^ i

-!o-nr, cH--^—

Southern Branch
of the

University of California

Los Angeles

Form L t

5

This book is DUE on the last date stamped below

5 1929

tPP 2 7 193S
JUL i 8 193^

t^;44

SEP ^f943
JUN 1 0 1952

rm L-9-15rn-8,'24

AGRICULTURE

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2007 with funding from

IVIicrosoft Corporation

http://www.archive.org/details/agriculture00ben5iala

^^

AGRICULTURE

A Text for the School and the Farm

By

O. H. BENSON

AGRICULTURIST. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

and

GEORGE HERBERT BETTS

AUTHOR OF THE MIND AND ITS EDUCATION
BETTER RURAL SCHOOLS. ETC.

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS, CHARTS AND
DIAGRAMS

INDIANAPOLIS

THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY

PUBLISHERS

3966ft

Copyright 1915
The Bobbs-Merrill Company

34-4-00*/

"I know of no pursuit in which more real and
important service can be rendered to any country
than improving its agriculture."

George Washington

AUTHORS' ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Acknowledgment is gratefully made to the Minister of
Agriculture, Canada, for the illustration on page 209; the
United States Department of Agriculture for the illustra-
tions on pages 17, 40, 65, 68, 75, 'j'], 82, 85, 93, 105, 120, 125,
129, 147, 149, 151, 186, 189, 193, 194, 196, 198, 209, 213,
273, 278, 280, 284, 286, 298, 299, 303, 309, 317, 318, 321,
325, 328, 35o» 352, 353, 355, 362, 364, 369, 397 ; the Poultry
Department of the Massachusetts College of Agriculture,
pages 357, 364, 366 ; the Kansas State College of Agriculture,
pages 42, 45 ; the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, page 173 ;
the Washington State College of Agriculture, page 339 ; the
Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, pages
15, 19, 28, 55, 123, 139, 243 ; the College of Agriculture of
the Illinois State University, pages 233, 239, 320, 323; the
College of Agriculture of the University of Wisconsin,
pages 187, 190, 192, 195, 199 ; the College of Agriculture of
the State University of Minnesota, pages 348, 372 ; the Col-
lege of Agriculture of the University of Ohio, page 129;
the Yakima Commercial Club of the State of Washington,
pages 155, 182, 269, 338; the Crop Improvements Commit-
tee, Board of Trade Building, Chicago, page 39; Wallace's
Farmer, Des Moines, Iowa, page 393 ; the Agricultural De-
partment of the International Harvester Company of Chi-
cago, pages 51, 68, 89, 135, 137, 142, 144, 157; the James
Manufacturing Company, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin, pages
239, 246, 411; the DeLaval Separator Company of New
York City, page 383 ; the Lehigh Portland Cement Com-
pany, of Chicago, page 430; the Northern Pacific Railway,
page 341 ; the Hoosier Manufacturing Company, New
Castle, Indiana, page 380, and the David McKay Publish-
ers, Washington Square, Philadelphia, Pa., pages 413, 414,
415.

PREFACE

The present volume attempts what has not yet been ac-
complished in elementary texts on agriculture — the combin-
ing of real practical information with concrete home and
school projects to he carried out by the pupils. Agriculture,
of all subjects, can not be taught from within a text-book.
Nor, on the other hand, can it be well taught by the teacher
who is not a specialist without a good text-book by means
of which to unify the instruction and lead to an intelligent
interest in the farm and its problems. Unless the pupils
busy themselves with actual agricultural activities, the study
becomes mere theory and of doubtful value. This text is a
guide to concrete work and interest on the farm, in the
garden and about the home.

Yet the text is more than a laboratory guide. It gives a
large amount of practical, scientific information wholly
without technical terms. Further, this information is al-
ways so immediately related to definite farm projects as to
have meaning and application. Scientific facts and their use
go hand in hand. Theory and practise are never divorced.
The old maxim, "Learn to do by doing," is constantly fol-
lowed, and the doing made natural and worth while to the
child by being connected with his home interests.

Hardly a day's assignment occurs in the book, therefore,
that does not present some real project for the pupils to
carry out in connection with the farm or home life. Nor
are the problems set the child lacking the information and
guidance necessary to their intellisfcnt solution. The re-

PREFACE

quired facts, principles and descriptions are alwa^ at hand,
and the problem or project made the means of teaching some
valuable lesson in concrete form.

The authors believe that the elementary features of agri-
culture can be successfully taught without technicalities. It
has been their aim to present a treatment so clear that chil-
dren from fourteen to sixteen years of age could read and
profit by it even without a teacher. They have also tried to
make the subject-matter so vital and helpful that all who are
interested in agriculture, even practical farmers, will care to
read it, and desire to carry out its lessons in practise.

Teachers will recognize and welcome the attempt to use
the study of agriculture in bringing about a closer relation
between the school and the home. Not only teachers, but
county superintendents and agricultural agents will appre-
ciate the many helpful suggestions concerning Demonstra-
tion Days, Play Contests and Agricultural Club Projects ;
for these are coming to occupy an important place in agri-
cultural education. The great amount of care given to make
the lessons teachable through the outlining of many definite
and practical laboratory, field and home projects will appeal
to all who use the text, and save much time for the busy
teacher.

The authors gratefully render their acknowledgments for
much cordial help received from the staffs of various state
colleges of agriculture and the United States Department of
Agriculture. Especially valuable have been the suggestions
and material received from the colleges of agriculture of
Iowa, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Ohio, New York, Massa-
chusetts, Alabama, Minnesota, Kansas and Nebraska.

CONTENTS

PART I. FARM CROPS

CHAPTER PAGE

I Corn Culture ........... 1

Corn the king of crops — The "corn belt" — The corn plant
— Determining the stand — Stand in the home field — Corn
enemies — Topics for investigation — Saving the seed — Types
of corn — The selection bed — Corn judging with score-card
— Testing the seed — Problems and experiments — Preparing
seed for the planter — Seed bed and planting — Cultivating ^
the corn — Harvesting and storing — The silo — Uses of corn w^
— Topics for investigation — Corn demonstrations — Corn
play contests — Corn club projects.

II Wheat 64

Bread the staff of life — Importance of wheat — The wheat
states — Types of wheat — Topics for investigation — Growing
the crop — Diseases and insect enemies — Treatment of fun-
gous enemies — Treatment of insect enemies — Problems and
experiments.

Ill Oats . . » . . . . 80

In:
oats-

Importance of oats as a crop — The oats region — Types of
uats — Problems and experiments — Raising the crop — Har-
vesting and thrashing — Insect enemies and diseases — Topics
for investigation — Wheat and oat demonstrations — Play
contests — Club projects.

IV The Potato . , . . * . .• . . . . 98

Origin — Plant and tuber — Potatoes as a farm crop — The
potato region — Growing the crop — Harvesting and storing
potatoes — Seed selection — The "tuber-unit" method — Potato
enemies — Problems and experiments — Potato demonstra-
tions— Play contests — Potato clubs.

V Forage Crops 113

The place of forage crops — Important grasses and le-
gumes— Region and extent of forage crops — Uses to which
the forage plants are put — Problems and experiments —
Demonstrations — Club projects.

CONTENTS— (Continued)

CHAPTER PAGE

VI The Clovers 119

Wide use of the clovers — Red clover — Study of the plant
— Value of red clover on the farm — Raising red clover —
Seed bed and seeding — Good seed — Harvesting — Enemies
and their control — Other kinds of clover — Problems for in-
vestigation.

VII Alfalfa ......: 133

Study of plant — Distribution of alfalfa — Alfalfa as a
forage crop — As a renewer of the soil — Successful raising
of alfalfa — Harvesting — Enemies — Topics for investigation.

VIII Other Legumes . 146

The cow-pea — Cow-peas as forage — As a soil renewer —
The vetches — Varieties — Uses — Soy-beans — Uses and culti-
vation— Feeding value — The peanut.

IX Meadows and Pastures ........ 154

Importance of meadows and pastures — Requirements of a
meadow — Meadow grasses and legumes — Mixtures for
meadows — Care of meadows — Problems for investigation —
Pastures — Requirements — Seed mixtures — Care.

PART II. HORTICULTURE

X The Vegetable Garden ..,..„.. 165

Importance of garden — Location and soil — Plan — Table
of planting and rhaturing — Garden culture — The hotbed —
Insect enemies — Other enemies — Problems and experiments
— Garden demonstrations — Play contests — Oub and canning
projects.

XI The Fruit Garden 180

Profits and satisfaction — Soil and location — Plan — A vari-
ety list — Care of fruit garden — Enemies and their treatment
— Spraying — Problems and experiments — Demonstrations —
Play contests — Fruit clubs.

XII The Tomato 201

Importance of the tomato — Varieties — Raising the crop —
Pruning and staking — Harvesting and marketing — Problems
and experiments — Demonstrations — Play contests — Clubs.

CONTENTS— (Continued)

CHAPTER PAGE

XIII Garden and Orchard Sprays 208

Indispensable in successful gardening — Bordeaux mixture
— Use — Lime-sulphur — How made and used — Arsenate of
lead — Mixing and applying — Paris green — Kerosene emul-
sion— How made and used — Resin-lime mixture.

XIV Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables . . . 217

Value of home canned foods — Recipes for home canning
— Time table for canning — Canning outfits.

PART III. THE SOIL

XV Nature of Soil 225

Origin of soil — Nature of soil — Organic matter — Texture
and its effects — Structure of soils — Structure and tilth —
Erosion — Problems and experiments.

XVI Soil Fertility and Plant Growth 226

Plant food and soil fertility — Loss of fertility — Maintain-
ing fertility — Barnyard manure as a fertilizer — Preventing
loss from manure — Application to soil — Green manuring —
Commercial fertilizers — Use of lime on soils — Crop rota-
tion and fertility.

XVII Soil Moisture 251

Forms of soil water — Capacity of soils for capillary
water — Tillage and soil water — Soil drainage — Surface and
tile drains — Soil demonstrations — Problems and experiments
— Soil play contests — Club work.

PART IV. FARM ANIMALS

XVIII Farm Animals and Agriculture 265

Work animals — Animals that supply food — Other animal
products — Topics for investigation.

XIX Cattle 272

Dairy cattle — Profitable and unprofitable cows — The dairy
type — Selecting dairy cows by milk tests — Dairy breeds —
Feeding for milk production — Producing clean milk — Beef
breeds — Judging cattle — Tuberculosis in cattle — Experi-
ments and problems — Demonstrations with cattle — Play
contests — ^Club projects.

CONTENTS— (Continued)

CHAPTER ^ PAGE

XX Horses , . . . .296

The horse-raising states — Classes of horses — Breeds —
Judging horses — Common defects of horses — Care and
training — Feeding : work rations — Topics for investigation —
Demonstrations with horses — Play contests — Club projects.

XXI Swine 315

Pork region — Breeds of hogs — Care hog houses — Feeding :
balanced rations — Diseases — Prevention and treatment of
cholera^ Problems and experiments — Demonstrations —
Play contests — Club projects.

XXII Sheep 336

Importance on farm — Breeds of sheep — Feeding: rations
— Experiments and problems — Demonstrations — Play con-
tests— Club work.

XXIII Poultry 346

Importance on farm — Extent of industry — Breeds of
chickens-^Producing chickens — Hens and incubators — Test-
ing eggs — Feeding chickens — Producing and marketing eggs
— Housing poultry — Poultry diseases — Topics for investiga-
tion— Poultry demonstrations — Play contests — Club projects.

PART V. FARM ECONOMICS

XXIV Farm and Home Management 375

Planning the farm — Administration of farms — Farm
accounts — Important rules — Ten commandments of agricul-
ture— Topics for investigation — The farm house — Other
farm buildings.

XXV The Home Grounds and Wood Lot .... 389

Beautifying the home grounds — Trees — The lawn — The
farm wood lot — Tree enemies — Problems and experiments
— Demonstrations — Play contests — Tree and grounds club.

XXVI The County Agricultural Agent .... 401

Work of the county agent — Financial support — The
county agent and the school — How to make use of the
county agent.

CONTENTS— (Continued)

CHAPTER PAGE

XXVII Farm Implements and Mechanics .... 408

Importance of implements and tools — Farm mechanics —
Use of cement — Shop work — Rope tying and splicing —
Problems and experiments — Play contests — Club projects,

XXXVIII Road Building and Maintenance .... 420

Importance of good roads — Types of roads — Location of
a road — Qualities making a good road — Construction of
earth roads — Maintenance — Topics for investigation— Road
demonstrations — Road clubs.

XXIX Birds and Other Insect Destroyers , . . . 432

Birds and their food — Birds helpful to agricultut
Harmful birds — Protecting birds — Topics for investigation
— Other insect destroyers.

XXX Miscellaneous Information ' . 441

How to remove stains — Location of colleges of agricul-
ture and experiment stations — Distance apart for planting
fruits and vegetables — Quantity of seed per acre for
planting.

Index

AGRICULTURE

JO
g

AGRICULTURE

PART I. FARM CROPS

CHAPTER I
CORN CULTURE

CORN is king of farm crops. The value of the corn
crop is almost equal to that of cotton, wheat and oats
combined, and totals more than a billion dollars annually.
We feed our stock upon corn, eat it for our own food and
use it in many other ways. The welfare and prosperity of
millions of people are dependent on securing a good crop
of corn.

Three-fourths of the corn crop of the world is grown in
the United States. Each year we produce more than
2,500,000,000 bushels. Should we load this enormous crop
into wagons, fifty bushels to the load, and allow twenty feet
for each wagon and team, the line would reach about eight
times around the earth at the equator.

Taking the whole country together, the average yield
of corn per acre is slightly less than thirty bushels. The
states best adapted to corn raising are Illinois, Iowa, Ne-
braska, Missouri, Kansas, Indiana and Ohio. These seven
states, which are called the "corn belt" of the United States,
raise nearly half of all the world's corn. In them the yield
is somewhat over forty bushels to the acre. This is a much
smaller crop than could be raised if the soil were enriched,
and greater care and skill used in growing the crop. A

1

2 AGRICULTURE

large number of com club boys in different states have pro-
duced as much as one hundred fifty bushels froni an acre,
and not a few in the southern states have raised more than
two hundred bushels. One of the things we shall try to
learn in this book is how to raise a larger crop of corn from
our fields.

1. The Corn Plant

Corn belongs to the grass family ; that is, it is a member
of the same group of plants as timothy, wheat, rye, or blue-
grass.

In order to study the corn plant itself, each of the class
will secure from a near-by field, or bring from home, a com-
plete stalk of corn, taking care to save as much of the
root as possible. Then use the text as a help in studying
the plant.

The roots. — Examining the roots, do you find them
tough and fibrous, or tender? Do the roots branch, or is
there a central tap root? At earing time the roots of a
vigorous plant may extend down several feet, and spread
out so that they meet the roots from other hills. The
ground of a corn-field may thus be completely filled with
roots. In dry seasons the roots strike deeper than in wet
seasons. Why ? Would you expect the roots to run deeper
in a black porous soil, or in a hard clay subsoil?

Are there roots branching from the lower one or two
joints of the stalk, thus starting from above the top of the
ground? Roots growing in this way are called brace roots.
They act like the guy ropes of a tent pole, and hold the stalk
erect in the winds. If these are broken off by close plow-
ing, or destroyed by worms, the corn is easily blown down.

The stem. — How long is the stem? What is its girth
just above the root? How many leaves has it? From
where do these start? How are they attached? Are the

A good stand of corn. The yield was 105 bushels to the acre.
The boy tested the seed.

4 AGRICULTURE

edges of the blades longer than the center? What proof
have you?

The length of the stem varies with different varieties of
corn, and because of differences in the season or the soil.
The range is from two or three feet to fifteen or twenty feet.
The stem is divided by joints called nodes; the sections be-
tween these joints are called internodes.

Is the stem round, or flattened? Cut the stem across
and note the structure. Unlike most other grasses, corn is
not hollow. The spongy substance with which the hard
outside shell is filled is called pith. The threads found run-
ning lengthwise through the pith add greatly to the-strength
of the stalk.

The leaves. — ^The leaves are important in the growth
of the plant, since in them the plant food is worked over
and assimilated, and through them the respiration, or breath-
ing, of the plant is done. The leaves are large, and hence
have to stand much tugging in the wind. Are they stronger
because of their sheath-like form of attachment ? Will they
tear as easily in a strong wind if the outer edges are slight-
ly longer than the center? Large vigorous leaves indicate a
healthy plant. In very dry weather, the leaves curl up from
the edges. This is a useful habit, since the leaf when thus
rolled up does not lose so much moisture as when fully
open.

Tassel and silk. — Strip the husk carefully from an
ear in the milk stage, without injuring the silks. How
many silks are there? Where are the silks attached to the
ear? While tassel and silk are borne on different parts of
the plant, yet it takes both together to make the complete
flower of the corn and produce the ear. The tassel repre-
sents the male part, and the silk the female part of the
flower.

The work of the tassel is to produce pollen. This sifts

CORN CULTURE 5

off in fine grains just as the corn is silking. A particle of
pollen lodges on the tip of a silk, and a growth is carried
through the center of the tiny thread to its root, where the
kernel forms. The pollen in this way fertilises the silks,
one silk for each kernel of corn. If for any reason no
fertilization occurs, no kernels will be formed.

The pollen grains are very light, and may be carried by
the wind for many rods, thus fertilizing the silks of other
plants than their own. This is called cross-fertilization.
The reason different varieties of corn planted in near-by
fields mix is because the pollen is carried from one field
to the other.

Have you ever seen an ear with part of the kernels
white and the rest red, or yellow? How is this to be ex-
plained? A small patch of pop-corn planted near field corn
turned out to be badly mixed, although the seed used was
pure. How do you account for the mixture?

2. Determining the Stand

In order to raise a full yield of corn we must first of all
have a good stand. Corn is usually planted in rows about
three and a half feet apart each way. On good com land
three stalks seem to make the best hill. It is plain that if
the hills have but one or two stalks each, or if whole hills
are frequently missing, there can not be a full crop.

Importance of a good stand. — Farmers often lose
much of their labor and a large amount of money because
of a poor stand of corn. It requires as much work to pre-
pare the ground and cultivate the corn for half or two-
thirds of a stand as if every hill was present and had its
three stalks.

How is it with the farms in your own neighborhood?
With your father's farm? What kind of a stand do the

6 AGRICULTURE

corn-lields show? The best way to answer this question is
to go out into the fields and count the hills. Tliis is the
way the scientist works ; he makes sure, and does not guess.
We will therefore determine the stand on several plots se-
lected from different parts of a field of corn and discover
whether the farmer is losing labor and money because the
stand is imperfect.

Preparing for field study. — Before going out to the
field rule off four forms like the following in your note-
book, each square to represent a hill of corn :

3. Record of Stand of Corn

PLOT NO.

Counting stand in the field. — Now go to a near-by field
and select what appears to be an average plot of corn, ten
hills square. Go through the plot carefully, counting the
stalks in each hill, and recording the number in the proper

CORN CULTURE 7

square on your record sheet. Hills having more than three
stalks are to be recorded as having only three, as three
stalks to the hill make the best stand on average soil, if
planted three and one-half feet each way.

Having cornpleted the count on this plot, select three
other plots in different parts of the field, count the hills
and make the record in your note-book for each plot sepa-
rately. We are now ready to estimate the stand for the
entire field. To do this, we shall need to work out the
following problems, keeping the results in our note-books :

1. If every hill had three stalks, how many stalks
would there be on each plot.'* How many on all four
plots ?

2. yow many hills in each of the plots had three stalks?
Two stalks? One stalk? No stalk? How many stalks
altogether in each of the plots? In all the plots combined?

3. What percentage of a perfect stand do all four plots
average? If the entire field averages as good a stand as
the plots, what percentage of a stand has it?

4. How many acres in the entire field? How many
acres did the farmer plow and tend which, because of an
imperfect stand, raised no corn ?

'5. What will this field probably yield to the acre?
Suppose the ears would still average the same size, what
would it yield with a perfect stand ? At the market price of
corn, what difference in value would this make per acre?
For the whole field?

Counting stand in home fields. — After having made
this study, you will naturally want to know about your
home fields of corn. Therefore prepare other record sheets
in your note-books, and count the stand on four different
plots of your father's corn, making careful records as you
did in the first study. Then work out the five problems for
the home field as you did for the field studied at school.
Show the results to your father, and talk with him about

8 AGRICULTURE

tHe cause of the imperfect stand. Also compare your re-
sults with the stand found in the home fields of 5ther mem-
bers of the class, and see if you can discover what produces
the differences in stand. Barring bad weather at planting
time, worms and other pests, at least a ninety-five per cent,
stand should always be secured.

Barren stalks and suckers. — Merely having the right
number of stalks in the field does not insure a crop, however.
These stalks must bear ears. There are two classes of
stalks that are of no use, barren stalks and suckers.

Strong and vigorous-looking stalks may be barren. Bar-
renness may be caused by weak seed, injuries to the roots
by worms or insects, diseases, poor soil, drought, or too thick
planting. Suckers are but branches from the parent stalks,
and have no root of their own. They are worse than useless,
for they seldom bear ears, and are but a drain on the stalk
which supports them. Suckers are caused by thin planting,
especially in rich heavy land. There are also some strains
of com which, through heredity, are likely to grow suckers.
Seed from sucker-bearing stalks should not be planted.

Counting barren stalks and suckers. — We shall now
determine the percentage of barren stalks and suckers in a
field. Take either the plots already counted for stand or
new ones, and go over them, counting the ears. Make a
record sheet of squares as before. In these squares record
(1) the number of stalks that has two ears, (2) that has
one ear, (3) that has no ear. Do this for each of four
plots ten hills square.

Summing Up Results

1. What percentage of the stalks bears two ears? One
ear?

2. What percentage of stalks is barren? If this per-
centage holds for the entire field, how much is the yield

CORN CULTURE 9

reduced per acre, supposing the field as it now stands will
yield forty bushels ?

3. What percentage of the stalks bears suckers? How
many of the suckers had ears?

4. What do you judge was the cause of the barren
stalks? Of the suckers?

4. Corn Enemies

Plants, like animals, are subject to certain diseases.
Corn is usually a healthy plant, and not affected by as
many diseases as some of the other crops. The most seri-
ous enemies of corn are various insects, such as the corn-
root worm, the corn-root aphis or louse, the cutworm, the
ear worm ; and such animals as gophers, squirrels and birds.

The corn-root worm. — This pest is responsible, over
a large area of the country, for greater loss to the corn crop
than any other cause except poor seed, and often probably
inflicts more damage than all other insects put together.
It has been estimated that its damage in the corn belt alone
exceeds 200,000,000 bushels annually. Because the root
worm is very small and does its work under ground, it is
seldom seen, and probably could not be identified by many
farmers to whom it has caused thousands of dollars of
loss. It is present in some degree in almost every corn-
field.

At full size the root worm is about one-third inch in
length, and as large around as a pin. It is whitish in color,
with its head and the first segment of its body brown. The
root worm hatches in June or early July, and reaches its
full growth by the first of August. Soon after this it goes
into the pupa state, and in a few days comes out a small
green beetle. This beetle lays the eggs, which remain in
the ground over winter and hatch the next generation of
root worms the following spring.

As soon as the young worms are hatched out they enter

CORN CULTURE 11

the roots of the growing corn, burrowing back and forth
just under the outside covering. Half a dozen worms are
sometimes found in the one root, and as many as two hun-
dred in a single hill. The worm destroys the tender part of
the root, which turns brown and rots off, leaving only the
stubs of roots. As a result, the stalk of corn is deprived of
its means of securing moisture and nourishment. It seems
to stand still instead of making a vigorous growth, and
fires badly during the dry weather of July and August.
It is easily blown over, especially after a rain when the
ground is soft. The yield is greatly reduced, and the ears
are light and chaffy ; many stalks are barren. The growth
of the plant is retarded, and the crop is later in maturing.

There is no way of stopping these pests once they begin
on a field of corn. But the remedy is simple for the next
year — wherever possible plant the field to some other crop.
For this will leave the young worms with no food, and
they will all die. The field can then be planted to corn
again, and should be free from root worms for at least
the first year. Usually corn should not be raised for
more than two years in succession on the same field. Es-
pecially if the corn goes down in spots in August, and if
the roots show the working of these worms, should com
not follow the next season. If proper rotation of crops is
practised, there will be little or no loss from the root worm.

The corn-root aphis or louse. — Second to the root
worm, the wvrst enemy of corn is the corn-root aphis. This
is a small louse, no larger than the head of a pin, and of a
bluish-green color. These lice are found in groups on the
roots of corn, from which they suck the juices intended for
the growth of the plant.

The corn-root aphis is always found accompanied by
ants. Indeed, it is the ants which carry the lice to the

12 AGRICULTURE

cdm roots, or to the roots of certain weeds after the com
roots have become hard. The ants take this ^are of the
aphis because it gives out a sweet substance called "honey
dew," upon which the ants feed. The presence of many
ants in the corn-field, especially ant-holes in the hill, is
a sign of the root aphis.

The worst damage by the aphis is done while the corn
is very young. The lice sometimes destroy the roots even
before the plant comes up. The effect of their work on the
corn roots causes the plant to turn yellow and take on a
sickly appearance. If they are very severe in their attack,
the tips of the leaves become purplish, and the stem reddish
in color. The yield of the crop is greatly reduced, and its
ripening delayed.

Rotation of crops is one of the surest remedies against
this pest. Harrowing the Held before the corn comes up, or
while it is small, interferes with the work of the ants, and
hence checks the ravages of the aphis. Keeping the fields
clean of weeds is also necessary, since the lice thrive on
the roots of such plants as smartweed and foxtail.

Cutworms. — Cutworms do little damage except on
sod land which has been in meadow or pasture for a num*
ber of years. They are a grayish-brown color, and grow
to an inch or more in length. Cutworms work at night,
cutting the young stalk of corn off just at the surface of
the ground.

One remedy for cutworms is the fall plowing of sod,
thus exposing the insects to the freezing of winter. This
will greatly reduce their number. A shorter rotation of
crops, leaving the field in sod but one or two years, will also
tend to destroy the cutworms.

Wireworms. — Wireworms also make thei^ home in
sod, and hence are worst in newly broken ground. They

CORN CULTURE 13

are the larvse of the click-beetle, whose eggs are laid in
meadows and pastures in the fall. They hatch out as small
reddish-brown worms in the early spring. The worms at-
tack the sprouting kernel, and also bore holes through
the young plant. Fall plowing and rotation of crops are
the best remedies against the wireworm.

The com ear worm. — The worm is usually found
working in the tips of corn ears. It attacks not only corn,
but cotton and many other plants.

The corn ear worm lives through the winter in the
pupa stage, and comes out in the spring as a moth. There
are several broods each season, but only the last does any
great damage to the corn. The harm done by the ear
worm is not great, except to sweet corn intended for can-
ning. There is no certain remedy known, though fall
plowing is thought to reduce their number.

Smut. — The most common disease aflfecting corn is
smut. The smut masses seen on growing corn are pro-
duced by a small, parasitic plant which lives on the juices
of the corn plant. Smut spores, corresponding to seeds,
live over winter in the soil, or may be distributed in
manure spread on the field, or may even be blown consid-
erable distances from other fields.

The slimy black masses of smut are found on the
stalk, leaves, tassel, or ear. Since smut must live ofif
the strength of its host, it is evident that the corn plant
is \^eakened and the yield reduced by the presence of this
disease. There is no effective remedy for corn smut, though
the burning of smut balls, keeping it from the manure used
on the field, and the rotation of crops all tend to control it.

Topics for Investigation
1. The corn-root worm of the North can be found at

14 AGRICULTURE

work only from late June to early August. During late
August and September the worm is found onlv in the beetle
stage. Go into a corn-field and secure several of these
beetles. They are green, and about twice the size of a pin-
head. Learn to recognize the insect at sight.

2. If possible secure a number of the pupae of the corn-
root worm. About the middle of August they can be found
in great numbers around the roots of corn in a field where
the worms have been at work. Keep the pupae in warm
moist soil in a box covered with netting or glass and watch
for the beetles to come out.

3. Find hills of corn which have suffered from the
corn-root worm. How do you discover where they have
been at work? Does the hill pull up easily as compared
with a good hill? What is the condition of the ear?

4. Observe several fields that have been in corn for a
number of years in succession. Do they show signs of the
root worm? Compare with fields on which a rotation of
crops has been grown.

5. Secure several ears of corn in which the ear worm
has been working. How does the worm proceed in its
attack? Make a study of the worm, and become able to
identify it at sight. Would you want to eat canned sweet
corn from a field which had suffered from these worms ?

6. Secure samples of corn smut affecting (1) the ear,
(2) the tassel, (3) the stem, (4) the leaves. Does the
stalk look healthy? Is the ear good? After the smut ball
is dry, note the fine powder which flies from it. This is
the spores which reproduce the plant for next year.

7. If possible, secure samples of the corn-root aphis,
the cutworm and the wireworm. Learn to identify all these
accurately and quickly. •

8. Other such enemies to be noted are : the corn moth
or caterpillar, the stalk borer, the white grub and the corn
bill bug. If possible, secure specimens of these, learn to
identify them, tell how they damage the crop and how to
exterminate them.

5. Saving the Seed

The first care if we would secure a good stand of corn
is the seed. We jnust have seed that will grow and show

Gathering seed before it freezes.

The difference between good seed and poor seed. Each picture
shows the yield from one acre in adjoining fields. Upper pic-
ture, poor seed : yield, 22.8 bushels ; marketable, 73.9% ; nub-
bins, 26.1% ; seed, none. Lower picture, good seed : yield, 66.5
bushels; marketable, S6.77o ; nubbins. 6.3%; seed, 7%.

16 AGRICULTURE

strong vitality. Most of the poor stands which we discov-
ered in the fields we have just been studying no doubt
came from seed that either failed to germinate, or else
threw out plants so weak that they were unable to live
through the cold damp weather of early spring.

The loss from poor seed. — The loss from the planting
of poor seed is enormous. There are more than one hun-
dred million acres of corn planted every year in the United
States. This requires some sixteen million bushels of seed.
But of. these sixteen million bushels, it has been estimated
by government experts that three million bushels fail to
grow or produce barren stalks. Think of planting three
million bushels of worthless seed corn each year!

Let us see what this great waste means. The average
yield of corn to the acre in the United States is slightly
under thirty bushels, or only one small ear to the
hill. For, counting 3,556 hills to the acre, one ten-ounce
ear to the hill would yield almost thirty-two bushels to the
acre; and an ear weighing only ten ounces is little more
than a nubbin. Our farmers are therefore averaging but
one small ear to the hill in all their corn-fields. If they
should increase the stand and improve the corn so that
from each hill they get two medium-sized ears, each weigh-
ing twelve and one-half ounces, the yield will be eighty
bushels to the acre instead of thirty bushels. Will it not
pay to select good seed?

When seed corn should be gathered. — There is no
more important work on the farm than the selection and
care of seed corn for the next crop. Freezing before it
is fully dry almost always injures the seed so that it either
will fail to sprout, or else will produce a weak plant. Seed
corn should therefore be gathered as early in the fall as it
is well ripened. The time for saving seed in the "corn
belt" is from September twentieth to October tenth.

A

|{

V

]>

1<]

Illustration of the yield of com per acre, allowing a single stalk
for each hill of. 31/2 feet. (A) 28.8 bushels; (B) 30 bushels;
(C) 40 bushels; (D) 45 bushels; (E) 50 bushels.

Stringing seed corn, — the first step. The second step. The
string completed.

18 AGRICULTURE

How to gather seed corn. — Securing good seed re-
quires that seed corn shall be gathered from the field be-
fore the general crop is harvested. The proper way to se-
lect seed corn is to pass through the best parts of the field,
row by row, with a sack slung over the shoulder, examin-
ing each promising-looking ear from a good stalk and full
hill, and taking the ear if it proves acceptable. This looks
like a good deal of work, but when it is remembered that
twelve to fifteen ears will plant an acre, and that the dif-
ference between a yield of thirty bushels or of sixty bush-
els to the acre may result from having good seed, it is well
worth the time. From three to five bushels a day may be
selected in this way — enough to plant from twenty-five
to forty acres of next season's crop.

The right kind of seed hill. — Tn selecting ears for
seed it is important to take into account all the surround-
ings of the plant. It is plain that ears grown on stalks
which stand but one in a hill, or next to missing hills, have
a better chance to grow large than those from full hills.
A large ear grown under such favorable conditions might
not produce so well as somewhat smaller ears grown un-
der less favorable conditions. We want to be sure that the
ear is good size because of something in the nature of the
ear itself, rather than from what has happened to it while
growing. Mature good ears from hills having three stalks
are desirable, for this condition promises a good yield. The
stalk should be sturdy, not too tall, and have plenty of
broad full leaves.

Curing the seed. — Caring for the seed after it is picked
is as important as its selection. The great thing in caring
for seed corn just picked from the field is to give it a
chance to dry thoroughly. To do this, it must be where it
can get plenty of circulating air. Tlie ears should not
touch one another, for then they will not dry evenly. Seed

Seed corn hung up to dry.

Another method of drying seed corn.

20 AGRICULTURE

corn should therefore never be stacked in piles or thrown
into a crib after it is gathered, but should be hung up in
some open place sheltered from the direct, sun, if the weather
is still hot, and from all rain or other forms of moisture.

One of the simplest and best ways to hang seed corn
is by stringing it. By this method each string con-
tains a dozen ears — ^almost enough to plant an acre. To
hang corn in this way, cut a string of binding twine twelve
feet long, and tie the ends together, thus forming a loop.
One person should operate the string, and another handle
the ears. Place the first ear in the strings, and pass one
end of the loop through the other end, tightening down to
the ear. Place the next ear in the same way, and keep on
until the string has all been taken up. Hang the stringer
of ears up in a uniformly dry place and it will need no
more attention until time comes for testing the seed. This
plan should be followed after each day's picking, not even
allowing the corn to lie over night before being hung to dry.

Another plan of drying out seed corn is to lay the ears
side by side on shelves, where there is free circulation of
air, and where mice ajid rats can not reach the corn. Where
this plan is followed, the shelves should be made of slats,
and not of solid boards, so as to allow the air to get to
all parts of the ear.

Hanging the ears by tying a part of the husks works
well, but takes more time, and also takes up more room
than to use the twine loop for hanging a dozen ears in one
string. Still another method is to drive ten-penny finishing
nails four inches apart in a post, sticking the butt of the
ear on the nail.

6. Types of Corn

There are altogether seven different types of corn.
These are: (1) pod corn, (2) soft corn, (3) sweet corn, (4)

CORN CULTURE 21

pop-corn, (5) Kafir corn, (6) flint corn, and (7) dent
corn.

Pod corn. — Most of those who will study this book
have never seen pod corn grown. It has a thin husk around
each separate kernel. This type of corn is of interest chiefly
because it is thought to be the oldest type, from which all
other types have developed. The chaff or scale at the base
of the kernels of our common varieties is probably a rem-
nant of the kernel husk of the old pod corn. Pod corn will
grow in almost any temperate region.

Soft corn. — Soft corn, like pod corn, is not grown as a
staple crop in the United States. This is the Mondamin of
the American Indians, and was favored by them because it
was very easily ground. Its softness is caused by the fact
that its endosperm is all of soft white starch, wholly lacking
the horny starch of the other types. Little of this type is
grown except in the South.

Sweet com. — Sweet corn is widely grown for human
food. It is used green as "roasting-ears," and is canned
while green and kept in this state for almost any length of
time. Sweet com does not produce so large a yield as
some other kinds, and hence is not grown for feeding stock.
It is grown throughout the com territory.

Pop-corn. — Pop-corn is distinguished for the hardness
of its kernel. It is just the opposite of soft corn, and has
an endosperm nearly all of hard horny starch. When the
kernels are heated and the moisture in them expands, an
explosion occurs which we call popping. Pop-corn can be
raised in all parts of the corn region.

Kafir com. — Botanically Kafir is not really a member
of the corn family, but belongs to the sorghums. For
agricultural purposes, however, Kafir may be considered
a type of corn. Its medium-sized seeds grow in a cylin-
drical or oblong head instead of on an ear. Kafir is grown

22 AGRICULTURE

in the semi-arid regions of the Southwest. It is a good
substitute for corn in the ration of all farm animals.

Flint corn. — Flint corn is the prevailing type yet
raised in New England and in New York. It is to be rec-
ognized by the long slender ear, and by the hard flinty ker-
nel, which contains a large amount of horny starch. Flint
corn does not require so long a season as dent corn, and
hence is preferred in northern regions where there is dan-
ger of the crop being caught by the frost before it is ripe.
As earlier varieties of dent corn are being developed, they
are displacing flint corn in many regions.

Dent, corn. — This is the principal corn raised in the
great corn producing regions of the United States. In
fact it supplies the greater part of the world's com crop.
It is called deiit corn because the soft starch of the crown
shrinks slightly in ripening, thus causing a depression in
the top of the kernel. It is the type grown almost ex-
clusively for feeding stock, and all the commercial corn
products, such as glucose, starch, sirup, etc., are made
from it. Dent corn has two varieties: (1) single ear, or
One ear to the stalk, as grown in the corn belt; and (2)
prolific, or many ears to the stalk, as grown in the South.

Types and varieties. — Each different type of corn may
have many varieties. As a matter of fact, however, the
types that are most grown have the largest number of vari-
eties, or strains. Varieties of com are produced in three
different ways: (1) by selecting some exceptional or pe-
culiar ear, and using it for seed, picking out for seed each
year the ears most nearly like the original parent ear until
the variety is established; (2) by cross breeding; and (3)
by selecting each year for planting the best ears, — the
earliest ears, the largest ears, the best shaped ears, or ears
that possess whatever quality is wanted in the new variety.
If this same quality is selected year after year, the variety

An illustration of the prolific corn common
in the southern states. It will grow 2 to 8
ears of corn on each stalk. It requires a
subtropical climate, copious rainfall and a
long season.

Types of corn. (1) pod corn; (2) three strains of flint corn;
(3) two strains of sweet corn; (4) two strains of pop-corn;
(5) two strains of dent corn.

24 AGRICULTURE

will after a time have a tendency to "breed true"; that is,
all to be like the ears selected for seed.

Selecting the best variety. — Different varieties are
suited for different climates and for different soils. It is
therefore important in selecting a variety of corn to know
whether it is adapted to the conditions under which it is
to be raised.

Topics for Investigation

1. How many of the seven different types of corn have
you ever seen ? How many are grown in your region ? (Be
sure to distinguish type from variety.) .

2. Bring to school a sample of as many different types
as you can find. What three can you easily secure if you
live in the Middle West? What ones can you secure if you
live in New England ? If you live in Oklahoma or Alabama ?

3. Examine these different types for the size of the
ear; for the shape; for the shape of kernel; for color; for
proportion of corn to cob ; for the parts of the kernel.

4. Is the corn raised on your father's farm a true
variety, or is it mixed? If true, what is the variety?

5. How many varieties of corn do you know? Join
with your classmates in making as large a collection of sam-
ples of different varieties as can be found in the neighbor-
hood. Comparing these ears for the different qualities by
which ears are judged, what are the differences you note?
Which seems to you the best variety? Does it yield best?
Does it ripen ? Does it have good feeding and selling qual-
ities ?

7. Raising Seed in a Selection Bed

The first step necessary in improving corn is to improve
the seed. Not only must we make sure that the corn se-
lected for seed will grow, but it must be as nearly perfect
in every way as possible. For heredity works in plants as
well as in animals. We select the best stock for breeding ;
we should do the same in choosing the seed we plant. Good,
strong, well-formed ears will tend to produce corn of the

CORN CULTURE

25.

same kind, while small, irregular, or weak ears will breed
the characteristics of their kind.

Choosing the selection bed. — So important is the mat-
ter of the very best corn for seed, that many farmers are
now using what is called the selection bed for the raising of

A sample of coru showing good tip ends.

seed. The selection bed should be a choice plot of ground
of from one to three acres, depending on the size of the
farm. This plot is specially prepared, planted with the
choicest seed, tested for growth and vitality, and is given
the best of care.

The selection bed should be by itself if you want pure

26 AGRICULTURE

seed. It may be a part of the general field, if located at
the south or southwest side, so that the prevailing summer
winds may carry the pollen to all parts of the plot, and
even to the remainder of the field. This plot should never
be placed where it will receive the pollen from some neigh-
boring field of different variety, of mixed, or poor grade
corn.

Care at tasseling time. — At tasseling time the selec-
tion bed requires special attention. As already explained,
this is because the tassel, which is the male flower of the
corn, bears the pollen necessary to fertilize the silk, which
is the female flower. There is one silk for each kernel.
The silk has to be fertilized by a single grain of pollen fall-
ing upon it. If pollen from a different variety of corn fer-
tilizes the silks, the result is a mixed breed. If the pollen
comes from weak or faulty stalks, the ears formed are im-
perfect, or the stalk may remain barren.

In the selection bed, as in the remainder of the field,
there will be found weak stalks, barren stalks and suckers,
all of which may bear tassels, and hence produce pollen.
But the pollen from these faulty stalks should not be allowed
to fertilize the ear-bearing stalks. To prevent this, it is
necessary to go into the selection bed when the first tassels
begin to appear, and cut out all the faulty stalks, so that
their pollen may do no damage. This is a very important
matter in raising good seed, and should never be neg-
lected. Weak parentage in corn, as in stock, should be pre-
vented.

Taking seed from selection bed. — The same care
should be observed in selecting seed from the selection bed
as from the general field. Each year the choicest and strong-
est ears should be used in planting the selection bed. In
this way, almost any variety cf corn can be improved, and
much larger and better yields obtained.

CORN CULTURE 27

Home-grown seed the best. — As a rule, home-grown
seed is best, provided it is carefully selected, and kept
improving from year to year. It takes corn shipped in from
another region several years to adapt itself to the new condi-
tions so that it will do as well as in its home place. Corn
does not "run out," as many farmers believe, but is run out
by farmers who are careless in the selection of seed.

Topics for Investigation

1. Has your father ever used the selection bed, or "seed
patch" for the raising of his seed corn? How many of the
farmers in your neighborhood so use it ?

2. Good seed corn from a favorite variety sells at from
two dollars to as much as ten dollars a bushel. Sup-
pose that you should plant a selection bed of two acres,
and secure sixty bushels per acre, one-third of which is suit-
able for seed. If cribbed corn is worth fifty cents a bushel,
and seed corn three dollars, what is the return from the
two acres? How much greater is the return than if the
corn had all been sold for feed? All corn club boys and
ambitious farmers should raise seed corn of the improved
strains.

3. Talk with your father about planting a seed club
acre next year, and allowing you to manage it, select the
seed, and care for the patch at tasseling time. About how
many ears would be required to plant a three-acre bed ? Have
you satisfactory seed from which to select for the bed, or
would you have to secure seed from a neighbor? What
variety does your father favor ? What are the other varieties
that might be considered ?

8. Corn Judging with Score-Card

What qualities, together, make a good ear of corn ? We
are now ready for a somewhat more careful study of the
ear to answer this question. For this purpose we shall
judge a sample of ten ears by the use of the score-card.
The score-card requires that we grade the ear on each of

A three-stalk hill with six good ears of Silver King, on an Iowa
farm.

Boys iiiul Kirls l)rin«iiig t-oni to .schuul lor judging and testing
in a Cook County rural school.

CORN CULTURE > 29

its different qualities, and then sum these markings all
together for the final "standing" or value of the ear.

This method of judging corn is much more accurate
and scientific than estimating the value of an ear in an off-
hand way. It is the method used by most of the corn
experts.

AH ears to be judged as if for seed. — No matter for
what purpose corn is to be used, it is always best to judge
the ears as if they were intended for seed. This is because
the ear that is best for seed is also best for every other pur-
pose. The ear which would show best in an agricultural
exhibit, the one which would be best for yield, or feeding,
or any other use is the one which grades highest as a seed
ear.

Preparing the samples for judging. — ^To supply corn
for judging with the score-card, each pupil will bring from
home the best ten ears of corn he can find either in the
field or the crib. There should be altogether as many as from
five to ten sets of ten ears each. Each ear must be labeled
or numbered so as to show ( 1 ) what set it belongs to, and
(2) its number in the set For this purpose prepare pieces
of tough cardboard one-half inch square. For the first set
of ten, label the ears Al, A2, A3 and so on. For the next
set, label the ears Bl, B2, B3, etc. Do this way for each
of the different sets, so that any ear can be placed in the
set where it belongs. The labels can be tied to the ears,
or can be attached to the butts by pushing a small nail
through the card and into the butt of the ear. The sets
can now be placed together on a table without danger of get-
ting them mixed.

The four qualities on which the ear is judged. — The
score-card is arranged to judge the corn on four different
qualities, each quality, if perfect, being counted as twenty-

30 AGRICULTURE

five points, one hundred points therefore being a perfect
score.

The first great question about an ear is: Will it yield
well ; has it a good constitution, so that it will do well even
under unfavorable conditions ? The second question is : Will
it ripen, and not get caught by the frost and so produce a
crop of soft corn ? The third question is : Will it grow, is it
of good vitality, so that it will give a good stand, and strong
plants ? The fourth question is : Does it show improvement;
that is, is it a clear type that will breed true, and not show
mixed breeds ?

Let us study these four points a little more in detail, and
then we shall be ready to score our samples according to
the points of the score-card. (Sample score-cards should
be secured for the class from the state agricultural college
or the United States Department of Agriculture.)

Will the ear yield? — The chief factors in the yield are
the size of ear, depth of kernel, filling at tip and butt, and
reasonably close set rows. The size of the ear must be
adapted to the locality. Much larger ears can be raised in
Missouri, for example, than in Minnesota, because of the
difference in length of season.

Will the ear ripen? — In general, ears that have a large
circumference are slower in ripening than slender ears.
Long kernels also indicate late maturity, as do large, coarse,
pithy cobs. Such characteristics are therefore not adapted
to regions having short seasons.

Will the ear grow? — In an ear of good vitality the
grain is of a bright and cheerful appearance, and the germ
and embryo of clear whitish color, somewhat shiny from
the oil it contains. And discoloring or signs of molding
indicate lack of vitality.

Does the com show improvement? — In corn that is
improving instead of runnings out. the color is clear and

CORN CULTURE 31

free from mixture, true to the variety represented. Both
ears and kernels should be constant in shape, and conform
to the variety type.

How to judge with the score-card. — Place your ten
ear samples on the table with the butts toward you. Begin
with ear number 1, and study each ear with great care, point
by point, taking time to decide each grade mark. Put
these down in the pfoper place on the score-card. Do not
be afraid to mark off for defects. It takes a good ear to
score ninety points when carefully graded.

Finally, add together the marks for each ear given
under each of the four grade points, and place the sum in
the proper place in the summary on the score-card. Add
these results for each ear. This will give you the final
score for each ear of the set.

Comparing scores. — After thus completing your own
sample of ten ears, exchange with one of your classmates,
and score his sample, while he at the same time scores
yours. Do this as carefully as the first set, without refer-
ring to the grading given by the other person. When both
havd finished, compare the scores, and discuss the differ-
ences in the markings. It is not to be expected that the
scoring will agree in all particulars, but where there are
wide differences, the reasons for each score given should
be carefully gone over to correct any false judgment.

9. Testing the Seed Corn

No seed corn should ever be planted that has not been
tested ear by ear to see whether it will germinate, and pro-
duce a strong growth. For, even if the seed is carefully
selected and cared for, there are always some ears that will
fail to grow, or else produce plants so weak as to be bar-
ren or raise but worthless nubbins.

4

The small ear grows in extreme northern portion of Minne-
sota and the larger ear in central and southern Minnesota.
The two illustrate the effect of climate and the influence length
of season has on corn production.

A good ear and a |)oor ear of com.

CORN CULTURE 33

Since it takes but a dozen or fifteen ears to plant an
acre, and since an acre of average ground should yield at
least sixty bushels, each ear of seed represents from four
to five bushels of crop. The farmer's time can be spent
in no more profitable way than in making sure that every
ear of seed corn planted is sure to grow. The testing
should be done late in the winter, or in the early spring
before the farm work opens.

Preparing for testing. — ^Testing the seed corn costs
practically nothing but a little time, care and attention.
For, while there are several excellent seed-corn testers on
the market, none is superior to one that can easily be
made at home.

, The sawdust germination box may be prepared as fol-
lows : Construct a box thirty inches square and four inches
deep. Put some sawdust in a bag and soak it in warm
water until it is well saturated. Fill the box half full of
the sawdust, packing it well. Take a piece of good white
cloth and rule it off in two-and-one-half-inch squares, mak-
ing one hundred squares in all, and numbering them from
one to one hundred. Place the cloth on the sawdust so
that there will be a margin of at least two inches between
the sides of the box and the squares. Tack cloth to the
edges of the box.

Now take one hundred ears of the corn to be tested and
lay them out in a row on a table or planks. Drive a nail into
the table every tenth ear, separating the entire lot into
ten groups of ten ears each. Number the ears from one to
one hundred to correspond with the squares in the tester.
This may be done by numbering the places on the edge of
the table if care is taken not to change places with the ears.

Making the test. — Remove one kernel from near the
butt, one from near the middle, and one from near the tip
of the ear ; turn the ear over and remove three kernels from

34 AGRICULTURE

corresponding positions on the other side of the ear. These
six kernels are to be placed, germ side up and tips all toward
one side of the box, in the squares over the sawdust, those
from ear No. 1 in square No. 1, and so on, until six ker-
nels have been taken from each of the one hundred ears and
placed in the tester.

After the kernels are all in position, thus filling the one
hundred squares, lay a piece of cloth over them, taking care
not to disturb their positions. Sprinkle this cloth well with
warm water. Now lay over this another cloth about twice
the size of the box. Fill in on top about two inches of
damp sawdust, packing it down very firmly. Then fold the
edges of the cloth over the sawdust, covering it so that
it will not dry out.

The germination box is now ready to set away for the
kernels to sprout. The box should be kept in a fairly warm
place, and must not be allowed to freeze. The kernels
should be allowed from six to eight days for sprouting,
depending on the temperature. It is not enough that the
germination has merely started ; it must be allowed to go
on for some days to show whether the new plant has good
vitality.

The number of germination boxes required will depend
on the amount of seed to be tested. Several can be used
at the same time, stacking one on top of another as they
are filled. The ears must, of course, remain in their orig-
inal positions on the tables until the results of the test are
determined.

Reading the test. — At the end of the germination
period the cover must be removed without disturbing the
kernels. This can be done by carefully rolling up the top
pad of sawdust in its cloth. The sprouts will be some
two inches long, and may in some cases have grown through
the first cloth covering.

Scliool testing seed corn in sawdust germination boxes.

Putting the rag dolls into a bucket, which is then wrapped in
old newspapers and kept in a safe place until the kernels of
corn have sprouted.

36 AGRICULTURE

It is easy now to tell which are the good and which
are the bad seed ears. An ear should be rejected if even
one of the six kernels failed to sprout. For a loss of one
out of six means sixteen and two-thirds per cent, of the
crop gone if all ears were of this kind.

Ears whose six kernels may all sprout, but which start
weakly, should also be thrown out. For it is these weak
plants that later turn out to be barren, or prove an easy
prey to dry weather or some insect enemy. If only those
ears are planted whose six kernels all produce strong vig-
orous sprouts in the germination box, the greatest obstacle
in the way of a perfect stand will have been removed.

The "rag-doU" tester. — A very simple and effective
tester is made of a s#ip of cloth and is called the "rag doll."
To make this form of tester, use nine-inch strips of muslin
five feet long. Draw a pencil line lengthwise down the
middle of the strip, and draw cross lines every three inches,
leaving about fifteen inches at each end of the strip with no
lines. Number the spaces. Wet the cloth thoroughly,, and
place the kernels in the spaces as in the sawdust tester.
Roll the strip up from either end, and tie a string around
the roll. Now stand the roll, with the tips of the kernels
down, in a bucket of tepid water for several hours. Place
the roll in a box or under an inverted bucket so that the
moisture will not dry out. Of course as many of these
rolls may be used as are required for the amount of corn
to be tested.

Commercial testers. — Several forms of commercial
testers are now available, and most of them are fairly satis-
factory. There is little need, however, for buying testers
when they can be so easily made at home, and when the
home-made testers are so simple and effective.

Placing the kernels In the "rag-doll" tester.

38 AGRICULTURE

Topics for Investigation

Let the class join in making a germination box for the
school as described in the text. Sawdust may be obtained
from wood-piles, icehouses, or meat markets.

1. Each pupil will bring to school enough ears of seed
corn so that the class will have one hundred ears for testing.
^ 2. Arrange the ears as directed, numbering th6m from
one to one hundred. Take six kernels from each ear and
place them in the box. Make arrangements to keep the box
reasonably warm. The "rag-doll" tester may be used by
some of the class. Compare results from the two forms of
tester.

3. At the end of a week uncover the box and read the
test. How many ears had one kernel that did not grow?
Two kernels? Three kernels? Four kernels? Five ker-
nels? Six kernels?

4. What would have been the percentage of stand if
all the ears had been planted, and the germination in the
field been equal to that of the box? It is estimated that to
hire the labor for testing will cost about sixteen cents an
acre. Would this pay? Compare this report with your
record from counting stand on page six.

5. How many ears will grow, but produce plants so
weak that they will probably be barren or produce nubbins ?
How many of the one hundred ears should be discarded as
seed?

6. Tell your father about this test, and join with hira
in testing the home seed for the next crop.

10. Preparing Seed Corn for the Planter

After testing the seed, the next step is to grade it for
the planter. This means to divide the seed corn into lots
according to the size of the kernels. It is impossible to
secure a regular drop with the planter unless the kernels
are of fairly uniform size. And no matter how good the
seed, if one hill receives two kernels and the next four or
five, the stand will be irregular and the crop reduced.

CORN CULTURE 39

Grading seed corn. — The grading of seed corn can be
done in the winter when general farm work is slack. It
may well follow immediately after the testing, or even be
carried on in connection with it.

The first step in grading is to shell of? the butts and
tips by hand. The end kernels are always more or less

The blotter seed tester. Au excelleut type for school use.

irregular, and dififer in size from the remainder of the ear.
They should never be planted.

The ears are then to be shelled, one at a time, and the
kernels inspected to determine whether they are large or
small; if the variation is great, it will be well to have also
a medium grade. As each ear is shelled, the seed is put
into its proper grade ; when the shelling is completed, the
supply of seed will therefore be in either two or three lots,
based on the size of the kernels. All ears with exceptionally

40

AGRICULTURE

Jarge or exceptionally small kernels should be rejected, as
they will fit neither grade.

Hand picking the seed. — But even after the most care-
ful grading by ears, there will still be a surprisingly large
number of irregular, broken, diseased, or imperfect ker-

Embryo;
Stem

BinbryO)/

Experiments sliowlnj? results of plautiug coru at different
depths. Diagram of kernel of corn.

nels. To remove these, the corn should be spread out on a
table, a few handfuls at a time, and all the imperfect ker-
nels thrown out. Running the seed through a "sorter"
saves time in the hand picking. The seed-corn sorter con-
sists of a sieve with large oblong meshes.

Caring for the shelled seed. — After the seed has been
tested and graded it must be given good care to prevent

CORN CULTURE 41

it from becoming damp and molding, or getting too dry
as from artificial heat. It should be placed in sacks hold-
ing not more than half a bushel each, and hung in a pro-
tected place, such as an attic. The sacks should be labeled
to show the grade that each contains.

Testing the planter. — Before planting time, the
planter should be carefully tested for each grade of seed,
and the right size of plates determined. This is done by
placing a quantity of each grade of seed in the planter
boxes in succession, throwing the drop by hand, and keep-
ing accurate count of the number of kernels dropped eacH
time for at least a hundred hills.

In well graded seed it should be possible to secure a
drop of three kernels more than seventy-five per cent, of the
time. Whether whatever variation there is should be chiefly
in the direction of two, or of four, kernels will depend on
the richness of the soil. If the seed has been carefully
tested, the effort should be to plant three kernels to the
hill in just as many cases as possible.

Topics for Investigation ■ ;

Let each member of the class bring to school a number
of ears of corn suitable for seed so that the class will
together have a lot of at least fifty ears.

1. Shell off the butts and tips, comparing the size of
the kernels. Will the shape of the kernel have anything to
do with the number the planter will drop to the hill ?

2. Shell all the ears, one at a time, dividing the kernels
into three lots according to size. How many ears go into
each grade? Are there any ears with kernels too large or
too small for either grade?

3. Now let each pupil take a pint of shelled corn from
each of the three grades and hand pick it. How many
kernels are very small, irregular, or chaffy? How many
broken? How many moldy or black at the tip? How
many have you rejected from each lot? Count the good

Com roots at time for lust plowiug.
feet high and stand 3% ft^et upurt.
veuing space is filled with roots.

The stalks are about 5
Note liow all tlie inter-

CORN CULTURE 43

kernels in each lot and figure the percentage rejected
through hand picking.

4. If there is a corn planter near at hand, draw it to
the school and test it for the drop on each of the different
grades of seed, keeping count for at least one hundred hills
on each side of the planter. What percentage of the time
are you able to secure a drop of three kernels ?

5. Mix together a few pints of the three grades in the
proportion they bear in the whole amount shelled. Test
the planter with this mixture, keeping track of the drop for
one hundred hills on each side of the planter. What do you
conclude as to the wisdom of grading seed corn for the
planter ?

11. The Seed Bed and Planting

The roots of growing corn require, besides the nutrients
of the soil, heat, air and moisture. Let any of these fall
short, and the crop is injured. Loose soil absorbs both
moisture and air better than hard soil. Loose soil also holds
its moisture better than hard soil, since it does not favor
such rapid evaporation. And, since evaporation is always
accompanied by a loss of heat, hard soil loses heat more
rapidly at night or during cold spells. The supply of
heat, air and moisture therefore depends on having the
soil loose and finely pulverized.

How corn roots grow. — Corn roots grow by pushing
the root tip out through the soil, drawing food from the
tiny particles of earth, and drinking the film of water that
surrounds each particle of soil. If the ground is hard or
soggy, the root tips can not easily push through it, nor
can they get enough air. If it is coarse and full of clods,
the roots can not reach across the open places between the
clods. In soil of this character roots also suffer from lack
of moisture, for they must be packed about by fine par-
ticles in order to drink in the water. Even if the soil be
so wet as to have water standing around the roots, they

44 AGRICULTURE

tan not use water in this form. Indeed, water standing
around the roots will injure them by keeping them too
cold, and by shutting the air from them. Not until water
is absorbed by millions of minute particles of fine soil is it
ready for plant roots to drink.

Preparing the seed bed. — Ground is plowed in order
to loosen it. Fall plowing is usually best for corn. Fall
plowed ground presents a rough surface which holds the
snow better, and it also takes in and retains a larger supply
of moisture. Fall plowing also has plenty of time to settle,
so that it is in better condition for the crop than spring
plowing, and allows earlier planting. Spring plowed
ground, not having much time to settle, dries out more
easily than ground plowed in the fall. Especially should
sod land be plowed in the fall, so that the sod may have
a chance to rot and settle down on the subsoil. There
is also less danger from cutworms in fall plowed, sod land.
Stubble ground should usually be plowed early, and sod
late in the fall.

Ground should not be plowed while it is wet, for most
soils, if turned while wet, have a tendency to bake and form
into clods that are hard to pulverize. Fall plowed ground
should not be harrowed until spring, but should be disked
or harrowed as soon as oats seeding is done. This will kill
young weeds, and save the moisture from drying out.
Spring plowing should usually be harrowed within a few
hours after it is turned, for it is then much more easily
pulverized than after it has dried. In very fine and mellow
soil this may not be necessary, but many farmers harrow
what they have plowed at the close of each half-day.

Spring plowing should be disked and harrowed enough
to press the loosened soil down on the furrow bottom, so
that it will make goo<l connection with the subsoil. This
will do much to prevent drying out. In fact, it is impos-

gjjfjgg^gMSaj«ajpiigS{j^»Wia^^

A well preparetl seed bed.

A poorly prepared seed bed.

46 AGRICULTURE

sible to work spring plowing too much in this way. Much
harrowing packs the soil thoroughly, makes a loose bed for
the seed, and provides a fine mulch to prevent loss of
moisture through evaporation. Thorough disking or har-
rowing of fall plowing is necessary to loosen the soil and
prepare the bed for the seed.

Killing the weeds. — It is well to harrow just before
planting, as this kills the sprouting weeds, and allows the
com to get started ahead of them. By far the easiest time
to kill weeds is when they are just starting, and a few
harrowings early in the season will save much trouble with
weeds later on. From two to four harrowings, or their
equivalent in disking, will usually pay on average fields.

Time for planting. — Corn should be planted as early
in the spring as the ground can be made ready and the
soil is warm enough. The average date of planting varies
from the eleventh of March in Florida to the twenty-sixth of
May in Maine. The first two weeks of May are the corn-
planting time in the states of the great middle region of
the United States. The average air temperature at which
corn is planted is about fifty-five degrees. Jhe Indians had
a rule that corn should be planted when the leaves of the
maples were as large as squirrels' ears.

Depth of planting. — A mistake is often made in plant-
ing corn too deep. Some say that by planting deep they
give the roots a deep setting. This, however, is not the
case. For, no matter how deep the seed is planted, the
roots adapt themselves to conditions. If the planting is
too deep, the permanent roots finally start out nearer the
surface, and time has been lost and energy wasted in com-
pelling the plant to readjust itself.

Corn should usually not be planted more than one and
a half inches deep, and frequently not more than an inch.
Especially in cold weather or in wet soils, should the plant-

CORN CULTURE 47

ing be shallow. Careful experiments have been made by
the agricultural colleges of many states as to the best depth
for planting corn, and they have found that almost uni-
versally the shallow planting is best. The only exception is
for a very dry soil, or a dry season.

Topics for Investigation

1. Have you seen corn planted in a seed bed that was
hard and full of clods ? Did the corn do well ? Have you
seen corn with water standing about the roots? How did
the corn look? What caused this appearance?

2. What percentage of corn land in your neighborhood
is plowed in the fall ? Why is not more of it plowed in the
fall ? Ask your father about this. Which is the busier
season, fall or spring? In which season is it necessary
that the work be done at just such a time?

3. Have you seen ground plowed when it was wet?
Did it bake in clods? Do the farmers you know harrow
their spring plowing the day it is plowed? Have you seen
weeds get a good start ahead of the corn? How can this
be prevented?

4. Have you seen spring plowing planted when the
soil was so loose that the planter wheels settled several
inches in the ground? What is the danger in planting a
seed bed in this condition? What should be done to it?
Suppose spring plowing has been rained on until it is very
hard. What is the best way to prepare a seed bed for
planting ?

5. What is the earliest date of planting in your vicin-
ity? The average date? The latest safe date for common
varieties of corn?

6. Make the following test to discover the best depth
for planting corn : Put one inch of dirt in the bottom of a
quart glass jar. On this, near the side, plant a kernel of
corn, and cover it with an inch of dirt. On this layer plant
another kernel, and so on until the lower kernel is covered
with six inches of dirt, and the top with one inch. Place the
kernels so that one will not be directly above another. Let
the seeds sprout, and watch the growth for ten days. From

5

48 AGRICULTURE

this experiment what do you conclude is the best depth?
Ask your father how deep he plants his corn.

12. Cultivating the Corn

Why corn needs to be cultivated. — Corn is to be cul-
tivated after planting for three main purposes: (1) to kill
the weeds, (2) to admit air to the roots, and (3) to pre-
serve the moisture of the soil.

From the time germination begins the growth of the
plant must be unchecked if a full crop is to be secured.
When corn has become yellow and spindling from being
choked by weeds, or from the baking of uncultivated soil
around it, it is permanently injured and will never fully
recover. Only the rich green color and sturdy stock of the
rapidly growing plant give promise of a full yield.

When to begin cultivation.^Cultivation should begin
early. Under average conditions, two harrowings should
be given before the corn comes up. This will keep the soil
from baking, and keep the weeds down until the plants are
large enough to cultivate. The time to kill weeds is just as
they are starting. Let them once get well rooted, and they
are hard to keep down. The spring tooth weeder is some-
times used instead of the harrow for early cultivation. It
is valuable where there are many stones or ruts in the
field.

The shovel or disk cultivator should be started as soon
as the corn is well up, so that the rows can be easily fol-
lowed. Even if the weeds do not seem to be starting, they
are surely taking root. Cultivation will also break up the
crusted soil, and admit air to the growing roots. And this
must be done or their growth will be checked.

Methods of cultivation. — Four or five cultivations are
usually enough after the corn comes up, though this must
depend on the character of the soil, the weeds and the

CORN CULTURE 49

amount of moisture. The present tendency is toward shal-
low cultivation, though this also must depend on whether
the soil seems to pack heavily and become hard under-
neath. If it does, the first should be of some depth. The
important thing is not to break or injure the growing roots.
For a broken root always means loss of vitality and food
to the plant.

From thirty or sixty days after planting, the roots have
often spread so far that they meet between the rows, thus
occupying all the ground. Especially is this true if the
season has up to this time been rather wet. For in wet and
loose soils the roots spread out near the surface, while in
dry soil they spread less and run deeper into the ground.

It is evident that deep cultivation after the roots are
well spread is injurious. The old method of setting the
shovels deep and "hilling up" the corn the last time through
is no longer followed in scientific farming. The culti-
vations should be shallow. Cultivation may continue with
advantage up to the time the corn is tasseling if care is
taken not to break the roots. In dry seasons this late cul-
tivation is a very great advantage, because it keeps a loose
soil mulch, which does much to prevent evaporation of the
sub-surface moisture.

Topics for Investigation

1. Examine three dififerent farmers' corn-fields, and
see if you can tell whether the last plowing was deep or
shallow. How can you tell? Did they "hill up"? Are
the fields weedy? If so, what was the cause?

2. How many times does your father cultivate his
corn? At what date does he lay it by? Does haying get
in the way of late cultivation of the corn?

3. Suppose that next season proves to be hot and dry.
How should the corn in your vicinity be cultivated? Sup-
pose the season should be wet. How, then, should the
corn be cultivated?

50 AGRICULTURE

4. Why does keeping the soil pulverized and loose on
top prevent loss of moisture? What causes the corn to
look yellow and stunted when the ground becomes baked?

5. Suppose a careless boy covers up five hills out of
every hundred in plowing a field of forty acres of corn.
The crop yields thirty-eight bushels to the acre. How much
would it have yielded if he had covered up none? How
much did his carelessness cost if corn is worth fifty cents
a bushel?

13. Harvesting and Storing the Corn

Corn is harvested in three principal ways: (1) it is
husked from the standing stalks and the ears stored in
cribs ; (2) it is cut while partially green and either shocked
in the field or stored in a silo; and (3) stock, especially
hogs, are turned into the field to do the harvesting for them-
selves.

Field husking. — By far the greater part of the corn
produced, especially in the great corn belt, is husked in
the field from the standing stalks. This is the method
used when corn is raised for the grain, and the fodder, or
stover, is a secondary consideration.

Field husking is the cheapest and quickest way of secur-
ing the grain. In good corn, from sixty to more than one
hundred bushels a day can be gathered by one man with a
team, at a cost of from three to four cents a bushel. Ma-
chines for husking from the standing stalks are also in use
on many large farms. Corn can be picked by a husking
machine at the rate of from seven to eight acres a day, and,
where the acreage is large, at a cost per bushel slightly less
than for hand picking. No machine yet invented does the
husking as satisfactorily as by hand. The machine misses
some ears, breaks others, shells off more or less corn, and
pulls up or breaks many stalks. The corn-picking machine
is not always a complete success.

Yield from one acre raised by a Douglas County, Illinois, corn
cllib boy, 150 bushels; three loads for market, one load for seed.

Corn harvester at work.

52 AGRICULTURE

One advantage of field husking is that the harvesting
can be delayed until the fall rush with other crops is over.
The ears should be well cured before being cribbed, or
there is danger of molding. This is especially true if
the fall and winter should happen to be warm and moist.

Corn should be stored in well protected cribs. The
use of rail or other forms of uncovered cribs is a source
of great loss. The grain may seem to keep well during
the winter in the open crib, but when shelled and sold to
the elevators in the spring it often heats and spoils. This
tends to reduce the price of corn, and has caused a preju-
dice in European countries against American corn as a
food. No rain or snow should reach the corn after it is
cribbed, for it is sure to injure the quality of the grain.

Harvesting by cutting. — In average corn the ear sup-
plies about sixty-four per cent, of the food value and the
plant thirty-six per cent. ' Thus the stover in a field is worth
for feeding purposes more than half as much as the grain.
If the corn is cut just as it is becoming well glazed the
stover is worth from five to ten dollars a ton.

The time for cutting corn depends on the use to which
it is to be put. If the corn is grown chiefly for the grain,
it should not be cut until the kernels are well dented and
the husks partially dry. The stover will still make good
feed if it is properly cared for. After a heavy frost, or
after most of the leaves have become brown, the stover
will not pay for the expense of cutting and feeding. Cut-
ting while the corn is in the roasting-ear stage makes a
more palatable stover, but the feeding value of the crop
is considerably less than if cut in the glazing stage.

The corn binder. — The corn binder is widely used in
northern states. It works successfully in corn from five to
nine feet' high. In regions where the stalks grow from ten

CORN CULTURE 53

to twelve feet in height, the binder does not meet with favor,
since it is not yet built to handle corn of this size.

■ On account of the expense of owning and operating a
corn binder, it is doubtful whether it pays to purchase one
unless at least twenty acres per season are to be cut. From
seven to eight acres a day can be harvested with the corn
binder, at a cost of about one dollar and a half an acre for
cutting and shocking.

The corn shocker. — ^The corn shocker cuts the corn
and forms it into a shock carried on the machine. When
the shock is completed it is tied by hand, and lifted from
the machine by a crane and set on the ground. From four
to five acres per day can be harvested with a shocker at a
cost of about a dollar and ten cents an acre.

Shocking the corn. — No matter how the corn is cut,
it should be shocked so that it will stand erect and keep
the fodder dry. Fallen and twisted shocks result in the
loss of millions of dollars worth of stover, and not a small
amount of grain as well. Shocks should be tied as soon as
they are made, and then tightened in a week or ten days.
' Binding twine makes a convenient tie. The band should
be within about two feet of the top, so that the shock may
turn the rain.

Fodder should not be left in the shock longer than nec-
essary to become well cured. -It should then be stored in
ricks or barns. The practise of leaving shocks in the field
over winter can not be too severely condemned. For the
rains and wind destroy the most palatable and nutritious
part of the plant and rob it of a large part of its food
value.

The silo. — The silo has come into general use on the
best managed farms. Although it will preserve any green,
succulent growth such as clover, sorghum, cabbage, sugar

54 AGRICULTURE

tjeets, etc., the silo is employed almost wholly in this coun-
try for the storing of corn without curing.

For silage, the corn, when cut, should be ripened enough
so that it has somewhat glazed, well-dented kernels, and
the husks and leaves should have begun to die. If cut
much earlier than this a great proportion of the feeding
value of the crop will be lost. If cut much later, it will
not pack well in the silo, nor be so palatable.

Storing green corn in a silo is like canning fruit. In
fact, the silo is nothing but a large jar, air tight except at
the top. When the green silage is put in, it soon begins to
decay, and thus generates a great deal of heat. This process
uses up all the air in the silage, producing a large amount
of carbon dioxide. Finally, the heat and the lack of air stop'
all decay, and the silage will keep for almost any length
of time. Several inches of the silage on the top is certain
to spoil, for it has sufficient air to keep up the decay. De-
cay will also take place where there is any leakage of air
through the walls of the silo.

Advantages in use of silo. — There are many advan-
tages in the use of the silo. Even the harder and coarser
parts of the stover, because cut when green and shredded
into small pieces, are eaten. Probably about double the
feeding value can be taken from an acre of corn by putting
it into a silo rather than by shocking and feeding it from
the field. This will allow nearly twice as much stock to
be kept on a farm by use of the silo. Animals also need
such a laxative food as silage provides.

Stock relish silage better than dry fodder, eat more of
it, and thrive better on it. Cattle prefer it to clover hay,
and eat it greedily even when fresh from good pasturage.
Many farmers who make a business of dairying are coming
to feed silage all through the summer as a supplement to

Harvesting corn by "Iioggiug down.

Well arranged silos and bams.

56 AGRICULTURE

pasturage. This, has been found to pay because of the
increased supply of milk produced.

Size of the silo. — The size of the silo must depend on
the number of the herd to be fed from it. Silage exposed
to the air decays rapidly, especially in warm weather. In
order to ayoid waste it is necessary to feed from one and
one-half to two inches daily from the surface of the silage.
If the herd is small or the silo too great in diameter, this is
impossible.

Owing to the closer packing, silage is better in quality
as the depth increases. It is therefore better to build a
silo of considerable height rather than low and of greater
diameter. Moderate-sized silos are built from thirty to
forty feet deep. Silos are now being constructed with a
water-tank in the top into which water for house and barn
use is pumped by a windmill. This gives the necessary
pressure without the cost of building a tower for the tank.

The following table shows the size of silos required for
herds of different sizes (allows each cow forty pounds a
day for one hundred eighty days) :
Number of Estimated Capacity Silo Diameter Silo Heighi

Cows

in Tons

in Feet

in Feet

7

26

10

20

14

51

10

32

21

n

12

32

27

101

14

32

ZZ

119

16

3b

43

155

16

36

54

196

18 •

26

An average acre of corn will yield from eight to twelve
tons of silage. Hence, knowing the capacity of the silo in
tons, it is easy to compute the acreage of corn required to
fill it.

Harvesting by "hogging down." — Under certain con-
ditions corn may be profitably harvested by "hogging down."

CORN CULTURE ' 57

This means that at the proper time a drove of hogs are
turned into the field and allowed to feed themselves upon
the com. This method will work well only in cases where
there is a drove of considerable number, and when the
fields of corn are not too large. The field should be all
cleaned up in from two to four weeks after the hogs are
turned in, since rain and mud are likely to injure corn left
too long on the ground.

It has been found by farmers who have made careful
tests of feeding corn in this way that more pork can be pro-
duced per bushel of com when the hogs are allowed to feed
themselves from the field than when they are hand fed.
The labor of gathering and feeding the corn is also saved,
and manure evenly distributed over the field. Fences are
usually set up to divide the larger fields into small corn
lots. Twenty-six-inch woven wire is suitable for this use.
The wire is attached to well set, corner posts, and tightly
stretched. It is then tied to the corn stalks for posts.
This type of fence will last as long as is required for clean-
ing up the field.

Topics for Investigation

1. Good corn, if cut when glazing, should yield about
ten tons of silage to the acre. A ton of silage occupies
fifty cubic feet in the silo. If a silo is made to hold fifteen
acres of corn, and is built thirty feet high, what must be
its diameter?

2. If a cow requires forty pounds of silage a day, and
the feeding season is one hundred and eighty days, how
many tons must be stored for twenty-five cows?

3. If the corn yields twelve tons of silage to the acre,
how many acres will be required for twenty-five cows?

4. How many silos are there in your school district?
Of what are they constructed? What height and diameter
are they? Do any of them have a water-tank in the top?
.Vhat did each of them cost? Draw a silo.

58 AGRICULTURE

' 5. If a boy in husking twenty acres of corn yielding
forty bushels to the acre averages missing the throw-board
of the wagon once out of each fifty throws, estimating one
hundred throws or ears to a bushel, what is the value of
the corn lost at fifty cents a bushel, supposing the stalks are
sold to a neighbor?

6. Either from observation or agricultural bulletins,
gather facts and write a description of a com harvester ; of
a corn shocker; of a silo.

7. If a bushel of corn will produce ten pounds of pork,
which is more profitable, to sell the corn or to feed it to
hogs, providing pork is selling at seven cents a pound and
corn at fifty cents a bushel ? What would be the difference
on one thousand bushels of corn?

14. The Uses of Corn

Corn as human food. — Corn is a native of America.
It was cultivated by the Indians before the coming of
white men. Com was the principal grain food used by the
Indians and was also widely used by the early colonists.
Its use as a human food has now spread throughout almost
the entire world, but it is still most widely used in this
country. Corn-meal is the principal food product derived
from com, but hominy, hulled corn, corn grits, flaked corn
and other specially prepared breakfast foods are also eaten.
Corn starch is also a common food product. The unripe
ears are extensively used and the canning of green corn has
become an important industry.

Com as food for animals. — By far the larger part of
the corn crop is used, however, as food for animals. Corn
is the basis of the great meat producing industry of the
United States and along with grass constitutes the chief
food of the animals used for meat. Farmers have found
it more paying to fatten stock >)vith com and then sell the
stock than to sell the corn itself. One reason for this is
that it costs less to ship the meat produced by a bushel

CORN CULTURE 59

of corn than to ship the corn itself to a central market. One
bushel of corn will produce from ten to twelve pounds of
pork, which can be shipped more cheaply than could the
bushel of corn.

Commercial uses of corn. — Besides its use as a food
for man and beast, corn is employed in manufacturing
some thirty or forty different products. For example, from
corn are made several different kinds of glucose used by
refiners of table sirups, by brewers, by leather manufac-
turers, by jelly makers, by fruit preservers, and by apothe-
caries. Corn also produces four different kinds of crystal
glucose used in making candies and two kinds of grape
sugar used by brewers and tanners. From corn there is
made a sugar used in the manufacture of ale and beer.
The pearl starch used by cotton and paper mills is made
from corn, as is powdered starch used by the manufac-
turers of baking powder and by the cotton and paper mills.
Florine used by flour mixers, and dextrins used in the mak-
ing of white fabrics, paper boxes, and the manufacture of
mucilage and glue come from corn.

From corn there is also manufactured a substitute for
rubber which is extensively used commercially. Corn is
the chief source of the manufacture of all alcohol and
whisky and is the cheapest material now available for the
making of denatured alcohol, which is used for heating,
lighting and other commercial purposes.

Uses of the corn stalk. — Even the corn stalk has
numerous uses. For example, from its pith comes the cel-
lulose used for packing in war-ships. The corn pith has the
quality of expanding when wet and hence will immediately
swell and close any small hole in the vessel caused by the
enemy's shot. Corn stalks are also used in the manufacture
of paper pulp and in various kinds of stock foods. Corn
cobs are used in the making of corks and pipes. A special

60 AGRICULTURE

Variety of corn with a large cob is raised in Missouri fof
the manufacture of pipes. It is estimated that approxi-
mately fifty million bushels of corn are used annually for
various corn products in addition to those intended as food
for people and animals.

The importance of corn as a food is increasing and sci-
entists are discovering new ways of manufacturing or
cooking it to make it both palatable and digestible. The
very worst use that can be made of corn is to manufacture
it into spirituous liquors since the use of alcohol as a
beverage injures those who drink it and brings sorrow, dis-
grace and poverty to the user.

Topics for Investigation

1. Teacher and class should join in making a collec-
tion in small uniform bottles of all the different corn prod-
ucts available that are used for the table. (Certain com-
panies will supply samples of their products free of cost.)

2. In how many different forms is the corn ear, or
grain, fed to stock in your vicinity ? In how many different
forms is the stover fed?

3. How many of the different commercial products of
corn have you ever seen? What foods have you recently
eaten in which one or more of these products was used ?

4. Enumerate the uses to which you have seen the
corn stalk and cob put. Soak some dry pith in water for
a few minutes. What happens?

5. How could you keep records or bookkeeping in con-
nection with the corn crop? Make out a debit and credit
book account covering a season's work on an acre of corn
from planting to harvest. (See Farmers' Bulletin No.
511, "Farm Bookkeeping," and Farmers' Bulletin No. 572,
"Farm Cost Accounting.")

6. Sketch a map of the United States and locate in
this the corn states. Indicate by different colors the first,
second and third best corn sections of the country. From
the crop report bulletins secure the figures of the last year's
corn crop and the average yield for each state for the year

CORN CULTURE 61

as well as for the last ten years. Compare the yield of the
last season with the yield of ten to twenty years ago.

15. Corn Demonstrations

"Demonstrations" are now becoming common in agri-
cultural work. The purpose of a demonstration is to
teach others some definite and well-known truth. The agri-
cultural experiment seeks to discover some truth concerning
the work of the farm, while the demonstration seeks to
show others how to put this truth into practise.

Demonstrations by the school. — Such demonstrations
as the following may be conducted by the school for special
exercises, evening programs, club meetings, district, county
or state fairs, or special farm festivals :

1. Demonstrations in making and preparation of a seed-
corn test box, a rag-doll tester, and how to make the test.

2. Demonstrate how to make a seed tray, a seed drying
rack, and how to hang or place the seed corn.

3. Seed corn stringing demonstration.

4. Field demonstrations in plow:ing, cultivation, seed
selection, hand pollenizing, etc.

5. Home economics demonstration showing how to
make corn food products, valuable dishes, hominy, corn ,
mush, bread, etc.

16. Corn Play Contests

Play contests are one of the most interesting means of
learning certain facts connected with agriculture. The
games and contests in connection with various farm activ-
ities add interest, develop skill and furnish a great deal of
real fun besides.

Suitable play contests. — ^The teacher and pupils can
organize such contests as the following in connection with
the regular school activities, for the playgrounds at recess

62 AGRICULTURE

»or at public events, such as literary programs, fairs or fes-
tivals :

1. Seed corn stringing contest.

2. Variety or strain naming contest.

3. Corn-bread baking contest.

4. Corn judging contest.

5. Corn guessing game.

6. Corn picking race. This picking race is handled
something like the old-time potato race where you place
the ears of com from three to ten feet apart and the con-
testants are to gather twenty-five ears of corn and place the
same in a box or receptacle in the shortest time.

7. Corn husking contest.

8. Oral corn recipe giving contest to determine who
can give the largest number of corn recipes in a stated time
of five or ten minutes.

All of these contests should be judged in general on
speed, skill, condition of finished product, accuracy, etc.
(See Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 104, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for further in-
struction and score-cards on all corn contests.)

17. Corn Club Work

Three hundred thousand farm boys and girls are now
enrolled in agricultural and home-economic clubs, most of
which are connected with the schools. Club work is the
performance of a definite farm, garden or home enter-
prise, and is based on the best known farm and home prac-
tises. Club work in connection with the school may con-
sist of a number of enterprises, such as corn, garden, mar-
ket garden, poultry, sugar beet, cotton, alfalfa and can-
ning projects.

The corn club. — One of the most interesting club

CORN CULTURE 63

projects is the growing of an acre of corn on a business
basis. Boys and girls ranging in age from ten to nineteen
are eligible and the pupils may be divided into two classes,
an A class from ten to fifteen years inclusive, and a B class
from fifteen to nineteen. The basis of award for corn club
work should be :

1. Greatest yield per acre 30

2. Best showing of profit on investment 30

3. Best exhibit of ten ears 20

4. Crop report record and story of club work 20

Total score 100

Plan of work. — The following plan should govern the
conduct of the work : It should be considered a legiti-
mate means of extension service for the school, — a part
of regular school work by which plants, soils, insects, plant
diseases, crop management, labor income, farm manage-
ment, etc., may be studied systematically for an entire crop-
ping season. This necessitates making use of the district,
state and national club leaders who always stand ready to
help organize clubs and oversee the work.

Report blanks. — Every club should have a crop report
blank making a record of observations, receipts and ex-
penses at the beginning of the season and another on
which to make a complete report at the close of the season.
These blanks are furnished free by the United States De-
partment of Agriculture. Definite credit for this club work
should be given in connection with the class work in
agriculture and other related subjects in the school.

CHAPTER ir
WHEAT

BREAD is the staff of life. Whatever else we may have
on our tables, we usually have bread. It is so com-
mon and necessary an article of food that we describe pov-
erty by saying, "Not a crust of bread in the house."

Yet the bread that you and I eat, wheat bread, is really
a rather recent addition to the world's food, True, wheat
has been known for many centuries, — so long that no one
knows when or where it originated. But not until the last
few generations has it been found possible to raise enough
so that the great mass of people can have it daily for food.

But even yet wheat as a common article of food is
almost unknown in many nations. Probably more than
half the people living in the world to-day have never tasted
wheat bread such as we eat daily. Either wheat is not
grown, or it costs more than other foods and can not be
afforded by the common people. In its stead they eat rice,
barley and other foods.

1. Importance of Wheat as a Crop

The United States raises more wheat than any other
nation, and approximately half as much as all Europe com-
bined. We supply about one-fifth of all the wheat grown
in the world. Our annual crop is nearly 700,000,000 bush-
els, enough if loaded into cars to make two solid trains,
one reaching from New York to San Francisco, and the
other from Regina to New Orleans.

64

tl

a

m

66 AGRICULTURE

The wheat belt of the United States. — The best wheat
producing regions are in the Middle West and North. Kan-
sas, North Dakota and Minnesota produce not far from
one-third of all the wheat grown in the United States.
If to these we add the following twelve states, Nebraska,
South Dakota, Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Washington, Mis-
souri, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, California, Michigan and
Oregon, we shall have the fifteen states that produce more
than four-fifths of all our wheat.

The yield of wheat. — The average yield of wheat for
the entire country is about half what it is for corn, or four-
teen bushels to the acre. The states that produce the largest
amount of wheat" are not necessarily the ones that show the
largest yield per acre. Taking the average for ten years,
the ten states producing the largest amount of wheat rank
in the following order in the yield per acre : Washington,
first; Nebraska, second; Ohio, third; Illinois, fourth; Indi-
ana, fifth ; Missouri, sixth ; Minnesota, seventh ; Kansas,
eighth ; South Dakota, ninth ; North Dakota, tenth.

The average yield of wheat is gradually increasing, but
all too slowly. With still better methods of farming and
with better selection of seed and improvement of the soil
much larger crops of wheat can be raised. And this means
cheaper bread, and more profit in farming.

2. Types of Wheat

Wheat is classed as zmnter wheat or spring wheat, de-
pending on whether it is planted in the fall or the spring.
It is also classed as hard or soft in accordance with the
quality of the grain.

There are three more or less distinct types of winter
wheat, and three of spring wheat, as follows:

1. Soft winter wheat.

2. Semi-hard winter wheat.

3. Hard winter wheat.

WHEAT 67

1. Soft spring wheat.

2. Hard spring wheat.

3. Macaroni wheat.

These types furnish a great many different varieties, so
many that it would be a hopeless task to try to learn them
all. The United States Department of Agriculture and the
state experiment stations have tested as many as one thou-
sand different varieties since 1895.

Climate and type. — In general, the more humid
climates produce the soft wheats and drier climates the hard
wheats. The introduction of hard wheats has opened up
vast western regions to wheat raising which were too dry
for the soft varieties.

Better flour is made from hard than from soft wheat,
though a very excellent grade is made by mixing the two.
Macaroni wheat is the hardest type, and is chiefly used in
the manufacture of macaroni, though some of this type is
now being used for flour. Macaroni can not be successfully
made from the soft wheats.

Winter wheat. — Winter wheat is planted in the fall,
lives through the winter, and ripens the following summer.
It requires about one hundred days to mature after growing
weather has come in the spring.

About two-thirds of all the wheat grown in the United
States is of winter varieties. In regions where winter
wheat will withstand the extremes of temperature it is pre-
ferred to spring varieties, since it (1) yields more, and
(2) is more free from disease and. from injury by the vari-
ous insect pests.

Kansas and Nebraska are the great centers for the
hard winter varieties, while east of the Mississippi River the
softer winter varieties are chiefly grown. More thao sixty
per cent, of all the winter wheat grown in the United
States is raised in the states of Kansas, Indiana, Nebraska,

iijllllljij'

1 1 V xXhXyU

r-

':.:\r'^r

v-;-.;-t

fKUB/JNK/i

RED FIFE MINN BLUESTEM.

Comuiou varieties of wheat.

Harvesting wheat with a uioderu biiidei'.

WHEAT 69

Illinois, Ohio, Missouri, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma and
Texas.

Spring wheat. — Spring wheat is adapted to localities
where climatic conditions are not favorable to winter vari-
eties. About one-third of our wheat comes from the spring-
sowed crop. Most varieties of spring wheat require from
one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five days from the
date of planting to mature.

Minnesota, North Dakota and South Dakota are the
principal spring wheat regions of the country. These three
states supply seventy per cent, of all the spring wheat
grown in the United States.

Topics for Investigation

1. What proportion of the tilled land of your vicinity
is devoted to wheat? Is this proportion increasing or de-

creasing

2. What type of wheat is chiefly grown, winter or
spring? Hard or soft? Do you know what are the chief
varieties to be found in your neighborhood? Are the vari-
eties bearded or beardless ?

3. What is the average yield of wheat to the acre in
your region ? How does this compare with the yield for the
state? (Consult your state agricultural college for the
yield of the state.)

4. It is estimated by the United States Department of
Agriculture that the average cost of producing an acre of
wheat in the United States is about eleven dollars, includ-
ing rental or interest value of land. Talk with your father
about what the different items of expense cost in your
vicinity (such as fertilizer, preparing land, seed, planting,
harvesting, thrashing, marketing, rental). Make a detailed
list of these expenses, and compare with the average cost for
the country.

5. In similar manner figure what it costs to raise an
acre of corn. Then find the market value of the grain
from an acre of corn and from an acre of wheat, based on

70 AGRICULTURE

the average yiefd for your vicinity. Which crop pays the
better, and by how much per acre ?

3. GroTmng the Wheat Crop

Wheat grows best on virgin soil, or on land that has
been renewed by means of clover, manure, or some other
form of fertilizer. The new regions opened up in the West
at first produce large crops, but soon fail in yield if wheat
is raised continuously without rotation with other crops.

Preparing the seed bed. — Since wheat is one of the
crops that can not be cultivated after planting, the seed bed
should be prepared with especial care. The ground should
be plowed, and then disked or harrowed until it is well
packed and finely pulverized. The preparation for the fall
and spring seeding is essentially the same. If the ground
is new, the plowing may be shallow. The older soils require
deeper plowing.

Spring wheat is sometimes disked in on corn land with-
out first plowing the ground. This, however, is a careless
method of farming, and has been proved by careful experi-
ments not to secure so large a yield as from plowed land.

Selecting and preparing the seed. — As in the case
of corn, the best seed for wheat is usually that grown near
home. New varieties and seed grown at a distance should
not be used for the general crop until carefully tested by
agricultural experiment stations and found adapted to the
locality.

Wheat selected for seed should possess the following
qualities: (1) A plump bright grain of good wheat; (2)
a stiff Straw, able to withstand adverse weather; (3) a
compact head, ripening early, and not easily shattered ; (4)
good bread qualities; and (5) ability to resist insect ene-
mies and diseases.

Once the type and variety selected for seed are decided

WHEAT 71

upon, the wheat should be run through a fanning mill.
This will select the heaviest and plumpest grains, as well
as remove the seed of noxious weeds. If care is taken thus
to secure the best of the crop for seed each year, there need
be no fear of the seed "running out." On the contrary, the
variety may actually be improved.

Methods of planting. — The method formerly used in
planting wheat was to sow it broadcast on the plowed
ground, and then harrow it in. This is a very wasteful way
of planting, however, since some of the wheat fails to be
covered, and is picked up by the birds; some of it is cov-
ered too shallow, and fails to secure good roots; and some
of it is covered too deep, and grows imperfectly.

The method now used in all successful farming is to
plant the wheat with, a drill. This sets the seed at a uni-
form depth, and gives it a moist fine bed of soil. Nu-
merous experiments have shown that the best depth to
plant wheat for average years is from one and a half
to three inches. iWheat, like corn, loses both time and
strength by being planted too deep.

Wherever possible, wheat should be drilled in rows run-
ning east and west. In dry regions, the prevailing winds
then blow snow and dirt into the drills instead of out of
them, as is the case when the rows run north and south.
In east-and-west rows the drill also tends to shade the roots
of the plant, and so protect them from the frequent thaw-
ing and freezing which occur in the case of winter wheat
when the sun shines directly into the drill. Because of
these uses of the drill ridges, the ground should not be
harrowed after the wheat is sown. .

Harvesting the wheat. — Except in the semi-arid re-
gions of the West where practically no rain falls during the
harvest season, wheat should be cut as soon as it is ripe
enough. Many farmers allow their wheat to become so

72 AGRICULTURE

ripe as to shatter, and much loss results. It may be cut
while the grain is still soft, so that it can be crushed
between the thumb and finger. This will not injure the
quality of the grain, and the straw will be of much greater
value if cut slightly green. Early cutting also reduces the
risk of storms.

In regions where the grain can be allowed to stand with-
out shattering until it has become fully ripe and dry, the
cutting and thrashing are often accomplished in one process.
This is done by a combination harvester and thrasher drawn
by from twenty to thirty horses, or by a tractor engine.

Wheat cut with the harvester should be carefully
shocked, usually in nine-bundle shocks, eight bundles stand-
ing firmly on the ground in the form of a circle, and the
ninth used for a cap-sheaf. Careless shocking is respon-
sible for much loss from weathering.

When the wheat is well dried in the shock, it should
at once be thrashed, or else stacked in well-built stacks.
Wheat is too valuable to leave standing long in the field
waiting for a thrashing machine. If once put in stacks,
it should be allowed to stand for several weeks before
thrashing in order that it may "pass through the sweat."

4. Diseases and Insect Enemies of Wheat

Wheat is the prey of many different diseases and insect
enemies, which sometimes almost totally destroy the crop.
Many of these are coming to be better understood, and rem-
edies for them devised. Three principal diseases attacking
wheat are scab, rust and smut. These are all caused by the
growth of fiingi on the wheat plant. A fungus is a tiny
plant organism that grows upon some other plant, or on
animal tissue, and draws its living from its host. We call

WHEAT

72>

any organism that gets its living off another organism in this
way a parasite.

Scab in wheat. — Scab is the least common of the three

A good stand of wheat, raised by a Georgia club boy.

diseases mentioned, yet it sometimes causes much loss in
certain localities. It attacks the glumes, or chaff, which
surround the kernels of wheat in the head. The entire head

74 AGRICULTURE

is seldom destroyed, only a few of the glumes being af-
fected. Scab results in a shrinkage of the kernels, and
hence a reduction in the yield and an injury of the quality
of the wheat. No cure has yet been discovered for wheat
scab. A second crop of wheat should not follow wheat
that has been affected with scab. If this is necessary, how-
ever, the stubble of the first crop should be burned to de-
stroy as much of the scab as possible.

Rust in wheat. — Rust is one of the most serious en-
emies of the wheat crop. It is nearly always present in
some degree, and has at times almost wholly destroyed the
crop over considerable areas. There are two kinds of
rust, one attacking the leaves and the other the stems of
the plants. The stem rust is much more destructive than
the leaf rust.

Rust may in some cases live over winter on the old
plants, and be ready to attack the new crop if wheat is
again planted on the field. Wheat rust also lives on other
plants, especially the barberry, and is spread from them by
birds or insects to wheat-fields. Laws have been passed in
some states requiring the destruction of barberry hedges
because of their part in spreading rust.

Moist seasons are more favorable to the ravages of
rust than dry. Rust results in weakening the stem of the
wheat plant, and reducing the size and quality of the grain.
In some cases the heads even fail to fill, and the crop is a
total failure. There is no known cure for rust, though cer-
tain varieties of wheat are better able to resist it than
others. The earlier varieties are usually safer than the
later.

Smut in wheat. — There are two kinds of smut that
attack the wheat plant, loose smut and stinking smut. Loose
smut usually destroys both the glumes and the kernels, leav-
ing only the bare stem. Stinking smut grows inside the

stinking smut of wheat : smutted head and smut balls at
right ; sound head and kernels at left.

76 AGRICULTURE

glumes, destroying the kernel only, and taking its place.
The spores from which stinking smut grows attach them-
selves to the kernels of wheat, and are therefore often
sown with the seed. This fact makes it possible to combat
this type of smut by treating seed wheat in such a way as
to kill any smut spores that may be present.

One of the surest and cheapest ways of treating the
seed for stinking smut is by the application of a solution
of formalin. One pint of forty per cent, formalin mixed
in forty-five gallons of water will treat one hundred bushels
of wheat. The wheat may be spread out thin on a tight
floor and sprinkled with the moisture, shoveling it over
so that each grain is sure to become dampened.

After it is well sprinkled the wheat should be covered
with sacks or blankets to keep it from drying out too rap-
idly. After a few hours, it may be spread out, or stirred, to
hasten the drying in preparation Jor sowing. Ten pounds of
copper sulphate dissolved in twenty-five gallons of water
may be used instead of the formalin.

Loose smut may be prevented by what is called the hot-
water treatment of the seed. The wheat is put into sacks
and immersed in tubs of water warmed to a temperature
of one hundred and twenty degrees Fahrenheit. When the
wheat has become thoroughly warmed, it is taken out,
drained, and again dipped in water, this time heated to
a temperature of one hundred and thirty-five degrees. The
sacks may now be dipped at once in cold water, which will
serve to keep the kernels from swelling. The wheat should
then be spread where it will dry quickly. The general use
of these well tested remedies should make smut of rare
occurrence.

Chinch-bugs. — Chinch-bugs are among the worst of
the insect enemies of wheat. They are easily recognized as
a small dark-colored insect, with white wing covers.

I

Loose smut of wheat. Sound head at left; different stages of
smutted development at riglit.

78 AGRICULTURE

Qiinch-bugs damage the wheat by sucking the sap from
the plant, and thus checking its growth. The mature bugs
live over winter, lay their eggs in the spring, and the young
are soon hatched out, showing at first a reddish color.

No effective way of controlling chinch-bugs has yet
been discovered. It is, however, helpful to burn the rub-
bish of any infected field in the fall, as this will destroy
large numbers of the bugs, and leave the remainder with-
out hiding-places.

The Hessian, fly. — The Hessian fly is a small, mos-
quito-like insect that lays its eggs on the growing wheat.
These eggs soon hatch, and the larvae begin at once to suck
the juices from the young plant.

One method of handling these pests is to turn under
the first planting of wheat that has been attacked, and then
sow another crop on the ground. This, however, is an ex-
pensive method of getting rid of them. The burning of
fields in the fall, fall plowing, and rotation of crops are
all helpful in checking their ravages.

Grasshoppers. — Grasshoppers are less to be dreaded
now than in earlier years, though they occasionally do great
damage to the wheat crop. The grasshopper lays its eggs
in the summer, and they do not hatch until the following
spring. It is possible greatly to reduce their number by
late, deep fall plowing, which buries the eggs so deep
that the young when hatched do not find their way to the
surface. Poisonous sprays are also used to destroy the
young hoppers.

Topics for Investigation

1. If winter wheat has been sown in your neighbor-
hood, visit two or more fields and note (1) whether the
seed was sown broadcast or drilled, (2) the direction of
the drill rows, and (3) the evenness of the stand.

WHEAT 79

2. Make a collection of all the different types of wheat
available, and learn to identify them, (1) from the grain,
and (2) from the head and straw.

3. Obtain samples of unthrashed wheat, and search for
leaf rust; for stem rust. Compare the heads and kernels
on the rusted stalks with those on healthy heads,

4. Find examples of stinking smut, of loose smut.
What is the condition of the straw and grain in each case
as compared with healthy plants?

5. Go out into fields of wheat and oats stubble and
look under bunches of straw or rubbish for chinch-bugs.
Bring specimens to school and examine them so that you
can quickly identify them.

6. Secure a score-card for wheat, and judge from
twenty-five to one hundred grains of wheat.

7. What is the best method for the testing of wheat
for vitality? Look up instructions on the new blotter tester
and a few of the commercial tray testers. Make a test of
one hundred wheat seeds and judge for vitality, dividing
the seed after germination into three classes, strong, weak
and dead.

8. How would you keep a record or bookkeeping ac-
count of a field of wheat? Make out a debit and credit
account covering a season's work with one acre of wheat.
(See Farmers' Bulletins, 511 and 572.)

9. Sketch a map of the United States and locate the
wheat producing states and sections. Insert the last cen-
sus reports of wheat production for each state. Where are
the leading wheat mills of the country?

10. Compare wheat bread with bread made from other
products such as corn, rye, etc. What differences do you
note?

11. How much wheat is exported annually from this
country? How much wheat is imported?

12. What foreign countries produce wheat? Locate
them on the map.

(See end of chapter on "Oats" for suggestions as to
wheat demonstrations, play contests and club projects.)

CHAPTER III
OATS

OATS are one of the world's most important grain crops,
Though not so old as wheat, oats have been grown in
Europe for centuries. They were brought to this country
by the early settlers, and are now raised in every state.
The United States produces about one-fourth of all the oats
grown in the world. Oats are chiefly valuable as a food
for animals, yet they are also widely used as a human food.

1. Importance of the Oats Crop

Our oats crop is slightly more than a billion bushels a
year, or a total yield of about one-third more than wheat.
Because of the higher price of wheat, however, the value
of the oats crop is only about half that of wheat. Among
all farm crops, oats rank fifth in value, being surpassed only
by corn, cotton, wheat and hay.

The oats region. — ^The great oats producing region of
the United States extends from New York and Pennsyl-
vania westward to Nebraska, Kansas and the Dakotas.
Each state in this great cliain plants more than a million
acres of oats annually.

The following chart shows the thirteen states that pro-
duce about four-fifths of all the oats raised in the United
States, with the per cent, of the total crop grown in each :

80

OATS 81

Iowa 15%

Illinois 14%

Minnesota 8%

Wisconsin 6%

Ohio 6%

Indiana • 5%

North Dakota 5%

Nebraska 5%

Michigan 4%

Kansas 4%

New York 3%

South Dakota 3%

Pennsylvania ■ 3%

Air others 19%

The yield and profit. — The average yield per acre
throughout the United States is about thirty bushels. The
highest yields are in the far Northwest, where the rainfall
is heavy during the growing season, or where irrigation is
used. Here the crop not uncommonly runs from one hun-
dred to one hundred and twenty-five bushels to the acre,
and sometimes reaches one hundred and fifty bushels.

In the corn belt, oats are usually a less profitable crop
than corn. The yield is less per acre, and the market price
lower, while the cost of production is about the same. In
Iowa or Illinois, the two leading states in the amount of
oats produced, the cost of growing an acre of oats if we
include the rental value of the land, will average from ten
to twelve dollars. When oats are thirty-five cents a bushel,
it is evident that a crop of thirty bushels to the acre leaves no
margin of profit.

While oats do not pay so well as corn, it is necessary,
nevertheless, to raise them, even in the corn region. For
oats are needed, ( 1 ) to make possible the rotation of crops,
and (2) as a food for stock, especially working horses.
This crop, like corn and wheat, can easily be increased in

Two types of oat liends: spreading or panfcled on the leftf
side or borse-mnne on the right

OATS 83

yield and profit by improving the soil and employing bet-
ter methods of seed selection and tillage. It is not impos-
sible to secure an average yield of from fifty to seventy-five
bushels to the acre throughout the oats region.

2. Types of Oats

Two general types or classes of oats are easily dis-
tinguished— ^the spreading, or panicled, and the side-bearing
or horse-mane. The former has a spreading, bush-like
head, branching from all sides of the central stem; the
latter carries the grains on short branches, all of which are
attached to one side of the stem.

Varieties for different regions. — It is impossible to
tell how many different varieties of these two types exist.
As in the case of wheat and corn, new varieties are being
developed from year to year. Several hundred different
varieties are now shown in the seed lists.

In New England, the northern tier of states and the
Rocky Mountain region, white oats of rather late-ma-
turing, large-grained varieties are usually most successful.
Examples of these varieties belonging to the spreading type
are : Clydesdale, Big Four, Swedish Select and Lincoln ; of
the horse-mane type. White Russian and Tartarian are
well known.

In the Missouri, Mississippi and Ohio River regions,
extending as far south as Kansas, Missouri, Kentucky, Ten-
nessee-and Texas, and as far east as Ohio, small-grained,
early, yellow varieties have proved the best. The Kherson,
Silvermine, Big Four and Sixty Day are examples of these
varieties.

Successful fall seeding of oats is possible only in the
southern states. For southern fall seeding. Winter Turf
and Red Rustproof are the varieties most used. For spring

84

AGRICULTURE

seeding- in this region the Burt and Red Rustproof are sat-
isfactory.

Topics for Investigation

1. How many acres in your father's farm? How many
acres are cultivated this year? How many acres in grass

A

B

C

D

(A) Sixty Day, grain medium-sized, slender, yellow; (B) Red
Rustproof, grain large, plump, reddish-brown; (C) North
Finnish Black, grain nicHlium-sized. plump, black; (D) Swedish
Select, grains white, large and plump.

land and pasture? How many acres in garden, orchard,
lawn and barnyard?

2. How many acres are devoted (1) to com; (2) to
wheat; (3) to oats; (4) to other farm crops? What per-
centage is the acreage of each crop to all the land culti-
vated? To the whole farm?

3. Find how many acres altogether in the farms rep-
resented by the pupils in the school. Then answer each
of the four questions asked in number "2" for all these
farms summed together. How do the percentages for each

OATS

85

crop raised on your father's farm compare with the per-
centages for the entire school district?

4. What was the yield of oats per acre on your father's
farm this year? What is the yield of corn? Learn the

S/XTYDA,

swmsH

Two common Aarieties of oats.

market price of each grain, and figure the value per acre
for each. Now ask your father to help you determine the
cost of raising and harvesting an acre of each crop. Which
is the more profitable crop, and by how much to the
acre ?

5. Which of the two types of oats is raised on your
father's farm? What variety?

6. Make a collection of five or more different varieties
of oats, study the kernels, and the entire plant if possible.

86 AGRICULTURE

and learn to identify quickly the chief varieties grown in
your region.

3. Raising the Crop

Oats are usually planted with less care than any other
crop. Where they follow corn in the rotation of crops,
they are often sown broadcast on the corn land without
previous cultivation or preparation of the ground. The
field is then either disked or gone over with a cultivator
and harrowed. This is a careless method of farming, and
undoubtedly results in a diminished yield.

Preparing the seed bed. — When oats are sown after
corn the seed bed should be prepared by plowing or two
thorough diskings before seeding. The oats may then be
covered by harrowing. The corn stalks should be broken
down before disking. This can easily be done by means
of a heavy pole dragged broadside across the rows when
the ground is frozen. A still better method is to cut the
stalks with a corn cutter. If the growth of stalks and weeds
is especially heavy on the field, it is best to rake and burn
the rubbish to get it out of the way of cultivation.

It sometimes may not be necessary to plow the ground
for oats following a well cultivated crop. Especially is this
true if the plowing can not be done in the fall. One of the
things most necessary in growing oats is to get the seed
into the ground as early as it can be worked in the spring.
And the seeding can be done more quickly by disking than
by plowing. There is little or no danger to oats from
freezing after they are sown, and the seed will sprout and
grow in a much colder temperature than that necessary for
corn.

Methods of seeding. — Oats are sown by two methods,
(1) scattering the seed broadcast overthe ground, and (2)
drilling. The old method of broadcast seeding was to scat-

OATS

87

ter the seed by hand from 'a sack slung over the shoulder.
Machines for seeding have been devised which can be at-
tached to the end-gate of a v^^agon. The seeder is driven by
one of the rear wheels of the wagon by means of a -sprocket
wheel and chain.

Drilling usually results in a larger yield than broadcast

End-gate seeder for broadcast seeding of grain.

seeding. The drill plants the seed uniformly over the field
and covers it well. The drilled crop comes up more evenly,
and ripens more nearly at the same time than from broad-
cast sowing. Less seed is required when the planting is
done with the drill, since practically all the seed is covered
and given a chance to grow. This is impossible with broad-
cast seeding.

88 AGRICULTURE

A mistake is often made in planting oats too deep. The
ground is usually moist when the planting is done, and depth
is not required to secure moisture to start growth. Many
agricultural experiment stations have tested different depths
of planting, and recommend about one inch as the best
depth for most regions.

Preparing the seed. — Seed oats should never be taken
directly from the bin and sown, no matter how promising
the grain looks. For oats ordinarily contain more dirt,
weed seed and light grains than wheat.

The seed should always be run through the fanning mill.
The current of air blows out the light grains and much of
the rubbish, and the smaller grains are removed by the
sieves. This process of cleaning should generally exclude
one-third or one-fourth of the oats run through the mill.
If the seed is very light a still larger proportion will need
to be rejected.

Careful tests have shown that seed prepared in this
way will yield several bushels to the acre more than if
sown directly from the bin. Many of the light grains fail
to sprout, and most of those that grow produce weak
plants that yield little or nothing. It will well pay every
farmer to take time in the winter to prepare his' seed oats.

Improvement of the seed. — It is possible greatly to
improve a variety of oats by careful selection of the seed.
This may be done by going into the field just before the
crop is harvested, and gathering, head by head, the strong-
est, largest grained and best yielding plants, also giving
preference to those that are freest from disease. From a
peck to a bushel or more thus selected is thrashed out, the
small, light or imperfect grains rejected, and the choice
seed sown on a special seed plat to raise seed for the com-
ing year's crop.

Harvesting the crop. — Oats are harvested with the

90 AGRICULTURE

fgrain binder, the header, the mowing machine, and the
combined harvester and thrasher. By far the greater part
of our oats crop is cut with the binder.

The best time for cutting oats is just as they are pass-
ing out of the. hard-dough stage of ripening. On account
of the fact that they shatter rather easily when ripe, it may
be necessary, especially if the acreage is large, to begin
when the grain is passing out of the milk stage. Cutting
too early leaves the grain slightly lighter and of a greenish
color.

The best method of shocking oats depends on the ripe-
ness of the crop when harvested. If the oats are in the
hard-dough stage when cut, they should be shocked in well
-built, round shocks. If the grain is green and the straw
heavy or full of weeds, the long shock is better, since it
allows freer curing. Either type of shock should be capped,
except in regions where the winds are usually strong enough
to blow a cap sheaf off, in which case it takes damage from
lying on the ground.

Thrashing. — Oats may be thrashed from the shock,
or stacked and thrashed any time during the fall. A some-
what better grade of oats is obtained by stacking and allow-
ing the oats to "go through the sweat" before thrashing.
The straw is also worth more for feed when the oats have
cured in the stack.

The custom followed by careless farmers of leaving
grain standing for weeks in the shock exposed to the
weather while waiting for the thrashing machine can not
be too strongly condemned. A period of hot wet weather
is almost certain to start the oats to molding, or sprouting
in the shock. On the other hand, if the weather is very
dry, the oats shatter, and many bushels are lost in handling.^
If the thrashing machine can not be secured as soon as the
vOats have dried sufficiently to thrash, they should be stacked

OATS 91

in well-built round stacks so constructed as to turn the
rains.

4. Insect Enemies and Diseases

Oats are, on the whole, subject to fewer diseases, and
the prey of fewer insects than wheat. The crop is, there-
fore, less liable to total failure from these causes.

Insect enemies. — Chinch-bugs attack oats, as well as
wheat, though they usually do much less damage to oats
than to wheat. They can be controlled only as already
described in the case of wheat.

In some seasons the army worm has caused much loss
to oats, but usually not over extensive areas. There is
no satisfactory method known of controlling its ravages.
What is known as the green bug, a grain aphis, is one
of the most prominent enemies of oats. Grasshoppers occa-
sionally consume the greater part of the crop in relatively
small areas.

Diseases of oats. — The chief diseases attacking oats
are rusts and smuts. These are of the same general char-
acter as the rusts and smuts of wheat, fungous growths
feeding on the growing plant.

The rusts are of two chief types : ( 1 ) leaf rust, which
is of a reddish-brown color, and attacks the leaves, and in
some degree the stems, of oats shortly before ripening time ;
and (2) stem rust, which is to be recognized as black spots
appearing on the stems and leaves of oats just before they
ripen.

Stem rust is less common than leaf rust, but when
present is far more injurious to the crop. The rusts are
more serious as an enemy of oats in the South than in the
North, appearing in the South almost every year, and greatly
reducing the yield. Rust is far worse on moist hot sea-
sons than on dry seasons. No sure cure has been discove'-"

92 AGRICULTURE

c

for rust in oats, though some varieties are more able to
resist its attack than others.

Smut ordinarily causes more injury to oats than any
other disease. It has been estimated that from two to three
per cent, of the entire crop is destroyed every year by smut,
causing a loss of from $6,000,000 to $10,000,000.

The smut of oats is easily recognized a little time before
the crop is ripe. Instead of the kernels are found small
masses of smut dust which have taken the place of the
grain. Sometimes these smut balls are covered by the
chaff, much as the kernel should be, and other times the
chaff is lacking and the smut fully exposed.

While there are two kinds of smut in oats, both will
yield to the same treatment. Smut may be wholly pre-
vented by treating the seed with formalin, as described
for the treatment of wheat. It will also be effectually pre-
vented by the hot-water treatment. In either treatment
the method is practically the same as for the seed wheat.
With so simple and sure a remedy for smut, every farmer
who lives in a smut region should treat his seed before
sowing. It costs almost nothing, and may result in an in-
crease of several bushels of oats to the acre.

Topics for Investigation

1. How did your father prepare the ground for oats
last spring ? Were they sown on corn land ? If so, were the
stalks broken down, or pastured close? Was the ground
disked before the oats were sown? If so, how many disk-
ings? If more than one, was the second disking across the
first, or by lapping? Which is the better way? How many
harrowings did the oats receive ?

At what date are oats usually sown in your region ?
sWhen does harvest begin? How many days, then, are re-
f or the crop to mature ? How much seed does your
use to the acre?

Smut of oats; smutted head at right; sound head at left.

94 AGRICULTURE

3. Collect samples of unthrashed oats, and examine
(1) for each kind of rust; (2) for each kind of smut. If
it is not possible to find unthrashed oats, examine straw for
rust and evidences of smut.

4. Did rust or smut damage the crop in your region
last season? Does your father treat his seed oats for
smut? If so, by what method? Suppose your crop was
reduced two per cent, by smut, how much did you lose per
acre ? How much on the entire crop ? Would this not more
than pay for treating the seed ?

5. Does your father always run his seed oats through
a fanning mill to select the better grains and remove weed
seed? How long will it take to run one hundred bushels
through a fanning mill? Suppose it results in an increase
in yield of two bushels per acre, how much profit would
there be from the cleaning?

6. Have you seen oats left in the shock until they
were damaged, either by wet weather, or by shattering?
About how much per acre does it cost to stack oats ? Sup-
pose there is a loss of one bushel to the acre by allowing
the grain to stand in the shock; will it pay to stack? (Con-
sider also the better quality of grain and straw.)

7. Make out a debit and credit sheet showing the
proper method of keeping an account with a crop of oats
covering the entire season, beginning with plowing and
closing with harvesting, thrashing and marketing of the
oats.

8. Test one hundred grains of seed oats for vitality by
the use of the rag-doll tester or blotter tester, and estimate
the percentage of strong, weak and dead seed. From this
base your estimate on the loss of crop if all the oats sown
in your home field are of the same standard of vitality.

9. Secure a copy of a score-card for oats and judge
twenty or thirty grains of oats.

10. Sketch a map of the United States and locate the
oat producing states. From the last crop census record
the number of bushels of oats produced in each state.
What foreign countries produce oats ?

OATS 95

5. Wheat and Oat Demonstrations

1. Demonstrate the making of a vitality test for wheat
and oat seed.

2. The method of separating chaffy wheat or oats and
weed seed from the better grade seed.

3. How wheat and oats may be used for the table. The
girls can work out a number of recipes.

4. In the field demonstrate the proper method of seed-
ing and, when equipment is available, the methods of pre-
paring seed bed, disking, fertilizing, etc.

5. Demonstrate how to select individual wheat and oat
heads for seed.

6. Wheat and Oat Play Contests

Plan and carry out the following contest games:

1. Variety naming contest.

2. Wheat and oat judging contest.

3. Recipe giving contest.

4. Bread baking contest.

5. Oral descriptions by class members of a thrashing
day at home.

7. Wheat or Oat Club Project

A wheat or oat club makes an interesting method of
studying the economic production of these cereals. The
members of the club should arrange to grow from one to
five acres, studying carefully the system of "follow-up"
instruction provided by the managers of such clubs in your
county and state, and keeping a complete record of all ob-
servations, receipts and expenditures.

The girls can grow a small plat, .say one square rod,
with a view to studying the life history of the plant, its cul-

A club girl wltli ber bukiiig of bread.

OATS 97

tural methods, and its use for food products. In connection
with domestic-science work, the girls can prepare for ex-
hibit purposes the various dishes possible from the oat and
bake a loaf of wheat bread for the school -exhibit each
month. This makes an interesting demonstration for Fri-
day afternoon programs.

The following basis of award may be used in connection
with the club work :

1. Yield and quality of production 30

2. Net profit on investment 30

3. Exhibit of products (grain and prepared) 20

4. Crop records and story of work 20

Total Score 100

CHAPTER IV
THE POTATO

THE common white, or Irish, potato is a native of South
America. It was brought to North America by the
early Spanish settlers. Potatoes are now so important an
article of food in almost every country that little more than
one-twentieth of the world's supply is grown in the United
States.

1. The Potato Plant

Secure, if possible, a complete potato plant, including
the roots and tubers. What is the shape of the stem ? The
nature of branching? The type of leaves? The flowers?
Do potatoes bear seed? Are potatoes raised from seed?
Why not plant potato seed instead of the tubers? Are
the tubers a part of the root system, or do the roots only
bear the- tubers as the stems of tomatoes bear the fruit?
Compare a potato plant and a tomato plant.

The plant. — The potato plant varies from two to four
or five feet in height, though it does not show this great a
height owing to its spreading habits of growth. The termi-
nal clusters of flowers bear seeds, from which new varieties
are often developed. For practical purposes the plant is re-
produced from the tubers.

Though both plant and roots die upon the ripening of
the seed and tubers, the potato is a perennial through the
tuber which reproduces the plant. Since the tubers are

98

THE POTATO 99

destroyed by freezing, they are harvested before frost.
Potatoes are annuals in all regions where the soil freezes
during the winter.

Tubers. — Examine a tuber. Note the distribution of
the "eyes." These contain the buds from which the new
plants are produced. The end at which they are thickest
is called the "seed" end, and the other the "stem" end.
At which end is the tuber attached to the roots of the
plant? Are some potatoes more deeply indented at the
eyes, and more irregular in shape than others? Which are
more desirable for cooking? Why? Which have the bet-
ter market demand?

Though there are hundreds of wild plants belonging to
the same genus as potatoes, comparatively few of these are
known as cultivated plants. Among the most closely related
cultivated plants are the tomato and tobacco, which belong
to the same family.

2. Potatoes as a Farm Crop

After corn, cotton, hay, wheat and oats, potatoes are one
of our most valuable crops. They are raised in every state,
though the chief potato region consists of ten or fifteen
northern states reaching from the Missouri River eastward
to the Atlantic. More than three million acres are planted
to potatoes in the United States each year. The* annual
crop is nearly three hundred and fifty million bushels, or
about four bushels to every inhabitant.

The potato region. — The following are the fifteen
states which, according to federal statistics, produced the
largest amount of potatoes for the period 1902-1911, to-
gether with the percentage of the entire crop of the United
States grown by each :

100 AGRICULTURE

N€w York '■ 12.02%

Michigan 9.72%

Wisconsin 9.72%

Maine 7.60%

Pennsylvania 6.47%

Minnesota 5.71%

Ohio 4.66%

Iowa 3.93%

Illinois 3.39%

California 2.71%

Colorado- 2.33%

New Jersey 2.30%

Washington 2.18%

Indiana 2.15%

Nebraska 1.15%

All others 24.35%

The yield. — Potatoes, like other crops, vary greatly in
yield owing to diffeiences in the fertility of the soil and
the care taken in raising the crop. The average for the
United States during the last ten-year period has been about
ninety-six bushels to the acre. It is somewhat humiliating
to know that, in spite of our improved machinery and scien-
tific knowledge of the soil and plant diseases, we are now se-
curing only about the same yield of potatoes that was pro-
duced at the close of the Civil War. Experts tell us that
this yield can easily be doubled, with comparatively small
expense and trouble.

3. Raising the Crop

The soil. — Potatoes thrive best in a rich sandy loam
containing a good supply of humus. Hard stiff soils or
heavy clay are not well adapted to potato raising. The
best soil on the farm should be devoted to the potato field,
both because potatoes demand a better soil than most othef
crops, and because the value of potatoes per acre is greatei
than almost any other common crop.

THE POTATO 101

Ground that has recently raised clover, alfalfa or some
other legume is especially suited to potatoes. While barn-
yard manure will greatly increase the yield, it will also favor
the ravages of scab and other potato diseases, and so lower
the quality of the crop. It is usually a mistake to plant
potatoes on a freshly manured field. If manure is used,
it is better to follow a heavy manuring with a crop of
corn, and then plant potatoes for the next crop in suc-
cession.

Green manuring, that is, the plowing under of green
crops such as clover or alfalfa, will add greatly to the
yield. If the sod is old, it is usually better to grow one
crop of corn before potatoes are planted on the field. Com-
mercial fertilizers can be used to advantage for potatoes on
most soils.

The seed bed. — Potatoes should have an especially
well prepared seed bed. The plowing should be deeper than
for most crops, since the seed is planted deeper and loose
soil must be had for the roots and tubers. In average soils
the plow should be set to a depth of not less than eight
inches.

The seed bed must be well pulverized and thoroughly
packed. Usually not less than four harrowings and disk-
ings are required for the best results. Experiments have
shown that the difference in yield caused by harrowing part
of a field four times and the remainder of it but twice may
be as much as twenty per cent, of the crop in favor of the
better preparation.

The planting. — Potatoes should be planted not less
than four inches deep. Less than this depth does not give
room for the tubers to grow without protruding from the
ground. This is sure to result in injury from sunburn.
Most potato growers drill the seed, dropping single pieces
of seed from twelve to fifteen inches apart in the row. In

102 AGRICULTURE

some regions potatoes are planted in cross rows like com,
with three cuts of seed to the hill.

The date for planting differs in various regions, but
the greater part of the crop in the northern states is planted
during the last half of May. From twelve to twenty bushels
of seed are required for an acre, depending on how the
tubers are cut for planting. Where crops of any consider-
able size are raised, the dropping is usually done with a
horse planter, some makes of which are arranged to dis-
tribute commercial fertilizer at the same time.

Cultivating the crop. — Potatoes demand good cultiva-
tion. Harrowing should be done before the potatoes are
up. From one to two harrowings may be given after the
plants appear. Throughout the growing season a fine soil
mulch should at all times be maintained by means of iCZ
quent cultivation. Especially after a rain should the soil
crust be broken. The cultivation should be rather shallow,
and potatoes should not be hilled up as is so often done.

Harvesting the crop. — When the vines have died the
potatoes have stopped growing and the crop is ready to
harvest. In the case of small fields, potatoes are often har-
vested by being plowed out with an ordinary plow, the
tubers being picked up by hand, and the field afterward
harrowed to uncover any that have been missed.

In regions where potatoes are grown in large quanti-
ties the digging is done with machines, several kinds of
which are now on the market. The average machine will
turn out about three acres in a day, and will require from
five to ten pickers to keep up with it.

Storing the crop. — In order to keep well, potatoes
must be stored in a cool place. The house cellar is usu-
ally too warm for them, and they also give out an un-
pleasant odor that permeates the house. A common type
of vegetable cellar to be found on many farms is built

THE POTATO 103

with concrete or stone walls, the excavation being made on
a side hill. It is covered with a shingle roof, and has a
board floor on a level with the ground at the upper side,
thus making an excellent tool and machinery house over
the space used for vegetables.

4. Improvement Through Selection of Seed

One of the first factors in successful potato growing is
the securing of good seed. Without this, fertility of soil
and careful cultivation are largely wasted.

Good seed will possess the following qualities : It must
(1) be pure, that is, free from mixtures of varieties; (2)
be taken from productive plants, or "hill selected"; (3) be
uniform, in size and shape; (4) be firm and sound, not
shrunken or decayed; (5) be entirely free from disease;
(6) not wholly mature when harvested; (7) have sprouts
just showing at time of planting.

It has been estimated by experts that attention to these
points would add at least ten per cent; to the potato crop
each year. This would mean an increase of nearly thirty-
five million bushels, worth about $21,000,000 annually.

Pure seed. — Mixed varieties present several disad-
vantages in potato growing. The crop will not mature
evenly. Thus, when the earlier variety has ripened and
is ready for the market or table, the later one will have
the potatoes just setting, and unfit for use. Mixed vari-
eties do not cook evenly, and when baked or broiled to-
gether some will be overdone before others have softened.
General mixture of varieties in potatoes as in other crops
tends to degeneration and running out of the breed.

Seed from productive plants. — Seed should be taken
only from the strongest and most productive plants, no
matter what the variety. This can not be accomplished by

104 AGRICULTURE

selecting seed from the potato bin, any more than the best
seed corn can be selected from the crib or wagon. For a
certain tuber may itself be of good size and look promis-
ing, but have come' from a plant that produced but one or
two potatoes, or that grew only one tuber of fair size,
with several culls.

The most successful method of developing high-grade
seed potatoes is what is called the tuber-unit method. This
consists of selecting from the seed bin a quantity of the
most perfect tubers, each to weigh from six to eight ounces.
These are cut for planting by splitting the tuber into four
quarters, from seed end to stem ^nd.

The tuber-unit method. — ^The four pieces of each po-
tato are planted in succession twelve inches apart in the row.
A longer space is left between the sets of fours, thus mak-
ing it possible to watch the outcome of each tuber by itself.
Before the plants begin to die, careful inspection is made,
and any mixtures, imperfect or weak plants are marked for
rejection. Only the most promising and uniform are re-
served for the selection of seed.

When the crop is harvested, each set of four is dug by
itself. A further selection is made by rejecting the total
product if any one of the four plants has failed to pro-
duce uniform, desirable tubers. The potatoes produced by
each set of four selected for seed are put into separate sacks
and kept for further examination.

Second season of tuber-unit planting. — Finally, the
contents of each sack r.re inspected for the weight of mar-
ketable and unmarketable tubers, and other desirable qual-
ities of the type. From each of the four-plant units the
best ten tubers are to be selected for the next year's plant-
ing. This selected seed is planted the following year in
the same way as the first season, thus giving forty plants
to the unit instead of four. The product from the best forty-

106 AGRICULTURE

hill rows is kept for seed for the general crop for the fol-
lowing year. By thus keeping a breeding plat for seed, po-
tatoes can be greatly improved, and the yield much in-
creased.

The tuber-unit method can be rendered even more ef-
fective by making the first selection from the field instead
of the potato bin. This is done by going into the field
before the vines begin to die and marking a number of
the most vigorous and desirable plants. These are har-
vested separately before wholly mature, and seed taken
from the best hills.

The practise of planting for seed the small and unmar-
ketable potato culls can not be too strongly condemned. It
lessens the yield, lowers the quality of the crop and causes
the variety to deteriorate.

Cutting seed potatoes. — Whether it pays better to
cut potatoes for seed or plant the whole tuber has been
much discussed. It is believed by many potato growers
that under average conditions the yield will be greater when
quarters are planted than when pieces with single eyes are
used, and that halves will produce more than quarters. It
is not sure that whole tubers will produce a larger yield
than halves. The weight of experience seems to favor
planting halves.

Immature seed. — For vitality, high yield and good
market qualities, potatoes intended for seed should be har-
vested before entirely ripe (by hill selection) that is, be-
fore the vines have died. Many experiments have shown
that immature seed will produce a considerably higher yield
than seed allowed to ripen before digging.

Home-grown seed not always best. — Contrary to the
rule with most farm crops, seed brought from another
region often produces a better crop of potatoes than hpme-

THE POTATO 107

grown seed. Especially is this true when northern grown
potatoes are taken farther south. Not only is the yield
increased, but the time required for maturing is shortened
by securing seed from colder regions. Great care should*
be taken in importing seed tubers not to introduce new
forms of potato diseases.

5. Potato Enemies

Potatoes have many enemies, and the number seems to
be increasing, owing to diseases being brought in from
other countries.

Scab. — Scab is one of the most wide-spread and de-
structive of potato diseases. It causes a rough, pitted,
scaliby condition which may attack the tuber in patches,
or extend over the entire surface. Whether scab is caused
by a fungous growth or a species of soil bacteria is not
certain. It is fortunate, however, that a very simple and
effective remedy is known. This consists in treating seed
potatoes before planting.

There are several mixtures used for this purpose, the
cheapest and most easily applied of which is a formalin
solution. This is prepared by mixing one pint of formalin
with thirty gallons of water. The seed potatoes are soaked
in the solution for two hours, and then planted without
allowing them to come into contact with bags or utensils
in which scabby potatoes have been kept.

Leaf, or early blight. — Leaf blight is another common
potato disease. It attacks the leaves and stems, first show-
ing about the time that the tubers begin to form. Its pres-
ence may be detected by the presence of grayish brown
spots on the leaves, the part of the leaf attacked soon be-
coming hard and brittle. Within three or four weeks the
leaves are all killed, and the stem is also affected. The tubers

Club boy, and prize seed potatoes, sprouted enough for planting.

A potato club boy from Massachusetts.

THE POTATO 109

grow but little after the leaves are first attacked; hence
the crop is ruined unless the blight can be checked.

The ravages of leaf blight can be almost if not wholly
prevented by spraying the plants with the Bordeaux mixture
(see page 208). This solution is applied with a spraying
machine at the rate of about fifty gallons to the acre. From
three to five sprayings during the season are required when
leaf blight threatens. One pound of Paris green to the
' acre at the first spraying, and the same amount later in the
season will also destroy the potato beetles, which often prove
such a pest.

Late blight, or rot. — The blotches and blackish
streaks often seen running through tubers are caused by
late blight, or potato rot. This disease first attacks the
leaves and stems, causing them to soften and decay, pro-
ducing a bad smell. Late blight often appears suddenly,
and spreads through a field with great rapidity. A green,
healthy-looking field may turn almost black in a day or two.

The treatment for late blight is the same as for leaf
blight, and should never be neglected in regions where
blight is common. It is far better to begin the spraying
before either form of blight begins to appear, for this is the
easiest time to prevent it.

Topics for Investigation

1. What is the acreage of potatoes raised on your
home farm this season ? If you are not certain, go out and
measure the field carefully. Compare the acreage of each
of the farms represented in the school.

2. What is the yield of your potatoes per acre? How
does this compare with the other farms of your vicinity?
With the state? With the United States?

3. Select two medium-sized potatoes, one regular,
smooth and with shallow eyes, and the other irregular and
with deep-set eyes. Weigh each. Pare both potatoes, as

no AGRICULTURE

nearly the same as possible. Now weigh the pared tubers.
Which lost the larger percentage in paring? Which is
easier to pare? Which looks more pleasing for the table?
Which would be the better to select for seed?

4. Bring a sample, of as many diflferent varieties of
tubers as can be found in your neighborhood. Learn to
recognize the chief breed characteristics so as to identify
the different varieties, such as Early Rose, Bliss Triumph,
Early Ohio, Gold Coin, Burbank, Rural New Yorker,
Walter Raleigh. What are the principal early varieties?
Late varieties ? Do you find mixtures in which it is impos-
sible to determine the varieties?

5. Select tubers of the same size from different vari-
eties, such as Early Rose and Rural New Yorkers. At
your homes try boiling them together. Do they cook in
the same time ? Try baking, frying, etc.

6. How deep does your father plow the ground for po-
tatoes? How deep does he plant? Does he use commer-
cial fertilizers? Does he manure the field for potatoes? If
so, is the crop scabby?

7. What plan is used in selecting seed for your potato
crop? Are culls ever used for seed? Is there any more
reason in using small potatoes for seed than in taking seed
corn from nubbins?

8. Suppose that seed potatoes are seventy-five cents a
bushel, and that when quartered twelve bushels are re-
quired to plant an acre ; also suppose that by planting
halves instead of quarters the yield is increased twenty
bushels per acre, and that the new crop sells at sixty cents
a bushel. Which way of cutting seed is best, and by how
much an acre?

9. Bring samples of potatoes affected by scab ; by rot.
Study the effects of each on the tuber. Secure if possible
samples of plants affected by blight, and learn to identify
the disease. What is the most troublesome potato disease
in your region? What is the remedy?

10. After talking with your father about it, itemize
the cost of raising an acre of potatoes. Compare this with
the cost of producing an acre of corn ; an acre of wheat or
oats. Now, taking the average yield of each crop, com-
pare the profit of potato raising with that of other crops.

THE POTATO 111

Would it not be possible to double the yield of potatoes per
acre in your region? How would you go at it?

11. Illustrate how to keep a book account of an acre
of potatoes from the preparation of the seed bed to the har-
vesting and marketing of the products. Include items of
expense in regard to yield, selection of seed potatoes, grad-
ing, crating, marketing, and use of a special brand or label.

12. Make a map study of the United States, showing
the location of the potato sections and insert the last cen-
sus crop report on potato production in these states.

6. Potato Demonstrations

1. Demonstrate how to select seed potatoes from the
hill.

2. How to prepare seed potatoes by cutting for seed.

3. How to manufacture potato starch out of culls and
injured tubers.

4. How to grade and crate potatoes.

5. How to prepare potatoes in various ways for use
in the home.

7. Potato Play Contests

1. Potato race.

2. Potato paring contest, based on time, skill and
weight of peeling, using twelve uniform tubers.

3. Potato judging contest.

4. Variety naming contest.

5. Oral recipe contest. How to use the potato for home
diet.

8. Potato Club Project

One of the most interesting field or garden crop projects
is in connection with the production and management of
a plat of potatoes. This can be taken up uniformly by
both boys and girls, using not less than one-eighth acre as
a basis.

9

112 AGRICULTURE

The club. — ^The study and practise in the work are to
be based on the entire managemeilt of the club plat, includ-
ing treatment for diseases and insects, grading, crating, mar-
keting, manufacturing of potato starch, study of the life
history and the relation of the potato to the various activ-
ities and studies of the schoolroom.

Club festival. — A potato club festival, covering all the
interests of potato culture in the community, with the ex-
hibits of both fresh and cooked products, lectures on potato
culture, etc., can be made one of the big events of the fall
term, to which all the patrons of the school can be invited.

The Award. — The basis of award should be as follows :

1. Yield 30

.2. Net profit on investment •• 30

3 Exhibit of products (fresh and cooked) 20

4. Crop report and story 20

Total Score- 100

CHAPTER V
FORAGE CROPS

OUR study so far has dealt mostly with the cereals — the
crops raised chiefly for their grain. We now come to
study the distinct types of forage crops, or those grown for
their leaves and stems, which are fed to stock. Besides
serving them as food for animals, certain forage crops are
of great value in enriching the soil and causing it to pro-
duce larger yields of cereals.

When the forage plants are fed green by grazing, we
call the crop pasture; if cut, and at once fed green without
allowing time to cure, it is called a soiling crop. If the crop
is cut and allowed to cure before feeding it, it is called hay,
straw, fodder, or stover as the case may be. We have
already noted that a forage crop, cut and stored so that it
will keep green, is called silage or ensilage.

1. Important Forage Crops

The most important forage crops may be divided into
two broad classes, grasses and legumes.

Grasses. — ^The grasses are among the most wide-
spread and important of our plants. They include an al-
most endless variety, many of which grow without culti-
vation, or even special seeding, the seed being carried by
the wind, birds and in many other ways.

Among the most important grasses grown in the north-
ern states are timothy, blue-grass, the millets and red-top.
Common to the southern states are Bermuda grass, carpet
grass, Lespedesa, Johnson grass, orchard grass and brome-
grass.

113 :

114 AGRICULTURE

It must not be forgotten that our great cereals, corn,
wheat, oats, barley, rice, rye, etc., also belong to the grass
family.

While there are so many varieties of grasses, they pos-
sess certain characteristics in common. For example, prac-
tically all grasses bear their seeds either ( 1 ) in a spike, like
wheat, barley or timothy; or else (2) in a panicle, like oats
or blue-grass. Most of the grasses have hollow stems, with
nodes, or joints, dividing the stem into sections.

Some of the grasses are annuals; that is, they make their
growth, raise seed and die all in one season, as oats, corn,
or wheat. Other grasses are perennials; they live on from
season to season without replanting, as timothy, blue-grass,
or Bermuda grass.

Legumes. — The legumes differ from grasses in that
they bear their seeds in pods, like beans and peas. These
pods vary in form from the close, nearly straight pod of
the pea to the curled pod of alfalfa. When the seed is
ripe, the pod splits open, and the seeds scatter. Most
legumes branch more freely than grasses and also send
their roots more deeply into the soil.

Some of the most important legumes are the clovers,
alfalfa, soy-beans, cotihpeas, the vetches, and the ordinary
garden peas and beans.

The legumes differ widely in their manner of growth,
ranging all the way from small herbs like clover, to vari-
ous vines, shrubs and even trees. Some of the legumes
are annuals, some are biennials, and others perennials.

2. Importance of the Forage Crops
Forage crops in the United States rank next in value
after corn and cotton. The total acreage of improved pas-
tures and harvested forage crops is considerably more than
all the grain crops combined.

FORAGE CROPS 115

The forage producing region. — The most important
forage producing region of the United States is found in
the north central states, reaching from Michigan and Ohio
on the east to Kansas and Nebraska on the west. The last
federal census shows the percentage of forage crops of the
United States produced by each of the states of this region
as follows:

Iowa 8.05%

New York 7.26%

Minnesota 6.22%

Kansa's 6.10%

Nebraska 5.96%

Wisconsin 5.15%

Ohio 4.65%

Illinois 4.48%

California 4.45%

Missouri 4.21%

Pennsylvania 3.78%

South Dakota 3.76%

Michigan 3.74%

Uses of grasses and legumes. — Grasses and legumes
have two principal uses: (1) they supply the most impor-
tant part of the food of farm animals, and (2) they aid in
building up the soil, making it productive for other crops.
They are also serviceable in saving the soil from washing
and blowing.

A great proportion of our cattle, horses, sheep and
hogs are raised with forage as their chief food. Where
good pasturage is available, little or no grain is fed to grow-
ing stock, and often none even to milk cows. And when
grain is used to fatten stock, or to give strength, as in the
case of work horses, forage is required to supply the vol-
atile oils as well as bulk and coarseness necessary to diges-
tion.

Both grasses and legumes tend to improve the soil.

116 AGRICULTURE

Their decaying roots, stems and leaves form an important
part of the soil, called humus. This vegetable matter not
only enriches the soil, but makes it lighter and more por-
ous, so that air can better get to the roots of growing
plants. It also favors proper drainage in damp soils.

Legumes and the nitrogen of the soil. — Legumes,
however, enrich the soil in a special way, and are widely
cultivated for this purpose. In order to understand how
legumes do their work of improving the soil, it must be
known that plants demand certain foods from the soil. One
of the most necessary plant foods is nitrogen. If this is
lacking in the soil, the crop does not grow well, and the
yield is reduced. For example, wheat takes much nitrogen
from the soil ; this is the main reason why wheat can not be
grown on the same land year after year. The nitrogen be-
comes exhausted. The soil is "worn out." It is estimated
that a twenty-bushel crop of wheat removes about thirty-
five pounds of nitrogen from each acre.

Nitrogen may be returned to the soil in several ways.
One of the most common ways is by means of barnyard
manure, which is rich in nitrogen. Another way is through
commercial fertilizers, such as sodium nitrate, ammonium
sulphate, or dried blood saved from slaughter-houses. But
the amount of manure is limited, and the commercial fer-
tilizers are expensive. And this is where the legumes come
in to help. Legumes are able to gather nitrogen from the
air and deposit it in the soil.

There are millions of pounds of nitrogen in the atmos-
phere resting on every acre of ground. But the plants
can not make use of this nitrogen in^ the form in which it
exists in the air. It has to be made over for them. This
is accomplished by bacteria which have their homes in the
tubercles or nodules found on the roots of leguminous
plants.

FORAGE CROPS 117'

In the small tubercles to be seen on the roots of clover,
alfalfa, soy-beans or cow-peas are millions of bacteria, each
able in the process of its own growth to take nitrogen from,
the air, change it into the form needed by growing,
plants, and leave it in the soil for the next crop. In this
way the legume is able not only to secure its own growth,
but to leave the soil richer through the action of its bac-
teria friends. The raising of legumes is therefore: one of:
the best and most economical ways of enriching the soil. So
important is the group of legumes that a separate: chapter
will be given the most important ones.

Topics for Investigation

1. What are the chief grasses used for pasturage in?
your neighborhood? For hay? For lawns?

2. What are the principal legumes cultivated in your
vicinity? Which are annuals? Which are perennials?

3. Make a collection of the principal grasses found on
your father's farm. Study their method of growth. Com-
pare stems, leaves, roots, and method of seed bearing.

4. Make a similar collection and study of the com-
mon legumes.

5. Secure the roots of clover, of alfalfa, of peas, beans
and any other available legumes. Make a study of the tu-
bercles, comparing size and number. The bacteria are too*
small to be seen except with a powerful microscope. The
tubercles are most plentiful in the early part of the grow-
ing season.

6. Illustrate how a bookkeeping record can be kept of
the various types of forage crops, such as alfalfa, cow-
peas, red and crimson clover, blue-grass, etc.

7. Make a study of the map, locate the principal for-
age territories, and indicate the various types of grasses
and forage crops that are being produced in the different
sections. Indicate in each state the acreage allotted to
each type of forage.

8. Indicate what kind of stock thrives best on certain
forage crops, and tell why.

118 AGRICULTURE

' 3. Forage Demonstrations

1. Demonstrate how to prepare and make exhibits of
the various types of grasses, legumes, plants, etc.

2. How to make a grass seed test.

3. The difference between a good and a poor grass
seed head.

4. Show how grass seed should be sown and what con-
stitutes a good stand.

5. Demonstrate how to make different things in con-
nection with the forage crops, such as haycocks, stacks,
and how to cut hay with the scythe.

4. Forage Crop Club Project

In many schools it will be practicable for boys and girls
to organize into clubs for the purpose of growing and de-
monstrating the possibilities of profitable farming in alfalfa,
red clover, crimson clover, cow-peas, beans, etc. The age
requirements should be the same as in other clubs. The
area of the plot should not be less than one acre and may
be more, depending on the size of the field available for
club work.

The award. — The basis of award should be :

1. Average yield per acre 30

2. Net profit on investment 30

3. Exhibit of products (hay and seed) 20

4. Crop report and story 20

Total score 100

For most localities the four most important forage crops
in which to organize clubs would be alfalfa, clovers, cow-
peas, and blue-grass sod for the lawn.

CHAPTER VI
THE CLOVERS

CLOVERS are the most widely grown family of legumes
among the farm crops. There are many different ty^es
of clover, such as red clover, white clover, alsike clover and
crimson clover. By far the most important of these is the
red clover, especially throughout the northeastern quarter
of the United States. The great red-clover section reaches
frorh Maine to Virginia, and as far west as the Missouri
River. Either alone, or mixed with grasses for hay and
pastures, red clover claims from one-eighth to one-third of
all the cultivated land throughout the eastern and north
central states. It is now also being successfully grown in
Montana, Washington, Oregon and in the far Southwest.

1. The Red-Clover Plant

Red clover is so common a plant that it can usually be
studied near at hand in the field. Every pupil should there-
fore examine the growing plant, and bring a complete speci-
men, including the root, to school for further reference.
Also secure a plant of timothy, the grass that is commonly
grown with red clover.

Topics for Investigation

Study of the red-clover plant. — Compare the clover
and timothy plants (1) as to root systems, (2) stem and
mode of branching, (3) mode of flowering and seed bear-
ing.

119

A youu},' rtHl-clover plant, sLowiuy llie ebanjcterlstlc uodules
on the roots.

THE CLOVERS 121

1. Which has the longer roots? Which will make the
denser sod? Why? Do you find any tubercles on the
roots? Is the stem of either hollow? Jointed? Which
stands more erect ? Why ? What is the difference in their
leaves? Which bears the larger number of seeds to the
head? The larger seeds?

2. After red clover has been cut, from what part of
the plant does the new growth start? How many cut-
tings a season can usually be made of red clover? Which
cutting is used for the production of seed?

3. What is the shape of the individual flower of the red
clover? How many flowers to the average head? How
many seeds does each flower bear? What is the shape of
the seed? Learn to identify it when mixed with the weed
seeds most commonly found in red clover, such as trefoil,
curled dock, wild mustard, dodder, or others.

4. Write an accurate description of the red-clover
plant, so that one who has never seen the plant could
identify it from your description.

2. Value of Red Clover on the Farm

Red clover as forage for stock.— Red clover makes an
ideal forage crop for all classes of farm stock. Besides
being highly palatable, it contains a large proportion of
protein, one of the most necessary elements of food for ani-
mals. So essential is protein for the growth of animals
and the production of milk and butter, that bran, oilmeal,
and cottonseed-meal are commonly fed to supply this ele-
ment. Where red clover can be successfully raised it largely
takes the place of these more costly foods, and at the same
time supplies the roughage needed by all animals. When
grain is fed, as to chickens, hogs or cattle, red clover, either
green or cured, forms a most valuable item of food.

The worth of clover as an animal food has not been
fully understood. It has been computed by experts that a
ton of red-clover hay has almost two-thirds as much feed-

122 AGRICULTURE

ing value for farm stock as a ton of wheat bran, and more
than two-thirds the feeding vakie of a ton of shelled corn.

Red clover as a soil renewer. — As a soil stimulant and
fertilizer red clover is almost without a peer except alfalfa.
By its use in the rotation of crops, it is possible to keep
the supply of nitrogen and humus almost undiminished in
the soil, throughout years of cropping. The bacteria living
in the root tubercles transform atmospheric nitrogen into
soil nitrogen and leave it for other crops. The roots and
stems, decaying, add to the humus.

At the average price for commercial fertilizers often
used to enrich land, a ton of clover is worth nearly ten dol-
lars to plow under as a fertilizer. Fields which have been
in red clover frequently produce ten bushels more of grain
to the acre than before the clover was grown.

In the use of clover as a fertilizer it must be remem-
bered, however, that clover adds to the soil chiefly nitrogen
and humus; and that if the crop is all removed each year,
none being plowed tinder and no manure returned the
amount of nitrogen humus in the soil is increased but very
little. Potash and phosphorus, two other plant foods often
failing in worn soils, must be supplied either by the use of
commercial fertilizers or barnyard manure.

3. The Raising of Red Clover

Red clover will grow successfully on any soil that will
raise corn. Soil that is wet and heavy or lacking in humus
will not produce a satisfactory stand of clover. Red clover
has a remarkable root system, sending its main roots down
as deep as six or eight feet in favorable soil. This enables
plants which have received a good start to withstand con-
siderable drought.

The seed bed. — The seed bed for clover should be

Sweet clover ou an Iowa farm.

124 AGRICULTURE

finely pulverized, but well packed. If sown on freshly
plowed land, it is necessary to harrow until the ground be-
comes firm, else a poor stand is sure to follow. The
ground should be clean, as clover is not a good fighter of
weeds.

Red clover may be. sown in the early spring on fields of
winter wheat. In this case no preparation of the seed bed
is required. The covering of the seed may be accomplished
by weathering. A more certain way is to harrow the
wheat after the clover has been sown, or even both before
and after the seeding of the clover. This does not injure
the wheat. Red clover is also often sown in the spring
with oats as a nurse crop.

Another common method of seeding red clover is in
standing corn just following the last cultivation. This plan
has worked successfully, especially in the New England
states. If the crop of corn is heavy enough to shade the
ground, or if the fall happens to be dry, a successful stand
is uncertain.

Time of sowing. — In the larger part of the red-clover
region, it does not seem to matter greatly whether the
clover is sown in the spring or the fall. Which time is better
depends on the season. Young clover plants do not easily
withstand drought. If a dry season follows the seeding, the
stand will not succeed no matter when the planting is done.

In spring seeding with a nurse crop of winter wheat, the
clover should be sown at the earliest possible moment. If
the ground is not to be harrowed to cover the seed, it may
be sown on a late fall of snow. This gives the clover plants
the advantage of a start before the moisture is out of the
soil, and also before the nurse crop gets large enough to
shade the young plants.

If the seeding is done in the fall, the crop should be

THE CLOVERS

125

sown early enough that the clover plants attain a growth
of from four to six inches before freezing weather comes

#^!o>J?

M

c^

.cf 0

^ '^g

1' ~ ^" 2"^ ' ^^"^ 13

#

l.adH^l\\*tm\> qHa»*ter s _^ mustard

%. ^

rVi/;\d . 8CUve>: 9'f^e\d,

Seeds of red clover and common im-
purities.

on. Otherwise they may not be able to live through the
winter, especially in the northern states. Seeding after
August fifteenth is unsafe in the northern states.

126 AGRICULTURE

Clover seed. — ^A great deal of the trouble found in
securing a good stand of red clover comes from poor seed.
Good red-clover seed should (1) be plump, and not shriv-
eled; (2) look bright instead of dull; (3) vary in color
frorri violet to light yellow, but not be a dull brown; (4)
show individual seeds medium to large size; (5) be free
from all weed seed and rubbish; (6) be free from what
is called "hard" seed. By hard seed is meant grains whose
seed coat is such that the seed absorbs moisture but slowly
and hence may not germinate for several weeks or even
months. The seed of very new varieties may contain as
much as fifty to sixty per cent, of hard seed.

As is the case with most other farm crops, it is safer to
secure clover seed from near home than from a distance.
In this way one may be sure that the variety is adapted
to the vicinity, and that the seed does not contain noxious
weeds and other impurities.

Cleaning red-clover seed. — Ordinary red-clover seed
contains many different kinds of weed seeds. Some of
these look enough like clover grains that they may pass
unnoticed. Sowing clover mixed with weeds not only
reduces the stand of clover, but compels the clover to divide
its moisture and food with its worst enemies, besides ren-
dering the ground foul for other crops.

Screening red-clover seed through a sieve with twenty
meshes to the inch will remove all the smaller weed seeds,
while retaining the medium-sized and larger clover grains.
Seeds of wild carrot, ragweed, thistles, buckthorn, wild
chickory, and several other weeds bearing large seeds are
not removed in this way. Clover seed should first of all
be selected from a field that is as free as possible from
weeds. Even then, screening will pay, however, for the
removal of the smaller clover and weed seeds.

THE CLOVERS ' 127

4, Harvesting the Red-Clover Crop

Red clover should be cut for hay just as it is past full
bloom. If cut much earlier than this the entire food value
of the plant is not obtained; if it is allowed to stand too
long- the leaves begin to fall, and the stems become dry
and stiff. If the second crop is to be cut for seed, it may
be necessary to cut the first somewhat early.

The care of clover hay. — In stacking or mowing the
hay in a barn, the important thing is to avoid exposure to
the weather, or becoming dry enough so that the leaves
crumble and are lost. For the leaves of red clover, while
they are only about forty per cent, of the weight of the plant,
contain almost two-thirds of the protein of the whole plant.
Clover hay that has become too dry is also very dusty, and
not so good for feed.

Red-clover hay does not shed rain so well as the grass
hays, and should therefore be stored in a barn where pos-
sible. If it must be put in stacks, these should be built
with the greatest care, keeping the middle of the stack full
and well tramped. The top should be covered with
canvas, or with a coating of grass or straw.

Care must be taken not to put red clover into the barn or
stack when it is damp from dew or rain, as it has a tend-
ency to heat. This heating not only damages the hay,
but not infrequently sets fire to the stack or barn and burns
it down.

Harvesting red clover for seed. — Red-clover seed is
usually secured from the second crop of the season, the
first being harvested for hay. The clover is cut either with
a mower or a special header, and run through a clover
huller. By special adjustment an ordinary thrashing ma-
chine may be used for hulling the seed. Cover straw still
possesses good feeding value after the seed is removed.

128 • AGRICULTURE

5. The Enemies of Red Clover

In the starting of the clover crop, the two principal ene-
mies to be encountered are drought and hard winters. A
stand not infrequently fails from one or the other of -these
natural causes, which can not be guarded against, except to
sow the crop at proper times, and according to proper meth-
ods of seeding. Red clover is so valuable, however, that
an occasional failure to secure a stand should only spur
the farmer to try for better success.

Insect enemies. — Various insects seem to find red
clover highly palatable, and hence feed upon it. Yet only
a few of these do the crop any great damage.

One of the worst of these pests is a small species of
beetle known as the clover root-borer. This beetle is of a
brownish color, and grows about one-sixth of an inch in
length. The larvae of this insect attack the roots of the
clover, usually during the second year of the crop. They
have done the most damage in regions east of the Missis-
sippi River, especially in Michigan, Indiana and Ohio. The
only remedy so far found is to plow the damaged field as
soon as the hay is removed. The larvae are then without
food and soon die, leaving the field free of their kind for
a future crop.

The seed-bearing qualities of red clover are often seri-
ously damaged by the clover-seed chalcis fly. This is an
insect shaped like a wasp, and about the size of a seed of
red clover. Just before the clover seed begins to harden
this fly lays its eggs in the growing seed. As the larvae
develop they use the seed for food, entirely destroying it by
the time they secure their growth. The chalcis fly is respon-
sible for much of the poor yield of clover seed. It is one
of the worst clover crop pests in the United States. It is
thought that light pasturing in the early spring, or even

Effect on clover seed of Stages in development of red-clover
the chalcis fly. seed: (a) flower; (b) immature

seed vessel ; (c) flower ripe; (d) ma-
ture seed vessel ; (e) seed.

Second crop of red clover nearly ready to cut for seed. The
first crop yielded 2^2 tons to the acre.

130 AGRICULTURE

mowing the clover soon after it starts will do much to reduce
the danger.

Clover has at least one enemy that works after the
crop is stacked or mowed; this is the clover-hay worm. It
usually works in the bottom of the stack or mow, eating
the softer portions of the plant, but also damaging the
feeding qualities of the hay by its excrement and a web
that it leaves. Salting the hay near the bottom of the
stack or mow will do much toward stopping the work of
this pest.

While the botanists tell us that red clover is a perennial,
it is seldom able to maintain a stand for more than three
or four years, when it must be re-seeded. Red clover is
usually followed by a grain crop before clover is again
grown.

6. Other Types of Clover

None of the other clovers compare with red clover
in their general value to the northern and central farms.
Yet a few other types are of great importance in other
sections.

White clover. — White clover is well known over most
of the red-clover region. It differs in its manner of growth
from red clover, being of a creeping habit, and therefore
not well adapted to use as a hay crop. White clover is
very hardy, and will often work its way into a pasture with-
out seeding, the seeds being carried by winds and the birds.
It makes an excellent pasture grass, and is also often used
in lawn mixtures.

Alsike clover. — Alsike clover is named from a town
in Sweden, where it is said to have originated. It resem-
bles red clover but is of a finer, more delicate type, and
therefore does not yield so well. While red clover will
produce two crops each season, alsike clover will grow
but one. This clover is especially suited to wet heavy soil

THE CLOVERS 131

which will not grow red clover, and in such regions proves
a valuable crop.

Crimson clover. — ^This clover, whose cultural methods
are similar to those of red clover, differs from the other
clovers in being an annual. It is a relatively new crop,
having recently been brought to this country from Europe.
It is grown chiefly in the southeastern part of the United
States, where it assumes the same importance that red
clover has farther north. Crimson clover does not demand
so rich a soil as red clover or alfalfa, but is of great im-
portance in the southeast and southwest of the United
States.

Topics for Investigation

1. How many acres of red clover are now growing on
your father's farm? Make a comparison for all the farms
represented in the school. What other legumes are raised
at your home? Is the red clover grown alone, or with
timothy ?

2. How long have your father's clover-fields been
down? Ask your father whether red clover that has been
down two or three years begins to die out? What is the
oldest field of red clover in the vicinity?

3. Secure several samples of red-clover seed. These
may be taken from the supply intended for sowing, or from
the barn floor where red clover is fed. Study these sam-
ples with reference to the qualities named in the text for
clover seed. What proportion of the seed turns out to be
weed seed instead of clover? Can you identify the dif-
ferent weeds represented?

4. Make a seed tester out of two plates and pieces of
Canton flannel. Place one hundred seeds of red clover be-
tween the plates, dampen the cloth and keep warm for four
or five days. How many of the seeds have sprouted ? What
percentage failed to grow? Is it probable that some of the
seeds were "hard" ?

5. If red-clover seed such as you tested is selling at
eight dollars a bushel, what would the good seed in your
sample really cost the purchaser? Would a farmer better

132 AGRICULTURE

.pay nine dollars a bushel for pure seed, ninety-five per
cent, of which will grow, or seven dollars a bushel for dirty
seed, seventy-five per cent, of which will grow? Have in
mind also the fact that the farmer can not afford to sow
weed seed with his clover. Will it pay to test the red-
clover seed before planting?

6. Secure specimen plants and samples of seeds of all
the other clovers to be found in your region. Learn to
identify both plant and seed.

CHAPTER VII
ALFALFA

L The Alfalfa Plant

FIRST of all secure, if possible, samples of growing
alfalfa plants. Go into the field and dig up several
plants of different sizes, one year old, two years old, and
three years old. Try to obtain the entire: root system of at
least one good-sized plant. This may be hard to do, as the
roots usually extend from eight to ten feet down in the
soil, and under favorable conditions more than twice this
depth.

Study of the alfalfa plant. — Study the plant, noting
the mode of branching, the system of leaves, the method of
flowering, and the arrangement of seeds and pods. Look
for the tubercles on the roots. These are most plentiful in
the spring. Later in the season they fall off and decay in
the soil. If the roots are pulled up roughly, the nodules
will be stripped off and remain in the ground. The indi-
vidual bacteria can not be seen except with a powerful mi-
croscope.

Topics for Investigation

1. How many cuttings to the season are made of
alfalfa? How many of clover? Of timothy?

2. What is the average cutting of alfalfa to the acre?
Of clover? Of timothy? Compare, then, the total crop
for the season of the three kinds of forage?

3. What is the market value of alfalfa per ton? Of
clover? Of timothy? Compare the value per acre for feed-
ing purposes of each of the three hay crops.

133

134 AGRICULTURE

^ 4. What does it cost to produce an acre of alfalfa and
harvest it? Of clover? Of timothy? Find which is the
most profitable crop based on market value of hay. (It
must, however, be taken into account that alfalfa is of
greatest value in renewing the soil.)

2. The Growing of Alfalfa

Alfalfa is one of the oldest plants known. It was
known in Greece five hundred years B. C., and raised in
England before Columbus discovered America. It has been
known in this country for more than a century, but only
recently has it become of any great importance as a farm
crop. And even yet, its value is but little understood, and
the methods of its growth are not generally known.

Acreage of alfalfa. — -At present barely one-tenth as
many acres are devoted to alfalfa as to clover and tim-
othy, and one-ninth as many as are put in wheat. We have
twenty acres in com to every acre in alfalfa. Yet the
amount of land devoted to alfalfa is increasing every year,
and it will soon become one of our principal forage crops.

The alfalfa region. — The alfalfa region of the United
States at present lies principally west of the Mississippi
River. Out of about five million acres of alfalfa raised in
the entire country, Kansas grows one million acres, or one-
fifth of the crop.

Alfalfa is especially adapted to dry soils and climates,
and is therefore of the greatest value in the semi-arid re-
gions of the West. Utah, Arizona, Colorado, Idaho and
other western states are using alfalfa to make fertile many
acres of soil almost barren for other crops.

The great corn belt states are admirably adapted to the
raising of alfalfa, but have as yet done little with it. For
example, the following are the ranks of these states in the
production of alfalfa in the United States: Ohio, nine-

ALFALFA

135

teenth; Iowa, twentieth; Kentucky, twenty-first; Illinois,
twenty-second ; Wisconsin, twenty-third ; Indiana, twenty-
fourth, and Michigan, twenty-ninth.

Comparison of corn and alfalfa roots, showing why alfalfa is a
drought resister.

3. Alfalfa as Forage for Stock

Alfalfa is the most valuable forage crop known for
the feeding of most kinds of farm animals. Like
clover, it contains a high degree of that most important ele-
ment of food, protein, which goes to make both bone and
muscle. With such forage as timothy, corn, stover, or straw

136 AGRICULTURE

.fed to stock, protein must be supplied in the form of bran,
or some other such feed. Alfalfa serves the same purpose,
and is much cheaper to produce.

Feeding value of alfalfa. — The following table shows
the feeding vakie of eight different kinds of feed, based
on the digestible nutrient material in each : (Farmers* Bul-
letin, 339. These figures are only relative, since prices vary
from year to year.)

Vahte Value

Feed per ton Feed per ton

Green alfalfa $ 7.00 Timothy hay $ 9.00

Green c!over 5.96 Cow-pea hay 19.76

Alfalfa hay 20.16 Wheat bran ^ 22.80

Clover hay 14.12 Shelled corn 20.16

It is seen that the feeding value of alfalfa hay is more
than double that of timothy. It is almost equal to wheat
bran, and just equal to shelled corn. Alfalfa has an addi-
tional value for feeding stock because it. is highly palatable
to almost every farm animal, even to poultry and hogs.

Bran costs an average of about twenty dollars a ton ;
to raise alfalfa hay costs an average of about five dollars a
ton. Why not grozv the protein needed by the farm animals
instead of buying it? As farmers learn more of the value
of alfalfa this is what they will do.

4. Alfalfa as a Renewer of the Soil

Alfalfa is probably the best of the legumes as a soil
renewer. The bacteria which grow in the root tubercle are
able to take the nitrogen directly from the air and add it to
the soil in such form that it can be used by other crops.
The deep rooting system of the alfalfa plant also enables it to
bring other minerals from the lower layers of the soil, de-
positing them near the surface where other plants can use
them. The generous roots add much humus to the soil.

ALFALFA

137

In Colorado, Nebraska and Wyoming, farmers have
found that almost double the yield of grain is produced
from the same fields after they have been in alfalfa for sev-

Examining the tubercles on alfalfa roots in a southern field.

eral years. Even greater results have been experienced in
the South in the yield of cotton crops that have followed
alfalfa.

Alfalfa can be used in the same way throughout the
corn region to improve the soil for other crops. Besides
being one of the cheapest and most effective means known
of restoring certain elements to worn soil, it is also a crop

138

AGRICULTURE

;jvhich is in itself more profitable than almost any other
crop that can be raised.

5. Raising the Crop

Soil requirements for alfalfa. — It is especially im-
portant in raising alfalfa that soil naturally wet shall be

School cbildreu iu Cook Couuty, llliuois, studyiug the lelaliou
of alfalfa to com growing.

well drained. While alfalfa requires much moisture in
growing, it will not stand the dampness of undrained soils.
If submerged with water it will quickly die.

In heavy damp soil there is also likely to be more acid
than is good for the alfalfa plant. Before sowing alfalfa it
is, therefore, best to test the soil for acid. This can easily
be done by taking a little of the soil when damp and plac-

ALFALFA

139

ing it upon blue litmus paper. If the paper turns to a
pink color it indicates the presence of acid, and the soil

An alfalfa plant several years old. Note the generous root
system and the size of the plant.

should then have an application of lime to counteract the
acid.

140 AGRICULTURE

/. Starting alfalfa. — If proper methods are used it should
be no harder to start alfalfa than clover. First of all, the
seed must be most carefully selected, and should be tested
before sowing. This can easily be done by means of a
home-made tester, as in the case of clover.

Particularly should the seed be free from all noxious
weeds or other impurities. For weeds are among the worst
enemies of alfalfa. In some parts of the country the alfalfa
crop is completely killed out of certain fields in a few years
by the increase of weeds.

The seed bed should be more carefully prepared than
for almost any other farm crop. After plowing it must
be harrowed so thoroughly as to pack it well and leave a
fine mulch on top. If the seed bed can be prepared some
time ahead of the sowing so as to give an opportunity for
several harrowings so much the better. The seeding may
be done either broadcast or with a drill. It has been found
best in most parts of the country not to sow alfalfa with a
nurse crop, since the nurse crop deprives the young alfalfa
plants of moisture, nourishment and light. It is of great
advantage to manure the field before seeding to alfalfa.

Inoculating the soil. — It is usually best to inoculate
the soil before sowing alfalfa. This means to put into the
soil some of the bacteria which inhabit the root nodules.
Almost any soil suitable for alfalfa has some of these bac-
teria to begin with, so that alfalfa may often be started
without inoculation. But where the supply of bacteria is
very small, and where the soil is poor it will pay to inocu-
late. This may easily be accomplished by gathering the sur-
face soil from a field on which alfalfa has been raised, and
scattering it at the rate of one hundred to five hundred
pounds to the acre over the field to be sown.

Similar results can be had by gathering soil in which
sweet clover so commonly found along the roadsides has

ALFALFA 141

been growing. Care must be taken in gathering and scat-
tering the soil not to allow it to be exposed to sunlight, as
this will kill the bacteria. It is better therefore to secure
the soil and spread it over the new field on cloudy days
or in the late evening. The alfalfa seed should be sown
immediately and harrowed in so that the bacteria may be
covered, and be thus secure from the sunlight.

Time for seeding. — Late summer has been found the
best time for seeding alfalfa in the East and the South, while
in the West spring seeding is the rule. Spring seeding has
also been found to work better in Minnesota, Wisconsin
and the Dakotas. No general rule as to the time of seed-
ing can, however, be given. The chief thing necessary is
to seed as long as possible before the time of year that will
be hardest on the plants. In the North this requires spring
or early summer seeding in order that the plants may get
sufficient growth before freezing to withstand the winter.
Alfalfa plants less than six inches high do not ordinarily
live well through the hard northern winters.

In some regions there is trouble in getting the plants
started before drought comes on to check their growth.
Throughout the corn belt late summer seeding should uS'
ually be practised. Alfalfa sown during August and the
first week of September will have the best chance through-
out this region.

6. Harvesting the Crop

Time for cutting. — Alfalfa makes the best hay if cut
while in early bloom. A better means of determining the
time for cutting is, however, to watch the start of the new
shoots from the base of the plant. These shoots make the
growth for the succeeding crop. When they are from one
to two inches in length is the best time to harvest. In this
way the new growth goes on without interruption.

142

AGRICULTURE

If the cutting takes place much earlier than this, there
is a loss of growing time in waiting for the new shoots to
develop. If, on the other hand, the cutting is delayed until
these shoots are too long, the mower will clip them off and
they must begin all over again, thus delaying the next crop.
Usually it is possible to secure three cuttings of alfalfa in
the corn region and as many as eight, ten or even twelve in

Side delivery rsilier iu uu uifulfa lield, ^leldiug two U;iis to
tlie acre on second cutting.

some of the irrigated regions of the West. It is evident
that if the greatest number of cuttings is to be secured
each crop must be cut as soon as it is ready in order to let
the next get properly started.

Handling the. hay. — Alfalfa, like clover, should be
harvested so that the hay may reach the barn or stack with
the least possible amount of handling or exposure to the
weather. The alfalfa leaves contain a large proportion of

ALFALFA 143

the food value of the plant, and are easily crumbled and
lost if the hay gets too dry.

Probably the best plan is to cock the hay when the stems
are about half dry, stacking it when moisture no longer
shows as a wisp of the plant is twisted by the finger. In
regions where frequent rains are the rule during the hay-
ing season, it pays to have haycock covers consisting of
squares of muslin to the corners of which weights are at-
tached, or pins to thrust into the hay or the ground.

7. Enemies of Alfalfa

Weed enemies. — ^Undoubtedly weeds are the worst
enemies of alfalfa in most parts of the country. This is
particularly true throughout the West and Southwest.
Among the weed enemies are zvitch-grass, crab-grass in the
West, blue-grass and foxtail throughout the Middle West
and the barleys in the far West. Cultivation with the
spring-tooth harrow or disk is the best means of killing
most of the weeds.

An especially troublesome weed among alfalfa is dodder.
Dodder is a plant which twines itself about the alfalfa seed-
lings, soon attaching its threadlike stems firmly to the
alfalfa plant. The dodder stem then withers away near
the ground and the dodder continues to live as a parasite
on the alfalfa. It is almost impossible to exterminate dodder
when it has once secured a foothold in an alfalfa field.
Turning sheep into the field to graze is one remedy for this
pest. Another is to cpt the alfalfa very low or even remove
it entirely on any spots in the field where dodder starts.

Insect enemies. — Alfalfa does not have so wide a
range of insect enemies as some of the other farm plants.
The alfalfa weevil and grasshoppers are probably the worst

r }

A six-weeks-old field of alfalfa iu North Dakota.

Alfalfa curing under cover.

ALFALFA 145

enemies of this kind, particularly in the regions of the
West. It has been found that disking an alfalfa field late
in the fall in the northern states and mid-winter in southern
states exposes the weevil and grasshopper young to freez-
ing and the attacks of birds, and thus reduces their number.

Topics for Investigation

1. How many acres of alfalfa are grown on each farm
represented in the school? How long has alfalfa been
raised in the vicinity? Why is not more grown, since it is
one of the most profitable crops known?

2. Out of one hundred successful alfalfa growers in
the corn belt, eighty-five testified that they had planted
according to the following program : Manured the ground,
fall plowed, summer fallowed the next season (surface
cultivated without crop), limed, inoculated, seeded about
August first. Make an inquiry among the alfalfa growers
in your vicinity. How many did all these things? Which
did they omit, if any? How did they succeed?

3. Collect samples of field soil taken several inches be-
low the surface from each of the farms represented in the
school. Moisten the soil, roll it into a ball, cut the ball
into halves, and place between the halves a piece of litmus
paper, leaving it a few moments. Does it turn pink? If
so, this is an indication of acid or sour condition of the
soil. What' treatment should an acid soil receive before
being sown to alfalfa?

4. If there is no alfalfa grown on your father's farm,
talk with him about the crop, and join with him in starting
a small field. Would your field need liming? Would you
know where to secure soil for inoculating? If there is no
alfalfa near, is there not sweet clover along the roadside?

CHAPTER VIII
OTHER LEGUMES

WHILE red clover and alfalfa are the most important
leguminous plants for large portions of the United
States, there are several other legumes that deserve attention.
Chief among these are the cow-pea, grown chiefly in the
South ; the vetches, the soy-bean, the peanut field beans and
peas, and several others of lesser importance. These are pro-
duced (1) for forage, (2) for soil renovation, and (3) for
their seeds.

1. The Cow-pea

The cow-pea is to the South what red clover and alfalfa
are to the West and North. It grows successfully on almost
any kind of soil found in the cotton belt, and its cultiva-
tion is being rapidly extended throughout this region.

The plant. — The cow-pea was but recently introduced
into this country, coming from China. The plant resem-
bles the ordinary garden bean in appearance and manner of
growth. It reaches a height of from one to nearly five
feet. The smaller varieties stand nearly erect, the taller
varieties spreading out vine-like on the ground.

The leaves are broad, and grow in clusters of three.
The flowers resemble those of the garden pea, and are
greenish-yellow in color. The pods, which are cylindrical
in shape, grow from two to some seven inches in length.
The roots, which penetrate deeply into the soil, bear tuber-
cles, which are the home of nitrogen-gathering bacteria.

146

Tlie cow-pea.

148 AGRICULTURE

Cow-peas as forage. — Cow-peas, when harvested for
hay, yield from two to three tons to the acre. The feed-
ing value of cow-pea hay is fully equal to that of red clover,
and nearly equal to alfalfa or wheat bran. It has been
found a better forage feed for working animals in the South
than grass hay. It is rich in protein, and therefore an ac-
ceptable substitute for corn or cottonseed-meal in the fat-
tening of stock.

Since the cow-pea is an annual, it does not lend itself to
the making of permanent meadows or pastures as does
alfalfa. Cow-peas sowed in corn are profitably used as pas-
turage for hogs, the gain in weight being in some cases
more than twice as fast with a mixed feed of cow-peas and
corn as when corn alone is fed. Cattle also do well on a
pasturage of cow-peas. Bloating is likely to occur, how-
ever, if grazing is allowed when the cow-peas are wet.

The cow-pea as a soil renovator. — The cow-pea im-
proves the soil in two ways: (1) like other legumes, it is
able through its root bacteria to gather nitrogen from the
air and transfer it to the soil; and (2) its many roots,
coarse stubble and stems, especially when the latter are
plowed under as green manure, add much humus to the
soil, making it more porous.

In many parts of the South cow-peas are coming to be
largely used in crop rotation with cotton the principal crop.
The field is planted to cotton either two or three years in
succession, then a crop of corn and cow-peas grown, and
then a return to cotton. In Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee,
Alabama and other states of this region, cow-peas are being
successfully used in rotation with wheat and oats. An in-
crease of from fifty to more than one hundred per cent, in
other crops following cow-peas is not uncommon.

Hairy vetcli.

150 AGRICULTURE

2. The Vetches

The vetches are another group of legumes, grown most
extensively on the Pacific Coast, less commonly in the South,
and hardly at all in the North. Although more than one
hundred different varieties of vetch are known, but two are
commonly grown in the United States, common vetch and
hairy vetch.

Common vetch. — Common vetch is an annual, closely
resembling the garden pea. Its stems are very slender,
and grow from three to five feet or more in length. There
are many different varieties of common vetch, of which the
gray-seeded is most commonly grown in this country.

Low temperatures are fatal to common vetch ; it can not
be successfully raised in regions where the thermometer
goes lower than about fifteen degrees Fahrenheit. Since the
vetches have a long weak stem, they are usually planted
with a crop of small grain to support them. Common vetch
is largely grown for hay in the extreme West, where it is
sown in the fall with wheat or oats. In the South, oats,
rye or barley often are grown with vetch.

Hairy vetch. — Hairy vetch is much more hardy than
common vetch, and may be raised in almost any portion
of the United States. It finds its greatest use in supplying
a legume for forage and improving the soil where red clover
or alfalfa does not succeed, or where a short rotation crop
is desired.

Hairy vetch has great power to resist drought, and
does well on a sandy soil. It will also thrive on a soil so
alkaline that most legumes refuse to grow on it.

3. Soy-Beans

Soy-beans are native to Asia, where they have been
grown from time immemorial. In China, India and Japan,

Root of a soy-bean, sliowiug bacteriu-iuliabited tubercles.

152 AGRICULTURE

§ome two hundred varieties are cultivated for human food,
furnishing a staple article of diet in many regions. They
have not proved palatable to Americans, however, and are
raised in this country chiefly as a forage crop.

Where red clover or alfalfa can be successfully grown,
soy-beans will have little place, since they are less profitable.
They are especially adapted to the cotton belt, however,
and to the southern portion of the corn belt. Since soy-
beans are drought resistant, they also grow well in the semi-
arid regions of the West. They have as yet made little
headway as a crop in this region because of the ravages of
the rabbits, which find their foliage a savory delicacy.

Feeding value. — The soy-bean has as great feeding
value for stock as alfalfa, and is worth more than cotton-
seed-meal as a food for hogs, sheep or cattle. The straw,
after all the grain has been removed, is as valuable as tim-
othy hay, and even more palatable to most farm animals.

Like other legumes, the soy-bean adds to the fertility
of the soil in which it grows, and therefore possesses a
double value to the farmer.

4. The Peanut

Peanuts are grown in this country chiefly in the south
Atlantic region. The plant produces stems from one to two
and one-half feet in length. It has rather small leaves,
growing three in a cluster. After flowering, the stems pen-
etrate into the soil, where the pods or nuts are produced be-
neath the surface.

Uses of peanuts. — Peanuts are produced largely for
their use as human food. Besides the roasted nuts sold on
nearly every street corner, large quantities are made into
peanut butter, oil, etc. The vines make an excellent forage
for stock. Certain varieties are grown in the South ex-
clusively as forage for hogs.

• OTHER LEGUMES 153

Topics for Investigation

1. Secure if possible a complete specimen of each of
the legumes described in the chapter. If they are not grown
in your vicinity, write your agricultural college as to how
they may be obtained. Study each different plant, and learn
to identify it.

2. Secure seed of each of the legumes discussed.
Learn to identify the seed. Plant in the school garden or
at home, and watch the development of the plant.

3. Which of these legumes could be grown in your
region ? Would they be profitable ? Talk with your father
about this. If they would not pay, is it because of unfa-
vorable climate, unsuitable soil, or because more profit-
able legumes can be grown? If you are not sure on any
of these points, write your agricultural college.

CHAPTER IX
MEADOWS AND PASTURES

ALTHOUGH meadows and pastures claim more than
half of all the farm land of the United States, they re-
ceive far less attention than any other part of the farm.
About one-fourth of the acreage from which hay is harvested
is native wild meadow ; this is chiefly located in the newer
portions of the West. Pastures are often used from year to
year with no care taken to improve them. Yet in many cases
meadows and pastures well repay the time and expense nec-
essary to make them more productive.

1. Meadows

Requirements of a meadow. — Meadows are commonly
used for a double purpose — ^the production of hay, and
providing the rotation of crops required to maintain the
fertility of the soil. It is necessary therefore to select such
plants for the meadow as will serve both of these ends.
This is possible with our wide range of grasses and legumes
from which to choose.

Meadow plants should possess the following qualities:
(1) yield well; (2) be palatable; (3) tend to improve the
soil ; (4) grow strong and thick enough to keep down the
weeds; (5) produce an even firm sod free from high tufts
or bunches.

The surface of the meadow should be smooth and free
from obstructions that will interfere with the harvesting of
the hay crop.

154

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

155

Meadow grasses and legumes. — Most of our meadows
are mixtures of grasses, or of grasses with legumes. Al-
falfa seems to thrive best alone, but most meadow plants
gfow well in company with some other variety. Red or
crimson clover and timothy, for example, are commonly
found growing together.

Several advantages come from planting mixed meadows :
the different plants draw their nourishment from various

Two profitable western industries — dairying and fruit-raising
(Wasliington).

depths of the soil, thus using its full strength more com-
pletely and increasing the yield of hay ; mixtures accommo-
date themselves to peculiarities of seasons, sometimes one
grass and sometimes another thriving better ; mixed forage
provides variety for stock, making the feed more palatable
and affording a wider range of food elements.

When hay is raised for market instead of being fed on
the farm, however, it is often best to devote the meadow
to one plant alone, thus producing what is called a "pure"

156 AGRICULTURE

hay. Timothy is the favorite meadow grass for pure hay,
and leads the market in all the great hay-buying centers.
For working horses, timothy is thought by many to be su-
perior to clover or to mixed forage. Pure red clover or
alfalfa is often desired for fattening stock.

Meadow mixtures. — The mixture to be used in seed-
ing a meadow will depend on the climate, soil ,ail4 use to
which the forage is to be put. Red clover and timothy
are the most common mixture found throughout the north-
ern states, the proportion of seed used being about three-
fifths timothy and two-fifths clover. For damp undrained
soil, alsike clover is substituted for red clover, or mixed
with it. A very common mixture for average soils is the
following amounts per acre:

Timothy 15 pounds

Red clover 6

Alsike clover '. 4 "

This combination will produce about a half-and-half mix-
ture of hay the first year, with timothy predominating the
second year, and pure timothy thereafter. On very wet
soils, red-top may be substituted for the red clover. If the
soil is also strong in acid, it is best to omit both clovers,
and use the red-top with the timothy.

In southern regions, where clover, alfalfa and timothy
are not successful in meadows, Johnson grass is the leading
meadow plant, with red-top frequently used as a mixture.
Brome-grass is important in many regions of the North-
west.

Care of meadows. — Under our system of rotation of
crops meadows are usually not left down more than from
two to four years, with sometimes a year or two of pastur-
ing before the sod is broken up for other crops. Most of
our meadows are therefore new, and must be constantly
remade.

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

157

One of the chief enemies of meadows is weeds. They
not only hinder the newly seeded meadow from getting a
good start, but injure the value of hay, reducing the mar-
ket price. If allowed to grow in the meadow from year
to year, the weeds will also leave the soil foul for the crops
that follow when the meadow is again tilled.

1

W^Y

i
1

/jM

1

^ ■ ' ■ • ••'

^

rfMi'MBflpi > *'*. '"^. z..

m

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^'

Stacking by means of modern machinery saves mucli labor.

It is no uncommon sight to see meadows grown up with
ragweed, dock, smartweed, foxtail and other weed pests.
If weeds appear after the crop of hay has been harvested,
they should not be allowed to go to seed, but should be
cut down with the mower while in bloom.

Spring seeded meadows should not be pastured the fol-
lowing fall even if the plants look thriving. This is sure
to reduce the vield of hav the followine season, and tnav
cause the plants to winter kill by exposmg the roots. The

158 AGRICULTURE

aftermath, or second growth, on older meadows may be
pastured, though it does not pay to feed them close. Es-
pecially should new meadows not be trampled by stock
while wet.

Permanent meadows. — Many meadows are located on
wet ground, or on soil that for some reason is not cropped.
In other cases there is neglect to rotate the meadow land
with the remainder of the fields in the crop series. It is
often found that meadows that are thus left for a number
of years have a tendency to "run out."

The yield of hay on almost any meadow left without
attention for several years decreases from one-third to one-
half. Weeds begin to appear, and patches here and there
become thin or die out. The less desirable grasses crowd
out the better ones. Such a meadow is highly unprofitable.
If tillable, it should be plowed up and put into other crops.
If not, it should be improved and its quality kept up.

It is not hard to keep permanent meadows in a state
of high production, but it requires some labor and expense.
The following treatment will do much to keep permanent
meadows in good condition: (1) No weeds are to be al-
lowed to go to seed; (2) if the soil is run down, the field
should be manured or other fertilizer used on it; (3) the
soil should be loosened and the sod-bound condition relieved
by disking; (4) fresh pure grass seed should be scattered,
especially over thin or weedy places.

Topics for Investigation

1. What proportion of your father's farm is in mead-
ow? In pasture? Compare with all the farms represented
in the school.

2. How many diflferent meadows on your home farm ?
How long has each been down ? Which are the more suc-
cessful, the older or the newer ones?

MEADOWS AND PASTURES . 159

3. Make a collection of the different meadow plants
produced on your home meadows. How many different
kinds of grasses ? How many legumes ? Do you find any
grasses that were not sown, but which have come in of
their own accord? Learn to identify each different grass
and its seed in your meadows.

4. Make a collection of the most troublesome weeds
found in your meadows. Learn to identify both plants and
seeds. How many farmers in your region cut down the
weeds on their meadows to keep them from going to seed ?

5. Go out into some meadow near by and examine it
for the five qualities specified for meadows. What was
the yield per acre ? Is red-top as palatable for stock as tim-
othy ? As clover ? Does timothy improve the soil ?

6. Examine some meadow just seeded. Identify the
plants. Is the stand good ? Is the field free from weeds ?
Is it reasonably smooth?

7. Are there any old meadows near at hand that are
run down? If so, what do they need to improve them?
How much do they yield? What is the quality of the hay
produced ?

2. Pastures

More improved farm land is devoted to pastures than
to any cultivated crop. Pasturage supplies the greater pro-
portion of the feed for the production of milk, butter, beef,
mutton and wool and is an important factor in the produc-
tion of pork. The annual value of our pasturage is more
than that of any other crop raised.

Requirements of a pasture. — Pastures should possess
in general the same qualities as meadows. They should
(1) yield well; (2) have such grasses as will start early
and continue to grow late; (3) be palatable and nutritious
to stock; (4) form a firm tough sod that will stand tramp-
ling; (5) have fine rather than coarse grasses; and (6) be
free from weeds.

Pasture grasses and legumes. — The best meadow
grasses are not always the best pasture grasses. For ex-

12

160

AGRICULTURE

ample, timothy, the queen of hay grasses, is too coarse
when used alone for the best pasture grass, and does not
stand trampling so well as some others.

Pastures should usually be made of a mixture of plants.
This will provide some varieties that start earlier than
others, root at different depths, adjust themselves to various
kinds of seasons, supply variety for stock, and endure longer

Baling bay iu tlie West directly from the meadow.

without running out. Pasture mixtures should contain a
much greater variety than meadow mixtures.

Pasture mixtures. — Over the greater portion of the
United States north of the cotton belt and the region west of
the Missouri River, Kentucky blue-grass and white clover
are the most common and valuable pasture grasses. No mat-
ter what mixture is sown, one or both of these grasses is
sure soon to make its appearance, and gradually force most
other grasses out. When blue-grass and white clover have
taken possesion of a pasture they grow reasonably well to-
gether, though in some seasons one of them will predomi-
nate, and again the other.

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 161

Throughout the South, Bermuda grass is the chief pas-
ture plant, though it is commonly mixed with Rhodes grass
for dry soils and with orchard grass for wet regions.
Red-top is successful on wet heavy soil.

For starting a pasture on good land in northern regions,
a mixture may be made of something like the following
proportions :

Timothy 10 pounds

Red clover 3 "

Alsike clover 2 "

White clover 2 "

Kentucky blue-grass 3 "

Brorne-grass 2 " ^

Meadowr fescue 2 "

Orchard grass 2 "

This will make sufficient seed for one acre. If the pas-
ture is on very wet, undrained land, the red clover may
be omitted and red-top substituted in its stead. Even though
timothy will soon be driven out by blue-grass and white
clover, it should head the mixture as it roots more quickly
than the others, and acts as a cover while the slower
grasses are getting started.

Care of pastures. — If permanent pastures are to be
kept up to a high state of efficiency they demand even
more care than meadows.

On fairly good soils, pastures do not usually require
manuring, though a light coat of manure will increase the
yield of any pasture. Nearly every pasture needs the as-
sistance of a mower to keep down the weeds. This is be-
cause stock do not find most weeds palatable, and so eat
the grass, leaving the weeds to flourish. Many pastures
are thickly sprinkled with weeds which not only rob the
soil but prevent cattle from eating the grass growing

162 AGRICULTURE

close to their roots, thus adding to the waste. Weeds
should be cut from the pasture each year before they bear
seed.

Grazing stock not only reject the weeds for the more
palatable grass, but also have their preference among
grasses. All have noted that the uplands in a pasture are
grazed close, while low wet areas are hardly touched. In
many cases the low parts of a pasture are almost wasted,
because the red-top and other wet-soil grasses are less
palatable than the blue-grass and clovers which thrive only
on well drained soil. Such marshy places should be drained ;
the better pasture grasses will then soon take possession.

Pastures, like meadows, may become sod-bound. Almost
any old pasture can be improved by disking or cultivating
with a knife-toothed harrow. When this is done, fresh
grass seed should be scattered on thin places, or a desirable
new variety added to the plants already established.

After being grazed, pastures grow better if they have
a rest from trampling and cropping. It is therefore best
to have two pastures, using them alternately, instead of
feeding the one continuously throughout the season. Such
an arrangement usually requires only the expense of a par-
tition fence, which the increased yield from the pasture
will well repay.

Topics for Investigation

1. What is the age of the different pastures on your
father's farm? What is the predominating grass? What
other grasses are in the mixture ?

2. Is there a pasture near by consisting of both upland
and marsh land? If so, which is the more closely cropped?
Secure samples of the grass from each part ; what grass
predominates in each case? Would it not pay to drain the
wet portion?

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 163

3. Make a study of the pastures represented at the
school for the weeds growing in them. What proportion
of the pastures may be called weedy ? What weeds predom-
inate ? Are they ever mowed ?

4. How many of the farmers in your vicinity follow
the plan of dividing their pasture, so that the one part may
rest while the other is being used? If this is not done at
your home, figure the cost of running a division fence so
that it would be possible. Talk with your father about the
cost of the fence.

5. Are any of the pastures in your region ever disked
to loosen the sod? Is new seed ever sown on them? Do
you think any of them are sod-bound. How can you tell?

6. What is the cost per rod of laying field tile in your
vicinity? Investigate any wet areas on your home pasture
where the grass is rejected by the stock, and determine how
many rods of drainage would be required to make the soil
tillable. Suppose draining would double the feeding value
of such an area, would the drain pay good interest on its
cost ? Figure this all out and talk with your father about it.

PART IL HORTICULTURE

CHAPTER X
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN

THE plan of every farm, village or suburban house
should include a good vegetable garden to supply the
home table. Not only are vegetables a highly necessary food,
but they are much more palatable when taken from the
garden fresh as needed instead of bought in a market. Nor
is a well stocked market easily available to most of our
homes. Hence, unless the home raises its own supply of
vegetables, those who surround the table are likely to suffer
from lack of variety and the absence of certain food qual-
ities required for health. Without vegetables the table is
also more expensive because of requiring more of the high
priced foods such as meats and bread.

The vegetable garden can be made the most profitable
part of a farm. Half an acre of ground planted to a suit-
able variety of garden crops will, if properly cared for,
yield over one hundred dollars' worth of vegetables each
season for the family table. This is from ten to twenty
times what the same amount of ground in farm crops will
produce. Although the garden requires considerable atten-
tion, the labor demanded is not great compared with the
returns in profits, good health and human efficiency.

165

166 AGRICULTURE

Topics for Investigation

1. Measure your home garden and find the amount of
space devoted to vegetables this season. Make a com-
parison with other members of the class. Compute the
average size of vegetable gardens for the neighborhood.

2. Make a list of all the different vegetables raised in
your home garden this year. How many different kinds?
What proportion of the space was devoted to each? Com-
pare the number of different kinds and the proportion of
each with the garden plan shown on page 170.

1. Location and Soil

The location. — ^There is a double advantage in having
the vegetable garden near the house: the vegetables can
then be taken from the soil as needed, without loss of
time; and spare moments free from other work or chores
can be given to the care of the garden. Where the soil
is suitable it is best to have the garden only a few rods
from the kitchen door.

The soil. — Most vegetables require a well drained
soil. Ground on which the water stands after a rain is not
adapted to garden use. A slight slope to the south and
east will favor the early maturing of the crops.

2. Plan of the Vegetable Garden

The vegetable garden should be carefully planned be-
fore time to begin planting, and a diagram made allotting
to each crop its location and proper amount of space. This
will saye time in putting in the crop and insure a better
arrangement.

The plan. — A well planned garden provides (1) for a
succession of crops supplying the table with fresh vegeta-
bles from early spring to late fall, with storage varieties
for winter use. This can be accomplished by selecting a

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN

167

reasonably wide range of crops and successive plantings
of certain kinds.

(2) The right proportion of space should be allowed
for each vegetable, depending on the tastes of the family
and allowing for the canning of a supply for home use. As
a result of careless planning an over-supply of one vegeta-
ble often results in waste, while some other crop runs short.

Members of National Market Garden Club packing fresh vege-
tables for parcel-post shipment.

(3) The crops should be arranged in the order of their
time of planting, so that the planting can begin at one side
of the garden in the early spring, and proceed across until
all are in. This arrangement saves much labor in culti-
vation without interfering with crops already planted.

(4) If the cultivation is to be done with horse imple-
ments, as it should be in all larger gardens, the rows should

168 AGRICULTURE

run the long way, and a turf turning ground be left at each
end. It also pays to place in each row plants that re-
quire the same kind of cultivation and that mature in about
the same time so that together they will get out of the
way of later plantings.

The boy witli a lioe. Back-yard {jaraeulug.

The arrangement^ shown, which will, of course, need to be
modified to meet personal requirements, presents a seasonal
order of planting. In the latitude of Indiana, Illinois, Iowa,
Kansas and Nebraska the first ten rows can be planted
about April first ; rows eleven to fourteen, inclusive, the last
week in April ; and the remainder about May fifteenth.

Planting time and maturity. — The time required for
growth and the date of planting the common garden vegeta-
bles recommended by the United States Department of
Agriculture are as follows:

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN

16S

Kind of

Vegetable

Asparagus

Beans, bush

Beans, pole
Beets

Brussels sprouts
Cabbage, early-
Cabbage, late
Carrots
Cauliflower
Celery
Corn, sweet
Cucumbers
Eggplant
French endive
Horseradish
Lettuce

Melon, muskmelon
Melon, watermelon
Onions, seed
Onion,sets
Peas
Peppers

Potatoes, Irish
Pumpkins
Radishes
Rhubarb, plants
Salsify
Squash, bush
Squash, late
Swiss chard
Tomatoes
Turnips

Time of planting
South I<obth

Ready fob use
aftee planting

Fall or early

spring
Feb. to Apr.
(Aug. to Sept.)
Late spring
Feb. to Apr.
(Aug. to Sept.)
Jan. to July
Oct. to Dec.
June and July
Alar. Apr. Sept.
Jan. Feb. June
Aug. to Oct.
Fgb. to Apr.
Feb. Mch. Sept.
Feb. to Apr.
Aug. to Oct.
Early spring
Sept. to Mar.
Feb. to Apr.
Mar. to May
Oct. to Mar.
Early spring
Sept. to Apr.
Early spring
Jan. to Apr.
April and May
Sept. to Apr.

Spring
Spring
Feb. to Apr.
Dec. to Mar.
Aug. to Oct.

Early spring 1 to 3 years

Apr. to July 40 to 65 days

May and June
Apr. to Aug.

May and June

Mar. and Apr.

May and June

Apr. to June

Apr. to June

May and June

May to July

Apr. to July

Apr. and May

May to June

Early spring

March to Sept.

Apr. to June

May and June

Apr. and May

Fall, Feb. to May90 to 120 days ^'

March to June 40 to 80 days -

May and June 100 to 140 days ■^^

March to June 80 to 140 days -^

May to July 100 to 140 days /

March to Sept. 20 to 40 days

Fall or spring 1 to 3 years

Early spring 120 to 180 days

April to June 60 to 80 days

April to June 120 to 160 days

Apr. to Aug. 60 to 80 days

May and June 100 to 140 days

April (July) 60 to 80 days

50 to 80 days
60 to 80 days

90 to 120 days
90 to 130 days
90 to 130 days
75 to 110 days
100 to 130 days ,^^
120 to 150 days
60 to 100 days .
60 to 80 days A
100 to 140 days AJ
100 to 130 days
1 to 2 years
60 to 90 days ^
120 to 150 days 4^
100 to 120 days ,1.
130 to 150 days

170 AGRICULTURE

The following plan of a garden ninety feet wide and two
hundred and forty feet long suggests how to. carry out the
principles just stated :

1 Asparagus o Rhubarb o__Horseradish_

2 Parsnips o__Parsley o Carrots

3 Onions

4 Early Beets — o Swiss Chard o Salsify

5 Lettuce (fol. by celery)_o_Radishes (cel.)_o_Onion sets

(follow by celery)

6 Early Turnips (fol. b3'' cel.)-0_Spinach (cel.)-O-Onion sets

(follow by celery)

7 Early Peas (follow by celery) o String beans (eel.)

8 Early potatoes (followed by turnips)

9 Early potatoes (followed by turnips)

10 Early potatoes (followed by turnips)

11 Later plantings of peas

12 Early cabbage o Cauliflower o.Brussels sprouts.

13 Summer cabbage o__String beans—

14 Early sweet corn (followed by greens)

IS Tomatoes

16 Lima beans o Peppers

17 Late cabbages

18 Late sweet corn (followed by lettuce and radishes)

19 Late sweet corn (followed by lettuce and radishes)

20x xxxx@@@@xxxxx@@@@@@@xxxxx
21x xxxx@@@@xxxxx@@@@@@@xxxxx

Cucumbers Early Late Watermelons Muskmelons
22x xxxx@@@@xxxxx@@@@@@@xxxxx

Squash Squash
23x xxxx@@@@xxxxx@@@@@@@xxxxx

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 171

3. Culture of the Garden Crops

Most of the vegetables named in the preceding section
can be raised without technical training in their cultiva-
tion, A few, however, must have special treatment if they
are to succeed, and if there is not time to give them this
extra attention they would better be left out.

Garden crops requiring rich soil and much tillage. —
Although the whole garden should be much richer than for
the field crops, the following vegetables require an espe-
cially rich soil ; cabbages, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, egg-
plant, celery, onions and melons. Melons may have the
hills well manured and the remainder of the area no richer
than the rest of the garden. A sand loam, rich in humus,
is considered best for most vegetables.

In general it may be said that the plants which demand
a very rich soil also need a greater amount of tillage than
the remainder of the garden.

Vegetables that require transplanting. — The season
required for certain vegetables to mature for the table is
so long that in the North they must be started under glass
in the latter part of the winter and transplanted when the
weather is warm enough. The common plants belonging
to this group are cabbage, celery, cauliflower, Brussels
sprouts, tomatoes, eggplant, pepper, sweet potato. Lettuce
and muskmelons may also be transplanted to good advan-
tage.

The hotbed. — For small gardens the plants that are
to be transplanted are often started in shallow boxes. The
more common method is, however, to use a hotbed.

A hotbed is made as follows : Select a sunny place shel-
tered by a building or fence from the north winds, and
make a bed of coarse manure from the horse stalls eighteen
inches deep, eight feet wide, and any multiple of three feet

172 AGRICULTURE

long. The manure must be fresh and contain a good
amount of straw. Pack the bed well by thoroughly
tramping.

Place on top of the bed a board frame six feet wide,
twelve inches high at the north edge and six inches at the
south. The frame may be as long as required. After
placing the frame in position, put in it a rich garden loam
to the depth of three to six inches, packing and smoothing
it well. Cover the frame with glazed sash.

If the manure is in good condition it will begin heating
almost at once, and will soon raise the temperature of the
soil. Do not plant the seeds until the heating has been
well tested and the temperature has begun to go down.
This will be in about three days. The hotbed is now ready
to receive the seed.

In raising the hotbed crop care must be taken to lift
the sash during the warm part of bright days, and also
to water sufficiently. Watering should be done in the
morning on sunny days, else the cooling may chill the plants.
If the temperature grows too high the sash must be lifted,
or the plants will be destroyed.

Transplanting. — When the time comes for transplant-
ing to the open soil care must be used or the change may
kill the tender plants or greatly check their growth. To
avoid this hotbed plants are often transplanted to anotlier
bed, called a cold-frame, covered with glass but not heated.
This is known as the "hardening off" process. Transplant-
ing almost any plant is of great advantage since it causes
the multiplication of many small roots which add to its
growth.

Vegetables that require special treatment. — The
larger and later varieties of peas grow so high that they
require support, else they spread out on the ground and the

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN

173

pods rot. Where an abundance of brush is available, rods
may be stuck in the ground for them to run on. Woven
chicken wire is an excellent substitute and takes much less
time. Lima beans also need poles. Because of this, bush
varieties are sometimes grown in their stead.

Celery requires bleaching to produce the best results.
To accomplish this, the plants are usually set at the bot-

1

y

1

\

^

Moth (Heliothls obsoleta) ; the caterpiUars from this species
attack many garden plants, also cotton, corn, etc.

tom of a trench which is gradually filled in as the plants
grow. At the end of the season the rows may be hilled up
so that the plants are covered to the top.

Cauliflower and French endive are vegetables: that need
to be bleached. When the plants are well grown, the leaves
are brought together and tied over the top, thus protecting
the inner portion from the sun.

174 AGRICULTURE

4. Insect Enemies of the Vegetable Garden

Fortunately, most of the garden vegetables are not sub-
ject to great injury from insects. Certain plants are, how-
ever, special targets for these pests, and must be protected
or they will almost certainly be destroyed.

The most common enemy of cabbage and cauliflower is
the cabbage-worm, which is the larvae of the common white
butterfly seen about the cabbage patches. The most ef-
fective remedy is spraying with the arsenate of lead prep-
aration, made by mixing three pounds of the paste with fifty
gallons of water. To this should be added a mixture of
resin and lime, or soap, to cause the insecticide to stick to
the leaves.

The cucumber beetle. — The worst enemy of cucum-
bers is a small striped beetle which eats the leaves of the
young plants. When only a few hills are raised they may
be kept off the plants by making a small wooden frame
over which is stretched wire mosquito netting, and plac-
ing these boxes over the hills. These pests can also be
controlled by spraying with the arsenate of lead compound.
The roots of the plants are sometimes attacked by the
larvae of the bettle. Tobacco dust sprinkled on the roots
is an effective remedy.

The cucumber beetle is also the most troublesome enemy
of squash, muskmelons and watermelons. These plants
may be protected in the same way as the cucumber.

The aphis. — The aphis, a small green fly, is a sucking
insect that attacks lettuce, peas and other green leaf crops.
It is also frequently found on flowering shrubs. It may
be controlled by spraying with a mixture of soap and water,
or with a nicofume preparation mixed according to direc-
tions on the package.

The cutworm. — The cutworm attacks a number of

The white grub : (A) pupa; (B) beetle; (C) larva.

176 AGRICULTURE

different vegetables, cutting them off just at or near the
surface of the ground. The remedy is fall plowing, and poi-
soning. An effective method of attracting to the poison is to
dip clover blossoms in Paris green, or add Paris green to a
mixture of bran and molasses, and strew around the roots
of the plants.- ■ .

;.< Topics for Investigation

1. Make a careful diagram of your home garden plot,
showing its exact length and breadth. Now make a plan
for this plot similar to the one shown on page 170, being
careful to preserve the planting order from one side to the
other. What plants would you add which are not shown in
the sample garden ? Would you leave any out ?

2. How many plantings of radishes were made in your
garden? Of lettuce? Of peas? Of beans? Of sweet
corn? Of cabbage?

3. Is your garden manured every year? Is the soil in
good condition and free from weeds? Is rubbish allowed
to remain on the garden over winter, thereby making a
harbor for insects ?

4. Which of your garden crops have been most at-
tacked by insects? Have you used any of the spray com-
pounds as a remedy? If so, what ones, and for what
insects? Was it successful? Do you know how to mix and
apply the more common insecticides?

5. Talk with your father and mother and plan your
home vegetable garden for next season. Bring your plans
to school, and compare the different plans presented to
determine the best.

6. Prepare a plan and specifications for a small hot-
house which can be heated with an old stove or from the
house heating plant.

7. Show how to keep a garden account for a season ; at
least six different kinds of products should be included in
the items.

8. Make a map of the United States and show the two
most important vegetables grown in each section. Com-
pare the vegetable garden products of the Pacific Coast with
those of the Atlantic Coast ; the northern tier of states with
the cotton belt states.

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 177

5. Garden Demonstrations

1. Demonstrate how to prepare, pack and ship vegeta-
bles by parcel post.

2. Show how to make different types of boxes for mar-
keting products.

3. Demonstrate how to make a home-made canning
outfit, by using wash boiler, garbage bucket, pail and tub.

4. Show how to can vegetables by the cold-pack method.
(See Farmers' Bulletin 521.)

5. Demonstrate how to mix garden sprays and how to
use them.

6. Demonstrate how to make vegetable dishes and how
to serve them.

6. Garden Play Contests

All contests with garden products should be a com-
bination of play with helpful practise and instruction.

1. Vegetable judging contests.

2. Story contest. Tell origin and life history of dif-
ferent vegetables.

3. Vegetable spelling contest.

4. Vegetable drawing contest. Place on stand before
contestants a number of vegetables and have them draw
them.

5. Vegetable canning contest.

6. Paring, labeling and packing contests.

7. Home Garden and Canning Club Projects

One of the most interesting of club projects in connec-
tion with the public schools is the work of the home gar-
den and canning club. This can be undertaken in much
the same way in both city and rural territory. The club
plat, should be operated on a business basis, and should be

A i'asadeua, California, school vegetable garden.

PubHc school garden In Portland, Orego

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 179

large enough to make possible an attractive net profit on
the investment of time, money and energy of the member.
Club members should range in age from ten to eighteen
years, inclusive, and be divided into two classes denominated
as senior and junior gardeners. The basis of award should
be as follows :

1. Yield of garden 1 20

2. Net profit on investment 20

3. Variety of vegetables 20

4. Exhibit of products, fresh and canned 20

5. Record and story, "How^ I Made My Crop" , 20

Total score 100

CHAPTER XI
THE FRUIT GARDEN

THE fruit garden is not less desirable and profitable
than the vegetable garden. Fruit is universally pal-
atable, and a highly necessary article of food. And be-
cause of the high cost, the remoteness of markets and the
ease with which fruit wilts and decays, most of it must be
raised at home or the family go without.

1. Measure accurately the space devoted to all kinds
of fruit in your home garden. Make a diagram of the
garden showing the location of each different fruit. What
proportion of ground is devoted to each ?

2. Make a table showing the number of each kind of
fruit tree, bush and vine. Compare diagrams and tables
with other members of the class and seek the cause for the
differences. Just what is the distinction between vegetables
and fruit?

Soil and location.^The soil and location suitable for
the vegetable garden will in most cases be adapted to fruit
raising as well. Heavy, damp day soil needs to be drained
and manured. The ground must be rich. As a matter of
convenience and economy of time in caring for it, the fruit
garden should be near the house.

1. Plan of the Fruit Garden

Since the plants set in the fruit garden are perennials
and remain more or less permanently where they are first

180

THE FRUIT GARDEN 181

placed, the arrangement should be well planned from the
start. The order in the fruit garden will depend chiefly
on convenience, economy of space, and the adaptability of
certain plants to grow in one another's company.

The plan. — The home fruit garden, like the vegetable
garden, should be planned for cultivation by means of
horses. The rows should therefore run the long way of
the garden. The fruit garden may well join the vegetable
garden, and be approximately the same size, about ninety
by two hundred and forty feet for a farm garden. The
entire plat will then contain approximately one acre of
ground.

It is impossible to specify the different allotments of
fruit that should go into the home garden, since individual
taste and the adaptability of certain fruits to the locality
will need to be taken into account. The following plan,
providing for a garden ninety by two hundred and forty
feet, will, however, be suggestive:

ooooooooooooo Grapes o ooooooooooo

o 1 — 50 Blackberries o 70 Raspberries

o 2 10 Apples

° 3 L 40 Currants

° 4 10 Peaches o 5 Pears

_ 5 30 Gooseberries

o

Q 6 5 Cherries o 5 Plums o 5 Quinces —

o 7 Strawberries

o 8 Strawberries

In regions where the climate will not permit the grow-
ing of peaches, pears or quinces, hardy apples can be added
in their stead. Several trees each of apricots and nectarines
will make a welcome addition where they are adapted to
the climate.

Varieties. — In selecting the varieties, care should be
taken to secure both early and late kinds, so that the fruit

182

AGRICULTURE

"season may be extended as much as possible. Apples may
be chosen to begin ripening at harvest time, and continue
till late fall for winter storing. Cherries and plums may
be selected so that the crop will last during at least two

Apples (H'owing In u Wasbington orchard.

months. The same is true with grapes and many of the
berries.

THE FRUIT GARDEN 183

List of plants. — The following fruit garden list is
recommended by the United States Department of Agricul-
ture for regions of the latitude of northern Ohio:

Apples (10 trees). — Two Baldwin, 2 Grimes Golden, 1 Falla-
water, 2 Red Astrakan, 1 Bonum, 1 Bough Sweet, 1 Trans-
cendent Crab.

Peaches (10 trees). — One Alexander, 2 Rareripe (Yellow), 2
Early Crawford, 4 Late Crawford, 1 Stephens Rareripe.

Cherries (5 trees). — Two Early Richmond, 2 Black Tartarian,
1 Allen.

Plums (5 trees). — Two Green Gage, 2 Lombard, 1 Willard.

Pears (S trees). — Two Bartlett, 1 Duchess, 1 Kieffer, 1 Seckel.

Quinces. — Five Champion.

Grapes (50 vines). — Twenty-five Concord, 10 Niagara, 15
Brighton.

Raspberries (70 bushes). — Twenty-five Gregg, 10 Marlboro, 25
Cuthbert, 10 Golden Queen.

Blackberries (50 bushes). — Twenty-five Agawam, 25 Taylor.

Currants (45 bushes). — Twenty-five Wilder, 10 White Grapes, 10
Champion.

Gooseberries (30 bushes). — Ten Downing, 10 Industry, 10 Co-
lumbus.

Strawberries (200 plants). — One hundred Brandywine, 100
Gandy.

2. Care of the Fruit Garden

Cultivation. — The successful fruit garden must at all
times be kept free from weeds, and all vines, bushes, shrubs
and young trees be cultivated the same as any other crop.
To allow them to become choked with weeds or bound by
sod is to invite failure.

Mulching with coarse manure will serve the double pur-
pose of helping to keep down the weeds and conserving
the moisture. Care must betaken not to pack such a
heavy coating over the roots as to deprive them of fresh
air. Straw instead of manure should be used for the straw-
berry bed.

184 AGRICULTURE

''•' Planting. — In the North all planting should be done in
the spring; and as early as the ground can be worked. The
plant should be exposed to the air as little as possible be-
tween the time of taking up and resetting. The roots
should be full and plentiful, and all broken or injured por-
tions cut away. In case a good supply of roots can not be
obtained, the top should be cut back to correspond with the
roots remaining. Unless this is done the growth will be
greatly retarded, even if the plant does not die.

The holes in which the plants are to be set should be
sufficiently large that the roots can be spread out in their
natural form, and not bent or cramped. The earth should
be loosened a number of inches below where the roots are
to rest. The rich top soil should be used to pack about the
roots, being thoroughly tramped to insure contact with every
part of the root fibers. The plant should stand in its new
position an inch or two deeper than in the nursery.

Pruning. — All garden fruits need pruning. This is
for the purpose (1) of favoring the growth of sturdy
trunks or stems, (2) removing the non-fruit-bearing parts
so that the strength of the plant may go to the production
of fruit, and (3) relieving the plant of old and useless
stems and branches that no longer bear fruit.

The time and method of pruning different plants de-
pend on their habits of growth and fruit-bearing, which
must be known by the gardener. All cuts should leave a
clean smooth surface, with no tearing of the bark or other
injury.

Apples and Pears throw out in each season's growth
short shoots or "spurs" from the sides of the branches that
are one year or more old. It is on these spurs that the next
year's fruit is grown. All pruning after the bearing age
has been reached must be done with care not to trim back

THE FRUIT GARDEN 185

the spur-bearing branches to such an extent as to hmit the
crop. Pruning may be done at any time after the bearing
season and before the new growth starts.

Peaches are borne directly on the wood of the pre-
ceding year's growth, and the branches may be headed in as
much as required to limit the amount of fruit produced
by the tree.

Grapes are borne on new shoots thrown out in the
spring from the canes, or small side branches of the pre-
ceding season. Old wood is therefore of little value, and
grapes will stand sevei^ pruning. There are many differ-
ent systems of pruning in use based on the form of the
vine desired.

Raspberries and blackberries both produce their fruit
on short shoots thrown out by the canes of the previous
year's growth. The bushes may be cut back in the fall
or early spring, and all old wood past the best bearing
age removed.

Currants and gooseberries grow fruit on both old and
new wood, the blossoms appearing in the axils of the shoots.
All wood three years of age should be cut away.

Strawberries grow their fruit chiefly on the newer
plants. The most fruitful plants are those only one year
old. Plants over two years old do not produce enough
to pay and should be rooted out to give place for new ones,

3. Enemies of the Fruit Garden

The fruit garden is prey to a variety of insect and
other enemies. Unless the owner is willing to give time
and attention to combating these pests there is little use
to attempt fruit raising, for it is sure to be a failure.
Spraying with some form of fungicide or insecticide is the
only means of controlling them, and no one mixture will
serve for all purposes.

186

AGRICULTURE

Insect enemies. — The insect enemies of the fruit gar-
den are of two types: the biting insects, or those that actu-
ally eat portions of the plant; such as the larvae of the
codling-moth; and the sucking insects, or those that pierce
the fruit, leaves, or bark with sharp beaks or bristles, and
live off the juices of the plant. The latter group includes
various plant bugs, lice and scale insects.

In general, the biting insects can be destroyed by spray-

Apple clusters, on the Jeft, with calyx l()l)es spread nnd in good
condition for sprnylnj?; on the right, with calyx lobes closed
and too late for effective spraying.

ing with some poison such as the arsenical compounds,
which, if eaten, will kill them. The sucking insects can not
be destroyed in this way, since the poison does not penetrate
into the plant tissues whence they draw their food. For
this group it is necessary to use some preparation that will
either act on their bodies as a caustic, or that will smother

THE FRUIT GARDEN

187

them by closing their breathing pores, or that will fill the
air with poisonous fumes.

Fungous enemies. — Almost every kind of garden
fruit is a prey to one or more parasitic enemies in the form

Two common defects of apples. Tlie codling moth causes
greater loss to many apple growers than all other insects com-
bined, despite the fact that this pest can be controlled by
proper spraying.

188 AGRICULTURE

of growths on fruit, foliage or branches. For these pests
sprays are used that are fatal to the parasite but not in-
jurious to the plant.

Scab, rust, rot, blight and mildew are examples of
fungous enemies. In some cases the one variety attacks
several different garden fruits, thus allowing the same
spraying mixture to be used on all the various crops. In
other cases, different fungicide compounds must be employed
for the different fruits.

Spraying. — The composition of some of the different
spraying mixtures is described in Chapter XIII. It is evident
from the nature of the insects and diseases attacking fruit
that no one remedy will serve all purposes. Apples, plums,
peaches, pears and cherries are the special target of a wide
range of insects and fungi. These plants will need several
sprayings, using different insecticides and fungicides ac-
cording to the pest threatening. Every fruit gardener must
understand the nature and use of the required compounds.

All fruit trees should be treated with a dormant spray,
applied some time during the dormant season, usually about
March. The object is to kill the various scale insects and
mites which winter on the tree. Bordeaux mixture or lime-
sulphur solution is effective. Bordeaux should not be used
on plums or peaches.

A second spraying should be applied just after the leaf
buds burst, but before the blossoms open. The mixture
may be a combination of lime-sulphur or Bordeaux and
arsenate of lead. This is to destroy the curculio, scab, leaf
blight and similar enemies.

Apples should be given their third spraying immediately
after the petals fall, but before the calyx tubes close. The
chief purpose of this application is. to destroy the codling-
moth, which is responsible for most of our wormy apples.
The same mixture may be used as in the second spraying.

Nest and larvae of the apple-tree tent caterpillar.

190

AGRICULTURE

iA.pples should be sprayed again several weeks after the pet-
als fall, and at least once more during the season, probably
in July, in all regions where the enemies are troublesome.

Yellow-necked cnterplllnrs feeding. The cat-
erpillar nt the top shows characteristic pose
when disturbed.

Pears should receive their third spraying just before
the blossoms open, another as the petals fall, and a final
spraying several weeks later. Peaches, plums and cher-

THE FRUIT GARDEN 191

ries must also receive several sprayings if the crop is to be
free from worms, blight, rot and other troubles that threaten
the final success of the crop.

Spraying machines. — While it seems that a great deal
of trouble and expense are required to protect the farm
fruit garden, it is really less than it appears if a good
spraying pump is used. There are many different kinds
of these, each suited fo^: particular needs, and none is ex-
pensive. Whatever make of pump is secured, it must be
powerful enough to drive a fine spray to every part of the
largest tree.

Topics for Investigation

1. Compare the diagram of your fruit garden with the
plan shown on page 181. Which is the better plan as to
arrangement ? Are any fruits shown in the plan which you
do not have? Could they be successfully grown in your
region ? Do you have any not shown in the plan-?

2. Compare the proportion of space given each fruit in
the plan with the proportion shown in your diagram. What
is your, conclusion ? Compare the proportion of space given
each fruit in the diflFerent gardens represented at the school,
and determine which garden is best balanced.

3. Make a list of all your home fruit by varieties, con-
structing a table similar to that on page 183.

4. Is your fruit garden well cultivated and free from
weeds? Are any of the plants sod-bound? Is mulching
used?

5. Learn to identify surely and quickly each of the
different fruit trees, shrubs and vines, either when in
foliage or dormant.

6. Go with your teacher or some expert gardener to
some near-by fruit garden and learn how and why the dif-
ferent plants should be pruned. Is your home garden well
pruned ?

7. Bring specimen branches or stems of the different
garden fruits and show where and how the fruit is borne.
Make a drawing in each case.

8. Is your fruit garden regularly sprayed ? What kind

14

\e8t of the fall web worm. The caterpillars work Inside the
web and not upon the outside as do the tent caterpillars.

THE FRUIT GARDEN

193

of spray machine is used? What mixtures? What ene-
mies are most troublesome in the case of each fruit?

9. Make a collection of all the different insects and
fungi you can find that damage fruit in your region. Learn
to identify each. What spray is fatal to each ?

10. Estimate the value of the fruit produced in your

Tlie ijluiu curcullo on a young peach.

home garden last year. Did it pay for the ground occu-
pied and the time used? How can the amount of fruit and
its net profit be increased? What are your plans in this
direction for next year?

11. Show how to keep a debit and credit account of
the fruit garden. It should contain the receipts and expen-
ditures for at least three varieties of fruits.

Buldwiu upple badly Infested with Sun Jose scale.

THE FRUIT GARDEN

195

12. Show upon the map the different fruit belts and
estimate from the crop census records the crop production
for the past season in the various states. Locate upon
the map the citrus fruit states, the apple states,- the small
fruit states.

Twig showing jii)i)eiiriuice of
leaves infested witii apple aphis.

4. Fruit Demonstrations

The demonstrations in connection with the fruit studies
serve a double purpose : ( 1 ) to arouse definite interest of
the school and community in fruit as a profitable crop for
the farm and home, and (2) to show the relation of fruit
to the daily diet.

Peaches destroyetl l)y brown rot, showing gray masses of
8IK>re.s of the fungus.

THE FRUIT GARDEN 197

1. Demonstrate how to can the various kinds of local
fruits by use of the cold pack method.

2. Demonstrate and explain the use of other methods
of canning fruits, and of glass and tin containers for the
canning of surplus fruits of the garden and orchard.

3. The proper method of scalding, blanching, paring,
coring, stemming, hulling and seeding of various kinds of
fruits.

4. Show how to grade and crate the various kinds of
fruits for the market, and the use of parcel-post packs.
Show how to prepare exhibits of fruit for fairs, club fes-
tivals, educational meetings, etc.

5. Fruit Play Contests

Among the most interesting play contests in connection
with the agricultural and home economic work of the school
are the fruit play contests. These contests will not only
serve to create interest in the study, but will actually teach
valuable lessons on how to do the important things related
to the project.

1. Fruit judging contest.

2. Paring, seeding and stemming contests.

3. Oral recipe giving contest.

4. Fruit pie guessing games.

5. Spelling contest, in which the fruit terms, names
and related interests are used.

6. Apple coring and paring contest. This is especially
valuable in teaching skill in the handling of knives, and in
encouraging practise in rapid paring and coring without
too much loss of food material.

7. Apple or fruit races. These can be conducted very
much on the same plan as potato and &gg races, which are
known to all. '

stages of the codling- uiotli ; (a) uiotb ; (b) larva; (c) pupa
in its cocoon.

California grapes and pacliing for shipping.

THE FRUIT GARDEN

199

8. Variety naming contests.

9. Fruit art contests, in which the contestants are to
draw free hand on paper the various types of fruit placed
before them.

10. Fruit grading and packing contests, including prep-
aration of parcel-post packages.

San Jose Scale.

(1) Natural size on apple twig. (2) Scales on rose stem en-
larged. (3) Scales on apple twig, much enlarged, (a) Adult
female scales; (b) male scales; (c) young developing scales.
The depi'essed ring around the raised central dot is a charac-
teristic of this species.

6. Fruit Club Project

The organization of a fruit club is not only possible but
interesting and practical. This is illustrated in connection
with apple clubs, in which each member takes charge for
the entire season of a row or square of ten or twelve apple
trees, keeps records, does all the pruning, spraying, plow-
ing, trimming, picking, grading, crating, marketing, and

200 AGRICULTURE

canning of windfall apples. In some cases it may be ad-
visable for the class to take entire charge of an orchard and
apportion it into as many parts as there are members. The
basis of award may be as follows :

1. Management of orchard 20

2. Condition of the orchard at close of season 20

3. Net profit on investment 20

4. Exhibit and quality of both fresh and canned products 20

5. Crop report and story of season's work 20

Total score 100

The above score can be modified to suit club projects
with strawberries, peaches, pears and citrus fruits.

The fall fruit and vegetable festival held in connection
with the school for the entire community should be one
of the most interesting events of the year. At this time the
demonstrations, exhibits and play contests can be success-
fully carried out with definite educational and recreative
value to all.

CHAPTER XII
THE TOMATO

TOMATOES are becoming so important a garden and
truck crop as to deserve special mention. They came
originally from tropical regions, where the vines bear fruit
all the year.

1. Importance of the Tomato

For a long time tomatoes were not known to have value
as a food, but were thought to be poison. The plants were
then cultivated for ornamental purposes and were known
as "love apples."

Uses now as food. — The chief value of tomatoes as a
food lies in the sugars and protein, and in a stimulating
effect on digestion. More than three hundred recipes have
been worked out in preparing tomatoes for our tables. Many
more people than now use tomatoes as a part of their diet
will do so when they come to know more of their value.

Tomato growing states. — Tomatoes will grow suc-
cessfully in almost every part of the United States. Mary-
land is one of the largest tomato producing states, and has
the largest number of tomato canning factories. New
Jersey, Indiana, California and Delaware rank next.

Hundreds of thousands of cases of tomatoes are now
being grown and canned annually by the girls of the can-
ning clubs. It is estimated that, after paying the expenses
of raising her crop, a club girl from ten to eighteen years
of age can make from ten dollars to twenty-five dollars a
day for the time she puts in canning the crop for market

201

202 AGRICULTURE

2. Varieties

In selecting the varieties for the home garden the length
of season, quality, yield and appearance of the crop should
be considered.

Early varieties. — There are a great many varieties
from which to select. Among the favorites are : Earliana,
Chalk's Early Jewell, Bonnie Best, Globe and Princess
June Pink.

Late varieties. — The chief late varieties are: Stone,
Matchless, Beauty, Ponderosa, Dwarf Stone, Acme and
Trophy.

3. Raising the Crop

Where the seasons are short it is necessary to start the
plants in a hotbed and transplant them when all danger of
frost is past. In northernmost states it is well to use the
cold-frame for hardening off the plants before setting in
the garden. This process strengthens the plants and ena-
bles the crop to mature before freezing in the fall.

Transplanting. — Have the seed bed well prepared by
deep spading or plowing, thoroughly manured with a well-
rotted barnyard manure, and well pulverized. The plat
should be marked off in rows three or four feet apart, accord-
ing to the variety of tomatoes grown. The large hardy vari-
eties will require a distance of four feet each way, while
the dwarf varieties will do well three feet apart. In trans-
planting, have the holes opened up, remove the plants from
cold-frames or hotbed without injuring the roots. Allow
enough soil to accompany the roots so that the plant may
go on growing without pause.

Pruning. — Much of the success of the tomato crop
depends on proper pruning and staking. Tomatoes are
especially liable to fungous and bacterial diseases, and there-
fore need to be kept from the ground and given an abun-

THE TOMATO

203

dance of sunlight. The vines should be pruned at the time
of transplanting or afterward by pinching off the suckers,

A plot o*' tomatoes sliowiug tlie result of careful pruning and
staking,

or secondary leaf buds, found in the axils of the leaves.
This will cause the plant to grow tall instead of spreading
out. After each vine has developed four or five clusters

204 AGRICULTURE .

'of fruit the top bud should be pinched off to prevent the
plant from growing too high.

Staking. — The method of pruning described requires
staking to support the vines. For this purpose a singly
stake may be driven beside each hill, or a continuous meshed
wire or other form of fence may be used. Soft twine or
cloth should be used for tying the vines. No loop should
be drawn tightly around the plant.

Spraying. — ^The tomato vines should be thoroughly
sprayed with Bordeaux mixture several times during the
season. The first spray should be given about the time the
first fruit begins to form, or even earlier if the season is
warm and moist. This will prevent the plants from being
attacked by mildew. Remove at once any tomatoes that
show a brownish discolored area about the blossom end.
This will prevent the spread of disease.

4. Harvesting and Marketing

Gathering the crop. — ^Tomatoes should be gathered
when ripe and firm and should be handled with great care
to prevent crushing or bruising. For marketing they should
be graded in three classes, prime, medium and culls. The
more nearly uniform in size, shape and color, the more will
the market offer for the product.

Canning. — Tomatoes for canning purposes should be
thoroughly ripened and be of the deep red color, smooth
and firm. They should be canned whole so as to permit
the use of the tomato in as many different ways as is pos-
sibly with the fresh tomato. Water should not be added
to jars or cans when canning tomatoes, as this will dilute
their flavor, destroy their color, and injure their purity.
The culls may be put up for such purposes as puree, for
tomato soup, breaded tomatoes, etc.

An Iowa club girl showing bow to prune the tomato plant by
pinching off the axillary bud.

206 AGRICULTURE

Topics for Investigation

1. Write a brief history of the tomato. Name the
different uses to which the tomato is put in your own home.
Can you suggest still other uses? Why should tomatoes
be canned whole?

2. How many quarts of tomatoes did you raise and
can last year? What kind of soil is best adapted to the
culture of tomatoes?

3. Make a drawing of a hotbed, giving all dimensions.
Write out full directions for preparing and filling and car-
ing for the bed.

4. Show how to keep a bookkeeping account of one-
tenth acre of tomatoes, covering items of cost and cash
received from the time of preparing the hotbed to the can-
ning and marketing of the crop.

5. Show on the map of the United States the greatest
tomato states, and the approximate location of the terri-
tory in which the early varieties should be grown and the
territory in which the late varieties should be grown.

5. Demonstrations with the Tomato

1. Demonstrate how to scald, pare and core the to-
mato.

2. How to can tomatoes.

3. How to grade and crate for parcel-post shipment,
prime grade tomatoes.

4. Demonstrate how to use the tomato in the home by
preparing certain dishes.

5. Demonstrate the proper method of pruning and
staking of tomato vines.

6. Other demonstrations of cultivation, hoeing, spray-
ing, thinning, etc., can be undertaken in connection with
tomato culture.

6. Tomato Play Contests

1. Tomato race, conducted on very much the same plan
as the potato race.

THE TOMATO 207

2. Tomato judging contest.

3. Tomato canning contest.

4. Can labeling contest.

5. Essay writing contest on the origin and history of
the tomato.

6. Tomato problems contest.

7. Tomato recipe giving contest.

7. Tomato Club Project

One of the most interesting club projects is the grow-
ing of a club plat of tomatoes and studying all of the inter-
esting lessons from the selection of the variety of seed,
through the hotbed, cold-frame, transplanting, pruning,
staking, cultivating, gathering, grading, crating, marketing
and home canning of the surplus product. To this can be
added finally the working up of the product into various
dishes for the table. For the rural communities one-tenth
of an acre should be the acreage basis, and for city and
village work, not less than a square rod.

The basis of award should be :

1. Yield, total pounds of tomatoes 20

2. Net profit on investment 20

3. Quality, both fresh and canned products 20

4. Variety of canned and prepared tomato products on
exhibit 20

5. Cost record and story "How I Made, Canned and Mar- '
keted My Crop" 20

Total score 100

CHAPTER XIII
GARDEN AND ORCHARD SPRAYS

POISONOUS sprays for the destruction of insect and
fungi of garden and orchards have come into general
use. Upon their successful application often depends the
value of the crop, both as to quantity and quality. Not in-
frequently an entire failure of yield results from the attack
of these pests when they are not destroyed in time. Wormy
and scabby apples, rotting peaches and plums, blighted ber-
ries and diseased vegetables prove the necessity for some
means of stopping their ravages.

The purpose of the two classes of mixtures, fungicides
and insecticides, is indicated by the name applied; the cide
in each word means to kill. Onl)' the more important and
common fungicides and insecticides will be described here.

1. Bordeaux Mixture

Bordeaux mixture is one of the most successful and
widely used fungicides. Used at proper strength it is harm-
less to most plants, though it has been found injurious to
some, especially plums and, in less degree, peaches. It will
also stain foliage and fruit upon which it falls.

Composition. — Bordeaux mixture is made when
needed, of copper sulphate (blue vitriol) and lime. The
strength may be varied, depending on the required use. The
proportions most generally accepted are:

4 pounds of copper sulphate.
6 pounds of fresh lime.
50 gallons of water.

208

Duchess apples, showing results of punctures of the plum cur-
culio. This injury could have been saved by proper spraying.

'fj' J / iA^^^^

%'"-x''4|^^

^ ?^^\

>%^

idr-

mm

I-

'^^tS^'" ■ s

K ^

ba— 3

jSpraying apple trees.

210 AGRICULTURE

The copper sulphate is the active agent in kilHng the
fungi, while the lime prevents injury to the plant. Besides
this "4-6-50" mixture, other formulas frequently used are
of the proportions 4-4-50, and 5-5-50.

Making the mixture. — When but a small amount of
spraying is to be done the only equipment required for
making Bordeaux mixture is a fifty-gallon barrel, two twen-
ty-five gallon tubs, buckets and a fine-mesh sieve.

Fill one .of the smaller tubs with water, and suspend
just below the surface four pounds of copper sulphate in a
loose bag, giving it time to dissolve. This will require
about an hour, though the process can be hastened by using
hot water. Slake six pounds of lime in the other tub, us-
ing hot water and reducing the lime to a paste. When the
lime has cooled, dilute to twenty-five gallons.

Now stir the contents of the tubs, and pour bucketfuls
of each mixture simultaneously through a sieve into the
larger barrel, making sure that the streams mix. Stir well,
and the compound is ready for the spraying machine.

Use. — The amount needed for a garden can be judged
from the fact that a tree in full leaf and having a spread
of twenty-five feet will require about four gallons of the
mixture. Most beginnners use too little, and hence fail to
get the best results.

Bordeaux mixture is not effective against insects. If,
however, arsenate of lead in the proportion of two pounds to
each barrel of the mixture be combined with it, the com-
pound will serve as a check on both insests and fungous
diseases. Scab, apple blotch, bitter rot, wilt, mildew and
brown rot are controlled by Bordeaux mixture.

2. Lime-Sulphur Mixture
The lime-sulphur mixture, besides being an insecticide
for certain plant insects, is also a fungicide serving the same

• GARDEN AND ORCHARD SPRAYS 211

general purpose as Bordeaux mixture. It has the advantage
of not injuring certain plants, such as peaches and plums,
to which Bordeaux mixture is not adapted. Some fruit
growers are coming to employ it as their principal fungi-
cide.

Composition. — The strength of the mixture may
vary, the proportion of the ingredients commonly being :

8 pounds of flour of sulphur.
8 pounds of fresh lime.
50 gallons of water.

Making the mixture. — The lime-sulphur compound
may be made by several different processes, one of the sim-
plest of which is the self-boiling process. To make the self-
boiled mixture, put eight pounds of lime to slake, and while
the slaking process is going on, sift over the lime eight
pounds of finely powdered sulphur. Stir constantly, adding
water until a thin paste is secured. Dilute to fifty gallons,
and strain before using.

Lime-sulphur may be also bought ready for use. Al-
though it costs slightly more than the home-made product,
the time saved makes the commercial form cheaper if but
a small amount is required.

Use. — Lime-sulphur controls scale insects and cur-
culio, as well as such fungous diseases as scab, leaf curl,
brown rot, etc. Arsenate of lead may be used with this
mixture also.

3. Arsenate of Lead

Arsenate of lead is one of the most important stomach
insecticides known, and has largely taken the place of Paris
green with most fruit growers. It seems to be palatable
to all garden insects. It adheres well to foliage, and hence
does not easily wash off in showers as does Paris green. It
will not injure plants no matter how strong the solution.

212 AGRICULTURE

And it also acts as a fungicide, especially when mixed with
lime-sulphur.

Composition. — Arsenate of lead is easily compounded,
the usual formula being :

. 22 ounces acetate of lead dissolved in 2 gallons of warm
water.
8 ounces arsenate of soda dissolved in 1 gallon of water.
(Use wooden pail in each case.)

The two solutions are now poured together and diluted
with water to make a mixture of fifty gallons, when it is
ready to spray.

Arsenate of lead may also be procured in the form of
a paste ready to dilute for the spraying machine. Three
pounds of the commercial paste will make fifty gallons of
spray. It will hardly pay to go to the trouble of mixing the
compound at home, since the ready-made product usually
costs no more than the ingredients for making the mixture.

Use. — The arsenate of lead mixture may be used
either alone or with fungicides for destroying nearly the
whole range of biting insects attacking garden fruits. It
has proved of the greatest service, especially in the spraying
of apples.

4. Paris Green

Paris green is one of the oldest and best known of the
insect poisons. Several thousand tons are used each year
for this purpose.

Composition. — Paris green is often prepared for
spraying by simply dissolving from four to eight ounces in
fifty gallons of water. The standard formula, however, is :

4 ounces of Paris green.
% pound of lime.
50 gallons of water.

The lime is to be slaked and mixed with the water. The

Crop from four sprayed peach trees ; one basket of scabby fruit
at the left ; the remainder sound.

Crop from four unsprayed peach trees. Sound fruit in three
baskets at left; the remainder scabby.

214 AGRICULTURE

Paris green is mixed to paste form in a small quantity of
water, and then added to the water.

Use. — Paris green may be used in combination with
the Bordeaux mixture, but not with lime-sulphur. When
mixing it with Bordeaux, the Paris green should be com-
bined with the diluted lime before it is brought in contact
with the copper sulphate.

5, Kerosene Emulsion

Kerosene is one of the best of contact insecticides. A
small particle of it on any part of the body means certain
death to any insect. Pure kerosene, however, will injure
most plants, and hence must be used in a mixture. The
best of these is what is known as kerosene emulsion.

Composition. — The formula for the mixture commonly
used is :

% pound hard laundry soap shaved fine.

1 gallon of soft water.

2 gallons of kerosene.

Making the emulsion. — One of the advantages in the
use of this spray is the ease with which it can be made.
Dissolve the soap in one gallon of boiling water; remove
from the stove and at once add two gallons of kerosene.
Stir while cooling until a soft, butter-like mass is obtained.
Dilute one part of this stock solution with ten or twelve
parts of water as needed for spraying.

Use. — Kerosene emulsion may be used on all kinds
of tender foliage without injury. It will control the vari-
ous kinds of plant lice, slugs, etc.

6. The Resin-Lime Mixture
One of the difficulties in using many of the insecticides
and fungicides is that they do not adhere well to the smooth
foliage of the plants. The resin-lime mixture is often used

GARDEN AND ORCHARD SPRAYS 215

in combination with other compounds to insure their stick-,
ing to the plants until they have done their work.
Composition. — The formula employed is :

5 pounds of pulverized resin.

1 pound of concentrated lie.

1 pint of fish or some other animal oil.

5 gallons of water.

This mixture is the stock solution, which is still further
diluted as used.

Making the mixture. — The oil, resin and one gallon
of cold water are to be put into an iron kettle and heated
until the resin softens. Add the lime and stir well. Then
add four gallons of hot water and boil until a little mixed
with cold water gives a clear amber-colored liquid. Add
water to make up for what has boiled away, making five
gallons of the compound.

Use. — This spray, besides causing other mixtures to
adhere to the foliage of plants, is itself an excellent contact
insecticide. Its principal eflfect is through making a smoth-
ering coating over the body of the insect. It is used in
some regions as a dormant wash for the control of scale
insects. When used with Paris green or Bordeaux, two
gallons of resin-lime compound are mixed with eight gal-
lons of water, and this added to forty gallons of the spray.

Topics for Investigation

1. Copper sulphate costs from seven to ten cents a
pound, and lime, when bought in small quantities, about
fifteen cents a pound. What, then, should be the outlay in
making fifty gallons of Bordeaux mixture? What would it
cost for material to spray ten apple trees averaging a
twenty-five-foot spread ?

2. Under the direction of the teacher and with great
care in handling both before and after mixing, let the class

216 . AGRICULTURE

•join in making up a Bordeaux mixture, substituting one
ounce for each pound of the ingredients in the formula, and
a corresponding amount of water. What is the color of the
compound ? Will it keep indefinitely if covered to save evap-
oration ?

3. Make a lime-sulphur mixture, reducing the amounts
as before to one ounce for each pound of ingredients.

4. Make up a kerosene emulsion, using one pint of
kerosene and a corresponding amount of other ingredients.

5. Secure catalogs describing spraying machines, ex-
amine the different makes, and decide which is best for
the use you would require in your home garden and or-
chard. If uncertain write your state agricultural college
about it.

CHAPTER XIV

HOME CANNING OF FRUITS AND VEGE-
TABLES

IT is both practicable and economical to can the surplus
vegetables, fruit, sweet corn, greens and other such prod-
ucts that commonly go to waste in the orchard, field and
garden.

1. Home Canned Products and the Table

When the farm home has learned to can its surplus
fresh food products, then the family can have a balanced
ration every day in the year, and the cost of living will be
greatly reduced.

Home canned foods. — The average farm family
should plan to have for table use from the home-canned
supply one quart of vegetables, one quart of fruit and one
quart of greens for every day in the year when these foods
are not available in the garden. The ration based on these
foods and supplemented by meats is better balanced and less
expensive than one based on meats with a scarcity of fruits
and vegetables. Such a system will have a tendency to cut
down both the doctor's bills and the grocery bills, and will
furnish a more palatable diet.

The elimination of waste. — The importance of home
canning is still more fully realized when we stop to con-
sider that in most states probably one-half of all the fruit
and vegetables raised are allowed to go to waste. They are
not needed for immediate consumption, and methods of
grading, crating and marketing are not understood. Home
canning will save all of this waste.

217

218 AGRICULTURE

Successful canning not difficult. — By following simple
recipes and time-tables for sterilization, even children can.
successfully can anything that grows in the garden, field or
orchard. Once canned the product has a money value, and
is as standard in the market as sugar or nails.

Canning fruits. — The list of receipts and time-tables
given in this chapter are made to be used in connection
with the usual home canning utensils, and with four distinct
types of canning outfits. Such outfits are not expensive.
They can be bought all the way from eighty-nine cents
up to twenty dollars, depending on type and size. All kinds
of glass jars, bottles and tin cans commonly used in the old
methods of canning can be used with these newer devices.
(Write for Farmers' Bulletin 521 and other circulars of
instruction on canning, for description of canning outfits,
and full directions for their use.)

2. Canning Recipes for Fruits and Vegetables

These recipes have been carefully planned and tested by
experts, and should be followed with great care if the best
results are to be obtained.

Tomatoes. — Grade for ripeness, size and quality.
Scald to loosen skins. Dip in cold water ; remove skins ;
pack whole. Fill with tomatoes only and add 1 level tea-
spoonful salt to each quart Place rubber and partially seal.
(Cap and tip tins.) Sterilize thirty-two minutes in hot-
water bath, twenty-two minutes in water-seal outfit, fifteen
minutes under five pounds of steam, or ten minutes in
pressure Cooker. Remove jars, tighten covers, and invert
to cool.

Strawberries. — 1. Can fresh, sound berries same day
picked. Hull (twist berries off hull) ; place in strainer, pour
water over to cleanse. Pack in jar or tin without crushing.
Pour hot sirup over berries to top. Place rubber and top
and partially tighten. (Cap and tip tins.) Sterilize sixteen

A practical canning kitchen.

Two tj'pes of canninu outfit-; (a) the water seal; (b) the
steam pressure type, used by a canning club girl.

220 AGRICULTURE .

.minutes in hot-water batb, 6 minutes under 5 pounds of
steam, 10 minutes in water-seal outfit, or 5 minutes in
pressure cooker.

(Sirup: 1>^ qts. sugar to 1 qt. water, boiled to medium
thick.)

Strawberries. — 2. Same as above except sirup. Sirup :
Crush berries for 1 quart natural juice, add 1 qt. sugar, boil
to medium thick sirup. Add as in No. 1.

Strawberries. — Sun preserves. Select ripe, firm ber-
ries. Pick and preserve same day. Hull and rinse as in
No. 1. Place in shallow platter in single layer; sprinkle
sugar over them; pour over them 40-degree sirup (same as
No. 1 boiled thicker). Cover with glass dish or window
pane. Allow to cook in hot sun 6 to 10 hours. Pack in
glasses, jars, or cups; tie paper over tops. (Paraffin or
sealing wax.) Keep in cool dry place.

Carrots, parsnips, sweet potatoes, etc. — Scald from 1
to 5 minutes in boiling water. Plunge in cold water. Re-
move skins ; pack whole or sliced ; add boiling water and
1 level teaspoonful salt to each quart. Place rubber and top
and partially tighten. (Cap and tip tins.) Process 1^
hours in hot-water bath, 1 hour, 15 minutes in water seal, 1
hour under 5 pounds of steam, or 30 minutes in pressure
cooker.

Eggplant. — Scald 5 minutes in slightly salt boiling
water ; plunge in cold water ; remove skins. Slice cross-
wise and pack ; add boiling water and 1 level teaspoonful
of salt to each pint. Place rubber and top and partially
tighten. (Cap and tin tins.) Process 1 hour in hot-water
bath, 50 minutes in water-seal outfit, 45, in 5 lbs. of steam
pressure, or 30 minutes in pressure cooker. Remove
jars, tighten covers, and invert to cool.

Sweet corn, on the cob. — Blanch in boiling water 10
minutes, plunge quickly in cold water. Pack, alternating
butts and tips ; add boiling water and 1 level teaspoonful of
salt to each quart. Place rubber and top and partially
tighten. (Cap and tip tins.) Process 180 to 240 minutes
in hot-water bath, Ij/i hours water-seal outfit, 60 minutes
under 5 pounds of steam, or 45 minutes in pressure cooker.
Remove jars, tighten covers, invert and cool.

Sweet corn, off the cob. — Same as above, except cut

HOME CANNING 221

from cob after blanching. Pack and fill jars with boiling
water, adding 1 level teaspoonful salt to each pint. Pro-
ceed as above.

Peas, beans, etc. — Blanch 3 minutes in boiling
water; plunge in cold water. Pack and add boiling water
and 1 level teaspoonful salt to each quart. Place rubber
and top and partially tighten top. (Cap and tip tins.)
Process 1>4 hours in hot-water bath, 1 hour in water-seal,
1 hour under 5 pounds of steam, or 35 minutes in pressure
cooker.

Chards, beets, turnips, etc. — Scald 1 to 6 minutes in
boiling water; plunge in cold water, remove skins. Slice
and pack ; add boiling water and 1 level teaspoonful salt for
each pint. Place rubber and top and partially tighten.
(Cap and tip tins.) Process 1^^ hours in hot-water bath,
l}i hours in water-seal, 1 hour under 5 pounds of steam,
or 40 minutes in pressure cooker. Remove jars, tighten
covers, and invert to cool.

Greens, (spinach, dandelion, mustard, beet tops, etc.)
— Blanch in boiling water 10 minutes, plunge in cold water.
Cut ready for table use. Process 10 minutes in open ket-
tle to shrink; season with slice of bacon or chips of dried
beef for each pint. Pack, add hot water and a little salt to
each quart. Place rubber and top and partially tighten.
(Cap and tip tins.) Process 60 minutes in hot-water bath
or water-seal outfit, 40 minutes under 5 pounds of steam,
30 minutes in pressure cooker. Remove, tighten covers,
and invert to cool.

It is always advisable to cook the greens a short time
before packing in order to reduce the bulk.

Windfall apples. — For the canning of whole apples
select firm, not over-ripe apples. A great difference in the
canned products will be noted in the different varieties of
apples. The recipe is intended for firm and preferably tart
varieties. Some varieties will require less time and some
more. Experience will teach adjustment of time.

Remove blemished, cut out core. Blanch for 2 minutes
in boiling water; plunge in cold water. Pack in tin cans
or glass jars and add just -a little very thin sirup. Place
rubber and top and partially tighten. (Cap and tip tins.)
Process 20 minutes in hot-water bath, 15 minutes in water-

222 AGRICULTURE

seal, 10 minutes in steam pressure outfit, or 4 minutes in
pressure cooker. Remove jars, tighten covers, and invert
to cool.

Windfall apples for pie filling. — Peel and core. Slice ;
scald Iminute in boiling water; plunge in cold w^ater. Pack
in glass or tin, and add about one teacupful of hot, thin
sirup to each quart. Place rubber and top, partially
tighten. (Cap and tip tins.) Sterilize 16 minutes in hot-
water bath, 12 minutes in water-seal outfit, 10 minutes un-
der 5 pounds of steam, or 4 minutes in pressure cooker.
Remove jars, tighten covers, invert to cool.

Blanching. — After blanching plunge in cold water and
pack quickly.*

1. Blanch peas, beans, etc., 5 minutes.

2. Blanch corn on cob, 5 to 15 minutes.

3. Blanch pumpkin, squash, mangoes, about 5 minutes.

4. Blanch okra, cabbage, sweet potatoes, 5 minutes.

5. Blanch asparagus, spinach, kale, etc., 5 to 10 minutes.

6. Blanch rhubarb, beet tops, etc., 1 to 3 minutes.

7. Blanch or scald beets, carrots, turnips, etc., 6 min-
utes.

8. Scald tomatoes, plums, pears, etc., 1 to 2 minutes.

9. Scald peaches, apricots, 1 to 2 minutes.
Reasons. — Scalding: (1) To remove skins without

loss of pulp; (2) to eliminate objectionable acids; (3) to
arrest flow of coloring matter.

Blanching. — (1) To eliminate objectionable acids; (2)
to set coloring matter; (3) to make texture firm for ster-
ilization.

Cold Dip. — (1) To separate skin from pulp; (2) to set
color bodies; (3) to render packing easier.

3. Time Table for Home Canning of Foods

To be followed in the use of the four different types of
portable home canners. For altitudes of 4,000 feet or more
above sea level, add about 20 per cent, or 25 per cent, more
time to this schedule.

* Cook greens, cabbage, chard, etc., about 20 minutes before
packing to reduce bulk.

HOME CANNING ' 223

Time Schedule for Canning.
Products to be Canned.

S'H *,

"T fe! ^1 1.2

~5 M fe

03

« O

•go rt« owe "■

Min. Min. Min. Min.

Apples 3 15 15 10 4

Apricots 3 IS 12 10 6

Asparagus . 2 or 3 60 60 40 30

Apple cider 2 or 3 20 15 12 6

Beans, lima and string 2 or 3 120 90 60 30

Blackberries, Dewberries 2 or 3 12 8 6 4

Cherries, Peaches 2 15 12 10 5

Corn, on or off cob 2 240 180 60 40

Grapes, Pears, Plums 2 20 IS 10 6

Hominy 3 60 SO 40 35

Huckleberries 2 10 8 6 5

Okra - 2 or 3 60 60 40 35

Okra and tomatoes cbmbined 2 or 3 SO SO 40 35

Oysters 1 60 50 40 35

Peas (field) 2 90 90 40 35

Peas (garden or English) 2 90 60 40 35

Pineapple 2 or 3 30 25 10 6

Raspberries 2 or 3 15 10 6 4

Sauerkraut 3 SO SO 40 25

Sausage 2 60 60 40 35

Sweet potatoes . 3 180 90 60 40

Strawberries 3 12 10 8 5

Succotash 2 or 3 60 60 40 30

Tomatoes 2 or 3 32 22 10 6

Tomatoes and corn 2 80, 70 60 40

Grape juice 2 15 15 10 5

Quince 3 30 25 15 10

Tomato juice 2 20 20 15 10

Pumpkin 3 SO SO 40 30

Fish, Pork 2 200 200 120 60

16

224

AGRICULTURE

Time Schedule for Canning.
Products to be Canned.

« .

U 01

3^

0) o

m
4) to

- O fc,

oo

7 oi
4) in

5 <»

CD

<D >
(9CO

o o

cSC

o! O 2
«) u c

^S

S

ffi

^

m

CU

Min.

Min.

Min.

Min

3

250

240

180

40

3

30

20

10

5

3

50

40

30

20

3

90

60

40

30

3

90

60

40

30

3

25

25

15

10

3

60

60

45

30

Chicken, beef-
Figs

Squash

Spinach

Other greens .

Rhubard

Beets

PART III. SOIL

CHAPTER XV
NATURE OF SOIL

IN our discussion of plants and crops we have constantly
referred to the soil. What is soilf Whence does
it come? What relation does it bear to plant life, and hence
to our own lives? Take a handful of "dirt" and crumble
it between your fingers; of what does it consist, what is
its nature?

1. Origin of the Soil

Soil did not always exist as it is to-day. When the earth
was young and the crust was forming there was no soil.
There was only rock. And it is out of the weathering of
this surface rock that the soil has come ; and the process is
still going on whenever rock is exposed. Soil is but par-
ticles of rock, to which has been added organic matter com-
ing from the plants and animals that have lived on it or in it.

The weathering of rock. — Rock is made into soil by
two different processes, disintegration and decomposition.
By disintegration is meant the breaking up of rock into
small particles without changing their nature. By decom-
position is meant such breaking up by chemical action that
the nature of the particles is changed.

The chief agencies causing the disintegration of rocks
are sudden changes of temperature and the action of frost.

225

226 AGRICULTURE

When masses of rock are heated by the sun they expand;
sudden cooling at night or from change of weather causes
so rapid a contraction that they are rent asunder. Water
freezing in crevices also constantly breaks masses of rock
into smaller pieces.

Rocks undergo decomposition largely through changes
due to the action of chemicals carried in water. The min-
eral substances in the rocks are dissolved, and new prod-
ucts formed.

A plowing contest.

Surface and subsoil. — The terms soil and subsoil are
often used to distinguish the top portion from the soil that
lies underneath. The line between the dark humus-colored
part and the lighter soil b'^low- is sometimes spoken of as the
division between soil and subsoil. Another distinction made
is to call all that lies below the depth of tillage subsoil. No
such dividing line can be sharply drawn, however, as much
organic matter is found below the humus line, and the depth
of tillage does not mark a natural division in layers of the

NATURE OF SOIL 227

soil. Surface soil differs from subsoil chiefly in the organic
matter it contains.

2. Organic Matter in Soil

Examine carefully a lump of common field soil. Pul-
verize it and spread it out on a paper. In addition to the
grains of sand, silt and clay which represent the rock por-
tions, note all the different organic particles, such as pieces
of roots, fibers of plants, and parts of insects. Place it
under a magnifier, and see whether you can make still fur-
ther discoveries.

Need of organic matter. — Although the rock particles
make up far the greater part of the mass of the soil, or-
ganic matter is of the highest importance to plants. Indeed,
it is practically impossible to raise crops on soil lacking
organic constituents. All the upper layers of ordinary soil
contain from two to five per cent, of organic material, com-
ing chiefly from the roots and stems of plants.

Humus. — When vegetation decays on top of the
ground it is really burned up as effectually as if put into a
stove, only more slowly. The gases pass off into the air
and only a slight ash remains on the soil. From this proc-
ess the soil receives comparatively little benefit. If, how-
ever, decay takes place under the surface, where but little
oxygen is present, a substance is produced which is called
humus. All soil on which plants are grown is therefore
constantly producing humus from the roots, and from the
stubble and stems if these are turned under. Dig up a piece
of timothy sod and note the mass of roots — ^about two tons
of roots to the acre on a good field. Blue-grass yields some
six tons of roots to the acre. Soils that are cropped contin^
uously with the common cereals and the crops removed with-
out returning manure to the field become deficient in humus,
and the yield is decreased.

228 AGRICULTURE

, Effects of humus in the soil. — The most easily noted
effect of humus is in the darkening of the soil. The so-
called "black" soils get their color from the abundance of
humus they contain. The coloring is accomplished by the
partially decayed and partially preserved black organic mat-
ter coating over the small particles of the soil. The depth
to which humus extends, ranging from a few inches to sev-
eral feet, can be noted at any wayside ditch by the line be-
tween the dark soil on top and the lighter soil beneath.
Humus serves several very important uses in the soil:

(1) it acts as a storehouse for different kinds of plant food;

(2) it increases the capacity of the soil to hold water; (3)
it aids in conserving heat in the soil; (4) it favors the
growth of bacteria helpful to plants; (5) it improves the
physical condition of the soil, making it more porous and
easily cultivated.

Living organisms. — Reference has already been made
to the influence of certain bacteria in the fixing of nitrogen
in the soil. The soil harbors many different kinds of bac-
teria and other organisms. It is fairly teeming with life,
some of which is hostile to plant growth, but more of which
is necessary to successful plant development.

Other organic matter. — Besides living organic matter
and that which has undergone chemical changes converting
it into humus, most soils contain a certain amount of veg-
etable matter in the form of roots and stems of plants
which have not yet begun the process of decomposition.
These affect the soil chiefly in making it more accessible
to air and light, and more permeable to water.

3. Texture of Soils
Secure samples of three different field soils, (1) a clay
soil, (2) a silt soil, and (3) a sandy soil. Place one inch
deep of each of these in a bottIe> Now fill all three bottles

NATURE OF SOIL 229

>\

with water and shake for several minutes. Set the bottles
in a quiet place and let the contents settle. Note which
soil settles to the bottom most quickly. Keep a record of
the time required for water to become clear in each bottle.

Meaning of texture. — By texture of soil is meant
the degree of fineness or coarseness of the particles of which
it is composed. The finest soil particles, which will remain
in suspension clouding water for hours, are 'called clay. The
next finest, which will settle in about one hour, are silt. The
coarser particles, which will settle almost at once, are called
sand or gravel.

Most crop soils have all three of these grades or sizes of
particles in their make-up. The texture of the soil depends
on the proportion of each in the mixture. Soils are named
in accordance with the particular one of these elements that
preponderates.

If the very fine particles are in excess, we speak of a
clay soil; if the texture is intermediate, of a loam soil; and
if coarse, of a sandy or gravelly soil. We also use the terms
clay loam, silt loam and sandy loam to describe the texture.

Composition of three soil types. — A mechanical an-
alysis of three types of soil texture made by the United
States Department of Agriculture shows the following pro-
portions of soil particles in each: ,

Very-
Fine C'se Med. Fine fine
Type of soil gravel sand sand sand sand Silt Clay

Norfolk sand (truck soil)— 3% 15% 22% 38% 10% 8% 4%
Wabash clay (river bottom)_0 1% 1% 3% 7% 49% 37%

Silt Loam (corn soil) 0 1% 1% 2% 8% 73% 15%

From this table it is seen that Norfolk sand, which is
an excellent soil for truck gardening on the Atlantic, is
eighty-eight per cent, sand and gravel, and only twelve per

230 AGRICULTURE

<fent. silt and clay combined. Middle western silt loam,
such as grows most of our be$t corn, is three-fourths silt,
and fifteen per cent, clay and twelve per cent. sand. River-
bottom, clay soils are slightly more than one-third clay, and
almost one-half silt.

4. Structure of Soils

Take a piece of clay in your hand. Try to crumble it
into small particles. Do the same with a piece of loam;
with a lump of sandy soil. Note that some soils plow up
in great clods, while others break up into small pieces, pro-
ducing what is called a mellow condition. Have you no-
ticed that in some places the ground cakes and cracks open
when it becomes very dry, while in other places it remains
soft and unbroken no. matter how dry it becomes? These
differences are a matter of soil structure.

Soil structure. — By soil structure is meant the mode
in which particles adhere to one another, causing them to
cling together in solid masses hard to break up, or forming
but loosely joined lumps easily pulverized.

Clay soils are of a heavy, dense, clinging structure, dif-
ficult to break apart, and hence hard to plow. Silt loams
and sand loams, on the other hand, are friable; that is,
they are easily broken up. They plow or pulverize easily
because they are not so adhesive. All soils that are lacking
in humus tend to become dense and resisting in structure.

Causes affecting soil structure. — The chief adhesive
force holding soil particles together in clusters, grains, or
lumps is the water films that surround the particles. Each
separate. particle is covered by a thin film of water, whose
effect is much the same as a film pf rubber. Let a number
of small soil particles, each suifounded by its water film,
come into contact, and their individual films all merge into

NATURE OF SOIL 231

one, which by its tension unites these particles in a single
granule, or cluster. These clusters are in similar way joined
into still larger clusters, and so on until, in fine clay soils,
one continuous mass is formed. As clay soils dry out the
films break, shrinkage occurs, and cracks open.

The greater adhesive power of clay soils is because of
the fineness of their particles. The larger the number of
particles in a given mass of soil, the greater the aggregate
surface of these particles, and hence the greater the amount
of water films to bind the particles together. Sandy soils
do not form into granules, or lumps, because the aggre-
gate surface of the particles is not sufficient to supply the
binding force of water films necessary to hold them together.

It has been carefully estimated that the particles of a
cubic foot of soils of different textures have the following
amounts of surface :

Coarse sandy loam 40,000 square feet.

Sandy loam 65,000 "

Silt loam 100,000 "

Clay soil 150,000 "

From these comparisons it is clear that the water films
are several times greater in area in clay soils than sandy
soils, and hence the tendency to adhesiveness in clay soils
is correspondingly increased.

Soil structure and tilth. — You have seen some seed
beds that were granular or full of lumps, with very little
fine earth for packing about the seeds. Others are finely
pulverized, and favorable for plant growth. The condition
presented by the soil with reference to plant growth is
called its tilth.

Tilth depends chiefly on soil structure. Dense heavy
soils that have a tendency to form into lumps when plowed,
or that easily bake after rain, make it difficult to maintain a

232 AGRICULTURE

^ood tilth. On the other hand, a good tilth is equally hard
to maintain on soils that easily burn out in a drought, or
that for any reason are not good reservoirs of water.

5. Erosion of the Soil

Note the color of the soil on some cultivated hilltop
and on the lower ground at the foot.

1. Why is. the color on the hilltop lighter? Why is
the crop yield less? Are there any slopes near by with
gullies washed out ?

2. Have you seen sheets of soft earth which have been
carried by the wash from heavy rains and spread over low
ground or along the courses of streams? Where does this
soil come from ? What is its texture, fine or coarse ? What
is the structure of this overflow soil, heavy and dense, or
friable? Is such soil fertile? Must this fertility be lost
from the ground from which the wash came?

3. Have you ever seen banks of soil built by the car-
rying of soil particles in the wind ? Great masses of wind-
built soil, called loess, are to be found in Illinois, Wisconsin,
Iowa, eastern Kansas and Nebraska, and northern Mis-
souri. These loessial soils consist chiefly of silt.

4. Which loses more soil from the action of the wind,
hilltops or valleys? In certain western plains regions as
much as an inch of top soil is sometimes removed in a single
dust storm lasting twelve hours.

Nature of erosion. — By erosion is meant the wearing
or carrying away of soil by the action of running water and
the wind. Erosion by running water takes place in some
degree on all slopes ; the hills are gradually but constantly
being carried into the valleys. But it is on the steep hillsides
where the velocity of the water i^ greatest that most damage
is done. The reason for this is easily seen when it is re-
membered that the transporting power of water increases

NATURE OF SOIL

233

as the sixth power of its velocity. This means that doubling
its velocity increases the carrying power sixty-four times ;
trebling its velocity increases the carrying power seven hun-
dred and twenty-nine times, and so on.

The texture of the soil has much to do with erosion.
All soils that permit ready absorption of water, as from
rains or melting snow, leave less to run over the surface,
and so are less subject to erosion than dense clay soils.

Effects of water erosion. — Erosion by running water

Au Illinois field, showiug tlie effects of water erosion.

not only produces gullies and ditches that interfere with
cultivation, but greatly reduces the fertility of hilltops and
slopes by general surface washing. For it is the best parts
of the soil that are carried away by erosion. Organic
matter is relatively light, and so floats off ; the finer clay
and silt particles which, as we have seen, will remain long
in suspension in water, are carried away, and the coarser

234 AGRICULTURE

portions left behind. And it is just this organic matter and
the finer soil particles that contain the best part of the plant
food. No wonder then that the hilltops have a thin poor
soil, and that the valleys are noted for their fertility.

Prevention of erosion. — While soil erosion can not be
wholly prevented, it can be greatly checked. And nature
suggests one effective remedy in covering all soil with vege-
tation. It is bare soil that washes and blows away. Even
a steep hillside when covered with grass is reasonably free
from erosion. For the stems tend to delay the downward
rush of water, thus causing it to soak into the ground, and
the roots bind the soil together. This indicates that steep
slopes should be used for pasturage and meadows rather
than for cropping. The addition of organic matter in the
form of manure also lessens the danger from washing, since
it increases the capacity of the soil to absorb water, and
also tends to bind the soil together.

Hillsides when tilled should be plowed along the slope
rather than up and down, and in some sections it is neces-
sary to terrace the hillsides. This delays the forming of
rivulets and favors absorption of water. Every furrow
leading down the hill is the beginning of a gully in heavy
rains. Even the marks left by the wheels of a corn planter,
unless leveled over by harrowing, will serve as water chan-
nels and result in waste of soil and washing out of the seed
or plants.

Gullies once started should be leveled immediately by
use of the plow or other form of cultivation. Packs of
straw, hay, or manure at the head of the channel, or at
intervals along its course, will do much to stop the erosion,
if used in time. Sheet, or s^urfai:e, washing is, however, a
source of greater damage tlian the formation of gullies.
For sheet erosion, though gradual, is constant on the slopes
of all tilled fields.

NATURE OF SOIL 235

Topics for Investigation

1. Select a spot on your home farm representing its
typical soil, dig down with a spade or soil auger and take
two samples, one from a depth of six inches, and one of
twenty inches. How do the samples differ (1) as to texture,
(2) as to organic matter, (3) as to structure? How deep
does the humus extend? Bring samples to school, and
compare with those from the different farms represented.

2. Place some of each sample in a bottle or glass of
water and mix well. Allow the sand to settle (How long?),
and pour the water off the top into a third receptable. Allow
the clay to settle until the water becomes clear. (How long
is required ?) Now determine as nearly as you can what is
the proportion of clay, silt and sand in the soils. How would
you name the texture of the soil on your farm ?

3. Secure a sample of the soil from some cultivated hill-
top, and examine it for its texture, structure and the
amount of organic matter. Compare with another sample
taken from the foot of the hill. Explain the difference in
color. Dig down with a spade and compare the depth to
which the humus extends in each case.

4. Are there any cultivated hills on your farm steep
enough that erosion is considerable? If so, how does
the yield on the hill compare with the lower land? Are
there any gullies forming? If so, how long have they been
washing out ? What is being done to stop them ?

5. Determine what kind of soil there is in your school
yard, such as silt loam, clay soil, or sandy loam, and com-
pare the aggregate surface of the particles of a cubic foot of
it with the area of the school grounds.

6. What is a soil auger and for what is it used ? What
is a soil survey, and how and why is it made? Consider
the possibility of joining with your classmates in making a
soil survey and a soil map of your district.

CHAPTER XVI
SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT GROWTH

BOTH plants and animals depend on the soil for their ex-
istence. Since animals can not draw food immediately
from the soil, they are dependent on plants, which have
the power to live chiefly from the soil elements. Plants may
therefore be looked upon as minute factories, each at work
making living tissue out of soil materials. All human food
comes either from the plants themselves, or from animals
which feed on plants.

1. Plant Food and Soil Fertility

The soil is the home of the plant ; there it must find the
conditions necessary to its growth and development. The
plant must have air and water for its roots, and for its food
all the elements that enter into the tissues in its growth.
The ability of the soil to supply the elements necessary for
plant growth is called its fertility.

Food required by plants. — Agricultural plants re-
quire, in all, ten different chemical elements for their
growth. These are:

1:

Supplied by air and water.

Carbon

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Calcium
Magnesium
Iron
Sulphur

Nitrogen

Phosphorus Supplied by soil.

Potassium J Quantity limited.

236

.Supplied by soil.
Quantity inexhaustible.

1

SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT GROWTH 237

The first of these ten plant elements, carbon, is supplied
in the form of carbon dioxid by the atmosphere, and hence
forms no part of the soil's fertility. Hydrogen and Qxygen,
which are the elements that compose water, are taken up by
the plant directly from the water of the soil. The next
four of the list, calcium, magnesium, iron and sulphur, are
found in practically all soils in quantities sufficient for ordi-
nary plant growth. The fertility of the soil therefore de-
pends chiefly on the supply of the last three, nitrogen, phos-
phorus and potassium.

Rich or fertile soils are those that contain an abundance
of these three elements. Every crop removes some amount
of each of the seven elements supplied by the soil ; but since
calcium, magnesium, iron and sulphur are practically inex-
haustible, they do not have to be replaced in order to main-
tain the soil's fertility. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potas-
sium, however, must constantly be returned to the soil if
it is not to become exhausted and the crops reduced. Like
the strength of a chain is measured by its weakest link, so
the fertility of the soil is measured by the plant element of
which it has the least.

Danger of loss of fertility. — One of our chief agricul-
tural problems is to maintain the fertility of the soil. We
must all live from its products, no matter what our occupa-
tion. Most of the tillable land of the United States is now
occupied. Our people must be fed from this land ; there is
no other source of supply.

This means that we should not only keep up the fertil-
ity of the soil, but actually increase it as time goes on. It
is estimated that our population is increasing five times as
fast as our food supply. This fact explains in part, at least,
the high cost of living.

Much land, particularly in the East and South, has been
rendered almost valueless through careless methods of

238- AGRICULTURE

farming which have robbed the soil of its nitrogen, phos-
phorus and potassium. Farms located within a hundred
miles of the great eastern markets have recently been
bought for from ten dollars to twenty dollars an acre, when
middle western land is selling for one hundred dollars to
two hundred dollars an acre. Much of this eastern land
was originally as good as the western, and would be worth
three hundred dollars an acre if it had been properly farmed
to conserve its fertility.

There are three principal methods of maintaining the
fertility of the soil or increasing it when it has run down.
These are : ( 1 ) manuring, either with barnyard manure or
by plowing under such plants as clover, alfalfa, cow-peas^
or some other green crop ; (2) using commercial fertilisers;
(3) rotation of crops.

2. Barnyard Manure as a Fertiliser

One of the best evidences of careful farming and good
management is a well kept and well used manure heap.
Manure should no more be wasted than any other farm
product.

The value of barnyard manure. — Barnyard manure is
rich in all three of the elements in which the soil is likely
to run short — nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. It has
been estimated by experts that if animals are kept in stalls
or pens throughout the year, given a reasonable amount of
litter for bedding and all the manure saved, the annual value
of the manure from each animal will be: horses or mules,
twenty-seven dollars ; cattle, 'twenty dollars ; hogs, eight
dollars ; sheep, two dollars. Differently stated, the value of
the manure produced during the seven winter months on a
farm keeping four horses, twenty cows, fifty sheep and ten
hogs would be at least two hundred and fifty dollars. These

Field showing tlie effect on legumes of proper treatment of the
soil. On the left, manure was used ; on the right, limestone,
rock-phosphate and manure.

The wrong way to haJHlle barnyard manures.

17

240 AGRICULTURE

figures are based on the cost of an equal amount of com-
mercial fertilizer.

It is true that not all the fertility taken from the soil by
farm crops can be returned by using the manure from the
feeding of crops, but the. greater part of it can be. The
manurial value of different farm products, based on the
cost of commercial fertilizers, is shown in the following
table: (Farmers' Bulletin 193, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.)

Value of fertilizer in ton

Phosphoric
Product Nitrogen acid Potash Total

Meadow hay $ 3.47 $ 0.57 $ 1.06 $ 5.10

Clover hay 6.83 .78

Wheat bran 8.35 3.82

Linseed meal 17.87 2.25

Cottonseed meal 23.06 3.96

Wheat 6.38 1.11

Oats 6.21 .87

Corn 5.62 .83

We see from the above table that the farmer who sells
a ton of meadow hay loses from his farm, fertilizer that
would cost about five dollars if purchased in commercial
form. If he sells clover hay, he loses almost as much value
in fertilizer as his hay brings him. If he pays twenty dol-
lars a ton for wheat bran he gets over thirteen dollars' worth
of fertilizer, leaving the feeding cost about seven dollars.

Of course it is evident that these values will not be ob-
tained from the feeding of farm crops unless the manure
is carefully saved and properly used. Not only has manure
great chemical value because of supplying the elements
needed in plant growth, but it has bacteriological value as
well. For manure contains an enormous number of bac-

1.46

9.07

1.14

13.31

.99

21.11

1.17

28.16

.42

7.91

.35

7.43

.30

6.75

SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT GROWTH 241

teria, many of which aid in plant growth. Attention has
already been called to the fact that the addition of manure
improves the physical condition of the soil, making it more
porous, and increasing the supply of humus.

Preventing loss from manure. — Loss of fertilizing
qualities from manure is due principally to two causes: (1)
fermentation, or heating, which reduces the supply of nitro-
gen; and (2) weathering, or leaching from rains, in which
all the valuable elements suffer.

The fermentation of manure is caused by two different
kinds of bacteria, one of which works near the outside of
the heap where there is air, and one farther in where the
air is excluded. A certain degree of fermentation is neces-
sary to the best rotting of the manure, yet overheating, or
the "lire-fanging" so common in horse and sheep manure,
greatly reduces its value.

The rapidity of fermentation can be controlled in part
by packing. If the heap is too loosely built, the air- working
bacteria become active, the heat grows intense and nitrogen
and humus-making material are lost. If, on the other hand,
the heap is packed too closely, the decomposition is slow
and the manure does not have the best effect when spread
on the soil. Frequent sprinkling with water will aid in
checking too rapid fermentation.

Great loss is suffered from leaching when manure is ex-
posed to the weather. It has been found that six months'
leaching of horse manure reduces its value fully one-half.
The remedy lies in collecting manure under cover, so that
it is 'not exposed to rains. It should also be provided with
a water-proof floor for the heap, so that the liquid parts,
which are fully as valuable as the solid, may not drain away
into the soil. The profits from open-yard, badly leached
manure are so small as hardly to pay for spreading it on

242 AGRICULTURE

tKe field. It is a careless, shiftless method of farming that
allows this great waste, which is so easily prevented.

The application of manure. — For heavy soils, which
need to be made porous by the addition of vegetable matter,
it is well to spread manure on the field fresh from the stalls
without waiting for it to rot. It should not, however, be
allowed to lie long before being plowed under, as much of
its strength is lost in this way. For all lighter soils, and
especially such as have a tendency to dry out, the manure
should be rotted before being applied.

The practise of throwing the manure in heaps on the
field and later spreading it is a mistake. For here also the
leaching takes place. Some of the best elements of the
manure are drained into the ground immediately under
the heap, and some are lost by passing off in the air. The
most economical and satisfactory method of spreading man-
ure is by use of the manure spreader. This machine saves
labor, and distributes the manure more evenly than is pos-
sible by hand.

The amount of manure to be used will depend on the
strength of the manure and the condition of the soil. Five
tons to the acre is a light application, ten or twelve tons
average, and twenty tons a heavy application.

3. Green Manuring

As already suggested, the returning of the barnyard
manure to the soil, no matter how skilfully done, is not
enough to maintain the fertility. Our soils are everywhere
being gradually worn out. One of the most successful
methods of supplementing barnyard manure is by green
manuring.

Meaning of green manuring. — By green manuring is
meant plowing under any green crop for the purpose of im-

SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT GROWTH 243

proving the soil. Green manures improve the soil both by
adding to its fertility and bettering its physical condition.
If the soil is light and sandy, green manure prevents it from
drying out. On heavy clay soil green manure has quite the
opposite effect, because of admitting the air, loosening the
soil, and improving its drainage.

Hogs in clover. After pasturing, this clover will be turned
under as green manure.

Green manure crops. — For most purposes the best
green manure crops are the nitrogen gatherers already dis-
cussed— the clovers, alfalfa, cow-peas, soy-beans, the vetches
and other legumes. Rye, buckwheat, rape and turnips are
among other crops used as green manures. This group,
however, lacks the advantage of gathering nitrogen.

4. Commercial Fertilisers

Although proper systems of manuring and rotation of
crops will insure fertility on naturally good soil for many

244 AGRICULTURE

years, the land will finally become exhausted under such
treatment. This is for the simple reason that the crops re-
move from the soil each year more of the elements neces-
sary to their growth than are returned to it. The deficiency
must finally be made up if permanent fertility is to be main-
tained. This is accomplished by supplementing manuring
and rotation with what are called the commercial fertilisers.

Increased use of commercial fertilizers. — Commercial
fertilizers have long been used in a small way, but it is only
recently that they are coming to be employed on a large
scale. The farmers of the United States are now paying
out considerably more than $100,000,000 a year for such
fertilizers. There are at present more than five hundred
manufacturers selling the various fertilizing products.

Since, as we have seen, only three of the elements neces-
sary to plant production are likely to run short, commercial
fertilizers are commonly limited to these three — nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium.

Commercial nitrogen fertilizers. — Nitrogen is the
most expensive of the three essential fertilizers. Commer-
cial nitrogen fertilizer is sold chiefly in three different
forms: (1) nitrate of soda (Chile saltpeter) ; (2) sulphate of
ammonia, which is a by-product of the manufacture of coke
and gas; and (3) dried blood, ground or steamed bone, or
other animal products from packing houses.

The nitrogen fertilizers cost from fifteen to fifty cents
a pound. Instead of depending on them the intelligent
farmer will therefore use every effort to maintain the supply
of nitrogen in his soil through the nitrogen-fixing legumes,
occasionally plowing under a crop of clover, alfalfa, cow-
peas, vetches, or soy-beans. Where these can be grown
successfully, there will be little need to buy nitrogen ; it can
be obtained from the seventy million pounds of free nitro-
gen in the atmosphere above each acre.

SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT GROWTH 245

Commercial phosphorus fertilizers. — Phosphorus fer-
tilizers are supplied commercially in the form (1) of the
bones of animals killed at the slaughter-houses ; (2) of min-
eral deposits in phosphate rock, immense beds of which are
found in Tennessee, South Carolina, Florida, Wyoming,
Utah, Idaho and Montana; and (3) of slag from the fur-
naces where certain ores containing phosphorus are smelted.

Bone phosphate is sold either as ground bone, which is
raw bone ground up ; or bone meal, which is made by grind-
ing after the bones have been steamed under high pressure
to remove the fats and oils.

Mineral phosphate is sold in two forms, (1) that first
treated with sulphuric acid, and (2) the natural rock finely
ground. The first form has the advantage of being more
immediately available for plant use. The second form is
considerably less expensive^ and, when mixed with organic
matter like some form of manure, proves equally as valu-
able as the more expensive compound.

Commercial potassium fertilizers. — Potassium fertil-
izers are available in several commercial forms, none of
which is produced in large quantity in this country. The
potash mines of Germany are the chief source of supply.

The crude potash may be used on the soil directly as
mined, or it may be made into more concentrated form.
It is sold commercially as a fertilizer ( 1 ) as muriate of pot-
ash, (2) as saltpeter of potash, and (3) as kainit. Since this
product has to be imported it is naturally more expensive
than if produced at home. From one hundred to two hun-
dred pounds to the acre, applied at intervals of from one to
three years, will, however, usually prove sufficient to keep
up the supply.

The application of commercial fertilizers. — Because
commercial fertilizers are so expensive, and also for the
reason that the application of a fertilizer when it is not

246 AGRICULTURE

needed may do positive harm, the advice of your county
agricultural agent or some other agricultural expert should
be sought before purchasing. An expert, after a survey of

The better way. Manure carrier and spreader.

your soil, will be able not only to suggest the best kind for
local needs, but also the amount that should be used.

5. The Use of Lime on Soils

Lime can hardly be called a fertilizer, since it does not
contain any of the elements in which the soil is generally
lacking. Yet because of its action on certain other elements
of the soil it is necessary to plant production. When lime
does not already exist in the soil it must be added in com-
mercial form if the fertility of the soil is to be maintained.
The purpose of lime is to cure the soil of its acid condition.

Acid soils. — All soils have a tendency to become sour,
or acid. This acidity comes about in several different ways:
in the decay of organic matter in the soil, certain acids are

SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT GROWTH 247

produced; hence the soils rich in humus are Ukely to be
acid. Plant roots give off acid in the process of their
growth, and this acid remains in the soil. The action of
the nitrifying bacteria also adds to the acidity of the soil.
Heavy, non-porous clay soils which do not allow the en-
trance of fresh air are usually sour.

The degree of acidity of soils can be judged (1) by the
refusal of certain plants to grow in them ; for example, the
legumes will not thrive in acid soils, and the failure of clover
or alfalfa to do well should arouse a suspicion of too much
acid, (2) The presence of such weeds as sheep-sorrel,
horsetail rush, corn spurry, and wood horsetail indicate
acid. (3) Blue litmus paper turns red when placed in con-
tact with a soil containing acid.

Liming acid soils. — Lime is a certain remedy for acid
soils. In some regions, especially where limestone abounds,
the natural supply of lime in the soil is sufficient to overcome
the surplus acid. In other regions, lime needs to be applied
in commercial form. This is the only cure for acid soil
within reach of the farmer.

Nearly all prairie soil is in some degree acid, especially
on slopes where leaching of the soil has carried away the
original deposits of lime, and wherever large supplies of
humus have formed from the decay of organic matter.
Thousands of acres of acid land would well repay the cost
of liming by increased yields. Many farmers now look on
liming as a regular and necessary requirement. Of course
lime should not be applied unless needed, but the tests are
so simple that this is easily determined.

Forms of lime used. — Lime is available for applica-
tion to the soil in several forms: (1) Quicklime, or lime
ready for use in making plaster, when finely ground may be
applied at the rate of about one ton to the acre. (2) Air-
slacked lime, or ordinary lime that has been exposed to the

248 AGRICULTURE

iir, is an excellent form, and may be applied at the rate
of two or more tons to the acre. (3) Ground or finely
crushed limestone direct from the quarries is widely used
in regions where it is easily obtainable. From one to two
tons to the acre will usually correct the acidity.

The form of lime to be used will depend chiefly on which
is most easily available and cheapest. The amount required
is determined by the degree of acidity in the soil.

6. Crop Rotation and Fertility

The rotation of crops can not properly be said to In-
crease the fertility of the soil. For every crop removes
from the soil some quantity of each of the elements required
for plant growth. Certain advantages come from rotation,
however, which at least save the rapid soil exhaustion re-
sulting from growing one crop continuously. Rotation also
brings increased yields. In this sense a proper rotation
may have the same effect as the application of a fertilizer,,
though it can never serve as a substitute.

What is meant by rotation of crops. — By rotation of
crops is meant a regular order follozved for a period of years,
and alternating on different fields. If this order is hit-and-
miss, or the result of whim or chance, it can not be called a
rotation. Rotations may be planned on a two-year, three-
year, four-year, or any other cycle.

What is accomplished by rotation. — Rotation of
crops improves the physical condition of the soil. Grasses
and legumes have a larger supply of roots than most cereals,
and so increase the organic matter. Different crops send
their roots to different depths, and so use new portions of
the soil. The cultivation of inter-tilled crops clears the soil
of weeds, and opens it up to air and moisture.

Rotation also aids in destroying insects and other ene-

SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT GROWTH 249

mies of plants, as we have already seen. The pests that
attack one kind of crop die out when another crop is raised
on the field. The growing of the nitrogen-gathering legumes
on every part of the farm in succession is allowed by rota-
tion, thus saving the necessity of buying commercial nitro-
gen fertihzers.

The crops to use in a rotation. — It is evident that no
universal standard rotation can be prescribed. Both the par-
ticular crops and the order must be decided by local con-
ditions and requirements. The rotation is usually based on
some one principal crop, the other crops being arranged to
favor this. For example, corn is the basis of rotation in
the states constituting the "corn belt." A five-year rota-
tion with corn occupying about forty per cent, of the farm
might be something as follows :

Tear

Field A Field B

Field C

Field D Field B

First

Corn

Corn

Oats

Clover

Pasture

Second

Corn

Oats

Clover

Pasture

Corn

Third

Oats

Clover

Pasture

Corn

Corn

Fourth

Clover

Pasture

Corn

Corn

Oats

Fifth

Pasture

Corn

Corn

Oats

Clover

First

Corn

Corn

Oats

Clover

Pasture

It will be noted that this arrangement provides for two
fields of corn each year, and one field each of oats, clover,
and pasture. Of course other crops might be inserted in the
rotation. With alfalfa in the rotation, a longer cycle is
needed, since it does not pay to plow alfalfa up so soon after
planting.

Topics for Investigation

1. Has the yield of the principal crops increased or
decreased in your region within the last ten or twenty
years ? To make sure of this, ask your father, or some one
who has farmed in the vicinity for some time.

2. Are there run-down farms in the neighborhood?
If so, is the land naturally poor, or has it been depleted by

250 AGRICULTURE

Single cropping or poor methods of farming? Learn the
history of all such farms as accurately as possible, with ref-
erence to cropping, rotation, manuring, and so on.

3. Based on the figures given in section two, what was
the approximate value of the manure produced on your
home farm last year ? (Seep. 240.)

4. What care is given to saving the manure on your
home farm? Is it collected under cover? Does it ever
"fire- fang"? Is there a water-tight floor under the heap?
How closely is the manure gathered up from the yards?
What is the method of distributing it on the fields? How
many loads are used to the acre?

5. How much hay, oats, corn and other farm products
were sold from your home farm last year? What was the
approximate manurial value loss to the farm?

6. What commercial fertilizers are used in your re-
gion? In what form is the fertilizer applied? What is
the quantity used per acre? The cost? To what extent
is green manuring employed ? What crops are chiefly used ?
What is meant by a "5-8-7" commercial fertilizer?

7. To make the litmus-paper test for acid in soils, take
a small piece of blue litmus paper and place it between
pieces of thoroughly dampened soil, pressing the soil close
and leaving it in contact with the paper for five minutes.
If the paper turns red, the soil is acid and needs lime.
Secure samples of soil taken at a depth of six inches from
several different parts of your farm, including both upland
and lowland areas, and make the litmus-paper test.

8. Draw a diagram of your home farm showing the
different fields. Now work out several different crop rota-
tions based on your principal crop, and taking into account
the necessity for growing some legume for improving the
soil. Compare with the rotations suggested by other mem-
bers of the class.

CHAPTER XVII
SOIL MOISTURE

WATER is as necessary to the growth of plants as fer-
tile soil. All the food taken by plants from the soil
must first be dissolved in water. The tiny root-tips suck
in this food-laden water which circulates to every part of
the plant, producing its growth.

The amount of water required by a growing crop is enor-
mous. For every pound of dry matter made by the plant,
from three hundred to eight hundred pounds of water must
be drawn in by its roots and circulate through it. To pro-
duce a ton of dry hay on an acre of ground demands that
approximately five hundred tons of water be pumped by
the grass stalks from the soil. When the soil lacks water,
plants are cut off from both necessary food and drink.

1. Forms of Soil Water

Gravitational water. — Soil that is thoroughly satur-
ated contains a certain amount of free water that will
drain off if there is some outlet. That is, the force of grav-
ity pulls it down through the soil; hence its name, free, or
gravitational water.

To watch how this works, place some soil in a funnel
closed with a stopper. Pour water over the soil until it is
completely soaked. Then remove the stopper and allow
what will of the water to drain off. All the water that thus
escapes is free, or gravitational water.

Plants can not use gravitational water for their supply.

251

252 AGRICULTURE

This is to say that they can not grow in a soaked soil. "Wa-
ter-logged" soil excludes air from the roots, and the plants
soon suffer for want of oxygen. Standing water also keeps
the roots of most plants too cold for good growth. Hence
the necessity of conditions that will allow the soil to drain
readily after rains, so that the free water may escape.

Capillary water. — Soils will not drain entirely dry.
After your funnel of earth has lost all the water that will
run from it, it is still wet. This wetness is caused by what
is called capillary water.

Capillary water exists in the form of thin films around
the soil particles and in the spaces between them, as de-
scribed in an earlier chapter. Each separate particle is sur-
rounded by its own film, while larger films bind the separate
particles together in granules. Since the particles of a given
weight of soil of fine texture present a larger surface area
than the particles of a soil of coarse texture, it is evident
that the finer the soil the greater the amount of capillary
water required to make up the films.

Plant growth and capillary water. — It is the capillary
water of the soil that plants use in their growth. Their
root tips come in contact with the water films surrounding
the soil particles and drink this water in. One of the first
requisites of a productive soil, therefore, is its ability to act
as a reservoir for a large amount of capillary water.

2. Capacity of Soils of Capillary Water

Soils differ greatly in their capacity for capillary water.
This can easily be shown by a simple experiment. Bake a
pint of sand and a pint of clay until all the water is dried
out ; then place the samples in separate funnels over the
lower end of which is tied a piece of cheese cloth. Now
slowly pour water from a graduate over each soil until the

SOIL MOISTURE 253

water begins to drip from the bottom of the funnel. Note
carefully how much water was required in each case.

Soil texture and capillary water. — Because of the
fineness of their texture, clay and silt soils have much
greater capacity for capillary water than sandy or gravelly
soils. Under average field conditions the difference in the
amount of capillary water held in the first two feet of fully
saturated soil is about as follows:

Sandy loam soil will hold 5 inches of water

Clay loam soil will hold IVi

Muck soil will hold MVz "

This is to say that it would require a sheet of water five
inches deep to supply the capillary water for the first two
feet of saturated sandy soil ; a sheet of water seven and one-
half inches deep for the-first two feet of saturated clay soil ;
and a sheet twelve and one-half inches deep for the first
two feet of saturated muck soil.

Drawing ground water by capillarity. — A very simple
experiment will test the capacity of different soils for draw-
ing capillary water from below. Take four glass tubes at
least one inch in diameter and from fifteen to twenty inches
long, or four chimneys from student-lamps, and arrange
them suspended in a rack. Tie over the lower end of each a
piece of cheese-cloth. Fill the tubes with soils of different
texture, from fine clay to coarse sand. Place a pan beneath
the tubes, and pour water into it until the water stands half
an inch above the bottom of the tubes. Now watch the wa-
ter rise in the different soils. Keep accurate track of the
time required, and of the height reached in each. What
are your conclusions?

Humus and capillary water. — The capacity of any
soil for holding capillary water is greatly increased by the
presence of decaying organic matter. It has been care-

254 AGRICULTURE

^Uy estimated that one ton of humus will absorb two tons
of water and give it up as needed by growing plants.

3. Tillage and Soil Water

One of the chief problems of agriculture is to conserve
the capillary water of the soil and make it available for
plant growth. Capillary water is removed from the soil
in two ways, (1) by evaporation, and (2) by being absorbed
by the roots of growing plants. What is lost by evapora-
tion is wasted so far as crops are concerned.

Tillage for conserving capillary moisture. — All loos-
ening of the soil increases its absorbing power, and thus
causes rain to soak into the ground instead of running off
the top. The deeper the plowing the greater this effect will
be. Fall plowing, by opening the soil for the absorption of
the winter snows, adds to the amount of soil water.

The most effective tillage for conserving capillary water,
however, is the frequent cultivation during the growing sea-
son which results in a fine soil mulch over the surface. To
see the truth of this, make the following experiment :

Effect of a soil mulch. — Fill two glasses nearly full
of the same soil ; if the soil is dry, add an equal amount of
water to each, making the soil fairly damp, but not soaked ;
pack them equally by striking the glass gently down on the
table. Now put a half inch of fine, dry road dust over the
top of one, leaving the other without covering. Set the two
glasses side by side, and note the time it requires for each
to dry out by losing its capillary water through evapora-
tion.

The fine mulch made by frequent harrowings and culti-
vatings has precisely the same effect on our fields. In dry
regions summer fallowing is used for the purpose of col-
lecting a supply of capillary water. Whatever rain falls is

The right kind of mulch for
moisture conservation is
granular — that is, the dirt
should not be pulverized too
finely.

The wrong kind of mulch. The
ground is almost dust. Such
mulch blows away easily.

The granular mulch rained up-
on and left standing for a
number of days. Observe
that the ground is cracking
and that moisture is escaping
through these cracks. The
crust can be easily broken.

Dust mulch rained upon arid
left standing in the hot sun.
Note that the cruFt has
cracked, and that the moist-
ure is escaping very rapidly.
It is impossible to work up
this seed bed properly.

18

256 ■ AGRICULTURE

saved by keeping the surface covered with a fine soil mulch,
and what moisture is drawn up toward the surface from the
ground water by capillary attraction is also conserved for
the crop that is to follow.

4, Soil Drainage

Necessary as water is to plants, however, much of our
soil needs drainage to rid it of an oversupply of free or
gravitational water. There are some eighty million acres of
marsh lands in the United States. The greater part of this
waste territory would make excellent farm land if properly
drained.

But perhaps fully as important is the occasional small
piece of wet ground on farms now under tillage. In cer-
tain regions there is hardly a farm that does not have its
low marshy places where crops drown out in wet times, or
which are allowed to lie without cultivation. In nearly all
cases this land could be made the equal of the remainder
of the farm by drainage and a little care.

Surface drainage. — Surface drainage is never so
thorough and satisfactory as underdrainage, yet it will often
improve conditions enough to pay. By surface drainage
is meant the opening of runs or ditches to allow the escape
of surface water that otherwise would stand on the soil,
flood over lower ground, or percolate down to add to the
gravitational water already in the subsoil.

Low ground is sometimes plowed in narrow strips, the
frequent dead furrows allowing surface drainage. If there
is a slight slope and the furrows can open freely at the end,
this will prove of great benefit. Where such simple drain-
age will not serve, it is sometimes necessary to construct
open ditches, though these should give way to underdrain-
age when this is oossible. For underdrainage is under most

Undisked stubble plowed. Ob-
serve that the ground is
turned up in lumps; that
there are open spaces at the
bottom of the furrow which
prevent the close compact-
ness of the lower portion of
the turned furrow with the
soil beneath.

Disked stubble plowed. The
mulch formed by the disk
harrow fills up the open
spaces at the bottom of the
furrow, thereby forming a
close conection with the sub-
surface.

This illustration represents the This illustration represents the

field above treated with a
pegtooth harrow after plow-
ing. The surface is in com-
paratively good condition,
but the bottom is not compact.

field above harrowed with
pegtooth harrow. The air
spaces are still at the bottom
of the furrow.

258 AGRICULTURE

cfcnditions a more successful way of removing the water,
and it saves much loss of ground and the cutting up of
fields.

Making surface drains. — Surface runs which are only
required to remove surplus water during flood seasons may
be made one and one-half feet deep and ten feet wide at the
top at a cost of about twenty-five cents a rod, using a road
grader for the excavating. Such shallow runs are often
seeded, and the edges leveled off and cultivated, thus avoid-
ing waste of land. Open ditches of this kind are often de-
sirable in connection with underdrainage. They also serve
as an eaves-trough to prevent flood water of surrounding
uplands from entering lower areas.

Deeper ditches are required when the main drain is to
receive the discharge of lateral drains. The size and depth
will depend on the territory to be drained, and the fall of
the ditch. In the Middle West, open ditches, many of them
miles in length, are being constructed, each farm served
paying its share of the expense. Open lateral ditches or
underground tile then empty into this main drain. Under
average conditions, the cost of opening a ditch seven feet
deep and twenty feet wide at the top by means of a dredging
machine is about one thousand dollars a mile.

Underdrainage. — Underdrainage has the advantage
of carrying off the ground water to any desired depth.
This is an important matter in the growth of most crops.
For where the level of ground water is near the surface,
plants will not strike their roots deep in the soil, but spread
them out near the top. This leaves the crop at the mercy
of drought later in the season, when the upper layers of
soil dry out. Deep rooting is also necessary to make full
use of the plant food of the soil.

Tile underdrains. — Burnt clay and cement are the
materials chiefly used for underdrains in most regions.

SOIL MOISTURE 259

These materials are made into cylinders from three to thir-
ty-six inches in diameter, and from twelve to thirty inches
in length. For lateral drains, tiles four or five inches in
diameter are most used. The main outlet drain usually
requires tiles from eight to twelve inches.

Placing the drains. — Moderately heavy clay soils re-
quire laterals about four rods apart to carry off the rainfall.
If the subsoil is sandy, the laterals may be as much as eight
rods apart. Sometimes the marshiness of a piece of ground
is caused by seepage leading to it from some higher area.
In this case, there should be a line of tile at the edge of 'the
lower ground to receive the seepage.

Several lines of parallel drains are more economical than
one central line into which diagonal laterals run. This is
because with parallel drains there is less area receiving
double drainage. Several parallel lines can often be car-
ried into one line of larger tile, and all discharge through
the same outlet, thus saving trouble and expense.

Depth of tile. — Tile should be placed deep enough '
that the level of ground water will not stand too near
the surface, and yet not too deep to carry off the gravita-
tional water without allowing it to stay too long in the
soil. In clay subsoil the most common depth is about three
feet. In partially sandy subsoils, the depth may be four feet.
All tile meant to catch seepage should be as deep as four feet.

Gradient, or fall. — The larger tiles may be laid with
a fall of an inch to one hundred feet. Laterals should have
from two to three times this much fall. Lines for catching
seepage should have still greater ' slope ; as much as five
inches to one hundred feet, if this is possible.

Cost of tiling. — ^The cost of tiling will, of course, vary
with the size of tile used, the depth it is laid, and the
character of the soil. The average cost under middle west-
ern conditions is about as shown in the following table :

260 AGRICULTURE

3 feet

4 feet

5 feet

6 feet

$ .30

$ .50

$ .80

$1.25

.35

.55

.85

1.30

.40

.60

.90

1.38

.45

.65

.95

1.40

.50

.70

1.00

1.45

.55

.75

1.05

1.50

Depth tile is laid
Size of tile

4 inch $ .30

5 inch

6 inch

8 inch

10 inch

12 inch

Topics for Investigation

1. Is there any ground on your home farm too wet
or marshy for cropping successfully? If so, measure care-
fully the amount of land in such areas. Do any patches
break the regularity of cultivated fields? How much land
is practically wasted as far as any return in crops is con-
cerned ?

2. What is the value of your farm per acre ? What is
its rental value per acre ? What is the value of all the land
lost by being too wet to cultivate? What is its rental
value? Have you any land under cultivation that is too
wet at times to produce good crops? What do you esti-
mate is the loss?

3. Draw a diagram of any pieces of marsh land on your
home farm, showing the outlet for drainage and the distance
the drain would have to run in each case. Are there any
places where a shallow run would serve? Have you any
low ground troubled with rain floods from higher land?
If so, could a shallow ditch be made to serve as an eaves-
trough to save the flooding?

4. Taking the cost of tile drainage as shown in the
table, figure what it would cost to tile out wet places on
your farm, using four-inch tile for parallels laid four rods
apart. The parallels are to connect across the lower end
with a six-inch line, and this is to empty into the nearest
available ditch or stream. Would it pay to put in tile on
your home farm?

5. By digging down in several diflferent places on your

SOIL MOISTURE 261

farm, see whether you can discover the level of ground
water. Have you ever seen water gather in the bottom of
a post hole? What does this indicate?

6. Study the texture of the soil in your school yard,
and compute the approximate weight of the capillary water
contained in the first two feet of its depth when the soil is
well saturated.

7. Show how you can make a soil survey of your
father's farm by the use of the soil, auger and a diagram
of the farm, indicating the top soil, subsoil, elevations, low-
lands, and drainage possibilities.

8. Upon an outline sketch of the United States indi-
cate the various regions of distinct types of soil, such as
the black loam, sandy loam, clay loam, mountain silt, lime-
stone, and other types of soil representative of a region.

5. Soil Demonstrations

In connection with the study of the soil there is abun-
dant opportunity to make some very interesting demonstra-
tions which will also have direct application to the manage-
ment of the soil on the farm or in the garden.

1. Show how to determine the kind and depth of soil
of any particular spot.

2. Show how to test the soil for acidity. Show two
methods if possible.

3. By the use of a tumbler of muddy water and the
application of a little lime, show the value of lime to soils.

4. Demonstrate the value of shallow cultivation for the
conservation of moisture in soils by the use of loaf-sugar
and powdered sugar, a solid or well packed piece of earth
and a dust mulch placed on top. Apply water to each at
the bottom.

5. Demonstrate how to test the capillarity of soils.

6. Demonstrate by the use of various types of soil and
the same kind of seed the relations of types of soil to the
germination of seed and its subsequent plant growth.

262 AGRICULTURE

7. Show by demonstration how legumes tend to con-
serve the fertility of the soil.

8. Show by the use of different types of soil their re-
spective merits in the conservation of moisture.

6. Soil Play Contest

1. Soil type naming contest.

2. Soil analysis contest.

3. Soil guessing games.

4. Soil sample getting contest.

5. Stone naming contest, in which samples of various
types of native stones are placed before the contestants and
the one who can name the largest number in a given time
is to be judged the winner.

7. Soil Fertility Club Projects

The object of this club project is to organize the boys
and girls into a cooperative group for the purpose of build-
ing up the soil fertility of a community. The pupils should
pledge themselves to manage at least one acre of land dur-
ing the season with the idea of not only making a net profit
on the investment for the season, but of starting and carry-
ing on a three to five-year rotation of crops with a dis-
tinct plan of growing leguminous crops such as clover,
alfalfa, cow-peas, etc. This kind of a club project can be
easily combined with the other club work outlined in con-
nection with corn, small grains and forage crops.

Combined club projects. — ^The project may also con-
template the raising of some live stock such as a thorough-
bred pig, a baby beef, a pen of chickens, or any other live
stock which rightfully belongs to the economy of the farm.
Club members in this project should keep a definite record
with a view to showing the bookkeeping account and records

SOIL MOISTURE 263

including observations, receipts and expenditures, not only
for the first year, but for the entire period of three or four
years covering a rotation scheme for the upbuilding of the
soil.

Club membership. — This particular club work should
be maintained for the members of the agricultural class
and should not be open to the boys and girls who are, as a
rule, too young to appreciate and undertake properly this
line of work. The teacher, in cooperation with the county
superintendent and county agricultural agent, may assist in
making up a definite three or four-year rotation plan which
can be uniformly followed by all members of the club.

The basis of award for a soil fertility club may be as
follows :

1. The plan and management of rotation 20

2. The average yield per acre 20

3. The net profit on investment 20

4. The fertile condition of the soil at the end of a three or

four-year period 20

5. Soil and crop records, story and soil chart of w^ork 20

Total score 100

PART IV. FARM ANIMALS

CHAPTER XVIII
FARM ANIMALS AND AGRICULTURE

FARM animals farm one of the most important sources of
wealth in the nation. The five most important groups
of animals, ranked according to their market value, are
horses, cattle, hogs, mules and sheep. If these animals
should all be sold, they would bring the enormous sum of
nearly six billion dollars, or sixty dollars for every man,
woman and child in the United States.

L Work Animals

Farm animals serve several important uses: (1) they
provide food for man, (2) they work for him, and (3) they
supply various useful products. The total market value of
the working animals, horses and mules, is slightly greater
than that of the food producing group, cattle, sheep and
hogs.

Using animals for work. — Centuries ago man had not
yet domesticated the animals and trained them to work for
him. Since the uses of steam and electricity had not been
discovered, all labor had to be done by men themselves.
The implements used for cultivating the soil were all crude
and ineffective, and could only be operated by hand. It

265

266 AGRICULTURE

F then required much more time and effort to secure a living by
agriculture than it does now.

One of the greatest lines of progress in America has
been the substitution of animal power for man power in
doing farm work. In this we are far ahead of most other
nations, even those of Europe. For example, we have in
the United States almost twenty-five million horses, or ap-
proximately one to every four persons. In France, one
horse has to serve ten people ; in Germany, thirteen, and in
Great Britain, twenty-six.

Saving in time by work of animals. — The use of work
animals has resulted in great saving of time. It has been
estimated that in 1830 each bushel of wheat grown in the
United States required three hours of a man's time ; it now
requires less than ten minutes. In 1850 it took a man four
and one-half hours on an average to grow, harvest and
shell a bushel of corn ; it now requires less than forty min-
utes. The greater part of this saving has come through the
use of improved farm machinery drawn by horses or mules.

Where the peasants of European countries use shovels,
hoes, scythes or other primitive implements, we employ
gang-plows, disk harrows and self-binders. The great sav-
ing in human energy and time growing out of this dif-
ference is seen when it is remembered that one horse hitched
to modern machinery can do the work of at least ten men
with hand tools. Many an American boy with his four-
horse team is therefore accomplishing the labor of forty
European peasants with their hand work and poor tools !

The animals used for work. — Among the various ani-
mals that men have trained to work for them are horses,
cattle, mules, buffalo, reindeer, camels, dogs and elephants.
No animals, except horses, mules and cattle, have ever been
extensively used for farm wonk in this country. The use of
oxen for work has now been almost wholly discontinued.

FARM ANIMALS AND AGRICULTURE 267

During recent years, horses and mules have found a com-
petitor in the automobile and the traction-engine. Thousands
of farmers now own their cars, and the gasoline tractor is
a common sight on many of the larger western farms. In
spite of these facts, however, the number of horses and
mules on our farms is constantly increasing, and the mar-
ket for them is growing better and more uniform. The
price of work animals is considerably higher than it was
when automobiles and traction-engines began to come into
use. Horses will always have an important place in the
economy of the farm.

2. Animals That Supply Food

Meat and other animal products form a very important
part of our food supply. Even vegetarians, who are op-
posed to the eating of flesh, depend largely on such foods
as butter, eggs and milk.

Meat as food. — A great proportion of all our farm
crops goes to the feeding of meat producing animals. The
most progressive nations of the world are those that in ad-
dition to fruit and vegetables for the diet make much
use of their domestic animals in supplying food prod-
ucts. Meat is a more expensive food than grains and vege-
tables, and people of the poorer classes can not afford to
eat it. Millions of those living in oriental countries seldom
taste meat in any form. Lack of nutrition and a balanced
ration are shown in absence of ambition and enterprise.

According to careful estimates the food supply in
American homes is divided among the different foods in
approximately the following proportions (Farmers' Bulletin
391):

Meats and poultry 16%

Dairy products 18%

268 AGRICULTURE

I'Cereals and their products 31%

Vegetables and fruits 25%

All other foods 10%

It is therefore seen that we derive more than one-third
of all our food in this country from animals, either by con-
suming their flesh or other products from them, such as
milk, butter, cheese, etc.

Animals used for meat. — The animals whose flesh is
chiefly used for food are cattle, hogs and sheep. So great
has the industry of preparing their flesh for food become,
that every city has its great stock-yards and slaughter-
houses, where hundreds of thousands of animals are killed
every year. Cold storage vaults are provided in which
meats can be kept at a temperature below freezing for
months at a time. Much of the meat that is now used on
the farms is first shipped to the city packing houses for
slaughter, and then bought back from retail dealers as
needed, in the form of bacon, ham, canned or dried beef,
or as fresh meats shipped in refrigerator cars. Many small
towns also have their local slaughter-houses, where animals
purchased from the farms are killed for home consumption.

Other food products from animals. — The other food
products from animal life, such as milk, butter, eggs and
cheese, are even more important. Milk and eggs contain
more of the different food elements needed by the human
body than any other foods; and butter is as necessary as
meat.

The dairy and poultry industries are therefore among
the most important connected with agriculture. Milk and
butter are shipped to the cities in refrigerator cars or special
trains. Hundreds of creameries are operated to save time
for the farmer and insure him greater profit. Many train-
loads of eggs and butter are collected during the summer

FARM ANIMALS AND AGRICULTURE

269

months and put in cold storage and kept for the winter
supply.

3. Other Animal Products

The farm animals are useful in other ways than doing
work and providing food for man. Many practical neces-
sities are supplied by them.

A promising family.

Leather. — The skins of all the common farm animals
are saved for leather. Cattle, horses, sheep and even pigs,
contribute to the making of our shoes, gloves, mittens, har-
nesses, saddles, cushions and many other articles in com-
mon use.

Wool. — Sheep furnish one of the most valuable cloth-
ing materials known. Many sheep ranches are maintained

270 ■ AGRICULTURE

•^"chiefly for the fleeces, mutton being of secondary consid-
eration. More than thirty-eight milHon sheep annually give
up their wool in the United States for the making of cloth-
ing and other articles for the household.

Other products. — We owe many other articles of
common use to some form of animal product. Our brushes
are made from bristles. Buttons are cut from bone. Gelatin
and glue are both animal products. Many soaps are made
from animal parts not suitable for meat. Blood and bone,
as we have already seen, are used for fertilizers. So com-
pletely are all parts of slaughtered animals saved for some
useful purpose that it is said nothing is lost of the pig when
it is killed, except the "squeal."

It is estimated that the value for fertilizing purposes of
the manure of all farm animals in the United States, if
properly saved and applied to the soil, would annually reach
the stupendous amount of more than two billion dollars.

Topics for Investigation

1. Make a careful list of all animals belonging on your
home farm. Have your father help estimate what each one
is worth, and compute the value of all live stock, and find
the annual interest on this amount at six per cent.

2. How many bushels of corn were raised on your
farm last year ? On the basis of the time required for pro-
ducing a bushel of corn in 1850, how many days of nine
hours each would have been required to produce this crop
with machinery then in use? Make the same computation
with the wheat raised on your farm, comparing with the time
required to produce a bushel in 1830.

3. Talk with your mother, and see whether you can es-
timate what proportion of the food used on your table
comes from each of the cksses shown in section two.

4. Make an investigation by reading and inquiring
among people of the amount of meat, butter, eggs and
milk used by the farming class in England, Germany,

FARM ANIMALS AND AGRICULTURE . 271

France, Spain, Russia, China. Compare with our own
country.

5. Is there any country where the buffalo is now used
as a work animal ? The elephant ? The camel ? Where are
reindeer used, and for what purpose? What are the differ-
ent lines of work in which dogs are employed?

6. Show on the map of the United States the most
important regions for the production of the various types
of domestic animals, such as the horse, dairy and beef cat-
tle, the sheep, the hog and the goat. Consult the last
census report with reference to increase or decrease of farm
animals in the various states.

CHAPTER XIX
CATTLE

CATTLE rank second only to horses in market value in
the United States. Our farms support some twenty-
two million dairy cows, or one to approximately every four
people. In addition, there are about thirty-seven million
other cattle, chiefly calves and beef stock. The value of
each of these two great groups is about the same, nearly a
billion dollars, or almost two billion dollars for the whole.

1. Dairy Cattle

Dairying is one of the leading American industries.
Each of six states, Wisconsin, New York, Iowa, Minnesota,
Illinois and Texas, has more than a million dairy cows, and
four other states, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan and Mis-
souri, have more than three-quarters of a million each.
These ten states supply fifty-three per cent, of all our dairy
cattle.

The following chart shows the percentage of all the farm
dairy cows of the United States found in each of these
ten leading dairy states:

Wisconsin '■ 7.3%

New York 7.1%

Iowa 6.5%

Minnesota 5.5%

Illinois 5.0%

Texas 5.0%

Pennsylvania 4.6%

Ohio • 4.2%

Michigan 3.9%

Missouri 3.8%

272

CATTLE

273

Profitable and unprofitable cows. — Whether a dairy-
herd yields a profit or a loss depends first of all on the milk.
and butter- fat producing.capacities of the individual cows. A
poor cow may require as much feed as a good one, and de-
mands as much labor and attention.

It has been estimated that one-third of the dairy cows
in the United States are kept at an actual loss. Twice

A champion Hereford.

every day, therefore, there are milked some seven million
cows, mere "boarders," that not only return no profit, but
use up the profit from good cows. How many cows of this
kind are kept on your farm?

Profit differences in herds. — It is estimated that the
skim-milk, calf and manure from a dairy cow are worth
the cost of caring for her. This leaves the milk to bal-
ance against the value of the feed. The difference

274 AGRICULTURE

between the best and the poorest cow in almost any herd
is surprising. This difference is well shown in the fol-
lowing record of fifteen cows for one year in an Illinois
herd :

No.

Lb.

Lb. Per cent.

cow

milk

fat fat

Profit

Loss

1

1204

49 4.07

$27.52

2

1236

50 4.05

27.20

3 ^

2944

88 2.99

15.17

4

2597

91 3.50

15.38

5

2548

98 3.85

13.18

6

2475

99 400

13.18

7

2569

105 4.09

10.98

' 8

3164

117 3.70

8.37

9

2829

123 4.34

8.67

■ 10

3380

149 4.41

1.58

11

4582

158 3.45

$141

12

4146

174 420

3.41

13

4103

177 4.31

541

14

4993

191 3.82

8.40

IS

4435

200 4.51

10.21
$28.84

Loss

$141.23
28.84

$112.39

Av.

3147

124 3.94

$ 7.49

Diflferi

snce in profit

between best and

poorest

cow. ^7.73

This was an exceptionally poor herd, so poor that it
lost the owner $112.39 for the year— an average loss of
$7.49 per cow. Either of the two poorest cows lost almost
as much as the best five made their owner. Even the best
cow of this herd is poor enough, but there is a diflference

CATTLE 275

of $37.73 in the year's record between the best and the
poorest.

2. Selecting Dairy Cows According to Type

Dairy cows may be selected by two different methods:
(1) keeping a record of the amount of milk produced, with
the percentage of butter-fat it contains; and (2) judging
whether the cow conforms to the physical type known as
good dairy stock. The first of these is the only absolutely
sure method. The second is also of great value, for cows
are often bought without any possibility of learning their
milk record. Every farmer should, therefore, know the
points of a gooiLdairy cow.

The dairj/type of cow. — Dairy cattle and beef cattle
present two rkther distinct types as to form, or build, and
appearance. In general, the, frame of the beef animal is
the shape capable of taking onthclargest amount of flesh,
while that of the dairy cow is adapted to the production
of milk. Both types must bet good eaters, for only the
food above the amount requirea^for maintaining the body
can go to the production of either beef or milk.

The good dairy cow is spare of flesh, for the surplus ^^
food must be turned into milk instead of fat. She appears
somewhat loose-jointed, but the muscles are well developed.
The coat is smooth and soft, the eyes are bright, and the dis-
position is wide-awake and active. The jaw is strong, the
stomach and other organs of digestion are capacious. The
circulatory system needs size and strength, as it must supply
abundance of material for the production of milk. The
udder is well shaped and large. /

Shape of the dairy cow. — The typical dairy cow has
what is called a wedge conformation, or shape. The body
outline, whether viewed from side, top, or front, roughly
resembles a wedge.

276

AGRICULTURE

The side^ wedge has its base in a line formed by the depth
of the body through the hips to the lower extremity of the
udder, with the point of the wedge at the head. The top
wedge has its base in a line across the width of the hips,
and its point at the withers. The front wedge has its base

h

s-

5*

<9 9 /^

/d-

\

^

A^

c

^

J

^^

i

^

'^^^fl

a —

1

H

Hvl

./

/^

2.

^

\

1

HHj

P

pKi "'

1

//'

•^

iTr

^

z^l

-^

i

gw|i|!g|

IS

^^^m--

. 'J

'■>f

^

^^^^HHH^S[H|^B

m

Hs^^^Sv^^^^i*^" ' ""

I
L.

1.

2.
S.
4.

6.
S.
7.

Mu»U

J4W

race

Tor»b*»A

Bui

Thr«*t

8
0
10
11
12
. 13
1<

Nack IS.
Wilhart 18.
8boald«ri IT.
For* Itffi 18.
Oropi 10.
Oh*tt 20.
. B»ck . 21.

Blbf 22. TMglu
Barrtl 23. Hind UfS

i^in ' at. van

Hip* 26. Taatf
Ramp 28. MUk rilai
Pin bon« 27. UUk vMla

T»a

Parts of a dairy cow shown as an aid in judging.

in a line across the floor of the chest, and its point at the
top of the withers.

It is readily seen that the shape given the body by these
three wedge conformations allows a generous amount of
room for the digestive and circulatory systems and the
udder. This form does not, however, give a frame capable
of taking on a large amount of flesh, and is therefore not
adapted to beef cattle.

CATTLE 277

3. Judging the Dairy Cow

Various score-cards are in use for the judging of dairy
cows. Judging by use of the score-card trains in accurate
observation and judgment, and shows the relative value of
the different points. Secure a score-card from your state
college of agriculture or the United States Department of
Agriculture and learn to use it in judging cattle.

4. Selecting the Dairy Cow by Milk Tests

The profit from a dairy cow depends on two factors,
(1) the amount of milk produced, and (2) the percentage
of butter-fat in the milk. The first of these questions can
be determined by weighing the milk ; the second, by testing
the milk with the Babcock milk test.

Testing the milk of different cows. — In order to de-
termine the record of each cow of the herd, the milk must
be weighed and tested regularly throughout the season. The
testing and weighing may be done daily, though this fre-
quent a test is hardly necessary for practical farm purposes.
A plan followed by many farmers is to weigh the milk daily,
and test the butter-fat of both night's milk and morning's
milk once a month.

Making the Babcock test for butter-fat. — It is not
the quantity of milk alone that determines the value of a
cow. Practically all milk and cream now sold from the
farm for butter-making purposes are paid for, not by weight
or bulk, but by the amount of butter-fat they contain. The
purpose of the Babcock test is to measure the percentage
of butter-fat in milk. Every dairy farm should regularly
use this test.

The materials for making the Babcock test are (1) a
hand-power centrifugal tester; (2) two or more milk test-
bottles ; (3) a pipette to measure the milk : (4) a small glass

278

AGRICULTURE

measure for acid; (5) sulphuric acid with specific gravity of
1.82; (6) hot water. The necessary apparatus can be
bought for about five dollars, though a fuller equipment
may cost as much as twenty dollars. Full directions for
making the test come with each set of apparatus.

Steps in the Babcock test. — The Babcock test is not
difficult to make, nor does it require much time. Yet great

A Galloway prize vviuner.

care must be taken if the results are to be trustworthy. The
following are the steps required in making the test:

1. Stir the milk thoroughly before taking the sample.

2. Fill the pipette to the height shown by the mark.

3. Empty the pipette into the test-bottle, blowing to drive
all the milk out.

4. Fill the acid measure to the mark shown with sulphuric
acid, and add to the test-bottle.

5. Shake the bottle to mix the milk and acid thoroughly.

CATTLE 279

6. Place the bottles in the machine, and whirl five minntes.

7. Add hot water to each bottle until filled to bottom of
neck, and whirl one minute.

8. Add more hot water to bring the top of the fat nearly
to the top of the marks on the neck of the bottle, and whirl
one minute.

9. Read the per cent, of fat in the neck of the bottle; this
indicates the quality of the milk.

10. Empty the test bottles and wash.

The percentage of butter-fat ought to be not less than
three and five-tenths, and should range up to five or occa-
sionally even six in the milk of the better cows.

5. Dairy Breeds

Dairymen are not agreed as to the type of cow that is
most profitable. Some prefer what they call a "general-
purpose cow," combining as far as possible the qualities of
both dairy and beef breeds. Such animals are usually of
large frame, take on flesh readily, and so are easily con-
verted into beef when this is more profitable than milking.
Other dairymen select the pure dairy breeds, preferring to
get their profit out of the milk produced, rather than from
the beef. Which is the better plan will depend on local
conditions and demands.

Choosing the dairy breed. — It is impossible to select
any one breed of dairy cattle as the best under all condi-
tions. Some are noted for producing large quantities of
milk, and others for producing milk rich in butter-fat. Some
do best when allowed a wide range for foraging, and others
when they are kept close and fed high. Some give a large
flow of milk for a short season, and others a smaller flow
for a longer time. The dairyman should decide what par-
ticular qualities are best adapted to his needs, and then
select the breed that will meet these needs.

Leading dairy breeds. — Among the best-known

"Banastine Belle de Kol," a champion Holstein cow with a
record of 1 .nr)S.84 poxmds of butter-fat in 365 days.

Another dairy champion of the United States, "May Rllma,"
a Guernsey. Her record for 3G5 days was 19,039.5 pounds of
milk and 1,059.59 pounds of butter-fat

281

breeds of dairy cattle are the Holstein, or Holstein-Friesian,
as they are officially named ; the Jersey ; the Guernsey ; and
the Ayrshire. The Shorthorns are also a favorite class,
combining in large degree both dairy and beef qualities.
Records kept for one year in various experiment stations of
the United States Department of Agriculture show the fol-
lowing average ratings as milk producers of the first four
of these breeds in the station herds :

Pounds Per cent. Pounds Per cent.
Breed of milk of fat of fat total solids

Holstein 8699 3.45 300 12.99

Jersey 5508 5.14 283 14.2

Guernsey 5509 4.98 274 14.2

Ayrshire 6533 3.85 252 12.98

Average 6562.25 4.355 277.25 13.5925

6. Feeding Dairy Cozvs

Just as the soil must contain the food elements needed
in the growth of the plant, so the dairy cow's rations must
contain the elements required to produce milk and upbuild
the body. If proper food is not supplied, either the amount
of milk or its quality will be sure to suffer. Only three
different food elements, or nutrients, are likely to run short
in the ordinary rations of the cow > these are (1) protein,
(2) carbohydrate, and (3) fat.

Protein. — Protein is required in the animal body for
the making of all muscular parts, blood and connective
tissue. It supplies nearly one-third of the solid part of milk,
going to form the curd and albumen.

It is fortunate that the nitrogenous plants so valuable
in building up the soil are also rich in protein. Alfalfa,
clover, cow-peas, soy-beans, the vetches and other legumes
are therefore desirable as a part of the dairy ration. Bran,

282' AGRICULTURE

finseed meal, cottonseed-meal, gluten feed and oats are also
rich in protein. Protein should make up approximately one-
sixth of the cow's ration during the milking season ; no
other food can take its place. It is the most expensive part
of the ration, and should be secured as far as possible from
home-grown legumes.

Carbohydrates. — The carbohydrates are necessary to
supply energy, heat and fat for the animal body, and sugar
and fat in the milk. All the common grains are rich in
carbohydrates, which are the cheapest nutrient of the cow's
rations". Among the more common carbohydrate feeds are
com, corn silage, corn stover, oats straw, millet hay, sugar
beets and dried beet pulp. Timothy hay should not form
a part of the dairy ration, as it has few of the elements re-
quired in producing milk.

Fat. — Fat is used for practically the same purposes
as the carbohydrates in maintaining the body and produc-
ing milk. It is contained in some degree in all feeds,
though in smaller quantities than carbohydrates, and in
more concentrated form. It has been found that one pound
of fat will serve the same purpose in the dairy ration as
two and one-fourth pounds of carbohydrates.

The balanced ration. — By a balanced ration is meant
a ration which contains the right digestible proportion of
each kind of nutrient demanded by the animal. The term
nutritive ratio is used when speaking of the relation of pro-
tein to carbohydrate and fat in the ration. The nutritive
ratio of the dairy ration is 1:6; this is to say, one part of
digestible protein to six parts of carbohydrates and fat com-
bined. The following tables show several balanced and
economical rations for dairy cows:*

* (Purdue Ext. Bui No. 21.)

CATTLE

283

Ration I.

Corn silage 30 pounds

Cow-pea hay __ 10 "

Corn stover 2 "

Corn 6 "

Cottonseed-meal 1.5 "

Ration III.

Clover hay 18 pounds

Corn 5 "

Wheat bran or

oats 6 "

Cottonseed-meal 1 "

Ration II.

Sugar beets 25 pounds

Alfalfa hay 10

Corn stover 5 "

Corn 5 "

Dried brewers'
grains 5 "

Ration IV.

Corn silage 30 pounds

Canadian pea and

oat hay 10

Oats 5

Gluten feed 4 "

It must be remembered that, no matter what the feeds
used to supply the protein, carbohydrate and fat, there must
also be a certain amount of roughage in the ration. All
browsing or grazing animals require bulky feed, and can not
thrive on concentrated material alone.

7. Producing Clean Milk

Milk is perfectly clean as it comes from the cow. It is
easily tainted, however, either by filth that may fall into
the pail during the milking, or from dirty utensils. Dirty
milk makes dissatisfied customers, endangers the health of
users, especially children, hastens souring, makes a lower
grade of butter, and indicates shiftlessness and low stand-
ards of dairying.

The cow barn. — ^The cow barn should be constructed
for the comfort, cleanliness and hygiene of its occupants.
It should be well ventilated and have plenty of light. The
floor should be of some hard material, preferably cement,
and water-tight. The stalls should be the right length for
the cows, and have a shallow gutter at the rear with slope

'19'-^ o[ Hood Farm 189748

A >li.iiij|..i>,, ,kr.-fy t-uw with a butter-l'uL record ui' DUiJ.14
pouuds iu 365 days.

A chnmplon Shorthorn cow. n seneral purpose breed adapted
both to beef and milk production..

CATTLE ■ 285

enough toward one end to permit drainage. Instead of a
feed manger in front, there should be a Hquid-tight trough,
also with a sHght slope, that it may be washed out. All
floors should be kept thoroughly washed by means of a
hose and stiff brushes.

Cleanliness in milking. — Before the milking is begun,
both the cow and the milker should be clean. If the cow
is dusty, the dust should be well brushed out. The udder
should be wiped clean, washed, or sponged off, as may be
required. The milker's hands should be freshly cleansed, as
it is almost impossible to keep the milk from touching them.

Special suits should be kept for milking, and should be
frequently washed. The practise of putting on old, greasy
and unwashed clothes, simply to save soiling other garments
while milking, is too filthy to be permitted in any dairy.
All utensils should be kept in a perfectly clean place, and
well scalded once each day.

A careful analysis of the dirt contained in milk shows
about nine-tenths of it to be cow manure. The other tenth
is hair from the cow, dirt from the cow or the milker, par-
ticles of the feed used, and disease germs from the cow or
hands of the milker. No dairyman should ask a consumer
to eat such an array of filth as this.

Straining the milk. — Much of the dirt that gets into
the milk can not be strained out, since it fully dissolves and
will pass through the strainer as easily as the milk itself.
A good strainer will, however, remove a considerable por-
tion of the insoluble matter.

A wire mesh strainer should never be used. The strainer
should be cone-shaped, with gauze and absorbent cotton
forming the outlet. One thickness of the cotton is placed
between four thicknesses of gauze, two on each side, and
held in place by a ring which fits over the edges and at-
taches it to the bottom of the receptacle. The cotton should

286

AGRICULTURE

1/

tJe destroyed after each straining, and never used a second
time. The additional expense for this type of strainer is
slight, and should keep no progressive dairyman from us-
ing it.

^ Cooling the milk. — After cleanliness, the next essen-
tial to good care of milk is quick cooling. So important
is quick cooling to prevent souring of milk and keep it in

Auchenbrain Brown Kate 4th, Ayrshire cow with a 365-day
butter-fat record of 917.G pounds.

good condition that a higher price is often paid for milk
properly cooled than for uncooled milk.

For the best results, some form of cooling apparatus is
necessary. Various machines for this purpose can be had
for from ten to twenty-five dollars. An average of about
five cents' worth of ice is required for each hundred pounds
of milk during the warm months. Milk should be cooled
down to forty-five degrees in a few minutes of time.

^.^ATTfcE-^ X 287

8. Beef Breeds

Larger profit can be secured from dairy than from beef
cattle with the sanr^ amount of feed, bjuf' dairy animals re-
quire a much greater amount -of la5or and a more costly
equipment. The work necessary to care for fifteen or
twenty dairy cows will be sufficient to tend two hundred
beef animals. Properly managed, the raising and feeding
of cattle for beef can be made highly profitable.

The beef-producing type. — Beef and dairy cattle
differ widely in their type. For the production of beef,
the animal must be able to use a large proportion of its
food in the putting on of flesh ; it must also have a form
capable of holding a large amount of muscle and fat.

The beef animal should have a conformation that (1)
favors the production and carrying of flesh; (2) supplies
the best proportion of good cuts of meat on the block; (3)
indicates good constitution and feeding capacity.

The form of beef animals. — Instead of the wedge con-
formation of the dairy cgi^rbe^ cattle should in their shape
present a series of /rectangles) that is, they should be
"blocky." The bodyV^is reasonably long, and deep, with
short sturdy legs. The"^iole form presents a plump, full-
shaped appearance. The back is broad and straight, with
ribs well arched to give breadth to the body. The quarters
are well filled and thick. The skin is pliable, rather thick,
and the coat smooth and glossy.

Judging beef cattle with the score-card. — Because of
the difference in type between dairy and beef cattle, it is
best to use separate score-cards in judging them. Secure a
score-card from yot^r state college of agriculture or the
United States Department of Agriculture. After studying
it and judging one or more animals under the direction of
the teacher, each member of the class should judge several

CATTLE 289

beef animals from the home herd, asking his father to help
in the judging.

Beef breeds. — Among the chief breeds of beef cattle in
the United States are Shorthorns, or Durhams, Herefords,
Aberdeen-Angus, and Galloways. Several different breeds
have also developed a polled, or hornless, type. Except for
tl3&:i«elc^orhorjis, the polled breeds closely resemble the par-
:nt breed from) which they were derived.

Feeding beef cattle. — Feeding grain and roughage
to beef cattle is a more profitable way to market them than
them off the farm. In this way the fertility of the
soil is also conserved, and better crops produced.

The fattening ration for cattle is slightly different from
the dairy ration, the nutrient ratio for beef being 1 : 7, as
against 1 : 6 for milk production. This is to say, that the
fattening animal should have a balanced ration consisting
of one part protein food for every seven parts of carbohy-
drates and fats.

9. " Tuberculosis in Cattle

Tuberculosis is a comrnon disease among cattle. It is
more common among dairy cattle than beef cattle. This is
probably because dairy cows are kept to a greater age than
beef cattle, and are more closely confined in barns. The
effects of tuberculosis in a dairy herd are (1) lowered milk
production and final loss of the tuberculous animal by death,
and (2) danger of giving the disease to people, especially
children, who use the milk.

Prevalence of tuberculosis in herds. — There is no
way of telling the exact number of cattle affected by tuber-
culosis, as comparatively few herds are examined for the
disease. It is not uncommon to find as high as seventy to
eighty per cent, of the cows in a herd diseased, some with

290 AGRICULTURE

ftie disease just starting, others with it well along, and still
others in the last stages. Since tuberculosis is contagious,
it is evident that when it once gets started in a herd it is
hard to stamp out.

The tuberculin test. — It is impossible to make certain
of the presence or absence of tuberculosis in a herd by any
set of symptoms. The only sure way is by the tuberculin
test. This test is required by law of all dairy herds in a
number of states. Experts have shown that tuberculin, if
properly used, will reveal the presence of tuberculosis in at
least ninety-eight per cent, of the cases.

Tuberculin is a fluid in which tubercle germs have been
grown, but from which they have all been removed. This
fluid is injected with a hypodermic needle under the skin
of all the animals of a herd which is being tested. It will
not injure well animals nor give them the disease. Animals
that have tuberculosis reveal this fact by a feverish condi-
tion which arises from eight to twelve hours after the tu-
berculin is administered. Well animals show no such re-
action.

Suppressing tuberculosis in cattle. — Little can be
done in the way of treatment to cure tuberculosis in cattle.
Those that have contracted it in a mild form often recover.
Animals found to be well advanced with the disease should
at once be slaughtered. All diseased stock should be sep-
arated from well animals, and kept in diflferent barns and
pastures.

The milk from mildly diseased cows may be used, pro-
viding it is first carefully pasteurised. To pasteurize milk,
it is kept at a temperature of one hundred and forty-nine
degrees for twenty minutes, or one hundred and seventy-
six degrees for five minutes. This heating is sufficient to
kill the germs of the tuberculosis.

CATTLE 291

Topics for Investigation

1. Are the cattle on your home farm of dairy breed,
beef breed, or "general purpose" breed? Talk with your
father and learn the lineage of each of your milk cows.
Are they "blooded," "grade," or "scrub" stock? Is your
herd being "selected" toward any pure breed?

2. Is the milk produced by your cows weighed and
tested for butter-fat? If so, how does the record of the
herd compare with the herds referred to in the chap-
ter? If no tests are being made, talk with your father about
getting the apparatus for the Babcock test'. After making
the test under the direction of the teacher, bring samples
of milk from home and make the test for several of your
cows with the school tester.

3. Weigh the milk produced by each of your cows for a
week, keeping a careful record. Now have your father
help you estimate what each cow will produce during one
year, taking into account the length of time each one milks,
and the changes due to season, etc.

4. Weigh carefully the feed that is regularly given
*one of your cows for one day. Compare with the sample

rations shown in the chapter. Are you feeding a balanced
ration ? If not, in which nutrient is it short ? What should
be done?

5. Make a careful study of the distinguishing marks of
each of the chief dairy breeds, and learn to identify dif-
ferent breeds at sight.

6. Consider the conditions of your home dairy barn.
Has it plenty of light? Is it well ventilated? Are the
stalls the right length for the cows ? Is the floor tight ? Are
the rear gutter and the feed trough of a good type ? Is the
barn clean f Does it smell bad?

7. What steps are taken in your dairy toward
cleaning the cows each time before milking? Do the cows
get soiled from the stalls? Are the milkers' hands washed
before milking? What kind of a strainer do you use? Is
your milk clean when it is ready for cooling.

8. Has your state a law requiring the tuberculin test
for dairy herds? Has your father's herd had the test?

292 AGRICULTURE

If so, how often is the test applied? With what results?
Have you any cows with a cough? With coats that look
rough and dead? Are any of your cows losing in flesh or
amount of milk without seeming cause ? Have any of them
lumps in their udders? All these things are symptoms of
tuberculosis.

9. Write an essay on how to improve dairy conditions
and profits in your region,

10. Show how to keep a book account with the cattle
interests of the farm.

11. Indicate on the map of the United States the dairy
and beef producing sections. Consult. the last census report
and insert in each state the amount of beef and dairy pro-
duction.

10. Demonstrations as Related to Cattle

1. Demonstrate how to make a butter- fat test with a
milk-testing machine.

2. Demons^^rate by the use of the blackboard or chart a
good and a poor dairy type of cattle.

3. Show by drawing or chart a good type of beef cat-
tle. Diagram the beef unit so as to show the various grades
of meat.

4. Show how to keep a record of the Babcock test for
butter-fat for five cows.

5. Demonstrate how to cool milk and cream.

Other demonstrations can be carried on in connection
with the cattle industry, such as butter making, cheese mak-
ing, showing the use of milk in various kinds of food, pas-
teurizing milk, cleaning cows, mixing various types of feed
and making tuberculin tests.

11. Cattle Play Contests

1. Cattle judging contest.

2. Breed naming contest.

3. Record keeping contest.

P<

294 AGRICULTURE

■ 4. Milking contest.

5, Story writing contest on "Origin and History of
Cattle" and other kindred subjects.

12. Cattle Club Projects

There are three very practical and interesting club
projects possible in connection with this subject. The first
and most important perhaps is the dairy club, where club
members agree to test for butter-fat a certain number of
dairy cows or the entire herd on their father's farm. The
basis of award may be as follows:

1. Number of cows tested 30

2. Records and helpful deductions 30

3. Skill in making test, shown in demonstration 20

4. Essay "How To Make the Test, Its Importance to Dairy-

Farmers" 1 20

Total score 100

The baby beef club project. — The object of this pro-
ject is to encourage the production of beef cattle and to
teach the proper methods of management and feeding of
beef stock so as to secure the maximum returns for money,
time and energy expended. The baby beef club member
should be required to take a calf at a certain age, a yearling,
or two-year-old, and care for it, keeping a record of all ex-
penditures, daily rations, and cost of feed for six months
or a year, with a view to showing maximum results from
the management for the beef market. It is advisable as far
as possible to have members grow their own feed, or at least
a part of it, and to keep an accurate account of the cost of
production of this feed as applied to the baby beef club
project work. The basis of award may be as follows :

CATTLE 295

1. Condition of beef at end of period, judged by score-card

of beef standard cattle 30

2. Net profit and cost of production 30

3. Records and story on the club project 20

4. Selection of breed for beef purposes 20

Total score 100

Dairy record club project. — The object of this club
project is first to teach methods of keeping accurate rec-
ords of cost of management, feed, pastures, and milk pro-
duction for each individual cow in the dairy herd, and to
teach through these records the difference between a prof-
itable dairy cow and a "boarder."

It is possible to combine the dairy herd club project
with the butter-fat testing work. The basis of award in
this particular club project may be :

1. Number'of cows of which completerecords were kept 30

2. Condition of records, neatness, accuracy, etc 30

3. Conclusions and valuable recommendations 20

4. Oral or written discussion of "How I Kept My Rec-

ords" 20

Total score 100

CHAPTER XX
HORSES

MORE than twenty million horses are to be found on
the farms of the United States. These horses on the
farms alone are worth the enormous sum of two and a
quarter billion dollars, or more than all our cattle, both
dairy and beef. The raising of horses is therefore one of
the leading industries connected with agriculture.

1. The Leading Horse Raising States
Slightly more than fifty-two per cent, of all the horses
found on the farms of this country are raised in the follow-
ing ten states : Iowa, Illinois, Texas, Kansas, Missouri, Ne-
braska, Ohio, Indiana, Minnesota and Oklahoma. The farms
of Iowa and Illinois support approximately one and one-half
million horses for each state ; Texas, Kansas, Missouri and
Nebraska have more than a million each, and Ohio, Indiana,
Minnesota and Oklahoma, more than three-fourths of a
million each.

Proportion supplied by each state. — ^The proportion
of all the horses found on our farms which is supplied by
each of these ten leading horse states is shown in the fol-
lowing chart:

Iowa 7.05%

Illinois 7.07o

Texas 5.5%

Kansas 5.0%

Missouri 5.0%

Nebraska 5.0%

Ohio 4.4%

Indiana 4.2%

Minnesota 4.1%

Oklahoma 3.7%

296

HORSES 297

Horses are adapted to a wide range of climates, and can
be successfully produced in every state. The market for
horses is good and, under skilful management, they can be
be raised with profit on almost all farms.

1. Make a list of all the horses on your farm, and
have your father help you estimate the value of each. Now
compare the value of your horses with the value of your
cattle; your hogs; your sheep.

2. After each member of the class has made the com-
putation asked in No. 1, put all the results together and
make similar comparisons for the value of different farm
stock for all farms represented. Compare the relative val-
ues of horses, cattle and hogs for your region with the rela-
tive values of these animals for tjtie entire country, taking
the necessary figures from ih^^espective chapters of this

book. ' '

■ , ' /

2.' Classes of Horsed

Class and grade.— Regardless of breed, horses are
classed in the markets according to the uses to which they
are suited. The different classes are: draft horses, chunks,
wagon horses, carriage horses, road horses, saddle horses
and ponies. Animals are graded within each class as choice,
good, medium, common and inferior. The class to which
a horse belongs depends on (1) weight, (2) height, and
(3) conformation, or build, and (4) quality.

Draft horses. — To be in the draft class a horse in
good flesh must weigh from one thousand six hundred
pounds to more than a ton. The height ranges from 15-2
to 17-3 hands. The form of draft horses is broad, com-
pact and rugged, with legs short as compared with the
depth of the body. This build brings the weight close to
the ground, where it can exert the greatest power in draw-
ing a load. Draft horses are used largely for city teaming,
for logging and the like.

298

AGRICULTURE

Chunks. — The form of this class of horses is indicated
by their name. Chunks are heavy-set, short legged, com-
pactly built horses, of lighter weight than draft horses.
Their weight varies from eight hundred pounds among the
lightest of the southern chunks to one thousand five hundred
and fifty pounds in the North and East. The height is from

A pair of draft horses.

15 to 15-3 hands. The typical farm horse belongs to the
chunk class.

Wagon horses. — Wagon horses are required to com-
bine weight with action and endurance. City delivery and
express, fire and artillery horses are selected from this
class. They must have sound feet ; strong clean legs ; broad
deep chests ; and show good constitution and quality. Their
weight is from one thousand and fifty pounds to one thou-

A fine tj'pe of draft horse-

"• r >. --^^ ^

^P^'^^^^^^N' . - ; t 1

^^^^H^ W**V*»J3^ .^ ^" - - -^^^^VP^^^^^^^^^^^^H

A good pair of chunks, and their offspring by pure-bred sires.

300

AGRICULTURE

sand seven hundred pounds; and their height from 15 to
17-2 hands.

Carriage horses. — ^The carriage, or heavy harness,
class are required to have good action, a fair amount of
speed, and to be of a pleasing, stylish form and carriage.
The head should be small, and well-set, on a long arching
neck. The body should be smooth and rounded, the back
short and well coupled, with a long level croup, and the

A good tenm of heavy carriage horses, showing fine character
and action.

hindquarters strong and well developed. The height ranges
from 14-1 to 16-2 hands, and the weight from nine hundred
pounds to one thousand two hundred and fifty pounds.
The carriage class supply the coach, park and cab
horses.

Road horses. — Road or light harness horses are
lighter in build, more angular in form, and possess better
action than the carriage class. They must have good speed,
life and quality. They are used for light and fancy driving,
and for racing. Their weight is from nine hundred to one

HORSES

301

thousand one hundred and fifty pounds, and their height
from 14-3 to 16 hands.

Saddle horses. — Saddle horses are built fcfr ease of
action, strength and sureness of foot. They are also re-
quired to have mettle, coupled with a good disposition and
intelligence. The withers are high and thin, and the shoul-
ders oblique. The back must be short, well muscled, and

.^- }k^ .

^^m

1

A good saddle horse.

strongly coupled, and the gait easy. The height runs from
fourteen hands for polo ponies to sixteen hands for hunters
or cavalry horses. The weight may vary from eight hun-
dred and fifty to one thousand two hundred and fifty pounds.
Ponies. — Ponies are chiefly used for children, and
must therefore first of all have good dispositions. To be
in the pony class, the height must be under fourteen hands.

302 AGRICULTURE

The body is deep and well rounded, the legs and neck are
short, the croup is level, and the quarters are strong and well
developed.

These different classes of horses often merge into one
another so that it is difficult to tell in which of two classes a
certain animal belongs. For market purposes it pays to
breed for well marked classes, as these always bring higher
prices than mixed stock.

1. Study each horse on your home farm, and decide
the class to which it belongs. If the type is not clearly
marked in any case, decide what two classes it resembles.

2. Also grade each horse as choice, good, medium, com-
mon, or inferior in its class. Remember that to be "choice"
the animal must be entirely sound, in good condition, and
possess in the highest degree the ideal qualities of its class.
The "inferior" grade is the very worst of its class. The
other grades lie in between these two extremes.

3. Breeds of Horses

While the breed to which a horse belongs has little
bearing on its market value if the class marks are strong
and the grade high, yet the only way to secure class and
grade is by pure breeding. Millions of dollars are being
lost by American farmers p^ery year through the breed-
ing of grade or scrub horsed.

The value of breeding. — An excellent illustration of
the difference in market value between pure-bred and grade-
bred horses is shown in the case of Wisconsin horses (Bui.
186, Wis. Ag. Exp. Sta.) :

Average value of horses by ages

4 to 6

months 1 year 2 years 3 years 4 years

From pure-bred sires— $78777"~$r3Z84 $196784 $218T00~$303X)0

From grade sires S!.2S 85.00 127.50 156.45 200.20

Difference in favor of

pure-bred sires 27.52 47.84 59.34 61.55 102.80

HORSES

303

This table is very convincing when it is remembered
that it costs no more in care and feed to raise a well-bred
horse than a scrub. The farmer who uses only pure-bred
sires for his breeding will get almost fifty dollars more for
his colts as yearlings than if he uses grade sires, while if he

A typical Perclieron.

does not sell until the colt has reached maturity he will
receive at least one hundred dollars more. If pure-bred
dams are also used, the difference will be greater still. Will
it not pay well to "breed up" our horses ?

Draft breeds. — The chief breeds of draft horses in the
United States have been imported from Europe. The fa-
vorite of these is the Percheron, which comes from France.

21

304

AGRICULTURE

The Percherons have good spirit, are strong-boned, and
have sound feet. They show good action, have a high
degree of intelligence, and respond well to training.

The Clydesdales come from Scotland. They are longer
in build than Percherons, have smaller bodies, and less rug-

Typicul of the Auierlcuu trotter breed.

ged constitutions. They are strongly marked by a heavy
growth of hair on the lower part of the leg, especially at
the fetlock. For use in wet and muddy times this excess
of hair is a disadvantage, since it is hard to keep dry and
clean.

The Belgians come to us from Belgium, and the English

HORSES 305

Shires from England. Both are excellent breeds, though
they have not yet come into the favor enjoyed by the Per-
cherons, or even the Clydesdales.

It is chiefly from the heavier breeds that come all our
draft horses, chunks, v^agoh horses, and carriage, or heavy
harness horses. A comparatively small proportion of horses
in any of these classes is as yet pure bred, most being a
cross with grade or common stock.

The lighter breeds. — Relatively few^ farmers have
undertaken the raising of the lighter and speedier breeds of
horses. This has been left to special breeders and stock
farms that make a specialty of horses. The heavier breeds
are better adapted to the farm, since the dams can then be
used for general farm work, and thus serve a double pur-
pose and thereby add to the profit.

Among the lighter breeds raised in this country, the
English Hackney, the French Coach, and the German Coach
are the favorites for the carriage class. For lighter road
use the breeds most favored are the American Trotter, the
American Saddle horse and the English Thoroughbred.

4. Judging Horses

The horse is to many people the most interesting animal
on the farm. The satisfaction and profit from horse raising
depend very largely on the breed, class and grade. For
these reasons all who are interested in farm animals should
learn to judge horses readily and accurately.

The score-card. — Before undertaking to use the score-
card in actual judging, the pupil must become thoroughly
familiar with all its points, understanding fully the re-
quirements for a perfect score under any point. With this
ideal in mind, the animal is to be examined, and the score
put down on the card. Do not be afraid to mark off for

306 AGRICULTURE

all bad points. It takes a good animal to grade eighty per
cent, when marked by an expert judge, and an exceptional
one to grade ninety per cent. Judges do not usually mark
closer than one-fourth per cent, on any point.

- 5.. Common Defects and Unsoundness in Horses

Any defect or unsoundness lowers the value of a horse.
All who have to do with horses should be able to identify
the more common faults, and know their causes. (See Pur-
due Circular, No. 29.)

Defects of head, eyes and ears —

1. Poll evil; sore on top of head, caused by bruises.

2. Blindness; either with or without defects of eyeball.

3. "Blue-eyed"; a peculiar bluish color, may indicate blind-

ness.

4. Over-mobile ears; showing viciousness or blindness.

5. Immobile ears; showing deafness or lockjaw.
Defects of the mouth —

1. Nose discharge; indicating catarrh, glanders, diseased

molars.

2. Bit sores, showing tender mouth, or abuse.

3. Diseased molars; affect health and interfere with eating.

4. "Parrot" mouth; upper jaw too long, front teeth project

over lower.

5. Undershot, jaw; lower jaw short; front teeth do not meet.

6. Clipped tongue; tip cut off to prevent lolling.
Defects of neck, withers and shoulders —

1. Neck sores; caused by collar wear on top of neck.

2. Fistula; running sore on withers on shoulders.

3. Collar sores and boils; dirty and ill-fitting collars.
Defects of feet and legs —

1. Shoe boil; sore at elbow from injury by shoe while lying

down; also sore from harness band.

2. Splint; (describe.)

3. Broken knee; bent backward from injury.

4. Buck knee; bent forward from stiffening of tendons.

5. Capped knee; (what is meant?)

6. Greased heel; sores which refuse to heal.

HORSES 307

7. Scratches; sores under fetlocks from filth or dampness.

8. Windgalls; puffs around fetlock joint from hard driving

or standing on hard floors.

9. Cocked ankles; ankles bent forward from misuse.

10. Navicular disease; contracted foot, favored in action.

11. Toe cracks; transverse checks across the hoof.

12. Quarter racks; split in hoof extending up to heeU

13. Corns; (what? where?) (describe cause.)

14. Thrush.

15. Knocked-down hip; one hip lower than the other from

blow.

16. Spavin; either bog, or bone, indicating sprain or injury.

17. Thorough-pin; (describe cause.)

18. Curb; enlargement at back of hock from sprain.
General defects —

1. St. Vitus's Dance; twitching of muscles.

2. Crampness; tendency for muscles to cramp.

3. Stringhalt; one or both hind feet lifted too high.

4. Roaring; a wheezing, roaring sound in breathing; from

bad wind.

5. Heaves; spasmodic breathing.
Vices —

1. Cribbing; habit of biting mangers, posts, etc., caused by

teeth trouble.

2. Windsucking; habit of biting, and at the same time suck-

ing in air.

3. Halter pulling; habit of pulling back when tied.

4. Biting; vicious tendency to bite people or other horses.

5. Balking; refusing to move when commanded.

' 6. Rolling in stall; likely to become "cast" and cause in-
jury.

7. Kicking; showing vicious temper.

8. Striking; with front feet to injure attendant.

6. The Care of Horses

The horse is the most intelligent and companionable of
the farm animals. It quickly shows the effects of ill treat-
ment or lack of care and, on the other hand, easily responds
to training and good usage.

308 AGRICULTURE

Unsoundness due to ill usuage. — Not a few of the
defects common to horses should be blamed to their own-
ers or users. For example, poll evil is frequently caused by
striking the head against a door or stall beam that is too
low. Bit sores indicate either a careless or a cruel driver, or a
bit unsuited to the horse on which it is used. Neck and
shoulder sores seldom occur if the collar is a good fit, and if
kept clean. Fistula on withers on shoulders comes from
collar bruises. Sweeny is the result of a wrench or strain,
often due to ill-fitting collars.

In similar way, splints, spavins, curbs, thorough-pins and
other injuries to the legs are often caused by excessive driv-
ing or pulling, especially of young horses. Misshapen knees
and ankles are an evidence of hard usage. Greased heel,
thrush and scratches come from damp and filthy stalls.
Roaring is the result of driving until the wind is "broken" ;
heaves usually come from eating dusty feed; cribbing is a
sign of the neglect of teeth that need attention.

The effect of training. — The vices which reduce the
value of many horses and make them unpleasant to handle
are usually due fully as much to training as disposition.
Halter pulling commonly begins in the colt being frightened
and made to break loose when tied, or else being tied with
an old and easily broken halter that encourages pulling on
it. Balking often indicates lack of intelligence and patience
on the part of the trainer fully as much as stubbornness on
the part of the horse. Biting may be started by teas-
ing; and kicking often has its beginning in fright from
something loose about the harness or vehicle before the colt
is well broken.

Treatment of horses. — The horse should be treated
with kindness and firmness. The driver who strikes or
jerks because of his anger or petulance deserves the con-

HORSES

309

tempt of all lovers of animal life, and should not be en-
trusted with horses. One who will work a team in the
heat and dust and then allow them to stand over night with-
out cleaning shows either lack of intelligence about horses or
cruelty. To drive a team until they are sweaty and then
allow them to stand in a cold wind unblanketed reveals not
only heartlessness but bad business management.

The horse can not be taught like a person. Therefore,

A horse market, showing a tn^e of horse for which there is a
good demand.

only one single word of command should ever be used for
the same act. Whoa should always mean an immediate and
dead stop; back should mean to step backward, and not
merely to stop. Some one signal alone should be used to
start, and the horse never allowed to start without this sig-
nal. Care in such simple points as these would result in
much better broken and safer horses.

310 • AGRICULTURE

^' 7. Feeding Horses

The feeding of farm work horses is a different prob-
lem from the feeding of most other farm stock. This is
because the horse is fed for work, while other animals are
fed for meat, milk, eggs and so on.

The ration for horses. — The ordinary farm ration for
working horses is some form of hay for roughage, and
one or more cereals, such as oats or com. The particular
kind of hay fed is not important, so that it is in good con-
dition and free from dust. If dusty hay must be used, it
should be sprinkled with water as it is fed. Horses seem
to find timothy hay more palatable than most other kinds,
but red clover, alfalfa, meadow fescue and other meadow
grasses have been found satisfactory. It is thought that less
grain is necessary to keep up the weight of horses at hard
work when alfalfa is fed instead of some other hay.

Grain ration for farm horses. — Oats are the choice of
the cereals for horses wherever they are obtainable. They
are rdished better than most grains, and seem especially
suited to the horse as a nutrient. Horses fed on oats also
seem to show better mettle than those fed on other grains.

In the corn producing region corn is usually a more
•economical feed for horses than oats, and has therefore
•come into quite general use as a part of the ration. Com
and alfalfa hay make a satisfactory ration, at least for a
Himited time, and are cheaper than oats and timothy hay.
A very satisfactory and rather heavy daily ration for a
horse weighing from one thousand two hundred to one
thousand three hundred pounds, and employed at general
farm labor is:

7% pounds of whole corn.
7% pounds of whole oats.
1 pound of oil meal.
3 pounds of wheat hran.

' , HORSES 311

7% pounds of timothy hay.
7% pounds of clover hay.

Other rations that have been proved satisfactory by ex-
periment are as follows :

1. Corn, 6 pounds; gluten feed, 6 pounds; bran, 2 pounds;

timothy hay, 10 pounds.

2. Corn, 8 pounds; bran, 7 pounds; timothy hay, 10 pounds.

3. Oats, 6 pounds; corn, 4 pounds; bran, 2 pounds; hay, 12

pounds.

These rations are the amount that should be fed daily
to a horse weighing from one thousand two hundred to one
thousand three hundred pounds when at work. Larger
horses should receive more, and smaller horses less, accord-
ing to weight. It is also to be noted that some horses re-
quire more feed than others of the same weight. .

How to feed. — For horses with good teeth it is not / ^^
€ssential whether the grain is ground or fed whole, except
that the same amount will yield somewhat more nourish-
ment if ground. This difference may sometimes be as much
as one per cent, in favor of ground feed. On days when
work horses are allowed to stand idle the amount of grain
should be reduced about one-half. If the idleness contin-
ues beyond three or four days, the amount of grain may
gradually be increased, but should not reach the full work
ration.

Most of the hay should be fed at night and in the morn-
ing, as there is not time at noon to secure the necessary
nourishment from roughage. The noon feed of grain may
be slightly heavier than that for night or morning. About
twice as long is required for horses to eat ground grain
fed dry as when it is dampened.

Watering horses. — Much prejudice exists concerning
the best time for watering horses, some preferring to water
before feeding, and others after. Careful experiments have

312 AGRICULTURE

^own that the time of watering is not highly important.
If horses come from the field thirsty, it is reasonable to
suppose that they will reUsh their meal better if they have
had a drink. If the feed consists largely of dry roughage
it also seems best to water before feeding. Whatever sys-
tem is adopted should be followed regularly, as changing
about often injures the appetite or produces some other de-
rangement. Horses should never be given a large amount
of water when highly heated from working or driving.

Topics for Investigation

1. What breeds of horses are favored in your region?
Let each student find out just what breeds are represented
in the horses on his home farm, with the percentage of
pure-bred blood in each animal. Sum up the results for the
entire district.

2. If it costs fifteen dollars more to sire from pure-bred
than grade horses, what would be the net gain by using
pure-bred rather than grade sires in raising for market two
teams and selling them at four years of age on the basis
shown in the table on page 302 ?

3. After studying the score-card for judging draft
horses and judging one or more animals under the direc-
tion of the teacher, judge independently at least two other
horses, having your work tested and criticized by the
teacher or other competent judge.

4. Master thoroughly the list of defects common to
horses, and then watch for an example of each on dif-
ferent animals until you have learned to identify any un-
soundness at sight. Examine carefully each horse at your
home for unsoundness.

5. Write a detailed account of the care that should be
given a working team each day, including stall, feeding,
watering, cleaning, blanketing, and so on.

6. Weigh the ordinary daily ration fed one of your
working horses and compare with the rations suggested in

HORSES 313

the chapter. At current prices, just what does it cost a day
to feed one of your work horses ?

7 . Show how to keep a bookkeeping record of the
cost of keeping, feeding, and use of a team of heavy draft
horses for farm purposes, covering a period of six months
through the working season.

8. Show upon the map of the United States the ap-
proximate number of horses in each state. Secure records
from the last census report on horses. Where were the
wild horses originally found ? Where are horses now raised
on ranges?

8. Demonstrations With the Horse

1. Demonstrate how to halter-break a colt.

2. The proper method of judging a horse.

3. Show how to handle a buggy horse; harness, hitch
and start.

4. Demonstrate the proper method of mounting a sad-
dle horse, with or without the saddle. »

5. The proper method of currying a horse, training the
mane, and tying up the tail for muddy r6ads.

6. Demonstrate miscellaneous interests in horseman-
ship. In this particular case contestants may be allowed
to bring their own horses and demonstrate values and tricks
such as prompt obedience to master's command, and pe-
culiar and valuable traits of their animals.

7. Demonstrate the practical rope knots and splicings
of especial value in the handling of horses, such as the hal-
ter-hitch, clove-hitch, slipknot and timber-hitch,

8. Demonstrate how to harness and hitch a team to a
double wagon.

All of the above demonstrations should not only show
skill, accuracy and speed, but kindness in the handling of
the animals.

314 AGRICULTURE

f

9. The Horse Play Contests

1. Horse mounting contest, judged by skill, largest
number of mountings in five minutes and showing of kind-
ness to animal in mounting.

2. Horse judging contest, driving contest in single,
double, or four-horse team.

3. Oral story, giving the life history of the horse.

4. Essay writing contest on the subject: "The Horse
and Its Relation to Agriculture."

5. Recipe and remedy giving contest, showing the
proper methods of treatment for unsoundness, defects, blem-
ishes and vices of the horse.

6. Description and recognition of defects and blemishes
with causes.

10. Colt Club Project

The object of organizing a colt chib is to get boys and
girls interested in the raising and proper management of
colts as an economic factor on the farm. The work should
cover a period of not less than twelve months in the man-
agement, feeding and keeping of records of a colt. The
basis of award should be as follows :

1. Management shown by training of colt 25

2. The cost of keeping 25

3. Condition of the colt or horse 25

4. Story of "My Year's Work with the Colt" 25

Total score 100

CHAPTER XXI
SWINE

HOGS outrank every other farm animal in number in the
United States, and are exceeded in value only by
horses and cattle. There are more than sixty million hogs
on our farms, or nearly two porkers for every three of the
population. The aggregate market value of swine is about
two-thirds that of dairy cattle, and not far from equal to
the value of beef cattle. American farmers own more than
six hundred million dollars' worth of hogs.

1. The Pork Producing r.egion

A large proportion of our hogs is produced in the
states forming the corn belt. This is natural, since corn
is one of the cheapest and best grains for raising pork.
Many other regions can grow hogs as successfully as the
corn states, however, and the industry is spreading.

Hogs in the South. — Southern farmers have not yet
entered very largely upon the raising of hogs, though they
can probably be produced fully as cheaply in the South as
the North. The southern people consume more meat per
capita than the people of any other section. Millions of
pounds of fresh meats are annually shipped to southern
markets from northern and western farms. This means a
double loss to the South, hence the importance of a more
general study of the swine industry. For money is paid
oui for what could well be raised at home, and a most prof-
itable industry is thus omitted from the farms.

315

316 AGRICULTURE

♦* The leading states in hog production. — Sixty per cent,
of all our pork is raised in ten states. In the order of their
importance in pork production these states are: Iowa, Illi-
nois, Missouri, , Nebraska, Indiana, Ohio, Kansas, Texas,
Wisconsin, Georgia. The percentage each of these supplies
of all hogs produced in the United States is shown in the
following chart:

Iowa 13.4%

Illinois 7.5%

Missouri 6.7%

Nebraska ■. — 6.2%

Indiana 6.1%

Ohio 5.2%

Kansas 4.3%

Texas 4.1% -

Wisconsin 3.3%

Georgia 3.1%

The number of swine in these states runs from about
two million in Georgia to nine million in Iowa.

2. Breeds of Hogs

Many of our important breeds of cattle and horses orig-
inated in Europe, but we have ourselves developed nearly
all our chief breeds of hogs. The breeds most favored in
the United States are Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Ches-
ter-White and Berkshire. The Berkshire, the only imported
breed, came from England. Other less well-known breeds
are the Yorkshire, Cheshire, Suffolk, Hampshire and Essex.

Poland-China. — Poland-China has long been a favorite
breed of hogs, especially in the corn states. They are black
in color, with irregular white markings on almost every
part of the body. The ears are drooping. The Poland-
Chinas make a rapid growth, and reach good size. They
are rather small of bone, and not so good foragers as some

SWINE

317

other breeds. Some fault has been found with them for
not producing larger litters.

Duroc-Jersey. — The Duroc-Jerseys are easily recog-
nized by their reddish color. They are one of the most
prolific and vigorous breeds, somewhat slow in develop-
ing, and strong of frame. Their bones are large, and

A flue Duroc-Jersey sow.

they reach good size and weight. They have large droop-
ing ears, are good foragers, and thrive well on pasturage,
or when following a herd of fattening cattle.

Chester-White. — The Chester-White breed are of
large frame, rather slow in maturing, and possess good
•constitutions. They are white without markings, and have
drooping ears. They are raised more in New England than
in the corn re^jion.

A Chester-White sow in show condition.

A Berkshire.

SWINE , 319

Berkshire. — Berkshires resemble the Poland-China
breed in color and markings, being black with white mark-
ings. They may be distinguished by their erect ears. They
have a compact frame, are good feeders, and make a quicker
growth than most other breeds. The Berkshire has long
been a favorite breed, especially throughout the Middle
West.

3. The Care of Hogs

Pigs are not so cleanly in their habits as some other
farm animals. This seems to make many farmers think that
it does not matter how they are kept. Nothing could be a
greater mistake. Hogs thrive only under hygienic condi-
tions of feeding and housing. Millions of dollars are thrown
away every year by failure to give hogs the care they re-
quire.

Need of good housing. — Hogs are the most poorly
housed of any farm animal. Any kind of place is thought
good enough for them on many farms. Yet hogs are far
more sensitive to cold than horses or cattle, which have
thick coats to protect them, while the hog has almost none.
Hogs lie down more than most animals, and need a better
bed. They live close to the ground, and easily breathe in
dust and impurities. They need sunshine more than do
horses and cattle, yet little is provided for them.

Hogs take cold very easily. Little pigs, especially, need
to be kept warm, dry and away from drafts, if they are not
to have their growth checked, or even lose their lives by
catching cold. Neglect of these simple rules indicates shift-
less farming, and causes great loss.

Hog-houses. — Every farm that makes a business of
raising pigs will find a well-built hog-house a paying invest-
ment. The most economical and convenient hog-house has
a row of pens along each side of a central alley which, in

22

320

AGRICULTURE

larger buildings, should be wide enough to drive through.
This allows the hauling in of straw for bedding, and corn
or slops for feeding, thereby saving much labor. It also
provides for the easy removing of manure.

The separate pens should be from five to eight feet wide,
and from eight to twelve feet long, depending on the use to
be made of them. Pens for brood sows need not be larger

• An excellent type of hog-house with outdoor pens.

than five or six by eight feet. If feeding is to be done in the
pens they should be larger, or, better still, the partitions
should be removable. The floor may be of cement, though
for farrowing sows a temporary board floor should be laid
over the cement, because of the coldness of a cement floor.
Woven wire stretched over the top of the ground to pre-
vent rooting is sometimes used as a floor. Such a floor is
likely to be either dusty or wet, however. Board floors are
expensive and drafty if above the ground. They also har-

SWINE

321

bor rats, which not infrequently kill young pigs. A dou-
ble trough may supply each pair of pens. Young pigs
should have their own troughs outside the main pens.

: ! f i'":^ ', ' " ^^iL^^«i;iW:^5«

RACK FOR FEEDING HAY TO HOGS

Lighting and ventilating hog-houses. — It is not un-
common to find hog-houses that cost several thousand dol-
lars built almost without windows or other means of admit-
ting light, air and sunshine. Other houses are built with
windows in unfavorable positions, so that the sunlight can

322 AGRICULTURE

^not fall on the floor of the pens where it is needed by the
pigs.

The hog-house should run east and west, so that it may
have one full side exposed to the sun. This arrangement
will necessitate having one row of pens along the north side.
In order to get sunlight into the north pens, the "broken
roof" style of building is used. Care must be taken to place
both upper and lower windows at such a height that the
sunlight will reach the floor during the winter and early
spring months, or during- the farrowing season.

To do this, the angle of the sun, say in February and
March, and the width of the building must be carefully com-
puted. At the latitude of southern Iowa, or central Illinois,
Indiana, Ohio and Nebraska, the tops of the upper win-
dows of a hog-house twenty feet wide should be ten and
one-half feet from the ground. If the north pens are eight
feet long, and the alley is four feet wide, the sunshine will
just reach the back line of the pens at ten o'clock and at two
o'clock on the first of March. Care to such details will save
the lives of many young pigs farrowed in the early spring.

Individual hog cots. — Many hog raisers are now pro-
viding two types of hog-houses, the large permanent house
for farrowing purposes, and the small individual cot for
the sows and their litters as soon as the latter are old enough
to be put out-of-doors. The individual cots may be scattered
about the lot or pasture, and moved as often as necessary
to keep the quarters clean. For winter service the cots
can be collected side by side in a sheltered place, banked
and used for sleeping quarters.

The feeding floor. — The use of a sanitary feeding
floor should be much more common than it is. It is a
great waste of grain to scatter it in the mud or dust of a
dirt yard. This mode of feeding is also injurious to the
health of the pigs, for it compels them to breathe in a great

SWINE 323

amount of dust and to eat impurities in order to get the
grain. The effect is seen in such diseases as "thumps" and
"wheezes," and in the greater liabiHty to colds, tuberculosis
and other troubles.

The best feeding floor is made of concrete, slightly raised
above the level of the ground, if made outside the hog-house,

Individual hog cot, on runners, so that it can be drawn from
place to place.

and sloping slightly so that it can easily be washed off.
Such a floor is not expensive, and will pay for itself many
times over in the feeding of hogs.

4. Feeding Hogs

Hogs are probably the best money makers on the farm,
if properly handled. The same amount of feed will produce
a greater value of pork than any other meat. The returns
also come in sooner than with most other farm animals.

324 AGRICULTURE

f ■ . .

Money invested in hogs can be turned rapidly, as pigs are

marketable when eight months old. The yearly sales from
a herd of hogs should be from two to four times the orig-
inal investment. Much of the profit depends on intelli-
gent feeding.

The feeding of pigs requires the consideration of three
stages in their development, (1) from farrowing to wean-
ing, (2) from weaning to fattening, and (3) fattening for
market.

Feeding young pigs. — Little pigs do not need any
food other than their mother's milk for the first two or
three weeks of their life. When they have reached this age,
they will begin to nibble on shelled corn. A little of this
should be fed them in a place outside the pen. By the time
they are from three to four weeks old, they may be fed
a small amount of skim-milk, in which has been mixed a
little ground feed, such as shorts. They should have a
trough of their own where it can not be reached by the
mother.

The amount of mixed feeds and shelled com given small
pigs may be increased till they are ten weeks old, when they
should be weaned. When they are deprived of their moth-
er's milk, which up to weaning time supplies the basis of
their nourishment, it is very important that they be fed a
ration capable of producing the most rapid growth and
best health.

Feeding pigs after weaning. — At the time of weaning,
the feed should not be greatly changed, except to increase
the amount, until the pigs have become accustomed to the
loss of the mother's milk. If pasture is available, the quan-
tity of corn may be increased. If the pigs must be kept
in a dry lot, a larger proportion of soft feeds should be
used.

It is to be remembered that the purpose in feeding pigs

SWINE

325

from the age of two months up to the age of six or seven
months is not to fatten them, but to cause them to ghow
large frames and develop good constitutions. If they are
fattened too early, it stops their growth, and reduces their
vitality, thereby making it unprofitable to continue feeding
them up to full maturity.

J

A good type of feeding pen for small pigs.

Pasturage for growing pigs. — Growing hogs, there-
fore, require muscle and bone making food, instead of a
ration that will fatten them. They need exercise to pro-
mote their growth, and give them strong vigorous frames
for the taking on of fat. For these reasons, pasturage

326

AGRICULTURE

should supply the basis of the young hog's ration. Clover,
alfalfa, peas, rape, vetch and other succulent plants are the
cheapest and best feeds for the period between weaning and
fattening time.

To this green feed will need to be added a certain pro-
portion of corn, or other grain, in order to make a balanced

SAME -LITTER

mu

185

SORN
^\LONE

r\\

CORN

(^<

ALFALFA
HAY

ration. But the poorest and most expensive way to grow
pigs is to shut them in a dry lot and feed them a ration of
corn alone, as is so often done. The farm lacking in well
arranged hog pastures is not ready for the business of mak-
ing money out of pork.

Balanced rations for young hogs. — No matter what
other ration may be fed pigs, milk is always desirable. For
milk is highly palatable to hogs, and it contains more of

SWINE 327

the necessary food elements than any other food. The fol-
lowing are suggested as rations suitable for growing hogs
that have, in addition, access to good pasturage :

1. Corn, 60%; shorts, 30%; tankage, 10%^; or

2. Corn, one-third; wheat, one-third; oats, one-third,

ground; or

3. Corn, one-half; shorts, one-half; or

4. Corn, 60%; shorts, 20%; linseed-oil meal, 20%; or

5. Corn, one-third; milk, two-thirds.

It has been shown by careful tests that if pigs must be
fed in dry lots, ration one, consisting of corn sixty per cent.,
shorts thirty per cent, and tankage ten per cent., will produce
double the gain that can be secured from corn alone.

Fattening hogs. — Pigs should be ready for fatten-
ing by the. time they are from six to six and one-half months
old. When fattening begins, the ration should have a much
larger proportion of corn. In fact, hogs may be profitably
fattened on corn alone, through the addition of milk to the
ration pays.

While being fed for fattening, the hog does not require
the amount of exercise needed during the growing period.
It is not best, however, to shut feeders up in a close pen,
for a certain amount of exercise is necessary to keep the
hog in a healthy condition and good appetite.

Snapped corn is preferable to husked ears on account of
the greater amount of work demanded of the hog, and the
slower eating required. Where the fields can be properly
fenced off, the best of all ways to feed corn to hogs is to
allow them to do their own harvesting. This method of
feeding, called "hogging down" corn, gives the hogs about
the right amount of exercise, allows them to eat whenever
they desire, and saves the farmer the labor of husking,
hauling and feeding. The same amount of corn will also
produce more pork.

328

AGRICULTURE

5. Diseases Affecting Hogs

Young pigs are not particularly liable to any one dis-
ease, but easily fall prey to troubles arising from improper
care. Cold, wet, dirty pens cause the death of many new-
farrowed pigs. Dusty floors, filthy mud-holes and un-
cleaned troughs are always harmful. Exposure to extreme
cold or to burning heat is sure to tell in loss of health or
weight. It is safe to say that half the troubles attacking

A nizor-back jind a pure-breil. The liirge one was owned and
raised by the club boy, reooiving jrood care and a balanced ration.
The razor-back, owned by the father, had no management, a nar-
row ration, produced pork slowly and unprofitably.

the younger pigs, at least, could be saved by providing them
with more sanitary surroundings.

Thumps. — This is a disease that manifests itself in a
spasmodic manner of breathing, which suggests the name.
It is usually a digestive trouble caused by over-feeding
and lack of exercise. Certain worms may also cause
thumps. The best preventative for thumps, especially with

SWINE 329

young hogs, is plenty of pasture with green feed. The
treatment for thumps is to reduce the amount of feed, give
a laxative, and make sure that the pigs get exercise.

Scours. — Scours, or too great laxness in the digestive
tract, are caused in young pigs by overfeeding, a feverish
condition of the mother sow, soured feeds, dirty troughs,
or some other insanitary condition connected with their
feeding. The first step in applying a remedy is to find
and remove the cause. If the trouble continues, each pig
may be given a few drops of laudanum.

Worms. — Worms are a source of great trouble in
raising pigs. Through rooting in the dirt, and being fed
on dirt floors, young pigs pick up certain kinds of worms
which continue to live in their digestive organs. Pigs
never thrive when afflicted with worms. The coat shows
rough, growth is hindered, the general health affected, and
a large proportion of the feed wasted. A simple remedy
is to give one teaspoonful of turpentine to sixty or eighty
pounds of hog, and repeat the dose in three days. Another
remedy is five grains of santonin combined with three grains
of calomel for each sixty or eighty pounds of hog. This
should be followed by an effective physic. Whatever the
remedy employed, the pigs should be starved for twelve
hours before being dosed.

Lice. — Many hogs are lousy. The lice can easily be
detected by looking between the legs or behind the ears.
Hogs suffering with lice will make a slower growth and
fatten less easily than clean hogs. So important is this
matter that many hog raisers provide as a part of their
equipment a dipping tank, in which some form of crude
oil or coal tar is used as a bath. Where the dipping tank
is not available, or in the case of young pigs, the remedy
should be sprayed or rubbed on.

Tuberculosis. — Hogs, like various other animals, are

330

AGRICULTURE

suWect to tuberculosis. Many hogs have this disease in
soiHe form. Its effects are seen in a stoppage of growth,
a general run-down appearance, loss of appetite, and in
some cases, death. Because hogs are kept so short a time,
and tuberculosis is so slow a disease, there is comparatively

Parts of a hog

A. Snout

K. Back

S. Hock

B. Eye

L. Loin

T. Hind leg

C. Fflce

M. Side

U. Fore flank

D. Ear

N. Tall

V. Foot

E. Jowl

0. Rump

W. Pasterns

F. Neck

P. Breast

X. Dew claw

G. Fore 1

ee

Q. Hind flank

Y. Stifle

H. Shoulder

R. Haih

Z. Belly

I. Chest

line

little loss owing to deaths from tuberculosis. But many
animals when slaughtered are found to be unfit for food be-
cause of the disease.

Tuberculosis is caught either from diseased pigs, or from
drinking the milk of tubercular cows. It is probable that
most of the tuberculosis in swine comes from the latter

SWINE 331

cause. Many hog raisers now pasteurize the milk before
feeding it to the pigs. This is the only sure preventative
against tubercular milk.

Hog cholera. — By far the worse disease scourge af-
fecting hogs is cholera. It not infrequently wipes out en-
tire herds within a few weeks. The average yearly loss
from hog cholera in Indiana is estimated at three million
dollars. In one single "cholera year" Iowa lost at least
twenty million dollars from this cause. Other states suffer
in like proportion. It is, therefore, of the highest import-
ance that the causes of cholera, and the modes of prevention
be well understood.

Hog cholera is a germ sickness caught by infection
from hogs that have the disease. It is not necessary for
well animals to come in direct contact with cholera hogs
in order to catch the infection. The germs may be carried
by dogs ; by pigeons, crows, or other birds that alight in
the hog lot to pick up grain ; by men who have tramped
through a lot where cholera hogs have been; by new stock
brought into the herd ; and by streams that have become
infected. When hog cholera is in the region, therefore, it
is necessary to observe every precaution to keep infection
away from the herd.

Effects of cholera. — The disease is so marked in its
symptoms that it is not hard to distinguish from most other
hog sicknesses. In hog cholera, the lymphatic glands, lungs,
intestines, kidneys and liver are highly inflamed. Red
blotches appear on the skin. Appetite is lost, the gait be-
comes staggering, the eyes inflamed. Not infrequently
bleeding at the nose and vomiting occur. The temperature
is usually from one hundred and seven to one hundred and
eight degrees Fahrenheit. The first ones of the herd to be
stricken commonly die within a few days ; those that take
the disease later may live for several weeks, or even recover.

332

AGRICULTURE

r Treatment. — No absolute cure has been discovered
for hog cholera. Nearly all animals that take the disease
usually die. A method of preventing well herds from
contracting cholera has, however, been discovered. This
is to give well hogs anti-cholera serum ; or, in effect,
vaccinate them, as is done with people for smallpox and
diphtheria.

The hog cholera serum is secured by drawing blood from

I had serum. I wish I had.

a hog which has first been rendered immune to cholera,
either by having had the disease or being given a special
treatment for the purpose of immunizing, and then having
had cholera germs injected into his veins. Each animal of
the herd to be treated is given by hypodermic injection a
certain quantity of this serum in accordance with its size.
If the treatment is successful, it will immunize the herd
against cholera for several weeks. When the serum is
given to well herds, a cholera hog is sometimes brought
among them, or its carcass even fed them, at the time the
treatment is given. This method is thought to make the
immunity more certain.

SWINE 333

Success of the serum treatment. — ^The success of the
serum treatment is still questioned by many. It seems rea-
sonably certain, however, that where failure has followed its
use, it was because the serum was improperly prepared
or not skilfully administered. Various experiment stations
have found that there is a loss of only about ten per cent,
of the hogs treated in herds already infected, and of only
one or two per cent, in well herds where the serum treat-
ment has been carefully used. The manufacture of serum
by the state, or official inspection of its manufacture by pri-
vate plants, will make its use as a cholera preventative still
more effective. No one is justified in failing to treat his
herd with the serum when hog cholera threatens.

Topics for Investigation

1. Make a census of all the hogs on your home farm,
classifying them into the following groups : brood sows,
suckling pigs, young shoats, and fattening hogs. Have
your father h^elp you estimate the value of each group, and
compute the value of all.

2. What different breeds are represented on your farm ?
Are the breeds pure or mixed?

3. At what time of the year are the pigs farrowed ? At
what age are they weaned? At what age is fattening
started? Are your young pigs allowed the range of a pas-
ture? If so, what is the grass used? What feed is used
in addition?

4. Is attention given on your home farm to •feeding
hogs a balanced ration? If so, what are the feeds used?
What is the ration used for fattening ?

5. If, when pigs are allowed to "hog down" corn it
takes eight pounds of corn to produce one pound of pork, but
requires ten pounds of corn to make a pound of pork when
the corn is fed in a pen, what will be the difference in the
value of the corn fed twenty hogs while they are making an
average gain of seventy-five pounds each, corn being worth
fifty-five cents a bushel ?

334 . AGRICULTURE

9^^ 6. Have you any hogs that do not seem to be thriving ?
If so, can you judge what is the matter? Do they cough?
Do they lack appetite ? Do they look rough coated, and
run down? Is it likely that they have tuberculosis? That
they have worms ? Have they the thumps ?

7. Examine several hogs out of your herd for the pres-
ence of lice. Are your hogs ever treated for lice? Why
is it that lousy hogs never thrive well ?

8. Compare all the different types of hog-houses used
in your neighborhood. How many are clean, light, well
ventilated, and have the windows so placed that the pens
receive the sunlight during the spring farrowing season?

9. Discuss the value of the cholera serum as a pre-
ventative for hog cholera. How would you proceed to get
state and government help for the care of hogs if any of
them showed symptoms of hog cholera? What are some
of the symptoms ?

10. Show how to keep a book account of a pen of pigs,
five in number, for a season of six months. The items
should include labor costs, feed and equipment,

11. Show upon the map the relative standing of the
hog states of the Union. Has there been a falling off or
an increase in hog production during the last ten years?
Refer to the last census report of the United States De-
partment of Agriculture.

6. Demonstrations

1. Demonstrate upon the blackboard or with paste-
board or paper, how to make a hog-house ; also a hog pen
with feeding floor; then make a miniature outfit for the
club fe^ival or school fair.

2. How best to move hogs from place to place. Would
you drive,lead, or coax them?

3. Demonstrate by diagram the proper divisions of a
hog for the butcher's meat block.

4. Demonstrate the proper method for the vaccination
of hogs for hog cholera. (Consult Farmers' Bulletin No.
379.)

I

SWINE 335

5. How to make feeding and watering troughs for hog
pens, in a simple inexpensive way.

7. Play Contests

1. Contest in hog judging.

2. Naming and giving five characteristics of each of
the various types or breeds of hogs.

3. Spelling contest, in which words relating to the hog
industry are used.

4. Essay writing contest on one or more of the follow-
ing subjects : "The Origin of the Hog" ; "The Care and
Feeding of Hogs" ; "Treatment for Diseases of Hogs."

5. Drawing contest of hogs, hog pens, equipment, etc.

8. Pig Club Project

The pig club work can easily be combined with the
corn or grain "club. Each club member takes thoroughbred
pigs to raise in connection with the corn or grain crop,
keeping, of course, separate records of each interest and
charging against the hog all grain or other feed, from the
club acre. Careful records of observation, receipts and
expenditures should be kept in connection with the pig
club work and the project should cover at least twelve
months of work.

The basis of award in this particular project should be
as follows:

1. The exhibit of the hog and relation to its purpose judged

by score-card 25

2. Average gain per day or month 25

3. Net profit and cost of production 25

4. Records and story on "How I Raised My Hog" 25

Total score 100

23

CHAPTER XXII
SHEEP

THE raising of sheep has never received the attention it
deserves in most regions. There are at present only a
little more than fifty million sheep on the farms of the
United States. Almost sixty per cent, of our sheep are found
in ten states, seven of which are in the far West, one in the
South, and only two in the middle and eastern states. Ac-
cording to their importance in sheep raising, these states
are: Montana, Wyoming, Ohio, New Mexico, Idaho, Ore-
gon, California, Michigan, Texas and Utah. Other middle
western states having important sheep interests are Mis-
souri, Indiana, Kentucky, Iowa and Illinois.

1. Importance of Sheep on the Farm

Sheep could be raised with good profit on thousands of
farms where they are now unknown. They are among the
most hardy of the domestic animals, and will thrive in al-
most every part of the country.

Sheep as foragers. — Sheep have no equal among the
farm animals as foragers. They will eat a wide range of
roughage, much of which is not available for other stock.
Certain weeds not palatable to most animals are eaten by
sheep, and they therefore aid in keeping pastures, meadows
and fields clean. Sheep will graze steep hillsides not acces-
sible to horses or cattle, and will feed from the foliage
and twigs of brushland pastures. They find a good living

336

SHEEP

237

on stubble-fields, and will clean up the waste leaves, husks
and stalks of corn-fields, being able to thrive in fields where
cattle and horses have gleaned all that they can well find.
Sheep can therefore obtain a considerable part of their liv-
ing from material that would otherwise go to waste.

Slieep grazing in Washington.

Sheep require little labor. — Comparatively little labor
is required in caring for sheep. In order to maintain the
fertility of the soil, we need to raise more stock on our
farms. Half a dozen sheep will produce as much income
a.s a dairy cow, and demand much less labor for their care.

338 AGRICULTURE

Their heavy coats enable sheep to live in relatively open
sheds in the winter, providing they are kept dry. The cost
of shelter is therefore low.

One of the chief practical difficulties in sheep raising
is that the fences suitable for horses and cattle will not
hold sheep. The present tendency, however, is to build
closer fences, so that fields will be available for both hogs
and sheep. In some regions serious loss of sheep occurs
from vicious dogs, wolves and coyotes. Sheep-killing dogs
should be relentlessly shot.

Sheep bring quick returns. — Sheep are almost as good
as poultry for quick returns. For ordinary farm purposes
breeds are usually selected to produce both wool and mut-
ton. In this way a double yield can be secured — fleeces from
all the flock, and either lambs. or mutton in addition.

It is estimated that the fleece from good sheep should
pay for their feed, thereby leaving the lambs raised or the
mutton produced as profit. Lambs are ready for market at
from seven to twelve months of age, thus allowing the
money invested in them to be turned quickly.

2. Breeds of Sheep

Sheep, like cattle, are kept for two purposes. Just as
cattle include both the beef and the dairy breeds, so sheep
comprise mutton breeds and merino, or zvool, breeds.

Mutton breeds. — Mutton breeds of sheep correspond
to beef breeds of cattle — their forms must be such as to
yield the best results on the butcher's block, and they must
be able to change their feed profitably into mutton.

Mutton breeds are divided into two classes in accordance
with the length of their wool: (1) medium zvool, or down
type, of which there are eight different breeds; and (2)
long wool, of which there are three breeds. »

SHEEP

339

Medium wool breeds —

Shropshire

Southdown

Oxford

Hampshire

Dorset-Horn

Cheviot

Tunis

Long wool breeds —

Leicester
Cotswold
Lincoln

Sheep grazing, typical of western states.

The mutton breeds are more commonly used for the gen-
eral purposes of the farmer than are the breeds that are
classified as merino.

Merino breeds. — The merino breeds of sheep corre-
spond to the dairy breeds of cattle. The build is more
angular than that of the mutton breeds, and the general
form such as to give the largest surface for the attach-
ment of fleece. On the pure wool breeds the skin often
hangs in folds on certain parts of the body, thus increasing

340 AGRICULTURE

the area for the growth of wool. The three chief merino
breeds are:

American Merino
Delaine Merino
Rambouillet

Market classes of sheep. — Wholly regardless of breed,
market demands divide sheep into three groups or classes.
These are (1) fat, or mutton sheep, or those ready for
slaughter ; if the animals are less than one year old, they
are called lambs; (2) feeders, or animals ready to be fat-
tened; and (3) breeders.

3. Feeding Sheep

What has been said about the ability of sheep to forage
for a great part of their food must not be understood to
mean that it does not matter what sheep are given to eat.
For sheep are exactly like all other animals in requiring
the right proportion of nutritive elements in their food.
Lacking a proper ration, they will be checked in growth,
delayed in fattening, or short on the quantity and quality of
wool.

Feeding ewes kept for breeding. — Ewes that are to
produce lambs in the spring may be fed through the winter
on a cheaper ration than that required for the feeders. The
ewes need more of the muscle-forming, and less of the fat-
producing foods. Their rations may therefore consist more
largely of roughage, and less of grains than for the fat-
tening lambs.

For breeding ewes weighing from one hundred and
twenty-five to one hundred and fifty pounds, the following
daily rations have been tested by the Minnesota Experiment
Station and have been found to be economical and satis-
factory :

«

SHEEP

341

Ration No. 1.

Ration No. 2.

3.5 pounds of corn stover.
2.0 pounds of roots.
.4 pounds of oats or shelled
corn.,

2. pounds of clover hay.
1.4 pounds of corn stover.
.4 pounds of oats and corn
mixed.

Montana sheep ready for shipment.

Feeding for market, — The ration for fattening re-
quires a larger proportion of fats and carbohydrates than
the ones just described. It has also been found that lambs
fatten best with a mixture of succulent food along with the
usual roughage and grain.

The Cornell University Experiment Station has tried
extensive experiments in fattening different lots of lambs

342 AGRICULTURE

during a period of one hundred and ten days. Each of the
following rations served fifty lambs for one day :

Ration No. 1. Ration No. 2.

60 pounds of silage. 65 pounds of mixed hay.

50 pounds of mixed hay. 35 pounds of corn.

35 pounds of corn. 15 pounds of oats.
13 pounds of oats. 5 pounds of brewer's grains.

5 pounds of brewer's grain.

Ration No. 3. Ration No. 4.

65 pounds of mixed hay. 60 pounds of silage.

10 pounds of corn. 50 pounds of mixed hay.

20 pounds of brewer's grains. 10 pounds of corn.
20 pounds of gluten. ' 20 pounds of brewer's grains.

5 pounds of oats. 20 pounds of gluten.

5 pounds of oats.

It should be understood in studying these rations that
at the beginning of the feeding period a larger proportion
of roughage and a smaller proportion of grain were fed. By
the end of the one-hundred-and-ten-day period this propor-
tion had been reversed. The rations as given are the daily
average for the whole time.

The actual amount of nutrients is the same for each of
these four rations, yet the results differ considerably both
as to cost and the amount of fat produced, as is shown by
the following comparisons:

Ration

1
2
3
4

It will be noted that the most rapid gains, and at the
lowest cost per pound were from the rations that contained

Average gain per sheep

Cost per pound

in 110 days

of gain

22.7 pounds

10.6 cents

15.7 "

15.9 "

18.9 "

13.2 "

25.1

9.6 "

i

SHEEP 343

silage. It is also seen that the lowest gain, and at the
highest cost per pound, was from ration No. 2, where all
succulent food was lacking, and most of the grain ration
consisted of corn and oats.

Topics for Investigation

1. Make a study of the sheep raising industry in your
vicinity, determining (1) how many sheep are kept, (2)
what breeds are most used, (3) whether mutton or wool is
depended on for the chief source of profit, and (4) what
method of feeding and housing is principally followed.

2. Which would probably add more labor on your
farm, increasing your dairy herd by five cows, or keeping
a flock of thirty sheep? How would the profits probably
compare? What is the basis for your judgment?

3. Suppose the cost of the nutrients making up the
fattening rations shown on page 342 was as follows : Hay,
ten dollars a ton ; silage, two dollars and fifty cents a ton ;
corn, sixty-five cents a bushel ; oats, forty-five cents a
bushel ; distiller's grains, thirty dollars a ton ; gluten,
twenty-five dollars a ton. Figure what it cost to feed fifty
lambs with each ration for one hundred and ten days.

4. After judging one or more sheep under the direction
of the teacher, judge several animals independently, and
then have your markings criticized and corrected.

5. Write an argument of three hundred words showing
why sheep raising should be extended as an industry in
your neighborhood and county.

6. Show how to keep a record of labor costs, pasture
rent, feed and shearing of ten sheep.

7. Indicate on the map of the United States the sheep
areas and the approximate number of sheep in each state
as shown by the last census report.

8. Enumerate in your note-book the various products
supplied by sheep.

4, Sheep Demonstrations

1. Demonstrate the proper method of shearing sheep.

2. Show how to make a balanced ration for sheep for
the month of January in your locality.

344 AGRICULTURE

' 3, Demonstrate how to judge the sheep. Use drawing,
photograph or chart.

4. Demonstrate how to judge a lamb for mutton pur-
poses. Use an animal in this case if possible.

5. Show how to judge sheep for wool purposes. Use
the animal in this case.

5. Sheep Play Contests

1. Breed naming contests.

2. .Wool fabric judging contest. A number of small
pieces of various kinds of wool cloth, mixed with half wool
and half cotton pieces, and some cotton pieces can be
placed before the pupils with a view to teaching them
how to distinguish between all-wool, part-wool, or cotton
goods.

3. Essay writing contest on "The Life History of
Sheep."

4. Sheep judging contest.

5. Five-minute extemporaneous speaking contest. In
this contest have club members obtain all kinds of informa-
tion with a view to making a speech either for or against the
production of sheep on the average farm of the community.
The object of this is to have them use the information ob-
tained from the text, investigations, etc., and apply this to
their own farming conditions.

6. Sheep Club Projects

There are two practical club projects in connection with
this line of work: The mutton production club, and the
wool production club.

Mutton production club. — In connection with this
club project the members are to take from one to a dozen
spring lambs and care for them, keeping a record for a
definite period of time, with a view to preparing them for

I:

SHEEP 345

the mutton market. The basis of award for this project
may be :

1. Net profit or cost of production 30

2. Condition of lamb, judged by score-card 30

3. Records of cost of labor, feeding, etc 20

4. Story of "How to Produce Good Mutton" 20

Total score 100

Wool production club. — This may consist of taking
care of one or more sheep for a year's time, and may require
the club member to select the sheep on the basis of high
wool production. Keep records and accounts of labor and
feed, as well as wool receipts. The net profit on investment
is to come from the returns from the wool rather than the
mutton. The basis of award may be :

1. Net profit or cost of production 30

2. Condition and quality of wool produced 30

3. Exhibit of samples of wool 20

4. Records and story of "How to Produce High-grade

Wool Economically" 20

Total score 100

CHAPTER XXIII
POULTRY

THE raising of poultry is considered of rather incidental
importance on rnost farms. A few chickens are kept
for supplying the table with fresh eggs and an occasional
fowl. Perhaps a flock of turkeys, ducks or geese are added
for the sake of variety. Little attention is usually given to
the possibility of large profits from the sale of eggs and
poultry.

Yet, in spite of this somewhat haphazard method of
treating the poultry industry, its aggregate returns are very
large. For more than five and one-half million farms have
a flock of chickens or other fowl. In addition, not a few
people in villages and towns keep enough fowl for home
use.

L Take a census of all the fowls on your home farm,
dividing into chickens, ducks, geese, etc.

2. How many of each class are in their first year ; sec-
ond year; third year, etc.?

3. Carefully estimate the value of each class of fowls,
and compute the value of all.

1. Distribution of Poultry Production

Nearly five hundred million fowls are kept on the farms
in our population. Considerably more than one and one-
half billion dozen eggs are produced annually. This is
enough to supply every man, woman and child with fifteen

346

POULTRY 347

dozen eggs each year. The value of the eggs is in excess of
three hundred milHon dollars a year, or sufficient to pay
about three-fourths of the running expenses of all our
public schools. The fowls themselves are worth above two
hundred million dollars.

The ten leading poultry states. — Ten states supply
about fifty-four per cent, of all the eggs we produce. These
states are Missouri, Iowa, Ohio, Illinois, Kansas, Indiana,
Texas, Pennsylvania, New York and Michigan.

The percentage of the entire Qgg crop produced by each
of these ten states is as follows :

Missouri 7.0%

Iowa 6.9%

Ohio 6.3%

-Illinois 6.37o

Kansas 5.1%

Indiana 5.1%

Texas 4.9%

Pennsylvania 4.7%

New York 4.6%

Michigan 3.8%

2. Poultry Raising as a Farm Industry

There are several good reasons why the raising of poul-
try should occupy a more important place than it now does
on most of our farms.

Increasing demands for eggs and poultry. — Eggs
form one of the most necessary and palatable articles of
food. With improved methods of shipping and cold storage
they have increasingly become a staple on almost every
table, city as well as country. The prices are high, a dozen
of eggs bringing the farmer about as much as a pound of
butter. The demand for fowl as a supplement to other
kinds of meat has also greatly increased, and there is now

348

AGRICULTURE

a ready market throughout the year for all kinds of poultry
suitable for the table.

Low cost of feeding poultry. — A fair-sized flock of
poultry can be kept on the farm with but little expense for
feed. This is because fowl will gather up the greater part
of their living from material that would otherwise be wasted.
Scattered grain from the feed lots ; undigested grain from
farm animals ; weed and grass seeds ; grass and various

■S ' .mmli

i^

«

j||||g|gim|||g|g_

A year's prpduct of an average hen and a good hen.
average hen hi Id 75 eggs, the good hen 223 eggs.

The

green plants about the barn lots, worms, bugs, grasshoppers
and other insect pests form a large part of the diet of farm
poultry during most of the year.

The labor of caring for poultry is light. — The labor
connected with poultry raising is much lighter than with
other farm animals. Much of the work is suited' to the
strength and interest of children, and gives the training in
responsibility which every child needs. With a little over-

POULTRY 349

sight, children of from ten to eighteen years can successfully
take almost entire charge of poultry raising and make it
highly profitable. This has been fully demonstrated in many
boys' and girls' poultry clubs in nearly every state.

Quick profits are realized. — The profits from a well
managed flock of chickens are not only liberal and certain,
but quick. Chickens are ready for market within a few
months from the time they are hatched, and hens are at
their best as layers during the first and second years of their
life. And the eggs afford a continuous source of income
to meet the expense of any feed or other supplies that are
bought, or to add to the bank account.

Almost all farm boys and girls could become expert
chicken raisers and, by making arrangements with their
parents to receive a share of the income from the flock,
earn their own money for clothes, books, schooling, travel
or whatever else they may desire.

3. Breeds of Chickens

According to experts there are one hundred and four
standard varieties of chickens raised in the United States.
There are many other varieties not sufficiently developed to
be called standard. For practical purposes the standard
varieties may all be grouped in four classes: (1) General
purpose breeds ; (2) meat or table breeds; (3) tgg breeds;
(4) ornamental breeds.

General purpose breeds. — ^The general purpose
breeds are the result of an attempt to combine egg-laying
with good table qualities. The favorites of these breeds are :

Plymouth Rocks, Barred, White and Buflf.

Wyandottes, Silver, Golden, White, Buff, Black, etc.

Javas, Black and Mottled.

Dominiques, Rose-comb.

Rhode Island Reds, Single-comb and Rose-comb.

Barred IMvinouth Kocks.

Siugle<'ouib Rhode Island Keds.

POULTRY 351

Buckeyes, Pea-comb.

Orpingtons, Buff, Black and White.

Houdans, Mottled.

Meat breeds. — The meat, or table, breeds are chiefly
raised for the large markets. They must be of good shape
and size, quick growers and ready fatteners. The principal
breeds of this class are :

Brahmas, Light and Dark.

Cochins, Buff, Partridge, White and Black.

Langshans, Black and White.

Dorkings, White, Silver-gray and Colored.

Indians, White Game.

Egg breeds. — The prime consideration in the egg
breeds is that they shall be good layers, begin laying young,
and continue for a considerable period of time. The chief
breeds are:

Leghorns, Brown, Buff, White, Black, etc.

Minorcas, Black and White.

Spanish, White-faced Black.

Andalusians, Blue.

Anconas, Mottled.

Hamburgs, Gold and Silver Spangled, White and Black.

Redcaps, Rose-comb.

Ornamental breeds. — The ornamental breeds are not
important for practical farm purposes. Some of the favor-
ites of these breeds are :

Polish, White-crested Black, Golden, Silver, White, Golden.

Crevecoeurs, Black.

La Fleche, Black.

Bantams.

Games. .

It is best not to mix breeds of chickens. First one should
decide what class is desired, whether egg, meat, or general

^'

Single-comb Buff Orpingtons.

liluck Lungshuuis.

POULTRY

353

purpose. Then a pure breed of this class should be selected,
^nd the strain kept free from mixture with other breeds.

1. Are the chickens on your farm pure bred, grade, or
scrub ? What breed or breeds do you use ? Is this an egg,
meat or general purpose breed?

2. What steps could be taken to improve the breed?

Light Brahmas.

Would this not pay? Do egg or table breeds return most
profit under farm conditions?

4. Producing Chickens

A successful hatch depends (1) on securing fertile un-
injured eggs, and (2) on proper incubation.

Eggs for hatching. — Heredity has its effect in fowl as
well as other animals. The eggs for hatching should there-
fore come from the choicest and most vigorous members

354 AGRICULTURE

* of the flock. The best plan is to separate from the main
flock a sufficient number of desirable hens to produce the
eggs required for setting. These can be kept by them-
selves until the hatching season is over.

In order that eggs may hatch at all they must be fertile.
They are made fertile by the presence of a male bird in
the flock during the laying season. One male should be
supplied for every ten or twelve hens. Since one-half of the
heredity of the entire flock is dependent on the male bird,
he should be pure bred, the best of his kind, young and
vigorous.

Care of eggs before setting. — Eggs should be fresh
when they are set, never more than two weeks old, and
better if not more than a few days from the nest. They
should be kept rather cool, a suitable temperature being
between fifty and sixty degrees Fahrenheit. Eggs that have
been badly chilled will not hatch. It is necessary, therefore,
that eggs intended for hatching shall be gathered at fre-
quent intervals during cold weather. Many poultry men
think it is best to turn the eggs over every day or so during
the time they, are stored before setting. They should never
be jarred or shaken.

Hatching with the hen. — Eggs may be successfully
hatched either with a hen or an incubator. If the hatch is
not to consist of more than from one hundred to two hun-
dred chicks, and if the hens come of a breed of good setters,
it is doubtful whether it pays to use an incubator.

Only quiet, motherly hens of good disposition should be
used for setting. The nest should be made of a box from
fourteen to sixteen inches square, and six inches deep. Four
inches of earth should be placed in the box, hollowed slight-
ly, and covered with chaff or straw. The broody hen should
be removed to the nest at night and given a few china eggs

POULTRY

355

for a day or two to make sure that she is in earnest about
sitting. From thirteen to fifteen eggs may then be given
her for the hatch. It is well to dust both hen and nest with
insect powder to destroy vermin. The sitting hen should
be well fed on such grains as corn, wheat, or oats, have

A honie-iuadc t'^LT lesUT.

plenty of fresh water, and be let off the nest a short time
each day for «xercise and a dust bath.

356 AGRICULTURE

Hatching with the incubator. — Although there are
many different makes of incubators, they all supply the heat
necessary for hatching by one of two methods, either hot
air, or hot water. All of the standard makes will be found
satisfactory, though the hot-air type seems less likely to get
out of order.

Success with the incubator depends much more on the
operator than the machine. For unless the temperature and
ventilation are kept right, the eggs properly turned, and
other necessary conditions met, the hatch is sure to fail.
The directions supplied with the machine must be faith-
fully followed, else one need not hope for success.

Testing for infertile eggs. — About the sixth day after
setting the eggs should be tested and the infertile ones re-
moved. The testing may be done by placing a small lamp
or a lantern in a box through one side of which just oppo-
site the light a hole has been cut somewhat smaller than
an tgg. The testing should be done in the dark, preferably
at night. The egg is held against the opening in front of
the light. As the light shines through, the infertile eggs
will appear clear, while the fertile egg will show a network
of threads leading out from a center, and floating about
as the egg is turned. If a number of hens were set at the
same time, and many infertile eggs are found, one hen
may be released, or given a new supply, and the fertile
eggs distributed among the others.

Care of newly hatched chicks. — The chicks first
hatched from a setting should be removed from the nest
in about twenty-four hours. If they are not, they will begin
to leave the nest themselves, and the hen is likely to desert
the nest before all the eggs are hatched. The chicks must
be kept warm and comfortable until the mother is ready for
them.

POULTRY

357

When the hatching is done in an incubator, the chicks
are left for twenty-four hours after hatching and then re-
moved to the brooder, which must be at a temperature of
from ninety to ninety-five degrees Fahrenheit. By the time
the chicks are a month old the brooder may be brought
gradually down to seventy degrees.

1. Is any care taken in raising chickens on your farm
toward selecting eggs from the best hens for setting? Is
care taken to use only the best male birds?

2. Draw a plan for a suitable nest for a sitting hen,
showing covered runway.

A well-arranged Interior, showing nests and feeding equipment.

3. Do you make the test for infertile eggs after the
hens have been set about a week ? How do you tell whether
the egg has started to hatch ?

5. Feeding Chickens
Feeding young chickens. — For the first forty-eight

358 AGRICULTURE

hours after hatching the young chick needs no feed of any
kind. Nature had provided for this period by having the yolk
of the egg absorbed into the abdomen of the chick just before
it is hatched. This food must be used up before the chick
is ready for more.

The first food given the chicks may be stale bread soaked
in milk and squeezed dry; hard boiled eggs chopped fine,
shell and all ; or cracked corn, wheat or oats. A good grain
ration for chicks is made of equal parts of cracked com,
cracked wheat and cut oats fed five times a day. An excel-
lent supplementary ration to hasten growth is the follow-
ing : Bran, ten pounds ; shorts, ten pounds ; cornmeal, five
pounds ; meat scraps, five pounds ; charcoal, two and one-
half pounds. This mixture may either be fed wet or dry.
Plenty of sour milk will add greatly to the eflfectiveness of
the ration. Green foods should also be supplied from the
first.

Feeding laying hens. — Hens, like other animals, do
best on a ration balanced to meet their needs. There is
no one best ration, since the necessary food elements can be
obtained from many different sources. It is certain, how-
ever, that fowls require grain, meat, or milk, mill feeds
such as shorts, or bran, green foods, sharp grit, shell and
water.

The following is recommended as a well balanced lay-
ing ration, though wheat may be left out and more corn
and oats added, or milk supplied instead of the meat scraps.
(Purdue Extension Bulletin, 10.)

Grain Dby Mash

10 pounds of corn. 5 pounds of bran.

10 pounds of wheat S pounds of shorts.

5 pounds of oats. 3% pounds of meat scraps.

The grain is fed in a litter of straw night and morning.

POULTRY 359

and the mash left before the fowls the greater part of the
day. Green food, grit and shell are, of course, added to
this ration.

Feeding chickens for fattening. — ^^Chickens should be
specially fattened for market. Not only is weight added,
but the quality of the meat greatly improved by fattening,
and a higher price obtained. When unfattened chickens
are selling at ten cents, the same fowls when fattened will
bring fifteen cents in the city markets.

Both the pen and the crate method of fattening are used.
Pen fattening requires less time and attention than crate
fattening. The fattening pen should be kept darkened ex-
cept at feeding time, in order that the chickens may remain
quiet. A suitable ration is fed at regular intervals, and in
as large quantities as the fowls will eat in from twenty to
thirty minutes.

Crate feeding. — More rapid fattening is possible by
placing from six to nine chickens in a crate. The fowls are
given a regular ration, and kept from all exercise. About
two weeks is the average time required for fattening. An
excellent fattening ration may be compounded as follows :

10 pounds of cornmeal.

5 pounds of shorts.

5 pounds of ground oats.
40 pounds of buttermilk.

Cramming. — Poultrymen who make a business of fat-
tening for city markets often use the cramming system of
feeding. This method is based on the fact that chickens
will not eat so much as they can assimilate and use in mak-
ing fat. The fowl is taken from the pen or crate and held
while soft food is pressed down the throat into the crop, or
passed into the crop by means of a tube attached to a
cramming machine. This forcible feeding will considerably
hasten the fattening process.

360 AGRICULTURE

6. Producing and Marketing Eggs

Properly handled eggs are the most profitable part of
the poultry business on the farm. It is therefore well to
study the conditions necessary to the largest production of
eggs. The number of eggs produced by a flock depends
(1) on the breed, whether of the laying, or meat, type; (2)
on the feed, whether it consists of a balanced ration con-
taining the elements required by the egg', and (3) the
housing and care.

Profitable layers. — There is a great difference in the
laying qualities not only of different breeds, but also of
individual hens. An average grade or scrub hen will lay
about seventy-five eggs in a year ; a high-class hen of a lay-
ing breed, more than two hundred. These two hens eat the
same amount of food, take the same amount of room, and
require the same amount of care. The one hardly pays for
her keep, the other yields a handsome profit. It will pay
every farmer to weed out the poor layers from his flock,
and fill their places with productive hens.

Age and egg production. — Young hens are the best
layers. Only in the case of exceptional layers should hens
be kept after they are two years old. Hens that have
passed their second year will continue laying and produce
a fair number of eggs, but younger hens will produce more
eggs, and should therefore take the place of the older ones.

Pullets should begin laying in the fall of their first year.
In order that they may do this, it is necessary to have them
hatched out early in the preceding spring, preferably not
later than March or April. They should then lay through-
out the winter, and be at their best the following summer.

The quality of eggs. — Eggs are rated commercially
according to size as extras when they weight from twenty-six
to twenty-eight ounces to the dozen ; as firsts when they
weigh from twenty-four to twenty-six ounces to the dozen ;

POULTRY 361

and as seconds when they weigh less than twenty-four
ounces. In some places eggs are now sold by weight. For
these reasons the size is of great importance.

To command the highest price, eggs should also be uni-
form in shape and color, the shell smooth and free, from
spots, and clean without having been washed. Tested with
the candler the air cell should be no larger than a dime,
thus indicating freshness; the contents must appear opaque,
the yolks barely visible, and free from any discoloring; the
white, rnust ,show thick and compact, the yolk not floaiting
about. ^.■^•'';.''^^' \'/ •;'>■■'

•^fl.' Make a candler test as described in the text, and
learn to tell fresh from stale eggs ; fertile from infertile.

2. Score the eggs collected for several days from your
farm hens. How many extras ; firsts ; seconds? How many
were dirty? What was the average score?

Effect of infertility on quality. — No eggs except those
intended for hatching should be fertile. This is .because
infertile eggs keep much longer and in better flavor than
fertile eggs. If a fertile egg is allowed to stand in a warm
temperature for two or three days it begins to develop
blood-rings ; that is, it begins to hatch. This process is sure
to go on during the marketing and shipping, thus greatly
reducing the value of the eggs. The infertile egg is free
from all this difficulty, and will keep fresh much longer.

It is estimated that the loss from allowing eggs to be-
come fertilized is more than fifteen million dollars annually
in the United States. All male birds should therefore be
kept away from laying hens when the eggs are to be used or
sold. This will have no effect on the number of eggs pro-
duced.

Rules for egg production. — ^The following rules for
egg production are given by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture :

t

PRODL'CE INFERTILE EGGS ^ ^
Fi^FA'ENT LOSS FROM BAD-E:Gc;S

•.:'>i!i:i!:„».:twai . ,t . cliroal«J.l$45,tX)ll,00ll«nnu.

II 1> Ai.-O KsTlM\ttX> THAT $15,0i»,0iW O!
■ ■'UL ro BLr>OD RINGS. .

H-

llir gnm unlil
1

n tirvrl

bo( »u(nmrr h
1 nol be pwfi<

Ik.

( bulk trom thcllock.and xili/r n. .
.i.il .^ llx- nulf .buj. U »h...l.ii

"J. Kcyfj ihf fi^(:t In « t'Kil. iliv inom ui ir

■1 M.rlrl Itv- rja;. .1 lr.,( |„„r . «rrk,

^.lU.ll.oi ,<,rji»' .11 m.1.^ I.jrl>« .

NoricK

UlftrBMiwi ™ rly c «i^ iA 1,^11) «rKl ntv-i mif Ix- M bv wm
1'- ib<- llur.iu nl Animil loJuury. U S, l>|«iimrtil ti Ajiitvilli

Fertile and Infertile eggs.

POULTRY 363

1. Keep the nests clean; provide one nest for each four

hens.

2. Gather the eggs twice daily.

3. Keep the eggs in a cool dry room or cellar.

4. Market the eggs at least twice a week.

5. Market, kill or confine all male birds as soon as the

hatching season is over.

7. Housing the Poultry

There are almost as many different styles of poultry
houses as dwelling houses. The exact form of the poultry
house is not important, though some types are more pleas-
ing in appearance and less expensive than others. Every
state agricultural college has plans for poultry houses
adapted to the region and will be glad to supply these to
citizens of the state. No matter what the style, however,
certain fundamental requirements should be met by all
poultry houses.

Drainage. — Poultry are especially sensitive to unhy-
gienic surroundings. Impurities arising from ground sat-
urated with unclean seepage, and dampness coming from
undrained soil are sure to injure the fowls. The poultry
house should be built on well drained ground. Drain tile
should be used to carry the water away if necessary.

Room. — In many instances a flock of chickens are
crowded into a space far too small for them, and the
owner then wonders why they do not thrive well or lay
eggs. The amount of floor space should be from four to five
square feet for each bird. If there is free access to a shel-
tered yard, somewhat less than this may serve, but better
sell part of the flock than overcrowd them in small pens.

Ventilation. — Chickens require far more air accord-
ing to their weight than larger animals. Confinement in
close, ill-smelling rooms is certain to lower their vitality,
bring on diseases, and interfere with laying. In climates

Brood coops set on clean fresh ground. This flock is in little
danger of disease.

mm^^^s^^mmmmi

p

y^k

A practical ben t(ou8e for the farm.

POULTRY 365

where the poultry house can not have an open front, two
or more sashes should be covered with musUn instead of
being glazed, and hung on hinges so that the window may
be thrown open in good weather. In bad weather the sash
may be closed and yet admit sufficient air. Drafts should
never strike chickens either while they are on the roost or
the floor.

Sunlight. — Sunlight is the best of disinfectants. The
poultry house should front the south, and have a reason-
able number of glazed windows besides the muslin sashes.
Too much glass makes the house excessively hot in the
summer and very cold in the winter; too little glass leaves
the quarters dark and gloomy, hinders the chickens in feed-
ing, and encourages disease. >

Freedom from dampness.^^When frost gathers heav-
ily inside the poultry house in cold weather it shows too
great a degree of dampness. This may come from the
ground floor, or lack of ventilation and sunlight. If a soil
floor ;i§^ used, there should first be filled in several inches
of broken rock. On top of this may be placed a coating of
cinders, and over the cinders a layer of soil. The soil floor
at its best is hard to keep clean, dry and free from odors.
Cement makes an excellent floor, as it can easily be washed.
Over the cement should be spread an inch or two of straw
or hay.

Comfortable roosts. — Fowls spend much time on the
roosts. It is therefore important that the roosts be com-
fortable. Roosts may be made from two-by-two-inch stuff,
rounded on the upper edges; they should be placed about
two and one-half feet from the floor. Eight inches below
the roosts should be a removable board or floor to catch
the droppings.

Nests. — One nest should be supplied for every four
hens. The nests may be built in a series along the side,

366

AGRICULTURE

just under the eaves if these are not too high. Hens lay
best in a secluded place. The nests should therefore be
covered, and sufficiently enclosed to make them partially
dark. Openings through the outer wall large enough to
admit the hand into the nests will allow the gathering of
the eggs without entering the building. Care must be
taken, however, to provide a way to close these holes so
that drafts may not strike the nests.

Colony houses and runs for ducks.

Colony houses. — Colony houses are small buildings
intended for from fifteen to twenty-five fowls, and are
movable. They may be constructed on the same plan as the
larger building, and are placed on sills or runners so that
that may be dragged from place to place with a team.
Poultrymen who use colony houses move them. frequently,
thus securing better hygienic conditions. The colony house
is especially desirable for hens with broods of chickens.
Many large poultry raisers use both the permanent building
and the colony house for their flocks.

POULTRY Z(i7

8. Poultry Diseases

The poultryman's aim should be to prevent diseases
rather than cure them in his flock. For a fowl sick with
any serious disease is hard to treat, and should usually be
killed at once to save time in caring for it and the danger
of infecting others.

Sanitation in the poultry yard. — Chickens are subject
to a number of diseases that depend chiefly on lack of
cleanliness around the premises. * Lice and various para-
sitic mites attack little chicks or older fowls alike. Fre-
quent whitewashing of the poultry house, washing the roosts
with kerosene, and spraying with kerosene emulsion such
as is used for fruit trees, are some of the preventatives for
these pests.

A simple and effective lice powder is made of one pint of
tobacco dust mixed with two quarts of fine road dust. Sul-
phur may be used in place of the tobacco dust, and finely
sifted hard coal ashes in place of the road dust. The soil of a
poultry yard should occasionally be sprayed with kerosene
emulsion, or coated with whitewash after all refuse has
been removed. If the ground is plowed or spaded late in
the fall and allowed to freeze during the winter many para-
sites and disease germs will be destroyed.

White diarrhea. — This is a disease affecting young
chicks within the first four days of their life. They are
most subject to attack the first twenty- four hours, and im-
mune after ninety-six hours. The disease is caused by a
bacterium found in the egg laid by a hen that carries the
germs in her body. It may also be caught by contagion
from chicks that have the disease, or from contact with in-
cubators where the germs have lodged. There is no suc-
cessful remedy. A good measure of prevention is to keep
incubators, brooders and all feeding utensils disinfected.

368 AGRICULTURE

fr Gapes. — Gapes is another disease attacking young
chicks. It is caused by a small worm picked up from the
soil. The worms attach themselves to the inner walls of
the windpipe, where they draw their food from the blood
of the chick, thereby weakening it, and also clogging the
passage so that the chick gasps for breath.

Here again prevention is a question of sanitation. If
the soil is free of the worms, there will be no gapes in the
chickens. It is well, therefore, to keep the young chicks
on clean new ground on which former broods have not been
raised.

Cholera. — Several different kinds of germs commonly
found in the intestines of chickens may, under certain con-
ditions, cause diseases known as cholera. True chicken
cholera is caused only by one particular germ, however.
Cholera is contracted by contact with fowls sick with the
disease, by germs carried by new birds brought into the
flock, by germs brought by wild birds that alight in the poul-
try yard, or dogs or other animals that roam from place
to place.

It does not pay to try to cure fowls that have contracted
the disease. It is best to kill them at once, burning or
deeply burying the bodies. Care should all center on pre-
vention. First of all, the flock must have sanitary sur-
roundings— good air, sunshine, quarters that are dry and
clean, and should have suitable food.

The poultry house and yard must be frequently disin-
fected. New fowls brought into the flock must be kept by
themselves for a week to make sure they do not carry in-
fection. Stray animals should be shut from the chicken
yard. The careful following of these simple precautions
will greatly lessen the danger from chicken cholera.

Roup. — This is but another name for a kind of con-
tagious catarrh among poultry which closely resembles in-

POULTRY

369

fluenza, or grippe, in man. Roup is thought to be contracted
only by contact with infected birds. It attacks the mem-

'^pdB

eu&r ^^

The parts of a chicken.

branes of the eye, mouth and throat, causing inflammation
and a sticky discharge. The disease is accompanied by
high fever. Roup may be brought into the flock by newly

370 AGRICULTURE

f" purchased birds, by fowls that have been taken to poultry
shows, or by pigeons or other wild birds.

Roup is one of few poultry diseases that may be suc-
cessfully treated. The sick fowl should be separated from
the flock and given a warm, dry, well-ventilated place. All
the affected parts should be washed with some antiseptic
mixture. This may be done with a spray, or by plunging
the head into the liquid wash. The following are suitable
washes :

1. Boric acid, 1 ounce; water, 1 quart, or

2. Permanganate of potash, 1 dram; water, 1 quart, or

3. Peroxide or hydrogen 1 ounce; water, 3 ounces.

Topics for Investigation

1. Taking into account both what the chickens on your
farm are fed and what they pick up, make a list of what
goes into the ration of your flock. Compare with the ra-
tions given in the chapter. Is any element lacking in what
your chickens are getting?

2. Estimate as carefully as you can the value of the
feed given your chickens in one year; now estimate the
value of the eggs and meat yielded by your flock. What
do you conclude ? Would it pay to keep a strict account of
the expense and income of your flock for several months or
a year, so you would know how you are coming out?

3. Estimate as closely as you can the number of eggs
produced in a year by your flock. How many eggs does
this average per hen? Is this a good average?

4. If the average egg production from your flock is
low, what is the cause: breed, age, care, or feeding? What
would need to be done to improve the record ? How many
hens have you more than two years old?

5. Suppose you have for market fifty chickens that,
without special fattening, will average five pounds each,
and will bring ten cents a pound. Now also suppose that
by two weeks of crate or close-yard feeding you can in-
crease the average weight one pound for each bird, and get

POULTRY 371

fifteen cents a pound for the lot. If the feed used is .just
balanced by the increase in weight, what would be the gain
from fattening?

6. Select several fertile and several infertile eggs, and
place them where they will keep at a temperature of eighty
to ninety degrees ; examine with the candler after twenty-
four hours ; after forty-eight hours ; after seventy-two
hours; after ninety-six hours. What do you conclude as
to the keeping qualities of fertile eggs, and of infertile
eggs ?

7. Make a drawing of your farm poultry house, show-
ing all doors, windows, roosts, dropping boards, nests, etc.
How does the building compare with the requirements given
in the chapter? What needs to be done?

8. Talk with your father and mother about allowing
you to take charge of a part or all of the chickens for a
season, sharing the income. Then study all the helps you
can find, and make a record for yourself and high profits
for both.

9. Show proper methods of keeping poultry records.
Include in the items, cost of labor, feed, marketing, parcel-
post cases, egg production, receipts from spring settings
of eggs, cold storage costs, and poultry equipment.

10. Show on the map of the United States the poultry
sections, and indicate the poultry production both in number
of poultry of various kinds and the egg production, as
shown in the last census report.

9. Poultry Demonstrations

" 1. Demonstrate how to make equipment of various
kinds, such as water and feeding troughs, colony house, trap
nests.

2. Demonstrate how to test eggs by candling, using
a pasteboard box and a lamp.

3. How to pack eggs to ship by parcel-post and for
cold storage.

4. How to operate an incubator.

5. How to handle a sitting hen.

372 AGRICULTURE

10. Poultry Play Contests

1. Egg race, conducted on the same plan as potato
race.

2. Poultry judging contests. Use score-card.

3. Egg scoring contest. Use commercial score-card.

4. Breed variety naming contest.

5. Drawing contest. In this contest all kinds of equip-

A Minnesota club boy with his flock and colony house.

ment, different breeds of poultry, poultry houses, runs, etc.,
may be used as a basis.

11. Poultry Club Project

One of the most interesting club projects to be under-
taken by the boys and girls is the poultry club work. The
project may start with a setting of fifteen eggs, or the man-
agement of a pen of chickens consisting of seven pullets and
one cockerel for a season or a year.

POULTRY ' 373

A four-year project. — ^The poultry club work should
include, if possible, a four-year project in order to encour-
age the use of the first year's results to the greatest possi-
ble advantage. The second year club members should raise
at least fifteen pure-bred pullets and two cockerels, and
hatch at least three settings of eggs from the fifteen pullets.
The third year the project should be based on twenty-five
pullets and two cockerels and the hatching of at least five
settings of eggs. The fourth year, fifty pullets and three
cockerels and the hatching of at least six settings of eggs.

Exhibit and award. — For the first year club members
must agree to exhibit one dozen eggs from the club poultry
and a pen of at least five chickens — four pullets and one
cockerel — and each subsequent year, two dozen eggs and a
pen of at least four pullets and one cockerel at the state, dis-
trict or county fair. The basis of award for each succeed-
ing year may be as follows :

1. Number hatched (1 point to each egg in first course, or

1 point for 3 chicks in second course) 15

2. Number of live chicks at end of 10 weeks (1 point for

each chick in first course, or 1 point for 3 chicks in sec-
ond course) 15

3. Number of cockerels marketed, at months of age;

number ; weight ; value, $ 10

4. Number of birds remaining and total weight of birds 15

5. Profit on investment (total value at local market price,

less cost of feed, setting of eggs, labor and equipment) 15

6. Score-card applied to birds with reference to quality,

breed, condition and vitality 15

7. Equipment : character of lot, pens, fence, feeding and

housing, roost, light, runs, etc 15

Total score 100

It is recommended that whenever possible a pen of
chickens be kept on the school grounds as property of the
school, and turned over to the care of certain club mem-
bers during the summer vacation period.

PART V. FARM ECONOMICS

CHAPTER XXIV
FARM AND HOME MANAGEMENT

FARMING, like banking or running a railroad, requires
good business management. Not hard work alone, but
careful planning is necessary to success. Brains are com-
ing to be quite as essential as muscle on a modern farm.

1. Planning the Farm and Its Work

In Europe, land is high and labor cheap; in the United
States, land is comparatively cheap and labor expensive.
The first principle for the American farmer therefore is
so to select his farm and its enterprises as to make the best
possible use of the labor available upon it. This is to say
that the work should be so diversified as to give the largest
possible number of working days during the year to the
family, hired help, teams and machinery. Idleness soon
eats up the profits of labor, whether it be man, beast or
machine that is idle.

Selecting and planning the farm. — The farm should
be carefully selected with reference (1) to its soil; (2) its
adaptability to the enterprises to be entered into, such as
stock raising or cropping; (3) its nearness to markets,
school, church and neighbors ; (4) the length of season and
375

376 AGRICULTURE

favorable climate; (5) its general suitability for being made
into a pleasant and profitable homestead where an attractive
home can be established.

The equipment. — With the nature of the farm enter-
prises in mind, the buildings, fences, divisions of fields
and all other improvements should be planned with great
care to fit into the general project. The machinery should
be adapted to the soil and the crops and should receive
the best of care. Too much machinery means too large

It pays to build good fences.

an investment, and too little means poor farming and loss
of labor.

Crops and animals. — Many farmers are wearing out
their soil and obtaining poor crops because of lack of suf-
ficiently diversified farming. They do not manage well if
they neglect to include in their system the legumes, orchard,
garden and wood-lot products, or other crops adapted to
their locality. Or, perhaps certain crops are raised or ani-
mals kept even at an actual loss, thus neutralizing the
profits on other crops or animals. This all suggests the
need of better management on such farms.

FARM AND HOME MANAGEMENT Z77

2. Administration of the Farm

The general tendency among American farmers is to in-
troduce the handHng of too many enterprises and the culti-
vation of too much land. Our farms are larger than those
of any other country, and the amount produced per acre
less: than in most other countries.

Planning to get the most out of labor and soil. — Good
administration gets the most out of every day of labor and
out of every acre of land. Each piece of work is carefully
planned. Fields are tilled and crops harvested at the right
time. A faulty machine is repaired before it breaks down.
Unprofitable cows and horses are disposed of and not kept
at a loss. ' Fertilizers are used whenever they will pay. Gar-
dens and orchards are sprayed when necessary. No poor
seed is ever planted. Herds and flocks are kept in good
health by care and sanitary conditions. The home is com-
fortable, convenient and well equipped. Members of the
family are given opportunity for recreation and amusement
as a rest from labor.

Farm bookkeeping. — Every enterprising farmer
should keep a system of records or book accounts. These
need not be elaborate, but they must be accurate. Without
this it is impossible to determine the sources of profits or
losses, and hence impossible to manage crops or stock in-
telligently.

A system of book accounts will show whether the farm
is returning to the owner fair wages and reasonable inter-
est on the investment, A farmer who can make average
day wages, and in addition five per cent, interest on the
money invested, is ranked as a good farmer. Many make
much more than this, while others make less.

The set of farm books should show an inventory at the
beginning of the year of all stock, grain, roughage and
the like on hand. At the end of the vear another inven-

Good machinery is a profitable investment.

r.y ^feyfl . ,± ***^"'*!!Si«

u:-'

Well-arruuged cattle yards.

" FARM AND HOME MANAGEMENT 379

tory, with an itemized cash record, one list of bills owed
others, and another list of bills due from others will serve
the purpose very well on the average farm.

Marketing farm products. — Farmers find that it pays
well to give careful attention to the grading, crating and
standardizing of farm products for the market. It is good
business as well as a matter of pride to establish a uniformity
of standard, using a particular type of box, crate or parcel-
post pack marked with the owner's special label or trade
mark. Merchants, packers or customers will soon show
their appreciation of a standard product by being willing
to pay more for it than for ungraded products.

The farmer's need of information. — Intelligent hand-
ling of farm business requires that the farmer should be
thoroughly abreast of the times in information. He will
need a daily paper giving market quotations and crop re-
ports. He should also be familiar with the best farm jour-
nals, a few standard books on agriculture, and the bulletins
and circulars of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture and his state college of agriculture and by means of
these be able to obtain much of daily value for all farm
enterprises.

Ten important points in farm administration. — Doctor
\V. J. Spillman, of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, gives the following factors as underlying success-
ful farming:

1. Low real estate prices for the land cultivated.

2. Production of commodities for which the supply is less

than the demand.

3. Management of the business on as large a scale as capi-

tal and managerial ability will permit.

4. Production of commodities of the highest quality.

5. A reputation for reliability.

6. Location for good markets, and ability to buy and sell

profitably.

380

AGRICULTURE

7. Keeping only animals of highest productive capacity.

8. Large yields with relatively little labor and fertilizer.

A kltcbeu cabinet and young house mistress.

9. Production at low cost.
10. Production of staple commodities for permanent profits.

, FARM AND HOME MANAGEMENT 381

The following ten commandments for southern
agriculture, as taught by the late Doctor Seaman A.
Knapp, will be of value to all who are interested in
southern farm management.

TEN COMMANDMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

"At an early period it was found necessary to
evolve from the mass of ethical teaching a few gen-
eral rules for living, called The Ten Commandments,
by which a man could be moral without going
through a course of theology. Just so, in order to in-
struct the average farmer how successfully to con-
duct his farm operations so as to secure a greater net
gain from the farm, it is necessary first to deduce
from the mass of agricultural teachings a few general
rules of procedure. They are called The Ten Com-
mandments of Agriculture, by the practice of which a
man may be a good farmer in any State without being
a graduate from a college of agriculture."

1. Prepare a deep and thoroughly pulverized seed
bed, well drained ; break in the fall to the depth of
eight, ten or twelve inches, according to the soil with
implements that will not bring too much of the subsoil
to the surface (the foregoing depths should be reached
gradually) .

2. Use seed of the best variety, intelligently se-
lected and carefully stored.

3. In cultivated crops, give the rows and the
plants in the rows a space suited to the plant, the
soil and the climate.

4. Use intensive tillage during the growing per-
iod of the crops.

382 AGRICULTURE

5. Secure a high content of humus in the soil by
the use of legumes, barnyard manure, farm refuse, and
commercial fertilizers.

6. Carry out a systematic crop rotation with a
winter cover crop on southern farms.

7. Accomplish more work in a day by using more
horse power and better implements.

8. Increase the farm stock to the extent of utiliz-
ing all the waste products and idle lands of the farm.

9. Produce all the food required for the men and
animals on the farm.

10. Keep an account of each farm product, in
order to know from which the gain or loss arises.

Topics for Investigation

1. Name all the different enterprises on your home
farm.

2. What is meant by seasonal distribution of labor?
Name some of the things that a farmer and his men can
do on rainy days in the summer and on stormy days in the
winter.

3. Make an inventory of your farm supplies at the
present time, such as stock, machinery, grain, hay, etc.
Make a list of purchases in these lines during the last year.
Make a list of the sales. Talk with your father about keep-
ing under his direction a set of farm records for a year.

4. Choose some farm in the neighborhood and, under
the teacher's direction, make a plan for reorganizing its
management as to cropping, stock, machinery, buildings,
drainage, laying oflf of fields, fencing, etc., with a view to
better results.

3. The Farm Home

Successful farming must make the home the center of
all interest and effort. The final purpose of increasing the
fertility of the soil, raising good crops, and producing fine

A hand separator.

384 AGRICULTURE

* herds and flocks is to make a better Jiome thereby. Little
is gained by makiiig more money, buying more land and
raising more stock if the home is not made to share in the
prosperity.

The farmhouse. — ^The farmhouse should be comfort-
able and attractive. There is little excuse in this day for
building houses that are ugly and repellent; for even mod-
erate priced buildings can be planned to look well and at
the same time be convenient and homelike. The home,
whether large or small, should be one in which every mem-
ber takes pride, and where happiness and contentment may
reign.

Plan and equipment. — The farmhouse should be
planned for convenience. For there is much hard work to
be done by the housewife, and every care should be taken
to save her time and strength. A well organized kitchen,
with running water, a good sink with drainage, a movable
kitchen cabinet, plenty of table space, cupboards, oil or
gas heater for summer use, and a fireless cooker, is one of
the first requirements in planning a house.

Practical conveniences. — ^The farm home should have
a well lighted basement with cement floor, a fully equipped
laundry with water-pipes and stationary tubs connected
with a drain, to save the lifting and carrying of water.
Suitable vegetable bins should be provided and so arranged
that they may be cooled from the outside. A bathroom is a
practical necessity on the farm as ■.veil as city home and can
be supplied with water from an elevated windmill or cistern
tank. A toilet and lavatory should also be a part of this
equipment. The telephone now belongs to the farm as
much as to the town, and electric lighting and power, even,
are now being made available to many farms through the
extension of trolley lines. All these things can bie had with-

FARM AND HOME MANAGEMENT

385

out great cost. They require chiefly a spirit of enterprise
and a little careful planning.

Labor-saving devices. — The wise farmer buys good
machinery to till his land and harvest his crops. His wife
should also have the advantage of modern labor-saving de-
vices in her work. The best of cooking utensils, fruit and

A fine bomestead, but lacking in trees.

vegetable canning outfits, automatically heated flat irons,
cleaning devices, hardwood floors, rugs and other similar
helps to good housekeeping should not be wanting. For such
equipment now belongs in every modern home, and will
save much time and drudgery.

Recreation and culture. — Most farm homes can afford
a supply of good books and magazines. These lead both
to education and enjoyment. Good pictures and well deco-
rated rooms also add much to the home spirit. Musical in-
struments are within the reach of thousands of farm homes,

386 AGRICULTURE

and prove one of the best of investments. Many interesting
games can also be had at Httle cost. <

The back yard. — The back yard should be quite as
clean and attractive as the front yard. No refuse or litter,
chicken coops, garbage heaps or mud-holes should be tol-
erated. Closed garbage cans should be used, and every-
thing done away with that will attract flies or mosquitoes,
or be the breeding place for disease germs.

Drainage. — No farm house is complete without a
drain leading out through the basement and on to a cess-
pool some distance from the house. Cesspools can be con-
structed at almost no expense except for the labor, and so
made as not to endanger wells in the vicinity.

4. Other Farm Buildings

Much time and labor can be saved by a proper arrange-
ment and placing of farm buildings. While barns should
not be located too near the house, neither should they be
so far away to cause unnecessary steps in going back and
forth.

Making a plan. — Before barns, poultry houses, hog-
houses or corn cribs are erected a plan for the whole system
of buildings likely to be needed should be made. The dis-
tance of carrying feed, water and milk should be care-
fully considered, and all other conditions taken into account
in placing the structures. The buildings themselves should
be planned with the greatest convenience and economy of
labor in view.

Barnyards. — The appearance of a barnyard is one of
the best tests of a good farmer. The yard should, first of
all, be clean and free from filth. All low places that col-
lect pools of water should be filled. Manure should be
cleaned up and spread on the fields. No old machinery.

FARM AND HOME MANAGEMENT

387

piles of boards, and scraps of rubbish should litter the place.
The entire set of farm buildings, yards and fences should
show taste and good management and be pleasing to the
eye. To accomplish this does not add materially to the
expense of operating the farm ; in the long run it does
not even require more time than to allow the homestead

Well-kept barns.

to run at loose ends. A well kept homestead is largely a
matter of thoughtful planning, and a desire to make the
farm home attractive as well as profitable.

Topics for Investigation

1. Make a study of the plans for several farm homes,
and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each plan,
finally selecting your favorite plan.

2. Take a look at your home door yard, and decide
whether any improvement is necessary. Do the same for
your barnyards. Is there old machinery or rubbish about

388 AGRICULTURE

that needs cleaning up ? Are there any fences or gates that
need repairing?

3. Make a plan of your farm homestead, locating all
of the buildings. Now suggest any rearrangement that
would make the homestead more convenient or attractive.

4. Make a plan showing how water could be brought
by underground pipes from an elevated tank on your wind-
mill or silo, (1) to the kitchen of your house, and (2) to
your barns. Also make a drawing of a drain leading from
your basement to a cesspool ; show a plan also of the cess-
pool. What is a septic tank?

5. Consider carefully what practical project you could
carry out for the improvement either of the appearance or
the convenience of your farm homestead, and talk with
your father about undertaking it. Show a detailed esti-
mate of any expense involved, including labor.

CHAPTER XXV
THE HOME GROUNDS AND WOOD LOT

NO home place is complete without trees, plants and
shrubs. Even with costly and pretentious buildings, a
homestead may look barren and inhospitable from lack of
the decorative and comfortable effect of shade trees, groves,
climbing vines and blossoming plants. One should learn
not only to make his farm pay hut to make it interesting
and attractive.

1. Beautifying the Home Grounds

The house lot and lawn of the farm home can be made
especially beautiful and interesting. For there is more room
on the farm than in the town or city, and the trees and
plants needed for its decoration will cost but little except a
reasonable amount of care. Well kept grounds add a great
deal to the market value of a farm, and contribute even
more to the beauty and comfort of the home.

Plan for setting. — To produce the best results, the
setting of trees and shrubbery should follow some complete
and well devised plan. The effect of the most beautiful
vegetation may be lost by careless or improper placing.
When used for decoration or shade, trees should usually
not be set in rows, unless along a driveway or boundary
line ; nor should they be so blocked together that they shut
off the view of the house. They may stand as single iso-
lated specimens, or in irregular groups. Trees often are

389

390

AGRICULTURE

placed too near the house, thus excluding the sun and caus-
ing dampness.

Shrubs, likewise, appear to best advantage when set
in clumps, or irregularly to make a border for the lawn.
Climbing vines can be used to screen porches, cover garden
fences, hide unsightly sheds and outbuildings, or clamber
over stumps, rocks or banks.

Selecting varieties. — One can select from an almost

II

R

-^

,3-..' !^;-:i * "

Mi

1, .

The shrubs niul trees «dd much to this farm home.

endless variety of trees, shrubs and vines. Each variety
has its own peculiar individuality, which should be studied
and known before the selection is made. A plant, once
given a place on the grounds, becomes a permanent part
of the home-place, and should therefore be chosen with as
much care as are our friends.

Shade trees should be hardy, well-shaped, broad leafed,
grow to a good size, and attract no troublesome insects.
Elms, maples, oaks, ashes, basswood, catalpa, locusts, nut

THE HOME GROUNDS AND WOOD LOT 391

and fruit trees, and, in the South, magnolias, the redbud
and live oak, are among the favorites.

Shrubs are to be selected both for their foliage and
flowers. With care, provision can be made for the appear-
ance of blossoms during each month of the summer, and
for an attractive variety of foliage throughout the season.

Flov^rering plants. — The plan for the home grounds

A fine homestead manageuieut, showing wood lot, orchard and a
good set of buildings.

should include a few beds of flowering plants. Most of
these may be perennials, which will require almost no care
after the bed has become well established. With the addi-
tion of a few varieties of hardy bulbs for annual planting,
beautiful effects can be produced with practically no cost
and with the expenditure of very little time.

The lawn. — Nothing adds more to the appearance of
a homestead than a well kept lawn. The lawn should first
of all be well smoothed, the low places being filled and all

392 AGRICULTURE

obstructions removed. The soil should be rich and well
drained. For the greater part of the United States, a mix-
ture of blue-grass and red-top, with perhaps a small amount
of white clover, makes a good lawn covering.

The lawn must be close-mown if it is to produce a pleas-
ing effect. If allowed to grow up, the grass becomes tufted
and coarse, besides looking ragged and unkempt. Farm
stock should not be pastured on the lawn. Their trampling
will produce unevenness that interferes with the lawn-
mower, and plants, shrubbery and young trees are sure to
suffer from being browsed.

Topics for Investigation

1. Draw a plan of your home grounds, locating all
the trees, vines and shrubs, and giving the names of va-
rieties.

2. In your drawing also show the position, size and
shape of all the flower beds, specifying the varieties of
plants, and whether annuals or perennials.

3. Make a complete plan for the decoration of your
home grounds, taking into account the trees, shrubs, and
plants already set out. What varieties should be added?
Are any trees or shrubs in such positions that they should
be removed?

4. Make a plan for decorating the school grounds, speci-
fying by variety each tree and shrub, and showing its loca-
tion.

2. The Farm Wood Lot

Every farm place should have its own wood lot. It
costs little to start, requires almost no care after the first
year or two, and yields large returns.

Uses of the wood lot.-^Poles, timbers and posts are
constantly needed on every farm. When there is no wood
lot to supply them, they must either be bought, or the farm
suffer for their lack. And lumber, posts and timbers of
every sort are becoming more expensive from year to year

THE HOME GROUNDS AND WOOD LOT 393

as our forests are being depleted. Fire-wood raised on the
farm costs very much less than if bought in the market,
and so scarce is it becoming in many regions that it can not
be had at all unless produced at home.

The wood lot can often be so placed as to serve for a'

A good lot of Hampsliire Dowus aud a fine wood lot.
windbreak for the farm buildings, and at the same time
add to the beauty and value of the homestead. When the
trees are grown they afford welcome shade for animals,
contributing both to their comfort and profit.

Birds are attracted to the wood lot, and from this shel-
ter make sallies out upon the harmful insects that prey on

394

AGRICULTURE

crops or gardens. From the friendly tree-tops they also
pour out their tribute of song.

The location and size of the wood lot. — It may not
always be desirable to plant a large wood lot near the build-
ings. When such is the case, low wet places, steep hillsides,
or small irregular pieces of ground not suitable for culti-
vation can often be utilized.

From one-half an acre to several acres of ground can
profitably be set to trees on a fair-sized farm. While the

Using the wood lot for picnics and club festivals.

returns are not immediate as with other crops, yet the profit
is reasonably sure in the end. Many far-sighted farmers
are now providing for the fence posts and timbers they
will need ten or twenty years hence by setting out and
caring for trees in a wood lot. It is estimated that Minne-
sota farmers set out a million trees in 1913 and in many
other regions the movement is quite as marked.

Varieties of trees for the wood lot. — It is impossible
to recommend definite varieties of trees for the wood lot,

THE HOME GROUNDS AND WOOD LOT 395

since this depends on the region and the use to be made of
the timber. Some prefer to plant the faster-growing soft
wood trees, while others are willing to wait longer for the
harder woods to grow. An excellent plan is to plant a
number of varieties. Not only will this allow a mixture of
the slow and the fast growing trees, but provide a variety
of timber suitable for different purposes of utility and com-
fort for the farm.

From the eastern to the middle western states the fa-
vorite trees seem to be the different varieties of maple,
elm, oak, locust, ash, fir, basswood, hickory, walnut, box-
elder, Cottonwood, yellow poplar, catalpa, etc.

In the drier regions such as western Kansas and Ne-
braska, Oklahoma, Texas and Colorado, it is difficult to start
successfully some of these varieties. Among the best
drought resisting trees are the black locust, green ash, Osage
orange and Russian mulberry. In the southern and far
western states practically all varieties suitable to the North
and East can be grown and many others besides.

Starting the wood lot. — ^The wood lot may be started,
in the case of most trees, either by planting the seed, or
by setting out young trees. A common method of starting
a grove of hardy catalpa, for example, is to prepare the
seed bed as if for corn. Catalpa seed is then planted, and
the field cultivated for several years. The young trees are
sometimes cut back to the ground after two years of growth
for the purpose of producing straighter and more sturdy
trees. The growth of the tree is not retarded by this
process.

A seed bed for trees can easily be started, and the trees
transplanted to the desired positions when the seedlings are
from one to three years old. A small seed bed will supply
trees for a large wood lot.

396 AGRICULTURE

3. Tree Enemies

While most of the common trees are not subject to a
large number of enemies, yet they must have reasonable
care and protection if they are to thrive.

Farm animals. — One of the most common mistakes
in starting young trees is to allow them to be exposed to
stock. Cattle, sheep or hogs are sure to injure the trees
by grazing upon the leaves and branches, by trampling
them, or by rubbing against them. The wood lot should
be fenced, and all stock excluded until the trees are well
grown. Horses should never be tied to trees.

Weeds and sod. — Young trees are as easily injured as
any other plant by weeds or grass. Many people seem to
think that because large trees can take care of themselves
against these enemies young trees can do the same. But
trees once checked in their growth by the choking of weeds
or sod will never fully recover.

Insect and fungous enemies. — Shade and timber trees
are, on the whole, less subject to insect and fungous attacks
than fruit trees. Yet occasionally even the most hardy trees
succumb to such enemies. The elm, one of the healthiest
of our trees, has recently suffered greatly in certain regions.
The chestnut has also been seriously afflicted with a bark
disease. Whole forests of fir have died in southern locali-
ties. Even the catalpa is subject to a fungous trouble at
certain stages of its growth. Whenever a considerable
number of trees in a locality show signs of disease, an
expert should be consulted and his directions followed.

Topics for Investigation

1. Join with the teacher and class in making a collec-
tion of all the woods in your locality. Use seasoned woods
for specimens when possible, selecting sticks two or three

THE HOME GROUNDS AND WOOD LOT 397

inches in diameter, and sawing them about four inches
long. Split each specimen, then smooth and sandpaper the
flat side and ends and spread a coat of shellac over the fin-

Power spraying of trees.

ished parts. Learn to identify each specimen both by the
bark and by the texture and grain.

2. Gather and preserve in wide-mouthed bottles samples

398 AGRICULTURE

of the seeds of all the trees in your vicinity. Learn to
identify these seeds. Plant some of each, and learn to iden-
tify the young plant of each variety. Consider the pos-
sibility of starting a tree seed bed on the school ground,
where the seeds of the different trees can be planted and
seedlings raised for study or replanting, either on the school
grounds or at the homes.

3. How can you tell the age of a tree after it is cut
down? Find some freshly cut tree and discover its age.
Can you tell from the annual rings any years when the
tree did not make a good growth?

4. Make a collection of the leaves of all the different
trees available, and learn to identify them.

5. What is the difference between plain-sawn and quar-
ter-sawn lumber? Look at different pieces of oak furniture,
and decide whether the lumber was plain or quarter-sawn.
Why does some hard pine flooring have a tendency to splin-
ter up, while other does not?

6. Locate on the map of the United States the forest
reserves of our country ; the lumber producing sections.

7. Estimate the cost of producing a ten-acre wood lot
of some prevailing trees of your section.

8. Write down the names of all the different trees
you can think of common to your state, in the order of
their importance to the farm.

4. Demonstrations on Home Grounds and Wood Lot

1. Demonstrate how properly to remove and trans-
plant a shrub or bush.

2. Demonstrate how to make a tree graft ; how to make
a bud graft.

3. Demonstrate how to prune the different kinds of
trees.

4. Show the proper method of spraying for different
insects, diseases and blights.

5. Show how to treat the tree-trunk to prevent insects;!
from passing from the ground into the tree.

6. Demonstrate different methods of tree surgery, such

THE HOME GROUNDS AND WOOD LOT 399

as repairing injured limbs and diseased and decayed spots.
How does this compare with medical and surgical treat-
ment of human beings ?

7. Demonstrate how to lay off a lawn with a view to
artistic arrangements for the lawn itself and as related to
the home, buildings, pathway and roadway.

8. Demonstrate how to sharpen and set a fence post.

9. Show how to set a comer post and brace it.

10. Demonstrate how to make bird houses, bird baths,
watering troughs, feeding platforms, etc., on the lawn or in
the shrubbery, trees, and out in the wood lot, to encourage
and help the conservation of bird life.

5. Play Contests for Home Grounds and Wood Lot
There can be no "better way to arouse interest in the im-
proving of home grounds and the planting and care of wood
lots than to inaugurate a large number of play contests,
related to this work. Practically all of the demonstrations
outlined above can be so organized as to become very inter-
esting play contests. Illustrations:

1. Tree naming contest.

2. Spelling contest from a list of names of tiees, shrubs,
plants and flowers.

3. Drawing contest, showing the plan and arrangement
of lawns, wood lots and farm home grounds.

4. Wood collection and exhibit contest.

5. Manual-training contests, in which the pupils are
to contest in making articles from wood, leaves, bark, buds
and flowers.

6. Tree judging contest.

7. Lawn mowing contest, the same to cover a season
and to involve not only the mowing of the lawn but its
proper up-keep, repair and improvement.

8. Essay writing contest on the home grounds and
wood lot.

27

400

AGRICULTURE

6. Home Grounds and Wood Lot Club Projects

A number of very interesting club projects can be or-
ganized in connection with the care and management of
the home grounds, front yard, back yard, wood lot, trees,
shrubbery, etc. The basis of award for these clubs will have
to be modified to suit conditions. In general the award may
be based on the following five points :

1. General plan and artistic arrangement 20

2. Management and methods employed during the season 20

3. Profit on investment or results based upon object of the

project 20

4. Exhibit of products or appearance and results shown at

close of project period 20

5. Written story on "How I Did My Club Work" 20

Total score 100

CHAPTER XXVI
THE COUNTY AGRICULTURAL AGENT

TWO new agencies have recently entered the field of ag-
ricultural education and rural development: These are
(1) the county agricultural agent, and (2) the county farm
bureau. The latter consists of an organization of the farm-
ers of a county for the purpose of furnishing a kind of
clearing house for agricultural information. The county
agent is an agricultural leader whose business is to organ-
ize, lead, instruct and give expert advice to the farmers
or to pupils and teachers of agriculture in the schools of
the county.

1. The Work of the County Agent

First work in the South. — The advent of the boll-
weevil in the cotton-fields of Texas was responsible for
the beginning of this work. So great were its ravages that
in 1906 the United States Department of Agriculture put
Doctor S. A. Knapp in charge of demonstration work show-
ing how the pest could be exterminated. From this begin-
ning there has been a very rapid growth of this type of
work, until at the present time county agricultural agents
are scattered all over the United States.

The county workers. — Men employed as county agri-
cultural agents are required to be possessed of scientific
information on the problems of agriculture. They are ex-
pected also to have had practical farming experience. Plans
have already beerl made by which the county agent is
assisted by a woman agent who will be thoroughly trained

401

402 AGRICULTURE

and fitted to advise and direct the girls and women in all
matters relating to the making of better homes. Several hun-
dred women agents are now at work in as many counties.

Organization of the county work. — The county agents
live in the county and are supplied with an office where
they may be consulted. They usually are furnished with
some means of transportation so that they may travel about
the county, from farm to farm and from school to school.
In this way the county agents carry to the very door of the
farm home and the public school the services of specialists.
They are able to bring to those who can not go to college
the help, advice and leadership of the best scientific inves-
tigators, and really make the farms a part of the campus,
class rooms and laboratories of the agricultural college and
demonstration centers of the United States Department of
Agriculture.

Character of help rendered. — ^The work of the county
agents is calculated to increase the profits of farming, and-
the comforts and efficiency of the farm home ; to aid in con-
serving and building up the soil ; and to encourage the ad-
vancement of community education and social interests.
Like the physician or surgeon, the county agents are to be
called when advice, treatment or preventative measures are
needed. They plan for a system of demonstrations to show
the best methods of managing the soil, preparing the seed
bed, selecting and caring for seed, management and care
of farm animals, organization and care of gardens and
orchards, and the handling and conservation of farm build-
ings and machinery.

If a herd is stricken with tuberculosis, the hogs with
cholera, or the corn-field with cutworms, the county agent
should be notified and his help secured. If he is not able
directly to give information and aid he will know where
to secure assistance on short notice. In like manner the

THE COUNTY AGRICULTURAL AGENT

403

county agent will be of special assistance in planning the
proper management of soils and crops when the seasons
are too dry or too wet ; in the best organization of farm
enterprises ; and in the management of all of the efficiency
factors important to the success of American agriculture.

The county agricultural agent is discussing grain problems with
the farmers at thrashing time.

2. Financial Support

The Smith-Lever law. — The county agent is usually
supported in part by federal and in part by local funds. The
Smith-Lever law passed by Congress made federal aid avail-
able for every state in the union beginning with the year
1914. The entire amount appropriated for the first year
was four hundred and eighty thousand dollars, to be divided
equally among the forty-eight states. The appropriation is
gradually to increase until the federal government is con-

404 AGRICULTURE

tributing some four and one-half million dollars annually for
the encouragement of agriculture.

The Smith-Lever law contemplates that the greater part
of this immense fund shall be spent in supporting county
agricultural agents, state and district leaders, boys' and girls'
club work, demonstration work in home economics, and
other assistance in shaping and building up agricultural
interests throughout the nation. The agricultural colleges
and the United States Department of Agriculture are to
cooperate in carrying out the provisions of the act.

Steps to be taken in securing a county agent. — The
matter of securing an agent for a county should first be
taken up with the state leader, whose headquarters are
with the agricultural college of each state. He is in a po-
sition to assist in planning and conducting the campaign for
an agent and can give information in regard to available
sources of county, state and federal funds, and the amount
of funds necessary properly to finance the movement. When
the county is ready for the appointment of an agent, the
state leader will be able to recommend a man qualified for
the work.

3. The County Agent and the School

The county agents seek not only to help the farmers
in their immediate problems, but also to advance agricul-
tural education in every possible way.

Help for the school. — Every agent desires to assist
the work in agriculture in the schools of his county. In
many instances the county agents and the county superin-
tendents plan and carry on their work together. Teachers
and pupils can always feel free to call on the agent for
help or advice in connection with any agricultural club
or individual project.

When it is impossible to reach the agent for a personal

THE COUNTY AGRICULTURAL AGENT

405

interview, the telephone or mail can be employed. Pupils
and teachers should become acquainted with the agent per-
sonally, attend the demonstrations and public meetings, and
study the experiments and investigations he makes. Think
over carefully the work of the farm and if either you or
your parents have problems that are annoying — troubles of
any kind with soil, crops, or stock — seek the advice and
help of the agent at once.

Apple club boys pruning orchard under direction of the county
agent, Cortland County, New York.

Advice on club projects. — Club projects should be
selected with great care. The county agent should be con-
sulted as to the best project for the boys to undertake, and
the best one for the interest of the girls and the home. All
of the club projects outlined in this book will be of espe-
cial interest to the county agricultural agents and they
will be glad to give encouragement and assistance to the
work. They will help plan also the work of the manual-

406 AGRICULTURE

training classes in the rural and village schools so that it
will fit into the needs of the farm, the garden and the
home.

Special programs. — The county agent should be in-
vited to the school, and especially in connection with the
special programs of an industrial and agricultural nature.
His help can be secared in the conducting of agricultural
demonstrations, the judging of grains, fruits, vegetables
and stock, and the organization of rural games and con-
tests. His advice will be valuable in determining the basis
of award and the methods of judging a contest. He should
also be consulted with reference to suitable circulars and
Farmers' Bulletins for correlation reading in connection
with the agricultural and home economics studies of the
school.

Topics for Investigation

1. Have you a county agricultural agent in your
county? If so, who, and how long has he served the
county? Where is his office located? Who pays his sal-
ary?

2. It was estimated that in one county the work
of the agent increased the yield of corn by five bushels an
acre in a certain year. The county is twenty-four miles
square and eighty per cent, of the area is under cultivation.
Of that under cultivation forty-five per cent, was in corn.
What was the agent's help on the corn crop worth to the
county, figuring corn at fifty cents a bushel?

3. If your county has no agent, has the matter of se-
curing one been discussed ? Do you know what steps would
have to be taken to secure an agent? How would the ex-
penses have to be met? If you are not certain on these
questions inquire of your state agricultural college or the
United States Department of Agriculture.

4. W^iat farm projects in your community need the
advice of a county agent? Do you know of land that is
foul or run down? Pastures that are weedy or dying out?
Swamps that need drainage? Orchards that do not bear

THE COUNTY AGRICULTURAL AGENT 407

profitably? Flocks or herds that are not profitable? Rav-
ages of insects or disease that cause severe loss? Hogs
dying from cholera?

5. On what farm or garden project would you espe-<
cially like advice from an agricultural agent in order to
make sure of success the first year ?

6. How much money is available this year from the
Smith-Lever act for the county agent and farm demonstra-
tion movement? Upon what conditions is this secured and
how is it administered ? What part of this does your county
get? (Secure a copy of the law from your congressman.)

7. Does your state college of agriculture have an ex-
tension department? If so, name the officers and leaders,
such as director of extension, state agent in charge of club
work, state agent in charge of county agents and demon-
stration work. (Write for its literature on club and ex-
tension work.)

8. To what extent do the Department of Education and
the normal schools of your state encourage agricultural
and home economic education? Do they have officials who
supervise this type of work? If so, name them.

o

CHAPTER XXVII
•FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MECHANICS

1. Importance of Implements -and Tools

NE of the most important and interesting phases of
agriculture is the study of farm implements, their
origin, history, utility, value, proper care and up-keep.

Tillage and tools. — Good crops and large profits usu-
ally depend upon wise management and proper tillage ; and
good tillage requires the use of tools adapted to the soil,
the particular crops, and the condition under which the
farming is done. It is poor economy to farm with unfit
tools, or implements in poor repair. On the other hand
it is possible to have too large an amount of money in-
vested in farm implements and machinery. A number of
the larger farm machines, such as corn harvesters, thrash-
ing machines or shredders, can be owned cooperatively in
a community and made to do the work of four to ten farm-
ers instead of one. This will reduce both the first cost and
the up-keep.

The care of machinery. — It is generally considered
that a machine kept in good repair, and well housed when
not in use, will last as long doing the work of five farmers
as a machine owned by a single farmer and doing but one-
fifth of the work, if neglected and allowed to stand out-
of-doors in rain, snow and all kinds of weather when idle.
There is no better test of the progressiveness and good
management of a farm than the way the farm tools and
machinery are treated.

408

A young farmer mechanic with a well-equipped shop.

Practical farm mechanics.

410 AGRICULTURE

2. The Farmer as a Mechanic

Every farmer should, at least to a degree, be a me-
chanic. This is not with a view to manufacturing imple-
ments, or even to the building of his own barns and houses,
but to enable him to keep the implements, barns and houses
constantly in good repair.

The farm work-shop. — A great many dollars can be
saved on the average farm if the farmer has equipped him-
self with a little work-shop and a number of the necessary
repair tools. A loose bolt, a broken rivet, a loosened board,
or a brace out of position can easily be repaired by a prac-
tical farmer, while if it is neglected it may result in greater
breakage, with the consequent loss of time and money. A
large number of minor pieces of farm equipment, such as
watering and feeding troughs, feed racks, seed trays, test
boxes, fireless cookers, bins, shelving, wagon boxes and
hog racks can profitably be made in the farm shop.

There are always plenty of rainy days and occasionally
periods of time when the rush and heavy work of the fields
have been completed and an opportunity given for repair
work and the making of practical necessities belonging to
the farm.

Manual training and the farm boy. — A farmer boy's
education has no more important part than training in the
use of farm tools and the application of the ordinary me-
chanical work needed about barns, fences and machines.
This phase of training should be correlated with the man-
ual-training courses in the public school. The manual
training learned by the fanner boy should relate to farm
needs. Every farmer boy should master the practical prin-
ciples of painting, the mixing and use of paint, and the
relation of color schemes. For the use of paint not only
beautifies, but conserves buildings, fences and machinery.

The use of cement. — Cement has come to be one of

A uioderu type of cow pen.

A deep tilliug plow, with two disks.

412

AGRICULTURE

the most important economies of a farm homestead. Every
boy will want to know something about the making of con-
crete, and the proper methods of mixing and surfacing. He
should understand the making of molds, the laying of foun-
dations for cement structure, and the application of cement
to the construction of silos, water-tanks, fence posts,
bridges, feeding floors, etc.

3. Rope Tying and Splicing

One of the elementary yet most interesting divisions of
farm mechanics is rope tying and splicing. The place of
the rope in farm management is very much the same as the
relation of the nail to the builder. Ropes are also widely
used in other occupations, and the lives of many workmen
often depend on the strength of a rope or the security of a
knot.

The uses of ropes. — Long before farm machinery was
invented or useful implements projected, rope tying and
splicing bore a very important relation to the work of agri-
culture. The first harness was made of rope. Joints and
splicings were made with rope long before the day of bolts,
rivets, and other metal devices for the joining of parts in
farm machinery. In spite of the fact that we have to-day
all manner of improved farm machinery we still need the
convenience and economy made possible by the use of the
rope.

Some knots useful on the farm. — Some of the prac-
tical rope knots are as follows : the clove-hitch ; bowline ;
never-slip noose ; slipknot ; Beckett hitch ; reef-knot, or
square knot, which never slips but is always easily untied ;
the two half-hitches often used for the halter-hitch; weav-
er's knot for the joining of small cords ; fixed knot ; anchor
bend ; timber-hitch, which can be easily untied but never
slips ; and the carrick-bend for joining ropes.

Some useful knots. Learn to identify and tie.

414

AGRICULTURE

Making the right knot. — Different knots are required
for. different purposes. A simple knot that will serve in
one use is not adapted to another; knots that will untie

More kuots.

under certain conditions may be impossible to untie under
other conditions.*

1. A most interesting little book on rope knotting and
splicing is one published by David McKay, Philadelphia. 50
cents. A number of the drawings here shown are taken by per-
mission of the ompany from this set.

still more knots.

28

416 AGRICULTURE

Principles of knot tying. — Certain principles apply to
the tying of all knots. The efficiency of the knot does
not depend on the number of turns or hitches, but on the
position of the "nip." The bend or hitch must be so formed
that the part of the rope under strain nips securely some
portion of the knot, either against itself or the object to
which it is attached. The nip of each different knot should
be studied.

Rope materials. — While a large part of our rope and
cordage is made of hemp, many other materials are now
coming to enter into their manufacture. The coil rope is
made from cocoanut fiber, which is used because it is so
light and pliable. This rope is useful for warps, rocket
lines, life-buoy lines, nets, etc. Manila grass is adapted to
the construction of coarse ropes and hawsers requiring
great strength and hard wear, and where tar can not be used
on the rope.

Strips of hides are used for ropes where great strength
and pliability with small diameter are needed. Cotton is
employed for ropes and cordage used for fancy work of
all kinds. Wire is used for rope making whenever very
great strength is needed, as in connection with dredging
machinery, suspension bridge cables and the like.

Rope making. — Yarns are formed by twisting the
hemp right-handed, while the "strands" are made by twist-
ing or laying up the yarns left-handed, and the rope by
laying it up in strands right-handed. Three small ropes
laid up left-handed form a cable-laid rope. Four-stranded
ropes are laid round a heart. In using hemp for rope mak-
ing, great care should be exercised not to twist the hemp
more than necessary, as this weakens the rope. A three-
stranded rope will bear a greater strain in comparison to its
size than any other rope of the same material. This ac-

FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MECHANICS 417

counts for the fact that most of our rope is made of three
strands. Cable-laid and four-stranded ropes are as a rule
about one-fifth weaker.

Topics for Investigation

1. Make a list of all your farm machinery and esti-
mate the value. Talk with your father and determine the
annual expense of this machinery in deterioration and inter-
est on the investment. How is your machinery housed ? Is
it kept in good repair?

2. Make a similar list of all your shop tools. Have you
all that are needed for the up-keep of your farm buildings
and machinery?

3. Make a list of all the knots you have ever seen used
on the farm. Tie all these knots. What other knots would
be serviceable? Learn to tie other useful knots from the
pictures shown in this chapter.

4. If you wanted to draw a plank from the ground up
to the gable window of a barn by use of a rope, what knot
would you use ? Think of several other such uses for knots
and show the knots to be employed.

5. Make a rope halter for a horse or calf. Show how
to tip a halter rope.

6. Locate on a map of the world the places where
the different rope materials are produced. Make a collec-
tion of all the different kinds of rope available, and tell of
what they are made.

4. Rope Play Contests,

1. Knot naming contest.

2. Rope judging contest.

3. Knot tying and splicing contest, to see who can tie
and name accurately the largest number of rope knots in a
period of ten minutes. Cont'fest to be judged on skill, ac-
curacy and number of knots tied.

4. Rope spelling contest, to be conducted from the list

418 AGRICULTURE

of words used in connection with rope, cordage and splic-
ing work, with the object of making pupils familiar with
the terms.

5. Knot drawing contest.

5. Rope Club Projects

It is possible to organize a group of boys into a rope
dub with a view to the mastery of rope tying, splicing,

m^m

>|rer- ^

Rope tying contest:
minutes.

36 knots tied, nam^d and untied in 6

cordage work, etc. The requirements should be to study
in connection with geography the various fibers used, such
as hemp, cotton and cocoanut. The method of production of
the plants, a study of uses of rope, and their practical appli-
cation to farm and home mechanics should be taken up. The
basis of award of a club project of this sort may be as
follows :

1. Knowledge of origin, development and methods of manu-
facture in the rope industry 20

FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MECHANICS 419

2. Ability to name and tell the use of knots and splicings 20

3. Exhibit of knots and splicings named and mounted on

board. (Use quarter-inch rope.) 20

4. Skill shown by actual test in the tying and naming of

rope knots 20

5. Written story of "Rope Tying and Splicing as Related to

Farm Mechanics" 20

Total score 100

CHAPTER XXVIII
ROAD BUILDING AND MAINTENANCE

GOOD public roads are a prime necessity to successful
agriculture and rural development. They add to the
pleasure, profit and convenience of the farm.

1. Importance of Public Roads

There are in the United States about two million two
hundred thousand miles of roads. Of this immense stretch
of public highway, two million miles are classed as earth
roads. This is to say that we have enough earth roads to
circle the globe eighty times at the equator.

Good roads and prosperity. — A study of history
shows that every great and prosperous nation has built a
good system of public roads, while primitive and unpro-
gressive peoples are satisfied with poor roads. In our
own country w6 find the most prosperous and progressive
commmiities are those that are giving attention to their
roads.

Need for good roads. — Because good roads allow the
farmer to haul his produce to market at a minimum of ex-
pense in time and energy, he can make more profit out of
his crops and stock. And the prosperity of the fanner
tends to increase the prosperity of all business men and
lower the cost of living to consumers. The success of the
rural schools also depends much on improved roads. Es-
pecially is this true where the 'schools are being consoli-
dated and the pupils transported to the school by the dis-

420

All eaitli road tliat iiueds improving.

Tlie same road improved.

422 AGRICULTURE

trict. Rural mail delivery and the extension of the parcel-
post system further demand the improvement of country
roads. And, not least important, the making of country
life interesting and attractive rests in no small degree on
good roads, for they allow rural people easily to travel about
the community for social or business purposes.

Growing movement for good roads. — In nearly every
part of the United States there is at present a growing
interest in good roads. New laws are being passed and
millions of money appropriated to improve our roads. Com-
mercial clubs, business concerns and other organizations are
working together to encourage road building. And farm-
ers are coming to demand improved roads for teaming and
automobiles.

2. Types of Roads

Roads are generally considered under the following
types: (1) earth roads, (2) sand clay roads, (3) gravel
roads, (4) macadam roads, (5) bituminous macadam roads,
(6) brick roads, and (7) concrete roads. The discussion
in this chapter will be confined to the earth roads, since
these are the most necessary and practical study for the
public schools.

Earth roads. — A chain is no stronger than its weak-
est link ; so, also, a road is no better than its poorest part.
This means that the heaviest load that can be drawn over
a public highway is the load that can be drawn up the
steepest hill, through the worst ruts or mud-holes, or over
the deepest stretch of sand. Hence the importance of low-
ering or going around the hill, and eliminating the mud-
holes, ruts and stretches of sand.

3. The Location of a Road

Public roads should, as far as possible, be located in
straight lines. In hilly or mountainous regions, however,

Cross Sacfron Roman RQod(Appian Way)

Cross Seci'ion French Road (l^omon MefhixJj,
previous fo ms.

Cross Sec iion ofTresctj^ueJ Ricd, mS.

CrossSection Telford ffoad IB20

Cross Section Macadam Read, ld:i-:.

Cross Section of Modern Macac/amfiirjscach.:.ctfsJ/?t!ad
w *h y shaped fo:jndotior.

Cross Section of Modern Macodcim f^ood.

Cross-sections of dififerent types of roads.

424

AGRICULTURE

this rule must often give way to avoid the dimbing of too
heavy grades.

Straightness and grade. — To lift a ton one foot high
requires two thousand foot-tons of energy. On a road sur-
face requiring one hundred pounds traction per ton, the
same energy would roll the ton a horizontal distance of
twenty feet. As far as the actual amount of energy used is
concerned, therefore, to save one foot of grade, or up-hill

Earth road in Kansas.

climb, the road may be lengthened twenty feet. Public
road grades should avoid a rise of more than six feet in a
distance of one hundred feet. The hills should be cut down
and the material used to fill in the hollows or else the road
relocated to go around the hill and to avoid the steep grades.
The necessity o£ sunlight. — Every road bed should
have at least six hours of sunlight each day. Brush, trees
or hedges that interfere with this requirement should be
cleared away or sufficiently thinned out. On the other hand.

ROAD BUILDING AND MAINTENANCE 425

suitable trees, shrubbery, grass, vines and flowers should
be encouraged along the roadway, as they add both to the
beauty of the road and the value of farms.

Drainage, — As a rule the only ditches needed for the
proper drainage of the road can be made by the road grader.
Deeper ditches are necessary where the adjoining land is
low and level. In the building of culverts care should be
taken to make them large enough to handle the overflow.
They must also be sufficiently durable to resist the spring

Concrete road near Detroit.

freshets and not be injured by the maximum flow caused
by storm water. They should have sufficient slope so that
the wash will keep them clean. All the spillways should
be paved, if necessary, and the outlet and inlet protected
by suitable head and wing walls.

4. The Construction of Earth Roads

Shaping the road bed. — Earth roads should not be
made too wide. Twenty-four to thirty feet is sufficient un-
less the road is to be macadamized or otherwise permanently

426 AGRICULTURE

improved. All roads should be properly crovvvied or
rounded in order to aid them in disposing quickly of sur-
face water. An earth road twenty-four feet wide should
not be less than six inches nor more than twelve inches
higher at the center than at each of the borders. The total
fall from center to side should be about an inch to the foot.
The work of construction. — ^The earth roads can best
be crowned and ditched by a reversible road grader. Th<
use of picks, shovels, scoops and plows should be avoided.
One road machine with sufficient power and a good opera-
tor will do the work of a large number of men and do it
much better. Graders as a rule should be used when the
soil is damp. This will make the soil pack well while dry-
ing. If it is worked when dry and hard it takes more power
to draw the machine and in addition the dry earth and dust
will absorb and retain moisture and soon develop ruts. All
clods, sod, weeds and vegetable matter should be removed.

5. Maintenance of Earth Roads

Necessity of constant care. — The greatest problem of
earth road building is that of maintenance, and any earth
road which carries a great deal of traffic requires almost
constant attention. Repairs should be made when needed.
A few days spent upon the road at different times through-
out the year will accomplish a great deal. It is a serious
mistake to devote all of the time in road building to a par-
ticular season, leaving the road without care the remainder
yi the year. Most communities need a few men and teams
spending their entire time in keeping roads in repair.

Dragging earth roads. — One of the most useful de«
vices for the maintenance of public earth roads is the split-
log drag. This works with great efficiency on both earth
and gravel roads. To obtain the best results the roads

ROAD BUILDING AND MAINTENANCE

427

should be dragged once each way after every heavy rain.
This must be done while the soil is moist but not sticky.

It is not necessary to employ the direct supervision of
skilled engineers for the maintenance and repair of earth
and gravel roads, providing the rules and suggestions they
lay down are carefully and intelligently followed. A dif-

The split-log drag at work on an Iowa road.

ficult piece of construction or fixing of grades should, how-
ever, always be carried out under the supervision of an
expert.

Topics for Investigation

1. What is the prevailing type of road in your local-
ity? How many miles of public roads in your school dis-
trict? In your county?

2. What roads do you know which climb steep hills?
Can you devise a method by which you can measure the

/

428 AGRICULTURE

grade of the incline, and find how many feet risft to each
one hundred feet?

3. How many split-log drags in your school district?
What road machinery is owned by the township or road
district ?

4. Under what management is the care of roads in
your locality? Name the road officials of your district
and county. Give a statement of the road laws of your
state.

5. What different materials are used in constructing
bridges, culverts and road drainage systems in your local-
ity ? Which seems to be the most satisfactory ?

6. Do any transcontinental or state highways pass
through your state ? If so, locate them on a ' state map
and name them.

7. For whom was the macadam road named ? Describe
how such a road is built.

8. Look up the story of each of the following men and
learn what he did to help the cause of gqod roads : Pierre-
Marie Fresaguet, J. L. MacAdam, Thomas Tilford, Eli
Whitney Blake.

6. Demoiistr^ations

Many of the demonstrations should be conducted out on
the public highway and when possible under the supervi-
sion or direction of the road supervisor, commissioner or
expert.

1. Demonstrate how to make a split-log drag, either
full size or miniature.

2. Demonstrate by means of drawing, paper or wood
construction, the various types of drainage used in road
building.

3. Show how properly to crown a road.

4. demonstrate how to repair a rut in a permanent
roadway.

5. Demonstrate by drawing a roa<^,way showing cor-
rect perspective, crowning, drainage, etc.

A good macadam road.

Bituminous macadam road in ^■e^v Jer;

430

AGRICULTURE

7. Road Play Contests

1. Road dragging contest.

2. Split-log drag making contest.

3. Road drawing contest.

4. Essay writing contest on subjects relating to roads.

5. Spelling and drawing contests, as related to the
words and interests of road work.

A concrete IJiMdj^e. Tliis type of structin-e shot^d replace the
old wooden bridge.

8. Road Club Projects

Permanent road building as a rule is not tlie work of
boys and girls. But the building, maintenance and repair
of common earth and gravel roads is quite within the reach
of the boys ranging in age from twelve to nineteen. Two
different road projects are suited to club work.

One project is known as the "School Road Dragging
Club," in which the pupils, under the leadership of the
teacher and with the advice of the road officer, take charge
of one mile of public highway near the schoolhouse, keep-
ing it well dragged and in repair for the season. A second
project permits individual pupils to take charge of one mile
of road in front of the homestead, keeping it carefully
dragged and in good repair during the summer.

ROAD BUILDING AND MAINTENANCE 431

Awards. — The basis of award in either of these club
projects may be as follows :

1. General improvement in road during period of club pro-

ject, based upon trueness, alignment, regularity and
clearness of ditches, amount and shape of crown, bet-
terment of surface and drainage 15

2. General condition of improved section at end of club

project period with reference to clearness of ditches,
waterways, trueness, and shape of borders, freedom
from ruts and depressions, smoothness, compactness,
regularity of width 15

3. Economy of methods used, based on ten cents per hour

for time of horse, and ten cents per hour for member 15

4. Written report and story of "The Road Work of the Sea-

son" IS

5. Faithfulness of maintenance during club project period

with reference to freedom of flow in ditches and
waterways, repair of borders and washes, rapidity of
drying out and hardening after rains, and the regular-
ity and systematic use of the split-log drag 40

Total score 100

The authors are indebted to Mr. Maurice O. Eldridge, of
the office of Good Roads, Washington, D. C., for able assistance
in the preparation of this chapter, and to the office of Public
Roads for photographs used.

CHAPTER XXIX
BIRDS AND OTHER INSECT DESTROYERS

THE farmer is greatly assisted in his war against the
insects that prey on crops, orchards and gardens by birds
and other creatures that use these pests for food. Every
farm boy and girl should learn the most useful of these
small friends and protect them in every way.

1. Birds and Their Food

Whether certain birds are helpful or harmful to the
farmer depends almost wholly on what the bird eats. If
its diet consists chiefly of farm grains and domestic fruits,
or if the bird kills other useful birds, it is an enemy; if,
on the other hand, its food is made up mainly of harmful
bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars and worms, it should
be counted as a friend. It is also to be remembered that
many birds that eat grain or fruit as a part of their diet
may kill enough noxious insects in return to pay far more
than for damage they do. Besides devouring insects, many
species of birds eat immense quantities of weed seed, thus
reducing the weed crop of the next season.

Food of some common birds. — The United States
Department of Agriculture has examined the stomachs of
many birds to determine the nature of their food, and thus
discover their relation to agriculture:

The quail or bobwhite eats weed seed, potato beetles,
squash beetles, the boll-weevil, chinch-bug, grasshoppers,
cutworms, etc.

432

A favorite food of the birds.

434 AGRICULTURE

Mourning doves live principally on weed seed, with a
small proportion of waste grain.

Cuckoos live chiefly on caterpillars, grasshoppers,
beetles, moths and other harmful insects.

The red-headed woodpecker makes three-quarters of his
diet consist of harmful insects, and most of the rest of
weed seed and wild fruit.

The night hawk is especially fond of flying ants, but also
eats grasshoppers, beetles and bugs.

Bank swallows and barn swallows live almost entirely
on flies, various species of flying beetles, ants and weevils.

The grosbeaks are among the most useful of our birds.
They are particularly fond of potato beetles, and have done
much to rid the farmers of this pest. They also eat other
harmful insects.

The barn ozd Vives principally on mice, rats and rab-
bits. While he captures an occasional chicken, he does far
more good than harm and should be protected.

The crow is usually looked upon as a thief and a rob-
ber. There is no doubt that the crow does pull up young
com, rob birds' nests and occasionally kill chickens. Yet
the crow is so fond of beetles, grasshoppers, bugs and other
crop enemies that his virtues exceed his vices and he should
be counted as a friend.

Other useful birds. — It will not be necessary to ex-
tend this list, which might be made to include scores of
birds that join with the farmer in his efforts to rid the
crops of insect pests. Among the many species that should
be encouraged and protected are: meadowlark, house wren,
song sparrow, oriole, scissor-tail fly catcher, mocking-bird,
blue jay, red-winged blackbird, cardinal, red-headed wood-
pecker, killdeer, screech owl, robin, bluebird, snow bird,
warbler, 'kinglet. In general, the birds are the farmer's
friends and deserve his good will.

r

i

W A

r

f , ♦^t^^

?-•■'

'

^ ^•^^'*^«

^ /') ^

t, i • . .► j^«,

^^^^. " .isp-p-py^^w^

^^

■'^-

^^L;' 11^ '.^

i«^

\

^

H l:',;::pP

'

y^,_r\vji:"^

^

r

-

Jr>- 'V^^M 1

r

j

-.- f^:',9r^m

.-'i

The hairy and downy woodpeckers.

The meadowlurk.

BIRDS AND OTHER INSECT DESTROYERS 437

Harmful birds. — A few species of birds do much more
harm than good and therefore do not merit protection. '

The English sparrow has been declared a pest and should
be exterminated. While in some regions it eats a certain
proportion of weed seed and harmful insects, on the whole
its diet consists of orchard fruits, young garden vegetables
and field grains, especially wheat. It also eats the eggs
and attacks the young of a score of useful birds, thus re-
ducing their number. Campaigns of extermination have
been waged against the English sparrow in various parts of
the country.

The house finch and the sapsucker also do sufficient dam-
age that they have no claim to the farmer's good will or
protection.

2. Other Enemies of Harmful Insects and Animals

Besides birds a number of other creatures, most of them
so lowly as all but to escape observation, are good friends
of the farmer.

The toad. — The common ugly toad, which we often
either avoid or kick out of our path, deserves better treat-
ment. Its food consists of flies, caterpillars, cutworms,
June-bugs and other harmful insects.

The horned lizard fancies almost the same bill of fare
and joins with the toad to protect our gardens.

Snakes. — The small snakes common to most regions
are entirely harmless, and live on our enemies, such as
mice, various beetles and weevils. It is therefore a mis-
take to kill them.

3. Protecting Our Friends

Boys and girls should make a study of the life and
habits of the humble friends who do their best to rid our
fields and gardens of their enemies, and should always en-
courage and protect them.

Tiie yelluw-bellled supsucker-

I

BIRDS AND OTHER INSECT DESTROYERS 439

Attracting the birds. — Bird houses consisting of small
boxes roofed over, cans open at one end, or other suitable
receptacles placed in trees or on posts in secluded places
will do much to attract certain birds. When deep snow
covers the ground in winter, hiding the seeds and other
food, it will pay well to scatter a little grain each day
where the non-migrating birds will find it.

English spjirrows, male aud female.

How to treat a friend.T— Bird hunting should not be
with a gun, but with a camera, field glass or alert eyes for
the purpose of becoming acquainted with our feathered
friends. Birds' nests should never be disturbed, the eggs
handled or the young worried during nesting time. The
fashion which decorates hats with the plumage of birds,

440 AGRICULTURE

? thus requiring their destruction, should be severely con-
demned. We should even come to look upon toads, lizards,
snakes and frogs as our friends and treat them well.

Topics for Investigation

1. Make a list of the birds you are able to identify at
sight. Do you know the nesting habits of each of these?

2. Make a list of all the birds' eggs you are able to
identify. Dp you know the hatching time of each ?

3. Secure a copy of Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 54 and
506, and make a table of the food of each of the common
birds of your locality.

4. What birds remain over winter in your region?
What ones migrate and where do they go ?

5. Watch for toads, lizards and snakes and observe
their feeding habits.

6. Keep a lookout for birds you do not recognize, and
find out their names and habits.

CHAPTER XXX
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION

1. How to Remove Stains

Iron rust. — Apply salt and lemon juice to the damp-
ened spots. Place in the sun or near the fire. Then rinse
or wash thoroughly.

Fruit stains. — Pour over stained cloth, boiling v/ater,
letting it fall a distance of four or five feet, or wring article
out of cold water and leave out-of-doors over a cold night.

Blood stains. — All fresh blood stains can be easily
rubbed out after soaking in cold or tepid water. After
the blood has been dried, use javelle water or peroxide of
hydrogen. Kerosene is sometimes used with success.

Paint spots. — Use equal parts of ammonia and turpen-
tine. Wash or rub until clean.

Grass stains. — Remove grass stains by the use of
alcohol, naphtha soap, or ammonia and water.

Ink. — The commercial ink eradicator will remove ink
stains from all white goods. If used on colored goods it
will probably bleach or remove color. Another practical
recipe is to wet the spot with warm water and sapolio, rub
or polish between the hands, wash in a solution of hydro-
chloric acid and rinse in ammonia water.

Mildew. — Mix equal parts of soap and starch, half
as much common salt, and juice of half a lemon. Spread
over the spots and lay garment upon the grass until the
stain disappears.

Perspiration. — Soak in cold water, wash with borax
and spread garment to dry in sunlight. Under-arm stains

441

442 • AGRICULTURE

? usually require an acid such as a weak solution of muriatic
acid.

Burned cooking utensils. — To clean granite ware
where mixtures have been burned on the surface, fill con-
tainer half full of water, add good soap, washing powder,
or baking soda. Bring water to a bojling point and scrub
with a small brush.

Tea, coffee or cocoa. — Wash with cold water, pour
glycerine over spots and let stand for a few hours. Then
wash with cold water and hard soap. If stains are fresh,
pour over the stains boiling water from a height of four or
rive feet, after soaking.

Tar or wagon grease. — Use cold soap-suds.

Pit stains. — Grease with lard before using soap and
water. Turpentine will usually remove the stains if other
remedies fail.

2. Location of Colleges of Agriculture, Extension Depart-
ments and Experiment Stations

Letters addressed to any of these institutions, request-
ing information on agriculture or home economics subjects
will be answered with courtesy. Help will be rendered or
farm bulletins supplied when possible.

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 443

College of Extension Experiment

STATE Agrlcmture Department Station

Alabama Auburn Auburn Auburn

Uniontown (Sub.)
Tuskegee (negro)

Arizona Tucson Tucson Tucson

Arkansas FayettevUle Fayetteville Fayetteville

California Berkeley Berkeley Berkeley

Colorado Fort Collins Fort Collins Fort Collins

Connecticut Storrs Storrs Storrs

New Haven

Delaware Newark Newark Newark

Florida Gainesville Gainesville Gainesville

Georgia Athens Athens Experiment

Hawaii Honolulu Honolulu Honolulu i

Idaho Moscow Boise Moscow

Illinois Urbana Urbana Urbana

Indiana Lafayette Lafayette Lafayette

Iowa Ames Ames Ames

Kansas Manhattan Manhattan Manhattan

Kentucky - Lexington Lexington Lexington

Louisiana Baton Rouge Baton Rouge Baton Rouge

New Orleans New Orleans Auburn Park (breh.)

Calhoun (branch)
Crowley (branch)

Maine Orono Orono Orono

Maryland College Park College Park College Park

Massachusetts . Amherst Amherst , Amherst

Michigan East Lansing East Lansing East Lansing

Minnesota St. Paul St. Paul gt. Paul ■

Mississippi Agric. College Agric. College Agric. College

Missouri Columbia Columbia Columbia

Montana Bozeman Bozeman Bozeman

Nebraska Lincoln , Lincoln Lincoln

Nevada Reno Reno Reno

New Hampshire— Durham Durham Durham

New Jersey New Brunswick—. New Brunswick — New Brunswick

New Mexico State College State College State College

New York Ithaca Ithaca Ithaca

Geneva

North Carolina West Raleigh West Raleigh West Raleigh

North Dakota Agric. College Agric. College Agric. College

Ohio Columbus Columbus Wooster

Oklahoma Stillwater Stillwater Stillwater

Oregon Corvallls Corvallls Corvallis

Pennsylvania State College State College State College

Porto Rico Mayaguez Mayaguez Mayaguez

Rio Piedras (Sub.)

South Carolina Clemson College Clemson College.-. Clemson College

South Dakota Brookings Brookings Brookings

Tennessee KnoxvUle Knoxvllle Knoxvllle

Texas College Station College Station College Station

Utah Logan Logan I>ogan

Vermont Burlington Burlington Burlington

Virginia Blacksbnrg Blacksburg Blacksburg

Hampton Hampton (negro). Norfolk (branch)

Washington Pullman Pullman Pullman

West yirginla Morgantown Morgantown Morgantown

Wisconsin Madison Madison Madison

Wyoming Laramie . Laramie Laramie

444- AGRICULTiyRE

3. Distances Apart for Planting Fruits and Vegetables

Feet Feet

Apples 30.0-40.0 Cabbage 2.0- 3.0

Apricots 15.0-20.0 Carrot .5- 2.0

Cherries 15.0-25.0 Corn, sweet 3.0- 3.5

Oranges 25.0-30.0 Celery 3.0- 4.0

Peaches 15.0-20.0 Lettuce .5- 2.0

Pears 20.0-30.0 Onion 1.5- 2.0

Plums 15.0-20.0 Parsley 1.0- 2.0

Quinces 10.0-12.0 Peas 1.0- 3.0

Blackberries 4.5- 7.0 Potato 2.5- 3.0

Currants 4.0- 4.5 Radish 1.0- 1.5

Raspberries 3.5- 5.0 Salsify .5- 2.0

Strawberries 1.0- 4.0 Squash and pumpkin 6.0- 8.0

Asparagus 2.0- 4.0 Turnip .5- 2.0

Beans, bush and pole 1.0- 4.0 Tomato 3.0- 4.0

Beets .5- 2.0

4. Quantity of Seed per Acre and Legal Weights
per Bushel

Seed Weight

per acre per bu.

Alfalfa 30 lbs. 60 lbs.

Barley 8 to 10 pks. 48 lbs.*

Blue-grass 20 to 25 lbs. 14 lbs.

Buckwheat 3 to 5 pks. 48 lbs.*

Clover 10 to 15 lbs. 60 lbs.*

Corn, shelled, check row 6 to 8 qts. 60 lbs.

Corn, ensilage 10 qts.

Cotton, upland 4 to 8 pks. 32 lbs.*

Cow-pea 4 to 7 pks. 60 lbs.

Oats 2 to 3 bu. _ 32 lbs.

Potato _- 6 to 18 bu. 60 lbs.* -

Rye 3 to 8 pks. 56 Ibs."^

Timothy 10 to 20 lbs. 45 lbs.*

Wheat 6 to 9 pks. 60 lbs.

*Varies in a few states.

THE END

TO THE TEACHER

r

TO THE TEACHER

1. The Point of View

SUCCESSFUL teaching of agriculture, more than that of
any other subject, depends on the spirit and methods of
the teacher. Agricvilture is so thoroughly concrete a subject
that only a small part of it can be effectively taught by text-
book and in class room without the assistance of field and
farm. The teacher of agriculture must remember first of
all that there is no real agriculture in the text-book.

The place of the text. — Real agriculture is out in the
fields, gardens and pastures, and among the herds and
flocks of the farm. The text-book can only serve as a
guide to point the way, showing the pupil what to look for,
and teaching him to understand what he finds as he meets
the problems of preparing the soil, planting and tilling the
crop, or feeding and caring for the stock. Agriculture can
therefore not be taught from the text alone, no matter how
complete or well arranged it may be, nor how generous the
illustrations. The text-book is very important in class
room and laboratory, but it must be supplemented by the
immediate interests of the farm.

2. Public School Extension Work

This point of view suggests. a method for connecting the
work of the school with the home. The children should
actually do the things they study about. For a number of
years the colleges of agriculture have been engaging in

(0

ii TO THE TEACHER

various forms of extension work, with a view to oftenng
the services of the educational institution to those who can
not go to college. The time has come when the public
school should also offer some such form of extension serv-
ice reaching the homes of its patrons.

Plans for extension projects. — Agricultural extension
work can be carried out by the public schools according to
two different plans: (1) the setting of certain definite
home or farm "projects," or specific pieces of work, to be
carried out by the individual pupils as a part of the course
in agriculture; or (2) the organization of agricultural
clubs, \yhich provide for group, or coordinated, work of
specified nature, usually in conjunction with state or national
club organizations. In either case a certain amount of
school credit should be allowed for home and club work
satisfactorily done.

Agricultural club projects.— The United States De-
partment of Agriculture has undertaken the organization of
boys' and girls' clubs in every state in the Union, and,
wherever possible, works in connection with the public
schools. Government experts, state club managers, county
agricultural agents and the state agricultural colleges all
stand ready to help organize, promote and direct these
clubs.

The teacher of agriculture will find the club a great
incentive to pupils, and an invaluable adjunct to text-book
and class-room work. Through the club it is possible to
translate book and laboratory information into real action
in the field, with the herds, and in the home. Agricultural
club work will also do much to bridge the gap that has so
long existed between the home and the school.

The number of club projects. — The club idea must
not, however,* be overdone. It is possible to start so many
projects that none of them can be well supervised or sue-

TO THE TEACHER ni

cessfully carried out. Probably no school should encour-
age the formation of more than two different club projects
for the same season. Club work is outlined with almost
every chapter in this text, but not with the expectation that
any school will organize at one time all the clubs suggested.
The teacher, with the cooperation of county, state or
national agricultural club leaders, should select for boys
the project of greatest agricultural significance and value
to the community, and for the girls the project of greatest
economic and social value to the community home life.
Every rural school, especially, should have two such club
projects. This plan will carry the benefits of the school to
the homes, and offer the boys and girls real interests in
agriculture and home economics not only for the school
year, but for the summer vacation as well.

3. Equipment for Teaching Agriculture

The amount and nature of the equipment required for
the teaching of agriculture will depend largely on the time
allotted to the study, the age and grade of the pupils, and
the scope of the work undertaken. But every school, no
matter how small or elementary, must have certain neces-
sary equipment if the work is to be most successful. Much
of this material can be made by the pupils in the school, if
they are properly directed.

Tables and cabinets. — It is essential to have suitable
table space so as to permit study or demonstration in a
group. This will be much more satisfactory than under-
taking to do the work from the individual desks of the
pupils. For successful class work the pupils should always
be seated together for observation and instruction, and
there must be room for the display and distribution of ma-
terial to be used by the entire class. Adequate cupboard or
cabinet space for the storing of material and specimens is

iv TO THE TEACHER

important. These may be separate pieces, or built perma-
nently in or against the wall. They should be mouse-proof,
otherwise the specimens are likely to be destroyed. Tlie
upper section of the cabinet may be of glass and the lower
doors of wood. The doors should be locked throughout the
night and the vacation periods.

4. Individual Equipment

A few pieces of litmus paper.

Small glass vials for the selection of weed seeds and
samples of soil.

Two pieces of quarter-inch hemp rope for use in the
study of the relation of the rope to agriculture.

A few blotter testers, a rag-doll tester, and at home, a
box seed-corn tester.

Seed racks and seed trays used for drying and exhib-
iting purposes.

A small thermometer for the testing of temperatures of
water, soil, etc.

A few simple garden tools like hoes, rakes, small hand
spades, potato fork, etc. Most of the garden tools can, of
course, be supplied from the home to be used both at home
and at school.

Some simple carpenter tools for use in the making of
model hen houses, feed and watering troughs, single-trees,
seed boxes, cold-frames, etc.

5. General Equipment for the School

Seed trays, seed-testing equipment, .soil capillarity tubes,
a set of large-mouthed bottles for exhibits of types of soil,
a similar set for exhibits of seeds, a Babcock milk tester,
canning equipment, a few miniature models .of farm machin-
ery. When room has be6n provided and funds are available

TO THE TEACHER • v

regular farm machinery, cream separators, fanning mills,
etc., will be of great value in the teaching of the various
subjects of agriculture. ■

6. Laboratory Material

A great deal of the material for instruction can be ob-
tained as needed from the homes, and adjoining farms and
fields. It is not possible, however, to make the course in
agriculture follow the seasons exactly, and some material
therefore needs to be stored for class use. Other material
may not be easily found when required. Samples of still
other products may not be available in the region, and
should be kept for comparison.

Samples of soils. — Samples of all the different va-
rieties of soils to be found in the region should be collected
and kept in laboratory bottles, jars or common fruit jars.
These samples should include soils rich in humus, clays,
sands, lava, and soils in which organic matter is lacking.
Each sample should be labeled, telling the type represented
and where obtained.

Specimens of cereal plants and grains. — Samples of
all the common cereal grains, including the different local
varieties, should be collected and stored in wide-mouthed
bottles. These will serve for comparison with samples
brought by the pupils from their farm crops. Specimens
of the cereal plants should also be collected and stored
when the crop is ripening. This will allow the class to
study the different types and varieties of wheat, oats, etc.,
and to identify each from the plant, even if the study can
not be taken up when the crops are available in the fields.
It is also desirable to make a collection of types or varieties
not common to the region and use them for comparison.
The state agricultural college can usually help in securing
such a collection.

vi TO THE TEACHER

Specimens of grasses and legumes. — A complete col-
lection of the native grasses and legumes should be made
in every school. The pupils will delight in helping in this
work, which may be made one of the most valuable parts
of their instruction. Wherever possible the roots should
be saved with the stem, so that the entire plant will be
represented. The specimens should be clearly labeled and
tied in bunches or attached to pieces of cardboard. It is
not intended that these dried samples shall be used for study
instead of the growing plant, but they are often useful for
occasional illustration when there is no time to collect the
new material. They also serve as a standard for identifica-
tion of specimens brought by the pupils to the school. The
list should include the chief varieties grown in other sec-
tions of the country.

Specimens of weeds. — A collection of the noxious
weeds of the region should be made and labels attached.
Here again the class may be used in making the collection
of all specimens that are available at the time school is in
session or even during vacation. A collection of weed
seeds should be saved in bottles like those used for the
cereals. Pupils should become able to identify at sight
both the weed plant and its seed, and should know the
habits of growth, the injury done crops and the method of
eradication.

Specimens of injurious insects and worms. — The in-
sect pests common to the region should be collected and
preserved for study by attaching them to cardboard by
means of laboratory pins or other device. The school
should have a cyanide insect bottle for killing specimens,
and insect cases for preserving them. Each specimen
should be clearly labeled and the time of its appearance and
disappearance given. These specimens will then serve as
a guide for the class in making their own collection, or

I

TO THE TEACHER vii

identifying the insects at work. The proper place to study-
insects is, of course, in the field in connection with the soil
and plant life whenever they are available.

Specimens of woods. — A collection of native woods
is one of the most interesting and easy to make. Every
pupil will be glad to take part in the work. Samples of
the leaves should also be collected and preserved. Such a
collection will supply the basis for a study of trees, and
should result in each pupil being able to identify native
trees at sight, either by their leaves or wood and habits of
growth. Pupils should not be permitted to destroy useful
plants for the sake of school specimens.

7. Method of Instruction

It is not possible or desirable in this place to give de-
tailed discussion as to the methods of teaching agriculture.
Certain broad and fundamental principles may, however,
be stated.

Seeking knowledge at first hand. — From the very
first day, the pupils should be made to feel that the study of
agriculture is the study of the actual problems of the farm
— crops, soils, animals, and all else that goes to make up
the life of the farm. To "get a lesson," is therefore not
to commit to memory what the text may say on a certain
subject, but to use the text-book and all other available
helps to master fully the problem at hand in the study of
an ear of corn, the preparation of the seed bed, the fertiliz-
ing of a field, or the feeding and management of a flock
or herd.

Use of the text-book. — The text-book is arranged to
give as natural and interesting an approach as possible to
each chapter or topic. There is hardly a text-book lesson
for a single day which does not provide for some practical
home and field study in connection with the subject under

viii TO THE TEACHER

consideration. The lesson assignment should usually first
be studied from the text, the field, laboratory or home
work on the topic then being taken up. The topics for
investigation and the questions throughout the text should
ahiHiys be worked out fully and thoroughly. In many in-
stances the teacher will desire to add questions or topics to
supplement those of the book. Only in such practical ways
can the work be made interesting and vital.

Use of note-books. — The pupils should be provided
with note-books of uniform size. In these should be kept
a record of all demonstrations, experiments, field trips and
excursions and observations. Here should also be worked
out all the exercises and problems required in the text, and
those assigned by the teacher. Drawings, diagrams, tables
or any other matter brought into the course should find
.their way into the note-book. Pictures of farm animals,
crops, machines, farm buildings and the -like, should be as-
sembled and form a part of the record of the course.
Every note-book should be neat and well kept, and ar-
ranged in a businesslike manner.

Correlation with other subjects. — Agriculture may
well be made in inany schools to serve as the basis of corre-
lation with other subjects. Much of the arithmetic can
be taught more efficiently and naturally from the lessons
in agriculture than in any other way. Language work,
including composition and letter-writing, can be related to
much of the work of the agriculture course. Industrial
geography is suggested by every chapter in the text. Free-
hand and mechanical drawing, manual training and domes-
tic science all connect easily and naturally with the lessons
and problems of the course.

Connection with home work. — Constant reference is
made in the text to the crops, gardens, stock, soil and other
interests found on the farm or at home. This is not by'

TO THE TEACHER • ix

accident. The purpose is to make the study of agriculture
interesting and helpful by connecting it immediately with
the homes. The teacher who will faithfully carry out this
concrete method of instruction will find growing in his pu-
pils a firm and abiding enthusiasm in the subject never to
be hoped for in mere text-book study. The great purpose
and the highest success is to get the lessons of the text
translated into life and action. The work on agricultural
projects assigned in connection with the course should, as
far as possible, be done under the guidance of the teacher
and should receive school credit.

Demonstrations and experiments. — The difference
between demonstrations and experiments should be clearly
understood by the class. The idea in an experiment is to
investigate, discover or verify some truth. In a demon-
stration some well-known truth is illustrated, shown or
demonstrated to others, with the purpose of convincing
them of its merits and leading them to adopt it in practise.

8. Seasonal Order of Study

Seasonal order impossible in text. — It is wholly im-
possible to arrange any text on agriculture so that the top-
ics will follow the seasons throughout the year. If this
could be done it would make the teacher's work much sim-
pler and easier. But seasonal variations do not come at
the same time in different regions, nor does the order of
the crops and gardens follow the arrangement of the school
year.

Order to be based on crop sequence. — Because of
these facts, it must be left to the teacher to select such an
order from the text as best fits the crops and seasons of
his region. It is not necessary that the chapters be taken in
succession as they occur. For northern schools opening in the
late summer, the corn chapter undoubtedly will be best for

f

X TO THE TEACHER

a begfnning. The potato chapter should be taken up before
the crop is harvested if possible. It may be referred to
again at planting time in the spring. The garden chapters
should be studied during the late winter or early spring,
and again referred to as the planting, spraying or tillage is'
under consideration. The teacher need not be afraid even
to divide a chapter, using a part at tv^^o or more different
seasons if this seems best. For example, the field study of
corn should be begun in the fall with the ripening crop,
but the testing and grading of seed corn should be reserved
for winter study.

The greater part of the study of farm animals can be
successfully carried on during the winter, though certain of
the features should be taken up in the fall or spring. Some
of the work on soils can also be utilized for -^inter study.
Actual field -study and demonstrations will, of course, be
carried on when the ground is not frozen. The great point
is to base the lessons on the immediate activities of the
farm during just as much of the year as possible, making
the assignments from the text conform to the seasonal or-
der of the locality.

9. Reference Material

Every school where agriculture is taught should be
stocked with a number of standard texts on each of the
divisions of the subject. The library should contain a
standard cyclopedia of agriculture. It is also desirable to
have the Agricultural Year Book of the United States De
partment of Agriculture, and the Census Reports that deal
with the subject of agriculture. Arrangements can be
made for the receipt of the current crop reports.

Government publications. — The United States De-
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, is in position
to give help to all citizens on the subject of agriculture.

TO THE TEACHER ^ xi

A large number of Farmers' Bulletins, circulars, reports
• and special instructions on almost every conceivable agricul-
tural or home economics subject, can be secured by address-
ing the Secretary of Agriculture. Most of the publications
are free and are intended for the use of the public. This
material makes a very necessary and helpful supplement to
the text-book, and should be constantly referred to. It is
well to provide some library or filing arrangement to con-
tain such material, so that it can be properly classified and
cared for.

State agricultural colleges and experiment stations. —
Every state has its agricultural institution. These colleges
publish a great deal of valuable material on the agricultural
problems of their respective states. In most cases the ma-
terial is free to all citizens of the state, and should be freely
drawn upon for school use. A list of the agricultural col-
leges and experiment stations will be found in the chapter
on "Miscellaneous Information."

INDEX

INDEX

Alfalfa,

as forage, * -~

as soil renewer, ^^^

chapter on, 1^^

chief region of, ^^4

enemies of, ^^"^

feeding value of, 1^6

harvesting of, 141

soil requirements for, l«^o

study of plant, l^-^

Animals, '

farm and agriculture, 26i

farm, section on, 265

food supplying, 267

products of, . 269

work of farm, 265

Ants, ^^

Aphis,

corn root.

11

Arsenate OF Lead Spray, 211

Babcock,

steps in test, -^'8

test for butter fat, 277

Bacteria,

nitrifying, H'

Beep,

breeds of cattle, 28/

feeding cattle, 289

INDEX.

Birds,

and their food, 432

chapter on, 432

harmful, 437

methods of protecting, 437

useful varieties of, 434

Blotter Seed Testers, 39

Bordeaux Mixture, 208

Bread, 64

Canning Fruits and Vegetables,

chapter on, 217

recipes for, 218

time table for, 222

Cattle,

beef, breeds of, 287

chapter on, 272

club projects, 294

dairy, 272

feeding beef, 289

play contests with, 292

tuberculosis in, 289

Chickens,

breeds of, 349

chapter on, 346

diseases of, 367

feeding for eggs, 358

feeding of, 357

houses for, 363

the raising of, 353

Chinch-Bugs, 76

Clovers, The,

alsike, 130
as forage, - 121

INDEX

Clovers, The (CoM/mw^fi)'.

as soil renewer, 122

chapter on, 119

crimson, 131

enemies of red, 128

harvesting of, 127

impurities of seed, 126

red-clover plant, 1 19

successful growing of, 125

Club Work,

cattle, 294

corn.

62

forage, 118

fruit garden, ' 199

hogs, 335

horses, , 314

potato, 111
poultry, ■ 372

roads, 430

sheep, - 344

soil, 262
tomato, . 207

vegetable garden, 177

Commercial Seed Tester, 36

Corn,

barren stalks, 8

binder, 52

chapter on, 1

club work, 62

cultivation of, 48

demonstrations, 61

depth of planting, ■ 46

ear worms, 13

enemies of, 9

31

INDEX

? Corn (Continued).

for silo, 53

grading seed, 39

harvesting and storing, 50

judging, 27

plant, 2

play contests, 61

preparing seed for planter, 38

root aphis, 11

roots and moisture, 43

root worm, 9

seed bed, 43

seed saving, 14

seed selection bed, 24

seed testing box, 33

shocker, the, 53

smut, 13

stand of, 5

stover, value of, 52

suckers, 8

testing seed, 31

time for gathering seed, 16

time for planting, 46

types of, • 20

uses of, 58

uses of stalk, 59

varieties of, 22

yield of, 1
G)UNTY Agent,

and the school, 404

financial support of, 403

the agricultural, 401

INDEX

Cow,

dairy type of, 275

feeding of dairy, 281

judging the dairy, 277

milk tests of the, 277

Cow-Peas,

as forage, 148

as soil renovator, 148

plant, 146

Crops,

forage, 113

rotation of, 12

Cutworms, 12

Dairy,

breeds, 279

profitable and unprofitable cows, 273

types of cows, 275
Demonstrations,

cattle, 292

com, 61

forage, 118

fruit garden, 195

hogs, 334

horses, 313

potato. 111

poultry, 371

roads, 428

sheep, 344

soil, 261

tomato, 206

vegetable garden, 177

INDEX

"f)RAINAGE,

cost of,

260

surface,

256

under,

258

Eggs,

for hatching,

353

producing and marketing,

360

rules for production of.

361

Farm,

administration of.

377

and home management.

375

buildings for the,

386

implements and mechanics, chapter on.

408

selecting and planning,

375

the home,

384

Farm Economics,

section on.

375

Fertilization of Plants,

5

Fertilizers, Commercial,

243

Forage Ci«iP§,

chapter on.

113

club project.

118

importance of,

114

region of,

115

Fungicides,

208

Garden, The Fruit,

care of,

183

club projects, '

190

demonstrations,

195

enemies of.

185

INDEX

Garden, The Fruit (Co«ft«M^d).

plan of, „ 180

play contests, 197

pruning of, 184

soil and location for, 180

spraying,

188

varieties in, 181

Garden, The Vegetable,

chapter on, 165

clubs, 177

cultivation of, 171

demonstrations, 177'

insect enemies of, 174

location and soil for, 166

plan for, 170

planting time, 168

play contests, 177

Grasses,

for meadows, 155

for pastures, 160

uses of, 155

varieties of, 113

Grasshoppers, 78

Harvesting,

alfalfa crop, 141

by "hogging down" corn, 56

red-clover crop, 127

the corn crop, , . 50

the potato crop, 102

the wheat crop, 71

with corn binder, 52

Hessian Fly, The, ^ 78

INDEX

r

iFIOGS,

balanced ration for, 326

breeds of, 316

care of, 319

chapter on, 315

chief region for, 315

club projects, 335

demonstrations with, 334

diseases of, 328

feeding, 323

houses, 319
play contests, . 335

prevention of cholera in, 332

Home,

and farm management, 375

beautifying the grounds, 389

grounds and wood lot, 389

Horses,

breeds of, 302

care of, 307

chapter on, 296

classes of, 297

clubs, 314

defects of, 306

demonstrations with, 313

feeding of, 310

judging of, 305

leading states for, 296

play contests, 314

Horticulture,

section on, 165

Hotbed, The, 171

Humus, 227

INDEX

Implements,

farm and mechanics, chapter on, 408
Inoculation,

of soil for alfalfa, 140

Insecticides, 208

Kerosene Emulsion, 214

Legumes, '

chapter on, 146

for meadows, 1^^

for pastures, 1^^

uses of, 11^

varieties of, 1 1^

Lime,

use of on soils, 24o

Lime Sulphur Spray, 210

Manure,

application of, 242

barnyard, - 238

242

green, ^^^

preventing loss from, 241

Meadows,

care of, 156

chapter on, 154

grasses for, ' , 155

permanent, 158

requirements of, 154

seed mixtures for, 156

Milk,

cooling of, 286

producing clean, ^ 283

tests for the dairy cow, . 277

INDEX

Nitrogen,

commercial fertilizers, 243

gathering bacteria, 117

Note-Books,

records in, 7

Oats, Chapter on, 80

Paris Green Spray, 212

Pastures, 159

care of, 161

grasses for, ■ 160

mixtures of seed for, 160

requirements of, 159

Peanut, The,

uses of, 152

Phosphorus Fertilizers, 245

Planter,

grading seed for, 38

testing the, 41

I*LAY Contests,

cattle, 292

corn, 61

fruit garden, 197

hogs, 335

horses, 314

potato. 111

poultry, 372

roads, 430

sheep, 344

soil, 262

tomato, 206

vegetable garden, 177

INDEX

Pollen, * 4, 26

Potassium Fertilizers, 245
Potatoes,

as a farm crop, 99

chapter on, 98

cutting the seed, " 106

clubs, 111

demonstrations, 111

enemies, 107

play contests, • 111

region,

99

selection of seed, 103

soil and seed bed for, 100

storing of, 102

the plant, 98

Poultry,

chapter on, 346

clubs, 372

demonstrations, . 371

diseases of, 367

housing of, 363

increasing demands, 347

leading states for, 347

play contests, 372

Pruning,

of fruit trees, 184

tomatoes, 202

"Rag-Doll" Seed Tester, 36

Ration,

balanced for dairy cows, 282

balanced for hogs, 326

for fattening chickens, 359

INDEX

Ration (Continued).

for laying hens, , 358

for sheep, 341

Resin Lime Spray, 214

Roads,

chapter on, 420

construction of earth, 425

club projects, 430

demonstrations with, 428

importance of public, 420

location of, 422

maintenance of earth, 426

play contests, 430

types of, 422

Rope-Tying, 412

Rotation of Crops, 12

and fertility, 248

plan for, 249

Rust,

wheat, 74

Sawdust Seed Testers, 33

Scab,

in wheat, 73

potato, 107

Seed,

bed and planting, 43

bed for wheat, 70

care of shelled, 40

cleaning red clover, 126

curing of com, 18

cutting potato, 106

germination box,""^ ' 33

grading for planter, 39

INDEX

Seed {Co7ttinued).

loss from poor, 1"

mixtures for meadows, l5o

saving of, . *^

selecting wheat, ' ^

selection bed, /y 24

selection of potato, 10^

testmg, ^'■

various testers for,^ 36

Seed Bed,

preparing the, ^

Sheep,

agricultural importance of, 336

breeds of, • 338

chapter on, 336

club projects, 344

demonstrations, . 343

feeding of, 340

play contests, 344

Shocker,

the corn, 53

Silo, The, 53

Smut,

com, 13

treatment for wheat, 76

Soil,

acid and liming, 247

barnyard manure and, 238

capacity of for water, 252

chapter on, 225

club projects, ' 262

cultivation of, 1^2

demonstrations, 261

drainage, " 256

INDEX

9

Soil (Continued).

erosion of, 232

fertility and legumes, 122

fertility of, 236

forms of water in, 251

for potatoes, 100

inoculation for alfalfa, 140

moisture, chapter on, 251

organic matter in, 227

origin of, 225

play contests, 262

requirements for alfalfa, 138

structure of, 230

texture of, , ^ 228

tillage and water, 254

Soy-Beans,

feeding value of, ^ 152

Spraying,

machines for, ,^ 191

mixtures for, 208

of fruit gardens, 188

tomatoes, 204

Stover, Corn, 52

Tilth of Soils, 231

Tomato, The,

as a garden crop, 201

chapter on, 201

club project, 207

culture, 202

demonstrations with, 206

harvesting and marketing, 204

play contests, 206

INDEX

TovLATO, The (Continued).

pruning and staking, 202

varieties of, 202

Tuberculosis,

in cattle, 289

in hogs, 330

suppressing in cattle, , 290

tuberculin test for, 290

Tubers, 99

Vegetables,

enemies of, 174

garden, 165

transplanting of, 171

Vetch,

common.

150

hairy, 150

types of, 150

Water,

capillary, 252

gravitational, 25 1

Weeds,

as enemies of alfalfa, 143

killing in corn-field, 46

soil and tillage, 254

Wheat,

chapter on, 64

diseases and enemies of, 72

harvesting, 71

importance of, 64

planting, 71

seed bed for, ' 70

INDEX

Wheat {Continued),

selecting seed, 7C

spring, ' 69

types of, 66

winter, 67

WiREVVORMS, 12

Wood Lot,

chapter on, 389

enemies of, 396

the farm, 392

Worms,

com root, 9

f