CEZSa ; miSSlON OF CONSERVATION

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COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION.

CANADA

AgricMltural IVork

in Ontario

By

C. C, James ,

Deputy Minister of Agriculture for Ontario

Unsanitary Housing

By

Dr. Ckas. A. Hodgetts

Medical Adviser to the Committee on Public Health
of the Commission of Conservation

These addresses were delivered at the Second Annual Meeting of the Commission

of Conservation held at Quebec, January lyth, igu, and

are reprinted from the Second Annual

Report of the Commission

Agricultural Work in Ontario

By C. C. James
Deputy Minister of Agriculture for Ontario

AGRICULTURAL organization in Ontario began after the
calling of the first legislature in 1792. Lieutenant-Governor
Simcoe in his planning for the development of the province
assisted in the organization, and probably was the prime mover.
Down to 1846, societies here and there throughout the province
gave stimulus to the growing of grain, the importation of stock
and improvements in agricultural methods. In 1846, a pro-
vincial association was formed, through which, in time, associations
for the improvement of the various pure breeds of stock came into
existence. Encouragement and direction were givefi by the govern-
ment, and on the confederation of the provinces in 1867 increased
interest was manifested. The first important step forward was
made in 1874 when the Agricultural College at Guelph was founded.
The Royal Commission on Agriculture in 1881 traversed the pro-
vince from end to end, investigating conditions and arousing in-
terest, and the publication of their report in five volumes contained
a mass of information and made suggestions that have produced an
effect lasting to the present day. Following immediately after, and
as a direct outcome of the Commission, there was organized the
Ontario Bureau of Industries, whose first business it was to collect
and publish reports on crops, live stock, and general agricultural con-
ditions. When, in 1888, a department was formed separate from
the other executive branches of the government, this Bureau be-
came the nucleus of the department, and to the latter was added
gradually the work carried on by the various provincial associa-
tions.

Branches ^^ ^^^ work along various lines developed and new

of the fields were opened up, it had to be systematized and

Department ^j^^ department is now organized into nine branches,
each in charge of a responsible directing official. These branches
are as follows :

1. Ontario Agricultural College;

2. Ontario Veterinary College;

3. Agricultural and Horticultural Societies;

4. Live Stock Branch;

5. Farmers' and Women's Institutes Branch;

25234

4 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

6. Dairy Branch;

7. Fruit Branch;

8. Colonization Branch;

9. Statistics and Publications Branch.

In addition to the above, there is work of various kinds which
is still in the formative and growing condition, but in time it will, no
doubt, be organized into separate branches with an official in charge
of each. Farm forestry and district or departmental representative
work may be particularly mentioned. As showing the expansion of
the work, it may here be mentioned that in 1890 the total expendi-
ture under agriculture and immigration was $177,014.00, and in
1910 it had increased to $748,349.00. These do not include ex-
penditures on capital account. Deducting revenue, the net ex-
penditures were $156,136 in 1890 and $634,892 in 1910.

The work of a provincial Department of Agricul-
Education ture is educational. The foregoing list of branches
shows a great variety in the energies and expendi-
tures. An acquaintance with the geological and geographical
conditions of Ontario and a knowledge of the composite nature of
the people of the province will show how varied are the agricultural
lines of work and why it has been found necessary to develop a
department with many branches. There are lines of work not
suggested by the division above given but which are included.
Thus under the Horticultural Branch, city and town improvement
societies and vegetable growing are taken care of, and apiculture and
entomology are a part of the Fruit Branch. Poultry work comes in
under Live Stock. We have in Ontario soils and climates in great
variety, and we also have a farming community of a complex nature.
The original settlers were of varied origin. England, Scotland, and
Ireland contributed extensively. French-Canadian settlements are
to be found in the east, southwest and in the newer districts of the
north. German settlers are to be found in large numbers in a half
dozen counties of the middle west. Further, it is to be noted that
Ontario, through favourable natural conditions, has become a great
manufacturing province. Agriculture, as a consequence, is an in-
teresting problem.

A stationary '^^^ rural population of Ontario, in 1909, stood
Rural exactly at the same figure that it did in 1872, viz.,

Population 1,050,000. In the latter year, however, the total
town and city population was just about what Toronto holds to-day,
375,000. The urban population is now over one and a quarter
million. During these years, in addition to this urban increase of
nearly 900,000 people, we have had the trek to the great West, now

AGRICULTURAL WORK IN ONTARIO 5

eatering on its twenty-fifth year. Taking both of these movements
ir.to consideration, the wonder is that the agricultural population
h£,s stood the strain as well as it has. Looking over such statistics
as are available and studying a number of districts personally as I
have been able to do during the past few years, I have come to the
coiiclusion that agriculture in Ontario has entered upon an upward
movement that is already making itself felt. Rural population
showed a steady increase from Confederation in 1867 to 1886, when
the Canadian Pacific Railway was opened. From that year the
decrease was just as marked down to 1906. Now we are on the up-
grade again, though the increase as yet is not very great. In addi-
tion, there is a decided increase in the total farm values of the prov-
ince ind the total values of farm products also are showing most
encouraging increases year by year.

The Sdution: Intensive agriculture and the production of high
Intensive grade food are what we are aiming at. Those who

Faming have studied the problem are aware that it is not an

easy task. Again and again we are advised of what the well-farmed
countries of Europe are doing — and it is well to keep this example
befcre our people — but, of course, the conditions are quite different.
Ther?, land is dear and labour is cheap; here, land is cheap and
labour is dear. It becomes, therefore, an interesting and com-
plicated problem to work out, with cheap land and dear labour, plans
and methods of work that will result in procuring adequate reward
for labour and at the same time conserve our soil resources. As
far as Oitario is concerned at the present time and with our present
style of hrming, it is not so much a question of conserving our soil
as consernng our labour. What we are aiming at is to make the
labour nov being expended more effective. We have some millions
of acres tlat need draining. If drained, they could be worked
more easily and they would produce more abundantly, — hence,
a campaign for underdrainage is being carried on. We have
in Ontario th« finest apple growing section of large area on the North
American contnent. We have a few thousand trees well cared for,
productive of food fruit, but we have (I think I am not putting it
extravagantly) millions of trees neglected, uncared for, whose pro-
duction is uncertain and more or less unprofitable. We have been
demonstrating h the past few years that in the neglected apple
orchards we ha\e one of our greatest assets, — hence, our orchard
demonstration canpaign. We have over one million milch cows
on the farms procucing on the average not over 4,000 pounds of
milk a year. If 2)0,000 of the unprofitable animals were exter-
minated, there woild be a saving of labour, a saving of food, and

6 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

a decided increase in profits, — hence, our dairy campaign. And
so we might go on along other lines. The more intelligent use'cf
labour is the key to success in Ontario agriculture. ,

How the Now let us see how the Ontario Department of

Department Agriculture is trying to assist in this movement. The
Does its Work Qntario Agricultural College was started in 1874.
For many years it led a precarious existence. It had few students
and few friends. It did not get a grip upon the agricultural com-
munity. To-day and for some years past, it has been full to orer-
flowing. I have seen it with 134 students. For some years, over
1,000 have taken courses of one kind or another. How was this
brought about? First, the members of the teaching staff went out
from the College to address farmers' meetings and to become person-
ally acquainted with the farmers and their work. Second, the ex-
perimental work of the College was extended to several thoiisand
farms through the work of the Experimental Union. Third, farmers
have been brought to the College, 40,000 every year, to see for them-
selves what is being done. In short, the College in isolation was of
little use ; when, however, College and farm were brought into direct
contact, sympathy, support and co-operation followed.

Let me give you another example. Ontario has become a great
dairy province, noted for its production of cheese. Ten or tvelve
years ago its cheese could be classed as good, bad and indifffTent.
There were dairy schools, there were dairy associations, there were
dairy reports and bulletins. These were necessary and effecave as
far as they went, but the trouble was they did not go far mough,
they did not reach the unprogressive, indifferent cheese maker and
milk producer. For some years we have had over thirty trained ex-
pert cheese and butter makers going from factory to factory, de-
monstrating on the spot, giving that help which can be eff(€tive only
when it is personal and applied at the critical time. Vhat is the
result? Those who are in the trade tell us that Ontario cheese and
Ontario creamery butter never graded higher than it aid in 1910.
Moreover, we have been able to enact a law that afterilanuary 1st,
1911, no one can have charge of a factory as chief mjker unless he
holds a certificate of qualification, and every factory is registered.
All this is a direct result of taking the best dairy methods right into
the factories and gradually we are bringing our i|(structors right
into the dairy barns of the milk producers.

It is a natural sequence from thi/ experience that

toTpamer ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^° S^^ ^^^ ^^ ^ majority /f our farmers to

drain their land, to sow the best see/, to care for their

orchards, to test their cows, to raise only prcfitable stock, and,

AGRICULTURAL WORK IN ONTARIO 7

in brief, to get the best results for the expenditure of labour, we
must get into close personal touch with them and give sympathetic
direction to their work. And so, in 1907, we were enabled to try
out the experiment of personal instruction on a comprehensive
scale. A Department of Agriculture located at the capital of the
province is necessary for direction. An Agricultural College at
some place convenient of access is all right; it must be located
somewhere and we must have such an institution for training the
men who are to do the teaching and directing. Experimental farms
are needed for trying out certain lines of work and for getting results
that will be of practical use. But, after many years of experi-
ence, we found that these were limited in their usefulness, they alone
would never regenerate the great mass of the farmers, — they would
help those who wanted to be helped, who were seeking help and who
would get help because they appreciated the value of such assistance,
but the great majority of the farmers would be moved by none of
these things. The Department of Education also wished to inau-
gurate some plan of agricultural instruction in rural shools. Through
the united efforts of the two departments, we finally decided on the
plan of locating graduates of the Agricultural College in various
counties as teachers of agriculture and leaders in agricultural im-
provement. In other words, we established branch offices of our
department and moved the Agricultural College nearer to the farm-
er's home. We made it possible for our representative to go into the
farmer's field, his orchard, his dairy, and, what gave him greatest
confidence, right into his home. Further, he was a resident, not a
transient, and as soon as the formalities of becoming acquainted
were over, he won the farmer's confidence by his sincerity and his
ability to help.

In 1907, the government started work in six counties; in 1910,
fifteen counties were provided with offices, teachers and assistants.
So great has been the success and so much appreciated the work that
the question now is how to meet the demands from other counties.
The men for the work are carefully selected. Their salaries are
provided through the Department of Education. The office ex-
penses, salaries of assistants and incidentals are paid through the
Department of Agriculture. By statute, the county council is re-
quired to make a grant of $500 each year towards expenses. Each
of the men is attached to a high school where he carries on each
winter a short course in agriculture varying in length from one month
to three months. In time, we hope to have permanent classes estab-
lished. Up to the present, the great work has been that which
has been planned at, and directed from, the central office; short
courses in live stock and seed judging, drainage demonstrations,

B COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

seed fairs, public school competitions in growing small crops,
demonstrations through reviving old orchards, fertilizer experiments
and the carrying on of improved methods by the farmers themselves
on their own farms. Let me again emphasize this last point, — the
great hope of improvement in the average farmer lies, not through
sending him a report or pamphlet, not through talking at him in an
institute meeting, not through doing something for him on an
experimental farm, but through helping him to do some work on his
own farm wherein he gets improved financial results through his
own efforts. This is the secret of success in the work.

The general aim of this work is to bring the best agricultural
methods close to the farmer, to get his sympathy, to arouse his in-
terest, to stimulate him to better methods. When a man is selected
for a county he is told to study his people, their condition and their
needs, and to arrange his work accordingly. He is given a fairly free
hand, though, of course, he is in close touch with the Department
and all its branches. The first result noticed is the increased in-
terest manifested by the farmers. Probably for the first time they
realize that the complicated government organization has been
created for a specific purpose and that purpose is to assist the farmer
to a better and more prosperous living. Once that feeling is abroad,
the application comes easy. And now the whole agricultural
organization comes into use. This "man on the spot" brings into
his county all those resources of the government departmental
organization about which the farmer had some hazy knowledge
but whose usefulness he had questioned, and "professors" and "ex-
perts" become real men like themselves whose object is not to pose
as men of exclusive distinction and drawers of salaries, but men
able and willing to give real help. With the farmer, the age of talk
has gone by, the day of demonstration is here. We have a thorough
organization of the agricultural forces along many lines. Now we
are bringing all this to bear upon the farmer's work and the results
are coming through the means of direct demonstration. During
1910, we had over one hundred men engaged in various ways,
planning drainage systems, teaching how to make cheese and butter,
pruning and spraying trees, selecting seeds and supervising growing
crops of all kinds, organizing co-operative associations and helping
in the marketing of products.

And what is the result? Farmers who were in-
different or opposed to government interference and
who criticized the expenditure have become enthusiastic, the
attendance at practical demonstrations has increased in an astonish-
ing degree, and there is an awakening along agricultural lines such

AGRICULTURAL WORK IN ONTARIO 9

as we have never known before. There is something in the agri-
cultural air that indicates progress. Intensive agriculture and
specializing in production are noticeable, and, where this movement
is permanently fixed, there is a decided increase in farm values. The
two contributing elements are, first, demonstration of better
methods; and, second, the permanent location of qualified men to
inaugurate and direct the movements. The government began this
movement in 1907. We now have fifteen counties equipped with
representatives. We aim at carrying on the work in every county
and district in the province. It costs money of course to do this
work, — $1,200 for salary and about as much more for the office,
assistant and running expenses, — but there is no expenditure of
public money that produces greater results. The fact is, that it
renders so effective all the other expenditures for agricultural pur-
poses. I venture this prediction, that when we have the province
of Ontario manned in all counties and districts and fifty represent-
atives with their assistants have got down to work, we can double
the output of the farms of Ontario in the next ten years. It is a
work worth while spending the money of the people upon, for the
whole people will receive the benefit.

COUNTY EXTENSION WORK

The statements in the preceding paper as to the value of de-
monstration work are general. With a view to giving further infor-
mation and showing the varied lines of work possible, the following
condensed reports from county representatives, of the work carried
on in four counties, are added as contributing valuable information
and suggestions.

Dundas SUMMARY OF WoRK. — 1. Making the personal ac-

County quaintance of as many citizens of my district as

possible and the revealing of myself to them that they may have
confidence in me.

2. Advisory work from office, personal and by correspondence.

3. Three months' Short Course for boys in Collegiate Institute.

4. Organizing and conducting of three day Short Courses (5
Short Courses, 1 Fruit Institute).

5. Organizing of Farmers' Clubs; supervision of these Clubs.

6. Assistance in conducting excursions to places of learning —
two to Macdonald College during 1910.

7. Preparatory work leading up to organization of Horticul-
tural Societies.

10 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

8. The interesting of Agricultural Societies and farmers in
Standing Field Crop Competitions. (Three were started in 1910).

9. Distribution to good farmers of seed grain from prize win-
ning fields in Field Crop Competition in 1909.

10. Demonstrations (three) in spraying of mustard.

11. Making of drainage surveys for farmers. Drainage demon-
strations.

12. Demonstration of value of underdrainage by draining of
low-lying portion of school grounds, 6 acres.

Results. — 1. Land ready for seeding and was sown 3 to 4 weeks
earlier than other low-lying land of vicinity.

2. Oats and barley ripened 3 to 4 weeks earlier than other

fields of same crops. Yields large.

3. Large crops of sugar beets and mangolds, — 30 to 51 tons

per acre according to variety — on what was before a
useless swamp.

4. Large crops of potatoes, yield varying from 340 to 591

bushels per acre according to variety.

13. Conducting of demonstration plots on school grounds.
Plots 3 acres in extent.

Points demonstrated in 1910:

1. That large crops could be grown after underdraining on

what was before wet land. Whole scheme a de-
monstration of value of underdrainage.

2. Experiments in dates of seeding on (1) drained land,

(2) undrained land.

3. Experiment on rates of seeding.

4. Different methods of sowing alfalfa.

5. Growing of alfalfa on low drained land. Will require

two or more years yet to complete demonstrations.

6. Test of twelve different varieties of oats to show yield,

date of maturity, strength of straw, freedom from
rust, and to give farmers an opportunity of seeing
different varieties grown under the same conditions.

7. Test of twenty varieties of corn to give farmers an op-

portunity of seeing nature of variety, amount of fod-
der, yield of grain, date of maturity, etc.

8. Test of mangolds, carrots, turnips, — a special effort to

grow large crops of roots in order to interest dairy
farmers in growing such crops.

9. Value of uncommon crops as rape, kale, field cabbage.

Test of same. Millets, variety tests.

AGRICULTURAL WORK IN ONTARIO 11

10. Test of 20 varieties of potatoes — yield of from 340 to
351 bushels per acre obtained with late varieties.

11. Sale at market prices of 100 bushels of above potatoes
for seed purposes.

12. Experiments with insecticides and fungicides.

14. Conducting of fertilizer experiments on three different
farms.

15. Conducting of stock judging competitions for boys at fall
fairs, four in all.

16. Exhibit at County Fair, Morrisburg. Insects, plant diseases,

weeds, products of sprayed and unsprayed orchards, spray-
ing materials, apparatus, etc., produce of Demonstration
Plots, distribution of bulletins, etc.

17. In 1909, during Fair, actual drainage work going on. Tak-
ing of levels, grading, etc., demonstrated.

18. Demonstration of good orchard culture by personal (assist-
ant and myself) care of four orchards; constant supervision and
direction of care of another.

Results : —

Orchard No. 1 : Marked difference in yield and quantity of
fruit on sprayed and unsprayed part.

Area, — 1 1-3 acres; 43 trees.

Total yield, 143 bbls.

Unsprayed part, — One row of trees through centre of
orchard — total yield of those 5 trees, 7 bbls.; less
than 1 bbl. of No. 1 apples.

Net returns to owner, $400, (apples sold on trees). Cost
of spraying material, $7.90.

No record kept of cost of pruning or cultivation.

In unsprayed orchards in neighbourhood, apples scarce and
of worst quality.
Orchard No. 2: (four miles distant from No. 1).

14 trees ^ Mcintosh, 16 trees Fameuse — $350 worth of
apples harvested at market price. No check trees
kept. Cost of spraying material $5.69.

In nearby orchard from which 100 bbls. were sold in 1909,
, less than 10 bbls. were of inferior quality in 1910. In

adjoining orchard, apples worthless. (This is the case
with all unsprayed Mcintosh and Fameuse apples this
year). Fruit from this orchard taken by Dominion
Department of Agriculture to World's Fair, at Brus-
sels.
Orchard No. 3: (Two miles from orchard No. 1 and orchard
No. 2).

12 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

No records kept, but fruit on sprayed trees 15 in number,
first-class. One unsprayed tree had not an apple al-
though there was plenty of blossom and the fruit set
well all through this section in 1910.
Orchard No. 4: Fruit clean.

In the above four orchards work was done by my assistant or by
myself.

Orchard No. 5: (Located 8 miles from other nearest demon-
stration orchard.)
Pruning, care and spraying done under our direction.

Area, was 3 acres, Mcintosh.
An orchard which seldom before grew marketable fruit.
Fruit sold on trees for $350, and graded nearly all firsts
and seconds. Three check trees — fruit useless. In
unsprayed orchards of neighbourhood, fruit useless.

Lanark Lanark county exports no grain; it is not as yet a

County fruit county and its climate and soil do not lend

themselves to the production of special crops. It is primarily a
grazing county and the principal industry is thus largely under the
supervision of the Dairy Instructor. Consequently, it is not easy
to show big results in any one line through the work of this office.
With the stimulation of production, the elimination of waste and
the promotion of agricultural interests in general as our governing
policy, we have, however, endeavoured to make the most of our oppor-
tunities and steadily to increase the sphere of influence of the office.

In this report no attempt is made to touch upon the work of the
office as an information bureau. This has been pretty well covered
in a previous report and it is sufficient to say that the number and
variety of questions handled have greatly increased with each season,
as has also the area represented by those making use of the office.
Neither have I referred to the school work nor to meetings addressed
within the county and at outside points.

During the fall of 1909, we added three new Farmers' Clubs to
our list — Ramsay Township, Carleton Place and Pakenham. These
Clubs all held meetings every three or four weeks, and in addition to
the interest and enthusiasm which they awakened among the farmers
themselves, they afforded us additional opportunities for keeping in
touch with the more remote parts of the county. Our largest Club,
South Lanark, which has had three successful seasons, has been one
of our most important mediums in our work locally. While the dis-
cussion of farm topics and topics of general interest has constituted
one of its most important features, we have, in addition, made use
of it in the following ways during the past two seasons :

AGRICULTURAL WORK IN ONTARIO 13

1. To promote rural telephone service throughout the riding;

2. To carry on co-operative buying of clover and grass seed
through local seedsmen in order to secure purity and No, 1 quality;

3. To import seed corn on the ear;

4. To import tile in carload lots;

5. To establish one variety of potatoes as the representative
variety for this section;

6. To run an excursion to Macdonald College in August, 1909;

7. To inaugurate an annual ploughing match, October, 1910.
We have now two cow testing associations in the south riding,

both doing good work. Since the inauguration of the first one three
years ago, we have looked after the secretary's duties in this office.

Certainly nothing undertaken by the Department through us
has increased our sphere of influence so materially as the holding of
Short Courses, conducted by such men as President Creelman, Prof.
G. E. Day, Prof. C. A. Zavitz, Dr. Reed, T. G. Raynor, C. M. McRae
and L. H. Newman. Perth, Carleton Place, Almonte and Lanark
village have already been favoured with these, the two latter in the
spring of 1910. At the present time, we are organizing one in
Smith's Falls. Each event brings us in touch with anywhere from
300 to 800 farmers. The direct benefits have been noted in innu-
merable ways in subsequent seasons.

In June, 1910, we held four very successful Weed and Seed
Meetings at Almonte, Middleville, Macdonald's Corners and Maberly, '
addressed by Mr. Simpson Rennie.

In Lanark county, we have some 90,000 acres of swamp and
slash land, much of which is now being brought under cultivation
with the opening up of municipal and award drains. In a great
many instances, this muck land has not given satisfactory results
after the first few years. For three seasons we have been conducting
extensive fertilizer experiments on different types of muck with a
view to rendering these areas profitably productive. These experi-
ments have been conducted at different points throughout the
county and have been under our direct supervision. On the whole,
the results have been most encouraging. As all of our experiments
this year are with root crops some of which have not been harvested,
I am unable to give figures for this year's results. In one case
where oats were grown, the yield was increased from 15 bu. to 40 bu.
per acre, at a cost of about $5 per acre. At the same point, the in-
fluence carried over from the preceding year made possible an in-
crease of 15 bu. over the unfertilized. Equally good results were
obtained last year with millet, rape and mangolds at other points.

During the past season, we have concentrated on underdrain-
age work. In the county as a whole, and particularly in South

14 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

Lanark, very little underdrainage had been done previous to 1907,
and when we first took up this work, we found four obstacles barring
progress in this particular line:

1. A lack of appreciation of the benefits to be derived;

2. Lack of technical knowledge in laying out systems;

3. The absence of tile factories in any part of the county;

4. Lack of experience in digging drains to grade, laying tile,
etc., and inability to secure competent labour to do this work.

During the seasons of 1908 and 1909, we overcame the first
difficulty to a certain extent in our propaganda work by means of
addresses, newspaper articles, demonstrations, etc.

The second difficulty was met by offering our services free of ex-
pense in making surveys, laying out systems, preparing plans, etc.
During the fall of 1909, some of the systems laid out by us were
partially installed by hand labour. One of these fields made an ex-
cellent demonstration field, as it chanced to lie beside a leading road
and had previously been deemed impossible to drain satisfactorily.
This spring, when adjoining fields lay sodden with water, the drained
field was dry and in first-class condition. It was in shape for seeding
fully three weeks before neighbouring fields, but was kept for corn.
This corn crop, grown where corn had never been grown previously,
was conceded to be the best crop within a radius of several miles.
Not only was it tall and vigorous, but it was uniform over the entire
field and was well matured. Needless to say, we had a great many
requests for drainage assistance in that section this year, while the
owner of the field himself put in nearly a carload of tile this fall.

The difficulty in obtaining tile in the Perth district was over-
come through our local Farmers' Club. By buying co-operatively in
carload lots we have been able to lay down tile in Perth at a cheaper
price than they can be bought right in the yard at many tile
factories.

This year, with another wet, backward May to back us up, we
launched another drainage campaign, with the result that since the
first of June we have devoted every available day and half day to
drainage work in various parts of the county. An opportunity to
secure the services of a steam ditcher from the province of Quebec
assisted us in overcoming the fourth difficulty, and incidentally gave
underdrainage the greatest impetus it has yet received in this district.
The owner of the ditcher placed himself in our hands, took only such
work as we laid out for him, followed our grades, etc., and stayed
with us for two months, digging at the rate of at least 2,000 feet per
day and as much as 3,000 when conditions were favourable. Break-
ages, due to our stony land, prevented us accomplishing as much as

AGRICULTURAL WORK IN ONTARIO 15

we might have in the time, but so delighted were the farmers with the
work accomplished that it is probable that next year a ditcher will
be owned co-operatively here.

Corn has become one of the staple crops in this county and in
many sections over seventy-five per cent, of the farmers have silos.
Except where an occasional farmer selects Flint corn for seed, all of
the seed corn is imported. Naturally, in bad seasons such as that of
1910, a great many farmers have been badly disappointed in their
seed. This we have sought to overcome; first, by promoting buying
on the cob ; second, by testing samples for all localseedsmen ; third, by
attempting to develop a strain of Dent corn adapted to this locality.
Buying on the cob has been followed up by the South Lanark Farm-
ers' Club for the past two seasons. Comparing the seed obtained
by the members this year with that sold in bulk, the new method
was worth a great many dollars to those who took advantage of it.
In the spring of 1909 and 1910, we tested seed corn for all local
seedsmen as soon as their shipments arrived, and practically all used
our reports as their only guarantee. More than one lot which failed
to come up to standard was shipped back. In our seed selection
work, we started with a strain of corn developed for early maturity
in Wisconsin. During the past two seasons, we have grown an acre
of this corn on the "ear to the row" plan and have selected each
year for early maturity. We have succeeded in maturing first-
class seed both years and the crop has excelled everything in its
neighbourhood, not only in maturity, but also in type. The demand
for seed exceeded the supply last year and probably will this year.

Ever since this office was opened, we have been emphasizing
the value of alfalfa. This year fully one-fifth of the farmers in the
Perth district have a small patch of alfalfa, and while all have not
made a success of it, the possibility of growing it here successfully
has been amply demonstrated. In the spring of the year, alfalfa
enquiries greatly exceed all others received. Last year we for-
warded upwards of fifty applications for nitro culture and directed
the forwarding of many others. We have been experimenting with
the crop ourselves and have succeeded in growing it without a nurse
crop.

Prince Edward The experimental work last summer as well as this
County summer has consisted in conducting practical experi-

ments on various farms throughout the county. Experiments with
fertilizers on tomatoes, sweet corn and potatoes were conducted a
year ago. This work was taken up more extensively this season.
Seven experiments with sweet corn, five with potatoes and twelve with
tomatoes, were carried on in different parts of the county. Farmers

16 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

growing these crops, and particularly canning crops, are unable to
obtain sufficient manure and are required to purchase commercial
fertilizers. Up to the present time, they have been buying mostly
ready mixed and cheap fertilizers. We arranged, that these experi-
ments should be made by the most careful farmers, who are ex-
pected to report to us and also to the Farmers' Club meetings in the
winter. In most cases, they have cared for the plots and kept
accurate records. Wherever possible, the experiments were con-
ducted near the road and attracted much attention. The amount of
commercial fertilizers used will be greatly increased another year.

Tests were conducted with varieties of corn on twenty-four
different farms, in some cases sweet corn, others Flint and others
Dent. Tests were made with Common Mandeschuri and O. A. C.
No. 21 barley on fourteen different farms. The barley was distri-
buted to students who had taken the Short Course last winter, and
there are already many enquiries as to where to obtain seed of
these varieties for next season. Two varieties of peas were distri-
buted, some of the seed having been obtained from the Winter Fair
and from the prize-winning lots in the Field crop competition.

Quite a number of farmers have been conducting experiments
in connection with the Farmers' Clubs, the Club assigning a certain
experiment to each of several members. In some sections, they
have been testing fertilizers. For instance, at W^ellington, one
farmer has treated an acre of tomatoes with 100 lbs. of muriate
of potash and 300 lbs. of acid phosphate. On an acre directly
alongside and treated alike, he added 100 lbs. of sodium nitrate, on
the rest of the field no fertilizer was applied. He has kept an
accurate record of the work and found that he can profitably use
the fertilizer and will do so to a larger extent another year. Other
farmers in the same section are experimenting with fertilizers on
potatoes, strawberries, tomatoes and celery. One of our experi-
ments this season was with fertilizers for celery on muck soil.

Experimental or demonstration plots were conducted in connec-
tion with the Collegiate Institute. In addition, variety tests were
made of mangolds, tomatoes, millets and corn, also fertilizer tests
with potatoes. We had a breeding block of sweet corn, known as
Pearce's Improved Evergreen, a variety which originated in this
county and which is sought after by the canning factories. We ob-
tained some seed from Mr. Pearce and made some selectionsyfrom
the block grown this year. The main point considered in selecting
was to obtain ears with deeper kernels, thus giving a larger pro-
portion of corn. We expect to carry this work further another year
and to get the managers of the different factories interested.

AGRICULTURAL WORK IN ONTARIO 17

The fruit growers of the county have been very much interested
in spraying. The diseases and pests affecting the trees and fruit are
so many that they realize it is impossible to produce fruit of superior
quality otherwise. There are about two hundred fruit growers in
the county who sprayed during the past season. We did not con-
duct spraying demonstrations on our own account; but kept busy
visiting those who were spraying, and endeavoured to get them to
do the work as nearly right as possible.

In 1909, tests were made with four brands of lime-sulphur, viz.,
Vanco, Rex, Niagara and Grasselli brands. No difference in the
value of these materials was noticeable. We also tried using an
excess of lime in Bordeaux mixture. Although the mixture was
more difficult to apply, it seemed to be very effective in destroying
the Oyster Shell Scale.

In the spring of 1910 we tested the comparative value of arsenite
of lime and arsenate of lead when used as an insecticide along with
lime-sulphur as a summer spray. The former was most effective in
controlling the Codling Moth, but when applied in greater quantity
than recommended resulted in severe burning of the foliage. In
spite of the latter, the fruit growers here prefer to use it on account
of the cheapness of preparation.

This year the orchards which have been sprayed and cared for
have an abundance of first-class fruit. Preparations are being made
already for next year's work and much of the material is already
ordered.

Mr. Whitford Collier of East Lake has an orchard of twenty
acres, consisting of Baldwins, Cranberry Pippin, Spies, Bottle
Greening, and Ben Davis. This spring he purchased a complete
spraying outfit and four barrels of lime-sulphur mixture. He claims
that the spray was worth $400 to him this season.

There is another very good object lesson in another locality, at
Albury. Mr. Wm. Peck owns an old orchard of about 7 acres. A
year ago this orchard was very seriously affected with Leaf Blister
Mite and the fruit was ruined by Codling Moth. This year the or-
chard was sprayed thoroughly and sold for $1,500, while a year ago,
when there were more apples, it brought the owner less than $400.
The Leaf Blister Mite and the Oyster Shell Scale are possibly the
worst enemies of the fruit grower in this county. The lime-sulphur
mixture seems to control these almost entirely. The concentrated
material is very expensive, costing approximately $13 per barrel
laid down in Picton. Through the introduction of the home-boiled
lime-sulphur, the farmers are more apt to take hold of the spraying.
It is much cheaper, as it can be prepared at less than one-third the
cost of the commercial.

18 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

We visited fourteen different sections of the county last spring
and gave demonstrations in the preparation of the home-boiled
concentrated lime-sulphur. During the past season this spray gave
fully as good, and some claim better, results than the commercial
article. In one section where a demonstration was given they boiled
15 barrels and have already ordered three times the material for
next year. At Wellington, they purchased 3,500 lbs. sulphur, 1,750
lbs. lime, making 35 bbls. of concentrated solution at a cost of less
than $1.50 per bbl.

A Short Course in stock and seed judging was held in Amelias-
burgh on March 14, 15 and 16, at which it was estimated that 1,200
farmers attended. Discussions were held and demonstrations given
regarding light and heavy horses, dairy and beef cattle, swine, and
farm crops, viz., wheat, oats, barley, corn, hay, pasture and fodder
crops.

The Fruit Institute held in Picton on December 14, 15 and 16
was well attended, there being an attendance of upwards of 400 at
one of the sessions. Special emphasis was placed on fruit produc-
tion and the planting, cultivating and spraying of the orchard. De-
monstrations were given to show the best methods of packing apples
and the preparation of spray materials, particularly the lime-sulphur
wash.

All the fall fairs in the county have been attended, viz., Picton,
Roblin's Mills and Demorestville. Judging demonstrations were
conducted at Picton and Roblin's Mills Fairs for young men, as well
as weed and weed seed naming contests and apple naming contests.

Educational exhibits were shown at Picton and Roblin's Mills
in 1909 and also in 1910, The exhibit consisted of weeds and weed
seeds, insects and diseases of fruits and crops, the results of the ex-
periments conducted. I distributed literature of the Department of
Agriculture, and acted in the capacity of judge at two fairs each
season.

Judging demonstrations were held at North Port, Hillier, South
Bay, Bethel, Crofton and Milford. Horses and dairy cattle were
judged and discussed. The average attendance at each place was 45.
In most cases, evening meetings were held.

Two seed meetings were held in June, 1909, at Hillier and
Northport, attendance 45 and 50, respectively. In 1910, special seed
meetings were held at Cherry Valley, Milford and Mountain View,
with an average attendance of 55.

I have attended all the Farmers' Institute meetings. Agricultural
Society meetings. Farmers' Club meetings, and cheese meetings held
in the county. There are thirteen organized Farmers' Clubs in
the county. I attended a large number of the meetings of each Club

AGRICULTURAL WORK IN ONTARIO 19

and took part in the discussions. One of the Clubs in the county de-
veloped into a Fruit Growers' Association. It purchased all the
spraying materials and supplies for the members during the past
season, and is making preparations for packing and marketing their
crop next year. There are but sixteen members in this Association,
but I think it will grow rapidly. We spent a good deal of time with
the members during the spraying season, assisting them in the pre-
paration and application of spray materials, and testing the mixtures
and pumps. Each member of this Association speaks in the highest
terms of the results obtained from spraying. In Wellington district,
there are few fruit growers who will not be spraying another year.

I attended the annual meetings of the cheese factories at
Bloomfield, Wellington, Allisonville, Hillier, Consecon, Amelias-
burgh, Rednersville, Quinte, Massassaga and Mountain View fac-
tories, and was also present at the meeting of the Cheese Board of
Trade.

During the last school year, we conducted two classes in agricul-
ture in the Collegiate Institute. In the Long Course were six pupils,
while in the six- weeks or Short Course there were thirty registered.
The coming year we are planning to extend the Short Course to ten
weeks and we have every reason to believe the attendance will be
greater.

We endeavoured to encourage the rural schools to give attention
to school gardens. The Mountain View school had a very good
garden and the people of that section have taken a deep interest in
the work. The teacher, Mr. J, M. Root, came to us for advice, and
afterwards carried out the suggestions given. The garden con-
tained plots for each class of corn, oats, barley, goose wheat, millets,
roots, vegetables and flowers. It was maintained in first-class
shape and created much interest. Indeed, several other teachers
have expressed their intention of taking up this work another year.

Dr. Morley Currie, M.P., donated $50 for prizes for the best
essay and collection of weeds from each township in the county, the
plans and conditions of the contest being made out by us. .Five of
the seven townships of the county had entries, and the competition
succeeded in interesting a large number of young men in a study of
farm weeds. A number of teachers also became interested in the
contest. Two of the contestants and winners of this competition
told me that they had decided to attend the agricultural course at
the beginning of the year.

Underdrainage has been practised but little in this county.
Interest was created as a result of a drainage survey on a farm near
Picton, and discussion at a demonstration held on the same farm in
July, 1909. I have knowledge of 12,000 tiles being laid as a result.

20 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

This year there were more calls for drainage surveys and plans than
we could attend to. Twenty-four applications, averaging 100 acres,
have been received, and of these thirteen have been completed.
Considerably more drainage would be done, but labour cannot be
obtained. We made surveys and plans only where the farmers were
prepared to go ahead with the work. A ditching machine will likely
be purchased before spring, and from present indications there will
be many more calls another year. I cannot cite any outstanding
instance where underdrainage has been a benefit, as the work has
been so recently undertaken. Last fall we took levels for a main
drain across three farms; the drain was completed late last year, and
the farmers had this year more than double the crop they ever had
on the same land.

I have assisted in making plans for farm barns, and particularly
in laying out of stables, planning for ventilation, and the construc-
tion of silos.

Waterloo Farmers' Clubs : We have about twelve Clubs in

County operation in the county, meeting once or twice a month

during the winter, with some continuing during the whole year.
These meetings are of an educational nature and are addressed by
the members themselves with an occasional outside speaker on the
programme. The Club affords opportunities for public speaking,
for acquiring the benefit of the experience of other farmers in the
community, it acts as a social centre for the district, neighbours
become better acquainted, and in many ways proves very beneficial.
Different schemes have been initiated in various Clubs. One has
been instrumental in getting a rural telephone system among the
farmers and in starting a continuation class in the village school.
Another has revived the ploughing match and instituted an annual
neighbourhood banquet. Others have various co-operative schemes.
Each Club is working out plans for the betterment of its members.
Of course, I attend as many meetings as possible, and as they are
all held in the evening and are in different parts of the county, at
times it means considerable travelling and driving at night. In view
of this, it is impossible for me to attend all. However, each Club
Secretary sends me a full report of each meeting, together with
copies of some of the papers read and a synopsis of the discussions.
Consequently, I keep in close touch with all the clubs over the coun-
ty. I have used some of these reports and papers for full-page
accounts of the various meetings in our local weekly papers, copies
of which were sent to the members of all the Clubs. We are holding
a conference of the ofl&cers of these Clubs in the near future in order
that ideas may be exchanged, and preparation is being made for the
organization of more Clubs.

AGRICULTURAL WORK IN ONTARIO 21

Short Courses : These courses have been of two or three days'
duration and were for the purpose of a practical study of live stock
and seeds. I have been favoured with the services of the professors
of the Ontario Agricultural College for this work. These courses
have been held at Ayr, Gait and Elmira. The average attendance at
each has been between 300 and 400 farmers. We have used the best
stock obtainable and have had as teachers the highest authorities, so
that these courses are easily recognized as of immense value in ad-
vancing agricultural education at home. And just here is an excel-
lent example of the value of the Farmers' Clubs. In the necessary
preparation work for these courses, such as obtaining stock, build-
ings, advertising, etc., the organized Clubs have been the main
feature and, in a large measure, to their efforts the success obtained
has been due.

Demonstrations: Practical demonstrations in caring for
orchards have been held. Parts of orchards in various sections of
the county were sprayed and results noted by the owners. At some
of these sprayings, the men of the neighbourhood were invited to be
present and explanations were given as to the methods and reasons
for the different sprayings. At some of these orchard meetings the
subject of farm weeds was also discussed, the actual weeds of the
district from the fields being used for illustration purposes.

Experiments with Commercial Fertilizers: We have had
about thirty experiments on farms in different parts of the county in
order to determine the value of the fertilizers for certain purposes.
These experiments consisted of applying the different fertilizers in
various combinations and with various crops both on muck soils and
on typical fields of the farm. The material has been prepared for
the experimenter and directions given, so that we have had very
little difficulty in getting good results from the men who have co-
operated with us in this work. All of these experiments were
visited some time during the season.

Rural Schools: During the last two years, we have had
three of the rural schools near Gait unite in a competition in growing
farm crops and in making nature collections. This year we have
had six of the schools near Ayr doing the same work. The results
were exhibited at what we called a Rural School Fall Fair. From
an educational standpoint I believe some of the best activities of
young boys and girls on the farm have resulted from this work. As
far as possible, the pupils' plots at their homes were visited during
the summer. In driving about the county I sometimes take the
opportunity of visiting the rural schools and of addressing the pupils.
I have also helped some of the teachers in connection with their
school gardens and nature study.

22 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

Farmers' Institutes: Each year I have been on the pro-
gramme of all the Institute meetings in both the north and the south
ridings. During the winter practically one month was spent at
these meetings. We have induced many pupils each year to visit
the Agricultural College at the time of the annual Institute excursion.

Agricultural Society: This society has given me large
latitude in connection with certain features of the fall fair, and
particularly in the pupils' department. This department is now
exceptionally educative, not only for the boys and girls exhibiting
but for the public as well.

In connection with the fall fairs we have had educationl
exhibits of our own, such as would be helpful to farmers seeking in-
formation. We have also held successful stock judging competi-
tions for boys in connection with the fair. Our experimental plots
were in the fair grounds. In addition, I have had the opportunity
of delivering addresses at the seed fairs of the agricultural society.

Besides the above, much detailed work of a more general
nature has been done, such as the preparation of addresses for meet-
ings, articles for the press, assisting the different Farmers' Clubs in
their various activities, aiding the Women's Institutes, Horticul-
tural Societies, Poultry Associations, etc. The office is used as the
boardroom for these societies. I have addressed the Teachers'
County Convention, acted as judge in the Standing Field Crops
Competition, and have endeavoured to be of assistance to all
organizations connected with the rural communities. Mention
should also be made of the individual assistance given to numerous
farmers, both in the office and in my trips through the county.

Expenditure of the Ontario Department of Agriculture for the year 1910

CIVIL GOVERNMENT (Agriculture):

Salaries $ 23,187.50

Contingencies 2 , 625 . 30

Total $ 25,812.80

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND MACDONALD INSTITUTE:

College salaries $ 70,408.30

College expenses 61 , 328 . 05

Institute salaries 18,600. 10

Institute expenses 16 , 588 . 1 1

Farm department 17 , 413 . 56

Field experiments 12, 150.22

Dairy department 1 1 , 210 . 85

Dairy School 7,101 .52

Forestry department 1 ,434.29

AGRICULTURAL WORK IN ONTARIO 23

Poultry department 5,010.83

Horticultural department 9 , 532 . 40

Soil Physics department 3 , 999 . 27

Mechanics department 1 ,041 . 39

Agricultural department 749 . 96

Total $ 236,568.85

VETERINARY COLLEGE:

Salaries $ 18,424.45

Expenses 13 , 554.43

Total $ 31,978.88

AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES:

Salaries $ 5,190.00

Contingencies 1 ,931 .79

Pure seed fairs 380.70

Spring stock shows 3 , 174 . 05

Grants to agricultural societies 83 , 606 . 00

Field crop competitions 6 , 986 . 61

Expert judges 9,881 .92

Grants to horticultural societies 9 , 996 . 00

Ontario Vegetable Growers' Association 800.00

Miscellaneous 774.24

Total $ 122,721.31

LIVE STOCK BRANCH:

Salaries $ 6,262.50

Contingencies 1 ,240 . 29

Winter Fair, Guelph 9,500.00

Winter Fair, Ottawa 7,500.00

Horse shows, grants 2 , 475 . 00

Local poultry associations, grants 2,024.93

Miscellaneous 2,767.38

Total $ 31,770. 10

INSTITUTES BRANCH:

Salaries $ 4,126.67

Contingencies 4 , 166 . 39

Grants, services and expenses of lecturers 26 ,449 . 19

Total I 34,742.25

DAIRY BRANCH: (Under charge of Institutes Superintendent).

Eastern Dairy School $ 12,053. 17

Grants to Dairy Associations 4 , 500 . 00

Instruction and inspection 39,065.24

Miscellaneous 2 , 177 . 17

* Total $ 57,795.58

24 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

FRUIT BRANCH:

Salaries $ 3,140.00

Grants to associations 3 , 850 . 00

Orchard spraying 4, 170.08

Frxiit exhibitions 4 , 500 . 42

Fruit Experiment Stations 14,348.29

Orchard inspections 3 , 775 . 17

Bee Keepers' Association Grant 450 . 00

Inspection of apiaries 2 , 554 . 43

Entomological Society grant 1 , 000 . 00

Orchard surveys 2,652 .05

Contingencies ; 1 , 399 . 39

Total $ 41,839.83

FARM FORESTRY:

Purchase of waste land $ 2,805.00

Wages 3 , 877 . 15

Miscellaneous 3 , 284 . 18

Total $ 9,966.33

DISTRICT REPRESENTATIVES AND TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE:

Salaries (paid by Dept. of Education) $ 16,800.00

Services of Assistants and expenses (paid by Dept. of Agriculture) .... 20 , 792 . 19

Total .' .$ 37 ,772 . 19

STATISTICS BRANCH:

Services and expenses $ 3 , 763 . 90

MISCELLANEOUS:

Reports and bvilletins $ 14,943.94

Milk Commission 1 ,618.20

Com Growers' Association grant 500 . 00

Experimental Union, grant 2 , 750 . 00

Demonstration Farm, N. Ontario 7 , 317 . 44

Other expenditures 2 , 266 . 17

Total $ 29,395.75

COLONIZATION BRANCH:

Salaries (Toronto) $ 5,757.67

Contingencies 3,267 . 32

Work in Great Britain 29,650. 14

Pamphlets, advertising, etc 18,094.91

Grants, bonuses and advances 25,923 . 25

Miscellaneous 1 , 528 . 27

Total I 84,221.56

Grand Total, 1910 748,169.33

Revenue 113,467.09

Net Expenditure S 634,712.24

AGRICULTURAL WORK IN ONTARIO 25

Appropriations for 1911

Civil Government $ 41,850.00

Agricultural College 259,041 .00

Veterinary College 32,488.00

Agricultural Societies Branch 125,505 . 00

Live Stock Branch 44,720.00

Institutes Branch 39,583.00

Dairy Branch 62,750.00

Fruit Branch 50,020.00

Farm Forestry 10,000.00

District Representatives (Salaries additional $22,800) 27,600.00

Statistics Branch 5,500.00

Immigration Branch 100,600.00

Demonstration Branch 8,000 .00

Miscellaneous 30,250.00

Total $ 837,907.00

Expenditure on capital account 70,732 .00

Unsanitary Housing

By Chas. a. Hodgetts, M.D., L.R.C.P., London, &c.

Medical Adviser to the Public Health Committee
of the Commission of Conservation

THE housing question has been more particularly and pro-
minently brought to the attention of Canadians by Mr. Henry
Vivian, M.P., through the kindly auspices of His Excellency Earl
Grey, to whom Canadians must feel deeply grateful for this prac-
tical expression of his personal interest in all things that appertain
to the social and national welfare of our country.

The evils of improper housing and the deleterious effect of their
continuance upon the individual, both as affecting his health and his
morals, are now generally acknowledged ; but that we should be able
to say that considerable of what has been written and much that
has been said in respect to unsanitary housing conditions in Europe
can be applied to Canada, comes perhaps as a surprise to many
who have considered that in this fair land of ours, it was impossible
for such evils to grow up. It is quite true the evil does exist, and
perhaps to a greater extent than we are free to admit; not to such
an alarming extent » perhaps, as elsewhere, but none the less it is
an evil which, if we but look for, we may find, even beyond the
boundaries of our larger centres of population — for the nucleus of
many a slum has been planted even in the outskirts of civilization
and it will be found that, even there, some of the more serious effects
upon the health and morals of the dwellers are already apparent.

Existing '^^^ following brief extracts from the writings of

Conditions in three well known public officials indicate the conditions
^^ existing in at least three sections of the Dominion.

Regarding the province of Quebec, Dr. Elzear Pelletier, Secre-
tary of the Quebec Board of Health, in an excellent article on " Our
Unhealthy Dwellings," says:

"As the populations of our cities increase, the dwellings
are huddled together, without any care being given to their
orientation in order to secure sunshine and light for the apart-
ments, and without reserving enough free space to allow the
air to circulate around the dwellings. The height of the build-
ings constructed is out of proportion to the width of the

28 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

streets, which will look, in time, like mere lanes. Wings are
built precisely in the places where they will intercept the sun-
rays most directly. Some so-called improved dwellings are
constructed in which the half of the rooms are lighted from
closed yards, which consequently contain only stagnant air.
Moreover, some of these yards are only wells, styled light-
wells, but where the sun can never penetrate. Rooms are
made without any window whatever. And lastly, dwellings,
healthy until now, are transformed into absolutely unhealthy
dwellings, and tenants are always found for them

" The public authorities should boldly undertake the fight
against the cupidity of the real estate owners. They should
not, indeed, hesitate. 'Let no one,' writes Chessyon, 'speak of
the violation of the right of ownership. If ownership has
rights, it also has duties, and the respect for the interests of
the proprietor cannot go so far as to deliver up to him, without
control and counter-weight, the lives of the families he lodges
in his property. If indeed, ownership is one of the founda-
tions of society, public health is another of them, and it has
also a right to consideration.' "

Referring to slum conditions in Ontario, J. J. Kelso, Superin-
tendent of the Department of Neglected Children, speaks as follows :

"These slums are exceedingly dangerous to the health
and morals of a city because they are, to the great majority of
the people, unknown and unexplored retreats. If leading
citizens had to visit these places frequently, the dilapidation,
stench, and general misery of mothers and children would so
appeal to them as to bring about a quick reform. They are
not concerned because they do not comprehend the horrors of

the situation If there could be a drastic measure

passed requiring every house in which human beings dwell to
front on a forty or six:ty foot street, or else be pulled down,
how long would drunkenness, vice and ignorance exist ! Not
very long, provided there was good municipal government
and active Christian effort for social betterment. The slums
should be attacked and abolished because they are the great
enemy to the home, which is the foundation stone of the State.
Bad housing conditions inevitably tend to drunkenness in par-
ents; to deliquency in children; to disorderly conduct; to wife
and family desertion by men who get tired of it all; to immor-
ality in the growing generation owing to the lack of privacy
and the consequent loss of modesty; to the spread of typhoid
fever, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and the ravages of the great
white plague."

A row of houses in a side lane, Montreal.

UNSANITARY HOUSING 29

The report of Dr. A. J. Douglas, Medical Officer of Health of
Winnipeg, contains the following references to overcrowding in that
city; the first indicates how overcrowding occurs, and the second
shows along what lines work is being done — an example to other
cities to go and do likewise:

" Overcrowding notices totalled 1852, an increase over
last year, but most of these were not extreme cases, but mere-
ly verbal warnings of the inspector, whose special duty this
is, that the number of beds must be reduced; for it requires
ceaseless vigilance to keep within bounds the temptation of
certain classes to eke out a slender living by taking in boarders,

regardless of the size of their rooms or families

" I think we can honestly say that the improvement noted
last year amongst the class referred to has been continued
through this year. The total number of buildings remaining
closed and placarded, December 31st, 1909, were 145. Many
of these have been unoccupied for years and are in fact, beyond
repair. They, however, cause both this department and the
Building Inspector much annoyance by being broken into
and becoming nuisances."

In the Report of the Registrar General of Ontario for the year
1908, reference is made to the housing question as follows:

"There are also many other lines upon which improve-
ment can be made, such as the housing of the poorer classes,
preferably in detached houses or cottages, the preventing of
overcrowding, and I would go so far as recommending legisla-
tion to prevent, under certain conditions, the erection of the
tenement. They are a damnable architectural invention, and
their erection should be carefully considered. Space is what
we require, so that fresh air and sunlight may be enjoyed by
all."

It may very properly be asked. What is unsanitary housing?"
It is that condition of housing which, in itself, is unsanitary and un-
safe or in any way unfit for home-making or for habitation, no
matter how transitory; that which tends to impair the physical
health or morals of the tenant; the conditions of which are damag-
ing to the community. Some of these attributes may be applied to
the expensive apartment house which is little better than a series
of packing boxes, a human storage warehouse. Would you there-
fore have it inferred the modern apartment is a "slum home?"
Not a slum but an unhealthy hive, an architectural monstrosity;
but these are just the kind of houses that in their decadence make
the worst kind of slum homes.

30 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

The term slum is in the present instance applied to the homes
of two classes of the community, viz., those of the working class who
strive to live honestly, and those of the poor who find it difficult to
make a living or who do not intend to. The homes of the poor con-
sist mainly of the abandoned hovels to be found here and there —
those houses which have seen better days, the property often of well-
to-do citizens or corporations, not the property of the poor occupant
who has to pay rent of an exorbitant amount, considering the ab-
sence, in most cases, of even necessary conveniences and comforts,
and that "necessary repairs" are a negligible quantity. Indeed,
all is dilapidation, decay and desolation. The environment reeks
with the odours of successive strata of dirt, household refuse, and
domestic slops, while the walls are cracked, and the stairways rickety
and unsafe, narrow and dark. The houses are often without cellars,
are low and damp, being sometimes built flat upon the ground;
while darkened rooms, inaccessible to sunlight, add a sombre hue
to a condition which can only be summed up as " damnable. " Such
in brief, is a description of what, in the aggregate, constitutes in the
popular mind in Canada the "slum."

The slum house stands in a similar relationship to the commu-
nity as the physical degenerate does to society : both alike are to be
found in all grades of the community, both are found more fre-
quently amongst the poorer classes. No matter where the slum
house is found it is a danger and a menace to the community. Like
the bacteria of which we hear so much to-day and of which we will
know more in the days to come, the disease-producing organism
may be of a virulent or non- virulent type and yet be the same. The
slum, like the tentacles of the devil fish, receives its prey within its
walls, retains and engulfs him " by imperceptible, yet rapid degrees.
Its denizens sink into apathy and develop that strange malady of
the modern city, the slum disease. This is an infection productive
of infections, a contagion which, as it spreads through the slum,
creates new slum dwellers as it passes, leaving its victims stricken
with inertia, slothfulness, drunkenness, criminality.

" Let them escape or not, one and all suffer equally in

their lack of resistance to disease. Mal-nutrition, bad air, and over-
crowding swell the columns which tell of tuberculosis, pneumonia,
diphtheria, and every kindred disease. The slum is the great
culture medium of civilization, wherein huge cultures of disease are
growing, ready when ripe to rise and sweep the city streets."*

Amongst the poorer classes, the slum home finds its pabulum,
and develops a virulence which is manifest by the great spread of

* Hollis Godfrey, The Health of the City.

UNSANITARY HOUSING 31

disease, death, degeneracy and crime. While it slumbers long in the
districts of the better classes, a day, however, arrives when even
here these conditions become manifest. The once fashionable
house is divided and subdivided and becomes the residence of poorer
and still poorer tenants. Decay and dilapidation make inroads on
the house and mark its degeneracy; and the social disease rapidly
spreads until the slum district is established.

This is the process of evolution by which slums have come and
are coming into existence in different portions of Canada. The sec-
tions of the city of Toronto which, in the days of the early colony,
when Ontario and Quebec were known as Upper and Lower Canada,
contained the homes of the better classes, have to-day, in some in-
stances, degenerated into slums. I presume that similar conditions
exist elsewhere.

The unsanitary conditions appertaining to the housing of the
working classes are not so apparent as they are amongst the abso-
lutely poor; but we must not flatter ourselves that this important
portion of the community are properly housed, for in many instances
they are not. This is equally true of the single man as it is of
the man with a family. The one boards in a house overcrowded,
unventilated and falling to decay; the latter, if he lives in a crowded
portion of a city, is forced either to rent an inferior house in a slum
locality, or to share a house with one or more of his fellows. Should
the married man live in the suburbs, it is perhaps in a shack town,
the whole family being crowded into one or two rooms intended to
serve as a kitchen annex to the house he hopes to build. His great
expectations are slow to materialize and frequently he, or some
others of his family, die in the making of a home — victims of un-
sanitary housing. This is an example of the working man being
the victim of land speculators whose sugar-coated offers have led
him to launch out on a scheme of housing which they knew well it
was difficult for him to carry to a successful issue. The man has
paid too heavily for his land and finds the cost of building plus the
interest and annual payment, a greater burden than he contem-
plated. It is the lure of the land speculator.

That, in the making of a nation, history repeats itself as regards
housing conditions, will be seen from the following interesting ex-
tract :

"There has been proceeding for a number of years a
change of usage more than a change of actual property.
Whole streets and squares of houses formerly occupied by
single families and often good-class families, are now occu-
pied as separate dwellings on separate floors. The private
house has become a tenement house. There is a common

32 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

passage and a common staircase, both of which are open to
the public, and the passage and staircase act as the ventilating
shaft for the foul atmosphere derived from the dwelling-
rooms opening on the stair. The history of such a house is a
dismal record of degeneration. Year by year the state slowly
but surely becomes worse. The house was structurally designed
for one family and is now occupied by four or more families.
The sanitary conveniences were also designed for one family and
now provide for four families. The same must be said of the
water supply and washhouse accommodation. There can be no
doubt that the ill-ventilation and the difficulty of access to
the sanitary conveniences, scullery, washhouse, or dust-bin may
indirectly act as causes of ill-health and undesirable habits.
Hence it comes about that both house and tenants degenerate.

"Another of the general characteristics of house pro-
perty in Central London is that the yards in the rear of the
houses have, in many cases, been built over. . The condition
of things constantly to be observed is this: Between two
streets running parallel, there existed, when the houses were
first built, an open space, subdivided into yards. Thus fresh
air was obtainable in the rear as well as in the front of the
houses. In the yards were constructed various conveniences
for sanitary purposes, washing, refuse collection, etc. Thus
the house, as a private house, was equipped. But in addition
to the invasion of tenants, to which reference has already
been made, there has been an industrial invasion. The yards
became covered in or otherwise built over for workshop pre-
mises. Even when such buildings are small, they effectually
prevent thorough ventilation on the ground floor. But so
extensive have such buildings become in certain cases, that a
large portion of the open space originally existing between
the street backs has been filled in. The houses thus become,
practically speaking, back-to-back houses. Moreover, the
immediate proximity of some kinds of workshops to dwelling-
houses readily gives rise to nuisances of various kinds,"*

It is quite true that the poor we shall have always with us; but
that is no excuse that they should be relegated to live in squalor,
dirt, darkness, dampness and disease, which not only deteriorate
them physically, but corrupt and degrade them morally. There is
no reason why their habitations should act as the recruiting grounds
for our asylums for the idiots and the insane, and for our gaols and
prisons — those monuments we erect to our Errors of Civilization.

* Report on the Public Health of Finsbury, 1905.

UNSANITARY HOUSING g[ f 33

It is not only, however, in the districts where old and
Sam^CTanT* ramshackle houses are to be found that slums exist; but
they can also be found by the hundreds in those newer
acquisitions to our cities and towns commonly known as "shack
towns," those aggregations of wooden-walled, tar-paper covered,
tin tack-studded shacks and sheds which are intended for temporary
residences for the newly arrived immigrant, but which, in too many
instances, become the overcrowded permanent homes of a foreign
population, — hot beds of parasitic and communicable diseases and
breeders of vice and iniquity. The immigrant must be housed and
in desperation he eagerly seizes upon the best he can find at the
price he can pay. If he can find nothing, either he or some specu-
lator runs up a shack in the suburbs, it may be of a city or town.
Whether he buys the land and builds the shack or rents it, he pays
exorbitant prices for the accommodation he secures. Thus have
sprung up our Little Italys, our Little Londons, and our China-
towns, devoid of the simplest of modern sanitary requirements.
This type of slum can well be described in the account given of an
Italian colony near Sault Ste. Marie, where there had been over
thirty cases of typhoid fever:

"This colony is crowded into a lot of miserable shacks,
filthy both outside and inside; no cellars, no drainage, closets
on the surface of the ground, vile beyond description; water
from shallow wells, which were dirty and unfit for use, and
most of them located within a few feet of the closets."*
In Canada, we have been receiving and will continue to receive
the people from many of the European countries in increasing num-
bers. We have in our midst the inhabitants of Asiatic countries,
bringing with them their Oriental customs and habits. Each na-
tionality has its peculiar ideas as to how its people should live.
They all come with the one object of making a living, if not of
making money, although some few reach these shores imbued with
the one idea — love of money, and in their eagerness to get money,
they often live more like swine than human beings. The shrine as
well as the Goddess of Hygeia are unhonoured and unknown. This
is no myth, for during some years as Public Health Officer in On-
tario, I have seen many instances of how some of these people
begin a " slum home " in the central part of a city, bring up a family
in it and carry on business under conditions which pen can but
imperfectly describe.

One example of this may be pertinent, one which came under
my own notice some years ago. A newly married couple arrived in

* Annual Report of the Provincial Board of Health of Ontario, 1906.

34 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

one of our cities from a southern European country. The husband
for a time peddled plaster casts of antiques. Subsequently, with the
development of the fresh fruit trade, he secured a stand on the most
prominent business thoroughfare, the site being an alley way to
what was formerly a blacksmith's shop. Here, using the walls of
the adjoining stores, the landlord constructed a shack, a lean-to,
consisting of space for a fruit stand in front and one room in the
rear, which served as kitchen, bed room, living room and, inci-
dentally, as store room for fruit. In this slum home, lived for some
years this man and woman. Several children were born there, the
greater number died there, and were it not that the site was re-
quired for new buildings, the family might have been living there
now.

The housing of the immigrant population is a problem which
concerns every city, town and district in Canada and must be grap-
pled with right now. It is a phase of the housing question which is
little understood and to which little or no attention has been paid.
One has only to visit some of the larger cities to witness the evil con-
ditions which now exist and then to ask himself where this will end
unless proper measures are at once adopted.

Consider for a moment the distribution of the immigrant popu-
lation for the fiscal year ending March 31, 1910, which numbered
104,996. Where and under what conditions has this large number
been housed? How many new houses have been erected to meet
the wants of the larger portion who, with little money, no know-
ledge of our language, customs and laws have had to secure housing
accommodation? To those who went out to build our great railway
lines I will not refer except to say that their housing conditions
might be bettered and yet not be called sanitary, or even equal to
the conditions under which many a good farmer houses his cattle.
They certainly could not compare with the accommodation afforded
cattle, in some of the dairy barns in Ontario. The foreign immi-
grant, while in many instances like the passenger in the overcrowded
street car, is at this disadvantage: he is overcrowded all the time,
day and night. Both alike pay for accommodation which they
don't get, the one to the street car company, the other to the land-
lord. If these conditions were of a transitory character it would not
be so bad; but they have been growing in our midst and unless
action is speedily taken to remedy them, the consequences will be
alike disastrous to the nation from the standpoint of public health,
economics and sociology. That the question is of general interest
may be gathered from a glance at the immigration statistics referred
to above.

A tenement occupying the whole of lot, stores on ground floor, clothes line
on roof, in foreign quarter, Toronto.

An overcrowded foreign quarter, Toronto, basement dwellings in row. Note "store"
with garbage in front, about the centre of row.

UNSANITARY HOUSING

35

It must not be taken for granted that all of the immigration
coming from the United States has for its destination the great West.
Each province receives its share of the 103,798 although the division
in this class is in favour of the newer and agricultural provinces.
Four go to the West to one coming to the East, the figures being:
Maritime Provinces, Quebec and Ontario, 23,562; Manitoba, Sas-
katchewan, Alberta and British Columbia, 80,236.

Dividing the immigrant population into three groups, it is
found they were distributed as indicated in the following tables:

DISTRIBUTION OF IMMIGRANTS, 190»-10.

British

Foreign

United States

Maritime Provinces,
Quebec and
Ontario.

33,711
28,024
23,562

85,297

Manitoba, Saskatche-
wan, Alberta, British
Coliunbia and Yukon.

25,179
18,082
80,236

123,497

While not showing the actual number of foreign immigrants
that went homesteading in the Western Provinces, the Immigration
Report permits of a fairly correct estimate being made. An aver-
age of 2.5 persons may be allowed for each homestead. It would
appear that nearly all of the number take to the land sooner or later.
Certain it is that so far as the housing of the immigrant population
is concerned, it is more a rural matter in the West and an urban one
in the East.

Foreigners ^^' John's ward, Toronto, alone contains about

in Canadian 10,000 foreigners, one-half Jews, one-quarter Italians
'**®^ and one-quarter other foreigners, while the total foreign

population of Toronto was estimated in 1907 at 26,500.

In Winnipeg it is estimated that one-quarter to one-third of
the population is foreigners.

The foreign population of Montreal is given as follows: Jews
25,000 to 30,000; Italians 80,000 to 100,000; Chinese 1,000;
Syrians; 800 to 1,000. There is also a considerable number of Greeks
and Roumanians.

The following three items refer to Winnipeg's foreign popula-
lation and indicate overcrowding at this storm centre :*

* Strangers Within our Gates, James S. Wadsworth.

36 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

"M. Simok and M. Selenk endeavoured to ascertain how
many adults they could crowd into a given space. Selenk
managed to accommodate forty-three occupants in five rooms
where only fourteen could hope to find sufficient atmosphere
for healthy respiration. Simok ran his neighbour close, hav-
ing twenty-four in one room, where only seven should have
been. His rooms were too low, and lacked ventilation. In
consideration of the immense profits made by such economic
means. Magistrate Daly at this morning's police court, charged
Selenk $15 and costs, and Simok $10 and costs."

"Stanislau Yablonovish is a teamster. He owns his
own team, and his wife goes out cleaning. They own their
house and several lots. They live in two rooms, and have five
roomers. The furniture consists of three beds, a table, two
chairs, a stove and some boxes. The attic is full of pigeons."

"John Klenbyel and wife and six children, and from
fifteen to twenty boarders live in four rented rooms. The
place is 'beastly' dirty. The boarders bring home kegs of
beer nearly every day. Two of the older girls are 'working
out.' One of them told our visitor the other day that she
cannot stay at home; she is happier away."
Of those who go first to Ontario and Quebec, it is feared that
but a small percentage subsequently percolate to the farm lands of
the West, for if they find employment at once, they cannot and cer-
tainly do not leave the place where they first settle. Their in-
tentions may have been good in this respect, but they have been
without the necessary financial backing and soon finding, as they
do, that it requires more than 160 acres of land to make a settler, the
good intentions leave them and they become what they were before
emigrating, urban dwellers. A visit to any of our cities will con-
vince one of this fact. That they are not taking to the rural life in
the province of Ontario, at least, is evidenced by the fact that the
statement is constantly being made that the farming districts are be-
coming depopulated, not only because of the migration of the
younger men to the Western Provinces, but also for the reason that
the towns and cities are attracting them. Do we have much of the
settlement of the immigrants on the farms of Ontario?

Referring to the tide of immigration to the United States, God-
frey makes the following statements:

"The incoming human wave which breaks upon our
shores sends its scattered spray to many cities. Too little
reaches the country. Too much stays in the city slum. It is
entirely natural that this should be the case, and that the en-

Eow of houses for artizans, located in a "lane" facing outbuildings as shown on left.

Portion of a Toronto courtyard, in which dwell over -10 persons. Note the outside privies.

UNSANITARY HOUSING 37

tering foreigner should seek a dwelling in some locality where
his own tongue sounds kindly to his ears. So the Italian, at
whatever port he lands, hastens to Little Italy, the Russian
seeks Little Russia, and the Hungarian finds lodging in Little
Hungary.

" Division of this sort makes housing problems in the
United States more complex than those which many European
cities show. Model tenements here cannot receive tenants
chosen at random in the same fashion as can Berlin or Lon-
don. Difference of race and type, even difference of locality
forbids, for the Italian from the North must have his quarters
separated from the Italian of the South, and one tribe from
that strange mixture of races called Russia may be the ancient
enemy of another. Evidently our attack on this problem must
include some selective processes."

How applicable these words are to Canada at the present time!
With these facts before us, may not the question be asked:
Are we making proper provision for the housing of our immigrant
population, to say nothing of the population by natural increase?
Overcrowding and slum conditions with their accompanying evils
are present with us. By our neglect, indifference and greed of
gain we have allowed to become ingrafted in the fair escutcheon
of our Canadian civilization a sore which is a disgrace and a shame.
True, it is small as compared with similar conditions in other coun-
tries; somewhat insignificant, you may deem it, but it is here and
unless grappled with now will prove a much more difficult problem
to solve even ten years hence.

One is forced to ask: "Is it right that we should invite and en-
courage settlers to come to this country when we have not even ad-
equate accommodation to offer them of a more decent temporary re-
sidence at a fair rental?" We will not speak of permanent homes.
True, it is a nation in the making; but the nation must be properly
housed. We have passed the nomadic age of our cities. I can show
you housing conditions in Canada, which cannot compare, as regards
the comforts and conveniences of life, to those enjoyed by the tent
dweller in ages past. Even the Hebrews in their four decades of
desert wandering surpassed us in the observance of the essential laws
of personal and domestic hygiene.

A fair idea of the housing conditions of the people of
PopSSion Canada in 1901, may be gathered from the Census Re-
port of that year. The density of population as affect-
ing the health of the people can hardly be considered ; for the popu-
lation of some seven or eight millions is scattered over a vast area.

38

COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

The congestion occurs chiefly in the larger centres such as the cities
of Montreal, Toronto and Winnipeg. The housing statistics of the
two former cities in 1901 were as follow:

Popu-
lation

Area

in

Acres

No. of
Houses

Families

Houses
per
Acre

Pop.

per

House

Pop.
per
Acre

Montreal

267,730
208,040

5,972

4.9 1 K7

51,759
41,001

8.2
3.6

5.4
5.3

44 8

Toronto

10,777 .^9.104

19 3

In the table no allowance is made for streets, squares or parks,
or playgrounds. In Montreal, however, in that year the density of
population by wards varied from 8.1 to 111.2 per acre; while in
Toronto, on a similar basis, it ranged from 9.0 to 34.9 per acre. The
houses per acre ranged from 1.2 to 19.8 in the former city and from
1.85 to 6.05 in the latter. From more recent statistics it would ap-
pear that the area of Toronto has been extended to 17,920 acres,
the population being estimated at 325,280.* Notwithstanding this
material increase in acreage, Toronto, and no doubt Montreal also,
compares unfavourably with some of the larger cities of the United
States of about the same population. Their areas are as follow :

Buffalo, 26,880 acres; Cincinnati, 27,840 acres; Detroit, 23,040
acres; Indianapolis, 19,840 acres; Minneapolis, 34,080 acres.

For purposes of comparison, the following information in re-
gard to England and Wales may be of interest:

In statistical memoranda presented to the Local Government
Board, dated May, 1909, by a committee of its medical officers, the
density of population in England and Wales is given as follows:
For 1901, 75 urban districts (including London) with a population
of 50,000 and over, 25.3 per acre. For 361 districts with a popula-
tion under 50,000 and over 10,000, it was 5.5. In 686 districts with
a population less than 10,000, it was 1.7; and in the rural districts
.2 per acre.t

In a paper like this it is impossible to dwell at length upon the
subject of density of population or to compare one city with another.
Indeed, it is most difficult to do so because municipalities differ in
the amount of open spaces and vacant land they possess.

That density of population has an effect, however, upon the
health and lives of the people is well established. Mortality is high-
est in districts towards the centre of a city and lower in the outskirts.

* Financial Post.

t Public Health and Social Conditions, 1909.

UNSANITARY HOUSING

39

The death rate varies at different ages, being more marked in city
children under the age of five years. Mere density alone on a given
square space is insufficient to produce all the results which are found.
The density of houses is a vital factor to take into account. The
house itself, its site, its relationship to other houses, and the char-
acter of its inmates must all be considered. Density upon a unit'
area cannot be ignored; but it is the cubical contents with which we
must wrestle to ascertain the effect of overcrowding on death and
sickness rates. Dr. Newman gives an interesting table of death
rates in houses or tenements of small sizes. In one-room tenements,
the death rate from all causes in 1904 was found to be 40.6 per
1,000; in two-room tenements, 21.9; in three-room tenements, 14.7;
while in tenements of four rooms and upwards it was 7.5; for the
whole municipality it was 21.1.* Perhaps the effect of these un-
sanitary housing conditions are better shown in the table of Infant
Mortality for the same municipality (Finsbury). This table shows
a higher fatality among infants living in one-roomed houses than
those living in two, three or four-roomed houses.

INFANT MORTALITY RATES FROM ALL AND CERTAIN CAUSES IN HOUSES

OR TENEMENTS OF SEVERAL SIZES, METROPOLITAN BOROUGH

OF FINSBURY. 1905.

m

§

Diarrhoea,

o

g
§

Measles,
Whooping Cough,

Prematurity-

fl

o.

Scarlet Fever,

Immaturity.

o

83

^ W)'

Diphtheria.

Sue of

J

in"

■^i

Tenement.

3
a,
o

f

1

Ph

M

-o

a

Infant

Infant

3

**5

.5

No. of

mor. per
1^000

No of

mor. per
1,000

CO

o

o

deaths

infant

o

;z;

^

1— 1

bu-ths

deaths

births.

1 room tenement. .

14,516

532

117

219

28

53

16

30

2 " "

31,482

1,216

192

157

51

42

32

26

3 "

4 « «

and upwards of

21,280

468

66

141

16

34

21

44

4 rooms

33,185

464

46

99

9

19

9

19

Institutions and

deaths and births

traced

1,000

206

8

39

The Borough

101,463

2,886

429

148

104

37

78

27

* Infant Mortality, G. Newman.

40 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

"In cities the average dwelling-space of the inhabitants
has a closer relationship to their health than any other con-
dition of health which is capable of statistical expression.
Hence I have dwelt at some length upon density of popula-
tion. If we could obtain a classification of a population ac-
cording to the amount of measured cubic dwelling-space oc-
cupied, and the causes of mortality, possibly we might be able
to draw more definite and exact conclusions from the number
of persons per 1,000 cubic feet of dwelling-room space than
from the number of persons per room, per dwelling, or per
house. On the other hand, it has to be considered that it
must be healthier to live in two small rooms than in one large
room of the same cubic capacity. The former can be used
alternately, the latter must be used continuously. The
smaller the dwelling the more numerous the uses to which
the room or rooms must be put, the most important use from
a health point of view being that of sleeping. In a one-room
dwelling, even when the breadwinner works away, the par-
ents and children live by day in the same room previously
occupied by night for sleeping; the air becomes loaded with
the dust of bed-making, and is continuously fouled by respi-
ration, cooking, washing, etc. In winter and between sea-
sons, when the window or door is not wide open, the day usage
unfits it for sleeping, and the night usage unfits it for living.
The children are the greatest sufferers in physical condition,
and as they grow up, possessing never more than feeble health,
they become still more degenerate by corruption of moral fibre.
In short, in one room sleeping, food-storage, cooking, warming,
excretion, ablution, clothes-washing, drying, refuse-storage,
bathing, living, including reading, writing, working, and recre-
ation, etc., must be carried on, and the continuous and various
usages of the room, and the differences of age and sex of the
occupants, must lead one to regard the number of rooms in a
dwelling of as much importance as the cubic space per head,
at any rate when applied to one and two-room dwellings."*

It is not the purpose of this paper to deal at length with infan-
tile mortality as affected by unsanitary housing, although much
could be said thereon. The story is the same wherever you go. In
the poor and crowded districts infantile deaths represent on the aver-
age, over one-quarter of the total death rate :

"The phthisis death-rate shows a close relationship to
density of persons in cubic space, and phthisis appears to

• * Public Health and Housing, John F. J. Sykes, M.D.

A group of young Canadiuna with iheir homes, on narrow alley-way, Montreal.

UNSANITARY HOUSING 41

stand almost in the same relationship to respiratory-pollution
as typhoid fever does to filth-pollution. The respiratory dis-
eases apart from phthisis are also influenced by impurities of
the air, and afford some measure of their effects, just as diar-
rhoeal diseases apart from typhoid fever, are regarded as
bearing a relationship to impurities of the soil."
What are the housing conditions as regards rooms in Canada?
The Census of 1901 shows there were 46,154 one-room houses;
74,715 two-room houses; 97,674 three-room houses. The one-room
houses or homes were distributed as follows:

British Columbia, 9,915; Manitoba; 7,524; New Brunswick,
1,479; Nova Scotia, 1,113; Ontario, 8,484; Prince Edward Island,
204; Quebec, 8,556; Territories, 8,879.

It is simply a matter of conjecture what the present housing
conditions are; but speaking from observation which is limited to the
eastern portion of Canada, I fear there has been no betterment,
rather a retrogression.

That marked improvement, as shown by the lowering of the
death rate, follows the improvement in the housing conditions of a
city, is shown by the vital statistics of Offenbach am Main, which
city has done much for the housing of its citizens. In the ten years
from 1870 to 1880, the city death rate was 23.6 per thousand. From
1880 to 1890, it was 20.8. From 1890 to 1900, it was 18.5. In
1908, it was 14.1. Every year of the last decade has shown in-
creased activity and every year has seen the death rate a little
lower.* In this German city, modern methods of housing and of
general improvement in standards of living are saving from nine to
ten more lives out of every thousand to-day than were saved thirty
years ago.

In Birmingham, England, for instance, 351 infants die out of
every one thousand born in the crowded ward of St. Mary's, as
against 65 out of every thousand of Bourn ville, less than four miles
distant. These are but two instances out of many others that
could be quoted.

Administra- After attention has been directed to some of the

tive unsanitary housing conditions now existing in Canada

Inefficiency ^^^ ^j^^^^. ^auses, it may properly be asked what the
health authorities are doing that such evils should exist? It may
be argued that, even under existing laws and by-laws, local medical
officers of health might have minimized the unsanitary conditions
now existing. Yet this officer is not always to blame, for, as a
rule, he has to take his cue from the local board and too often is

*The Healt h of the City, Hollis Godfrey.

42 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

it found, that the members of a board are more ward politicians
than sanitarians, and the health officer, being a general practi-
tioner having to earn his living in the community for which he acts,
often without pay, the net result is that no notice is taken of these
matters. Thus it is that the evil starts, and under this sanitary
inertia it grows and luxuriates, greatly to the joy of the landlord,
be he an individual or a company. It is profitable fun for him but
slow death to the unfortunate tenants.

That the evil is marked in the city where there is the well-paid
health officer, is still further evidence of indifference and inertia on
the part of these guardians of the people's lives. The powers of
both the health officer and each member of a local board of health are
very considerable in nearly every province in Canada; yet where is
the evidence of their activity?

As a rule, our health laws are modelled after those of England
and Scotland and they confer considerable powers upon these health
officials. Except in one or two provinces the Provincial Board of
Health only serves in an advisory capacity, and too often the advice,
when given, is not followed.

The failures of public health work in Canada have been due to
the governments not taking more direct control in administration.
In Ontario, for instance, the Government assumes the responsibility
for the enforcement of factory laws and maintains a staff of inspect-
ors which is yearly increasing in number. The working man and
woman are better housed for eight hours a day in the factory than
they are for the other sixteen hours in the case of the man, or, than
his wife and family are for the twenty-four hours. If the state has
a duty with regard to the enforcement of the factory laws, how much
greater is that responsibility in the matter of the housing of the
working man and his family and all the rest of us who do not come
in under this particular class, but who work as hard and who are
equally as valuable to the State ? But this is not the only anomaly.
The education department requires the proper housing of the child
in school, but what of its environment the remainder of the day?
The school teacher wears out brain and brawn in the attempt to
educate the children of slumdom, but the good done in four or five
hours of school is undone in the slum. Properly house the child,
give him the sunlight and air of a clean house, and how much greater
will be the progress in his mental education and his physical and
moral make-up!

The above are two examples where the State acts. In the
former instance it enforces the measures by its own officers; in the
latter it withholds monetary aid unless its regulations are complied

UNSANITARY HOUSING 43

with. And why does the State act primarily for the health of the
two classes concerned? We have seen how the enforcement of
health laws works out when left to the local authorities.

From the standpoint of hygiene it would seem that the cart has
gone before the horse in the eight-hour day movement, for the aver-
age mechanic working in the modern, up-to-date factory spends his
time in a better environment than he does the remaining hours of
each twenty-four. Physically, he is better off at the factory than
at home. The question of sanitary housing at moderate rents is a
question well worthy of his earnest and undivided attention. The
provinces can, if they only will, accomplish as much good for the
sanitation of the home as they have done for the factory, with much
better results, not only to the men, but also to the unfortunate
women and children who are compelled by circumstances to spend
their days therein.

It is somewhat farcical that a state should decline to
Inadequate accept any responsibility, financial or otherwise, to pro-
vide the means whereby crime and disease may be mini-
mized, if not prevented, by bettering the housing conditions. Yet
that same state will plan and devise the most approved and up-to-
date sanitary home for a man after he has become a criminal. It
damns him first and then attempts his reclamation after. How
much better, wiser and politic it would be to assist in the prevention
of his fall; for certainly the criminal of to-day is better housed and
fed after incarceration than he is in his own slum home, or, for the
matter of that, than is the busy, honest artizan or agriculturalist who
is carving out in Canada, a home for himself and family.

To bring about a change the preventive measures to be adopted
must clearly be of a different character than are now found in our
statute books or among the by-laws of our cities and towns, which, so
far as securing any practical results is concerned, have, up to the
present, proved a negligible quantity.

Epitome of Canadian Health Laws

The laws at present in force in Canada are either provincial
laws or regulations, or municipal by-laws. They are, in the main,
either (a) health measures of the Public Health Act or regulations
thereunder; or (b) provisions of the Municipal Code. The former
deal mainly with the question under the head of nuisances, and
there is but scanty power given to public health officers !to pre-
vent nuisances of this or any other kind. Taken as a whole, the
present laws do not deal efficiently with the problem nor, except

44 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

in the cases here noted, do they provide any constructive schemes
such as are in force in England and Germany for the exclusion of
city and town limits.

The Medical Officer of Health is authorized to inspect lands and
buildings with the object of preventing the accumulation of filth,
dirt, and rubbish, and has power to adopt the necessary measures
for the removal of the same.

Upon complaint of the existence of a nuisance, either to the
Medical Officer of Health or to the local Board of Health, it is gen-
erally the law that an investigation shall be made by either of the
above or by the mayor or reeve; and if a nuisance is found to exist,
its removal or abatement is ordered. If default occurs, then the
nuisance may be removed by the local authorities, in which case the
costs become a charge upon the persons whose act caused the nuisance.

In some cases, the provincial act empowers the Health Officers
or any two of them to enter into or upon any premises in the day
time as often as they think necessary. In such cases, the act pro-
vides that the members of a local Board of Health are health officers.

It is quite clear the public health acts, in so far as they refer to
nuisances, take cognizance of the conditions which tend to create
slums, for this clause, or a similar one, frequently occurs: "That
where the nuisance arises from want of defective construction of any
structural conveniences," etc.

In addition to the foregoing health provisions, common to most
of the provinces, the following clauses call for special notice as being
particularly applicable to slum conditions:

. Sec. 43. — If the nuisance or unhealthy condition

arises from some defect in the conformation or construc-
tion of the land or building or if the same is unoccupied, the notice
prescribed by section 42 shall be given to the proprietor.

British ^^^- ^^- — ^° person shall let, or occupy, or suffer to

Columbia be Occupied, as a dwelling or lodging, any room which

(a) Does not contain at all times at least three hundred

and eighty-four cubic feet of air space for each
person occupying the same; or

(b) Has not a window made to open in the manner ap-

proved by the Local Board; or

(c) Has not appurtenant to it the use of water-closet or

earth-closet constructed in accordance with these

regulations.
And every room in which a person passes the night, or is found
between midnight and five o'clock in the forenoon, shall be deemed to
be occupied as a dwelling or lodging within the meaning of this rule.

Houses in Toronto lanes.

UNSANITARY HOUSING 46

(12) If the Local Board is satisfied upon the examination by
itself or officer, that a cellar, room, tenement, or building within its
jurisdiction, occupied as a dwelling-place, has become, by reason of
the number of occupants, want of cleanliness, the existence therein
of a contagious or infectious disease or other cause, unfit for such
purpose, or that it has become a nuisance or in any way dangerous
to the health of the occupants, or of the public, it may issue a notice
in writing to such occupants, or any of them, requiring the said
premises to be put in proper sanitary condition; or, if it sees fit, may
require the occupants to quit the premises within such time as the
Board may deem reasonable. If the persons so notified, or any of
them, neglect or refuse to comply with the terms of the notice, every
person so offending shall be liable to the penalties imposed for in-
fraction of these regulations, and the Board may cause the premises
to be properly cleansed at the expense of the owners or occupants,
or may remove the occupants forcibly and close up the premises, and
the same shall not again be occupied as a dwelling-place until put
into proper sanitary condition; or the Board, if it sees fit may, sub-
ject to the provisions of section 97 of the " Health Act, 1893, " cause
such premises to be destroyed, with the consent of two Justices of
the Peace.

Sec. 54. — Where, under the provisions of this Act,
or of any municipal by-law, any officer removesanydirt,
filth, refuse, debris or other thing likely to endanger the public health
or become or cause a nuisance, or which is or is causing a nuisance,
such dirt, fifth, refuse or other thing shall be subject to the disposi-
tion and order of the ofiicer or officers removing the same, and the
owner thereof shall have no claim in respect thereof.

In a publication entitled " General Information Regarding
Public Health," the Provincial Board of Health, in dealing with
dwelling houses, says:

" Dwelling houses should never be built upon a wet site.
Dryness can be obtained by thorough draining. A wet site is
an important factor in the production of many diseases, such
as consumption and rheumatism. A dwelling house should
never be built upon a lot which was low, but has been filled up
with manure and other refuse. Such made up ground simply
requires merely the introduction of the germs of infectious
diseases to become a hot bed for their propagation. Young
children in such houses suffer from cholera infantum during
the summer months "

46 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

new Sec. 16. — The Provincial Board may also by such

Brunswick regulations authorize and require local Boards of
Health, in all cases in which diseases of a malignant and fatal char-
acter are discovered to exist within any dwelling or outhouse tem-
porarily occupied as a dwelling situated in an unhealthy or crowded
locality, or being in a neglected or filthy state, at the proper cost
and charge of such local Boards of Health, to compel such inhabi-
tants of house or outhouse temporarily occupied as a dwelling, to
remove therefrom, and to place them in sheds or tents or other good
shelter, in some more healthy situation and until measures can be
taken by and under the direction of the Local Boards of Health for
the immediate cleansing, ventilation, purification and disinfection
of said dwelling house or outhouse.

Nova Sec. 25. — When it appears to the local board that

Scotia any tenement used as a dwelling house is so unfit for

that purpose that the public health is endangered thereby, the local
board may order in writing that it shall be vacated within a reason-
able time, to be therein prescribed, and such order shall be served
upon the inmates or left at such dwelling house, and in case of
disobedience thereof or of a re-occupation of the dwelling house
without a permit, the local board may direct a warrant to the sheriff
or a constable or sanitary inspector to enforce compliance with the
terms of such order.

Sec. 26. — When it appears to the local board that any house,
building, cellar, lot or vacant ground is in a state likely to endanger
the public health, the local board shall cause a notice to be given
to the owner or the occupant, if any, requiring such owner or occu-
pant to remove such cause of complaint as in such notice pre-
scribed, and in case of neglect the local board shall cause the same
to be removed.

(2). If there is no occupant and the owner or owners do not re-
side within the jurisdiction of the local board such notice may be
given by advertisement in one or more newspapers published within
such jurisdiction, if any are there published, or if not, by posting the
same publicly.

, 72a. — No person shall keep or store any rags, bones

or other refuse in any building used as a dwelling, or

upon any premises within the municipality, unless the same are kept

or stored in a suitable building, approved of by the Medical Health

Officer,

76a. — The Medical Health Officer or any Sanitary Inspector,
acting under instructions of the Medical Health Officer of the muni-
cipality, may at any time of the day or night, as often as he thinks

UNSANITARY HOUSING 47

necessary, enter into a lodging-house, tenement where rooms are
rented, or a laundry where the owner or employees reside upon the
premises, or other buildings where such officer has reason to suspect
that the same are overcrowded or occupied by more persons than is
reasonably safe for the health of such occupants. If upon such ex-
amination it is found that the premises are occupied by more persons
than is reasonable for the health of such occupants, and that the
sleeping rooms upon such premises are such that less than 400 cubic
feet of air can be provided for each adult occupant of such room or
rooms, the same shall be deemed to be overcrowded, and the Health
Officer may take such steps as are necessary to remedy the evil. If
the rooms, or premises occupied by them are in a filthy or unclean
state, or if any matter or thing is there which in the opinion of the
Medical Health Officer may endanger the public health or the health
of the occupants of such room or rooms, the Medical Health Officer
may order the owner or occupant of the premises to remove the in-
mates therefrom, or to remove that which causes the premises to be
filthy or unclean, and thus place the room or rooms in a condition
fit for proper human habitation. In case the owner or occupant of
any such lodging-house, tenement or laundry neglects or refuses to
obey the orders given by the Medical Health Officer within twenty-
four hours after such notice, he shall be liable to the penalties of this
Act; and such Medical Health Officer or Sanitary Inspector may also
call to his assistance all constables and peace officers and such other
persons as he may think fit, and may enter into such lodging-house,
tenement or laundry and cleanse the same, and remove the inmates
therefrom, and also any matter or thing which causes the premises
to be filthy or unclean, and destroy whatever it is necessary to re-
move or destroy for the preservation of the public health.

Sec. 40. — When a house or other habitation is ascer-
tained to be unhealthy, the municipal sanitary author-
ity may cause the persons inhabiting it to leave it and forbid their
return until the same has been rendered healthy in the manner pre-
scribed by law.

Art. 507. — Under the Municipal Code, the Municipal Council
has power to authorize the officers of the council to visit and ex-
amine all property, whether movable or immovable, as well as the
interior or exterior of every house, building or other edifice, to as-
certain whether or not the by-laws of the council are carried out; to
oblige owners or occupants of such properties, buildings and edifices
to receive the officers of the council, and to answer truly all questions
which are put to them relative to the carrying out of such municipal
by-laws.

48 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

Art. 543. — To open, enclose, embellish, improve and maintain,
at the costs and charges of the corporation, squares, parks, or public
places, of a nature to conduce to the health and well-being of the
inhabitants of the municipality.

„ . , The Public Health Act of Saskatchewan very wisely

provides that when regulations of the Bureau of Public
Health are in force they override and supersede any municipal by-
laws; hence the regulations regarding the sanitary provisions to be
observed in the control and arrangement of tenement houses, under
date of January 29, 1910, are in force in that province. They are
in advance of the regulations of some of the other provinces in that
they provide that, where a tenement is erected, it shall occupy not
more than eighty per cent, of the total area of the lot. But if such
building is bounded on three sides by streets or lanes, ninety per
cent, may be built on. This is certainly a move in the right direction,
but does not go far enough. The minimum height of room used as
sleeping apartments is placed at eight feet with provision for a
minimum air space of 500 cubic feet for each occupant. Windows
must open to the external air and their area shall not be less than
twelve square feet.

Another excellent clause in the Regulations under the Public
Health Act is as follows:

" Any building or part of any building used as a dwelling
place which, by reason of its condition, either from lack of
sufficient accommodation, want of repair, filthy keeping,
damp site, faulty drains, or want of sanitary plumbing therein,
has, in the judgment of the medical health officer or com-
missioner, become unfit for human habitation, shall be so
declared and placarded as 'unsanitary and unfit for habita-
tion.'

" Such placard shall not be removed without the consent
of the medical health officer or the commissioner, and not
until such dwelling place has been so altered, cleaned or re-
paired as shall make it fit for habitation, and to the satisfac-
tion of the above mentioned officials.

" Any cellar, basement or part thereof, or any house or
building used for human habitation which is found to be
damp or moist by reason of soakage through wall, defective
water pipes, sewer or drain pipes, cisterns, wells, gutters, rain
spouts, or from any cause whatever shall be deemed a
nuisance."

In this connection, Dr. M. M. Seymour, Commissioner of Pub-
lic Health states: " Placarding of the premises has been done, with

Slum homes in rural district of Ontario.

UNSANITARY HOUSING 49

the result that the changes necessary to render the building sanitary
have been duly carried out."

British Columbia ^i^h regard to town planning, the province of British
Town Planning Columbia has in the Municipal Code a provision which
Provisions j^^^g ^^^ ^^ ^^^ been adopted in any other province so
far as can be ascertained. It is as follows:

249. All future surveys into building lots of property
within a city, or of property which is contiguous to the bound-
aries of a city, by owners and others, shall be subject to the
approval of the City Engineer and the Mayor when the city
has a City Engineer, or the approval of the Mayor when the
city has not a City Engineer; and no plan of such survey shall
be registered unless it bears a certificate of such approval, but
such approval shall not be unreasonably withheld.

250. The City Engineer, where the city has such an offi-
cial, or the Mayor, where the city has not a City Engineer,
may sanction the subdivision of any property already sub-
divided into building lots, and every plan of subdivision of
such lots shall be certified by the City Engineer, or by the
Mayor when the city has not a City Engineer, as having been
approved before registration thereof.

The Municipal Act of Ontario provides that councils of cities
and towns and villages may pass by-laws regarding dwellings on
narrow streets, as follows:

1. For regulating the erection or occupation of dwell-
ings on narrow streets, lanes or alleys, or in crowded or un-
sanitary districts, and for preventing in the case of cities of
upwards of 100,000 the erection of dwellings, or the altera-
tion of other buildings for such purpose if the same front on
a street less than 40 feet in width, unless such street has been
duly laid out and accepted by the municipality as a public
highway.

An indication of the activity of the health authorities of Winni-
peg is contained in the following extract from the report of Dr. A.
J. Douglas, Medical Officer of Health,* who, in referring to the new
laws, states:

"The Legislature has granted an amendment to the City
Charter, conferring upon the City powers to enact by-laws,
defining, regulating, governing and controlling all matters
connected with the air space, the ventilation, the fire proof
character, the sanitation, the size of the rooms, the position
of public corridors, the position, number, character of all

♦Annual Report on liie Public Health of the City of Winnipeg, 1909.

50 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

urinals, lavatories or water closets of ordinary apartment or
tenement houses; the portion of any lot to be occupied by
such apartment or tenement house, and to do all things and
prescribe all rules and regulations necessary from time to
time respecting the health and welfare of persons occupying
any apartment or tenement house.

"By-law No. 5850, re tenement houses. — The by-law,
although not quite so comprehensive in its provisions as we
would have wished, will undoubtedly be of great service in
governing the erection of new tenements (to which it mostly
refers) and should result in much better sanitary conditions
in such buildings.

"The clause relating to the occupation of basements in
tenements as dwelling places, should be of service to this
Department, as also those parts of the by-law dealing with
the convenience or alteration of existing buildings into tene-
ments.

"The clause prohibiting the erection of wooden tene-
ments exceeding two storeys in height is also worthy of note."
In concluding this imperfect and incomplete paper, which is
but a preliminary to a more elaborate and detailed one containing a
statement of the actual conditions prevailing throughout Canada,
attention may be drawn to the fact that, with but few exceptions,
health authorities have done little or nothing to prevent the evils at
present existing. They have not as a rule exercised the powers they
now have, but where they have, it is encouraging to note that good
has been accomplished.

In connection with this subject of housing. Dr. Fremantle,
Medical Officer of Health of the County of Hertford, recently
spoke as follows :

"No sanitary authority can justify its existence, if it is
an urban authority at any rate, unless it has definite by-laws
in order to prevent the growing up of those defects which are
so costly, both to the individual and to the authority, in later
years. It is known that on the sanitation of private dwellings,
especially of the poorer classes, who are less able to look after
the repairs of their homes themselves, depends the health of
the individual, and, therefore, the health of the nation. It
is recognized as a principle in our national life that the hous-
ing of the working classes is one of the most important fea-
tures to which we have to pay attention in domestic legis-
lation, and, as that has been acknowledged, at the present
moment we are only extending the principle a step forward

UNSANITARY HOUSING 51

as the result of the experience of the past fifty years, which
has shown us the great expense both in lives and in sickness,
and in money, of the growing up of slums in our great cities.
Thinking, therefore, of the origin of those slums, we come to
the conclusion that by laying down certain principles, as re-
gards not only the internal economy and the building of houses,
but as regards the inter-relation of the different houses to one
another, we can prevent, to a large extent, the growing up
of those slums in future."

Town Planning

Going a step or two further, I would say no government can
justify its existence unless it carefully considers this important
question and places upon the statute book a law with ample and ade-
quate regulations for dealing with unsanitary houses of all classes
of the community and for conferring power on city, town and village
municipalities whereby they may not only control, but in a measure
direct, town and suburb planning. For, in this period of our growth,
the village of to-day becomes the city of to-morrow and the suburb
of the town is a portion of the city before we are aware of it. The
sins of omission of the rural municipal authorities, as well as the
sins of commission of the far-seeing real estate speculator, become
an asset of a great city. If the urban authorities have been com-
pelled— advice is worthless — to build and plan on proper lines, then
the asset is valuable. It is not a case of building and planning ex-
travagantly, but wisely and well.

Appended is a brief statement of what is being done in the in-
terests of sanitary housing and town planning in foreign countries
and in Great Britain, where, by reason of the local conditions, the
evils of the past have been brought prominently to the notice of the
public and the authorities.

Germany The Outline plan of campaign in Germany may be

given thus:

(a) Town planning.

(b) The construction of model tenements.

(c) The encouragement of private builders and of co-

operative building societies.

(d) The demolition of sdums, either by the destruction
of old tenements and their replacement by new
model ones, or by business ofiices and parks.

(e) The repair of existing dwellings so as to make them

sanitary.

52 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

At the same time, the German cities are trying to sift out their
dwellings from the chaotic mass of shops, factories, hovels, mansions
and barracks, and send them to the suburbs, thus leaving the indus-
trial buildings grouped in the centre. This is sometimes known as
the "Zone System," The farther a zone is distant from the centre
of a town, the smaller the number of houses to each acre of land and
the smaller the number of storeys permitted each house. The zone
does not follow any particular lines — it may simply be a particular
area.

Certain municipal authorities may note with advantage that
Cologne limits the height of buildings in the centre of the city to five
storeys with a mansard; while, in the outer portions of the munici-
pality, no buildings can be over three storeys in height or occupy
more than forty per cent, of its lot. In Saxony in 1900, such a
scheme as that outlined in Cologne was made compulsory for all
towns. How much better our Canadian cities would be fifty years
hence if they adopted and enforced such wise provisions now!

The Grerman municipalities have endeavoured to secure the
placing of houses so as to obtain the maximum amount of sunshine,
and so as to make sure that space be left for parks, playgrounds and
garden plots. These regulations generally tend to do away with
speculation, they control the builder building for investment, while
giving the greatest possible freedom to the individual who desires to
build for himself, thus encouraging individuality and resource-
fulness.

The community is safeguarded when buildings are to be erected
en masse; dividends on municipal loaned money are limited; lands
are leased for periods of years with the proviso that the buildings
erected thereon shall become town property at the expiration of the
lease, and the right is reserved to purchase the property or cancel
the lease in case of necessity.

Before passing from this portion of the subject, refer-
ence must be made to the method adopted in Belgium
where, by the development of a complete system of inexpensive
workmen's trains, it has been demonstrated that by means of cheap
and rapid transit a countryside may be built up and the town worker
be made a suburban dweller. In that country, a workingman's
round-trip weekly ticket (twelve rides) for a six-mile ride can be
purchased for less than twenty-five cents per week; while for twelve
miles, the cost is thirty cents. Fifty cents per week will carry him
out thirty miles from the city. As showing the effect of these cheap
transportation rates, it may be stated that the annual sales of tickets
increased from 1,200,000 to 4,400,000 in a single decade.

UNSANITARY HOUSING 53

Professor Emile Vanderwelder, in referring to the work, wrote
as follows :

"Enter Hesbaye or Flanders from whatever side one
may, the country is everywhere thickly strewn with white
red-roofed houses, some of them standing alone, others lying
close together in populous villages. If, however, one spends
a day in one of the villages — I mean one of those in which
there is no local industry — one hardly sees a grown-up work-
man in the place, and almost believes that the population
consists almost entirely of old people and children. But in
the evening quite a different picture is seen. We find our-
selves for example, some twelve or thirteen miles from Brus-
sels at a small railway station in Brabant, say Bixensast,
Genval, or La Hulpe. A train of inordinate length, consist-
ing almost entirely of third-class carriages, runs in. From
the rapidly opened doors stream crowds of workmen in dusty,
dirty clothes, who cover all the platform as they rush to the
doors, apparently in feverish eagerness to be first to reach
home where supper awaits them. And every quarter of an
hour from the beginning of dusk till well into the night, trains
follow trains, discharge part of their human freight, and at
all the villages along the line set down troops of workmen —
masons, plasterers, paviors, carpenters with their tool-bags on
their backs."

When Canadian railways of all kinds shall have provided cheap
and rapid transit with seats for every passenger, as has been accom-
plished in Belgium, we shall have gone a long way towards solving
the slum problem and may look for rapid development of the plan
of suburban homes for the workingman instead of the present un-
sanitary conditions.

United In the United States the work of city improvement

States iiag begun in Washington, Denver, Cincinnati, Cleve-

land, and the recent ordinance of the Municipal Assembly of the
City of St. Louis may be of interest to Canadian municipal author-
ities. The Ordinance reads as follows:

"AN ORDINANCE CREATING A CITY PLAN COMMISSION AND APPRO-
PRIATING TWENTY-FIVE THOUSAND DOLLARS FOR THE EXPENSES

THEREOF

"Be it ordained by the Municipal Assembly of the City
of St. Louis, as follows:

" Section 1. — There is hereby created a Commission to be
known as the City Plan Commission, which shall consist of

54 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

twenty-one citizens, including the President of the City Coun-
cil ex-ofl5cio, the Speaker of the House of Delegates ex-officio,
the President of the Board of Public Improvement ex-officio,
and the Street Commissioner ex-officio, and the Park Commis-
sioner ex-officio, who shall be appointed by the Mayor and who
shall serve without compensation.

" Section 2. — The duties of the City Plan Commission
shall be :

1. To make an investigation into existing physical

conditions in St. Louis.

2. To determine and report upon what should be

done to improve these conditions.

3. To prepare a comprehensive city plan for the

future improvement and growth of the city,
including recommendations for :

(a) Improvement of river front.

(b) Extension of streets and opening of new
sub-divisions.

(c) Improvement of entrance to city from the

Union Station.

(d) A rapid transit system.

(e) Extension of car lines into outlying dis-

tricts.

(f) A playground, park and boulevard system.

(g) Location of public buildings and such other
public works as, in the opinion of the Com-
mission, will tend to make St. Louis a more
convenient and attractive city.

4. To suggest the State and municipal legislation

necessary to facilitate the carrying out of the
recommended city plan.

" Section 3. — The Commission shall make all rules for
its guidance and procedure. The Commission is hereby au-
thorized to incur such expenses within the limits of the appro-
priations made therefor and to employ such engineering,
architectural, and legal advice and such clerical and other
assistance as in its judgment may be necessary to carry out
the provisions of this Ordinance.

" Section 4. — The Commission shall submit a full and
complete report to the Municipal Assembly on or before
January 1st, 1912, and may make such other reports prior
thereto as the Municipal Assembly may require or as the
Commission may deem advisable.

A slum quartei" of Quebec, shortly to be demolished.

UNSANITARY HOUSING 55

" Section 5. — There is hereby appropriated and set apart
out of the municipal revenue the sum of twenty-five thousand
dollars to be known as the "City Plan Fund" to defray the
expenses of the Commission incurred in fulfilling the objects
and purposes of this Ordinance."

. The movement in Great Britain has proceeded upon

lines somewhat similar to those of Germany with this

exception: that while German methods lead to centralization of

industries and population, decentralization has been the bed-rock

principle underlying what is known as the Garden City Movement.

The important pioneer legislation having to do with the move-
ment in Great Britain is the Housing of the Working Classes Act,
1890, with amendments. Part I applies only to urban districts and
for its effectiveness seems to depend largely upon official representa-
tion by the local authority for the wholesale clearance of slums and
the erection of model municipal dwellings either on the cleared site
or on suburban land. Part II makes it compulsory upon the owner
to set in order unfit habitations and provides for the demolition of
houses where the owner refuses to act ; while Part III gives to local
authorities the power to buy land, erect houses and lay out open
spaces for parks, playgrounds and gardens. Part V applies to Scot-
land and Part VI to Ireland only.

The latest legislation in respect to housing is that passed by the
British House of Commons in December, 1909. It is markedly in
advance of any previous enactment of a similar character and there-
fore the following synopsis is appended :

THE HOUSING AND TOWN PLANNING ACT, 1909.

The Act is divided into four parts, which may for convenience
be considered under two chief headings, viz. : Part I, Amendments
of the Housing Act 1890-1903; Part II, Town Planning. Part I is
dealt with under Section I of the Act, while Part II is dealt with
under the remaining three sections.

Part I of the Act is to be considered as one with the Housing
of the Working Classes Act, 1890-1903. It gives freedom to local
authorities, and more particularly, rural district authorities, to ex-
ercise the powers granted by the Housing Act, which heretofore have
been granted only to urban authorities. It removes obstacles in the
matter of procedure; restricts the period for which loans may be
left outstanding; and affords increased facilities for the acquisition
of land. At the same time the Local Government Board is given
increased authority and a new and separate branch of the depart-

56 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

ment of the Government has been established for the better adminis-
tration of both Acts. The provisions in regard to the closing and
demolition orders, also those in respect to underground rooms used
as sleeping places, and the erection of back to back houses, form im-
portant features of the Act.

The original Housing Act requires that schemes under Parts I
and II be confirmed by Parliament; but this procedure has now been
removed and confirmation of plans will be made by the Local Gov-
ernment Board.

Part II has an important bearing upon rural health conditions,
as it refers to the appointment of county medical officers and county
public health and housing committees. Section 68, ss. 1 provides
that every County Council shall appoint a Medical Officer of Health,
whose duties shall be those described by the general order of the
Local Government Board. This Medical Officer of Health must de-
vote the whole of his time to the duties of his office, and he can be
dismissed from office only with the consent of the Local Government
Board. Further, it is made imperative upon every County Council
to establish a public health and housing committee, and it is the duty
of County Councils to promote the formation or extension of building
societies by making grants or advances to such societies or by guar-
anteeing advances made to them.

The Local Government Board requires streets intended for car-
riage ways to be not less than 36 feet wide, and of this 24 feet must
be carriage way. Every street more than 100 feet in length must be
constructed as a carriage way.

No domestic building can be erected unless it has in front of it
an open space of 24 feet, measured from the external face of any wall
or building it shall front, and at the rear of such building there must
be an area of one hundred and fifty square feet, without any build-
ing thereon.

Town Planning ^^^ particular features of the housing problem as
and represented by Mr. Vivian are comprised in what he

Co-Partnership |^gj.j^g Co-partnership. A concrete example of this idea
is to be found in the Co-partnership Tenants Societies, which
are registered under the Industrial and Provident Societies Acts
and are limited as to liability. The capital is raised in shares
of £1 to £10 each, payable in full or by instalments. The Act pro-
vides that no person may hold more than £200 in shares; but any
amount may be invested as loan stock, a form of preference capital.
The Committee or Board of Management of each society is elected
by the shareholders, and provision is usually made for the repre-
sentation of tenants on it.

UNSANITARY HOUSING 67

The methods adopted are briefly as follow: A society pur-
chases an estate of land in the suburb of a growing town and plants
or lays out the same so as to provide (a) suitable playing sites for the
tenants and their children; (b) reasonable limitation of the number
of houses to the acre, so that each house may have a private garden;
(c) pleasing architectural effects, both in the grouping and design-
ing of the houses.

Substantially built houses, provided with good sanitary and
other arrangements for the convenience of shareholders desiring to
become tenants, are let at ordinary rents as soon as erected. The
rent charged is sufficient to pay a moderate rate of interest on capital,
usually five per cent, on share and five per cent, on loan stock, the
surplus profits (after providing for expenses, repairs, and sinking
fund) are divided among the tenant members in proportion to the
rents paid by them. Each tenant member's share of profits is
credited to him in capital instead of being paid in cash, until he holds
the value of the house tenanted by him, after which all dividends
may be withdrawn in cash.

In such societies, it will be seen that an individual can obtain
practically all the economic advantages which would arise from the
ownership of his own house. Capital is obtained at a rate of interest
below which the individual could usually borrow to build or buy his
own house, while the preliminary and other expenses are less than
under the individual system. By taking as his security scrip for
shares in an Association of tenant owners, instead of a deed of a
particular site and house, the tenant averages the risk of removal
with his co-partners in the tenancy of the estate. The value of his
accumulated savings is therefore kept up and can be transferred if
desired, at less cost than land or house property of the same value.
The results of a workman's thrift are in this way mobile as well as
his labour; and this is important if he is to get the maximum reward
for his knowledge and industry. Further, tenants having a substan-
tial share in the capital of the society administering the property, are
interested not only in securing good results while they are tenants,
but also after they cease to be tenants, in keeping up the permanent
value of their capital.

The objects of these societies are:

(a) To provide expert advice, based on accumulated ex-
perience of how to buy, lay out, and develop an estate.

(b) To raise capital for such societies as join the Federa-
tion and accept its advice.

(c) To pool orders where practicable so that the benefits of

wholesale dealing in building material shall be secured
to the societies joining the Federation.

58 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION

„^ ^ , . Each tenant society joining the federation must pay

The Federation , •. i • -i -n i ^- ^- . . •/

of up share capital m the i^ederation proportionate to its

Co-Partnership assets, the amount required at present being £10 for
each £1,000 of property. It is intended that a sub-
stantial share of any profit made by the Federation, after paying five
per cent, on shares, will be first allocated to a Reserve Fund, after
which the remainder will be divided amongst its Tenant Society
members in proportion to the use they make of the Federation.
The Federation is governed by a Board, the members of which are
drawn from the Boards of the societies in membership with it.
It has:

(1) A Finance Department for raising money either by issuing
shares, loan stock, or mortgaging, to meet the cost of building on the
various estates, and for advising societies on all matters of finance in
developing estates.

(2) An Accountancy Department for giving advice to societies
in the membership, concerning the best method of keeping accounts
and for periodically seeing that the method is adhered to.

(3) A Buying Department through which orders are pooled for
material and the best terms secured for cash and large dealings.

(4) A Surveying, Planning and Building Supervision Depart-
ment, which is at the service of societies in laying out their estates
and planning and building their houses, the experience and plans of
one society being utilized as far as possible and desirable for others.

It is intended at an early date to undertake the insurance of the
property of its members against fire.

There are at present in the Federation some fourteen societies
owning an area of 615 acres, with 6,225 houses. The estimated cost,
when completed, will be £2,105,990. The assets of the societies
proper in the Federation on December 31st, 1909, was £524,300.

The methods adopted insures that the value of the completed
property is represented in the books of the society as the cost of
materials and labour without any addition for builders', contractors'
or financiers' profit. The cottages, as soon as ready, are generally
occupied by the members who, in addition to paying the usual mar-
ket rent for the premises, increase their shareholding by small
periodic payments until their investment reaches £50. Economy
in construction is followed by economy in administration. Each
tenant is required to pay for internal repairs apart from structural
ones; thus they naturally keep down the cost of such work as much
as possible. The society undertakes the external and structural re-
pairs. The surplus profits being applicable to paying rent bonuses,
each tenant is thus encouraged to do his best to help the society
financially by recommending suitable tenants for new or unlet

UNSANITARY HOUSING 59

cottages and by a general oversight and protection of property from
damage. Loss of revenue by non-payment of rent is guarded against
by the society having liens on the tenants' investments. The
greater the efforts of the tenants in the direction of economy, the
larger the rent bonus is likely to be. Most of the societies have not
been at work long enough to get the full economic advantages of this
system, or to allow of a final estimate being made of what these will
prove to be. After meeting all charges and paying five per cent,
interest on capital, the older societies up to now have been able to
declare a dividend of Is. to Is. 6d. in the pound on rent. Each
society creates a sinking fund at the rate of ten per cent, per annum,
which, capitalized at three and a half per cent., will give the sum
expended on the property in sixty years.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

Los Angeles
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.

Form L9-60ffl-4,'61(B8994s4)444

UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY

A 001 103 278 6

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