely adjoin the southern boundary.

The estimate of the populations and areas of the
thirteen provinces given below is taken from the Colonial
Office Report No. 821 for 1913 :—

Area, sq. miles. Population.

Sokoto . : . 382,600 1,300,000
Kano . F 29,500 3,500,000
Bornu. , 5 NS deGOR 700,000
Central* . 4 : 23,700 700,000
Zaria sz ; A Spay 402,000
Niger* . ‘ : 16,770 400,000
Kontagora : . 27,800 122,000
Horm’)... ; ‘ 6,500 200,000
Muri : x . > /28;700 700.000
Nassarawa . : 16,710 600,000
Yola ; : ; 11,600 300,000
Kabba . ’ ; 8,200 140,000
Bassa. 6 : 3 6,700 205,000
255,700 9,269,000

The total population is thus nearly double that of the
estimation of 1907-8. For convenience the Northern
Provinces may in places still be referred to in this work
by the old title of Northern Nigeria.

As will be seen below there is less variation in the rain-
fall of the different provinces than is found elsewhere in
West Africa. The averages of the following centres for

* These names are substituted for Bauchi and Nupe in the old
system.

120

wopwoy semany sdeg spiqneory ‘Pey ul payo vey si eVepuew sapun uleqiug yBaug Aq prey Aso7 148 | sa11woor

———

“YOIMUAAID JO Q yseyT epnjz uy

ADMINISTRATION 121

as many years as are available until 1913 are given for
comparison :—

Av. inches. Av. inches.
Naraguta . . 50-28 Knepp. . 40°80
Torin , . 49°75 Yola ; . 388-64
Kontagora J) 4077 Kano 4 . 33°65
Zaria , . 46-59 Maifoni . . 27-85
Baro : . 46°56 Sokoto . . 24-86
Lokoja_ . » 46°77 Kataguni . 19-87
Zungeru . . 41-67 Geidam . . 15-14

Of the places mentioned the highest single year’s rain-
fall was reached at Ilorin when 65-18 inches fell, and the
lowest at Geidam in 1913 when only 5-76 were recorded.
There are localities where the rainfall exceeds the highest
given here and others where it is undoubtedly much lower,
but no records are available. The highest shade tem-
peratures have been at Dumjeri and Maifoni (North
Bornu), where 120° was attained, the lowest being at
Kano, where it fell to 39°. In Kano and Zaria rain seldom
falls between November 1 and the end of March, but the
distribution is more general in the south.

Administration and Political Divisions—The administra-
tion of Northern Nigeria was taken over by the Crown
in 1900, having previously been carried on by the Royal
Niger Company. Protectorates were gradually assumed,
and the country placed upon a secure footing by the
suppression of raiding, which had constantly been carried
on by the different Emirs, chiefly upon the pagan tribes.
The devastation caused by these raids is still visible in
the country to the south of Kontagora and elsewhere,
and the fear of the raiders kept the inhabitants within
or in close proximity to their walled towns, leaving large
tracts of fertile country unexploited. The work accom-
plished by Sir Frederick Lugard, the first High Commis-
sioner, was largely that of pacification and reassurance
of the people, and until this had been completed, and
facilities for transport provided, it could not be expected
that the country could make much progress from a
commercial standpoint.

The further opening up of the country by means of
roads and railways, and the assessment of land revenue
upon lines completely understood and recognised as fair
by the natives, was effected by Sir Percy Girouard, who

122 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

succeeded Sir Frederick Lugard’s first administration.
Sir Frederick subsequently returned as Governor-General
of the amalgamated Nigeria.

Until April 1907 the country was divided into fourteen
provinces, one of which, Borgu, was absorbed in Konta-
gora at that time, making the thirteen mentioned above.
By a later reconstruction the provincial limits of the two
provinces of Bauchi and Nupe were reformed, and the
provinces reconstituted under the names of the Central
and Niger Provinces respectively. Groups of provinces
were then placed under First-class Residents. Photo-
graphs are given of Kano and Zaria (Figs. 32 and 33).

Natural Divisions.—There is less apparent possibility of
defining limits to the natural conditions of any part of
the country than is found in the countries nearer the
coast. There is no afforested zone in Northern Nigeria,
although fairly densely wooded tracts occur in several
places near the larger rivers. It may be said that grass
land studded with well-separated trees is the condition
of the country throughout, the trees becoming more
stunted towards the northern and desert boundaries.
To the north of the 11th degree of latitude, the botanical
aspect becomes different; more trees of the Mimosa
group, including the gum-bearing Acacias, becoming
apparent. Cattle thrive well in this region, where the
‘tsetse’ fly has not yet been observed.

Haussa Land, a term applied to the northern parts
of the country, alone among the British West African
territories, may be said to have been controlled by an
ordered form of government from early times, and to
have had a recorded history. Unfortunately these re-
cords were destroyed, wherever possible, by the Fulani
conquerors, who came from the source of the river
Senegal and overran the country at the beginning of the
last century, and whose object seemed to be to endeavour
to eliminate from the minds of the conquered people
all recollection of their previous power. In spite of
strenuous efforts in this direction, a few documents have
been preserved, and these, combined with traditions,
which have not had time to become completely dis-
torted, show that, in spite of severe wars, famines,
and other disturbing incidents, the Haussa has main-
tained his characteristic traits.

NATURAL DIVISIONS 123

The origin of the Haussa race is still a matter of
uncertainty, although there is some reason to suppose
that it came from the east, and gradually penetrated
the Western Sudan from the north. The Haussa lan-
guage, which is claimed to be more in use than any
other native language in West Africa, is said, by Lady
Lugard, to be classed with Coptic among the Hamitic
languages.*

History has established the fact that there were seven
divisions or states in Haussa Land, the people of which,
although regarded as having come from a common stock,
were almost perpetually at war with one another. The
mythical account of the formation of these states relates
that each had particular duties assigned to it; those
of Kano and Rano, to the north of Zaria, being specially
industrial. At the beginning of the sixteenth century,
when the Songhay kingdom was at the summit of its
power, Kano and Gober, among other Haussa towns,
were specially referred to by Leo Africanus on account
of their cotton trade.t

Everywhere along the West Coast the name Haussa
is associated with the idea of trade; the itinerant nature
of the race inducing individuals to visit the remote parts
of the pagan countries, thus creating trade routes in all
directions. The Haussa trader of the present day does
not necessarily bring goods from his own country for
trading, but buys in one market to sell or exchange in
another. It is by this means that many European manu-
factured goods penetrate into localities where no European
trader has yet set foot.

The Haussa is also regarded as a good soldier, and is
largely enlisted in the native regiments of West Africa
under European officers.

The Nupes, Yorubas, Gwaris, Yauris, and others were
constantly in contact with the Haussas, and to a small
extent the Haussa language is spoken by them. Nupo
is regarded as an ancient kingdom, occupying at one
time a position of great importance. The Yorubas, who
inhabit nearly the whole of the Ilorin Province and the
Western Province of Southern Nigeria, trace their origin
from the Phoenicians of the tribe of Nimrod, and claim

* Lady Lugard, A Tropical Dependency, 1905, p. 236 et seg.
{ Jbid., p. 209.

124 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

that all the pagan tribes of Haussa Land are descended
from them. The Gwaris, apparently, have no records,
but are a scattered race living among the rocky hills
and caves in the country lying to the south of
Zaria.

Bornu was not evidently included in the Songhay
kingdom or associated with the Haussa states, the in-
habitants belonging to a distinct race with separate
traditions. Their history in comparison with that of the
Haussas is of recent date. In 1808, after the successful
Fulani conquests of Zaria, Zanfara, Kano, Katsena, and
Bauchi, Bornu was overrun. Shortly after this a sheikh,
from the country extending eastwards from Lake Tchad,
believing himself to be inspired to liberate the country,
raised a small army, drove out the Fulani forces, and
founded the present dynasty of Bornu. Some years later
he attempted to expel the Fulanis from the Bauchi
Province, but failed, and was compelled to come to
terms.

The Haussas as well as the Bornuese are chiefly Mo-
hammedans, but it is only among the higher ranks of
the other tribes that a semblance of that religion has
been adopted.

The tribes which had migrated from the East brought
with them the agricultural knowledge of the Eastern
nations. Among the noticeable evidences of this may
be mentioned the ‘‘shaduf,”’ or dipping beam, used for
irrigation in Egypt, which is similarly employed near
Kano and Zaria. The absence of ploughs and the non-
employment of cattle are, however, difficult to account
for, as excellent cattle are common and thrive well in the
most populous parts of the country. Tillage of the soil
is still done entirely by hand, and, in those parts where
the shallowest form exists, manure is extensively used.
Among the many crops grown which are common to
Oriental countries, as well as Northern Nigeria, are Guinea
corn, maize, cotton, groundnuts, millet, benniseed, arti-
chokes, wheat, and rice.

Agriculture shows the greatest development in the
Province of Kano, where the population is dense, especi-
ally in the vicinity of the town from which the Province
takes its name. The concentration of a large population
in this locality was doubtless occasioned by the protection

IMPLEMENTS 125

thus obtained against local enemies ; and, as the realisation
of the necessity for this becomes less each year, so
will the inhabitants spread out into the richer lands
towards the south. At a radius of thirty miles from
Kano, it may be said that every available acre of ground
is cultivated. It may also be said that nearly all the
cultivation is continuous, and has been so for a long
period, the renovation of the soil being secured each
year by manuring. The mode of cultivation in these
localities is for the most part shallow, and in many places
the crops grown subsist entirely upon the manure applied.
The Director of Agriculture, in the Bulletin of the Imperial
Institute, vol. xi. (1913), p. 626, refers to the lack of
fertility in the soil and to the common practice of
cropping without a fallow for a number of years in
succession. He also mentions, among other matters
of interest, the recent expansion in cultivation of cow-
peas and groundnuts; these being respectively third
and fourth in order of importance among the cultivated
crops.

Implements.—An illustration is given showing the
method of using the three important agricultural imple-
ments employed by the Haussa cultivator (Fig. 27). The
first of these is locally termed “ Fatainya,” and is a
curved-handled hoe with a blade of variable width. It
is used for all operations of cultivation with the exception
of turning up broad ridges and drilling. The implement
shown in the centre is termed “‘Garma,” and is a broad,
spade-like hoe, composed of an iron W-shaped frame,
with several strips of iron riveted on the face, filling the
interval between the arms. In the Zaria Province the
iron strips are generally omitted, and the implement is
called ‘“‘Owya.” It is used for throwing up large
spadefuls of soil in the preparation of the broad ridges
which are made for nearly all kinds of crops. The last
implement is the “‘Sangumi,” which is a thin rod with a
small blade placed near one end and at right angles
to it; its use is entirely for making drills for sowing
seed.

All the fields for growing ordinary food crops, with
the exception of cassava, rice, and sugar-cane, are pre-
pared in ridge formation ; the latter appearing to average
about 8 in. high from the original surface. The furrows

126 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

from which the loose soil has been removed increase the
apparent height by the extent of their depth, and give
the appearance of a good form of tillage having been
practised. This is, however, seldom the case, as, except
where irrigated crops are being treated, the ground is
left untilled beneath the thrown-up soil. To compensate
for the shallow state of the cultivation, manure is applied
in large quantity, all animal refuse and ashes being
carefully preserved, and often conveyed for long distances
to the fields by men or donkeys.

The above conditions apparently apply only to the
Haussa race, the pagan Gwaris and Bassas resorting to
a much deeper form of cultivation and employing no
manure. The Nupes and Yorubas do not know the use
of manure for any crops except onions and tobacco, for
both of which wood ashes are the chief substance
applied.

The crops of the country may be roughly divided into
rainfall, irrigated, and swamp kinds. ‘The first are sown
at the commencement of the wet season, and are greatly
affected by the distribution of the rain, but include the
most important sources of food. These are Guinea corn,
millet, maize, groundnuts, cassava, sweet potatoes, etc.
An inadequate or irregular rainy season often causes
famine conditions. The irrigated crops are yams, Colo-
casia, onions, tobacco, peppers, rama-fibre, and wheat,
the last being almost confined to the country north
of the llth degree. Cassava and sugar-cane are also
frequently irrigated in the drier districts to the north.
Irrigation is performed in the northern localities by
means of the shaduf. The swamp crops are rice,
Colocasia, and sugar-cane. ‘The first is grown upon a
flat-dug surface, the second upon high ridges made of
swamp mud, and the third on low ridges bordering the
rice fields. The villages north of Kano are often entirely
built of the stalks of Guinea corn, and Fig. 31 represents
a principal hut within such a structure. The fencing of
the fields in this locality is generally made of the same
material, but in the vicinity of Kano itself, Euphorbia
or thorn hedges are more common,

Near Rogo, fences and hedges are usually dispensed
with, paths forming the boundaries between fields.

The following table of value of exports shows the pro-

RUBBER 127

gress in the last five years before amalgamation with the
Southern Provinces. The subsequent years are given at
the end of this chapter.

VALUES OF ExPpoRTs
1908 1909 1910 1911 1912
£ £ £ £

£
Rubber. ; . 33,050 40,000 37,900 53,511 *
Shea nut products . 70,900 93,050 43,150 40,496 51,409
Palm kernels. . 47,150 41,750 66,100 52,637 64,432
Groundnuts : . 13,650 16,350 8,150 10,377 18,930
Gum + : ; - 8,850 6,650 9,750 5,436 1,785
Cotton : 2 1,300 4,400 1,850 945 *
Benniseed . : sb 2.000 4,000 2,300 2,582 2,972
Fibre = ‘ : 1,382 4,061 — -- —
Livestock 3 ; 2,600 1,300 3,750 6,357 9,132
Gutta percha(‘‘ Balata’”?) — — 2,262 6,695 4,267
Skins and hides ¢ ; — — 5,214 37,809 68,832
Ostrich feathers ? — — 2,615 7,225 12,621

RUBBER.—The extent of the export of this commodity
from the Northern Provinces was less generally recognised
than that from the coast countries, for the reason that
the Northern Nigeria’s exports are necessarily shipped
from Southern Nigerian ports, and have been included
in the statistical figures of that country.

Until 1907 no separate statement was furnished in-
dicating the quantity of rubber actually originating from
the Northern Provinces ; the whole produce leaving the
country by the Southern Nigerian ports made it difficult
to ascertain this. The following imperfect records show,
however, that the production was of significant extent:

1905. The value of the rubber exported by two of the
leading firms in the Northern Provinces was
estimated at £101,207.

1906. The amount exported in the second half-year was
given as 556,701 lbs., valued at £34,344. The
year’s exports were said to be 574 tons. Esti-
mating the whole at the same proportionate value
as that given for the second half-year we have:

1906. 1,283,520 lbs. . : ‘ . : £79,185
1907. 1,187,588 lbs. . : , 4 ‘ £91,074

The decrease in recent years is accounted for by the
fall which occurred in the price of rubber, but is probably
* Included in Southern Nigeria exports.

+ Including copal resin.
t Including dressed skins,

128 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

partly due to the extermination of the vines by the
wasteful process of preparing root rubber.

Sources.—The following are the trees and plants which
have been used for extracting rubber :—

1. Funtumia elastica.—This is only found in a wild
state in Southern Kabba and Bassa Provinces, and is
recognised under the Yoruba name of “Ire.’? Small
pieces of fairly well-prepared rubber from this tree are
occasionally brought in to Lokoja for sale.

2. Landolphia sp. (probably owariensis).— A clean “‘ red
nigger’ rubber is sold, and is probably obtained from
this species. It is generally of good quality, but not
plentiful. It appears to be collected as a scrap rubber,
and is made up in small irregular balls.

3. Landolphia sp.—‘‘ Root rubber,’’ termed locally
** Attifufu,” and called by the trade ‘ Brown cluster ”
or ‘‘ Brown medium.”’ It is probable that several species
of vines are used for this, which is not necessarily prepared
from the root alone, the whole stem being pounded up.
This seems to represent the commonest form of Northern
Nigerian rubber, the preparation of which was at one
time prohibited.

4. Landolphia florida or Thompsonii (?).—‘‘ Paste rub-
ber,’’ called locally ‘‘ Ebo,” is prepared from the latex
of these vines by boiling with the admixture of ‘ wood
oil,” or the resinous exudation of Daniellia thurifera,
until it reaches the consistency of bird-lime, when it is
only capable of being handled in water, in which state
it is sold to the merchants, who accumulate it in casks
for shipment. It is inferior in quality, and only capable
of export for cheap manufactures.

5. Carpodinus hirsutus —“* Flake rubber,” called ‘ Ari-
bedda,” is said to be the product of this vine, which
grows commonly in Bassa. It is without resiliency and
somewhat resembles the exudations of some of the species
of Ficus. .

6. Ficus platyphylla—‘ Red Kano rubber,” or “ Bal-
lata,’’ known to the Nupe people as “‘Ogbagba.” ‘This is
prepared by boiling, without the addition of any foreign
matter, and attains the consistency of a hardened paste,
similar to the “‘ guttas’? made from the latex of the
Shea-butter tree (Butyrospermum Parkii). It is dis-
tinguished in the Kano Province by the name

RUBBER PLANTATIONS 129

*‘Danko Gawi,” shea gutta being known as “ Danko
Kadainya.”

7. Ficus trachyphylla.—This tree is called in Torin by
the Yoruba name “‘ Oapottoa,”’ and yields a latex which
is discoloured pink by the sap of the tree with which it
becomes mixed in tapping. When boiled and allowed
to cool, the product is a reddish hardened substance,
somewhat resembling guttapercha in appearance.

8. Ficus Vogelii.—Scrap rubber from this tree is said
to be collected. In appearance this rubber is often good,
but the shreds break up easily.

It will be seen from the above, that several of the
so-called rubbers are unlike the valuable kinds in appear-
ance and composition, and as such are, perhaps, incapable
of being used in a pure state and for the most important
manufactures for which rubber is employed. All kinds,
however, seem to be marketable at a price which is
remunerative to the exporter, so that the trade has
become an extensive one.

Plantations.—It has been urged that Para rubber (Hevea
brasiliensis) might be grown upon a large scale in the
moist and well-watered areas, and Ceara (Manthot Glazi-
ovii) and Funtumia elastica in the drier districts ; but the
country is not generally favourably adapted for growing
the first and last mentioned. Ceara rubber seems to
thrive well in climates similar to that of this country,
and the rubber made from it is of the finest quality, but
in many tropical countries it has shown great uncertainty
in yield of latex, and often unaccountable cessation of
flow. This has caused it to be less favourably regarded
“5 se tignenn work. (Cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., 1913, 1916.)

any parts of the country are suitable for Ceara
cultivation, thriving as it does in localities susceptible
to long periods of drought. In the German African
Colonies the method of treating the tree seems advan-
tageous, in view of the uncertainty of the yield after
maturity is reached. In these places the plants are put
out in extensive plots each year, and, after they have
reached full growth, all the latex possible of extraction
is taken out of them, and the exhausted trees are cut
out, permitting the area to become renovated by the
self-sown seedlings, which spring up in great profusion.
ee year a plot becomes completely renovated,

130 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

without great expense being incurred. If Ceara planting
should be adopted in Northern Nigeria, some such system
as this might prove remunerative.

In the Lokoja forest reserve, about a hundred acres
of Funtumia elastica were planted in 1906, but these
have not succeeded as well as was originally expected,
owing, probably, to want of moisture. A few Ceara and
even Hevea plants, have been grown at Zungeru and
Baro, but, as yet, no plantations have been made.

SHEA NUTS.—The shea nut is the seed or kernel con-
tained in the green fruit borne by Butyrospermum Parkit,
called locally ‘‘ Kadainya.”’ The fruit, which ripens about
May, is of variable size, from that of a pigeon’s egg to
as large as a hen’s egg where only one nut is contained,
but is nearly twice the size where two nuts are present
in the same fruit. The fleshy rind is not more than
one-sixth of an inch in thickness, is sweet to the taste,
and contains a white latex, which coagulates into a
product called “‘ gutta-shea.”” The natives in some places
seem to regard the fruit as a delicacy, and the roads and
paths, in districts where the tree is plentiful, are strewn
with the nuts which have been thrown away after the
fruit portions have been eaten. The nut is quite smooth,
and is readily separated from the fleshy part.

The butter, which is extracted by the natives, is ap-
preciated less than palm oil or groundnut oil for cooking,
but is used as a substitute. In Europe the kernels as
well as the extracted ‘‘ butter’ are employed, especially
on the Continent, for the manufacture of vegetable
butter and in candle factories.

In some places the fruits are collected and put in heaps,
until the fleshy parts have decomposed and left the nuts
clean, after which the kernels are extracted, dried in
earthen stoves, and pounded or ground into a fine flour.
This is then pounded again, with the addition of a little
water, previous to being mixed in hct water to separate
the fat. The latter rises to the surface and solidifies on
cooling, being melted again for clarification by skimming
previous to being poured into moulds made from plantain
leaves or maize-cob sheaths. In this form it is sold for
export, and is then known as “‘shea-butter.”’ An illus-
tration is given (Fig. 28) of some Shea nut collectors
resting beneath a Shea tree in the Ilorin Province.

‘VUODVINOM LV
(ruqavo Vrovoy) Ww WAND PNICGTIAIA

“NIMOTL LY

, “SUOLOIWMTTIOO ~
(VadTO9ITIA VINUFd) AANL NVAG-LSANOT

WAWUTASOLA LAT)

pe

oy Ve
'

”

ie
4 .
5

SHONTAOUd NYAHLAON—VIUQ9IN

SHEA NUTS 131

According to results obtained at the Imperial Institute
(Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1908, p. 370; 1912, p.
290), the kernels contain from 40 to 50 per cent. of fat, as
well as a small quantity of unsaponifiable matter resem-
bling gutta-shea.

Where the nuts are very plentiful, and transport
appears to be easy, the collection is often neglected, and
the reason given is that there is some difficulty in removing
the fruit from the nut, which makes the occupation un-
remunerative. But it is noticeable that the fleshy part
quickly decomposes, and the clean nuts are frequently
seen beneath the trees themselves, although in this
situation the advent of heavy rain will often induce
germination, and so spoil the kernel. This difficulty is
obviated if the fruits are collected and placed under
cover, being allowed to decompose without too much
moisture.

Throughout the Ilorin and Nupe Provinces the nuts
are at present collected for sale to the factories, but in
size those grown in the Zaria Province are larger, and
are now quite accessible. In this latter locality the
double fruit, above referred to, appears to be common.
In the tract of country through which the Baro-Kano
railway now proceeds, after crossing the Kogin-Serikin-
Pawa river, as far Zaria, localities containing very
large and prolific trees are frequently met with, but the
population is scanty, and collection is scarcely made for
export purposes. ‘Trees growing in cultivated areas are
generally recognised as the property of the cultivator,
forest trees only being common property. Women are
the chief collectors of the nuts in the districts whence
the supplies at present come, and their inability to
penetrate far into the forests has sometimes been urged
as a reason for larger quantities not being brought in
to the factories. Now that the railway is present, it is
probable that regular collectors will commence to exploit
the forests for some distance on each side of the line,
and that people from the more populous districts will be
induced to visit them for the same purpose.

No record is available to show the amount of nuts and
butter exported previous to 1905, but it must have been
considerable, as the High Commissioner in his annual
report for 1905-6 says: ‘‘The Shea nut export trade,

132 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

which formerly constituted the staple of Northern Nigeria,
continues to decrease in an unaccountable way, and is
now an almost negligible amount.”’ Various reasons are
given to account for a partial or gradual decrease, the
most important of which is, that the people who used to
rely on the collection of sylvan produce for a livelihood,
have found a more lucrative employment in growing food-
stuffs for the troops and Government staff, or in working
upon the Government roads and railways. But, in spite
_ of this, the value of Shea nuts and butter exported in
1907-8 reached a high figure, and placed these products
second in order of value among those exported during
the year. The export of Shea nuts in the two years
following showed a further increase, being 3,922 and 9,085
tons for 1908 and 1909 respectively. There is a growing
demand for Shea butter in Europe, and the supply is at
present inadequate.

PALM OIL AND KERNELS.—The oil palm (Elais
guineensis) is almost absent from a large part of the
country, and is rarely seen north of Zungeru, being chiefly
confined to the vicinity of the rivers and the forests on
the boundaries of Southern Nigeria.

An insignificant amount of palm oil is exported, as the
local demand absorbs practically all that is produced, the
kernels remaining being alone exported.

Only one variety is recognised in the country, and is
that with a thin pericarp and thick-shelled kernel. It is
similar to the form termed “‘Abe-pa ’”’ in the Gold Coast.
Among the Haussa-speaking races the palm is called
** Quaqua,”’ and in the Nupe language ‘‘ Yi-ku-niche.”’

Extraction of the oil for local use is generally done by
boiling the fresh fruits, and a limpid product is obtained.

GROUNDNUTS.—The groundnut (Arachis hypogea),
called ‘‘Geda’’ by the Haussas, is seen in two forms
in Northern Nigeria, dependent, probably, on differ-
ences in soil and climate in the localities in which
they are grown.

The form seen commonly in the vicinity of Bida, from
which most of the exported nuts are procured, has a
light-brown shell, and is similar to the ordinary Gambian
kind. The soil in which this is grown is red, and, to
some extent, this colour is imparted to the shell. The
nuts growing in the northern districts near Kano, where

GROUNDNUTS 133

the soil is sandy and light, resemble the kind which is
considered the finest in the French Colonies, and is
largely cultivated in Senegal. In this the shell is pale
straw-coloured. Large exports have been made from
Kano since railway facilities were provided.

Groundnuts are chiefly employed as a terminal-crop
in the cultivation adopted by the Nupes and Yorubas,
but in the Kano and Zaria Provinces, where land is
retained for long periods in cultivation and renovated
annually by manure, they are often the first crop
grown on opening new land, and are seldom planted
later.

From an interesting article contributed by Mr. Lamb,
the Director of Agriculture (Imperial Institute Bulletin,
vol. xi. [1913]), entitled “‘ Agriculture in Haussaland,”’ it
appears that leguminous crops have recently been
introduced more generally in the rotation employed
among the Haussa cultivators. The author remarks
that the cowpea (Vigna catjang) is now almost invariably
grown with cereals, and that there is such an increase in
groundnut cultivation that this has come into great
prominence as an exported crop. This condition has
been brought about entirely by the establishment of
railway transport—a result which was foretold in the
first edition of this work.

All the nuts exported at the present time are in a
decorticated form, and the reason given for decortication
is that there is a large saving in weight in carriage thereby.
It is, nevertheless, generally admitted that in an un-
decorticated form the nuts are better preserved in transit,
and it often happens that the price for undecorticated
nuts is higher than for decorticated. It is, how-
ever, recognised that if the appearance of the shell is
rusty or dirty, it should be removed before shipment,
as this condition adversely affects the market value.
The demand for undecorticated nuts is for confectionery,
and is relatively small as compared with the amount
used, chiefly in France, for the expression of oil. The
weights of groundnuts exported in 1917 and 1918 were
respectively 50,334 and 57,555 tons.

The Kano nuts appear to be of such a clean type that
it might be found more advantageous to ship them in
an undecorticated state, but this can be ascertained when

134 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

transport has been facilitated sufficiently to establish
a continuous trade with a particular market.

The chief markets for the product were Marseilles and
Hamburg, where it was employed for the expression of
oil, used principally for admixture with, or as a substitute
for, olive oil. Although formerly almost entirely sent to
the German port, they now come mostly to England.
(Cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. xvi. [1918].)

GUMS.—In the drier regions Acacia trees of several
species become plentiful, but many of these do not seem
to produce gum.

Some of the gum in the Sudan is said to be derived
from A. arabica, Willd., which is not uncommon in certain
localities, but is almost entirely unproductive in this
country.

The tree known in Haussa as ‘‘ Gawo,” identified as
A. Albida, Delile, is perhaps the commonest species near
Kano, and one which produces a small amount of reddish
gum. None, however, is apparently collected from the
tree in the district.

The species from which most of the gum is
collected in Bornu is said to be identical with that
called ‘“‘ Karu’ in Kano, of which only immature speci-
mens have as yet been examined. This is probably
referable to A. Verek, Guill. & Perr., which is the most
important source of the Senegal product, and to which
Bentham refers A. Senegal, Willd.

In Kontagora a good quality of gum is obtained from
a tree which has been identified as A. Caffra, Willd.
This tree does not appear to occur plentifully here, but
further investigation is necessary with regard to it in
the dry uninhabited regions where it is found. An
illustration of this tree is given (Fig. 29).

Another species which has been recorded by Barter
from the Niger, and is said by him to yield “‘a gum like
gum-arabic,” is A. mellifera, Bentham, and may be one
of those from which the present exported product is
collected.

On examination of the trade specimens, it is noticeable
that the quality is inferior to most of the Sudan and
Senegal kinds, owing, mainly, to the want of cleaning
or sorting previous to sale. It has been suggested
that an improvement in the quality might be effected

COTTON 135

by sorting the gum into different grades, cleaning it,
and spreading it in the sun to bleach. The quantity
of gum exported in 1908 is given as 789,949 lbs., and
that for 1909 as 894,287 lbs.

Investigations carried out recently at the Imperial
Institute show that Nigerian gum is little, if at all, inferior
to Sudan gum, except that its mucilage is not quite so
strong. Gums of the better class are mainly employed
in confectionery, and for this purpose the cleaner, lighter-
coloured gums of Northern Nigeria are quite suitable.
(Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1908, pp. 29-60; 1910,
pp. 352-65 ; and 1914, pp. 27-31.)

COTTON.—Three distinct forms of cotton are found in
cultivation in the Northern Provinces. The best of these is
that grown by the natives of the Bassa and Nassarawa
Provinces, and possesses lint of rather long staple and
a good colour, covering a clean seed. The seed-cotton
from these Provinces is brought into Lokoja for sale.
This variety seems well suited to the localities mentioned,
but, although it has been tried in other parts of the
country, it does not seem to thrive so successfully. In
making a comparison of the lint for Liverpoo] market
requirements, the standard employed is ‘‘ Moderately
Rough Peruvian,”’ which is a grade of higher price than
**Middling American,” with which most of the West
African cottons are compared.

In Llorin, a woolly-seeded tall cotton plant is commonly
cultivated, and, although yielding a fair quality of lint,
it is not equal to that mentioned above. A small pro-
portion of the cotton grown in the Ilorin Province finds
its way to the Ogudu Ginnery of the British Cotton
Growing Association, on the Niger, but the main crop
is carried to various points on the Lagos Government
Railway, and is sold for delivery to the Southern Nigerian
ginneries of the Association. Small quantities of cotton
belonging to this same variety are grown in Nupe, Kabba,
and Kontagora, but the low ground of the Niger valley
does not appear to be very suitable for cotton-growing.

In Zaria, Kano, and Sokoto Provinces, where the
climate is drier, excellent conditions exist for the pro-
duction of large supplies of cotton, but the population
requires to become more distributed into the districts
remote from the towns. In the above-mentioned Pro-

136 NIGERIA—-NORTHERN PROVINCES

vinces, cotton has existed from the earliest times, and
was long established as an important export to North
Africa by caravan. A small-bolled variety with a short
stem takes the place of the tall cottons of the Niger
valley. The quality of the lint, although fair, is of a
shorter staple, and the plant is less prolific.

In addition to the three kinds referred to, all of which
are grown as field crops, single plants of a fourth are
sometimes seen near villages, especially in the Bassa
Province. This is the crimson-flowered tree-cotton
identified as Gossypium arboreum, var. sanguineum, and
is nowhere cultivated upon a large scale. The lint is
silky and fine, and the seed is covered with green fuzz.

Exotic Cottons.—American and Egyptian seed have been
introduced in many localities, especially in the Provinces
of the Niger valley. Cotton grown from American Up-
land seed in Bassa Province has been well reported upon,
but the deterioration of the quality of seed reproduced
by this kind has proved a serious drawback to establish-
ment. It is generally acknowledged that the indigenous
cottons are hardier and more prolific than the introduced
varieties, and are better able to withstand the attacks of
the local insect pests. It is probable that the climate
of the Northern Provinces will be found more suitable
for the cultivation of American Upland cottons, as the
indigenous plant of that region more nearly approximates
the latter type.

Valuation of Cottons.—The following table shows the
value of different cottons grown in Northern Nigeria and
examined at the Imperial Institute. (See Professor
Dunstan’s “‘ British Cotton Cultivation,” pp. 34-37.)

Standard value at

Locality. Kind. Length of Staple. Value. tima ot tee:
Bassa . American *9-1:2 in. 7hd. M.A. 6°39d.

¥ iN 1-1-3 54-6d. 5

a i rey es ee ld. ‘

2”? ° ” *8—1°2 ” 64d. ”

” e ” 1-1.3 ”? 64d. ”

” ° ” "O-1.4 ” 6d. ”

” ° ” *9-1.3 ” 6d. ”

” ° ” 9-1-2 ” 6-6}d. ”

” . 2” 1--1°3 ” 64d. ”

is 2 5 9-13 ,, 61-7d.

e . Native 114» 84-9d. M.R.P. 9°1d.

¥ : “ 1-13 Sd. xf

” Oniats hii) “9-14 ,, 8}-83d. “A

NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

VILLAGE OF FOGOLA, BUILT OF GUINEA-CORN STALKS.
Fig. 31. p. 126

OUTSIDE THE EMIR’S PALACE, KANO.

Fig. 32, p. 137.

NEAR THE SOUTHERN GATE, ZARTA.
Fig. 33, p. 137.

VALUATION OF COTTONS 137

Locality. Kind. Length of Staple. Value. Standard value at

time of test.

Bassa - Native *8-1°2 in. 7}-8d. M.R.P. 9°1d.

” . ” 1-173 ” 84d. 2”

a a * 1:2-1:5 ,, 8}d. os

” . ” 1-1.3 ”? 8d. ”

” . ” *9-1°3 22 84d. ”

“4 4 yo Wel—TeG. > 8-84d. u

ae r ie 11 Ss ce See 6d. M.A. 6°39d.
Zaria - Brazilian(?) ‘9-172 ,, 4d. Ms
niles . Egyptian *9-1:5 ,, 6d. F.G.F.B. 107,d.
Yola. - Native “8-152 555 4hd. M.A. 6°39d.

ee . American ‘9-13 ,, 6}d. Pe
Munchi. Native 1-1°5 ,, 8d. M.R.P. 9:1d.
Tlorin. . American 9-1 Sii75 64d. M.A. 6°39d.

(M.A. indicates the price ruling at the time of valuation for standard
** Middling American,” M.R.P. that for “*‘ Moderately Rough Peruvian,”
and F.G.F.B, that for “* Fully Good Fair Brown Egyptian.”)

All the native cottons in the above table are from the
Niger and Benue River Provinces, but it is considered
probable that large quantities of the product, which are
looked for for export, will be obtained from the Kano
and Zaria Provinces, and after the opening of the Baro-
Kano Railway, the capitals of these may become import-
ant cotton-buying and ginning centres. Figs. 32 and 33
illustrate views of Kano and Zaria.

In all the localities referred to, cotton is generally
cultivated as a sole crop, in succession to food crops,
and is planted upon shallow ridges from July to Sep-
tember, when the cotton is ready for picking from Decem-
ber to March. Experiments have been made at Baro
and Zungeru to raise plants during the dry months by
irrigation, but as this causes the fruiting season to occur
about the time that the first rain and wind storms com-
mence, the success of thisis very uncertain. The necessity
for the application of irrigation to this crop is not ap-
parent except as an assistance in lieu of rain when the
season of rainfall is late. There is no extreme drought
throughout the year, such as is the case in Egypt, where
cotton is entirely an irrigated crop.

In the Ilorin district, in the vicinity of Shari, a some-
what extensive area is seen under cotton, and the mode
of planting is similar to that applied on a smaller scale
near Rabba, Jebba, Bida, and Egga. A piece of land is
usually selected for a cotton field upon which Guinea
corn and millet crops have been grown continuously for
a long period, and which has consequently become rather

138 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

exhausted. This is often permitted to lie fallow for
several years, after which cotton is planted in drills on ,
ridges or mounds in July or August. No manure is
applied. Generally about a dozen or more seeds are put
in each drill, and in this way it is estimated that
about a bushel and a half of seed per acre is required.
Picking commences in December, and lasts until Febru-
ary, as much as 500 lbs. of seed-cotton per acre being
frequently gathered.

In Kano, cotton is often grown in alternation with
cassava, and is a manured crop. Large fields are not
seen, as the land is chiefly required for food crops, es-
pecially in the vicinity of towns, where the population
is dense. General improvements in cultivation, and the
introduction of ploughing, would enable a much larger
area to be put under cultivation, and would permit of
the fertile tracts remote from the towns being employed
largely for cotton-growing.

The above account indicates the direction in which
efforts should be made to ensure the most fertile tract
of Northern Nigeria, where the population is also most
industrious and dense, becoming an important cotton-
growing locality. It may be safely said that the land,
climate, and industrious population are existent and
suitable, but the population is congested, leaving large
fertile areas of land untouched. Transport difficulties
have up to the present prevented cultivation of products
useful for export, and the non-employment of cattle for
ploughing has restricted cultivation to the growth of
crops entirely absorbed by local necessity.

Improvement of Plant.—In addition to these re-
quirements, with regard to cultivation, a rather better
class of cotton is necessary in the Northern Provinces.
The local variety might perhaps be sufficiently improved
under better cultivation and seed selection, but such
a process would be gradual and require the undivided
attention of an experienced European officer, working
in the districts. It has previously been suggested that
the introduction of one of the many Upland American
kinds might be advantageous; the local variety ap-
proaching that class of plant more nearly than do the
varieties occurring in the forest regions farther to the
south, where the American varieties have been exten-

IMPROVEMENT OF PLANT 139

sively planted with somewhat variable results. One
variety only should be introduced, and this should possess
cropping and lint records suitable for European require-
ments. Georgia or Texas quick-maturing kinds are
indicated, but not the lowland kinds such as are grown
in the Mississippi valley.

The foregoing remarks apply to those regions only
where it seems possible that the quality of cotton which
is in most general demand in Lancashire can be exten-
sively grown, but are not applicable to the Niger Valley.
As will be seen by a reference to the table of valuations,
a cotton exists in the Bassa and Nassarawa Provinces
which is comparable with a higher standard grade than
Middling American, the type to be produced in the north.
Efforts should be made to keep this latter variety free from
the possibility of admixture with exotic kinds, and it is
therefore advisable that improvement in this class should
be confined to seed selection. American cottons have
already been introduced into Bassa, but the value of
the lint is lower than that of the indigenous kind.

With regard to the cotton grown in the Ilorin Province,
the common variety is similar to that of the adjoining
country to the south, and it is in this direction that the
crop of the whole Province will be sent in the future,
as it has been arranged to remove the Ogudu ginnery
on the Niger, to which the northern Ilorin cotton has
hitherto been sent for sale. An illustration is given
showing the position of this ginnery upon the southern
bank of the Niger (Fig. 34).

The most important insect pests which attack the
cotton plant in Northern Nigeria are three species of
Oxycarenus, or cotton-seed bugs: Dysdercus superstitio-
sus, a cotton-lint stainer, the American cotton boll-worm,
Chloridea obsoleta, and a species of Larias,* identical with
or allied to the Egyptian cotton boll-worm. The last
mentioned has only been recorded as yet from the Bornu
Province, but the American boll-worm is found at Lokoja
and near the Niger in Nupe. The seed-bugs and stainer
are generally distributed. In no direction have these
pests assumed large proportions, but where they occur
the following remedies are recommended for application.
The seed-bugs and stainer can be attracted to traps of

* Identical with what is termed Z. biplaga at Ibadan, but probably
a local form of Z. insulana,

140 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

seed placed in piles upon the ground between the lines
of growing cotton, and the insects then destroyed by
petroleum or boiling water. In the case of the boll-
worms, trap-crops of maize and Hibiscus are recom-
mended, as well as the destruction of the moths after
attraction to light at night. (See Professor Dunstan’s
“* British Cotton Cultivation,” pp. 35-6.)

The British Cotton Growing Association commenced
work in Northern Nigeria by erecting a steam ginnery at
Lokoja, followed by others at Ogudu and Zaria. The
natives of the Bassa Province were induced to grow cotton
upon a larger scale than before by the favourable market
established near them at Lokoja, but, although the cotton
brought in was generally of good quality, the supply
fell off after the first year or two, and in 1908 it almost
ceased. More recently there has been some return to
cultivation, but the people are difficult to get into touch
with, and have few needs which can be supplied by the
traders, so that they have remained somewhat inactive
and shy.

The ginnery at Ogudu acted as an inducement to the
people of North Ilorin (Shari) to undertake cotton-growing
upon an increased scale, and as the inhabitants are chiefly
of a more intelligent class (Yorubas and Nupes) than the
Bassa people, the cultivation of cotton developed well.

The opening of the Baro-Kano Railway created some
activity in cotton growing, and satisfactory quantities
were brought in to the northern ginneries. The British
Cotton Growing Association will probably succeed well in
the northern parts of the country where a large rural
population is to be found.

An example of the development of cotton cultivation
in West Africa, influenced by and following the opening
of a railway, is seen in the Western Province of Southern
Nigeria and in Ilorin; along almost the entire route of
the line the agricultural population have taken up the
cultivation of the plant. This has occurred even in those
districts where other natural products were available for
utilisation to a remunerative degree. It is therefore
probable that the industrious population of the Northern
Provinces, who have no such advantages, owing to the
absence of oil palms, rubber, etc., would readily adopt
cotton-growing upon a commercial scale.

CAPSICUMS 141

The Baro-Kano Railway passes, however, through an
extensive tract of thinly populated country before
reaching the localities from which a large supply can
be reasonably expected, and this may delay the actual
results. It would be inadvisable, in the meantime,
to encourage cotton cultivation in those districts which
are still remote, unless it were possible to buy the crops
in advance of any prospective railway extension.

The following statistical statement has been supplied
by the British Cotton Growing Association, showing the
production in bales from their ginneries, 1906-1909 :

Year. Lokoja. Ogudu. Total, Weight of Bale. Approx. lbs,
1906. Sept. Ist,
1905, to Aug.

3lst,1906 . 903 ae 903 about 200 lbs. 180,600

1907. 16 months.
Sept. Ist, 1906,
to Dec. 12th,
1907 e Ae uve 815 1,882 200 Ibs. each 376,400
sa 239 239 400 Ibs. each 95,600
1908 . ‘ A 84 147 231 400 lbs. each 92,400
1909. 8 months.
To Aug. 31st,
1909 : ne BLIB I; 246 379 400 Ibs. each 151,606

In 1908 the rainfall was deficient in a large part of the
country, and the cotton crop, among others, suffered in
consequence. A temporary check to cotton-growing in
Ylorin province occurred in 1909 due to the demand for
labour for the railway construction, and a subsequent one
occasioned by the war; but in spite of this, the increase
of cotton in Nigeria is to be attributed largely to develop-
ments in the Northern Provinces. Cf. Bull. Imp. Inst.,
vol. x., p. 480, and vol. xi. pp. 70, 165 and 656. *

CAPSICUMS.—An increasing export trade seems to be
becoming established in red peppers and chillies (Capsi-
cum annuum and C, frutescens), plants which thrive well
in West Africa.

In the Horin and Nupe Provinces, the plants are usually
grown in the vicinity of houses, but in the Kano and
Zaria districts they are frequently met with in irrigated
fields. From the latter localities an almost unlimited
supply could be obtained.

* For the most recent information respecting cotton cultivation
here and elsewhere in West Africa, Professor Dunstan’s Reports to
the Brussels Congress of Tropical Agriculture (1910) should be con-
sulted,

142 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

BENNISEED.—The oil seed which is exported under
this name is the product of Sesamum indicum, Linn.,
and is identical with that known in India as “til” or
““ gingelly ” seed. Although the specific name seems to
imply that the plant is a native of India, there is evidence
to show that it may have been introduced into that
country from Africa, where several species of the genus
occur in a wild state.

The seed is pale or dark brown in colour, and contains
a large proportion of oil, for the extraction of which it
is exported. In the East, the dark seeds are said to
produce the better quality of oil, but this does not appear
to be recognised in Northern Nigeria, and the crop grown
there is composed of a mixture of the two kinds.

The oil extracted from benniseed is clear yellow and
without smell, and is said to be capable of being preserved .
for a long time without becoming rancid. For this
reason it is highly appreciated locally for alimentary
purposes, and is said to be used in Europe for making
butter substitutes and for mixing with olive oil. The seed
cake furnishes a valuable cattle food and good manure.

Although liable to fluctuation in price on the European
market, dependent upon the extent of the supply of olive
and groundnut oils, the seed is always in demand, and for
this reason it is worthy of special attention for cultivation
in the fertile and populated tracts of Northern Nigeria.

A fair amount of benniseed is grown in the country,
but the use of it isso Sppronelee locally that only a small
quantity is yet shipped, most of this being apparently
sent from Bauchi and Kabba, although Kano and Zaria
probably produce much more. The value shipped from
Nigeria rose from £5,225 in 1915 to £16,523 in 1916,

Benniseed is grown chiefly in separate fields, and is
seldom seen in those which have been employed for a
long period under Guinea corn or millet. It is a sole
crop, and grown but once a year in this country. In
India, it may be remarked, the plant is cultivated in both
the spring (Rabi) and autumn (Kharif) rotations, and it
should be possible to do this in the agricultural parts
of Northern Nigeria where irrigation is employed.

KANO LEATHER.—A very large trade exists in the
tanned and dyed goat and sheep skins prepared through-
out the country, and generally known under the name of

KANO LEATHER 143

Kano leather, or, in Europe, ‘‘ Morocco Leather.” It is
said that from early times caravans have annually con-
veyed numbers of these skins fromthe Kano markets across
the Sahara to the towns in North Africa, whence they were
exported to Trieste and other ports of the Mediterranean.

During recent years the caravan trade has almost en-
tirely disappeared, but some quantity of skins now come
to Liverpool by way of the coast ports. The value of
skins in Kano itself averages about 5}d., but the cost of
transport at present has made it almost impracticable to
export remuneratively, and a very small trade exists in
consequence.

By far the greater number of skins, which are tanned,
are dyed a bright red, yellow, or green colour, which seems
to rather depreciate them in the European markets for
many uses to which they might otherwise be put, undyed
and even untanned skins being in greater demand. (See
Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vi. [1908], p. 175;
and vol. viii. [1910], p. 402.) It has also been said that
the tanning is often insufficiently done, and the skins
become blotched in consequence. It is noticeable that
Kano leather quickly becomes spotted in the damp coast
regions, and for this reason it is probable that no great
direct European trade will be established until better
methods are introduced and more rapid transport is
arranged. There may, however, be a considerable trade
done in the untanned skins.

The best class of Kano or Niger leather is valued at
a high price for bookbinding.

In the country a fair amount of leather is manufactured
for saddlery and horse trappings, pillows, mattress covers,
sword scabbards, boots and hats, elaborate designs being
often produced by the skilful introduction of pieces of
differently coloured leather.

In preparing the leather the skin is stripped off the
animal and usually pegged out for drying in the sun,
after which it is immersed for two or three days in a
liquid made by pounding the pods and seeds of Acacia
arabica (“‘ Baggarua’’), and soaking them in water. The
hides are then again pegged out and scraped in order
to remove the hair, and when dry the best attain a
creamy white colour, others being pale brownish. Palm
oil or shea-butter is then rubbed in on the smooth side

144 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

of the skin, which is worked and rolled until quite soft,
after which a polish is obtained by drawing the smooth
surface rapidly over a wooden upright blade.

The finest and lightest skins are usually reserved for
making into yellow, green, or pale blue leather, and the
rest are converted into red, black, dark blue or dark
yellow kinds. The red dye is obtained from the stalks of
a species of Sorghum,* which is grown for this purpose, and
to which the Haussas give the name of ‘‘ Karandeffi” or
“Karantudi.”’ The dried stalks are pounded up and
placed in a calabash, to which a solution of “‘ potash ”’
is added. A deep crimson liquid results, and in this the
skin is steeped until a sufficiency has been absorbed by
it to render it permanently deep red in colour. A pale
yellow colour is imparted to the skin by an infusion
made from the root of a kind of turmeric, which is pounded
up for the purpose. A dark yellow is obtained from the
root of a tree called by the Yorubas “ Agbesi.”’ A black
pigment is prepared from a mixture of honey and black-
smith’s slag; blue from Lonchocarpus cyanescens, one of
the indigo producers; green or pale blue-green from
brass filings mixed with lime juice, common salt, and
other ingredients. More recently green aniline dye has
been imported into the country, and has almost super-
seded the use of brass filings in all the large leather-
producing districts.

FIBRES.—Owing to the demand for ropes among the
cattle-keepers of the northern districts and the canoe-
men of the Niger and Benue valleys, it is not surprising
to find that the wild fibres are considered insufficient to
supply so great a necessity, and that in consequence a
selected species is extensively cultivated and prepared
for sale in the markets.

‘“Rama” or ‘‘ Ramo” is the name which is applied
to such a plant in the Haussa- and Yoruba-speaking
countries respectively, but although used exclusively for
fibre made from plants belonging to the genus Hibiscus,
different species are indicated in various districts. The
plant to which the name ‘“‘ Rama” is given in Ilorin,
Nupe, Kontagora, Kano, and Zaria, is apparently the
same as that generally termed “ Farin (white) Rama”
in Bauchi and Muri, and has been recognised as Hibiscus
lunariifolius; that called “Rama” in the northern

* Since named S. guineensis var. robustum, Stapf.

‘)

FIBRES 145

territories of the Gold Coast is said to belong to two
species allied to H. Sabdariffa, and that grown by the
Yoruba people of the western province of Southern
Nigeria, and called by them ‘“* Ramo,” has been identified
as H. guineensis.

In the present instance only H. lunariifolius is referred
to, since this is the species cultivated throughout the
country.

Although in the other countries the allied plants are
cultivated, they are invariably grown upon a small scale,
and are only seen in small patches adjoining houses, or
cultivated as a mixed crop with peppers, okra, etc. ; in
Northern Nigeria fairly extensive tracts are planted, and
the crop is treated as carefully as the food crops in the
vicinity. In Ilorin, Kabba, and Bassa the seeds are sown
on ridges in drills a few inches apart, each drill having
four to six plants in it. The sowing in this locality is done
in the middle of May, and the crop is not irrigated, being
dependent upon the rainfall for development. The
plants, when they have reached the height of six or
more inches, do not appear to be adversely affected by
a prolonged continuance of dry weather in the Niger
Valley, but this is perhaps accounted for by the humidity
of the atmosphere.

The conditions last referred to do not, however, apply
to the northern districts, and the importance with which
the crop is regarded is seen in the fact that it is worth
while to irrigate it. At Fogola the plants are also sown
in drills on ridges, but the drills are made at about one
foot apart from one another, and ten or more plants
are left in each drill. The seed is sown in April and
irrigated until the rainy season commences in June.

The stalks are said to be cut after the plant has fruited,
and are described as being retted in a manner similar to
that employed for Indian jute. The unretted “‘ ribbons ”’
as well as the prepared fibre are offered for sale in the local
markets, the former being employed in the rough state
for twisting into rope used for fastening roofing poles,
etc. The prepared fibre produces an excellent kind of
rope, and is in appearance very similar to Bengal jute,
although it has slightly less lustre. Specimens of North-
ern Nigerian rama fibre have been examined from time
to a at the Imperial Institute, and have been satis-

146 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

factorily reported on. As a result the fibre has been
actually exported to Europe.

In the Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute, Part I.,
*‘ Fibres ’’ (Colonial Reports—Miscellaneous [Cd. 4588],
p. 38), a full account is given of the composition of a
specimen of the fibre received from Northern Nigeria.
The character is said to be similar to jute, but it is ap-
apparently rather harsh, and therefore more suitable for
use in rope-making than for spinning. The valuation
placed upon it was £12 per ton, with common jute at
£11-£12. A specimen of the brown ribbons was also
examined and was reported on, the valuation being
placed at about £4 per ton, with a remark that it would
only be of use for paper manufacture.

During the last three years, since attention was first
drawn to the probable value of the fibre as a jute sub-
stitute, the natives of Nupe and Muri have been urged
to cultivate the plant and prepare the fibre for export.
This has been done to a small extent, and the natives
of the latter province are said to be willing to produce
it at the local price of one penny per pound. At the
valuation mentioned above it might scarcely prove re-
munerative to pay this local price, but it should be taken
into consideration that the market price of jute was
depressed at the time that the valuation was obtained.
It seems that the product may be usefully cultivated,
especially in the Niger Valley, where river transport is
available, and it is probable that a better price would
be quoted if a larger and regular supply could be relied
on. The value of the fibre shipped from the country
in 1908 is estimated in the Government returns at £1,382,
and that for 1909 at £4,049.

Attention should be specially directed to the time of
cutting the stalks for retting, and these should be treated
before becoming too woody, when a much better product
would result.

Experiments with Indian jute, as well as with certain
Hibiscus fibres in West Africa, have shown that if the
stems are permitted to become woody, the resulting fibre
is harsh and coarse.

With regard to the probable production of fibre per
acre, there are at present no data, but it may be stated
for comparison that a good average yield of jute in India

WOOD OID 147

is taken as 2000 lbs. Carefully planted and treated in
the same way, it is probable that rama would give as
high a return, judging from the growth seen in the country.
Jute in India, it should be remembered, is a manured
crop, but rama in West Africa is only manured in the
northern districts of Northern Nigeria, being cultivated
without any special care in the Niger Valley.

WOOD OIL.—Following the order of value shown in
the list of exported products, wood oil appears next.
This is the oleo-resinous exudation obtained from
Daniellia thurifera, a tree belonging to the Natural Order
LEGUMINOS#, and allied to some of the species from
which the West African copals are procured. This tree
is commonly found in the dry country, but occurs also
in the damp forests, where it frequently attains large
dimensions. The wood oil is collected in many parts of
West Africa, and is used as a substitute for “‘ balsam of
copaiba’”’in native medicine. ‘The concreted resin formed
on the trunks of the trees by the borings of coleopterous
larve is used for burning as incense.

The native use of wood oil in place of “ balsam of
copaiba’”’ induced merchants trading upon the Niger to
export it, and at one time a fair quantity was sold in
England. This export trade has recently diminished to
a large extent.

The substance is an oleo-resin, and when free from oil
has a similar appearance to copal. Upon examination of
the resin, it has been found to be dissimilar in properties
from the various freshly exuded resins which enter the
market under the name of recent or soft copal. (Bulletin
of the Imperial Institute, vols. vi. [1908] and xiii. [1915].)

The mode of collecting wood-oil is somewhat destruc-
tive, as, in order to procure an excessive flow, a hollow
is scooped out in the main trunk and a fire is kindled
in the hole thus made. The oil commences to flow
rapidly after the fire is extinguished, which it is necessary
that it should be before a large quantity of oil has exuded,
on account of the inflammability of the latter.

The application of fire to the trees does not appear
to kill them, but they are rendered liable to attacks of
noxious insects, and are often broken off by winds.

In addition to the local use of the oil for maladies
for which balsam of copaiba is generally employed, the

148 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

rubber makers of [lorin and Nupe add it to the latex
of Landolphia florida or L. Thompsonii to make paste
rubber. The two liquids are boiled together for some
time, until the mixture attains a consistency of birdlime.
The dried resin is here used for torches, and in the
Egyptian Sudan for incense.

KOLA.—Although a large quantity of kola nuts is
annually imported from Lagos and the Gold Coast, such
a great demand exists that the price of kola in Kano
and Zaria is very high. The kola tree is seldom seen
in any part of the country except on the west bank of
the Kaduna river, where the famous plantations of the
Emir of Bida are situated. The kola nuts produced from
these plantations are said to be more appreciated than
any other, and, in order that the variety might not be
grown elsewhere, stringent measures are said to have
been enforced by the Emir, and the nuts were always
exported to the north, where it was impossible to grow
the tree, and where a very remunerative price was ob-
tainable. This particular kind of kola nut is referred to
as ‘‘ Laboji,”’ and is said to be white.

The cultivation of kola could be undertaken in the
Kabba and Bassa Provinces, especially in the moist
valleys protected from severe winds by high plateaux,
such as are commonly found in these localities.

In the export table of 1907 a small quantity of kola
is shown, but this probably represents the re-export of
produce from the south.

COTTON SEED.—The Lokoja Ginnery has exported a
small quantity of cotton seed each year, but the trade is
not a lucrative one, and the larger part of the cotton seed
which is turned out of the ginnery is valueless for shipment.

FOOD CROPS.—The products which have been referred
to above are those which have hitherto been exported
from the country, but by far the most important agricul-
tural products are those upon which the population itself
subsists, and in relation to which the exported products
are merely in the position of a surplus.

Before referring to the products regularly cultivated
for food, it is necessary to mention that the seasons,
which in the temperate zones are closely associated with
a rise and fall in the temperature and its effect upon
vegetation, are in West Africa determined to a much

RAINFALL 149

greater degree by the advent and cessation of the rainy
period. The year is therefore divided into two seasons,
roughly described as (1) that in which the conditions
are hot and dry, and (2) that in which they are cooler
and wet. The vegetation is so directly dependent upon
the timely appearance of the rainy season and its normal
distribution, that a failure of these conditions, even in
a comparatively small degree, may have serious conse-
quences and perhaps produce famine. In no part of British
West Africa is a shortage or irregularity of the rainfall
so severely felt, nor does it affect such a large number of
people, as in the northern districts.

A table is given below showing the distribution of rain in
Zaria for five years, and of that in Kano for three years.
In each of these it will be seen that the fall in the year
1907 was far below the average, and that during the
most important months for the growth of the staple
grain crops—July, August, and September—there was
a severe shortage of rainfall. The effect of this in Kano
was to produce a condition of famine, which lasted for
about six weeks. In a congested locality, such as exists
in the vicinity of the town of Kano, the difficulty of
importing sufficiently large supplies to afford relief at
such a period was great, on account of lack of transport.
The chief crop in this year, namely Guinea corn, was an
almost complete failure in many places, but the millet

TABLE SHOWING THE RAINFALL AT ZARIA FOR FIVE YEARS
(1905 To 1909)

Month. 1905. 1906. 1907. | 1908. | 1909.
January PF nil nil nil nil nil
February . nil nil nil nil 36
March . é nil nil nil 709 nil
April . 2 “76 “85 2-20 1-84 3°56
May : 5°90 9-50 3°69 1-91 5°79
June . F 7°24 5°95 7°05 6°94 6°51
July . 5 vie &:) 14-49 Ss 7-42 ISTE
August. E 15°04 16°39 4-46 14°36 16°62
September . 13-28 9-90 6°33 12-08 6°61
October. ‘ 1°40 3°93 2°32 "84 1-74
November . nil “O04 nil nil nil
December . nil nil nil nil 1°50

Totals ° 50°81 61°05 | 29°80 45°48 55°80

150 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

(Pennisetum) crop, which is an early one, and not de-
pendent on the rainfall after June, had received a normal
amount of rain to that time, and was satisfactory ; the
stored supplies, as well as a second sowing, of this grain
to some extent made up for the failure of the other.

The above table has been made out from the meteoro-
logical reports obtained at Zaria town, and probably
represents a fair average of the rainfall conditions per-
taining to the cultivated country in the vicinity.

The more northern district, of which Kano is the centre,
is liable to smaller rainfall conditions than Zaria. A com-
parison can be made by reference to the table given below.

TABLE SHOWING THE RAINFALL AT KANO FOR Four YEARS
(1906 To 1909)

Month, 1906. | 1907. 1908. 1909.
January ~ nil nil nil nil
February : nil nil nil nil
March . f nil nil 54 ‘09
April “ ‘01 10 "23 Ses
May : < 3°24 Kerf 1°16 8:7
June : B 4°66 5°88 4:12 3°71
July 4 . 8°75 3°90 | 10°24 9°01
August . > | aa5:61 9°58 | 13°92 Wieiz
September . 4°66 3°57 4°63 6°83
October . A 87 ‘Ol 02 end
November 5 nil nil nil nil
December : nil nil nil "45

Totals. «| 37°80 24°81 | 34°86 | 49°03

The remarks made above serve to emphasise two
points in connection with the densely populated districts
of the north, the first being the necessity of cultivating
larger areas to permit of surplus supplies being stored,
and the second the requirement of quick transport to
enable supplies to be brought in from the Niger valley
in cases of urgent need. The first of these also indicates
the necessity for the improvement of agricultural methods
by the introduction of ploughing, the extension of
irrigation and dry-season crops, and the better dis-
tribution of the population. The second—the supply of
quick transport—is becoming rapidly established, by
means of the railway and improved roads.

GUINEA CORN 151

The extension of irrigated crops can only be made in
the vicinity of the larger rivers, or where good wells exist,
and it may be found more expedient, therefore, that the
inhabitants of the Niger, Benue, Kaduna, Gongola, and
Gurara valleys should be urged to cultivate rice and
maize under these conditions. The use of the land for
two crops in each year would be made possible by the
introduction of a leguminous crop as an intermediate,
being sown later but in the same field with the irrigated
crop, and being permitted to ripen, after the grain has
been harvested, upon the stubble. A leguminous grain
suitable for human food would be necessary in the river
valleys where cattle are scarce, but a cattle food could be
grown in the north where cattle are common, and where
milk forms an important article of human consumption.

GUINEA CORN (Sorghum vulgare)—‘‘ Dawa ’”’ (Haussa),
otherwise known as the Great or Indian Millet “ Juar ”
(Hindustani), ‘‘ Dhura ’’ (Egyptian)—forms the most im-
portant food-grain of the inhabitants of the ultra-forest
region of West Africa.

A large number of different varieties are recognised in
Northern Nigeria, and are distinguished in the manner
stated below. Most of these have a grain which is
commonly used for human food, but at least two varieties
are grown for other purposes.

The following list states the characters by which the
various kinds can be determined from the appearance
of the seed and form of the stem.

1. “‘ Asidinono.”—Seed with white shell and black
adherent envelope.

2. “‘ Farafara.”—Seed with white shell and red ad-
herent envelope.

3. “‘ Boganderi.’”,—Seed with straw-coloured shell and
red adherent envelope.

4. “ Janari.”,-—Seed with pink shell and red adherent
envelope.

5. “‘ Kaura-ferin-sosia.”—Seed with straw-coloured
shell and straw-coloured adherent envelope.

6. “ Bokin-sosia.’””-—Seed with straw-coloured shell and
black adherent envelope.

7. ‘“‘ Makafo-dewayo.’’—Seed with straw-coloured shell
and pointed straw-coloured adherent envelope, which
scarcely opens.

152 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

8. ‘“* Asidigero.”—Small pink-shelled seed with red
adherent envelope.

9. ‘‘ Mazgua.”—Very large whitish seed with a straw-
coloured envelope.

10. “‘ Karandeffi.”—Seed with red shell and red ad-
herent envelope. Never used for food, but employed in
native medicine, as well as for the production of the
red dye used for leather (Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. vi. [1908}).

11. ‘‘Takanda’’ or ‘“Karantalaka.”—The seed has
not been examined, but the stem contains a large
quantity of saccharine juice, and the plant is grown
entirely as a cattle food. Probably identical with
S. saccharum.

The first four kinds are regularly employed as food,
and are found growing as a mixed crop; although the
white grains are more appreciated and frequently pre-
dominate. Nos. 5 and 6 are not considered so good for
human food, but are largely employed for feeding cattle
and horses, for which latter purpose they are greatly in
demand. No. 7 is used for the same purpose as the last,
but is a rarity and of no special value. These seven kinds
are grown as six-months’ crops, and are harvested in
October when the rains cease. No. 8 is a three-months’
cropping kind, which in this particular resembles
**Gero”’ (Pennisetum typhoideum), as its native name
indicates. The grain is much smaller than the others,
and it is said to be cultivated to some extent in the
Sokoto Province. No. 9 is a variety which is said to be
cultivated in Bornu in the fertile depressions which retain
moisture for long periods, or by means of irrigation from
the rivers. (See Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. iv.
[1906], p. 226.)

Guinea corn is permitted to occupy the land for a
number of years successively, being often grown with
* bulrush millet ’ (Pennisetum typhoideum). In this case
the millet occupies the furrow whilst the Guinea cora
is on the ridge, and this is reversed when the soil from
the ridge has been hoed into the furrow and the previous
ridge becomes the furrow. In many parts of the northern
districts it is customary to permit the Guinea corn root-
stocks to remain in the ground for two or three years,
and to fill in the vacancies only with new seed when the
old plants die. By this system it is found that the crops

GUINEA CORN 153

are better assured, as the old root-stocks withstand a
prolonged drought better than new plants. This custom,
if persisted in, would be a direct hindrance to the intro-
duction of ploughing.

Manure is applied regularly to this crop in the northern
districts, but never in the Niger valley. The method of
applying manure varies according to the condition of the
crop. Where entirely new plants are to be grown, a
shallow bed is made upon the top of the ridge or in the
furrow, and the goat, sheep, and cow manure mixed with
ashes, and accumulated carefully in the villages, is spread
thinly upon the bed before the seed is sown. In other
places, where old root-stocks occur, handfuls of manure
are applied to the growing plants in May. This is some-
times adopted where young plants only are growing.
Manure is so necessary for the system of cultivation
adopted in the Kano and Zaria Provinces that every
scrap of material which is of manurial value is care-
fully preserved, being carried to the fields by men and
donkeys.

The heads are cut when ripe and tied in bundles to
dry, after which the grain is readily beaten out in wooden
mortars or with sticks. The flour made from the grain
is ground between stones, and is frequently eaten in the
form of a thin porridge. Two varieties of Nigerian
Guinea corn have been examined at the Imperial
Institute and shown to be superior to Indian Guinea
corn, though not quite so good as the Syrian grain
(Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vii. [1909],
p. 148.)

Smut-blights, Ustilago Reiliana and Tolyposporium
sp. (called in Haussa “‘ domana’’), attack the heads, and
a Capnodium sp. (called “ derba’’), the honeydew pro-
duced on the leaves by Aphis sorghi (cf. Bull. Imp. Inst.,
vol. xi. [1913)).

At certain stages, green Guinea corn is poisonous to
cattle, and for this reason goats, sheep, and cows are
muzzled in the Kano and Zaria Provinces. Local know-
ledge of this fact confirms what has been observed
elsewhere with regard to this species, and is explained by
investigations conducted at the Imperial Institute.
(Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. i. [1903], and
vol. viii. [1910].)

154 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

BULRUSH MILLET.—This plant, which is supposed to
be of African origin and is usually called millet in West
Africa, belongs to that group of grasses of which the
seeding head is in a compact form and in appearance
resembles the head of a bulrush, from which the common
name applied to it has been derived. The botanical
name is Pennisetum typhoideum, and the plant is known
in the country as “‘ Gero” or “ Giro’ (Haussa), and in
India as “‘ Bajra.”” At least two varieties, a smooth and
an awned form, are grown as three-months’ crops, and
are sown either alone or as described before with Guinea
corn. It is usual to plant millet seed before the
Guinea corn, generally about the middle of April, or as
soon as the first showers are experienced. The crop is
then ready for picking in June and July. If the rain-
fall by this time has been deficient to such an extent
that the Guinea-corn crop promises to prove a failure,
a second crop of millet is often put in, and, as very
much less rain is required for this crop than is neces-
sary for Guinea corn, the severe effects of a short
rainfall are minimised. The grain yielded by Pennisetum
typhoideum would be classed commercially as a millet,
and a sample from Nigeria examined at the Imperial
Institute was valued at 22s. per quarter of 480 lb.
(July 1908).

In addition to the two varieties mentioned which are
employed as three-months’ crops, there is another kind
with a smooth greyish-white large grain which is called
‘*Maiwa’”’ or “ Dauro,” and is cultivated in the same
manner as Guinea corn; occupying the land for from
five to six months. The pagan Gwaris to the south of
Zaria grow this in large quantities, but it is uncommon
north of Zaria.

These grains are easily stored, and keep in good con-
dition for a long time. Flour is made from the grain
by grinding, and both the grain and leaves are used for
cattle food.

From the malted grain of millet, and sometimes of
Guinea corn, an intoxicating beverage is made which is
known as “ Gir’”’ (Haussa).

A fine grass seed called “ Acha”’ (Digitaria ternata)
is grown in the fields with millet, and attains a height of
about two and a half feet. It is used for making a sort

NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

ION
Fig. 34, p. 139.

GWARI TOWN, OPPOSITE MINNA, SOUTH OF ZARIA.

Fic. 35, D. 1:55;

COW FULANI WOMAN SELLING MILK AT GWARI.
Fig. 36, p. 163.

MAIZE AND WHEAT 155

of porridge. “‘ Tomba” (Hleusine coracana ?) and “‘Iboru”’
are grown in a similar manner. The composition,
nutritive value and commercial value of several of
these food grains are fully dealt with in the Bulletin of
the Imperial Institute, vol. vii. [1909], p. 148.

MAIZE.—“ Mussara ”’ (Haussa) is the name applied to
this plant (Zea mays). The crop is more common in
the Niger valley among the Nupe and Yoruba people
than in the higher plateaux of Zaria and Kano. It is
probable that maize requires a larger rainfall than the
grain crops which have been mentioned above—which
may account for the infrequency of its cultivation in
the dry country.

Among the Gwari pagans, inhabiting the country in
the vicinity of Minna, and the Nupe people to the south,
fairly large quantities of maize are grown and seem to
represent the chief food crop. The sowers drop only
one seed, or at most two, into the drills, where they would
put five or six Guinea-corn seeds. The only variety
grown commonly has a bright yellow grain and is appar-
ently a three-months’ crop; being sown at the commence-
ment and in the middle of the rains, thus giving two
crops in the year in some localities. An illustration is
given at Fig. 35 showing a view of the Gwari town at
Minna.

WHEAT.—The cultivation of wheat is confined to the
drier parts of Northern Nigeria, where it is grown as a
rainfall as well as an irrigated crop.

In Zaria it is frequently sown in October, and occupies
land which may have been under rice cultivation just
previously. Goat manure is especially applied to wheat,
and irrigation is carried out from wells or by the employ-
ment of shadufs on the banks of streams. This crop
is harvested in January.

In Kano, wheat is more generally grown as a rainfall-
crop in similar situations, and is, in this case, sown in
May, being harvested in September.

The variety seems to be constant throughout the
country, and appears to have been established from very
early times. The grain is similar in appearance to the
wheat seen in the Nile valley, and may be T'ritecum com-
positum (Egyptian wheat). Specimens from Kano and
Zaria have been examined at the Imperial Institute, and

156 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

the analyses made show about 11 per cent. of gluten
including 5 to 6 per cent. of gliadin, and the commercial
experts consulted were of opinion that an unlimited
quantity of this type of wheat would be readily sale-
able on the European market (Bulletin of the Imperial
Institute, vol. viii. [1910], p. 118.) The Kano wheat in
particular gave excellent results in milling and baking
trials.

As a food, wheat is regarded with great favour in the
country, and is bought up chiefly by the wealthy classes
for making a brown flour. It makes an excellent
bread, and is in demand among the European resi-
dents for mixing with European tinned flour for bread-
making.

In order to separate the grain from the ear, the dried
corn is threshed by the village women ; thin sticks being
used for the purpose. The chaff is then winnowed in the
wind. The Haussa name is “ Alkama.”

In addition to Zaria and Kano districts, the grain
is said to be plentiful and cheap in Sokoto and Bornu,
but does not appear to be grown south of the 11th
degree.

RICE.—The cultivation of rice extends over a much
larger portion of the country than wheat. It is said to be-
especially plentiful in the low-lying districts to the south
of Sokoto, where large tracts of swampy country exist,
which are annually planted with the crop. On the
banks of the Kaduna river, near Dakman and Dagomba,
as well as in the valley of the Baku river in the Nupe
country, irrigated rice fields are common, and the pro-
duct from the Nupe Province is much appreciated by
the inhabitants of the middle Niger. The local name
for rice is “‘ Shinkafa.”

Near Zaria and Kano comparatively little rice is cul-
tivated, and where seen is generally found in swampy
places where other food grains are not capable of being
utilised. Rice in these localities is one of the few un-
manured crops, and is planted at the commencement
of the rainy season. The harvesting is done about
November or December, and the paddy or husk-rice is
cleaned by soaking the grain in hot water, drying in the
sun and then pounding in a wooden mortar. The chaff
is winnowed, and a fairly clean rice with a slight

SUGAR-CANE AND LEGUMINOUS PLANTS 157

reddish tint remains. All the rice appears to be of the
same type, and is held in high estimation for its nutritious
quality. The imported white rices, which occasionally
enter the country, are regarded with less favour than
the local kind.

It is possible to develop the cultivation of the crop
in the valleys of all the large rivers, and it seems probable
that, with improved methods of irrigation, two crops
might be grown annually.

A sample of rice from [Ilorin examined at the
Imperial Institute proved to be about equal in quality
to average Bengal rice (Bulletin of the Imperial Institute,
vol. vii. [1909], p. 149), but it is improbable that it
would at present prove remunerative to export this rice
to Europe. A good market might, however, be found
for it at the coast ports of Southern Nigeria, where
imported rice is in demand. It might be necessary,
in order to compete with the present trade, to grow
and prepare a cleaner (less red) variety, which would
resemble more nearly the imported kinds, and to this
end the acclimatised American rice of Sierra Leone
might be tried (cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. xv. [1917]).

SUGAR-CANE.—The cultivation of sugar-cane (Sac-
charum officinale) is confined to small patches or strips of
land on the edges of rice fields, where it may be said to
be under irrigation. The Haussa name is “ Reke.” The
preparation of sugar does not appear to be known in
the country, and the sole use to which the plant is put,
seems to be the consumption of the green stalks by the
inhabitants and their cattle. The variety seen in Kano
district appears to have a reddish stalk, and cane is said
to be a feature in the Maigana district.

LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.—Several kinds of small beans
are grown, of which the most valuable appears to be that
known as ‘“ Wanki.”? This is a white-skinned kind,
similar to, but about half the size of, the white haricot
of Europe. The cultivation of these beans is somewhat
irregular; a few being occasionally sown among the
millet and Guinea-corn crops. They are apparently
never grown as a sole crop. A similar bean of a brown
colour is common in the Bassa Province, but the white
bean is generally distributed throughout the whole
country.

158 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

The “ Bambarra groundnut” (Voandzeia subterranea)
is grown in a similar manner to the common groundnut
(Arachis hypogea) which has been referred to among the
exported products. The cultivation is similar, and the
plant is seen occupying elevated ridges. The Haussa
name is “ Paruru.”

An unidentified bean, which is called ‘‘ Girigiri,’’ has
been described as being grown by the pagan Gwari
tribes to the south of Zaria, but apart from the fact
that it is much larger than the ‘‘ Wanki”’ bean, nothing
seems to be known about it.

Indian dhall (Cajanus indicus), frequently termed the
pigeon pea, has been introduced into many parts of the
country, with the object of inducing the native to grow
a leguminous crop, which would serve the dua! purpose
of providing a palatable food as well as being beneficial
to the soil, but in only a few localities do the natives
appear to make use of the peas for food. It has been
recommended to grow the plant upon land which has
become somewhat exhausted by the repeated growth of
grain crops, and to permit the peas to remain upon such
land for two or three seasons, during which time they
will yield successive crops. The beneficial action which
such a plant exerts by nitrifying the soil, and the manurial
value of the leaves, which are shed in thick profusion,
are important reasons for its introduction, but the value
will not be fully appreciated until it has been adopted
generally as a food.

SOYA BEAN.—The Manchurian or soya bean (Glycine
hispida or soja), which has the additional merit of yielding
about 15 per cent. of a valuable oil, and which is highly
appreciated as another kind of dhall in India, is being
experimented with in various parts of British West
Africa (see Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. viii.
[1910], p. 40).

The recent expansion in the cultivation of leguminous
crops is a promising step.

CASSAVA.—Among the Haussas as well as the Yorubas
and Nupes, the cultivation of cassava (Manihot utilis-
sima) is extensively carried on. In Haussa cultivation
it is an unmanured plant, and is usually grown in separate
fields surrounded by mud walls, thorn hedges, or Guinea-
corn matting. The ground from which a crop of cassava

YAMS AND SWEET POTATOES 159

has been harvested is rarely used for Guinea corn; the
succeeding crop being usually cotton, with the applica-
tion of manure. In the Nupe country, near Bida,
cassava is frequently employed as a shade crop for
onions; in this case being planted around the onion
beds and obtaining the benefit of the high state of cul-
tivation, manuring and irrigation which is applied to
that crop. Cassava grown under these conditions is
planted twenty days later than the onions, and is
pulled up a month later.

The pagan tribes of Zaria, and the other provinces
where they are in greater numbers, do not seem to
plant cassava. The Haussa name given to the plant is
ee Rogo.”’

YAMS (Dioscorea sativa, etc.).—These climbers are
commonly grown in the moist valley of the Niger and in
the Yoruba country of Llorin, but are rare and only an
irrigated crop in the more northern countries. Where
they are seen, they are planted from root eyes upon
high mounds with ditches dammed to retain the water
between them, and, until the plant has grown up as a
trailer upon the ground, some feet in length, no supports
are put in. At this time, however, the straw covers,
which it is customary to place on the apex of the
yam mounds, are removed and an elaborate system
of stakes, to the top of each of which strings are
tied and conducted to the ground near the growing
plant, are put in, and the plants to the number of
four or more are trained to grow towards the top of
each stake.

The large white yam is chiefly grown, and is called
in Haussa ‘‘ Doya.”” Yams attain large dimensions in
the damp localities, but are small in the drier places.

Colocasia antiquorum, called by the Haussas “* Kamu,”
is usually referred to as the koko yam and is rarely
grown. A few may be seen in the wet localities and
near Zaria, where they are planted in swamps upon
high mounds or ridges.

SWEET POTATOES.—This crop is grown everywhere,
and is nearly always unmanured. It is said that it forms
the occupant of the land upon which Guinea corn and
millet are repeatedly grown in some parts of the Kano
district in the second and eighth year—i.e. twice in a

160 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

period of eight years. In the year of plantation, the
ridges are said to be heightened. Near Bida very high
beds are made for it, resembling flat-topped mounds,
with an area of sixteen or more square feet. The Haussas
apply the name “ Dankali”’ to the root, which is usually
of the small white variety.

Artichokes and small Root Crops.—The Jerusalem arti-
choke (Helianthus tuberosus) called ‘* Gwaza,’’ as well as
“ Rizga ”? (Plectranthus sp.) and “‘ Tumuku”’ (probably
Plectranthus sp.) are cultivated by the people living
to the south of Zaria Town.

‘“* Gwaza ”’ seems to be less planted than “ Rizga,” the
latter being carefully grown upon selected ground which
has been previously hoed and levelled, the surface being
covered over with branches of Bauhinia reticulata and
other forest plants until the stems of the crop have
reached a height of one foot or more. Single stems
spring from the root eyes which are planted. “ Tumuku ”
resembles “ Gwaza” in appearance, but comes up in
clusters of stems and is planted upon mounds.

All the above roots are used in the manner in which
the potato is employed in Europe; cassava alone being
pounded to make a kind of dough ball, in addition to
being eaten in chopped up and boiled form.

Onions.—Two kinds of onions are cultivated through-
out the country: Alliwm cepa, the large onion which
is seen to perfection in the Kano markets, and Allium
ascalonicum which is usually termed the shallot, and is
cultivated to a larger extent in the localities where
manure is scarce.

The variety of large onion grown in Kano is pink
upon the outside, and for this reason, according to
inquiries conducted by the Imperial Institute, is said
to be quite unsuitable for the English market ; the white
Egyptian onion being preferred.

Cultivation.—The cultivation of onions is, perhaps,
more carefully carried out than that of any other crop,
and may be described from that seen at Lemu in Nupe.
The seed is sown closely in beds of soil which have
previously been enriched with manure, and the surface
is covered with straw until the young plants are a few
inches in height. Transplanting into new beds, which
are strewn with cow and goat manure, is the next opera-

OTHER FIELD CROPS iol

tion, the plants being put in at about 4-6 inches apart.
The whole cultivation is done during the dry season,
and the beds are irrigated by means of channels supplied
with water raised from streams or wells, in the north by
shadufs, or in the Nupe country by people conveying
the water in calabashes.

The market price varies greatly in different districts,
and is immediately influenced by any reduced supply.
There is said to be a very good demand for the large
onions in the Southern Nigerian markets, and there
should be no difficulty in getting them to Lagos, as
they have been brought from Kano to London in good
condition.

Minor Crops.—Okra (Hibiscus esculentus), ““ Kubiewa,”’
@ species of Solanum resembling a small tomato called
“Yalo,” the sorrel Hibiscus (H. Sabdariffa) called
* Yakwa,”’ a pumpkin called “‘ Kubiwa,” and the auber-
gine (Solanum melongena), are grown upon a small scale,
and chiefly in the vicinity of houses.

OTHER FIELD CROPS. Dye Plants.—Indigo is the
chief dye used in the country, and is prepared in the
northern provinces from a species of Indigofera, which
has not been accurately determined.

In Ilorin and Kabba the plant used is Lonchocarpus
cyanescens, and the wild trees of this species may be
seen preserved in the cultivated fields.

Camwood, a name applied to the red wood obtained
from several species of Pterocarpus and from Baphia
nitida, in different parts of West Africa, is obtained
chiefly from P. erinaceus in Northern Nigeria, and is
used by the natives for staining the skin. It is pre-
served in the fields cleared for grain cultivation.

Henna is obtained from Lawsonia inermis, which is
regularly planted as a sole crop in the northern provinces
and Kontagora. The use of it is generally to replace
camwood as a red dye where that tree is scarce.

Tobacco.—The cultivation of tobacco (Nicotiana taba-
cum) is carried on in almost every part of the country,
but for native use is generally made into snuff or into
ropes, plaits, and targets, for sale in those places where
it is smoked. (Cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. xv. [1917], p. 32.)

The crop is usually grown in the river valleys, and is
aceite carefully. Manure in the form of house sweep-

162 NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES

ings, ashes, and cattle-shed refuse is always applied,
and the crop consists of leaves of all sizes and ages stripped
from the plant at the same time.

The preparation of the tobacco usually consists in
drying the leaves spread upon mats or upon sand in the
sun. When flaccid they are twisted into ropes or plaits
in the form in which they are afterwards sold, or they
are completely dried and pounded up. In Ilorin an
attempt has been made to prepare the leaves tied up
in flat bundles, and this method has more recently been
tried at the Baro prison farm, but the previous curing
has generally proved inefficient and requires more
attention. It is unlikely that tobacco fit for export
will be produced except under expert guidance.

MISCELLANEOUS. Beeswax.—Bees are kept in
many of the large villages, and are seen in hives placed in
trees near the large towns in Kano and Zaria especially.
Honey is employed in the country as a substitute for
sugar. ‘The wax is not greatly valued, and is frequently
thrown away, although it seems to be of fair quality.

Locust Bean.—The tree which furnishes the well-
known locust bean (Parkia jilicoidea) is called “* Dorowa ”
by the Haussas. The beans, which are produced in
clusters, contain a sweet-tasting yellow flour-like sub-
stance, which is used for making a beverage. In this
flour-like substance the flattened seeds are placed, and
these are greatly appreciated for making into cakes, in
the process of which they are boiled and apparently
decomposed. The empty pods of the bean are boiled
and used for making a strong cement used in flooring,
etc. The pods have been examined at the Imperial
Institute, and appear to be unsuitable for export as a
feeding-stuff owing to their fibrous nature (see Report
by Professor Dunstan on ‘Cotton, Gum, and Other
Economic Products from Northern Nigeria”? (Cd. 2778
[1905]), p. 21). Fig. 30 shows a locust bean tree in Ilorin.

Date Palms (Phenix dactylifera) and the fruit of the
Run palm (Borassus flabellifer), “‘ Giginia ’’ (Haussa), are
used for food and are sometimes sold in the markets
towards the south, being commonly seen in Kano.

CATTLE.—Large numbers of cattle are moved about
through the country north of the 11th degree, where the
tsetse fly does not appear to occur. The ‘‘ Cow Fulani ”

SILK 163

is the race whose work is confined to the care of cattle
and the sale of milk and butter. These people have no
fixed abode, but move with the cattle to localities suit-
able to the season. An illustration is given of a Cow
Fulani woman selling milk at Gwari, a town south of
Zaria (Fig. 36). The cattle are large and humped similar
to the Indian Zebu type, although in some places the
straight-backed kind, which are common in the south,
are seen.

SILK.—Four kinds of silkworm are collected for the
spinning of yarn used in the embroidery on the Haussa
gowns. The best of these is that which feeds upon the
Tamarind tree, ‘‘ Tsamia,” and is termed “ Tsamian
tsamia.’”? The silk cocoons are collected in Bauchi
Province and are boiled in water with wood ashes, and
subsequently washed. The silk becomes nearly white,
and is carded and spun into yarn in the same manner as
cotton. The species of insect which produces this silk
has not yet been identified, but is almost certainly
referable to the genus Anaphe (cf. p. 117).

A second quality of silk is that called “‘ Tsamian doka,”
and is obtained from the cocoon masses produced by the
larvee of Anaphe Moloneyt, which are found in the same
locality, feeding upon the ‘“ Bokin doka” tree, which
has been determined to be a species of Macrolobium.
Several hundred worms congregate together and form
a solid mass of pale brown tubular cocoons upon the
bark of the tree, covering the outer surface with a whitish
envelope of silk. This silk is treated in the same manner
as the other, but, after boiling and washing, does not
become white. Two other species, which are used for
the same purpose, are called “ Tsamian fakali” and
‘“*Tsamian bauri,’’ and feed on another species of Macro-
lobium and a Ficus respectively. They produce inferior
kinds of silk.

Much interest is attached to these Anaphe silks, which,
in recent years, have been developed in the German
Colonies of East Africa, especially, on a commercial
scale. It is reported that, just previous to the declaration
of war, German agents in British West Africa made
endeavours to obtain as much of the wild silk as possible
from Nigeria. Plantations of a species of Bridelia, the
common food plant of Anaphe infracta, were made in the

164 NIGERIA—NORTHERN

PROVINCES

late German Colonies, and special machinery was in use

there for the production of a commercial silk.

The following figures give the values of the chief ex-
ported products from Nigeria as a whole, from 1913 to

1919 :-—
1913

£
Palm kernels . . 3,109,818
Palm oil ; . 1,854,384
Cocoa . 3 : 157,480
Cotton lint : d 159,223
Mahogany and iimicr 106,050
Groundnuts . a 174,716
Hides and skins ; 197,214
Shea products . 74,471
Rubber . A =
Benniseed 5 - _

Continued :

Palm kernels
Palm oil
Cocoa
Cotton lint A
Mahogany and timer
Groundnuts
Hides and skins
Shea products
Rubber ,
Benniseed . . : é

1914
£

2,541,150
1,571,691
171,751
150,791
86,522
179,219
505,785
52,843
38,854

1917
£

2,581,702
1,882,997
499,004
234,338
21,282
710,308
198,332
40,189
32,350
2,876

1915
£

1,692,712
1,462,162
313,946
56,351
54,559
72,177
302,420
69,823
38,113
6,225

1918
£

3,226,306
2,610,448
235,870
97,399
68,480
920,137
293,019
4,884
19,667
696

1916
£

1,739,706
1,402,799
393,101
243,949
49,361
473,653
538,917
32,529
34,192
16,523

1919
£

4,947,995
4,245,883
1,067,675
484,744
116,820
698,702
1,262,142
37,222
43,903
53,541

INDEX

Abassi, 110 Allium escalonicum, 160
Abbradi, 44 | Allium cepa, 160

“* Abe bobe,”’ 71, 100 Alstonia congoensis, 105
‘* Abe dam,”’ 70, 100 Alstonia sp., 62

“* Abe Ohene,”’ 71, 100 Amedika, 77

Abeokuta, 119 Amelonado, 46
Abeokuta-Ibadan, 106 American rice, 157

** Abe pa,”’ 22, 70, 100, 132 | Anaphe infracta, 81, 117, 163
Abetifi, 43 | Anaphe Moloneyi, 163
‘* Abe tuntum,”’ 70 Anaphe venata, 81, 117
Abrotoo, 44 Angola, 71

Abuko, 3, 4 Ankobra, 72

Aburi, 47, 49, 57, 63, 65, 66, 79 Annatto, 54

Acacia, 89, 91, 122, 134
Acacia albida, 134

Anogeissus letocarpus, 96
Antiaris toxicaria var. africana, 74

Acacia arabica, 13, 62, 89, 134, | Anum, 77

143 | Aphis sorghi, 12, 153
Acacia Caffra, 134 Apis mellifera var. Adansonii, 10,
Acacia mellifera, 134 40, 91

Acacia Senegal, 134
Acacia Sieberiana, 89

Apocynacea, 64
Appolonias, 44, 74

Acacia Verek, 134 Aquapim, 44

Accra, 56, 106 Arachis hypogea, 3, 6, 84, 115,
Accra copal, 82, 106 132, 158

Accras, 44 ‘** Aribedda,”’ 128

** Acha,” 154 | Armatosterna buquetiana, 51
Adampes, 44 Aros, 94

Adda, 90 Artichokes, 124, 160

Ashanti, 43, 44, 91
Ashanti-Akim, 47, 51
Ashanti kings, 63

** Ashanti lump,”’ 60
“© Ashmouni,” 110

‘* Asidigero,’’ 152

** Asidonono,” 151
Askia, 86

‘** Asoge-e-jub,”’ 100

Administration, 121

‘* Affia-ko-jub,”’ 100
African mahogany, 72
African mango, 103
African rubber, 59
Afzelia africana, 72, 119
Agbede, 95, 109, 112

** Agbesi,” 144

Agege, 106, 109, 113

Agoonahs, 44 Aspidiotus destructor, 117
Agriculture in Haussaland, 133 Assin, 44

Ahantas, 44 ** Attifufu,”’ 128
Ahedua, 72 Aubergine, 161
Aimensa, 56 ‘© Au-su-ku,”’ 100

“* Akee apple,” 95 Axim, 47, 63, 66, 72, 74, $0
Akim, 73

Akims, 45 Badagri, 96, 117

** Ak-poro-jub,” 100 Baga, 24

** Akwabohori,”’ 72 | ** Baggarua,”’ 143

‘“* Alkama,” 156 | ** Bajra,” 154

165

166

Bakau, 9, 10

‘“< Bako,” 72

Baku, 156

** Balata,”’ 127, 128

‘* Balsam of Copaiba,”’ 90, 147
‘* Bambarra”’ groundnut, 158
Bananas, 39, 95

‘* Baowe,”’ 17, 18

Baphia nitida, 37, 83, 96, 161
Barbetu, 86

Bark cloth, 74

Baro, 121, 130, 137

Baro-Kano Railway, 131, 137,
140, 141

Baro Prison Farm, 162

Basel Mission, 47

Bassa, 119, 120, 126, 128, 135,
136, 137, 139, 140, 145, 148,

157
‘* Bassi,” 12
Bathurst, 8, 9, 29
Batkanu, 28
Bauchi, 120, 124, 142, 144, 163
Bauhinia reticulata, 62, 160
Beans, 13, 88, 95, 157
Beer, 85
Beeswax, 10, 40, 91, 162
Belgian Congo, 25
Bendi, 93
Bengal rice, 157
Benin, 107
Benin City, 95
Benis, 94, 95
Benniseed, 124, 127, 142, 164
Benue, 137, 144, 151
Boetel nut, 73, 116
Bida, 132, 137, 159, 160
Bissao, 29
‘Black arm,’’ 112
‘* Black dye,” 144
Black gram, 42
Black oil, 98
‘* Black Rattler,’ 79, 110
‘* Black smut,’ 153
‘* Black Volta,’ 43, 90
Bleaching gum, 155
Blighia sapida, 95
Bo, 18, 28, 38
‘** Boganderi,”’ 151
Boia, 24
** Bokin doka,’’ 163
** Bokin sosia,”’ 151
Bole, 86, 87
Bollworm, 112, 139
Borassus flabellifer, 162
Bordeaux mixture, 52, 63
Borers (copal), 82
Borgu, 122
Boring beetles, 51, 65

INDEX

Bornu, 120, 124, 134, 139, 152, 156

Bread making, 156

Bridelia sp., 164

British Cotton Cultivation, 12, 78,
110, 136, 140

British Cotton Growing Associa-
tion, 33, 77, 80, 87, 88, 108,
110; 112, 113, 131, 135; 1405 Tat

Brown beans, 157

““Brown cluster,’ 128

‘* Brown medium,” 128

Buettneriec, 46

| Bullelai, 3
| Bulletin of the Imperial Institute,

8, 9, 11, 14, 23, 28, 39, 40, 59,
63, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 78,
80, 82, 90, 95, 102, 103, 105,
106, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118,
125, 131, 133, 134, 135, 141,
1438, 147, 152, 153, 155, 156, 157,
158, 161

Bullom, 16, 38, 40

‘* Bulrush millet,’ 152, 154
Bumban, 24

| Burkea africana, 89

‘* Bush,” 15, 17, 19, 41, 42, 45, 84,
94

Butter, 90, 115, 130, 142, 163

Butyrospermum Parkii, 90, 115,
128, 130

Cajanus indicus, 42, 88, 158

‘* Calabacillo,’’ 46

Calabar, 105

Calabash, 91, 144

‘*Cambodia’’ cotton, 34

Camwood, 37, 83, 96, 161

Canavalia ensiformis, 42

Candles, 70, 98, 103, 115, 130

Capnodium sp., 153

Capsicum annuum, 29, 141

Capsicum frutescens, 29, 141

Capsicum sp., 84

Capsid, 106

Caracas, 46

Caracas, 57

Carapa procera, 71

Caravans, 73, 136, 143

Carpodinus, 96

Carpodinus hirsutus, 65, 104, 128

Casamance River, 2, 6

Cassava, 3, 13, 19, 45, 84, 85, 88,
95, 114, 125, 126, 138, 158, 160

Castilloa elastica, 10, 65

Catch crops, 49

Cattle, 2, 3, 56, 73, 91, 118, 124,
151, 152, 153, 162, 163

Cattle food, 113, 142, 151, 154

Cayor, 6

INDEX

Ceara rubber, 9, 65, 103, 129, 130

Central Province, 120, 122

Cercospora personata, 38

“*Chena,”’ 45

Chew sticks, 96

Chillies, 141

China grass, 33

Chloridea obsoleta, 112, 139

Chlorita flavescens, 112

Chlorophora excelsa, 62, 72, 118

Clifford, Sir Hugh, 66

Clitandra elastica, 104

Clitandra laxiflora, 27

Clitandra Manni, 27

Cloth, native, 34

Cocoa, 38, 45, 46, 92, 94, 95,
106, 164

Cocoa-bark bug, 51

Cocoa borer, 51

Cocoa butter, 46

Cocoa, colouring, 54

Cocoa, tables of exports of, 59, 107

Cocornze#, 67

Coconut, 67, 83, 96, 117

Cocoons, 81, 117, 163

Cocos, 67

Cocos nucifera, 83

Coffea Liberica, 39

Coffea robusta, 66

Coffea stenophylla, 39

Coffee, 39, 47, 66

Coir, 83

Colocasia antiquorum, 84, 115, 159

Colocasia yams, 95, 126

Coleoptera, 82

Colceopterous larve, 147

Communalrubber plantations, 103

Congo, 90

Conopharyngia crassa, 62

Conopharyngia sp., 105

Cooking oils, 88, 90

Coops, 91

Copaifera Guibourtiana, 37

Copal, 37, 81, 89, 92, 96, 106, 147

Copal resin, 127

Copra, 83, 92, 96

Corchorus, 33

Corchorus capsularis, 13, 32

Cotton, 11, 33, 74, 87, 92, 94, 95,
108, 124, 127, 135, 141, 159, 163,
164

Cotton, cultivation of, 111, 140

Cotton lint stainer, 112, 139

Cotton seed bugs, 110, 139

Cotton seed-cake, 113

Cotton seeds, 113, 148

Cow Fulani, 163

Cowpea, 42, 125, 133

Crabnut, 71

167

Criollo, 46, 57

Cross River, 94, 115, 118
Cocursbirace®, 84

“* Culpepper’s Big Boll,” 110
Cundeamor, 57

Custard apples, 85

** Cutlass,’’ 22, 50, 52

‘* Cutlass bean,’’ 103
Cyanothyrsus oblongus, 84, 96, 106
Cyanothyrsus ogea, 106
Cyanothyrsus sp., 72, 106

Daboya, 87, 90, 91

Dagartis, 86

Dagomba, 86, 87, 89, 156

Dahomey, 29, 101, 120

Daka River, 43

Dakar, 29

Dakman, 156

‘* Dancing ’”’ cocoa, 54

Daniella thurifera, 89, 128, 147

** Dankali,”’ 160

‘© Danko Gawa,”’ 129

‘* Danko Kadainya,” 129

Date palm, 162

Dauro, 154

** Dawa,” 151

‘*“ Dawadawa,”’ 92

Denkera, 44

** Derba,” 153

** Dhall,”’ 88, 158

** Dhoole,”’ 34, 109

** Dhura,”’ 151

** Difumbe,’’ 71

Digitaria ternata, 154

Dioscorea alata, 88

Dioscorea colocasifolia, 88

Dioscorea sativa, 88, 159

Dioscorea sp., 84, 115

Diospyros sp., 118

Diparopsis castanea, 112

** Djenje,’’ 27

Dodowa, 56

Dolichos lablab, 42

“* Domana,”’ 153

Dombeya buettneri, 96

Donkeys, 73, 126

“< Dorowa,”’ 162

*“ Doya,”’ 159

Dressed skins, 127

** Dubini,”’ 72

** Dumnjeri,’’ 121

Dunstan, Professor Wyndham,
12, 78, 110, 136, 140, 162

Dwarf cattle, 119

Dwarf goats, 119

Dwarf horses, 119

Dysdercus nigrofasciatus, 76

Dysdercus superstitiosus, 112, 139

168

Earias biplaga, 139

Earias imbricata, 112

Earias insulana, 112, 139

Earias sp., 139

Earthenware, 119

‘* Earth pea.’? See Groundnut

Eastern agriculture, 124

Eastern Akim, 47

Eastern Sudan, 86

“* Ebo,” 128

Ebony, 117, 118

Ebute Metta, 105

“* Eduege-Eyop,” 100

“* Efi-ako-Eyop,” 100

Egga, 137

Egg-plant, 95

Egypt, 86, 124

Egyptian boll-worm, 112, 139

Egyptian cotton, 11, 76, 78, 109,
110, 136, 137

Egyptian wheat, 155

Eket, 107

Eleis guineensis, 11, 19, 67, 70,
132

Elewis Thompsonii, 71, 100

Elephants, 88

Eleusine coracana, 155

Embroidery, silk, 163

Entandrophragma sp., 118

‘* Eponkon,”’ 108, 109, 110

Euphorbia, 126

‘* Fai’’ or ‘‘ Fawe’’ beans, 40

Fallow, 138

Famine conditions, 126, 149

Fan palm, 7

““Fande Wa,” 34

Fanti, 25, 44, 74

** Farafara,” 151

‘* Farin rama,” 144

Farmers’ Association, 30

“*Fatainya,” 125

Fernando Po, 38, 46, 47, 57

Fetish nut, 100

Fibre preparation, 145

Fibres, 13, 17, 31, 80, 89, 96, 116,
127, 144, 146

Fibrous plants, 94, 145

Fibrous pulp (oil palm), 97

Ficus, 59, 65, 128, 163

Ficus platyphylla, 128

Ficus trachyphylla, 129

Ficus Vogelu, 9, 65, 129

Fig rubber, 65

Bapl abate heszonn ip

“First Niggers,”’ 104

** Flake rubber,” 65, 128

Floods, 12

INDEX

Flour, 153, 154, 156

Fogni, 2, 8

Fogola, 145

‘** Folio,” 9

Food crops, 148

‘* Forastero,’’ 46

‘** Forastero-Amelonado,”’ 47, 57

Forest produce, 127

Forest products, 45, 94

Forest reserve, 119, 130

Forestry, 42

Fork ‘‘ kodalli hoe,’’ 17

Fossil copal, 82, 106

Foulahs, 1, 16

Four-eyed palm-nuts, 100

Fowls, 91

Fra-Fra potato, 89

Freetown, 27, 28, 40

French Guinea, 28, 120

French Sudan, 43, 120

Fruit, 39, 95

Fuel, 97, 119

Fulani, 1, 122, 124

Funtumia africana, 26, 60, 62, 105

Funtumia elastica, 10, 26, 60, 66,
95, 96, 103, 128, 129, 130

Funtumia rubber, 27, 28, 60, 61,
63, 66, 103

Furniture making, 118

Gallinas, 16, 39

Gambaga, 85

Gambaga-Kumassi Road, 86

Gambia, 38, 88, 91, 99, 100

GAMBIA, introductory remarks,
geographical position, 1; area
and population, 1; tribes, 1;
political divisions, 2; natural
conditions, 2; chief crops, 3;
implements, 3; ploughing, 3;
land tenure, 3; labour, 4; agri-
cultural schools, 4; chief ex-
ports, 5; Grounp Nots, uses,
5; classification and descrip-
tion, 6; RuBBER, 8; BErEEs-
wax, 10; Patm KeErneEts, 11;
Corron, 11; Gran, 12; Roor
AND OTHER Crops, 13; Tan-
NING, 13; Frsres, 13; Tim-
BER, 13; Traps, 14

Gambian groundnut, 132

““Gamopale,”’ 70

“* Gara,’ 39

““ Garma,”? 125

“* Gawo,”’ 134

Gbemas, 16

* Gboi-gboi,” 26

** Geda,”’ 132

Geidam, 121

INDEX

Gelechiade, 112

Gelechia gossypiella, 112

“* Georgia’’ cotton, 110, 112

German African Colonies,
163

German ports, 134

German territory, 86, 104

** Gero,” 152, 154

“*Giginia, 162

Gingelly, 142

Ginger, 30

Ginnery, 33, 77, 108

Ginning centres, 137

Ginning machines, 77

Gins, 76

** Gir,” 154

** Girigiri,”’ 158

** Giro,” 154

Glenea sp., 51

Gliadin, 156

Glossina morsitans, 91

Glossina pallidipes, 91, 119

Glossina palpalis, 91, 119

Gluten, 156

Glycerine, 70

Glycine hispida, 158

Glycine soja, 42, 158

Glyphodes ocellata, 63

Goat manure for wheat, 155

Goat skins, 13, 116, 142

Gober, 123

Gola Forest, 26

Gold Coast, 1, 10, 22, 27, 29, 36,
99, 116, 132, 145, 148

GOLD COAST, AsHANTI AND
NORTHERN TERRITORIES, intro-
ductory remarks, geographical
position, 43; area and popula-
tion, 43; divisions,43; Part I.
Gotp Coast AND ASHANTI,
origin of tribes, 44; Cocoa,
45; pruning, 50; insect pests
and vegetable parasites, 50 ;
harvesting and preparing, 52;
markets, 54; improvement of
quality, 56; exports, 59;
RUBBER, indigenous species,
59; ‘‘ Ofruntum”’ tree, 59 ; dis-
tribution of Funtumia elas-
tica, 60; native methods of
preparing, 60; improved
methods, 62; plantations,
63; insect pest, 63; fungoid
pest, 63; rubber machi-
nery, 63; vine rubber, 64;
fig rubber, 65; introduced
species, 65; Patm Or anp

129,

KerNELsS, 66; habits of the oil |

palm, 67; preparation of palm

169

oil, 68; kernel oil, 69; com-
mercial uses, 69; varieties of
oil palms, 70; OrxHrerR Orr,
SEEDs, 71; Timper, mahogany,
72; other timber trees, 72;
Koa, 73; Corron,74; Ameri-
can and other exotic cottons,
78; attempts at hybridisation,
78; valuation of samples at
Imperial Institute, 79; Fizres,
80; Smx, 81; Copaz, 81;
Copra, 83; Dyes and Pic-
MENTS, 83; Indigo, 83; Frenp
Crops, 84; PartIl. NorrHEeRN
TERRITORIES, tribes, 85 ; Freip
Crops, 87; cotton, 87; other
field crops, 88; fibre, 89; to-
bacco, 89; Gums, 89; Woop
Om, 89; Sura Burrer, 90;
RvuBBER, 90; Dyxs, 90; Brzs-
wax, 91; LraTHER, 91;
CATTLE AND Pouttry, 91: Ex-
PORTS, 92

Gongola, 151

Gonjas, 85

Gossypium arboreum var.
guineum, 136

Gourds, 84

Gpakas, 16

Grain, 12, 94

Grass cloth, 74

Grass fires, 90

Great or Indian millet, 151

“* Green seed ’”’ cotton, 75, 78

Groundnut, 1, 3, 4, 5, 12,14, 38, 42,
84, 85, 87, 88, 92, 95, 96, 115,
124, 125, 126, 127, 132, 133, 142,
158, 164

Groundnut, origin of, 6

Grunshis, 86

Guarea, 118

Guavas, 85, 95

“* Guinea corn,” 3, 12, 41, 73, 84,
87, 88, 95, 124, 126, 137, 142,
149, 151, 152, 1538, 154, 155,
157, 159

** Guinea fowls,”’ 91

Gums and resins, 37, 81, 87, 127,

san-

Guttapercha, 127, 129

‘** Gutta-shea,’”’ 130, 131

Gwari, 123, 124, 126, 154, 155,
158, 163

“* Gwaza,”’ 160

Hamburg, 134
Hand plough, 3

170

“ Hard ”’ oil, 97

Haussa, 13, 74, 89, 90, 94, 116,
122, 123, 124, 126, 132, 144,
154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162

Haussa Land, 122

Head load as trading standard, 54

Head loads, 73, 91

Hedges, 126

Helianthustuberosus, 160

Helopeltis, 52

Helopeltis Antonii, 52

Henna, 161

Hevea brasiliensis, 10, 28, 61, 65,
129, 130

Hibiscus, 13, 89, 116, 140, 144, 146

Hibiscus esculentus, 13, 32, 84, 161

Hibiscus guineensis, 96, 145

Hibiscus lunariifolius, 144, 145

Hibiscus quinquelobus, 32

Hibiscus sabdariffa, 89, 145, 161

Hides, 127, 164

Hippopotami, 88

Hoe, 3, 17, 87, 125

Holarrhena Wulfsburgii, 105

Honckya ficifolia, 31

Honey, 40, 91, 162

Horse beans, 42

Horse food, 152

Horses, 2, 91

Husking rice, 156

Hybridisation, cotton, 78, 109, 111

Ibadan, 97, 110, 112, 113, 115,
117, 139

*“Tboru,”? 155

Ibos, 94

Ida, 105

“* Tfa,””? 100

Tfon, 95, 119

Tjoas, 94

Tlaro, 116

Tlesha, 119

Tilara, 119

Tilushi, 109, 113

Torin, 110, 115, 120, 121, 123,
129, 130, 131, 135, 137, 139,
140, 141, 144, 145, 146, 148,
157, 159, 161, 162

Immunity from fly disease, 119

Imperial Institute, 12, 34, 57, 62,
70, 71, 79, 82, 89, 90, 91, 99,
102, 109, 131, 135, 136, 145,
153, 154, 155, 157, 160, 162

Implements, agricultural, 18, 125

Incense, 147, 148

Indigenous cotton, 109

Indigo, 13, 34, 39, 83, 90, 95, 119,
144, 161

INDEX

Indigofera sp.,13,39, 83, 88, 95, 161

Ink, 13

Insect pests, 50, 87, 110, 112, 117,
139

Ipomeea Batatas, 84

** Ire,” 128

‘* Trdk-eyop,”’ 100

** Troko,”’ 118

Irrigated crops,
156, 159, 161

Irrigation, 94, 137, 142, 145, 155,
157

Irvingia Barteri, 103

Ishan, 112, 119

Ishans, 95

Itu, 107

‘* Tvioronmila,” 100

Ivory Coast, 62

Iwo, 113

126, 151, 155,

‘* Janari,”’ 151

‘** Jannovitch,”’ 110
Jars, 119

Java beans, 42

** Jawe,”’ 27

Jebba, 137, 141

Jebu, 98

Jolahs, 1, 2, 7, 8, 11
Joloffs, 1, 2, 3, 4

Juar, 151

Jute, 13,31, 80,81, 89,145, 146, 147
Jute substitute, 116, 146

Kabba, 120, 128, 135, 142, 146,
148, 161

‘* Kabe-kalako,’’ 100

‘* Kadainya,’’ 130

Kaduna River, 148, 151, 156

Kainabai, 24

<Kalal? 1728

Kamabai, 24

Kamerun, 23, 25, 70, 71, 101, 120

‘* Kamu,” 159

Kangahun, 32

Kano, 120, 121,
125, 128, 132,

122,.1233).124,

133; Waa, oisb;
137, 138, 141, 142, 144,
148, 149;.150, 153, 155, 156,
157, 159, 160, 161, 162

Kano leather, 91, 142

Karaga, 86

** Karandeffi,” 144, 152

‘* Karantalaka,”’ 152

‘* Karantudi,”’ 144

Karene, 38

** Kari,?”-17, 18

*“* Karu,” 134

** Karu wai,”’ 17, 18

| Kataguni, 121

INDEX

** Katala,’’ 17, 18

** Katala kabana,”’

Katsena, 124

* Kaura-ferin-sosia,”’ 151

* Kawa,’’ 89

Kernel, palm, 11, 19, 23, 24, 26, 45,
69, 92, 127, 132, 164

Kernel, palm, Special Committee,
69

17, 18

Kernel, shea, 130

Kernels, exports, 102, 127

Kernels, palm, export tax, 101

Khaki cotton, 34

** Kharif,”’ 142

Khaya, 118

Khaya senegalensis, 14, 72

Kicksia africana, 60

“* Kidney’ cotton, 75, 109, 110

** King palm”’ nut, 100

King’s market, Ibadan, 117

** Kinto,” 12

Knepp, 121

Kobbo, 9

“* Kodalli”’ fork-hoe, 17

Kogin-Serikin-Pawa River, 131

Koinadugu, 15, 24

** Koko”’ yams, 84, 115, 159

Kola acuminata, 29, 73, 116

Kolas, 4, 17, 19, 29, 47, 73, 92, 94,
95, 116, 148

Kola vera, 29, 116

Kombe, 85

Kommbo, 2, 11

Konnohs, 16

Kontagora, 120, 121,
135, 144, 161

Korankos, 13, 16

‘* Korwey,’ 32

Kotoo, 9, 10, 13

Krachi, 87

Krepes, 45, 75

** Krepi ball,” 62, 64, 65

Krepi country, 76, 85

Krims, 16

‘* Krobo,”’ 82, 83

Krobo Hills, 67

Krobo plantations, 69

Krobos, 45, 69

‘* Kubiewa,”’ 161

‘* Kubiwa,”’ 161

Kumassi, 43, 47, 55, 63, 64, 79

Kumassi Agricultural Exhibition,
64

Kussassis, 86

Kwahu, 47, 66, 73

Kwahus, 45

‘* Kwakwa,”’

Kwalu, 37

‘ Kwonde,”’ 34

122, 134,

100, 132

171

“* Laboji,” 148

Labolabo, 77, 78, 79, 87

“‘ Ladybird ”’ beetles, 117

Lafenwa, 113

Lagos, 12, 19, 74, 93, 97, 98, 101,
102, 106, 107, 115, 116, 148, 161

‘* Lagos fine grade’’ oil, 97

Lagos Government Railway, 135

“© Lagos silk rubber,” 10, 96

Lammin, 4

Landolphia, 90, 96, 128

Landolphia florida, 9, 104, 128, 148

Landolphia Heudelottii, 8, 28

Landolphia owariensis, 27, 28, 62,
64, 65, 90, 104, 128

Landolphia senegalensis, 104

Landolphia Thollonii, 90

Landolphia Thompsoni, 104, 128,
148

Lapita, 115

Latex, 8, 9, 10, 26, 28, 60, 61, 64,
104, 129, 148

Latex-yielding plants, 104

Lawsonia inermis, 161

‘* Leaf-blistering blight,” 112

Leather, 13, 91, 96, 116, 142, 152

Lecuminos2, 6, 82, 83, 147

Leguminous crops, 115, 151, 157

Lemu, 160

Lever Bros., 24, 25

Liberia, 15, 28, 80

Licences to collect wild rubber,
103, 105

Limbas, 16

Lime juice, 144

Limes, 85

‘* Lisombe,”’ 23,

Livestock, 127

Lobis, 86

Locust beans, 162

70, 71, 101

| Lokoja, 121, 128,130, 135, 139, 140

Lokoja Ginnery, 140, 141, 148

Lonchocarpus cyanescens, 39, 90,
95, 144, 161

Longicorn beetles, 51

Looms, 11, 34

Lophira alata, 40, 103

Lophila procera, 40

Lugard, Sir Frederick, 121, 122

Lumber, 92

Mabang, 18

M’Carthy Island, 2

** Machete,”’ 22, 50

Machinery, rubber, 64

Machines for nut cracking, 69, 98

| Macrolobium sp., 163

Madam Yoko, 28
Mafokoyia, 21, 24

172

Mahogany, 14, 72, 117, 119, 164

Maifoni, 121

“*Maiwa,”’ 154

Maize, 3, 12, 19, 42, 45, 75, 84, 85,
95, 96, 114, 115, 124, 126, 140,
151, 155

“* Makafo dewayo,”’ 151

Makump, 24

Mallams, 4

Malted grain, 154

Mampong, 47

Mamprussi, 85

Mamu, 103

‘* Mandingo butter,” 40

Mandingoes,1, 3, 7, 9,10, 11, 12, 16

Mango, African, 103

Mangroves, 1

Manihot Glaziovii, 9, 65, 129

Manihot palmata, 13

Manihot utilissima, 84, 158

Manjagos, 9

Mano, 28

**Manoh twist,’ 27

Manure, 49, 94, 126, 138, 142, 147,
153, 158, 159, 160, 161

Manuring, 125

Marseilles, 8, 14, 134

**Mazgua,” 152

Meko, 109, 111

Meraces, 72, 118

Meliola, 63

“*Memeluku,” 65

Mendi, 16, 22, 25, 26, 27, 32, 34,
35, 37, 39, 40

Meteorological reports, 38, 150

Milk, 151, 163

Millet, 3, 12, 42, 87, 88, 124, 126,
137, 142, 149, 154, 157

Milling trials, 156

Mimosa group, 122

Mimusops sp., 72

Minna, 155

Monkey nut. See Groundnut

Monodora myristica, 89

Mordant, 96

Morocco leather, 143

Moshis, 86

Mossi, 86

Moyamba, 28, 33, 37

Munchi, 137

Muri, 120, 144, 146

Musa sapientum, 84

** Mussara,”’ 155

Muzzling cattle, 153

“ Napunti,” 31
Naraguta, 121
Nassarawa, 120, 135, 139
Native beer, 119

INDEX

Native cloths, 87

Native cotton, 90

Native leather, 111

Native levies, 86

Navigation of Volta River, 87

** Neou,’’ 89

“*Neul,’’ 100

‘* Niama,”’ 62

Nicotiana tobacum, 13, 161

Niger, 94, 104, 105, 111, 113, 120,
122, 184,) 135, 136, 1372438;
144, 145, 146, 147, 151, 153,
155, 156; 159

Nigeria, 22, 25, 27, 81, 105

NIGERIA—NORTHERN PRO-

VINCES, introductory re-
marks, 120; administration
and political divisions, 121;

natural divisions, 122; im-
plements, 125; RuBser, 127;
sources, 128; plantations,
129; SHEA Nuts, 130; Paum
OILAND KERNELS, 132;
GROUNDNUTS, 132 ; Gums, 134;
Corton, 135; Exotic cottons,
136; valuation of cottons, 136;
improvement of plant, 138;
Capsicums, 141; BENNISEED,
142; Kano LeatHer, 142;
Freres, 144; Woop On, 147;
Kona, 148; CotrronsgED, 148;
Foop Crops, 148; GUINEA
Corn, 151; BungusH MILuet,
154; Maize, 155; WueEat, 155;
Ricr, 156; Sugar Cane, 157;
Lrecuminous Puants, 157;
Soya Beans, 158; Cassava,
158; Yams, 159; Swexrt Po-
TATOES, 159; artichokes and
small root crops, 160; onions,
160; minor crops, 161; OTHER
FIELD Crops, dye plants, 161 ;

Tospacco, 161; MiIscELLANE-
ous: beeswax, 162; locust
bean, 162; date palms, 162;

CaTTLe, 162; Sixx, 163
NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PRO-
VINCES,-. introductory _ re-
marks, administrative divi-
sions, 93; geographical posi-
tion, 93; area and popula-
tion, 93; natural divisions, 93 ;
inhabitants, 94; cultivation,
94; principal crops, 95; Ori
Pam, 96; other oil seeds, 102;

RusBBER, 103; export, 105;
Copat, 106; Cocoa, 106;
Corton, 108; Martz, 114;
Cassava, 114; Yams, 115;

INDEX

Grovunpnov's, 115; Sara Nuts,
115; Kona, 116; Frsre, 116;
LEATHER, 116; Toxsacco, 117;
Sizrx, 117; Coconcts, 117;
ManoGany AND Exony, 117;
Carrie, 118; Porrrery, 119;
Forest RESERVES, 119

“* Niggers,”’ 60

Nimrod, 123

Nijala, 41, 42

North Bornu, 121 -

Northern Nigeria, 1, 13, 65, 82, 90,
91, 99, 100, 105, 110, 116

Northern Sherbro, 39

Northern Territories (Gold
Coast), 85

Nupe, 120, 122, 131, 132, 135, 139,
141, 144, 146, 148, 155, 156,
159, 160, 161

Nupes, 94, 123, 126, 128, 133, 140,
158

Nut-cracking machinery, 69, 98
Nuts, 98, 99

** Oapottoa,’’ 129

‘* Obi abatta,’’ 116

“* Obi gbanja,” 116

Obuassi, 79

“Odum,” 62, 72

Odumase, 46

Odumassi, 67

Gcophylla sp., 51

Ofin River, 43, 66

“** Ofo,”’ 62

** Ofruntum,”’ 59

‘** Ogbagba,”’ 128

‘**Ogea gum,” 96, 106

** Ogea’’ resin, 82

** Ogedudin,”’ 100

““Ogudu’’ cotton, 110

Ogudu Ginnery, 135, 139, 140

Oil, 90, 99

Oil, crab-nut, 71

Oil, edible, 102

Oil, groundnut, 5, 85, 133, 142

Oil, kernel, 69

Oil mill, 113

Oil, olive, 5, 134, 142

Oil, palm, 11, 19, 22, 24, 26, 45, 66,
68, 80, 85, 92, 94, 96, 119, 132,
140, 143, 164

Oil, palm exports, 102

Oil seeds, 40, 102

Oil, sesamum, 142

Oil, soya bean, 158

“* Ojuku,”’ 100

“* Okporukpu,”’ 100

‘* Okra,’ 13, 32, 84, 89, 95, 161

‘* Okre,”’ 62

173
““ Okumankra,”’ 72

Old Calabar, 105, 107

Oleo margarine, 6

Oleo resinous exudation, 147
Olokemeji, 93, 110, 116

Ondo, 119

Onions, 126, 159, 160
Onitsha, 97, 119

““ Opapeh,”’ 72

““ Ope arunfo,”’ 100

“* Ope Ifa,”’ 71, 100

““ Ope pankora,”’ 100

“* Ope yope,”’ 100

Opobo, 93, 102

Oranges, 39, 85, 95

Oryza sativa, 12, 88

“* Osese,”’ 62

Oshogbo, 97, 98

Ostrich feathers, 127

‘* Otakataka,”’ 62

Ouassoulou, 86

Owo, 119

““Owya,” 125

Oxycarenus, 139

Oxycarenus Dudgeoni, 76, 112
Oxycarenus gossipinus, 76, 112
Oxycarenus hyalinipennis, 76, 112
Oyo, 113, 115

Paddy, 156

Paganism, 86

Pagans, 94, 124, 155, 159

sPapnsedu

Patuz, 67, 80

Palm fruit pulp, 85

Palm wine, 11, 67, 85

Pamphlets in Twi, 58

Panguma, 26

Paper manufacture, 146

PAPILIONACE®, 6

‘* Para’’ rubber, 10, 28, 47, 50, 61,
63, 65, 66, 103, 105, 129

Parkia filicoidea, 92, 162

** Paruru,”’ 158

‘“* Paste’’ rubber, 9, 104, 128, 148

Pawpaws, 85, 95

Pendembu, 34

Pennisetum typhoideum, 12, 150,
152, 154

Pentaclethra macrophylla, 40, 103

Pentadesma butyracea, 40

Pentagona, 57

Pepper, 29, 84, 95, 126, 141

Petroleum, 140

Petroleum-soap emulsion, 51

Phaseolus lunatus, 42

Phaseolus mungo, 42

Phenix dactylifera, 162

Piassava, 13, 33, 80, 116

174

** Pidgin English,” 16

Pigeon peas, 42, 88, 158
Pigments, 83

Pillows, 143

Pineapples, 39, 85, 95

Plaits (tobacco), 161
Plantains, 84, 85

Plantations (rubber), 129
Plectranthus sp., 89, 160
Ploughs, 3, 17, 124, 138, 150, 153
Poisonous guinea corn, 153
Polishing cocoa, 54

Porridge, 12, 153, 155

Port Lokko, 35, 40

Port Lokkos, 16

Portuguese Guinea, 6, 9
Potato, 160

Pottery, 119

Poultry, 91

Pra River, 43, 72

Pruning cocoa, 50
Pseudocedrela, 118
Pseudrocedrela Kotschyi, 72, 89
Pterocarpus erinaceus, 14, 161
Pterocarpus sp., 96, 161
Pterocarpus tinctorius, 96
Pumpkins, 95, 161

Prratp2, 63

* Quaqua.” See ‘‘ Kwakwa”

Rabba, 137

** Rabi,’”’ 142

Railways, 115, 121, 150

Rainfall, 2, 39, 48, 93, 120, 126,
141, 149, 150, 154, 155

““Rama’’ fibre, 126, 144, 145, 147

**Ramie’’ fibre, 33

““Ramo’’ fibre, 144, 145

Rano, 123

Raphia vinifera, 13, 33, 80, 116

Raw cotton, 12, 88

Red dye, 144, 152, 161

Red earth, use of, 54

“Red Kano” rubber, 128

“*Red nigger rubber,” 27, 128

Red onions, 160

Red rice, 88

Red wood, 118

** Reke,”’ 157

Renovation of rubber forest, 63

Resin, 81, 89, 147

Retting fibre, 81, 146

** Rhizome rubber,’ 90, 104

Rice, 3, 12, 19, 35, 42, 88, 95, 124,
125, 126, 151, 156, 157

“Richmond” cotton, 79, 110

Ridge cultivation, 125

“* Rizga,’’ 160

Rogo, 126

INDEX

** Rogo,”” 159

“Root rubber,” 27, 65, 90, 104,
128

Roots, 94

Ropes, 13, 96, 144, 145, 161

Rosewood, 14

Rotation of crops, 3, 18, 41, 75,
133, 159

Rubber, 17, 45, 47, 59, 80, 90, 92,
94, 95, 96, 103, 127, 140, 148, 164

Rubber Commission, 63

Rubber export, 66, 92, 105, 127

Rubber, vine, 8, 27, 64, 103, 128

Rufisque, 6

Run palm, 162

Saccharum officinale, 157

Saddlery, 143

Sahara, 143

Sahlbergella singularis, 51

Sahlbergella theobroma, 51

Salaga, 88, 91

Saloum, 6

Salt, 88

Samodu Almami, 86

Samory, 86

“* Sangumi,”’ 125

‘* Sankonuabe,”’ 51

‘* Sannio,”’ 12

San Thomé, 38, 46, 57

‘** Sanyan,”’ 81, 117

Sapari Hills, 86

Sapele, 105

Savelugu, 86

‘* Seale insect,’ 117

‘*Serap rubber,” 8, 64, 65, 104,
128, 129

‘* Sea Island”’ cotton, 34, 76, 78,
110

Seasons, 149

‘* Seed bugs,” 76

Seed cake, 113, 142

Seed cotton, 87, 135, 138

Seedless palm fruit, 71

Seed selection, 138

Segbwema, 28

Sekondi, 47, 55, 63, 66, 72, 80

Senegal, 2, 6, 8, 122, 133, 134

Serabu, 28

Sesamum indicum, 142

Shade crop, 159

‘* Shaduf,”’ 124, 126, 155, 161

Shallot, 160

Shari, 137, 140

‘‘ Shea butter,’’ 73, 88, 90, 115,
127, 130, 143

Shea-butter tree, 128

“* Shea gutta,” 129

Shea nut, 102, 115, 130

INDEX 175

Shea-nut products, 127, 164

Sheep skins, 116, 142

Sherbro Island, 15, 16, 22

Sherbros, 16

“* Shinkafa,’”’ 156

Sierra Leone, 12, 70, 74, 80, 88, 91,
96, 99, 100, 109, 157

SIERRA LEONE, introductory
remarks, geographical position,
15; area and population, 15;
administrative divisions, 15;
natural features, 15; natives,
16; land tenure, 16; labour,
17; cultivation, 17; agricul-
tural schools, 18; principal
crops, 19; forest products, 19 ;
Ort Pam, localities and the in-
fluence of position, 19; small
export of oil compared to ker-
nels, 23; proposal to introduce
new varieties, 23; improve-
ments in local manufacture,
24; export figures, 26; Rus-
BER, native method of pre-
paration, 26; vine rubber,
27; quality of indigenous rub-
bers and the export, 27; plan-
tations, 28; Kota Nuts, 29;
Rep Pepper, 29; GINGER, 30;
export trade, 31; Fisres, jute
class, 31; Ramie, 33; Pias-
sava, 33; Corron, 33; indi-
genous varieties, 34; native
weaving, 34; exotie cottons,
34; Rick, 35; exports, 36;
Camwoop, 37; Copat, 37;
Grounpnvuts, 38; Cocoa, 38;
importance of correct climatic
conditions, 38; COFFEE, 39;
Inviao, 39; Fruit, 39; BEEs-
wax, 40; OrmsEEDs, 40; pro-
gress in agriculture, 41; fores-
try, 42

Silk, 81, 117, 163

Silk cotton tree, 51

“Silk rubber.” See Lagos silk
rubber

Silkworms, wild, 117

Silver, 55

** Sindru,”’ 62

Skins, 73, 127, 143, 144, 164

Skin staining, 96, 161

Small-bolled cotton, 136

Smut-blights, 153

Smut fungus, 12

Snuff, 13, 89, 161

Soap, 40, 70, 71, 98, 103, 115

Soap emulsion, 51

Sokoto, 120, 121, 135, 152, 156

Solanum melongena, 161

Solanum sp., 161

Songhay, 86, 123, 124

Sonni Ali, 86

Sonninkis, 1

Sorghum quineensis var. robustum,
88, 144

Sorghum saccharum, 152

Sorghum sp., 144

Sorghum vulgare, 12, 84, 151

Sorrel hibiscus, 89, 161

Southern Nigeria, 10, 23, 39, 71,
101, 120, 123, 127, 132, 135, 140,
157

Soya beans, 42, 158

Spices, 95

Spinning, 145

Squatter’s licence, 16

‘* Stainers,”’ cotton, 76, 112

Staining leather, 88

Steirostoma depressa, 51

Steirostoma histrionica, 51

Sterculia barteri, 96

Srercoriace&, 45, 73

Stilbum nanum, 52

Strunk, Dr., 23

Sudan, 73, 74, 134

Sudan boll-worm, 139

Sudan gum, 89

Sugar cane, 95, 125, 126, 157

Sumatra, 102

Susus, 16

Sun-cured tobacco, 117

Swamp crops, 126, 156

Sweet potatoes, 19, 84, 95, 126, 159

Sword beans, 42

Sword seabbards, 143

** Tabel-tiloli,”? 100

** Takanda,’’ 152

** Talh,”’ 89

Tamale, 88, 91
Tamarind, 163

Tanned skins, 142
Tannin-yielding plants, 62
Tapioca, 115

Tapping implements, 61
Tapping rubber, 66
“Targets,” 161
Tarkwa, 63, 66

Tchad Lake, 124
Terminalia superba, 118
Temperature, 2, 121

‘** Tengo,” 100

‘* Tete Quasshi,”’ 47
Theobroma cacao, 46
Thomas Agricultural College, 18
‘** Thread blight,’’ 52
Threshing wheat, 156

176

Dil? 42

Tittaces, 80

Tillage, hand, 124

Timani, 16, 22, 25, 31, 35

Timber, 45, 72, 90, 118, 164

Tinainahun, 28

“Tio jarankoro,”’ 7

Tobacco, 13, 95, 117, 126, 161

Togoland, 10, 43, 66, 77

Tolyposporium sp., 153

Tomato, 161

““'Tomba,”’ 155

Torches, 82, 148

Training yams, 159

Transplanting onions, 160

Transport, 99, 133, 143, 150

Transport (cocoa), 56

Transport (cotton), 80, 87, 138

Traps, 139

Trinidad, 45, 48, 51

Triplochiton johnsoni, 119

Triticum compositum, 155

Triumfetta cordifolia, 80

Triumfetta semitriloba, 80

**Tsamia,”’? 163

““Tsamian bauri,’”’ 163

‘*Tsamian doka,”’ 163

**Tsamian fakali,’’ 163

“Tsamian tsamia,”’ 163

*“Tsetse”’ fly, 2, 56, 91, 118, 122,
162

Tufel, 44

“Tug bore,”’ 100

“Tumuku, 89, 160

Turmeric, 144

Twi language, 58

“© Udin,’”’ 100

Ugboha, 112

** Upland cotton,”’ 111, 136, 138
Ustilago sp., 12

Usiilago Reiliana, 153

Uwet, 116

Varnish, 31, 82

Vegetable butter, 115, 130
Vegetable fat, 90, 131

‘* Vegetable whalebone,”’ 80
Veis, 16

Vigna catjang, 42, 133
Voandzeia subterranea, 158
Volta, 43, 55, 74, 79, 80, 82
‘Volta’? cotton, 75, 78

Volta River district, 47,54 °

Wa, 85, 86, 90
Walas, 85
*“Wanki,” 157, 158
Waterloo, 28

INDEX

Water yam, 88

Wax, 91, 162

Weaving, 34, 74

Weevilly maize, 114

Wells, 151, 155

Western Sudan, 123

West Indies, 16, 46, 49, 50, 51, 53,
54, 115

Wet season, 126, 149

Wet zone, 93, 94

Whalebone, 33, 80

Wheat, 124, 126, 155

White ball, 64, 65

‘White Egyptian onion,” 160

White fungus, 7

White haricot, 157

White maize, 114

White rice, 157

Wild eotton, 75

Wild kola, 73

Wild sesamum, 142

Wine, 80

Wine palm, 33

Winged yam, 88

Wire-haired sheep, 91

Wood ashes, 89, 96

‘Wood oil,’’ 89, 128, 147

W 00d oil, mode of collection of 147

‘*'W ound-response,”’ 61

Wounds, pruning, 50

““Yakwa,” 161

“Valo; 61

Yalunkas, 16

Yams, 19, 42, 45, 75, 84, 85, 87, 88,
95, 96, 115, 126, 159

Yarn, 117, 163

Yauris, 123

Yeji, 88, 90

Yellow dye, 144

Yellow maize, 155

Yendi, 86

“© Yi-ku-niche,”’ 100, 132

Yola, 120; U2, ley

Yonnibannah, 24

Yoruba, 25, 94, 108, 111, 114, 116,
123, 126, 133, 140, 1415 daa
145, 155, 158, 159

Zanfara, 124

Zaria, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124,
125, 131, 133, 135, 137, 140, 141,
142, 144, 148, 149, 150, 153,
154, 155, 156, 158, 159, 160, 162

Zaria Ginnery, 140

Zea mays, 84, 155

Zebu, 119, 163

Zingiber officinale, 30

Zungeru, 121, 130, 132, 137

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CEARA RUBBER TREE (Manzhot Glazioviz, Mill. Arg.)—
THE AFRICAN RUBBER TREE (/untumia elastica, Stapf)
— THE AFRICAN RUBBER VINES— THE CENTRAL
AMERICAN RUBBER TREE (Casti//oa elastica, Cerv.)—THE
ASSAM RUBBER TREE (f%cus elastica, Roxb.) AND OTHER
SPECIES OF FICUS.

‘“‘ There is probably no person better qualified to
write a handbook on rubber . . . a carefully com-
piled and extremely valuable text-book.’— West
India Committee Crrcular.

‘To planters, manufacturers, merchants and
students alike, the book should be invaluable as a
guide to the scientific exploitation of rubber,”—
African World.

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE SERIES OF HAND-
BOOKS TO THE COMMERCIAL RESOURCES
OF THE TROPICS

COCOA : Its Cultivation

and Preparation
By W. H. JOHNSON, F.L.S.

DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE. IN SOUTHERN NIGERIA, AND FORMERLY
DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE IN THE GOLD COAST AND IN THE TERRITORIES
OF THE MOZAMBIQUE COMPANY, PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA

With Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 6s. net

CONTENTS: HIsTORICAL— BOTANICAL — CLIMATIC REQUIRE-
MENTS OF COCOA TREES— SOIL REQUIREMENTS OF THE COCOA
TREE—LAYING OUT A COCOA PLANTATION—SHADING AND INTER-
CROPS FOR COCOA—PROPAGATION—PLANTING, CULTIVATING, AND
PRUNING—MANURING—RESULTS OF MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS IN
VARIOUS COUNTRIES — DISEASES — VEGETABLE PARASITES AND
EPIPHYTES—-HARVESTING AND TRANSPORTING COCOA BEANS TO
FERMENTING HOUSES—THE SCIENCE OF COCOA FERMENTATION—
METHODS OF FERMENTING IN VOGUE IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES—
WASHING AND DRYING CoCcOA—YIELDS AND EXPENDITURE—COM-
MERCIAL COCOA, ITS MANUFACTURE AND USES,

“Those owning established plantations, or who are thinking of
taking up cocoa-planting as an industry, will certainly need to add
Mr. Johnson’s work to their book-shelves, and when they do so they
will find the information given to be compact, easy to understand and
follow, sound in practice, and reliable in detail. We are glad to see
such a book from so experienced an authority.”— 7ropical Life.

“It may be recommended to the notice of those interested in the
cocoa industry, as it contains a mass of information relative to plant-
ing and cultivation. Many valuable hints may be gleaned from its
pages, which cover the subject in a thoroughly comprehensive and
capable manner.”—/inancial Times.

“Mr. Johnson may be congratulated on compiling a most inter-
esting and valuable handbook of one of our chief colonial industries.”
—WNorthern Whig.

“The work, which is illustrated with numerous plates and statistical
tables, is most exhaustive in nature, and contains all the information
on cocoa and its production that a prospective planter in any part of
the world could possibly require.” — Western Daily Press.

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