lt|U-i^:: 3

fliffflfWp

illicit HUmUI II H^IHS

II b"'-

IlliMittS

fill

SI

lliillM^

fill

W-"Xi

liiif

ii:=iil-U-?4s ;:t

il"

il'plililiW

lllllllllMlfflrsi m»¥«l '»

. liJJJUi:

■ Hh i; i ;\ n ;; * >1 ? 1 14'; J ml Iff f* ; ;

. -r .■ i St ii'H V: i.r ? t£? a iiii : i t .: ; :

":-;|pi-

m

lljillll!';. .JLJU ..)

:p:Rii; •[ . : L =t-*±5-i

a- ;;; ■; :: ■ -■? < * r ;; = * ?■ m ;; q ;■■ U i; o ■?-;::?:; •

! Hcfrliff QH MntG

,::;.HUlil!.I?i
W

ilEi:"

Iliilffllllfflll^
■8fiSiStUiiHJt}u.'a5ili>;«tH!i«':*"l>Mf'.sJs"is;!i:;K;iUVi

Iflistiiffllllittii

mmmmmm
liillllll

ilillfplfSiJTflilil^lSliaii

OS

^

III!?-;

illj-r

i;!l||;!

^;:r::j|r:h4i^pij^gi:gM:MHsiNJH;:NI=::!H

■ri: y n o.fi« smmnn m unm m t ? um^i l&!&4iiiiU'0}V:--r*-> ■■; ?■ ■■ s ; " - 1 ■ -; ^ ^ ; =» r = : *

B§! IIS

IllilllJ 111 Mill! HilK'l^ H 1 1 If If iUiI! li ill I p 1 j 11 i W li H 1 0 1 SIS mli 1 HS h

iliSijfi

wmmswmmm
mm\mmm\.\

mmitmmmmmi

lltiiM;

.im

Mmm
WW

§m

llllllllli

mmmUmmmm3M

■mmmmmmmm

3 H-

Natural History of Hawaii

BOOK ONE
The People, The Islands

and THE
Plant Liee of the Group

//'* J/lrfMfyi, /£-rt.//UC

"There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,
Than are dreamt of in your philosophy."— Shakespeare.

Natural History of Hawaii

Being an Account of the Hawaiian People, the Geology and Geography

of the Islands, and the Native and Introduced Plants

and Animals of the Group

BY

WILLIAM ALANSON JiRYAN, B. Sc.

Professor of Zoology and Geology in the College of Hawaii

Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; Member, The American
Ornithologists Union; National Geographic Society; American Fisheries Society; Ha-
waiian Historical Society; Hawaiian Entomological Society; Amer-
ican Museums Association; National Audubon Society;
Seven Years Curator of Ornithology in the
Bishop Museum, etc.

Illustrated with one hundred and seventeen full page plates from four hundred
and forty-one photographs elucidating the ethnology of the native
people, the geology and topography of the islands and figur-
ing more than one thousand of the common or inter-
esting species of plants and animals to be
found in the native and introduced
fauna and flora of Hawaii.

Honolulu. Hawaii

The Hawaiian Gazette Co., Ltd.

1915

For Distributors see Index

Copyright, 1915, By William Alanson Bryan
Honolulu

(Page Seven)

TO THE MEMORY OF

R. G. B.

THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED

PREFACE.

In the preparation of the following pages it has been the aim of the author
to bring together into one volume the more important and interesting facts about
the Hawaiian Islands and their primitive inhabitants, as well as information
concerning the native and introduced plants and animals of the group.

It is believed that those who read this volume — be they travelers, residents
or students — will find, in its brief account of nature in Hawaii, not only much
that will prove interesting and entertaining, but that which will foster and
stimulate an interest in the things of nature for which these mid-ocean islands
are far-famed.

It is asserted that, in childhood, every person is interested in some of the
many fields of natural history. It would be strange, indeed, if Hawaii, with
its wonderful natural environment and remarkable tropical plants and interesting
animals, did not rekindle in the minds of the old and encourage in the hearts
of the young a desire to know more about things Hawaiian. As a result of
the natural longing for information, there has existed for years a pressing de-
mand in Hawaii, from teachers, travelers and students, for a hand-book that
would supply the names for, as well as the facts relative to, familiar objects.

To supply a guide that would provide reliable and readable information,
in a form that would be welcomed by the general reading public, and, at the
same time, that would meet the requirements of the homes, the schools, and the
libraries of Hawaii and the mainland, as a convenient reference book, has been
the author's endeavor. While the volume lays no claim to being an exhaustive
monograph of the vast subject of which it treats, the material used has been
patiently gathered from every possible source and carefully selected, sifted
and verified in the field and study, by the author, during many years' resi-
dence in the islands as an enthusiastic naturalist, museum curator and college
professor. For these reasons it is believed that specialists with technical in-
formation at hand, no less than those who pride themselves on their general
knowledge of things Hawaiian, will find the volume a handy ' first aid' and re-
liable and convenient reference work.

The carrying out of the three-fold object of preparing a readable account
of Hawaii, a text-book or supplementary reader on the natural history of the
islands, and a convenient reference book for those who require a more technical
or detailed handling of the material included than is customary in a book
frankly popular in nature, presents certain difficulties that seem to have been
met by the selection, classification, and arrangement of the text and the illustra-
tions.

The casual reader will find the body of the text shorn of the technical
verbiage and scientific names that so often distract, annoy and fatigue the lay-
man. Where such terms have been indispensable they have been defined in the

28941 I

10 NATUKAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

text, the footnotes, or in the index and glossary. Those who prefer their reading
should rest on the firmer ground that definite nomenclature is supposed to im-
part, will find the necessary technical names of orders, families, genera and
species, referred to in the text given in the footnotes, or in the cross-references
in the index. The systematist and specialist will not expect the degree of com-
pleteness in this regard that would characterize a manual dealing with any one
of the subjects herein treated. However, the scientific worker will find in the
index and glossary, not only the scientific names most frequently in use for
common objects in the more important contributions to the literature of his
subject in the islands, but often the latest word on the nomenclature of the
species in question.

The index and glossary is made a special feature of the book. It has been
carefully prepared and numerous cross-references to the various English, Ha-
waiian and Latin names that are current with the people, or are written into the
literature of the islands will aid the student in working out synonyms. The
author has endeavored to make the possession of a little information, concerning
the natural history of Hawaii, of use to the would-be student. To aid the lay-
man, two generous open doors have been provided: one through the index, the
other through the table of contents. By the use of these doors the inquirer, in
possession of any one of the many common names, the name of the great division
to which the plant or animal belongs, or even knowing something of its habits
or habitat, will, in most cases, find their knowledge sufficient to guide the way
to such definite information as may be contained within the body of the book.

Much in the form of notes, comments and observation that seemed too
specific, local, critical, fragmentary or prosaic to fit well into the plan of the
body of the text, has been reserved for the combined index, glossary and com-
pendium at the end of the volume, and there appears in alphabetical order without
reference to the text. The index therefore should be in constant use by the
reader and student.

Because of obvious limitations, and owing to the nature of the objects
sought, the author has made no rigid attempt to follow out a system
of arrangement in this volume such as an ethnologist, a geologist, a botanist
or a zoologist would choose were they treating their special subject
separately and in fuller detail. Strictly rigorous adherence to the various
chapter headings has often been next to impossible. A given subject is often
presented in preceding and succeeding chapters; or it may occur in different
parts of the book. The natural desire is that books, in any way scientific in
character, should follow some generally accepted system or arrangement. Such
systems usually start with the lower, older, simpler or more generalized form
and proceed gradually to the consideration of the more recent, higher or com-
plex. Occasionally, however, for the sake of convenience, the system is reversed
and a different order of arrangement may be followed. In the following pages
the arrangement of the material has been based largely on a certain association
of ideas and objects; but the sequence of the chapters has been controlled, to a

PREFACE. 11

certain degree, by expediency or caprice. Even in the arrangement of the five
main sections into which the book is divided, it has seemed expedient to place
that part first which, in a rigid natural order, would logically have been placed
near the last. Nevertheless it will require no great intelligence on the part
of the reader to trace out for himself the historical sequence of nature in Hawaii.
No doubt the first great event would be the formation of the islands, followed by
their occupation by plants and animals. These events in the natural order, and
according to system, would doubtless long precede the peopling of the islands
by the Hawaiian race, or the introduction, by them or any other race, of the
various foreign plants and animals found in the group.

The intimate relation which existed between the splendid native Hawaiian
people and their isolated environment is a subject of the greatest interest and
entitles the human inhabitants to first consideration in the present treatment of
this subject. The character and natural history of the race and the use
made by the people in their economy, arts and practices, of the various ma-
terials furnished them by nature, unites them most closely with their environ-
ment ; and in a natural history, such as this, calls for an acquaintance with the
Hawaiian race, as a native people and the aboriginal inhabitants of the coun-
try, before we consider the environment which they had so thoroughly explored
and mastered long before their contact with Europeans.

It is confidently believed that the all too brief account of the ancient Ha-
waiian people is one that will instill a just pride of ancestry into the hearts
of those readers whose forebears were of the native Hawaiian race. Not so
many hundred years ago, the ancestors of the proudest Europeans were little
more than aborigines, and ate nuts and herbs, and depended on the fortunes
of the chase for their meat. Not so many centuries before that, as the world
measures time, a collection of their handiwork would have shown a group of
objects far more crude than were those possessed by the Hawaii a ns at the time
of their meeting with a dominant and powerful race.

It seems hardly necessary to say that the following pages are not offered
primarily as an original contribution to the natural history of Hawaii. The
task has been chiefly to bring together information about the islands that only
an expert knows where to find. That which has suited the author's purpose
has often been taken almost verbatim from the most available, which in many
cases has been the original source.

From the waitings of the many experts who have studied the various fields
the natural history of Hawaii affords, the author in his own reading has culled
wherever anything was found that would help to make this book more complete
or interesting. The fruitful fields have been many, and to workers, past and
present, whoever they may be, the author gladly makes the fullest acknowledg-
ments. It is owing to the efforts of all that this general treatment of nature in
Hawaii is made possible. In many cases where it has been necessary to trace
material to its original source, so much has been found that had been borrowed
without acknowledgment — even in the writings of our most punctilious scient-

12 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

ists — that to give full and proper credit for information on Hawaiian subjects
would involve a searching and comparing of original sources, that would profit
but little, and would add endless labor to an already heavy task.

So as the teller of an old tale the author makes no elaborate attempt to
enumerate his sources and burden his book with an extended bibliography.
No one however can, without flagrant injustice, write upon any Hawaiian
theme without acknowledging his indebtedness to Mr. Thomas G. Thrum, who
for more than forty years has been steadily engaged in gathering, compiling
and publishing data on every phase of the Hawaiian Islands. His forty An-
nuals constitute a mine of information of which these islands are justly proud.

In the body of the text effort has been made to indicate the chief source
and give credit for noteworthy facts, but the author wishes especially in this
connection to allude to his colleagues and fellow workers in the field of science,
who have generously given every assistance in their power in a spirit of willing
cooperation that has made a pleasure of what would otherwise — and but for
the love of the thing — have been a tedious and thankless task.

In order that these pages might carry the additional weight of specific
authority the author has read the manuscript of the various chapters to special-
ists who have distinguished themselves in their chosen fields, and has incorporated
their suggestions and corrections in the text. Those who have rendered material
aid in this line or in other ways not elsewhere mentioned are Dr. John T. Gulick,
evolutionist; Dr. N. B. Emerson, ethnologist; Dr. William D. Alexander, his-
torian; Mrs. Emma Metcalf Nakuina, Hawaiian scholar; Mr. Thomas G. Thrum,
historian and Hawaiian authority; Dr. Charles II. Hitchcock, geologist; Pro-
fessor Charles W. Baldwin, geographer; Dr. Henry A. Pilsbry, conchologist ;
Miss Mary Rathbun, crustaceologist ; Dr. Walter K. Fisher, zoologist; Professor
Otto Swezey, Mr. David T. Fullaway, Mr. E. M. Ehrhorn, economic ento-
mologists; Dr. R. C. L. Perkins, Professor Henry W. Ilenshaw, Mr. Daniel B.
Kuhns, naturalists; Mr. J. E. Higgins, horticulturist; Professor F. G. Krauss,
agriculturist; Professor Vaughan MacOaughey, Mr. Joseph F. Rock, Mr. Charles
N. Forbes, botanists, and to Messrs. D. Thaanum, William Wilder, Irwin Spald-
ing, collectors. The author is under especial obligations to his former student,
Mr. I). B. Kuhns, for much help in many fields.

To the author's wife, Elizabeth Letson Bryan, Sc. I)., whose interest in his
labors has been never failing, a sincere tribute of appreciation is due for con-
stant and valuable help, criticism and suggestions in all departments of the book.
Only those who write books can appreciate what her contribution in encourage-
ment, denial, love and service has been to this book.

The half-tone illustrations were made from photographs in the author's col-
lection. They, like the text, have been brought together from many sources.
The greater number, however, are from negatives that, at one time or another,
have been made expressly for use in this volume. Credit is given for the
illustrations in another connection.

PREFACE. 13

Doubtless errors will be found in the text and in the proof -reading by those
who search for them. Few will expect absolute perfection. If the bare facts of
nature have been clothed with living interest sufficient to make them acceptable
and full of information for the general reader, as well as memorable and useful
to the student of nature; and if at the same time what has been written falls
well within the tenets and tenor of truth as understood by the more critical
scientists; and above all, should the book prove generally useful, the author's
ambition will have been attained.

WILLI AM AL ANSON BRYAN.

The Palms, Honolulu, Hawaii,
September 13th, 1915.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

The illustrations used in the following pages are, in the main, reproduced

from unpublished photographs taken by the author, at various times, during a

period of many .years residence in the islands. In addition to the plates taken

especially for this work, a number of choice photographs, many of them of

great value, have been secured from various sources, and the author takes this

opportunity to publish his indebtedness to his friends and colleagues for gener-
ous permission to select and use, from their private collections, such prints as

are accredited to them in the following table:

Baker, R. J.— Plate 1, fig. 2 ; 23—4 ; 25—2, 3.

Baldwin, C. W. (Author, Geography of the Hawaiian Islands) — Plate 7, figs. 1, 2,
5, 6; 41—1, 2, 3, 4; 44—1, 2, 5, 6, 7; 49—2, 3; 74—1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8.

Bishop Museum, Objects in the (By permission of the Trustees) — Plate 8, fig. 2;
11—1, 2, 3, 4 ; 12—1 ; 13 ; 77—4 • 78.

Bonine, R. K.— Plate 90, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6.

Bryan, W. A.— Plate 8, figs. 1, 4; 10—5; 11—1, 2, 3, 4; 12—1; 13—1 to 21
17—4; 18; 19—1, 3, 4, 5; 20—1, 2, 4; 22; 23—2, 3, 4; 24; 26; 29—1, 3
30—1, 2, 4; 32—1, 2, 3, 4; 33—1, 2, 3, 4; 34; 35—1, 2, 4; 3ft— 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
37—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; 39; 46—3; 48—1, 2, 3, 4; 49—3; 51—1 to 18
52—1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8; 53—1 to 20; 54—1 to 15; 5ft— 1 to 14; 57—1. 2, 3, 6, 7, 9,
10; 58—1 to 16; 59—1 to 17; 60—1, 2, 4, 6; 61—1 to 17; 62—1 to 12; 63—1
to 19 ; 66—1, 3, 5, 7 ; 67—1, 2, 5, 6, 7 ; 69—5 ; 71—2 ; 72—3, 6 ; 74—1 ; 75 ; 77
78—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; 79—2, 6, 7, 10, 11, 16, 17; 80; 81—1 to 9; 82—1 to 6
83—1 to 12 ; 84—1 to 6 ; 85—1 to 9 ; 86—1 to 7 ; 87—2, 3, 7 ; 88—1 to 16
90—1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; 91—1 to 14 ; 92—1 to 16 ; 93—1 to 11 ; 94—1 to 15 ; 97—1 to
25 ; 98—1 to 19 ; 99—1 to 30 ; 100 ; 101—1 to 27 ; 103—1 to 32 ; 104—1 to 21
105—1 to 27; 106—1 to 59; 108—1 to 24; 109—1, 2, 3, 4, 5; 110—1 to 29
111—1 to 12; 112—1 to 13; 113—1 to 16; 114—1 to 19; 115; 116—1 to 24
117—1 to 18.

Fisher, W. K.— Plate 79. figs. 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15.

Frear, Hon. W. F.— Plate 21, %s. 2, 4.

Gartlev, A.— Plate 17, fig. 5; 23—1; 25—1; 27; 35—3; 64—1.

Gurrey, A. R., Jr.— Plate 14 ; 17—1; 47—2.

Henshaw, II. W.— Plate 2; 3, figs. 1, 2; 4—5; 5; 6; 8—5; 12—2; 15—1, 2;
16—2, 5; 31; 38; 40; 42; 43; 44—4; 45; 46—1, 2, 4; 47—4, 5; 48—5
49—1, 5, 6; 50; 55; 64—2, 3; 69—1, 4, 6, 7; 70; 71—1; 72—1, 5; 73—6, 7, 8
74__1 . 87—4, 5, 8 ; 89 ; 102—2 ; 107.

Lawrence, Miss Marv S. (Author Old Time ITawaiians) — Plate 14; 17 — 1.

MacCaughev, Vaughan— Plate 52, i\^. 7; 57—4; 60—3, 7; 66—4, 6, 9; 67—3, 4;
68—3, 5, 9.

Moses, Ernest— Plate 46, f\ix. 3; 47—1.

Perkins, R. W.— Plate 69, figs. 2, 8.

Pope, W. T.— Plate 33, fig. 5; 66—2, 8, 10; 67—8; 68—1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8; 71—4;
72—2, 4, 7 ; 73—1, 2, 4, 5.

Stokes, J. F. G.— Plate 8, fig. 2.

Thrum, I). T.— Plate 4, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4.

Warren, J. T.— Plate 1, fiir. 1 ; 3—3, 4 ; 10—2, 4, 6 ; 23—5 ; 30—3 ; 52—4 ; 71—5 ;
102—1.

Williams, J. J.— Plate 9; 10, i\^. 1; 15—3, 4; 47—3; 65; 76; 79—1.

Miscellaneous Sources ( Including Hawaii Promotion Committee, Hawaiian
Suirar Planters' Exp. Station. College of Hawaii, Purchased Photographs,
Etc— Plate 7, fisrs. 3, 4; 8—3, 6; 10—3; 16—1, 3, 4; 17—2; 18; 19—2; 21—1,
3 6 • 22 23—3 ; 24 ; 26 ; 29—2 ; 34 ; 39 ; 48—6 ; 57—5, 8 ; 60—5 . 65 : 71—3 ;

75. 77—1, 2, 3, 5; 80; 82; 81; 83; 84; 85; 86; 87—1, 6; 88; 91; 92; 93;

94; 95— 1, 2, 3; 96—1. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
14

CONTENTS.

BOOK ONE

SECTION ONE.

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE.

CHAPTER I.

Coming of the Hawaiian Race.

Plates 1, 2, [3, 5].*

Hawaiians the First Inhabitants — Polynesian Affinities — Evidence of Early
Immigration — Traditional and Historical Evidence of Early Voyages — Ancient
Voyages — Animals and Plants Brought to Hawaii as Baggage — Double Canoes —
Provisions for Long Voyages — Steering a Course by the Stars — Establishment
of the Hawaiian Race.

CHAPTER II.

Tranquil Environment of Hawaii and Its Effect on the People.

Plates 3, 4, [1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 25, 50, 71, 87, 89, 102, 106].

Natural Environment and its Effect on the People — Kona Weather — Tem-
perature— Effect of the Trade Winds — Altitude and its Effect on Climate — -
Rains in Hawaii — Effect of a Sufficient Amount of Food — Inter-Island Com-
munication— Inter-tribal War — Agriculture and the Food Supply — The Fauna
and Flora Explored by the Hawaiians — Food and its Effect upon the People —
Important Foods of the Natives — Response of the Natives to their Environment.

CHAPTER III.

Physical Characteristics of the People; Their Language, Manners and

Customs.

Plates 5, 6, [1, 2, 3, 4, 14, 15, 16].

Splendid Stature and Physical Development of the People — Clothing of
the People — Cleanliness — Effect of their Life in the Open Air — Their Lan-
guage— The Alphabet — Genealogy and History — Meles and Hulas — Marriage — •
Polygamy — Marriage Among Persons of Rank — Infanticide — The Descent of
Rank— The Tabu.

CHAPTER IV.
Religion of the Hawaiians: Their Method of Warfare and Feudal

Organization.
Plates 7, 8, [6, 9, 10, 11, 13, 17].

Religion Among the Hawaiians — Idol Worship — The Future State — •
Heiaus — Warfare — Temples of Refuge — Preliminary to a Battle — The King and
His Power — Sorcerers — The Nobility, Priests and Common People — The King
and the Land — Taxes.

Numerals in brackets indicate plates showing supplementary illustrations.

15

16 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

CHAPTER V.
The Hawaiian House : Its Furnishings and Household Utensils.
Plates 9, 10, [2, 4, 5, 8. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17].
Complete Domestic Establishment — Building of a House — House Furnish-
ings— Household Implements.

CHAPTER VI.

Occupations of the Hawaiian People.
Plates 11, 12, 13, [2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 14, 50, 71].
Agriculture Among the Hawaiians — Taro Growing — Agricultural Imple-
ments— Irrigation — Planting and Harvesting a Crop-— Taro and Its Uses — Poi —
Sweet Potatoes and Yams — Breadfruit — Bananas — Fiber Plants, Wauki, etc. —
The Manufacture of Tapa — Tapa Making a Fine Art Among Hawaiians— Mat
Making — Lauhala Mats — Makoloa Mats — Fishing — Salt Manufacture.

CHAPTER VII.

Tools, Implements, Arts and Amusements of the Hawaiians.
Plates 14, 15, 16, 17, [3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 28, 35, 87, 89, 106].
The Stone Age — ■ Whet-stones — Rotary Drill — Implements of Stone, Bone
and Shell — Ornaments of Feathers — The Kahili — Leis — Medicine Among the
Hawaiians — Implements of Warfare — The Hula — Musical Instruments — Boxing
the National Game — Wrestling — Spear Throwing — The Primitive Bowling
Alley — Summer Tobogganing — Gambling — Cock Fighting — Children 's Games — -
Surf-Riding.

SECTION TWO.

GEOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF THE HAWAIIAN

ISLANDS.

CHAPTER VIII.

Coming of Pele and an Account of the Low Islands of the Group.

Plates 18, 19, 20, 21, [22, 79].
Pele's Journey to Hawaii-— Legend and Science Agree — Geographical Posi-
tion of the Islands — The Leeward Islands — Ocean Island — Midway — Gambier
Shoal— Lisiansky — Laysan — Maro Reef — Dowsett Reef — Frost Shoal — Gard-
ner— French Frigates Shoal — Necker — Nihoa.

CHAPTER IX.

The Inhabited Islands: A Description of Kauai and Niihau.
Plates 22, 23, 24, 25, [75].
Hawaii-nei — Position of the Inhabited Islands — Niihau — Kaula — Lehua — •
Kauai, the Garden Island — Shore-Line — Waialeale — Lava Soils — Secondary

CONTENTS. 17

Volcanic Cones — The Canons of Kauai — Valleys and Waterfalls — Region of
Napali — Barking Sands — Spouting Horn — Caves.

CHAPTER X.

Island of Oahu.
Plates 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, [22, 71, 73, 75, 87, 106].
Oahu, the Metropolis of the Group — A Laboratory in Vulcanology — Dimen-
sions and Outline of the Island — Honolulu Harbor — Pearl Harbor — Koolau
Range — Waianae Range — The Pali — Work of Erosion — Smaller Basaltic
Craters and Tufa Cones — Diamond Head — Punchbowl — Elevated Coral Reefs — •
The Age of Oahu — Black Volcanic Ash — History of Diamond Head — The
Geologic History of Oahu — Artesian Wells — Economic Products — Brick — Build-
ing Stone — Lime — Points of Geologic Interest About the Island.

CHAPTER XL

Islands of Molokai, Lanai, Maui and Kahoolawe.
Plates 3-4, 35, 36, 37, 38, [22, 53, 57, 60, 75].
The Position and Relation of Molokai, Maui. Lanai and Kahoolawe — Molokai
Described — Vallety of Halawa — Mapulehu Valley — The Leper Settlement—
Lanai — Kahoolawe — Maui, the Valley Isle — Iao Valley — "The Needle" — Summit
of Pun Kukui — Outline of Maui — Haleakala — Plan of East Maui — Trip to the
Summit of Haleakala — The Great Crater Described — Sunset Seen from the
Summit — Kaupo Gap — Floor of the Crater — History of Haleakala — The Last
Eruption.

CHAPTER XII.

Island of Hawaii.

Plates 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, [17, 22, 27, 50, 52, 55, 72, 74,

75, 87, 89].

Size and Position of Hawaii — The Youngest Island of the Group — The Ko-
hala Range — Waipio and Waimanu Valleys — Hamakua Coast — Summit of
Mauna Kea — The Ascent of Mauna Kea — Hualalai— Eruption of 1801 — Mauna
Loa — Early Exploration of the Mountain — History of the Important Eruptions
of Mauna Loa — Earthquake of 1868 — Amount of Lava Poured Out in the 1907
Flow — Work of Hawaii's Volcanoes.

CHAPTER XIII.

KlLAUEA, THE WORLD'S GREATEST ACTIVE VOLCANO.

Plates 45, 46, 47, [22, 39, 48, 49, 50, 52, 55, 57].

Geologic History of Kilauea — Kilauea an Independent Crater — Dimensions
of the Crater — An Exploded Mountain — Rise and Fall of the Liquid Lava —
Explosive Eruption of 1789 — Condition at the Crater in 1823 — Kapiolani Breaks
the Spell of Pele— Eruption and Flow of 1840— Eruption of 1892-94— Ac-

NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII. 18

tivity in 1902— Activity in 1907— Account of a Visit to Kilauea in 1909— The
Journey — First Glimpse of the Crater — Steam Cracks — Sulphur Beds —
Kilauea-iki — Keanakakoi — Descent Into the Great Crater — Heat Cracks —
Spatter Cones — The Pit of Halemaumau by Day and Night — Side Trips from
the Crater — Fossil Tree Moulds — The Road to Honuapo — Kona District.

CHAPTER XIV.

Condensed History of Kilauea 's Activity.
Plates 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, [See Chapter XIIL]
Brief Chronology and History of Kilauea from the Earliest Records of Its
Eruptions Down to the Present, with Dates and Observation^ on the Condition of
the Lava in the Crater of Kilauea and the Pit of Halemaumau.

SECTION THREE.

FLORA OF THE GROUP.

CHAPTER XV.

Plant Life op the Sea-shore and Lowlands.

Plates 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, [5, 14, 19, 30, 33, 40, 43, 60, 64, 65, 66,

67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 76, 78, 79].

The Island Flora — Its Isolation and Peculiarities — Sources — Number of

Genera and Species — Endemic and Introduced Plants — Variation in Flora from

Island to Island — Floral Zones — The Lowland Zone — Common Littoral Species — ■

Common Plants from the Sea-Shore to the Lower Edge of the Forest — Introduced

PI ants — Grasses.

CHAPTER XVI.

Plant Life in the High Mountains.

Plates 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, [23, 25, 44, 45, 46, 50, 52, 55, 56, 57, 74].

Plants of the Lower Forest Zone — Fiber Plants Cultivated by the Ha-
waiians— Sandalwood — Middle Forest Zone — Giant Ferns — Upper Forest Zone —
Silver-Sword — Mountain Bog Flora.

SECTION FOUR.

AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE IN HAWAII.

The Introduced Plants and Animals of Forest, Field and Garden.

CHAPTER XVII.

A Ramble in a Honolulu Garden : Part One.
Plates 64, 65, 66, [2, 4, 5, 41, 45, 53, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 90].
First Impressions of Honolulu — Palms — A Falling Leaf — Cocoanut Palm-

CONTENTS. 19

Date Palm— ^Ornamental Palms — Araucaria — Kukui — Breadfruit — Mango —
Monkey-Pod — Algaroba.

CHAPTER XVIII.

A Ramble in a Honolulu Garden : Part Two.
Plates 67, 68, [See Chapter XVII].

Ornamental Trees — Poinciana — Pride of the Barbadoes — Golden Shower-
Pride of India — Tamarind — Banian — Pepper Tree — Kamani — Black Wattle — ■
Australian Oak — Bougainvillea — Allamanda — Bignonia — Vines and Shrubs —
Hedge Plants — Crotons — Ki — Pandanus — Ferns — Night-Blooming Cereus.

CHAPTER XIX.

Tropical Fruits in Hawaii.
Plates 69, 70, [5, 50].
Native and Introduced Fruits — Strawberry — Raspberry — Ohelo — Mountain
Apples — Poha — Bananas — Pineapples — Alligator Pears — Papaia — Guava —
Lemons, Oranges, Limes, Etc. — Wi — Cusard Apples — Sour Sop — Cherimoya —
Sapodilla — Loquat — Figs — Grapes — Mulberry — Eugenia — Rose Apple — Passion
Fowers — Pomegranates — Lichi — Melons — Prickly Pear.

CHAPTER XX.

Agriculture in Hawaii : Its Effect on Plant and Animal Life.

Plates 71, 72, 73, 74, [2, 25, 41, 53, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99].
Agriculture in Recent Times — Sugar — Rice — Coffee — Sisal — Fiber Plants —
Cotton — Rubber — Tobacco — Potatoes — Sweet Potatoes — Cassava — Castor Bean
Plant — Lotus — Peanuts — Sorghum — Forage Grasses — Weeds — Live Stock.

BOOK TWO
SECTION FIVE.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP.
CHAPTER XXL

Various Animals from Land and Sea.
Plates 75, 76, 77, [21, 74].

Hawaiian Rats — Plague Carriers — Royal Sport — Mice — Rabbits — Guinea
Pigs — Cats — Bats — Hogs — Dogs — Chickens — Goats — Deer — Mongoose — Skinks
and Geckos — Frogs and Toads — Snakes — Sea Turtles — Galapagos Land Tortoise
— Porpoise — Dolphin — Whales — "Whaling Industry.

CHAPTER XXII.
Introduced Birds.

English Sparrows — Rice Birds — Chinese Sparrows — Chinese Turtle Doves — •
Mynahs — The Skylark — Pheasants — California Partridge — Chinese Thrush.

20 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

CHAPTER XXIII.

Birds of the Sea.
Plates 78, 79, [19, 20, 21, 76, 80, 81].
Regular Visitors and Ocean Waifs — Tropic Birds — Petrels — Shearwaters — ■
Terns — Albatross — Man-o'-War Bird — Birds of Laysan Island — Miller Bird —
Laysan Canary — Laysan Honey-eater — Hawaiian Rail — The Albatross Dance — •
Guano Deposits — Nesting Habits of the Man-o'-war Bird — White Terns — Grey-
backed Terns — Laysan Duck — Flightless Rail — Land Birds of Laysan.

CHAPTER XXIV.

Birds op the Marsh, Stream and Shore.
Plates 80, 81, [78, 79].
The Golden Plover — Old ' Stump-leg ' — Turnstone — Sanderling — Tattler-
Curlew — Hawaiian Stilt — Black-crowned Night-Heron — Coot — Gallinule — The
Legend of Maui and the Alae — Hawaiian Duck — Foreign Ducks.

CHAPTER XXV.

Birds of the Mountain Forests.

Plates 82, 83, 84, 85, [80, 81].

Fifty-six Species — Elepaio — Apapane — Iiwi — Amakihi — Oreomystis — ■

Thrush-like Birds — Finch-like Birds — Moho — Black Mamo — Oo — Hawaiian

Duck — Ha waii an Goose — Crow — Vi ridon i a — Hoi — Hawai i a n Hawk — Hawaiian

Owl — Family Drepanididie — Extinction of Hawaiian Birds.

CHAPTER XXVI.
Hawaiian Fishes: Part One.
Plates 86, 87, [9, 13, 16, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 102, 106].
Fishing in Former Times — Fishing Outfits — Fish Poison — Fish Bait — Shark
Fishing — Man-Eater Sharks — Hammer-Head Sharks — Dogfish — Mackerel-
Sharks — Killers — Rays and Skates — Sting-Ray — Sea Devil.

CHAPTER XXVII.

Hawaiian Fishes : Part Two.
PJates 88, 89, 90, [See Chapter XXVI].
Food Fish in the Market — Anchovies — Barracudas — Butterny-Fish — Blen-
n i es — Bon e-F ish — Cataluf as — C i r rhi t i da> — Doph i n — E els — F rog-F i sh — FJ y i ng-
Fish — Gobies — Flying-Gunards — Headfish — Mullet — Awa.

CHAPTER XXVIII.
Hawaiian Fishes: Part Three.
Plates 91, 92, 93, 94, [See Chapter XXVI].
Flatfish — Morays — Mackerel — Milk-Fish — Needle -Fish — Pampanos —
Tarpon — -Parrot-Fish — Pipe-Fish— Porcupine-Fish — Porgies — Puffers — Remoras

CONTENTS. 21

or Sucker-Fish — Scorpion-Fish — Sea-Bass — Snappers — Soles — Flounders —
Squirrel-Fish — Surgeon-Fish — Surmullets or Goat-Fish — Swordfish — Trigger-
Fish — Trunk-Fish — Trumpet-Fish.

CHAPTER XXIX.

Introduced Fresh Water Fish.
Goldfish — Carp — Catfish — China Fish — Black Bass — Trout — Salmon — Top
Minnows or Mosquito Fish.

CHAPTER XXX.

Important Economic Insects: Part One.
Plates 95, 96, [97, 98, 99].

The Study of Insects — Destructive Species — Control by Natural Enemies —
Sugar-Cane Leaf-Hopper — Sugar-Cane Borer — Lantana Insects — Maui Blight —
Mediterranean Fruit-Fly — Melon-Fly — Horn-Fly — Flies — Mosquitoes — Sugar-
Cane Insects — Aphids or Plant-Lice.

CHAPTER XXXI.

Important Economic Insects: Part Two.
Plates 97, 98, 99 [95, 96].

Scale Insects — Ladybird Beetles — Beetles — Japanese Beetles — Fuller Rose
Beetle or Olinda Beetle — Weevils — Leaf-Rolling Moths — Cutworms — Army-
Worms — llau Moth — Loopers — Silkworms — Cabba ge Butterfly — Sweet Potato
Horn-Worm or Humming-Bird Moth — Cotton Boll-Worm — Bird-Lice — Lice —
Mites — Ticks — Fleas — Bubonic or Black Plague carried by Fleas — Cock-
roaches— Bedbugs — Bugs — White Ants — Silverfish — Ants — Carpenter Bees —
Mud-Daubers — Wasps — Honey-Bee — Clothes-Moth — Household Pests — Centi-
pedes— Scorpions — Thousand-Legged Worms — Sow-Bugs or Slaters — Sand- Hop-
pers— Spiders, Mites and Ticks — House-Spider — Jumping-Spiders — ITamakua
Spiders.

CHAPTER XXXII.

Native Insects.
Character of the Native Fauna — Insects Occurring on Mamaki — Ants,
Bees and Wasps — Beetles — Fleas — Two- Winged Insects or Flies and Mos-
quitoes— Butterflies and Moths — Dragon-Flies and the Nerve-Winged Insects —
The True Bugs — Plant-Lice — Jumping Lice — Leaf-Hoppers, etc. — Thrips —
Grasshoppers, Crickets, Cockroaches, Ea rwigs — Wi ngless Bird-Lice — Silver-
fish — Spring-Tails.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

Land and Fresh Water Shells.
Plates 100, 101 [75, 103].
Character of the Fauna — Land Shells — Variations — Difficulties of Classifiea-

22 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

tion — Color Varieties — Important Families Represented — Common Forms De-
scribed— Earthworms.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

Shells from the Sea-shore : Part One.
Plates 102, 103 [104, 105, 106].
Pleasure of Collecting Shells — The Common Forms Numerous — Three Types
of Mollusca — Mussels, Clams, Scallops, Oysters — Attempts at Oyster Culture —
Gasteropods, including the Snails, Slugs, Whelks, Cowries, Periwinkles, etc. —
Spiny Rock Shells— Tritons— Spindle Shells — Whelks— Dog Whelk— Mitre
Shells— Margin Shells— Olives— Harp Shells— Dove Shells— Grey Shells.

CHAPTER XXXV.

Shells from the Sea-shore: Part Two.
Plates 104, 105, [See Chapter XXXIV].
Cone Shells — Auger Shells — Conch Shells — Cowry Shells — Egg Shells — Tun
Shells — Cameo Shells — Moon Shells — Slipper Shells — Limpets, etc. — Worm
Shells — Cajcum Shells — Eulimas — Pyramid Shells — Sun-Dial Shells — Violet
Snails — Ladder Shells — Cerithiida* — Periwinkles — Sea Snails — Turban Shells — ■
Top Shells — Keyhole Limpets — Umbrella Shells — Chitons — Bubble Shells — Sea
Slugs.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

Plants and Animals from the Coral Reef: Part One.
Plates 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, [72, 102, 103, 104, 105, 111, 112, 113, 114,

115, 116, 117].
The Common Crabs — The Lobster — Prawns — Shrimps — Hermit Crabs —
Barnacles — Common Corals — Sea-Anemonies — Coral Reefs — Eight-Rayed Corals
— Sea-Fans — Sea-Pi umes, etc. — Jellyfish — Hydroids — Portuguese Man-of-war
• — Sea Money — Moss- Animals — Lamp Shells — Sea-Squirts — Balanoglossus.

CHAPTER XXXVII.

Plants and Animals from the Coral Reef: Part Two.
Plates 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, [See Chapter XXXVI].
Starfish — Sea-Urchins — Brittle - Stars — Sea - Cucumbers — Sea-Lilies or
Crinoides — Flat- Worms — Bristle-Worms — Earthworms — Single - Celled and
Many-Celled Animals — Sponges — Protozoa — Seaweeds — How to Collect Ha-
waiian Algae.

Natural History of Hawaii.

SECTION ONE

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE.

CHAPTER I.

THE COMING OF THE HAWAIIAN RACE.

II A WA HANS THE FlRST INHABITANTS.

The Polynesian ancestors of the Hawaiian race are believed to be the first
human inhabitants to set foot on Hawaii 's island shores. Inasmuch as the group
comprises the most highly isolated island territory on the globe, it seems logical
to infer that this sturdy race must have migrated to Hawaii from other lands.
By tracing the relationship of the original inhabitants it has been found that
they belong to the same race as the natives of New Zealand, Samoa, Marquesas,
Society, Tonga and other islands in the southern, central and eastern Pacific.

That all the native people found over this vast Pacific region are the
scattered branches of one great race, springing from a common ancestral stock,
has been demonstrated in many ways. The marked similarity in the manners
and customs, language and religion, as well as many peculiar physical char-
acteristics and intellectual traits common to the inhabitants of the widely scat-
tered Pacific islands just mentioned, leaves little doubt in the minds of those
who have studied these people of the Pacific, as to their racial affinities.

Polynesian Affinities.

Collectively, this group of Pacific Islanders has been called by Europeans
the Polynesian race, a reference to the many islands inhabited by them. The
exceedingly vexed question as to the genesis of the race as a whole and the
fixiny of the place from whence the progenitors of the dark-skinned kanaka
people entered the Pacific has long been a subject of interesting discussion.

Since the genesis of the race is by no means a settled question it will not
be profitable in this connection to dwell upon the matter farther than to say

Description of Plate.
Tho splendid physique of the people, their well shaped heads, attractive features and
kindly eyes are well shown by the photographs and indicate the strong individuality and lovable
character of the race as a whole. Old Hawaiians, especially of the better class, possessed a
high type of Polynesian culture that embraced a thorough and useful knowledge of their iso-
lated environment. At the time of their introduction to European civilization many among
them were intimately acquainted with their own history and genealogy, as well as with the
fund of information concerning their traditions, myths, arts, occupations and practices; more-
over they possessed a store of knowledge about the islands and their natural history that at
once won for the race tho respect and admiration of their European benefactors.

3 25

26 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

that the origin of the Polynesian race has been traced by different writers, in
different ways to various places. North, South and Middle America, as well
as Papua, Malay, China, Japan and India, have each in turn been declared
the cradle of this widely distributed people and each made responsible, directly
or indirectly, for their presence in the Pacific Ocean.

While it is probable that the origin of the race, as a whole, will always be
shrouded in doubt, there is little uncertainty as to the more immediate an-
cestors of the Hawaiian people. All their various affinities seem to point un-
erringly in the direction of the islands to the south of us. Although the Society
and Samoan Islands, which are the nearest islands in any direction at present
inhabited by this race, are more than two thousand miles distant, they, without
doubt, form the stepping stones over which the early immigrants passed — if they
are not the actual points of origin of the migrations that resulted in the
settling of the Polynesian race on this, the most remote group.

Evidence op Early Immigrations.

That the race existed here ages ago, perhaps far beyond the traditions of
the people, is believed by some to be proven by certain geologic evidence. What-
ever the geological facts may be, and the data thus far secured is by no means
conclusive, the traditions of the people are more certain. They throw much light
on the antiquity of the early voyages of the race and point far back into the
shadowy past. Their genealogies, which were handed down from father to son
with remarkable accuracy, also contribute much information that can be ac-
cepted as reasonably authentic and historic, and give a fair basis for measuring
time, especially during the past four or five centuries. The comparative study
of genealogical records has brought to light proof of many obscure points that
had to do with the history and wanderings of the race as a whole, but their
traditions are especially clear with reference to the Ilawaiians themselves.

Traditional and Historical Evidence of Early Voyages.

Those who have studied the history and traditions of the Polynesians as a
people regard Savaii, in the Samoan group, as the most likely center of dispersal.
It is probable that at least one of the bands of early voyagers that settled on
these, then presumably unpeopled islands, came from that group in very ancient
times, — perhaps as long ago as 500 B. C. Just why these early wanderers
set out on the long perilous journey over unknown seas will never be known.
It is suggested that they may have been forced from their early homes by war
and driven from their course by storms. But since there was no written lan-
guage, the historian, as already stated, is forced to rely for his data on legends,
traditions, genealogies and such other meager scraps of information as are
available.

Unfortunately, of the very early period scarcely a reliable tradition exists.
We are therefore left free, within a certain measure, to construct for ourselves
such tales of adventure, privation and hardship as seem sufficient to account for
the appearance of the natives in this far-away and isolated land. We know

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 27

that the first voyages, like many undertaken in more recent times, must have been
made in open boats over an unfriendly and uncharted ocean. We know also
that they survived the journey and found the land habitable when they came.

To the dim and uncertain period covering the several centuries that fol-
lowed, many great primitive achievements have been ascribed. Among them are
such tasks as the building of walled fish-ponds, the construction of certain great
crude temples, the making of irrigation ditches, and the development of a
distinct dialect, based of course, on their ancient mother tongue. But at last,
after the lapse of centuries, perhaps many centuries, this long period of isola-
tion and seclusion ended and communication was once more resumed with the
rest of the Polynesian world.

Ancient Voyages.

It is reliably recorded in the traditions of the race, but more especially
in those of the Hawaiian people, that after many generations of separation
from the outside world, communication was again taken up and many voyages
were made to Kahiki — the far-away land to the south. Prom this time on the
story of the people becomes much more definite and reliable. We not only know
that intercourse was resumed between Hawaii and the islands of the South
Pacific, but the names of several of the navigators and the circumstances, as well
as the time when their journeys were made, also incidents of their voyages,
have come down to us. In some cases the same mariner is known to have made
more than a single journey. Naturally the exploits of the brave navigators of
the race were made matters of record in the minds of the people and handed
down from father to son in numberless songs, stories and traditions. As a mat-
ter of fact, there is evidence to prove that during the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries of our Christian calendar there came an era of great unrest through-
out the whole of Polynesia and a great number of voyages were made to the
remote parts of the region. In fact it is asserted in the tradition of the peo-
ple that "they visited every place on earth." This broad statement seems to
indicate that to the Polynesian mind the world was confined to Oceanica, as
they appear to have known nothing of the great continents which surrounded
them on every side. At any rate, there is on record a considerable list of
these voyages and an equally long list of the places where they landed, accom-
panied by incidents of their wanderings.

Animals and Plants Brought to Hawaii as Baggage.

Our special interest in the natural history of the plants and animals of
Hawaii makes this period of Pacific travel of unusual importance. It was at
this time that most, if not all, of the useful plants and animals that had fol-
lowed the race in their various wanderings were brought as precious baggage
with them to these islands from over the sea.

Any one who has experienced the difficulties and disappointments encoun-
tered in transplanting a young breadfruit tree from one valley to another, will

*

jJh.k;:!;:::.-:h'-

■ ■■■;■;/■;!:!.: :f.;:'-V:-

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 29

appreciate in a measure the difficulties that must have beset the Hawaiians in
transporting living cuttings of this delicate seedless plant from far off Kahiki
to these islands, yet it is practically certain that not only was the breadfruit
brought here in this manner but also the banana, the taro, the mountain apple,
the sugar-cane and a score or more of their other important economic plants.
The wild fowl, the pig and the dog were also brought with them in the same
way, in very early times, and were in a state of common domestication over the
group when the islands were first visited by the white race.

Naturally there were many references in Hawaiian and Polynesian tradi-
tion to these long and tempestous voyages. When all the circumstances sur-
rounding these rugged feats of daring and adventure are considered, it is not
too much to say that the race to which the ancient Hawaiians belonged is worthy
of a special place among the most daring and skillful navigators of all times.
To this day their prowress and aptitude in matters pertaining to the sea is such
as to command the admiration and respect of all.

Double Canoes.

The making of the large canoes employed in their important journeys by
the use of stone tools alone, was by no means an ordinary task. Aside from the
descriptions of their canoes handed down to us in their traditions, we know that
a century ago there existed in these islands the remains of war canoes, such as
we are told were used in those early voyages, that were seventy feet in length
by more than three feet in width and depth, capable of carrying seventy per-
sons from island to island. What is still morn remarkable the hull in each case
was carved from a single giant koa log.

The selecting of a suitable tree from among its fellows in the mountain
forests, the felling and shaping of it by means of the crude stone implements
of the time, and the subsequent transporting of the rough-hewn canoe to the
sea by main strength, was an undertaking not to be lightly assayed; but the
executing of a 2000-mile voyage in such a craft seems almost incredible. In this
connection it is well to remember that the early Polynesians made not only
single canoes of monstrous proportions, but double ones by lashing two together
and rudely decking over the space between them. In this ingenious way they
made a craft capable of carrying a large number of people and a goodly supply
of provisions.

Provisions for Long Voyages.

It is probable that in their more extended voyages, especially when they
were voluntarily undertaken, the natives used the double canoe and provided
the craft with a mast to which they rigged large, durable sails made of mats.
The legendary mele telling of the coming of Hawaii-loa states that during five
changes of the moon he sailed in such a craft to be rewarded at last by the
sight of a new land ever after called Hawaii.

As to the supply of provisions it is to be remembered that the Polynesians

30 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

have several kinds of food capable of being preserved in a compact form. The
coeoanut, either fresh or dried, was an invaluable article of food, while dried
fish and squid are not to be despised. The taro, breadfruit and sweet potato,
or yam, are articles of daily diet, capable of being' transported in an edible
condition for great distances at sea. Besides cocoanut water, in the nut, to
drink, they had utensils for storing fresh water and it is probable that they
provided themselves with calabashes and wooden bowls specially prepared for
use on their long sea journeys.

Steering a Course by the Stars.

As they were expert fishermen and exceedingly hardy seamen the perils of
the deep were considerably minimized. Add to this their intimate knowledge
of the food to be found living everywhere in the sea at all seasons and their
acquaintance with the habits and methods of capture, as wrell as skill in the
preparation of such animals and plants as they esteemed as food, and we must
conclude that they were by nature well fitted for such journeys. With such
substitute food as the sea would furnish, always at hand, it was possible for
them to travel far and suffer but little, for they were able to eat, not only such
fresh and dried food as we have mentioned, but to relish many creatures of the
sea in a raw state — as flying-fish, squid and seaweed — that would scarcely be
thought of as food by a more fastidious people. Moreover, in making these
journeys they were able to roughly guide their course by the stars, the sun and
the moon, as they had a crude but working knowledge of astronomy. In addi-
tion to this they had a number of traditions, telling of mysterious lands, far
away beyond the horizon, that served them both as an inspiration and an assur-
ance, besides being useful to them in many ways in their practical navigation.

Establishment op the Hawaiian Race.

Great care was always exercised in selecting the proper place and season
for setting forth on their journeys. Once having made a successful voyage
they were particular to start from the same spot in making similar journeys
thereafter. In this way the south point of Hawaii as well as the southern end
of the little island of Kahoolawi came to be known as the proper points from
which to embark on a journey to Tahiti.

There is but little doubt that in those times they were expert navigators,
who in addition to being able to guide their courses at sea by the stars, also
knew the art of steering their canoes in such a fashion as to catch and ride
great distances on the splendid long ocean swells, after the manner of the surf
riders of less adventurous times.

Just how these striking feats of navigation were accomplished we may
never know. At any rate there is every reason to believe that they were per-
formed. We do know, however, that the perils attending them were safely
passed, the difficulties of the journeys surmounted, and that those who per-
formed them lived to tell the tale of their daring to their children, and thev to

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 31

their children's children. We know that through them in time the Polynesian
race came to occupy a new land, established the Hawaiian people and built up a
crude though worthy civilization.

CHAPTER II.

TRANQUIL ENVIRONMENT OF HAWAII AND ITS EFFECT ON THE

PEOPLE.

The Natural Environment.

Without dwelling further on the remote and uncertain period which had
to do with the origin and early migration of the Hawaiian people, it will be
fitting to briefly consider the race in connection with their natural environment.
It is well within the purpose of this sketch of the natural history of Hawaii
to treat of the people as the native inhabitants, and for that reason we shall
dwell upon their primitive and interesting native culture rather than their
more recent political history.

In dealing with the race as a natural people it will be of interest to enu-
merate some of the various forces of nature among which they developed for
centuries, since without doubt their environment helped to make the race what
it was at the time of its discovery, — a swarthy, care-free, fun-loving, super-
stitious people, with a culture that, now it has been more fully studied by un-
biased ethnologists and is better understood, has at last gained for the ancient
Hawaiians, not only the respect, but the admiration of their more highly cultured
and fairer skinned brothers. In seeking only to depict their life as it was in
the interesting time of their primitive paganism, before Christianity was brought
to them, we must leave entirely out of account the story of one of the most re-
markable religious and political developments that a race has ever under-gone
in the history of the civilized world.

So capable and receptive was the Hawaiian race that within less than an
hundred years the entire population has not only embraced a foreign and ex-
ceedingly advanced form of religion, but by its agency transformed their lan-
guage, practices, customs, manners, arts and morals to such a degree that today
hardly a trace of their former culture remains to indicate the long road which
they have traveled in the upward march from a rude rule of might, fear and
superstition to the place where their representatives, chosen by ballot, sit on
equal terms in legislative assemblages with their one-time patrons and would-be
benefactors, and, without fear or favor, creditably discharge the duties of citi-
zenship in the great American Republic.

Kona Weather and Trade Winds.

One of the most important physical influences that has affected the people
is the climate. Although the Hawaiian Islands lie at the northern edge of the
torrid zone, their climate is semi-tropical rather than tropical, and is several

-. THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 33

degrees cooler than that of any other country in the same latitude. The tem-
perature is moderate, at least ten degrees below the normal, owing to the in-
fluence of the cool northeast ocean currents. The delightfully cool northeast
trade wind, which is obviously the principal element in the Hawaiian climate,
blows steadily during at least nine months of the year. During the remaining
months the wind is variable, and occasionally storms with heavy rains blow
from the southwest, producing what is known as "Kona"1 weather. Taken
through a long period, the temperature at sea level rarely rises above 90
degrees during the hottest day of the year, and seldom falls below 60 degrees
for more than a fewr hours at a time, with the mean temperature fluctuating
about 75 degrees Fahrenheit. The difference between the daily average mid-
summer and midwinter temperature is about 10 degrees. With reference to
human comfort the temperature excells for its equableness. This fact, coupled
with the refreshing trade winds that sweep over thousands of miles of cool
ocean and the bright and genial warmth of the tropical sun, produces the climate
of Paradise — a condition found in no other region on the globe.

Altitude and Its Effect on Climate.

In fact the Hawaiian language had no word for "weather," as it is usually
understood. Nevertheless, a remarkable difference in climate is experienced
in passing from one side of the islands to the other, or from lower to higher
altitudes. The northeast, or windward side of the group, which is exposed to
the trade winds, is cool and rainy, while the southwestern or leeward side is, as
a rule, much drier and warmer. The most important variation, however, is
due to altitude ; the thermometer falling about four degrees for every 1,000 feet
of ascent. It is therefore x)0Ssible to look from the palm groves that bask
in tropical warmth along the coast of Hawaii to the highest mountain peak of
the group,2 to find it frequently snow-capped, particularly during the cooler
months. As to rainfall, similar variations occur. At Honolulu the average
precipitation is thirty-eight inches, at the Pali, five miles away in the moun-
tains, 110 inches; while at Hilo, on the north side of Hawaii, it is nearly
twelve feet. If the group is taken as a whole, almost every variation from
warm to cold, wet to dry, windy to calm, may be found.

Effect of a Sufficient Amount of Food.

The direct influence of these facts on the character of the people, however,
is rather obscure. Aside from the bearing it may have had on their clothing,
food and shelter it is indeed difficult to trace. Although it is the general
opinion that a warm climate is not liable to be conducive to a higher culture,
there is plenty of evidence to the contrary here and elsewhere, and, considering
the insular position of the Islands, their limited food supply, the lack of raw
materials for manufacture, the absence of such metals as iron and copper and

Southerly. 2 Manna Kea, 13.825 feet

34 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the want of domestic animals as beasts of burden, the Hawaiians achieved a
remarkably high stage of development before their discovery. The degree of
their development is especially shown, as we shall see, by the thoroughness
with which they had explored their environment and utilized the natural raw
materials which it supplied.

The easy tropical conditions, as well as the unsettled political state which
surrounded them originally, were not necessarily conducive to the highest
physical or mental achievements. According to Blackman, the regular recur-
rence of a sufficient amount of food to supply their needs may also have pre-
vented the development of the traits of thrift and frugality that are so inbred
in the races of the north. There is no doubt that the bright, warm, cheerful
climate had its influence on their temperatment, their health, and their home
life, by diminishing the relative importance of permanent shelter, by enticing
the people out of doors ; and also on their morality, as we interpret it, by ren-
dering clothing the thing least required for bodily comfort.

Inter-Island Communication.

Another important point in their environment wras the fact that the in-
habited islands were sufficiently numerous and near enough together to influ-
ence one another decisively, yet far enough apart to make inter-island com-
munication difficult. The group was far enough removed from other groups to
prevent frequent migrations and small enough to render a wandering life and
contact with other people and tribes impossible. At the same time they were
just far enough away from each other to satisfy the natural human desire for
travel, adventure and experience.

Inter-Tribal Wars.

The valleys on the various islands constituted natural divisions of the land
that had a marked influence on the government of the people by district chiefs
who were frequently at war with one another. To offset this there were inter-
tribal and inter-island marriages enough to produce a uniform stock throughout
the group. This interchange of blood and ideas was most beneficial in bringing
about the homogeneity and compactness necessary to preserve inherited habit
and secure the persistence of traditions, customs and the learning of the whole
people.

Agriculture and the Food Supply.

Although the valleys are usually fertile, they are limited in extent, The
soil though rich, varies greatly in productiveness, and being of a porous nature,
needs much water to render it valuable for the various pursuits of agriculture.
To meet this demand, extensive irrigation systems were built and used by the
native farmers. Besides the valley lands, there are broad tracts of rough lava
and dry upland country that were of little use to the aborigines with their
primitive methods of agriculture. In brief, the conditions were such as to re-
quire much labor and skill to produce sufficient food from the soil to supply

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 35

their wants.. For this reason, among others, their life was not the one of
indolence it is sometimes thought to have been, yet conditions were uniformly
more favorable to life in Hawaii than were those met with in certain other
groups in the Pacific to which Polynesians migrated and settled, presumably
as they did in these islands.

Fauna and Flora Explored by the Hawaiians.

So much must be said of the animals and plants in another connection that,
though they form an important feature of environment, it will suffice here to
note the salient facts. The flora furnished trees for the construction of their
canoes and houses, the implements of their warfare and peaceful pursuits, the
raw material for the manufacture of their clothing, nets, calabashes, medicines,
and above all, a sufficient amount of wholesome food throughout the year to pro-
vide for their sustenance.

The most important animals existing on the islands at the time of their dis-
covery by the whites were the swine and the dogs, both of which were freely used
as food. There were domestic fowls of the same species as were common
throughout the Polynesian islands. The waters about the group provided a
never failing supply of fish food. The insects were all inconspicuous and harm-
less. The only game birds, as ducks and plovers, were not abundant, while the
reptiles were repxesented by a few species of small, inoffensive lizards that
were of little importance.

The Hawaiians were preeminently an agricultural people with a natural
love for the soil and its cultivation. They had an appreciation of the beautiful
in flower and foliage that has had an abiding influence on their homes and
home surroundings. They were also skilled fishermen. The lack of animals,
domestic or wild, other than the few species mentioned, prevented them from
following the hunting and pastoral life, and as a result they were settled in
permanent villages, usually along the coast.

Since there were no noxious insects, poisonous serpents or dangerous birds
or beasts of prey, there was no occasion for the alertness and constant fear that
so frequently makes life in a tropical country a never-ending strain if not an
actual burden.

Food and Its Effect on the People.

While the chiefs and the more prosperous of the people were well supplied
with meat, the common people had it only at rare intervals. They were forced
to subsist on a diet chiefly vegetable, which was lacking in variety, and, although
fat-producing, was also diffuse and bulky. To the character of their food may
be attributed the habit of alternately gorging and fasting, which was so com-
mon a trait of the ancient Hawaiians, and which is believed to have resulted in
the abnormal development of the abdomen, formally so noticeable among them.

Although taro was the staff of life in Hawaii, sweet potato, or yam,
also figured largely in the every day diet of the common people. Though meat
was never abundant, as has been stated, they were not entirely without ani-

:%l

'■■>:■■'&

t>l

-,£_r

,a

"'THE- HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 37

mal food. Pish was always available and fairly plentiful, and certain kinds
were often eaten raw7. Fowl, pork and dogs were occasionally to be had as a
change and were imich esteemed as delicacies. The poi-dog, when carefully
fed and fattened on poi, was regarded as even more delicious in flavor than pork.
Dogs always formed an important dish at the native feasts and on such occa-
sions large numbers of them would be baked in earth ovens.

Response op the Natives to their Environment.

Looking broadly at their environment it may be said that the most decisive
factors in the surroundings of the Hawaiian race were isolation, the evenness
of the climate and the conditions which made the pursuit of agriculture a
necessity. The latter induced a more regular and constant activity and more
settled life than is found among a hunting and roving people, and in connection
with the other conditions mentioned it had an important bearing on the tempera-
ment of the race. The isolation, even temperature, and always sufficient food
supply must have had their effect in producing a patient, tranquil, self-reliant
mind — a satisfied disposition — an even temper — a settled attachment to the soil — -
an aptitude and faculty for the development of their peculiar forms of learning,
and above all, habits of life and customs of dress that were peculiarly suited to
and the result of the gentle demands of their environment.

CHAPTER III.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PEOPLE.

Stature and Physical Development of the People.

At the time of the discovery of the Hawaiians they were physically one of
the most striking native races in the world. Moreover, they wrere distinguished
as being among the kindest and most gentle mannered of people, and but for the
oppression of their priests and chiefs, they would undoubtedly have been among
the happiest.

As a race they were tall, shapely and muscular, writh good features and
kind eyes. In symmetry of form the women have scarcely been surpassed, if
equalled, while the men excelled in muscular strength, particularly in the region
of the back and arms.

The average height of an adult Polynesian is given as five feet nine and a
third inches, and the Hawaiians were well up to, if not above, that average,
while individuals of unusual size, often little short of giants, were not uncommon

DKSCKri'TlOX OF PJjATK.

1. Scraping and preparing a pig [ puaa | for baking. 2. The earth oven |imu] hollowed
out and rilled with heated stones ready for the food. :>. The imu filled and (dosed; the heat
and steam bakes the food which is wrapped in ki or banana leaves. 4. The food baked and
ready to be eaten. 5. Pounding poi on a "double" board [papa kui poi|, which is a shallow
trough made of hard wood; "single" boards were also common. About tin1 grass house may
be seen cocoanut palm trees in the rear, papaya Trees to the right and left and a small noni
tree at the end of the house.

38 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

among them. There is an authentic record of a skeleton found in a burial
cave that measured six feet seven and three-quarters inches in length, and there
is sufficient evidence to establish the fact that men of even larger stature were
by no means unusual.

Instances of excessive corpulency have been common among Hawaiians,
especially among the chiefs who were always better nourished than were
the common people. Having plenty to eat and little to do, they grew
large and fat. This tendency to corpulency, as has been elsewhere noted, was,
however, more common among the women. Many of them were perfectly enor-
mous in size, but this is not to be wondered at since the Hawaiian ideal of
female loveliness includes stoutness of figure as a fundamental requisite.

The natives, before their mixture with foreigners, were a brown race, vary-
ing in color from light olive to a rich swarthy brown. Their hair, usually raven
black, was straight, wavy or curly, but never kinky. Their lips were of a little
more than medium thickness, with the upper lip slightly shortened. This gave
to the mouth a peculiar form that is characteristic of the race. Their teeth
were sound, regular and very beautiful, a fact frequently ascribed to the char-
acter of the food they ate. The nose, a rather prominent feature, was in most
cases broad and slighty flattened. The eyes of the pure-blooded Hawaiian
were always black and very expressive. Their foreheads were usually high,
and perhaps a trifle narrow in proportion. In general, their features were
strong, good-humored, and in many instances, when combined with their splendid
physiques, produced a striking and impressive personality that gave the im-
pression of their belonging to a very superior race.

Clothing op the People.

At the time of their discovery the men wore the malo, a plain piece of tapa
cloth, about the loins in the form of a T bandage. The women wore the pa'u
of tapa, which was a simple piece of bark cloth, wrapped about the waist, to
form a short skirt, that hung down to the knees. While the foregoing were the
usual articles of dress they were by no means averse to answering the call of
their environment by stalking about naked or nearly so, if a pretense offered.
They were fond of certain kinds of adornment, particularly flowers, using them as
garlands about their necks or as wreaths about their heads. The children while
often wearing flowers about their necks, went otherwise unadorned until six or
eight years of age.

Cleanliness.

Although the Hawaiians wrore their tapa cloth clothing as long as it would
hold together, the people as a whole took great pride in personal appearance
and cleanliness. They were fond of ornaments and were skillful in their manu-
facture. Both sexes wore ornaments fashioned from shells, nuts and ivory
about their heads and shoulders in addition to the flower garlands just men-
tioned. While tattooing was indulged in as a form of decoration its use in this
respect was not carried to the extent that it was among the New Zealanders or

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 39

the Marquesiantf. Its principal use in Hawaii was to denote rank or lineage,
to brand a slave or sometimes as a token of mourning.

Although the chiefs were markedly superior physically and otherwise, when
compared with the common people, they were, nevertheless, descendants of the
same race. The difference in stature and capability which they exhibited seems
to have been the natural result of their environment. Being better fed, having
more leisure, and relieved of the burdens of living and in many ways pampered
and protected, they escaped the marks that exposure, excessive toil, hunger,
fear and superstition invariably stamp on the less fortunate of every race.

Life in the Open Air.

The unusually salubrious Hawaiian climate stimulated the habit of out-of-
door life, which wras almost universal. The native huts were used chiefly as
sleeping places and for protection from the rain. Their aquatic, athletic and
sea-going habits were the growth of the open-air life they led. The love of
frequent bathing, the nearness of the sea and the necessity of securing at least
a part of their sustenance from the ocean, all combined in making them the
most powerful and daring swrimmers in the world and developed among them,
perhaps, the world's most expert and intelligent fishermen.

Their Language and Alphabet.

Their language was singularly deficient in generic and abstract terms, but
to make up for this general deficiency it was especially rich in specific names
of places and things, most of which were derivitives that were full of meaning,
frequently taking account of nice distinctions. Broadly speaking the Hawaiian
language was little more than a simple tribal dialect of the Polynesian tongue
that was spoken writh much uniformity in a large number of the Pacific island
groups. In fact, there is less variation in meaning and pronunciation of the
language throughout Polynesia than exists today between the Spanish and
Italian tongues. Besides the language of every-day life there was a style especi-
ally appropriate for oratory and another suited to the demands of religion and
poetry. Since there was no written language, not even a picture language, at
the time of which we write, one of the first acts of the American missionaries
was to reduce their speech to writing. For this purpose only five vowels, a, e,
i, o, u, and seven consonants, h, k, 1, m, n, p, w, wrere found necessary. In the
use of these twelve letters the European pronunciation of the vowels was adopted.
The letter a is sounded as in arm; e as in they; i as in machine, and u as
in rule. The dipthong ai, resembles the English ay, and au has the sound of ow.
The consonants were sounded as in English except that k is sometimes exchanged
for t, and the sound of 1 confounded with k and d. The dirth of consonants
and the over-plus of vowels gave to the spoken language such openness, fluidity
and richness as to be particularly noticeable to persons unacquainted with the
tongue. By some this peculiar quality of the spoken language, by reason of
its intellectual indefiniteness, perhaps, is believed to represent, or at least re-
flect, the open, frank character of the people who developed it.

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 41

Genealogy and History.
Their legends and traditions, many of them identical with those found in
other groups in Polynesia, as has been stated, were handed down, generation
after generation, by a highly honored class of genealogists and bards. Each
family or clan had its respected historians and poets, and generally the position
of genealogist, at least, became hereditary, to be handed down from father to
son. It was the especial office of the genealogist to keep and correctly transmit
the historical records of chiefly unions, births, deaths and the achievements of
the more important people of their community.

In this way much of the history of the people, as well as many of their
legends and much of their historical beliefs, superstitions and practices, have
come down to us in fairly accurate form, often from very remote times.

Meles and Hulas.
Their meles and hulas were the supreme literary achievements of the ancient
historians and poets, and, as their subjects were diverse, they vary much in
substance and character. Many are folk songs; some are of a religious order,
being prayers or prophecies ; others are name songs, composed at the birth of a
chief, in his honor, recounting the exploits of his ancestors ; the dirge was a
favorite form of composition; others again are mere love songs, and still others
are composed to or about things and places.

Although they are without rhyme or regular meter, as it is generally under-
stood, many of them are strikingly poetic in spirit. A single example taken
almost at random from the many excellent translations given by my friend,
Dr. N. B. Emerson, in his book on the Hula, may serve to illustrate their
appreciation of the poetic side of nature as well as to demonstrate their natural
descriptive power and literary gift.

By way of introduction, we should know that Koolau is a district on the
windward, or rainy, side of the Island of Oahu and that the stanza given is
one taken from one of the many songs for the hula ala'a papa. It is but an
episode from the story of Iliiaka on her journey to Kauai to bring the handsome
prince Lohiau to the goddess Pele. Hence, —

' i 7Twas in Koolau I met the rain;

It comes with lifting and tossing of dust,

Advancing in columns, dashing along.

The rain, it sighs in the forest;

The rain, it beats and whelms like the surf;

It smites, it smites now the land.

Pasty the earth from the stamping rain;

Full run the streams a rushing flood;

The mountain walls lea]) writh the rain.

See the water chafing its bounds like a dog,

A raging dog, gnawing its wav to pass out."

Description op Plate.

1. The nose flute player and hula dancer. 2. Hawaiian house on a raised stone plat-
form. 3. Making fire by the ancient Hawaiian method: a hard stick of Olomea (Perrottetia
Sandwicens-is) is rubbed in a groove1 on a soft piece of hau wood until the friction ignites the
tinder-like dust that accumulates in the end of the groove. 4. A temporary house made of
sugar-cane leaves. In the foreground taro and tobacco are shown, to the left a papaya, while
in the background lauhala, banana, breadfruit and cocoanuts may be seen.

42 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Many find a suggestive parallelism of expression in the Hawaiian meles
comparable with the Hebrew psalms, others to the nigged poetry of Walt Whit-
man. No better illustration of this dignified form of Hawaiian poetry can be
found, perhaps, than the passage from the dirge, "In the Memory of Keeau-
moku," as preserved by the Rev. William Ellis:

"Alas, alas, dead is my chief,
Dead is my lord and friend;
My friend in the season of famine,
My friend in the time of drought,
My friend in my poverty,
My friend in the rain and the wind,
My friend in the heat and the sun,
My friend in the cold from the mountain, *
My friend in the storm,
My friend in the calm,
My friend in the eight seas,
Alas, alas, gone is my friend,
And no more will return,71

As so frequently happens with people gifted with a lyric talent, the Ha-
waiians were also possessed of an extraordinary musical talent. There were
many among them at the time of their discovery that sang with skill, after their
own fashion, and they were by no means slow to acquire the technique of our
own more intricate written music, a fact which soon revolutionized tjieir form of
musical expression.

Marriage.

Passing now to the more domestic customs of the people it may be said that
among the Hawaiians, marriage was entered into with very little ceremony,
except, perhaps, in the case of a "few of the more important chiefs. Among all
classes the relations among the sexes were very free and it is difficult to determine,
with accuracy, what the exact condition was originally with reference to chastity.
All the evidence goes to show that the habits of the people in this regard were far
better formerly than they afterwards became. Whatever may have been
brought about by the coming of white men, and we refer to the hardy seamen
of the early days, it is a mistake to assume that wholesale promiscuity existed
originally among them comparable to the debasing type found among certain
classes in our own scheme of social civilization. Although there was much free-
dom on the part of both parties in the marriage relation and scarcely any re-
straint at all among the young previous to entering the more settled domestic
arrangement, it is an error to suppose that there was an absence of a definite
marital relationship, accompanied by well understood obligations between the
parents and their offspring.

Polygamy.

By such Hawaiians as could afford and command more than one wife,
polygamy was practiced' to some extent, rather more as a mark of distinction

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 43

and affluence than ^otherwise. The poor and dependent condition of the mass
of the common people, if there had been no other reasons, prevented the practice
from becoming widespread among them. It is a curious and interesting fact
in this connection to note that the Hawaiian called all of his relatives of the
same generation as himself "brothers" and " sisters," and those of the next
older — "fathers" and "mothers"; those of a younger generation "sons" and
"daughters," and so on. This tendency is taken by some as indicative of the
uncertain relations that existed among them, since brothers, to a certain extent,
shared their wives in common, and sisters their husbands. But the marital form,
where one man and one woman habitually cohabit, while yet indulging in other
attachments, was the rule among them at all times and in all classes as is clearly
shown by the earliest recorded facts on the subject.

It is known that in certain instances betrothals were arranged by parents
and friends while the children who were the principals in the arrangement were
still quite young. Among the common people, as distinguished from the chiefs,
marriage was largely a matter of caprice, but among the chiefs it was a subject
of serious concern, involving matters of state, public policy, position and power.
Especially was this true at the mating of women of rank, since rank: position
and inheritance descended chiefly, though not wholly, through the mother. For
example, the offspring of a woman of noble birth would inherit her rank despite
the rank of the father. But the children of a father of high rank would fail
to retain their position if born to a woman of inferior position.

Marriage Among Persons of Rank.

For this reason reigning families were careful to examine into the genealogy
of those who were liable to join themselves with members of the more exclusive
families. For reasons of policy brothers were forced on rare occasions to marry
sisters, that there might be no question as to the rank of their children.

While there was no set wedding ceremony the event was often made an
excuse for a feast; and frequently, particularly among the common people, the
bridegroom declared his choice by throwing a piece of tapa cloth over the bride
in the presence of her relatives, or less frequently by their friends throwing
a piece of tapa over both bride and groom. It is an astonishing fact, that with
the exception of marriage, almost every act in the life of the people was cele-
brated with prayers, sacrifices and religious ceremonies. It cannot be doubted,
therefore, that the marriage tie was a loose one, lightly assumed and lightly
put off, and depended largely for its duration on the will of the husband.
As might be expected, separation was of frequent occurrence among them; and
while fond of their children, after time had given opportunity for an attach-
ment to develop between parent and child, it was never-the-less a widespread prac-
tice among them, for mothers to part with their babies at birth, giving them freely
and without reserve to relatives or friends who might express a wish for the child.

Infanticide.

There can be no doubt but that infanticide was prevalent among them and

mm:^rm

&■$>:

K^ = .'r.

.-»<■■■

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 45

that a very large per; cent of the children born were disposed of in various ways
by their parents, soon after their birth. Generally speaking, it ap-
pears that in Hawaii, as throughout Polynesia, the struggle for exist-
ence and life's necessities, was largely evaded by restricting the na-
tural increase in population in this way. Whatever the cause may have
been for this unusual restriction, it is quite generally admitted to have been an
effective one so far as keeping the population down to where a comfortable
subsistence could be had by all who were permitted by their parents to live past
the perilous period of early infancy. From the purely economic point of view
this artificial check was most beneficial. Freed from crowding by overpopula-
tion, the primitive community need not live under the scourge of grinding
poverty. By limiting the size of the family to the means and ability of the
parents to provide, there could be enough for all. Direct reasoning led them,
therefore, to free themselves from the irksome necessity of providing more or
dividing less, by restricting the increase in population to a point well within
the apparent normal food supply. My friend, Dr. Titus Munson Coan, without
upholding the crude methods employed in adjusting the two important factors
mentioned, finds the freedom which the people enjoyed from the necessity of
providing, to be the main cause of the unusual development of the genial and
generous traits of the Ilawaiians, and in it finds the principal source of their
marital happiness. Other writers account for the practice of infanticide among
the Ilawaiians on the unpardonable ground of laziness — unwillingness to take
the trouble to rear children. But as we are told that parents were fond of their
children and parental discipline was not rigorous, and as children were left
largely to their own devices, their care could hardly be regarded as a serious
burden ; moreover, more girl children were destroyed than boys, indicating that
the former reason was the more economic and therefore the more human and
logical one. On the other hand it may be urged that a certain amount of
brutality was always exhibited toward their own kind. The old and physically
unfortunate among the common people fared roughly at the hands of the com-
munity. Old age was despised. The insane were often stoned to death and

Description of Plate.

1. A sturdy old native in characteristic European dross. 2. The Hawaiian warrior
Kamehameha I. From a monument in front of the Judiciary Building in Honolulu, erected,
during the reign of King Kalakaua, one hundred years after the discovery of the Hawaiian
Islands by Captain Cook. The statin1, by an American artist, is a composite, based on a paint-
ing of Kamehameha by a Russian artist and supplimented by photographs of t ho finest types of
modern Ilawaiians. The figure is shown wearing the helmet |mahiole| made of wicker-work
covered with feathers; a long cloak [ahuula] of feathers attached to a fine net work of olona;
about the chest and over the shoulders is draped the malo of Cmi, also made of feathers on an
olona foundation. About the loins is tied the common tapa malo — the covering worn by the
men of ancient Hawaii when at work; in the left hand is the spear |newa], the chief imple-
ment of warfare. The Honolulu statue is a duplicate of the original which was lost in a wreck
on the voyage to Honolulu. The sunken statue was subsequently raised and now stands in
the court yard at Kohala, Hawaii. Pour pictures in bas-relief about the base of the monu.nent
(not here shown) represents (a) canoes greeting Captain Cook at Kealakekua Bay; (b) six men
hurling spears at Kamehameha; (c) a fleet of war canoes built for the invasion of Kauai,
and (d) men and children on the roadside. 3. Muscular young Hawaiian.

46 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the sick sometimes left to die of neglect or, less frequently, were put to death
by their relatives.

Descent op Rank.

While the descent of rank through the female line gave women a place of
unquestioned importance in their social scheme and often elevated her to the
highest positions in the political order, it did not save her from certain forms
of social degradation directed irrevocably at all her sex. For example, her sex
was excluded from the interior of their chief heiaus. At birth she wras more un-
welcome than her brother and more liable to be summarily sent to the grave.
She was the object of the most oppressive of the regulations of the tabu system.
She must not eat writh men or even taste food from an oven that had been used
in preparing food for them. She was not allowed in the men's eating houses,
and several of the choicer food products of the islands were absolutely forbidden
her. Such delicacies, for example, as turtle, pork, certain kinds of fish,
coeoanuts and bananas, were reserved by the tabu for the exclusive use of the
male sex. But as a sort of compensation the men attended to the preparation
and cooking of the food, and women were allowed the privilege of accompanying
and aiding their husbands and brothers in battle. They could manufacture
bark cloth without fear of competition by the men, and they could engage in
the practice of medicine, as they understood it, on equal terms with the sterner
sex.

The Tabu.

Reference has just been made to their tabu system. A cursory examination
of it wall show what a far-reaching, serious and exceedingly complicated system
of penal exactions and regulations it was. No one, not even the king, was alto-
gether free from its influence, and the common people were made to bow to its
dictation at every turn of their daily lives. As an institution, the system was
both religious and political, in that the violation of the tabu x was a sin as
well as a crime. As a punishment for its infraction the offender was liable to
bring down the wrath of the gods, and they were numerous, as well as bring
about his own death, which was often inflicted in an exceedingly cruel and bar-
barous manner. This extraordinary institution, although common throughout
Polynesia, was worked out to a finer detail, and more sternly enforced in Hawaii,
perhaps, than in any of the Pacific islands. For the present purpose it would be
tedious to sketch the system in anything more than a general way. Suffice to
say that the tabu was the supreme law of the land. In its final analysis it was a
system of religious prohibition founded on fear and superstition, the interpreta-
tion and use of which was in the hands of a powerful and unscrupulous priest-
hood, the1 kahunas, who in their palmy days were supported with all the physical
power that the kings and influential chiefs could bring to bear.

Some of the tabus were fixed and permanent, being well understood by all
the people. Many such there were relating to the seasons, to the gods and to

1 That which whs forbidden.

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 47

oft-repeated ceremonies. Others were special, temporary and erratic, having
their inception in the will or caprice of the king or the pleasure of the kahunas.
Some of the more burdensome were specific and directed against certain persons
or objects. For example, the persons of the chiefs and priests were tabu 2
as were the temples and the temple idols. Some in effect were exceedingly
rigid requirements, others partook more of the force and importance of regula-
tions. There were four principal tabu periods during each month. During
these periods a devout chief was expected to spend much time in the heiau.3
At such times women were forbidden to enter a canoe or have intercourse with
the other sex until the tabu was lifted. An especial edict made it incumbent
that during the whole period of her pregnancy the expectant mother must live
entirely apart from her husband, in accordance with a very ancient tabu. At
the periods sacred to the great gods many were put to death for infractions
of the tabu, as many restrictions were promulgated and enforced at such sea-
sons, and, through ignorance, the people were liable to disregard them.

We are informed by the people and through the records of early visitors
that at such times no person could bathe, or be seen abroad during the day-time,
no canoes could be launched, no fires were allowed, not even a pig could grunt,
a dog bark or rooster crow for fear the tabu might be broken and fail of its
purpose. Should it fail the offenders were made to pay the penalty with their
lives.

Any particular place or object might be declared tabu by the proper person
by simply affixing to it a stick bearing aloft a bit of tapa, this being a sufficient
sign that the locality was to be avoided. The bodies of the dead were especially
sacred objects and always tabu. As long as the body remained unburied it was
subject to the vagaries of the system. Those who remained in the house or had
to do with the corpse were defiled and forbidden to enter other houses in the
village.

Owing to the tabu, two ovens must be maintained, one for the husband, the
other for the wife; two houses must be built to eat in, a third to sleep in. In a
thousand similar ways the system was fastened on every act of the daily life of
the people to such an extent that it was ever present, dominating their every
thought and deed. It oppressed their lives, cirtailed their liberties, and dark-
ened and narrowed their horizon beyond belief.

CHAPTER IV.

THE RELIGION OF THE HAWAIIANS : THEIR METHODS OF AVAR-
FARE AND FEUDAL ORGANIZATION.

Complex and bewildering as was the Hawaiian system of tabus, their re-
ligious system was even more so. Moreover, the one was so intertwined with
the other that the two subjects cannot be treated separately. Since the Ha-

2 Sacred. 3 Temple.

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 49

waiians were naturally a highly religious people, they found many objects to
worship and many ways in which to worship them. As a matter of fact, the
earth, the sea and the air were filled with their amakuas, in the form of invisible
beings, who wrought wonders in the powers and phenomena of nature. The
presence and power of the amakuas was evidenced to them by the thunder, light-
ning, wind, earthquakes and volcanoes.

Religion Among the Hawaiian^.
Of the innumerable gods in the pantheon, Ku, Kane, Lono and Kanaloa
were supreme. These important gods were supposed to exist in the heavens, in
invisible form, and to have been present at the beginning. They were also be-
lieved to appear on the earth in human form. In addition to these each person
had his or her own titulary deity, and each occupation was presided over by a
special amakua, to which worship was due. Thus the fisherman, the canoe maker,
the hula dancer, the tapa maker, the bird catcher, even the thieves and the
gamblers, all had presiding deities with power to prosper them in their callings
and bring them good luck in their undertakings. Other deities were clothed in
life in the form of numerous animals and plants. Disease and death were quite
naturally regarded as the work of the gods and appreciated by the people as
material evidence of their invisible powers.

Idol Worship.

They worshipped their deities chiefly through idols made of wood or stone.
They believed that such images represented, or in some way were occupied by
the spirit of the deity that they sought to worship.

The people as a whole had a rather well defined conception in regard to
existence after death. They believed that each person had an invisible double.
They also thought that after death the spirit lingered about in dark places in
the vicinity of the body and was able to struggle in hand to hand encounters
with its enemies. A nightmare was interpreted as a temporary quitting of the
body by the spirit and in certain cases, through proper prayers and ceremonies,
it was believed to be1 possible to put the soul back into the body after it had
left it. This was usually accomplished by lifting the toe-nail of the unfortunate
person concerned. Many places were believed to be haunted and the spirit was
supposed to journey from the grave to its former abode along the path that the
corpse was carried for burial.

DKSCKII'TIOX OF PliATK.

1. The Heiau of Puukihola at Kawa iliac — a huge stone enclosure built by Knmehameha I.
as a protection against t lie perils of war. Many human sacrifices were made on its altar to
the great war god Kukailimoku; among others the bodies of Knmehameha \s rival, Kcoua, and
his followers who, on a peace mission, were treacherously shun while landing at Kawaihae
from a canoe in the year 1791. 2. Entrance to the Heiau at Kawaihae. )i. Double war
canoe equipped with mat sails; the gourd masks worn hy the warriors are also shown.
4. Feather cloak [ahuula] worn by chiefs of importance; made of red [iiwi| and yellow
[mamo and o-o] bird feathers, f). The city of refuge | puuhonun ] at Ifonaunau; a stone wall
twelve feet high and fifteen feet thick encloses seven acres of tabu ground. To such sanctuaries
women and children, warriors worsted in battle, criminals and others in peril might flee for
safety from their avengers. (). Heiau of the open truncated pyramidal type; compare with
the rectangular walled type shown in figs. 1 and 2.

50 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

The Future State.

They had a rather indefinite notion as to the exact nature of the future state.
However, they believed that the two usual conditions, misery and happiness,
existed. If the soul after journeying' to the region of Wakea x was not favor-
ably received, it was forced through despair and loneliness to leap into the
abode of misery, far below. Precipices from which the souls of the unhappy
departed were supposed to plunge on this wild leap are occasionally pointed out
at various places about the group. One at the northern point of Oahu, another
at the northern extremity of Hawaii, and a third on the western end of Maui
are well known to those acquainted with Hawaiian superstition.

Heiaus.

In order to propitiate their gods, or better accomplish their worship, the peo-
ple through fear or at the command of the king or priests, erected numerous
temples or heiaus. To many students of the race this blind fear of their gods
and their chiefs, and their unreasoning acceptance of the tabu, are subjects of
continual wonder. Their principal temples were of two general forms, the
older being composed of rough stones laid up without mortar in the form of a
low, truncated pyramid, oblong in shape, on top of which were placed the altar
of sacrifice, certain grass houses, the idols of the temple and the other grotesque
wooden images and objects used in their worship. The later and more common
form of heiau was made by erecting four high walls of stone, surmounted with
numerous images, enclosing a space occupied, as before, by the various images,
oracles, sacred places and altars of worship. These temples were numerous in
the more thickly settled regions on all the islands and were usually built near
the shore. On Hawaii, in the region from Kailua to Kealakekua, particularly,
they were very numerous and close together. The principal heiaus were dedi-
cated to their chief gods, but many smaller ones were built, as fish heiaus, rain
heiaus and the like, and were dedicated to the special god of the builder.

Where temples were found in large numbers a corresponding number of
priests were to be expected. Of these there were many orders and sub-orders.
They and their rights were constantly made use of by the chiefs for the purpose
of terrifying the people. Through them the tabu was coupled with idol worship,
and their combined cruelties, terrors and restrictions made an integral part of
the general system of government.

Warfare.

War among the ancient Hawaiians was one of the chief occupations and
with them, as with other races, war was the "sport of kings." In making
preparations for war the king, however, in addition to the council of his chiefs,
had the advantage of the advice and skill of a certain class of military experts
who were instructed in the traditions and wisdom of their predecessors. Being

1 The home of the reputed father of the race, a place provided with houses, food, consorts and
pleasures.

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 51

well acquainted with the methods of warfare that had been successfully re-
sorted to by kings in former times, they were at all times among the king's
most respected advisors.

Fortifications, as we understand them, were not a part of their scheme of
warfare, though sites for camps and defences were selected that possessed
natural advantages in the matter of their defense against the enemy. That
part of the population not actually engaged in battle was sent to strongholds,
usually steep eminences or mountain retreats. In case of a rout the whole army
retired to these strongholds and valiantly defended them. In addition to these
natural forts, there were temples of refuge or sanctuaries to which those broken
in battle, or in peril of their lives in time of peace, might flee and escape the
wrath of all powers without. These temples were crude though permanent
enclosures, whose gates were wide open to all comers at all times.

The Hawaiian warriors had many methods of attack and defense, depend-
ing usually on such matters as the strength of the enemy, the character of the
battlefield and the plan of campaign. Their battles were generally a succession
of skirmishes, the whole army seldom engaging in a scrimmage. They usually,
though not always, made their attack in the daytime, generally giving battle in
open fields, without the use of much real military strategy. Occasionally inter-
island wars occurred in the form of naval battles in which several hundred canoes
were used by both sides, but as a general thing their differences were settled on
land.

Practically the entire adult population was subject to a call to engage
in hostilities. Only those who were incapacitated through age or from in-
firmity were exempt from the summons of the recruiting officer sent out by the
king to gather warriors, when anything like an extensive military operation
was determined upon. If occasion required, a second officer was sent to forcibly
bring to camp those who refused to answer the call of the first. As a humiliation
and mark of their insubordination it was a custom to slit the ears of the offenders
and drive them to camp with ropes around their bodies.

Preliminary to a Battle.

The army stores were usually prepared beforehand, and each warrior was
expected to bring his own provisions and arms. Not infrequently notice of
an impending attack was sent to the opposing forces and a battlefield mutually
satisfactory to both forces selected for the engagement. The women took an
active share in the important part of the work connected with the commissary ;
often following their husbands and brothers onto the battlefield, carrying extra
weapons or calabashes of food. When the forces were assembled and all things
in readiness for the fray, an astrologer was consulted by the king. If the signs
were auspicious the battle would be undertaken. As the opposing armies ap-
proached each other, the king's chief priests were summoned to make the king's
sacrifice to his gods. Two fires being built between the armies, the priests
of each army made an offering, usually a pig, which was killed by strangling.
When the various religious ceremonies were over the battle would begin,

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 53

the priests* accompanying the armies, bearing their idols aloft — that the bodies
of the first slain in battle might be properly offered to the gods. Their idols
took the place of banners. During the heat of battle they would be advanced
in the midst of the warriors, while the priests, supporting them, to cheer their
followers and spread terror in the hearts of the enemy, would give blood curdling
yells accompanying them with frightful grimaces, all of which were supposed to
come from the images themselves, and to be an unmistakable token that the
gods wrere in their midst.

In opening the attack, it is related, a single warrior would sometimes ad-
vance from the ranks, armed only with a fan and when within hailing distance
would proceed to blackguard the enemy, daring them to attack him single-handed.
This exasperating challenge would be answered by a number of spears being
hurled at the taunting warrior, who would nimbly avoid them or seize them in
his hands and hurl them back at the enemy. Such incendiary manoeuvers were
well calculated to precipitate trouble and not infrequently they resulted in the
death of the intrepid warrior. A fierce struggle would then follow to gain
possession of his body.

Their battles were often almost hand to hand encounters, lasting some-
times for days. However, they do not seem to have been very fatal. Often
they resulted in routing one party or the other, the conquerors taking possession
of the land and portioning it out among the victorious chiefs. A heap of stones
was made over the bodies of the victorious dead, while the vanquished slain were
left unburied. Captured warriors were occasionally allowed their freedom, but
more frequently they were put to death or kept as future sacrifices. The
women and children of the captured were made slaves and bound to the soil.

When peace was sought a branch of ki leaves or a young banana plant was
borne aloft by the ambassadors as a flag of truce. When terms were arrived at
a pig was sacrificed and its blood poured on the ground as an emblem of the fate
of the party to the treaty who should break its conditions. The leaders of both
armies would then braid a lei of maile and deposit it in a temple as a peace
offering. The heralds were then sent running in all directions to announce

Description of Plate.

1. Typical Hawaiian burial cave. The common people after death were usually secreted
in caves in the neighborhood; the burial took place during the night. Great care was taken,
however, to hide the bones in secret places to prevent them from being used for fish hooks and
arrow points. The important bones of the kings, including the skull, leg and arm bones, were
gathered from the decayed flesh, collected into a bundle, wrapped with tapa and bound up with
cord; the bundle was then deified by elaborate ceremonies before the bones were placed in the
most secret and inaccessible caves, often being carried from one island to another. The bones
of a high chief were preserved in vault-like caves in the cliff's and not infrequently were laid
at rest in the warrior's canoe together with other precious possessions belonging to the departed.
2. An aged kahuna. 3. Kukailimoku, the god of war; taken from a figure in Cook's
Voyages; other representations of this god are on exhibition in the Bishop Museum. 4. Burial
cave (near view of fig. 1) showing a * 'transition" burial in a coffin hewn from a log.
5. Burial cave showing portion of a canoe, mats, tapa, etc. 6. Ancient wooden idol. Prior
to the landing of the missionaries idolatry was abolished and the idols of the nation hidden
away in caves; later many of them were collected and burned. A number, however, were
preserved and are now in museums in Hawaii, America and Europe.

54 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the termination of the war, and the event would be appropriately celebrated with
feasts, dancing and games.

The King and His Power.

The king was the recognized head of all civil and military, also ecclesiastical
authority. The lands, the people, their time, their possessions, the temples, the
priests, the idols, the tabus, the prophets, all belonged finally to him. Every-
thing was his to use as he willed so long as he was in the favor of the
gods. The priests, who were the only ones skilled in interpreting the oracles
and learning the washes of the gods, were also the class which determined the
offerings that would placate the deities worshipped. In this way, through
fear, they were able to hold no small amount of influence over the affairs of
state by reason of the king's dread of the wrath of the gods of his realm.

The high priest kept the national war god and was at all times in close rela-
tion to the monarch. Other priests were charged with perpetuating the traditions
of the people as well as their own medical, astronomical and general learn-
ing. Besides the regular orders of priests there was a numerous class of
more irregular priests or kahunas, that were little more than sorcerers. They
were able to cause the death of persons obnoxious to themselves, their clients,
their chiefs or their king.

In order to pray any person to death it wras only necessary for one of their
kahunas to secure the spittle, the hair, a finger nail, or personal effects be-
longing to the intended victim, and, by means of certain rites, conjurings and
prayers to the gods, to so work upon the fear and imagination of the individual
as to almost invariably cause his death. As a result they were unpopular as a
class and not infrequently were conspired against by the people, or themselves
prayed to death by the more powerful of their cult.

The Nobility, Chiefs and Common People.

In the time of which we write the population was divided into three classes,
the nobility, including the kings and chiefs; the priests, including the priests,
sorcerers and doctors ; and the common people, made up of agriculturists,
artisans and slaves taken in war. There was an impassable gulf between the
class including the chiefs and the common people.

The distinction was as wide as though the chiefs came from another race
or a superior stock, yet as we have said elsewhere they were undoubtedly all
of one and the same origin with the people under them. A common man could
never be elevated to the rank of a chief, nor could a chief be degraded to that of
a commoner. Hence the rank was hereditary in dignity at least, though not
necessarily so as regards function, position or office. Within the class of the
nobility, sharp distinctions were numerous and a certain seniority in dignity
was maintained. As far as can be learned there was no distinction between
civil, military, ecclesiastical and social headship, and there was no separation
between the executive, judicial and legislative functions. The power, in an
irresponsible way, was entirely centered in the hands of the nobility.

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 55

Since the chiefs were believed by the common people to be descended from
the gods in some mysterious and complicated way, they were supposed to be in
close touch with the invisible powers. They were looked up to with super-
stitious awe, as being both powerful and sacred. This advantage was shrewdly
employed by the ruling class in securing the respect and unquestioned sub-
mission of the common people. Death was the penalty inflicted for the slightest
breach of etiquette. Through the enforcement of such submission the chiefs
were able to exact the marks of distinction claimed by them from the masses,
and to control and direct them through a blind rule of duty. Singularly enough
the chiefs were respected while living and in most cases were revered by the
people after their death.

Among the chiefs themselves there was constant bickering and class rivalry.
The moi, or king of each island usually inherited his position, but the accident
of birth did not guarantee that he would long remain in power, for unfortu-
nately the assurance of his place lay in the hands of the district chiefs under
him. Seldom could they be relied upon for unshaken fealty. Their love of
power and capacity for intrigue, as a rule, was not of a common order and
they were often able to demonstrate their complete mastery of the game of
politics.

The important chiefs were therefore usually summoned by the king to sit in
council as an advisory body when weighty matters were to be passed upon.
But the immediate source of all constructive law as such, among the ancient
Hawaiians. was the will of their king. Not unlike kings in more enlightened
lands, they were guided in important matters by their stronger chiefs whose
influence they required. These, in turn, were influenced by and dependent upon
the good will of the people under them, for there was nothing to prevent the
common people from transferring their personal affections and allegiance to
other and more considerate chiefs. But back of the king, the chiefs, and the
people was the traditional code of customary law that served as a powerful re-
straint on the king in preventing the promulgation of purely arbitrary decrees.
The traditional law of the land related mostly to religious and customary ob-
servances, marriage, the family relation, lands, irrigation, personal property and
barter. With such crimes as theft, personal revenge was the court of first
resort. The aggrieved person had the right, if he so desired, to seek the aid of
a kindred chief, or to resort to sorcery with the aid of his kahuna. The king,
however, was the chief magistrate, with his various chiefs exercising inferior
jurisdiction in their own territories.

The King and the Land.

The king was regarded as the sole proprietor of the land; of the people who
cultivated it, the fish of the sea, — in fact everything on the land or in the sea
about it was the property of the king. The king, in short, owned everything,
the people owned nothing, so that technically, the people existed in a state of
abject dependence. The system that developed from this was one of complete

56 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

and absolute feudalism. The king made his head chiefs his principal bene-
ficiaries. They, in turn, established a grade of lesser chiefs or landlords, who
gathered under them the common people as tenants at will. The lands being
divided, those who held the land owed every service and obedience to the chief-
tain landlords. On these landlords the king relied for men, labor, munitions
and materials to carry out his plans and fight his battles.

Taxes.

This system was so offensive that it is said that the laborer did not receive
one-third the returns due him for his toil; the lion's share of everything, even
in this simple system, went to the over-lords, in the form of a tax. There was
first, the royal tax that was collected by each grade paying to its superiors until
the whole tax, which consisted of such articles as hogs, dogs, fish, fowl, potatoes,
yams, taro, olona, feathers, and such articles of manufacture as calabashes,
nets, mats, tap as and canoes, was collected. In addition to the foregoing, the
people were subject to special taxes at any time, and labor taxes at all times,
when they were called upon to build walls, repair fish ponds, cultivate the chief's
taro ponds, or construct or repair the temples.

Besides all these, and other means of taxing the people, there were customs
which made it necessary to make extraordinary presents to the king, especially
when that dignitary was traveling, with the penalty that if enough presents
were not brought, plunder and rapine was the consequence. With this hasty
review of some of the more general and especially interesting or striking pecu-
liarities of the Hawaiian people, as a branch of the Polynesian race, that are of
importance as salient characteristics when we wish to compare them and their
natural human history with that of other races of mankind, we can now pass to a
brief review of their arts, occupations, ornaments, weapons, tools and kindred
subjects in which they made use of the materials with which nature surrounded
them.

CHAPTER Y.

THE HAWAIIAN HOUSE: ITS FURNISHINGS AND HOUSEHOLD

UTENSILS.

The houses of the common people were little more than single-room straw-
thatched hovels, supported upon a crude frame-work of poles, the structure
in manv instances being sea reel v sufficient to shelter the family. On the other

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)
woven over a wooden umeke or a gourd-calabash, a fine Niihau [makaloa] mat, a sled [papa
holua] for coasting on the grass on steep hills and two spears; in 2 are a number of small
objects including gourd water bottle [huewai], small idol, canoe model, bowling stones [ulu-
maika], Hawaiian brick shaped pillows (uluua], gourd hula drum [pahu hula], three large
and several small umekes, fans, a feather male or waistband and a large and small kahili; in
3 the old Hawaiian keeper [kahu j is surrounded by numerous objects of native manufacture,
including poi pounders [pohaku kui poi], kukui nut and feather leis, the famous skirt [pa-u]
of o-o feathers (made for the sister of Kamehameha III. and last used over the coffin of
Kalakaua) and two large and two small kahilis; in 4 are three large umekes in nets [koko],
a carrying stick fauamo], a gourd fish line container [poho aho], several choice umekes, rare
tapas, kukui nut leis and a small kahili.

smfiBeSMNMHHMi

>irnnx <>k tin-: Hawaiian <;nvi-:KN.Mi

58 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

hand, the houses of the better class, notably the chiefs and the nobility, were
much superior. Being well built and neatly kept, they were not so devoid of
simple comfort as their absolute lack of architectural beauty might suggest.

While their houses varied much in size and shape they were uniformly
dark and poorly ventilated, being invariably without windows or doors, save
the small hole left, usually on one side, through which the occupant might pass
in and out in a crouching posture.

Complete Domestic Establishment.

As with the various occupations that had to do with the gathering of their
food and the making of their raiment, so the building of the house which
sheltered them was attended by many important religious observances, the omis-
sion of any of which might result in the most serious consequences. Every
stage, from the gathering of the timbers and grass in the mountains, to the last
act of trimming the grass from over and around the door before it was read}7
for final occupancy, furnished an occasion for the intervention of the priests
and the imposition of special tabus that must be satisfied before the house
could be used as a dwelling.

As has been suggested elsewhere, a complete domestic establishment was made
up of several conveniently grouped single-room houses that were given over to
special purposes. The well-to-do Hawaiian boasted of at least six such single-
room houses. The house for the family idols and the men's eating house were
both always tabu to women. The women's eating house, a common sleeping
house, a house for the beating of the tapa, and lastly, a separate house for the
use of the women during various tabu periods made up the group. Occa-
sionally the better houses were on a raised stone foundation, and a fence made
about the group to separate them from their neighbors and to mark the limits of
the sphere of domestic influence. To the foregoing might be added a house
for canoes, a storehouse, and others for special .purposes as might be required.

Building of a House.

The building of a grass house of the better type was an important task and
one that called for much skill and experience. The timbers of which it was con-
structed were selected with great care, different woods being preferably used for
certain purposes. When trimmed of the outer bark, notched and fashioned into
shape by crude stone tools they were placed into the positions which they were
intended to occupy in the framework of the structure and then firmly bound
together with braided ropes of ukiuki grass.

The corner posts were first to be put in place, each being securely set in the
ground. The side posts were next planted in line and the plate pole lashed
to the top. The tall poles at the end of the house were next put up and the
ridge pole put into place. The rafters were then added and the upper ridge
pole lashed firmly above the main ridge pole. Small straight poles were finally
lashed horizontally, a few inches apart, on the outside of the completed frame-

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 59

work. This done the thatch was added and a rude sliding door made and fitted
in place. The outside was trimmed, and over all a large net placed to hold the
grass in shape while it dried. Pili grass, lauhala leaves, sugar-cane and ki
leaves were used as a thatch according to circumstances. When completed a
group of Hawaiian houses resembled nothing as much, in general appearance,
as a number of neat hay stacks.

While as a general rule each man was expected to be able to perform all
the various forms of labor necessary to the building of a house, making a canoe
or carving his dishes, there were those who by choice did certain things in ex-
change for the work of others. That is to say, should a chief order a house built,
certain men would cut the timbers, others gather the pili grass, others hue the
timbers, wThile still others made the binding cords or prepared the holes for the
corner posts. The thatchers would then perform their work, so that by piece
work, all working together, a house could be completed in two or three days.
If well made it would last a dozen years, — when it would require re-thatching

House Furnishings.

The furnishings and utensils in even the best houses were meager in the
extreme. The raised portion of the floor, covered with mats that formed the
beds by night and lounge by day, and the space on the stones in the center of
the floor, that served as a fireplace when required during rainy weather, were
the most noticeable evidences of comfort. The braided mats and ornamented
tapas were the most conspicuous among their possessions, but the bowls and
dishes for the serving and storage of food were, perhaps, the most important
household necessities. These few objects formed characteristic features of the
Hawaiian home. The most valuable of their household utensils, without doubt,
was the calabash. It was fashioned from wood or made from the shell of
the gourd, for though clay was known to the Hawaiian people they made no use
of it and knew nothing whatever of the potter 's art.

In the carving of these wooden bowls or umekes they exhibited much skill,
using only the simple stone implements of their culture and such primitive
devices as they knew in fashioning them. Some wonderful bowls were pro-
duced from the woods of the native kou, kamani and the koa trees. After the
log had been soaked for a long period it was roughly shaped without and was
hollowed out within by hacking and burning until the desired form was secured.
By this method the wooden sides were reduced to a fraction of an inch in thick-
ness. The receptacle was then smoothed by rubbing first with coral, then rough
lava, and lastly with pumice. The real polishing was done by rubbing with
charcoal, bamboo leaves and at last with breadfruit leaves and tapa. Often a
lid, made and polished in the same way, was added, and usually a koko or net
of convenient form for carrying or handling them was provided. It may be
truthfully said that the splendid vessels made in this way, some of them thirty
inches in diameter, were among the most remarkable objects wrought by the
ancient Hawaiians.

■ ///* ■■■■:*■■-

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 61

Household Implements.

In the manufacture of other household implements, as pig dishes, dog
trays, fish dishes, finger bowls, slop basins and the like, the same tools and ma-
terials were used and the same general method of working them into shape was
employed, though frequently they were carved or ornamented in various ways.

In the calabash gourd the Hawaiians had a substitute for the more labori-
ously prepared wrooden bowl just described. While the calabash gourd is not a
native of Hawaii and was not found on the other islands in Polynesia, it was
in general use among the natives of this group at the time of their discovery
and the shells of the fruit put to many uses in their economy, often being em-
ployed as receptacles for food, containers for water and storage boxes for cloth-
ing and personal effects.

A slightly different though equally useful species was the bottle gourd.
Unlike the former, it was known and used quite generally throughout Poly-
nesia. The smaller ones served as first-rate water bottles and the larger speci-
mens were utilized in the manufacture of their hula-drums, which were some-
times three feet or more in height. Both species were extensively cultivated in
the period of which we write. In preparing them for use the soft, bitter pulp
was first scraped out as clean as possible and the shell allowed to dry. When
it had become thoroughly hardened the remaining portion of the soft material
was scraped out with a piece of pumice or a fragment of coral. They wrere then
filled with water and left to stand until they had become sweet.

In making water bottles where the small neck did not admit of the pre-
liminary scraping, the soft part was allowed to rot out. Then stones and sand
wrere put inside and shaken about until the contents came away, leaving only
the clean, hard outer shell. To the bottle was added a sea shell or folded palm
leaf as a stopper, and the container was ready for use. The different forms often
had different uses. When it was desired to carry them, — or indeed any heavy
burden, — the larger gourds were usually provided with carrying nets of one form
or another and suspended one on either end of a tough wooden carrying stick
which was notched at each end.

Finger bowls were in general use among the Hawaiians long before they
were introduced by the whites, and many ingenious devices were perfected
by the natives to remove the sticky, pasty poi from their fingers. These bowls
varied greatly in size, shape and design, but were generaly made from the kou.

Description of Plate.
1. A chiefess [alii] wearing a holoku; about the neck is shown a. lei [lei palaoa] of
braided human hair ornamented with a pendant ivory hook; in the hand is a small kahili with
ivory and tortoise shell handle. The lei palaoa and the "fly flap" are both insignia of chief-
tainship. 2. Middle-aged corpulent Hawaiian; beside the poi board is shown the taro roots
as they appear before baking. 3. Group of Hawaiian diving boys in Honolulu harbor.
4. Hawaiian woman plaiting a lauhala mat ; beside her is a finished mat and a bundle of the
lauhala leaves ready for use. 5. Ohulenui, whose father, as a boy, was familiar with the
history and practices of worship at Iliiliopoi, the great heiau on Molokai in Mapulehu Valley.
6. A pure blood middle-aged Hawaiian surrounded by objects of more or less recent manu-
facture.

62 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

With the finger bowl at hand, into which the fingers might be dipped or the
hands washed, and with a plentiful supply of fresh leaves as napkins, the
absence of knife, fork and spoon from the Hawaiian table was not such a serious
omission as it might at first seem. HowTever, in certain parts of the group, as
Puna, where a less tenacious poi wras made from the swreet potato, a general
utility implement was fashioned in the form of a generalized spoon from a frag-
ment of cocoanut shell that served very well the combined purpose of spoon and
ladle.

Other household implements for special use were made from the shells of
cocoanuts. Besides serving many varied purposes they were chiefly useful
as cups and were made in special forms as containers for awa.

The Hawaiian mirror was an ingenious device consisting simply of a pol-
ished piece of wood or a piece of smooth, dark-colored lava. In order to pro-
duce a reflecting surface it was dropped into a calabash of water. The image
was thus produced on the surface of the water, or, if sufficiently polished, it!
could be used after immersion in the water. To trim the hair, a shark tooth
firmly fastened in a stick was employed; or, if this method proved to be too
painful, fire might be used instead. A fan of curious form, braided usually
from the leaves of the pandanus or the loulu palm, was a convenience of ancient
origin among the Hawaiians. The form, however, has been greatly modified
in recent times. The back-scratcher, a scraper-like implement made of hard
wood and provided with a long handle, was a decided comfort to the ancient
Hawaiians, and they were in general and frequent use at the time of which we
write.

In the evening artificial light was supplied by burning the nuts of the
kukui, which were strung on slender strips of bamboo. The oil of these useful
nuts wras also pressed out and burned with a tap a wick in a stone cup or crude
lamp. Occasionally the fat of the pig and dog wras used as an illuminating oil.

Fire.

The Hawaiian method of lighting a fire was by the friction of two pieces
of wood. A sharp hard stick was pressed firmly into a groove on a large and
softer stick and rubbed up and down until the fine dust that rubbed off and
accumulated in one end of the groove ignited from the heat of friction. When
everything w^as properly managed only a few minutes were necessary to start
the tinder and transfer the light to a bit of tapa or other inflammable material.
The trouble incident to igniting a fire was obviated by carrying fire from place
to place. To do this old tapa wras twisted into a cord a third of an inch in
diameter and rolled into a ball to be used when desired as a slow-burning torch.
In this way a lighted fuse might be carried a long distance.

The Hawaiian broom was simply a conveniently-sized bundle of palm-stem
midribs tied together. And since sweeping was not an exacting art, it served
every purpose. While wooden pillows wrere used, oblong six-sided ones made of
platted pandanus leaves were more common.

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 63

Small ^stories of different shapes for various domestic purposes were used,
some for cooking birds, others as bath rubbers, and so on, but the principal
use of stone in the household was in the manufacture of poi pounders and
mortars, to which reference has been made in another chapter. Lastly, refer-
ence should be made to their wooden slop jars which were in common use as
receptacles for refuse food, banana skins, fishbones and offal. While many of
them were roughly made of kou, others were finished, and a few belonging to
the chiefs were inlaid with the bones of their enemies or those whom they
would dishonor.

CHAPTER VI.
OCCUPATIONS OF THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE.

Agriculture Among the Hawaiians.

Agriculture was one of the principal occupations of the ancient Hawaiians
and like almost everything they did, was accomplished by a set of more or less
elaborate religious ceremonies. They were particular to plant in the proper
time of the moon, and prayers were said, and offerings . made and tabus kept
during the various stages of the growth of the plant. When necessary, prayers
were made for rain or to allay the wind, or to stop the ravages of insects, and at
last when the crop was ripe, prayers of thanksgiving were said and appropriate
offerings were made to the family gods.

The growing of taro was the chief industry among their farming activi-
ties, and the simple dishes manufactured from this plant have always been their
principal and often only article of food. Two methods of planting were and
still are followed. Where running water was to be had from the streams taro,
or kalo, could be grown at all seasons, and only a scarcity of water could seri-
ously influence the yield. Where water could be led onto the ground from the
streams or be led to the fields by their primitive irrigation ditches, the crop was
always in a flourishing state of growth. The work necessary to prepare the
ground, plant, irrigate and cultivate the crop, then as now, formed the most
laborious part of the native farming.

Taro Growing.

Considering the character of the country, the natives had arrived at a
degree of skill in the cultivation of the useful taro plant that has been difficult
to improve upon. After a century of contact with European ingenuity and
learning, the crop is still cultivated in the ancient manner, with the exception
that the primitive digger or oo, made of wood, has been supplanted by some of
the more modern garden implements made of metal.

The taro ponds are usually small and irregular in form, and vary in size
from a few yards to a half acre or more in extent. They were formerly made
with the utmost care, by first removing the earth down to a water level and

M

%•■

■■v .

44

&,.

t,...;,a- ?

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 65

using the surplus soil to build strong embankments on all sides of the pond,
which, when necessary, were re-enforced with stones, sugar-cane and cocoanut
leaves. The earth in the pond was then carefully manipulated so that the bot-
tom and sides could be beaten solid. In early times the hard end of a cocoanut
leaf was used as a flail when it was necessary to pack the earth firmly to form
the walls and bottom into a water-tight basin. When the pond was water-tight
the earth was thoroughly spaded and worked over for a couple of feet in depth.
The water was then let into the j>ond and the earth mixed and stamped with
the feet until a thin muck was formed.

The next step was the planting of the new crop. The leaves cut off in a
bunch just below the crown of the plant as the ripe roots are harvested, form
the huli. The taro is usually propagated by planting the hull while still fresh,
in rows eighteen inches to two feet apart. Water is let into the patch, after
planting, so as to form a shallow pond and a fresh water supply is constantly
kept running into the patch until the roots become mature, when they are ready
for use.

The taro plants usually require from nine to fifteen months in which to
ripen, but they will continue to grow and improve in quality for two years or
more. The provident Hawaiian would therefore plant but a small area at a
time with the result that the plants would not all be ready to harvest on the
same date.

In addition to the common method of pond cultivation just described several
other methods continue to be made use of in the planting and cultivation of
taro, which vary more or less in detail. In regions where streams were not avail-
able and where other conditions were suitable, the land was cleared of weeds
and large holes dug in which several plants were set. When necessary the soil was
enriched with kukui leaves, ashes and fine earth. The crop, if carefully planted
in this way, and tended faithfully, would yield abundant returns.

Description of Plate.

1. Kahuna pule anaana. It was the business of these sorcerers to procure the death of
persons obnoxious to themselves, or the chiefs, or their clients, by means of prayers and reli-
gious rites. They secured the spittle or some intimate belonging of the person whom they
wished to destroy and by means of certain rites, conjuring and prayers to the gods, so wrought
upon the imagination and superstitious fear of the individual as to almost invariably bring about
his death. At the left is shown* a large cocoanut hula drum [palm hula] that formerly was
only beaten on the occasion of a royal birth. 2. Group designed to show the process of poi
pounding. 3. Tapa making; the old woman is shown beating the bark on the wooden anvil
[kua kuku] with a tapa club for the purpose of thinning the wet bark or felting the edges
of the strips together. The girl stands by with an umeke of water to sprinkle on the bark
from time to time; on the bush beside her are a number of strips roughed out ready to be
beaten thin and smooth ; behind her a finished sheet is in the process of being ornamented.
4. Scraping olona. The long fibers of this useful plant are hackled out by scraping the
bark on a narrow board [laau kahi olona] with a tortoise shell scraper [uhi kahi olona
kuahonu]. From the fiber, twine for all purposes, but especially useful in the manufacture of
fish nets, was made. In the case behind are shown such fishing apparatus as seins, nets, fish
hooks, shrimp baskets, sinkers and all the various articles made use of by the native fisherman.

66 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Taro and Its Uses.

Several varieties of taro were planted by the natives which varied in size,
flavor and growth. In general, however, the varieties all have large, thrifty,
heart-shaped leaves of a light green color. The flowrer is a fragrant, green-
yellow, calla-like blossom and inconspicuous. The root is of a regular oval
form, from four to eight inches in length, and from two to four inches in dia-
meter. In a natural state, when either ripe or unripe, both the root and the
leaves have the exceedingly acrid, pungent taste so characteristic of the genus
of plants to which the taro belongs. But when thoroughly cooked it becomes
mild and palatable without a more disagreeable, peculiar or characteristic taste
than spinach or potatoes might be said to have. When the root is ripe it is
compact and whitish in color, both before and after cooking; but when poor in
quality or unripe, it is liable to be a dull lead color. There are several varieties,
as the pink or royal taro, and the blue, or common taro, which differ as indi-
cated in the color of the ripe and cooked roots as well as in the color of the
poi made from them.

The natives prepared the root for use, as they cook all their food, by first
baking it in a curious oven called an imu. The oven is formed by digging a
hole two or three feet in depth and six or more feet in circumference and
placing in the bottom of the hole a layer of stones. On the stones wood is piled
and on top of the heap still other layers of stones are laid. A fire is then
lighted in the pile of wood and kindling. When the stones are thoroughly
heated those on top are thrown to one side and the taro, sweet potatoes, bananas,
pig, dog, fish or whatever is to be cooked is wrapped in ki or banana leaves
and laid on the stones in the bottom of the hole. The loose hot stones are thrown
in on top of the bundle of leaves containing the food, and a little water is added
to create steam; the earth and leaves are then hurriedly placed on the mound
to prevent the heat from escaping.

Pol

The taro after being cooked in this manner was and is made into the favorite
dish of the Ilawaiians, namely poi. The process of manufacture, though simple,
was laborious and was invariably performed by the men. The first step in the
process of transforming taro into poi was the removing of the rough outer skin
of the root after it had been thoroughly cooked. The scrapings thus secured
were put aside to be returned to the ponds as a fertilizer. The roots when
carefully scraped were thrown on a short plank of hard wood called a poi
board. The board was scooped out slightly in the middle, like a shallow tray.
On this plank the roots were pounded with a thick, heavy stone pestle, of which
two or three forms were formerly in use.

Poi pounding is real work, and when it was to be done properly the na-
tives stripped themselves of everything save their loin cloths. Seating them-
selves cross-legged, usually one at each end of the poi board, the pestling of the

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 67

mass would continue for an hour or more. With careful manipulation the roots
were thus reduced to a sticky, dough-like mass. As the pounding proceeded,
water was judiciously added to prevent the mass, in the form called paiai, from
sticking to the stone pestle. When it was sufficiently smooth and firm it was
removed from the board and at once made into poi by thinning' with water to
whatever consistency was desired; or made into good-sized bundles wrapped
with ki leaves. In this way the paiai could be kept for months at a time and
was often shipped from place to place. It was in this condition, in all proba-
bility, that taro formed one of the chief stores made use of by the natives in
their long voyages.

Whenever poi was required a portion of the doughy mass, paiai, was put
in a calabash and thinned with water. It was ready for use in a few hours
after the water was added, but the natives preferred it after it had soured, or
worked, for a day or more.

Poi was eaten by thrusting the forefinger of the right hand into the mass
and securing as much as would adhere to the finger, and then passing the food
from the bowl to the mouth by a neat revolving motion of the hand and finger.
The native name for the forefinger signifies the "poi finger.' For this reason
it was quite the custom to grade poi as one-finger poi, two-finger poi, and so on,
thereby indicating its consistency. When ready to be eaten a dozen or more
natives might surround one calabash and greedily dip up its contents, sucking
their fingers and smacking their lips in a state of obvious enjoyment. Usually
they finished the entire allowance at one sitting, only to fall asleep afterwards—
"full and satisfied." Poi was occasionally mixed with the tender meat of the
cocoanut, and was specially prepared for the sick in several ways. Baked taro
also makes an excellent vegetable, and the leaves of the plant, as well as the stems
and flowers were cooked and greatly relished by the natives.

Sweet Potatoes and Yams.

Next to the taro, sweet potatoes and yams wrere the most important food
plants grow^n in the islands. Many varieties, accurately described and named
by the natives, were in general cultivation. They thrived in the drier localities
and were eaten raw, baked or roasted. They were also made into a kind of poi.
Poi and sweet potatoes were fed to their pigs and dogs to fatten them, and ani-
mals cared for in this way were regarded as particularly delicious by the Ha-
waiians of a century ago.

Breadfruit and Bananas.

The breadfruit was much used as a food by the natives, after being cooked
in their ovens or roasted in an open fire. It was pounded into a delicious poi
as well. The natives were very skillful in growing this delicate plant,,
which was propagated by root cuttings. Bananas were also cultivated by them
and eaten both yrw and cooked. Sugar-cane, calabash gourds, the paper mul-
berry, olona, ki, cocoanuts and awa were among the useful plants formerly
grown by the Hawaiians.

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 69

In addition to the foregoing list of plants that were cultivated to a cer-
tain extent, there were a number of others that were made use of as food in
times of scarcity that could hardly be regarded as cultivated in a strict sense.

Fiber Plants.

The paper mulberry, called wauki, one of the plants from which their
bark cloth was manufactured, was regularly cultivated, there being extensive
groves of this small tree planted about almost every native home. The plant
was kept carefully trimmed from its earliest growth in order to prevent it fol-
lowing its inclination to branch out from the main stem. In this way a single
shoot was secured unbroken by branches. When it had attained a height of
ten or twelve feet and a diameter of an inch or two, the men cut the plants and
the women stripped off the bark in a single piece by splitting it from end to
end of the stem. The outer bark was then scraped off and the fibrous part
forming the inner bark, was rolled endways into loose disk-like bundles
and left to dry until it had taken on a flat surface. The bark was then placed
in water until it became covered with a mucilaginous coating; then it was laid
on a stone or a log prepared for the purpose and beaten with a series of round
and square sticks of hard wood, know7n as tapa beaters.

Manufacture of Tapa.

In the making of tapa cloth, strips of raw material were laid side by side
and doubled, pounded and manipulated in order to unite the free edges, the mass
being kept saturated with water during the process. The length and breadth
of the tapa sheet was increased at pleasure by the addition of more bark. Sheets
double the size of an ordinary blanket were frequently made in this simple way.
The water mark in the fibre, as well as the texture and thickness, was regu-
lated by the amount of the beating and the character and markings of the mallet
used. Places torn in making the sheet were mended by rewelding the edges.
When finished the tapa was spread in the sun to dry and bleach.

The next step in the process was the dying and marking of the cloth. The
tapa is naturally of a light color and much of it was worn in that state, but a
great portion of it was stained either with dyes, mostly of vegetable origin,
or by mixing with the sheet while in a plastic state fragments of old colored
tapas that had been reduced to pulp. The colors used were both beautiful and
durable — yellow, salmon, straw, blues in various shades, purple, green, red, lilac,
pink, dove, chocolate, brown, fawn, as well as black and white were quite com-
mon. The list of vegetable and mineral dyes utilized to produce the various
colors is a long one and shows a knowledge of the simple chemical reactions of
the dyer's art that is truly remarkable. Leaves, roots and bark were used in
various conditions, singly and in combination, often with mineral substances,
as salt, earth, muck, charcoal, or occasionally with animal dyes, as that derived
from the sea-urchin, the squid and certain sea slugs.

^fcSfl*.v

J$

§,/'

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 71

Tapa Making a Fine Art.

The plain or colored tapas were, often, beautifully and tastefully
printed with ingenious figures or patterns of various designs. The pattern to be
transferred to the cloth was first cut on the side of a narrow strip of bamboo.
The bamboo was then dipped into the color and the pattern carefully printed on
the tapa by pressing the stick on the tapa and against the hand. This operation
was repeated until little by little the intended design was completed. Often
the entire tapa was printed with various designs and colors in this primitive
manner. Some kinds were marked with a string dipped in the color to be trans-
ferred. The string was then drawn taut across the tapa and the color snapped
on it in the same manner in which the chalk line is commonly used.

In the preparation of their "printing inks" the colors were frequently mixed
with kukui nut oil. Some tapas were saturated with cocoanut oil to render them
waterproof and to make them more durable. Tapas which were not oiled could
not be washed. For this reason the laundry work to be done in the Hawaiian
family was reduced to the minimum, but the amount of time and labor expended
in the manufacture of the tapa must have been enormous, since three or four
days were required to beat an average sized tapa and a new set was required
about once a month. Other materials were used by the Hawaiians in the manu-
facture of tapa, the most important being the bark of the mamake, which grew
wild in the woods. It was gathered by the women and steamed in an oven
with a certain fern that gave off a dark red coloring matter. The bark from
tender breadfruit stems was sometimes used, as was also the bark from the
hau tree.

Provision was commonly made for carrying on this wrork by providing a
special house devoted to the purpose and also by the setting aside of certain special
gods to preside over the undertaking. Certain of their tapas were delicately
perfumed with the root of the kupaoa ; maile and mokihana were also used in
this way on account of their delicate and lasting scents.

It is worthy of remark that tapa beating wras common among all the
Polynesian islanders, when suitable material was to be had. It was an art that
was old in the hands of the pioneer Hawaiians at the time of their settling
on these islands. While tapa making was generally practiced over the whole of
the Pacific, and indeed almost the whole world, it fell to the painstaking
Hawaiian women to carry the manufacture of paper cloth to the highest degree
of excellence attained among any primitive people. Their best tapas were but
little, if any, inferior to the fine cotton fabrics that have entirely displaced

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

5. Small kahili. 6. Slop bowl ornamented with human teeth. 7. Stone lamps of various
forms. 8. Feather cape [ahuula]. 9. Tapa beater. 10. Poi pounders (ring" form). 11.
Pandamis baskets. 12. Finger bowls of various designs. 13. Spittoons. 14. Large and
small umekes or bowls. 15. Hanai poepoe. Hi. Carved dish for baked pig. 17. Gourd
hula drums. 18. Hawaiian fans. 19. Cocoanut wood hula drums. 20. XJliuli hula or
rattles. 21. Mortar and pestle.

72 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

them. So completely, however, has the art and manufacture disappeared that
the implements used in its manufacture even are only to be seen in museums,
while the technique of the art must be gleaned from the scanty records of the
early missionaries and travelers.

Mat Making.

* Perhaps the manufacture next in importance to the making of tapa was
the plaiting of mats. These wTere used by the natives to lounge upon by day and
to sleep upon by night. Mats wTere also used as sails for their canoes, as parti-
tions in their houses, as food mats, clothing and robes, — in fact their uses were
innumerable. Taken altogether, being more durable than tapa, their possession
in abundance was regarded as unmistakable evidence of material wealth.

The typical bed of the Hawaiian chiefs was a raised portion of the floor,
perhaps one entire end of the house. The elevated portion was made of loosely
laid stones forming a pile eight or ten feet square, over which was spread several
thicknesses of mats, as many as thirty or forty being employed on the bed of a
well-to-do chief. Naturally the coarsest ones were placed at the bottom and
the finer ones spread on top. Lauhala mats are still made and used quite generally
throughout the group, many of the best houses being furnished with them in
place of the more familiar though less approved floor rugs. Several materials
were made use of in the weaving of mats, the most important being
the lauhala ; next came the stems of the makaloa, and lastly species of other
native sedges.

Lauhala Mats.

In the making of lauhala mats, the leaves were broken from the trees, by the
women, with long sticks. They were withered over a fire for a short time and
then dried in the sun. The young leaves were preferred to the old ones, so
that in plaiting the mats the raw7 material was carefully selected and graded
as to quality and color. It was then scraped, the saw-like edges removed, and
split into strips of the required width, varying from an eighth to an inch or
more in width. The braiding was done by hand without the aid of a frame
or instrument, and, though mats were often made twenty-five feet square, they
were finished with great evenness of texture and regularity of shape. The finer
braided ones were usually small in size and left with a wide fringe; being
greatly prized, they were occasionally carried by attendants to be spread down
on other coarser mats when their chiefs chose to sit.

Makaloa Mats.

The rush or sedge mats, called makaloa mats, are soft and fine; the
islands of Kauai, and particularly Niihau, were famous for their production.
For this reason the mats are frequently spoken of as Niihau mats. But on both
islands the finest mats were those made from the young shoots.

Many of the lauhala, as well as most of the Niihau mats were ornamented with

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 73

much taste — red and brown sedge stems being used for the purpose. These were
worked in on the upper surface of the mat in patterns that resembled embroidery,
various designs being formed, as squares, diamonds, stripes and zigzag lines.

The plaiting of mats, like the beating of tapa, was women's work in ancient
Hawaii, and those who possessed much skill in these important arts were esteemed
for their labor and praised for their handiwork.

Fishing.

Aside from wrar, fishing and agriculture were the chief occupations engaged
in by the men, so that, in general, men procured the food while the women did
their full share in making the provisions for the Hawaiian family, and supply-
ing the raiment that their civilization required.

Fishing, like agriculture, was associated with religious ceremonies and the
worship of idols. Among this class, the practice was carried to such an extent
that special heiaus and altars were constructed and a somewhat different form
of worship established. Like the fishermen in all lands and in all times, the
natives wrere firm believers in good luck and their faith in signs and omens was
accordingly deep-seated. Their gods were numerous, so that each fisherman
worshipped one of his own choice. Likewise the tabus of their gods were many
and the devotee would go to a great length in carrying out the fancied desire
of his patron deity. The god of one fisherman would tabu black, for example,
and in observance of the tabu, the fisherman would have nothing black on his net
or canoe, would take nothing black from the seas, and his dutiful wife would
wear nothing black upon her person nor allow the tabu color to appear even
in the vicinity of her home.

The business of fishing was carried on with great skill and those engaged in
the occupation had an extensive knowledge of the habits, feeding grounds and
species of fish in the sea round about the islands.

Fish nets were made in various forms for various purposes. They were
netted of a twine manufactured by twisting the fiber of the olona to form
■cordage, most remarkable for its durability. As a substitute in certain cases,
cord made from the cocoanut fiber was used, though it was by no means as
flexible or durable as the former. The olona grew in a semi-cultivated state, in
the mountain valleys, where abundant rainfall was assured. The bark was
gathered from the young shoots, which were stripped and hackled with a scraper
made of tortoise shell or bone.

Nets of various sizes and patterns were designed for various purposes, as
were various fish hooks, poisons, traps and the like. A few of these will
a fuller treatment in a chapter devoted to Hawaiian fish and fishing.

Salt Manufacture.

Salt was an important article among the Hawaiians and they were adept
in the manufacture of a coarse salt from the sea water. Two methods were em-
ployed: One, that of putting the water in shallow scooped-out stone dishes

74 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

to evaporate; the other, by impounding the sea water in small shallow ponds,
and collecting the residue as the water evaporated. Salt Lake, on Oahu, also was
an important source of supply.

The foregoing were the principal productive occupations that consumed
the four to six hours a day that the ancient Hawaii ans devoted to labor. It is,
however, not to be presumed that these were the only pursuits in which they
could engage. Certain districts and settlements became famous for their peculiar
wares and products. Occasional fairs or markets were held at which the pro-
ducts and articles of manufacture of one district wTere exchanged for those of
another, and a crude sort of barter was thus in vogue by which, recognizing
the importance of specialized skill, or by utilizing special natural advantages,
the wants and necessities were supplied, so that food, clothing, ornaments, uten-
sils and tools might be had by all.

CHAPTER VII.

TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS, ARTS AND AMUSEMENTS OF THE HA-

WAIIANS.

The Hawaiians at the time of their discovery by white men were still in the
stone age. The absence of iron, copper or any of the metals in a workable form
was a serious handicap to their development. Stone, bone and wood were the ma-
terials at their disposal, and from them they were forced to construct such tools
as they could devise.

Implements of Stone, Bone and Shell.

Of the simpler tools made use of by the natives, none was of more value
and importance than was the stone adz. It was formerly in general use
throughout the whole group, as it was throughout the most of Polynesia. In
Hawaii adzes were made in various shapes, weights and sizes, for various pur-
poses, but the principle was the same in all and consisted in the securing of a
cutting or bruising edge of stone that might be held in a convenient form
for use as a hand tool.

The hardest, most compact clinkstone lava was selected for t lie* bit by the
ancient adz maker. Tin1 rough stone was patiently worked into form by chip-
ping, splitting and grinding. When at last the proper shape was secured, the
hit was bound to the* handle, (usually made from a branch of the liau tree), by
means of a cord made of eocoanut or olona fiber.

In certain cases, the bit was used without the addition of a handle. For
heavy work, as the felling of trees, the shaping of canoes, or the framing of
the house timbers, large1 adzes were required, and then1 are some1 in existence
that weigh several pounds. For more exacting work, as in carving their hideous
idols, or finishing and mending the umekes, fine chisels were needed, and ex-
amples are extant that are, in effect, carving sets in which simple forms of

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 75

gouges, chisels; and the like can easily be recognized. Among their implements
they had sharpening stones made of hard phonolite, which were used to give an
edge to their tools, or as polishing stones. Some of these were boulders and
were permanently located, while others were smaller and could be taken about
as rquired. The saw-like teeth of the shark were used as tools in many ways,
where cutting, scraping, and sawing edges were required. One of the most
curious of their tools was the rotary or pump drill. The staff, tipped with a
slender piece of hard lava or a Terebra shell, wras fitted with a crude fly-wheel
and a bow-like device, which caused it to spin back and forth. This simple
device was convenient for boring the innumerable holes required to accom-
modate the cord that, for want of nails, was used in fastening all kinds
of objects together. Hand stones for hammers, stone files for making fish
hooks of bone, scrapers of bone and shell, stones for smoothing, fine pumice,
coral grit and other fine materials for polishing, were all tools commonly found
in an artisan's kit. The oo or digger, a long staff of hard wood, was almost
the only tool of husbandry, while in net manufacture the simple and widely
used seine needle and mesh gage were practically the only tools employed.

As we think of the endless variety of tools necessary to perform even the
most ordinary task in our own more complex civilization, it seems incredible
that the patient Hawaiian, with such exceedingly simple tools at his command,
could have utilized the materials of his environment to such splendid purpose.
The wonder of their achievement grows when we contemplate not only the
variety and amount of their handicraft, but the neat and substantial character
of their work — a trait for which the ancient Hawaii ans are justly famed.

Ornaments of Feathers.

Ornaments wrought from the feathers of birds were among their most
valuable possessions. Among their handicraft, especially such as had to do
with adornment, nothing made by them surpassed in elegance their feather
capes, helmets, cloaks, leis, kahilis, and feather pa 'us or dresses. So handsome
were they that their possession was almost entirely limited to the alii or per-
sons of rank, or those of special distinction.

The most valuable of all were the feather cloaks or robes of state, which
were indeed priceless insignia of rank. The most valuable were made en-
tirely of the rich, golden-yellow feathers of the very rare and now extinct
native mamo. A robe in the Bishop Museum that was the ]>roperty of Kame-
hameha I, is composed almost entirely of the feathers of the mamo, and con-
stitutes one of the Museum's chief treasures. As the arrangement of the cloak
was always such that additions could be made from time to time, it is not to be
wondered that this beautiful robe of state, which occupied over one hundred
years { in making, should be valued at as high a figure as a million dollars,
when the amount of labor involved in the gathering of the raw material from
which it was made is taken into account. As a substitute for the rarer golden-
yellow mamo feathers, certain more common yellow feathers from the now

1 Nine generations.

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 77

equally rare oo were used by the old Hawaiians. The feathers of other birds
as the iiwi, apapane, ou, koae and iwa were used in combination with the
foregoing or in various other ways, in the different articles mentioned, that
chiefs and those who could afford them might have capes ; but the yellow feathers
wrere reserved for royalty only. The ground work for the capes and cloaks was a
fine netting made of the native olona ; to this the feathers were firmly fastened in
such a way as to overlap each other and form a smooth and uniform surface.

The Kahili.

The kahili, a fly brush or plumed staff of state, was the emblem and embellish-
ment of royalty and was held in the time of which we write, solely as an adjunct of
the alii. A few of these curious feather plumes were of enormous proportions,
there being records of some that were borne on poles thirty feet in length. The
plume was composed of feathers arranged in bunches, bound on stems, which
wrere attached to the central staff in such a way as to form a loose, fluffy,
cylinder-shaped head, sometimes two or more feet in diameter by three or four
feet in length. The handle was occasionally made of alternate rings of ivory
and tortoise shell. In some instances the bones of the famous alii slain in
battle were placed on the stem as trophies of victory or as savage ornaments.
However, the kahili handle was commonly made of a stout spear-like shaft of
kauila wood. Many of the smaller kahilis were definitey used for the
purpose of fly flaps and are thought to be the form from which the larger and
more ornamental ones were evolved.

Their helmets, which were exceedingly picturesque and striking ornaments,
were generally worn by the chiefs on state occasions. They were made of
wicker work of the aerial ieie roots, covered with the feathers of several species
of the birds mentioned, red and yellow being chiefly used, and were extremely
variable in form.

Hideous effigies of the powerful war god Kukailimoku 2 were made of
wicker work and feathers, like the helmets, and were usually supplied with
staring pearl-shell eyes and horrible grinning mouths set round with dogs'
teeth. We are told that not more than a dozen of these curious feather gods
have been preserved in various museum collections.

Leis.

The feather lei was the simplest form of feather work wrought by the
Hawaiians, and may be regarded as the royal counterpart of the more com-
mon and perishable garlands made of flowers, nuts and seeds. The flower
and feather leis were twined through the hair or slung gracefully around
the necks of both sexes, and seem to have had but little real significance other
than to gratify a taste for ornament. Durable leis were also made of such
objects as sea and land shells, boars' tusks and dried fruits.

An ornament much worm bv the chiefesses was a necklace that consisted of

! Ku-a god; kai]imoku = to-takc-the-islar:d.

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 79

many strands of finely braided human hair on which was suspended, as a
pendant, a much-prized ornament, the palaoa, made from the tooth of a whale
or walrus. These were tabu to all below the rank of chief. Necklaces of ivory
beads were also prized; bracelets of shells, especially the pipipi, and of whale
ivory, were worn, fastened on the back of the wrist with a small cord of olona.
Boars' teeth were also used as bracelets. A beautiful amber tone was given
to many of the ivory ornaments by wrapping them in ki leaves and exposing
them for considerable time in the heavy, strong smoke of sugar-cane.

Medicine of the Hawaiians.

Of the practice of medicine and the use of medicinal herbs among the
ancient Hawaiians, but little is known further than that it was a matter of
worship rather than the practice of a healing art. It seems that superstition
was the principal element combined with vegetable substances and crude sur-
gery. The doctors were a distinct class of priests who worshipped certain gods
from whom they were supposed to have inherited their knowledge of medicine.
They were regular in the practice of their art in that they exacted offerings
for the god of medicine before they would undertake a cure, and then forbade
certain articles of food to the sick. As a matter of fact they seem to have
had considerable knowledge of the medicinal properties of herbs though they were
by no means uniformly successful in their prescription and use. They followed
a crude form of external diagnosis for internal ailments. They were adept
in the use of rubbing and manipulation to alleviate soreness and minor ills.
They set limbs with some skill, reduced inflammation by the use of herb
poultices and made use of the pulp of the calabash gourd vine as a cathartic.
Patients were held over the smoke of specially prepared fires for certain ail-
ments, were steamed over hot stones for others, and so on through a long list
of practices that were, no doubt, useful in securing to the patients the satisfac-
tion of feeling that they were at least doing something for their ailments. Prom
the natural history point of view their practice of medicine adds much interest
to the study of the botany of the islands, for a surprisingly large number of na-
tive plants were well known as specifics for different diseases, and to this day
frequent allusions are made by the natives to the uses of various plants by the
old kahuna doctors.

Implements of Warfare.

Although war was an important vocation with the ancient Hawaiians,
there being a certain period of the year set apart during which it might
properly be engaged in, the implements were few and simple. They consisted
chiefly of spears, javelins, daggers and clubs made of tough wood and were, as
a rule, smoothly polished. They had no armor other than the gourd masks
worn by the canoe men. The Hawaiian warriors preferred to fight dressed
in their malos only. As a substitute for the shield, a device of which they ap-

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 81

peared to* be ignorant, they used their stout spears in warding off blows.
These were made of heavy solid wood perfectly straight in form and were
twelve to twenty feet in length. Their javelins were smaller, being about
six fee t in length and were provided with plain, arrow-shaped, or barbed
heads which, though dull, were effective when thrust against the bare skin of
the enemy. The next most important of their weapons were stout clubs of
various sizes and forms made of wood, stone or bone. With these they were
able to deal a powerful blow. Their dagger-like sword was from sixteen inches
to two feet in length and was frequently pointed at both ends. This weapon
was supplied with a string of olona by which it was suspended from the wrist.
Another form of sword had a saw-like edge set with a few shark teeth. The bow
and arrow in a diminutive form, although used by the alii in the royal sport
of shooting rats and mice, was never made use of in warfare; instead, slings
manufactured of human hair, braided pandanus or cocoanut cord were the im-
portant weapons of defense. With them they were able to hurl the smooth
egg-shaped pebbles which they prepared with special care, with great force and
accuracy. The canoe breaker, made for naval warfare, was simply a round stone
firmly fastened to the end of a rope. This could be whirled about the head
and thrown with sufficient force to smash the thin shell of the enemy's canoe.

The instruments made use of in hand-to-hand encounters were knives fitted
with one or two shark's teeth; disemboweling weapons were made by fastening
a single shark tooth firmly in a short stick of wood, so arranged as to be carried
concealed in the hand, until, in an unguarded moment, it could suddenly be
made use of with fatal effect. A rarer weapon, used in securing victims
for human sacrifice, was a stout cord in a slip-noose form, that was firmly
fastened to a knob-like handle. In use the noose was stealthily thrown over the
head of the intended victim and hauled taut from the rear by the knob, the back
of the victim usually being broken in the attack that followed.

While the natives were industrious and skilled in the pursuits of peace,
expert in their primitive arts of war, and an exceedingly religious people, they
found much time for amusements and devised many games suited to both chil-
dren and adults, from which they derived much enjoyment.

The Hula.

The hula was the form of diversion most commonly indulged in. All of
every age and character took part in it. It was not so much a dance in the
usual sense of the term, as a form of religious service in which acting in gesture
and movement was made use of in developing the ideas expressed by the song

Description of Plate.

1. Hawaiian youth standing on the surf board [papa hee nalu]. 2. Showing the
shape and size of the board. 3. Racing in the surf at Waikiki; Diamond Head in the back-
ground. 4. An outrigger canoe (waaj showing the outrigger (aina) of wiliwili wood and
the connecting bars fiako] of hau and the gunwale [moo] of ulu. The paddles [hoe] are of
koa and kauila wood. 5. Two single canoes on the beach. The hull of the canoe is always
made of a single koa log.

82 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

which the gestures accompanied. Like everything else the Hawaiians did it was
made the subject of extensive religious ceremonies and was accompanied by an
intricate form of worship in which Laka was the chief goddess. Naturally
there were many forms of the hula, some of them extremely lewd. The latter
class, unfortunately, have been used more than any other single thing to spread
the fame and infamy of Hawaii, and create an erroneous and distorted im-
pression of the Hawaiian race. Yet it should be understood that their dances
were, in the main, entirely chaste; but, unfortunately, some of them were in-
tended for the gratification of the baser instincts and it is these, under the en-
couragement given by a certain class belonging to our own European civiliza-
tion, that are most frequently seen in our own times.

The dancers, who were usually though not always women, wore the pa'u, or
hula skirt, about their waists, with wreaths of flowers about their heads and
shoulders. Occasionally dogs' teeth anklets, hogs' teeth bracelets and whales'
teeth ornaments were worn by the participants. The performers stood or sat
singly, or in companies, according to the hula being given, usually staying in
one place and moving their body and limbs in perfect time and in keeping with
the sentiment of the accompanying chant, which was accentuated with the various
sounds produced by a series of primitive musical instruments. It is a curious
fact that almost all the Hawaiian musical instruments were made use of in the
performance of the hula. Naturally the most important instruments were those
calculated to mark the crude intervals of time in their chanted songs. The
large drums, some of them three feet in height, with half that diameter, made
of hollow cocoanut stems over which shark skin heads were stretched, were played
by rapping with the finger tips and were especially prized. Other drum-like
instruments, with astonishing resonance, were made from large bottle gourds,
two of which were joined by inserting the neck of one within the other.

Musical Instruments.

To produce the sound desired, the gourd instrument, held in the hand by a
loop, was dropped on the padded floor of the house and at the same time beaten
with the palm of the hand, thus varying the sound to accord with the action
and feeling of the accompanying song. The deep base of the larger drums was
supplemented by the rattle of lesser drums made from cocoanut shells with shark
skin heads, or by rattles of small gourds partly filled with dry seeds. Other
rattle instruments were made by splitting a long joint of bamboo for half its
length, to form small slivers, so that the free ends, in response to the lively
motion from the hands of the player, produced a curious swishing sound. A
still more primitive instrument was made of two sticks of hard, resonant wood
which were struck together.

The most ambitious musical instrument of the ancient Hawaiians and one
requiring unquestioned skill in its manipulation, was the nose flute. To make
the nose flute, a long, single joint of bamboo was used. One end was left closed
by the joint and three small holes bored along the upper side, one near the

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 83

closed end," the other two about a third of the distance from either end. In
playing, the instrument was held so that the end hole was squarely under the
right nostril. The sound produced was modified by the finger holes to give five
notes, which might be varied at the pleasure of the performer.

A similar instrument was the love-whistle or kiokio, made of very small
gourds in which three holes were pierced. The method of playing this tiny
instrument was similar to that of the nose flute. Another instrument sometimes
used to accompany the mele, was based on the principle of the Jew's harp.
It was made of a short stick of bamboo slightly bent in such a manner as to
hold the three strings of olona fiber taut, In use one end of the instrument
was placed in the open mouth which served as a resonator for the feeble tones
produced by striking the strings with the fingers or with a bamboo splinter as a
plectrum.

Boxing the NatioNxVl Game.

Returning to their festivals and games, for there were many in which
strength, skill and chance played an important part, we find boxing was, per-
haps, the national game. It was regulated by certain rules, umpires were ap-
pointed, the victor defended the ring against all comers, the conqueror receiving
the highest honors. A great crowd of all classes usually attended their games
and sports, and wild excitement and much hilarity prevailed. In many of the
important contests between the followers of various chiefs, not infrequently
death was the result of blows received.

Wrestling and foot racing were also popular sports. It is recorded that
the king's heralds were frequently able to make the circuit of Hawaii, a distance
of three hundred miles, over exceedingly rough trails, in eight or nine days.

A game which must have contributed much to their skill as warriors, in
their form of warfare, was one in which spears were thrown a short distance
at the body of the contestant — to be parried by him. The more skillful, it is
said, were able to ward off a number of spears at once. Mock fights with stones,
spears and other missiles, were also indulged in.

The Primitive Bowling Alley.

A favorite amusement was one which consisted in bowling or rolling a
smooth disk-like stone over a track especially prepared for the purpose, with
sufficient skill to cause the stone to pass between two sticks driven a few inches
apart at the opposite end of what may be termed a primitive bowling alley.
The game had many variations, one being to excel in bowling the longest distance.
Still another modification of this game had as its object the breaking of the
opponent's bowling stone. Amusements of precision, like the above, led to
great care being exercised in the selecting of the material and the employment
of much skill in the manufacture of their ulu or olohu stones. The best were
preferably perfect disks in shape, of hard lava stone, or coral rock, and wrere
three or four inches in diameter by an inch or more in thickness, with an average
weight of about one pound. They were slightly thicker in the center, gradually

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 85

thinning' slightly toward the edge of the stone. While this was the usual form,
others that were perfect spheres are in existence that measure over seven inches
in diameter and weigh as much as twenty -two pounds.

A sport which was justly popular with all classes was what might be called
"summer tobogganing." It consisted in sliding down hill over carefully pre-
pared slides, a few yards in width, on a long, double-runner sled. There are a
number of these slides that are still pointed out as favorite coasting places of
ancient times. Any smooth mountain slope of sufficient steepness would serve
the purpose. The only complete sled in existence is in the Bishop Museum.
The two runners of this one are each just over eleven feet in length and are
three inches apart. They are firmly fastened to the narrow frame. The native
tobogganer would lie fiat upon this curious sled, the papa holua, and give
it a push with his foot, to start it off. During the decent it would frequently
gain an immense velocity, and the sport, while exhilarating, must have been
accompanied with great danger to life and limb. Several of the old slides are
more than a half mile in length, one on the town side of Diamond Head ran far
out on the plain, and another still longer one is to be seen from King street, at
the opposite end of the city of Honolulu.

Gambling.

Many of their sports and games were more properly games of chance.
Gambling in various forms was indulged in by all classes in the natural state
of their civilization. Seldom did they enter into serious contests without an
accompanying bet of some sort, so that food, clothing, ornaments, crops, wives,
their daughters, and even the bones of their bodies after death, were wagered
on the outcome of some simple contest.

In addition to those already described, cock fighting was also much affected
in the ancient times, and was a game of chance of rare interest. They also
played a game resembling checkers on a fiat lava stone, divided into numerous
holes or squares, using black and white stones for the men.

Surf Riding.

A favorite game in which women engaged with much skill, consisted in
hiding a pebble, the noa, which was held in the hand, under one of five piles of
tapa. It was for the opposing side to guess in which pile the stone was left,
striking the pile selected with a rod tipped with feathers. There were also many
children's games, such as flying kites, cat's cradle and jumping the rope. But
the sports par excellence in which the chiefs and common people, both old and
young indulged, were those which had to do with the wonderful surf for which

Description of Plate.

1. Hawaiian girls plaiting lauhala mats. 2. Spear practice (from an old drawing).
3. Sheet of copper formerly affixed to a cocoanut tree at Kealakekua Bay marking the spot
where Captain Cook met his death February 14, 1779. 4. Captain Cook's monument at
Kealakekua Bay. This monument was erected by the British Government about fifty years
after the death" of the great explorer at a spot as near as possible to the place where he fell
when killed by the natives. 5. Two old Hawaiians at home.

86 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the islands are far-famed. Being excellent swimmers from their youth the na-
tives were as a race devoid of fear. They would leap from high precipices into
the foaming surf below, fifty, sixty and seventy feet; and it is still common to
see the swimmers and divers in the harbor leap one after another from the
bridge or from the life boats of the largest ocean steamers. But riding the
surf with the surfboard wTas and is still the favorite amusement, and an art in
which the Ilawaiians always exhibited wonderful skill and dexterity. For
this amusement a plank, preferably of koa wood, known as a surfboard, was
used. It was a coffin-shaped plank averaging about ten feet in length by a
foot and a half in width, though they wTere occasionally eighteen feet or more
in length, and from that ranged down to very small ones for children. Some
were made of the very light wiliwili wood. They were always made with great
care and were kept smoothly polished. The swimmer, with his board, would
gradually work his way out through the shallow water, over the fringing coral
reef to where the high rollers rise over the outer reef and follow each other
in rapid succession over the table-like reef toward the shore. The more terrific
the surf, the greater the pleasure to those skilled in the sport, a form of recreation
that is enjoyed in these modern and more strenuous times by natives and foreign-
ers alike.

Selecting the proper kind of wave, the surf-rider would get his board under
way by paddling furiously with his hands and feet. At the proper moment, mount-
ing a high wave he throws himself on the board just as it is seized by the force
of the on-rushing water. Skillful manipulation is required to manage and keep
the board just abreast of the crest of the towering wave, which, if everything
goes as planned, carries the swimmer and his board, at race-horse speed, clear
into the shallow water at the beach.

In this manner they disported themselves for hours at a time, returning
again and again, often standing erect and gracefully poised on their boards as
they were wafted in on the bosom of the foam-capped wave. Surf-riding ex-
tended to canoe racing in which the principle just indicated was even more
elaborately applied.

Strong crews of picked men would man their best type of racing canoes
and pull out to where the surf began to rush over the reef. There amid the rush
and dash of the sea, each crew would await the signal, when the race would
begin, each man paddling furiously, until the canoes were caught by the waves,
and amid wild shouts of exhilaration, scarcely audible above the ocean's roar,
the successful crewr would reach the shore, claiming the race, to the unbounded
joy of all.

Thus we have hastily passed in review, the life, the customs and the culture
of this splendid, though vanishing race. We have seen how, though isolated
as they were from their own kind, they developed a natural civilization well
adapted to their needs and their peculiar environment. We can now approach
the natural history of the animals and plants, and the land itself, with a better

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 87

understanding of its meaning to the natives and a livelier appreciation of other-
wise unimportant elements which have long been determining factors in the
lives of these people.

We can now better understand the changes and modifications which have
been wrought on the whole by the introduction of another race that has trans-
planted hither the animals, the plants, the industries and the arts of a more
aggressive and far different civilization.

Natural History of Hawaii.

SECTION TWO

GEOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF THE HAWAIIAN

ISLANDS.

CHAPTER VIII.

COMING OF PELE AND AN ACCOUNT OF THE LOW ISLANDS OF

THE GROUP.

Pele's Journey to Hawaii.

There is perhaps no better way to begin an account of the natural history
of the Hawaiian Islands than by recounting an Hawaiian legend that tells of
the coming of Pele, that powerful mythical deity of fire and flood, feared and
respected by all the ancient inhabitants of the group as the source, as well as
the end, of all the wonderful volcanic phenomena, with which they were familiar.

In the beginning, so one version of the legend runs, long, long ago, before
things were as they now are, there was born a most wonderful child called Pele.
Hapakuela was the land of her birth, a far distant land out on the edge of the
sky — away, ever so far away to the southwest. There she lived with her parents
and her brothers and sisters, as a happy child, until she had grown to woman-
hood, when she fell in love and was married. But ere long her husband grew
neglectful of her and her charms, and at length was enticed away from her
and from their island home. After a dreary period of longing and waiting for
her lover, Pele determined to set out on the perilous and uncertain journey in
quest of him.

When the time came for the journey her parents, who must have been very
remarkable people indeed, made her a gift of the sea to bear her canoes upon. We
are told that among other wonderful gifts Pele had power to pour forth the
sea from her forehead as she went. So, when all was in readiness, she and
her brothers set forth together, singing, making songs, and sailing — on, on, on
over the new-made sea — out over the great unknown in the direction of what
we now know as the Hawaiian Islands.

But in the time of which the legend tells the islands of Hawaii were not
islands at all, but were a group of vast unwatered mountains standing on a
great plain that has since become the ocean's floor. There was not even fresh
water on these mountains until Pele brought it. But as she journeyed in
search of her husband, the waters of the sea preceded her, covering over the
bed of the ocean. It rose before her until only the tops of the highest moun-

7 89

V-r

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 91

tains were visible; all else was covered by the mighty deluge. As time went
on, the water receded to the present level, and thus it was that the sea was
brought to Hawaii-nei.1

Prom her coming until now, Pele has continued to dwell in the Hawaiian
Islands. According to the legend, her home was first on Kauai— one or
the northern islands of the group. From there she moved to Molokai and settled
in the crater Kauhako. Later she removed to Maui and established herself in
the crater hill of Puulaina, near Lahaina. After a time she moved again to
Ilaleakala, where she hollowed out that mighty crater. Finally, as a last resort,
she settled in the great crater of Kilauea, on Hawaii, where she has even since
made her abode.

In this way Pele came to be the presiding goddess of Kilauea and to rule
over its fiery flood, and from those ancient days to the present, she has been
respected as the ranking goddess of all volcanoes, with power at her command
to lift islands from the sea, to rend towering mountain peaks, to make the very
earth tremble at her command, to obscure the sun with stifling smoke, to cause
rivers of molten rock to flow down the mountains like water, and above all to
keep the fires forever burning in her subterranean abode.

This interesting legend should be regarded as a sincere effort of the Ha-
waiian mind to account for the presence in the islands of the primeval power
they saw in the volcano and to explain certain fundamental phenomena of
nature which surrounded them on every hand. Here were the islands, here
were the burning mountains, here was the great sea, here were the people, the
animals and the plants. Whence came they all, and how did they come to be!

Legend and Science Agree.
With all our boasted science, we are still groping, as were the ancient Ha-
waiians, seeking an explanation of the beginning of the islands, and of the mar-
velous variety of life which they support. In the search, science has sub-
stituted theory for legend, and observation for myth, but when we compare the
legendary course of Pele as she moved her home, from the oldest island, Kauai,
to the young island, Hawaii, with the theory that geologists have worked out
to account for certain basic facts in the evolution of the group, we are sur-
prised to find that legend so closely accords with the modern accepted theory
of the succession in time of the extinction of the volcanic fires that marked
the completion of one island after another, until Hawaii alone can boast of the
possession of the eternal fires.

All Hawaii.

Description of Plate.

1. Midway Island; looking from sand islet towards green islet, showing the characteristic
vegetation. 2. Showing the cable station on Midway Island. Note the growth of sand grass
(Cynodon dactylon) in the foreground. 3. View on Ocean Island showing the formation of
sand hills under the protection of the low bushes (Sccevola Koenigii). 4. Hut built on green
islet by Japanese bird poachers. 5. Midwray Island home of Capt. Walker and family, who
wrere shipwrecked on the island in 1887 and spent fourteen months there before being rescued.
(The hut has since been burned).

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 93

Geographic Position of the Islands.

Considering the Hawaiian Islands in relation to each other and to the rest
of the world, we find this wonderful group of mid-Pacific islands to be made up
of twenty-one islands and a number of other small islets that are contiguous
to the shores of the larger ones. For the sake of convenience, the group, which
stretches for about 2,000 miles from southeast to northwest, has been divided
into the leeward or northwest, and the windward or inhabited chain. In the
leeward islands are grouped eight low coral islands and reefs, and five of the
lowest of the high islands. Beginning at the western extremity, the low group
includes Ocean Island, ten feet high; Midway Island, fifty-seven feet high;
Gambier Shoal, Pearl and Hermes Reef, Lisiansky Island, fifty feet high;
Laysan Island, forty feet high; and Maro and Dowsett Reefs.

These are probably the tops of submerged mountains that have had their
summits brought up to or above the surface of the ocean by the combined
action of the hardy reef-building corals, the waves, and the transporting power
of the wind. The wind has had an important part in their final form, since it
has gathered up the dry sand left above the ordinary action of the wave and
piled it, as at Midway, in the center of a secure enclosure, formed by an encircling
coral reef, or as at Laysan, to form a sand rim about an elevated coral lagoon.

Lying between the group of low islands and forming a connecting link
with the high or inhabited group, are five islands, the lowest of the high islands.
They form a transition group between the coral and the volcanic islands and a
second division of the leeward chain, and are made up of Gardner Island, 170
feet high; French Frigates Shoal, 120 feet high; Necker Island, 300 feet high;
Frost Shoal, and Nihoa or Bird Island, 903 feet high.

Together with the low islands, they form the leeward chain of thirteen
islets, reefs and shoals that have a combined area of something over six square
miles, or about four thousand acres. With the exception of Midway, which is
the relay station for the Commercial Pacific Cable Company's wire across the
Pacific, they are uninhabited at the present time. The entire chain, with the
exception of Midway, has been set aside by the federal government to form the
Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation, which, taken collectively, forms the largest
and most populous bird colony in the world.

To many these remote, shimmering, uninhabited islands are devoid of inter-
est; to the naturalist, however, every square foot of the surface, and all the
life that inhabits them, has an interesting story to tell. The geologist finds
in them subjects of the greatest interest and importance. The thrilling
story of their up-building through centuries by the tireless activity of the
tiny animal, the coral polyp, that by nature is endowed with the mysterious
power of extracting certain elements in solution from the sea water and little
by little transforming them into a reef of solid lime-stone masonry, whkh, in
time, becomes the foundation of inhabited land, is indeed most wonderful.

94 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

As the formation and growth of coral islands and reefs has been a subject
profound enough to engage the attention of such thinkers as Darwin, Agassiz,
Dana, Wallace, and a score of others, it is small wonder that these coral islands,
which gem the surface of our summer seas, are invested with vital interest for
those who feel a scientific concern in them and who are permitted to study them.

Ocean Island.

The leeward chain furnishes interesting examples of the various types of
coral islands. Ocean Island, the extreme western end of the Hawaiian chain,
lies in 178° 29' 45" wrest longitude, and 28° 25' 45" norty latitude, and is almost
at the antipodes from Greenwich, and, as it lies in the northern limit of the
coral belt, it furnishes an excellent example of a circular barrier atoll in mid-
ocean. The coral rim surrounds and forms a barrier about four small sand islets
and is approximately sixteen miles in circumference. The rim is broken for a
mile or more on the western side, but the lagoon enclosed is too shallow to
admit the entrance of sea-going ships. Over this low coral rim the curving line
of white breakers beat, forming a snowy girdle about the low islets that lie pro-
tected within.

Midway Island.

Midway Island is fifty-six miles to the east of Ocean Island, and, like it,
is made up of a low circular coral rim or atoll, six miles in diameter, averaging
five feet in height by twenty feet in width, which is open to the west. Like Ocean,
it has one fair-sized sand islet and one that is covered with shrubbery. These
islets lie in the southern part of the circle, about a mile apart, and are utilized as
stations by the cable company. The coral rim encloses an area of about forty
square miles of quiet water which attains a depth of eight fathoms. The island
was discovered in 1859 by Captain Brooks, who took possession of it for the
United States. Attempts to utilize it as a coaling station were abandoned after
a single trial; but in 1902 it was successfully occupied by the cable company,
and has since been regularly visited by vessels carrying provisions and supplies.

Just prior to my visit in 1902, which preceded the arrival of the cable by a
few months, the island had been visited and devastated by a party of poachers
engaged in securing birds' feathers for millinery purposes. The dead bodies of
thousands of birds, ruthlessly slaughtered by them for their wings and tails,
were thickly strewn over both islets. The reports made at the time, by the
writer, to the State Department and various officials in Washington, was the
first step in the long campaign that finally resulted in the establishment of the
Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation.

Gambier Shoal.

Gambier Shoal is a circular atoll lying about half way between Midway and
Pearl and Hermes Reef. The latter is an irregular oval atoll, about forty miles
in circumference, which encloses a dozen small islets of shifting sand. It was

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 95

discovered in 1822 by two whaling vessels, both of wdiich were wrecked on the
reef the same night within ten miles of each other, thus giving the reef its
double name, and establishing a record for the locality that has served as a
danger warning to mariners even to the present day.

Lisiansky, discovered in 1805 by a Russian, for whom it is named, is a
small oval island composed mostly of coral sand. It is about two miles by
three miles in extent and is surrounded by shallow water, but is without a central
lagoon. Like Midway and Laysan, it has been visited by bird poachers from
time to time. In 1905 a party of Japanese were found pn the island engaged
in killing birds for the millinery trade. It was estimated by the officers of the
U. S. Revenue Cutter Thetis, who arrested the offenders, that they had killed three
hundred thousand birds during the season.

Laysan.

Laysan Island was an American discovery, made in 1828, and named by the
captain for his vessel. It was taken possession of by the Hawaiian Kingdom
and later proved to be a rich guano island. For years it was leased to a firm in
Honolulu, which removed thousands of tons of valuable fertilizer from it.
Laysan is about two miles long by a mile and a half in breadth. The writer
has estimated that during the year 1902 it was inhabited by ten million sea birds
that roam over the central north Pacific Ocean. This island differs from those
previously considered in that it is unmistakably an elevated coral atoll, since
it holds in its center a large briney lake, that has its surface slightly above
the level of the sea that surrounds the island. The evidence seems to indicate
that what was a low atoll at some remote period, possibly during the late Pliocene,
wras elevated and transformed, so that the atoll became a lake in mid-ocean
surrounded by a ring of coral sand. The island is in turn practically sur-
rounded by a coral reef with here and there an opening of sufficient size to
admit a small row boat.

The harbor is on the southwest side and affords a safe anchorage in the lee
of the island. The island has been more or less continuously inhabited for a num-
ber of years, and has been visited on several occasions by naturalists, so that its
fauna and flora have been more fully studied and the island made more widely
known than any of the other islands in the leeward chain. In another con-
nection the remarkable bird population for which Laysan is justly famous has
been referred to at some length.

The guano deposits have been very extensively worked and may now be
regarded as practically exhausted. The beds were located on the inner slopes
of the sand rim of the island at each end of the lake or lagoon. Originally
they were from a fewT inches to two feet in thickness and varied greatly in the
percentage of phosphate of lime — the valuable property for which they were
worked. The bones and eggs of the birds whose excrement, in combination
with the coral sand, formed the rich calcium phosphate or guano fertilizer, wTere

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 97

often found in these beds in a semi-fossilized state, pointing' to the way in which
similar fossils have been embedded elsewhere in much older deposits.

The rate of deposition of this valuable fertilizer is necessarily very slow and
is in direct proportion to the bird population. While it continues to be de-
posited, the amount is small as the colony has been seriously interferred with
owing* to the slaughter of the greater number of the large albatross, which doubt-
less have always been the chief factors in guano production in these waters.

Maro Reef was also the discovery of an American whaling ship in 1820. It
is a rough quadrangular wreath of white breakers, about thirty-five miles in
circumference, with no land in sight.

Dowsett Reef is but thirteen miles south of Maro, and like it, is evidently
a young reef as compared with Laysan, since only a few rocks are awash here
and there above the breakers. It was named for Captain Dowsett of the whal-
ing brig ' * Kamehameha, " whose vessel struck on the reef in 1872.

Gardner and French Frigates Shoal.

Coming next to the second division of the leeward chain, we find, with the
possible exception of Frost Shoal, which is thirteen miles southwest of Nihoa,
that they are no longer wholly of coral formation. Gardner, the first of these
islands, is a. cone-shaped rock 170 feet high by 600 feet or more in diameter.
There is a small island lying a short distance to the east of the main rock, but
deep water comes up close to the main island on all sides, and vertical sea cliffs,
sixty or seventy feet high, surround it on all sides. It was discovered by an
American whaler in 1820, but has seldom been visited since. This is the first
exposed evidence of volcanic rock to be met within the chain, and is of special
interest, since it is more than 700 miles east and south of Ocean Island,
and is at least 600 miles northwest of Honolulu. Such facts give the reader
an idea of the magnificent distances one encounters in traveling through the
length of the Hawaiian group. It also emphasizes the extent and magnitude
of the chain of volcanic mountains submerged, in the central north Pacific, of
which, according to the legend of Pele's coming, previously related, and the
opinion of learned geologists, only the tops of the tallest peaks are exposed.

The French Frigates Shoal 2 is about thirty square miles in extent and
was discovered by the great navigator, La Perouse, in 1786, and by him named
for the two French frigates under his command. A striking volcanic rock,
120 feet high, rises from the lagoon, which is filled with growing reefs and shift-
ing sand-banks. The surrounding reefs form a barrier about the volcanic point
within and is perhaps the best example of this form of reef in the group.

Necker Island.

Necker Island was discovered in 1786, during the same expedition that
made the French Frigates Shoal first known to the world. It was named by
the discoverer for the great French statesman and financier who convened the

1 Not Frigate as usually written.

98 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

French States-General in 1789. The island, as shown by the steep sea cliffs,
is the remains of a soil-capped volcanic crater, that is about 300 feet high,
three-fourths of a mile in length, by 500 feet in width, at the widest part. It is
surrounded by shallow water; there being an extensive shoal, principally on
the south side.

This island and near-by Nihoa, or Bird Island, are of special interest as
they were visited in ancient times by hunting and fishing parties from Kauai,
who made the journey to it in their outrigger canoes. As Necker is 250
miles distant from the nearest inhabited island,3 the journey thither would
seem to be one not to be lightly undertaken. But as the island was one of the
few sources of supply of the coveted frigate and tropic bird feathers much used
in their feather work, the journey seems to have been made more or less regu-
larly.

The level portion on top of the island of Necker is more or less covered
with a number of curiously formed stone enclosures, which may have been
temples,4 in which have been found several remarkable stone images, fifteen
inches or more in height. These, together with a number of curiously formed
stone dishes wdth which they were associated, are now in the Bishop Museum.
They are of such unusual design and workmanship as to make them appear
relics of some race other than the Hawaiian. However, as the Hawaiian is the
only race known to have visited these remote islands at so early a period, and
as they were by nature a very religious people, there still remains the possi-
bility that the relics, including the stone enclosures, if not of their making,
were at least known to and probably made use of by them.

Nihoa.

Nihoa completes the list of the leeward uninhabited islands of the Ha-
waiian group. It is 150 miles east of Necker and 120 miles northwest from
Niihau, the nearest inhabited island. It is the highest island in the leeward
chain, its summit being a pinnacle at the northwest end which rises 900 feet
above the sea. The island is about a mile in length by 2000 feet in breadth,
wrhich gives it an area of 250 acres. It is unmistakably the eroded remains of
a very ancient and deeply submerged crater, the outer slopes of which have been
worn away, leaving only a portion of the familiar, hollowred, volcanic bowl.
The materials of which it is composed are similar to those of the high islands,
and there is every evidence that it is even more ancient than Kauai.

Dr. Sereno Bishop, who visited it in 1885 as the geologist of a party, headed
by the then Princess Liliuokalani, declared the island to be a pair of clinker
pinnacles out of the inner cone of a once mighty volcanic dome, wrhich has been
eaten down by wind and rain for thousands of feet during unreekoned ages.
From the large number of basaltic dikes which cut the island from end to end,
he was led to infer that Nihoa is the result of an extremely protracted period
of igneous activity. Perhaps this hoary remnant of the past may at one time

3 Niihau. * Heiaus.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 99

have been a stately island, like those of the inhabited group with which we are
familiar, that through submergence and erosion, has been reduced almost to sea-
level.

CHAPTER IX.
THE INHABITED ISLANDS : A DESCRIPTION OF KAUAI AND NIIHAU.

Hawaii-nei : Position of the Inhabited Islands.

The wonderful group of high, inhabited, volcanic islands over the forma-
tion, or at least the completion, of which the Hawaiians believed Pele presided,
consists of the islands of Hawaii, Kahoolawe, Maui, Lanai, Molokai, Oahu, Kauai
and Niihau, together with several smaller islands scattered about them. Taken
collectively they form the Hawaiian group as it is generally understood, or as
the natives expressed it, "Hawaii-nei," meaning all Hawaii. They are an-
chored far out in the middle of the north Pacific, under the Tropic of Cancer, and
extend in a northwesterly direction from Hawaii, the southern most, to Niihau,
a distance of about 400 miles. Honolulu, the capital and principal port of
the Territory of Hawaii, is located on Oahu. The position of the Territorial
observatory in the capitol grounds in Honolulu is in W. long. 157° 18' 0"
and N. lat. 21° 18' 02", and is at a point about fifty miles north and west of the
geographical center of the inhabited group.

Like most volcanic islands, the Hawaiian Islands lie in a more or less
straight line; or to be more exact, in two nearly parallel lines, and are sup-
posed by some to be superimposed over a great crack in the ocean's floor, and
by others to rise from a submerged plateau.

Looking more broadly at the group in its relation to the rest of the world,
wre find the islands situated at the cross-roads of the Pacific Ocean, 2100 miles
southwest from San Francisco and eleven days' journey by the fastest train and
ship, from New York. They are planted far out in the deep blue waters of the
Pacific and are the most isolated islands in the world. It is twelve to eighteen
thousand feet down to the ocean's floor on all sides of the group, and, as has
already been said, it is believed that all of the islands are the exposed sum-
mits of gigantic mountains that rise more or less abruptly from the very bed
of the Pacific Ocean.

This chain of fantastically sculptured volcanic mountain peaks, is made up
of fifteen great craters, of the first magnitude, all of which at one time or another
have been active. All but three of them, however, have been dead and extinct
for centuries, perhaps thousands of centuries. Fortunately all three of the
active volcanoes are located on Hawaii, the southernmost, and undoubtedly the
youngest island of the group.

Since Honolulu is ordinarily the point of arrival and departure for trans-
Pacific steamers, as w7ell as inter-island boats, it is wrell to make it the center

"ft

»^s?m&.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 101

from which to study, in some detail, the main geographic, topographic and
geologic features of the group.

Niihau.

To the northwest of Honolulu lie the islands of Niihau and Kauai. The
former, the farther removed of the two, is in a northwesterly direction
from Honolulu and is in line with the islands mentioned in another chapter as
forming the leeward chain. It is seventeen miles west of Kauai from which it is
separated by a very deep ocean channel. It is about eighteen miles long by
eight miles in width, at the widest part, and has an area of ninety-seven square
miles. The highest portion attains an elevation of about 1300 feet above sea
level.

The island consists of a high central section called Kaeo, surrounded by a
plain on three sides. On the north and west sides it is the highest and it is here
that steep cliffs occur where the high land joins the summit flat. The higher
part is irregular and of a basaltic origin, but is without the sharp peaks that
characterize some of the larger islands. A large, natural pond near the center
of the island and several smaller ponds and artificial reservoirs are found in
various sections.

While Niihau shows evidence of great erosion it is evident that its moderate
height and small size has prevented it receiving the abundant rainfall which
has been an important factor in aging its larger companions.

A large part of the island is low, apparently of coral or aeolian origin,
and is the inhabited section. The island is now utilized as a great sheep ranch,
there being extensive areas of grass land, especially suited to grazing. Per-
haps 150 natives, mostly comparatively new arrivals, now inhabit the island,
and together with the old inhabitants, all told, are but a remnant of the
thousand sturdy Hawaiians who made it their home less than seventy years
ago. The island is noted in the group as the one on which is found the famous
sedge from which the natives weave their serviceable soft grass mats, although
the same plant occurs in suitable localities on all of the islands. The beaches
are strewn with beautiful, though small, sea shells, known as Niihau shells,1
which are strung into long necklaces called Niihau leis.

Near Niihau are two cinder cones, Kaula on the west and Lehua on the
northeast, which form small detached islands. Prof. Hitchcock says, "The first
is about the size and shape of Punchbowl, cut in two and the lower half destroyed
by the waves. The concentric structure of the yellow cinders, much like the
lower surface of Koko Head, is very obvious, Lehua appears to be a similar
remnant, less eroded, as it has maintained about 200 degrees of its cir-
cumference instead of the 140 degrees of Kaula. Both these crater cones have
the western or leeward side the highest, because the trade winds drive the
falling rain of ashes and lapilli in the direction of the air movement, building
up a compact laminated pile of material to leeward. The subsequent erosion

1 Columbella varians.

WS$M?*~

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 103

by the waves fashion a crescent-shaped island opening to the winds and surges
upon the northeast side."

Kauai — The Garden Island.

Kauai, next to the smallest of the five large islands, seems to agree with Niihau
in age of formation. In fact, it is suggested that some great force has torn the
smaller island away from the larger one without disturbing the strata of either.
It is nearly circular and at the same time roughly quadrangular in fdrm.
Excepting the Mana flats, which seem to be uplifted coral reefs, the island
could all be included within a circle, with a radius of fifteen miles, using
Waialeale, the highest point, as the pivot. It is a beautiful, rich, well-watered
island clothed with varied and luxuriant verdure and as such is often spoken
of as the ''Garden Island" of the group. Disintegration of the lava has pro-
ceeded farther here than on the other islands, a fact, taken in connection with
other data, as indicating that the volcanic fires died out first at this end of the
chain.

The coast is singularly regular in outline, there being no extensive bays or
pronounced points or headlands. Except along the northwest side of the island,
at Napali, where there are fifteen miles or more of picturesque sea cliffs, the
coast lands are comparatively low and flat. The shore-line is free from coral
reefs, presumably owing to the depth of water near the shore. In general the
main contour of the island slopes rather gradually from the summit of Wai-
aleale, at an elevation of 5250 feet, down to the sea, though ridges and correspond-
ing valleys radiate spoke-like in all directions.

The eastern and northern side of the island, as is the case with all the
islands, has been drenched by tropical rains for countless centuries with the
result that erosion by wind and rain is most marked on that side of the island.
The original slopes on the windward side of Kauai have been almost entirely
eroded, leaving only a few short spur-like ridges. On the opposite or leeward
side ; however, the erosion is not so marked nor so far advanced, as the deep
gorges with wide level spaces between them indicate. These gorges are deep and
canon-like, inland, but, as they near the sea-coast, their sides become less
precipitous and finally loose their character as the valley reaches the coastal
plain.

Waialeale Mountain.

Geologists agree that the central dome of Waialeale must have been much
higher than now, and that the disintegrated lava has been washed from its
summit to form the rich soil that makes up the coastal plain. The effects of
erosion have been considered as perhaps the best evidence of the age of the Ha-
waiian mountains, and this great mountain worn to the core with its one-time
lofty central crater eaten down to form a slimy bog on its summit, points to the
great antiquity of the island under consideration. The gnawing action of wind
and rain leaves only the more resistant ridges, as the old mountain is thus slowly

^'M^tti, *

,.^..

s^l

.StfSKsi

'i^F^SaJiSb- "^

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 105

eaten away. This has progressed on Kauai until only the skilled geologists
can, in fancy, reconstruct its original dome-like outlines.

Everywhere in the group, but especially on Kauai, is found excellent ex-
amples of one-time solid rocks which are passing into fertile soil through the
ordinary agencies of disintegration. In its earlier stages the new-formed soil
is open and porous like a gravel bed. In this condition it absorbs large quanti-
ties of moisture wrhich rapidly seep away from the surface. The power of
lava soils to retain moisture varies with the mechanical state of the soil and
the amount of organic matter it contains. While the soil under cultivation on
Kauai is very fine, and for that reason retains water reasonably well, it is, in
most cases, very red in color, indicating that it has not been discolored by the
impregnation of vegetable acids, which in the forests and beds of valleys is
very liable to produce a characteristic black soil.

Lava Soil.

Generally speaking the soil on Kauai is everywhere good, but is light and
open, and requires much irrigation to make it fertile. The constant cultivation
of the land does much to improve the soil, and by the addition of carefully com-
pounded fertilizer and an abundant supply of water, enormous yields of sugar-
cane are secured. The growth of various crops affect the soil differently, as
they remove from it varying amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and
lime, which are the principal elements required by plants as food. Careful
experiments have shown that the amount of these elements removed varies
greatly even with the different varieties of cane that are grown in the islands.
As a result, the care and proper fertilization of the soils of the group has been
the subject of much scientific study.

While the main central dome on Kauai is the most conspicuous natural fea-
ture, there are other important elevations. The Hoary Head range, which
extends down to the coast at Nawiliwili Bay, may be considered as part of the
backbone of the main mountains. The highest point on this ridge, Ilaupu, is 2030
feet ; but between this point and the central dome the ridge is much lower,
forming a pass for the Government road from Lawai to Lihue.

Secondary Volcanic Cones.

A number of secondary volcanic cones on Kauai are important in the general
topography of the island. The largest of these is Kilohana crater, which rises
from the level Lihue plain to a height of 1100 feet. The ejecta from this cone
has been thrown over the country-side roundabout within a radius of four
or five miles. In the neighborhood of Koloa are several small secondary vol-
canic cones within the radius of a few miles. The lava emitted by them was
black and of a peculiar ropey type. Along the sea-shore the sea water forces
its way under the surface and is often expelled through holes and open-
ings in the lava in this vicinty. At favorable seasons the water spouts high in
the air, forming great fountains termed "spouting horns."

■;■,,*

W;0:..;:

'•'^1 "yii

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 107

A great central forested bog, or morass, extends for miles along the top
of the precipice which bounds the Wainiha Valley on the northeast. It slopes
gradually to the southwest, and provides the natural storage reservoir for the
headwaters of the Waimea, Makaweli and Hanapepe rivers. This bog forms
one of the least known, most dangerous and thoroughly inaccessible regions in
the entire Hawaiian group. The writer, with an experienced native guide,
spent three weeks in the region in the spring of 1900, and amid chilling rains
and bewildering fogs made an expedition extending through four days over
miles of quaking moss-grown bog to a point designated by the guide as the
summit of Waialeale. We were never out of the dense fog during the expedi-
tion, and that we returned to our camp and to civilization at all has always
seemed little short of the miraculous.

In many sections the thin turf, which covered the quagmire beneath, would
tremble for yards in all directions at every step, and too often at a false step
from the proper route, would give way, plunging us hip deep in the mire. Our
chief concern was to locate reasonably solid ground, a necessary precaution that
entailed many weary miles of wandering in the weird moss-grown wilderness,
with attendant hardships and hazardous experiences that are still vivid in memory.

Canons of Kauai.

The numerous valleys and canons of Kauai, and their attendant streams
have justly been celebrated for their beauty and grandeur. Waimea is one of
the finest, since it has cut its way between perpendicular walls which are several
thousand feet in height at the head of the stream. The scenery along the
Makaweli and Olokele canons, tributaries of the Waimea system, and the
Wainiha gorge, is the equal of the most rugged and magnificent mountain
scenery anywhere in the world, and well repays the traveler for the effort made
to view it.

The great Ilanalei Valley, on the northern side of the island, is note-
worthy for its scenery, its waterfalls and its stream, which is the largest river in
the group, being navigable by small boats for about three miles. Wailua and
Hanapepe are beautiful valleys, made more beautiful by their splendid water-
falls. Several of these streams, notably Ilanalei, and the Hanapepe stream
opposite it, give evidence of being drowned valleys, as in each case a broad inter-
vale extends for a considerable distance inland.

The Napali Cliffs.

The region of Napali, on the northwest side of the island, is difficult of
access and, unfortunately, is seldom seen by the traveler. The section is given
over by nature to a series of short, deep amphitheater-shaped gulches that show
marks of profound erosion, leaving the region with some of the most awe-
inspiring scenery on the islands. Returning from a cruise dowrn the leeward
chain, the writer had an opportunity to view the wonderful scenery of Napali
at its best, from the vantage point of the deck of the vessel, at close range under

108 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the most favorable conditions. The late afternoon sun was lighting the bold
headlands and the fantastic fjord-like valleys — in a way to accentuate every detail
of the singularly charming and beautiful panoramic view. The splendor of
Kalalau valley, the largest and perhaps the most wonderful of them all, — a val-
ley of grandeur, golden light, purple shadows, and sunset rainbows, — was a
welcome change after the daily monotony of the open sea on a long, lonely,
though happy voyage.

The Barking Sands.

Among the natural features of Kauai of considerable geologic interest
should be mentioned the barking sands of Mana. They consist of a series of
wind-blown sand hills, a half mile or more in length, along the shore at Nahili.
The bank is nearly sixty feet high and through the action of the wind the
mound is constantly advancing on the land. The front wall is quite steep.
The white sand, which is composed of coral, shells and particles of lava, has
the peculiar property, when very dry, of emitting a sound when two handfuls
are clapped together, that, to the imaginative mind, seems to resemble the
barking of a dog. When a horse is rushed down the steep incline of the
mound a curious sound as of subterranean thunder is produced. The sound
varies with the degree of heat, the dryness of the sand and the amount of friction
employed ; so that sounds varying from a faint rustle to a deep rumble may be
produced. Attempts at explaining this rare natural phenomenon have left
much of the mystery still unsolved. However, the dry sand doubtless has
a resonant quality that is the basis of the peculiar manifestation, which dis-
appears when the sand is wet. That the barking sands are found in only a
couple of the driest localities in the group is also significant. Much of the shore-
line of Kauai, for example, is lined with old coral reefs that have partly dis-
integrated into sand that forms the beaches. This sand, as teolian deposits, is
often carried inland for considerable distances, and though composed of the same
materia], it has none of the peculiar qualities of the sand at Mana.

Spouting Horn — Caves.

The blow hole, or spouting horn, is a familiar natural curiosity fairly com-
mon in the islands. Famous ones at Koloa, mentioned above, have long been
objects of interest to travelers. At half-tide, particularly during a heavy sea,
the larger ones throwr up fountains from openings five feet in diameter, that
often rise as a column of water and spray fifty or sixty feet in height. The
sound of the air as it rushes through the small crevices is most startling to the
spectator, who feels the rocks beneath his feet tremble as shrill shrieks and various
uncanny noises are produced by the wild rush of the water into the cave below
him. These caves are usually bubbles in the lava stream, or sometimes they
are formed by the washing away of the loose pieces of rock underlying the more
solid outer crust of the old lava flow.

The eaves in the cliffs of Haena are among Kauai's numerous places of

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 109

geologic interest. Two of these are at sea level and are filled with water.
In one the water is fresh, in the other it is salt. In many places the roof of the
caves are encrusted with mineral deposits, sometimes several inches in thick-
ness. The lower caves can only be entered at certain tides and under favor-
able conditions. However, they are known to be old lava conduits and evi-
dently extend back into the cliff for some distance.

In several places in the group, but notably in Hanapepe Valley, columnar
basalt occurs. These curious prisms are from ten to eighteen inches in dia-
meter with sides from five to seven feet in length. They are rude six-sided
columns which appear to be due to the peculiar contraction of the lava, usually
under pressure, as it cools.

CHAPTER X.

ISLAND OF OAHU.

For obvious reasons the formation of Oahu, the metropolis of the group,
has received much attention from various observers, with the result that its
topography and geology are better known than is the case with any of the other
islands.

A Laboratory in Vulcanology.

Only a few of the more striking physiographic features of the island can be
referred to here, but it is a fact that on Oahu the student of natural phenomena
has a veritable open-air laboratory in vulcanology, stored with splendid speci-
mens, showing practically every phase that results from volcanic activity and
erosion.

Oahu is about fifty-four miles long by twenty-three broad in its greatest
right angle dimensions. It has an area of 5.985 square miles, with a coast line
of 177 miles, and has its highest mountain peak 4,030 feet above the sea. In
outline it forms a four-sided kite-shape figure in which the four points might
be said to correspond, in relative position, to the stars in the Southern Cross.
Kaena, the northwest point of the island, is at the top of the cross; Makapuu,
the southeast point, is at the bottom. Kahuku Point, at the northeast, and
Barber's Point, at the southwest, correspond with the right and left hand stars
in the astral figure. The shore-line of the island which connects these four main
points is more irregular in outline than that of any other island in the group,
a fact which has given to Oahu its valuable harbor facilities.

Honolulu Harbor — Pearl Harbor.

Beginning with Honolulu Harbor, situated at the mouth of the Nuuanu
stream, and about midway along the southern side of the island between Maka-
puu and Barber's Point, we find the most important harbor in the group. It is
formed by a sight indentatiou of the coast-line and is protected by a coral reef

JA

■Am ■>^*-;/,.-

'<N

^,AMAAsm h

\.^::^^

■ c "■■'■'.%•■■■

[ ' i. A'.. ..\V;'

5 ';1^V

.i;s *,.■ - "V • ,

km--* ■*>.'

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. Ill

that extends across the exposed sea-side. Through the reef an entrance has
been kept open by the waters from Nuuanu and the adjoining stream, which,
being fresh, prevents the growth of the coral. This natural entrance to the
harbor, wrhich has since been deepened and strengthened, was taken advantage
of by the natives and by foreign vessels that visited the islands until, in time,
the village on the shore grew into a prosperous city. The harbor derived its
name not from the harbor itself, but from a small district along the Nuuanu
stream a mile from the mouth, — "a district of abundant calm," or "a pleasant
slope of restful land," that received its name in turn from a chief called
Honolulu, whose name was formed by a union of two words, 'hono,' abund-
ance, and 'lulu,' peace or calm; hence to speak of Honolulu as a haven of
abundant peace and calm is but to transfer to the harbor a poetic descriptive
name derived from the adjacent land.

Along the coast a few miles to the west is the entrance to Pearl Har-
bor, which is an enclosed body of water made up of two main divisions, known
respectively as East and West Lochs, the latter being much the larger of the two.
They combine to form a channel which also carries fresh water sufficient to keep
open a passage, through the protecting coral reef, to the sea. This great land-
locked harbor is now being developed by the Federal government, by dredging
and fortifying its channel, with a view to making of it a great naval base for the
United States, as well as the finest and safest harbor, in the Pacific. On the
opposite or windward side of the island are located Karieohe Bay and Kahana
Bay, both with extensive coral reefs across their mouths. The former, a large,
beautiful sheet of water, is partially enclosed on one side by Mokapu Point, and
on the other by Kualoa headland, but unfortunately it is filled with submerged
coral islands, rendering it inaccessible except to small vessels. Waialua Bay, on
the northwest shore, while formed by a pronounced curve of the coast-line, is
in reality little more than an open roadstead where small coasting vessels can
anchor and find shelter from the northeast trades that have full sweep down
that coast. Other beautiful bays of much geologic interest and significance
occur at various points. Among them should be mentioned Waimea, a few miles
beyond Waialua, Laie and Kailua bays on the windward coast, and Hanauma
and Waialae bays between Honolulu and Makapuu Point on the south coast.

The Koolau and Waianae Mountains.

Turning to the land itself we find the island formed by the union of two
nearly parallel mountain chains. The Koolau Range stretches for thirty-seven
miles along the northeast or windward side of the island and, extending from
Kahuku to Makapuu points, forms the longest range of mountains in the Ha-
waiian group. Along the southwest side extends the Waianae Range, which is
about one-half the length of the range along the opposite side of the island.

Without doubt, the Waianae Range is the older of the two, and with Kaala,
the highest point on the island, as its central figure, the range furnishes topo-
graphic features of prime importance. Geologists believe this group of moun-

iS«

■::^;d^i2yC

m\-9.

iilM-

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 113

tains to correspond in age with the central dome of Kauai and that an enormous
amount of erosion has left but the skeleton of a. vast dome that was much higher
and more symmetrical than its time-scarred outline would now suggest.

It is thought that it was long after the Waianae Range l was formed as a
separate island, before the Koolau Range,2 began to build itself up above the
sea to form an annex, as it were, to the original island which had Kaala
as its center. Thus, according to Dana and other geologists, Oahu was formed
as a volcanic doublet — the work of two volcanoes whose adjacent sides, by lava
flows and by erosion, have been united in the plains of Wahiawa, but whose
forms have been so eroded that the exact position and extent of their craters
has not been indicated with certainty.

The Pali.

The magnitude of the second crater is perhaps best appreciated from the
historic landmark and pass through the Koolau Range known as the Pali, a word
signifying in Hawaiian, a steep precipice. The Pali is approached from Hono-
lulu by a road five or six miles in length that winds up the floor of Nuuanu Val-
ley until at an elevation of 1,207 feet, with the peak of Lanihuli,3 on the left,
and Konahuanui,4 the highest peak in the Koolau Range, on the right, it sud-
denly ends in a vertical drop of 700 feet. Several miles of almost vertical
basaltic cliffs, — the eroded walls of this vast crater — stretch away on either
hand. The Pali is truly 0 aim's scenic lion. It is a natural wonder, that as a
genuine surprise has nothing to equal it in all the world. Prom its sheer edge,
the splendid panoramic view of the windward side of the island is spread out at
the observer's feet — a view of rugged mountains, of cliffs, of country side, of
quiet bays, of coral strands, and of the open sea that has beggared the descriptive
powers of the most gifted.

Here the observer comes to appreciate not only the stupendous constructive
power of nature that has called the island into being, but also those destructive
agencies which, through countless centuries have been tearing down the solid
rock, disintegrating, transporting and distributing it according to well-established
natural laws.

With its long, vertical crater wall standing abreast of the northeast trade
winds, and with the elevation and other conditions favorable to bring about an
abundant rainfall, the Koolau range, on the leeward side, especially, has been
furrowed from end to end into a series of deep lateral valleys, separated from
each other by nearly parallel ridges that are conspicuous and significant fea-
tures of the general topography of the island. The larger and more important
of these valleys and ridges have a general southwesterly trend. The streams
which rise in the section between the Koolau and the Waianae chain, however,
are deflected by reason of the high plateau at Wahiawa so that part of them
enter the sea at Waialua, while others join in the Ewa district of the island

1 Formed by an elliptic crater. 2 The remains of an elongated crater. 3 2275 feet,

114 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

and find their outlet to the ocean through the great Pearl Loehs already men-
tioned.

The windward side shows plainly the full force of drenching rains 5 and
the cutting winds, for the seaward surfaces are everywhere deeply eroded and
the disintegrated lava removed, leaving a series of amphitheaters, narrow
promontory-like outlying ridges and cliffs that mark the more resistant cores of
the solid rock.

The erosion of the Kaala dome is not so easily understood since the greater
excavations are on the wrest side, wrhile the slopes which are to windward, that
is towards the Koolau range, are more gradual. But as the Waianae Moun-
tains are conceded to be much older than the opposite range it is presumed that
the conditions which exist now are much modified from those that were in effect
when the Waianae Range was first eaten down.

Smaller Basaltic Craters and Tuff-Cones.

While the main ranges already discussed are of first importance in the
topography of the island, the later volcanic manifestations, especially of the series
of basaltic craters and tuff-cones that mark the close of volcanic activity on
Oahu, form striking objects in the general contour of the island.

The tuff-cones are the most numerous and conspicuous, several being in view
from Honolulu. Of these Diamond Head, or Leahi, the famous landmark often
spoken of as the sphynx of the Pacific, is the most noticeable. As the traveler
approaches the island for the first time Diamond Head with its imposing, rugged
outline is sure to attract attention; often, too, it is the last parting glimpse of
Diamond Head from the distance, as the voyager leaves the island behind, that
brings the full realization to mind of all that it typifies of the life in a tropic
land that has so fascinated him that, wander where he will, Oahu's shores seem
always to call him back again.

Diamond Head.

Diamond Head rises in bold relief from the shore-line beyond Waikiki, to
the height of 761 feet. While its sharp outline may seem to suggest to some the
appropriate and accepted popular name by which the point is known far and
wide, the name was, in fact, derived from the excitement created through the
discovery by sailors at an early day of small calcite crystals 6 that they thought
to be diamonds.

This crater mountain looks from the outside to be solid rock, but in
reality it is a great hollow oval tuff-cone, 4,000 by 3,300 feet in its diameters,
with its elongation in the direction of the trade winds. Owing to the ejecta
being carried by the prevailing winds when the crater was in eruption the
southwest side of this and of similar cones on the island is considerably higher
than is the opposite side. Inside the crater the walls slope gently to the center,
where, near the eastern wall, during the wet season, there is, or at least there

5 The annual rainfall at the Pall usually exceeds 150 inches. e Still to be had for the gathering.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 115

was, a small fresh water lake, 200 feet above the sea, that was frequented by wild
fowl at the proper season.

Dr. Sereno E. Bishop made Diamond Head the basis of a study calculated
to show the brief time required for the completion of tuff -cones of similar form.
He concluded that such a cone "could have been created only by an extremely
rapid projection aloft of its material, completed in a few hours at the most,
and ceasing suddenly and finally." Taking into account the extreme regularity
of its rim and the uniform dip and character of its crater he proceeded, with a
mathematical calculation, to estimate that the 13,000,000,000 cubic feet of ma-
terial that forms its mass could have been raised to approximately 12,000 feet,
and dropped into its present position in two hours' time, and he was inclined to
increase the velocity of the ejecta and reduce the time to perhaps one hour
Other geologists, however, are very likely to question the soundness of the con-
clusions drawn by Dr. Bishop since there is unmistakable evidence that it was
in eruption a number of times with intervening periods of repose.

Punchbowl Hill.

Punchbowl Hill, with a form which suggests its name — lies just back of the
city and is 498 feet high. It is similar to Diamond Head in form and structure
and has in its outer wall on the towTn side, numerous seams filled with calcite.
Much can be learned of the geology of the vicinity by the study of the cone
itself and from the phenomena about it. Other tuff -cones are Tantalus, Salt
Lake, and Koko Head ; there are still others on the opposite side of the island at
Kaneohe, as well as* at the south end of the Waianae Mountains at Laeloa.
Some of the cones in the latter region, howrever, are small basaltic craters, as
are also the one on Rocky Hill in Manoa Valley, and the two small craters,
Muumai and Kaimuki, on the ridge back of Diamond Head, to the east of Hono-
lulu.

Elevated Coral Reefs.

Almost the entire shore-line of Oahu shows more or less evidence of elevated
coral reefs. In the vicinity of Honolulu these reefs form the foundation on
which much of the city it built. The elevated reefs are most extensive, how-
ever, in the vicinity of Pearl Lochs, where they are intimately associated with
the sedimentary deposits, volcanic flows, decaying rock and volcanic ash. It is
thought by Professor Hitchcock and others that this series of deposits began
in the Pliocene period and that it and the older layers beneath may be a base on
which the ejections that formed the volcanic island began to accumulate as
indicated on Plate 75. The region about Pearl Harbor is one of much geologic
interest, but is far too complicated in character to be readily interpreted by the
casual visitor. Features of general interest, however, are that in many places
as many as nine or ten stratified deposits may be seen in a vertical cut of forty
or fifty feet, and that in the region, beds from one to three or four feet thick, of
large oyster shells (Ostrea retusa) are exposed, far inland. According to the in-
vestigations of Professor Hitchcock, "the Pliocene area of Oahu coincides very

•tfl

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 117

nearly witH the low land tract utilized for cane and sisal from Barber's Point
to Koko Head; perhaps to the altitude of 300 feet entirely around the island.'*
Small patches of the rock appear at Waianae, Waialua, Kahuku Plantation,
Laie and other places on the northeast coast, the highest reef being on the south-
west end of Mailiilii at 120 feet above the sea. The rock is also extensively dis-
tributed beneath the surface, as is developed in boring artesian wells.

Age of Oahu.

Dr. W. H. Dall, who also studied the deposits in the vicinity of Pearl
Harbor and Diamond Head, found species of sea shells 7 seemingly extinct,
which are referable to the Pliocene. In conclusion he says, "that the reef rock
of Pearl Harbor and Diamond Head limestones, are of the late Tertiary age
which may accord with the Pliocene of West American shores or even be some-
what earlier, and in the region studied there was no evidence of any Pleisto-
cene 8 elevated reefs whatsoever. It is probable that Oahu was land inhabited
by animals as early as the Eocene/' which period preceded the Miocene, and
marked the opening period of the Cenozoic era, or the era of modern life.

Black Volcanic Sand.

Over much of the region about Honolulu, but especially on the slopes of the
Punchbowl and Tantalus group of cones, are to be found extensive deposits of
black ash, a volcanic product usually formed from basalt when erupted in associa-
tion with much steam. The maximum thickness of the deposits is exposed at the
base of the Tantalus cone, in Makiki Valley, where a bed twenty-five feet thick
occurs. This coarse-grained sand has found many uses in the city; such as in
making sidewalks and grading roads, and to some extent as sewers in the early
days, while recently it has been found to be of some value as a fertilizer owing to
the presence of potassium. The sources of the deposits referred to seems to have
been Tantalus and Punchbowl ; but practically all of the smaller cones have
given more or less volcanic ash, which varies in fineness and color, as well as in
amount, in each eruption and at different times during the same eruption. On
Punchbowl especially this ash overlays the tuff, and, owing to the pronounced
weathering of the latter, it seems to indicate two quite distinct periods of activity
from the same source, with a long period of time between them. In the first
eruption the material came up through the sea as the character of the tuff
deposits indicate, while the later eruption or eruptions, including the ash, the
basalt-like dikes which radiate from the rim, as wrell as the cinder-like beds on
the upper part of the rim, found its way up a pipe within the cone from a
deeper source of basalt, apparently without coming in contact with the water of
the sea or its limestone deposits.

Limestone is also abundant about the crater at Diamond Head, at Koko
Head, and at the Salt Lake crater, where portions of the old reef are said to be
present on the inside of the crater.

" Conns, Purpura. Chama and Ostrea 8 The more recent glacier period.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 119

A matter of considerable interest has been brought to light through the ex-
cavations and road-cuttings about the base of Diamond Head, and especially
at the quarries and sand pits opened there. The material of the lower slope is a
talus made up of angular fragments from the slopes above, which is cemented
into a breeciated mass, showing clearly that none of the angular particles have
been rounded against each other, or by the action of water. In this mass have
been discovered the remains of land shells of several probably extinct species
belonging to well-known genera. Dr. Hitchcock concludes that the talus breccia
at Diamond Head must be much newer than the date of the eruption of the
tuff, since it is composed of fragments of that material' from the older eruptions
that are cemented together in the more recent talus. Considerable time must
have elapsed between the ejection of the older material and the presence of the
shell-bearing animals because the rocks must have been decomposed sufficiently
to admit the growth of some vegetation on which the mollusks could live. From
observations made in the same vicinity, and data gathered elsewhere about the
island, but principally from the remains of the marine shells distributed inland
over its surface, the same authority concludes that the whole of the island of
Oahu must have been subsequently submerged for a brief period to a depth of
two to three hundred feet, presumably during the Pliocene period. If so, it
is concluded that the time of deposition of the land shells, found at the foot
of Diamond Head, will be fixed at a period sufficiently remote to admit enough
time to have elapsed since then to account for the development elsewhere on
the island of the related and varied forms of land and tree shells0 which,
as we shall find in another chapter, have been much studied by many zoologists,
but especially by the world-renowned evolutionist, Dr. John T. Gulick, whose
pioneer work in that important held of science has added so much that is funda-
mental to our understanding of the great laws of organic evolution.

Geologic History of Oahu.

In the preceding pages only a meager outline of the written evidence touch-
ing on the more salient points in the geologic history of Oahu has been at-
tempted. Enough of the wonderful story has been given, however, to make it
appear that the island was not in existence in its present form at the beginning,
nor was it thrown up in its present form in a single mighty titanic convulsion
of nature.

Let us review in their apparent natural order, some of the important chap-
ters in nature's history of Oahu, for the facts which tell of the hoary events
resulting in the formation of this wonderful island, with its charming scenery, are
all written in stone, as it Were, and may be read by those with skill and patience
to decipher.

In the beginning the long Pacific Ocean swells doubtless rolled without
interruption over the place where the island now stands. Just how long this
condition lasted we can never know, but the evidence seems sufficient to Professor

9 AchatineUidcp.

120 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Hitchcock and others to warrant the conclusion that deposits of the Tertiary,
perhaps the Eocene period, form the foundation on which the volcanic mass of
the original island of Kaala was formed. These eruptive deposits began to be
laid down under water, but in time the cone of Kaala built itself above the
ocean perhaps three thousand feet higher than the tallest peak of the Waianae
Range as we know it today. In reality the range is but the remains of a great
dome, more or less symmetrical, that at first arose above the waters. By the
erosive action of copious rains brought then as now from over the sea, it was
deeply eaten away on all sides until its ancient form wras very nearly effaced
During this period it slowly accumulated a stock of plants and animals from
other regions, partly from other islands near and far and* partly from the distant
continents about the ocean.

Subsequently the island which may be called Koolau, only twenty miles to
the north, was developed by a succession of eruptions, much as Kaala had develop-
ed before it, until its lavas and the soil eroded from them banked up several hun-
dred feet about the foot of the older adjacent island-mountain, uniting the two
islands into one and forming the plain of Wahiawa. It is asserted that Koolau
extended farther northeast than at present and that the active center of the
crater must have been beyond the foot of the Pali.

As soon as conditions became favorable, limestone began to form as coral
reefs, probably first about the older island and later about them both. It has
continued to be formed to the present clay through the various chemical, physical
and biologic agencies. Artesian well borings 10 and other sources of in-
formation have revealed data to prove that during this immensely long period
the surface of the island stood much higher than at present.

The Pali crater and a doubtful crater near the head of Nuuanu Valley
give evidence of periodic activity during this time, such as the eruption of
the cellular or viscular lava, the formation of olivine laccoliths, and the intrusion
of dikes of solid basalt that filled in fissures in the older mass. The last evidence
of activity at the Pali appears in the form of an eruption of ash, clinkers and
lava.

About this time Kapuai and Makakilo craters in the Laeloa region at the
east end of the Waianae Range, and perhaps one or more of the Tantalus
craters, were formed. Then came the ejection of some of the lavas met with
in the sinking of artesian wells and the formation of certain of the Laeloa
craters, also those at Kaimuki, Mauumai, and perhaps Rocky Hill, though Dr.
Bishop places the eruption of the solid basalt wyhich completely blocked the
mouth of Manoa Valley at a much earlier period ; but as its lower end extends a

10 For example the famous geologic land mark, the Campbell well, at the west base of Diamond
Head, after penetrating the surface gravel and beach sand for fiftv feet and tufa, like Diamond Head,
for 270 feet, entered a strata of "hard coral rock like marble" 505 feet thick, Stratas of dark brown
clay, washed gravel, and deep red clay were below and overlaid soft white coral twenty-eight feet thick; be-
ginning at 1048 feet below the surface, stratas of stone-like rock, brown clay, and broken coral were next
penetrated, when the drill entered the first hard blue lava at a depth of 1223 feet. A thin strata of
black and red clay was passed through, and the boring stopped at 1500 feet, after entering 249 feet into
brown lava. Numerous other wells in different parts of the island show similar, though varying, evidence
of deeply submerged coral beds which, as they form only at or near the surface, bear mute testimony
of the periodic subsidence of the island.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 121

short distance over the elevated reef at Moiliili, Rocky Hill must have been in
eruption after the reef was formed.

Next came the period of the eruption of the tuff craters: the Salt Lake
group, Punchbowl, Diamond Head, Koko Head, the Kaneohe group and other
smaller craters of similar character. During this period the tuff came up
through coral reefs, the land as we know it being submerged in the region
of eruption. Then followed a long period of decay and the disintegration of
the older eruptions and the newer tuff-cones of sufficient duration to produce
soils from them. This period culminated in the discharge of ashes from Tantalus,
Punchbowl, Diamond Head, Koko Head and other members of this group of
craters, which terminated usually in a more or less extensive shower of vol-
canic stones. Dikes were then intruded into crevices, cutting Punchbowl, Dia-
mond Head, and the coral reefs at various points, notably at Kaena Point,
Kupikipikio and Koko Head.

Time then elapsed for the accumulation of calcarious talus breccia with
soil and vegetation on the lower slope of Diamond Head sufficient to support
several species of land shells. Then apparently came the depression of the
whole island during which time the ocean encroached on the land above its present
level, submerging the low lands about the island. This comparatively brief
period left ocean deposits and slight wave markings about the new shore line,
which, when the island was again elevated to its present level, was marked by
ocean-flooded sand dunes — over which more recent dunes have been piled by
the action of the wind. Lastly comes the long periods of disintegration, the
formation of surface soil and finally human culture. While geologists may dis-
agree, and there is much ground for disagreement, in the interpretation of the
records in minor matters, all are agreed in the main points, and freely state
that almost inconceivable time has elapsed since the oldest part of Oahu first
emerged as a volcanic island.

Theory of the Formation of the Group.

Among the various theories that have been advanced in attempts to recon-
struct the past history of the group, one of great interest and significance has
recently been brought forward, in a very concrete form, by Dr. Henry A. Pilsbry,
that has as its basis an exhaustive study of the Hawaiian land shells.11

He finds this interesting portion of the fauna belonging chiefly to a branch
of a very ancient group 12 of land mollusks that are distributed on various
islands of the Pacific. As there is a marked absence of modern types of land
mollusks — save those that have been introduced through commerce — he feels that
the peculiar fauna cannot be considered as springing from accidental intro-
duction in the group from time to time in the remote past. By analogy the
conclusion is arrived at that "the Achatinellidm had already differentiated as a
family before the beginning of the Tertiary. ' ' But the close relationship of the

11 Achatinellidce. 12 Orthurethra.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 123

genera of the sub-family Amastrince and the even closer relationship of the
genera of the related sub-family AchatineUinw "indicate a sudden rejuvenescence
of the old stock in comparatively modern13 time." A study of the species,
varieties and forms extant show that everywhere intense local differentiation
is still in progress.

Dr. Pilsbry concludes that "the logical geographic boundaries of most of the
species of Achatinellidce- give excellent ground for the belief that the present
distribution of all the larger species has been attained by their own means of
locomotion and that unusual or so-called accidental carriage, as by birds, drift-
ing trees, etc., has been so rare as to be negligible. No evidence whatever of
such carriage is known to me."

After exhausting the possibilities of accidental introduction of species from
island to island, the conclusion follows that all of the important islands must
have been, at one time, connected by land, and that distribution of the an-
cestral forms of land shells from Kauai to Hawaii was effected at that time.

As the Hawaiian chain, from Ocean and Midway Islands to Hawaii, a
distance of 1,700 miles, rests on a submarine ridge, the greatest depth between
the islands being less than 3,000 fathoms, the distribution and subsequent isola-
tion of the forms on the islands appear to be in accord with the theory of sub-
sidence of the ridge supporting the entire archipelago after wide distribution
of the land forms had taken place.

From the affinities and the geographic relations of the several groups of land
shells studied our authority deduces the following sequence of events, the be-
ginning of which is placed probably in the Mesozoic, possibly in Eocene time.

I. "The Hawaiian area from northern Hawaii to and probably far beyond
Kauai formed one large island which was inhabited by the primitive Amastrinm.
This pan-Hawaiian land, whatever its structure, preceded the era of vul-
canism which gave their present topography to the islands and probably dated
from the Paleozoic." (Plate 75, fig. 1.)

II. "Volcanic activity built up the older masses, subsidence following,
Kauai being the first island dismembered from the pan-Hawaiian area." (Plate
75, fig. 2.)

III. "Northern Hawaii was next isolated by formation of the Alenuihala
Channel, leaving the large intermediate island, which included the present islands
of Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, and Maui." (Plate 75, fig. 3.)

IV. "In the eastern end of this Oahu-Maui island arose certain genera,14
while another peculiar genera15 was evolved in the west from undoubted an-
cesteral stock.

V. "The Oahuan and the Molokai-Lanai-Mauian areas were sundered by
subsidence of the Kaiwi Channel." (Plate 75, fig. 4.) On Oahu the mol Tuscan
fauna bears out the generally accepted theory of two centers, probably two
islands, the western or Waianae and the eastern or Koolau area. In each area
certain genera were differentiated, but later, in the later Pliocene or Pleistocene

14 Laminella. 15 Pterodiscus.

124 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

time, a forested connection was established between the two Oahuan centers of
evolution, forming a faunal bridge which admitted of the mingling of the two
island faunas. While the land connection endures the forest has, in recent time,
become extinct and thus the two centers are again isolated so far as forest-
loving snails are concerned.

Turning to the eastern or Molokai-Lanai-Maui region it is Dr. Pilsbry?s
opinion that the close relationship of their fauna indicate that they formed a
single island up to late Pliocene or even Pleistocene time. The formation of
the channels between Molokai, Lanai and Maui must be considered as a very
recent event since they stand on a platform within the 100 fathom line and their
faunas are very closely related. *

The investigation of the island fauna and flora as conducted by various ob-
servers has brought out facts of evolution that seem in full accord with the dis-
memberment of the various islands as here described.

In addition to all else the evidence of the wonderfully dissected mountains,
the deeply eroded valleys, the submerged coral reefs all tend to bear out the
broad conclusion that the group has evolved by the submergence of a single
island, and that the isolation of the existing islands, with their peculiar, yet re-
lated plants and animals, have been formed as superimposed volcanic rem-
nants on the older and deeply subsided larger land area.

Dr. Sereno Bishop, discussing the geology of Oahu, tentatively offered an
estimate of the length of time that must have elapsed since the successive events
in the geological history of the island took place. Such estimates of geologic
time must of necessity be accepted only as individual guesses and the personal
factor taken into account, but they have their value for those less skilled, enabling
them to form a rough chronology that the mind can in a measure grasp.

While scientific guesses of this nature are valuable, they are liable in each
instance to fall far short of the actual time involved. Dr. Bishop's table places
the time of the emergence of the Waianae Range as a volcanic mountain at
one million years ago. The emergence of the Koolau Range is placed at
eight hundred thousand years ago, and the extinction of the Waianae activity one
hundred thousand years thereafter, while the extinction of the Koolau Range is
placed five hundred thousand years back in the past. The emergence of Laeloa
craters and Rocky Hill are both placed at least seventy-five thousand years ago.
The time of the eruption of Punchbowl is given as forty-five thousand years ago :
the small Nuuanu craters twenty thousand ; Diamond Head fifteen thousand ;
Kaimuki twelve thousand; the Salt Lake group ten thousand; Tantalus, seven or
eight thousand, while the eruption of the Koko Head group, the last of the im-
portant tuff -cones to be formed, is given as occurring but a meager five thousand
years ago. The author, however, is inclined to attribute a very much greater
age to Oahu than that indicated by Dr. Bishop. The foundation for such a belief
is based largely on a careful physiographic study of the Waianae Mountains. It
seems obvious that the deeply eroded valleys of the Waianae Range were practi-
cally completed as they are now before the slight re-elevation of the island

126 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

brought the ancient reefs above the sea. These elevated reefs contain extinct
fossils, probably those of Eocene time. The dawn of the Eocene is generally
placed by geologists at four million years ago. How much older then must be
the mountain mass in which the valleys of the Waianae region were so deeply
carved before the reefs were laid down across the embayments at the mouths of
their valley streams?

Artesian Wells.

Reference has been made above to the artesian water supply of the island,
and the important geologic facts that the sinking of five hundred or more artesian
wells on Oahu has brought to light. The wealth of water,t amounting to millions
of gallons per hour, now poured out on what was formally in many places semi-
arid, and therefore, unproductive land, has been the prime factor in the modern
development of the agricultural resources, not only on the island under con-
sideration, but all the islands of the group, where conditions favorable to the
development of artesian wells are found.

The erosion of the sloping volcanic lava flows in the mountains offers condi-
tions favorable for storing in the ground much of the excess of the copious
precipitation occurring in the higher altitudes. As we have seen, the strata of
igneous rock exposed in the mountains are often buried several hundred feet
beneath the surface when they reach the costal plain. The water which enters
the exposed portion of the more porous strata, especially when the water-bearing
strata lie between more impervious strata, tends by gravity to flow as under-
ground water down to the lower levels. Eventually, this underground stream
descends to the sea, often several miles distant from the point in the highlands
where it was taken into the porous rock or soil.

If the lower ends of the water-bearing strata open into the sea beneath its
surface, the fresh water gradually forces its way out at the lower end of the
natural conduit, to mingle quietly with the water of the ocean, or, as often occurs
about the shore line of the group, to bubble to the surface forming fresh water
springs in the ocean.

Owing to the pressure exerted by the sea, the subterranean water moves out
much more slowly than the surface water which rushes from the mountains to the
sea in the form of rivers. If the pressure of the water in the underground stream
is greater than the pressure exerted by the water of the sea, the stream con-
tinues to flow into the latter as fresh water. If the pressure of the ocean exceeds
that exerted by the underground waters, the two waters commingle, and brackish
water occurs in the underground basin. So long as the fresh water level in the
underground stream or basin is maintained at a level above sea-level, the water
in the underground stream or basin seems to remain free from salt.

An appreciation of the geologic conditions existing in the strata of rock
underlying the island, and the need of a more abundant water supply, led to
the practical utilization of this great natural resource through the development
of artesian wells. The first well was sunk in 1879 by James Campbell on an

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII 127

island in Pearl Harbor and fresh water was secured at a depth of 240 feet.
The natural principle involved in the fresh water spring and especially the
spring in the ocean, was turned to practical account. To secure water, wells
were driven deep enough into the earth to puncture the more or less impervious
strata overlying the water-bearing strata beneath, with the result that owing to
the pressure or head on the empounded water, it rose in the well, and in the
lower zone about the island often overflowed to form an artificial spring or
flowing artesian well. The principle involved in wells which do not overflow
is the same as that in those that do ; for which reason all deep wells are now
called artesian. "Wells in which the water is raised to the surface by pumps are
liable to become brackish, through excessive pumping, while those which flow
naturally seldom show a marked change in the amount of salt carried in their
waters.

The water-bearing stratum on Oahu at the sea-shore, is usually found to be
between three and four hundred feet below tide level, and is usually a very
porous basalt, capped with an overlaying impervious stratum usually of basalt.
Wells drilled in the vicinity of Honolulu at an elevation above forty-two feet
above the sea have to be pumped. The flowing wells are, as a rule, found at
the lower levels. It is of interest to note in this connection that as a ride the
shallowest wells are those bored about the ends of radiating lava ridges and
that usually their depth increases the nearer they are to the sea-coast. Wells
drilled in the middle of valleys are usually deeper than those at either side.
All of these facts taken together indicate that the island has been submerged
to considerable depth before the subsequent elevation of the raised coral reef
on the costal plain about the island, and that the reefs were laid down in sub-
merged valleys that were already deeply eroded before the reefs were formed
in them.

In several places, notably at Waianae and Oahu plantations, as well as else-
where in the group, underground streams have been encountered through hori-
zontal tunnels driven into the mountains, and the underground water supply has
been tapped near its head. The tunnel is then extended to the right and left, form-
ing a Y-shaped drain, which brings the water to the surface, far above possible
contamination with sea water. Such tunnels are usually driven at altitudes suffi-
cient to admit of distributing the water by gravity over extensive fields well
upon the slopes of the mountain. On Maui a daily flow of six million gallons
has been secured in this way at an elevation of 2.600 feet. The wonderful Waia-
hole tunnel on Oahu, built on a modification of this principle, delivers twenty
million gallons of water each twenty-four hours.

E cono m i c Products.

Of the economic products, clays are the most important and are found on
Oahu, Maui and Hawaii, in many places, in varying amounts. A number of
years ago a brick kiln was opened in Nuuanu Valley and brick of fair quality
was manufactured. Unfortunately, the attempt was abandoned in a short time.

W *'M

fiiill

Fillips]

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 129

In 1910 steam bricks were made at Moiliili from pulverized lava by an elaborate
process, but, owing to unexpected chemical changes, the bricks were found to
be inferior in quality, and the process and product altered after an expensive
experiment. Lime manufactured from coral rock has long been a common
commodity in the islands, but it has never been considered quite equal to that
manufactured from limestone on the mainland. Sandstone of a fair quality
occurs at several points about the island. St. Andrew's Cathedral, in Honolulu,
is made of sandstone imported from England long before Hawaii became an
integral part of the United States. When a few years ago it was decided to
enlarge the cathedral, the import duty made it impracticable to go to the same
source for more stone. A large part of the United States was unsuccessfully
hunted over for a match to the English stone. It was finally found near Bar-
ber's Point, about twenty miles from the cathedral site. This local stone is pleas-
ing in color and durable in quality. The hard, compact, dark bluish-grey basalt
is much used in building operations whenever cut stone is required. A num-
ber of the most substantial structures in the islands are made entirely of cut
stone derived from quarries usually opened in the vicinity of the particular
structure in which the stone is used.

Much of the softer grade of basalt is used in concrete and in road construc-
tion. Beach sand is also used in mortar and to some extent on the roads, and
as road dressing. It is usually mixed with coral rock, the whole being rolled
together and oiled to form a smooth surface. Sand from beds in the neighbor-
hood of the Waianae Mountains is also used extensively in building operations,
but being formed from coral and shells it is undoubtedly inferior in quality
when compared with the sharp sand brought from the mainland. Salt is still
manufactured on the island by evaporating the sea water in shallow ponds along
the sea shore, but the main supply is imported. The use of the loose rough field
stone or "moss stone" has recently come much into vogue for foundation and
trim work and has added much to the rustic as well as permanent appearance
of the bungalow homes, in the building of which it is being extensively used.

This already lengthy chapter on the geology of Oahu would be incomplete
without some brief reference to a few of the more interesting, though minor,
natural features of the island which are objects of interest to residents and
tourists alike. Among these may be mentioned the numerous natural caves
formed in the volcanic rock. One at the west end of Judd street, a portion of
which was once used as a burial cave, extends back for several hundred feet by
a winding, narrow passage. Other burial caves are found above the road at
Wailupe Valley, and beyond, while along the sea coast, beyond Koko Head, are
caves in which several interesting stone carvings have been found.

Points of Geologic Interest About Oahu.

The coast-line from Koko Head to Makapuu Point is a region of much
geologic interest, with spouting horns, olivine crystal beaches, and much coast
scenery. The dash of waves against the exposed headlands at Koko Head and

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 131

Makapuu Points, are features of an excursion thither that are always much en-
joyed, while the picturesque coral bay at Hanauma, and the unmistakable evi-
dence of the nature of the formation of the bay, presents a variety of objects well
worthy of a visit.

Along the coast, beyond Diamond Head, at Waialae Bay, are a number of
fresh water springs on the edge of the ocean, and at the end of Black Point
is a sea cave with a large hole through the roof, from which water and spray
spurt thirty or forty feet in the air during rough weather. As has been
intimated, the sea slope of Diamond Head is full of geologic interest. Along
the beach line sand concretions, caused by organic acids, may be seen in the
process of forming about the roots of plants and trees which penetrate the ex-
posed beds. Higher up, in excavations along the line of the road, similar con-
cretions may be found, thousands of years old, in which the roots that formed
the center have been completely fossilized.

Pot-holes in the rock along the reef are especially numerous on the
shore at this point. Many of them are three feet or more across, and well
illustrate this peculiar, rather than important, feature of erosion. The scouring
work is accomplished by the grinding action of the sand rock fragments as tools
in the hands of the waves. The coral reef between Waikiki and the mouth of
Honolulu Harbor is a complete laboratory in reef formation. Seen through
a waterglass or a glass bottom boat, the growing, living reef, in connection with
the elevated reef farther inland, exhibits the present side by side with the dim
past, and shows every phase of this living agent that has played so important
a part in the geologic history of the group.

A half day's ramble over the slopes of Punchbowl and down along the
nearby Nuuanu Stream will reveal excellent examples to illustrate a hundred
points in structural and dynamic geology. The road up Nuuanu Valley, the
Pali, and the descent over the floor of the old Pali crater to the sea-shore on
the windward side of the island exhibit scores of points of interest to one who
cares for geology. The latteral valleys with their gauze-like waterfalls; ex-
amples of sub-aerial erosion at the Pali ; the splendid dikes displayed in the
solid rock by the roadside; the vertical walls of the mighty pit itself; the living
reef at Kaneohe; these and a thousand features like them, fill the mind with awe
and wronder, and the careful observer is surprised that so much can be crowded
into a cross-country ride.

The windward shore of the island at Laie exhibits the combined action of
the sea and the wind in piling up dry sand inland into mounds thirty or forty
feet in height, and of the effect of the submergence again of such dunes under
the sea from whence they originally came and from which they have again
been lifted up. At Kahana we have an excellent example of a drowrned valley.
At Kaliuwaa is a valley of awe-inspiring grandeur; so narrow and deep is it
that it forms a dark, narrow passage-way cut into the solid mountain that is
shut in with inaccessible vertical walls, nearly a thousand feet in height. Down
these basalt walls clear, cold mountain water has cut out smooth channels so re-

132 NATURAL HISTORY OP HAWAII.

markable, in fact that they seem to have been the handiwork of the gods, — and
indeed, they were regarded and worshipped as such by the ancient inhabitants.

At Kahukii the elevated coral reef, filled with caves, and the interesting fea-
tures associated with them, furnish an object entirely worthy of a separate
expedition.

The estuaries of the Waimea and the Waialua streams are the main points
of interest along the northwest end of the island. Returning to the city by
way of Wahiawa, the windward side of Waianae and the long parallel valleys
of the lee side of the Koolau Range may be studied to advantage, and the relative
age of the two chains observed.

The Salt Lake crater is a feature of much interest 'since here is formed a
lake three-quarters of a mile from the sea, enclosed within a high tuff rim and
entirely cut off from the sea, wrhich is more salt than the sea itself. To the
student of natural history Salt Lake, with its uplifted and shattered coral reefs,
salt-impregnated walls, and other unusual features, is a point of more than
ordinary interest. Along the line of the Oahu railway numerous cuts expose
the strata of the complex section about the Pearl Lochs and in the neighbor-
hood of the Laeloa craters. Farther on, the lowering wails of Kaala, with its
abrupt precipices and narrow buttresses, may be observed from the train as it
winds along the coast line. Objects of special interest are the natural bridge
and the giant basalt boulders along the coast, and the 'high reef7 in the neigh-
borhood of Waianae.

CHAPTER XL
ISLANDS OP MOLOKAI, LANAI, MAUI AND KAHOOLAWE.

The five islands lying to the southeast of Oahu may all be seen from the
decks of the inter-island steamers in making the journey to Hawaii — a journey
usually made by travelers in order to visit Madame Pele in her abode in the
heart of the living volcano Kilauea.

As a matter of fact, when atmospheric conditions are favorable the outline
of the nearest of these islands, namely Molokai, Lanai and Maui, may bo plainly
seen from the rim of the crater of Diamond Head or Koko Head. Although no
one has probably been able to do so, it is not improbable, as asserted by Dr.
Titus Munsen Coan, that from the high peak of Kaala, if visual conditions were
favorable, the high peaks on all of the inhabited islands could be seen through
a telescope.

Molokai.

Since on the actual journey to the volcano the mystical island of Molo-
kai comes first to view, it may be well to know that it is but twenty-three miles
from Oahu and that it lies directly between that island and Maui. It extends
as a long narrow island almost due east and west for forty miles, but it is

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 133

only ten miles in width at its widest part. It is roughly rectangular in form
and has an area of two hundred and sixty-one square miles.

Like Oahu, it bears unmistakable evidence of being the result of several
periods of volcanic activity, and it, too, is formed by the junction of two vol-
canic mountains of which the western crater Mauna Loa,1 an eminence little
more than a hill, is far the older. The eastern end of the island is much higher,
attaining at Kamakua peak an altitude of 4,958 feet. The highland between
the two points mentioned, while less extensive, has been built up in much the
same manner as the region between the two groups of mountains on Oahu.

The island from the north presents a more or less vertical face of vary-
ing height which rises, as a line of cliffs, usually from a very narrow level
plain. From the high backbone of the island in the eastern end, several deep,
beautiful valleys, with gaunt finger-like lateral ridges, run down to the sea.
The most prominent point along the northern coast is formed by the wedge-
shaped peak of Olokui,2 which has its sea end formed by a wall rising all but
perpendicularly from the sea to almost the extreme height of the mountain.
The deep balloon-shaped valleys of Wailau and Pelekunu almost surround this
point and form its almost inaccessible walls inland. The whole section has been
deeply eroded and is one of the most remarkable and picturesque districts of
the entire group. The vertical sea cliffs and the great amphitheater-shaped val-
leys, set, as they are, directly across the path of the northeast trade winds, are
almost constantly drenched with heavy tropical rains. Unfortunately this
abundant supply of wrater is still allowed to flow to the sea uncontrolled, while the
opposite end of the island, with its thousands of acres of rich, deep-red tillable
soil lies parched and barren.

Halawa Valley.

The eastern, and consequently the most remote end of the island, is occu-
pied by smooth, high bluffs topped with a table-land that is cut through by
the valley of Halawa. This valley is one of great isolation and primitive
beauty. Its purple cliff-like walls terminate abruptly at the head of the gorge
in a vertical precipice, over wrhich pour two streams drawn from the rain-soaked
uplands. The Halawa waters reach the floor of the valleys by monster leaps,
forming Moaula Falls; the other, the llipuapua stream, forms a single silvery
thread from top to bottom of the cliff. The ceaseless tumble and roar of these
falls, the delicious freshness of the breeze, the song of the fearless native birds,
the abundant vine-swung tropical verdure, the simple friendly hospitality of the
natives, the morning and evening rainbows that span the falls, the sweep of the
sand-rimmed bay, the tranquil scene of life along the river, the peace, the plenty,
the contentment of it all, blends again in memory as I write, as not many years
ago it did in reality to form a picture, — a picture of bliss, such as I would paint
were I gifted, and call the "Island Vale Avalon" — an earthly paradise within
the western sea.

2 4600 feet.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 135

The southeastern, and particularly the southern part of the island, is broken
by a number of parallel ridges and valleys. As the valleys are many of them but
two or three miles in length the streams, which have their source in the cloud-
wrapped peaks that form the dividing line of the island, are cool and beauti-
fully clear. In many of these valleys may still be seen the remains of the old
orange and breadfruit groves for which Molokai was one time famous. The
heads of the valleys often end in almost vertical and deeply eroded precipices.
Several of the valleys, as Moanui, have a number of large caves, which were used
extensively in olden times as burial caves.

The valley of Mapulehu is the largest valley on the south side of the island.
Having steep funnel-shaped sides and being opposite the great rain-soaked valle}7
of Wailau, it is especially subject to torrential rains.

The nearby harbor of Pukoo, well to the eastern end, and the harbor of
Kaunakakai, near the center of the island, are the principal ports of call on
the southern side of Molokai. They are both formed by openings in the wide
coral reef which extends along the greater part of the island.

The Leper Settlement.

Unfortunately the whole of this island of Molokai is known as the "Leper
Island.'7 In reality only the low shelf-like promontory of Kalaupapa which
jets out into the sea, a distance of three or four miles, at a point about the
middle of the island on its northern side, is in any way included in the area set
apart by the Territory for the isolation and care of those suffering with this
disease.

The settlement forms a colony inhabited by eight hundred to one thousand
persons, most of whom are lepers. The colony is completely cut off from the
rest of the island by cliffs fifteen hundred or more feet in height, the steep sea-
face of which is called Kalawao. The plain or shelf of Kalaupapa is crossed by
several lava streams of more recent date than have been found elsewhere on
the island. So it is not unlikely that this section, as stated in the legend of Pele
previously mentioned, was the last point on Molokai to feel the influence of vol-
canic fires.

Lanai and Kahoolawe.

Lanai is in plain view from both Molokai and Maui, being only nine miles
west from the nearest point of the latter island.

From the vessel as it passes through the channel between the islands it ap-
pears as a single volcanic cone, that doubtless, owing to the protection fur-
nished by the nearby-island to windward, has suffered but slight erosion, though
its sides are here and there furrowed by small gulches, down one of which there
runs a small stream. It has an area of 139 square miles and the principal peak,
which is well wooded, is given as 3,400 feet in height. It rises from near
the southeastern end and slopes rather gradually to the northwest, where abrupt
declivities are found. Steep cliffs also occur along the southwest shore where

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 137

they are often three or four hundred feet in height. It appears that neither
Lanai nor Kahoolawe have ever been carefully studied by geologists.

Kahoolawe, the smallest of the inhabited islands, is about twelve miles
long and has an area of sixty-nine square miles. Owing to its slight elevation,3
and the fact that it lies in the lee of Maui, whose high mountains wring the
ram-clouds dry, the surface shows but little wash and is almost level. There
being no important streams or springs on the island it has never been con-
sidered of much value. In consequence it has been given over to a few goats,
sheep and cattle that roam over its barren red lands at will. Plans have been
considered by the Territorial government, however, which contemplate refor-
esting the island, as an experiment in conservation, with a view to securing
scientific data on the increasing and storing of water through the agency of
plant growth.

Like Lanai, the island of Kahoolawe has high, steep sea cliffs on the lee
shore. Enough of the underlying strata is exposed to foster the belief that
neither of these small islands was ever more closely connected with each other
or with the nearby and larger island of Maui than they are now unless it was
by their normal slopes, now hidden beneath the sea. The larger island of Maui
is separated from the smaller of the two islands by seven miles of placid water
known as the Alalakeiki channel which, together with the Auau channel between
Lanai and Maui, forms the Maui channel; a waterway which no doubt has been
formed by the subsidence of all three islands just mentioned.

Maui, the Valley Isle.

It is the custom to regard Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe and Maui as form-
ing a natural group of islands, there being about the same distance between the
nearest points on the neighboring islands of Molokai and Oahu 4 in the north-
west, that there is between the nearest points of Maui and Hawaii 5 at the
southeast end of the central cluster of islands, the combined area of which is
placed at 7,289 square miles. Maui is the largest island in the middle group
and is the second largest in size of the inhabited islands. However, it is con-
siderably less than one-fifth the size of Hawaii, which boasts of its area of 4,015
square miles.

To the mere traveler Maui is but a synonym for the name of the great
extinct crater which forms one of the chief objective points of his round-the-
world journey. But to the geologist the splendid double island, aptly named
the Valley Isle, is no less interesting in its topography and history than Kauai
or Oahu are.

Like Molokai and Oahu, it has been produced from two distinct centers of
volcanic activity. West Maui with its highest peak ° corresponds in age with
the western group of mountains on Oahu. As on Oahu, the advanced disintegra-
tion, shown by the deep wonderful valleys dissected into its mass, makes it un-
mistakably the older end of the island. In fact it has every evidence of being
as old as Kauai, the Waianae Range on Oahu, the western end of Molokai, or
the Kohala mountains on Hawaii.

8 1472 feet. 4 23 miles. 5 26 miles. 6 Puu Kukui, 5788 feet.

10

138 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Iao Valley.

As has been the case on the other islands, this volcanic pile has suffered
its deepest erosion on the northeast flank. Exposed to the trade winds, the
great awe-inspiring valley of Iao, with its head a vast amphitheater in the very
heart of the mountain, has been so wonderfully eroded that it is indeed difficult
to feel it has been formed solely by the chisel of the elements.

Rising on every hand about "The Needle," an isolated, nearly inaccessible
pinnacle, standing hundreds of feet above the floor of the valley— are almost
vertical verdure-covered walls of basalt. They rise abruptly for more than
four thousand feet. Over and about the top of the highest peaks cluster and
frolic the down-like clouds that so often, without apparent provocation, gather
into a lowering pall from which pours torrents of cold, pelting rain. Within
an hour their waters will flood and choke the babbling gorge stream, until it
rushes down to the sea in an irresistible torrent.

Few are the visitors who have seen the grandeur of Iao who are not willing
to compare it favorably with the more famous valley of the Yosemite. But
those who have mastered the difficulty of the ascent and who have once looked
down from the summit of Puu Kukui into the head of Iao Valley, and the
equally wonderful valleys of Waihee and Olowalu, are unstinted in their praise
of the wild scenery that stretches away from their feet in all directions — to the
ocean, to Haleakala, and to the snow-capped mountains of Hawaii. Those
travelers who can take the circumstances that surround each into account and
compare the grandeur of the Valley Isle with the grandeur of the Yosemite
never fail to rearrange the list of America's great natural wonders in a way
most complimentary to this island wonder, which, unfortunately, too few have
as yet been privileged to visit.

The summit of Puu Kukui is made up of an extensive bog which, as a great
mountain reservoir, receives and stores the water that flows down the lee or
Lahaina side of the mountain. As a matter of fact no fewer than eight canons
radiate in all directions from the central portion of west Maui, at least five of
them being notable for their size. The whole summit of this western end of
the island is copiously supplied with water. It is therefore well wooded,
although the lowfer slopes, especially on the southwestern side, are dry and
barren. Along the shore the costal plain is composed of rich red soil washed from
the mountains. When artificially watered and under cultivation it is most
productive.

In its outline the island of Maui has often been compared to the head and
bust of a woman. West Maui, the head, with the face looking to the southwest ;
the lowland joining the portion just described to the larger eastern end of the
island, forms the neck, with Kahului Bay at the back of the neck and Maalaea
Bay forming the hollow beneath the chin.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 139

Haleakala.

The giant crater of Haleakala, easily the largest extinct crater in the world,
rises as a shoulder from the center of the portion forming the bust of our
figure, to the sublime height of 10,032 feet. Besides being the feature of the
topography of Maui, since it covers an area six times as large as west Maui,
it furnishes to the world a single striking, clean-cut example of the awful power
in nature which can rock continents on their foundations and lift up islands in
the midst of the sea, until their tops are lost above the clouds.

The low plain forming the neck or isthmus between the eastern and western
extremities of the island is almost level and is about six miles in length, by seven
or eight in width, at the narrowest part. There seems every reason
to believe that this portion of the island was at one time a waterway,
and that then the older and the newer ends of the island were sepa-
rate. Later this shallow channel was filled by flows from Haleakala which have
been added to by wash from the highlands. The sand dunes near Wailuku
are two hundred feet high and contain only fragments of coral and sea shells
in the form of sand particles that point to their origin, wrhile the sand hills
nearer the shore and elsewhere are undoubtedly the products of the wind.
Wind-blown or aeolian calcarious sand has had much to do with the building
up of the low land deposits; the central part of the neck being only 156 feet
above the sea. In the sand hills along the shore in this portion of Maui, as
elsewhere in similar situations in the group, numerous calcarious concretions and
fossil land shells are found.

The trip to Maui is in many respects the most interesting one in the islands
to the traveler. Naturally Haleakala 7 is the chief object of interest to the
tourist and scientist and its ascent is often made as a side trip on the journey
to or from the active craters on Hawaii. In plan east Maui, which is formed
solely by Haleakala, is roughly triangular in outline, with the crater lying well
towards its eastern angle. The windward side of the dome being well wratered
is furrowed by numerous canons and gorges. Along the side exposed to the
weather there are sixty or more eroded canons, most of them carrying fair-
sized streams, in a distance of half as many miles. While abundant rains fall
on the eastern or Hana end of the island, the canons are wanting, owing per-
haps to the resistant nature of the more recent lava flows in that region.

From Hana to Kaupo on the south side of the island, the slopes are cut up
into numerous gorges, many of them with streams. The ravines here have long
been celebrated for their riot of tropical verdure, but as the trail from Kipahulu

7 The Hawaiian name for this mountain, meaning the "house of the sun," doubtless finds its origin in
an interesting and very ancient folk-tale of the people. According to the legend it was to Haleakala
that Maui, — the adventurous son of Hina — went to capture and tame the sun. The object of the exploit
was to discipline the sun in its course and make it go more slowly in order to give time for the drying
of the bark cloth or tapa which his mother made. We are told he was successful in capturing the sun
by ingeniously snaring its rays as they rose one by one over the top of the mountain. When at last
sixteen of its longest rays had been captured the sun, begging for mercy, was hauled down to earth by
Maui, who only permitted it to continue on its course when an agreement had been made that the sun
should go more slowly ever after and that in certain seasons the days should be longer than in others.
The Bev. Mr, Forbes, the Hawaiian Missionary, who first published the legend, asserts that it was this
adventure that gave the name to the mountain which should properly be called Alele-ka-la (sun snarer)
and not by the more poetical name Haleakala, now in general use.

Mm:

■mwm

'"'"** """"*"w" '■'""111 <■

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGEAPHY OF HAWAII. 141

on leads up and down over the points of the ridges the road is a difficult and
tedious one to travel. The absence of important canons on the western side
of Haleakala seems to be due to the fact that the rain clouds are relieved of
their burden on the opposite slopes of the mountain, so that the two sides when
compared furnish interesting examples of the effect of wet and dry climate
on the same mountain.

The Great Crater Described.

The trip to the summit of the mountain is usually, though not always, made
from Paia, the terminus of the Kahulni railroad. Paia is situated on the north-
western slope and can be easily reached from most of the landings on both
Maalaea and Kahului bays. As no better conception of the great crater and
this portion of the island can be formed than that gained from making the ascent,
it is proposed to follow the usual route, which, from Paia, leads to Idlewild8
and on the way to the summit, a distance of about twenty -two miles.

The outer slopes of the crater on all sides are quite irregular, ranging be-
tween eight and ten degrees, but the slope is a trifle steeper on the northeastern
side. This makes the ascent an easy uphill climb that it most deceiving. The lower
western slope of the mountain has been graphically described as resembling a
whole township diversified with farms and woods, valleys and hills, resting on
its elbows, so to speak, and looking out over the broad Pacific. From the base
of the mountain one can look up to the cloud-line and often get a glimpse of the
summit through an occasional rift in the clouds.

At Idlewild 9 the traveler leaves his wheeled conveyance and continues the
ascent for a distance of eight miles on horseback. For six miles the trail leads
by an easy, gradual climb through grassy pasture land, wrhere the skylarks,
stimulated by the fresh, cool air of the mountain side, often mount skywards,
carrying their song far into the clouds.

From the cloud-belt on to the summit the trail becomes rougher and steeper.
The grass and trees of the lower reaches give way to low, scrubby bushes.
Entering the clouds the soft white fog usually obscures everything above
and below, but in less than an hour's climbing the rough, jagged outline of the
summit appears, floating on a sea of clouds as the traveler emerges into the
sunshine again. Often the w^orld below is completely hidden from view; more
often, however, the blue Pacific may be seen in the distance, apparently rising
like the inner side of a vast blue bowl until it joins, in some mysterious way,
with the edge of the bright blue dome that overtops everything, even this high
mountain.

From the favorable places, at this great height, much of the outline of the
island may be seen, spread out like a great colored map lying on the lap of
the mountain. West Maui appears usually above the clouds as the detached
summit of another island mountain.

As the trail ascends it winds about the base of more than one sizable crater,

8 Olinda. 9 Elevation 4500 feet.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OP HAWAII. 143

but in comparison these seem to be mere pimples on the back of the gigantic
Haleakala. Taking the entire western slope into consideration there are two
dozen of these craters. Most of them appear to be very ancient but show no
evidence of ever having been points of eruptive flow, though on the west coast
near the shore there are several streams of very fresh-looking lava that may
be traced to some of them.

All the route to the summit is exceedingly interesting and instructive to
one with an interest in geology, but to the ordinary tourist the ascent seems a
trifle monotonous after the first few miles of travel. The surface of the moun-
tain is everywhere covered with quantities of broken red rock and resembles the
region about Kaimuki on Oa.hu. On the lower slopes the lava beds, which compose
the foundation of the mountain when exposed, show their texture to be very solid
and apparently very resistant to the ordinary forms of erosion.

After passing the mountain house10 the first view of the crater is obtained.
On arriving at last at the very edge of the caldera the immense size of the
yawning gulf does not readily take hold on the imagination. It is only by
comparison and after its dimensions have been reduced to miles and acres and
its altitude to feet that the sublime magnitude of the scene is appreciated.

One must think of this stretch of mountain scenery not as a mere view
to be admired but rather as a burned-out boiling pot twenty miles in circum-
ference, that has an area of twelve thousand one hundred and sixty acres — five
times that of Kilauea. Measure with the eye its extreme length from point to
point11 and its extreme width12 and compare it with the largest city you have
ever seen ! See if you can realize that the island of Manhattan with all the
teeming life of New York City could be comfortably placed in this mighty
chasm and buried more than a quarter of a mile deep ! Grasp the fact that the
floor of the crater, at its lowest point,114 is two thousand nine hundred and
fifty-two feet below the highest point on the rim and that the point, Pukaoaa,
or Pendulum Peak 14 is 10,032 feet above the level of the sea.

The sixteen mounds on the floor of the crater towards the south end are
not mole hills, but craters, the highest of which15 rises nine hundred feet from
its base, while none of them are less than four hundred feet in height. Com-
pare any one of these with Punchbowl or Diamond Head on Oahu and remember
that they are but the last inirting touch laid on as the titanic fires that gave birth
to all the grandeur and desolation that surrounds them, died out, retiring into
the bowels of the earth hundreds, possibly thousands, of years ago, perhaps never
to appear on Maui again.

One of the most impressive sights in the entire group is that frequently
to be witnessed on the edge of this yawning gulf as the sun sinks into the west-
ern ocean. Set as it were between heaven and hell, the change in the atmos-
pheric conditions on this great mountain summit are most rapid and pronounced.
As the sun drops in the sky and the chill of night comes on, the clouds that

10 9,287 feet elevation. 1X 7.48 miles. 12 2.37 miles. 13 The cave. 14 White Hill or Pakaoao.

15 Kalua Ka Oo.

144 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

all day drowsily float about the slopes of the mountain suddenly become rest-
less and crowd and jostle and mill about one another like frightened animals.
At the proper moment, as at a signal from some shepherd of the winds that
guides and protects; them in the pasture of the heavens, they recognize and
peacefully follow their leader. One by one, in dozens and in droves they work
around the slopes of the mountain to where the great gap in the crater wall,
like the gate to a sheep fold, is opened wide> ready to receive them from the
pasture out on the mountain side into the shelter and protection of the crater
fold, — the very heart of the mountain that nourishes them.

As darkness gathers the last stragglers, those that have wandered farthest
from the fold, hurry in to join their fellows until the floor of the crater is hidden
from view by the fleecy multitude. In the shelter of the crater wall they settle
down for the night knowing, perhaps, that e're long the Southern Cross will
climb into the cold clear sky to share with the great Polar star the vigils of the
night. The first ray of light that gilds the mountain is the signal from the
shepherd, and at once the crater fold is active; round and round these cloud-
sheep go, impatient to be up and away. At the proper moment they again form
in line behind the one appointed to lead the way out through the gap. and before
long are away for a day's frolic in their favorite haunts on the mountain side.

Should the traveler fail to witness the gathering of the clouds by night or
their parting in the morning, the chances are that, as a substitute, he will wit-
ness the most gorgeous sunrise to be seen anywhere; or perhaps, if the weather
is fine, the gleaming snow-capped peaks of Mauna Kea and Manna Loa on
Hawaii will loom up to the south more than a hundred miles away.

But to return to the scene near at hand. The crater is not regular in its
outline but appears as two or more associated craters fused into one. However,
one gets but an imperfect conception of the shape or extent of the crater from
a single viewpoint on the brink. The zigzag elbow-shaped pit has its highest
point formed by one of the three cinder cones at the southwest angle of the
crater. The wall at the north end is split down to its bottom to form the yawn-
ing Koolau gap with its towering walls. This gap extends to the sea under
the name of the Kanae valley. At the opposite or southern end of the crater
is a similar break, the famous Kaupo Gap. It descends abruptly as a gorge-like
valley to the sea. It is completely floored with a hard lava stream with occa-
sional clinker beds. About half way clown the mountain this stream emerges
from its gorge and spreads over the surface, forming a fan-shaped delta, ex-
tending to the sea. These gaps are among the more striking features of Ilale-
akala and are looked upon by some as offering all the evidence necessary to
prove that the great crater, as it now exists, was formed by a mighty fault
which split the mountain from north to south, freeing the extreme eastern 16
portion of the island from the opposite side. The gaps down which the lava
subsequently flowed are thus but extensions of the crack or fault. As such
they had their part in preventing the crater from filling up with lava as it might

10 Han a.

146 NATURAL HISTORY OP HAWAII.

otherwise have done — a course well illustrated by the summit crater on Mauna
Kea,

The Floor of the Crater,

The floor of the crater is well covered with cinders, scoria and sand, its sur-
face being relieved by the cones previously mentioned. From these craters the
loose material forming them, and that covering the floor of the great crater en-
closing them, was erupted. The light, loose material in the crater has a reddish
tinge often varied with black, grey, yellowish-brown and red and shows no
mark of its exact age. Toward the extreme eastern end there is an old pahoehoe
flow, and high up on the eastern wall two flows of aa have broken forth. Coursing
down the side wall, they have pushed their way some distance out over the floor
of the crater.

Although the walls of the crater are steep it is possible to descend them
almost anywhere. The descent is made easier on account of the sand and cinders
that have been heaped up at the foot of the cliffs on all sides. The floor and
inner walls of the crater are of great interest to geologists and will well repay
a visit. For the tourist, the "bottomless pit/' a remarkable blow-hole; Pole's
Pig-pen, a small partly-filled crater; the Chimney; the Crystal Cave; and the
chain of four craters known as the Natural Bridge, lying along a crack in the
floor of the crater, are natural objects well worth inspection at first hand, and
interesting enough to tempt many to make the scramble down into the crater.

The summit of the mountain and its crater is a barren waste only relieved
here and there by a few plants, among them the remarkable plant known as the
silver sword, which is elsewhere described.

The History op Haleakala.

Geologists agree that the history of Haleakala is a complicated one in which
the formation of the mountain by the usual processes of summit eruptions and
surface flows have played dominant parts through long ages. The fracture
of the mountain that opened the great discharge ways at either end of the crater
must have occurred as the mountain was nearing completion. The simultaneous
discharge of lava by both of these great openings in the crater wall is proven
by the similarity of the lava found in the gaps themselves and in the floor of
the crater from end to end.

As the life of the mountain as a living volcano neared its close, it appears
that the convulsions which split the pile to its foundation brought about the
appreciable sinking of the extreme eastern portion of the dome. The final flows
from the gaps at either end of the crater reunited the fracture in the founda-
tion, filled the subterranean chambers formed by earlier flows, and left the
crater a solid mountain with its interior completely filled with the rock material
that makes up its huge bulk. The expiring fires, through minor fissures in the
last-formed crater floor, threw up the numerous cinder cones scattered over it.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 147

The Last Eruption on Maul

The date of the last summit eruption is unknown even to Hawaiian
genealogical and traditional history. There is a fairly authentic statement,
however, that the last eruption on Maui occurred about two hundred years ago
as a lateral eruption. It emerged at an elevation of about four hundred feet
above the sea on the southwest slope of the mountain in the region marked by a
line of craters extending from the summit to the sea, In its course it flowed
over a Hawaiian stone fence, indicating the historic relation between the ex-
tinction of the volcanic fires and the mountain's occupation by human inhabitants.

When the fires finally died down they apparently were completely extin-
guished on the island. No steam jets or warm springs, no mineral springs nor
solfataras remain behind to bridge the closing period of activity with the
present, and there have been no signs in historic times to indicate that the island
of Maui will ever witness active eruptions again.

CHAPTER XII.
ISLAND OF HAWAII.

Size and Position of Hawaii.

The last island to the southeast of Oahu and the one which gives the name
to the group, is the island of Hawaii. It is not only the largest, but is also
the most important island of the chain. It is approximately triangular in form
with its greatest length 1 from north to south. It has an area of 4,015 square
miles, which is a trifle less than the area of the state of Connecticut. Enclosed
within its 297 miles of coast line, is five-eighths the area of the wrhole group.
Of such an area only a few of the many important facts touching its geography,
topography, geology and vulcanology can be referred to in the briefest manner
in a single chapter.

Its coast line is interesting and varied, but the more important points geo-
graphically are the capes at the chief angles and the shallow bays at intervals
along the coast which are volcanic in origin, being formed in each case by the
irregularities in the flow of lava into the sea. Its area is made up of the
summits of five mountains, one of which 2 attains the height of 13,825 feet
above sea level, and claims the distinction of being the highest peak in the
islands and the highest point in the Pacific. In general Hawaii's topography
is formed by the simple joining of its five main peaks by their gentle slopes
in such a manner as to produce the simple outline of the island. There are few
rivers of consequence except on the northeast or windward side.

On all sides the slopes of its great mountains are scarred by the courses
of the broad lava streams that, at various times, have plowed their way from
near the summits of the central peaks. Often, even in recent times, these streams

1 93 miles. 2 Maura Kea.

^4i t . '\^\U*;'

■a.;:'

:<-<>,,/?

O 1<H U\

' -*. iv

v - N p3 M \\ 4 u

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 149

have found their way down to the sea-shore, leaving blackened, desolate tracks
behind that nature and the lapse of time have done little to repair.

The Kohala Range.

While the island, owing to its active volcanoes, is considered as the youngest
island of the group there is little doubt but that the Kohala Range, forming
the northwest point, is the remains of a very old, perhaps among the oldest of
the Hawaiian volcanoes.

The slopes are deeply cut and the work of degradation has left deep canons
and enormous cliffs as the evidence of great antiquity. This portion of Hawaii
is somewhat separated from the younger group of craters, being isolated from its
neighbors, Hualalai and Mauna Kea, by the tableland of Waimea.3 The summit
of the Kohala Mountains 4 is made up of a series of cinder cones and, owing
to the great rainfall, is a heavily wooded bog like that on the top of Kaala on
Oahu, and Waialeale on Kauai. All of the windward slope of the range is
much eroded, and is densely wooded.

From the coast the range appears as a series of deep canon-like valleys
that end three or four miles inland with vertical cliffs from 1,500 to 2,000
feet in height. Among the more noteworthy and scenic of these are the val-
leys of Waipio and Waimanu. The walls of these stream basins, especially after
a heavy rain, are a veritable display of waterfalls, some of them pouring down in
a sheer drop for 1,500 feet. So vast and profound are these gorges, and so
steep are their sea faces, that their formation seems due to some great fault
along the sea cliffs, which caused a portion of the mountain to drop out of sight
beneath the waves, leaving great lateral fractures to form into valleys through
the action of the elements ; though it is quite probable they may prove, on further
study, to be the remains of valleys formed before the subsidence of the Kohala
mountains.

On the opposite side of the mountain, along the shore from Kawaihae
Bay around to the north point5 of Hawaii, the surface of the island is
more regular, though at several places lava streams have issued in ancient times
from craters higher up and flowed down to the coast. The road from Waimea
to Kohala is at an elevation of fifteen hundred feet or more and leads past
several of the cones that dot this region. Some of these are perfect cones four
or five hundred feet in height ; others are much disintegrated and appear as little
more than rounded hills.

The soil of the district is a rich, red, ochreous earth and when well watered
is very fertile. It was at Kohala that one of the early and successful planta-
tions was established.

Mauna Kea.

The principal part of the northeast coast of Hawaii is formed by Mauna
Kea, which occupies more than half of the northern part of the island. Although

3 2670 feet. 4 5489 feet, 5 Upolu.

M

V ■'..;:'.:■::.■

.,;-, ■

I ■■

yf

■^r

.'■::;:.
'-:■ ■£

'%.

■:%,

m .: :■■■.■.

■■■:■■ M^.

".is**/'

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 151

it is an extinct volcano it is of especial interest and has the distinction of being
the highest, island mountain in the world, though it is by no means so bulky
and imposing as its neighbor Mauna Loa. The Manna Loa summit is only 150
feet below that of Manna Kea, and were it not for the cinder cones that cap
the summit of the latter the former would be given its proper rank as first
among the island mountains of the world.

Mauna Kea has probably been extinct for centuries, but not long enough
for the abundant rains which fall on its northeast side to furrow out its slopes
more than half way to its summit. Its lower slopes, however, are cut up into
many gulches from which the water pours into the ocean from the hanging val-
leys that notch the vertical sea cliffs all along the Ilamakua and Hilo coast.

As is usual with the higher mountains of the group, its southwestern slopes
show little signs of erosion, and owing to the comparatively small amount of rain
that reaches that side it is almost bare of vegetation. The effect of rainfall
may be very clearly seen here, since the windward side has the upper limit of
its important vegetation at about ten thousand feet, whereas the dry or southern
side has little if any vegetation on its slopes above seven thousand feet.

The top of this mountain, like its neighbor Mauna Loa, is often covered
with snow that sometimes forms a glistening white cap as far down as two
thousand feet or more from the summit. Unlike Mauna Loa its sky line does
not end in a single crater. Its elliptical summit is rather thickly sprinkled
with a number of cinder cones ; about two dozen being above the 12,500-feet
contour line. One of these is occupied by a pond u forty feet deep and several
acres in extent. The pond is rilled with water from the melting snow and on
several occasions has been found frozen over solid enough to bear the weight of
adventurous mountai neers.

Lower down there are a large number of small cones, as many as seventy-
five having been enumerated above the 6, 500-foot contour on the survey maps,
while the outline of the lower flanks of the mountain is also relieved by them.
At about twelve thousand feet elevation there still remains the evidence of an
old adze quarry7 from which the old-time Hawaiians secured much of the solid
clinkstone used by them in the manufacture of their stone implements.

The Ascent of Mauna Kea.

Mauna Kea may be ascended from Waimea by way of the Humuula sheep
station on the southwest, and on the east side from Hilo by way of Ship-
man's ranch. Horses may he ridden to the summit plateau. The rise of the
mountain is gradual, averaging about four hundred feet elevation to the mile.
From tlie plateau at the summit a splendid view of the adjacent mountain is
secured. To the southwest the outline of the summit crater of Mauna Loa can
be traced, the summits being about twenty-five miles apart. The northerly slope
of Mauna Loa is much disfigured by recent eruptions, the flows of 1845, 1852,

" Lake Waiau. 7 Keanakakoi.

152 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

1855, 1880 and 1890 all being plainly visible from the summit of Mauna Kea —
the white mountain.

Dr. C. II. Hitchcock, who made the ascent in 1885, writing of the recent
flows visible on Mauan Loa says : ' ' They are narrow and tortuous near their
sources, spreading out low down into black extensive areas, almost coalescing.
Besides these, others of prehistoric age can be traced and nowhere can one be
more impressed by the fact that the mountain has been built up by intermittent
lava flows, and can appreciate the certainty that millions of years were required
to construct this eminence." When not covered with snow the surface of the
plateau of Mauna Kea is described as a desolate gravelly plain on which occur
five or six species of plants resembling those of the colder climates of high alti-
tudes. As reported by Professor MaeCaughey, the lake at the summit, though
very cold throughout the year, supports a very luxuriant* growth of green alga1.

HUALALAI.

Along the western coast of the island to the southwest of Mauna Kea, and
about equal in distance from Kohala to the north and Mauna Loa to the south,
is Hualalai. It is a much smaller mountain than Mauna Kea, but otherwise re-
sembles it in its general outlines and in having no characteristic summit crater.
It is 8,269 feet high and has its base entirely within the Kona district. Its
lower base slopes quite gradually, but the upper part of the mountain is much
steeper and is rough and difficult of ascent. The north side of the mountain
appears quite bare, but the opposite side is well wooded. Its slopes are dotted with
many cinder cones — hundreds perhaps, which increase in size and number
toward the top.

• The few naturalists who have ascended this lawless mountain have found its
summit covered with crater bowls,8 cinder cones and pit craters. Some of the
craters have gravel bottoms, while others are formed wdth hard basalt floors.
One of the features of the summit is the "bottomless pit" — a blow hole twenty
feet in diameter and 400 feet deep.

The Eruption of 1801.

The last eruption of Hualalai is placed at about 1801. It occurred from an
opening on the sea or western side of the mountain. From there the lava descended
to the sea in a wedge-shaped stream. The flow was a very liquid one and is said
to have traveled a distance of fifteen miles in two or three hours. This flow is
believed to have marked the extinction of the volcanic fires beneath the mountain.

An early missionary, the Rev. William Ellis, gathered an account of the erup-
tion from eye witnesses, who were living in 1823, about twenty years after the
flow. His account states: "Stone walls, trees and houses all gave way before
it, even large masses of rock of hard ancient lava, when surrounded by the fiery
stream, split into small fragments and, falling into tha burning mass, appeared
to melt again as borne by it down the mountain side. Offerings were presented

8 One of them 800 feet in diameter.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 153

and many hogs thrown alive into the stream to appease the anger of the gods,
by whom *they supposed it was directed, to stop its devastating course. All
seemed unavailing, until one day the king Kamehameha went, attended by a
large retinue of chiefs and priests, and, as the most valuable offering he could
make, cut off a part of his own hair, wdiieh was always considered sacred, and
threw it into the torrent. A day or two after the lava ceased to flow; the gods,
it was thought, wrere satisfied. ' '

The Mountain of Puu Waawaa.

On the north slope of Ilualalai near its base and in plain view from Ka-
waihae Bay, is a curious fluted mountain called Puu Waawaa.0 Numerous shal-
low ravines radiate from its summit in all directions, clearly the work of rain.
Its curious form is of interest to the traveler, but it has been seldom visited
by scientists. It remained for Dr. Whitman Cross of the U. S. Geological
Survey to discover that the terrace bench at this point contains lavas rich in
alkali feldspar, a discovery of importance since formally only basalt and allied
rocks have been credited to the islands. The position of these alkali lavas
indicate the possibility of an older and extensive eruption forming an island
beneath the later basaltic flows of the great mountains of Hawaii that rest upon
the older island base.

Mauna Loa.

An examination of the map of Hawaii will show Mauna Loa, the second largest
active island volcano in the world, as occupying the entire southern half of the
island, being seventy-four by fifty-three miles in its base dimensions at sea level.
It terminates in the great active crater, Mokuaweoweo, which is three and three-
quarters miles10 long by one and three-quarters" miles in width, with an area of
3.70 miles.11 This splendid caldera, the most perfectly formed crater in the
islands, is enclosed in w^alls from five hundred to one thousand feet in height.
Like its neighbor on the north, the top of Mauna Loa is a plateau, its high-
est point being 13,675 feet above the sea, or more than 30,000 feet above the
floor of the ocean about the group. From the central point the slopes of the
mountain radiate at a fairly uniform angle in all directions.

Rough lava flows of aa and pahoehoe which overlap each other extend from
near the summit of the sea-shore like the spokes in a wagon wheel. They show
clearly the way the vast mountain has been slowly built up through countless
ages. Owing to the altitude and the amount of rough lava on its slopes the
ascent of Mauna Loa is an exceedingly difficult, and, in many respects, a dan-
gerous task. The first recorded ascent was that made by the famous traveler,
John Ledyard, in 1779, who visited Hawaii as a member of Captain Cook's
party on his last voyage. He made fairly accurate, though necessarily frag-
mentary, record of the general features of the mountain.

The second attempt to explore Mauna Loa was at the time of Vancouver's

9 3824 feet elevation. ,0 Dimensions in feet: 19,500 by 9,200 feet. "2370 acres.

11

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 155

visit. An account of the ascent made at that time was recorded in Archibald
Menzie 's jtmrnal, in 1794, and remained unpublished until brought to light
through the researches of Prof. Hitchcock and printed for the first time in
Thrum's Annual for 1908. Mr. Menzie calculated the height of the mountain
by use of the barometer without corrections for the variations in temperature12
and made it but forty-one feet less than the present accepted altitude. From the
time of Menzie 's ascent to the present the mountain has been under almost con-
stant observation, and many parties of competent observers have attained the
summit. Its extensive and interesting history has been fully recorded and com-
piled in two elaborate monographs, one by Prof. Hitchcock and the other by
Dr. Brigham, both appearing in 1909. To these works the reader is referred
for detailed accounts of the long series of eruptions, the bare enumeration of
which are almost beyond the scope of this chapter.

History of the Eruptions of Mauna Loa.

However, it is of interest to know that eruptions were reported on Mauna
Loa in 1780 and again in 1803 ; the first fully recorded eruption occurred in
1832, and in June of that year Mauna Loa is reported, by the Rev. Joseph
Goodrich, to have ejected lava from several places in the side of the mountain,
presumably some little distance below the summit. From that time until the
last eruptive flow13 the lava has always issued from the weak places in the side
of the mountain, though the ealdera at the summit has on numerous occasions
become active, forming a lake of lava without flows taking place.

Of the fifteen eruptions resulting in flows that have occurred on Hawaii
within the last one hundred years, twelve have had Mauna Loa as their source.
The eruption of 1843 was presaged by activity in the crater of Mokuaweoweo
but after a few hours the fire died down in the crater and reappeared on January
10, 1843, in two places on the northeastern shoulder of the mountain, at about
11,000 feet elevation ; from these, lava ran in a broad sheet down the side of
the mountain for about sixteen miles directly towards the peak of Mauna Kea,
flowing continuously for a period of four weeks. In the saddle between the two
mountains the stream widened out and spread over the plain, being four and a
half miles across in the widest part. One branch extended a considerable
distance down towards Waimea on the west, evidently uniting with a former
eruption known as the Keamuku flowr.

The flow of 1851, beginning on August 8th, was announced by a remarkably
brilliant display accompanied by detonations in the summit crater. This flow is
said to have occurred from an opening on the west side of the mountain about
1,000 feet below the summit and to have extended for ten miles westerly in the
direction of Kealakekua. It lasted only about four days, and is not commonly
shown on maps.

In the following year, on February 17, 1852, light was again seen on the
summit, and within a short time lava broke out on the northern slope of the

12 Which would reduce the altitude, as giveu by him, by about seventy feet. J;i In 1907.

ft

;1%,

■:,;:.C

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 157

mountain, in plain view from Hilo. Fountains leaped three or four hundred
feet in the air, presenting a brilliant spectacle, but within twenty-four hours
the activity had apparently ceased. Three days later, February 20th, lava again
broke through the side of the mountain, much lower down towards Hilo, and the
stream of fire flowed for fifteen or twenty miles directly toward the town. This
eruption was an especially violent one, the stream descending with astonishing
rapidity. Activity lasted about five months and came to an end when its stream
was about ten miles from Hilo Bay. It is a privilege, at this point, to quote
from the vivid description of this eruption and flow given by the great mission-
ary, Rev. Titus Coan, to whose labors, observations and faithful chronicles
of the activities of Pele not only Hawaii but science and the world owes so much.

On the morning of February 23rd, three days after the flow started on the
Hilo side, this experienced mountaineer started with a party to visit the source
of the flow. On the fifth day of battling with the tropical jungle he reached
the awful crater and stood at last in the light of the fire at its source.

"It was a moment of unutterable interest. I seemed to be standing in the
presence and before the throne of the eternal God, and, while all other voices
were hushed, His alone spoke. I was 10,000 feet above the sea, in a vast soli-
tude untrodden by the foot of man or beast; amidst a silence unbroken by any
living voice, and surrounded by scenes of terrific desolation. Here I stood —
almost blinded by the unsufferable brightness ; almost deafened with the startling
clangor ; almost petrified with the awful scene. The heat was so intense that
the crater could not be approached within forty or fifty yards on the windward
side, and probably not within two miles on the leeward. The eruption, as
before stated, commenced on the very summit of the mountain,14 but it would
seem that the lateral pressure of the emboweled lava was so great as to force
itself out at a weaker point on the side of the mountain, at the same time crack-
ing and rending the mountain all the way down from the summit to the place
of ejection.

"The mountain seemed to be siphunculated ; the fountain of fusion being
elevated some two or three thousand feet above the lateral crater, and being
pressed down an inclined subterranean tube escaped through this valve with a
force which threw its burning masses to the height of four or iive hundred feet.
The eruption first issued from a depression in the mountain, but a rim of scoriae
two hundred feet in elevation had already been formed around the orifice in
the form of a hollow truncated cone. This cone was about a mile in circum-
ference at its base, and the orifice at the top may have been three hundred feet
in diameter. I approached as near as I could bear the heat and stood amidst
the ashes, cinders, scoria*, slag and pumice, which were scattered wide and
wildly around. From the horrid throat of this cone vast and continuous jets
of red-hot, and sometimes white-hot, lava were being elected with a noise that
was almost deafening and a force which threatened to rend the rocky ribs of
the mountain and to shiver its adamantine pillars. At times, the sound seemed

14 By fire showing in the summit crater.

158 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

subterranean, deep and infernal. First a rumbling, a muttering, a hissing, a
deep premonitory surging; then followed an awful explosion, like the roar of a
broadside in a naval battle, or the quick discharge of pack after pack of artillery
on the field of carnage. Sometimes the sound resembled that of 10,000 furnaces
in full blast. Again it was like the rattling of a regiment of musketry; and
sometimes like the booming of distant thunder. The detonations were heard
along the shore at Hilo.

"The eruption was not intermittent but continuous. Volumes of the fusion
were constantly ascending and descending, like a jet d'eau. The force which
expelled these igneous columns from the orifice shivered them into millions of
fragments of unequal size, some of which would be rising, some falling, some
shooting off laterally, others describing graceful curves ; some moving in tangents,
and some falling back in vertical lines into the mouth of the crater. Every
particle showrn with the brilliancy of Sirius and all kinds of geometrical figures
were being formed and broken up. No tongue, no pen, no pencil can portray
the beauty, the grandeur, the terrible sublimity of the scene.

"To be appreciated, it must be felt. # * # # During the night the scene
surpassed all powrers of description. Vast columns of lava at a white heat shot
up continuously in the ever- varying forms of pillars, pyramids, cones, towers,
turrets, spires, minerets, etc., wdiile the descending showers poured in one in-
cessant cataract of fire upon the rim of the crater down its burning throat and
over the surrounding areas ; each falling avalanche containing matter enough to
sink the proudest ship. A large fissure opening through the rim of the crater
gave vent to the molten flood which constantly poured out of the orifice and
rolled down the mountain in a deep, broad river, at the rate probably of ten
miles an hour. This fiery stream we could trace all the way down the mountain
until it wras hidden from our eyes by its windings in the forest, a distance of
some thirty miles. The stream shown with a great brilliancy by night, and a
horizontal drapery of light hung over its whole course. But the great furnace
on the mountain was the all-absorbing object. ' '

Three years later, in August, 1855, and continuing for sixteen months, oc-
curred the greatest flow of the century. The point of emergence was at an
elevation of 12,000 feet on the northeast side of the mountain, and the molten
river took a course directly for Hilo. After fifteen or sixteen months of con-
tinuous flowing, during which the flood advanced at about i mile each week, the
eruption came gradually to an end, having sent a stream of lava for a distance
of many miles down the mountain side, that in places was eight miles in width
at the widest part. As its lower end came within five miles of Hilo the quiet
village was greatly alarmed, but fortunately no damage was done.

In 1859 activity shifted to the northwestern side of the mountain. A flow
started on January 23d at an elevation of 10,500 feet, that came down to the
sea on the northwest coast in two branches, at a point just north of Kiholo.
On January 31st the stream had reached the sea, more than thirty-three miles
in a direct line from its source — the first eruption in historic times from a high

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 159

altitude to accomplish the extraordinary feat. The river of molten stone con-
tinued to flow, advancing a great part of its length through its self-made conduit,
until some time during July.

The Earthquake op 1868.

The date of 1868 is made memorable in the annals of Hawaiian history by
reason of the severe earthquakes which preceded and attended the eruption of
that year. The eruption which took place low down on the Kan slope — the
opposite side of Mauna Loa from which previous eruptions had issued — was an-
nounced, as usual, by activity in the summit crater. On March 27th smoke
was seen issuing from the top of the mountain. Within half an hour a column
of illuminated cloud had risen to the height of ten or fifteen miles, but the flow
did not occur at once. During the few days immediately following that portion
of the island was in an almost continual state of earth shock. On April 2nd a
terrific earthquake took place wrhich shook down every stone wall and almost
every house in the Kau district. The greatest shock occurred in the vicinity of
Waiohinu, where the stone church and other buildings were completely demol-
ished. The earth continued to tremble until April 7th, when lava broke out in
Kahuku five thousand six hundred feet above the sea, through a great rent in the
mountain side that was ten miles from the ocean. The lava spouted several hun-
dred feet high and in two hours the torrent of fire reached the sea. Within the
five days that it continued to flow, as much lava was poured out as would have
issued from a rupture at a higher elevation in months. While no lives were lost
in the flow three men were imprisoned several days on a hill that was completely
surrounded by the lava flood, and several houses and a large number of cattle
were destroyed, while more than four thousand acres of good land were turned
into a worthless heap of stone.

The earthquake detached a large mass of clayey soil on the mountain side
at Kapapala, causing a destructive land-slide or "mud flow" to rush down the
valley for three miles in a stream, half a mile wide and thirty feet deep. Thirty
human beings and i^Ye hundred or more domestic animals were overwhelmed
by this earth avalanche.

Immediately following the earthquake an immense tidal wave, estimated
to be forty or fifty feet in height, rolled in on the Kau coast and swept away
several villages, drowning eighty people and leaving the survivors destitute.
While these events were transpiring on the mighty mountain of Mauna Loa,
the lava in Kilauea escaped through a great fissure which opened low down to
the southwest of the crater. As the lava escaped it left in Kilauea a pit three
thousand feet long and five hundred feet deep. During the same year, while the
people were still in an anxious mood, on August 15th the sea about the islands
made a sudden rise and fall which although attributed by some to Mauna Loa at
the time, wras later found to be caused by a terrible earthquake in Peru and
Ecquador.

The great flow of 1880, as usual was announced by a beacon from Mokua-

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 161

weoweo. The light first seen on May 1st disappeared, however, and nothing of
note occurred until November 5th, when a flow started from the northeast slope
of Mauna Loa at a point in the vicinity of the source of the flow of 1855. It
proved to be one of the most important eruptions and flows on record in the
islands. Although the amount of lava poured out did not equal that of the
'55 flow, the distance covered was greater than that of any flow from any island
volcano.

From an opening in the side of the mountain at an altitude of about 11,000
feet the stream soon divided into three branches. The first branch, known as
the Kea stream, ran in the direction of that mountain and terminated in the
flat between the two mountains. The second, the Kau stream, ran in the direc-
tion of Kilauea and was plainly seen from the Volcano House. The main stream,
however, continued in the direction of Hilo, where on August 10, 1881, it finally
stopped at a point only three-quarters of a mile from the town, after flowing in
a tortuous course more than thirty-five miles in length. As the stream slowly
but surely worked its way nearer and nearer the town, excitement was intense,
not only in Hilo but throughout the group. But at last, after nine months of
activity, the flow finally stopped, leaving the city unharmed.

In December of the year 1886, earthquakes became frequent and violent on
the opposite side of the mountain; about Kahuku they increased in frequency
until from three to six hundred were noted by different observers in the two or
three days between January 17th and January 19th, 1887. Light was seen
at the summit several times during this period, but it was on the afternoon of
the 18th that the outbreak occurred at 6,500 feet elevation and at a point twenty
miles from the sea on the Kahuku side of Mauna Loa.

The following day by noon the lava stream had reached the sea at a point
four miles west of the flow of 1868. By noon of the 24th the flow ceased, but
not until more lava had been poured forth than during the earlier flow.

Activity was renewed in 1899 on the north slope of Mauna Loa at what
was called the Dewey Crater, out of compliment to the distinguished admiral
whose achievement at Manila Bay was coincident with that of the eruption. On
June 20th earth shocks were felt in Hawaii, and on July 1st light was to be
seen over the pit in the top of the mountain. On July 5th there came an out-
break of lava on the slopes six miles northeast of Mokuaweoweo. The point of
eruption was at an elevation of near 11,000 feet, a short distance above the
point of origin of the 1880 flow. Fountains of fire could be seen spouting high
in air, and parties started at once from Hilo and the Volcano House to visit
the source of the flow. It was found that twro fountains were in operation
almost a mile apart, but later the upper one died down and a third became
active near the second. The streams from these fountains united and flowed
towards Mauna Kea. The lava continued to flow until July 26th, running
fifteen miles from its source in a stream which was a mile in width at the widest
part.

Eight years passed before Mauna Loa again gave forth an eruptive flow.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGEAPHY OF HAWAII. 163

As usual, the first intimation of activity was given by the lurid glare over the
summit crater. On January 9th slight earthquakes were felt on Hawaii, and
on the night of January 10th, 1907, Mauna Loa was crowned with a bright
light. A few hours later the molten flood broke through the walls of the great
mountain on the southerly or Kahuku side of the dome, at a place 8,500 feet
above the sea and at a point about one half the distance from the sea to the
summit of the mountain. The flow in its course down the mountain passed
near the path of the 1887 flow. About the middle of its course the stream
divided into two main divisions, with smaller branches to right and left. The
two main branches crossed the government road five miles apart on the night
of January 13th, i. e., within three days from the time of the outbreak. Neither
of the streams in their divided and weakened condition had force enough to
reach the sea. Both came finally to a halt on January 24th, about four miles
from the shore and within ten days from the time the flow broke out on the
mountain side. It has been estimated that in the upper part of the stream the
lava flood advanced at the rate of seven miles an hour, but lower down its ad-
vance was slow and majestic. Several hundred people from the vicinity and
from the other islands of the group rushed to the scene and were favored with
a splendid view of nature's most awe-inspiring spectacle.

On November 25, 1914, white fumes were seen rising above the crater on the
summit of Mauna Loa. By evening the fume columns were seen to rise to a
height of 6,000 feet or more above the mountain, and, illuminated by the light
from belowr, presented a spectacle of splendid magnitude and beauty. It was
generally thought that this manifestation was the pereursor of the usual type of
outbreak and flow, but this event did not transpire. After a short period of vary-
ing activity, confined entirely to the crater of Mokuaweoweo, the outbreak sub-
sided until no activity was visible from the observatory at Kilauea.

Lava Discharged in the 1907 Flow.

Mr. E. D. Baldwin has estimated that the flow of 1907 covered nine hun-
dred acres of rough land and that a volume of two hundred million cubic
yards of basaltic material was poured out. The flow of 1855 covered 15,000
acres and represented a discharge of six hundred million cubic yards of basalt.
The flow of 1880-81 covered 20,000 acres and equalled at least five hundred and
forty million cubic yards of lava. These estimates are necessarily suggestive
rather than accurate. When we look at the mountain as a whole we see numer-
ous streams of similar proportions showing plainly on its surface. Looking
deeper we find it made up of countless thousands of similar streams and con-
clude that at the present rate of growth millions of years have elapsed since
the building of the mountain first began.

Work of Hawaii's Volcanoes.

It should be observed that during the period of more than one hundred
years that Mauna Loa and the volcanoes of Hawaii have been under observation

164 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

not a single person has perished in the molten floods that time and time again
have been poured out, though tens of thousands of acres of the island's moun-
tain slopes have been made desolate and blackened, so that fertile land and peace-
ful valleys have been choked and left worthless when the torrent of liquified
stone had ceased to flow.15

One's veneration for this great mountain increases when it is understood
that it is in this way and by the same process that the whole group of islands
has been built up. A large view of the amplitude of geologic time can be
gained by reference to a map showing the comparatively small proportion of
the four thousand square miles of the surface of Hawaii that after all has been
scourged by fire within one hundred years. But when it is known that all the
material which composes this island, like that of the other islands of the group,
must have been forced up from beneath the floor of the ocean to be poured out
on the sides of the mountains, one can better understand how great the combined
flows must have been. However, in arriving at an understanding of the amount
of volcanic work that has been done in the group it is important to take into
account the broad bases of the islands as well as that portion which towers above
the ocean's surface.

Geologists are fond of regarding Mauna Loa as an excellent example of a
volcanic mountain that has gone on slowly adding to its bulk until it has attained
to near the limit in altitude to which the subterranean forces can lift a column
of liquid lava.

The story of the titanic phenomenon attending the rise and fall of the
lava in the chimney which ends with the summit crater on Mauna Loa would
furnish material for an interesting chapter, but it seems wise to devote the
limited space available to a brief account of the active volcano Kilauea, on the
remaining mountain of the island.

CHAPTER XIII.

KILAUEA, THE WORLD'S GREATEST ACTIVE VOLCANO.

Reference to a map will show Kilauea located apparently on the slope of
Mauna Loa and well to the southeastern part of the island of Hawaii. The
name is directly applied to the world's largest active crater, which in reality
is the center of activity of a shattered mountain 4,040 feet high. As the crater
is easily reached by automobile and train from Ililo Bay, on the north, and as
the journey can be extended past the crater to Honuapo on the sea-shore on
the opposite or southern side of the mountain, where the steamer can be taken
for the return trip to Honolulu by way of the Kona coast, there is, perhaps, do
better way for completing our account of the geology and topography of Hawaii,
and at the same time presenting the grandeur of the crater and the pleasure of
the journey to it, than by following the route ordinarily taken by tourist travel-

15 The mud flow of 1868, however, claimed a large number of human victims.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 165

ers. But before such a journey is undertaken it is well to be informed of some
of the nlore important facts connected with Kilauea's long, varied and inter-
esting history, a history that in a wTay prepares the visitor to appreciate what
is to be seen at the great caldera as one stands on the very brink of the burning
lake where the island-building activity is actually going on.

Kilauea an Independent Crater.

Geologists supposed for a great many years that Maun a Loa and Kilauea
were very closely related or sympathetic volcanoes. Further study, however,
has demonstrated that they are distinct in all essential features and may act in
the main entirely independent of each other, though there may be some remote
connection, as the eruptions in 1832, '49, '55, '68, '77, '87 and 1907 occurred in
both craters during the same years. The belief in reference to their intimate
relation seems to have grown from hasty conclusions based on the superficial
fact of their proximity, their relative size and the further fact that they both
were more or less continually active. To the casual observer Kilauea, situated
as it is on the southeastern slope of Mauna Loa, appears to be but a secondary
crater, — a mere wart — on the side of the great dome that rises almost ten thou-
sand feet above it.

Whether Kilauea was formed before or after, or at the same time with
Mauna Loa, its action in recorded time has generally been of a character to prove
it more or less independent of the summit crater. While eruptions have taken
place on top, Kilauea, much lower down and only sixteen miles distant, has
often exhibited no signs of active sympathy. So through a long period of
activity it has proved itself to be a distinct crater, doing the work it has to do
in its own way and for that reason it is quite properly admitted to be the world's
greatest active crater.

Dimensions of Kilauea.

To give some idea of the magnitude of Kilauea it is necessary to give a few
of its main dimensions. The Volcano House, which is a comfortable hotel
located on the very edge of the crater, is 4,040 feet above the sea. The crater
from north to south measures 2.93 miles * and from east to west 1.95 miles.2
Its circumference is 7.85 miles 3 and the floor of the crater has an area of
4.14 square miles.4 Prom the Volcano House at the present time it is 484 feet
down to the floor of the crater, which is made up of an uneven mass of cold,
ink-black, shining lava. To reach the present scene of action the visitor must
descend into the crater and cross over this floor for two miles to the brink of
the pit Halemaumau, in the bottom of which perhaps one hundred and fifty feet
below the observer, the red hot lava will be seen boiling in a wild, mad fury.

If what has been said is sufficient to Hx in mind a great, roughly oval-shaped
crater with approximately vertical walls, and to make it clear that the bottom
of this caldera is now formed of black lava of recent origin, and that it is five

1 15,500 feet. 2 10,300 feet. s 41,500 feet. 4 2650 acres.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 167

hundred feet below the highest point 5 on the rim of the crater, and that in
historic time the black lava floor has never been higher than it is at the present
time — there should be little difficulty in following a condensed history of Kilauea.
For our purpose its history can best be related by selecting extracts from a
few of the best descriptions of conditions at the crater taken from the many
accounts written by eye witnesses.

An Exploded Mountain.

This is done with a view to bringing out two points: the first that just as
Mauna Loa is an excellent example of its type, Kilauea is an example of a dif-
ferent and rarer type, namely, a broken down or exploded volcano, that con-
tinues active. It is for this reason that it is spoken of as "safe" and, so far as
volcanoes can be, is regarded as perfectly tame, "docile," and well-behaved.
The second point to be developed is that of the character and periodicity of its
normal eruptions.

The explosion or explosions which undoubtedly broke Kilauea down and
prevented it from building up as Mauna Loa has built up, has left an un-
mistakable geologic record.

Evidence of what transpired is to be found on every hand. These ex-
plosions, of which there apparently were several, must have been in the very
distant past. Their effect was to weaken and shatter the walls that surrounded
the crater, leaving the mountain scarred by a series of radial and concentric
cracks that could have been produced only by an explosion deep down within
the crater. As a consequence, when the molten lava rises to a certain level in
the crater, the pressure becomes so great on the lateral walls of the volcanic pipe
that the lava flood breaks through some weak spot, usually far down under-
neath, and the liquid lava often flows quietly out to sea through some old
deep -h i d d en c on d u i t .

The Rise and Fall of the Liquid Lava.

Never since the coming of white man to Hawaii has there been suffi-
cient force to lift the liquid lava over the brink of the crater. As a result of
these subterranean ventings Kilauea is esteemed as the best example of a
"welling" crater to be found.

The history of this volcano has been that through a period of months or
years ° the pit of Halemaumau 7 fills up little by little until it reaches the
maximum of height and pressure that the walls will bear. Then, owing to the
enormous lateral pressure exerted by the molten column of lava, the weakened
walls give way and the crater vents itself. The lava lake recedes to a lower
level, often disappearing entirely, only to fill up again in due process of time.
Thus in the welling and venting of Kilauea we have a sort of barometer that
indicates the conditions prevailing far down beneath the island.

5 Uwekahuna. " Perhaps owing to some unknown influence of the goddess Pele — who knows?

7 The house of everlasting fire.

168 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

This welling of the liquid lava is in marked contrast to what takes place
at volcanoes of the explosive sort. Their vents seal over after each explosive
eruption, and to all appearances they die out apparently to remain dead forever
Usually, however, they awake and explode without warning, presenting a magnifi-
cent spectacle of volcanic power that results too often in all the horrors attend-
ing the loss of life and property.

At Kilauea, as has been stated, different conditions prevail. The action
there is confined, in the main, within the crater itself, and the interest centers
in what actually takes place in the lower pit of Halemaumau rather than, as
on near-by Mauna Loa, in the flow which may course down the mountain side.

The Explosive Eruption op 1789.

Without doubt one of the most remarkable exhibitions of volcanic force
which has occurred at Kilauea since the islands were first inhabited by the na-
tives occurred in the year 1789 — a little over ten years after the discovery 8 of
the group by Captain James Cook.

In November of that year, Keoua, a native chief of Hawaii, with a band of
followers set out from Hilo to return to Kau in pursuit of a rival chief whose
warriors in his absence were invading his home district. Hastily returning from
Hilo with reinforcements, the shortest route took him by the overland trail
which passed the brink of the volcano Kilauea. They camped at the crater two
days, during which time it was very active. On the second night, being in a
state of terror and scarcely knowing which way to proceed, they divided into
three companies, presumably for safety, and set out upon their journey in fear
and trembling. The party in the lead had not proceeded far, according to the
historian Dibble, "before the ground began to shake and rock beneath their feet
and it became quite impossible to stand. Soon a dense cloud of darkness was
seen to rise out of the crater, and almost at the same instant the electric effect
upon the air was so great that the thunder began to roar in the heavens and
the lightning to flash. It continued to ascend and spread abroad until the
whole region was enveloped and the light of day entirely excluded. The dark-
ness was the more terrific being made visible by an awful glare from the
streams of reel and blue light, variously combined, that issued from the crater
below, and lit up at intervals by the intense flashes of lightning from above.
Soon followed an immense volume of sand and cinders which were thrown in
high heaven and came down in a destructive shower for miles around. Some
few persons in the forward company were burned to death by the sand and
cinders and others were seriously injured. All experienced a suffocating sensa-
tion upon the lungs and hastened on with all speed.

"The rear body which was nearest the volcano at the time of the eruption
seemed to suffer the least injury, and after the earthquake and shower of sand
had passed over, hastened forward to escape the dangers which threatened them,

8 December 8, 1777.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 169

and rejoicing in mutual congratulation that they had been preserved in the
midst of such imminent peril. But what was their surprise and consternation,
when corning up with their comrades of the center party, they discovered them
all to have become corpses. Some were lying down, and others sitting upright,
clasping with dying grasp their wives and children and joining noses ° as in
the act of taking final leave. So much like life they looked that they at first
supposed them merely at rest, and it was not until they had come up to them
and handled them that they could detect their mistake. Of the whole party,
including the women and children, not one of them survived to relate the
catastrophe that had befallen their comrades. ' '

This eruption, which occurred more than one hundred and twenty-five years
ago, far surpassed any subsequent one, and being explosive in character was of
a totally different nature from any that has since occurred. It does not seem
too much to conclude, therefore, that it was possibly at that time that the final
breaking down and shattering of the mountain occurred, though explosive erup-
tions that preceded it in the more remote past must have been much more
severe.

At any rate, during the fifteen or more times that Kilauea has welled up
since 1789, there has been nothing even remotely suggestive of an explosive erup-
tion, and it is the general belief that so long as the crater remains open as it
now is there is little or no danger to be expected from it.

Space will only admit detailed reference being made to three of the manv
stages through which this crater passes in completing an eruptive cycle. The
material here presented is selected from the wealth of descriptive matter now
available from the records of its varying moods left covering almost one hundred
years, and from which I have condensed a brief history which is appended in the
following chapter for convenient reference.

Conditions at the Crater in 1823.

In 1828 the crater was visited and described for the first time by a white
man. The distinguished missionary, the Rev. William Ellis, witnessed at that
time a wonderful display. Prom his description we conclude that the crater ap-
peared far different from what it does now. It was evidently venting itself at
the time of his visit and the lava was flowing out from deep down under the
lake of fire. The drawing off of the lake of lava left a comparatively narrow
black ledge about the inner wall of the crater on all sides as the lava sank lower
and lower. This observer found a place at the north end of the crater down
which he descended to the black ledge. His first impressions of the crater,
however, were those gained from the highest point 10 on the west side of the
crater, eight or nine hundred feet above the lava lake, and were as follows:

"Immediately before us yawned an immense gulf, in the form of a crescent,
upward of two miles in length, about a mile across, and apparently eight hun-

9 Their form of expressing affection. 10 Uwekahuna.
12

1:

■1:

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 171

dred feet deep. The bottom was filled with lava and the southwest and north-
ern parts of it were one vast flood of liquid fire in a state of terrific ebullition,
rolling" to and fro its fiery surge of flaming* billows. Fifty-one craters of varied
form and size rose like so many conical islands from the surface of the burning
lake. Twenty-two constantly emitted columns of gray smoke, or pyramids of
brilliant flame, and many of them at the same time vomited from their ignited
mouths streams of fluid lava which rolled in flaming torrents down their black
indented sides into the boiling mass below." That evening', "between nine
and ten, the dark clouds and heavy fog that since the setting of the sun had
hung over the volcano gradually cleared away. The agitated mass of liquid
lava, like a flood of molten metal, raged with tumultuous whirl. The lively
flame that danced over its undulating surface tinged with sulphurous blue or
glowing with mineral red, cast a broad glare of dazzling light on the indented
sides of the insulated craters whose bellowing mouths, amidst rising* flames shot
up at frequent intervals with loudest detonations, spherical masses of fusing
lava or bright ignited stones." The following year Ellis revisited the crater
and remarked on its much abated activity.

Kapiolani Breaks the Spell of Pele.

Brief as this sketch must be, I am impelled to interpolate an event that
occurred in the history of the islands about a year after the events described
by Ellis. Kapiolani,11 daughter of a great chief of Ililo, was one of the noblest
characters of her time. Though intemperate and dissolute in early life, she soon
became an example of virtue and refinement to her countrywomen and excelled
them all in the readiness with which she adopted civilized habits and Christian
customs. In December, 1824, four years after the arrival of the missionaries
in Hawaii, she determined to break the spell of Pele — the dread goddess of the
volcano — to whose mythical power frequent allusions have been made.

In spite of the opposition of her friends and husband she made a journey
of one hundred and fifty miles, mostly on foot, in order to defy the wrath of
Pele in her abode in the crater, and thereby prove to her people that no such
being existed.

It is related that as she neared the volcano she was met by an old priestess
of Pele who warned her not to go near the brink of the crater, and predicted
her death if she violated the tabus of the great goddess.

Undaunted by the warning of the priestess, Kapiolani went forward and

11 The captive of Heaven.

Description of Plate.

1. The sulphur banks near the Volcano House; note the effect of the sulphur fumes on
the trees and plants. 2. Kilauea-iki with the floor of smooth shining black lava. In the
foreground may be seen the flow that ran into the pit in 1832. 3. Flashlight view in Pele's
reception room. The light streams in through an opening in the roof in the farther end of the
cave. 4. Waldron's Ledge near the Volcano House showing the depth of the crater of
Kilauea.

172 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

spent the night on the brink of the crater in a rude grass hut constructed for
her shelter. In the morning she and her little company of followers descended
into the crater to the black ledge just mentioned, and there in full view of the
grand and terrific action of the inner crater at her feet, she ate the sacred
ohelo berries consecrated to Pele, and hurled stones into the burning lake, saying
"Jehovah is my God. He kindled these fires, I fear not Pele. If I perish by
her anger then you may fear Pele, but if I trust in Jehovah and He preserves
me when breaking her tabus, then you must fear and serve Him alone. ''

As the courageous woman was unharmed the belief in the mighty spell of
Pele was broken, and thus was accomplished what has very justly been called,
"one of the greatest acts of moral courage ever performed."

The Eruption and Flow of 1840.

Returning to our account of the crater, we must pass over the remarkable
eruption of 1832, when in two years the lava welled and dropped a thousand
feet, and consider for a moment the great eruption and flow of 1840, which
illustrated so splendidly an important phase of activity at the volcano.

For eight years after the eruption of 1832 the process of refilling the caldera
of Kilauea had been going on until at last the black ledge surrounding its inner
walls, as seen and described by Ellis, had been covered with new lava about
one hundred feet deep. Kilauea after eight or nine years of cumulative work
wras ready for an outbreak, and in the summer of 1840 an extensive eruption
took place. The event was minutely recorded by the Rev. Titus Coan.

After a period of intense ebullition in the pit the customary break-down
occurred, but on this occasion, in place of venting deep down in the bowels of the
earth, the lava wrorked its way to the eastward in the direction of Puna through
some old subterranean conduit, perhaps a thousand feet beneath the surface of
the mountain, until it emerged in the bottom of an ancient wooded crater, eight
miles distant from Kilauea. Its course all the way to this place could be dis-
tinctly traced by the rending of the earth's crust into innumerable fissures and
by the emission of steam and gasses.

From the old crater, which was four hundred feet deep, the lava stream
continued on its way seaward; part of the time deep down under the earth;
part of the time flowing over the surface as a river of fire. At last, flowing in
this way for several miles, it again broke out like an overwhelming flood, and
sweeping forest, hamlet, plantation, and everything before it, rolled down with
resistless energy into the sea. There, leaping a precipice of forty or more feet
in height, it poured itself in one vast cataract into the depths below with loud
detonations, fearful hissing, and a thousand unearthly and indescribable sounds.
Imagine this mighty Niagara of fire pouring its livid flood into the ocean night
and day for three weeks. The atmosphere in all directions was filled with ashes,
spray and gasses; the coast was extended into the sea a quarter of a mile, a
sand beach and a new cape were formed, while the light was so great that print
could be read at midnight forty miles at sea.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 173

The whole course of this stream from its source at Kilauea to the sea was
about forty miles. During the flow the lava in the crater fell about 300
feet and Pele's fires became nearly extinct. The story of the eruption as
given by Rev. Titus Coan is one of the most thrilling accounts of volcanic activity
ever written.

Eruption of 1892-94.

So many and so varied are the scenes that have been witnessed at the crater
that it is necessary to select only such as may form types of its activity. For
that reason we pass to the eruption of 1892-94, since it represents the height of
activity within the crater during the last score of years, and it is especially
interesting as the conditions then were the culmination of a period of activity
similar to that now (1913) in progress at the crater.

Through a period of several months the lava in the pit of Halemaumau
continued to rise slowly until a new lake, differing from those that had preceded
it, was formed at a higher level than had before been known — 260 feet be-
low the Volcano House. This lake was held in a superficial bowl, made of loose
fragments of solidified lava that were more or less firmly cemented together
by splashings from the lake within, or by occasional overflows which ran down
its side and out onto the floor of the crater. In due time the old law of pres-
sure went into effect and within a few hours the liquid lava lake had vanished,
leaving the pit an empty smoking chimney, 750 feet deep.

Activity in 1902.

In August, 1902, the fires in the bottom of the pit were again rekindled
after a long period of comparative quiescence. The period of increased activity
at this time, as usual, was heralded by an increase in the volume of smoke-like
vapor which issued from the pit of Halemaumau. Night and day for months
this great titanic chimney rolled its cloud of heavy vapor skyward. At length
the never-failing sign of a change came : the vapor decreased in volume and be-
came thinner and bluer. Soon after an eye spot of fire became visible at the
very bottom of Halemaumau, 750 feet below the present rim of the pit; slowly,
day by day, the lava lake rose and increased in size, being fed by a burning
spring from- below. In October of that year I visited the crater and at
that time made a careful survey and sketch model of the whole region, from
which data I afterwards constructed the large model that forms the central
feature of the exhibits in the "Hawaiian Hall" in the Bishop Museum. The
lava on that occasion was more than 500 feet down in the pit. Soon afterwards
the bottom quietly dropped out and the lake of fire entirely disappeared, and
the smoke-like vapor began silently and steadily to gush forth. Madam Pele
of her own accord had retired once more deep down into the secret inner cham-
bers of her ancient abode.

The Activity in 1907.

With the exception of the slight activity of 1903 but little has transpired
in the pit until the present eruption which began early in the year 1907, and has

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 175

continued to the present with much variability in the character of the lava and
with many spectacular displays that have been enjoyed by an increasing' com-
pany of travelers. The lava in Halemaumau on September 4th, 1908, was but
ninety-five feet below the rim of the pit. By the following: summer the lake
was 235 feet below the rim, but by the end of the year it wras well up towards the
black mark left high on the walls of the pit in the preceding year.

A Visit to Kilauea in 1909.

It was in this favorable condition for observation when I visited the crater
in December, 1909, and climbed down into the pit to the very edge of the burn-
ing lake. As that journey, out of the several that I have made to the volcanic
region was an especially pleasant one, I venture to relate briefly the main inci-
dents of the outing since, to the tourist, as well as those who are so fortunate
as to live in Hawaii, the visit to Kilauea is one of the most interesting experi-
ences of a lifetime.

The trip from Honolulu to Kilauea is always pleasant and well worth mak-
ing, no matter whether the crater is active or not, The journey by boat, although
rough while crossing the channels between the islands is filled with varied and
delightful experiences for the traveler. The scenery from the steamer's deck is
everywhere and at all times most fascinating. The landing at Lahaina, Maui,
the quaint old capital of the group, the sunrise over the mountains at Kawaihae
Bay, and last and best of all the grand panorama along the Hamakua coast, the
glory of wrhich has already been referred to, form never-to-be-forgotten incidents.

The seventy miles that the steamer skirts the northeast or Hamakua side of
Hawaii affords a splendid opportunity to study the topography of the island
as a whole, but particularly in that section, and to note the great transformation
which the development of the island's sugar industry has brought about all
along the uplands in the foreground. Along the coast dozens of waterfalls,
varying in size from a mere silvery strand of water to mountain torrents, pour
over the abrupt sea cliffs and dash into the ocean below. Many of these
falls plunge down hundreds of feet in a single leap. As the vessel proceeds one
has little difficulty in counting as many as a dozen or fifteen good-sized falls
in sight at one time. All too soon the voyage is over and the landing at Ililo is
made.

HlLO.

The people of Ililo claim their town to be the most beautiful one in the
group. Almost daily showers cool the air and refresh the vegetation, and the
sea and mountain breezes remove the dampness that otherwise would produce a
moist, heavy climate. The soil of the valley is rich and deep, and being well
watered it is highly productive.

The location of the town is most charming with its fine bay, its improved
harbor, and picturesque Coeoanut island in the foreground. On the other hand
its background is formed by a superb view of Mauna Loa and Manna Kea in

176 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the distance. Every turn in the street invites one to linger or to turn aside
and explore. The subdued sound of a nearby waterfall, the gurgle of the shin-
ing river, the calling of the birds, the trees, the flowers, the twining vines, all-
cast a spell of peace and contentment over the place and make one feel he
could stay, yes, live, and be happy forever in this enchanted little city by the sea.
The natural points of special interest near Hilo for a tourist and a natural-
ist are Cocoanut Island, Rainbow Falls, Onomea Gulch and Arch, the Akaka
Falls,12 at Honornu, and the Kaumana caves in the flow of 1881, — caves that are
in reality great tunnels left by the escape of the lava from the conduits that
brought it down from the mountain in the distance. From Hilo it is possible
to visit the Puna district and the flow of 1840 as a side trip. The railroad to
Kapoho passes over this interesting surface outbreak described above and fur-
nishes an opportunity for its inspection. The district is also famous for the lava
tree casts caused by the lava flowing through the forests at Kapoho ; the Green
lake in a small extinct crater and the famous heiau, Wahaula.13 A warm
spring with a small pool in which the water is constantly at a temperature of
blood heat, and a number of small craters are all objects of interest.

The Ascent of Kilauea.

The journey from Hilo to the volcano may be made by the railway or by
the wagon road. By train one may go to Glenwood, twenty-two miles on the
journey. As the train rumbles along over a good road bed, through immense
plantations of sugar-cane, and splendid forests of hard-wood timber, by flourish-
ing mills and quiet retreats, one wronders if, after all, there has not been some
mistake, for nowhere can one see signs of the devastation by quaking earth and
blazing flood that are so intimately associated with the popular idea of a great
active volcano.

The whole journey from Hilo to the crater can be made by automobile.
If the railway route be# taken after the transfer at Glenwood, for an hour the
auto winds up over a gradually ascending macadam road, through a delightful
tropical forest. The splendid woods with wonderful clinging vines produce a
jungle of flowers and trees and shrubs and ferns. Great feathery fern, trees
lean out over the road so that the auto is driven beneath them. Occasionally
these giant ferns grow into a veritable forest with many trees thirty or forty
feet in height. Along the roadside bright flowers spring up that are often
familiar flowers run wild. Here a clump of Cannas or a bunch of fragrant
ginger; there a tangle of beautiful roses that have escaped from some abandoned
garden; farther on are great masses of nasturtium and wild morning-glories.
Objects of especial interest are the wild berries and the bananas by the wayside.
Thimble berries abound and are recognized as great glorified raspberries — an
inch or more in diameter. -The ohelo, an upland cranberry, grows in patches

12 500 feet.

18 A model of this heiau that the writer assisted in assembling, may be seen in the Bishop Museum.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 177

by the roadside. It was berries like these that were long* ago made an offering to
Pele. Tneir presence reminds one that we must be Hearing her domain.

Bundled up in winter wraps as a protection against the cool of the higher
elevation one finds it hard to realize that back yonder by the sea-shore, scarcely
4,000 feet below, groves of cocoanut trees are nodding in the languid warmth
of the tropical summer afternoon. But before long the auto rounds a curve
in the road and the Crater Hotel, a well-appointed though comparatively new
hostelry, is in sight. About a mile further is the old-established Volcano
House, the very personification of hospitality and good cheer. To the left and
just beyond the Volcano House, and until this moment hidden from view, looms
up the great caldera. Even then one can hardly realize that the journey to the
world's great inferno is really at an end.

First View of the C rater.

Those who are as enthusiastic as they should be join a horseback or an auto-
mobile party that very afternoon and ride down into the crater to get a view of
the eternal fires, for fear, as sometimes happens, they may have vanished before
the morrow. If worn from the journey and suffering from the effects of a
choppy sea while crossing the channels, the traveler may sit in the great observa-
tion room on the hotel lanai and rest and drink in the reflected grandeur of the
fires that, as darkness gathers, paint their fury on the fleecy white clouds that
silently drift over nature's great melting-pot, the dark outlines of which can be
traced by its own light reflected back from the sky.

In the morning the great crater looms out of the fog — black, silent and
sublime. The view in the early morning is most fascinating, but, as one's time
is always limited and as there are other sights to be seen near at hand, it is
customary to pay a visit to the sulphur beds before breakfast.

Steam Cracks and the Sulphur Bed.

It is a weird sight to see the steam rising from the cracks and crevices on
every side and to know that for years, centuries perhaps, these same exhausts of
steam have played without increased or diminished volume. It is not uncommon
to find a hotel servant busily engaged heating water over one of the nearby
steam cracks, preparing to wash the hotel linen. A few rods farther on past
the hotel the sulphur beds themselves are to be seen steaming and sparkling in
the morning sun. They cover several acres in extent and are a never-ending
source of delight and wonder. There perhaps for the first time one breathes
real sulphur fumes and realizes not only that the earth under foot is hot, too
hot to stand on in places, but that it is slowly being added to, bit by bit, as
nature quietly deposits there minerals in forms so delicate in structure, and
beautiful in color, that they crumble and dissolve as the wonderful yellow and
pink and white masses of newly-formed crystals are held in hand. While the
amount of sulphur deposited is not great it is in some cases quite pure. As the
sulphur is usually mixed with the red clay formed by the decomposition of

178 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the lava owing to the chemically charged steam, it is of value only as a curiosity,
and specimens of sulphur, sulphate of soda, lime and alumina are usually car-
ried awa}^.

Kilauea-iki.

A short expedition is usually made on foot to Kilauea-iki14 before de-
scending into the main caldera. The small lateral crater, while connected with
the larger one is, in many ways, really a side issue. It is less than half a mile
to the east of the north end of the main crater and a little over a mile from
the hotel.

It has not been active for more than half a century but in spite of that
it is full of interest to the geologist, as it is a splendid example of a pit crater.
It is 740 feet deep15 an clis more than half a mile1*5 across the top. In 1832
a severe earthquake shattered the wall which separated this crater from Kilauea
and large crevices opened in the sunken neck of land which unites the two
craters. From the earth rents along the south side of the isthmus a curious
flowr of brown lava ran to right and left, entering both the craters, but the
amount of lava emitted was very slight. Nevertheless, the lava as it entered
Kilauea over the bank formed a fall 200 feet in height that is plainly seen from
the Volcano House. The black shining lava floor in Kilauea-iki was a result
of the activity in the main crater in 1868 ; since then the smaller crater has been
quiet and apparently dead.

Keanakakoi.

To the south of Kilauea-iki and on the flat plain surrounding Kilauea at a
point almost due east of the pit of Halemaumau is a still smaller lateral crater'
with vertical walls known as Keanakakoi.17 The present floor of this pit, the
result of activity in 1877, is below the floor of Kilauea. It is of interest to note
that this crater derives its name from the fact that old-time Hawaiians found
there suitable material for the manufacture of their stone implements, but the
eruption just mentioned obliterated all trace of their workshop.

Both of these lateral craters are now skirted by the new automobile road
known as Echo Trail, a name due to the fact that five distinct echoes can be
heard from the west bank of Keanakakoi. The road leads down into Kilauea
at this point and crosses its floor to the pit, enabling one to run a motor car to
the very brink of Halemaumau with ease and safety.

The Descent Into the Main Crater,

As the descent into the main crater is the chief concern of the visitor and
is usually made on foot or on horseback, it is customary to make the start early
in the afternon, prepared to have a lunch beside the pit, in defiance of
Pele, just as Kapiolani did almost a century ago. However, no one should miss

1A Little Kilauea. ir» 867 feet below the Volcano House. 16 3300x2800 feet,
17 The workshop of the adzemaker.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 179

the view of the eternal fires by night, since the night view is even more wonder-
ful than the display by day.

With horses, staffs, guides, lanterns and lunches in readiness the start is
made. To reach the floor of the crater by the usual route the visitor must
descend several hundred feet by a bridle path that angles back and forth down
the face of old fault blocks that lie like steps one lower than the other, at the
north end of the crater at a point just below the Volcano House. The descend-
ing path leads down through a scrubby wood where native birds are to be seen
fluttering about, singing their carols with little regard or concern for the
spectacle so near at hand.

Arriving at the floor of the crater 481 feet below the Volcano House, one
turns to look back at the imposing wall known as Waldron ledge,18 with its
vertical face marking the extreme depth of the crater. Stretching away in the
opposite direction is the rough, irregular, glistening black floor of the crater.

Heat Cracks and Spatter Cones.

One of the first points of interest, after passing observation hill, is the
great crack that opened on the crater floor, fifteen or twenty feet wide and
half a mile long. It opened without warning a number of years ago (Novem-
ber 4th, 1889) while a party of visitors were down at the pit. On their way
back to the Volcano House they found this yawning gulf where they had passed
without fear but a few hours before.

The journey across the lava field is full of interest, especially to one on foot.
There are great hollow domes of lava one or two hundred feet long by twenty
or more feet in height to be climbed; cracks and fissures to be inspected and
many curious forms and freaks that the lava takes in cooling to be studied
or puzzled over. Then there are the steam crevices, and heat crevices, and
gas crevices to be examined and tested. An innumerable number of caves of
different sizes have been formed by the change brought about by the cooling
lava. Among the more important perhaps are Pele's reception room, as cool
and inviting as her kitchen is hot and oppressive. Here hundreds of visitors
have left their cards scrawled over with messages to the great goddess. Then
there are the curious stalactite caves where the walls and floors are covered with
tube-like stalactites and stalagmites formed from the mineral-charged water
which percolates through the porous lava.

The corral where equestrians dismount and tie their horses is a rough en-
closure beside the trail a quarter of a mile from the fiery lake. From it the
elevation to the edge of the pit is quite noticeable. Along the path the sulphur
cracks become more numerous. A little way to the right the heat issues from
the cracks over an area several acres in extent, that, owing to the deposits of
soda and sulphur, appears white against the dark lava that surrounds it. It is
here that tourists amuse themselves by scorching souvenir postal cards by tuck-

18 Named for the purser of the U. S. Exploring Exepdition (1840).

180 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

ing them into the crevices ; or by boiling coffee and frying bacon and eggs over
the escaping heat.

It is quite common to find scattered over the surface or collected in crevices
of the rock curious greenish and yellowish threads of spun-glass called Pele's
hair. When the fire lake is in violent ebullition small masses of lava are thrown
into the air as the fountains play. The threads, which are drawn out after the
fiery drops harden, are carried high by the uprising current of air from the pit
and are dropped later over the floor of the crater.

Close to the corral is a low spatter cone, the " little beggar/' which ap-
peared in 1884 when the lava was occasionally overflowing the top of the dome
which now surrounds the pit. Near at hand is "the devil's picture frame," a
hole in a small lava fall that ran down into a shallow cave in the crater floor.
Beginning at the spatter cone the trail winds up to the pit which is hidden from
view. After passing other spatter cones the visitor stands at last on the edge
of the great pit Halemaumau.

Halemaumau by Day and Night.

There, scarcely one hundred and fifty feet below the observer,19 is the burning
lake perhaps a thousand feet in diameter, — dancing, boiling, and flaring like a
gigantic blast-furnace crucible. A dozen or more splendid fire fountains leap
from its face and toss the molten basalt into the air. A great gushing lava
spring wells up from beneath, pouring out lava steadily, while the fountains
round about leap and dance in wTild unbridled fury. The heat is often so
intense that it is necessary to shield the face to prevent the skin from blistering.
The roar of the fiery furnaces is of a solemn, determined, indefinable character,
comparable in a way to that made by a heavy canvas flapping in a gale, or to
the resistless roar of a storm on a rock-bound coast. Now and then the wind
shifts and the fumes of sulphur drive one back from the edge, for breath. Occa-
sionally rocks loosen from their nitches in the shattered walls of the pit and go
bounding down the sides to melt away in the lake below.

The main body of the lake is usually covered over with large, irregular,
broken pieces of solidified lava that float on the liquid beneath like cakes of
ice in a river. As the fountains play, waves run out from them in all directions
and set the black cakes bobbing about in the lurid flood. Now and then the lava
shoots up a hundred feet in the air, and, as the falling discharge strikes the sur-
face again, waves roll across the lake and break, as surf, against the farther
wall. The observer is held in a spell of fascination for hours at a time.
As the daylight fades the fiery spectacle increases in brilliancy and beauty and
becomes more grandly majestic and imposing. The churning, seething mass
takes on more lurid, flaming hues, while the opalescent atmosphere over the pit is
resplendent with the most delicate ethereal tints that can be imagined. When
darkness finally falls the lake becomes as molten gold. Apparently one can
look not only into it but through it. The lines between the cooled dark masses

19 Conditions of December, 1909.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 181

are far more brilliant by night. Though not perceptible to one looking directly
into the pit there is a steady column of vapor rising straight over it to
high heaven, where, as it cools, a cloud is formed that becomes a pillar of fire by
night, visible thirty or forty miles at sea.

The wonderful and varied spectacle produces in some observers a sense of
profound reverence and awe, in others a spirit of wild, child-like glee. However,
one and all sooner or later grope as in the presence of the Great Unknown and
ask for an explanation of the wonders before them, so grand, so bewildering, so
terrible to contemplate.

In search of the answer to these questions men of science with delicate instru-
ments now camp day and night at the crater and record Pele's slightest whim
in the hope that some day, in some way, the explanation to the ages-old
question as to "the cause of the phenomenon of volcanoes" may be gained from
Pele herself. For the present the visitor must be content with theories and
superficial answers to almost every question.

It is evident, however, even to the most casual visitor, that Pele is in a
sullen mood and is at work filling up her great caldera, preparing for an out-
break or an overflow. Every few hours the lake recedes a few feet, only to well
up again, swelling each time higher than before. Kilauea is active and nearing
the flood tide. Doubtless before the lava rises much higher, the expected and
oft-repeated breakdown in the Avails of the great mountain will come, and the
fiery lake will vanish back into the bowels of the earth just as it has so often
done before.20

The tri x> back to the Volcano House is usually an uneventful and silent one
for all ; even the most frivolous have food for deep and reverent thought.

Side Trips from the Crater.

Those who are able to prolong their stay at the crater will find a number of
side trips may be made that will be full of pleasure and interest. Near Kilauea
may be seen tree molds formed in the solid lava, which, in remote time, flowed
through an ancient koa forest. In time the charred remains of the trees disap-
peared leaving their casts as great holes in the lava stream. Holes formed in
this way may be seen that are from six inches to six feet in diameter, which in
some cases are twenty feet deep.

Fossil tree moulds are quite plentiful in several places on Hawaii and ap-
pear to have been formed in different ways. In Puna hundreds of these
tree moulds stand above the flows, each marking the location of a tree. The
living tree was enveloped by the molten on-rushing lava, which quickly cooled
about the tree trunk forming a crust. As the wood burned away fresh lava
filled the inside of the mould. When the stream flowed on the lava flood re-
ceded, leaving the cast in some cases, in others the mould, standing above its
surface, forming a forest of tree trunks of stone. The living koa forest a couple
of miles beyond the Volcano House will give the visitor a glimpse of these giant

20 The lake of fire disappeared May, 1913, leaving the pit empty.

182 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

trees that were so much used by the old-time Hawaiians in their arts, and that
Europeans have found valuable in many was as a substitute for mahogany.

The Road to the Port of Honuapo.

Beyond the crater the road passes by the point Uwekahuna, which is 117
feet higher than the Volcano House and 601 feet above the lava floor of the
crater at the lowest point. It was from this spot that the volcano was first de-
scribed by Ellis. As the traveler proceeds southwestward towards the port of
Honuapo he passes close by the series of cracks that opened in the lateral slopes
of Kilauea in 1823 and again in 1869 to give forth copious flows of lava, Other
flows from Mauna Loa may be seen.

Near Punaluu a large underground stream of water runs into the sea, and
the coast line is clotted here and there by fresh water springs that in former
times were of value to the natives that lived in this district.

As the road continues from Honuapo into the Kau district it crosses several
recent lava flows from Mauna Loa, the eruptions of 1868, 1887 and 1907 having
already been mentioned. There the fields of aa, or rough lava, and pahoehoe,
or smooth lava, may be studied to advantage, and the wonders of a great lava
flow appreciated without leaving the automobile.

The Kona District.

The Kona district is made up of decomposed lava flows. Its soil is rich
and where well watered is covered with verdure. There are no rivers of conse-
quence in the district, the water being absorbed by the loose earth before it has
time to run far over the surface.

Along the shore line are numerous stone heiaus that are worthy of notice
since they have many interesting traditions connected with them. At Honaunau
is a famous ancient city of refuge which occupies six or seven acres of the low
rocky point on the south side of the little bay. A portion of the structure was
destroyed some years ago by tidal waves, though the walls were twelve feet high
and eighteen feet in width.

At Kealakekua Bay may be seen the monument to Captain Cook at Kaawa-
loa, on the spot where he was killed.21 Napoopoo is on the opposite side of the
bay, and it was there the chiefs lived and where Cook's vessels were anchored near
the shore. Beside a pond, overlooking the bay of Napoopoo, is the ruin of the
famous heiau where the great navigator wras worshiped by the Hawaiians as the
god Lono. At the head of the bay is a vertical cliff eight hundred feet in height
on either side of which recent lava streams have descended. The road from the
landing winds around the bay and over the cliff and continues northward to
Kailua past the great stone toboggan slide above Keauhou. This portion of the
island is rich and well watered and is given over to extensive coffee, sugar and
sisal plantations, while the mountains on the slopes of Hualalai are thickly
clothed with forests of koa and ohia.

21 February 14th, 1779.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 183

At Kaihia the traveler may take the steamer returning to Honolulu, having
practically completed the circuit of the island.

CHAPTER XIV.

CONDENSED HISTORY OF KILAUEA 'S ACTIVITY.

A Brief Chronology and History of Kilauea from the Earliest Records of
Its Eruptions Down to the Present, with Dates and Observations on
the Condition of the Lava in the Crater of Kilauea and the Pit of
Halemaumau.

The following condensed chronology and history of Kilauea and its active
pit, Halemaumau, has been drawn from the written testimony of a multitude of
observers, and is designed to give some important facts, dates and figures, as a
matter of reference, that were not suited to the more popular account of this
great volcano.

From the time of the first immigration, under the great Hawaiian Wakea,1
until the last and only historically recorded explosive eruption at the crater in
1789, when a portion of Keoua's army was overwhelmed, there appears legendary
and traditional evidence to prove that Kilauea was many times in active eruption.

In 1823, when first visited by Europeans, the crater was active and was being
emptied by a flow to the south which reached the sea in the district of Kau.
The lava dropped from 900 feet 2 to a point 1,700 feet below Uwekahuna, the
fixed datum point on the highest bluff on the west edge of the crater — the point
to which the rise and fall in the lava lake is herein referred.

In 1824 the crater was empty and the bottom left black and smoking. In
1825 it had still farther discharged, but by the end of the year was filling again.
By 1829 it had filled up 200 feet higher than when visited by the same observer
in 1825.

1832#. After the last date given (1829) the lava rose above the main crater
floor of the earlier period, which was some 300 feet below the floor of the crater at
present (1913). During the year (1832) the lava sunk again so that fire was
confined in the pit 400 feet down.

In January (1832) an earthquake rent the walls between Kilauea and
Kilauea-iki. Lava issued from the cracks thus opened and ran into both craters.

In 1834 Kilauea had subsided, and was much the same as when visited by
Ellis, who was its first chronicler.

In 1838 the lava was up to near the present level, and all over an area four
square miles in extent. During 1839 the crater continued very active, and by
the following year the lava lake was one hundred feet higher than in 1832.

In 1840 the crater was vented to the northeast by the Puna flow, which
reached the ocean. The lava dropped from 650 to 1,030 feet below the datum
point. By 1841 Halemaumau was filling again. Kilauea was visited during the

140 A. D. 2 300 feet below the present floor of the crater.

'r Years marked by eruptions on Mauna Loa.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 185

year by the U. S. Exploring Expedition party. In 1842 the crater was filling,
with a dike built up fifty feet above the surface. 1843.# Unusual activity in
Kilauea. The year 1844 saw the large lake 3 overflowing on every side. In 1846
continued overflows had built the floor of the crater up higher than it was prior
to the breakdown in 1840. During 1847 the main crater continued much as in
the previous year. In 1848 the lake crusted over, and the dome-shaped crust rose
two or three hundred feet high in the center ; this is the first dome to be noted
in the history of Kilauea.

In May, 1849# the crater was completely emptied by a hidden discharge.
The lava dropped from 350 to 1,030 feet below Uwekahuna. During 1852 great
quiet followed the eruption, but in due time the crater began to fill again. In
1852# it showed no sign of sympathy with the Manna Loa eruption. During
1854 it still remained quiet, but in 1855# activity returned, and by mid-summer
there were many fountains of leaping lava. In October it was less active, and
the dome over Halemaumau had fallen in ; the lava was about 1,200 feet below
the datum point.

By 1856 there wras little sign of activity, and during 1857 similar conditions
continued; the lake was about 600 feet in diameter. The following year (1858)
there was sluggish action in the pit beneath what was the old dome. In 1862
the lava pool in the pit had increased again to 600 feet in diameter.

The year 1863 saw continued and increased activity. During 1864 Hale-
maumau was 800 feet in diameter with the lava but fifty feet below the crater
floor. A cone was then active in the locality now marked by escaping steam
to the northwest of Halemaumau. In 1865 conditions were much as in the
previous year, but during 1866 a lava flow in the crater two miles in length
was reported.

In 1868* the crater slowly filled up by overflows from the "North Lake"
and from Halemaumau, until the whole central portion was considerably ele-
vated. By April the crater was very active. Earthquakes were numerous.
Eight lakes were in ebullition in the crater, and were frequently overflowing.
The great earthquake of April 2nd threw down fragments of the outer wall of
the crater, cracks opened and the lava flowed out, leaving two-thirds of the
bottom caved in from one to three hundred feet below the remaining floor, so
that the lava dropped from 600 down to 1,200 feet below Uwekahuna, and Hale-
maumau was emptied in three days. The discharge was at a point thirteen miles
southwest of the crater, and reached the ocean in Kau. Kilauea -iki was at this
time flooded over its floor with black, shining lava, the first to enter it since 1832.

3 Halemaumau. * Years marked by eruptions on Atauna Loa.

J>KK('KM'TlOX OF PLATK.

1. The "Little Begger"; a spatter cone by the trail on the way to the pit. 2. A tall
spatter cone near the northwest edge of Halemaumau. 3. The entrance to Mme. Pele ?s
reception room. 4. Popping corn over heat cracks in the crater. 5. The "Great Crack"
which opened in the floor of Kilauea in 1889. 6. The fire-place at the Volcano House — a
shrine famous for its hospitality, its history and its past associations. Before it have gathered
many of the world 's most distinguished men of science.

13

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 187

In 1869 lava was seen far down in Halemaumau. Two years later (1871)
Halemaumau had filled up to overflowing, and the lava ran two miles to the
north over the crater floor. By August the crater was emptied again. In
1872# Halemaumau again filled and was overflowing, but the action was confined
within the black dome, on the summit of which was the molten lake, on a level
with the black ledge about the crater, marking the height of former eruptions.

In 1874 the crater, after subsidence, became active again, and four small
lakes were reported. During 1875* two craters developed on the partially-filled
floor, to which lava had been gradually added by flows in the crater since the
activity of 1868. During 1876 activity in the south 4 and the north lake 5 con-
tinued with frequent overflows on the floor of the main crater about them.

By May, 1877* Halemaumau was empty again. During this year the pit
crater Keanakakoi was found to be filled with boiling lava. By September, 1878,
both "Makes" in the crater were very active again; several extensive flows from
them ran over the crater floor. In the early part of the year 1879 both lakes
were active, but on April 21st the bottom dropped out, the lava disappearing
within the pit from whence came much vapor and gas. By June both lakes were
active again, throwing up jets of lava above the rim of the lake. Later exten-
sive flows occurred on the main floor. On July 15th the sulphur bank in the
crater at the south end was set on fire by a flow from Halemaumau. During
1880# both lakes continued active.

During the period between 1865 and 1880, the outer wralls of the crater were
found to have completely changed. The floor was now raised in the form of a
broad flat dome, the apex of which was but 300 feet below the Volcano House,
or 417 feet below Uwekahune; while the lowest point on the floor was near the
north wall where the lava was 650 feet below the Volcano House. Throughout
the year 1881 both lakes continued active. During 1882 the same general con-
ditions continued with occasional flows on the crater floor. Similar conditions
to those of 1882 continued through the year 1883. The "Little Beggar"
spatter cone along the trail to Halemaumau was formed on March 31st, 1884. At
this time the "new lake" located beyond and to the left of Halemaumau
was active. In 1885 it was noted that there had been but little change in condi-
tions in the crater since 1882. The submarine eruption off Puna on January
22, 1884, was attributed to Kilauea. On March 6th, 1886, both Halemaumau
and the "new lake" were overflowing. Thirty-six hours later the lava in both
had sunk out of sight, leaving a hole 590 feet below the rim of Halemaumau, or
1,017 feet below Uwekahuna, but by the middle of July the lava had returned
again.

By August 1887# lava was overflowing from the edge of Halemaumau. Con-
ditions continued during 1888 about the same as in the preceding years, with the
exception that "Dana Lake," a small crater on the west of the main pit, was
quite active with occasional overflows. On November 4th, 1889, the very large
fissure on the floor of the crater ° opened without warning. The activity of the

4 Halemaumau. 5 Called Kilauea. 6 Now spanned by a brid

* Years marked by eruptions on Mauna Loa.

188 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

previous years at the pit continued throughout 1890 and gradually increased
during the year. Early in the year 1891 "Dana Lake" on the west, and the
"new lake" on the east of the main pit wrere in constant ebullition, but on March
7th the lava dropped out of the pit, which "smoked from the bottom." A month
later the fire had returned and the lava in the pit continued to rise and fall dur-
ing the year. By July, 1892, overflows from the edge of the pit occurred and
activity continued to the end of the year. Similar conditions continued through-
out the year 1893. By March 6th, 1894, Halemaumau, still very active, had
built itself up in a retaining wall, formed by the solidification of molten lava
splashing over the edge of the pit, until its surface was but 282 feet below the
Volcano House — the highest lake recorded in the history of the crater. The
floor of the crater had been added to by overflows from the pit during the pre-
ceding year.

In July the lava subsided in the pit, dropping 250 feet in ten hours. The
fire finally disappeared in December, leaving the pit empty during the following
year (1895). On January 3rd, 1896/ the fire returned, but on January 28th
disappeared. It reappeared on the bottom of the pit, 600 feet below the rim.
a few days later. After three weeks of very slight activity, it disappeared.
The fire returned for three days in June, 1897. In 1898 the pit was estimated to
be 800 feet deep.

A breakdown in the walls of Halemaumau occurred in 1900, filling the bot-
tom of the pit. By August 15th, 1901, a like had formed in the floor of the
pit. During 1902 the condition of the previous year continued with some varia-
tions for several months. At the time the wTriter made a survey for the model
in the Bishop Museum, the pit was 825 feet deep. During 1903# some slight
activity was noted far down in the pit. The crater was quiet during the year
1904, but in 1905 fire was again seen in the pit in March, and slight activity
continued throughout the year. The fire disappeared in 1906 leaving the pit
576 feet deep, but in December the pit became active.

By January, 1907, # the lake wras more active, wTith the lava steadily rising.
Later it receded, but by May it had become active again. The amount of fire
to be seen varied from day to day, but the lava continued to fill up the pit until
during the month of May the pit was estimated to be only 200 feet deep, with the
molten lake 800 by 400 feet. In the early part of 1908 the pool continued to
rise slowly and irregularly until it was within ninety feet of the level at the edge
of the pit. Later the lava receded, leaving a black ledge about the inner edge
of the pit. Since that time up to January, 1913, the lava was constantly boiling
with varying intensity, and at different levels.

During this long period of activity the crater has been visited by thousands
of tourists. Early in 1910 the new automobile road by way of Kilauea-iki was
completed into the crater, to a point within one hundred yards of Pele's abode
in the inner pit. Many have made use of it in making their visits to her
sanctuary.

* Years marked by eruptions on Manna Loa.

Natural History of Hawaii.

SECTION THREE

FLORA OF THE GROUP.

CHAPTER XV.

PLANT LIFE OF THE SEA-SHORE AND LOWLANDS.

The plant life of these highly isolated islands has always been a subject
of absorbing interest, and much has been done by botanists since the time of
Cook's memorable voyages towards putting a knowledge of the flora into an
orderly and systematic form. For those who contemplate a serious study of the
vegetation of the islands, the important volume of Dr. Hillebrand is, of course,
an essential, but for those who wish merely to know something of the more useful,
familiar or conspicuous plants, without going into the subject exhaustively, a
brief summary of the more salient features may here suffice.

The Island Flora.

We have elsewrhere had occasion to refer to Hawaii-nei as being so far removed
from the mainland of America and the islands of Polynesia that it is indeed
difficult to account for the presence of so varied and extensive a fauna and flora.
Nevertheless there is no very tangible geologic evidence, aside from the evidence
of a deep subsidence, to furnish ground for a belief that the islands in past
geologic time have been more closely connected with other lands than they are at
present. We therefore have here, if anywhere in the world, a truly virgin
flora — one of great tropical beauty and surpassing interest to students as well
as to travelers and holiday seekers who ramble off into the mountains and fields
or by the sea-shore in search of change from the common place of the city.

Those who have studied the matter assure us that the nearest land in the Pa-
cific that can be seriously considered as providing stepping stones that may have
been instrumental in giving Hawaii her original stock of plants are the Marquesas.
But since those islands, like all other lands and islands, are more than two thou-
sand miles distant and are separated from the Hawaiian group by the abysmal
depths of the ocean on all sides, the striking physical isolation of the group from
adjacent land areas is apparent. Aside from the intercourse that the Hawaiians
have had with the groups of islands to the south, an intercourse that undoubtedly
resulted in the bringing to the group of all of their more important economic
plants as elsewhere stated, the flora of the islands once established, seems to have
developed naturally and continuously for a very long period of time. The
development seems to have been continued to the present time without the com-
plications that elsewhere result from geologic changes, or other disturbing fac-
tors either from within or without.

189

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 191

Sources.

Of the movement of ocean currents and their effect as transporting agents,
we know but little. "Without doubt some plants are transported in this way.
As is well known the existing currents in the North Pacific move in a direction
that carries them toward the equator from along the shores of the colder Ameri-
can continent. Although Hawaii is in the direct path of this current, few
indeed have been the representatives of the North American flora that have
been brought to the islands. However, we are not sure that the currents have
always had their present motion or direction. It is possible that in by-gone
ages, long ago, the movement of the currents of the Pacific may have been re-
versed, so that various plants from the Australian, Polynesian and South Ameri-
can regions that are well known here, might have been carried to the islands by
them, in one way or another.

Number of Genera and Species.

The ability of birds to make long and direct flights is elsewhere referred to
and without doubt they have been able to bring a small per cent of the total
plant population of the islands. But be that as it may we find the flora of
Hawaii remarkable in that, in proportion to the entire number of plants, it has
more species that are peculiar to the group than are to be found in any other
region of the same area in the world. If we take the total number of plants,
including those which have been introduced and have become generally natural-
ized since the coming of Captain Cook, and include those undoubtedly intro-
duced by the Hawaiians themselves, we have a grand total, for the native and
introduced flora, of approximately a thousand species of flowering plants and a
trifle over one hundred and fifty species of cryptogamic or spore-bearing
plants, making a list, including recent species, of perhaps twelve hundred in
all. These are divided by Dr. Ilillebrand into three hundred and sixty-five
genera, of which three hundred and thirty-five are flowering plants and thirty
are cryptogams. It should be remembered of course that this number is being
added to and altered and rearranged from time to time, through continued re-
search. It is, however, sufficiently accurate to indicate the character of the
flora.

Endemic and Introduced Plants.

If we exclude from the total list as above given those known to have been
introduced by the Hawaiians and Europeans we find over eight hundred and

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

in a rain forest. In the Lauhala tree (Pandanus odoratissimus) is a bird's nest fern [Ekaha]
(Asplenium nidus) in its natural habitat, The Ohia (Metrosideros polymorpha) trees in the
background are overrun with leie (Freycinetia Arnotti) while in the foreground several genera
of ferns can be recognized among them Sadlcria, Cibotium, Asplenium, Aspidium, and the like.
3. A famous tree fern [Heii] " (Cibotium Menziesii) surrounded by a jungle of Sadleria,
Aspidium and other genera of ferns which abound in the moist woods of Hawaii. 4. Wild
Bananas [Maia] (Musa sapientum) and cultivated Coffee (Cofea Ardbica) growing in a
forest clearing.

)\ I'l.AVI'x l-'KuM Kui'KV coasts \M> sANDV SIK >!;!•>

/*/.

FLORA OF THE GKOUP. 193

sixty species distributed over two hundred and sixty-five genera that are to be
regarded as the original inhabitants of Hawaii. Of this number more than six
hundred and fifty species are found nowhere in a natural state outside of Hawaii
and are therefore endemic, precinctive or peculiar to the group.

The number of endemic plants found on the different islands of the
group varies in a way contrary to what might naturally be expected, as the
number is largest on Kauai and smallest on the large island of Hawaii. This
seems to be in accordance with geologic facts. Since, as has elsewhere been
said, Hawaii as a whole is regarded by geologists as the youngest of the islands
geologically, it is reasonable to conclude that the number of endemic plants oc-
curring on it, or on any of the islands, furnishes a fair index to the relative age
of that particular island. Thus Kauai, which stands fourth in area, stands
first in her list of species, and the species are as a rule much better defined
than are those on the younger islands of the group.

Much that is interesting has been learned by tracing the orgin and affinities
of the plants of the Hawaiian group. This is done by carefully following out
the relationship of the various genera, families and orders with a view to finding
if possible the place from which they have been distributed in times past. Since
there are no fossil plants in Hawaii it is necessary to rely entirely on the geo-
graphical method of determining the source and relationship of the native flora.

If the two-thirds of the list of the plants that are found nowhere else be
left out of account, we find that the remaining one-third has come from various
sources, in many instances far remote from the islands, by routes often diffi-
cult to trace. On the other hand there are species that are widely distributed
throughout Polynesia that are only allied to American forms. Many others are
of Asiatic origin with Polynesian affinities. A small number have been con-
tributed by Australia, while a limited number are of African origin. Still
other species are almost world-wide in their distribution.

Variation in the Flora prom Island to Island.

The plant life of the several islands of the group not only varies as to the
character of the flora found on each, but each individual island varies in its
flora in different localities to a certain extent, showing adaptations that accord
with variations in altitude, soil, wind and the amount of rainfall. This is true
to such a degree that no two valleys will have exactly the same plants, and
each excursion into the mountains is liable to be rewarded by bringing to light
something not seen elsewhere and possibly not even known heretofore in the plant
world.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

diffusa), see also No. 7. 5. Pauohiiaka (Jacquemontia Sandwicensis) . 6. La Platte Tobacco
(Nicotiana glauca). 7. Alena (Boerhaavia diffusa). 8. Nohu (Tribulus cistoides). 9.
Akoko (Euphorbia cordata). 10. Maiapilo (Capparis Sandwichiana) . 11. Pili (Andropo-
gon = (Heteropogon) eontortus) . 12. Beacli Sandalwood [Iliahi] (S ant alum Freycinetianum
var. littorale). 13. Beach Morning-glory [Pohuehue] (Ipomoea pes-eaprw) . 14. Beacli grass
(Sporobolus Virginicus) . 15. Five-fingered Morning-glory [Koali ai] (Ipomoea tuberculata).
16. Carex sp. 17. Akulikuli (Sesuvium Portulacastrum) . 18. Alaalapuloa (Waltheria
Americana) .

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 195

Hill^brand and others have found it convenient to group the flora of the
islands into different zones based mostly on the elevation they occupy. There
are six of these arbitrary zones that with a little experience can easily be recog-
nized since their floras are more or less well defined though, of course, intergrad-
ing from one zone to another to some extent.

Floral Zones: The Lowland Zone.

For the purpose of this sketch of the flora of the Hawaiian Islands it will
suffice to speak of a few of the more important plants in each zone, beginning
at the sea-coast, where there is a peculiar strand vegetation, and from there make
an ideal ascent of the mountains, taking one zone after another until the summit
of the highest mountains have been explored.

Starting with the plants of the lower zone we have species that thrive at
the sea-shore, often at the very water's edge. This is known as the littoral flora
and always grows along the sea-shore or the margin of brackish water, usually
within sound of the sea. It seems to be indifferent to the salt in the soil.
Almost all of the plants of this zone are ocean-borne and widely distributed
species. As a rule they have fleshy stems and leaves and possess great vitality.
They may be uprooted by the waves, borne out to sea by the tides, and carried
away for long distances by the currents, to be set out again by the action of
the waves on some foreign shore. The plants found growing on Midway, Lays an
and Lisiansky, and in fact all the low Pacific islands and shores, are of this
littoral type. On Laysan the writer collected twenty-six species that must all
owe their origin to the method of transplanting just described.

Common Littoral Species.

There is very little variation in temperature and conditions at the sea-shore
throughout the group, and as a result we generally find the condition of plant
life fixed and uniform on all of the islands. The same littoral species may occur
wide-spread about the shore of the different tropical islands, while the genus
to which the species belongs may be represented inland where conditions are
more variable by several species, often one or more such species being peculiar
to each island where the genus occurs. An interesting example of this is found
in the case of the genus Scoevola — the naupaka of the natives with a wide
spread shore species.1 The species of the genus are all small shrubs bearing
white or pale blue and occasionally yellow flowers that are peculiar in that the
corolla is split along the upper side to its base. Owing to this peculiarity the

1 Sccevola Lobelia.

Description of Plate.

1. Hawaiian Mahogany [Koa] {Acacia Jcoa) from the koa forest near the volcano
Kilauea. 2. Tree Ferns (Cibotium sp.) in the fern jungle near the Volcano House. 3.
Lichens on trees; a chareteristie of the forests above 2000 feet. 4. Lauhala {Pandanus odor-
atissimus) by the sea-shore on Hawaii. 5. Staghorn Fern [Uluhe] (Gleichenia linearis).
6. A Staghorn Fern tangle near the volcano Kilauea. 7. Wiliwili (Erythrina monospermy) .
8. Apeape {Gunner a petaloides), showing the comparative size of its splendid leaves.

I'I.atk :>:;. twkn'tv r<>M mon \vi-;i

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 197

natives have- woven a pretty pathetic story about the blossom which tells of
how twTo lovers, who had long been fond of each other, one day quarreled and
parted. As a token of the unhappy event the maiden tore this flower down the
side. This was a sign by which her sweetheart might know that she loved
him no longer, nor would she care for him until he should find and carry to her a
perfect naupaka flower. The lover went in desperation from one bush to an-
other and from one island to another searching through the flowers, hoping to
find a blossom that wras not torn apart. But alas, he was doomed to disappoint-
ment and it is said that he died of a broken heart. That was long, long ago ; but the
naupaka still blooms always with a slit down the side of the flower, no doubt, as a
warning to petulent maidens that it is unsafe to interfere with the laws
of nature. Be that as it may, through the long ages since (and longer ages
before) this shrub has been blooming on the different islands, and creeping
higher and higher into the mountains, and has slowly adapted itself to the changes
of soil, elevation and climate until several distinct species and a number of
varieties have been formed.

Another characteristic plant of this zone is the sea morning-glory,2 the
pohuehue of the natives. This species with its thick bright green leaves, lobed
at the tip, that grow on thrifty creeping stems which root down from the joints,
bears dusky pink flowers familiar to every one who has strolled along the sea
shore anywdiere in the tropics.

A near relative of the above found on the sand beach on lowlands is the na-
tive island morning-glory 3 or koali. It is recognized by its heart-shaped leaves
and azure blue flowers that become reddish as they fade. The natives used its
root in their medicine as a cathartic, and also used it as a poultice for bruises
and broken bones.

Associated with these, often growing together with them, is a third species
of morning-glory4 or Convolvulus, the " koali ai." It is found in dry
rocky soils near the shore and is recognized by its having the leaves cut into five
fingers and its blossoms beautiful purplish-red flowers. It is of more than pass-
ing interest since, as the name implies, the natives ate its tuberous roots in times
of scarcity. They also wilted and used its stems for coarse cordage. That the
natives should use this root as food is not so odd as it at first seems when we
remember that the sweet potato 5 or uala, a near relative with more than twenty

2 Ipomoea pes-caprce. s Ipomoea insalaris. 4 Ipomoea tuberculata. n Ipomoea Batatas.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

low Wood-Sorrel (Oxalis corniculata) . 7. False Geranium, "Cheeses" (Malva rotundifolia).
8. Sow Thistle [Pualele] (Sonchus oleraceus). 9. Eattlebox (Crotalaria sp.). 10. Spanish
Needles (Bidens pilosa). 11. Common Amaranth (Euxolus viridis). 12. Stick-Tight Grass
fPiipii] (Chrysopogon verticillata) . 13. Paupilipili (Besmodium uneinatum = Meiobemia
uncinaius). 14. Purslane [Ihi] (Portulaca oleracea). 15. Nut Grass [Kaluha] (Kyllingia
monocephala. 16. Thorny Amaranth (Amarantus spinosus). 17. Dog's Tail or Wire
Grass (Eleusine Indica), 18. Garden Grass (Eragrostis major). 19. E dipt a alba, common
about taro ponds, etc. 20. Crow-foot (Chloris radiata). (No number) Garden Spurge
(Euphorbia pilulifera).

)M.Mi>N J'1..\N'I>

rill-: K1RL!>K AXD RUAMKIhK i(),\l
Km, ,f„nl,„ s,,l,.;,r,i,it,t). .-.. II;,, i (/

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 199

varieties, was one of the principle sources of vegetable food used by the natives
at the time of the discovery of the islands.

Associated with the foregoing is an interesting plant, the kipu kai,6 one of
two species of heliotrope which occurs on the low littoral zone. As the Hawaiian
name implies it is invariably found near the sea. Both species, however, usually
grow on the raised coral rock or the dry lava flows rather than the sand of the
shore. The pure white flowers are in small compact clusters on a low prostrate,
wiry stem. The close rosettes of thick silky leaves distinguishes the second
species 7 at once from the smooth-leafed larger form with the longer spikes of
white flowers.

Account of the pickle weed (akulikulikai)8 should here be taken since it is a
common and conspicuous plant in brackish water marshes about Honolulu and
Pearl Harbor and one that is rapidly spreading to other localities.

Still another plant that is of interest, especially to the small boy, is the
nohu.9 It is sometimes called Mahukona violet by reason of the fragrance of
its flowers. The plant is a trailing hairy vine-herb with usually eight pairs of
small leaflets to the leaf. The blossoms are yellow and an inch or more across.
But the feature of particular interest is the horny seed pods each segment of
which is armed with twin spines. The bare-footed boy who steps on one of these
pods as it lies buried in the sand is liable to remember the experience for a long
time.

A common and interesting species in the lowlands along the shore or at the
mouths of streams where the water is not too brackish is the akaakai or bul-
rush 10 with its long, gradually tapering naked stems, three to six feet or more
in height. But there are many plants, sedges and grasses in this zone, common
on or near the sea-shore of the group, that are all so widespread in their general
distribution that they form a list too extensive to receive mention here.

Such plants as the polinalina T1 with the underside of the leaves and flowers
nearly white; the nehe,12 a low prostrate plant with small, thick, veinless, silky-
haired leaves; the beach sandalwood,13 a low shrub with thick, fleshy, pale green
leaves; the maiapilo,14 a straggling shrub with smooth leaves and large showy
many-stamened white flowers; the moa or native cotton,15 a low shrub with hoary
white, three-to-five-lobed leaves and sulphur-yellow hibiscus-like flowers; the
pololo or dodder,16 a leafless thread-like twining parasite, as well as such trees as

6 Heliotr opium Curassavicum. 7 II eliotr opium anomalum. 8 Bails maritima.

9 Tribulus cistoides. 10 Scirpus lacustris. 1X Vitex trifolia. 12 Lipochceta integrifolia.
13 Sayitalum littorale. 14 Capparis Sandwichiana. 15 Gossypium tomentosum.
16 Cuscuta Sandwichiana.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

Mexicana). 6. Hinahina (Heliotorpium anomalum). 7. Job's Tears {Coix lacryma-
Jobi). 8. Sedge (sp. indet). 9. Mint (sp. indet). 10. Bullrush [Akaakai] {Scirpus
lacustris). 11. Lantana {Lantana Camara). 12. Kolu {Acacia Farnesiana). 13, Jimson
Weed [Kikania] {Datura Stramonium). 14. "Opium' ' tree [Opiuma] {Inga dulcis = Ptihe-
coloohun didce). 15. Club Rush {Scirpus palustris).

■m.

em

«tltiL.

If

■■■i5.r;.-,fe

wf

l:*I

'«-;;<

vtA-

.1. Tv, •;.?;,]. :

J'nr-sl i.n.dc in

v.ia.l t«. Kil.-in.-:.. .1. Tv
mi l'iwiIi nr vines. A

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 201

the milo,17 nju,18 kou,19 kamani20 and the noni21 are all liable to occur at or
near the strand and to attract notice.

Plants from the Sea-Shore to the Edge of the Forest.

The second zone begins at the sea-shore and extends back to the lower edge
of the forest area and reaches up perhaps a thousand feet or more on the slopes
of the mountains. This is termed the lowland zone. It is open country, usually
covered with grass after a rain, with isolated trees scattered here and there, repre-
senting comparatively few genera. Being either arid, sandy or rocky the region
nowhere, except possibly in the valleys and along the windward side, produces
anything like a luxuriant vegetation. It is in this zone that man has longest
had his dwelling and has cultivated, cleared and panted most; therefore since
the coming of foreigners and the extension of irrigation and the cultivation of
field crops on a large scale the native plants have all but disappeared from this
costal or lowland area. They must now be sought in the most unpromising
agricultural districts, as about the base of tuff-cones like Diamond Head ; or
along the lava ledges not accessible to animals ; or better still, on old lava flows
too rough or too dry for tillage.

One of the most common, persistent and useful of the native trees of this
zone is the hau.22 The tree is very nearly related to the Hibiscus of the gar-
dens from which it can be separated by the fact that in the hau the bracts of
the flowers are united to form an eight-to-ten-lobed cup. It is common from
the sea-shore to 1500 feet elevation and is a freely-branching tree growing in a
snarl, forming almost impenetrable thickets that sometimes completely fill small
valleys. It is a favorite tree with the Hawaiians and is frequently utilized as
a shade over arbors and lanais. The light wood served as outriggers for the
native canoes, the tough bark made pliable rope, and the bark and flowrers were
used as an important medicine. The flowers are yellow one day and the next day
mauve, and according to Hillebrand double blossoms are occasionally found
near the sea-shore.

Very closely related to the foregoing is the milo.2a Like the hau the numerous
large, showy yellow7 blossoms make the milo an attractive tree which often at-
tains a height of forty feet or more. It is somewhat difficult for the novice to
recognize the tree as a distinct species. The flower bracts, however, are free and
only three-to-five in number, and the seed pods are an inch and a half in dia-
meter, almost as hard as horn, and hang on the tree long after the seeds have
ripened.

17 Thespesia populnea. 18 Cocos nucifera. 19 Cor din siibeordata. 20 Calophyllum Inophyllum.

21 Morinda citrifolia. 22 Paritium tiliaceum. 23 Thespesia populnea.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

stem corduroy road leads through the Ohia forest which is draped with Ieie vines. To the
extreme right and left are graceful tree ferns, while in the foreground are a number of ferns
and under-shrubs characteristic of the region. 4. View along the Volcano House road show-
ing a number of introduced plants that have escaped into the forest.

14

I'LATK :.(.. M'KI'l

»M.M<).\ l'I.A>

I'lll-: I.iiWKI! I-'OUKST .;<")AII!"

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 203

Milo occurs generally over the Pacific islands and was formerly much used
by the natives in various ways, but especially in making wooden dishes, cala-
bashes and other household utensils. In many parts of the Pacific the tree is
held in religious veneration, being planted in or about the native temples, but
this does not seem to have been the case in Hawaii.

Two species of native cotton are found in this zone. The one with sulphur-
colored flowers is called mao 24 ; the one with brick-red flowers is the kokio 25
of the natives. Both species, unfortunately, are rarely met with and tlxe cultiva-
tion of either as a garden shrub would be most commendable. In this
same region and belonging to the same order 2B as the foregoing are found the
four or five species of ilima.27 They are all low shrubs two to six feet high,
with single yellow flowers. The flowers are much prized and have been used for
centuries by stringing them together one on top of another on fibers of olona,
to make garlands or leis. They are often called the national flower of Hawaii,
having long been the favorite flower of Hawaiian royalty.

The ohe 28 is also a tree of this region, and though in no way resembling
the bamboo, the latter has been given the same name by the natives. It is a
low scrubby, thick-trunked tree fifteen to twenty-five feet high growing on ex-
posed open hillsides and is one of the rarer trees of the region. The leaves are
a foot long and bear from seven to ten ovate leaflets. These are ]ost in the
winter, the flowers appearing before the leaves in the spring.

The wiliwili 29 is better known than the foregoing and resembles it in shape
and habit. The "coral tree," as it is often called, is to be seen in the city,
though unfortunately it is becoming yearly more rare in its native habitat — -the
open country — where it was formerly a common tree on the rocky hills and plains
in the lower open regions on all the islands. The tree rarely grows more than
twenty-five feet high and belongs to the bean family, or Lcguminosm. It has the
trunk and limbs armed with short, stiff thorns. The broad spreading crown of
stiff, gnarled, whitish branches bearing bean-like leaflets can hardly escape the at-
tention of the observer; but should it be in flower (its flowers open before the
leaves come out) the wealth of red, orange, or yellow blossoms will be a subject of
admiration and remark by the merest holiday rambler. The pods are from an inch
and a half to three inches in length with from one to several reddish bean-
shaped seeds a half inch or more in length. It is not to be mistaken for the
tree in parks and grounds bearing the small disk-shaped seed called wiliwili or
red sandalwood30 of tropical Asia, that produces the red lense-shaped "Oir-

24 Gossypium tomentosum. 25 Gossypium drynarioides. 26 Malvaceae. 2r Sid,a spp.
28 Reynoldsia Sandwicensis. 29 Erythrina monosperma. 30 Adenanthera pavonina.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

pepe (Draccena aurea). 6. Hauhele (Hibiscus Amottianus). 7. Alaalawainui (Peperomia
•sp.). 8. Kopiko (Straussia Mariniana). 9. Native Ginger [Awapuhi] (Zingiber Zerum*
bet). 10. Naupaka (Sccevola Chamissoniana) . 11. Koa (Acacia Koa). 12. Kalia (Elmo-
carpus bifidius) with diseased inflorescence. 13. Uki (Dianella ensifolia). 14. Uhi (Smilax
Sandwicensis) .

204 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

cassian seeds" which are curiosities with travelers and used extensively in Hawaii
for leis or necklaces.

The wood of the wiliwili is very light, said to be lighter than cork, and was
much used by the ancient Haw^aiians for making the float log of the outrigger
for their canoes and also as floats on their fish nets.

Another useful plant native to this region, though not well known, is the
Hawaiian soap plant or anapanapa 31 which grows to be a large shrub with small
greenish flowers.

The only really common flowering plant of the islands among the small
forms is the Mexican thistle or puakala. It occurs in dry rocky situations on
the leeward side of the islands and groAvs erect and stiff and from two or six
feet in height. It boldly displays the large, attractive white terminal flowers
that are three inches or more in diameter. Its flowers are amply guarded
with a mass of whitish prickly leaves. Though thoroughly naturalized and
found by the first collectors, this thistle-poppy was undoubtedly introduced from
the warmer parts of North America.

One of the most characteristic and abundant native trees of the region, how-
ever, is the picturesque Pandanus, better known as lauhala32 or hala by the
natives. It is common on the dry plains and about settlements of the lower
regions everywhere, frequently growing down on the sand beach. The stout
branching trunks and numerous aerial roots growing out of the trunk, as well
as the base of some of the branches, are well known peculiarities of the plant.
It has long linear leaves crowded into a head at the end of the branches. The
leaves are of great value to the natives, since from them they plait the mats,
fans, and other articles, elsewhere described, that are so serviceable. The
fibrous wood of the old trees is very hard and capable of taking a high polish
and in recent times has been used in making the modern turned wooden bowls
or calabashes. Picturesque as the lauhala tree is, its principal charm to the
natives is in the bright orange-red fruit from which they will continue to string
leis so long as there are natives left to wear them. The base of the fruit con-
tains a small, rich, edible nut — about the only native nut in Hawaii worth eating.

The Pandanus occurs widespread over Polynesia. The seeds will stand
saturation in sea water for months without loosing their vitality. Hence they
can be readily transported by ocean currents and planted by sea waves. In
addition to the wride geographical range of the plant, geologists tell us that its
ancestors were alive and flourishing in the Triassic period in Europe. It is said
to be among the oldest and most persistant of plants, and one that in every way
is fitted to take part in the pioneer work of starting plant life on a new-born
oceanic island; it is therefore strange that it has not been established in some
wray on the low coral islands of this group.

In this same lowland zone occurs the Hawaiian dodder or pololo,33 a species
that also extends its range down to the strand. This curious member of the

31 Colubrina Asiatica, 82 Pandanus odoratissimis. 3S Cuscuta Sandwichiana.

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 205

convolvulus family is a golden yellow leafless parasitic vine that begins
life as a herb with a twTining stem. AVhen it comes into contact with
a suitable tree, shrub or vine it twines itself about it, and at the place where
it twines about the host plant it develops suckers which sap from the tree all
the nourishment the dodder requires for its growrth. Finally the roots of the
parasite die and the ignoble plant continues to live on its victim much as the
mistletoe does. In various places about the group as in Kan on Hawaii,
it covers the bushes and the plant growth over hundreds of acres of the low
lands.

Introduced Plants.

As has been said, the region from the sea-shore up to and above one thou-
sand feet elevation has been most used by man, and as a result the character
of the flora has been changed by many plants, both of native and European in-
troduction, that have here found congenial surroundings.

A noteworthy example of undoubted Hawaiian introduction is the noni.34
It is a small tree with stout angular branches clothed with thick, smooth, green
leaves six or eight inches long by half as broad. The tree is most easily recog-
nized by its curious potato-like greenish fruits. They are fleshy and juicy, but
insipid to the taste, and are very fetid while decaying. The noni occurs all over
Polynesia from the strands up several hundred feet in the valleys, and in former
times was cultivated as a dye plant by the Hawaiians, who secured a yellow
dye from the roots and a pink dye from the bark. With the addition of salt
they also secured a blue color that was very permanent.

Of the plants that have escaped from European introductions only a few
of the more conspicuous or interesting can be mentioned. Next to the lantana per-
haps the Verbena or oi,35 an erect perennial three to six feet high with spikes
of small lilac-blue flowers, is one of the most troublesome introductions, especi-
ally wThere large tracts of land are used for pasture. The cassia flower 30 or
kolu bean was an early introduction into the islands and grows luxuriantly along
the road sides and elsewhere in unproductive regions. Its finely pinnate leaflets
and yellow, sweet-scented ball-like flowers are characteristic of this bush, but are
no better known to the cross-country rambler than are their sharp needle-like
spines. India furnishes tons of the dried blossoms of this plant to commerce,
and France, we are told, has plantations devoted to the culture of this or a
closely allied species, the aromatic blossoms of which are much used in the manu-
facture of perfume. Experiments have proven that the quality of the Hawaiian
grown flowers, if properly dried, excel in fragrance those grown and cured in
India.

Perhaps a dozen species of Acacia are grown in Hawaii, some of which have
established themselves in the open. With these should be mentioned several
species of the genus Cassia, belonging with their cousin the kolu to the great
order of pod-bearing plants 3T that are both wild and cultivated.

34 Morinda citrifolia. 35 Verbena Bonariensis. 36 Acacia Farnesiana. ST Leguminosm.

FLORA OP THE GROUP. 207

The nearly related fake koa 3S with white ball-like blossoms often an inch in
diameter is one that has escaped and become common. Its seeds, known as
mimosa seeds, are about the size of those of an apple and are used by the natives
in making leis and other ornaments for sale to tourists.

The wild indigo or iniko 3U of the natives growing two to five feet high, with
small leaflets in from two to eight pairs to the leaf, is an introduced weed. It
was brought in 1836 from Java by Dr. Serriere who, it is said, was able to
manufacture a good grade of indigo from it. The species is of American origin,
but is now grown in many countries in preference to other indigo-yielding
species. This plant is frequently confused with the native plant ahuhu or
auholo 40 found growing in the same region and very closely resembling the
indigo in size and general appearance. The latter, however, has the flowers and
seed terminals on opposite leaves. The pods of the ahuhu are easily recognized,
being two inches long and straight, while those of the indigo are a half inch long,
much incurved and usually thickly crowded together on the stems.

The ahuhu was much used by the natives for stupifying fish, as the plant
possesses a narcotic property similar to that of digitalis. It is said to have a
similar effect on the action of the heart.

The common Vinca,41 a native of tropical America, has escaped in many
places and, as about Ilalawa on Molokai, flourishes on the rocky hillsides in the
open country below the forest line.

Black-eyed susans, or Indian licorice,42 known to some as prayer beads,
has also escaped. The plant has leaflets in seven to ten pairs each about half
an inch in length. The flowers are pink or pale purple and are followed by
pods an inch or so long filled with scarlet seeds, each with a black spot at the
base. The plant probably came originally from Asia, but it is now scattered
everywhere. Its seeds, like so many other introduced seeds, are worn in Hawaii
in the form of leis.

Job's tears,43 like the foregoing, no doubt escaped from the gardens of the
early missionary settlers and found a congenial soil along the water courses,
ponds and waste places in the lowlands. The plant is corn-like in appear-
ance, and the large, white, shining fruits have some resemblance to heavy drops
of tears, hence its fanciful name. The plant was originally a native of eastern
Asia but is now found everywhere in gardens.

With the foregoing should be mentioned the Canna or Indian shot.44 The
common species that has escaped grows along the streams and has been widely
scattered about the valleys on the different islands. The flowers are generally
red but are frequently yellow7 and are often variegated as well. The round
black seeds are responsible for the English name though the plant is known
to Ilawaiians as aliipoe. Other species of Canna have escaped, especially on
Hawaii, where this genus, which belongs in the same family as the banana, finds
conditions especially favorable for its growth.

38 Leucwna glauca. 3t> Indigofera Anil. 40 Tephrosia piscatoria. 41 Vinca rosea.
42 Abrua percatorius. 4:i t'oix lacryma — C. lae ry ma -J obi. 44 Canna Indica.

208 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Watercress 45 is in reality a species of Nasturtium. It was an early arrival
and has spread in the streams about Honolulu and the islands generally. It is
the same species as that so much esteemed as a food in Europe. While it flour-
ishes in Hawaii and is especially fine in flavor, it rarely flowers. The air-plant 4G
is another escaped plant. It grows two to five feet tall with erect fleshy stems
and large, thick, ovate leaves, and has green bell-shaped nodding flowers tinged
with reddish yellowr. The air-plant is a familiar species in suitable localities
of the lowrer levels. While it is a native of Africa, it flourishes here and is a
well knowrn curiosity owing to the fact that a leaf left lying on the table will
begin to grow from the crenate notches along its edge, apparently deriving its
sustenance from the air.

Grasses.

Grasses of various species, both native and introduced, form the principal
field vegetation of the costal region. No fewer than three dozen genera of
grasses have been recognized in Hawaii by botanists. Many genera found in the
lowlands enjoy a considerable range, extending well up into the mountains, and
have numerous species of more or less importance. Of the genus Panicum fifteen
species and several doubtful varieties have been recorded by Hillenbrand and
others. They are found in various places under varying conditions throughout
the group. At least a half dozen and perhaps more introduced species belong-
ing to this genus are common in the cultivated districts.

The original manienie 47 that formerly occupied the lowlands up to 2,000
feet elevation, belongs to a different genus from the creeping grass introduced
in 1835 which is the familiar grass 48 of the yards about the city. The former
is a coarser grass creeping with ascending branches six to eight inches long
bearing four to eight pairs of leaves. The latter has slender rooting stems, with
four to eight pairs of alternate leaves with three to six spikes, an inch or more
long, at the end of the stem. Owing to its creeping habit it has been called by
the natives manienie. It forms a dense mat in pasture lands and has crowded
out other grasses up to the upper limit of the lowland zone. It is of great-
use in dry, sandy pastures as it binds down the soil and thrives where other
grasses fail, since its roots penetrate deep down in the loose soil. Like the
algaroba tree, which is a similar fortuitous introduction occupying this zone,
it is a most valuable acquisition to the island flora from every point of view.

Two species of Paspalum occur in this zone; one, the well known and
generally despised Hilo grass,49 occurs in moist, heavy soils in the lower zone and
grows well into the higher regions in suitable places. The Hilo grass, which is
an introduced species as has been said, has crowded out almost every other
species of grass where it has gained a foothold. It is a large, rank grass, taller
than the native species, growing two to four feet high, and has two spikes at

45 Nasturtium officinale. 46 Bryophyllum calycinum. 4~ Stenotaphrum Americannm.
48 Cynodon dactylon. 49 Paspalum conjugatum.

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 209

the top of the stem, a peculiarity separating it at once from the smaller species 50
having three to six alternately arranged spikes.

The well known pili grass r>1 is an important species in this zone, as is also
the kakonakona.52

Two plants formerly commonly grown in the lower zone by the Hawaiians
were their calabash and bottle gourd vines. The calabash gourd r>3 is a prostrate
climber with lobed leaves and large yellow flowers bearing large depressed globe-
shaped red, green or yellow fruits, sometimes two feet or more in diameter.
While the original country from which this useful gourd came is unknown, it
w7as common in Hawaii at the time the islands were discovered by Cook, but
does not seem to have been known in the rest of Polynesia until after the coming
of the white man. As has elsewhere been explained, the hard shell of the
ipu nui was made use of as containers for food, water and clothing.

The bottle gourd 54 differs from the foregoing in having the leaves undi-
vided, the flowers white and the fruit elongate, often measuring four feet or
more in length. The ipu grows on a thrifty musk-scented vine that was largely
cultivated by the natives of most tropical countries and, unlike the ipu nui, it
was well known all over Polynesia. The hard, woody shell of the fruit served
as war masks, bula drums, containers (as water bottles) and in many other
ways in the household and general economy of the primitive inhabitants. One
of the ingenious arts of the ancient Hawaiians was the ornamentation of these
gourds. The gourd to be ornamented was first cleared of the seeds and pulp
and then coated on the outside with a thin layer of breadfruit gum, which
made it impervious to water. With a sharp instrument, usually the thumb
nail, the gum was carefully removed from the part where the pattern, which
varied greatly in design, was to show. This done the ipu was buried in taro
patch mud for a considerable period. When the color of the soil had become
thoroughly set in the shell of the gourd, it was taken from the water and the
remaining gum removed, leaving the desired design in two shades of rich brown
indelibly dyed in the shell.

The Lantana,55 which belongs in the lower zone, extends its range in many
localities up to the three thousand foot level. The common cactus,50 or panini,
is the prickly pear of Hawaii, and is common in this region, especially on
Oahu, Two species of ilima occur in the lower zone throughout the group.
Their bright yellow flow7ers, so much used in leis, are well known to every one.
The smaller species 57 is a low shrub, usually with ovate, hairy leaves, and
differs from the second species58 which usually has heart-shaped ovate leaves
that are hairy below and greenish above. Both of the foregoing have the leaves
rounded at the base, while a third species 5S) has the leaves broadest about the
middle.

In the open edge of the forests, or occasionally descending far down into
the lower zone, the ohia lehua 60 is first met with. The ohe f,t seldom reaches

50 Paspalum orbiculare. 51 Andropogon contortus. *>- Panicum torridum. 5S Cucurbit a maxima.
54 Lagenaria vulgaris. 55 Lantana Camara. 50 Opuntia Tuna. B7 Si da. fallax. G8 Sida cordifolia.
59 Sida rhomb if olia. 60 Metrosideros polymorpha. <sl Reynoldsia Sandwicensis,

210 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the lower forest, while its companion on the fore hills, the wiliwili,02 seldom
reaches the thousand-foot level; but the bastard sandalwood,63 while it reaches
the upper limit of vegetation on the highest mountains, may also occur well down
into this lower zone, thus exhibiting a great vertical range in habitat.

CHAPTER XVI.

PLANT LIFE OF THE HIGH MOUNTAINS.

Passing now from the lowland zone to the lower forest zone, we find it
tropical in appearance. Though not sharply denned it is by common agree-
ment said to begin at about one thousand feet elevation and to extend as a belt
about the high mountains up to about three thousand feet.

Plants op the Lower Forest Zone.

The range of the kukui 1 is almost confined to the limits of the lower forest
zone, and since it is the most abundant and conspicuous tree of the region,
it is regarded as the characteristic tree of the lower forests. The pale green
foliage of this useful tree sets it out in marked contrast with the darker greens,
and adds a touch of variety to the Hawaiian forest that delights the eye of the
beholder. The plants of this region are larger and more thrifty than those of the
costal plain, and being more numerous the open sylvan character of the zone is
well defined.

The ki 2 (now commonly written ti ) is at home on the steep valley sides and
in the gulches, at the lower edge of the forest zone all over the islands, and,
indeed, through all Polynesia, the Malayan Archipelago and China. Specimens
fifteen feet in height, with leaves from one to three feet in length and three to
six or more inches in width, are not uncommon. The ki belongs to the lily order
and the leaves are peculiar in having many parallel nerves diverging from a
short mid rib. The large saccharine root was made use of in ancient times by
the natives in making a curiously flavored beer. Later they learned a method
from the sailors of distilling a strong, intoxicating drink from the soaked roots.
The ki root was baked by the Hawaiians in their imus (underground ovens,
elsewhere described), and eaten by them as a confection; it was their substitute
for candy, now so generally eaten by all peoples. The ki root prepared in this
way is very sweet, much like molasses candy; it is offered for sale in the market
in Honolulu every Saturday. Among other uses, a stalk with the leaves at-
tached served as a flag of truce in native warfare, and the juice of the plant
was used by the Hawaiian belles to stiffen their hair. The leaves, known as la-i
or lauki, served and still serve as wrapping. And, since the coming of domestic
animals, the plant has proved useful as fodder.

Closely related to the ki or ti, belonging to the same order in fact, is the
curious halapepe or cabbage tree,3 sometimes called a palm lily. Its chief in-
terest lies in the fact that it helps to give the foliage that weird character
which is expected of tropical verdure. The plant is the largest of the order

62 Erythrina monosperma. RS Myoporum Sandwieense. 1 Aleurites Moluecana.

2 Cordyline terminalis. s Dracmna aurea.

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 211

to which it" belongs, often growing twenty-five feet or more in height. It
prefers the bold, rugged valley slopes and is a marked tree wherever it occurs.
Its thick trunk branches freely and roots are sent out above the ground, so that
the tree very much resembles the lauhala in this respect. The leaves, which
are two feet or more in length, are born in crowded tufts at the ends of the
branches, leaving the trunk and stem rough with leaf scars and marks of slow
growth.

The botanical name Dracaena, meaning a 'she dragon,' was given the genus
to which the Hawaiian species belongs because of the dragon's-blood resin of
commerce which exudes from the bark of certain species, a character shown to
some extent by the sap bark of the native species. The old-time Hawaiians
carved some of their hideous idols out of its soft, white wood.

Another plant peculiar to the lower woods, that extends its range far
beyond the line arbitrarily assigned for the upper limit of the zone, is the
ieie,4 a climbing shrub with many of the habits of its cousin, the lauhala. It
needs no introduction to the forest rambler. Climbing over the tallest trees
or trailing on the ground, it often forms impenetrable thickets. The rigid
stem is about an inch in diameter with numerous climbing and aerial roots.
The stiff rough leaves, from one to three feet long, are crowded into a tuft at the
ends of the stems. The male flowers are on two to four cob-like cylinders five
or six inches long by less than an inch in diameter and are surrounded by a
whirl of rose-colored leaf bracts. They are among the more showy blossoms of
the woodlands. From the pendant roots the natives formerly made ropes of
great strength and durability.

It is usually at about this elevation that the koa 5 is first met with, though
it does not attain its maximum size and importance as a forest tree until well up
in the middle forest zone. Hillebrand recognized two closely related species
and several varieties ; while the cabinet makers, basing their classification en-
tirely on the character of the wood, recognize a dozen or more as curly koa,
red koa, yellow koa, and so on, all of which are collectively called Hawaiian
mahogany, owing to the superficial resemblance which the wood bears to that
well-known cabinet material. Mahogany, by the way, is a native of Central
America and the West Indies, and belongs to an entirely different order of
plants, of wrhich the introduced Pride of India is an example, but an order of
which there are, so far as known, no representatives in the native flora.

The koa is a tree of rare beauty with its laurel-green, moon-shaped, leaf-
like bracts. The tree often attains a height of sixty to eighty feet, with enor-
mous trunks frequently six to eight feet in diameter, and wTith wide-spreading
branches. Canoes seventy feet long were made of a single trunk ; it was in such
canoes that Kamehameha the Great made his conquest of this group and contem-
plated using them in a war-like expedition to the Society Islands two thousand
seven hundred miles distant.

In addition to the many uses made of the wood by the natives in making
canoes, calabashes and the like, it has long been esteemed as one of the choice

4 Freycinetia Arnotti, 5 Acacia Koa.

I'l.ATK :.<. I'l.A NTS (>!•' Til

l-'IKIJtK A X i » l.nWKl! !•'< J U* !•'

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 213

cabinet woods. Combining as it does a rich red wood, with a beautiful grain
that is susceptible of a high polish, it is much used in the manufacture of furni-
ture and as an inside finishing wood in public buildings. The bark is also of
use in tanning leather.

Botanically the koa belongs to the genus Acacia of which fully half of the
knowTn species are Australian, while the rest are scattered widely over the world,
many having been introduced into Hawaii.

Examples of the native Hibiscus occur, but they are rather rare plants.
Four species are known : the flowers are all single and are pink,6 white,7 yellow8
and red9 respectively. One with ovate leaves and white flowers, often growing
twenty-five feet tall, is found in the mountains back of Honolulu and occasion-
ally on the other islands. All of the native species have been held in cultivation
as garden shrubs and much has already been done along the line of producing
new varieties by cross polinization. A closely allied genus, Hibiscadelphus, has
been recently established to include three rare species found on Maui and
Hawaii.

The native Smilax10 is by no means the tender hot-house plant one might
be led to expect. On the contrary, it is a robust climber with stems a third
to a half inch in diameter and fifty feet in length that trail across the forest
path. The leaves are three to five inches long and broadly ovate, having a
width in proportion. They are easily recognized as they are dark glossy green
and have five to seven parallel nerves running lengthwise of the leaf. The
natives know this striking vine by various names — uhi, ulehihi and pioi being
among them. It is said that they formally ate the tuberous roots in times of
scarcity.

Another attractive vine of the lower forest zone is the hoi or yam.11 The
scattering large, broad, heart-shaped leaves are five to seven inches long and
have from seven to eleven nerves converging towards the tip. It is a plant of
wide distribution, extending its range as far as Africa. To the botanist it is of
peculiar interest because of the large potato-like bulbs, called alaala by the na-
tives, that grow here and there at the base of the leaves. The large, irregular,
fleshy roots of the yam were much used as food by the natives, and formerly
were cultivated to supply ships calling at Hawaii before the common potato was
introduced.

The native ginger12 is a conspicuous and to a certain extent characteristic
plant of this zone. Growing one or two feet high with leaves six or eight inches
long, and bearing a pretty pale yellow flower on a curious cone-like inflorescence,

6 Hibiscus Toungianus. 7 Hibiscus Arnottianus. 8 Hibiscus BracTcenridgei. ° Hibiscus Kokio.

10 Smilax JSandwicensis. lx Dioscorea sativa. 12 Zingiber Zerumbet.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

formis). 6. Plantain (Plantago major). 7. Fleabane or Horse-weed [Iliohe] (Erigeron
Canadensis). 8. (Solanum triflorum). 9. Indigo [Inikoa] (Indigofera Anil). 10. Wild
Ipecac [Nuumele] (Asclepias Curassavica) . 11. (Carex Oahuensis). 12. Painter 's Brush
(Composite Family). 13. Kaluha (Kyllingia obtusifolia). 14. Lobelia (Bollandia calycina)
young. 15. Popolo (Solanum acideatissimum) . (No number) = Lythrum maritimum.

n. ATI-: ;.<i, Tin-: maii.i-; axm its plwt asko<i.\ti->

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 215

the awapiihi •fcften entirely covers the ground in the lower forests. The natives
made no use of the horizontal, fleshy root stocks, but the slimy juice from the
inflorescence, being* "as slippery as water off an eel," was used by the beauty-
doctors of a former time as a dressing for the hair. This substance, as
also the juice of ki, and the sap of the hau tree mixed with poi for use in
cooling the skin, were three of the chief cosmetics to be found on the dressing
table of the Hawaiian belle. The Chinese ginger ia of commerce is occasionally
grown in the islands in a limited way by the orientals. A number of other
species are also grown as ornamental plants.

Kauila,14 or the more widely ranging form15 known by the same native
name, was one of the useful woods of old Hawaii. By reason of its remarkably
close, heavy grain it was especially useful in making spears, kapa beaters, and
other tools and implements. The second species mentioned was formerly fairly
common on the lower slopes of all of the islands, where it formed a tree fifty
to eighty feet high with alternate, parallel-veined hairy leaves, and small
terminal flowers.

The uulai,16 a low, much-branching, stiff shrub with small leaflets and small
white inconspicuous flowers wdiieh were followed by whitish roseapple-like fruits,
was used for making arrows for the toy bows used in killing rats.

The ohia,17 or ohia lehua, though growing best in altitudes where rain is more
abundant, is common and one of the characteristic trees of the lowrer forest zone.
From about 1,500 feet elevation to at least 6,000 and even 8,000 feet, it is an
important and abundant tree, to be seen in every landscape. Often it forms
dense shaded forests wiiere the trees are festooned with vines and the ground is
carpeted with moss and ferns. In such localities trees four feet in diameter1
and nearly one hundred feet tall are occasionally seen. Unfortunately the root
system of this important forest tree is very shallow, often spreading over the sur-
face of the hard soil beneath. As a result they are especially liable to be blown
down in the high winds and heavy storms of the higher forest zones. Its wood
is very hard and durable, but warps badly. With the coming of the whites it
was used to some extent in the framework of their houses and as fence posts.
More recently its hard and durable wood has been found to make very excellent
railroad ties, street-paving blocks, and it is also much used as a hardwood floor-
ing in dwellings.

The ohia occurs on many of the important islands of Polynesia, and its many
and intergrading forms long puzzled the native botanists, and it is only fair to
say that their European friends have by no means satisfactorily disposed of the

13 Zingiber officinale. ' * Cnlubrina oppositifoUa. 15 Alphitonia excelm.

16 Osteottteles atithyUidifolia. ' 7 Metrosideros polymorpha.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

[Wawae iole] Lycopodium cernuum). 7. Limn Koha (Hepatica). 8. Hepatica. 9. Hawai-
ian Mistletoe [Kaumahana] (Viscum articulatum) . 10. Nertera depressa. 11. Wawae iole
(Lycopodium pachystachyon) . 12. Cyrtandra sp. 13. Budleya asiatica. 14. Oha wai (Cler-
mont ia per sicce folia). 15. Papala (Pisonia umbellifera). 16. Kaawau (Ilex — (Byronia)
Sandivicensis). 17. Lycopodium serratum.

216 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

problems of classifying the many forms that under varying conditions occur on
every island in Hawaii. They may be either trees or shrubs with leaves op-
posite or alternate, smooth or rough, round or linear, with flowers axillary or
terminal, red or rarely yellow; in short any plant in the forest, about wrhich
there may be any doubt, is liable to be an ohia or an ohia lehua, though iehua
is generally and more correctly the name of the beautiful blossoms which are
composed mostly of clusters of the red pistils and stamens.

Of these flowers the natives are both fond and proud. Few indeed are the
mountain climbers that do not return at nightfall decked out with garlands of
the sweet-scented maile18 and bearing a lei of the beautiful lehua to the never-
forgotten ones at home.

It is about the modest maile vine that the sweetest perfume and the
fondest memories linger. It is of the maile that the voyager first hears as he
lands in the islands of sunshine and smiles. It is for the maile that he learns
to seek on his day-long rambles in the mountains, and it is a braided strand of
maile thrown about his neck at the fond parting by the shore that tells with
its fresh breath of the enchanted forest, in an enchanted land, and with its
lingering caress brings the dew of human tenderness to the eyes of the one de-
parting. And at last it is the faint perfume from a withered half -forgotten
keepsake, — a maile lei, that, though the oceans, and half a life time may inter-
vene, wall set the heart throbbing and make the eyes growr dim at the memory of
the fond aloha that it breathes, calling the wanderer back again to the happiest
of lands.

The straggling, somewhat twdning, inconspicuous maile shrub is common
in the woods of the lowrer and middle regions and is recognized by the elliptical,
smooth, oval leaves from one to two inches in length ; by the flower which is small
and yellowish and by the elliptical, fleshy, black fruits that are more than half an
inch long. The maile lei is made from the finer stems which are broken off and
the bark removed from the wood by chewing the stems until it will peal off
readily. The perfume is not noticeable until the bark has been bruised in this
manner.

The ohia ai,19 the mountain apple, or edible ohia, belongs to a different
genus,20 but in the same family as the true ohia. Frequently clumps of the
mountain apple will occur surrounded by ohia or kukui, especially at the foot of
cliffs, and besides the mountain waterfalls. It is a tree from twenty to fifty
feet in height with large green leaves and red flowers followed by refreshing,
crimson fruits that grow from the trunk and main branches.

The awa 21 is best known owing to the intoxicating drink the Polynesians
manufactured from the large, thick, soft woody roots of a plant of the same
name which was cultivated by the natives of the various groups of islands
of the Pacific. The plant often grows two to four or more feet high, bearing
large, alternate heart-shaped begonia-like leaves six inches long by more than
that in width. It thrives in Hawraii and was always planted by the natives in

18 Alyxia olivceformis. 19 Eugenia Malaccensis. 20 More properly Jambosa. 21 Piper methysticum.

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 217

the moist valleys of the lower zone. The plants were carefully cared for and the
roots wiien gathered wrere used either fresh or dried. To make the drink the
root, which is astringant to the taste, was first chewed and thoroughly mixed
with saliva. It wras then put into a wooden bowl and a quantity of water added.
After it had stood a short time the liquid was strained off; it was then ready
for drinking. The effect was that of a narcotic and invariably produced stupi-
fication if taken in any quantity.

Native Fiber Plants.

The natives formerly cultivated several other plants in the lower forest zone.
Olona 22 was one of the most important of these. The plant grows best in regions
of great rainfall, usually in the wet forests on the windward side.

The olona plant is a low woody perennial, with a viscid juice, seldom
growing more than a dozen feet in height. It has large ovate leaves, often a foot
in length and proportionately broad. The genus is a Hawaiian one with but a
single species, but botanists tell us that it belongs to the same order as the
ramie,23 which is grown in many places as a fiber plant. The fiber, "olona," is
contained in the bast of the stem and is remarkably fine and straight and is en-
tirely free from gum.

In former times every chief had an olona plantation somewhere in the moun-
tains, as the fiber from the wild plants was not used to any extent. In raising
the crop the ferns were carefully cleared away from about the patch to give the
plant all the strength of the soil. The old plants were broken or rolled down
to allowT the young shoots to grow straight and rapidly. When of sufficient
size the crop was cut, stripped and hackled by the use of crude implements
and allowed to dry and bleach until such time as the fiber was white and ready
for use. Being resistant to the action of salt water it made fine rope, seines and
fish- lines. Certain of the natives formerly paid their taxes in olona, and it was
always regarded as a valuable possession.

The paper mulberry or wauke 24 of the natives has a milky sap and is a
small tree with ovate leaves. The leaves are either entire or three-lobed and
usually from five to seven inches long, dentate along the edges and roughened
on the upper surface. The use and culture of the plant has been explained
elsewhere. It is now to be met with growing in clumps here and there through
the lower open portions of the forests. Wauke is to be distinguished from the
mamake,25 which is a low shrub seldom over ten feet high, with flowers in axillary
clusters, that was also used in the manufacture of tapa. Mamake has the ovate
leaves three to four inches long, and the sap always watery and the flowers uni-
sexual. The leaves vary greatly in several respects, but generally are whitish
beneath. The species seems to be unknown outside of this group.

SANDALWOOD.

That portion of Hawaiian history which tells of the discovery of sandal-

22 Touehardia latifolia. 23 Boehmeria nivea. 2* Broussonetia papyrifera. s5 Pipturus albidus.

15

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 219

wood26 in the islands, and the events which led to its being almost wiped out as
a forest tree as a consequence of its great value in commerce, may properly be
sketched here, since the iliahi furnished the first article of export which attracted
commerce to the islands. Sandalwood is still occasionally found at rare intervals
and in out-of-the-way places in the lower forest belt on all of the islands, though
the range of the several imperfectly-defined varieties and species extends the
distribution from near the sea shore up to as high as ten thousand feet on Maui,
wdiere the species 27 becomes a low dense shrub, six to ten feet high.

The delicately scented wrood is from a tree usually growing from fifteen to
twenty-five feet high with opposite ovate to obovate leaves two and a half to
three inches long by about an inch and a half in width, which are somewhat
thickened and perhaps ochraceous underneath. The flowers occur as small ter-
minal and axillary inconspicuous cymes.

The sandalwood trade began about 1792, the first authentic mention of it
being made by Vancouver. It is thought that the knowledge of there being
sandalwood in the islands was an accidental discovery by one Capt. Kendriek
and that the wood was probably brought to his vessel with other timber as fire
wood. From this time on the development of the business was rapid until in
1816 it had developed into an important industry among the natives, chiefs and
foreigners. Between 1810 and 1825 the trade was at its height. The wood was
at first sold in India, but later the market shifted to Canton, wrhere the large
pieces were used in manufacturing fancy articles of furniture and in carvings,
and the smaller pieces made into incense.

For export the green wood was cut in the mountains into logs three or four
feet long. These varied from two to eight inches in diameter. The logs were
carried on the heads and shoulders of the natives to the shore where they were
sorted and tied into bundles weighing one hundred and thirty-three and a half
pounds each. While green and wet the wrood has no aromatic smell, but when
dry the odor is powerful and impregnates the whole atmosphere.

The bundles of sandalwood were eagerly purchased by American traders
for export. The business flourished to such an extent that it is reported that
during the height of the industry three hundred thousand dollars worth of
sandalwood was exported in a single year.

The king, as well as many chiefs, engaged in this profitable business on
their own account, At about this period each man was required to deliver to the

26 Kantobim clliptiruni. 27 Sard alum Haleakalae.

Description of Plate.

1. The crest of the Mapulahu-Wailau trail, Molokai (3151 feet), showing the character
of the growth in the rain forest. 2. View from near the summit of the Palolo trail, Oahu;
a typical mountain scene. 3. An Ieie (Freycinetia Arnotti) jungle on Oahu. 4. Typical
view of the vegetation on the mountain ridges of Oahu. 5. A mountain path, showing a
natural graft between two neighboring Ohia trees. 6. View showing the bog flora at the
head of Pelekuku valley, Molokai. 7. Sand beach, showing Pohuehue (Ipomoea pes-caprae)
trailing down to the water's edge.

HI I A AMi SOMK (»!•' ITS CI, A XT \ss»)CI.\'l

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 221

governor of' the district in which he lived one-half "picul" of sandalwood or
else pay four Spanish dollars.

The drain on the supply was enormous. It was not uncommon for lumber-
ing parties of three hundred or four hundred people to go into the mountains.
On Hawaii, Ellis relates that he saw two or three thousand men returning from
the forest, carrying sandalwood for shipment tied on their backs with ki
leaves, each one carrying two or three pieces. Even the roots were dug up in
many places. As early as 1831 the business was on the decline, and by 1856
the wood had become very scarce. By 1835 the government recognized the dan-
ger of exterminating the valuable trees and steps were taken to prevent the cutting
of the young wood. But according to the historian Dibble credit must be given
to Kamehameha I for being the first to attempt to conserve the supply of this
valuable wood. It is related that the men cut the young as well as the old trees,
and that some of the small trees when brought to the shore attracted the great
warrior's attention. "Why do you bring this small wood hither?" he inquired.
They replied, "You are an old man and will soon die, and we know not whose
will be the sandalwood hereafter." Kamehameha then said, "Is it indeed that
you do not know my sons? To them the young sandalwood belongs."

Nevertheless, the drain on the forests continued until only an occasional
tree was left here and there on the more rugged and inaccessible heights, and
even these have suffered from the attacks of wild goats, which find its bark especi-
ally toothsome.

It is said that the odor of the Hawaiian sandalwood is inferior to that from
Malabar, Ceylon, and certain parts of India. The fragrant wood, called laau
ala by the natives, is quite heavy even after the sap has dried out. It is then
a light yellow or pale brown color, and retains the scent indefinitely.

While the sandalwood was the most important among the Hawaiian plants
producing pleasant odors, it was by no means the only one. There were many
others whose flowers, fruits, leaves, sap, bark, wood or roots furnished perfume.
The most highly scented of all are the seed pods of the mokihana 2S used in
making leis. They are much esteemed as they retain their perfume when dry
and hard. The best specimens of this plant, as of almost all the scented varie-
ties of native plants, come from Kauai. For temporary adornment, the leaves
and blossoms of wild ginger or awapuhi,29 the drupe of the lauhala or screw
pine,30 the leaves of the maile ai and the fronds and stems of several species of
ferns, especially the palapalai *32 (a highly scented species) were all used because

28 Pelea anisota. 29 Zingiber Zerumbet. 80 Pandanus odoratissimus. 81 Alyxia oUvmfornis.
32 Microlepia strigosa.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

5. Naupaka (Sewvola mollis). 6. Kokolau (Campylotheea sp.). 7. Akoko (Euphorbia clu-
sicefolia). 8. Hoawa (Pittosporum spathulatum) . 9. Kopiko (Straussia Kaduana). 10.
Naenae puamelemele (Dubautia laxa). 11. Ohia lelraa (Metrosideros polymorpha, var.).
12. Metrosideros polymorpha var. 13. Metrosideros polymorpha var. 14. Metrosideros tre-
maloides. 15. Naenae (Dubautia plantaginea). 16. Alani (Pelea clusice folia) with tree
snail attached to the leaf. 17. Syzygium =* (Eugenia) Sandwicensis with deformed inflor-
escence.

222 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

of their pleasing odors. The scent of the lipoa,33 a sea moss, was also used as a
perfume. Coeoanut oil, scented with sandalwood, was used to some extent on
the hair and body.

The bastard sandalwood or naieo 34 is a tree common on the summit of
Kaala, and the higher forest belt generally, that becomes fragrant on drying* and
has an odor that resembles sandalwood. After the exhaustion of the sandalwood
it was exported to China for a time as a substitute for that valuable wood. The
naieo is found dead in many localities at as low a level as 1,500 feet.

In the lower forest region, on Oahu especially, occurs the pretty white-
flowered napaka35 in the form of low shrub. The heads of the valleys in this
region are usually marked by clumps of wild bananas,30 of which there are many
varieties, and various species of the interesting and curious Lobelia first appears,
and ferns of many species abound.

A marked difference exists in the nature of the flora of this zone on the
windward or wet and the lee or dry side of the islands, and the student of
plant life soon learns that there are many floral districts in this zone, each of
which usually has its characteristic species of plants.

The Middle Forest Zone.

The next important area is usually designated as the middle forest zone
and extends up the mountains from three to six thousand feet elevation. It is
well marked by the greatest luxuriance in tree and jungle. As it is within
the region of mist and clouds, it is well watered and furnishes conditions in every
way suited to plant growth. It is in this zone that the native Hawaiian
flora finds its fullest development. The tree ferns, the giant koa, the ohia and
kamani forests are the predominating species. Though none of these larger and
more important growths are wholly confined to this region, it is here that they
reach their maximum of size and development.

On visiting the region one is impressed at once by the number and variety
of ferns to be found in this zone. Probably the most important among them
are the giant tree ferns, the hapu 37 and hapu ili 38 and the smaller amaumau 39
being the most striking. The hapu with trunks that are from a few inches to
three feet in diameter and often fifteen to thirty feet in height are especially
abundant about Kilauea and there reach their greatest development. Their
plume-like fronds are often fifteen feet or more in length, giving the top a
spread of more than twenty-five feet. The native name hapu has been applied
to two or three closely allied species. But with the commercial importance the
tree gained a few years ago through the use made of the soft, glossy, yellowish
wool at the base of the young leaves, these and other large ferns have come to be
known as pulu ferns, pulu being the name of the wTool-like fiber from the fern.
The fiber was used to some extent in stuffing mattresses and pillows, and in a

33 Haliseris plagio gramma. R4 Myoporum Sandwicense. 35 Sccevola Chamissoniana.

36 Musa sapientwm. 87 Cibotium Chamissoi. 38 Cibotium Menziesii.

39 SadU iria Souleytiana on Oahu; S. pallida on Hawaii, and S. cyatheoides on all islands at lower
elevations.

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 223

small way as a surgical dressing in cases of excessive bleeding. The old-time
natives made use of it in their crude attempts at embalming. Human bodies
buried in dry caves and elsewhere if wrapped in pulu were liable through ab-
sorption by the pulu to dry out or mummify.

Giant Ferns.

Like several other species these giant ferns spring up again from the fallen
trunk, particularly in the damp and congenial atmosphere of the middle forest.
It is a common sight, along the volcano road, to see the fern stems used for walks
and fences continuing their growth, by means of lateral shoots. But space is not
sufficient to enumerate all or even the more interesting ferns. Botanists recognize
twenty-two genera and at least one hundred and forty good species, more than
half of which are confined to the islands. The great majority of these are found
most abundantly in the middle forest zone of the different islands of the group.

A species of considerable interest is the pala fern.40 It grows with glossy
dark green leaves three to five feet long rising from a thick fleshy root stock.
This latter abounds in starch and a mucilagious substance so that when cooked
in the native fashion it made a very good food and was much used by the na-
tives in times of scarcity.

The bird's-nest fern or ekaha 41 belongs to a large genus that is a widespread
form of which there are forty species in Hawaii. The English name is there-
fore rather loosely applied to any species of the genus. They are common on
the trunks and in forks of trees in the forests where they are striking
and curious objects resembling birds' nests in many ways. They are much culti-
vated in the city where specimens with leaves four feet long and eight inches
wide are to be seen.

The common brake, kilua or eagle fern,42 is everywhere common on all the
islands from eight hundred to eight thousand feet elevation, especially on rocky
ridges. The species is broken up into many varieties and occurs in one form or
another all over the world. The roots of this fern were never used for food.
The wild pigs, however, are very fond of them and often turn up great
patches in the mountain in search of the roots, thus doing much damage to
the forest. The maiden-hair fern or iwaiwa43 is found in the wet gulches,
particularly about waterfalls on all the islands. The black, glossy stems of this
fern and also of the larger closely allied species,44 known under the same name
by the natives, wras for a time used by them in making hats and baskets, several
specimens being preserved in the Bishop Museum.

A conspicuous and serious impediment to travel in this region are the
tangled, forked fronds of the common uluhi or staghorn 45 or one of its two
other closely allied species. The polished brown stem, little larger than a slate
pencil, often grows six feet or more high, forming a tangle that may extend for
miles along the ridges in the wThole of the forest zone up to three or four thou-

40 Marattia Douglassii. 41 Asplenium nidus. 42 Pteris aquilina, 43 Adiantum capillus-Veneris.

44 Pteris decipiens. 45 Gleichenia dichotoma.

i,\vrs y\;n\\ \i:ak tii t-: sr\i\iiT «>k Kn\ \iir.\Nri. u.\in

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 225

sand feet elevation. The stems are so tough and have the fronds so locked to-
gether that they often form a barrier through which it is most fatiguing to
force one 's way.

The enormous rhubarb-shaped, thick, rough leaves of the apeape,46 three
to five feet across, are occasionally to be seen by the more hardy mountain
climbers who visit the Waianae Mountains and the higher mountains on the other
islands of the group. The leaves are the largest of any plant in Hawaii and
are said to be the largest of any of the dozen or more species belonging to the
genus Gunner a. Nearly the same name (ape or apii) was applied by the natives
to a plant 47 that grows on dry land in the lower zone. The latter plant belongs
to the taro family and is a native of India, but has long been naturalized and
cultivated in Polynesia as a substitute for taro and is generally known in Ha-
waii as dry-land taro. It is remarkable for the strong, sickening smell of the
flowers.

The ohelo,48 described in the chapter on fruits, is common in the high
mountains of this zone, and its shining, fleshy berries, famous in native song
and story as an offering to Pele, are also delightful for their slightly astringent,
but cool and refreshing flavor. They are much enjoyed by those who visit the
region in which they grow.

A much-branching shrub of the region, growing from three to six feet
high with very small, stiff thick leaves, is known as the Christmas berry or
puakeawe.49 It is one of the most characteristic plants of the islands, particu-
larly of the higher mountain regions. The minute white flowers are followed by
small red, or red and white berries. The berries and leaves do not readily fall
and for this reason it is increasing in favor for use in Christmas decorations.

The Hawaiian mistletoe r>0 is a curious parasitic plant of the forest belt
that is found growing quite commonly on the koa and ohia branches, securing
its substance entirely from the host plant.

The Hawaiian representatives of the order Lobeliaccce is one of the most
interesting and characteristic groups of plants in the whole island flora. They
are herbs, shrubs and small trees, all with woody stems and a milky juice.
More than sixty species are now known, belonging to six well-defined genera
which differ widely in appearance. The majority, however, are tall and shrub-
like with simple undivided trunks, and of somewhat palm-like growth owing to
the fact that they have rough scars on the trunks to mark the attachment of
of discarded leaves. They are without doubt survivors of an ancient flora which
has been superseded by other forms, and doubtless we have at present only a

46 Gunner a petaloidea. 47 Alorasia macrorrhiza. 48 Vaccinium reticulatum.

*9 Cyathodes Tameiameice. E0 Yiscum articulatum.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

wicensis). 5. Ahaniu (Cladium = (Bnvmra) Jlcycnii). 0. Typical Lobelia (Lobelia hypo-
leuca). 7. Gahnia beecheyi. 8. Ohe (Tdraplasandra mciandra). 9. Kanawan (Brousmisia
pallucida). 10. Emoloa (Eragrostis variabilis). 11. Paimii (Astelia veratroidex) . 12. Rhyn-
chospora thyrsoidea.

226 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

remnant of the species that once flourished in our mountains. The natives recog-
nized their striking form and beauty and gave names to most of the species.
One of the commonest names is oha wrai, which is applied indiscriminately to
species of the more abundant genu's Clermont ia. They are known to modern
Hawaiians as plants from which the old-time bird-catchers made a sticky glue
for capturing birds. Oahu has perhaps twenty-five species, and as many more
sub-species and varieties of these interesting plants, that are about equally
divided among five of the six Hawaiian genera.

An important forest tree that extends its range from two to eight thousand
feet elevation, often becoming the dominant tree in extensive areas on Kauai,
Maui and Hawaii, is the native mamani.51 It grows from twenty to thirty feet
high, with six to ten pairs of obtuse, rich-green leaflets to each leaf. The pale
yellow flowers are followed later with long straight pods four to six inches
long. The hard wood has proved valuable as fence posts.

The foregoing, together with the bastard sandalwood or naio,52 and several
species of shrub-like trees 53 with yellow flowers, are found growing up to and
giving character to the upper limit of the forest zone; in some places reaching an
altitude of ten thousand feet above the sea.

Enough has been said to indicate the tropical luxurance of this zone ; but the
ferns, lobelias, creeping vines, lichens and mosses, all form an undergrowth that
is varied, striking and interesting. The middle zone, however, is primarily the
region of the native forest.

Of the native woods there are upwards of two hundred species, of which
over one hundred are well known forms. The list, as well as the total list of
Hawaiian plants, has been somewhat extended through the exploration of Mr.
Forbes and others who have been active in this field recently. The majority
of the trees are met with in the lower and middle zone. The whole forest region
is distinctly tropical in character, since none of the familiar trees of the tem-
perate zone are present. The new-comer from America looks in vain for the
oaks, the elms, the maples, the spruce and the pine. In their stead he finds the
forest trees dominated by the koa, ohia, mamani and kukui, and that these are
combined with koaia,54 kopiko,55 kolea, naio, pun,50 and a long list of equally
conspicuous trees that occur in almost every landscape.

Perhaps one of the most accessible and in many wTays interesting regions
in this zone is that found about the volcano Kilauea. The most casual observer
is there impressed with the size and beauty of the tree-ferns that occur in such
profusion in that locality ; but the botanist will find a rich field filled with many
interesting species. Up to a hundred years ago the forests wrere only limited
by the natural conditions of rainfall, elevation and lava fkrvvs. Since the coming
of the whites there have been many causes as elsewhere enumerated that have
been at work bringing about a change in the natural conditions. Chief among
the disturbing elements, however, have been the cattle. As early as 1815 they

81 Sophora chrysophylla. 52 Myoporum Sandwicense. 53 Raillardia. B4 Acacia koaia.

55 Straussia spp. 56 Olea Sandwicensis.

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 227

were recognized as a serious menace to the native forests. Roaming at will
through the forests they and other animals, as goats and pigs, have done untold
damage, and brought about conditions that have been most serious in many
places. It is only in recent years that they have been fenced out of the forest
and their number reduced so as to more nearly correspond with the beef require-
ments of the islands.

The Upper Forest Zone.

The plant growth of the upper forest zone begins at about five or six thou-
sand feet above the sea and extends as high as eight or nine, and in some in-
stances, ten thousand feet. It is made up for the most part of more or less
stunted representatives of the trees, vines and shrubs met with in the middle and
lower zones. There are, however, a number of species found in the higher alti-
tudes which do not descend even into the middle zone.

The akia,57 a name applied to several species with small leaves and flowers
in terminal and axillary clusters that are followed by orange-colored fruits, is
well represented in this zone ; although species of the genus are first met with
in the lower woods. It was used by the natives as a fish poison in much the same
way that the awa and ahuhu were used. Its strong flexible bast-fibers were also
used in many ways.

The pilo,58 a large diffuse shrub four to eight feet high with small, ovate,
thick leaves with nerves impressed on the upper surface, is also represented here,
and is one of the several species of the genus to be met with throughout the forest
area. The shrub naenae, a species of Dub ant ia with opposite lanceolate leaves
four to eight inches long and small orange-colored flowers borne in loose panicles,
also has much the same distribution as the preceding genus.

Conspicuous composites of which several species and varieties occur in
various altitudes are especially common in the upper forest zone under the name
kokolau,59 a name applied generally by the natives to all the species. The genus,
with a dozen species, is purely Hawaiian and is closely related to the Spanish
needles of the lower levels. The plants grow from two to five feet high and in
many places cover large patches of ground with the warm yellow color of its
blossoms. The flowering plants of the region are mostly peculiar to Hawaii,
but the ferns which become more and more scarce as the upper limit of the
forest is approached are those that belong to the wide-spread forms, such as the
owalii,<J0 kaupu 01 and a few similar species belonging to the high mountain flora.

The Silvbrsword.

The native strawberry, and the ohelo mentioned in another connection, are
also found in the upper forest zone. The distinct flora of the higher moun-
tains, well above the cloud belt, is affected more or less by snow and frost. The
species of the region are comparatively few in number. The most interesting

57 Wikstroemia spp. 58 Co pros-ma spp. 59 Campylotheca spp. 60 Asplenium Trichomanes.
61 Aspidium aculeatum.

lll.W (>!•' KKUNs UN OAIII'

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 229

and unique species in its aspect, perhaps, is a composite belonging exclusively to
the higher elevations known as the silversword.02 In its general appearance
it might be related to almost anything more nearly than the sunflower and the
chrysanthemums to which botanists make it next of kin. Its stout, woody nWer
stem, two or three inches in diameter and several feet high, is surrounded at the
base by a dense head of slender, rigid, dagger-like leaves, eight to sixteen inches
long, that are covered with white glistening silvery hairs. The flower heads are
large and striking, objects much admired by mountainers. The securing of a
specimen of the ahinahina, or of a second closely related species known as the
green silver-sword,63 from their home on the high mountains of Maui and Hawraii,
seven to twelve thousand feet above the sea, is a feat that even as yet but com-
paratively few have performed.

In Hawaii the gathering of a silversword corresponds with the gathering of
the edelweiss in the Alps, and furnishes the adventurous climber a prize well
worth keeping as a memento of a trip that invariably costs much in exertion if
not in actual peril.

Another plant peculiar to the region is one of the half dozen species
of the shrubby Geranium, or nohuanu of the natives. The leaves are
usually covered on both surfaces with silvery hairs like the species just men-
tioned, but unlike them they are small and the flowers are regular and red or
white in color.

The Mountain Bog Flora.

Leaving these few plants and their less striking associates struggling for
existence at the limit of vegetation, we now return to consider for a moment the
most unique of all the Hawaiian flora, that which belongs to the mountain sum-
mits and table lands that are almost perpetually concealed in clouds at an elevation
of approximately 5,000 feet. Strange as it may seem, here and there about the
group are several curious mountain bogs that are nearly destitute of shrubby
plants of any size, but are clothed with a mat of grass, sphagnum moss and
sedges, together with a number of interesting plants of small size whose near
relatives are natives of the mountains of New Zealand, the Southern Andes and
the Antartic regions. It has been suggested that they represent the survivors
of an ancient flora that has been crowded out by the arrival of new plants.
Whether it is that, or some equally interesting and significant fact in distribution
will doubtless long remain open to discussion. The occurrence in such a locality
of several species of violets is remarkable to say the least, but a more curious

62 Argyroxiphium Sandwicense. 63 Arygroxiphium virescens.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

Kaapeape (Asplenium pseudofalcatwm) . 7. Asplenium sp. 8, 9, 10. Cihotium showing the
development of a fern frond. 11. Asplenium eontiguum. 12. sp. rndet. 13. Peahi {Poly-
podium spectrum). 14. Aspidium sp. 15. Kilau (Triehommanes davallioides) . 16. Staghorn
Fern [Uluhe] (Gleichenia linearis) = (Gl. dichotoma). 17. Wahine noho mauna (Poly podium
tamariscinum) . 18. Asplenium ereetum. 19. Ekaha (Elaphoglossum = (Scrostichum) com-
forme).

230 NATUEAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

fact is that some of them grow on upright and other on procumbent, creeping
stems three to five feet in length. These familiar sweet-scented flowers, together
with the moss and lichens, the stunted, creeping kolokolo kuahiwi 64 and maieli
or pupukeawe C5 combine to form one of the most striking and interesting pro-
vinces in the flora of the whole group.

But it is not to be expected that all the interesting and remarkable forms
in the plant life of the islands could be touched upon in a few short pages.
Only a few have been mentioned; but omissions cannot be wondered at, as the
largest books on the subject leave much that is interesting unnoticed and often
fail to give the information that one would wish about even the common trees
and plants.

64 Lysimachia daphnoides, 6B Cyathodes Tameiameice.

Natural History of Hawaii.

SECTION FOUR

THE INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF FOREST, FIELD AND

GARDEN.

CHAPTER XVII.

A RAMBLE IN A HONOLULU GARDEN : PART ONE.

To anyone coming to the islands from the more rigorous climate of the
mainland, the verdure to be seen in Honolulu is little short of a dream of para-
dise come true. In many ways the city of Honolulu appears as a great tropical
botanical park, conducted on a cooperative plan, the advantage being that the
residents, as shareholders in the enterprise, have their homes dotted about here
and there over the spacious well-kept lawns. The houses, covered as they are
with vines and surrounded with luxuriant foliage, add to the picturesque beauty
of it all, so that more than one person has been heard to exclaim, "This Pacific
Paradise is indeed the land of heart's desire."

First Impressions of Honolulu.

It is not too much to say that from the morning of the day of one's landing
after a weary sea journey to the very hour of their departure, be it in a day, a
year, or a life time, the rare tropical trees and plants to be seen on every hand,
but especially in Honolulu, furnish a source of never-ending pleasure and delight.

If one has an interest in plant life, it is a rare treat to be brought face to
face for the first time with living examples of such symbols of the tropics as the
breadfruit, the cocoanut palm, or the banana. One is made to feel that no
picture has ever done justice to such visions of beauty as they often present in
their natural setting, and the observant person is at once alive with interest,
anxious to know something of the multitude of interesting and curious trees
and plants with which these conspicuously tropical species are often grouped.
The visitor is always keen for a ramble through any of the attractive gardens
that abound on every hand and anxious to know more of the wonderful exotic
flora that embowers the thrifty island capital.

Perhaps the first general observation in this connection is one made from
the deck of the steamer as it rounds Diamond Head and reveals Honolulu as a
city, not built on a hill, but hidden beneath a canopy of waving green trees that
are so large and dense that only the tallest buildings and spires can be seen

231

232 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

above the tree tops to serve as a guarantee that beneath the wealth of green
lies one of the most cosmopolitan and beautiful cities in the world.

As one walks or rides about the streets he observes that so far as the
flora is concerned Honolulu may be said to be simply a very good reproduction
of the Kew gardens of London, the difference being that in tropical Hono-
lulu the gardens are done on a very large and elaborate scale. In most
instances, in both places the plants that one sees are not native to the country
but are those that have been brought hither from the very ends of the earth and
set growing for the interest, the benefit or the pleasure of those wrho know how
to enjoy them. .

The streets of Honolulu are often narrow- and winding, but most of them,
even the very broadest, are shaded by various species of trees that reach out
from the yards on either hand. Often great trees will be left in the center of the
sidewalk and occasionally the street itself is divided by some fine specimen that
has been allowed to stand, by an appreciative and public-spirited road overseer.

Palms.

Palms are to be seen in great variety and abundance. Of the more than
seventy species occurring everywhere about the city all but two or three are
foreign to the islands. The most conspicuous and stately among the introduced
species is the royal palm.1 It was brought to the islands long ago from its home
in the West Indies. Planted singly, in straight avenues or in irregular groves,
it is an attractive tree that cannot fail to arrest the eye, since it everywhere
gladdens and enriches the landscape. Their lofty, clean, grey trunks are abso-
lutely vertical and as symmetrical as though turned in a lathe. No scar of
growth or blight of disease mars their marvelous straight Ionic shafts up to the
crowning tuft of long, beautiful balanced, pinnate leaves of deep shining
green that form fitting capitals for such splendid stately pillars. The slightest
stir of breeze sets every leaf waving and singing, and night and day one knows
"when the wind is in the palm trees" by the gentle rustle that they make.

The blossoms are small, sweet-scented, cream-colored flowers that hang in a
great pendant cluster from the base of the lowest leaves. Their faint odor is a
pleasant one in the soft balmy evening, and by day a source of great concern to
swarms of busy bees that reap a rich harvest of honey during the few days that
the blossoms last. At length the blossoms are followed by the fleshy fruits that
are eaten by the mynah birds, and by them the seeds are carried from place to
place.

A Falling Leaf.

I well remember with what surprise and alarm I first heard a palm leaf
fall. It was in the still of the night soon after my arrival in the islands.
Scarcely a breath of air was stirring when suddenly I was aroused with a start at
hearing, somewhere in the garden, a mighty ripping noise that ended abruptly

1 Oreodoxa regia.

INTEODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 233

in a loud cracking sound as though a whirlwind hda broken loose among the
tree tops. Then followed a swirl and a swish, a rustle, and a rush that seemed
to leave no doubt but that all the trees in the garden had been suddenly set
whirling through the air. But after a moment of breathless suspense the whole
affair ended in a terrific clatter and thump, after which all was again as silent
as before. In the morning when the leaf was shown to me there remained no
doubt but that it was the cause of the "cyclone" of the- night before. The leaf
was a trifle over eighteen feet in length and weighed several pounds ! Though
accustomed to regard a falling leaf as an exceedingly melancholy thing, I had
never before thought of the harm that might be received in the tropics a least,
from so simple and ordinary a thing as having a withered leaf strike one un-
awares as it circled gracefully to the ground.

The Cocoanut Palm.

The cocoanut palm 2 is perhaps native, or at least of very early introduc-
tion by the natives, and is among the most showy of the palms. It is the cocoanut
palm by the sea that first greets the stranger on his arrival in Hawaii. Basking
in the languid warm sunshine it has stood for generations at the post of honor by
the broad portal of this earthly paradise. Breathing the very spirit of the
tropics it has come to be the symbol of true hospitality and stands ever ready to
cast that magical spell that none can resist. At the parting it is this stately
sentinel by the water's edge that is always the last living thing to reluctantly
wave a fond good-bye to those who must depart, knowing in their heart of hearts
they are to return again.

Its feathery plumes tower out above everything else, as they are often sixty
feet or more in height. All things considered there are indeed few trees among
the wild, semi-cultivated or exotic flora in Hawaii that equals in picturesque
beauty this "the prince of palms."

Few trees so frequently and effectively figure in the domestic setting for
the Honolulu home. They are of fairly rapid growth and come into bearing,
in favorable soil, in ten or fifteen years. The tree continues to grow in
height until thirty or forty years of age, when they seem to have attained their
limit of growth, but they continue to live on indefinitely without gaining ma-
terially in size or height. On the beach at Waikiki are trees that are known
to be several hundred years old, while a splendid grove near by has very nearly
caught up with them in height in a single life time. This palm will never branch
and never sends up shoots from the ground, and like many other trees in the
tropics that belong to a great group known as Endogenous plants, they are easily
killed by destroying the plume-like top.

The cocoanut trees thrive best at or near the sea-shore. However, they do
reasonably well in some localities two or three miles inland. Elevation appar-
ently has more influence in retarding growth than the absence of the effect of the
sea. Where water is to be had in abundance any soil seems to do so long as it is

2 Cocos nncifera.

16

p*

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 235

easily penetrated by the roots of the palm. For this reason the sandy soil near
the sea-shore furnishes its best environment. The structure of the tree fits it to
withstand wind of almost any force and they seem to prefer plenty of rain, wind
and sun.

The yield of nuts fluctuates greatly from year to year and from tree to tree.
There are reports of as many as 400 nuts having' been gathered in one season
from a single tree in some of the more favored islands of the south Pacific.
In Hawaii as many as 200 nuts, besides innumerable blossoms, have been counted
on a tree at one time, but it is doubtful if an average of eighty mature nuts
could be gathered during a year. It is a curious thing that nuts perfectly green
in appearance will be as ripe as those having yellow husks. For this reason, it is
desirable to pick the oldest nuts on the tree without waiting for them to ripen
and fall to the earth. While no one in Honolulu, to my knowledge, has ever
been injured by a falling cocoanut, the constant danger from that source is ap-
parent since a good-sized nut in the husk weighs several pounds. Those who are
familiar with the delicate flavor of the young nut prefer to gather them when
half mature and spoon the soft meat out of the shell before it has had time to
solidify and become oily.

Of late years the tree rat has become a great pest in the cocoanut trees and
does great damage to the young nuts by gnawing holes in them. They readily
pass from one tree to another along the leaves, and when a colony of rats becomes
established in a grove the tin sheaths so commonly placed about the trunk of the
tree does but little good, unless the tops of the trees are kept clear of the neigh-
boring foliage.

While it is considered a difficult thing to tell how the milk gets into a cocoa-
nut, the rate of growth and the remarkable changes that take place during the
period of germination and early growth when the milk is getting out of the nut
can be easily studied and well repays the trouble of making the observation.
The time occupied in germination varies greatly, owing to a number of condi-
tions, especially the amount of moisture and sunshine, but in general many weeks
must pass before the first leaf opens.

Just how the cocoanut came to Hawaii in the first place will never be known.
Its legendary history dates far back, and doubtless the tree has accompanied
the Polynesians on all of their wanderings about the Pacific. To this day the
native country of the cocoanut is not definitely known. DeCandolle finds twelve
reasons for thinking it of Asiatic origin, but singularly enough there is one
reason — an almost unsurmountable one, for believing it to be an American plant.
Botanists have proven that none of the other nineteen species of the genus exist
anywhere in a wild state except on the American continent, and therefore con-
clude that the familiar species must have had the same origin. Some say that
the Philippine Islands is its ancesteral home, and that it was from thence carried
in all directions by ocean currents or by artificial means. At any rate it ranges
over the whole of the tropics, and within that range there are many varieties
based mainly on the size and shape of the fruit. However, these variations are

236 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

strongly marked and retain their characteristics when grown from seed. For
the reason just stated we may regard those grown in Hawaii — at the northern
limit of the range — where the climate is scarcely warm enough for their best
development, as forming a fairly distinct variety, namely the Hawaiian coeoanut.
The coeoanut, or niu, had many uses in Hawaii a century ago. The trunk
of the tree furnished fairly heavy timber, while the long pinnate leaves were
used in former days as thatch, and laced together they formed the walls of the
native lanai. From the husk of the nut a durable rope was made, and various
household utensils were manufactured from the shells. The natives drank the
juice and ate the meat of the nuts. They also healed their wounds with a balm
made from the juice, and with the oil extracted from the meat of the nut they
anointed their limbs and embalmed the bodies of their dead.

The Date Palm.

Less striking, perhaps, but even more beautiful in certain ways than the
foregoing, are the date palms 3 with their splendid fronds that are often larger
and always more numerous than are those of the cocoanut palm. To many these
sturdy, thrifty trees are the symbol of strength, beauty and repose.

The date palm was long ago introduced into Hawaii and it has been a con-
spicuous tree in the islands ever since. Though it bears large bunches of orange-
colored dates, the fruit is seldom eaten, as the pits are usually so large that the
little flesh that surrounds them is not worth the effort required to secure it.
Without doubt, however, a good quality of dates can be produced here, when
suckers are secured from selected parent plants.

The leaves of this and other species of palms are often used for decorations,
especially on Palm Sunday. It is thought that for this reason the parent plants
were of very early introduction into the newr world by the Spanish missionaries.

Ornamental Palms.

The betel nut,4 though with a very slender stem, is in superficial appear-
ance not unlike the royal palm. It bears a yellow fruit, the size of a hen's
egg which has one seed surrounded by a fibrous husk. The seeds are chewed by
the natives of certain south Pacific and East Indian islands to blacken the
teeth. The word betel is erroneously applied to this fruit, as it is the name
of the leaf of a totally different plant.

Of the native palms a few specimens of the loulu palm are to be seen here
and there about the city. They are a fan palm with smooth trunks and in their
wild state grow in secluded places in the forests often to an elevation of three
thousand feet above the sea. One species, the loulu lelo,5 has small ovid fruit,
while the loulu hiwa ° has large globulur fruits. Of the innumerable varieties
of fan palms to be seen only a word can be said, since their number and variety
defy a brief characterization. However, the class can be easily recognized by

3 Phoenix dactylifera. * Arcea cathecu, 5 Pritehardia Gaudichaudii. 6 Pritehardia Martii.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 237

their faH-shaped leaves. The more common, though less attractive wine palm,7
can at once be recognized owing to its large coarse bipinnate leaves and wedge-
shaped leaflets that are strongly toothed at the extremities. The wine made
from this palm in India is drawn off by cutting the ends of the flowering stems
from which exudes the sweetish sap. This is then boiled down into a syrup or
by fermentation made into a toddy. The splendid examples of the Washington
palm,8 with their tall robust trunks clothed with the pendant remains of dead
leaves, are sure to attract attention from travelers, especially those from Cali-
fornia, where this "weeping palm" is a native.

Two or three species of the beautiful Rhapis palms occur in the islands,
where they are usually planted in pots and tubs. They are one of the few palms
that produce suckers at their base, thereby forming thick clumps. The large
species 9 often grows eight or ten feet in height and has the stems armed with
prickles. The smaller species 10 most commonly have the stems unarmed and
the leaves with about ten segments. It can easily be identified as a different
species from the plants having leaves with from five to seven segments.11 All
of the species are native to Japan and China and are occasionally called Japanese
or Chinese palms.

Other plants of interest are the sugar palm,12 a spineless species growing
forty feet high; and the oil palm,13 with a stout coarsely and deeply-ringed stem
twenty or thirty feet high. It has red fruits which yield the palm oil of com-
merce. The bottle palm,14 with a curious bottle-shaped stem or cauclex, and the
blue palm,15 with splendid bluish fan-shaped leaves, are easily recognized.

Only two or three species of the tropical palm-like cycads are found here,
and these are the common kinds to be seen growing under glass in more rigorous
climates. The plants are propagated from seeds. They are very curious in
their method of flowering since the flowers appear in a mass in the heart of the
great crown of leaves. In time the flowers are followed by the fertile seed from
which they readily grow. The sago palm10 is the commonest species in cultiva-
tion, though the much larger species 17 is not uncommon.

Araucaria.

Passing to the evergreen-like trees, the giant Araucaria of Australia and
elsewhere grows to an enormous size and is frequently seen in gardens. Some
splendid species of the Norfolk Island pine18 are to be seen in the older gardens
in Honolulu. The monkey-puzzle or Chili pine 10 is also common about the city.
The Monterey cypress 20 seems to thrive in the islands and is much esteemed as
an ornamental tree.

A tree which is more common than any of the foregoing, and one which
might be easily mistaken for a pine, is the Australian ironwood,21 beef wood or
she-oak. The fruit is cone-like in appearance and together with the needle-

7 Caryota vrens. 8 Washmgtonia filifera. ** Rhapis Cochin chinensis. l0 Rhapis humilis.

11 Rhapis flabelliformis. 12 Arenga saccharifera, 13 Elans guinensis. 14 Hyophorbe amaricaulis.

15 Lantania glaucophylla. lfl Cycas revoluta. 17 Cycas circinalis. ]8 Araucaria excelsn.

19 Araucaria imbricata. 20 Cupressus macrocarpa, 21 Casuariria, equisetifolia.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 239

like branchlets would seem to entitle it to claim relationship with the cedar,
cypress or pine. Though the tree is widely distributed it was not known to the
native Hawaiians before its introduction by the whites. The tree has its greatest
use as wind-breaks. However, it has been extensively planted about the city
and reminds the visitors from northern climes of the winter season as the wind
whistles and soughs through its branches.

The Kuktti.

Look where one will in the city he will find but little that really belongs to
the native flora. The few species to be seen that pass as native trees are for the
most part those brought here from Polynesia by the natives themselves. How-
ever, there are a few of these that are of common occurrence and especially strik-
ing in appearance. The kukui or candle-nut tree 22 is always identified by its
conspicuous pale yellow-green, almost silvery foliage. It is one of the most
beautiful and abundant trees of the group from sea level up to two thousand
feet. In sheltered nooks and shady ravines the silvery-green foliage can be made
out from far out at sea, and is usually proudly pointed out to the stranger from
the deck of the steamer as one of the most beautiful and picturesque trees of
Hawaii -nei. It is a luxuriant shade tree and is well worthy of a larger place
in the parks, private grounds and streets of the city than it now occupies.

The wood is soft and white and is useless for building purposes; but the
nuts, which are similar in shape and size to a black walnut, were made by the
natives to serve in many useful ways. The shell of the nut is hard and black
and capable of taking a very high polish. They were strung into leis and
fashioned into other ornaments. The oily kernels were strung on splinters of
bamboo to form torches, whence the name candle-nut. The acrid juice con-
tained in the covering of the nut was the base for a black dye for tapa and also
served as an ink in tatooing the skin. The nuts, roasted and mixed with salt,
form a very pleasant side dish at native feasts. The oil was pressed from the
kernels and burned in stone lamps of native manufacture. It also made a water-
proof coating for tapa, and was occasionally used among the old-time Hawaiians
to oil the body for various purposes, especially to render it slippery in evading
their opponents in physical encounters. The gum which exudes from the bark
also had several uses.

It is of interest in this place to note that all branches of the Polynesian race
know the kukui by the same name. Though the kukui is generally dispersed
over the islands, and forms a large part of the forest up to the upper edge of its
range, it has but few enemies among the Hawaiian insects. This fact is taken
to indicate its being of comparatively recent Hawaiian introduction, and sug-
gests that there has not been sufficient time for it to attract serious insect pests.

The Breadfruit.
Another native importation of much value is the breadfruit,23 or iilii, of the

22 Aleurites Molluceana. 23 Artocarpus incisa.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 241

natives". It is planted singly about the gardens in the city and is quite com-
monly met with in groves of some size in the various valleys of the group.
Wherever grown it adds materially to the beauty of landscape and in addition
it has a great utility value. The young tree usually grows in the form of a per-
fect cone. The leaves are often two feet or more in length, dark, vigorous green
in color and deeply lobed. The tree always has a thrifty look which it retains
long after it has lost the charm of perfect form. The large green globular fruits
are three to five inches in diameter and are especially esteemed by natives and
Europeans as food. When very ripe the baked fruit has a flavor suggesting
sweet potato. When cooked green the flavor is less pronounced and less pleasing.
The tree attains a height of forty to sixty feet. The wood is a saffron color,
very durable and not liable to split. Elsewhere it has been used to some extent
in the manufacture of wheel hubs, but in Hawaii it is not used commercially.
The Hawaiians used the leaves for polishing, the bark as a medicine, and the
gum for capturing birds. Like the kukui, the breadfruit has accompanied the
Polynesians on all their wanderings wherever the climate would allow it to live.
The tree is exceedingly difficult to propagate. As the Hawaiian variety
rarely, if ever, produces fertile seed the plant has been distributed by root
sprouts and by layerings. It is not as important here, however, as in Tahiti,
where the fruit is made into a breadfruit poi.

Mango.

The mango 24 is a strikingly beautiful tree and is as much prized for its
shade as for its delicious fruit. It forms one of the most stately trees to be seen
in the city or about the islands. Its compact growth and its dense foliage of
large, dark-green leaves serve to identify the tree, but the rich purple-red or
red-brown young leaves, usually grouped on opposite sides of the tree at dif-
ferent seasons, make it especially conspicuous and worthy of remark.

Most of the trees bloom in January and the fruit ripens along in July and
August. However, these dates vary greatly and are frequently reversed, so
that there is hardly a day in the year when ripe, fresh fruits may not be found
in the city. The bearing trees make but little growth owing to the heavy fruit-
age which bends low the sturdy branches. Often only one side of a tree will
be in fruit at a time.

The fruit of the mango is of the most exquisite shape and color. It is about
the size of a pear, ovoid, slightly flattened with the two sides developed unequally,

( Mangifera Indica.

Description of Plate.

1. A fine Algaroba tree [Kiawe] (Prosopis julifiora). 2. Leaves of the Sacred Banian
(Ficus religiosa). 3. A Bougainvillea in full bloom. 4. A Bhapis Palm (Rhapis Cochin-
chinensis). 5. Bird's Nest Fern [Ekaha] (Asplenium nidus) from the native forest. 6.
Flowers of Clerodendron Thommsonce. 7. Fruit, flowers and leaves of the California Pepper
(Sehinus Molle). 8. Air-plant (Bryophyllum calycium). 9. A Cycas (Cycas sp.). 10.
Phylodendron in an Algaroba tree; a Bottle Palm to the left, a Fan Palm to the right.

242 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

giving it a thick comma shape. When ripe the fruit is a rich yellow with apple-
red cheek on the side turned toward the sun. But they vary in size, shape and
color as much as apples do, for, like the apple, they seldom come true from the
seed.

The tree is supposed to have originally come from India. It is the only one
of thirty or more species belonging to the genus Mangifera that has any value.
As many as five hundred varieties have been reported from India, and perhaps
forty or fifty of the best sorts to be found are established in Honolulu. Wrhile
usually grown from seed they may also be propagated by budding. This, un-
fortunately, is a somewhat difficult process involving much care and skill. Within
the last few years the trees here have been affected with a blight not common
elsewhere. It is due to a fungus disease that is thought to be aided in spreading*
by the blue-bottle flies and other insects carrying the spores from flower to flower.
It will be noticed that the sooty mould, when severe, often gives the whole tree a
blackened appearance.

Monkey-pod.

In almost every yard and square about the city, and indeed over the whole
group, will be found one or more monkey-pod trees.25 The better name for the
tree is samang; although it is sometimes called the rain-tree, since it blossoms
at the beginning of the rainy season in its native home in tropical America.
It is an exotic, having long been introduced. It belongs to the great group of
acacia-like plants, and has compound or multi-compound leaves. Like most of its
relatives it has the habit of closing its leaves in sleep at night. After sun-
down it presents a wilted appearance and does much toward changing* the aspect
of the whole city after nightfall. Trees of this species that are several feet
in diameter at the girth and spreading shade over a space 150 feet across,
are to be commonly seen about the islands. It is a permanent shade tree, and aside
from the litter of the discarded leaves and pods and a slightly ragged appear-
ance during1 the winter season it is highly desirable as an ornamental tree. As
a tree to be planted along- the sidewalks it is hardly to be recommended, as it
grows at such a furious rate that it is liable to lift the walk and injure the
curbing. It is therefore a tree better suited to ample lawns, open spaces and
parks.

The Algaroba.

Of all the introduced trees the algaroba 20 is the favorite. It is a mesquite,
perhaps of the southwestern United States and Mexico, and has been greatly im-
proved and modified by the change of environment. The original tree in Hawaii
grew from a seed planted in 1837 on Fort street, near Beretania, by Father
Batchelot, founder of the Roman Catholic mission. It is thought that the seed
was brought from Mexico, though this point is far from being settled by the his-
torians of the islands. The tree is still in a thrifty condition and is the pro-

25 Pithecolobium Samang. 26 Prosopis juliflora.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 243

genitor of more than 60,000 acres of forest distributed over the entire group.
At first it grew only at the lower levels, but, little by little, succeeding genera-
tions have crept higher and higher until now they thrive from the sandy sea
beach to 1,500 feet elevation. The lee coasts of Oahu, Molokai, and parts of Ha-
waii have been changed from deserts to forests by the algaroba alone. Curi-
ously enough, the land which it has taken possession of is usually arid or stony,
or so steep that it was considered generally worthless. If left alone they shade
the ground with a dense growth and attain a height of fifty to sixty feet. When
trimmed and thinned, as they are in the city, their delightful shade moderates
the heat of the tropic sun, allowing the growth of the lawn grass beneath, and
in dry seasons protecting it from the direct rays of the sun. Their slender,
brittle branches are often too much in evidence to be asthetic in themselves, but
nevertheless they have a weird picturesqueness of their own. The trunk at first
seems uncouth, but there is a grace and poise to the slender vine-like branches
and feathery leaflets as they toss to and fro in the trade wind, that over-balances
the ruggedness of the gnarled and twisted trunk.

In addition to its asthetic qualities the algaroba is one of the most useful of
trees. Besides yielding an enormous amount of wood of splendid quality, they
are valuable for the pods that are produced with great regularity after the tree
is three years old. The pods ripen gradually during the summer months, and,
next to the grasses, form the most important stock food. They are eaten by
horses, cattle and hogs with great relish. The hard, horny seeds which are em-
bedded in a sweet pulp are not digested by the stock, and hence are in prime
condition for growing and are scattered broadcast in this way.

The algaroba is also our most important honey-producing plant. Bees are
exceedingly fond of the nectar of the flowers and the sugar of the beans. Many
apiaries in algaroba groves produce honey of attractive appearance and superior
flavor.

The tree exudes two different kinds of gum. The most valuable collects in
clear, amber-colored, tear-like masses on the bark. It resembles the gum arabic of
commerce. As it contains no tannin and desolves readily in water the gum has
elsewhere been used in laundries and to some extent in the manufacture of gum-
drops. In Mexico it is also valued for certain medical properties. In Hawaii
it has never been collected or used, though large quantities of the gum could be
secured.

CHAPTER XVIII.

A RAMBLE IN A HONOLULU GARDEN: PART TWO.

The Poinciana.

Turning to the purely ornamental trees, first place is usually given to the
scarlet-flowered royal Poinciana,1 or to one of the closely allied species or varie-

1 Poinciana regia.

244 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

ties. The common species grown here, known as the "flame tree" or "flam-
boyant tree," has been so well named as to scarcely require further description.
Though it is a fairly rapid grower it is not a large tree as a rule. The smooth
trunk is expanded at the base in a curious way, forming buttresses that corre-
spond with the principal roots. This peculiarity in connection with its rich-
green foliage arranged in horizontal spreading layers of fine pinnate leaves,
makes it a tree so dainty as to attract attention at all seasons. But wThen it
bursts into full flower it is one solid mass of crimson, the admiration of all, and
without doubt it is one of the most striking of tropical trees. Although it sheds
its leaves at certain seasons it is at such times almost as remarkable for its large
pods as for the blossoms wiiich preceded them. The generic term, which is the
one commonly used as the name of this species, was given in honor of Governor-
General Poinci, who wrote on the natural history of the West Indies during the
middle of the seventeenth century. The species and varieties common in warm
countries are found here.

Pride of the Barradoes and the Golden Shower.

The pride of the Barbadoes,2 with orange-colored blossoms and a second
variety with yellow flowers, are quite common, the latter being known as the yellow
poinciana. But more conspicuous through the summer months is the golden
shower,3 or after the pods have set on it, the "pudding-stick" tree. The
foliage is quite scant, consisting of large pinnate leaves. The flowers appear in
pendant panicles and for several months there is a succession of pure primrose-
yellow, fragrant blossoms that justify the popular common name of the tree.
Another species is the purging Cassia 4 or horse Cassia, with pink and white
flowrers and leaves that somewtiat resemble the locust. It is most conspicuous
when bearing the large club-like pods eighteen to twenty inches long and an inch
or more in diameter. Another species known locally as the "pink shower" re-
sembles the latter in many ways, but has the pods divided off with transverse
diaphragms separating the seeds which are embedded in pulp. In this species 5
each seed is enclosed in a tiny pillbox-shaped case, the seeds lying collectively
in the pod like so many coins rolled together in a case. The flowers grow in
clusters closely resembling those of large, rich-colored erabapple blossoms and
surround the bough of the previous year's growth. The tree remains in full
blossom ten or twelve weeks and is a delight to all beholders. But of this large
genus there are numerous species represented in the introduced flora of the
islands, many of them producing handsome trees and shrubs.

Pride op India.

The pride of India,6 also a second and smaller species from Jamaica,7 both
with delicate lilac-colored flowers, are often called the "umbrella tree." The
flowers are followed by a crop of yellowish berries which are eaten and dis-

2 Cmsalpinia puleherrima. 3 Cassia fistula.

6 Melia Azedarach. 7 Melia semper vir ens.

4 Cassia nodosa. 5 Cassia grandis.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 245

tributed by the mynah birds. The larger species without doubt came originally
from India, but has been extensively planted in warm climates everywhere.

The tamarind,8 a name which, by the way, is derived from the Arabic mean-
ing " Indian date," is an exceptionally beautiful and useful tropical tree. It
attains a great height and its delicate acacia-like foliage crowded together so
as to produce a dense head makes it a shade tree that is considered by all
travelers to be one of the noblest in the tropics. It is probably a native of India
or Africa, but has been generally introduced in tropical countries. The pods,
numerous and from three to six inches long, contain an acid pulp that in the
islands is made the base of a cooling drink of much the same character as that
made from lemons or limes. Occasionally the pulp is also used in making a
delicious tamarind butter, but as a general rule they are allowed to fall to the
ground or to be carried off by roving children. The wood is greatly esteemed
in the manufacture of furniture. It is yellowish-white, sometimes with vari-
colored sap streaks, and is very hard and close-grained.

The Banian.

The Banian (or Banyan) tree, a name derived from the fact that it furnished
shelter for the open markets of the banians, or Hindu merchants, and therefore
literally a "market place," is a common tree in Honolulu. The family to which
it belongs is well represented in the gardens and parks of the city, there being*
at least a dozen or more of the large arboreal species that can be easily recog-
nized, usually, though not always, by the pendant aerial roots. The Banians
all belong to the great order 9 to which the common fig 10 ; the Indian rubber
plant,11 the Bengal banian tree,12 and the creeping fig13 on our garden walls, as
well as some six hundred other similar species scattered throughout the tropics,
are referred. The most ornamental plant, perhaps, is the India rubber plant. But
the great spread of the typical banian tree, wrhich sends down some of its
branches or aerial roots that in time take root in the soil, is one of the largest
and most thrifty-looking trees growing in Hawaii. Many of the related species
have the same or similar methods of reproduction.

Pepper Tree.

Among other important shade trees in the islands must be mentioned the
pepper tree 14 that grows so extensively throughout California. It is easily
recognized by its graceful, swaying branches and red berry-like clusters of fruits,
about the size of peppercorns, from which resemblance it derives its popular
though misleading California name.

The kamani,15 or tropical almond, often planted for the shade afforded by
its broad, horizontal branches and large, broad leaves, is an introduced species
coming originally from Asia. Before the leaves fall they take on the brilliant
autumn colors common in cold climates, and thus add much to their picturesque
beauty. The tree is also known as the Demerara almond, on account of the

8 Tamarindus Indira. 9 Urticacem. 10 Ficus Carica. X1 Ficus elastica. ^^ Ficus Benghalensis,

13 Ficus piimila. 14 Schinus Molle. 15 Terminalia catappa.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 247

edible almond-like, filbert-flavored nut they produce. The nuts may be eaten
either raw or roasted.

This tree should not be confused with the native kamani 1G which has beauti-
ful glossy, oblong or ovate leaves and globe-shaped nuts an inch or more in dia-
meter. This species is a splendid ornamental tree that is believed to be an an-
cient Hawaiian introduction, as it occurs throughout Polynesia and southern
Asia.

The Wattle.

The black wattle17 and the silver wattle18 have been cultivated in Hawaii
for nearly half a century, and these or their numerous relatives are common
in the city and constitute the chief trees planted in the Tantalus forest. Like-
wise the Australian oak or silk-oak,10 is common in parks and gardens and is
easily recognized by its fern-like leaves and sweet-scented golden-yellow trusses
of flowers.

Of the bananas and citrus fruits, and fruiting vines, that have some commercial
value and are grown both for their fruit and foliage, we will say nothing here,
deferring so engaging a subject for another chapter. Next to the trees in their
striking ornamental effect, however, are the numerous species of vines and vine-
like plants everywhere about the city. The property holder in Honolulu feels
that his fence, his house, and his out-buildings are doing full duty only when
loaded with a profusion of luxuriantly flowering vines, and there are perfect
tangles of vines and blossoms about many homes.

BOUGAINVILLEAS.

The most conspicuous of all in this class are the Bougainvilleas. Magenta,
scarlet-red and brick-red are among the common forms, and as to abundance they
occur in the order mentioned. Of the magenta colored species 20 there are two
common varieties, one of which is an ever-bloomer. Throughout the year this
species is one continuous mass of purple, and is one of the most striking of
the introduced plants. The salmon, brick-red, orange and scarlet varieties are
to most people more pleasing than the brilliant magenta species; but when a
blaze of color is required, the Bougainvillea of any shade will never be a disap-
pointment. The curious thing about them is that it is not the blossoms after
all that are so remarkable. An examination shows that it is only the bracts that
enclose the inconspicuous flowers that are so highly colored. All told there are

lfi Calophyllum Inophylluw. 17 Acacia decurrens. 1B Acacia dealbata. 19 Grevillea robusta.
20 Bougainvillea spectabilis.

Description of Plate.

1. Japanese flower peddler. 2. Night-blooming Cereus (Cercus triangularis) on Oahu
College wall. 3. Washington Palm (Washingtonia filifera) ; to the left a Royal Palm (Oreo-
doxa regia) ; to the right, a Date Palm {Phoenix dactylifera). 4. Zamia sp. 5. A Banian
tree (Ficus Indica), showing the curious aerial roots. 6. Wine Palm in fruit and flower.
7. The Mon st era (Monstera deliciosa). 8. A Mangosteen (Garcinia Morella) or Gamboge
tree.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 249

South Anieriean group of tree-loving Philodendrons is represented by perhaps a
dozen species that are among the more common climbing plants. They are
usually characterized by broad coriaceous, though often with divided, leaves and
are to be seen hugging palms, climbing trees and running over stone walls
everywhere about the city. The Monstera delicioca, like the foregoing, is a tree-
loving plant and is easily recognized by the enormous dark-green leaves that
are occasionally two feet in length and pierced by curious, large elliptical holes.
The flowers are small and betray the plant's relationship to the order Aracece, to
which great group the taro and the calla lily belong, by having the boat-shaped,
creamy -colored spathe. The succulent fruit of coherent berries requires many
months to ripen. But it eventually becomes a fruit a foot long by two inches
in diameter, resembling an ear of corn in shape and having a very delicate
tang suggesting both the pineapple and banana in flavor.

The city abounds in ornamental shrubs. What it lacks in annual and
perennial flowering plants is compensated for by the gorgeous, highly-colored
and varied leaves of this class of ornamental plants.

The Christmas flower, or poinsettia,32 is recognized by the stranger in the
islands from temperate climates as a familiar hot-house friend. But instead
of being a scraggy plant growing in a tub, it grows in Hawaii in the open and
attains a height of fifteen to twenty feet. At Christmas time it is most con-
spicuous, lighting up the city with the splendid scarlet-red of the flowers, though
the so-called flowers are in reality a cluster of large leaf-like bracts that sur-
round the small insignificant blossoms. A white variety is also occasionally
seen about the city.

The poinsettia belongs to the great tribe of euphorbias and has a white milk-
like juice. The genus was named as long ago as 1828 for the Hon. J. R. Poinsett,
an American minister to Mexico, who discovered the common species now in
cultivation, growing wild in that country.

Of recent years the beautiful Ixora has found much favor as a Christmas
flower owing to its large, showy clusters of bright-red blossoms and large
glossy-green leaves. The plants, however, do not confine their flowers to the
holiday season but generally extend their Christmas cheer throughout the year.
The species most common in Honolulu is a member of the typical genus in the
tribe Ixorew which belongs to the larger order Rubiacece, to which the coffee plant
belongs. The generic name Ixora is given as the name of a Malabar deity to
whom the flowers are offered in their native country. A number of the hundred
or more species belonging to the typical genus are occasionally met with in hot-
house collections in Europe and America, but in the congenial climate of Hawaii
they thrive with but little care, forming one of our most attractive and con-
spicuous garden shrubs.

The crotons of the floriculturist, so extensively grown as foliage plants in
Hawaii, are not crotons at all but Codiaeums, and like the foregoing, belong to the
great order Euphorbiacem. The word Codiaeum is of Malayan origin, and it is

32 Euphorbia pulcherrima.

17

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 251

from there %he single species with three well-marked varieties have been dis-
tributed all over the world to be developed into more than a hundred cultivated
forms and sub-varieties. While most of the forms have been given names, the
practice among botanists is to regard them all as belonging to one species.33 A
majority of the best known forms may be found growing in Honolulu gardens.

These beautiful plants, with their many forms of odd and, handsome foliage
of the most brilliant coloring, are to be seen in profusion everywhere. The colors
range from almost pure white to light and deep yellow, orange-pink, red-crimson,
and all these joined in the most remarkable combinations. In some cases one
color predominates, in others every possible combination is represented. But a
close study of the form of the leaves will demonstrate that three principal types
exist, namely, those with ovate, short-stalked leaves, those with narrow and
spatulate leaves, and those with narrow and often cork-screw twisted leaves.
Planted in clumps and masses the effect produced by the combination of their
rich colors is charming. They are often used to advantage as hedges and are
made in one way or another to give color to almost every lawn. ' .

The garden varieties of Coleus are also a legion, and many of them or their
near generic relatives thrive in the city and occasionally escape, as on Hawaii,
into the wooded stretches along the roads and lanes. A very deep-red, large-
leafed foliage plant of this family is in general favor. It is planted in rows to
form hedges about gardens and is wonderfully varigatecl in foliage.

Hedge Plants.

The hedge plant that is most conspicuous and, happily, the most com-
mon in Hawaii is the Hibiscus. Of this splendid shrub about six forms and in-
numerable varieties are in general cultivation. Of the common varieties, miles
and miles of hedges have been made. These are among the first objects to attract
the attention of tourists and visitors, and one never tires of the display of blos-
soms of all sizes and colors that line the street. There are at least four native
species, two or more of which have been cultivated to some extent by Hibiscus
enthusiasts. Much has been done here and elsewhere along the line of producing
new varieties by cross-breeding, so that every color from white, yellow, salmon
to deep red, in double and single blossoms, are abundant. It is to be hoped that
this splendid shrub may become so popular as to be regularly adopted as the
"City Flower" of Honolulu. As the hedges of scarlet and pink Hibiscus are ever
a delight to the eye a keen rivalry may well develop among householders in the
production of rare forms, since new varieties are easily produced by cross
pollenization.

Ki.

A plant that is common in the mountains and is often planted in hedges is
the ki 34 plant, the Dracaena, or more properly the Cordyline of botanists. There
are several cultivated varieties, especially one with wine-red leaves that are com-

33 Codicenrus variegatum. Zi Cordyline terminalis.

252 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

mon in Honolulu gardens. The natives find many uses for it that must be men-
tioned elsewhere. Its leaves are articles of daily use, however, especially as a
wrapping for fresh fish in the markets.

Still another shrub that is a favorite for hedges in the city is the beautifully
variegated Phyllanthits roseo-pictus. The leaves are small, alternate, and entire
in two rowrs on small branchlets, so that they appear like pinnate leaves. They
vary in color, being variously mottled with pink and red as well as with white
and green.

Most of Hawaii 's visitors who come from northern climes for their first visit
to the tropics are greatly surprised to find the Oleander,35 variously called rose-
bay, rose-laurel or South Sea rose, growing in beautiful ever-blooming hedges
ten to twenty feet in height. This old-fashioned evergreen shrub, so common as a
hot-house pant, flourishes here with but little care and blossoms in various
shades of pink, white and cream color. It is not generally known that all parts
of the Oleander are poisonous, and that there are authentic records of people
who have died from eating the flowers; death has also occurred from using its
wrood as skewers in cooking meat.

A beautiful tree frequenty seen in gardens about the islands is locally
known as the * ' bestill-tree, " owing to the fact that its large, slender, daintily
poised, shining green leaves are set in motion by the slightest breeze. It is also
called the yellow Oleander, on account of its golden, funnel-shaped flowers that
are further characterized by having the edge of the corolla made up of a series
of over-lapping lobes. The flowers and the foliage suggest the typical Oleander —
to which it is distantly related — and makes the name not inappropriate even
though it is not a true Nerium. This common species (Theveta nerii folia) is else-
where known as the quashy-quasher, and is widely distributed in the tropics,
particularly in the West Indies and tropical America. The wood is hard and
even-grained, and its seeds yield the fixed oil called exile-oil. The genus belongs
to the great order Apocynacece, which includes in its numerous tribes such well-
known and widely-differing ornamental plants as the Vinca, Oleander, Alla-
manda, and the Plumieria.

Pandanus.

Several species of Pandanus or screwr-pine are found growing, in old gar-
dens, some forms attaining great size. They are remarkable for their stilt-like
aerial roots, and the perfect spiral arrangement of their long sword-like leaves,
which are held aloft on a few scarred, naked branches. The aerial roots gradu-
ally lift the trunk out of the ground, but at the same time anchor it firmly in all
directions. Two species are common, one of which is a variegated form. There
is not space here to go deeply into the question of varieties, for there are as many
as fifty species known and many of them are in cultivation in Honolulu gardens.

The splendid specimens of Hercules' club, or angelica tree,30 commonly

1 Nerium Oleander, 8<? Aralia spinosa.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 253

called Aralia% are often among the more showy plants about houses and on lawns.
Another species 37 has white margins to all the leaves and is much esteemed and
used as a quick-growing hedge. The candied leaf-stalks of angelica are not an
uncommon confection.

The Plumeria 38 is a favorite, especially with the natives, and few of their
gardens are without one or more of these curious plants. From the white-and-
yellow flowers they are accustomed to make leis (wreaths) that rival in sweetness
the jasmine or the tuberose. Though they may be unsightly in appearance
for a month or two, when the leaves drop from their thick, club-like stems, they
make ample atonement for this defect during the rest of the year when they are
bedecked with a profusion of rich-colored, star-shaped, sweet-scented blossoms.
The genus was named for a celebrated French botanist, Charles Plumier, and
includes about forty species, three or four of which are grown in Hawaii.

Ferns.

Although ferns abound in every garden, there are but few that belong to
the native flora. Perhaps the curious bird's-nest fern39 or ekaha, is the most
conspicuous of this class. It stands out boldly against the background, formed
by the trunk of the tree in the fork of which it is established and is often five or
six feet in diameter aross the curious whirl of paddle-shaped leaves. It grows
naturally in the mountains, but stands transplanting in tubs and rockeries in
the city. The tree ferns which abound in the native forests are seldom seen
in the city. They do not thrive in the drier climate of the lower zone. This is
unfortunate as nothing in the native flora could be more ornamental. Owing to
the difficulties encountered in growing native mountain ferns the town gardener
has come to depend to a large extent on the hardy fish-tail or Boston fern 40
and everywhere, in the ground, in pots and hanging baskets this species
thrives. The beautiful, graceful, dark-green, always fresh looking, maile-scented
Staghorn fern (Gleichenia longissima) , a favorite for hanging baskets or rock-
eries, is a vigorous grower in the low altitudes, and prevents the fishtail from
having an apparent monopoly of this style of ornamentation. But in hot-houses,
where the amount of moisture and sunlight are more easily regulated, a profusion
of rare and beautifully delicate ferns are grown that are the source of just
pride among growers and furnish the basis for much rivalry among the inhabi-
tants of Honolulu. Some of the larger collections have scores of species repre-
sented, among them some of the most delicate, as well as the largest and most
showy forms known.

Coming to the garden flowers, the visitor is usually doomed to disappoint-
ment. Although almost any of the flowers in general cultivation elsewhere will
grow with little care and many of them thrive here, it is the exception to find a
yard in which any attempt is made to have a flower-bed of annuals, much less
an old-fashioned flower garden. In place of flowering plants bordering the drive-
ways, foliage plants and ferns are quite commonly substituted. Occasionally,

Aralia Guilfoylei. S8 Plumeria acutifolia. S9 Asplenium nidus. i0 Nephrolepis exaltata.

254

NATIHAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

lum„vtM, t1owers are plant,,!. h»1 usual!, such hardy h loomers as „,„,, „„,! „1Ilk
Vin,a- will Inn, their Pla,e a!,ou. 1..,- base of « H»' ™" "I" >'> "'" ^'""

W„1I. «nd likewise tlu- lH,H.lir..l 1.11U- p».l..x-lik.. l.-« dwor,<-w,l> n.hutas,

,,,,, llu, tlow,rs that one sees an- such as r„,u,r, .,., , .,,.v a-nl an- p,r,nn,ak
\s there is abundant color in tlu- Mowerim.: tr,,s and shrubs on, do,< not nnss
th, old-fashiou,d (lowers as much as otherwise would In- tl as,.

The old-fashioned four o'clock - is a familiar flower so hum established ,„
lI;nvaiK thil). iM n.,,,,,,,,1, situations, i, has escaped ami *.,,ws b> th.' .•oadsnl,.
Thov „,,. handsome, branch!.,, herl* with opposite >«'"V^- ""' >"^''- «"*1 ,olj,t"-
11„. '„,,,,,,- s,ssil,. and with <,u,t, la--,. often fragrant. Mowers wh.ch ar, white.
s,arlet or varieuated. There ar, perhaps a do/,n oth,r species that ar, nat,v,
to th, warmer parts of An»,ri,a. a few of whirl, ar, occasionally cultivated, hut
1h(, (.omni„n f,nll,0Y|„,k, or n.arv,l of lVru. is th, on, usually s„„ It d,nv,s
its nam, from 1h, fact that 1h, flowers open daily in th, lat, alt,moon.

Occasionally th, curious sproutiu-leaf plant, or "air- plant." will be s„n
in som, ..elected corn,r. anil will b, id,ntili,d as a bouoma-like plant that may
h,. propa-ated bv leaf euttin-s. In fact, if on, of th, thi,k. fleshy l,av,s ,s
pinned to th, wall, littl, plants will sprinsr up from tin- notches on 1h, edue of
the leaf.

XlGHT-BI.OOMINi; < 'KUKt'S.

It would not do to draw this lon<r chapter to a dose without mention of the
wonderful blooms of the ui-ht-hloomintr Oereus.'-' Likely as not fragments liav.
been carelessly piled on the stone fence at the bottom of the garden when- they
have ".Town unnoticed until they have transformed an unsiulitly fen,, into
the semblance of a sprawling everureen In-due. At intervals of not more
than a few weeks, especially durinir the summer, it clothes its ungainly, fleshy,
triangular steins with fjiatit creamy-white, lily-like blossoms a foot or more
in diameter. Few there are who have visited Honolulu and not been delighted
by the famous cactus hcdjrc at Punahou Academy. On the wall about the campus
is a continuous stretch of (Vrcus. five or six hundred yards in length, on which
thousands of these yreat flowers may be seen in blossom each year. They open
soon after the sun <joes down and remain in full bloom diiriuir the iiiirht. Hot
by nine o'clock of the following day the »iory of the nitrht before will have d-
parted, although the following: ni«rht belated blossoms will somewhat rest or, <t.
Fortunate. ind,<'d. is t!ie visitor whose 'ramble in a Honolulu uardeii ha- >■
so timed that he may be present at the "Cereu-- >,ason," sine, ihe oca--
without doubt one of the most remarkable ami uond,rful of th, «-it\ -
fioral exhibitions. The niyl.f-bloominu' Oereus is a uotid,r!'ui -*l t m ! o -i- .
clambered hiu'h into many larjre aluaroba trees in lb'!.., lulu, lis uiav "'

blossoms tantalizing heliolders bv beinir out of reach.

41 Virtrn rnxea. *- J'hiiiihai/o Cnptntxi*

*r. Cerent; t riu u'jiili: rix.

■ Mimbilis Jnlupn. " nriiuplillllnni ridnriinni

lNTKODlICKD PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

25;

pen so

CHAPTER XIX.
TROPICAL FHIITS IX HAWAII.
I 'nlil recently the brains and energy of the people in Hawaii have bee
centred on d.vclopm., ,he more p,-„fit «1,1*. fi,)d crops, that but little systematic
effort has been put fori), towards the in) roduetion arid cultivation of edible
fn.ils. Xev-rlheless many .Mirious fruifs are found sjrowinjr in the islands
ia both a u-.I.I and eultivai,,! slat,. In much 11,, same wav that we compare
Honolulu 1o a botanical -arden, by reason of the number and variety of its
ornamental plants, we may compare Hawaii to a Kreat unkempt experimental
orchard.

XaTIVK AND IXTRom/CKD Fkcits.
.Many rare, curious and toothsome fruits have been brought to Hawaii from
the ends of the earth in tim.-s past by fruit lovers. But, unfortunatelv, they
},;,vr ton nfh'n ,MMin pl«n^Ml out anion- ornamental plants, in out-of-the-way
places or left in neglected eorners t<» shift for themselves. With few excep-
tions sueh plantin-s have not materially advanced the cause of fruit-rowing
lno»v 1}l;m U) hl"'P «l«'monstrate that a Ion- list of worthy fruits will -row in
Hawaii almosl without attention.

.Many nal ive-grown species of our most common fruits are seldom, if ever,
mi in the markets of Honolulu, while the great majority of the list of island
pecies are to he seen only in the private .-rounds of the older residents. Although
it is true that most of the varieties as vet have a greater ornamental than eom-
mercial value, a few. as the pineapple and the banana, are extensively culti-
vated. Their production has come to be important industries. It is to a brief
review of some of the more interesting and important of the island fruits, both
native and introduced, that this chapter is devoted.

Botanists tell us that the islands at the time of their settlement by the
aborigines had few native indigenous fruits. The Chilian strawberry1 has
Ion- flourished on the high mountains of Hawaii and East Maui at an elevation
of from four to six thousand feet. The natives have always held this small
thou-h delicious berry in hi-h esteem under Wiv name ohelo papa. It seldom
reaches the market, but from May to September it is abundant; on Hawaii it is
one of the principal articles of food for the H vniian goose. Then* are several
cultivated speeies of better quality that find t-; way to market. Strawberries
do not thrive well at sea-level, but prefer the i» r and cooler regions. As a
],csult they are grown in beds in Xuuauu Valley. -.\ Wahiawa and elsewhere,
where conditions are favorable. By changing the * ovation, moisture and soil
conditions, an extended period of bearing is secured. As a matter of fact, if
they were more skilfully handled, fresh strawberries could be grown for the
market vxory day in ib(* year. As it is there is not more than a month or so
when fresh fruit cannot be secured.

1 Fragaria ChUenmn.

sec

s

256 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Native Raspberries.

There are at least three, and probably more species of the native raspberry,
or akala. They prefer the high altitudes and have been found growing
on all of the high islands with the exception of Oahu. In the deep w7oods on
Molokai, at the head of Pelekunu Valley, I have found the spineless Hawaiian
raspberry 2 growdng under ideal wild conditions, as a perennial, attaining a
height of twelve to fifteen feet, with stems three or more inches in diameter at
the ground. While the fruit is neither abundant nor of especially good quality,
the few berries that it produces are of large size and attractive appearance.
The species is worthy of propagation by horticulturists, on account of the im-
portant characteristics possessed by it that might be developed through cross-
fertilization.

In the mountains of Hawaii and Maui is found a low-spreading, prostrate
shrub with long, stiff, trailing branches that bear round, black fruit about a
half inch in diameter known to the natives as kukui neenee.3 The fruit is not
pleasant to the taste, but the wild Hawaiian goose feeds voraciously upon it.
They are common in the open country about the Volcano House.

The Ohelo.

Of more importance and general interest than the foregoing are the beauti-
ful and delicious ohelo berries 4 found especially abundant about Kilauea. They
belong in the same genus with the familiar bog-cranberry of commerce. The
berry is like the cranberry in size, shape and color. It is slightly astringent,
but not enough to render it unpleasant to the taste, when eaten out of the hand.
It also makes excellent pies and preserves, and being a very prolific bearer is
worthy of attention by those interested in the production of new fruits. The
berries vary greatly in color from almost white, through various shades of yel-
low and red to almost purple, and are covered with a waxy bloom. They grow
crowded together along the branching stems of the low erect shrub, which at-
tains a height of from one to two feet. The bush grows more or less in patches,
often covering considerable areas. In former times it was used as a propitiatory
offering to the goddess Pele, and a century ago no Hawaiian would approach
her abode without first making a suitable offering of these berries to the far-
famed goddess of the volcano. The Hawaiian islands have tw^o distinct species
and several recognized varieties, though the berries of the taller species, fairly
common in the highest mountains of the different islands of the group, are
seldom eaten.

Mountain Apples.

An important native fruit tree, or at least one that must be considered as
of early native introduction, is the mountain apple, or ohia ai.5 The tree attains
a height of from twenty-five to fifty feet, and usually forms a clump or grove

2 Rubns Macrmi. 3 Coprosoma ernodeoides. * Vaccinium, reticulatum.

5 Jambosa — (Eugenia) Malaceensis.

INTEODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 257

along the streams. In the forest they are easily recognized by their dark-green
leaves and waxy-red or deep-erimson fruits, which are as large as apples and
are borne twice a year in great profusion. In the market the fruit is of such
attractive appearance that the watery, insipid flavor comes at first as a disap-
pointment; however, the curious cooling property of the fruit compensates for
what it lacks in flavor. It bruises easily in handling and is but little used,
except occasionally in making sweet pickles. The tree occurs on all the larger
islands of the Pacific and is highly esteemed by the natives for its fruit. The
fragrant flowers were formally the favorite haunts of several of the native birds,
which were caught in the branches by the use of bird lime. While the tree
grows here and there in the city of Honolulu, it is by no means common, and
must be seen in its native habitat to be appreciated at its full worth as a forest
tree.

Poha.

The poha, cape gooseberry, or ground cherry,0 is a spreading shrub belong-
ing to the great tomato family. It bears yellow berries in a bladder-like calyx,
and grows quite common on mountain slopes throughout the group, especially on
Hawaii and Maui. The fruit is edible, has a pleasant flavor and when cooked
makes an excellent jam. In this form it has established a place for itself in
Hawaii at the head of the list of preserves. It is only occasionally seen in the
market in the raw state, and as it is mostly gathered from the wild plants, it is
usually high in price. The plant is said to be a native of Brazil, but has long
been naturalized in Hawaii. As it is only one of some thirty or more known
species, it is quite possible that it would be worth while to introduce other species
for cultivation.

Bananas.

The banana is a conspicuous and valuable plant everywhere in the tropics.
The striking bunches of fruit, and its broad, bright-green leaves occupy a promi-
nent place in the ornamental foliage about almost every home in Hawaii. The
banana is important among the commercial fruit-bearing plants of the islands.
If we accept the broadest use of the term, the wrord banana includes all of the
species and innumerable varieties of the genus Musa. This genus, wrhich is
supposed to have been named for Antonius Musa, a physician to Augustus the
Great, belongs to the order ScitaYninaceo}, to wrhich also belong several genera,
including many well-known plants found growing in Honolulu gardens — such
conspicuous ornamental plants as the traveler's palm or traveler's tree,7 the
Canna and ginger 8 being among them. The original home of the banana is
thought to have been southern Asia. Doubtless it has been long ages under
cultivation, and in very early times found its way into Polynesia. For this
reason it is thought that the wild, or native banana, or maia, found growing
everywhere in the mountain valleys, even in the most remote districts of the

! Phy salts Peruviana. 7 Ravenala Madagascariensis. s Zingiber.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 259

group, are all of very early Hawaiian introduction from the islands to the
south of the Equator. The natives know as many as twenty-five and perhaps
fifty varieties of so-called wild bananas, having a name for each, but as the
same fruit is known by different names on different islands, many names dis-
appear as synonyms. It has been found that three main groups or types can be
recognized. But the native nomenclature will doubtless withstand the attacks
that may be made upon it by the systematic botanist and horticulturist, and as a
consequence, the more important and striking forms will long continue to be
recognized, in the markets at least, by their native names.

While the original plants were doubtless set out well up in the mountain
valleys, in sheltered, moist, well-drained places, by the native planters, they are
now distributed along the streams. In certain sections peculiar forms are
common, and it is not improbable that new varieties have been originated in the
islands by the natives through intelligent selection, or by isolation, or from
other causes. The koae, for example, is a striped variety, having the fruit and
leaves variegated with pale and dark green, that is said by some to have origi-
nated in Kona, Hawaii, and to have been brought from there to Honolulu for
ornamental purposes. The oa is striped, reddish and green, and like the variety
just mentioned is also said to have originated in Kona. Other interesting varie-
ties of possible local origin are the poni, or black-trunked banana, the rose, and
the sweet-scented varieties.

Among Europeans the nomenclature of the banana is in an uncertain state.
The same varieties have different names in each country where grown; even the
class terms, plantain and banana, are used with varying meanings. In some
localities the plantain is understood to mean almost all the edible species, while
in other localities banana has an equally wide and uncertain application. It is
urged that the better usage is to reserve the term plantain for the varieties that
can only be eaten after they have been cooked. Since it is the custom to recognize
two kinds of bananas, namely, cooking and eating, the two terms, used so far
as possible as above, would be generally useful.

In addition to the many excellent native varieties that are to be had in the
local market, there are a number of introduced species and varieties which,
though they stand high, are of but little commercial importance, as they will
not stand packing and shipping. This class includes some of our best table
bananas; the Brazilian, the apple, the largo, the kusaie, and a long list of
other less common ones should be mentioned as among the more important.
Of the native varieties the iholena and lele are considered as the choicest varie-
ties for both cooking and eating.

The most important commercial varieties are the Chinese or Cavendish,9
the Jamaica, Martinique or Bluefield, and the red Spanish or Jamaica red. The
latter is sold in the fruit stalls as a fancy variety. The Bluefield, which takes
its name from the principal port from which the variety is shipped into the
United States, was introduced into Hawaii in 1903 and has been fast winning

M us a Ca vert d is h ii .

260 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

favor among the more intelligent growers, as it sells in the market at about
one-third more per bunch than does the common Chinese variety. Its fruit has a
tough, slow-ripening, golden-yellow skin, and the hands, or clusters, grow in
large, very compactly-arranged bunches.

The Chinese variety was introduced into the islands from Tahiti about
1855, and has long been the leading commercial banana. It is characterized
by its low growth and large bunches of yellow fruit of fine flavor and good
keeping qualities. Only a single bunch is produced by a plant. The fruit
ripens at all seasons, recpiiring, in low levels, ten to twelve months for the
bunch to mature; in higher elevations, twelve to eighteen months.

It has been found that an acre of good ground under favorable conditions,
well watered and tilled, will produce in a year 1,200 bunches of bananas weigh-
ing sixty pounds each. While dried banana and "banana flour" is prepared
from the fruit elsewhere, the common varieties in Hawaii have never been ex-
tensively used in this way.

Of the various cooking plantains very little is known outside of the tropics.
It is quite possible that when the value of the plantain becomes more generally
known as a winter substitute for vegetables, its export from Hawaii will ma-
terially increase.

As is generally known, the varieties of bananas most useful to man seldom
if ever reproduce from seed. They increase from suckers that spring up about
the base of the plant. If allowed to grow undisturbed a single plant will soon
develop a considerable clump, which may be divided and transplanted as desired.

The leaves are interesting, as the parallel veins stand at right angles to the
mid-rib and are joined together to form the broad leaf. Heavy winds in many
places tear the large leaves into shreds, hence a sheltered location is usually
selected for the cultivation of the fruit.

The flower of the banana is somewhat unusual in appearance. Each plant
bears but a single bunch of flowers which grows out of the center of the top
of the stock on the end of the elongated spike. It appears first as a purple-red
spike that curves downward as it grows. This spike-like head is made up of a
large number of flowers grouped in clusters, each cluster later developing into a
"hand" of bananas. As the clusters emerge they are covered by the thick,
reddish bracts which curl up and expose the flowers. In time the tubular, cream-
colored blossoms fall off, leaving the long ovaries. These in turn develop into
fruits. Each bunch of bananas contains from one to a dozen or more of these
clusters and each cluster from twelve to twenty-four bananas.

So far, the banana in Hawaii is fairly free from disease and pests. Three
forms of fungus diseases are known to prey on the plant, but as yet they are
nowhere serious. Two species of nematode worms are somewhat troublesome,
and the cane borer, common throughout the group, has been occasionally found
boring in the stem. The red spider, which is well known to most gardeners, has
been instrumental in causing a brown smut to gain a foothold on the fruit.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 261

Though this fungus has long been found on the fruit grown here, its effects
are never serious.

The history of the development of the banana business is an interesting
one, but it must suffice here to note that the first exportation of the fruit was
made in 1864, when 121 bunches were shipped to the mainland.

Pineapples.

The pineapple10 is a native of America, and is the most important member
of the family11 in which it is placed. This family has nothing whatever to do
with either the pine or the apple families. The pineapple is a sorosis, or col-
lection of fruits formed by the cohesion into a mass of the ovaries and perianths
of the compact fruit. The flowers themselves are abortive. In the cultivated
pineapple, seeds are rarely found, but the wild variety, from which it originated,
has many seeds.

In Hawaii it is extensively cultivated, and was of early introduction. It
seems well adapted to the islands and several varieties are grown, which produce
fruit of the most excellent flavor. There are instances where the fruit has es-
caped or has been abandoned, where it is to be found growing in a wild state.

As is well known, the plant usually produces but a single fruit crowded in a
rosette of stiff serrated leaves, on the top of the stem of the plant, which ma-
tures in from twelve to twenty months. The fruit is itself crowned with a
cluster of stiff leaves. The plant is propagated by means of slips, suckers,
crowns and rattoons. Over fifty well-defined varieties are recognized, some of
them quite distinct forms, which vary widely in color, size and flavor. The
most important species grown locally are limited to a few carefully selected
types that are especially suited to the requirements of the canneries.

Fruits of the largest species not infrequently attain a weight of twelve or
more pounds. The crop is harvested at certain seasons, but fresh fruit reach
the market the year around. The plants are not entirely free from pests and
diseases. The most serious disease, perhaps, is known as the "pineapple dis-
ease" of sugar-cane. This disease, which attacks the fruit causing it to prema-
turely decay and ferment, was first discovered on cane and received its name
from the fact that it produced an odor in the decaying cane similar to that of
the pineapple.

The Avocado or Alligator Pear.

The avocado, or alligator pear,12 though technically a fruit, is from the
culinary standpoint a salad vegetable, in that it is used much the same as the
cucumber, since it is usually eaten with salt, pepper and vinegar. It is almost
the only fruit which is eaten only as a salad. Persons who are served with this
curious pear-shaped fruit for the first time are usually disappointed. But a just
valuation of the rich nutty or butter-like flavor of the fruit is soon acquired,
and once it is fully appreciated the taste becomes little short of a craving.

10 Ananas satira. 1] Bromeliacew. i2 Persea f/ratissima.

262 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

The tree, which is a native of the American tropics, was of early introduc-
tion into Hawaii and is rapidly gaining in favor as an island fruit with a pos-
sible commercial future, which, however, has teen somewhat interfered with
through fruit quarantine measures that prevent its shipment to California for
fear it may carry with it the much-dreaded fruit-fly that has already established
itself in Hawaii.

The earliest known account of the avocado is found in Oriedo's report to
Charles V. of Spain in 1526. At that time it was found growing wild in the
West Indies, doubtless having been introduced there from the continent of
America. In various places and in diverse ways the fruit has come to be known
under no fewer than fifty names, no one of which is less suitable than the com-
mon English designation, since it is neither an alligator nor a pear, and more-
over the combination of names is in no way pleasing, appetizing or appropriate.
The fruit is justly entitled to a characteristic name, and avocado seems suited
to the requirements.

In 1860 it reached Tahiti, and must have been planted in Hawaii very soon
after that date. Trees about the city grow rapidly to a height of from twenty
to sixty feet, and are at once identified by their large dark-green leaves and
large pear-shaped, green and purple fruits, which contain a single large seed.
The avocado belongs to the Lauracece and has such distinguishing relatives as
the cinnamon,13 camphor,14 and sassafras,15 all of which were introduced into
Hawaii many years ago, but the avocado is the only member of the family that
has been cultivated to any extent. As the fruit is usually grown from the seed,
the quality varies with the different trees. Now the ripe fruits have been suc-
cessfully shipped from Hawaii to New York and Washington, and as recent ex-
periments have proved that choice trees can be propagated by budding, there
is every reason to think that the avocado has a future before it, as it seems to be
reasonably free from the attacks of the fruit-fly. Selected trees, sheltered from
the wind and with other conditions favorable, have yielded as many as 250
fruits to a tree, while the yield from exceptional trees has been more than a
thousand pears.

Papaya.

Like the foregoing, the papaya1-5 is a native of tropical America, probably
Brazil, and is a fruit much esteemed in the islands. It is one of the commonest
fruits in many private yards, and considered as a fruit, vegetable, salad or
simply as an ornamental plant, it is a general favorite. Its large, golden, melon-
shaped fruits and handsome, thrifty, green, palmate leaves render it a species
that attracts attention at once from strangers.

By some the fruit is called papaw, a name which should perhaps be re-
served for the tree and fruit of Asimina trilola, which is a tree common through-
out the southern United States. It bears smooth, oblong fruits that in no way
resemble the papaya of the tropics. They are three or four inches long, banana-

13 (inucmomum Zeylcnici.m. ' 4 Cia namonntw caniphora. 15 Sassafras officinale,

1rt Papaya rult/dris - f>, /•»>« Pupi j/-,\

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 263

shaped, and are filled with sweet pulp in which are embedded the bean-like seeds.

The papaya is an interesting example of a dioecious plant, as it has the male
and the female flowers on separate plants. The edible fruit is produced by the
female tree, as a rule. It is therefore desirable, in order to insure the best crop
of fruit, to plant a number of trees of both sexes in close proximity.

There are a number of varieties under cultivation, all of which are known
locally as papaya. While it is usually a small, short-lived tree with a single,
stout, vm branched trunk, crowned with a cluster of leaves, there are many old
specimens thirty feet or more in height that so differ in appearance that only
the characteristic leaves prevent them from being mistaken for some rare species
of curious tropical plant.

It is extensively grown in the tropics, and may now be found wherever climate
and conditions are favorable. The milky juice of the plant has a property
similar to, though different from that of pepsin. If tough meat is wrapped in
the fresh leaves for a short time it will become tender. The seeds also possess
valuable properties as a vermifuge.

Gitava.

Several species of guava thrive here. They grow from seed so readily
and spread so rapidly that the lemon-guava,17 at least, is no longer cultivated.
In many sections this species forms dense thickets. As it fruits abundantly at
nearly all seasons at different elevations it furnishes a refreshing fruit that
may be enjoyed on mountain rambles.

Of the 130 species known several are well established in Hawaii, but aside
from the common lemon-guava and the smaller red strawberry-guava,1* the
other species are rarely met with. The fruit is supposed to be more agreeably
acid and hence more palatable if gathered in the early morning. The lemon-
guava, besides being a rich, aromatic fruit, makes fine jam, guava whip, and
jelly, the latter being one of the finest-flavored jellies known. In spite of this
fact comparatively little of it is manufactured, and thousands of tons of the
fruit waste every year. This acid vegetable material, however, when added to the
lava soils of Hawaii is a decided benefit to the land. Since the bushes grow7 on
^11 kinds of soil under widely varying conditions the wedge-work clone by their
roots has proven a decided help in opening up the more resistant soils.

Lemons, Oranges and Limes.

The orange19 is one of the oldest of cultivated fruits; although its nativity
is not known, it probably originated in the Indo-Chinese region. It is now
widely distributed and just whether it was introduced into these islands by
the natives themselves or by the earliest explorers will probably not be definitely
known. Vancouver is generally accredited with its introduction, as in 1792
he came from Tahiti, where it had long grown, having received a large store of
-supplies from the natives there. Arriving on Hawaii he left with the native

' Psidium Guayava. 1H Pttidiutu Cattleyanum. 19 Citrus Aurantimn.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 265

chiefs of "Kona a number of valuable seeds and ' * some vine and orange plants. ' '
A few days later he left some "orange and lemon plants" on the island of
Niihau. It is supposed that these plants were the parents of the famous russet
Kona oranges that are such general favorites among islanders. On Molokai, far
back in the mountains, a few years ago I found an old orange grove in a fairly
thrifty state, in wrhich some of the trees were two feet in diameter at the height
of my shoulder. Everything about them indicated their great age, and it is
highly probable that this grove antidates the introduction of the plants by
Vancouver.

Oranges, lemons,20 limes 21 and the grape fruit, pomelo or shaddock,22 have
all found an equally congenial home here, and there are many Hawaiian varie-
ties, and seedlings that lack names but that, nevertheless, are excellent and point
to the fact that our soil is well adopted to their growth and culture. As is to
be expected, the citrus fruits are here, as elsewhere, subject to a number of
pests. Many of them are in an unchecked state and can do much damage.
Among them are root-rot or gum disease affecting the trunk; ripe rot, due to a
fungus attacking the fruit, and sooty mould, causing the blackened or mouldy
appearance of the leaves, fruit and twigs. It is interesting to know that this
last disease does not feed on the tissues of the plant, but thrives on the sweet
dew-like substances deposited by aphids and scale insects. Lichens in moist
localities; 'die back,'23 and lemon scab24 are among the more common diseases.

Among the insect enemies, the purple scale is quite prevalent. It may be
readily identified, when adult, as a purplish object shaped somewhat like a
miniature oyster shell. A species of mealy bug, appearing as a cottony mass,
occurs in the terminal twigs causing them to grow twisted. The orange aphis
or black fly is a minute insect living in the fine twigs. And lastly, the orange
rust mite, which, though very tiny indeed, is the cause of the russet oranges.
It pierces the surface of the fruit and feeds on the oils therein. The same
species affecting lemons causes them to turn silvery. It is a curious fact that
fruits affected by this mite are usually better flavored than those that are not
troubled by it, though they are less attractive in appearance. The most serious
pest of all, however, is the recently-introduced Mediterranean fruit-fly, elsewhere
described at length.

The lime is extensively grown, there being several local varieties. The
supply at present is almost sufficient for the local demand. The citron 2r> is
generally grown in yards and gardens. Both the oblong and round lemon-like
kumquat 20 thrive, as does the shaddock, which is recognized by its, size (six or
seven inches in diameter) and coarse texture. Ail of the foregoing have long
been cultivated and are found in deep valleys in such a wild state that they might
almost be considered as part of the native flora. The pomelo deserves more
care than has so far been bestowed upon its culture. Several of the Japanese

20 Citrus Limon. 2l Citrus acida. 22 Citrus Decvmana.

23 A disease traceable to unfavorable condition in the soil.

24 Cone-like elevation on leaves, fruit and twigs.

25 Citrus Medica. 2a Citrus Japonica.

18

266 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

and Chinese types of oranges bear astonishingly well, and should the trees be
more intelligently and extensively cultivated they would yield even more abund-
antly.

The wi or Tahiti apple 27 has a golden fruit that grows in clusters, on a tree
resembling the walnut in appearance. The fruit, which is the size of a peach,
and has a curious seed, somewhat suggests the pineapple in flavor. It is a
native of the South Pacific islands and is now widely distributed in the tropics.

The Custard Apple and Its Allies.

The custard apple genus,28 of which more than fifty species are known, is
represented in the islands by at least three common species that occur here and
there, usually as ornamental trees or curiosities in door-yards about the islands.
Included in this genus is the sour sop.29 It comes from the West Indies, where
it is a favorite fruit. This thrifty green tree bearing a large conical heart-
shaped, green, spiney fruit, six to eight inches long and weighing as much as five
pounds, will be recognized at once by the novice. The white, soft, juicy, sub-acid
pulp of the fruit is used to some extent as a flavoring for sherbet and fruit punch.

The sweet sop 30 bears a fruit resembling a short pine cone in shape that is
three or four inches in diameter, yellowish-green and tuberculate. The pulp is
creamy-yellow, custard-like and very sweet.

The custard apple,31 a smooth fruit, is also a favorite in the West Indies,
which is probably its home. Both the custard apple and the sweet sop are worthy
of more attention in Hawaiian gardens.

Cherimoya 3- is a thrifty tree coming originally from Peru, but now widely
naturalized. It is of comparatively recent introduction into Hawaii, the fruit
coming mostly from Kona. The fruits are slightly flattened spheres, two or
more inches in diameter, brownish yellow in color with the flesh soft, sweet »and
rich in flavor. It is a well known fruit in the tropics. All three of the Anonas
just mentioned are easily propagated from seed and thrive in ordinary heavy soils.

The sapodilla,33 a tree of Central America, is much esteemed under the more
common name of Sapota pear. The fruit is the size and color of a small russet
apple. It is a firm fruit with ten or twelve compartments and as many large
black seeds. The flesh is sweet and pear-like in flavor. From the sap of the
tree ehewring~gum is made.

The loquat 34 or Japanese plum, a native of China and Japan, is a small
tree with thick, evergreen, oval-oblong leaves that are covered with rusty hair
beneath. It bears well in Hawaii, usually producing two crops each year, and
is an excellent decorative fruit. The pear-shaped fruit is yellow with large seeds
and has a pleasant flavor. It is extensively planted in southern California and
elsewhere in the southern states.

Figs, Grapes and Mulberries.
Several varieties of figs 3r> are grown here, and but for the attacks of birds

27 Spondias dulcis. 2g Anona. 29 Anona muricata. so Anona Squamosa. S1 Anona reticulata.
82 Anona Cherimolia. 3S Achras Sapota. s* Eriobotrya Japonica. 35 Ficus Carica.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 267

and insects would flourish. The fig, as is well-known, is a native of Asia . It is
a true Ficus, belonging to the same genus of plants wTith the ordinary rubber
tree or banian common in the islands. Several varieties of the choice Smyrna
fig have been introduced recently, together with the interesting wasp which is
necessary to fertilize the flowers. The story of the development of the Smyrna
fig industry in the United States is one dealing with a remarkable triumph of
economic entomology and is a tale of absorbing interest.

Grape culture is carried on to some extent in a commercial way, especially
by the Portuguese. Although the grape 3G has been cultivated by man since the
beginning of history, it was unknown in Hawaii before its introduction by the
whites, which took place at an early date. The Isabella is the type of blue
grape most cultivated and is to be had in the markets throughout the year. All
species grown are subject to the attacks of insects, the most important pest
being the Japanese beetle. This insect is especially troublesome, often com-
pletely defoliating the vines.

Certain varieties of apples 37 have been grown in the islands at high alti-
tudes, though they seem to require a different climate. Peaches 38 thrive fairly
well in the islands. While not producing fruit of marketable appearance or
flavor, it seems to be bound to no set season, blossoms and fruit being found at
different elevations, and under varying circumstances, the year around.

The black mulberry 3{) was early introduced into the islands for the purpose
of supplying food for silk wrorms. It was hoped by the missionaries that the
silk industry might be established among the natives. Interest was allowed to
lapse, however, though the mulberry does well here, having escaped into a wild
state in many sections. The white mulberry 40 has also been introduced. Should
fruit-eating birds be extensively introduced it would doubtless be spread by
them into the mountains generally.

Eugenia.

Of the large genus of Eugenia 41 many species have been introduced into
the Hawaiian islands. Of the fruiting shrub-like bushes seen in yards, the
Cayenne or Surinam Cherry 42 is most common. It is a native of Brazil, is
bush-like in growth, seldom if ever growing more than twenty feet high. It is
easily identified by its dark red edible cherry -like fruits which are an inch in
diameter and ribbed from the stem to blossom end. The delightful, spicy, acid
flavor of the fruit is characteristic. Elsewhere it is much used for jellies and
jams, and is sometimes improperly called the French cherry.

The rose apple,43 another Eugenia, is also frequently seen in gardens in the
group. It is a tree usually attaining the height of twenty or thirty feet with
long, thick, shiney green leaves much resembling the oleander. The fruit, which
has little to recommend it as a fruit, is white or yellowish in color, tinged with a

36 Yitis spp. 87 Pyrus Malus. 38 Prunus Persiea. 39 Morus nigra. 40 Morus alba.

41 Named in honor of Prince Eugene of Savoy. 42 Eugenia Michelii = E. uni flora.

43 Eugenia Jamb as.

268 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

bluish blush and is an inch and a half or more in diameter. It is peculiar
in being rose-scented and apricot flavored. Another species of Eugenia that
is an especially prolific bearer is known locally as Java plum.44 The tree grows
thirty or more feet in height and bears a wealth of black fruit the size of a small
plum ; they are quite common in gardens in the islands. The mynah birds are
fond of the fruit and may be seen carrying it about when it is in season.
Flying to the nearest house-top or fence post, they eat the flesh off allowing the
hard seed to fall and take root as it will.

The Passion Flowers.

Of the great order Passifloracece or passion flowers, a number of species are
in cultivation, some of them producing fruit of a remarkable quality. The pas-
sion flower45 proper, is a slender vine coming originally from Brazil. It is
perhaps the most common garden species. The leaves are deeply divided into
five segments, the lower two being sometimes again divided. The flowrers are
three to four inches across and slightly fragrant. It is interesting to know that
the Spanish, when they found this flower growing in the South American forests,
took it as a token that the Indians should be converted to Christianity. They
saw in its several parts the emblems of the passion of our Lord, hence the flos
passioriis was described as early as 1610 as a marvel of prophetic beauty, and
properly enough the description then made has been the foundation for the
name of the whole group of plants.

The devout, or those gifted with a fertile imagination, find in the various
parts of the blossom, the crown of thorns ; a blood colored fringe suggesting the
scourge with which the Master was tormented; the nails; five blood stains, stand-
ing for the wounds received on the cross ; the fine filaments, seventy-two in num-
ber, agreeing with the traditional number of thorns with which the crown wras
set, and lastly the lance-like leaves of the plant referring to the instrument which
pierced the Savour 's, side. The leaves are also marked beneath with certain spots
suggesting the thirty pieces of silver.

But to return to the fruits belonging to this order, the species most com-
monly seen in the market is the egg-shaped water-lemon.40 This is an edible
fruit yellow in color, spotted with white, the seeds having a sweetish, cool pulp
about them with a delicate and, to many, pleasant flavor. The flowers are about
two or three inches in diameter; the leaves entire with a short, sharp point.

The purple-fruited water-lemon or lili koi,47 is also common, having es-
caped to many places about the islands. The ganadilla,48 the largest of the
passion fruits, is a most remarkably strong-growing climber introduced from
tropical America. The large leaves three to five inches across, and the long
yellow-green melon-shaped fruit, often nine or ten inches in length, make it a
striking plant. The fruit is edible, being used to advanatge as a flavoring for
sherbets.

** Eugenia Jamholana = Suzyaium Jambolana. 45 Passiflora ccerulea. 40 Passiflora laurifolia.

41 Passiflora edulis. *s Passiflora quadrangularis .

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 269

Pomegranates.

Pomegranates 49 are grown throughout the islands in gardens, more as orna-
ments than for the fruit. Their bushy growth and awl-like spines and narrow,
glossy-green leaves, with red petioles, make it conspicuous. The fruit is globular
with a bright, smooth, yellow, red-blushed rind and a prominent crown-like calyx.
The interior consists of a number of seeds enveloped in a bright crimson-colored
pulp, the seeds being crowded into several segments. The cooling, astringent
juice of the pulp is enjoyed by many. The pomegranate, a native of Asia, is
supposed to have been introduced into southern Europe by the Carthagenians at
a very early date, and has from there been widely distributed. There are sev-
eral varieties grown in Hawaii, among them a double flowering variety that is
quite popular as an ornamental plant.

We could extend the list of fruits and fruit-like products indefinitely.
The lichi 50 of China; the mangosteens 51 of China ; the water-melon 52 of Africa ;
the musk-melon 53 of southern Asia ; the fruit of the prickly -pear 54 from Mexico,
are all to be seen among the fruits in the Honolulu markets. In fact, a list-
enumerating considerably over one hundred well-defined species of fruits oc-
curring in Hawaii has been prepared, and it is safe to assume it could easily be
extended ; a number of the rarer fruits receive brief notice in the index.

CHAPTER XX.

AGRICULTURE IN HAWAII: ITS EFFECT ON PLANT AND ANIMAL

LIFE.

The remarkable agricultural transformation of the Hawaiian Islands, from
the time when taro-growing was the chief occupation of the primitive inhabi-
tants, to the present, when the growing of sugar-cane is the dominant in-
dustry of the land, furnishes a story filled with facts of the greatest interest.
The account of this transition, however, would come more properly within the
scope of a political and industrial history of Hawaii. Nevertheless, agriculture,
in the broad sense, is a natural employment, having to do with plants and ani-
mals. It has been, and doubtless will always continue to be, the chief vocation
of the people of the islands, and as agriculture and the occupations growing out
of its practice will long continue to be the main source of prosperity and wealth,
a brief account of the natural, as distinguished from the commercial history of
some of the industries, at least will not be out of place here.

Agriculture in Recent Times.

Our present interest in the subject, however, comes mainly from the fact
that the phenomenal development of agriculture in Hawaii in recent times has

49 Punica Granatum. r,° Nephelium Lite hi.

51 Gareinia mango stana from Sumatra; also the more common Garcinia xanthochgmus from India.

52Citrullus vulgaris. BS Cucumus Mela. 54 Opuntia Tuna.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 271

not only, brought in a host of both beneficial and injurious plants and animals
from abroad, but through tillage, has brought about changed conditions in the
natural environment. These sweeping changes have affected the primitive na-
tural history of the Hawaiian Islands more than all other agencies put together.
Enormous areas of land have been cleared of the natural growth of forest
and field and usually put under artificial irrigation, with the result that more
radical changes have been made in the character and use of the land of the
islands, in one generation, than was brought about by the operations of the
primitive inhabitants during the whole period of their occupation of the group.
Such wide-spread changes in the character of the country have been reflected in
numerous remarkable changes in the native fauna and flora. In numerous in-
stances, the extension of agriculture must be credited with the extermination of
many forms of life formerly common in such sections as are adapted to the
purposes of the planter and the ranchman.

The Sugar Industry.

Foremost among the industries of this class is the production of sugar.
All other field crops dwindle to insignificance in comparison with it. Few
places in the islands where cane can be grown at all, will yield less than thirty or
forty tons, and from that up to sixty and seventy tons to the acre. Such a yield
of green stuff can hardly be obtained from any other farm crop, and the develop-
ment of the industry has been as remarkable as the yield.

(Jane is now cultivated extensively on the four main islands, being planted
from near the sea-shore up to elevations of about two thousand feet. As a rule,
however, it is the rich lands skirting the islands up to 500 feet that con-
stitute the chief sugar-growing sections. The maximum area that can be put
under cultivation for this crop has been about reached, there being approximately
80,000 acres now planted to cane which yield on the average about 500,000 tons
of raw sugar annually. The .yield per acre varies greatly according to the char-
acter of the soil, and the position of the plantations, whether in rainy or rainless
regions, the amount of fertilizer employed, and so on.

Tinder favorable conditions ten and a quarter tons of sugar have been the
average yield for an entire plantation; while single acres have given much higher
yields. Some lands less favorably located fall far below this yield. Next to
soil and climate, one of the most important factors in the production of a good
crop is the amount and character of the water used. Salt in the water, if in any
considerable amount is detrimental, and often conditions are such that one hun-
dred grams to the gallon would absolutely prevent the plant's growth.

As to the original introduction of sugar-cane into Hawaii, little is known.
There are writers who think the islands in the south Pacific were the original
home of the sugar-cane, since there are peculiar species there that are found no-
where else. It is argued that the plants were introduced from there into Hawaii
by the natives. But the cultivation of cane has been carried on so long in
widely distributed regions that the real home of the plant is lost in antiquity.

272 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

The probabilities are that it was used by man ages before there was any record
of the fact, and that its culture and use as food in a raw state wrere among the
first agricultural efforts of any tropical people.

The invention of the processes for extracting the juice and converting it into
sugar or molasses has long been practiced, but only during the last century has
it been brought to a high state of scientific perfection. The plant is now grown
under such exacting conditions and handled by such a great variety of special
mechanical devices, and the sugar extracted by such intricate methods, that it is
doubtful if there is another plant grown that has been more exhaustively studied
and exploited.

The plant,1 as is well known, is a gigantic perennial grass with heavy maize-
like stalks that grow from eight to twenty feet tall. Unlike most members of the
grass family the stems are solid and contain an abundance of sweet juice.

The many varieties of cane have different sugar-producing qualities that
cause one kind to be substituted for another owing to their adaptability to pecu-
liar soils. The varieties vary usually in the color of the stem; being yellow,
purple, green and variously striped. Five well recognized types of cane are
extensively grown in Hawaii, though there are numerous varieties of doubtful
scientific value. The chief types are the Yellow Otaheite; the Cheribon or
Wray's Batavian; the Tanna, the Salangore and Cavengerie canes.

The cane leaves are about two inches in width by three to five feet in
length. The flowrer stem is pampas-like, silvery-gray, or mauve, in color, and
when in blossom the field is strikingly beautiful.

While cane had long been used in the islands, it was not until about 1828
that it was first made into sugar. Its culture was not really begun, however,
until about 1850, when with crude wooden and stone mills and inferior boiling
kettles a yield of one ton of low-grade sugar per acre was secured.

Since then all of the resources of science have been brought to bear on
the production of sugar, with the result that today Hawaii leads the world in
the scientific production of this valuable commodity. By experimentation,
many kinds of soil have proved suitable to the growth of cane. Those pre-
ferred are the deep sedimentary deposits common in the lower zone or cane-
belt of the islands. These deposits, varying in thickness from one to fifty
feet, have been derived from the normal lavas that have undergone decomposi-
tion and disintegration in the warm and often dry climate of the lower coastal
zone. The process of erosion has been actively at work on them for ages.
Such soils are mainly red in color, owing to the great amount of iron they
contain. The most fertile of these soils are usually those that have been
darkened as the result of the decay of vegetable matter.

The first step in preparing the land for cane, or, indeed, almost any crop,
is to clear it of all trees, shrubs and stone, and render the surface as level as
possible. Plowing is then undertaken. This may be done by mules or oxen,

1 Sac char um officinarum.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 273

or by huge steam plows. Where the character of the country will admit, the
latter method is the one generally preferred.

The machinery consists of large, double gang-plows that are drawn back
and forth across the fields by wire cables that wind and unwind from large
drums operated by traction engines located at opposite ends of the field. In
this way five or more furrows sixteen inches wide by twelve inches deep
are turned over at once. The field is then plowed crosswise of the furrows.
Occasionally a giant plow that opens a furrow thirty inches deep is employed
to reach the subsoil. The plowing done, the ground is allowed to fallow for
several weeks. After it has thoroughly weathered, it is harrowed to break up
the clods and level the surface ; a heavy drag is sometimes used for the
purpose.

If the crop is to be grown by irrigation, the main ditch lines are next laid
out by the plantation engineers. The trunk ditches or main flumes usually
remain in the same place from year to year, and are frequently walled with
stone or wood, and often are cut through the solid rock. Where they cross
gulches or are raised above the ground for any purpose, the flumes are made
of wood or metal, and much skill and money has been expended in these pre-
liminary operations in many sections. Water, which is the life of the land, is
transported in large quantities for long distances in this way.

The secondary ditches are next laid out in such a way that water may
be made to flow along every rowr of cane on the plantation. The furrows in
which the cane is planted are made by a curious double plow which is so
constructed that it will throw the earth both w^ays, forming ridges between
the furrows. These furrows are made from eight to twelve inches in depth,
and from four to live feet apart.

Sugar-cane is propagated by cuttings called seed-cane. Each seed joint
must have one or more living buds. To insure sufficient buds they are usually
cut in sections having two joints to the piece. These pieces are dropped into the
furrows, a few inches apart, by the planter from a bag carried on the shoulder.
The seed cane is then covered an inch or two deep with soil and water turned
on. In about a week the cane sprouts. From that time on the growing crop
is hoed and watered as required. Often loose soil is drawn over the moist
earth from the ridges between the rows to prevent the rapid evaporation of the
wrater; but the processes of cultivation vary widely on different plantations.

Several times during the growth of the crop the cane is stripped of the
dead leaves to prevent the water from being held along the stalks and souring
the juice. The bundles of leaves are piled on the ground under the tangle
of growing cane to support the stalks.

The age at which the cane matures varies greatly, but ranges from one to
two years. The tassel is the index that tells when it is ripe. The crop should
be cut as soon as possible after it is through blooming, as the juice is at its
best at that time.

In harvesting the crop the stalks are cut and trimmed in the field, the

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 275

refuse and trash being left on the ground to be burned later on. The trimmed
stalks, which average eight or ten feet in length and more than an inch and a
half in diameter, are loaded upon carts or cars drawn over portable tracks by
horses or by small locomotives. Where there is a surplus of water the cane
is often floated to the mill in the flumes. In this way the water flumes are
utilized in the production and harvesting of the crop in both wet and dry
districts.

The loaded car on arriving at the unloading shed is brought alongside
a moving floor that, in reality, is a wide endless chain-belt that carries the
cane to the elevator. The cane in most cases is unloaded by machinery that
pulls the load from the car to the moving floor. From the floor the cane is
elevated on a conveyor which delivers it to a pair of large corrugated rollers
that crush the stalks, extracting much of the juice. The crushed mass is then
passed through several sets of rollers, each set made up of three close-fitting
cylinders. In the final crushing process, hot water is added to aid in extract-
ing the last particle of juice that may remain. The dry mass, now called
"bagasse," is carried on elevators to the furnace room, where it is used at once
for fuel.

The juice from the rollers is collected and conducted to the liming tank,
where a chemical change is effected by adding slaked lime. From a receiver
near the liming tank the juice is passed to the settling tanks.

After it has stood a few hours, the juice of the top portion is drawn off
and the muddy lower portion agitated by steam. This hot mixture is then
passed to the mud presses, where the clean juice is separated from the mud.
The liquid mixed with the clear juice from the settling tank is next conveyed
to the evaporating pans, where it is changed by heat from juice into syrup.

The evaporators are a series of four or more large iron boilers connected
one with the other. The air is removed from them in order to create a partial
vacuum. The juice will then boil with less heat and the syrup is prevented from
scorching. The syrup, when sufficiently reduced, is conveyed to the vacuum
pans, where the grain in the thick molasses is produced by another boiling.

At this stage inventors have made many improvements in the process by
which the thick mass is passed into the crystallizers, where the syrup or sucrose is
made into firm, dry grains. Small amounts of syrup are transferred to the tub-
like machines called centrifugals. These tub-shaped cylinders have central cavi-
ties made of wire netting. This wire cage revolves rapidly and by centrifugal
force throws the molasses out, retaining the crystals of sugar within the cage.
The unerystallized liquid is carried to the boilers again and is made into
second-grade sugar. The higher grade sugar drops from the centrifugals into
a large retort known as the drying machine. Through this the sugar wrorks
its way among hot coils that dry the crystals before they are carried to the
sugar bin. From this bin the raw sugar is drawn out, sacked and weighed.
Each burlap sack contains about 125 pounds of light-brown sugar.

Most of the sugar is sent as light brown, or raw, sugar to the mainland of

276 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the United States to be refined or purified. One mill on Oahu, however, produces
refined white sugar. In the refining process it is melted and boiled again, and at
the same time is chemically treated, the crystals becoming pure white and
transparent. It is in this condition that it is sold everywhere as granulated
sugar.

Rice.

Next to sugar and pineapples, rice 2 is the most important field crop in
Hawaii. Although the most primitve methods are practiced in its cultivation
and milling, the annual product, from the ten thousand or more acres under
cultivation, reaches as high as ten million pounds a year. Five crops can be
grown on the same land in three years, the annual yield per acre being about
eight thousand pounds. The crop is grown almost exclusively by the Chinese
on leased lands, for the use of wdiich they pay an annual rental ranging from
ten to fifty dollars per acre. Their methods of propagation, culture, harvest-
ing and milling are extremely crude; they are, nevertheless, interesting and
picturesque.

The rice plant is the only important economic species belonging to the
genus of grasses Oryza. It is said to furnish food for one-half of the human
race. The plant seems to have been originally a native of the East Indies,
probably being first cultivated in India. From that region it has spread to all
quarters of the globe where conditions are favorable. Our Hawaiian rice, so
called, is thought to have been originally derived from a South Carolina stock,
as the first rice cultivated here was obtained from that state. It has since
been mixed with a number of other varieties, however. Somewhat extensive
experiments under the direction of Professor Krauss have been made in recent
years with a view to introducing improved varieties. It is said that there are
more varieties of rice known than of any other crop, there being more than a
thousand varieties in India alone.

The plant is an annual, growing from three to five feet high in Hawaii,
according to variety and conditions. The seeds or grains grow on little stalks
springing from the main stalk, and when ripe, the appearance of the plant
is between that of barley and oats. Rice in India is known as paddy. The
term is also used to designate the rice in the husk, and in Hawaii the small
shallow7 ponds in which it grows are called paddies.

Rice is grown in Hawaii by what is known as the Oriental method of
culture. The seeds are planted in carefully prepared seed-beds that are kept
moist but not flooded. After the seed has germinated and is three inches
tall, the ground is kept flooded until the plants have reached a height of six to ten
inches. They are then pulled from the muck and water and the roots soundly
beaten on a board ; the object being to prune back the root sprouts. The seed
plants are topped and tied in convenient size bundles and taken in large bas-
kets on shoulder poles to the field to be planted. The advantage of this

' Oryza sativa.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 277

method of planting* is that a more uniform stand may be secured, resulting in
a larger yield in a shorter time.

The small fields, which are arranged so they can be flooded with water,
have been previously prepared by plowing six or seven inches deep. The
water cow, 3 known also as water buffalo or earabou, is used in the plowing
operations as a general rule, but occasionally horses are employed. After
plowing, the earth is covered with water and a curious harrow used until the
soil is reduced to a fine, thick mud. It is next covered with water to the depth
of an inch or two, when it is ready for planting.

The planting is clone by hand. The bunches of seed rice are distributed
over the paddies at convenient intervals along straight guide-lines set out
across the patch. The entire force of field hands rapidly plants out the
shoots by sticking the sprouts in a straight row ten or twelve inches apart, with
six or eight inches between the plants in the rows. The plants tiller or spread
from the roots, so that each root planted sends up many stalks.

After the plants are set, the field is kept flooded with water, the depth of
the water being increased somewhat as the plants grow. When the crop is
about fifteen inches high the field is gone over to weed, thin and transplant
where necessary. At this stage the wild rice, 4 which is found wherever rice
is cultivated, is pulled up and destroyed. It differs from the cultivated rice in
being a coarser type with deeper green leaves and in having fruit which has
large awns. The wild species falls to the ground as soon as it is ripe, thus
seeding itself before the regular crop is harvested. As it thrives on the same
treatment as the commercial species and spreads its seed broadcast, it is by
far the worst weed in the rice fields. When compared with other crops, how-
ever, rice is singularly free from pests and diseases, and produces a remarkably
full and uniform yield, year after year.

The water is allowed to remain on the ground until about ten days before
the grain is fully ripe. The ripening period is generally indicated by the heads
bending over from the weight of the heavy grain. From the time the head
begins to form, a period marked by the peculiar odor given off by the opening
glumes, to the final gathering of the grain, the fields are guarded from dawn
until dark, by the planters, to prevent the three introduced pests — the linnets
or rice birds; the weaver birds, and, to some extent, the English sparrows —
from destroying the crops. In spite of their vigilance, considerable quantities
of the maturing grain are consumed or spoiled by the birds, especially when
the rice grains are in the milk stage.

The harvesting of the golden-yellow crop is indeed picturesque. There
are usually a dozen or more Chinese engaged in the operation. The grain is
cut once near the ground, with reaping hooks, then mid-way of the straw.
The grain portion is laid in neat straight piles on the coarse straw or bound
into crood-sized bundles and left to cure. When sufficiently cured the bundles

3 Bos bufalus. * Zizania aquatica.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 279

are carried, a few at a time, on each end of a carrying stick over the shoulder,
and stacked near the thrashing floor and mill.

The grain are tramped out in the most primitive fashion by horses on a
smooth, hard floor. It is further dried on the floor and is then stored in sacks.

The removing of the hull or husk is a laborious task, occupying hours of
time and all the machinery that the ingenuity of the Chinese race has been
able to bring to bear on the problem. The process, to be appreciated, is one
that must be seen in its primitive crudeness at the mills themselves, where the
Chinese miller, cheerfully explaining the operation in answer to every ques-
tion, blandly replies, "Oh, Chinaman, him long time do alle same, me no
sabbie." However, it should be remarked that a few of the more progressive
rice growers are making use of some of the modern American machinery, and
it is quite probable that before many years the change in methods of growing
and milling will be complete.

Coffee.

Coffee growing is essentially a tropical industry, and the coffee 5 plant
has found a favorable home in the higher districts in the Hawaiian Islands.
The industry, for various industrial reasons, has not prospered of late as it
should. The plants were first introduced into the islands in 1823 by Mr.
Matain, who established a small plantation near Honolulu. Coffee was again
introduced from Rio de Janeiro, in 1825, by Mr. John Wilkinson, a practical
gardener, who came to the islands from England in the ship Blonde at the
request of Governor Boki. He settled in Manoa Valley, where he made a
beginning in both the sugar and coffee industries. Plants from there were
set out in Kalihi, Pauoa and Niu valleys. A year or two after (1827-28)
plants were introduced from Manila and were also set out in Manoa Valley.
From this start coffee plants soon spread to other localities throughout the
group, and there are trees in existence over sixty years old that are still in a
thrifty condition.

The plant without question is a horticultural success in the islands, attain-
ing an early maturity and bearing heavy crops. The berries are frequently so
crowded on the stem that there is scarcely room for one more. The coffee of
the islands has a marked flavor, and pure "Kona" is said to be superior in
every way to the best Mocha or Old Government Java.

The coffee plant was first cultivated by the Arabs, who transferred it
from its native soil in eastern Africa to Arabia, about the 16th century. From
Arabia it was carried to Batavia, the capital of the Dutch East Indies, a hun-
dred years later. From this beginning many cultural varieties have been de-
veloped that are now grown in the coffee zone throughout the world.

In a wild state coffee is a slender tree and grows fifteen to twenty feet in
height, but in cultivation, for convenience in picking the fruit, it is not allowed
to grow over ten or twelve feet tall, and the tree is made to assume a pyramidal

5 Coffea Arabica and C. Lib erica.

280 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

form. The leaves are evergreen and leathery; the flowers are small, snow
white and fragrant, and the whole appearance of the tree is so very pleasing
that they are frequently grown in gardens and elsewhere as ornamental shrubs.
The fruit when ripe is of a dark scarlet color, and the seeds are horn-like and
hard. The seeds are usually called coffee-beans. Not that they are beans at
all, but because of the Arabic word "bunn, ?? which means coffee.

The berries are very unequal in ripening. In Hawaii three or more pick-
ings are made annually. There are different methods of curing the berries.
By the old method the fruit is placed on floors especially adapted to the pur-
pose and allowed to dry in the sun. It is then passed between rollers to
remove the dried pulp of the bean, and the membrane which encloses the
seeds themselves. The coffee is afterwards freed from impurities by winnow-
ing machinery. By a new method the berries are freed from the pulp
and their coverings by maceration in water, with the aid of a pulping machine.
The beans are sometimes subjected to polishing.

Three types of coffee are in cultivation in Hawaii, namely, the Hawaiian,
of the original introduction — a very hardy type ; the Java, brought directly
from Java; and Horner's Guatemala, a variety supposed to have been intro-
duced from a Javan source, but nevertheless of uncertain origin. However,
the latter variety is the most extensively cultivated, being a hardy, heavy
bearer and not subject to disease. It bears a large, flat berry resembling the
best types of imported Java coffee.

Sisal.

The growing of sisal 6 has attracted considerable attention on the island
of Oahu, where several hundred acres are now planted to this crop. The
plant not only grows luxuriantly on the better lands, but does well on land
not suited to other field crops. Sisal was first introduced and widely dis-
tributed for trial in 1892. It has been found to thrive from sea level to
three thousand feet elevation, and to be especially suited to the lee or dry side
of the islands. The species is a native of Central America and closely related
to the century plant.7 As a source of cordage it yields a fiber second only to
Manila hemp in strength. Its smooth, straight strands of fiber are obtained
by decorticating the leaf. The life of a shoot, if undisturbed, is six or seven
years, after which period it sends up a blossom stalk as high as twenty-five
feet, and then dies. Cutting the leaves for fiber, however, extends the life of
the plant several years.

Other Fiber Plants.

Manila hemp, secured from a species of banana,8 has been grown experi-
mentally in the islands for a number of years, and is reported from various
localities. It was introduced from Manila many years ago, and was well

a Agave Mexican a var, sixalana. 7 Agave Americana, 8 Musa texUlix.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 281

known to the older Hawaiians, being used by them in making- rope. Also New
Zealand hemp 9 has been grown in a limited wray.

As a fiber plant Upland cotton,10 or Sea Island cotton11 now bids fair
to outstrip any of those mentioned. Unfortunately, it has been held in
check owring to attacks of the boll worm. Cotton of cultivated varieties was
introduced into the islands long ago. A sample of the fiber grown here was
sent to China by Kamehameha the Great. The plant in this latitude is a
perennial. Several varieties have been experimentally grown from time to
time, among them being Sea Island, Georgia, Peruvia and Caravonica, and
a number of other strains that have received experimental attention at the hands
of Professor F. G. Krauss and his associates. Although the revived industry is
hardly beyond the experimental stage, it is reassuring to know that the fiber
was an article of export from Hawaii during the Civil War.

The cotton fiber is distinguished from all others by the peculiar twist that
it possesses. This twist makes it very valuable in spinning, and it has long
been employed in the manufacture of cloth. Its use is spoken of by the
earliest writers, and the plant was long described as a natural wronder under
the name of the ' ' lamb tree. ' ' The cotton of commerce is the product of several
species of the genus Gossypmm, belonging to the order Malvacem, to which
also belong the hollyhock and Hibiscus, the flowers being very much alike.
There are fifty or more species of cotton. In fact, one,12 a shrub with sulphur-
colored flowers and having very short, brown fibers about the seed, is found
growing in a wild state in the Hawaiian group in dry situations near the sea-
shore. It is known to the natives as mao, and can be separated easily from
the small tree-like species called kokio,13 which has brick-red flowers. The
cotton plant produces varieties that readily and rapidly adapt themselves to
new conditions. Single trees are common in Hawaii that are twenty feet or
more in height.

Rubber.

The cultivation of rubber is among the newer industries that promise well
in the islands. Several species of rubber-producing plants are well estab-
lished in various places on the principal islands, and other species are in
process of introduction.

One of the oldest, if not the oldest grove of rubber trees, is a small plant-
ing of the Ceara species, 14 located at Koloa, on Kauai. It was planted in
1893, and from it a grove wras planted at Lihue in 1899. Experimental tap-
ping, under the direction of the Federal Experiment Station, has given a yield
of fifteen pounds of rubber per annum from the thirteen-year-old trees, and it
is expected that this can be materially increased by proper care, cultivation
and improved methods of tapping. The seeds are curious in that they have
a thick, hard coating and often require some months for them to germi-

9 Phormium tenax, 10 G ossypium sp. 11 G ossypium Barbadense, 12 Gossypium tomentosum.

13 G ossypium drynarioides. 14 Manihot Glaziovii.

19

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 283

nate. To Hasten germination the seeds are sometimes carefully rasped on
either side with a file. The tree is of rapid growth, thriving best in a moist
climate. The natural home of the species however, is in the drier regions of
Brazil. It is closely related to the Cassava, mentioned elsewhere, and belongs
to the spurge family, which also includes the Para15 and many other rubber-
producing plants. The latex or milky sap occurs in the leaves, stems and
trunk. There is a continuous network of milk-tubes all through the living
green portion of the bark of the tree. The latex is collected by various
methods of tapping, and from this gum-like mass the rubber of commerce is
refined.

While the earlier plantings were largely of the foregoing species, there is
considerable area being planted to Hevea. Both species belong to the
Euphorbiacece. They and their near relatives may be distinguished from
other rubber-producing plants by the hard, flinty seeds and the palmate leaves,
resembling those of the horse-chestnut. Such latex-producing trees, belong-
ing to the banian family, as the Assam rubber,16 the pipul tree, or banian
fig,17 are well established.

To the list of introduced species must now be added the Hawaiian rubber
tree 1S brought to the attention of the Hawaiian Experiment Station in 1912 for
investigation. Its latex-producing characteristics were noted by a chance dis-
covery in the Kona district on Hawaii, where there are several thousand
acres of this promising tree. The natives were long familiar with its gum-
like latex and gave to the tree the name koko or akoko, in allusion to the
milk-sap which exudes freely from the injured bark. The fact that it is a
conspicuous tree, often twenty-five feet high, with a trunk ten inches in
diameter, and that it occurs in more or less extensive areas on several islands
of the group ; and, furthermore, that it has long been known to botanists, hav-
ing been described as a sub-species by Dr. Gray many years ago, indicates
how little attention has been given as yet to the investigation of the native
flora from the economic standpoint. The tree belongs to the typical tribe 10
of euphorbias in which the flowerhead resembles a single flower. The species
has the flowerhead almost sessile and is marked by having small linear leaves
with the veins oblique to the rib. So far as its latex-producing qualities have
been investigated, the koko seem to give much promise as a rubber-yielding
plant. Its discovery points to the wisdom of extensive investigation of this
and other economic plants native to the islands, as well as those of promise
from other lands that may be suited to Hawaii's soil and climate, with a view
to the establishment of economic species in much of the island Territory now
given over to cattle ranges, or classed as waste land.

Tobacco.

Climate and soil are thought to have a marked influence on the quality of
tobacco,20 and experiments that have been conducted in the islands in recent

15 Hevea BraziUensis. 3G Finis elastic a. 17 Fiats religiosa. 18 Euphorbia lorifolia.

19 Euphorbiece. 20 Nicotiana Tabacum.

284 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

years, under the direction of Mr. Jared G. Smith, demonstrate that there are
extensive areas about the group especially suited to the production of high-
grade tobacco. The growing of tobacco, however, is by no means a new
thing in the islands ; it was early introduced by the whites and grown by the
Hawaiians. It received only haphazard cultivation, was improperly cured,
and was invariably too strong for commercial use. It was, however, smoked
by old Hawaiians to some extent ; it being a custom among the natives to take
a whiff or two and pass the pipe (made of a root, or a stem or branch) about
from one to the other.

The tobacco plant is of American origin, belonging botanically to the
tomato and egg-plant family. The earliest voyagers to America found the
Indians using the leaves for smoking, chewing, and as snuff; pipes and other
means for smoking tobacco have been found buried in prehistoric mounds in
the United States, Mexico, and Peru.

Sweet and Irish Potatoes.

Formerly potato 21 growing was an important island industry. In 1849
potatoes stood at the head of the list of exports. The lands best adapted to
their growth are in the Kula district of Maui, where they were introduced and
planted as early as 1820. Of late years the industry has diminished, owing to
unskilled methods of culture and the appearance of various enemies. There
are several species and almost innumerable cultural varieties adapted to
various soils and conditions that, if introduced, would doubtless extend and
revive the industry.

Sweet potatoes 22 were at one time an important field crop. Like the
" Irish" potatoes, they were extensively exported during the period of the
gold-rush to California. The natives recognized as many as twenty varieties
of uala (sweet potato), and several important varieties have been introduced
from time to time by Europeans and others. It belongs to the morning-glory
family and is easily grown, thriving in loose soils where the rainfall is not too
abundant. The sweet potato is usually propagated by cutting off the tops and
planting them in a hill of dirt which often is only a pile of loose ash-like soil
scraped together.

Cassava and the Castor Bean Plant.

Cassava,23 though not extensively cultivated, is grown with success in
Hawaii. It is an introduced European plant that thrives on all the islands,
is free from pests and requires but little cultivation. Its roots produce a
useful starch; they are used both as food for man and domestic animals, and
in the manufacture of laundry starch. There is a native plant well known to
the older Hawaiians as pia, or arrow-root, and in Hawaii, Cassava seems to
have fallen heir to this name. Hawaiian arrow-root 24 formerly grew wild,

21 Solatium tuberosum. 2S Ipomoea Batatas. £3 Manihot utilissima. 24 Tecca pinnalifida.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 285

being most abundant on Kauai. It is quite common throughout Polynesia,
growing without care in the native gardens.

The castor bean plant,25 cultivated in several places, has escaped and
grows everywhere as a roadside shrub, often fifteen to thirty feet in height,
with a trunk twenty or more inches in diameter. It is a native of western
Asia and eastern Africa, The large palmately-lobed, reddish-green leaves
and large terminal flower clusters followed by the prickly three-parted burrs,
which bear the vari-colored seeds, mark this familiar plant, grown in many
gardens on account of its distinct ornamental value. Attempts to grow the
castor bean as a field crop have failed only for want of the right kind of labor
to gather the crop.

Lotus.

Another plant of considerable importance, both ornamentally and as a
crop, is the Chinese lotus.20 It is a native of China and the East generally,
and is grown in Hawaii by the Chinese farmers in taro and rice ponds ; often
several acres will be seen in a patch. The root tubers, for which it is grown,
creep in the mud at the bottom. They are dug at irregular intervals and
suggest strings of white sausage, as they are seen in the vegetable stalls.
While the tuber is a favorite food of the Orientals, especially the Chinese,
Europeans and others seldom taste them, preferring to admire the orna-
mental effect of the large orbicular leaves and splendid cream-colored, showy
flowers that stand high above the water. The seeds are found in an odd-
shaped, flat-topped receptacle, and are also esteemed as food by the Orientals.

Nuts.

The curious Chinese horned-nut 27 is also cultivated in shallow ponds by
the Chinese, who boil the nuts, much as chestnuts are prepared by the Japanese.

Peanuts,28 ground-nuts or goober-nuts, as they are variously called, were
once grown to some extent, principally for the oil. The crop is well adapted
to conditions in Hawaii, as has been proved by recent experiments, and it is to
be regretted that they are only grown for the local demand, since, being a
member of the great bean family, they store much valuable nitrogen and are
therefore beneficial to the soil, besides producing a valuable forage for animals.
In competition with the large California nuts, the island-grown product is
much finer flavored and are generally preferred in the local market.

The peanut is really not a nut, however. It is a ripened pod with edible
seeds, produced by a plant resembling a pea or bean. When the flower falls,
the flower stem grows rapidly, curving down into the ground. The pea-
nut is a native of Brazil, where several closely-allied species are found. In
cultivation a number of important varieties have been produced, several of
which have been experimentally grown in Hawaii.

Among the plants grown especially as green food for animals is sorghum.29

25 Ricinus communis. -6 Nelumbium speeiosum. 27 Trapa nutans, 2g Arachis hypogma.

29 Andropogon Sorghum.

286 NATURAL HISTOBY OF HAWAII.

It is a grass-like plant, very well suited to the soil, and is regarded as the
most profitable crop for forage in the islands. It is grown usually by irri-
gation and has its greatest use as feed for milch cowrs.

Forage Grass.

Of the grasses, Bermuda grass, known locally as manienie 30 or creeping
grass, has found a permanent place in the islands. The lawns are sodded with
it, and it spreads over waste places and affords valuable pasture for stock
below the elevation of 800 feet. It was introduced in 1835 by Dr. A. F. Judd.
Alfalfa or lucerne 31 is also cultivated to some extent under irrigation, especially
by dairymen. It is a native of southwestern Asia, but has long been exten-
sively cultivated in Europe and America. Its purplish-white clover-like
flowers and hairy, coiled seed pods will separate it from the true clovers,32
which are seldom seen in Hawaii. Guinea grass 33 is also cultivated by many
dairymen, yielding a number of crops from one seeding, if grown under irri-
gation, but Para grass 34 is gaining favor more rapidly than any of the strictly
forage grasses.

All of the foregoing grasses and a long list of other species were, of course,
introduced, coming with commerce or being purposely planted. They supple-
ment a number of native grasses, some of which are of value as food for stock.
Among the more important indigenous grasses should be mentioned the native
manienie,35 the kukaepuaa 3G and the pili,3T which grow generally over the
group to 4500 feet elevation. The latter, while very good pasturage for horses
and cattle, is not as good for sheep, for, like the piipii,38 a common grass on
open dry plains and slopes, it bears sharp, stiff awTns about the seeds that get
entangled in the animals' wool.

Most of the foregoing grazing grasses are being rapidly crowded out by
the rank-growing, worthless Hilo grass,39 which is not eaten by animals. It
appeared about 1840 in the district of Hilo, having been brought to the islands
in some unknown way, presumably from tropical America. The edges of its
coarse leaves are rough to the touch, and the stem ends in twro slender spikes,
three to five inches in length. A closely related species 40 has from three to
six alternate spikes and is common in swampy ground in heavy soil. It was
used by the Hawaii ans to some extent as a thatch. The mischief done by Hilo
grass is an example of the damage that may be brought about through the
introduction, purposely or otherwise, of undesirable plants or animals.

Weeds.

Space is too limited for an extended list of imported plant pests affecting
the farmer and ranchman, but a number of undesirable species have been
introduced and have prospered in Hawaii. Among them are the common pur-

30 Cynodon dactylon. 31 Medicago sativa. 32 Trifolium. 33 Panicum maxima.

34 Panicum Motle. 35 Stenolaphrum. 86 Panicum pruriens.

37 Setropogon — (Andropogon) contortus. 38 Chrysopogon aciculatus. S9 Paspalum conjugatum.

40 Paspalum orbicularie.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 287

slane or *pussly 41 of our gardens ; two species of pepper grass ;42 a sensitive
plant 43 with fine leaves and small, round, pinkish flower heads ; the flea-bane,44
the iliohe of the natives; the cocklebur,45 growing almost perennially and
occasionally attaining a diameter of three inches at the ground; the sand
burr;40 the Jamestown weed;47 the plantain;48 the wild geranium;49 and,
lastly, and perhaps worst of all from an agricultural point of view, the nut
grass, coco grass or Japanese grass — a pest reproducing by nut-like bulbs and
by seed, and necessitating the utmost care to eradicate from cultivated fields,
lawns and gardens. Among the more common of the related species,51 often
called nut grass, is one that first appeared in Hawaii about the year 1850 and
has since spread to all cultivated lands. In this species the tubers of the root-
stock have a curious pungent taste.

Livestock.

This account of agriculture would be incomplete without at least a pass-
ing reference to the live stock of the islands. All of the domestic animals
have been introduced since the first visit of Captain Cook. In many instances
live stock has had more to do with bringing about the altered conditions with
which the native fauna and flora have had to contend than all the other
agricultural pursuits put together, epoch-making as they have been.

The first cattle and sheep were introduced in 1794 by Vancouver and
landed at Kealakekua Bay, and in time became wild in the mountains on all
the islands. A large proportion of all the meat consumed in the islands is
home-grown. Formerly cattle were so abundant that they were slaughtered
for their hides and tallow, but that time has long since passed. Horses were
first brought to Hawaii in 1803. They were landed at Kawaihae and La-
haina and were the progenitors of the island strain of horses. Pigs and goats
of English breeds were first introduced in 1778 by Captain Cook. Turkeys
wrere introduced as early as 1815.

Wild cattle, sheep, hogs and goats were allowed to run at will in the
forests, with the result that the animals trampled down the undergrowth and
destroyed the bushes, even digging up the roots of many of the more nutritious
of the forest growths. Owing to the exposure of their roots and stems, many
of the larger trees died and soon after became infested with insects, which in
turn multiplied in proportion to the increased supply of their favorite food.

41 Portulaca oleracea. 42 Lepidium Virginicum and Senebiera didyma. 43 Mimosa pudica.

44 Erigeron Canadensis. 45 Xanthium strumarium. 40 Cenchrus echinatus. 47 Datura Stramonium.

48 Plantago major. 49 Geranium Carolinianum.

50 K piling a monoeephala, a species often confused with several species of the related genera of Cyperacece.

51 Cyperus rotundas.

End of Book One

BOOK. TWO
The Animal Life of the Group

PLATE 75. FOUR STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HAWAIIAN
ARCHIPELAGO (After Pilsbry).

1. Showing the outline of the pan-Hawaiian island. During this stage the group from
beyond Kauai to and including the Kohala mountains were united by land. 2. The first
(Description of Plate Continued on the Opposite Page.)

Natural History of Hawaii.

section five:

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP.

CHAPTER XXI.

VARIOUS ANIMALS FROM LAND AND SEA.

Hawaiian Rats.

The Hawaiian rat x was the largest land animal inhabiting the islands at
the time of their discovery by Captain Cook. Unfortunately, the species
appears not only to have completely disappeared, but so far as is known not
a single specimen has been preserved in any natural history collection or
museum.2 This seems most singular, as we know from Hawaiian tradition
that at one time they were very abundant, and for many years were trouble-
some in cane fields.

From all accounts, they were small in size, and for that reason it is sug-
gested that their place was taken shortly after the discovery of the islands
by the common, wide-ranging grey and black rats, as these two species have
traveled all over the world in ships and were no doubt passengers on the first
ships to touch at the group. It is thought that the early and complete disap-
pearance of the native species may have been due to the aggressive disposition
of the new comers, particularly of the brown or Norway species, as wherever
this rat has gone — and it is a great traveler — it has gained a footing and, in
many places, completely replaced the less pugnacious native forms.

The brown rat 3 is the larger of the two common species in Hawaii at the
present time. It is generally believed that this species is a native of Western
China, but it was known in England as early as 1730, where it came to be
generally, though erroneously, called the Norway rat. It can be at once recog-
nized by its heavy build, massive blunt muzzle, comparatively small ears and

1 Iole.

2 Mr. J. F. G. Stokes, of the Bishop Museum, secured bones of what is supposed to have been
the Hawaiian rat on Kahoolawe, April. 1913. 3 Mus demumanus — Mus norreuicvs.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

period of subsidence foroied the channel between Kauai (2a) and the Oahu, Molokai, Maui.
Lanai, Kohala land (2b). 3. The second marked period of subsidence separated Waianae (3b)
and probably Koolau (3c) as islands at one end and Kohala (3e) at the other end of the
Molokai, Lanai, Maui area (3d). 4. Shows the last stage of subsidence; the island of Niihau
(4a) separated from Kauai (4b) ; the two islands (3b and 3c) united to form Oahu (4c) and
the islands of Molokai (4d), Lanai (4e), Maui (4f) and Kahoolawe (4g) separated by chan-
nels less than 100 fathoms deep.

291

292 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

relatively short tail, the tail always being less than that of the head and body
and usually not longer than the body alone. The color of the upper part is
usually a grayish brown.

The black rat,4 or one of its numerous varieties, is our common tree rat.
It is smaller and more elegantly built than the brown rat, and has a longer
and thinner tail. The body of a fall-grown specimen is about seven inches
in length, while the tail may be eight or nine inches long. Its long, slender
snout, large ears and bluish color are characteristics that serve to make it easy
of identification. Like the brown rats, they were introduced into Europe from
the East, but at a much earlier date, reaching the continent early in the thir-
teenth century. In Hawaii they live both on the ground and in trees, but
owing to the presence of their pugnacious cousins, they prefer the treetops.
There they make their nests, usually in the crowns of cocoanut palms, and
feed upon the fruit of these useful trees, often doing much damage by gnawT-
ing the young fruits. They also gnaw through the roofs of houses. They are
seldom seen during the day, but at night they become very active, and in the
twilight may be seen leaping from branch to branch and from tree to tree.
On several occasions the writer has seen them travel along the electric light
wires from one pole to another. It is in this manner that they often make
their way into houses and outbuildings that are thought to be rat-proof.

Four species of rats 5 have been taken in Hawaii hy the official rat-
catchers for the city, and are recognized as residents of Honolulu.

Rats as Plague Carriers.

Since it has been definitely determined that the fleas so common on rats
are the carriers of the germs wdiich cause the bubonic plague, every precau-
tion has been taken to prevent rats landing in the various ports of Hawaii
from vessels coming from seaports where plague is known to exist. More-
over, a sustained effort has also been made to reduce the number of rats in
the islands.

It has been proved beyond question that the plague germ may be carried
from the infected rat by the fleas that feed on the blood of the living animal.
If the rat dies, the fleas leave their host and seek some other rat, or, failing
that, will take up a temporary residence on a cat or a dog. This minute but-
troublesome insect may then be transferred directly or indirectly to a human
host. Its bite too often results in transferring to the blood of the individual
the germ which it drew into its system from the infected rat. In many cases
the person so bitten contracts the dreaded disease, which often has proved
fatal.

Royal Sport.

A species of mouse was also common in ancient Hawaii. They furnished
the upper class of natives with a form of royal sport out of the usual style

4 Mus rattus. B Mus rattus, M. alexandrinus, M. norvegicus and M, musculus.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 293

of amusement resorted to by kings and princes; it consisted in shooting mice
as a pastime. This royal sport did not partake of the nature of a cross-
country hunt. The tiny animals were confined in a cockpit-like enclosure and
were shot at with small bows and arrows. Singularly enough, the bow and
arrow in the hands of the Ilawaiians was only a toy, being used solely for
killing mice and the flightless Hawaiian rail in the manner suggested in an
early chapter.

Mice.

The house mouse G is the same species that is common all over the world.
They doubtless originated in Asia, but their partiality for human habitations,
and their omnivorous food habits, has resulted in their being carried far and
wide by man as an unwelcome passenger in his goods wherever cargo has
gone by sea or land. In domestication, white and spotted varieties of both
the house mouse and the black rat are common and have long been kept as
children's pets.

There is a species of long-tailed field-mouse that is quite common in the
fields about Honolulu. It is probably of more recent introduction, doubtless
reaching the islands from California in bailed hay or in grain.

Rabbits and Guinea Pigs.

Rabbits 7 have been introduced and liberated on two or three small islands
in the group. Rabbit Island, a tuff-cone on the windward side of Oahu, near
Makapuu Point, is thickly populated with a mongrel breed, the original stock
of which was introduced a number of years ago.

In 1903 and 1904 rabbits of several varieties, including the Belgian hare
and large white rabbits, were liberated on Laysan Island. They increased at
such an astonishingly rapid rate that within six years the island was overrun
with them. A special expedition was sent out by the Government for the
purpose of exterminating them, as they threatened to wipe out the scanty
native plant life found there.

The familiar variegated European guinea-pig, although a common pet in
captivity in Honolulu for many years, was liberated on Laysan Island at the
same time as the rabbits, and has found a congenial habitat, though its rate of
increase has by no means been so rapid as that of the rabbits. As to the
origin of the domestic guinea-pig, zoologists are somewhat in doubt. It is
thought, however, that Cutler's cavy 8 was kept in a state of domestication
by the Incas of Peru, and that the guinea-pig was introduced into Europe by
the Dutch in the sixteenth century, shortly after the discovery of America.
Various breeds have been developed under domestication as pets for children,
but in more recent times they have been much used in laboratories for experi-
mental purposes.

Cats9 were early brought to the islands, probably coming on the first
ships. They wrere called popoki10 by the natives. In course of time they

6 Mus inusrulus. 7 Lepus sp. 8 Cavia cutleri. 9 Felis domestiea. 10 Poor pussy,

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 295

began to* escape to a wild life, living" on birds and mice in the mountains. Wild
cats are particularly troublesome in Hawaii. They are occasionally hunted,
especially by sportsmen in pursuit of wild cattle, goats, pigs, chickens and
turkeys, all of which, like the cats, have lived many generations in a perfectly
wild state in the mountain forests on different islands of the group.

Native Bats.

There seems to have been at least one and perhaps two species of native
bats in the islands. They have always been rare, but apparently are still to be
seen in the uplands of Hawaii; Dr. R. C. L. Perkins reports having seen the
small Hawaiian bat,11 or opeapea, on both Oahu and Kauai. This bat appears
to be the only undisputed natural mammalian immigrant to the group, as the so-
called native rat and mouse could have been easily carried to Hawaii in the
wreckage of foreign12 vessels that may have reached the islands by chance
long before their discovery by Cook.

Hogs and Dogs.

While it is perfectly proper to say that the rat, bat, and mouse were the
only native species of mammalia found by Captain Cook, we can well afford
to consider in this connection mammals that were of native introduction —
namely, the hog 13 and the dog.11 Just as the Polynesian people carried useful
plants with them on their wanderings, they also brought writh them in their
canoes these two highly-prized and useful domestic animals known to them
in their more ancient home. The hogs15 varied greatly in color, as they were
black, white,10 brindle, striped, reddish and spotted, indicating that the species
had long been in domestication. The Hawaiian dog was fed largely on poi.
and was much relished as food in old-time Hawaii. Like the hogs, they were
classed according to their color, there being several well-recognized color-
types. The Hawaiians also introduced a fowl,17 which was everywhere a
common article of food at the time of Captain Cook's visit.

Introduced Animals.

Since the discovery of the islands a number of mammals and birds have
been introduced by accident or design which have been permitted to return
to a wild state and in many instances are quite common. The first introduc-
tion of this class was that of goats and English pigs, and was made by Captain
Cook himself. One ram and two ewes and a pair of pigs wTere left by him on
Niihau in 1788. Cattle and sheep were introduced by Vancouver from Cali-
fornia in 1794. They were landed on Hawaii and rapidly increased in num-
ber. The first horses in Hawaii arrived in 1803 and were presented to Kame-
hmeha I.

11 Lasiurns semotus. 12 Spanish. 13 Puaa. 14 Ilio. 15 Sus sp.

16 The white hogs were often used in making offerings and sacrifices to the gods of ancient Hawaii.

17 Moa = chieken ; moa kane, rooster; moa wahine, hen.

296 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

The first deer were brought to Hawaii from Okhotsk, Siberia, in 1856, but the
Molokai herd of spotted deer18 originated from a small flock of eight that
were sent to Kamehameha V., from Japan in 1867. They increased in numbers
at a remarkable rate; so rapidly, indeed, that they were thought to threaten
the destruction of the forests. Some years later the government found it neces-
sary to employ professional hunters to reduce their number; but deer are still
plentiful on Molokai, and they furnish the sportsmen of the islands with big
game shooting each season.

The ground color of the fur of the spotted deer is rufous-fawn; the whole
of the body being marked by a number of spots which are present at all ages
of the animals and throughout the year. These spots tend to arrange them-
selves in longitudinal lines. There is a blackish line running down the back
from the nape of the neck to the base of the tail. White prevails on the
inside of the ears, the chin, the upper part of the throat, the inside of the legs,
as well as the under surface of the tail. A few very large bucks have been shot
on Molokai, but the average of the largest would seem to be about 150 pounds,
while the does seldom weigh more than half as much.

The spotted or axis deer is a native of India and Ceylon. It is a common
species in deer parks everywhere, and has been liberated in several coun-
tries in the Orient. They prefer to live in the forests at from three to four
thousand feet elevation, where they frequently congregate in small droves, usually
in the neighborhood of their drinking places. During the middle of the day
they manage to keep out of sight, but as darkness comes on they become active
and continue to feed during the night and for some time after sun-up. If
disturbed during the clay they try to steal quietly away by creeping stealthily
off though the undergrowth.

The Mongoose.

The mongoose wTas first brought from Jamaica, West Indies, in 1883.
Thirty-six pairs were imported and liberated on Hawaii in the hope that they
would be of value in freeing the cane fields of rats. Unfortunately, they were
carried from one island to another before their habits were fully understood,
with the result that all of the islands, with the exception of Kauai, are now
infested with this animal that has proved to be a pest, about which but
little can be said in its favor. The mongoose 19 is a native of India, where the
common species is easily tamed. It is yellowish-gray in color, flecked with
black, and is mink-like in size and general appearance. Its fondness for
poultry and eggs renders it a serious menace to the ranchman. In the back
country and the wild mountains it does much damage to ground-nesting birds,
and is listed as one among the many causes of the rapid decrease in the
number of several of the Hawaiaian species.

Skinks and Geckos.
Of the land reptiles only seven species of small geckos and skinks have

18 Vermis axis. 1& Herpestes griseus.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 297

so far been described from the islands. They are commonly called lizards by
Europeans, but were all known by the name moo by the native inhabitants,
and were worshipped as gods by the female chiefs. All of the species are
quite generally distributed over the group, and, according to my friend Dr. L.
Stejneger, who has given the subject much study, the species found in the
islands have a wide distribution throughout Polynesia.

They are interesting, harmless little creatures that do much towards
keeping mites, ants and mosquitoes in check. For the most part they are
nocturnal in habit and are very often seen about houses, on lanais and
window screens. During the daytime the common species find shelter in the
dark, under boards, in crevices in the bark of trees or any place where they
can secrete themselves. Their white eggs are about the size of a small bean,
and are usually attached to some object near the place where the mother
hides during the day. In due course of time the young animal hatches from
the egg and is a miniature of the adult. It is about an inch and a half in
length, and at once takes up the task of supplying itself with its natural food.
They become quite tame and in many homes are protected and live a sheltered
life in a state of semi-domestication.

Of the seven species, four belong to the gecko family.20 The peculiarities
which separate them at once from the skink family are the presence of a large
symmetrical shield on the top of the head and the absence of minute scales
over the body. All four species of gecko have been taken in the same house,
and the characteristics which separate them from one another are somewhat
obscure, to the ordinary observer. Those interested in identifying the species
should consult Dr. Stejneger 's account of the land reptiles of the Hawaiian
Islands.

The three species of skinks 21 are small, smooth and shiny, and all have
more or less conspicuous longitudinal stripes. They have much the same
habits as have already been described for the geckos and, like them, are very
liable to lose a portion of their tails at the slightest provocation. The missing
portion may be replaced in due time with a new tail which is usually smaller
than the portion lost. On rare occasions two or three tails will grow out of
the injured stump, giving the animal an odd appearance. The ability of
the gecko to change color in order to resemble the object upon which it is resting
furnishes an example of voluntary color protection that is most interesting.

Frogs and Toads.

The first frogs were brought to the islands by the Royal Agricultural
Society at a date prior to 1867. The earliest definitely recorded shipment,
however, was made in the year just mentioned, when " frogs were liberated
at Pawaa," in Honolulu. Several species of frogs and toads have been
introduced into the group in more recent years, from Japan and America, with
the result that they are now common in all the fresh water streams and ponds

20 Geekonidre. 21 Scincidcp.

20

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 299

in the Territory. They are of much importance in the ever-present fight
against mosquitoes, since they are known to feed on their larva?. They are
also supposed to feed on the liver-fluke which is quite common in certain
localities. Bullfrogs 22 of very large size and with very deep bull-like voices
are well established, and frogs' legs are often seen in the markets.

Tadpoles of the various species of frogs and toads are plentiful in the
pools along the streams far up into the mountains and are sure to attract the
attention of the student of nature. A few captured and placed in a jar at
home or at school will prove of great interest, as the transformation proceeds from
an aquatic fish-like animal with gills, to an air-breathing quadruped with lungs.

No Snakes in Hawaii.

Fortunately, there are no land snakes in Hawaii. On several occasions,
however, snakes from California have reached the islands in bailed hay, but
as yet they have never made their escape so as to become established here.
The same is true of certain California lizards. A specimen fifteen inches in
length was killed on the wharf in Honolulu harbor a few years 23 ago. But as
commerce from outside ports is safeguarded at present, there is little danger
of the larger reptiles gaining a foothold here.

Turning from the land and fresh-water vertebrates to those inhabiting the
sea, three specimens of sea-snakes are reported to have been collected
in Hawaiian waters. Two specimens, secured on opposite sides of Oahu, are
preserved in the Bishop Museum. The first specimen reported, however, was
identified by Prof. II. "W. Henshaw. It was taken alive at Laupahoehoe, on Ha-
waii, in 1902, by Mr. E. W. Barnard. When found, the creature was sunning it-
self on shore and had evidently come from the water to shed its outer skin, which
was still attached to the body. The family of sea-snakes 24 to which this
species belongs is characterized by having the tail flattened to serve as a fin.
The specimen,25 being the first sea-snake to be taken in Hawaii, made quite a
stir at the time, but as it was but two feet in length, and as only three speci-
mens have been reported in the history of the islands, their occurrence here
may be considered purely accidental.

Sea-Turtles.

Among the more important animals inhabiting the sea, mention should be
made of the two species of sea-turtles that occur in the waters about the islands.
They are known as the honu and the e-a by the natives, who are very fond of
the honu as a food. In former times the Hawaiians made use of the shell plates
in the manufacture of fish hooks, scrapers for removing the trash from olona
fiber, and, to some extent, in more recent times, in the manufacture of orna-
ments. Turtles two feet or more across the shell are not rare, though the
specimens which reach the market are usually much smaller. In both species
the limbs have become completely modified into flippers or paddles which

22 R ana catesbiana. 23 1911. 24 Hydrophidm. 25 llydrus platurus.

300 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

enable them to swim swiftly in the sea, but render them almost helpless on the
land, where if turned on their back, they cannot regain their normal position.
They deposit their eggs in the sand in nests wdiich they scoop out to a depth of two
feet or more. The most abundant species abont Hawaii is the green turtle.26
It has a strong bill and the center of the back is made up of thirteen plates
arranged in three rows, which lie perfectly smooth and never overlap, as they
do on the rarer hawksbill turtle 27 or e-a, which furnishes the tortoise-shell of
commerce. As its name suggests, this latter species always has a hooked bill. It
also has thirteen plates over the back which overlap like shingles on a roof,
until it is nearly grown, wdien they assume the arrangement occurring on the
related species.

Galapagos Land-Tortoise.

A specimen of one of the many species of Galapagos land-tortoise 28 is
also to be seen in Hawaii. It belongs to the former Queen Liliuokalani, and
was brought to the islands by Capt. John Meek betwreen 1812 and 1825. It is
reported that at his place on King street he kept "many land-turtles" which
were brought home by him on numerous trips to Mexico. When they were
finally disposed of the specimen now in possession of her Majesty was given to
King Kamehameha III. It eventually passed into the hands of Kapiolani, and
after her death was still held in the royal family. It was a large animal when
brought to these islands almost one hundred years ago, and without doubt was
very old at that time.

A second specimen 20 was kept for a number of years on Nuuanu street
in Mrs. Mary E. Foster's wonderful garden of tropical plants. In their native
home in the Galapagos Islands, the tortoise feed on cacti and coarse grass, but in
captivity they feed on kitchen refuse. While they are dull creatures they are
nevertheless objects of great interest and curiosity.

Porpoise and Dolphin.

At least two and probably more species of porpoise 30 occur in the waters
about Hawaii. The commoner species 31 is dark gray in color over the back,
and is white beneath, varied with small gray spots, and is about six feet in
length. The teeth on both jaws are numerous, being about forty in number.
The porpoises belong to the great order of aquatic mammals with fish-like
bodies32, which include the true whales and the dolphins, and are known as
naia by the Hawaiians. In this order there are no posterior appendages. The
anterior appendages act as paddles and are without joints. The tail is hori-
zontally expanded to form a powerful propeller.

The porpoises associate in herds or schools, and their sportive gambols are
familiar to almost everyone who has made a sea voyage in the Pacific. As
they dive and sport under the bow of a slow-moving vessel they present a
sight long to be remembered. At one moment will be seen the roll of the

20 Chelone my das. 21 Chelone imbricata. 2S Testudo sp. 29 Died 1908. 30 Prodelphinus.

at Prodelphinus attenuatus. S2 Cetacea.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 301

arched back surmounted by the curved fin; at another the white belly will
flash in the sunlight as the creature swims along in a series of graceful curves
in the surface water. Not infrequently scores of them will be seen swimming
and leaping about a vessel for hours together. It is then that the voyager
is often given his first opportunity to see a harpoon thrown from the bow of
the vessel. Perhaps if a successful thrust is made, one of these odd mammals
will be brought on deck, where it can be examined at close range.

The term dolphin is rather loosely used and is sometimes applied to a
fish, sometimes to a narwhale, but more often to the grampus or killer. The
name properly belongs to a genus of animals world-wide in their distribution,
of which the common dolphin,33 a species that abounds in all temperate and
tropical seas, may be considered as typical. But as there are several closely-
related species, it is difficult to identify them in the water or to separate them
from the porpoises without specimens and recourse to extended technical
descriptions.

Whales.

It should be stated in this connection that the waters of the Pacific are
inhabited by several species of whales, of which the right whale or whalebone
whales,34 with three or more wide-ranging species, are the most important.
However, the sperm-whale or cachlot 35 and the humpback 36 are perhaps the
most common. In times past the pursuit of whales and the whaling industry
was a matter of great commercial importance to the Hawaiian Islands.

Although by their mode of life they are far removed from observation,
whales are in many respects the most interesting of all creatures, and there is
much in their habits worthy of study. The whalebone, or Arctic right whale37,
attains, when full grown, a length of from forty-five to fifty feet. The head is
enormous in size, exceeding one-third the length of the creature. The upper
jaw resembles nothing so much as a large spoon. The whalebone blades acquire
a length of ten or twelve feet; there being about 380 on each side of the
upper jaw. These blades are black in color, fine and elastic in texture, and
fray out on their inner edges and ends into soft, delicate hairs. The remark-
able development of the mouth and of the various structures connected with
it bear a close relation to the food habits of this whale. By means of the seine
or seive-like apparatus just described, it is possible for these animals to cap-
ture the minute forms of life which swarm in immense numbers in the seas it
frequents. The elastic whalebone of commerce has long been a valuable com-
modity, and many a fortune has been made from the whaling business. In
recent years, owing to the decrease in the number of whales, the price of
whalebone has been as high as twelve thousand dollars per ton.

The sperm-whale, or palaoa of the natives, is the largest representative of
the toothed whales, and in length and bulk it somewhat exceeds that of the

83 Delphinvs delphis. 34 Balcena spp. 35 Pkyseter macrocephalus. m Megaptera sp.

37 Balcena mystic etas.

302 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

right whale just mentioned. The head differs from that of the right whale
in being over one-third the length of the body, very massive and high, and
is abruptly truncated in front. This curious development of the head, is
mainly caused by the bulk of fatty tissue massed in the large hollowT on the
upper surface of the skull. The weight of the skull is very great. The
skeleton of the specimen assembled by the writer, now on exhibition in the
Bishop Museum, weighs almost three thousand pounds.

The blow-hole is placed on the anterior extremity of the head a little to
one side of the center. Owing to the curious shape of the head in the sperm-
whale, the "hump," when the animal comes to the surface to blow, is in front
of the spray; in the right whale and the humpback, the hump is behind the
spray. Owing to this difference the experienced whaler is able to identify the
species miles away from his ship.

The lower jaw of the sperm-whale differs from that of the right whale in
being narrow and in having from twenty to twenty-five stout conical teeth six
or eight inches in length, that are composed of ivory of good quality. Whale
ivory was much prized by the native Hawaiians, and used by them in the manu-
facture of the jewelry and ornaments of which mention has already been made.

The sperm-whale is doubtless one of the most widely distributed of living
animals, being met with usually in herds or schools in almost all tropical and
sub-tropical seas. Its food consists mainly of squid and cuttlefish, but the
larger fish are also devoured, though howT they are captured yet remains a
mystery. The substance known as "ambergris," formerly used in cookery and
medicine and now in the manufacture of perfumery, is a concretion formed in
the intestines of this and perhaps in other species of whales, and is occasionally
found floating on the surface of the sea or cast up on the open beach.

The right whale is pursued primarily for its whalebone, though its blubber
is a valuable by-product. The sperm-whale is sought for chiefly for the large
quantity of whale oil which it yields. This oil varies in color from a bright
honey-yellow to a dark brown, according to the part of the animal from which
it is taken. The best oil is that taken from the head, where it occurs as pure
oil and may be dipped out with a bucket. Sixty to eighty barrels of oil from
the head alone were not uncommon records when whaling was at its height.

The humpback whale,38 or kohola of the Hawaiian seamen, is a large
species and belongs to the group characterized by the presence of a number of
longitudinal flirtings or folds in the skin of the throat, and by the fin on the
back. They were formerly quite common off the Island of Maui during the
winter season, and were occasionally captured and brought to land. In more
recent times, while both humpback and sperm-whales are seen quite frequently
each year about the islands, but little attention is paid to them unless they
chance to become stranded, as occasionally happens. In ancient times all
whales and porpoises 30 cast ashore were the property of the alii, or chiefs, and
the wearing of whale-ivory ornaments was limited to that class.

88 Megaptera hoops. 89 Naia.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 303

The Whaling Industry.

In the old whaling days vessels engaged in the trade ranged up to four
hundred tons burden, and were often outfitted for a two or three years'
voyage. Their usual destination being the "south seas," they frequently
utilized Hawaii as a depot station. A whaling vessel usually carried six
whaleboats. These were about twenty-seven feet in length, with four-foot
beam, and were pointed at both ends.

When a whale was sighted, four boats put off at once, each being provided
with a pair of two-hundred-fathom harpoon lines and carrying a crew of six
men. fit was the business of the boat-steerer to harpoon the whale when it
came to the surface to spout. When this was done he changed places with a
member of the crew, whose duty was to kill the animal with a lance. When a
whale was harpooned, immediately after the first struggle and when it was
lying exhausted from its endeavors to escape, the boat wTas pulled close along-
side, and the headsman began the wrork of destruction by thrusting his lance into
the vital parts behind the flipper. As soon as the whale was lanced the boats
were backed with all possible speed. When first struck the whale frequently
* sounded' or descended to immense depths, sometimes taking out nearly all
of the eight hundred fathoms of line carried by the four boats. Subsequently,
however, when weakened by the loss of blood, it kept on or near the surface,
towing after it one or more of the boats. By hauling in the line the boat or
boats were pulled up alongside and the monster finally destroyed, either by
darting or thrusting with the lance."

Whaling as thus carried on was full of dangers, and an occupation calcu-
lated to be followed only by the most hardy and venturesome ; hundreds of
accounts of hairbreadth escapes from death have been chronicled in the
pursuit of this business in which, at its height in 1852, no fewer than two
hundred and seventy-five American vessel were engaged, in the north Pacific
alone. The amount of oil taken that year by the fleet exceeded 337,000 bar-
rels, and more than 5,000,000 pounds of whalebone was secured.

The Hawaiian Islands were in the center of this trade, and thousands of
the native Hawaii ans were employed as whalers. The business developed in
the ports of the islands furnished the impetus and the foundation for more
substantial and diversified trade that has rapidly increased in volume to the
present, though whaling, on anything like an extensive scale, was practically
at an end by 1875.

As long ago as 1824 the brig Ainoa set out from the islands for a sealing
voyage. At different times, but particularly in 1859, sealing expeditions have
been made among the islands to the west of Kauai. In that year the Gambia
returned to Honloulu wath fifteen hundred skins and two hundred and forty
barrels of seal oil. This furnishes us with a record of the former abundance of
the seal 40 in the Hawaiian group. Of recent years they have been far from

40 M onachus schauinslandi.

304 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

abundant, though seals are regularly reported from Laysan, Lisiansky, Pearl
and Hermes Reef, and are occasionally seen at Midway. In January, 1912,
the IT. S. Revenue cutter Thetis returned from a cruise to Midway and Laysan
and brought a seal-skin back which was presented to the Bishop Museum. Baby
seals were seen at that time, and it is quite probable that, if not interfered
with, the herd will increase in numbers.

CHAPTER XXII.
INTRODUCED BIRDS.

The nature-lover visiting Hawaii for the first time is sure to be disap-
pointed by the limited number of species of birds to be seen in Honolulu and
along the main traveled roads about the islands. Were it not for the presence
of the dozen or more species of birds that have been introduced into Hawaii by
accident or design, it is doubtful if the average tourist would see or hear a
single bird during his stay in the group. It is unfortunate that of the one
hundred and twenty-five or more species enumerated in the list of birds in the
islands, not more than half a dozen will be seen within the city of Honolulu, and
all of these are introduced from other lands.

The English Sparrow.

The English sparrow 3 is perhaps the most abundant bird about the city.
This pert, saucy and industrious Britisher is six inches or so in length, and has
a brownish back, streaked with black. In the adult male the conspicuous black
throat patch makes it a species easily recognized as an old acquaintance of a
distant land, and serves to distinguish it from the house finch or the "rice
bird,"2 the only other species with which it can be confused. The latter
species is about the size of its English cousin, but is light ashy-brown, streaked
with dark brown above. During the mating season the male has the throat
and breast a crimson color. The English sparrow's eggs are always spotted,
while the house finch's eggs are smaller and are a very x^ale bluish tint.

Rice Birds.

There is also another rice bird, much smaller than the California house
finch. It is usually seen flying in small, compact flocks. In reality it is a
weaver bird and belongs to a different family from that of the two species just
described. Doubtless it arrived in Hawaii many years ago as a cage bird' that
came originally from the Malay Peninsula. As so often happens with pets, it
probably escaped from captivity and has since become common throughout
the group. While it is called a rice bird, it is better known locally as the
Chinese sparrow.3 It is about two-thirds the size of the larger rice bird, and

1 Passer dornesticus. 2 Carpodacus mexieanus obscurcus, s Mania nisoria.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 305

in general color is a warm chocolate brown. When a specimen is in hand it
will be found that each feather over the back is marked by a narrow white
shaft line. All three of these sparrow-like birds feed at certain seasons on the
cultivated rice — a fact that has produced much confusion in the popular mind
as to just which species is in reality entitled to be called the rice bird.

The combined damage that these birds do to the growing grain from the
time the kernels of rice begin to form in the heads until the crop is finally
harvested, amounts to many thousands of dollars annually. The rice farmers
patrol their fields during this season, from early morning until sundown, dis-
charging "rice guns/' shouting and conducting a general crusade against the
birds. Many Chinese farmers set up scarecrows, to which windmills and noise-
making devices are attached, to guard the ripening crop. Others will inge-
niously run stout wire supported above the grain on bamboo poles, over an
entire field of grain. From these dangle a motley array of old tin cans,
clappers and other noise-producing junk. The free ends of all of the main
wires center at a conveniently-placed elevated platform from which the farmer
keeps a sharp lookout for the feathered despoiiers of his harvest. Just as the
flock alights on the drooping heads of grain, the farmer pulls the main wire
that runs to the place under attack. The neighborhood resounds with the
din, with the result that the intruders fly to some other spot, where the same
form of repulse is resorted to. In a short time the birds find that they are
more scared than hurt by the noise, and become more and more bold, often
standing their ground without wavering through the veritable pandemonium.
The writer has watched writh much interest the development of courage among
these uninvited and unwelcome bird guests, and doubts wdiether much is gained
in the long run by this form of warfare, save the satisfaction to the farmer of
doing something to protect his crop.

Chinese Turtle-Dove.

The Chinese turtle-dove,4 as its name suggests, came originally from
China. It is another introduced bird that is abundant in the rice fields, more
especially after the crop has been gathered. They then visit the fields in pairs
or in small flocks to glean the scattered grain that may be left after the frugal
Chinese farmers' wives have gathered in the last straws left lying on the
ground by the harvest-men.

Dove shooting is said to be real sport in Hawaii, and those who indulge in
it as such are always anxious for the open season to begin. An expert
marksman, in the height of the season, will secure a bag of fifty or sixty birds
in a single day. Though the dove is modest and retiring, its mournful call
is not an uncommon sound in the city; the flat, loosely-constructed nest in
which two white eggs are laid, is occasionally found in the trees and shrubs
forming the tropical tangle that often surrounds the Hawaiian home.

4 Turtur (Spilopelia) chinensis.

306 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

The Mynah Bird.

No bird in Hawaii is more conspicuous or more thoroughly at home in
his adopted land than is the false mynah 5 or mina. The mynah was brought
to Hawaii by Dr. Wm. Hillebrand years ago to feed on the cutworm of a certain
moth.0 The birds flourished and multiplied and have had an important part in
the reduction of the pest. Although not without bad habits, they must be
regarded as generally beneficial in their food habits.

Had they not become fond of the seeds of the introduced lantana — and
thus become directly responsible for its being spread broadcast over the
islands — there is little doubt but that the mynah would have been gener-
ally held in higher esteem than it is today. Their size, industry and sociability
make them interesting objects wherever they are, and the study of their nests,
food, and life habits will well repay the observing bird-lover.

The false mynah is so called to distinguish it from the true mynah of
India, a bird which they resemble in size, habit and general characteristics.
It is an exceedingly sagacious bird, and readily learns newr tricks that enable
it to adapt itself to peculiar and unusual conditions of life. There are cases on
record where the young have been taught to say single words ; but in linguistic
attainments they are not the equal of their Indian cousins.

Their nests, which are built in odd places about buildings, under rafters, in
eaves-troughs, or occasionally saddled into forks of trees, are invariably bulky
affairs. Their eggs are of fair size and blue in color, resembling those of the
American robin. All day long they scold, call or try to sing as fancy strikes
them, but at night, as they congregate in certain large banian trees about the
city in flocks of hundreds, the noise they make in taking leave of each other
and of the day, before going to roost, is little short of deafening. The first
faint glow in the east is the signal for them to take up the argument and the
work where they left off the day before. So day after day the unmusical
voice of the mynah, as it dins its call into the ears of the traveler, morning,
noon and night, comes to be the sound from Hawaii that lives longest in the
memory. Likely as not, years afterwrard, when the sight of old Diamond Head
and her wraving cocoanut palms and the languid caress of the soft air of the
tropics are but shadowy memories, it will be some harsh bird-note, caught by
the listless senses in an idle moment, that will again vividly bring to the mind
of the traveler the mynah, and its noisy evening song, and the twilight scene
it revives in fancy.

There is a popular though erroneous belief in Hawaii that the mynah is
responsible for the disappearance of the native birds. The fact that this
noisy stranger is frequently found in the forests at an elevation of five or six
thousand feet, is offered as an explanation for the singular passing from
the forest regions of many species of native birds. There is little reason,

5 Acridotheres tristis, 6 Spodoptera mauritia.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 307

however, for supposing this to be the true cause. There may be eases, about
settlements especially, where the mynah has been known to interfere with the
nests and eggs of certain birds, particularly those of the English sparrow, a
species with which its habits bring it in sharp and direct contact; but so far
as the opinions of the best observers and my own experience go, the mynah,
when he finds himself in the forest, lives at peace with the native birds. The
general habits of the forest birds differ widely from those of the mynah, and
their nesting and food habits are so different that the two seldom come into con-
flict.

The Skylarks.

The English skylark 7 was introduced into Hawaii purely for sentimental
reasons, because of its beautiful song. Many persons who have settled in
Hawaii came directly from England, and were familiar with the profuse strains
of this songster in their native land; naturally, the lark is a favorite with
them. These birds, now fairly common in the pastures and on the open fore-
hills of the principal islands of the group, are descended from birds brought
by the Hon. A. S. Cleghorn from New Zealand, where the bird had been suc-
cessfully introduced from England by early colonists.

The lark is a dull-brownish bird, well known to every one who strolls along
the paths that lead into the mountains. Often they will be startled into song
from the roadside by the rumble of a carriage or the tread of a pedestrian,
and, singing, they will mount higher and higher into the sky, carrying their
song with them, up, up, until both singer and song are lost to sight and ear.
They are not content with merely lilting their song to the heavens, but will
sweetly and skilfully coax it back with them to earth again. It often happens
that a half dozen of these blithe singers will mount skyward at the same time,
dropping after them a veritable shower of song that could but delight the most
careless cross-country rambler, and bring him home again glad that there is in
Hawaii such a bird as the skylark.

Pheasants.

The several species of game-birds that have been introduced into Hawaii
are of special interest to the sportsman. To the credit of many of our fore-
most citizens of a generation or more ago, pheasants and quails were brought
to Hawaii at private expense and liberated. New breeding stock has been
brought in, from time to time, and the welfare of the game-birds so guarded
by law that they have increased, particularly on the islands of Kauai and
Molokai, until they are sufficiently abundant to make game shooting an enjoy-
able sport.

Two species of pheasant are now well naturalized in Hawaii. The ring-
neck or Chinese pheasant8 came originally from China, but as it has been
extensively reared in England and America, usually as a cage-bird, it is dif-

7 Alauda arvensis. 8 Phasianus torquatus.

308 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

ficult to tell from whence the Hawaiian stock was derived. The back of the
male is a fine coppery-chestnut color, the neck a beautiful metallic-green, with a
narrow white collar about the middle, and the breast a gorgeous metallic-copper
color with purple reflections.

The Japanese pheasant ° is about the same size as the Chinese species.
The pure-blooded male can be easily identified, as its underparts are dark
green and there is no white ring about the neck. The females of the two
species are more difficult to identify, especially in Hawaii, where hybrids
between the two species frequently occur that rival the pure stock in size and
beauty of plumage.

The California Partridge.

The California partridge 10 is well establihed in the islands, especially
on Hawaii, Maui and Molokai. The pretty black crest and throat and black
scale-like markings on the belly, with a central patch of chestnut on the breast
of the males, and the prevailing smoky or brownish color of the females, taken
together with the habit, size and rapid flight of the partridge, makes it an
easy bird to recognize, as they scurry across the road or take flight from
under foot and whir through the air like so many winged bullets.

The pheasants and partridges prefer the open country, the forehills, and
straggling scrub about the lower edges of the mountain forests, and in spite of
the damage to them and their nests that is directly traceable to the mongoose,
they are generally believed to be increasing in numbers.

The wild fowl, or moa, was introduced by the natives long before the
coming of the white man, but since his coming other breeds have escaped into
the mountains and a mongrel Hawaiian wild chicken has resulted. The intro-
duction and liberation of certain domestic birds, as turkeys, pea-fowls, guinea-
fowls and the like, have been made from time to time until they are quite
common in a wild state on the different islands.

Other birds have escaped and become established, among them a parrot
on Maui and a Chinese thrush ll on Oahu ; though the latter is not a thrush, but
a reed-warbler. It is to be hoped that ere long the scientific introduction of
desirable economic species will be undertaken, since there are many species
of birds in America and elsewhere that, if brought to Hawaii, would fill a
useful place in the economy of nature, and at the same time add by their
presence to the pleasure of life in both city and country.

C£

CHAPTER XXIII.

BIRDS OF THE SEA AND OCEANIC ISLANDS.

Regular Visitors and Ocean Waifs.

Of the little list of less than thirty species of sea-birds of which Hawaii
an boast, almost half the number are very rare winter visitors. As a rule

9 Phasianus versicolor, 10 Lophortyx California. ll Trochalopterum ccmorurn.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 309

these are ocean waifs — young and unexperienced birds — that have lost their
way in an attempt to migrate for the first time along the American coast on
their way to their winter homes in the South. Such birds are rare in the
islands and are seldom seen outside of museums. They are usually, though
not always, common west coast species of gulls and terns1 and ducks.2 Birds
of these families are well adapted by nature to enjoy life on the island shores
and reefs, and one is led to wonder why some of them, in times past, have not
taken up a residence and settled down to a fishing life, and become abundant
along Hawaii's coasts, now sadly destitute of sea-bird inhabitants.

Unfortunately for the bird student, only a few of the species that regu-
larly frequent the waters about the islands ever come close enough to the
shore to be identified more exactly than to say that they are large or small sea
birds. Of the limited list that may be said to be common about the group,
there are as many as four species that nest in holes which they find or make
in the faces of the high cliffs in the mountains in the large inhabited islands.
They may be seen occasionally in the daytime flying over the land, but gener-
ally only their curious calls can be heard, as they are nocturnal in habit and
are seldom abroad during the day.

Tropic Birds.

The white-tailed tropic bird 3 is the species most commonly seen during the
daytime. It is a beautiful white bird, and in fine weather, in favored locali-
ties, as many as half a dozen may be seen at once, gracefully floating about the
cliffs at the head of the principal valleys of the islands. They lay but a single
large, cream-colored egg — thickly blotted, splotched and mottled with rich brown
— which they deposit in a nest of loose straws, tucked in a crevice in the face
of the cliff. The young nestling differs from the adult in that the body and
head are mottled black and white. In this stage they resemble the young of
the red-tailed species 4 which occurs on the low sand islands of the northwest
chain. The adults differ from the red-tailed species, as their name suggests, in
having their long tail white, or salmon color, instead of deep red. The plumage
of both species was much used in Hawaii in times past in the manufacture of
the native kahilis that are elsewhere described. The birds were also used as food
by the natives.

Petrels and Shearwaters.

The Hawaiian petrel,5 Newell 's shearwater,0 and the Hawaiian stormy
petrel7 are all small or medium-sized, dark-colored sea-birds with hooked bills;
they nest in holes in the mountains. Although they and their habits were
well known to the llawaiians, who were expert naturalists, they have con-
tinued to be very rare specimens in collections, owing to their night-flying
habits and the almost inaccessible places in which they nest. They were a

1 Laridw. 2 Anatida?. 3 Phaethon Upturns. A Phaethon rubricauda.

5 Mstrelata sandtvichenms. ° Puffinns newelli. "Oeeanodroma eryploleueura.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OP THE GROUP. 311

favorite food in the old days, much resembling squab in flavor, and were pre-
ferred on the Hawaiian table over the tropic bird, whose flesh had a strong
fishy flavor. These species all lay but a single dull-white egg. Without doubt
all four of the cliff-nesting species mentioned above are doomed to extinction
in the islands, owing to the inroads made upon them by the mongoose, which is
a serious menace to all ground-nesting birds.

Perhaps the average person sees more birds from the deck of an island
steamer than in any other way. In fact, most of the more common day-fiying,
sea-going species may be identified by a practised observer while crossing the
channels between the islands.

Terns.

The small, graceful black bird with a silvery-gray crown, flying usually
in small flocks, is almost sure to be the Hawaiian tern,8 although it is easily
confused with its cousin, the noddy tern,9 from which it differs chiefly in
being a trifle smaller and of a more slender build.

Both species are active fishers, capturing their prey by flying close to
the surface of the ocean and swooping clown upon any of the small, unwary
species of fish that abound in the surface water five or ten miles off the coast.
Both of these graceful birds have much the same habits and disposition. The
writer has taken the nests and eggs of both species from crevices in steep sea-
cliffs as well as from the tops of low bushes growing on the flat sand islands of
the group. Both birds were formerly used to some extent as food. They were
usually captured by the natives at night by the aid of torches. The light
served to bewilder the birds, causing them to fly, aimlessly about, when it was
an easy matter to knock them down with sticks and poles.

Like many sea-birds, both species lay but a single egg, which they place
on a small heap of sticks and seaweed that serves as a nest, The eggs are

8 Micranous hawaiiensis. » Anous stolidus.

Description of Plate.

1. View of birdlife on Laysan (opposite side of the group shown in fig. 7). In the
burrow, Bonin Petrel (Mstrelata hypoleuca) ; under the bushes a Red-tailed Tropic Bird
(Phaethon rubrieauda) ; on the bushes two Noddy Terns (Anous stolidus) and an old and
young Hawaiian Tern [Noio] (Micr anous hawaiiensis) ; on the rock and bushes a Red-footed
Booby (Sula piscator) ; on the rocks two old and young White Terns (Gygis alba kittlitzi) ;
on the sand one Christmas Island Shearwater (Pujfinus nativitaHs). 2. Pair of Man-o- 'war
Birds [Iwa] (Fregata aquila) on the nest showing the large red gular pouch on the male.
3. Group showing old, young, immature and egg of the Black-crowned Night Heron [Aukuu
kohili] (Nycticorax nycticorax ncevius). 4. Black-footed Albatross (Diomedea nigripes). 5.
Group of Hawaiian shore-birds; five Turnstones [Akekeke] (Arenaria interpres) are shown
in the act of lighting; on the rock a Bristle-thighed Curlew [Kioea] (Numenius tahitiensis) ;
to the left Hawaiian Stilt [Kukuluaeo] (ffimantopus knudseni) ; by the water's edge Pacific
Golden Plover [Kolea] (Charadrius dominicus fulvus) ; one just rising and one preening
Wandering Tatler [IJlili] (Heteractitis incanus). 6. The Hawaiian Goose [Nene] (Nesochen
sandvicensis) . 7. Opposite side of fig. 1, Birds in flight Sooty Tern (Sterna fuliginosa) ;
on the bushes Red-footed Booby (Sula piscator) ; on the ground left Blue-faced Booby (Sula
cyanops) ; on the ground in center Grey-backed Tern (Sterna lunata) ; in the deeper hole
Bulwers Petrel (Bulweria bulweria bulweri) ; in the shallow burrow Wedge-tailed Shearwater
(Prioftnm cuneatus) old and young.

312 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

even more alike if possible than the birds, and a description of one will suffice
for both. They are usually a little smaller than a bantam chicken egg, and
clear grayish-white, variously splotched and mottled with clove-brown, varied
often with lilac markings.

The sooty tern 10 is a beautiful, graceful species common in the waters
about the islands. It may be identified by its typical tern-like flight and the
fact that the upper parts are sooty-black while the under parts, forehead and
a narrow stripe over the eye, are white.

Two or three species of small, tube-nosed swimmers that skim singly, or
in pairs, over the water, that all pass in the distance as "mutton birds," are
as liable to be one as the other of the wedge-tailed shearwater,11 the Christ-
mas Island shearwater,12 the Bonin petrel,13 or the Hawaiian petrel.14

Where careful identification is possible they may prove to be something
very different, however, and it is unsafe to hazard more than a guess as to
the name of a species seen on the wing at sea. Fortunately, there is no ground
for uncertainty in the identification of the large, tube-nose swimmers.

Albatross.

The black-footed albatross 15 is sooty-brown all over, while the Laysan Island
albatross 16 has the abdomen white. Both species are about the size of a large
goose and are called gooneys by the sailors. They both follow vessels cross-
ing the Pacific, for hundreds of miles on their journeys to and from the islands.
Not infrequently a flock of three or four birds will follow a steamer for days,
eagerly seizing the bits of waste that may be thrown overboard from the
cooks' galley.

Man-o'-War Bird.

The majestic black man-o'-war17 bird, often little more than a mere speck in
the clear blue sky, is easily recognized as it sails high overhead, circling round
and round for hours at a time without the slightest apparent effort; they are
objects of never-failing interest, serving often as a welcome diversion to
relieve the monotonous round of daily life on board an ocean liner in the
tropics.

Interesting as the Hawaiian species of sea-birds may be when on the wing,
their home life is a great deal more so, and fortunate indeed is the person who
is able to spend a few days in one of the large colonies to be found on all of
the smaller uninhabited islands that lie to the northwest of Kauai.

Birds of Laysan Island.

Laysan is perhaps the largest sea-bird colony in the tropics, and its teem-
ing hordes of bird inhabitants may justly claim for it a place as one of the
great natural wonders of the world. The island itself is scarcely two and a

10 Sterna fuliginosa. 11 Prio firms euneatus. 12 Puffinus nativitatis. 13 Mstrelata hypoleuca.

14 Mstrelata sandwichenisw. ls Diomedea nigripes. 10 Diomedea immutabiiis. 1T Fr'egata aquila.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 313

half miles long by one and a half broad, and is about forty feet above the sea
at the highest point. In form, it resembles a great oval platter, and dish-like,
it holds a shallow salt-water lake that varies in size to correspond with the
amount of rain that falls on the island. There seems to be abundant geologic
evidence to prove that the island was at one time a closed coral reef or an
atoll that in the remote past was elevated above the surface of the sea. Thus,
the coral stone foundation was formed around the salt lake that the sea and
the wind have since made over into a sand island.

The low sand rim that surrounds the lake and forms the island proper,
slopes gently toward the sea without, and the lake within. On this double
beach that is half or three-quarters of a mile in width, a few varieties of hardy
beach plants have established themselves. Besides helping to hold the sand in
place with their roots, these plants have added the last touch necessary to
form an ideal home for this monster bird colony.

This sand ring in the midst of the ocean is the regular home of more than
twenty species of birds, five of which are found nowhere else in the world. I
have estimated from personal observation and data gathered for the purpose
that more than ten million birds formerly visited Laysan Island each year. In
addition to the rather large list of regular residents that form the bulk of the
inhabitants, the island has a goodly number of species that visit it each
winter, including such birds as tattler, plover, curlew, turnstone, canvas-back,
shoveler, and a dozen or more occasional or accidental wanderers, making a
total of at least three dozen species of birds that are known to visit this mere
speck of dry sand.

Naturally, the struggle for existence, often for mere nest-room, is intense.
The air, the vegetation, the earth — all literally swarm with bird life. Almost
every inch of land down to the water's edge is occupied. In their home life
this concourse may be likened to the inhabitants of a great city. Not finding
room enough for all to live on the ground, they have turned the island into a
great apartment house, several fiats in height. Nor are all the flats above
ground. Some of the petrels, for example, dig holes (i\Te or six feet deep and
in them live thousands and thousands of night-flying birds that rear their
young, as it were, in the deeper sub-basement of the colony. Another species digs
but two or three feet deep in the sand, and in this way occupies the entire sub-
basement fiat, without fear of molestation by the neighbors, above or below.

The basement is inhabited by the wedge-tailed shearwater. It has chosen
this part of the island as a home, and the burrows that they make are in count-
less thousands and of such size that a person walking across the island must
be careful where he steps, lest in an unguarded moment he caves in the roof
of a burro w and drops hip-deep into it.

The surface of the ground, to continue our comparison, is the most valu-
able and hence the most densely-populated part of this wonderful bird city.
Under the bushes, in the roots of the grass, in the open spaces about the bunch-
grass, along the shore of the lake, or on the sea slope, a dozen species find the

21

314 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

conditions, conveniences and location that appeal most to their fancy, and they
occupy the site selected by the colony to its fullest capacity. In the bunch-
grass the little flightless rail18 is found, nesting among the thick stems close
down to the ground. The miller bird19 and the Laysan canary20 nest in the
main stems of the bushes, and next above them the tastefully arranged nests of
the Laysan honey-eater 21 is placed. On the tops of the bushes, occupying
the choice top-flats, terns, boobies and man-o'-war birds contend among them-
selves and with their neighbors for the desirable locations ; while overhead the
air is literally filled with swarms of birds.

Laysan is a veritable bird-lovers' paradise, for, having no knowledge of
man, most of the species are without fear and may be lifted from the nest with
the hands like a setting barnyard fowl.

The Albatross Dance.

By reason of their number, size and unusual personalities, there are no
more interesting birds in the colony than the two species of albatross to which
allusion has already been made. The Laysan or white-breasted species are
most abundant and are widely distributed over the island. From the middle
of October, when they begin to reach the colony — returning from, nobody
knows where — all through the winter months and until the young are ready
to leave with their parents the following July, the island is covered with
albatross. Looking in any direction, one can see the old birds standing
stolidly about, sitting on their nests, or engaged in their curious dance — a
singular performance for which the albatross is justly famed.

This game, or dance, or cake-walk, or whatever one may care to call it, is
more than a form of courtship, since it is indulged in at all times, day or night,
during the entire period of the birds' long stay on the island. It is without
exception the most amusing performance I have ever seen birds indulge in.
The dance is so aptly described by Dr. W. K. Fisher, that I quote from his
account :

"Two albatrosses approach each other, bowing profoundly and stepping
rather heavily. They circle around each other, nodding solemnly all the
time. Next they fence a little, crossing bills and whetting them together,
pecking meanwhile and dropping stiff little bows. Suddenly one lifts its
closed wings and nibbles the feathers underneath or, rarely, if in a hurry
merely turns its head, and tucks its bill under its wTing. The other bird dur-
ing this performance assumes a statuesque pose and either looks mechanically
from side to side or snaps its bill loudly a few times. Then the first bird bows
once again, pointing its head and beak straight up, and utters a prolonged
nasal groan, the other bird snapping its bill loudly and rapidly at the same
time. Sometimes both birds raise their heads in the air and either one or both
utters the indescribable and ridiculous bovine groan. When they have fin-
ished they begin bowing to each other, almost always rapidly and alternately,

18 Prozanula palmeri, 19 Acrocephalus familiaris. 20 Telespiza cantans. 21 Himatione freethi.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 315

and presently repeat the performance, the birds reversing the role in the game
or not."

Many variations occur in the order of the dance. Sometimes three or more
birds will become involved, which adds to the ludicrous nature of the per-
formance, as it becomes at once evident that the birds are unable to dance the
more complicated round dances and attempts to do so almost invariably result
in a breakdown before the dance is carried to the squawking stage. By way of
variety, one of the birds will sometimes pick up a feather or stick and tender
it to its partner, who promptly returns the compliment, when they pass to
the next form, and so on. Through varying figures and manoeuvers these birds
will continue their play, often for ten or fifteen minutes without cessation.
When the end comes, however, it usually follows the uttering of a prodigious
groan, after wdiieh the birds retire to a respectful distance from each other
and resume their ordinary vocation of preening, sunning themselves or merely
looking on while their neighbors amuse themselves in the same form of play.
So common is the "dance" among them that dozens of couples may be seen
engaged in it at any hour of the day or night.

While the albatross rears a family of but one, they devote much time to
the feeding and care of their offspring. The downy nestling issues from a
large, dirty white egg (as large as that of a goose) that may be heavily
blotched with brownish-maroon, which encircles the egg in a band; or from
a brownish-buff egg, without any markings whatsoever. However varied the
color of the egg may be, the young birds look so much alike that it is impos-
sible to tell how they are recognized by their parents. Fortunately, there
seems to be little difficulty, and the old birds seldom molest one another or
their neighbors' children.

The old birds seem to be very active at night and apparently do a great
part, though not all, of their fishing at that time. Returning to the island
from a fishing expedition, they proceed at once to feed their young. The
parent bird settles down beside the nestling, which without delay begins to
pick her beak gently. Presently the parent bird stands up and, lowering its
head, opens the beak and disgorges a mass of partially-digested squid and oil ;
but before it is too late the young bird inserts its bill crosswise into that of its
parents, and receives the offering with apparent relish. The young bird is in
no way modest in its demands, and continues to beg for more until the supply
is entirely exhausted, when the old bird pecks back savagely, or walks off to a
safe distance and settles down to rest and sleep.

The black-footed albatross does not visit Laysan in such large numbers
as do the foregoing species, and as a consequence they live in more restricted
colonies. In their habits they closely resemble their white-breasted cousins.

In the guano beds for which Laysan Island is famous commercially, the
workmen often find the eggs of the albatross and the shearwaters bedded in
the rock-like guano deposits in a semi-fossil condition.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 317

Nesting Habits of the Man-o'-War Birds.

Of the large sea-birds on Laysan, the nesting habits of the great man-o'-
war birds are second in interest only to those of the albatross. Though its
habits have gained for it the most undesirable of reputations among its fel-
lows, the species is worthy of more than passing notice. Their nests are rude
structures of sticks and vines, in bulk the size of a bushel basket, that are
placed on top of the low bushes. On a desert sand island it is not an easy
task to secure the necessary material for the hundreds of nests required by
the birds in a colony of the size of that on Laysan. As a result the birds have
become notorious thieves, stealing from each other without the slightest regard
for the ordinary rules governing the possession of house-building materials
among birds. When both the owners of a nest chance to leave it at the same
time, if only for a few minutes, their neighbors will greedily carry it away,
often not leaving a single vestige of the nest to mark the former home of the
absent OAvners.

Both sexes sit on the single large white egg, turn about, seldom leaving it
for an instant day or night for fear it will be broken and the nest stolen by
their neighbors. They are forced to keep even a closer watch over the naked
young than over the egg in the nest, to prevent their defenseless chicks from being
carried off and devoured.

In securing their daily rations they have acquired a skill that makes the
acts of an ordinary highwayman seem commonplace. Their habit is to estab-
lish their colony in the neighborhood of a booby colony. Here they patrol
the island up and down, out over the open sea, a few hundred yards from
shore, lying in wait for the return of the industrious boobies and tropic birds
that have been out sea-fishing. As the birds near the shore heavily laden with
fish, the man-o'-war bird gives chase, often a flock of these winged pirates
focusing their attack on a single booby. They fly over it, in front of it,
and pick it and otherwise buffet and molest it, until, in self-defense, the con-
fused bird lets go its catch of fish one by one. The fish are eagerly caught up
in mid-air by the assailants and the attack renewed, until, more times than
not, the booby, after a hard day's work securing food for her family, arrives

Description of Plate.

1. Albatross eggs. The manager of the guano company at one time packed down a few
barrels of eggs for use by the laborers, but eggs were never exported from the island. The
picture here shown and often published was especially arranged for spectacular photographic
effect. 2. Black-footed Albatross in the wrake of a steamer. Both the black and the white
species follow ships at sea and are called gooneys by the sailors. 3, 4. Two views of an
enraged Red-footed Booby. 5. Bristle-thighed Curlews roosting on a pile of guano rock.
6. Colony of Hawaiian Terns — all facing to windward, a habit of sea-birds. 7. Red-tailed
Tropic Bird on the nest. 8. Family group of Blue-faced Boobies. 9. Sooty Tern with egg.
10. Laysan Albatross — the end of the dance. 11. Wedge-tailed Shearwaters at home. 12.
Young Laysan Albatross; partly fledged. 13. Miller Bird and nest. 14. Hawaiian Tern on a
bush of Chenopodium Sandivicheum. 15. Laysan canary nest and eggs. 16. Group of Man-o '■
war Birds on the nest. 17. General view on Laysan looking to the east across the salt water
lagoon.

318 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

at her nest in an exhausted condition, without a morsel of food left for the
expectant young at home.

During the calm warm days of summer the sea is frequently so smooth
that the booby is unable to bring home its usual catch of flying-fish. At such
times the man-o'-war birds not only resort to cannibalism, but infanticide as
well, in order to satify their demand for food. If by chance the parent bird
of a nearby nest should happen to leave its young unguarded, the ever-watchful
pirate-bird, with a swoop of wings and a vicious snap of beak, will seize the
almost naked, helpless nestling and mount high in the air, dangling the young
bird from its beak. When in the bird's judgment the fall will be sufficient
to crush the life out of its prey, the man-o'-war bird, with murderous intent,
will drop its neighbors' offspring to the ground. The falling nestling is
closely followed in its descent by the bird, that it may be first in at its death.
If the fall was sufficient to kill the young bird, it is snatched from the ground
and gobbled down by the greedy pirate-murderer. If the young bird strug-
gles, it is again carried into the air, this time to a greater height than before,
and again allowed to fall to the ground. This performance is often repeated
several times before the helpless young bird is pronounced dead, when its
body is swallowed by its assassin in a single gulp.

White Terns.

There is not space in one brief chapter to describe the interesting nesting
habits of the beautiful white terns or love birds,22 the colonies of thousands
upon thousands of gray-backed,23 noddy and Hawaiian terns; the shear-
waters, petrels and boobies, all of which occur on other islands of the group,
but it seems unfair to nature, to Laysan, and to the reader, to fail to mention,
even though it must be in the briefest manner, the species that are found
nowhere else in the world.

The Laysan Duck.

The sportsman finds it almost impossible to believe that a distinct species
of duck, the Laysan teal,24 could make so small an island its only home, but
such is the case. On a recent visit, however, I found this little colony so
reduced in numbers that the species could easily be exterminated in a single
day with dog and gun. This little teal, a close relative of the Hawaiian duck,
is perfectly fearless. On one occasion a x>air, out of curiosity, swam up to
the bank of the little lagoon where I was partially concealed, and, coming out
on the bank, walked up so close to the camera that it was necessary to draw back
to bring them into focus on the plate.

The Flightless Rail.

The great natural curiosity of the island is the little flightless rail.25 The
common belief that they are wingless is an error — growing out of the fact that

22 Gygis alba Jcittlitzi. 23 Sterna lunata. 24 Anas laysanensis. 25 Prozanida pahneri.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 319

t-he wings have become so reduced in size as to be almost hidden in the body-
feathers, and so weak as to be useless in flight. Almost every square rod of
the grassy portion of the island has its pair of rails, and they are, without
doubt, the most interesting, industrious and inquisitive creatures in the world.
At the slightest alarm they slink into cover under the grass tussocks, only to
peer out cautiously in their endeavor to get first-hand knowledge of the cause
of their alarm. Of their many interesting habits none is more entertaining
than the way in which they secure a portion of their food from the Laysan
canary.

Laysan Canary.

The Laysan canary is a sturdy little finch-like bird that nature has en-
dowed with a strong bill. One of its habits is to break open the thin-shelled
eggs of the terns and other ground-nesting species during the nesting season.
However, the canary is seldom allowed to enjoy the fruits of its labor undis-
turbed. The little rails are always on the lookout, and at the proper moment
will rush out at the canary and, with a great show of fuss and feathers, drive
it away from the broken egg. The rail will then calmly spoon up the contents
of the egg with its weak, slender bill, leaving the canary to open another egg
if it really cares for fresh eggs to eat. As to how this active little rail came to
be on the island we can only conjecture. As the species has no near relative
that can fly over a wide range, it is probable that the ancestors of the Laysan
rail came to the islands very long ago by accident, possibly being lost at sea
during the season of migration, or may have been stranded there by the sub-
mergence of lands connecting Laysan with other islands of the group. Find-
ing the island small, but well stocked with food and without serious natural
enemies, the species doubtless settled down to live the island life. Having
but little use for their wings, they gradually lost the power of flight.

The Laysan canary is the best songster on the island, and as a result
many of them have been captured by occasional visitors and carried to Hono-
lulu to be kept in cages as pets. On Laysan they are very numerous. Being
of good size and absolutely fearless, they are most interesting, often coming
into the rough houses built by the guano company, to look for seed or to secure
a drink of fresh water. Fresh water is a real luxury to them, though they
never care to bathe in it as ordinary canaries do.

The Miller Bird.

The miller bird, as it has been called on account of its unusual fond-
ness for a certain species of miller that is very abundant on Laysan, is a small
reed-warbler. This small brown bird is the only representative of this exten-
sive family of insect-eating birds to be found in the native fauna of the group.
Ornithologists have been much interested in the discovery of this well-marked
species occurring only on this isolated spot of land, since all of its relatives are
capable of making extended flights by sea and occur widely distributed in

320 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Australia and China and on various Pacific islands. Like its neighbors, it is
quite fearless and is always busy. They often break into a sweet, strong,
melodious warble, that seems quite out of place on a low, hot sand island; the
song being entirely out of proportion to the size of the bird.

The remaining species peculiar to the island is the Laysan honey-eater.
It is an island form of the apapani, a related species that is common in the
forests of the higher islands of the group. It is a small bird, red in color, that
so clearly resembles its better known relative as not to require description
here. While not so abundant as the other species just mentioned, their bright
scarlet plumage renders them more conspicuous. Like their cousins, they are
especially fond of the nectar of flowers, and their long, slender, curved bills
and tube-like tongues make it an easy matter for them to drink the sweet fluid
from the blossoms of the Portulaca that grows abundantly about the edge of
the lagoon. They are also fond of insects and make many a meal from the
large grey millers on the island. They are most regular in their habits, return-
ing hour after hour and day after day to the same bush or flower to search
for food.

A number of years ago the Laysan rail was liberated on Midway Island,
where it has established itself in a thriving colony. The Laysan canary has
also been introduced on Midway and has found conditions there entirely suit-
able to its habits. In 1909 Mr. D. Morrison purchased a pair of the common
yellow canaries 26 in Honolulu and soon after liberated their young on Midway.
They have increased in numbers until it was estimated that there were more
than a thousand birds on the island by the end of the nesting season of 1914.
They are sweet songsters, and although not quite so friendly as the Laysan
finch, they will feed with a person standing within a yard of them. The
future of this colony will be followed with much interest by those who are
interested in the introduction and naturalization of song and game birds, since
it furnishes an excellent example of a species returning to its natural wild
habits after centuries of confinement and artificial breeding and feeding.

CHAPTER XXIV.
BIRDS OF THE MARSH, STREAM AND SHORE.

More than half of the complete list of birds recorded as occurring in the
Hawaiian group are shore and water birds. This part of the fauna includes
resident species, regular winter migrants, and a considerable list of occa-
sional or accidental visitors. As those species that are met with in Hawaii
only at irregular intervals are seldom seen and cannot be expected to con-
tribute much to the numerical strength of the meager bird population, the
present chapter deals only with the more common forms.

We have observed in an earlier chapter that the city as well as the

! Fr any ilia canaria.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 321

farming lands on the lower levels about all the islands are without native birds
of any kind. Fortunately, this is not true of the ponds, marshes, streams and
the sea-shore, as the waters of Hawaii are still inhabited by several character-
istic forms. Unfortunately, some of the species of the region are now very
rare, while others that are more common are of more than usual interest, since
they are not met with elsewhere in the world. The majority of the birds
belonging to this low-land section, however, are representatives of wide-
ranging species that visit Hawaii as a winter resort to escape the rigors of
the climate in the far north where most of the shore and water birds repair
every summer to nest and rear their young.

The Golden Plover,

Conspicuous among the migrants visiting Hawaii each year are the golden
plover, the wandering tattler, the turnstone and the sanderling. A stroll along
the sea-shore, especially in the country districts during the winter season, will
be rewarded by a sight of one or more flocks of at least some of these species
as they followT up the receding waves in search of the dainties that are left
strewn on the sand by the sea, Often the plover x will be seen in large num-
bers, feeding on the upland, where, in the freshly-plowed fields or in the newly-
planted cane or on the open grass lands, they find an abundant supply of
worms and insects. They doubtless render a great service to the planter and
farmer during this season, and are entitled to all the protection they receive in
return.

When the plover arrive at the islands in the autumn, from the summer
spent in the far north, they are usually in poor flesh. But when we think of the
long journey they must make over the three thousand miles of ocean without
a rest, the wonder is that they do not perish on the way. Just why the plover
and all the other migratory birds undertake these wearisome flights across
the wild open ocean, it seems must ever remain a mystery. Without doubt,
when storms are encountered many must lose their way and go down to watery
graves or, thrown from their course, must fly for days over the great dull
expanse in search of land. Perhaps it was in some such accidental way that
the first plover happened to visit Hawaii in the long ago. Since it doubtless
found the islands a pleasant land, it seems almost incredible that a helpless
wanderer should ever put to sea again in search of the distant land from
whence it came. But the instinct to migrate to the far-away north and rear
a brood and return again to these little islands over the sea must have been
very strong — strong enough to carry it and its descendants back and forth
year after year. Doubtless such is the story of the beginning of the colonies
of most, if not all, of the different species of migratory shore and water birds
that visit Hawaii each year.

1Charadrius dominicus fulvus.

322 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Old 'Stump Leg/

It is interesting to know that once the journey is successfully made, bar-
ring accident the voyager is able ever afterwards to make the passage with
unerring accuracy. An interesting case in point is the record I secured from
Mr. Max Schlemmer, who for several years was the manager of the colony of
laborers formerly stationed on the little sand island of Laysan. This island is
but a mile and a half across by two miles in length. Nevertheless, plover
occur there in large flocks each wTinter season.

On one occasion a fine male bird that was in the habit of roosting every
night on a little mound of sand a few rods from the door of the manager's
house, attracted his attention as it fluttered about on the sand apparently
unable to fly. Picking it up it was found that a bunch of hair and refuse was
wound about the bird's foot and leg, and that this had been added to with
dirt and sand until a bunch large enough to weight the bird down had formed.
In its effoi'ts to fly it had broken its leg and was in a pitiable condition. The
manager amputated the leg at the fracture and set the bird at liberty. To the
surprise of all, it healed perfectly. The stump-leg furnished a mark for iden-
tification that served to distinguish the bird from its fellows, and it naturally
became an object of interest in the colony. It remained about the island all
winter, returning each night to its favorite roosting-place on the sand mound.
It became unusually tame and fearless. "When spring came, however, it re-
sponded to the most powerful call that stirs the avian brain, the homing
instinct, and with its fellows left the wave-washed shores of Laysan to make
the long flight back from whence they came, seemingly for no more intelli-
gible reason than that they had made the journey before.

Naturally, the manager bade good-bye forever, as he thought, to his bird
neighbor the first night it failed to return to its roost. But being a seafaring
man, and accustomed to the excellent discipline of keeping a ship's log-book,
whether on land or sea, he accordingly made a note of the fact with day and
date and dismissed the incident from his mind. The summer passed, and one
early autumn day the whole colony was thrown into a state of excitement by
the announcement that the stump-leg plover had returned the night before
and had been found that morning occupying his sand-pile roost. The bird was
apparently as much at home as though a summer cruise to some distant land
wras a regular occurrence and a matter of little consequence. Naturally, so
important an event as the return of the stump-leg plover to its winter home
was made a matter of record in the log for the day. The bird more than ever
became the object of interest and concern on the part of all hands, for had he
not accomplished a feat entitling him to the highest respect among seafaring

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

Petrel [Oeoe] (Oceanodrama cryptoleucura) . 5. Hawaiian Tern [Noio] (Micranous hawaiien-
sis) . 6. Bonin Petrel (MstreXata hypoleuca). 7. Hawaiian Coot [Alae keokeo] (Fulica alai).
8. Hawaiian Hawk [To] (Buteo solitarius) ; light plumage. 9. Hawaiian Gallinule [Alae]
(Gall inu la sa n dv icensis ) .

■I., AT! -■). II \ W.\ ! i .\ \ !;| ;,-|

J. \V{iii.l«-riHjr Tattlrr | I'lili) (Hi.-lrni-
.hxt* infvitli,iini). ;'.. J I jiwaiia n (i«><,«. IX.

■titi* mvtums). 11. lhiw:iiiaii I >ut-k | Iv>'
it,. I iSwfaii *ihi,lr;<";n(i.s). 4. Hawaii

324 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

men! Had not this bird, without a chart or compass, started from a given
point in the very middle of the Pacific Ocean, and made a cruise extending
over several months, and at least 6000 miles of trackless water, returned again,
arriving by night at the very point of starting! Certainly old "Stump-leg"
was an able seaman and a master navigator.

But this remarkable record does not stop with the report of the single
trip. The log-book records that, for five years, each fall this bird returned to
Laysan, arriving each year at almost the same date and departing in the
spring with equal punctuality for parts unknown. But, at last, "Stump-leg"
failed to return. Whether he was killed by hunters in Alaska or gave out on
the weary and dangerous journey, or lost his bearing and went down strug-
gling against fate, or died a natural death, will never be known; but certain
it is that his voyage to and from Laysan Island and the records made of them
constitute a most interesting and valuable incident, throwing much light on
the unerring accuracy of the mysterious instinct which, doubtless through hun-
dreds and perhaps thousands of generations has served to guide our feathered
friends in their migrations to and from Hawaii.

It requires but a few weeks in the islands before the plover are all in
good condition, and long before they leave for the north the following spring
they are plump and heavy with fat. When in that condition everyone knows
that the plover is a toothsome morsel. In the old days it was much prized as
food by the natives of Hawaii, who exhibited great skill in the capture of the
wild birds. So skillful were they in imitating the plover's peculiar whistle
that they were often able to lure the birds close enough to the hunter to
enable him to pelt them with stones. Another less sportsmanlike method was
to bait a fish line with a tempting worm. The bait was placed along the beach
at a promising spot and the birds called to partake of it.

It was customary to cook the kolea (plover) and, indeed, any of the game
birds, by filling the body cavity with a smooth hot stone, that was especially
suited to the purpose. The bird, stone and all, was then wrapped up in a
neat package of ti leaves and sufficient time allowed for the heat from the
stone to accomplish the desired result.

The Turnstone, Sanderling, Tattler and Curlew.

Like the foregoing species, the turnstone,2 the sanderling 3 and the tattler 4
arrive in Hawaii late in August or September and leave the following April
by thousands. However, there are usually a few individuals of each species
that fail to leave for the north. An examination of the summer birds proves
them to be birds that are young and barren or too weak to undertake the long
flight.

Of the remainder of Hawaii's migratory wading birds it is only necessary
here to mention the bristle-thighed curlew,5 as such other species as occasion-
ally occur are rarely if ever seen by the ordinary observer.

2 Arenaria inter pres. s Calidris arenaria. 4 Heteraetitis incanus, 5 Numenius tahitiensis.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 325

The curlew is by no means abundant on the large islands, but on the low-
lying islands to the northwest they are fairly common. The curlew are much
larger birds than the plover, and are such conspicuous objects when they do
visit the inhabited islands that the securing of a specimen is always a real
event. This fine game bird is easily recognized, as it is the only shore bird
that has a bill about three inches in length that is slightly curved downward.
It derives its common name from the peculiar feathers of the thighs, which
terminate in long bristle-like points. It is of interest to know that this species
visits the sea-coast of almost all of the hundreds of islands in the Pacific ocean
at all seasons, but curiously enough no one has ever found its nest and eggs on
any of them.

The Hawaiian Stilt.

A bird that is occasionally seen along the sea-coast or about the salt-water
marshes is the peculiar Hawaiian stilt.0 Its long neck, black back, white
breast and unusualy long pink legs make it a conspicuous and interesting
object. Unlike any of the foregoing, it is a resident of the islands throughout
the year. Its ancestors, doubtless, long ago gave up the habit of making the
useless journey away over the ocean every summer to rear their young. The
Hawaiian stilt, therefore, is found nowhere else in the world. As it is rare
even in Hawaii it is an interesting bird, since it has doubtless come to differ
from its near relatives by reason of the fact that it has long been isolated from
others of its kind.

Black-Crowned Night Heron.

No one who visits the sea-shore at sundown or is abroad at sunrise will fail
to see the long-] egged, black-crowned night heron,7 as it flies from its home in
the valleys to its fishing grounds on the tide-flats or along the mullet-pond
walls. While this heron lives throughout the year in the islands, it has not
been long enough cut off from the rest of its relatives to become a distinct
species, as it is still impossible to distinguish it from specimens of the same
heron collected in America.

They feed almost entirely on fish, the mullet being a favorite with them.
In certain localities they levy a considerable toll on the mullet ponds in the
vicinity of their rookeries. They secure their food along the sea-shore, mostly
at night, and retire during the daytime to the thick woods in the mountain
valleys, where they nest in colonies. Their nests are bulky affairs made of
sticks, and often are two feet in diameter. Sometimes a dozen nests will be
found in a single tree. The eggs, which are pale blue in color, are as large as
small hen eggs.

The old birds, with their long necks and legs, are very picturesque as they
crouch in the treetops or wing their heavy flight about the valleys. The black
back and black crown are in contrast with the fine bluish-gray color of the body

6 Himantopus knudseni. 7 Nyeticorax nycticorax naevius.

326 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

and wings, all of which are marks of maturity. The male during the mating*
season is designated from the female by a pair of long white streamers
that curve gracefully down from the back of the head. The young birds are
always spotted and mottled in various shades of brown, buff and white, and are
so different in appearance in this immature plumage that the Hawaiians, even
though they were very close observers, gave to the old and young aukuu dif-
ferent names.

The Coot and Gallinule.

The Hawaiian coot s is almost as large as a small fowl. It is seldom seen
except in the fresh-water ponds, and brackish and fresh-water marshes. This
curious bird and its cousin the Hawaiian gallinule,9 a bird that in size and
general habits it resembles very much, are Hawaiian species that have near
relatives on the mainland from which they differ but slightly. The coot is a
dark slaty-gray color, and is peculiar in that its toes, instead of being
webbecl as they are on a duck's foot, are provided with conspicuous lateral
lobes or flaps which enable it to swim writh great speed and to dive almost at
the flash of a gun. The upper bill has a curious large white shield over its
base. This white shield and the lobed feet help the beginner to identify the
bird and prevent it being mistaken for the gallinule. The latter has the frontal
shield, a vermillion red, and the toes are without the curious lobes. Both
species build their nest of dead rushes and grasses, placing them in the swamp
near their favorite haunts.

The Legend of Maui and the Alae.

The Hawaiians have a very interesting story that seeks to explain how
the alae or gallinule acquired the red spot on its forehead. According to the
legend, the great Maui, who dwelt in the islands before the process of making
fire was invented, had four sons, who were fishermen. Each morning at sun-
rise they would take their canoes and go offshore to a favorite fishing ground.
One morning they espied a fire on shore and, being desirous of having their
food cooked, rowed to the spot where the fire had been seen, but lo ! no fire
could they find. The next day they repeated the experience and were again
disappointed. After repeated failures they resorted to strategy. Dressing up
a huge gourd to resemble a man, they placed the dummy in the boat as a
substitute for one of the four fishermen, and sent the canoe out to fish as usual.

The man on shore crept close to where the fire had been located and
waited patiently. To his surprise he found it was the alae that had guarded
the secret of the fire so well.

Knowing Maui had but four sons, this cautious bird had waited each time
until they were all away fishing before it dared to light the fire, and keeping a
sharp watch it scratched it out again when they started home with their boat.
This time the dummy in the boat had fooled the bird. At the proper moment

8 Fulica alai. & Gallinula sandvieensis.

"*mm;mi*M

. W--

6

tailr.l KIn'Ml-Wi)

IX INTKWKSTINn
mil i.hl-s in Av.-s Il:i

Htili | Kiiku
\"x|.?..;'|.','l «i«

IAWAIIAN P.ll-lPS.

•;iii-»sis.|
L». Il:iu:iii:iii H;uvk { l».| (thttr,, soli-

'.">. H;iw:iiijHi Rail IM.'.hoj (I'auniht

328 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the oft-defeated fisherman leaped from his hiding place and, seizing one of the
birds, threatened to kill it for hiding the secret of the fire from them. The
bird very ably argued that if it should be killed the secret of the art of
making fire would die with it. At last, just in time to save his neck and after
considerable parley and repeated attempts at evasion, the bird finally divulged
the ancient art of making fire by rubbing one dry stick on another. So exas-
perated had the son of Maui become before he succeeded in producing fire, for
he was told to rub together first one thing and then another, that at last he
rubbed the top of the bird's head until it was red with blood, and the red spot
has remained thereon to this day.

The Hawaiian Duck.

Although both the gallinule and the coot were eaten by the Hawaiians,
they were not so highly esteemed as was the Hawaiian duck,10 a small species
that formerly was plentiful in the streams and marshes on all the large islands.
Of recent years they have become very rare except on the Island of Kauai. It
is thought that the mongoose, together with the sportsman, have brought
about this unfortunate state of affairs, since this species is peculiar to these
islands. As a matter of fact, such foreign ducks as the shoveler,11 with its
spade-like bill, and the pintail,12 with its sharp-pointed tail, and other less
common species that visit the islands each winter, coming down from the
northwest coast, are now much more liable to be shot in the group, during the
open season, than is the native Hawaiian species. As with the shore birds,
there are other species of ducks, and occasionally even geese, that from time to
time wander from Alaska on their migrations; but their occurrence is scarcely
ever observed by other than the professional sportsman.

CHAPTER XXV.
BIRDS OF THE MOUNTAIN FORESTS.

With the shore, the marsh and the ocean birds considered in other chap-
ters, we come now to the peculiar and therefore more interesting part of the
Hawaiian bird fauna, namely, that which is at home in the mountain forests.
The exploration of these almost impenetrable, dense, moist, often cloud-swept
jungle-like forests is by no means an easy task ; but in order to see the
Hawaiian birds outside of a museum collection, it is necessary to explore them,
since it is there alone that the curious forms of bird life for which Hawaii is
noted are found.

Unfortunately, many of the more interesting forms are either extinct or
so rare that they are no longer to be seen alive. Of the forms that still exist,
a few species are sufficiently abundant and conspicuous in song and color to give
an interesting touch of life to the forest that adds not a little to the pleasure of
a holiday spent in the mountains.

10 Anas wyvilliana. 1X Spatula clypeata. 12 Dafida acuta.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 329

The Elepaio.

A list of fifty -six species of living and extinct passerine birds are all that
has been known to exist in the forests of the inhabited islands of the group.
This small list must be further reduced by sixteen species which are now
regarded by ornithologist as extinct. Of the remaining forty species, which
are about equally distributed among the six islands, there are none better
known or more commonly met with than the Hawaiian flycatcher, or elepaio of
the natives.

Kauai, Oahu and Hawaii still have living species of this fearless little
brown bird that on each island can be recognized at once by its pert air and
the saucy cock of its fan-shaped tail. They are common on the mountainside
all the way from the sea to well up into the higher levels. When hidden in
the forests they are easily identified by their curious, loud, clear, insistant
call — "elepaio," which is varied by a kissing noise as well as by a number of
other whistled notes and calls.

The elepaio x is one of the best known of any of the Hawaiian birds. Its
nest is a beautiful little structure about two and a half inches in diameter, that
in appearance is not unlike that of the humming-bird. It is composed of very
fine grass, mosses and lichens, and is placed in the fork of a tree, usually but a
few feet from the ground. While the elepaio is a bird famous in song and
story on all of the islands, and according to David Malo was formerly used for
food, it seems not to have been seriously reduced in numbers and still remains
the most abundant Hawaiian species.

The Apapane and Iiwi.

The species most commonly noted by strangers, however, is the beautiful
dark blood-red bird, the apapane 2 of the natives. It is about five and a
quarter inches in length and can readily be distinguished from the beautiful
scarlet iiwi,3 which is a slightly larger and more brilliant bird, with the bill
and feet vermilion or at least not black, as is the case with the apapane.

Both these species of red birds occur in the forest on all the larger inhab-
ited islands in favorable localities from near the sea-shore to the upper limit
of the large forest trees, but they are most abundant at from two to four thou-
sand feet elevation. Both are equally fond of nectar, and both frequent the
flowering ohia trees. The two species are perhaps the most easily observed by
visitors in the vicinity of the Volcano House on Hawaii, where the pleasant
though somewhat monotonous song of the apapane can be heard from early
until late.

Amakihi

All the larger islands are inhabited by a small green-and-yellow or olive-
green bird4 with a curved beak, known as the amakihi. While thev differ

1 Chamempis gayi = Oahu, C. sclateri = Kauai, C. sandricensis — Hawaii.

2 Himatiorie sanguinea . 3 Vestiaria coccinea. 4 Chlorodrepanis sx>p.

22

i s

l-I.A'I'l-i *-, SOAI

•: M»Mi \ilii\n

K UAVxAllA.S 1H,,\>

i. Yi'lluw-tu

{Mohn ai>h',ili.x): i);ilm ^xtinH

:\. Piiaiohi (Vhirantis jmhnrri): K:

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 331

slightly in size and color from island to island, they all belong to one genus
and are easily recognized as one of the most common and widely distributed
species. They are nectar-feeding species and are frequently seen in company with
the red species just mentioned. They are also fond of insects and spend much
of their time searching through the foliage. The call note of the amakihi is
a sweetly- whistled "tsweet, " which is easily imitated. Their song is a short
trill, and when it is at its fullest is loud and penetrating but not very musical.
All of these birds (as, indeed, are all of the birds belonging to the family
Drepanididcc) are characterized by a very strongly-marked and peculiar odor.
This goat-like scent is so peculiar and persistent in this family of birds that
often after they have left the spot the air retains a musk-like smell. The nest
of the amakihi is a simple structure of twigs, leaves and roots and is usually,
though not always, near the ground.

The Genus Oreomystis.

There is a small olive-green bird occurring on Hawaii, belonging to an
entirely different genus 5 that is so similar in appearance to the species of
amakihi found in the group that the Ilawaiians themselves did not give it a
separate name. Several species on the other islands, howrever, are easily
recognized, the adult males especially differing greatly in color, voice, habits
and general appearance from the species of amakihi to be found on the respec-
tive islands.

The difference between the two genera which would serve to most readily
distinguish them in the field, is that instead of feeding almost entirely on
insects and nectar from the flowers and leaves, as is the habit of the amakihi,
all of the species of Oreomystis feed in a large part on insects secured from the
trunks and limbs of the forest trees and bushes. They are all expert climbers,
working either upward or downward and along the upper and under side of
the horizontal branches. The difference in color of the species on the dif-
ferent islands is a most remarkable feature, since gray-green, olive-green,
yellow-olive, yellow and bright red species occur.

Thrush and Finch-like Birds.
The five genera mentioned above are represented on all of the large
islands by one species or another. A large brown thrush-like bird 6 that is a
remarkable songster, and the stocky, olive-green yellow-headed ou 7 are the
two species that are next in abundance. Their representatives on Oahu have
been extinct for many years, but on one or the other of the islands one or both are
occasionally seen by the casual observer about camps and mountain houses.

5 Oreomystis. a Phceornis spp. 7 Psittadrostra psittaeea.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)
(Ciridops anna) : Hawaii. 5. Kona Thick-bill (Chloridops hona) : Hawaii. 6. Nukupuu
( Heter orhynchus hanapepe) : Kauai. 7. O-o (Moho nobilis) : Hawaii. 8. Maui Parrot-bill
(Pseudonestor xanthophrys) : Maui. 9. Heterorhynchus lucidus: Oahu — extinct. 10. Akialoa
(Hemignathus obscurus) : Hawaii. 11. Palmeria dolei: Maui, Molokai, a very rare species.
12. Molokai o-o (Moho bishopi) : Molokai, very rare.

)MK HARK AM> KXTIXiT IUHf>S nF TIIK MOT XT A IX FoRKH'O

1. Viri.Ioiim il-irid,,,
Vhm ft, ,,<,;■„*)•. M..loks,i.

viiii. l\ Black M:ini.» {H.»i | (}»,', i„j„r,rha

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 333

Still rarer are the various species of the genus Loxops or the akepa, which
are foxy-red or orange color, according to the age and the species of the bird.
As they feed chiefly upon the insects secured from the foliage of the trees, they
are very active little creatures; they resemble the olive-green amakihi in
habits, and although possessed of a short finch-like bill, they may readily be
mistaken in the treetops for their cousins with the slender curved beaks. The
striking peculiarity of all the species, howrever, is that the beak is not sym-
metrical. The tips of the mandibles cross each other in much the same
fashion as that of the common "crossbill" finches elsewhere.

The remaining species are too rare to be met with, except by the merest
chance, by any one save a professional ornithologist, and even then the enthu-
siast is often forced to remain for weeks in the wildest mountain forests before
even hearing the voice of the species sought, and more times than not the
whole effort to see or secure a specimen results in the most depressing disap-
pointment.

Rare and Extinct Birds.

Of the species that have been known to inhabit the islands in times past, no
fewer than twenty are now so rare in collections, and for years have been so
scarce in the mountains, as to entitle them to have their names entered on the
list of species no longer in existence, or at least bordering on extinction. The
Island of Oahu can make the melancholy boast that it has a greater list of
extinct birds, in proportion to the total number of species known from the
island, than any other like area in the world. On Hawaii the moho 8 has been
extinct for years, having been exterminated, it is thought, by the domestic
cats that long ago ran wild. As it was a small flightless rail resembling its
cousin on Laysan, it is doubtful if it would have been able to survive the
inroad of the more recently introduced mongoose, which has been everywhere
merciless in its attack on ground-nesting birds.

The fine black mamo ° was brought to the verge of extinction by the Ila-
wTaiians years ago. From its rump the natives secured the rich golden-yellow
feathers used in the making of their feather cloaks, helmets and leis.

The o-o 1() likewise was driven to the verge of extinction for similar rea-
sons. When the mamo became rare the natives began to substitute the yellow
feathers growing under the wings of the o-o for the rump feathers of the
former. Though they were not so rich in color, they made acceptable sub-
stitutes, and as a result these beautiful birds are now practically all gone on
Hawaii, while on Molokai and Kauai the two species belonging to the same

8 Pennula ecaudata. 8 Dreprnis pacified. 10 31 oho nohilex.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

4. Maui Amakihi (Clilorodre pants wilsoni) : Maui. 5. Hawaii Half -bill (Heterorhynchus wil-
soni) : Hawaii. 6. Mamo (Drepanis pacifica) : Hawaii, extinct. 7. Alauhiio (Oreomystis
montana) : Lanai. 8. Chcetoptila angustipluma: Hawaii, extinct. 9. Loxops nifa: Oahu, ex-
tinct. 10. Loxops ochracea,: Maui, becoming quite rare. 11. Oreomystis maculata: Oahu.
12. Bhodacanthis palmeri: Hawaii, very rare.

^f X l-WM IU AW \l< H'X I'Ai X lill.'l

A, a,.:,.- .•//.•„.•„.',.,.,. „
M.M.ii. «'>. ll;i\wm:in T!

liisll'l.i]! , //.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 335

genus are rapidly dying out, apparently of their own accord, or at least from
other unassignable causes. The Oahu species11 has long been extinct.

Hawaiian Duck and Goose.

The Hawaiian duck,12 the galleiiule and the coot are diminishing in num-
bers on all the islands where the mongoose is found; while the puffin, the
petrel and the native goose 13 are all subject to its toll.

All of these birds are becoming extinct from known causes, but there are
species which have died out for no assignable reason. The splendid Chaetoptila
angustipluma of Hawaii is a case in point. Though it was rare when first dis-
covered by naturalists, it has not been seen in the forests from that day to the
present.

Likewise, there seems to be no adequate explanation for the extinction of
at least five of the six species that are now known from only a few museum
specimens collected by early naturalists, as only one of the extinct species,
namely, the Oahu mamo, was ever killed by the natives for their feathers.
Although numerous theories have been advanced, the cause of their extermination
will doubtless ever remain one of nature's own secrets.

In considering the future of the Hawaiian birds, especially those that
have been rare or very limited in their distribution, we must remember that
the forest areas are diminishing owing to the devastation of animals, the ax
and the settler, and that in consequence the birds are constantly being brought
into sharper competition among themselves and into a struggle with a different
if not a new environment.

Already several species that a decade ago were regarded as fairly common
in certain localites have disappeared from them entirely, while others are only
found after long and diligent search.

Hawaiian Crow.

An interesting phase of Hawaiian bird life is shown by the native Ha-
waiian crow.14 It occurs on a certain portion of one island only, and there
over an area from wmich it never seems to attempt to pass. Having originally
gained a foothold in the Kona and Kau districts of Hawaii, the bird seems to
be unwilling to extend its range to the windward forests that adjoin is hab-
itat, even though they are known to abound in suitable food.

The Viridonia15 is a handsome olive-green bird which furnishes a still
more remarkable instance of a restricted habitat. This, one of the rarest of
Hawaiian birds, is only found on Hawaii, and there it is confined to an area
of a few square miles and is absolutely unknown outside this little valley
region, where it was so rare as to be unknown to the native inhabitants.

The Black Mamo.

The hoi or black mamo10 is confined to the Island of Molokai. There it

11 Moho apicalis. 12 Anas wyvilliana. 13 Nesochen sandricensis. 14 Corvus hawaiiensis.

15 V, sagittirostris. 16 Drevanorhampus funerea.

336 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

finds forest conditions that are suitable to its habits over only a very limited
portion of the mountain area of the island. While it is an active, energetic
bird, it has apparently never attempted to cross the channels to the nearby
island of Maui. For a hundred years at least it has been a rare bird on Molo-
kai, so rare, indeed, that in 1907 the writer secured but three specimens as a
reward for seven weeks spent in the mountains in a search devoted to locating
this interesting- and curious species.

Still another interesing example of limited distribution among Hawaiian
birds is that of the nene or Hawaiian goose, which is confined to the Island of
Hawaii, where it leads a life of seclusion, high up on the mountainside, seldom
if ever descending to the sea level. The Hawaiian duck is more widely dis-
tributed, having occurred in considerable numbers on all islands of the group.
Unfortunately, since the introduction of the mongoose it has been quite rare
except on Kauai, where the mongoose has never been liberated.

A Native Hawk and Owl.

The Hawaiian hawk or io17 occurs only on Hawaii, where it is still fairly
common. The Hawaiian owl18 occurs on all the large islands. It is quite
closely related to the short-eared owl, common on the American continent.
Since it differs from the American species only in minor details, it is re-
garded as an island form of that species which has been reduced in size through
isolation. Like the coot and mud-hen, it is one of the more recent arrivals that
have made the islands their home long enough to allow the principles of evolu-
tion, especially those involved in isolation, to produce slight, though easily
recognizable, changes in the appearance of the species. Though the natural
history of the Hawaiian birds is of much general interest, it will be seen that
the subject of the evolution of the various species presents material for con-
sideration that is of deep and absorbing interest to all.

The Family Drepanidid/e.

The family Drcpanididce, which includes the majority of the song birds
of Hawaii, is perhaps the most remarkable example of the evolution of a group
of birds to be found anywhere. The family which is peculiar to the islands,
includes about forty species that are found nowhere else in the world. While
they are all much alike in their general structure, they differ amazingly in the
form of bill and also exhibit striking differences in the color of the plumage.
In almost all other families the form of the bill is quite uniform among the
species that belong to it. That organ usually bears a close connection with
the feeding habits of the group, and these are usually very nearly the same
for all the species in the family. But among the Drepanididm of Hawaii we
find them fitted by their structure to almost every kind of life for which a
song bird in the tropics can become adapted. This adaptation of the bill has

17 Buteo solitarius. 18 Asia accipitrinus sandvicenHs.

>.MM<).\ HAWAIIAN lill.'!^

1, ll:nv;iii K I

ni.-ii. I. Akiki

338 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

led to some most remarkable changes. From the firm, straight bill of the
genus Oreomystis— the genus supposed to most closely conform with the an-
cestral form which may have come from America in very remote time, and the
form from which all other genera of the family are supposed to have evolved —
we have widely different types of bills developed.

In one branch of the family the bill passes through several genera, each
slightly modified, until the normal straight bill becomes an unusual one, very
long and slender and singularly curved, with a tubular tongue, especially
adapted to securing the nectar from long tubular flowers. The opposite branch
leads off by gradual degrees to where a short thick bill of astonishing strength
terminates the line of evolution in Chloridops kona — a grossbeak-like bird that
confines its food habits to cracking the flint-like seeds of the bastard sandal-
wood. Between the long, slender, curved honey-eater beak and the heavy finch-
like beak are all manner of special forms. In one the bill is parrot-like; in
another it is suited to a fruit diet, so that many forms of bill occur.

Hawaiian Birds Becoming Extinct.

With the high specialization of the bill these birds have lost their
power of adaptation. As most species are confined to but a single island, and
in some cases to a single district, and there to a single species of tree, we can
see how difficult it would be for them to adjust themselves to any sudden
change in their environment after they had gradually become fitted through
countless centuries for the conditions that existed in any particular locality.
Developed under conditions most unusual and peculiar — each within its own
chosen and restricted sphere — change of any sort, and competition however
slight, is likely to find them unprepared to compete, though some species are
better endowed to take part in the struggle than are the majority. In the
light of their own past history, the,y seem strangely susceptible to any change
that may occur. When the few remaining species are gone there will be left be-
hind them, as tokens of their existence, only a few dried skins in the museums of
the world and a few meager pages in such books as this, telling too little of their
life history and habits.

CHAPTER XXVI.

HAWAIIAN FISHES: PART ONE.

The waters of Hawaii have long been celebrated for their fishes of many
peculiar habits and characteristics, odd shapes, and remarkable size and color.
As a result, so much has been written in a popular and scientific way con-
cerning them that they are perhaps better known than any other form of life
about the islands.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 339

Fishing in Former Times.

Doubtless fish have always been one of the chief articles of animal food for
the natives, and a visit to the busy markets will not only repay one for the
trouble, but convince him that the business of fishing still constitutes one of
Hawaii's important industries. The name i'a was given by the Hawaiians to
all food products secured from the sea, "whether they moved or not.'7 But
for our purpose we will speak only of the fishes, reserving the many other
interesting forms for discussion in other chapters.

As has been said in the account of the people, fishing in former times was
associated with much religious ceremony and idol worship. Altars and heiaus,
especially devoted to the needs of the fishing class, were very common. The
fish gods, more numerous than the heiaus, were faithfully worshipped by the
fishing class and their every tabu and requirement most studiously observed.
Before the fishermen would go out on their expeditions, everything that could
be done to placate the gods would be carried out by the devout.

However, we are told that in those days, as in these, there was a certain
class, more skeptical than the rest, who went fishing whenever they chose to do
so, without observing any religious ceremonies whatever.

Fishing Equipment of the Ancient Hawaiians.

There was a great variety of implements and apparatus employed by the
fishermen, and their description and enumeration seems hardly necessary
here; but it is of interest to know that they had devices for capturing every
kind of creature inhabiting the waters about the islands, with the single exception
of the whale.

The canoe was, of course, the most important part of the equipment of a
fisherman. These were almost invariably made of koa. Many of the older
ones were fashioned from huge trees, so large, indeed, that the finished canoes
were often from thirty to sixty feet in length. A canoe to seat three fisher-
men would be about thirty-three feet long, while a single-seated one was
usually eighteen feet long by seventeen inches wide. Some of the canoes used
sails, but as a general rule the paddle was the only motive power.

The seines were the most important part of the fisherman's outfit.
These were frequently two or three hundred feet in length, and in certain
cases they occasionally joined the long ones together. Their seines for catch-
ing bait were much smaller, usually only a few yards in length, with mesh as
fine as quarter inch. Gill nets of different sizes and designs were also much
used. They wrere used mostly at night and were commonly set across open-
ings in the reef. Frequently these nets were laid out so as to enclose a large
coral rock. The native fisherman would then dive down and drive the fish from
the rock.

Another method sometimes used by the natives was to join several seines
together and then paddle out to sea in a semicircle, paying out the seine as
they went. The net would then be hauled in to shore and the last few yards

im.ati-: >

».vi. ;;. M;ick.<ivl shrirk , />.•

I.M.'KS AND 1,'AYS

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 341

of fine net brought together in a circular form. When advisable the fish thus
caught might be left in the seine trap in the water for several days. Certain
species of fish that run in school, as the akule, can be seen a considerable
distance at sea. It is the practice among native fishermen to post one of
their number on the land at an elevation from which their practiced eyes can
locate the school of fish as it approaches the shore. In directing the opera-
tions of the fishermen from the shore, the lookout uses a white flag and
observes considerable superstitious ceremony in his work.

Several forms of bag nets have been employed by the Hawaiians, some
of them more than two hundred fathoms in length. The usually have de-
tachable bags in the middle often thirty feet long by half as many feet in
width. These were used in water twenty feet or more in depth. The
opelu or bag nets are commonly about a dozen feet across by three times
as deep, and have a hoop fastened in the mouth to keep the net open. In use
they are baited and lowered, and then at the proper moment rapidly hauled
in. Several ingenious nets are used in capturing various species of fish — the
upena helm, upena pua, kapuni nehu, upena uhu and the upena poo being
important among them.

Several forms of dip nets were also devised by the Hawaiians. One was
formed by tying two slender parallel sticks to a fine net about five feet apart.
By running a string through the lower end and shirring it through the net,
a rude bag was formed that was used in shallow water and for fishing in
rough, stony places.

The Hawaiians seem to have used but few fish baskets, the two kinds used
in catching the shrimp * being the most important forms.

Several species of fish were taken in fish-traps or pens. The group of
shark pens removed from Pearl Harbor when the channel was dredged were
among the best examples in the islands. They were so arranged that the fish,
which enter them freely at high water, are caught as the water recedes, by
means of a small seine.

Fish spearing was an art with the old Hawaiians, and they were very
adept in the use of the weapon, which consisted usually of a long hard-
wood pole six or eight feet in length, ending in ancient times with one or two
sharp wooden prongs, but in modern times, with a thin rod of iron, a foot or so
in length, that is slightly barbed at the tip. This implement was only used in
shallow water about the reef, where it might be employetl in spearing squid,
turtles, and other slow-moving surface-swimming forms. In the hands of an
expert diver, however, it might be carried down into the water several feet and
used with effect in caves and holes about the reef.

Fish Poison.

The natives wrere expert in making and using a certain fish poison known
as holahola. A poisonous weed 2 which grows on the mountainside was col-

1 Opae. 2 Ahiihu.

342 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

lected and pounded together with sand. The sand was used to make the
mixture sink more readily to the bottom. With a quantity of this poison in
the canoe the fisherman wrould search out a tide pool, cave?, or hole in the reef
inhabited by a number of species of fish. A long seine was first put out in
a circle about the spot to prevent the fish from escaping. The poison mixture
was then rolled in small packages or placed in a bag and carried down to the
bottom by the fisherman in order to distribute it about to advantage in the
holes in the rock. In ten or fifteen minutes the fish would come to the top in a
stupefied condition, when they were easily gathered from the surface of the
water. If allowed to remain too long in the wTater they wrould recover from the
effects of the drug. When used as food they seem to be in no way injured by
the poison used in their capture.

Fishing at Night.

A very picturesque method of fishing, much employed in former times by
the natives, was by the light of the torch. At favorable seasons dozens of
fishermen could be seen, each with a lighted fagot in one hand made of a
bundle of ti leaves or a string of kukui nuts wrapped around with ti leaves
to make a handle, and in the other a small net or spear. As the men and
women waded about over the reef, the reflection in the shallowT water from
the flickering lights, together with the shadowy outline of the natives, their
excited voices and weird, fantastic movements produced an impression on the
mind of the spectator that time could not readily efface.

A method of fishing with a snare was perhaps peculiar to the Hawaiian
Islands. This method was much employed in fishing for eel. It consisted in
throwing the bait near a hole. In this way these greedy and unsuspecting
animals were enticed through a wide noose which, attached through a loop,
dangled from the end of a heavy pole. When the critical moment arrived the
noose wras hauled taut about the eel, and up snug against the end of the pole,
by drawdng in on the end of the line which passed along the pole to the hand.

Fishing with the hands was a common practice among the natives, but line
fishing was more extensively followed and in general yielded better returns.
Ingenious fishhooks made of mother-of-pearl shells were much used, though
bone, ivory and tortoise-shell found an important place in the manufacture of
these useful implements.

Fish Bait.

The selection of a suitable bait was by no means a simple task. While the
live shrimp or opae w^as very frequently used, Mr. Joseph S. Emerson collected
a list of no fewer than twenty-two compounded baits that were built up on a
single base material. It is estimated that there were probably more than a
hundred kinds of bait known to the skilled fisherman in ancient times in
Hawraii. For line fishing, however, the live bait was preferred, and they had a
method for catching the daily supply that wall bear repeating among Hawaiian

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 343

fishermen of today. One man with a small calabash of dried shrimp was left on
shore while the rest of the party took a seine with very fine mesh and paddled
their canoes out a few yards from the shore. The man with the bait then
walked along the beach a short distance, and after chewing up a few shrimp,
would select a promising place and throw the morsal as far out to sea as possible.
If small fish come up immediately the net was cast about the spot and a draw
made in which all hands participated. If the bait was unmolested new bait was
prepared and thrown out as before at what appeared to be a more favorable place.
By this little trick, the fisherman was saved not only the time employed in mak-
ing unprofitable hauls, but the chagrin of finding nothing, not even bait in his
net, when it was landed.

Shark Fishing in Ancient Times.

In the capture of shark the ancient Hawaiians, especially the chiefs and
alii, found much sport — and since the use of human flesh as bait was in great
vogue among them, the method then employed is of more than ordinary
interest to us ; of course, the flesh of other animals has been substituted in these
latter days.

The human body used was usually that of a slave, or at least some one out
of standing with the royal fishermen. The person to serve as bait was killed
two or three days in advance of the anticipated fishing expedition. The flesh
of the victim was then cut up, placed in a container and left exposed to the air
to decompose.

With the bait loaded on the outrigger of the canoe in such a manner as
to admit of its leaving a dripping trail of blood and oil on the surface of the
water, the fishing party would row their canoes out to where sharks were
plentiful. Large bone or wooden hooks, some of them a foot long, were
baited with the tempting morsels and lowered to the eager prey. Great skill
and courage was shown by the members of the royal party on such occasions
in roping and landing the captured shark.

Every part of the bone and skin of one of these savage animals was sup-
posed to confer unflinching bravery on its possessor. For this reason Kame-
hameha I. was especially proud and jealous of his title as the great shark-fisher.
He kept his victims penned up near the great heiau 3 of Mookini, near Ka-
waihae, Hawaii, so there was always a supply of bait on hand.

In the olden times the capture of a shark was really a great event, but it
has been more than one hundred years since the last human being was made to
figure in the preliminary plans of a day's aquatic sport. However, shark fish-
ing is indulged in as a sport today, but the motor boat, the flesh of a horse for
bait, and the use of rifles has done much to dull the heroic setting shark fish-
ing must have had in days that are gone.

While the Hawaiians recognized but five species of sharks and gave to

3 Temple.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 345

each a characteristic name, there are as many as sixteen species belonging to
a dozen genera that have been taken by scientific fishermen from the waters
about the islands.

Man-Eater Sharks.

Of this number the larger species are usually spoken of as man-eater
sharks, or tiger sharks. The real man-eater is a great white shark sometimes
thirty feet in length. It is by all odds the most ferocious of all fish-like
animals. Specimens have been taken in Europe, Japan, California, Hawaii
and the Carolinas indicating that they encircle the globe. While but one species
of this genus,4 known as nuihi by the natives, is alive today, the teeth and
certain other bones of extinct species that lived in former times, have been
dredged from the sea bottom in the Mid-Pacific. Some of the other living
species are really quite voracious, but that they are really man-eaters in the
sense of pursuing, capturing and devouring the living body of a man is doubted
by those who have given time and attention to the verification of the various
shark stories that are current in Hawaii, as well as in all seaport towns.

Sharks with mouths twenty inches across, that are crammed with trian-
gular teeth an inch or more in length, are not uncommonly captured about
the islands. Since the number and size of the teeth is said to be directly in
proportion to the ferocity of the shark, the larger species are to be studiously
avoided, be they living or dead, even though we are continually reassured that
they are not dangerous — as an incident taken from my note-book will dem-
onstrate.

Several years ago I was on board a four-masted sailing vessel bound for
Laysan Island, when our good ship became hopelessly becalmed. We had on
board a party of Japanese laborers to be employed in the guano business
on the island. To pass the time, and in response to an ancient and honorable
superstition of the sea, all hands fell to fishing for sharks — since, as everyone
who has sailed with canvas knows, the catching of a shark by a becalmed
mariner has never failed to bring a fair wind. As all winds that blow for
becalmed seamen are classed as fair, we were not surprised, within an hour
after our crew had succeeded in hooking and loading an eight-foot shark, to
find our vessel under headway again. As the Japanese are fond of shark stew,
they were granted permission to make an open fire on deck and dress and cook
the slimy savage token of our good luck.

An hour later one of the laborers commenced to clean the deck of the blood

* Carcharodon carcharias.

Description of Plate.

1. Shark fishing as practiced for the sport of the chase. 2. Catching skip-jacks [Aku]
or Ocean Boneto from the jib-boom of a sailing vessel. 3. Five minutes' catch from the jib-
boom. 4. Hawaiian spearing fish with a double pronged spear [kao]. 5. Fisherman with a
throw net. 6. Man-eater Shark [Niuhu] (Carcharodon carcharias) captured off Pearl Harbor.
This shark is the most voracious of all the fishes. 7. Natives fishing at Kahana Bay with
long sea net [upena kuu]. 8. Large dip-net for reef fishing.

21

346 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

and offal left by the butchers. The ghastly head with its gaping mouth was first
to be dropped overboard. Thrusting one hand for want of a better hold into the
open mouth of the dead animal, the laborer slipped his other hand under the
head as it had been cut free from the body, when, without warning, the yawn-
ing mouth clapped shut in a death grip on the hand and wrist of the Japanese.
The suffering man was only extricated from the vice-like jaws by main
strength. One of his comrades seizing him, another the shark's head, his hand
was literally pulled, in a frightfully lacerated condition, from the dead animal 's
month. In spite of the fact that the animal's flesh had been boiling an hour,
and was ready to be served to the waiting company of Japanese, the muscles of
the jaws had responded to some stimulus that caused them to clamp the man's
hand.

Sometimes the natives hunt for sharks in pools and caves in the reef,
where they are occasionally found fast asleep. When a "shark hole" is lo-
cated a diver will go down and deftly slip a noose about the tail of a shark,
which is then hauled up and dispatched. Experts have captured six or eight
fair-sized sharks in a day in this manner.

The skin of sharks in the hands of the natives found its principal use in
the manufacture of heads for their hula drums, while the teeth and bones were
used as ornaments and implements. The flesh was generally eaten, but out
of respect to the great shark god it was tabu to women, who wrere forbidden
to partake of it under pain of death.

The Hammer-He ad Shark.

Among the various species of sharks the hammer-head,5 or mano kihikihi,
is perhaps most curious in its characteristics. It is a wide-ranging form
found from the Mediterranean to Cape Cod in the Atlantic, as well as at widely-
scattered localities in the Pacific, including Hawaii. The singular form of the
head is one of the most unusual modifications among fishes. Instead of retain-
ing the usual form, the front part of the head of these sharks is broad, flat-
tened and extended on each side into a process, on the flat terminal surfaces of
which are situated the eyes.

The Dogfish.

The Hawaiian dogfish,0 which is also found in Japan, is an active species
of the smaller sharks that may be identified by the stout spine in the dorsal
fins and by their sharp, squarish cutting teeth. In the Atlantic, dogfish are
sometimes captured in large numbers, their livers being used for the production
of shark-oil. In Hawaii shark-oil fishing has never been carried on to any
extent, though sharks are abundant in certain localities, and once or twice
vessels have been fitted out to engage in the trade.

The Mackerel Shark and 'Killer' Whale.
Mackerel-sharks seven to nine feet in length, which furnish the large

5 Sphyrna zygoma. • Squalus mitsukurii.

< THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 347

jaws commonly seen preserved as curiosities in Hawaii, and the thrasher-
sharks, are found about the group. The latter, sometimes attaining a length
of twenty feet, may be identified at once by the great length of its cycle-shaped
tail-fin. They are not especially ferocious, and the current stories of their
attacking whales doubtless arise from mistaking the Orca for this shark. The
Orca, or killer, is not a shark at all, but is a mammal belonging to the order of
whales and is allied to the porpoise. As a passenger between Honolulu and
San Francisco I once saw a number of them attack a school of whales.
From the deck of the steamer we could see them clinging with their strong
teeth about the heads and mouths of the great animals. The whales, panic-
stricken, would leap clear out of the water, producing a terrific splash in their
efforts to free themselves from their pursuers. Often they would roll over
and over in their frantic endeavors to escape. Occasionally they would dis-
lodge one of their tormentors, and it would be sent whirling through the air,
apparently enjoying the novel experience. As the battle was at close range
and lasted for a quarter of an hour or more, I was able to satisfy myself as to
the identity of the combatants.

Rays and Skates.

Three families of rays or skates are represented in Hawaii by five well-
defined species. Though differing widely from the sharks in form, they are
related to them, and belong to the same sub-class of the great group of fish-like
vertebrates. Three species of sting-rays have so far been taken from Ha-
waiian waters. These flat, disk-like animals have very long, slender, whip-
like tails that are without typical fins, but in lieu of fins the tail is pro-
vided with a strong, jagged spine covered with slime. The mouth is armed with
broad saw-like teeth. The spine inflicts a dangerous wound, not through the
presence of any specific venom, but from the danger of blood poison arising
from the slime and the ragged and unclean cut. Specimens six to eight feet
in length are not uncommon in Hawaii. They may be distinguished from the
eagle-rays or spotted sting-ray 7 by the fact that with the former the fin on the
side of the disk extends forward on both sides to form the tips of the snout,
while with the eagle-ray the muzzle is entire and free from the fin.

The Sea Devil.

The sea devil,8 or hihimanu of the natives, is even more terrible in ap-
pearance than the sharks and rays, and is characterized by resembling the
latter, but the anterior lobes of the pectoral fins are developed so as to stand
up like horns or ears on the head. They are by no means common about
Hawaii, and as all the members of the three families belonging to this order
are of little value as food, they are seldom seen at the markets in the islands.
They differ from the sharks in that they frequent the sea bottom, where they
feed principally on shell-fish, which they crush with their flat teeth.

r Stoasodon narinari. 8 Mobula japonica.

348 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

CHAPTER XXVII.
HAWAIIAN FISHES: PART TWO.

The scope of this brief account of the fishes of Hawaii will not permit of more
than passing notice of some of the more interesting, curious, valuable or
common species. It is left for those who are especially interested in the sub-
ject to either fish for themselves or to visit the Honolulu Aquarium, the mar-
ket, or the Bishop Museum, where extensive collections offer opportunity for
an exhaustive study.

Food Fish in the Markets.

Some idea of the fish resources of Hawaii can be gained from the fact that
of the six hundred or more species that scientists have found in the island
waters, more than three hundred and fifty are sold in the markets of Honolulu
for food, each species having a Hawaiian name by which it is usually desig-
nated. Often several dozen species may be seen in the market in a single day
— a fact which adds not a little to the confusion and difficulty of the inexperi-
enced person when attempting to select a choice specimen for table use from
the many fish of various sizes, shapes and colors.

Unfortunately, though the number of species to select from is very large,
(as is usual with animals in warm countries) the number of individuals of any
one species is not liable to be so plentiful in the trox>ics as in the colder cli-
mates. As a result fish are not as abundant nor as cheap in the markets as
one could wish, where sea food should form the basis of a wholesome and
cheap diet.

As many species run in schools and are liable at times to be very abun-
dant and cheap at certain seasons and entirely wanting at 'others, it behooves
the prudent housewife to be able to take advantage of bargains at the market
as well as in the shops and stores.

For the benefit of those who may care to vary their fish order for one
reason or another, the writer has secured, through the cooperation of a num-
ber of friends interested in the culinary side of the problem, the accompanying
list 1 of especially useful food fishes, all of which are worthy of trial in any
home. All of the long list of fish offered for sale are wholesome ; the brief list
appended serves simply as a suggestion and is offered with the view of encour-
aging readers to explore further on their own account. It will be noted that
twenty species are enumerated which are used by all nationalities, which
are regarded as the favorite fish of Europeans in the islands. Other columns
showr the various fishes used by the several principal nationalities visiting the
Honolulu market. As an aid in identifying the choicest food fish, fourteen
species are figured together on a single plate.

IMPORTANT HAWAIIAN FOOD FISH.

1 A list of sixty-five of the more important food fish found in the Honolulu market, showing the species
preferred by the various nationalities in the city is shown in the following table. The culinarv uses
made of twenty of the species most frequently purchased by Europeans is also shown, by the following
designation marks placed after the native name, i. e., * = baking; f = boiling: X = Pan fish-

(Continued on opposite page.)

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP.

349

IMPORTANT HAWAIIAN FOOD FISH (Se<> note on opposite page).

Native Name.

Scientific Name.

Ahaaha Tylosurus giganteus

Alii Germo germo

Aholehole Kuhlia malo

Aku Gymnosarda pelamis

Akule * f X Trachurops crumenopthalma

Aleihi lakea Pseudoch eilinus octotcenia

Ama-ama * f X Mugil cephalus X

A' a Xiphias gladius

x\wa Chanos chnnos

Aweoweo Priacanthus cruentatus

X

Hapu'u pu'u * f \ Epinephelus quernus

Hihimanu Mobula japonica

Hilu Anampses cuvier

Hinalea lauwili .Thalassoma duperrey

Humuhumu nukunuku apua'a. . . .Balistapus aculeatus

Iheihe Hemiramphus depauperatus .

Kahala * f X ■ Seriola purpurascens

Kaku Sphyrwna snodgrassi

Kala Acanthurus unicornis

Kawakawa Gymnosarda alletterata

Kawelea Trachinocephalus my ops . . .

Kikakapu Chcetodon lunula

Kumu * f X Pseudupeneus porphyreus . . .

Kupipi Abudefduf sordidus

Kupoupou Gheilio inermis

Lae t

Lauia +

Scomberoides tolooparah X

Catty odon lauia X

Mahihi * f X Goryphama hippurus X

Maii'i Hepatus elongatus

Makiawa Etrumeus micropus

( Parexocoetus brachypterus )

Malolo < Exocoetus volitans >

{ Cypsilurus simus )

Mamamo Monotaxis grandoculis

Manini X Hepatus sandvicensis X

Mano Squalus mitsukurii

Moi * f X Polydactylus sexfilis X

Mu Monotaxis grandoculis

Nehu

Anchovia purpurea.

X
X
X

Ohua Cantherines sandwichiensis ,

Oio Albula vulpes

Omaka Stethojulis axillaris

Omilu * f X Carangus melampygus

Ono Acanthocybium solan dri

Oopu X Eleotris sandwicensis

Oopuhue Chilomycterus a finis

Oopukai Cirrhitus marmoratus

n^nif^ni,„ * j. + / A p situs microdon

Opakapaka f } ^ Bowersia violescens

Opelu palahu X Scomber japonicus

Onelu Scomber

Opule Anampses cuvier

Pakii X Platophrys pantherinus X

Pakuikui Hepatus achilles

Palawi Hepatus dussumieri

Papiopio X Carangus (small size) X

Poopa'a Paracirrhites cinctus

Pualu Hepatus dussumieri

Puhi Gymnothorax (a generic name for eels) . . .

Puhiki'i Parexocoetus brachypterus

Uhu Catty odon mineatus

Uku * f X • ■ ■ • Aprion virescens . . X

Ulae Saurida gracilis

Ulaula * f X Etelis marshi X

Ulua * f X Carangus (large size) X

Ulua kihikihi Alectis ciliaris

U'u X Myripristis murdjan X

Walu Hepatus xanthopterus

Weke ula X Mulloides aurifiamma X

x

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X

X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

X

X

X

X

X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

X

X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X

X

X

X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

X

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X

PI. ATK ^. KKI.s \\h oTIICK ••ri.'inrsi.v slI.M'KD l-'lsllKs.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 351

Students of the subject of fish and fish culture tell us that there are now
known in the waters of the world more than ten thousand species of bony
fishes. These they have divided into about twenty orders, which are again
divided into numerous families, and still more numerous genera. Of the im-
portant genera, a surprising number are represented in the fish fauna of
Hawaii by one or more species.

Many of the six hundred or more species attributed to Hawaii are never
seen in the markets, since they dwell only in the dark abysses of the deep open
ocean, often miles below its surface. They are only captured by the use of
complicated apparatus operated at great expense by scientific men commissioned to
study the wonders of the great ocean, and who for their work must employ
specially equipped vessels, such as the United States Fish Commission ship
Albatross.

Then again, fish, like birds and plants and insects, have their peculiar
habitats, and require special conditions or certain kinds of food. Ais a result,
many of the common kinds are confined in very limited localities. Out of
over one hundred species of food fish that are regarded as abundant in Hawaii,
only five — the aku, oio, uku, ulaula and ulua — enter into the records as being
taken commercially by the fishermen on all of the large islands of the group.

Of the large number of species of fish sold in Honolulu, almost none are
the same species as are sold in the markets of the mainland or in foreign coun-
tries. This is because the fish fauna of Hawaii is isolated from that of other
lands. However, most of the common families of sea fish have local repre-
sentatives, some of them perhaps excelling in flavor the species with which
strangers from abroad are more familiar. While in general it may be said
that the fish fauna of Hawaii is in a large measure derived from the fauna of
the East Indies, and while it is more closely related to the fishes of Polynesia
than to those of North America or Japan, it should be regarded as consti-
tuting a minor faunal group composed in the main of forms which have been
isolated long enough, in most instances, to form distinct species.

Anchovies and Barracudas.
A good example of this localization of species is shown by the nehu,2 which
is in reality a very abundant local species belonging to the genus including the
widely and favorably known anchovy of commerce. So far they have only
been secured from the Hawaiian Islands. They are fish of small size with a
well-marked, broad, silvery lateral band. In 1900 the records for the islands
shows a catch of more than ninety thousand pounds of this species for the year.

2 Anehoria purpurea.

(Description of Piute ('onti)nted from Opposite Par/e.)

Lizard-fish [Kawelea] (Trachinocephalus myops). b\ Lizard-fish |Ulae] (Sy nodus varius).
7. Moray [Puhi] (Gymnothorax crcodcs). S. Moray [Puhi laumili | (Gymnothorax unduta-
tus). 9. Moray [Puhi] (Gymnothorax petclli). 10. Moray | Puhi kapa] (Echidna ncbu-
losa). 11. Trumpet-fish [Nunu] (Aulostomus valcntini). 12. Sea-horse (Hippocampus
jisheri). 13. Needle-fish fAhaaha] (Athlcnnrs hians). 14. Half-beak |Me'eme'e] (Hcmi-
ramphus depauperatus). 15. Half-beak flheihe] ( Kuleptorhampus lonyirostris).

mm
Hi;

I

Sii

tS6

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 353

The family of barracudas 3 lias two local forms, one of which, the kawelea4
is not uncommon, as it frequents the mullet ponds along the shore. They seldom
attain a length of more than twenty-four inches, and are therefore but feeble
representatives of the great barracuda, that excellent food fish along the Cali-
fornia coast, wrhich is often five feet or more in length. Our local form is
voracious and destructive to mullet, and do much damage to seines with their
strong teeth which are set in a large mouth — two characteristics that are
useful to the novice in separating them from the more valuable mullet with
which they frequently occur.

Butterfly-Fish.

No one who has visited the Aquarium will need to be reminded that
Hawaii can boast of a long list of beautiful creatures that might well be called
the butterflies of the coral reefs.

Their compressed bodies, small size, continuous dorsal fins, small mouths,
and brilliant, varied arid beautiful colors are clmraeteristics sufficient to
distinguish them at once from their near relatives under a family name,
Chcetodontidce, which has reference to their distinctly brush-like teeth. The
five genera found in Hawaii embrace at present about eighteen species that,
owing to graceful form, bright colors and great activity, make them exceed-
ingly popular as aquarium specimens. Their great quickness and agility
enable them to maintain themselves in the struggle for existence in the close
competition of the coral reef, in spite of their conspicuous habits and color-
ing. In the typical genus 5 a black band usually crosses through the eye ;
kikakapu is the native name applied to several well-marked species which
vary so widely in their colors as to defy brief description.

Blennies.

Representatives of the family known as Blennies ° are certain to be noticed
by the most casual observer strolling along the beach. The little fish most
commonly seen clinging to the coral rocks as the waves recede is one or another of
the nine or ten species of this family. They are active and alert, and since
there are in the world more than five hundred species, many of which never
attain a length of two inches, it is not strange that the naturalist seldom
ventures to name, off-hand, the various examples that so often form the sum
total of the catch secured by a wading party. However, it may be well to
know that Enneapterygius atriceps is the only name given the little fish with
the large eyes, three dorsal fins and the whip-like pectorals that is common in
the coral rocks about Honolulu.

The Hawaiians did not distinguish it as separate from its relatives. Of its
next of kin two or three species of the genus Alticus are also quite common
about the islands ; they have two dorsal fins. The small dark olive Solaris
zebra is the most abundant species. It has the body crossed by numerous
alternating pale and dark-olive bands, and has a curious lash above the eye.

3 Sphyrcenidiv. 4 Irachinocephalus myops. 5 Chcetodon. B Rlenniidw.

354 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Bone-Fish, Catalufas and Cirrhitim;.

The bone-fish, or lady-fish,7 have a single representative in Hawaii known
as the oio.8 It is a silvery fish with soft flesh that resembles the milk-fish in
some respects, but is distinguished by its swine-like snout.

The Catalufas 9 are represented by but a single genus of three species.
One of these, the aweoweo,1 ° is the famous ' * red fish ' ' which during the month
of September, 1873, entered Honolulu harbor in shoals. They were evidently
young fish, as the largest were not more than three and a half inches long.
This shoaling has occurred from time to time at irregular intervals. In the
mind of the native the coming of the red fish presages the sickness and death
of some member of the royal family. On several occasions there has been a
singular sequence of events of this nature which has left its impress on the
beliefs of the more superstitious among the people. The fish are esteemed as food
by the natives, however, who regard their coming in large numbers in the
nature of a windfall, as the fish can be readily dried and saved. The species
is of wide distribution and among English-speaking people is knowTn as the
"big eye.7'

The family Cirrhitidce includes among its number seven of the more beau-
tiful and highly -colored fishes of the coral reef, and as they are almost con-
stantly to be seen in the market and at the Aquarium, the pilikoa,11 hilu pili-
koa12 and piliko 'a13 are well known, though they are seldom more than six
inches in length.

Deep-Sea Fishes.

The fishes of the deep sea are for the most part examples of the familiar
forms that have become modified and specialized to suit the peculiar environ-
ment of great pressure, inky blackness and freezing cold which the bottom of
the sea affords. Eels, soles, scorpion fish, box fish and dozens of other forms
found commonly on our shores have their deep-sea representatives that are
seldom seen by other than experts to whom are sent the rare examples,
secured at great cost and labor by scientific deep-sea expeditions. We there-
fore content ourselves with the knowledge that they exist and confine our at-
tention to the more common, if not the more interesting, species that are met
with in the markets almost daily.

The Dolphin.

The dolphin14 (niahihi) is an important food fish in Hawaii. The body is
elongate, compressed and covered with very fine scales. The under jaw pro-
trudes and the long low dorsal fin extends from the nape to the base of the
tail. It is changeable in color and thus becomes a conspicuous fish either
living or dead, but unfortunately its beautiful color rapidly changes after
death. Thev attain the length of four to six feet.

7 Albulidm. 8 Albula vulpes. 9 PHacanthidfz. 10 Priaeanthus cruentatws.

11 Paracirrhites spp, 12 P. fosteri. 13 P. arcatus. 14 ' Coryphama hippurus.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 355

Both known species of dolphins occur in Hawaii. As they are very large
fish of the open sea and are surface swimmers, they are occasionally seen by
passengers on board sailing vessels. While the name dolphin rightly belongs
to a group of small whales, it has been associated with this fish. In song and
story their beauty of color and grace of motion have received much attention.

Eels.

The order Apodes, which includes the eels and morays is well represented
in Hawaii, several dozen species frequenting the coral reefs and rocky coasts.
Eel-fishing is a favorite sport, as the animals are easily enticed from their
hiding places in the rocks, when they may be hooked or speared.

The Hawaiian name puhi is applied to the class as a whole. Puhi-uha
signifies slippery eel, and is applied to the conger-eel. Some of the larger
examples attain a length of five or six feet, and are much sought after as food.

Frog-Fish and Flying-Fish.

Two genera of frog-fishes 15 occur, but representatives of only one genus
have so far been taken in the shallow water or open sea. They all have the
head compressed, and the skin covered with prickles, the body oblong and
much compressed. They are fantastic-looking fishes, often gaily colored, and
feed among the seaweeds on the reef, where they creep about like toads. They
are also capable of filling their capacious stomachs with air, which enables
them to float on the surface of the water. Eight species occur on the reefs, all
of which are provided with one or two whip-like lashes that protrude from
the upper lip to form a "bait" over their cavernous mouths.

Flying-fish10 abound in the open sea in all tropical waters, and Hawaii's
waters are in no way an exception. Five well-marked genera include the
eight species, all of which are called malolo by the natives. They are most
abundant during the summer months. A common species 17 has the upper part
of the body dark blue and the fins about two-thirds the length of the body.
They, in common with their cousins, usually occur in shoals, and are a source
of interest to the voyager as they leap from the surface of the sea and sail
away, sometimes sustaining a so-called flight for a hundred yards or more.
The most recent sport in Hawaii is flying-fish shooting. This is done from a
power launch, as the fish skim over the water. The fish are a favorite food of
the natives, who prefer to eat them raw at their feasts (aha-aina).

Gobies.

Gobies18 have no near relatives among the spiny-rayed fishes, and as a
family may be easily recognized. The ventral fins are inserted very close
together; there is no lateral line and no bony stay to the preopercle, which
gives to the gills a peculiar flabby appearance. The species are very numerous
in the tropics, there being fourteen genera in Hawaii, usually with but one or

15 Antennariidce. 16 Exocoetidce. 17 Parexoeoetus brachypterus. 18 Gobiidce,

: THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 357

two species each. This fact indicates the diversity of form found in the family.
They inhabit mountain streams and brackish water, and are common in pools
along the shore and in shallow water generally, but they never go far out to
sea. The largest species rarely exceed eight or ten inches in length, while
many of the small forms are only an inch or so long when full grown.

Oopu, in combination with specific terms, is the name applied by the Ha-
waiians to a great number of species of gobies. They are carnivorous in habit,
and are exceedingly interesting and active little creatures. One of the common
forms 10 is a dirty-brown color throughout and attains a length of nine inches.
They somewhat resemble the common catfish in shape and color, and are
plentiful in fresh brackish and shallow water. The natives often capture
them in large numbers from the streams by the use of the fish poison previously
referred to. The practice is to divert the stream from its usual course so as
to leave a series of small shallow pools along its bed. The poison is then freely
used in the crevices and under stones wdiere the oopu hide. In a few minutes
the fish come to the surface in a stupefied condition, when the native fishermen,
both old and young, join in gathering them into their baskets and calabashes.

A species known as Eviota epiphanes is a very small oopu common in the
shallow water at Waikiki. It attains the length of about three-fourths of an
inch. Another abundant and wide ranging species of oopu is Mapo fuscus,
which is very dark in color with black marblings and brown edges to the
scales.

A curious oopu 20 is dark greenish-olive with the back and upper parts
crossed with fourteen black bars. They have the pectorals united to form a
curious disk on the chest. This species is abundant in certain Hawaiian moun-
tain streams, and is able to cling to the rock in the rush of the mountain
torrent. They are strictly a fresh-water fish, attaining the length of five to
seven inches, and are sometimes caught and used for food. Two closely-
related oopus 21 are common in fresh-water streams of the islands and are
taken in numbers sufficient to make them common objects in the Honolulu
markets. One species 22 is olivaceous in color, crossed with a dozen black
bars. It has a black patch below the eye, and its belly is red while its
cousin 23 is olivaceous, marked with obscure dusky blotches, and has the belly
pale and with a dark blotch at the base of the tail.

The Flying-Gunard.

The fiying-gunards 24 are striking fish resembling the common flying-fish
in the very large wing-like pectoral fins, but differing from them in many
respects, among others in having the head and body decidedly quadrangular in
form and bony in structure, and by having two separate spines in front of the
two dorsal fins. The tail fin ends squarely, wdiile the tail in the flying-fish is
always forked. The lolo-oau 25 is not very abundant, and as a result when a
specimen appears in the market it is an object of considerable curiosity. Speci-

19 Eleotris sandwicensis. 20 Sicydium stimpsoni. 21 Awaous spp. 22 Awaous genicittot-us.

23 Axvaous stamineus. 24 Cephalacanthidee. 2r> Cephalacanthvs orientalis.

358 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

mens fourteen inches in length are sometimes caught, and as their "wings"
are almost as long as the body and are beautifully colored with blue and
brownish-red, they are with reason pronounced by many as the most striking
and fantastic of the Hawaiian fishes.

Headfish.

The headfish,26 though much rarer, is equally striking and has been
classed among the rarest and most wonderful of all animal forms. To the
natives it is known as the apahu, or to some as the makua. It appears simply
as a large head separated from the body and supplied with a fringed tail.
They are fishes of the open sea and reach a very large size. As the flesh is
coarse and tough, they are rarely brought into market except as curiosities.
The cast of a very large specimen is on exhibition in the Bishop Museum. It
shows the beautiful coloring of brown and silver of the living fish.

The headfish is known to the Hawaiian fisherman as the "king of all the
mackerel/' and as it is supposed to be under the rule of the spirits,27 it is
feared that the mackerel will disappear if the fish is killed. A similar fish in
the Atlantic is known as the king of the herring, and the local superstition is
doubtless colored by the influence of the early whalers and traders that called
at the islands.

Curious fish known as the half -bills 2S are very common in the markets,
where all three of the species that occur here may be recognized at once by the
fact that the under jaw is singularly bill-shaped, while the upper jaw is
normal. Of the three species, the iheihe or me-me'e29 is the most abundant
They are oviparous fishes and feed on green alga?. The half-bills live in large
schools, usually near shore, and are especially numerous in the channels about
the islands.

Hawaiian Herring.

The makiawa,30 so far as is known, is the only representative of the great
herring tribe31 to be found about Hawaii. It attains a length of about ten
inches and is quite common in the market at certain seasons. It is easily
identified by its herring-like shape and appearance.

The family Kuhlndce is conspicuously represented in Hawaii by the ahole-
hoie,32 a silvery, fish-shaped fish, with the edge of the first dorsal and the
caudal fins narrowly edged with black. They attain a length of ten inches
or more. This active fish is sure to attract notice, since it is common at the
mouths of the Hawaiian streams in both brackish and fresh water, but dwells
by preference in running water, where it may be found in the deeper pools.
It is a good fish and takes the hook readily, resembling the fresh-water sun-fish
of America in this regard. The natives sometimes capture them by use of the
narcotic plant described elsewhere.

20 Eanzania makua, 8T Akua. 2S Hemiramphidm. S9 Hemiramphus depauperatus.

80 Etrumeus micropus. 31 Clupeidce. 32 Kuhlia 7nalo.

* THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 359

The Wrasse-Fishes.

The Labridce or wrasse-fish — a New England name — includes more than
twenty genera in which are distributed more than fifty Hawaiian species. Of
this large family only a few examples can be mentioned. The general form
of the various species, though it varies somewhat from one genus to another, is
sufficiently characteristic throughout the family to render them easily identi-
fied as members of the same division. The color patterns, usually of the
brightest hues of blue, green, golden, scarlet, crimson and purple, are as rich
and deep as though laid on with a brush by a most lavish hand. Often, in
addition to its vivid color, the pattern is one of the greatest delicacy or the most
intricate design.

Most of the wrasse-fishes feed upon mollusks and have their teeth adapted
for crushing shells, but as they frequent the rocky coast, the coral reefs, the
kelp beds, and the open sea, their food must necessarily vary considerably.
However, in all the genera the teeth in the front jaws are prominent, separate
and pointed.

Perhaps the most brilliant species are among those in the genera Thalas-
soma and Julis, but the more delicately-colored species are among the Stetho-
julis. The a'awa,33 omaka,34 akilolo,35 opule,30 awela,37 hinalea lauwili,38
lolo and hilu39 and poou 40 are among the species to be seen almost daily in
the markets, and often in the Aquarium.

The lantern-fishes and lizard-fishes 42 are well represented in the Ha-
waiian fauna, the kawelea 43 and ulae 44 being common examples of the
latter. Their large mouths and lizard-like shapes render them easy of iden-
tification in the markets. The lantern-fishes are for the most part denizens of
the deep, and as they live away from the shores, they are seldom seen except
when they come to the surface at night or in times of stormy weather.

Mullet.

The mullet is by far the most important and generally esteemed food fish
of the islands. There are three genera of the family,45 each represented by
a single species that have been reported from the group, but it is the species
commonly called the ama-ama,40 that is the most abundant. It is this species
which in former times received the most attention from the natives in the way
of protection and conservation. So much has been done along this line that
mullet ponds have been important institutions since the days of the early
chiefs. In fact, the time of the building of many of the ponds extends far
back into the age of fable, the Hawaiians attributing the construction of one
of the ponds on Kauai to the wrork of the menehunes — a fabled race of dwarfs
that correspond in many ways with our Brownies.

Many of the oldest mullet ponds are still in use and in an excellent state
of repair. As the ponds were originally owned by the kings and chiefs, it is

33 Lepidaplois spp. 34 Stetho julis sp. 35 Gomphosus sp. 36 Anampses sp. 37 Thalassoma sp.

38 Thnlassoma sp. 39 Julis spp. *° Cheilinus sp. 41 Myctophidce. 42 Synodonitidce.

43 Trachinocephahts my ops. 4* Synodus varius. 45 Mugilidce. 46 Mugil cephalus.

360

NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

very probable that most of them were built by the forced labor of the common
people.

The ponds are found principally in the bays indenting the shores of the
islands, the common method of construction having been to build a wall of
lava rock across the narrowest part of the entrance to a small bay and use
the enclosed space for a pond. They were also built on the seashore itself, the
wall being built out from the shore in a half circle.

Ponds vary in size from small ones of less than an acre in extent to the
unusually large one at Moanalua, on Oahu, which encloses over five hundred
acres. There are as many as a hundred and sixty of these ponds indicated on
the maps of the islands. Of this number perhaps one hundred are still in use.
The catch of ama-ama from the ponds of the islands in 1905 was 430,000
pounds, valued at more than $87,000.

The mullet that find their way to the market from these ponds are iden-
tical with those found in the markets of the United States, Japan, Chile and
even the Mediterranean and as far away as India. The average weight of the
mullet in the market is from one to three pounds, though they grow to two or
three times that size, attaining a length of twenty inches or two feet.

They feed on organic matter, especially the minute plants contained in the
mud on the bottom in the shallow water along the shore. As they naturally
gather up a large quantity of indigestible matter, these fishes have the organs
of the throat modified into a filtering apparatus. They take in large quanti-
ties of mud and sand and, after apparently chewing it for a time, spit out the
indigestible portion.

The awa 47 and the awa-aua 48 are also reared in large numbers with the
mullet in the ponds. They all enter the ponds when young through openings
left for the purpose in the stone wTalls. Owing to the protection furnished by
the walls, the mullets thrive and fatten rapidly and, sheltered from their
enemies, become stupid and blundering.

CHAPTER XXVIII.
HAWAIIAN FISHES: PART THREE.

Flatfish.

The visitor at the Aquarium is sure to be interested and delighted with
the beautiful and graceful flatfish that, in general habits and appearance, re-
semble the butterfly-fish, but differ from them in having the dorsal fin drawn
out to form a beautiful white plume-like filament often six inches or more in
length. The species is known to the natives as kihikihi, but since it is a wide

47 Chan os chanos. *8 Elops saurus.

„ THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 361

ranging form they are known to Europeans generally as Moorish idols.1 They
are quite common about the Hawaiian reefs, where their yellow bodies crossed
by broad black bands, and the long plume-like dorsal fin render them especially
conspicuous even among their brilliant and beautiful associates.

Morays.

The morays 2 include an important group of Hawaiian fish that are distin-
guished from the true eels, with which they are closely related, by the presence
of the small round gill openings and by the absence of pectoral fins. Many of
the species reach a large size and are extremely voracious and pugnacious. As
they are especially abundant in holes in the coral reefs and not infrequently
spring out and bite the hand of even the experienced fisherman, it is just as well
for the stranger to bear them in mind when on wading expeditions. Too often
it has happened that underneath the most innocent looking flat coral stone ex-
posed at low tide there has been hidden one of these snake-like fishes. If they
choose to do so they can resent any intrusion from the merely curious in an un-
expected and painful manner, that is long remembered by the offender.

Six genera of morays have so far been identified from the waters about the
islands. Of the forty-two species of morays found here no fewer than eighteen
belong to the genus Gymnothorax. The puhi laumili 3 is one of the most com-
mon as well as most savage of these. They are not infrequently taken with large
fish in their stomachs, sometimes a fourth as long as the moray itself. It ranges
in length up to three feet or more, is variously mottled and naturally is much
feared by the natives.

One of the fiercest of all the eel tribe is the moray known as puhi kapa,4 so
called because it is said to be victorious over all kinds of fish. In life it is a pale
greyish-white covered with irregular dark-brown areas with crome-yellow spots;
the bars between these areas, when present, are gray and brown. It is reported
by the natives that this eel goes ashore in the grass at night and will wiggle
back into the water when disturbed.

The members of the order Apodes, to which the eel -like fishes belong, are
very wrell represented in Hawraii, there being several dozen species, that usually
differ one from the other only by slight characteristics. Most of the larger species
are much used as food by the Hawaii ans. The flesh of the morays, however, is
oily and not readily digested and on the whole is not so wholesome as the flesh
of the true eels.

The Mackerel Family.

Eight species of the mackerel family r> occur in Hawaiian waters, including
representatives of the frigate-mackerel, little tunnies, ocean bonito, Albacores
and Petos. The opelu, or true mackerel,0 the aku, or ocean bonito,7 and the ahi,8
all belong to different genera in the mackerel family. They all rove the sea,
usually in large schools, and have a wide range. While they differ in outline
considerably, in the different genera, they are all "mackerel-shaped" and are

L Zanclidce. - Murmnidm. 3 Gymnothorax undulatus. * Echidna nebulosa,

' Scombridce. 6 Scomber japonicus. 7 Gymnosarda pelamis. 8 Germo germo.

22

«f THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 363

marked with two well developed dorsal fins which are followed by a series of
little finlets ; there is also a similar series of Unlets posterior to the anal fin.

Though the flesh is usually coarse and dark, it is firm and oily. The opelu
especially is much valued as food, two hundred and seventy-five thousand pounds
of this species being marketed in Hawaii during the year 1903. The aku is very
abundant about Hawaii, particularly in the summer, and quantities of them reach
the market almost daily. There is a record of a yearly catch for the islands that
approaches eight hundred thousand pounds. The ahi or albacore is known from
its cousins by the bright yellowr color of its finlets. Though not so abundant
as the other species mentioned, it is frequently taken with a hook, and large
specimens are occasionally seen in the markets.

The little tunny or kawakawa 9 is at once recognized as a mackerel, but
differs from the ocean bonito10 by its having the lateral line straight and with
no blue-black stripes below the line. They swarm through the high seas in
shoals, especially during the summer months, and are easily captured on an un-
baited hook. The writer has caught them by the dozens from the jib-boom of a
sailing vessel in mid-ocean. When drawn from the water they give one terrible
death shudder and are "as dead as a mackerel" instantly. They are usually
twenty inches long and weigh about three pounds when seen in the market;
they are a fairly good food fish. In this connection it is of interest to note that so
far as the records show, the California bonito has been taken in Hawaiian waters
only once.

Milk-Fish.

The milk-fish11 (awa) is a silvery fish that is largely used for food in
Hawaii, notably about Honolulu, where a quarter of a million of pounds of
the species is offered for sale in the markets annually. Next to the mullet, it is
the species most frequenting the artificial ponds into which it runs with the
mullet at high tide and is retained. Although it is an excellent food, it is not
considered a game fish. Like the mullet it is known by different names at differ-
ent ages, all of which are combinations of the name awa. They can be recog-
nized at once since they have but one dorsal fin, while the mullet has two. Speci-
mens five feet in length are not uncommon in the open sea.

Needle-Fish.

Three species of needle-fishes,12 each belonging to a different genera, are

9 Gymnomrda pelamis. 10 Gymnosarda pelamitt. J1 Chanos chnrtoft. 12 Belonidcv.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite rage.)

(Seriola purpurascens) . 5. Goat-fish ( Kiimu | (Pseudupenem porphyreus). 6. Common
Dolphin [Mahimahi] (Coryphcena hippurvs). 7. Striped Surgeon Fish [Manini] (Hepatus
sandvicensis) . 8. Cavalla [Qmilu] (Carangoirfnt ferdau). 9. Snapper [Opakapaka] (Bo-
wersia violescens) . 10. Cavalla [Small ---■ papiopio, medium size = Paupau, large = Ulna]
(Carangus ignobilis). 11. Snapper | Ulaula | (Etelis marshi). 12. A Squirrel-fish ftJ-u)
(Myripristis berndti). 13. A Snapper | Ukn ] (Aprion virescens) . 14. Surmullet [Weke
ula] (MuUoides aariflamma) .

364 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

met with in the ocean about the islands. Their elongate, slender bodies with
long beak-like yaws that are set with a band of small sharp teeth, besides a set of
wride, sharp, conical teeth, together with the dorsal fin opposite the anal fin
set far back on the body, are characteristics sufficient to separate them from the
flying-fish on the one hand, and the half -bills on the other, as these two families
are the only Hawaiian fish with which they would be confused. Superficially
they resemble the common gar-pike. They are voracious, carnivorous fishes that
swim along the surface of the sea, often leaping from the water. Specimens
four feet long occasionally reach the market, and are much sought after as food
by certain races. Ahaaha,13 as they are called by the Hawaiians, are common in
the market every month of the year.

PAMPilNQS.

Of the more than two thousand known species of pampanos,14 at least
twenty-five have been taken in Hawaiian waters. Their bodies are compressed,
somewhat resembling the mackerels in form, but they are without the finlets
which are so marked a characteristic in the family. As a rule, they are metallic-
blue in color, varied with silver and gold, and have the lateral line in most
cases armed with bony plates posteriorally. The simple mark of the family,
however, is the presence of two separate spines in front of the anal fin. The
Carangidm are all rapid surface swimmers, so much so that occasionally the dorsal
fin will be seen cutting through the surface of the water. They are all regarded
as excellent fish, but the lae, puakahala, opelu, akule, apuu-u, and the ulua,
and the curious ulua kihikihi or thread fin, are among the best known species.
The ulua15 is indeed one of the most important food fish of the islands. Speci-
mens three and even four feet in length are common enough in the markets. It
dries readily and the head is especially esteemed for use in the making of fish
chowder. This species is considered by many to be the most delicate and finely
flavored food fish to be taken in these waters and is quite generally substituted for
mullet and opakapaka on the bill of fare of the most fastidious.

Tarpon.

The tarpon occurs in Hawraii and resembles the bonefish quite closely, but
its dorsal fin is inserted well before the anal, a characteristic which separates its
family 16 from the others of the order. It is said to be a great game fish in
Florida, where it is common. Tarpon have little value as a commodity in the
Hawaiian markets.

The thread-fin with the long threads, sometimes twice the length of the
fish, trailing from the dorsal and anal fins is a curious fish of wide distribution
that is occasionally seen in the markets, and is without doubt the most striking
member of this family of pampanos,17 a large family wmich includes local repre-

13 Athlennes Mains. 1* Carangidce. 15 Carangus ignobilis. 10 Elopidce. 17 Carangidce.

Xr THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 365

sentatives of all such well-known forms as the pilot-fishes, amber-fishes, the run-
ners, mackerel-scads, big-eyed scads and eavallas.

The Parrot-Fish Family.

The parrot-fish,18 of which the islands can boast of a large assortment,
resemble the wrasse-fishes 1 9 in color, form and scales, but differ in that they
have the teeth more or less fused together which gives to the mouth a heavy
beak-like appearance suggestive of the bill of a parrot. They are all herbivorous
fishes, some of them attaining a very large side. They are abundant about
the coral reefs where they always add a touch of vivid color to the wonderful
picture to be seen through an observation hood or a glass-bottomed boat. The
flesh is soft and white and of a rather pasty nature. It is a favorite fish
with the Hawaii ans, who eat it raw at their feasts, but it is seldom cooked by
Europeans.

The color pattern of this group is greatly varied and the family is broken
up into many species. In Hawaii four well-marked genera occur and at least
two dozen species have been found and described from the islands. The ponu-
hunuhu 20 has the spinous dorsal fin with a distinct black spot between the
first and second spines and the sides somewhat mottled, but without definite
spots or specks. They are quite common in the markets. The uhu 21 is a gen-
eral reddish color without conspicuous markings other than a narrow violet line
on the outer edge of the dorsal. They are not very abundant and as a result
command an exorbitant price. The uhu uliuli 22 is one of the handsomest fish
of the islands. It is green in color with bars or stripes on the dorsal and spots
on the scales of the lower sides and a curious rectangular patch over the snout.
The blue parrot-fish 23 is a fine brilliant blue fish that in the olden time was
tabu, for the use of the chiefs alone. It now sells at a ridiculously high price
and is eaten raw. The pipe-fish family 24 is represented by three or four genera,
one of which 2r> is of interest since it includes two island species of the curious
sea-horse. Both species are so rare, however, that there seems to be no generally
accepted native name for the curious animal.

Porcupine-Fish.

Porcupine fishes 20 occur in the group, there being four species in all. They
are more or less spherical in form and as the name implies, have the body well
armed with sharp spines the bases of which are so broad as to form a coat of
mail in the skin. The oopu kawa 27 is the species commonly on exhibition in
the Aquarium. It is a sluggish fish, living at the bottom among the seaweeds
on the coral reefs about the islands. They are reported as being poisonous.
When disturbed they swallow air and float belly up on the water. Their power
of inflation, however, is not so marked as that of the globe-fish or puffers, to
which they are related. As they are seldom used for food, their principal use

18 Scaridw. 19 Lahridie. 20 Calotomus sandrirensix. 21 Callyodon miniatvs.

22 Callyodon perspicellatus. ~z Pseudoscorus jordani. 24 Syngnathidcc. 25 Hippocampus,

26 Diodontidce. 21 Diodon nndifrons.

HjATK !»i. < I HIOls AM) MiMMuN HAWAIIAN PtSiil->.
| Asst'iiiMoil fr»m I". *. Fish Cnnmi. Mullet in No. Li.'!.]

1. Hying Pish |Mal«lo| ( /\/»v.rw«W«* bni,'h,,ptrr„.s) . '2. PIving Fish |Msilolo| (Vi/p-

nix , Kim us). '-I, Bsn-num.hi | K:nvalr;i | (.S>/i»/m-w.j twflen), I. A K^iim-I Fisli {AhuhiJ

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 367

is as curiosities, and they are objects of never-failing interest at the Aquarium
and in natural history collections.

The name porgy was applied by the Greeks to a red fish of this family 28
common in the Mediterranean. Since then the name has been carried over the
world by the Spanish and came to be the common name applied to a group of
carniverous shore fishes of the tropics which are everywhere esteemed as food.
The single Hawaiian porgy is the mu.29 In their general shape they somewhat
resemble the sea-snappers, having their bass-like mouth armed with several
conical canine-like teeth in front. They are greenish in color wTith two paler
cross-bands that extend up into the dorsal fin.

The Puffers.

The puffers 30 and sharp-nosed puffers 31 are two families, closely related to
the porcupine fish, that have ten species belonging to four genera in the Hawaiian
fauna. The walls of the abdomen are capable of distention so that when in-
flated the fish appears like an animated glass globe with a head and a tail at-
tached. The oopuhue, or keke,32 is the most abundant species. It is light
olive-green covered over the back with pearly spots, the belly being striped with
light yellow and pearly, but the colors vary greatly with age. It is an
abundant fish in suitable places about Honolulu, where it frequents mullet
ponds and brackish water generally. When removed from the water they swell
up as tight as a drum and remain in this condition until returned to the water,
where they will float on their backs in a helpless condition for some time; eventu-
ally they collapse and swim off. Cabinet specimens hardened in alcohol will
remain in an inflated condition indefinitely. Specimens fourteen inches in
length are common. The native name, meaning "sure death," indicates
the Hawaiian belief in its poisonous character. The gall doubtless contains
an active poison, said by some to have been used on spear-points. Puffers are
seldom, if ever, seen in the markets, but are commonly captured in seines in
the mullet ponds. They vary greatly in color with age, while in some the body
is smooth and in others more or less covered with prickles.

The Eemoka.

The remoras, disk-heads or sucking-fish,38 while not commonly met with

28 Sparidce. 29 Monotaxis grandoculis. 80 Tetraodontidcc. 31 Canthigasteridce.
32 Tetraodon hispidus. 33 Echenididce.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

(Holocentrus microstomus) . 5. Swordfish, [A ?u] (Xiphias gladius). 6. Mackerel [Gpelu
palahu] (Scomber japonicus). 7. Ocean Bonito [Aku] (Gymnosarda pelamis). 8. Little
Tuna or Bonito [Kawakawa] (Gymnosarda alletterata). 9. Pilot Fish or Eomero (Nawcra-
tes ductor). 10. A Cavalla [Puakahala] (Carangus aflinis). 11. Thread Fish [Ulua kihi-
kihi] (Alectis ciliaris). 12. Sea Perch [Aholehole] (Kuhlia malo). 13. Catalufa [Alalaua]
(Priacanthus alalaua). 14. Porgie [Mu] (Monotaxis grandoculis) . 15. A Surmullet [Weke
ulaula] (Mulloides flammeus). 16. Goat-fish [Mumu] (Pseudupeneus bifasciatus) . 17. A
Wrasse Fish [Omaka] (Stethojulis axillaris). 18. A Wrasse Fish [Opule] (Anampses
curier) .

368 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

are so curious In form and habit that they are sure to attract attention when
they occasionally come to market attached, barnacle-like, to the body of some
shark, or turtle, or large fish. They are slender, violet-blackish colored fish
that are peculiar in that they have the first dorsal fin transformed into a suck-
ing disk, which covers the entire head and nape. The shark sucker 34 of Plawaii
is one of two widely distributed species, but as they are neither very abun-
dant nor used as food, their appearance in the markets is entirely owing to
their interesting habits. By affixing themselves to their hosts they are car-
ried through a much greater extent of water than their own limited swim-
ming powers wTould admit. They obtain thereby a much greater supply of
food than they would otherwise secure. They may be carried about for
weeks by their hosts, leaving them only to secure food. This is done by a
sudden rush through the water. The remora does not injure the carrier-
animal in any way, and as they are of small size, rarely being more than six
or eight inches in length, they do not materially impede the progress of their
hosts.

The Scorpion-Fishes.

The scorpion-fishes 35 are so varied in form as to render a brief character-
ization of the group impossible. In the more extreme examples which are sure
to attract attention great changes take place in the form of the fish and their
appendages. The head may be distorted with ridges and grooves, the anal
spines lost and the dorsal spines variously modified. The scales may be lost
or replaced by warts or prickles, and in others the ventral fins may be reduced,
while in still others the pectorals are often greatly enlarged.

They are especially abundant in the Pacific and form a large portion of
the fish fauna of Hawaii, where ten genera and twenty or more species occur.
In general, they do not migrate, but make a permanent home about the rocks
and in the coral reef. Curiously enough, they are esteemed as food in spite
of the fact that some of them have a venom sac at the base of the dorsal spine,
to the poisonous effect of which they owe their name.

The noho or amakaha36 is perhaps as typical and as common in the
market and Aquarium as any of the scorpion-fish. They are indescribably mot-
tled and streaked with browrn, claret color, sulphur-red, salmon color and near-
white. The inner or posterior side of the pectorals is brightly marked with
yellowr varied with black, so that when swimming from the observer they look
like heavy-bodied butterflies winging their way about the tide pools in the reef.

The Sea-Bass Family.

Although it is customary for the angler to talk of the great variety of sea-
bass to be caught in Hawaii, he doubtless speaks from the abundance of mis-
information which is current on the subject of fish and fishing, and not from
a desire to misrepresent the facts. Anything that takes the hook and in the

S4 Echeneis sp, 35 Scorpcenidm. 38 Scorpmnopsis gibbosa.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 369

least resembles a bass passes as one among this class of fishermen. As a
matter of fact, there are but five species belonging to as many genera of the
sea-bass 37 family that have so far been taken from Hawaiian waters. It is
true that it requires some skill to detect the characteristics that separate the
cardinal-fishes on the one hand and the catalufas and snappers on the other.
If the fish in hand should prove to have three and only three stiff, strong spines
in the anal fin and be bass or perch-like in form, the chances are it would prove
to be a true bass. However, it would then require much consulting of author-
ities to prove the specific identity of the species, as the matter is further
complicated by a disagreement in popular nomenclature as to whether it
should be called a Jew-fish, a grouper, or a hind.

The hapu'u pu'u38 is the most important and common species in the
market, where specimens three feet or more in length are not uncommon. It
is a dark purplish-brown fish with occasional irregular pearly spots on the
sides and with black ventral fins, though in old specimens the spots disappear,
leaving the fish a uniform reddish leather-brown. They are usually caught
with a hook and are the only species of the bass family commonly known by a
Hawaiian name.

One might naturally expect that the ocean about these islands would be
inhabited by representatives of almost every type of animal to be found in the
sea anywhere. However, the announcement of the discovery of the presence
of the sea-devil 29 family close at hand will come in the nature of a surprise
to many. That the creature was a new species and called for the creation of a
new genus is made plain from its description, which, briefly put, characterizes
it as an inky black animal with small eyes, a wdiite mouth and a protruding
chin. Any fear and uneasiness that may have been felt at the discovery of a
member of this satanic family about the islands will be allayed somewhat when
it is known that the only specimen of the genus ever discovered is less than
four inches long and wras dredged from the floor of the ocean under 500
fathoms of water.

Snappers.

The snapper family 40 is represented in Hawaii by seven or eight important
food fish. As has been stated, they closely resemble the sea-bass. One fa-
miliar with the characteristics of the two families, however, will be able to
point out that in the snappers "the maxillary slips along its edge into a sheath
formed by the broad end of the preorbital," while the sea-bass have no such
sheath.

The eight species are all fairly abundant, carnivorous, voracious, garney,
excellent high-colored fish, and all are known at the marekt by Hawaiian
names. The ukikiki 41 is a fairly common red fish with diagonal golden cross-
bands. It is a fine, firm, white-fleshed fish especially suitable for baking. The

37 Serranidce. ss Epinephelus quernvs. 39 Ceratiidw. *° Lutianidce.

41 Roosevelti (Apsilus) brightimi.

'^'•■:KiS^

im.atk !»:■,. r.\i;i;<>T kisii. i'.i'ttkim-'i.v nsii. itfkkus a\i> tiikii.' i.m-.lati

I. A \\'r;i^. KUh < 7V(</

.. - THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 371

opakapaka 42 is light rosy-olive with violet shades, especially on the scales over
the back ; the ulaiila i4 is a beautiful rose-red or reddish-pink, while the uku 45
is uniform light gray, the upper parts tinged with blue which on the head
becomes dark blue. Some of the species may be procured almost every day,
there being more than a hundred thousand pounds sold annually in the
Hawaiian markets.

Soles.

Of the true soles 4G but two species were secured by the scientists of the
Albatross, and they wrere taken only from deep water. But of the nearly-
related flatfishes, especially the flounders,47 five genera with a half-dozen
species have been recorded. By far the most plentiful flatfish is the pakii,48
a curious sand-colored fish with numerous eye-like markings of light grayish-
brown and bluish-gray and some with blackish edges. They are mostly small
in size, but are excellent when fried. In the Aquarium this flatfish loves to
lie almost concealed in the sand. Both eyes have been moved by nature far
over on one side of its head. It is indeed a natural wonder that wrell repays
the trouble it often takes to discover it when it has hidden itself in the sand
and pebbles for protection.

Squirrel-Fishes.

The squirrel-fishes 49 are conspicuous shore fishes frequenting the rocky
banks and coral reefs of the tropical seas. They are usually red or reddish
in color and have eleven spines in the dorsal and four in the anal fin, the third
usually being very strong. Five genera have been taken in the group, to
which twenty gaily-colored species have been credited. Several of the species
are abundant and are always to be seen in the market. The u'u50 is the
common red species that lives in the rocks. The natives have an interesting
way of fishing for them. One is first caught on a hook, which they take quite
readily. The fish is then attached to a line and dropped in again in some place
suitable to the habits of the u'u. If the rock is inhabited the resident species
will come out at once, bristling with rage, to drive off the intruder. Both fish are
then lifted out with a hand net ; the last one caught being substituted for the
decoy — and so the fishing proceeds.

The alaihi ni are interesting members of this family, represented by seven
or more species that are quite abundant about the islands. They, like their

42 Apsilus microdon. 44 Etelis marshi. 45 A priori virenscens. 46 Soleidcn. 47 Pleuronectidce.

48 Platophrys pantherinus. 49 Holocentridm. 50 Myripristis murdjan. B1 Ilolocentrus spp.

(Description of Plate don tinned from Opposite Page.)

rus jordani). 5. A Butterfly Fish [Kikakapu] (Chcetodon unimaculatus) . 6. A Butterfly
Fish [Kikakapu] {Chcetodon miliaria), 7. Moorish Idol [Kihikihi] (Zanculus canescens) .
8. A Surgeon Fish [Naenae] (Hepatus olivaceus). 9. A Surgeon Fish [Puala] (Hepatus
guntheri). 10. A Trigger Fish [Humuhumu nukunuku apua'a] (Balistapus reetangulus) .
11. Sharp-nosed Puffer [Puu olai] (Cant hi g aster epilamprus). 12. Porcupine Fish [Oopu
kawa] (Diodon nudifrons).

372 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

cousins, are mostly small high-color eel fish and are peculiar in the development
of small spines almost everywhere over the surface of the body. The name
refers to the noise they make when taken out of the water, which suggests the
bark of the squirrel. The stripes on some species also add to their squirrel-
like appearance.

The Surgeon-Fishes.

The surgeon-fishes or tangs 52 are herbivorous inhabitants of the tropical
seas, notably abundant about the coral reefs and in the tide pools along the
shore. They undergo great changes with age, the young often having been
described as distinct genera. Hawaii has live genera and perhaps a dozen
and a half species of these interesting fishes. They are mostly dark in color,
with some vivid color added, and all have an armament developed on the side
of the tail. In some genera this armament consists of a movable spine set with
the point turned forward which can be dropped down into a sheath-like groove.
In other genera one or two sharp knife-like plates are rigidly attached to the
side of the tail. It is from these spines that the fishes derive their common
names, surgeon-fish, doctor-fish, or lance-fish, and they form veiy effective
weapons against their enemies, be they fish or man.

The pa kuikui 53 is common about Honolulu, and may be recognized by its
brown color, wdiich is relieved by an orange patch about the murderous spine
on the side of the tail. The nae-nae 54 is olivaceous and has a bright sj)ot on
the shoulder. The pualu 55 is a common species in the Honolulu market. It is
brown in color and has four or five golden longitudinal bands on the dorsal
fin and four similar ones on the anal. The most abundant member of the
extensive genus, however, is the delicious panfish known to everyone as
manini.56 They are almost daily offered for sale in the markets ; their dull
olive-gray bodies crossed by five narrow vertical lines renders their identity
easy and certain. They are seldom more than seven or eight inches in length,
but their small size is more than made up for by their delicate flavor when
fried. They are fearless shore fishes, usually to be seen in pools in small
schools. The young are often trapped in holes in the rocks along shore as the
tide recedes, where they swim about without alarm, patiently awaiting the
return to the sea. They are hardy and thrive in the Aquarium, where their
stripes have won for them the popular name of convict-fish.

The kala,57 or unicorn-fish, is an abundant member of the family. In addi-
tion to the two large pale blue, blunt, immovable spines on the tail, placed one
in front of the other, it has as a special distinctive mark a long horn growing
forward from the cranium above the eyes.

The Goat-Fish.

The surmullets, or goat-fish58, are shore fishes of moderate size and
possess the notable features of two long unbranched barbules of firm sub-

52 Acanthuridm. B3 Hepatus achiUes. 5* Hepatus oliracevs. 55 Hepatus guntheri.
58 Hepatus sand vie en sis. 57 Acanthurus unicornis. B8 Mullidw.

? THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 373

stance on the chin. These they employ for feelers, using them to stir tip the
sand on the bottom, as they search for the small animals upon which they feed.
Their scales are large and thin, and the fish are all bright-colored, usually red
or red and golden. About a dozen and a half of closely-related species are
found in the ocean about Hawaii. These are divided among three important
genera. Weke is the name applied by the Hawaiians to a number of the
species. The name is also used in combination with more specific descriptive
terms, so that weke or weke ula 50 is specifically applied to the bright red-col-
ored surmullet of which enormous quantities are annually marketed in the
islands. In the Aquarium they attract much attention as they swim along
carrying their chin barbules extended in advance of thtai, cautiously feeling
their way as they go.

The goat-fish proper 60 are represented by the moano,61 the munu G2 and
the kurnu,03 all of which are highly-colored common species.

Swordfish.

Occasionally a swordfish 64 is taken by the Hawaiian fishermen, and in
this way reaches the market under the name a'u. They are fishes of great
size, with the upper jaw prolonged to form a "sword," which is flattened hori-
zontally. So far as is known, the family °5 is represented by a single species
of world-wide distribution. They are mainly pelagic in their habits and are
among the most predaceous and savage of the monsters of the deep. They not
only transfix their ordinary prey with their formidable sword, but use it in a
merciless attack on whales, which, from repeated stabs, often succumb.

Occasionally this pugnacious fish mistakes a ship's hull for an enemy and
charges it, sending its sworcl crashing through several inches of timber. On
one occasion the writer photographed a swordfish bill that had been rammed
through the stern sheets of a small deep-sea-going craft. The vessel had been
hauled out of the water for repairs in Honolulu harbor, when, to the surprise
of the ship's master, the beaks of the swordfish were found driven deep into
the hull, one of them piercing the solid pine shell to a depth of twelve inches.
While swordfish are usually four to six feet in length, they may measure
twelve or fifteen feet and have a sword a yard in length. The largest animals
sometimes weigh as much as 600 pounds or more. The flesh of the swordfish
is red in color and rich in flavor, and is everywhere prized as delicious food.

The trigger-fish 66 are rather large-size shore fishes that are partly herbiv-
orous and partly carnivorous in habit. They are rarely used as food, and
some of them are reputed by the natives to be poisonous. They are remarkable
and interesting in that the first dorsal fin is composed of a short, stout rough
spine with a smaller one behind it, and usually a third so placed that, by
touching it, the first spine may be rigidly set or easily released, when it folds

59 Mulloides auriflamma. 80 Pseudupeneus spp. 61 Pseudupeneus multifasciatus.

62 Pseudupeneus bifasciatus. 6S Pseudupeneus porphyreus. fi4 Xiphias gladius. 65 Xiphiidce.

64 Balistidce.

IKS. hl.KNMKS. I-'I.'im; FISH, TI.TXK I-'ISII AM) <»TI1KK <i|»|>

r. s, i-'ixi.

tk I'Mi | Mm

PHi M'iliknn! </

„ THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 375

The Trigger-Fishes.

back into a pocket out of the way. This gives the family the name of trigger-
fish, as well as the older name, Batistes, which refers to a cross-bow shooter.

Hawaii has five genera with eleven species. The species of the principal
genus Batistes, are known as humuhumu, to which as occasion requires is
added a second name and even a third by the natives for more specific desig-
nation.

Many of the Hawaiian species are most fantastically colored. The humu-
humu nukunuku a pua'a07 has a blue band over the nose, a broad black
one slanting diagonally across the body from over the forehead to the
pectoral region, thence backward to the anal fin, and a wedge-shaped black
band on the side of the tail; but several of its cousins outdo it in striking and
unconventional colors and markings.

Trunk-Fish.

The odd, box-like trunk-fish,08 or coffer-fish, as they are called by some,
have the body enveloped in a boney box of six sides out of which the movable
jaws, fins and tail protrude. They live in shallow water, are slow of motion,
but often are brightly colored.

Five species of trunk-fish have so far been recorded from Hawaii. The
moa 69 are conspicuous in their dress of bright blue with golden spots, and are
the most abundant of the island species. Their knowing, stolid countenances
as they swim gracefully about among their associates at the Aquarium give
them a "position among fishes that corresponds to that held by the owls among
birds." When taken from the water these fish will live a considerable time,
and they appear to be hardy enough to commend them to keepers of private
salt-water aquaria.

Trumpet-Fish.

The trumpet-fish,70 known locally as the nunu, is not uncommon about
the islands. By reason of its odd, elongated body, long head and small mouth
set at the end of a long compressed tube, the nunu is sure to attract attention.
The single species varies greatly in color, ranging from light yellow to dark
brown, varied with five or six narrow longitudinal stripes. In spite of its odd
appearance, it is a food fish of some importance, and is often exposed for sale
in the markets.

67 Balistapus rectangulus. 6S Ostraciidce. fl0 Ostracian seba>. 70 Aulistomus valentini.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

(Cirrhitus m armor atus) . 5. A Scorpion Fish [Nohu] (Scorpcenopsis gibbosa). 6. Flying
Gurnard [Lolo-oau] (Cephalacanthus orientalis) . 7. A Goby [Oopu] (Eleotris sandwieensis) .
8. A Goby [Oopu] (Eviota epiphanes) . 9. A Goby [Oopu] (Mapo fuscus). 10. A Goby
[Oopu] (Sicydium stimpsoni) . 11. A Goby [Oopu] (Awaous genivittatus), 1.2. A Blennie
{Mnneapterygius atriceps). 13. A Blennie (Altieus marmoratus). 14. A Blennie (Salaris
zebra). 15. Frog Fish (Antennaris leprosus).

376 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

CHAPTER XXIX.

INTRODUCED FRESH WATER FISH.

Goldfish.

Several attempts have been made by private citizens to introduce well-
known food, game and ornamental fish into the Hawaiian Islands. One of the
earliest, if not the first attempt of this nature, resulted in introducing the
well-known goldfish J into the streams, ponds and irrigation ditches of Oahu,
from whence they have been generally distributed to the other inhabited
islands of the group. The original stock of goldfish came from China, but
the date of the first shipment is not known. As early as 1867, however, they
were being exported to California, and from that time to the present they
have been abundant about Honolulu, and have contributed their share to the
ideal beauty of the streams and the pleasure of the young angler. Since the
original introduction some of the fancy varieties have been liberated at differ-
ent times, with the result that there is much variation in form and color among
the wild species. Goldfish are regularly offered for sale in the market in
Honolulu, but they are mainly eaten by the Chinese and Japanese.

The goldfish is a native of China, and from there it was introduced into
Japan at an early date. From Japan they were carried to Europe in 1611,
and later to America, where many of the various artificial varieties that have
been produced in China and Japan are reared with great success by fanciers.
The rich golden color is found only in the domesticated species, and is re-
tained by artificial selection. The native fish are olivaceous in color, and in
the ponds and ditches about Honolulu, as in China and Japan, they readily
revert to that color. In the Orient several score of forms have been produced
by patient selection and breeding. Eighteen forms of so-called toy goldfish
are known among the fanciers, each of them provided with a name based on
its origin, history, form or color.

They are rather sluggish, hardy creatures that devour large quantities of
mosquito larva* from pools and fountains about the city. Unfortunately, the
more recently introduced "mosquito fish" are reported to feed on the eggs
and very young of the goldfish and mullet, as well as the mosquito larvae and
the young of the fresh-water shrimp. As a result, goldfish are not as plentiful
in our streams as they were formerly.

Carp.

Carp 2 were introduced into the islands from America some years ago.
They were first planted in the irrigation ditches near Wailuku, and from there
were distributed to Hawaii and Oahu, and doubtless wrill be found on all the
islands. They are not much used as food on account of their muddy
flavor and are only used in the absence of better fish. They naturally

1 Carassius auratus, 2 Cypranus earpio.

, THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 377

prefer shady, sluggish water with muddy bottoms, where they feed voraciously
on small water animals and vegetable matter, particularly the leaves of
aquatic plants. The common carp is closely related to the goldfish and was
originally a native of the rivers of China, where it has long been artificially
reared by the inhabitants. From there it was introduced into Europe, perhaps
three centuries ago, and has since become naturalized and several varieties
produced in domestication. From Europe carp were introduced into America,
and from America they were brought to Hawaii, thus completing their journey
around the globe. They attain a size of several pounds and may be identified
as the only scaled fresh-water fish in Hawaii that have barbules on the upper
lip. A single specimen has been known to produce as many as seven hundred
thousand eggs in a single season.

Catfish.

The common bullhead catfish, or horned pout,3 was introduced about
twenty years ago from California, where it had been naturalized, and was
planted in ponds about Hilo, but it has not been seen since. In the meantime
it has been introduced on the Island of Oahu, where it has been secured
from the same ponds with the Chinese species. The Chinese catfish 4 was
introduced by the Chinese about a dozen years ago from their country. It has
survived and is becoming quite common in the fresh-water ponds and finds its
way to the markets, where it is sold under the name of Chinese catfish.

Since both species occur about Honolulu in the same environment, it will
be well to know that the Chinese species have the dorsal and anal fins much
elongated, each with many rays, and extending throughout the greater length
of the trunk, while in the bullhead the dorsal and anal are much shorter, the
dorsal with one hard and seven soft rays.

China Fish.

Easily mistaken for the Chinese catfish in the water, is the "China fish/'5
which in reality is a snake-head mullet. They are long and cylindrical, and
the head is covered with scales. They are carnivorous and voracious in habit,
and are extremely tenacious of life, living for hours out of water when thrown
on the banks of the irrigation ditches or when carried to market. Dr. A. Gunther
states that they are able to survive drouth by living in the semi-fluid mud or
lying in a semi-torpid state below the hard sun-baked crust of the bottom of a
tank from which every drop of water has disappeared.

Black Bass.

The first attempt to establish black bass dates from the summer of 1897,
when a shipment was made from the California Fish Commission to a number
of citizens at Hilo. Unfortunately, only twrenty-one of these elegant sun fishes
survived the journey. These were planted in Waihiku river near Rainbow

3 Ameriurus nebulosus, * Clarias fuscus. ^Ophieephalus striatus.

23

378 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Falls, but the following day a heavy freshet in the river is supposed to have
carried them out to sea, as they were never seen afterward.

In 1908 Mr. W. A. Templeton, while visiting California, secured a number of
large-mouthed black bass G which he brought back with him and planted in the
great artificial fresh-water reservoir at Wahiawa. Under his supervision the intro-
duction has proved successful, and this exceedingly valuable game fish is now
wTell established in these waters and in time will doubtless be carried from
Wahiawa to similar reservoirs and ponds throughout the group. As these
ponds are filled wTith shrimp and the temperature and other conditions seem
favorable, the black bass is doubtless to become a common article of food in
Hawaii and will prove a worthy substitute for almost any of the native fish.

Trout and Salmon.

Attempts to establish trout in Hawaii have so far proved unsuccessful,
though two or three attempts have been made, the first as early as 1876. It
is thought by the writer that there are streams in the group, especially one or
two on the Island of Molokai, that are well adapted to the trout, and that if
proper precautions were observed in planting them, they would soon establish
themselves. Salmon eggs were sent here for planting in 1876, but this experi-
ment proved unsuccessful.

Mosquito Fish.

Work along the line of mosquito control had advanced in the Territory
to a point where, on the advice of experts, it was deemed advisable to import
small fish for the purpose of feeding on the larvae of this pest that hatches in the
streams, ponds and ditches of the Territory. The Legislature of 1905 made a
small appropriation for that purpose, and a special collector was employed
to transport to Hawaii representatives of the so-called "top minnows" or killi-
fish from Galveston, Texas. Three species 7 belonging to three genera of the
family Poeciliidce were successfully introduced into especially-prepared ponds
at Moanalua, Oahu. From these they have since been spread broadcast over
the group until it is now almost impossible to find slowly-moving or standing
fresh water that is not inhabited by one if not all of the species. They are
silvery fishes of small size, scarcely more than two inches in length. They
have a wonderful appetite, devouring large quantities of mosquito larvae, but,
as wras expected, they do not discriminate as closely as might be desired, with
the result that they are charged with eating the eggs and young of the other
aquatic animals. However, the introduction of a few into any closed body of
water infested with mosquito larva? will convince anyone of their economic
value to the Territory. Their small protractile mouths, scaled heads and
(Cminnowr?? shape is sufficient to separate them from other fresh-water fish,
but the species are so small that their certain identification by the novice is not
an easy matter.

6 Micropterus salmoides. 7 Gambusia affines, Funduhts grandis and MoUenesia lattipinna.

*. THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 379

CHAPTER XXX.

IMPORTANT ECONOMIC INSECTS: PART ONE.

The insect life of Hawaii is as yet far from being completely explored.
However, through the patient researches of a number of specialists extending
over a period of years, the native and introduced fauna is becoming better
known, though all testify to the many insect rareties as well as pests yet to
be found by almost any one who will search with patience and industry in the
rich fields offered by the wonderful variety of environments to be met with in
the islands.

Importance of the Study of Insects.

The study of the habits of insects by young people as a part of their
school work, or on their holiday excursions, is especially to be commended,
since it is sure to result in the learning of many valuable lessons that deal with
the wonders of nature. Besides being of absorbing interest to old and young,
such study may lead the enthusiast to follow a pursuit in life that offers possi-
bilities of great usefulness and benefit to all.

The tourist and visitor, however, whose conception of the islands
has been too literally based on some traveler's account wherein the
tropical forests are portrayed as "a wilderness jeweled with a myriad bril-
liant-colored butterflies/' is sure to be disappointed on his first expedition
into the mountains of Hawaii. "While they are plentifully stocked with insect
life, unfortunately from some points of view it is not of the gorgeous and
showy kind that one is wont to associate with tropical islands.

The fewT small dull-colored species the novice is able to collect on the first
day's outing are usually not such as to excite much enthusiasm for Hawaii as
an insect collector's paradise. But on careful study of the day's catch it will
be found that many of the insects belong to species that cannot be found else-
where in the world, and that many of them have habits of the most absorbing
interest. Further and more searching study of the fauna will bring to light
peculiar local representatives of almost all of the great orders of insects. When
wre consider the isolation of the islands, one is surprised to find represented
so great a proportion of the large number of families into which the world's
more than three hundred thousand known species of insects have been
•classified.

Important Destructive Species.

As there are several thousand species that are native to the islands, a few
of which are touched upon in a succeeding chapter, and since there are several
hundred that have been introduced by accident or design,1 only the briefest
notice can be taken in this chapter of a few of the more important economic
species that, for one reason or another, are liable to attract the attention of

1 As many as one hundred and thirty-six species being intercepted and prevented from landing at the
wharf during the biennial period ending December 31st, 1914.

* *• THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 381

the ordinary observer, or those persons whose occupations often bring them in
touch with things of nature.

It is a singular fact that of the large number of species peculiar to the
islands only a few are noticeably destructive to agriculture or to cultivated
exotic plants. The worst enemies of the agriculturist have been introduced
from abroad and are frequently cosmopolitan pests. They usually come with
farm produce, ornamental plants, earth and seeds. The result is that one is
liable to meet here in the islands all of the old enemies of the husbandman with
which one may be familiar in his native country, and to the list may be added
several other forms equally destructive that were before unknown to the
observer.

The number of destructive insects in the islands has led to the adoption of
the policy of controlling them whenever possible by the introduction of their
natural enemies. This p]an has been steadily pursued for almost a quarter
of a century, with the result that probably in no other country, i)articularly
when its size is considered, have so many beneficial insects been artificially
established.

Control by Natural Enemies.

As the natural enemies of most of the insects are parasites, which as very
minute insects, usually attack and feed in one way or another upon the host
species which itself is often microscopic in size, this warfare is not a very
conspicuous one, nor one liable to attract Yery much attention. However, in
the struggle being continually waged to keep the enemies of agriculture in
check in the islands, these often unseen and unknown insect friends are always
active and have already saved millions of dollars to Hawaii.

The Sugar-Cane Leaf-Hopper.

Perhaps no more remarkable example of the effectiveness of this method
of control can be found than that of the introduction of the leaf-hopper egg
parasites. The cane leaf-hopper had been known to plantation managers and
expert entomologists in the islands for a number of years, but in the early
spring of 1903 it appeared so generally throughout the cane fields and in such
numbers as to prevent the growth of the cane. It was found to be a typical
member of the leaf -hopper family (Asiracidce) , and proved to be a recent in-
troduction, probably brought with seed cane from Queensland, Australia.
Owing to its small size and inconspicuous color and habits, its spread was un-
noticed until it could be found almost wherever cane was grown.

The sugar-cane leaf -hopper 2 flies readily and is attracted long distances
by light; so besides traveling with the cane, it flew to new fields and from
one plantation to another.

A peculiar smut that developed on the lower leaves of cane attacked by
the leaf-hopper was found to grow on the "honey dew," a transparent sticky

2 Pei'kinsiella saeeharicida.

382 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

fluid exuded by the insect, and was one of the conspicuous signs of the subtle
attacks of the troublesome bug.

As the development of the insect from the egg to the adult is not divided
into definite stages, as is the ease with the butterfly for example, the young
when hatched resemble the adult, except they do not at first have wings. The
wings are acquired, however, by a process of moulting, and in due time the
insect is fully matured. The eggs, necessarily quite small are deposited along
the mid-rib of the leaf, or in exposed portions of the stalk. The place of
insertion is marked at first by a white spot with a waxy covering over the
opening. Four to six eggs are deposited in each opening; moreover, several
clusters are deposited by a single female.

As time passes the white spot, if occupied by living eggs, becomes claret-
colored. When first hatched the young are almost colorless. After some
effort they emerge from the nest and begin to feed. They continue to feed
until they develop their wings, and finally die of old age. As a rule they do
not fly when disturbed, but sidle to the opposite side of the leaf or jump to a
more secluded spot.

Scientific study of their habits shows that the first injury done to the cane
by them is wThen it is punctured for the deposition of the eggs. The puncture
produces a drain on the plant's vitality and admits various diseases through
the wound. But the most serious injury is that done by the young insects to
growing cane.

Everything that ingenuity could devise was tried to lessen the damage
done by them, but without success. The seriousness of the invasion was soon
appreciated and scientific entomologists were speedily assembled in Hawaii,
and from here sent out to all promising countries to look for the most effec-
tive natural enemies of this insect pest, a pest that had already cost hundreds
of thousands of dollars in diminished returns from this important crop. When
the entomologists went seriously to work they found a number of natural ene-
mies of the hopper. But in choosing the most desirable and efficient one, they
had to consider their effectiveness, the possibility of their transportation, the
probability of their thriving, and the rate of increase to be expected when they
were once established.

It wTas found for the work to be done that certain little egg parasites were
very promising, since they completed their life cycle every three weeks the
year round, and the greater part of those produced were females. With
such habits it was plain that within a very few months after the original col-
onies were liberated, thousands of millions of descendants of the original stock
would be at work searching out the spots on the cane where the leaf -hoppers
had deposited eggs, and in turn depositing their own eggs in them in such a
way that the young of the parasite would feed xipon and kill the eggs of the leaf-
hopper before they had time to develop.

When the proper data had been secured, the egg parasites were imported
into Hawaii, the species carefully studied in captivity, and the young parasites

- THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 383

liberated on all the important plantations. Science was thus again called to
the aid of the planters, as it had been many times before, and the experiment
worked out has been so successful that the effects of the leaf -hopper on the
cane crop of Hawaii is almost a negligible quantity. The outbreak is now
under control, and the whole industry saved and restored to its normal con-
dition.

The Sugar-Cane Borer.

The search for the parasites feeding on the almost equally destructive
sugar-cane borer3 has been a thrilling scientific adventure. Happily, after
years of search, Dr. Frederick Muir was rewarded by the discovery, and sub-
sequently succeeded in the successful introduction into Hawaii, of parasites to
prey upon this most destructive insect.

Lantana Insects.

Examples of the controlling of injurious insects by introducing their insect
enemies might be multiplied at length, but one more instance, of a somewhat dif-
ferent nature, in which insects were used to combat the spread of an injurious
plant must suffice. A great many years ago (1858) the common Lantana,4 a na-
tive plant of the subtropical regions of South America, but elsewhere cultivated
extensively as a green-house or ornamental shrub, was introduced into Hawaii as a
garden plant. In course of time the mynah bird, which was likewise introduced,
made the discovery that the small blue-black aromatic berries of the Lantana
were edible. As a result, in a very few7 years this hardy plant had been spread
broadcast to all parts of the group by these birds. Thousands of acres of
what was formerly open pasture land became completely choked with the rank
growth, while even in the lower forests it grew several feet in height, often
forming an almost impenetrable, though beautiful, flowering jungle.

Although the plant was regarded as beneficial by reason of its power to
force its long roots down deep into the earth, thereby loosening the soil and
furnishing to it a large amount of humus as fertilizer, its inroads into pasture
and tillable land became so marked and persistent as to cause it to be regarded
as a serious scourge. Entomologists began to look into the natural enemies of
the plant, and before long had found a number of insects and fungus parasites
that naturally fed on the Lantana, preferring it to any other food.

By far the most important among these is the Lantana seed-fly,5 which is
a small black two-wing insect, the maggot of which lives in and destroys the
seed. So perfectly has it done its work that in favorable localities it is diffi-
cult to find a seed that has not been killed by this insect. This is of great
importance, for if land is once cleared of Lantana it will not grow7 again,
though unfortunately guava often springs up to take its place.

The Lantana plume-moth,0 a small brown moth about a half inch in

3 Rhabdocnemis = (Sphenophorus) obscurus. 4 Lantana Camara. 5 Agromyza sp.

6 Platyptilia sp.

, - THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 385

expanse, is also an important species in destroying Lantana, as it lays its eggs
at the base of the flower cluster. On hatching, the minute caterpillar digs a
tunnel under the flowers and attacks and destroys them. The work of this
species on the flowers is supplemented by the work of two species of Lantana
butterflies7 of the family8 of gossamer-winged butterflies, both of which lay
their eggs on the flowers so that the young worms may feed on the blossoms and
fleshy seed. These caterpillars are so abundant among the Lantana of the
low lands that they occur in almost every flower. The larger species 9 has
delicate tails on the hind wings ; the smaller species 10 is without the tails.

The Lantana leaf -miner11 is a moth that is also effective, since it develops
in the leaves up to the pupa or resting stage. Often as many as a half dozen
of these miners occur in a single leaf and thus produce a serious drain on the
plant's vitality. A second leaf pest is the Lantana leaf -bug,12 which, being a
true bug, sucks its food. The young frequent the under side of the leaf and
are very destructive during the dry season. The Lantana gall-fly13 also does
much damage to the pest host by laying its eggs in the stem of the plant. These
form galls that further impair the plant's growth.

All of these insects were introduced for a definite purpose under the direc-
tion of the distinguished entomologist Mr. A. Koebele, and none of them have
been observed to attack other plants. This is the first example in the world
of the introduction of insects to prevent the spread of a plant. As time
passes, the success of this delicate and difficult piece of scientific work is more
and more fully appreciated by scientists as well as citizens. It furnishes
science with another convincing example of the value of the study of ento-
mology, and indicates the power of the subtle influences in nature with which the
biologist is wont to deal.

The Maui Blight.

In speaking of Lantana insects, it is only just to say that the Lantana
blight or Lantana scale 14 or Maui blight, which is the great tea pest of
southern Asia, was not introduced by Mr. Koebele. It was first found at
Wailuku, on Maui, in 1889. In 1904 it was noted on Lantana on the wind-
ward side of the Pali, on Oahu. Since then it has spread even into Honolulu,

7 Theela spp. 8 Lyca>?ii<hv. ° T heel a eehion. 1<) Thecla agra.

11 Cremastobombycia lantanella Busok. 12 Theleonenria hintunte. 13 Eutreta spursa.

14 Orthezia insignia.

DESCKN'TION OF PJjATK.

1. Maui Blight or Lantana Scale (Orthezia. hisifjuis) on Lantana. "A well known
greenhouse pest of Europe and America. First observed on Maui, though not known by whom
or how introduced. Apparently a powerful enemy of Lantana, but unfortunately is destructive
also to a large variety of ornamental plants." 2. Excrement of American Toad (Bufo colum-
biensis). The Toad feeds very largely on the Japanese beetle. 3. Florida Red Scale
(Chrysomphalus fictis) on Citrus and Palm leaves. 4. Imported enemies of the Lantana
showing: (a) seed destroyed by fly; (b) and (c) butterflies whose young eat flowers and
leaves; (d) moth whose young eats the flowers; (e) injury caused by the leaf -miner; (f)
moth of the leaf-miner;, (g) its pupa; (h) the Lantana leaf -bug; (i) the gall and (j) the
fly producing it. 5. Pineapple scale (Diaspis bromelice) on pineapple leaves. 6. Australian
Ladybird beetles introduced into Hawaii.

386 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

where it occurs as a pest on a number of ornamental plants, most noticeably on
the species of Gardenia and Coleus.

The scale has a white body and black head, and its presence induces the
growth of a sooty mould so that everything it overruns turns black, often
leaving whole fields of Lantana leaves in a blackened condition as though run
through by fire. It is a decidedly beneficial parasite working against Lantana,
and were it not for its unfortunate tendency to spread to beneficial and orna-
mental plants, it would have been credited with a large share of the laurels
due the insects that have given man the control over this plant pest.

The effect of the Maui blight on Lantana-ridden pasture land was early
recognized by ranchmen, and it is said by some that they very unwisely aided
in its spread to new fields and to different islands. Fortunately, as yet it has
done more good than harm, though there are many who are fearful of what
it may do in the future.

Of the effort of man to secure control over the Lantana in Hawaii, it can
be said that the work done by scientific men in seeking out, introducing, breed-
ing and spreading the natural enemies of this noxious plant has been singu-
larly successful ; so successful, indeed, that everywhere in the group the pest
has been arrested in its invasion of the land, while in certain localities Lantana
has been completely routed by its minute enemies. Brilliant and successful
as has been the Lantana campaign, there is unfortunately a long list of intro-
duced insect pests15 for which, in spite of the fact that persistent search has
been made to secure them, there seems to be no known effective natural para-
sitic or predaeeous enemy.

The Mediterranean Fruit-Fly.

As one of the most recent as well as the most troublesome introductions
in this class, the Mediterranean fruit-fly 1G may well be mentioned, as there is
scarcely a fruit grown in Hawaii that is not attacked by this pest. It is about
the size of a common house-fly ; the body is yellowish, the eyes of a reddish-
purple tint, and the back and wings variously marked with blotches and lines
of black, yellow and dirty white. The home of the species is supposed
to be about the Mediterranean, perhaps in Africa, from whence it has been
distributed by commerce to many lands, among them Australia. From Aus-
tralia the fly has doubtless been introduced into Hawaii.

The eggs are inserted by the female fly in the various kinds of fruit when
they are just turning ripe. By the time the fruit is ripe the white wriggling
maggot is ready to emerge. Leaving the fruit, it burrows in the ground a short
distance and forms for itself a wheat-shaped pupa ease from which it emerges
in a few days as an adult.

The species was first noticed in Honolulu during the summer of 1910. By
the summer of 1912 it had spread to all the large islands of the group and is
now common wherever fruit is grown.

Among them many that are exceedingly troublesome. 16 Ceratitis eapitata.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 387

Melon-Fly.

A somewhat larger and handsomer, though similar appearing fly pest, is
the melon-fly.17 It was first noticed on Oahu as long ago as 1897, and since
that time has succeeded in doing for the melons and fleshy vegetables what the
fruit-fly has done for the fruit of the islands. They not only infest the fruit,
but the vines as well, and as there is an abundant variety of plants on which
they feed, they ravage the truck gardens throughout the year.

The Horn-Fly and Other Injurious Flies.

The horn fly18 is a pest of the live stock of the islands; the damage it
does is of equal rank with the fruit and melon-flies. It was introduced from
California in 1897, and within a year had spread throughout the group. In
the years that have passed it has bred uninterruptedly, and the annoyance
caused by its blood-sucking habits has been felt by all the live stock on the
Hawaiian ranches. Owing to its vicious bite, a loss of hundreds of thousands
of dollars has been sustained by ranchmen through the shrinkage in weight of
animals to be sent to market.

Other flies that have more or less economic importance are the stable fly ;lf>
the horse bot-fly,20 found on horses or about stables; the sheep-head maggot
fly;21 two flesh flies;22 two bluebottle flies;23 the sheep-maggot fly21 on sheep;
and warble-flies of two species 25 on cattle. The familiar house fly 2C is every-
where present and in some localities abundant, though it is kept in control by
parasites 27 that make it their host, and to some extent doubtless by certain
species of ants.

Mosquitoes.

With the flies as members of the great order Dipt era, should be considered
the representatives of the mosquito family. Of these, three important mos-
quitoes, the night mosquito 28 and the two day mosquitoes, one 2!) with two
white stripes on each side of the thorax, and the other 30 with one white stripe
on the thorax, are common in the islands. They are so abundant in certain
localites as to be the principal source of man's discomfort in Hawaii. So far
they have not themselves become innoculated with the diseases which else-
where they transmit from one person to another, producing, in the case of one
of the day mosquitoes,81 the dreaded yellow fever of tropical and subtropical
countries. Through the introduction of natural enemies, as the mosquito fish,
frogs, dragon flies and the like, in connection with the various campaigns to do
away with standing water, which is their natural breeding place, all of the
species have been materially reduced in numbers in Honolulu, but they are

17 Daeus cncurbitce. 1S Hcematobia serruta. 1B Stomoxys calritrans. 20 Gastrophilvs equi.

21 (Estrus oris. 22 Sarcophaga barbata and S. pallinervis, the latter with a red tip to the abdomen.

23 The European bluebottle, Lucilia sericata. and the American species, L. ccesar. 2i Oestrus oris.

2^ Hypoderma bovis and II. lineata. 2<J Musca domestica.

27 Eucoila impatiens, the stable fiy parasite, and Sp< langia hirta. "8 Culex fatigans.

29 Stegomyia fasciata (Fabr) = S.* ealopus (Meigen). 30 Stegomyia scvtellaris (Walk.).

31 S. Scutellaria.

388 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

far from being under the complete control that it was hoped would be
possible.

It is asserted on the best authority that mosquitoes were unknown in
Hawaii previous to the year 1826, when the night flying species was brought
from San Bias, Mexico, to the port of Lahaina, on Maui, by the ship " Welling-
ton. " Prior to the above date the Hawaiians had no word for mosquito.
They almost immediately adopted the corruption "makika" as the native name
of the insect. The day mosquitoes have been introduced during the present
generation, but there is no definite record of the exact date.

Sugar-Cane Insects.

While mention has been made of the sugar-cane borer and the sugar-cane
leaf-hopper as the most important pests of sugar-cane, it is not to be assumed
that there are no others. As a matter of fact, there are more than sixteen
insects liable to do more or less damage to the growing crop. Among them are
four beetles.32 The cane borer, a species which is known elsewhere, and is
either an importation of man or a natural immigrant, as it is also found in the
banana, pandanus, eocoanut palm and under stones in the mountains, is the
most important of this order. The long-horned beetle 33 attacks the cane only
accidentally, as its natural food is the decaying wood of forest trees, while a
small borer,34 and a nitidulid beetle,35 which breeds in the parts injured by
the mealy-bugs and plant lice, complete the list of beetles. There are three
caterpillars,30 including the sugar-cane leaf-roller.37 Besides the leaf -rollers,
the well-known troublesome peelua,38 or grass army-worm, occurs occasionally
in the cane. It is very troublesome in grass land at all seasons, occurring in
millions of individuals at irregular intervals, working great havoc in pasture
lands. The four-banded fly of the family Ortalidce 3i) is sometimes found about
injured cane. The grasshopper family 40 has four representatives, the African
mole-cricket 41 being the most troublesome. They are blackish-brown insects
an inch or more in length, that are peculiarly fitted for living in the ground.
The front legs are modified to serve as very powerful spades and are used in
much the same way that the common mole uses its fore paws. The mole
cricket feeds on the tender roots of various plants, and where they are abun-
dant become very destructive. Two species of grasshoppers, one the short-
horned grasshopper 42 which was introduced about 1878, the other the long-
horned species,43 the latter species appearing first in Pauoa Valley about 1898,
but now present in the cane fields, as well as elsewhere, feed to some extent on
the succulent growth. The black beetle-roach, cypress roach 44 or ground
cockroach, does some slight damage also.

As a matter of fact, two species of leaf -hopper that occurred in the
islands prior to 1892 are found in the cane fields. They are known to have

*'2 Cole opt era. 8» .Kgosoma reflect uw. •'" Haptoueim sp. 35 Hypothenew us sp. 86 Lepidoptera.

37 Ominde* aecepta. and probably allied speck's. 3S Spodoptem mauritia. 39 Perhaps Euxesta anrtone.
40 Orthoptera. 41 G njUotalpa ofricana. *- ()xi/a relnx.
43 Xiphidium fuscum = Xiphidium raripenne. ** Eleutheroda dytiscoides.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 389

been imported, however, as they bear no resemblance to the great order of
true bugs 45 that occur in the forests. The one previously mentioned, in which
the wings do not touch each other down the back, and the corn leaf-hopper,40
having the wings folded closely together on the back, are the important forms.
A gray sugar-cane mealy-bug,47 a pink sugar-cane mealy-bug,48 and a plant-
louse known as the sugar-cane aphis *9 are also members of the same great
order.50 They are injurious locally, and though their relatives are more or less
readily kept in check on other vegetation, the latter species, when it occurs on
cane, hides at the base of the leaves and is almost inaccessible.

It will be seen that some of these pests bore into the stem of the cane,
some eat or cut the underground roots or stems, some eat the leaves, some suck
the juice from the leaves and stems, and some feed on the parts left after other
species have had their fill. Yet in spite of the formidable list of enemies and
the diverse lines of attack which they pursue, some of the best and most favor-
ably located plantations are able to harvest as much as thirteen tons of raw
sugar of the finest quality from an acre of this seemingly pest-ridden plant.

Aphids or Plant-Lice.

The sugar-cane aphis,51 since it probably occurs throughout the islands
where cane is grown, may well be taken as the type of its family.52 The
aphids are minute insects with more than twenty species already known in the
islands, all of which have been introduced.

Most of the species of plant-lice or aphids in Hawaii occur on well-known
or imported plants, and were doubtless imported with their host plants. They
are inconspicuous but are very injurious on account of their numbers and
their juice-sucking habits. They make up in numbers for what they lack in
size, and must be recognized as among the greatest pests with which the
farmer, gardener and horticulturist has to contend.

The plant-lice and aphids are minute, soft, pulpy little creatures with
rather long antennae and conspicuous round eyes ; they are commonly seen
crowded together on the ends of stems, the under side of leaves, in buds and
flowers, in clefts in the bark and sometimes even on the roots of plants. Their
fore wings are longer than the hind pair and repose roof-like over the hind
part of the body. While the majority of them are green in color, they vary
greatly, being brown, black, red, yellow, and variegated. They are usually
named after the plant on which they occur most abundantly. As a rule, though
not always, they confine their attacks to a single species of plant. Among
the more noticeable species in Hawaii we find the banana aphis,53 the fern
aphis,54 the palm aphis,55 the rose aphis,50 the corn aphis,57 the violet aphis,58
the orange aphis59 on citrus fruit generally, the chrysanthemum aphis,00 the

45 Hemiptera. 46 Peregrines maidis. 4" Pseudocoeeus saccharifolii. 48 Pseudocoeeus sacehari.

49 Aphis sacehari. 50 Hemiptera. 5l Aphis sacehari. 52 Aphidce. 53 Pentalonia vigronervosa.

54 1 diopter us nephrolepidis. 55 Cerataphis lantanicr. m Macrosiphum rosw. D7 Aphis maidis.

58 Rhopalosiphum viola*. 50 Muzus citricidus. 60 Macrosiphum sanborni.

390 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

coffee aphis/51 the bamboo aphis,02 and the cotton aphis,63 occurring on cotton,
Hibiscus, cucumber, taro, Portulaca and several other common plants.

The life history of the plant-lice is very interesting, but is exceedingly
complicated. Although it differs somewhat in different species, it is always
characterized by what is known as an alteration of generations. Thus several
broods or generations of a species will appear during the year. Usually the
young spring from eggs laid by a female capable of producing fertile eggs
without the intervention of males. The females of some species give birth to
living young instead of laying eggs. The true males are generally though
not always provided with wings, but the true sexual female always has wings
which enable her to carry her eggs to a distance and establish a new colony.
Several wingless broods will follow one another parthenogenetically, when in
course of time true sex individuals will appear °4 and mate, and the females go
elsewhere to establish new colonies. A little study and calculation will show
that millions of individuals may result from a single fertilized female in the
course of a very few months.

The aphids, as wTell as many other insects, especially the leaf-hoppers,
have the power of secreting a viscous saccharine substance called honey-dew.
This they deposit on the surface of the leaves and stems of plants. It thus
happens that the sugar-cane aphis and the sugar-cane leaf-hopper have been
directly responsible for the increase in the production of honey in Hawaii,
as the bees are very fond of this sweetish deposit and gather thousands and
thousands of pounds of it annually. In fact, the bees gather so much of this
substance that it has been necessary to give to this class of honey from these
islands the distinctive name of "Hawaiian honey-dew honey," since honey-
dew enters so largely into the composition of the local product. However,
algaroba flowers furnish an immense amount of fine-flavored honey that finds
a ready market here and elsewhere.

CHAPTER XXXI.

IMPORTANT ECONOMIC INSECTS: PART TWO.
Scale Insects.

The family of scale insects l includes the mealy-bugs and scale-bugs, or
bark-lice. Like the aphids, they were practically all introduced into Hawaii
with some of the host plants on which they are found. They owe their name
to the fact that the females of many species look like oval or rounded scales
attached to the bark, stems or roots of plants. The sexes are very dissimilar.
The adult males, though very rarely seen, are provided with one pair of func-
tional wings, the hind pair being rudimentary. They have rather long an-

11 Toxoptera aurantice. 02 Aphis bambusm. 63 Aphis gossypii. 04 Usually in the autumn.

1 Coccidce.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 391

tennse and distinct eyes. The females are always wingless and generally,
though not always, remain fixed at some one spot. In many species the
female soon dies, leaving her body as a protection over the eggs until the
young have hatched and begin to rove about in search of food, which they
secure by puncturing the plant and sucking up the sap.

Scale insects are more numerous within the tropics than in the more tem-
perate regions. They multiply rapidly and are very injurious to plant
life. They infest a large number of fruit and ornamental trees in the
islands, and are already firmly established, with representatives of most if not
all the more injurious species found on the mainland, as well as from Aus-
tralia and the Orient. In spite of the precautions taken to prevent their im-
portation, along with other injurious insects, new species occasionally gain
an entrance, and it is to be expected that they will continue to arrive in the
future.

Like the aphids, their common name is generally derived from the plant
infested by them, or at least the one on which they were first discovered or on
which they are most prevalent ; but it may also refer to the color or shape or
some peculiarity of the insect. In addition to the sugar-cane mealy-bug
already noted, we have the avocado mealy-bug,2 occurring on avocado, fig
grape, guava, mulberry, soursop, asparagus, etc. ; the ivy scale,3 the oleander
white-scale,4 occurring on oleander, mango, banana and avocado ; the avocado
scale 5 and pineapple scale,6 occurring also on the Canna, Hibiscus, and a list
of such plants. The last species may be readily distinguished from the Pine
apple mealy-bug,7 which is a larger insect with a soft body that is white all
over and is provided with well-developed legs. The cottony guava-scale 8 is
found on coffee, citrus fruit, etc. ; the black scale 9 on sisal and Ceara rubber ;
the cotton or globular mealy-bug,10 on cotton, grape, citrus fruit, mulberry
and other plants; the citrus or common mealy-bug,11 which is one of the com-
mon, though by no means the only species of the class infesting citrus fruit in
the islands.

Other citrus scales worthy of mention are the Florida red-scale,12 which
also infests bananas, mangoes and palm trees, including the cocoanut ; the
green-scale 13 and two or three other species. The large cottony-scale 14 infests
coffee, mangoes, oranges and ferns. The flat black-scale 15 occurs on the
banana, fig, pepper tree and Ceara rubber. The hemispherical scale 10 and
palm mealy-bug 17 are species found on the palms. Others found on the plants
for which they are named are the rose scale,18 the peach scale,19 the pepper-
tree scale,20 also found on wild guava ; the bamboo scale,21 the croton scale,22
the pit or algaroba scale,23 the cottony-cushion or fluted scale,24 on the black
wattle. The list might easily be extended, but the foregoing will be sufficient

2 Pseudocoecus nipce. s Aspidiotus hederm. 4 Phenacaspis eugenics.

5 Aspidiotus persearum. ° Diaspis bromelim, 7 Pseudocoecus bromelim. 8 Pulvinaria psidii.

9 Saissetia olem. 10 Pseudocoecus filamentosus. lx Pseudocoecus citri.
12 (Jhrysomphalus ficus — Chrpsomphalus aonidum. 13 Coccus viridis. 14 Pulvinaria mammece.
15 Saissetia nigra. 10 Saissetia hemisphenica. 17 Pseudocoecus sp. 18 Aulacaspis rosce.

19 Aulacaspis pentagona. 20 Aspidiotus lantanim. 21 Aster olecanium miliaris.

22 Lepidosaphes pallida. 2Z Aster olecanium pustulans. 24 I eery a purchasi.

/■ i

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 393

to show that the scale insect life of Hawaii levies a heavy tax on plant growth
in the islands.

Fortunately, the experience of the orange growers of California in their
successful attempts at curbing the invasion of a scale 25 which had been acci-
dentally introduced from. Australia and had spread with great rapidity, was
turned to account in Hawaii. The plan of checking injurious insects by their
natural enemies in that State, in the above instance, was so signally successful
that Mr. A. Koebele, who was in charge of the wTork, was induced to come to
the islands to put into operation the natural enemy method of warfare which
has since won many brilliant battles against the injurious insect pests in the
interest of the Territory.

The Ladybird Beetles.

Under Mr. Koebele 's guidance, with the aid of his associates, many bene-
ficial insects have been brought to Hawaii from the most remote quarters of
the earth. Few, however, have been more generally useful in their habits than
those of the ladybird beetle26 family. The "ladybirds" as they are familiarly
known, are small, more or less hemispherical beetles that vary greatly in color,
but most often are red, yellow, black or steely blue, and are usually, though
not always, mottled or spotted with bright colors. The larvie are sometimes
spotted, but more commonly are marked with warts and spines. There are
more than a thousand species, some of which are found in the native fauna of
almost every part of the world except Hawaii. As most of the species are
predaceous, both in the adult and larval form, and are especially fond of the
plant aphids, mealy bugs and scales, their introduction into the islands has
been going on steadily for .years. A long list has been liberated, and the indi-
viduals have established themselves to such an extent that there is scarcely
an ornamental plant, fruit or shade tree in Hawaii on which these useful
insects cannot be found by a close observer, at some time during the day. The
more common species have suggestive, descriptive names that aid the observer
in his efforts to identify the insects at sight. Among those easily recognized
are the yellow-shouldered ladybird,27 the ten-spotted ladybird,28 the vedalia
ladybird,29 which was first successfully introduced from Australia into Cali-
fornia to feed on the fluted scale, and from there brought to Hawaii as early as

25 Icerya purchasi. 26 Coccinellidm. 27 Platyomus lividig aster. 2S Coelophora pupillata.

29 Novius cardinalis.

Description of Plate.

1. Kamehameha Butterfly (Vanessa tammeamea). 2.* Kamehamelia Butterfly (Vanessa
tammeamea) inverted. 3. Cabbage Butterly (Pontia rapw). 4. Cabbage Butterfly (Pontia
rapw) inverted. 5. Dragon Fly (Anax Junius). 6. Pantala flavescem. 7. Sympetrum
Maclcburni. 8. Periplaneta americana. 9. Oxya velox. 10. Brachymetopa discolor, 11.
Xyphidium varipenne. 12. AtraetomorpM crenaticeps. 13. Elimwa appendiculata. 14.
Paratenodera sinensis; (Egg case). 15. Paratenodera sinensis. 16. Gryllotalpa africana.
17. Leucophwa surinanesis. 18. Eleutheroda dytiscoides. 19. Euthyrrhapha paciiica. 20.
Phyllodromia Meroglyhica. 21. Eleutheroda dytiscoides. 22. Eleutheroda dytiscoides;
(Nymph). 23. Gryllodes poeyi. 24. Periphaneta australasice. 25. Atractomorpha crenati-
eeps.

24

394 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

1887; the steel-blue ladybird,30 the ocherous ladybird,31 the eight-marked lady-
bird32 and the mealy-bug or "Brownie" ladybird.33

The Japanese Beetle.

While the ladybirds belong to a family in the order of beetles,34 and are
among the most beneficial members of that great order, they are by no means
so typical in appearance as is the injurious Japanese beetle,35 which is an ex-
ceedingly troublesome and aggressive pest in orchards, gardens and door-
yards. By reason of its ravenous appetite for the leaves of certain plants, espe-
cially roses, foliage plants, strawberries, grapes, cotton, tobacco, certain grasses
and a long list of other cultivated trees, shrubs and plants, it is one of Hawaii's.
wrorst introduced pests.

They are ordinary-looking, grayish-brown beetles, a little over a half inch
in length, with a broad flat head. They are night feeders, hiding by day under
the loose earth about the roots of plants and under boards and rubbish. Many
attempts have been made to rid the country of this pest since it first became
troublesome about 1890. Perhaps the most successful enemy has been a certain
fungus that has now been well distributed to all parts of the group. Like all
fungi, it is a plant of low order which grows in threads.36 After a certain
period of growth some of these threads "fruit," producing small sacks packed
full of minute granules known as spores. The spores are very light and small,
and are blown about or carried by birds and insects. Some fungi are inju-
rious, especially such species as grow on the mango and the coffee, but the
one in question is beneficial, since it grows in the body of the Japanese rose
beetle and, if conditions are favorable as to moisture and so on, it will event-
ually kill the insect. Dead beetles show the whitish or greenish fungi about
the numerous joints of the body and legs. In a few7 days after death the spores
develop and the fungus turns greenish and the disease is then readily commu-
nicated from the dead infected insects to healthy ones.

The disease can be easily distributed by simply capturing a supply of
beetles and placing them in a secure box partly filled with moist earth. The
box should be set in a cool, shady place and the insects fed on any of the
wTeeds or plants of which they are fond. When they die and the greenish mold
appears, the dead beetles should be mixed together with dry earth and sand
and distributed about the garden or under bushes attacked by the beetles.

Fuller's Rose Beetle,

Fuller's rose-beetle,37 or the "Maui" or "Olinda" beetle, introduced from
America, is an oval black snout-beetle about a half inch in length that, by
reason of the extensive range of its food plants of native and introduced
species, makes it a serious pest. The only parasite so far a known is the
larva? of a certain click beetle introduced to feed upon it. Toads have doubt-

30 Orciis rhalt/hcus. 31 Chilocorus circumdutus. S2 Coelophora inmqualis.
a:i Crypt nhv mutt mnntruuzicri. a* Coleoptera. 35 Adoretus tenuimaculat-us. 86 Mycelia.

i7Aramiyus fulUwi.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 395

less had a beneficial effect, however, and the pest is not so serious as in former
years.

Many species of smaller introduced beetles do more or less damage to
various cultivated plants or stored commodities. Among' the more common, or
those liable to attract attention, are the rice weevil,38 the coffee-bean weevil,30
the rust-red flour beetle 40 on rice, the sisal weevil ;41 the eadelle beetle,42 a
whitish grub destructive to stored products, as rice; the tobacco leaf -beetle,43
the carpet beetle,44 the cigarette beetle;45 the mango weevil,46 supposed to have
been introduced in 1903 ; the bean weevil,47 the common ground beetle,48 the
algaroba bean weevil,49 and the algaroba pod weevil,50 both feeding on alga-
roba beans. In addition there are long-horned beetles of several species on
algaroba, black wattle and various other trees, as well as numerous species of
bark beetles — but a sufficient number have been enumerated to indicate the
nature of the imported pests in this order of insects.

Leaf-Rolling Moths.

Mention has been made of the sugar-cane leaf-roller 51 as an injurious moth
belonging to the order Lepidoptera. With it might be considered the cocoanut
leaf-roller,52 which is especially destructive to the cocoanut leaves, and the
common banana leaf-roller,53 one of the four species that infest the banana
plants to some extent. All three are native species belonging to a genus of
twelve or more species of fair-sized, brown moths that occur in Hawaii and
nowhere else, and that are peculiar in their leaf-rolling habits. The larva* or
caterpillar of all species are very similar in appearance, varying in size in
proportion to the adult. They feed voraciously on the green leaves during the
period of growth and fold the leaf by fastening two portions together with
silken threads. When full grown, which requires three or four weeks usually,
they change to the pupa within the folded leaf and remain dormant for one or
two weeks.

The ragged, unsightly edges on palm leaves, especially of the cocoanut
palm, is the result of the work of this leaf-roller. As it is abundant, and the
largest species of the genus, it is readily collected and studied. The egg
masses, with thirty to eighty eggs in a cluster, are placed along the midrib
on the new leaves as they open. As from four to six broods are reared in a
year, the work of defoliation continues as rapidly as the palm puts out new
leaves. The mynah bird is very fond of the larva? of the palm leaf-roller and
without doubt helps to reduce their numbers.

The bean leaf-roller 54 feeds on several species of native beans, including
the wiliwili, and to some extent on garden beans. In feeding they hold the
leaves together with a silken thread and eat the inner surface of the leaf,
leaving the outer surface undisturbed.

Some of the species of this genus, including the sugar-cane leaf-roller, are

38 Calandra or y zee. 39Arwcesit.s fasciculatus. *° Tribolium ferrugineum. 4l Pseudolus longulus.

42 Tenebroides muritanicus. 43 Epitrix parvula. 4i Anthrenus scrophularim.

45 Lasioderma serricorne. 46 Cryptorhynchus mangifercc. 47 Bruchus prosopis.

48 Ompatrum serratum. 49 Bruchus prosopis. 50 Caryoborus gonagra. B1 Omiodes accepta.

52 Omiodes blackburni. 53 Omiodes meyricki. 54 Omiodes monogona.

396 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

grass feeders, while two species feed exclusively on sedges. The genus Omiodes
have been extensively studied by economic entomologists, who find the cater-
pillars of the species are attacked by a number of parasites, some of which are
native, but several of the most valuable have been introduced. The cane leaf-
roller and the palm leaf-roller are the two most injurious species. The para-
sites do much good, but at certain seasons, especially in winter, and in certain
localities the caterpillars get the start of their enemies, and one or two broods
appear before parasites are abundant enough to cheek them.

Sometimes as high as ninety per cent of the caterpillars are found to be
parasitized. One might ask, "Why are they not completely exterminated or,
at least, why do they continue to do so much damage?" The answer seems
to be that, although they have many enemies that prey upon them, they are
still prolific enough to overbalance their enemies. It is difficult to estimate
the damage they would do were they entirely free from their burden of
parasites.

Cutworms.

Cutworms of various species are a serious agricultural drawback, as they
attack corn, tobacco, cotton, cabbage, wheat and other useful plants, nipping
the young plants off at the surface of the ground before they have fairly started.
There are several species of these night marauders, but they all belong to a
family of owlet moths or Noctuids (Noctuidce), one of the largest groups of
the order Lepidoptera. They feed at night in the larval stage and fly by night
in the adult stage, often being attracted by lights. The fact that their eyes
shine brighly in a dim light and that they are seldom seen in the daytime has
resulted in the popular name for the adults, while the unfortunate habit of the
larva* has given them the unenviable name of cutworms. The species are
mostly small-sized, dull-colored moths. The most troublesome species in Ha-
waii are the widely-known and doubtless introduced black or corn cutworm 55
with the hind wings greenish; and a second species, a large native cutworm,56
with fuscous-colored hind wings, both being plentiful on corn and other field
crops. A third species known as the small native cutworm 57 is also common.
They are kept in check in Hawaii to some extent by their natural enemies,
which include both parasites and birds, but as there are two or three dozen
native species, the caterpillars of all of which resemble each other and have
similar habits, it is difficult to identify the spices that feeds on the various
crops and weeds, even when adult specimens are secured.

Army-Worms.

The widely-known army-worm,58 wdth its cousins the grass army-worms,59
at times do much damage to grass and forage crops. They appear in great
numbers occasionally, and after destroying the vegetation in the field where

B5Agrotis ypsilon 56 Agrotis crinigera. B7 Agrotis dislocata. B8 He-liophila unipuncta.
69 Spodoptera mauritia and Spodoptera exigua.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 397

they hatch from the eggs, they march like an army to other fields. The worm
of the common species, which occurs in America and elsewhere, is an inch and
a half in length when full grown and is striped with black, yellow and green.
The adult moth is dull brown in color, marked in the center of each fore-wing
with a small distinct white spot. The two species of grass army-worms occur-
ring here are widely distributed, especially in the Pacific islands and con-
tinents.

The Hau Moth.

The hau moth 60 is also a wide-ranging species occurring in Africa, south
Asia and Fiji. It can scarcely be separated by the layman from another more
local species. However, as it confines its depredations quite closely to the
hau and allied plants, it can be recognized as the small brown moth which
develops from the caterpillar that feeds so voraciously on the leaves of that
picturesque tree. Its principal enemy is an ichneumon fly that destroys them
by depositing its eggs in the body of the caterpillar.

Loopers.

Several species of measuring worms or span worms, belonging to the
family Hydriomenidce, occur in the islands. The koa is often attacked by
them and the trees seriously defoliated, but so far as known they are not a
serious economic pest. A species of the group Plusiadce, known as the com
looper,01 or green garden looper or owlet moth, attacks wheat and corn and
other plants, often fraying the leaves to a considerable extent.

The larvse of the kolu-bush moth G2 are to be found in the pods which
follow the beautiful little golden ball-like blossoms. They feed upon the seed
and doubtless keep this thorny shrub from spreading as rapidly as it otherwise
would.

The Silkworm.

An exceedingly useful insect, long ago introduced into Hawaii, is the silk-
worm.03 The first specimens were imported by the missionaries with a view
to encouraging the natives to take up this form of productive occupation. The
experiment was given up, however, before anything definite came of it. Some
say that the pious and faithful observance of the Sabbath as taught by the
Christian fathers prevented the natives from gathering the fresh leaves to
feed the worms on that day.

More recent experiments have proved beyond a doubt that silk of a good
quality can be produced in Hawaii with as little effort as in any silk country
in the world. The mulberry, especially the wrhite mulberry,64 does well in
Hawaii. As the leaves of this plant are the favorite food of the worms, it is
anticipated that silk culture will yet flourish in the islands as one of the home
occupations for the employment of women and children.

60 Cosmophila sabulifera. 61 Plusia chalcites. 62 Cryptophlebia illepida. 63 Bombyx mori.
ei Morns alba.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 399

The newly-hatched larvae of the silkworm is black or dark gray and cov-
ered with long, stiff hairs. But as the worm moults it becomes lighter and
lighter in color until during the last of the larval period it is creamy white.
The cocoon is spun by the worm about itself as a protection and a retreat in
which to pupate. It ranges in color through several shades of white, green
cream and rose, and varies greatly in size. To secure the silk the cocoons
are heated in wrater or in an oven until the insect is killed; the end of the
thread is then secured and the cocoon unwound. The adult insect is a beau-
tiful creamy white moth with two or more distinct brownish lines across the
fore wing, and writh the abdomen and thorax thickly covered with wooly scales.

From two to three thousand years before the Christian era, probably five
thousand years ago, the silkworm was well and favorably known in the Far
East where, in China, silk culture was a well-established industry.

The Cabbage Butterfly.

The slender green cabbage-worm in clue time becomes a cabbage-butter-
fly,05 and is the white butterfly commonly seen about gardens in the islands.
It was doubtless introduced from America, where it has long been an intro-
duced pest. It was first observed in the islands about 1900, and is therefore
known as the imported cabbage worm. The species is kept under control in
Hawaii by parasites, among them a very minute fiy.0G

The Sweet Potato Horn- Worm.

A conspicuous insect, liable to attract attention, first in the larval state, as
the large green or brownish horn-worm on sweet potato, and certain morning-
glory vines, and later as the humming-bird moth that flies about our electric
lights, is in reality the sweet potato sphinx-moth or sweet potato horn-worm.67
The worm-like caterpillars often attain a length of three or four inches and
are voracious feeders, stripping the leaves from the plants infested. The moth,
by reason of its size and the whirring noise produced by its wings, is usually
called the humming-bird moth. It measures about three and a half inches
across the extended wings, and is the largest common moth in the islands.

The Cotton Boll- Worm.

The cotton plant in Hawaii, if it successfully survives the attacks of stem
maggots, wireworms, cutworms, aphids, Japanese beetles, mealy bugs, scales
and leaf-rolling caterpillars is liable at last to the attacks of the pink cotton

05 Pieris rapm. 66 Tachinid. 67 Protoparce = (Sphinx) convolvuli.

DESCRIPTION' OF PLATE.

1. Sphinx, or Humming-bird Moth (Sphinx convolvuli) . 2. Deilephila lineata. 3, Deile-
phila cali da. 4. Agrotis crinigera. 5. Pyralis mauritialis. 6. Amorbia emigratella. 7.
Lyccena boetica. 8. Lycarna boetica (inverted). 9, Ethmia colonella. 10. Siphanta acuta.
11. PerMnsiella saccharicida. 12. Peregrinus maidas. 13. Zelus renardii, 14. Oiclialia
grisea. 15. Coleotichus blackburniw. 16. Slater or Pill-bug (Porcellio scaber). 17. Ani-
solabis annulipes. 18. Scorpion (Isometrus maadatus). 19. Centipede (Scolopendra ra-
pens). 20. Millipede (Species indet.).

400 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

boll-worm,68 which is by far the most destructive enemy of the cotton plant.
There seems to be no doubt but that it was introduced directly or indirectly
from India within comparatively recent times. It does the damage in the
caterpillar stage, when, as its name implies, it attacks and feeds on the lint and
seed of the cotton in the ball before it is open, practically destroying the boll
so far as its lint is concerned. The moth is about three-fourths of an inch
across the expanded wings, and is soft gray-brown in color, with darker
markings; the fringe on the hind wings being wider and paler brown than on
the front wings.

Lice.

The various flies that annoy human beings and their domestic animals have
been briefly mentioned above, but other introduced animal pests occur and are
as troublesome here as elsewhere. Among them are a number of species of
lice. The term "lice" is loosely applied to representatives of two orders of
insects. Those occurring on poultry and wild birds are properly called bird-
lice,09 although some species infest sheep and goats also. They are wingless
parasitic insects with biting mouth-parts enabling them to feed upon and live
among the bird's feathers. The turkey-louse70 and the chicken-louse are
examples of this class. The family Pedicidce, including the true lice, belongs
to a sub-order 71 of the great order Hemiptera and includes certain parasites
of man and other animals. They differ from the bird-lice in having sucking
mouth-parts. They live among the hair of their host animal, feeding on its blood.
Three species are known that are parasitic on man; one lives in the hair on the
head 72 and two, a body louse 73 known as the ' ' gray-back ' ' and the crab-
louse,74 on the body. While the more common species elsewhere are those
found on the horse or a second species occurring on the cow, they have not as
yet been reported in Hawaii. Almost every animal has a species of
louse, though they are not always attached to all host animals. The hog-louse,75
for example, is reported as occurring here in limited numbers, wiiile other
species doubtless to be found here have not yet been taken.

Ticks and Mites.

It should be mentioned in this connection that ticks are often confused
in the popular mind with lice, although they more properly belong with a
distinct division of the branch 70 of the animal kingdom which includes the
insects, spiders, scorpions, centipedes, crabs and lobsters. In all of these the
body is composed of a series of segments joined together, with some of the
segments bearing jointed legs. In the order 77 to which the mites and ticks
belong the abdomen is unsegmented and is united to the thorax, giving the
body a sack-like appearance.

The order including the mites is represented in Hawaii, but as yet only

68 Gelechia gossypiella. e0 Mallophaga. 70 Goniodes styUfer. 71 Parasitn. 72 Pediculus capites.
78 Pediculus vestimenta. 74 Phthirus pubis. 75 Hcematopinus wins, 76 Arthropoda.
77 Acarina.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 401

nine species, all belonging to one family,78 have been determined, six of which
are already known from the British Isles. But as the largest species 70 is but
a millimeter in length and has only been reported from Kona, on Hawaii, they
are too small to attract attention from collectors. As they occur, however, it
is well to know that the common species 80 appears to be generally distributed
throughout the mountains of the group.

Most of the ticks are small eight-legged creatures, though the number of
legs vary with age and the mode of life of the parasite. The chicken mite is an
example that occurs in Hawaii on poultry; the dog-tick81 on the dog; the so-
called red spider 82 occurring on cotton plants, and the true itch mite,8*3 causing
an irritation of the skin of human beings known as itch, are well-known
examples of the species of the order.

Fleas.

The flea is a tiny insect belonging to the order Siphonaptcra, and is sug-
gestive of the household pests of which Hawaii has its full quota. As has been
the case with the insects affecting the field, forage and garden plants and our
domestic animals, the household pests have practically all been introduced
since the islands were discovered. Fleas were among the early arrivals, and
may be said to abound in certain localities, especially dry elevated places. The
native name (Ukulele) for a "jumping louse" was early applied to this
tormenter, which is one of the few insects it is not necessary to see in order
to identify. While they occur about houses and bite the inmates and their
pets, the species most commonly captured are the cat-flea or the dog-flea,84
though the comon human species 85 doubtless occurs.

Plague Carried by Fleas.

One of the many brilliant medical achievements for which the closing
years of the last century were especially noted, was the discovery that the flea
that lives on the common rat is responsible for the spread of the dread bubonic
or black plague. It has been proved over and over again that rats die of this
disease and that the fleas which infest them and feed on their blood draw the
minute organism causing the disease into their bodies in such a way that they
can communicate the plague to other rats and to other animals, among them
man, by their bite. Cases are on record where death from plague has been
traced to its origin only to find that it came from flea bites. Fleas usually
leave the carcass of a rat that has died of plague and at the first opportunity
take up their abode on some living animal, as the cat or dog. From these pets
they are easily transferred to their masters, with the result that their bite may
convey the minute microscopic organism 80 that causes plague in the human
body. Plague has appeared on more than one occasion in Hawaii,87 and to all
appearances has been successfully stamped out. Nevertheless, it is well for

78 Oribatidm. 79 Oribata oriformis. 80 Neoliodes theleprortus. 81 Rhipicephalus sanguineus.

82 Tetranychus sp. 83 Sarcoptes scabei. 84 Ctenocephalus canis — Pulex canis. 85 Pulex irritans.

86 Bacilus pestes. 87 Notably during the winter of 1900.

402 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

people living in the tropics to rid their premises of rats and to keep at respect-
ful distances from pet animals that may feed upon them.

Cockroaches.

Mosquitoes and flies as domestic pests have been mentioned as members
of the order Diptera, and have been discussed in another connection. Cock-
roaches, of which there are several introdiieed species, are annoying pests.
Two species, the American 8S and the Australian 80 cockroach, are both found
in houses, most commonly infesting kitchens and pantries, attacking provisions
of all kinds besides doing much damage to book bindings in the library. They
emit a disgusting smell and are otherwise objectionable to everyone. They
resemble one another very closely, but vary in color and appearances as they
develop. The American species is about two inches in length, the latter a
trifle smaller.

Bedbugs and Other Bugs.

The bedbug,90 as everyone knows, is a nocturnal insect. It occurs the
world over and, therefore, is occasionally found in Hawaii. It seems that,
although it has very rudimentary wings, it has nevertheless been able to keep
up with the march of human progress. They have certain characteristics that
make them members of the order of true bugs.01 In the same order are placed
the torpedo-bug,92 a green-winged, long, pointed leaf-hopper, injurious to
mangoes, guava and coffee, and the more attractively-named Hawaiian kiss-
ing-bug,93 which in reality is the common assassin-bug that first appeared in
the islands about 1897. Since then, contrary to the character its local name seems
to imply, it has maintained a reputation as a fierce carnivorous bug, feeding
among other things, on ladybirds, leaf-hoppers and aphids, without discrim-
ination between the beneficial and injurious insects.

White Ants.

The termites, more commonly termed white ants,94 that at certain seasons
fly about in large swarms and at all seasons bore into the timbers of houses,
are not ants, nor are they more than remotely related to the true ants. They
have been placed by many entomologists, by reason of all four wings being
equal in size, form and structure, in a separate order.95 It is true that they
have certain social habits that are similar to the ant's, but their structure is
very different, as anyone can see by comparing the two insects. Their com-
munities are made up of many individuals that have a definite part of the
colony work to do. Each class is fitted by nature with special reference to the
task it must perform. Kings, queens, soldiers and workers live together in
their many-chambered nests. Their nests are hollowed out of the timbers in
which they carefully eat out the interior, leaving an outer shell in such a

88 Periplaneta americana. 89 Periplaneta aiistralasice. 90 Citnex lectularius. 91 Hemiptera.
02 Siphanta acuta. BS Zelus renardii, 94 Calotermes marginipennis. 95 Isoptera.

r THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 403

manner as to exclude the light. In this hidden way they do a great many
thousand dollars ' worth of damage to houses in Hawaii every year. In some
cases the heart of the timbers that formed the building have been so badly
eaten that in time the structure has actually fallen in pieces, leaving only a
sad heap of ruins as a monument to the silent industry of these destructive
creatures.

Silverfish.

Silverfish, fish-moths, or bristletails 96 are everywhere household pests,
and Hawaii is not an exception. The small, flat, silvery object without wings
that scurries out of sight in the dresser drawer or on the book-shelf is sure to
be one of these evildoers that cannot resist the taste of starch, no matter
whether it be in clothing, book-bindings or wall-paper. In structure the silver-
fish represents the simplest type of insects, and is peculiar for the reason that
it does not go through any marked changes 97 as it develops. It is therefore
placed by entomologists in the lowest, meaning the oldest and most simple,
order °8 of insects.

Ants.

As types of the highest development and specialization in the insect world,
the ants, bees and wasps are placed together in a great order " at the opposite
end of the scale from that occupied by the silverfish. The ants, the bees and
the wasps each furnish the housewife one or more pests to annoy her. Of
these, the ant family 10° furnish a number, the most troublesome being the
cosmopolitan big-headed ant101 that invades every nook and corner of the
house and considers the food-safe and ice-box as institutions especially pro-
vided for its comfort and convenience. They will not cross water, however,
so the experienced housewife places the legs of the ice-box in shallow cups
filled with water and takes pains to keep the box clear of the wall. The table,
safe and sideboard can be equally well protected for months at a time by tying
about each leg a narrow strip of woolen cloth, which has been soaked with
"ant poison," a preparation sold by the druggist for the purpose. The ants
respect the poisoned string as a dead-line and rarely pass beyond it. Another
common species is the big brown ant102 observed swarming on warm, still
nights, when all forms issue in great numbers.

Carpenter-Bees.

Of the bees, the blue-black carpenter-bee,103 which resembles the bumble-
bee in size and somewhat in appearance, is conspicuous and troublesome in
Hawaii by reason of its habit of building its cells in the solid wood of trees,
porch posts, fence posts, telephone poles and the like. It often excavates a
tunnel a foot or two in length in which it lays its eggs. Each egg is contained

90 Lepisma saccharina . &7 Metamorphosis. 98 Thysanura, " Hymenoptera. 10° Formicina.
101 Fheidole megacephala. 102 Camponotus maculatus, var. hawaiiensis. 103 Xylocopa brasiUanorum.

404 NATURAL HISTORY OP HAWAII.

in a separate compartment provisioned with bee-bread — a food made of the
pollen from flowers mixed with nectar. It has been observed that they gather
their supply of pollen principally from the bean-like plants. This bee was
introduced long ago and is widely distributed throughout the group.

Wasps and Mud-Daubers.

Of the wasps, the species known as the mud-dauber,104 a species intro-
duced from America, is the one causing the most annoyance about the home.
It makes its nest of mud, which it delights in plastering under the eaves of
houses, on the ceilings of lanais, and in similar places. Their nests usually
have the form of several tubes an inch or more long placed side by side, which
are always provisioned with spiders. This family of wasps 105 is known as the
thread-waisted wasps, an allusion to the peculiar shape of the body. They
have a curious habit of jerking their wings frequently in a nervous manner,
which is also quite characteristic.

The paper wasps loc are those that build their nests in a single circular
comb suspended by a slender central support from the under side of the
rafters, or from under the leaves of bushes in the yard and garden. Three
closely-related species are quite common in Hawaii, but the bright yellow
species 107 is the most savage ; the browner species 108 is said to be less so.
Children soon learn to respect the rights of these "yellow jackets,5' as they
are commonly called, and never forget the lesson usually learned at first hand
from disturbing one of the gray paper nests that are so zealously guarded by
the wasp inmates against all who venture to intrude on their domain.

If unmolested, however, the little colony will sit for hours at a time on
their paper home without attempting to sting anyone. After the 3roung have
grown up they abandon the nest but remain about here and there until the
following February, when they organize for business and proceed to make a
new nest, securing the silver-gray "pulp" used in its construction from fence-
posts, boards and dead wood generally.

The Honey-Bee.

The honey-bee,109 although not a household insect, is so intimately asso-
ciated with our domestic life that it may not be out of place to direct attention
to it as representing the highest group of the most exalted order of insects.
As an example of social life among insects, bees have been studied by natur-
alists for centuries, until there is probably no other insect of which man has
such an intimate acquaintance. They furnish a subject of interest about which
fascinating volumes have been written, and afford an ever-present object-
lesson in community life among our insect friends. By reason of their useful
products they have long been of great economic importance to man. In Ha-
waii alone the annual output of honey is valued at tens of thousand of
dollars.

104 Sceliphron cccmentarium. 105 Sphegidm. 10fl Vespidce. 107 Polistes hebrceus. 108 Polistes aurifer.
109 Opw mellifica.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 405

The Clothes-Moth and Other Household Pests.

The clothes-moth110 is the dread of every housewife, and any harmless
little moth that ventures indoors by accident or otherwise is usually con-
demned to instant destruction lest a single guilty one should escape. Practical
experience has proved this to be the best rule to follow. At any rate, a moth
that seeks out the dark corners of the closet and bureau drawers and hides
itself away in clothing is not to be trusted, nor should such places of conceal-
ment to be long neglected for fear the adult moth that is killed has already
deposited her eggs. From the eggs of the clothes-moth in due time will emerge
the characteristic brownish-black voracious caterpillar that feeds on the fabric
and also uses the material for the construction of the husk-like case in which
it assumes the chrysalis state.

Besides the clothes-moth to annoy the housewife there is the closely-related
angoumois grain-moth ni that attacks stored rice. Other enemies that occur in
stored products and supplies in Hawaii are rice-weevils,112 bean-weevils,113
red-rust flour-beetles,111 ham and cheese maggots,115 bamboo beetles,110 bone-
meal beetles,117 bakery beetles,118 cigarette beetles,119 and the cadelle or meal-
worm,120 a small beetle that is world-wide in its distribution.

Centipedes.

While discussing the more familiar household insects, allusion should be
made to several other small creatures that, although they are not insects,
belong with the insects to the great branch Arthropoda — a group that, as we
have seen, has been made to include all such creatures as have bodies composed
of a linear series of rings or segments bearing paired, jointed appendages that
are articulated with an external skeleton.

The common venomous centipede121 is an example of the Chilopoda that
may be recognized at a glance by the fact that each segment of the body bears
a single pair of legs. The poison glands open through the claws of the first
pair of legs. These are bent forward so as to act wTith the mouth parts. While
the bite of a centipede in Hawaii is extremely painful, as many can testify, it
is not dangerous, and may be counteracted by the use of ammonia, or it is said
that, in the absence of that chemical, relief may be had by pounding the
centipede itself into a jelly-like mass and binding it onto the bite. A centipede
bite may be at once identified from the sting of any other creature by the fact
that the pincer-like legs make a pair of punctures in the skin of the person
"bitten." The distance between the punctures furnish a fair index as to
the size of the specimen inflicting the injury.

Centipedes are preclaceous in habit, feeding on insects generally, but
especially on cockroaches. They usually live in moist, dark places under
sticks, boards, stones, and in crevices in the bark of trees during the daytime,

110 Tinea pellionella . lxl Sitotroga cereatella. 112 Calandra oryza. 113 Bruchus obtectus.

114 Tribolium ferrugineum. 115 Piophila casei. 116 Dinoderus minutus. 117 Dermestes cadaverinus.

118 Lophocateres pusilla. 119 Lasioderma serricorne. 120 Tenebrioides mauritanicus.

121 Seolopendra repens.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 407

but at night they become active and race about rapidly in search of food.
They are most troublesome in houses during the long wet spells, for, while they
naturally prefer moist situations, they come out of the ground and enter
dwellings and outhouses when their ordinary hiding-places become water-
soaked.

Centipedes five inches or more in length are not uncommon, and larger
specimens are occasionally seen. The large species was introduced as early as
1836, and there has been at least one other small species introduced since.

The young centipedes have a curious habit of clinging to their mother's
side when alarmed. The female lays her eggs in clusters on the damp ground
in some obscure place, and, coiling herself round them, remains immovable
until the young have hatched.

The largest centipedes known come from the East Indies, where they
grow to be a foot in length. The centipedes122 of the Hawaiian Islands have
not been exhaustively studied as yet, but all of the species so far recorded
belong to genera that occur elsewhere. Four species belonging to three fami-
lies were collected in the Hawaiian mountains by Dr. Perkins, three of which
are described as new in the Fauna Hawaiiensis.

Scorpions.

At least one introduced species of scorpion 123 is quite common in Hawaii,
wdiere specimens frequently attain a length of three inches. The large species
of the order124 occurs in tropical Africa and southern India, where a certain
big black scorpion may attain a length of eight or nine inches. The poison
sting is located in the tip of the long slender tail, which is carried curled in a
menacing fashion over the back.

When the scorpion comes in contact with any creature suited to its teste as
food it will seize it in the vise-like grip of the pincer claw. The tail is brought
into use and the sting on its tip is plunged into its prey. Small animals,
insects and the like as a rule quickly succumb to the paralyzing effect of the
poison. As the scorpion has no antenna1 to use as feelers, it always carries its
pincers well to the front.

Scorpions are night feeders and are exclusively carnivorous, feeding
mainly on small insects ; silverfish, moths and caterpillars being among their
favorite food. Unlike the centipede, they prefer dry, dark places, and for that

' Chilopoda. 123 Isomefrus maculatus. 124 Srorpionida.

Description of Plate.

1. Chalcolvpidius erythroloma. 2. llhabdocncmis = (tiphcnophontst) obscurus. 3. Adore-
tus laiuimaculatus. 4. Epilragus diremplnui. .">. Aramigus fuller'). (5. Boxiriclms migra-
tor. 7. Clytux vrinicornia. 8. Crypiorphyncbux viangifarcr. 9. Coptops crdijicator. 10.
Xyslroecra globosa. 11. Sinwdactylus cinnamomrus. 12. Mgosoma rrflcxum. 13. Kchthro-
niorpha maevlipaniis. 14. Pelopaus cinnciilarius. 15. Polistm licbra'us. 1G. Odyncrus ni-
gri pen nix. 17. Apia mrtlifiva. IS. Xylocopa braziliensis. 19. Cluviogtrdia monticola. 20.
Volucclla ohcsa. 21. Dacus cucurbita'. 22. Gastrophilus rqvi. 23. tiarcophaga barbaia.
21. Colli phora dux. 2."). Lucilia cricoid. 2n\ Lnc'dia ccvmr. 27. Antliomyia sp. 28.
Mvgachile diligens. 29. Crrafitis capitata. 30. Camponolus maculatus.

408 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

reason are much more liable to be found in bureau drawers, in loose papers
and litter, in empty boxes and similar places about the house. When first born
the tiny scorpions closely resemble their parent. They cling to her body and
are carried about for a long time before they begin to shift for themselves.
The sting of the species occurring in this group of islands is not dangerous,
though it may be very painful for a few hours.

The false scorpions 125 are also represented by four minute species, two of
which are described from Hawaii. The largest species126 is about five milli-
meters in length, and, as the name of the order implies, it bears a superficial
resemblance to the scorpion.

Millipeds.

The natural order,127 including the so-called thousand-legged worms or
millipeds, is well represented in Hawaii. The largest species,128 which is about
two inches in length when full grown, is a comparatively recent introduction,
coming presumably from California. So far, it has been reported only from
the vicinity of Honolulu, where the sluggish, dark, reddish-brown creature may
be seen curled up in damp places, under boards, flower-pots or, less frequently,
crawling along the road in the early morning. They differ from the centipede
in having the body round instead of flattened and they are also provided with
two pairs of legs for each segment of the body. However, the total number of
legs falls far short of a million. They are perfectly harmless and may be
handled without fear. Their food seems to be vegetable matter, such as
tender roots, fruits and succulent plants, and perhaps any decaying organic
matter.

The class Diplopoda, so far as it has been studied in Hawaii, is represented
by at least sixteen species belonging to five families and four orders. Of this
list fourteen are described as new and about one-third of the number recorded
occur on Oahu. Two introduced species, one the large worm-like milliped men-
tioned above, and the second a smaller tan-colored animal with two brownish
stripes down the sides, are commonly met with. They have the power of
emitting a curious characteristic odor. The other members of the class are
usually confined to the mountain forests, and are probably peculiar to Hawaii.

Sow-Bugs or Slaters.

The curious little oval silver-gray creature found in large numbers in
damp places, under boards and stones, is usually an introduced species known
to many as the pill-bug, slater, sow-bug or wood-louse.129 But of the order
Isopoda there are nine of ten species belonging to five genera, in the islands, sev-
eral of wThich are native. The minute armadillo-shaped arthropods of this order
occurring at higher elevations on the islands closely resemble the more common
widely-distributed- species. Their positive identity, therefore, requires more
than casual observation. All of the species are nocturnal in habit and unless

125 Pseudoseorpiones. 12e Chelifer hawaiiensis 12T Diplopoda. 128 Sp. undet. 129 Porcellio scaber.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 409

disturbed are not seen in the daytime. Decaying vegetable matter is supposed
to furnish them with their principal supply of food.

Sand-Hoppers.

The species of sand-hoppers belong to a family 130 in the order Amphipoda,
to which order also belong the fresh-water shrimps. By some they may be
mistaken for the pill-bug. Though they are distantly allied to the pill-bug,
since they are true Crustacea, they are easily identified as belonging to a dif-
ferent family, as they have the body narrowed and flattened from side to side,
instead of broad and flat, and all proceed by a hopping movement when
alarmed. The common sand-hoppers live near the edge of the sea and are
aquatic in habit. There are species, however, which are found high up in the
mountains in damp situations and in the cups at the base of the leaves of a
number of plants such as the ieie vine, ki plant and in similar places. Three
species belonging to two genera have been reported from the mountains of
Oahu, and there are doubtless species occurring on all the islands of the group.

Spiders, Mites and Ticks.

Zoologists usually place the spiders together in an order 131 of the
Arthropods, where, with certain other orders, including such animals as the
scorpions, the harvest-men or ''daddy-long-legs," the mites and ticks and
similar creatures, they unite to form a class.132 This class is made up of sev-
eral well-marked orders, but the spiders are generally taken as the type for the
group, as they show clearly the difference between the class to which the
insects 133 belong, and the class which they represent. There are several im-
portant characteristics common to the spiders, among them the possession of
eight legs, the absence of antennas or feelers, and the division of the body into
two main divisions,134 that at once separate them from the insects, which have,
as a rule, six legs, antenna* and the body divided into three parts, namely, the
head, thorax, and abdomen.

House-Spiders.

While there are more than a hundred species of spiders in Hawaii, many
of them spinning webs, they are for the most part so small and inconspicuous
that they rarely attract the special notice of the housewife. The jumping-
spiders135 and the big brown house-spider,130 a member of the family of
hunting spiders,137 and the well-known garden spider should, however, be men-
tioned as exceptions to the rule.

The jumping-spiders are small or medium size with a short blackish body
and short stout legs. They occur on plants, fences and about houses, and
attract attention by their peculiar appearance, bright marking and quick-
jumping movements that differ from those of the web-weaving and hunting

130 Talitridce. 131 Araneida. 132 Arachnida. 133 Insecta. 13± The cephalothorax and abdomen.
135 Family Attidce. 136 Heteropoda regia. 137 Clubionidce.

27

410 NATUBAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

families. Since they spin no webs to annoy one, their comical stare and know-
ing ways in a measure make up for the stinging bite they can administer
when their liberty is interfered with.

The garden-spider 138 is doubtless an importation. It is the large species,
with the abdomen conspicuously marked with creamy yellow and black, that
occurs in the shrubbery about the house and garden, where it makes its bulky,
oddly-woven nests. It is common from sea-level up to 4000 feet elevation, and
is also found in America and Australia.

The big brown spider 139 or house-spider is often three or four inches
across, and to the tourist, at least, they present a most formidable appearance.
They are common in houses all over the islands, as well as in all tropical
countries, and are often looked upon as household pets. They are perfectly
harmless. In many families their long residence and evident appreciation of
friendly attentions from the members of the household has given them an
enviable place among the domestic pets. They feed on cockroaches, moths,
flies, silverfish and other insects, in an evident desire to be useful as well as
interesting, and seldom leave their accustomed resting-place during the day-
time. At night they become alert and active in search of food. As they never
spin webs, the mother spider is forced to carry the white lozenge-shaped egg-
sack about with her between her legs until her eggs have hatched. Mr. E. M.
Ehrhorn found that it required about thirty-five days for the young spiders to
hatch and leave the egg-sack, and that 197 out of 207 eggs hatched.

The Hamakua Spider.

An investigation of the habits, of spiders found in the cane fields, at the
time of the leaf-hopper outbreak already referred to, resulted in finding that
out of the one hundred and five species of spiders recorded in the islands, at
least twenty occur in the cane fields. However, only fourteen species were
found feeding on insects infesting the cane. The most useful species 140 in the
cane fields is variously known as the Kohala spider, the Hamakua spider and
the Puunene spider. In some sections it is very abundant, so that as many as
fifty of its roundish white nests have been found on a single leaf of cane.

Some of the species met with in the mountains spin very large, firm webs.
It is not uncommon to find these stretched across the path, suspended on strong
stay threads twenty-five feet or more in length. As a rule, however, the spe-
cies peculiar to Hawaii are not conspicuous in size or habit, the great majority
being less than five millimeters in length.

CHAPTER XXXII.
NATIVE INSECTS.

In the foregoing chapters some of the more important injurious insects
have been passed in review. We now turn to consider some of the salient fea-

188 Argiope avara. 18» Beteropoda regia. 140 Paglophalus atom-arius.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 411

tures of the native fauna, since it is one of considerable general as well as bio-
logic interest.

Character of the Native Fauna.

The number of species even in the limited and precinctive area of the
islands is so great that it is not possible to do more than indicate in the briefest
way the character and extent of the various orders represented in the group,
and to assure those who take especial interest in the subject of entomology
that they will find in Hawaii an extensive literature already prepared and an
interesting field before them for study and investigation.

The stranger in the islands, with only a fewr days to spend in the collect-
ing of specimens, is fortunate in that two of the most favorable localities for
gaining a bird's-eye view- of the native insects in their native environment, are
also tw^o of the most accessible. They are the mountains back of Honolulu,
particularly the higher slopes of Tantalus, and the region in the vicinity of the
Volcano Kilauea, on Hawaii.

Dr. Perkins, the veteran naturalist of the islands, whose active life in the
field of entomology has been largely spent in bringing together the material
on which a monumental work, in three volumes, known as Fauna Hawaii ensis
is based, has published short papers l setting forth briefly the more important
and interesting forms that may be met with in the localities mentioned. These
succinct papers will serve the collector as a field guide to each locality and aid
him in his search for the rarer forms to be found in these favored precincts.

The student will early learn to appreciate the importance of careful and
intensive study of circumscribed localities, since each island, valley, mountain,
and even limited areas and often certain peculiar plants, have their peculiar
forms. It will also be noted that such influences as elevation, moisture and
dryness play important parts in the distribution of species and the establish-
ment of their vertical and horizontal range.

Insects Occurring on Mamaki.

The work on the life histories of various groups of Hawaiian insects that
has been carried on by the individual members of the local Entomological
Society has added material of the greatest interest to our increasing store of
knowledge concerning the habits of the native insect fauna. This is especially
true in the group of Lepidoptera, wherein Professor Otto Swezey, in his study of
moths and butterflies, has done much to clear up many obscure relations exist-
ing betwreen that order of insects and those insects preying upon them in their
early stages of development. The bearing of these inter-relations in their
effect on the native vegetation has often proved to be of great biologic interest.

In his investigation of the insects associated with the mamaki (a native
Hawaiian shrub, from w^hich kapa was formerly made), he has indicated the

1 Insects of Tantalus, Perkins, Proc. Haw. En torn. Soc, Vol. I, pt. 2, pp. 38-51. Insects of Kilauea,
Perkins, Proc. Haw. Entom. Soc, Vol. I, pt. 3, pp. 89-99.

412 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

way to a field of fascinating and practical study that others, not wholly con-
sumed with the desire to add new species to the fauna, nor equipped for serious
systematic research, will find of value and interest.

During a period of two or three years in connection with other field col-
lecting, mostly confined to the Island of Oahu, he gathered and studied mate-
rial from which he reports the taking of more than seventy-five insects and
their parasites from this single species of plant. He enumerates nine species
that appear to be found on mamaki and on no other plant. Thirteen species
feed extensively on its leaves, one bores into the green twigs and one lives on
the bark. Of those attacking the dead or dying shrub, eighteen occurred in
the trunk and branches, and twTo feed on fungus, on or beneath the bark. The
insects which visit mamaki in search of prey wrere divided into five species of
Coleoptera, four species of Hemiptera, eight parasties besides other miscel-
laneous insects, as ants, earwigs and rove beetles.

The problems of insect life are so interesting and so varied in Hawaii that
the repetition of the investigation referred to above would well repay any
observer on Oahu, while the insect fauna varies to such an extent on the dif-
ferent islands that the work, if repeated on Hawaii or Kauai, for example,
would have all the novelty of original research.

Some of the more minute and scarcer groups of Hawaiian insects have not
as yet been systematically studied. The larger and more important orders
that have been reviewed by specialists are constantly having new genera and
species added to them as a result of more detailed study. This makes general-
izations based on the data available less accurate than one could wish. Never-
theless, some of the main facts selected for a popular resume of the orders as
discussed in the Fauna Hawaiiensis, supplemented by the papers on various
phases of the subject that have appeared from time to time since their publica-
tion, may be of general interest.

Ants, Bees and Wasps.

The great order,2 including the ants, bees, wasps, small four-winged para-
sites, aiid gall-forming and plant-eating wasp-like insects, is well represented
in Hawaii. The order is divided into two sub-orders, one the boring,3 the
other the stinging 4 Hymenopt era. In the former sub-order, among other
characteristics, the tip of the abdomen in the females is provided with an
organ suited to boring the hole into which the egg is deposited. In some
species this instrument is used to drill holes in trees, in others it is used to
thrust the egg into the body of some other insect where it develops. Many of
the species are very minute ; often their existence is accidentally discovered
during the process of rearing other insects in breeding jars. At such times the
tiny parasite often emerges from the body of its host and appears in the jars as
a microscopic insect with four wings. These are known as parasitic Hymen-op-
tera, and are of great biologic importance in keeping their host species in

- Hymenoptera. 3 Terebrantia.

Mt THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 413

check. Dr. W. II. Ashmead, iD his treatise on the Hawaiian forms, discusses four-
teen families belonging to this suborder, to which he refers one hundred and
twenty-eight species as belonging to sixty-nine genera. Eighty-seven of the
species were described by him as new. To this number several species have
since been added, but as the very largest Hawaiian species do not exceed
twenty millimeters, and by far the greater number are less than five milli-
meters in length, and as a great many have been described from a single
specimen, we may infer that, in spite of their interesting habits, they are too
small to attract much attention from the layman.

The stinging Hymenoptera includes about two hundred well-marked spe-
cies. Of these a large number are peculiar to the islands. As the majority
of the species are fair-sized, handsome insects, they have been more extensively
collected. The group includes the ants, digger-wasps, the true wasps and the
bees. To the twenty species of ants 5 listed by Prof. A. Forel as occurring in Ha-
waii, six species have since been added, the majority of which are new arrivals.
As a matter of fact, there appears to be but one or two endemic species of ants
in the islands. Most of those found here are slightly-varied forms of widely-
distributed species. Only one species (P on era perkinsi) is definitely stated to
be Hawaiian. It occurs in small colonies of a dozen or so in moist localities
high in the mountains.

Ants occur commonly in great numbers about houses, and everywhere
attract attention owing to their so-called instinctive powers. They invariably
live in organized communities or colonies, and exhibit as great a variety of
habits and customs as do the people living in the islands, for the people, like
the ants, have been brought together in Hawaii from many foreign lands. The
ants found here live under boards and stones, and in the ground, and are as
industrious and thrifty as those King Solomon observed, to find that they,
having no guide, overseer or ruler, provided meat in the summer and gathered
food in the harvest.

The home life of ants for obvious reasons has not been as fully studied as
has that of the bees, but the division of labor in the colony is known to be
even more complex. Their habits furnish an interesting and ever-present field
for study and observation by old and young.

The digger-wasps, or Fossores,0 may be readily distinguished from the
true wasps by the fact that their wings, when at rest, lie flat over the back and
the legs are arranged for walking or digging. There are about thirty-five
species so far reported from Hawaii, the most common being the introduced
mud-dauber 7 belonging to the thread-waisted wasp 8 family. They are to be
seen building their nests about lanais and outbuildings. When the nest is com-
pleted the eggs are deposited and the cell provisioned with spiders. The truly
native species are reported to prey entirely upon flies. The principal genus,
Crdbro, represented by fifteen species, is distributed in the mountains of the
larger islands.

5 Formicidce. 6 Sphecina. "' Pelopceus cmmenturius. 8 Sphegidce.

414 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Of the true wasps,9 the family 10 including the social wasps is represented
by two or three species, one of which11 is widely distributed about the islands.

The family embracing the solitary wasps12 is represented by a large num-
ber of species belonging to the genus Odynerus. Eighty-six species were re-
ported in the Fauna Hawaiiensis, and a dozen or more species have been added
since. Excellent keys to the species occurring on the different islands have
been prepared by Dr. Perkins, wrho reports sixty species from Oahu, eighty-
four from Maui, Molokai and Lanai, and thirty-two from Kauai. Fourteen
species have been found on Tantalus, including some of the rarest, while
Kilauea as a locality has yielded twenty-one species. On a single day's col-
lecting in Iao Valley, Prof. Swezey secured eleven out of sixteen species known
to occur in that particular locality, which is about half of those so far reported
from the Island of Maui.

In this genus the abdomen is joined to the thorax by a very short peduncle.
The shape of the body and the coloration of the abdomen of many species so
closely resemble those of the social wasps, known elsewhere as yellow-jackets,
and hornets, that it is quite common to hear these names applied to the con-
spicuously-marked species. But as a rule, the Hawaiian Ody perns are much
more somber in color than are species from elsewhere.

The habits of the Hawaiian species, like those of the genus occurring in
other lands, varies greatly. Some species burrow into the stems and pithy
parts of plants, others into dead wood, while a few build single cells of mud,
which they attach to leaves of trees. Many of the species build their nests in
the porous cavities in the lava rock ; others make their nests in the ground.

The black rock-wasp,13 one of several species common about vertical ledges
of rock, attaches its egg by a slender thread at the back of some small hole in
the rock. It then fills the hole with caterpillars that have been paralyzed by its
sting. In storing the food for its young it is usually particular to select only
the young caterpillar of a single species. Many of these, as we shall see, are
leaf-rollers in that they protect themselves from their enemies and the sun in
the caterpillar stage by folding the leaf together about them. The wasp, after
locating the young caterpillar in its hiding-place, alights on the leaf nearby.
The young caterpillar then becomes excited and creeps out of its hiding-place
and falls to the ground, whereupon the waiting wasp will pick it up, sting it,
and carry it away to its storehouse cell. When the cell cavity is full, the
ingenious insect plugs up the end of the hole with mud, through which in due
time the young wrasp will emerge. The habit of storing their cells with the
larva1 of moths and butterflies is very common among the solitary wasps, and
as they are active during the year they do much to keep these insects in check.

The keyhole wasp14 is a black wasp with dull-blue iridescent wings
clouded with brown, that is common about houses, where it employs at least
a part of its time in plugging up keyholes. They are interesting and intelli-

9 Diploptera. 10 Vespidce. ll Polistes avrifer. 12 Eumenidce. 13 Odynerus spp.

1A Odynerus nigripennis.

^ THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GEOUP. 415

gent creatures, and are excellent material for the student who has the time
and a taste for experimenting with animals. For example, they are greatly
disturbed by a change in the color of objects near where they are working. If
a piece of red cloth is tied over the door knob they have great trouble in
finding the keyhole when they return with mud, but if the cloth is removed in
their absence they have no trouble in locating it.

The Hawaiian solitary bees, of which there are at least sixty species, be-
longing to the genus Nesoprosopis, are not readily identified by the layman,
nor are they easily separated in the field from the wasps. Like the genus of
wasps just discussed, they vary greatly in habits. Some nest in the ground,
some in dead standing timber and various unusual places, and are distributed
from the coast to above the upper forest.

Of the typical or long-tongued bees,15 we find five species so far occurring
in Hawaii. Of these the conspicuous carpenter bee 16 and the useful honey
bee 17 have already been mentioned. The three remaining species belong to a
single genus18 and are characterized as leaf-cutting bees. The common name
is given them owing to their curious habit of making the thimble-shaped nests
for their young out of neatly-cut circular pieces of fresh leaves, which they
pack away in cells, often in holes in the woodwork, or in curled-up leaves of
the cocoanut palm. Leaves when mutilated by these bees look as though small
gun wads had been cut from them. The work of the wad-cutting bee is often
mistaken for that of the Japanese beetle, which, while it feeds on the leaves,
does not cut out the leaf in a regular pattern.

The Beetles.

Coming to the great order of beetles,19 we find it represented in the Ha-
waiian insect fauna by more than forty families, embracing hundreds of pre-
cinctive and introduced species. All of the members of this extensive order
are easily recognized in the adult stage, as they have a pair of horny wings
that meet in a straight line down the back, beneath which is a single pair of
membraneous wings neatly folded away. The earwig 20 is the only other
order occurring in Hawaii that at all closely resembles them, and the earwigs
are easily recognized by the presence of a pair of forceps-like appendages at
the posterior end of the body.

In general it may be said that a great per cent of the beetles found in
Hawaii are species that occur in no other place. Most of the species are small,
many of them being almost microscopic in size, and as a rule the indivaduals
of a species are not numerous, hence they are difficult to obtain. The collector
soon learns that their habits vary greatly in the different families and even
among the species of the same genera, so that in searching for specimens every
possible situation must be examined. The water, earth, sand, crevices in the
solid rock, under decaying animal and vegetable matter, under stones, in the

15Apidce. 16 Xylocopa brasilianorum. 17 Apis mellifica. 18 Megachile. 10 Coleoptera.

20 Euplexoptera.

416 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

wood, stems and bark of trees, on the leaves, flowers, and in the seeds of
plants, in moss, in fungi, in fern stems — in fact, a thousand possible places are
all liable to be inhabited by some rare and interesting beetle.

That many species, especially among the long list of those introduced since
commerce was established with Hawaii, are injurious to man and to his inter-
ests, has been touched upon in a former chapter. That many forms work to
man 's economic benefit has also been hinted at. Of most of the peculiar native
species little is really known of the place they occupy in the economy of nature.

The larvae, commonly called grubs, seldom display conspicuous character-
istics, and exhibit nothing to indicate the diversity of form assumed by the
adults. They are mostly dingy-white, brownish or occasionally even black in
color. The head is always horny and usually provided with jaws suited to bit-
ing and grinding their food. The pupa stage follows the larva and varies
greatly in length of time. Whether it is passed in a cocoon or not, the embryo
beetle lies inactive with the appendages all plainly shown, each enveloped in
its own peculiar covering. From this they emerge in due time to take up the
active life of the adult.

Passing to a consideration of a few of the more interesting or more
important families, we find that of the great division known as the predaceous
beetles, the ground beetles,21 with legs suited to running and with thread-like,
tapering antennae, are represented by more than two hundred small species,
many of them belonging to genera peculiar to the islands. They vary greatly
as to habits, the most of them, however, undoubtedly feeding on insects. They
are found under stones, beneath dead wood, in moss, in trees, under bark, at
the base of leaves and on the ground, scurrying about. Two small species of
predaceous diving-beetles 22 belonging to this division, but to different genera,
occur in fresh water all over the group ; they appear to be nowhere abundant.

The diving-beetles can be distinguished at once from the six species of
water scavenger-beetles,23 some of which occur in pools and running water,
and some in rotten wood and decaying vegetation. The water scavenger-
beetles all have club-shaped antenna1 (which are often concealed beneath the
head) and very long palpi. As a matter of fact, these aquatic scavenger-
beetles belong to the extensive division of the beetle order known as clavicorn
beetles, in which the antenna1 are club-shaped — that is,- they growT gradually
thicker towards the top. Hawaii has twenty or more families belonging to this
group, including such well-known families as the carrion-beetles,24 with but a
single introduced species so far found ; and the rove-beetles,25 with upwards
of one hundred species. They may all be fairly well recognized by their short
wings and long, narrow abdomen. They are mostly carnivorous, and rove
about in search of food. Insects constitute a large part of their food, espe-
cially insect larva?, but many feed on rotton wood, some on fungi and others on
flowers.

The twenty species of small hemispherical lady-bugs, or ladybird beetles,20

21 Carabidce. 2Z Dytiseidce. 2S Hydrophilidce. 2i Silphidce. 25 Staphylinidce. 26 Coccinellidce.

3: THE ANIMAL LIFE OP THE GROUP. 417

discussed elsewhere, are practically all introduced species, brought to Hawaii
on account of their well-known preclaceous habits. The dermestes,27 the com-
mon forms introduced and which destroy household stores and goods, have
also native species of small size. The histerid beetles28 have several intro-
duced species and an important Hawaiian genus with thirty or forty species
of very small square-shaped beetles that occur about decaying matter in the
mountains. The nitidulids,20 a family composed of small flattened beetles with
the wing covers more or less truncate, exposing the abdomen, suggesting the
rove-beetles which have a much longer abdomen, are quite common; one hun-
dred and forty species, all of which feed on decaying animal and vegetable
matter, and are often found about flowers, occur in the mountains.

Several other families made up of small-sized individuals and a limited
number of species, belong in this division, and may occasionally be captured by
the careful collector.

The group known as the serricorn beetles, since the antennae are usually
saw-like, is well represented by three families, the most extensive and common
being the click-beetles,30 snapping-bugs or skip-jack beetles. If disturbed
they curl up their legs and apparently drop dead, usually landing on the
ground on their backs. With a sudden click, they will spring up in the air
and turn over. If they strike the ground on their feet they will run ; if not,
the clicking performance is repeated again and again. The adults are usually
dull-colored, but some are of fair size and quite common. The larva* are com-
monly known as wire-worms. Eighty-five species or more belong to the genus
Eopenthes, a genus that includes some beautiful irri descent species that num-
bers among them some of the most attractive beetles in the islands. The
checkered beetles,81 with three widely-distributed species, and the metallic
wood-borers,32 including two introduced species, conclude this part of the
order.

Beetles with the antennae arranged so that the outer joints are prolonged
internally in a manner to present flattened surfaces to each other, are grouped
under the lamellicorn beetles, and are represented in Hawaii by such well-
known families as the stag-beetles 33 or pinch bugs, so called on account of
their large mandibles. The rare genus Apterocyclus, including the seven
species of the family occurring in Hawaii, is found only on the Island of Kauai.

All of the eight or more species of Scarabseids 34 belonging to the fore-
going section, and including such widely-distributed forms as the Japanese
beetle,35 have been introduced. Other members of this extensive family, in-
cluding such classic forms as the May beetle, tumble-bugs, dung-beetles, skin
beetles and the like, may accidentally gain admittance here from time to time,
as two dozen species of beetles were prevented from landing in 1912 only
through the rigorous insect inspection in force in Hawaii.

The group 3G including the long-horned beetles 37 is well represented by

27 DermestidcB. 28 Histeridm. 29 Nitidulidce. 30 Elateridw. 81 Clerldw. 32 Buprestidce.

33 Lucanidce. 34 Scarabmidce, 35 Adoretus tenuimnculatus. 36 Phytophaga. 3T Cerambycidce.

418 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

more than sixty species of that famity alone. The list of species includes some
of the most highly-colored as well as striking forms of Hawaiian beetles. As
these are all wood-boring beetles in their larval state, many of the species
most commonly seen have been introduced, but in the group including the
three genera Clytarlus, Callithmysus and Plagithmysus we have several species
that are peculiar to single islands and some that apparently occur only on
certain kinds of trees. Such habits indicate the long establishment of the
family in the group.

The division of the beetle tribe embracing the darkling-beetles,38 which
includes among other common species the red-rust flour beetle;39 the oede-
mericls,40 with one species, and the anthicids,41 with two coast and salt marsh
species, is made up of representatives of introduced families, except in the case
of the cistelicl family,42 a family including ten species belonging to two genera
that are regarded by entomologists as certainly indigenous.

The family Cioidw is of doubtful position, but is represented in Hawaii
by forty-two species, twenty-nine of which belong to the genus Cis, the remain-
ing fourteen to Apterocis. A few of the species are found on the large fungi
common on koa trees, but the majority occur attached to dead limbs or under
dead bark. As the very largest species does not exceed two and a half milli-
meters in length, they may easily escape detection.

The family Anobiidce, with the introduced cigarette beetle 43 and the
book-worm,44 has upwards of 134 species occurring in Hawaii. One genus 45
has at least fifty species in the Hawaiian fauna. Another genus 4G has at least
seventy Hawaiian species. Most of the species in the family are black or
fuscous and none exceed five millimeters in length. The family Lyctidce
includes two, and the Bostrychidce several, common introduced species. The
bamboo beetle 47 belongs to the latter family and is rare ; but a similar beetle 48
is fairly abundant.

The division of the Coleoptera known as snout-beetles 40 is one in which
the head is prolonged into a beak. The largest and most important family of
this division is the eurculios,50 or weevils, of which there are about one
hundred and fifty species. The great majority of them are peculiar to the
islands. The antennae are placed at or beyond the middle of the snout, and are
curiously elbowed, each terminating in a solid club. All parts of plants are
subject to the attacks of the maggot-like larva3, and in many instances, espe-
cially in the case of the introduced species, they do considerable damage. The
snout-beetle,'"1 found on rubber trees, sisal, etc. ; the bean weevil,52 rice
weevil,™ the sweet-potato weevil,54 all are excellent examples of the family, but
a native genus55 has several larger but rare species, the largest being fourteen
millimeters in length. The large genus Oodemas has upward of forty -five
species, all of which are rare. The family Anthribidm and the engraver

3S Tenebrionuhv. 39 Tribolimn ferrtigineum. 40 Oedemeridce. 41 Anthicidce. 42 Cistelldce.

43 Lasiodertna serricorne. 44 Anobium panicenm. 45 Xyletobius. 46 Mirosternus.

47 Dinodeniu.s tninutus. 48 Schwtoeeros cornuttts. 49 Rhynchophora. 50 Curculionidce.
51 Pse.udohm longulus. B2 Bruchus obtectus. 53 Calandra oryzae. 54 Cylas formicarius.

5" Rhyncoyonu*.

, THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 419

beetles 56 are associated with the weevils. The latter family is represented by
a limited number of rare species. These are small beetles that live under the
bark of forest trees. It is said that with the engraver beetles the female lays
her eggs in the side of the channel which she cuts in the wood under the bark,
and that the larva? when hatched cut channels at right angles to those of the
mother, thus forming the curious engraver's pattern.

We come now to the remarkable Hawaiian snout-beetle family,57 which,
so far as known, is peculiar to the islands. The 136 species so far described
are all referred to a single genus.58 None of the species exceed four milli-
meters in length. They may be at once recognized as members of this family
and differing from the weevils, owing to their long many-jointed antennae,
which are placed at the base of the beak and close to the eyes.

Most of the species are found about dead and dying forest trees, but some
occur in fern stems, and one or two are found in the stems of the maiden-hair
fern,59 while one species was found by Prof. Swezey to be a leaf miner.

The Two- Winged Insects.

Passing over the order including the fleas,60 as they have been mentioned
in another connection, the next order embraces the two-winged insects 61 of
which the house fly, the fruit-fly, the melon-fly, the lantana-fly and the mos-
quito may be taken as conspicuous introduced examples that play important
roles on both sides of the balance sheet of insect economy in the islands. The
life histories of any of the foregoing species may be easily and profitably
worked out in the class-room.

The larvae are usually footless, whitish creatures called maggots that revel
in all sorts of filth, as stable manure, decaying fruit, in fresh and stagnant
water, in the earth, about roots of plants and a variety of unsuspected places.
The larva? and the pupa? of the mosquito are known as wrigglers, and in this
stage are a favorite food for certain species of fish introduced for the express
purpose of preying on them.

The list of Hawaiian flies prepared by Mr. P. H. Grimsham in 1901-2 indi-
cated 188 species as belonging to the fauna. Since then a number of species have
been added, so that, native and introduced, there are more than two hundred
kinds of flies known to occur in the islands. Some of them are beneficial,
others are troublesome, but the great majority of them are rare mountain
forms seldom met with.

More than twenty-five families are represented by from one to several
species, among thern the fungus-gnats,02 the moth-like flies,03 the mosquitoes,64
the window flies ;63 the long-legged flies,60 of which there are a few interesting
native species; the big-eyed flies,67 parasites on leaf-hoppers; the syrphus
flies,08 the flesh flies,69 the typical flies,70 including the horn fly, blue-bottle
fly, house fly, sheep-maggot fly and stable fly (the latter now believed by

56 Scolytidce. 57 Proterhinidw. 58 Proterhinus. 59 Pteris. 60 Siphonaptera.

61 Diptera. °2 Mycetophilidce. os Psyehodidm. 64 CucuUdm. 6B ScenopinidcB.

66 Dolichopodidce. 87 Pipunculidce. 68 Syrphidce. 6ft Sarcophagidas. 70 Mutricidce.

420 NATUBAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

certain investigators to be the carrier of infantile paralysis) ; the horse and
ox bot-flies,71 the fruit and vegetable flies ;72 but by far the most numerous in
point of peculiar species are the small vinegar flies or pomace flies.73 Of these
there are at least forty-five species peculiar to the islands. They are attracted
to decaying fruit and vegetable matter in great numbers, especially to pine-
apples, where the species 74 is mistaken by many people for fruit-flies on that
account.

The curious louse-flies,75 which have very flat bodies and live like ticks on
the bodies of birds 7C and occasionally on mammmals, are represented in the
islands by species that are sure to arouse the curiosity of anyone observing
them.

Butterflies and Moths.

The Hawaiian Islands possess very few butterflies, but have a very large
number of moths. The moths and butterflies are all included in one order,
Lepidoptera, owing to the fact that all of the members of this order are alike
in having all four of the wrings covered with minute scales. They all pass
through complete metamorphosis; that is, the egg when hatched becomes a
caterpillar, the caterpillar changes to a pupa, and the pupa, after a quiet
period, turns into the adult winged insect. The mouth parts of the adult,
wdien fully developed, are fitted for sucking nectar from flowers, but the mouth
parts of the caterpillar are fitted for ehewring, and it is in this stage that they
do great damage to various kinds of plants. The amount of damage done in
Hawaii is considerable, but a great part of it is done by introduced species,
as has already been pointed out. However, the moths and butterflies have
many natural enemies, and enemies have been introduced to aid in keeping
them in cheek.

Without doubt the struggle for existence here had much to do with the
production of forms that are protectively colored with reference to their
enemies and their surroundings. When we realize that the order is repre-
sented in Hawaii by more than seven hundred species,77 the great majority of
which 78 are peculiar to the islands, we can realize the length of time and the
amount of specialization involved in the production of this interesting portion
of our fauna. With so large a list of species the collector is surprised to find
so few individuals of a species and that the majority of those found are so
minute.

For convenience the Lepidopiera have been divided into the Macrolepi-
doptera and the Microleptdoptera. To the Macrolepidoptera belong the few
species of butterflies, (all with club-shaped antenna? ), and the larger moths,
making fifteen families 70 in all. Of this list but few are sufficiently marked

71 CEstridce. 72 Trypetidw. 7S Drosophilidm. 74 Drosophila ampelophila. 75 Hippoboscidce.

78 As the pneo and iwa. 77 783 according to Prof. Meyriek and Lord Walsingham in 1907.

78 661 species.

79 According to Meyriek, the Hawaiian Macrolepidoptera belong to four super- families, and fifteen
families, as follows: (a) Caradrinina — Caradrinidm, Plumctdcv ; (b) Notodontina — Selidosemidce, Sphing-
idm, Hydrioynenidm ; (c) Papilionina — Pieridw, Nymphalidce. Lyeamidm, (d) Pyralidina — Phvritidm,
GaUeriidm. Crambidce, Pyraustidm, PyraUdidce, Pterophoridm and Orneodidcn. These families are again
divided into more than sixty genera.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 421

as to habit or appearance to make their recognition at all easy or certain, even
by the professional entomologist, without reference to cabinet specimens,
schemes of classification and tables, based often on minute and obscure char-
acteristics. Some of the species, however, warrant notice on account of their
size or abundance, though the very largest island species of the order — a beau-
tiful green sphynx moth 80 — does not exceed three and a half inches in expanse.
It has four dull-colored cousins occurring on the different islands that are
almost as rare. Like the foregoing species, the humming-bird moths are also
members of the hawk-moth S1 family. Two species occur here. The one with
the rosy, spotted abdomen,82 known as the sweet potato horn-worm, is fairly
abundant from September to December, while the species with the yellow-
spotted abdomen is rarer, though both species are widely distributed in
America. The commoner species has been mentioned among the economic
insects.

Coming to the typical butterflies with knobbed antenna;,83 we have the
so-called four-footed butterflies,84 represented by at least five species. Only
one of them, however, the Kamehameha butterfly,85 is native. Fortunately it
is the most common species, especially in the lower forest zone. It can be
recognized as differing from the three introduced species of the angel-wings,
or vanesseds, by its larger size and having the body reddish-brown, while the
body of a similar species 80 is black.

These bright butterflies with their wings of varied rusty brown, red, rose,
black and white add a welcome touch of color to the forest green that is sure
to delight every mountain rambler. The larva; are conspicuous caterpillars
found principally on the mamaki. They fold the margin of a leaf together to
form a shelter, crawling out of it to feed. As they grow in size, they are
known to form new retreats from time to time.

The monarch or milkweed butterfly 87 is represented by an introduced
species, identified by its having the upper surface of the wings light tawny-
brown, with the border and veins black, and two rows of white spots on the
outer borders of all four wings. It is much the largest butterfly found in
Hawaii. It is fairly common on the lower levels, where it feeds in the larval
stage on the introduced milkweed.

The family of gossamer-winged butterflies 88 are represented by four
species of the "blues," one of which, Blackburn's butterfly,89 is peculiar to the
group and is quite plentiful at proper seasons in the mountains on all the
islands up to 4000 feet. All of the species are about an inch across the ex-
panded wings. The native species can be identified at once by the light bluish-
green, unspotted under-surface of the wings, and by the upper-surface being
dark colored, edged with blue. One of the introduced species °° is very abun-
dant, its larva? feeding on Orotalaria and other bean-like plants growing on the
lower levels. The two remaining species of Lyccena have recently been pur-

80 Deilephila smaragditis. 81 Sphingida?. 82 Sphnix convolindi. 8S Papilionia. 84 Nympkalidce.

85 Vanessa tammeamea. 86 Vanessa atlanta. 8T Anosia erippus. g8 Lycamidw,

89 Lyccena blackb-urni. J)0 Lyccena bcetica.

422 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

posely introduced from Mexico to feed on the flowers and leaves of the
Lantana.

The white cabbage butterfly 91 is the representative of the third family 92
of the butterflies occurring in Hawaii. Here, as in America, they are an in-
troduced species, and, as elsewhere, they are common in gardens,, especially
about cabbage, where their larvae, as cabbage-worms, bore into the cabbage
heads and devour the leaves.

In the genus, to which the introduced black cut- worm 93 found feeding on
garden and farm crops, sugar-cane and weeds belongs, there are enumerated
at least two dozen native species. They are for the most part fair-sized,
somber-colored, night-flying moths. Fortunately, the native species prefer to
inhabit the higher forested areas, rather than the lower agricultural zone.
However, there are several species belonging to the genus Agrotis as well
as species of such genera as Leucania, Heliothis, Spodoptera, belonging to this
extensive family 94 and to the related family 05 that furnish a number of forms
that infest the grass and the crops of cultivated lands on the lower levels.
One species,96 with silver commas on the forewings, is an introduced trouble-
some general feeder that is liable to attack almost any useful plant.

The super-family Notodontina, with its three families and ten genera, fur-
nish a number of species of considerable economic importance. One genus 97
in this division has perhaps thirty species that are among the more abundant
and showy moths met with in the islands. Their caterpillars of different
species often occur in large numbers on guava, koa, ferns and various other
plants and trees.

Coming to the fourth super-family,98 with seven families and thirty-two
genera in the Hawaiian fauna, we find the various species of the genus
Omiodes represented by the cocoanut palm leaf-roller,99 among the most
troublesome native moths. A genus100 belonging to the same family101 is
represented by at least fifty-six native species of attractive moths that have
the forewings very narrow and often conspicuously marked with spots, blotches
and wavy designs of various colors. As the range of the genus seems to be
between two and ten thousand feet in the mountains, species are usually
secured from high, moist regions. They feed almost exclusively on moss and
lichens, in which the larvae are said to spin curious silken tunnels for them-
selves.

Up to the time Dr. Perkins began his work in the islands but thirty-five
species belonging to the grand division of Microlepidoptera were known from
Hawaii. Lord Walsingham, after working over the material assembled by
Dr. Perkins, recorded four hundred and forty-one species. The labor involved
in adding so many species of insect life to the fauna, by the efforts of a single
naturalist, can be appreciated better when we realize that the great majority
of these minute creatures do not exceed a half inch in length.

91 Pieris rapce. 92 Pieridce. es Agrotis ypsilon. &* Caradrinidce. 05 Plusiadce.

m Plusia chalcites. 97 Scotorythra. 98 Pyralidina. " Omiodes hlacJcbumi. 10° Scoparia.
101 Pyraustidce.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 423

On the wing these tiny moths ny with a rapid, confused flight and alight
with the wings folded closely together over the body. As a rule they are
protectively colored and secrete themselves in crevices in the bark, and beneath
the dead leaves in the forest, with such skill as to defy detection even by the
practiced eye.

While their habits vary greatly, many of the species develop to the adult
stage within the tissue of leaves, and in this way come to be called leaf-
miners.102 Usually each species of the leaf -miner group infests some par-
ticular kind of plant or at least closely allied plants. So constant are these
creatures in their leaf -mining habits that an expert entomologist can often tell
the species of insect infesting the plant by the characteristic mine that it
makes. Some species produce galls on certain plants, others feed on fruits,,
live in silken tunnels in dead grass and leaves, on the bark of dead trees; some
produce wrebs in koa trees, and so on until it has been found that almost every
imaginable habitat has been occupied by them.

Although the great majority of the species belonging to the Microlepidoptera
are found in the mountains, there are many, both native and introduced, that
may be seen about residences, in gardens or doing damage to field crops of
various kinds. Perhaps the species most liable to attract the attention of ordi-
nary observers are the morning-glory leaf -miners,103 both of which are intro-
duced in Hawaii. The destructive cotton boll-worm 104 is also an abundant
introduced species that bores into the seeds of the cotton. The clothes
moth;105 the tobacco leaf -miner,106 boring into potatoes and into fruits and
stems of tomatoes, are two common species in Hawaii. The corn moth,107
feeding in the kernels of corn stored in cribs, and in rice, is also a common
pest. Thus the list might be indefinitely extended and made to include many
species of more or less interest or importance. The species are so minute,,
however, and are so much like one another, that their determination is neces-
sarily the work of a specialist. But from the standpoint of the native fauna,
especial mention should be made of the large, variable Hawaiian genus Hypos-
mocoma, in which more than one hundred and seventy-five native species have
been identified by Lord Walsingham. This list has since been extended by
local entomologists. The larvae make for themselves many styles of cases or
cocoons which are located in such places as on the bark of trees, on rocks, dead
twigs, or dead wood. A peculiarity of the genus is the variable form, size,,
color and construction of the cases which are made by the different species.

The Dragon-Flies and the Nerve- Winged Insects.

The dragon-fly may very properly be taken as a type of the order includ-
ing the nerve-winged insects,108 in which all four wings are membranous and
furnished writh numerous veins and usually with many cross-veins. Ento-
mologists have differed among themselves as to just what the limits of the

102 Tineidm. los Bedellia s omnnle ntella and B. minor. 104 Gelechia gossypiella . 10S Tinea peUioneUa.
10<s Phthorimcea opercvlella. 107 Sitotroga cerealella. 108 Neuroptera.

424 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

order should be, but in the ease of the Hawaiian fauna the order, as treated
by Dr. Perkins, has been made to include insects familiarly known as lace-
winged flies or hemerobians,109 the dragon-fly,110 the book-lice111 and the
white ants or termites.112

To this super-order have been referred at least 116 species of insects.
About one-half of this number is made up by the lace-winged flies. They are
slender-bodied, delicate insects of small size, the largest measuring scarcely
more than an inch in length. They all have dainty membranous wings of
various colors as gray, brown, yellowish-brown, hyaline, iridescent, and often
pale green, the last color being the one most liable to attract attention.

The lace-winged flies are forest dwellers and nocturnal in habit. The
common lace-winged fly113 is quite frequently met with in gardens and shady
localities, and may be easily captured.

Of the dragon-flies,114 at least one genus,115 with twenty-six endemic
species, may be regarded as of very long standing in the islands. The mem-
bers of this genus are all fond of the mountain forests and seldom occur at
lower levels. They have very slender bodies, with both pairs of wings shaped
nearly alike. So extraordinarily fragile, delicate and dainty are their wings
that they are often called Hawaiian damsel flies. Their gentle and airy man-
ner as they flit from leaf to leaf make them among the most attractive of the
Hawaiian forest insects. There are from seven to ten species on each island,
but at least two of them110 occur throughout the group. As a matter of fact,
the species of the genus are related to one another in such a way as to indicate
that they all have originated from a single ancestral species that doubtless came
to Hawaii in very remote times.

The nymphs of some if not all of the species belonging to this genus
develop in the cups formed at the base of certain leaves in the forest, and can
live with a very scant supply of water. Living specimens confined in collect-
ing bottles continue active for several hours.

They are aquatic and predaceous in habit in every case, and are sure to
attract attention with their rapid darting movements, their strong legs and
jaws, and conspicuous eyes. The adults often flock to mountain pools during
dry seasons, as they prefer moist localities. As a result, their dead bodies are
often seen floating on the surface of the water.

Of the three other genera of Odonata found in Hawaii, the big blue dragon-
fly 117 is the most conspicuous and abundant through the allied species; the
strenuous dragon-fly118 is common enough, but so strenuous indeed that it is
difficult to capture specimens. The yellow dragon-fly 119 is the common species
seen in the open country everywhere, but notably in the streets and gardens of
Honolulu. At the proper season as many as twenty may be seen at one time
hovering over a square rod of lawn.

Another species of pinau,120 as all dragon-flies are called by the Hawaiians,

109 Hemerobiidce. 11Q Odonata. 1X1 Psocidce. 112 Termitidoe, 11S Chrysopa mierophya.
114 Odonata. 115 Agrion. 116 Agrion xanthomelas and A. pacificuni. 117 Ana x Junius.
118 Anax strenuvs. 11B Pantala flavescens. 12° Tramea lacerata.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 425

are common in the open country on the lowlands. Still another species121 is
found in the forest and deep valleys and has doubtless long been a resident of
the islands.

The three genera122 above mentioned are strong fliers and liable to have
been natural immigrants at a less remote time. The nymphs feed voraciously
on the larvae of mosquitoes, and are of value in the struggle to keep them
under control.

The small common white ant,123 found about buildings, was doubtless
introduced. This species and the peculiar Hawaiian species 124 found in the
native forests are, so far, the only representatives of the white ant family125
in the islands. But as indicated in a previous chapter, they do much damage.

Quite recently two species belonging to the ant-lion family126 have been
found in the islands. One of the species127 occurs on Oahu ; the other, and
by far the more common, on Hawaii.

The remaining families128 are so small as to hardly attract attention at
all, though the Psocids, or "book-lice," are represented by twenty-rive or
more species, and the list of species could easily be extended by further syste-
matic study.

The True Bugs.

The order Ilemiptera includes many well-known insects with mouth parts
fitted for sucking the juices from fresh vegetation and blood from animals.
They are well represented by the true bugs, plant-lice, scale insects, aphids
and a number of allied families.

Mr. G. W. Kirkaldy, who devoted much time to the portion of the Hawaiian
fauna belonging to this order, estimated that there were at least five hundred
endemic, migrant and introduced species in the islands, of which number about
three hundred and sixty were peculiar to the group.

As a rule they are represented by small and, in many cases, by rare and
inconspicuous species, but as many are well-known pests, the families of great
economic importance have been studied by entomologists. As the more im-
portant economic species in the various families have been dealt with in
another connection, it only remains to mention a few representative examples
distributed among the eighteen families recorded from the group, and to note
that but twelve of these families have species belonging to the endemic or
native fauna.

In the sub-order, including the true bugs,129 the first pair of wings are
thickened at the base, ending with thinner extremities that overlap on the
back. In this division are found insects that live on the land, in the water,
and on the surface of the water in marshy places.

Of the land species, two representatives of the chinch-bug family130 are

121 Sympetrum blackburni. 122 Anax, Tramea and Pantala. 123 Calotermes marginipennw.
124 Calotermes castanens. 125 Termitidae. 12fi Myrmeleonidw. 127 Formicate o perjurus.
128 Psocidce and Embiidie. 12P Heteroptera. 13° Lygmidm.

28

426 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

of recent introduction. The red-bug* family 131 has a single introduced species ;
the family Myodochidce has a number of species, among them the several mem-
bers of the Hawaiian genus Nysius — insects less than six milimeters in length.
The curious Lantana bug,132 purposely introduced, is the only representative
of its family133 in the islands. The damsel-bugs,134 so called for want of a
better name, are well represented by several Hawaiian species belonging to
a large genus.135 The assassin bugs 13° have won their popular name on ac-
count of their predaceous habits. A dozen species, most of them of fair size,
and usually of wide distribution, occur in the islands. The large assassin
bug,137 or kissing bug, is thirteen millimeters in length, and is doubtless an
American species that first appeared in Hawaii about 1897. The minute,
slender-bodied Miridce are represented by several species of small insects,
belonging to a number of genera, none of which are liable to be seen by casual
observers.

Conspicuous among the few species of insects that live on or within the
water in Hawaii is the representative of the family of water-boatmen.138 It
is represented by a small oval, gray and black mottled species139 that has the
body flattened above and swims on the ventral surface. This peculiar habit
is of value to the novice in identifying them, since in this they differ from the
next family, in which the various species all swim on their backs.

When the water-boatmen swim through the water they are almost com-
pletely enveloped in air which gives them a silvery appearance. If they stop
swimming or lose their hold on the bottom they quickly come to the surface,
as their bodies enveloped in air are much lighter than the water. They occa-
sionally float on the surface of the water, or slowly paddle about with their
oar-shaped legs. When they choose they can leap from the water into the air
and fly away. They feed principally on other insects and lay their eggs upon
water plants.

The back-swimmers,141 like the foregoing family, are represented by a
single species 141 that happens to be one of wide distribution. The favorite
attitude of the back-swimmers is floating on the surface of the water back
down, with their long oar-like legs stretched outward and forward ready for
making a stroke. When disturbed they will dart out of the way, usually by going
rapidly to the bottom, there to remain hidden for some time. Other minute
bugs,142 with minutely-spotted wings in the adult and with a red edge to the
abdomen in the immature stage, that walk about on the water, especially in
stagnant, weedy pools, are very common. They belong to a totally different
family143 of insects from either of the two species just described, and in turn
may be easily confused with rarer species of bugs and flies that frequent sim-
ilar places.

i3i pyrrhocoridce. 132 Tele omnia lantance. 13S Tinguidce. 134 Nabidce. 135 Reduviolus.

138 Reduviidce. 18T Zelus renardii. 138 Gorixidm. 13e Arctoeorisa blaekburni. li0 Notonectidce.

141 Buenoa pallipes. 142 Microvelia vagans. 143 Gerridce.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OP THE GROUP. 427

Plant-Lice.

The sub-order144 to which the plant-lice, the jumping plant-lice, the lan-
tern-flies and similar insects belong, is made to include a number of odd bugs
with suctorial mouth parts. Though they differ widely in form, they usually
agree in that when the wings are present they are of the same thickness
throughout. When at rest their wings are held slanting, roof-like, at the
sides of the body.

Leaf-Hoppers.

The tree-hoppers 145 if represented in the fauna are included only as
recent introductions; one species140 was taken as long ago as 1908. The leaf-
hoppers,147 better known as jassids, are slender, minute, inconspicuously-colored
insects which, like the lantern-fly family 148 and closely-allied families, are
represented in the Hawaiian fauna by a very few species. The sugar-cane
leaf -hopper 149 is by far the most destructive member of a family150 to which
have been referred ten genera, including thirty species of Hawaiian insects.
They are arboreal in habit, favoring the higher elevations. They average
about four millimeters in length and are extremely difficult to identify spe-
cifically.

In a synopsis of the family of Aphids or plant-lice,151 Prof. I). T. Fullaway
enumerates twenty-one species belonging to eight genera as occurring in the
Hawaiian fauna. A large number of these are of economic importance, and
have had notice in a chapter devoted to that phase of the local insect life.

The Aleyrodidw, which formerly were included with the scale-bugs and
mealy-bugs,152 are represented by six known species, while the eoceids have
close to one hundred species in the fauna, almost all of which have been
brought to Hawaii within the last one hundred years. Of this number only
two are thought by specialists to belong to the native insect fauna.

Thrips.

The thrips153 are microscopic insects so small that they rarely attract the
attention of even observant persons. Under a hand lens or the microscope the
adults show their four long narrow wings, of nearly equal size, to be fringed
with long hairs. These are laid horizontally on the back when at rest. How-
ever, in many of the Hawaiian species the wings have been reduced to func-
tionless pads. Thrips are to be found in various places, as in flowers, lichens
and moss, and on the underside of stems, leaves and stalks of grass, plants and
shrubs. Their mouth parts show them to be intermediate between the suck-
ing and biting insects, and, as one would expect, they are known to feed on
other insects and upon vegetation. Pour families are represented by twenty
or more species, the most of which are black, brown or chestnut-brown in color.

144 Ilomoptera. 145 Membracidm, 14rt Centrolypus sp. 14>7 Tettigoniidw, 148 Fulgoridce.
149 Perkin siella saccharicida. 150 Asiracidw. 151 Aphidce. 152 Coccidw. 153 Thysanoptera.

428 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

One species 154 found here in the mountains is common in greenhouses in
Europe and America. The mango thrip,155 occurring in Hawaii, is a species
belonging to the same genus. Other species occur on cultivated plants.

Grasshoppers, Crickets, Cockroaches and Earwigs.

The order Orthoptera, as treated in the Fauna Hawaiiensis, is made to
include such well-known insects as the grasshoppers, crickets, cockroaches, ear-
wigs, and other forms with conspicuous mouth parts formed for biting, and
with the lower lip divided in the middle. The mode of growth in each indi-
vidual is by increase in size without any abrupt change in form except that the
wings, when present, are only developed in the final condition of growth. In
several forms the wings are rudimentary and not suited for flight.

The Orthopiera are all insects of comparatively large size, and many of
them, on account of their voracious appetites, are very destructive to culti-
vated plant life.

The earwigs156 are elongated, dark-colored insects bearing at the pos-
terior end of the body a pair of curious pincer-shaped organs. They are
common insects in Hawaii, occurring commonly in gardens and cultivated
ground, as well as far up in the mountains. They are fond of concealing them-
selves in places difficult to enter. The name i( earwig" is said to be due to a
belief that the creatures are fond of creeping into the ears of persons while
asleep. This curious and apparently groundless superstition is current in
Hawaii, as well as in almost every other country these creatures inhabit, They
are mainly carnivorous in habit and generally regarded as beneficial insects.

Ten species belonging to four or five genera are reported as occurring in
the islands. Most of the species are of undoubted recent introduction, some
of them very recent, while one which inhabits the mountain forests of Kauai,157
and a rarer species158 from Oahu, may have developed from early natural
immigrants.

The cockroaches,159 with at least sixteen species belonging to thirteen
genera, are well known in Hawaii, where certain species are abundant house-
hold pests. They are all easily recognized by the common characteristics of
the order that are well exhibited by familiar species. They all feed at night
and fly from the light with a rapid scurrying gait which is peculiar to them.
Only one species 160 is believed to be truly endemic. It is found only in the
mountains among the leaves of native plants. The other species frequent the
inhabited areas to such an extent as to preclude the possibility of their
belonging to the native fauna, even though, as in one or two instances, they
have never as yet been taken outside of the islands.

The two larger common house roaches,101 of which the American species is
the larger, have already been mentioned; but six or seven species are liable
to occur about buildings, often in company with them.

164 Heliothrips hmmorrhoidalis. 155 Heliothrips rubrocinctus. 156 Dermaptera. 157 Anisolabis pacifica.
158 Anisolabis Kttorea. 159 Blattodea. 160 Phyllodromia obtusata.
lei Periplaneta americana and P. australasice.

*. THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 429

Two species of praying mantes,102 or mule-killers, belonging to two dif-
ferent genera, have been introduced. One, the Australian mantis,103 occurs
on Kauai; the other, known as the Chinese praying-mantis,104 on Hawaii, where
it was first taken in 1900. These curious-looking insects, with pious faces and
front legs clasped meekly together, are not so pious as they appear. They are
insect feeders with a desire for food that is seldom satisfied. They are harm-
less to man and beast, though the curious form of their body gives them a
formidable and menacing appearance.

The short-horned grasshoppers105 or locusts are now represented by two
or three introduced species. In these the antennae are shorter than the body,
and the ovipositer of the female is made up of four short separate parts.

The green species with the long, sloping head, suggesting a dunce-cap,
which is known as the Australian grasshopper,100 was accidentally introduced
from that country about 1887 and has since become common on Oahu and
Kauai, and perhaps other islands. A more typical species with a square
head107 was introduced probably from Australia also, and has since become
quite common about Honolulu.

The long-horned green hoppers108 always attract attention by reason of
the extreme delicacy and great length of their antenna1, which always exceeds
the body in length.

The common meadow grasshopper109 is well established all over the
islands in open pasture land and on mountainsides, and serves as a common
type of a group of insects represented by at least thirteen species and four
genera. Two of the genera — the one mentioned above and one with a single
species,170 also common on the plains, about rice fields, and the lower moun-
tains— are introduced. The other two genera, one with ten species171 and one
with a single species,172 are endemic. As the single large, green native species,
belonging to the last genus, has only been secured from Olaa, any rare green
or brown grasshoppers, with long antenna1, taken elsewhere in the mountains
of the group can with safety be referred to the larger genus by the novice.

The crickets173 all differ from both the long-horned and the short-horned
grasshoppers in having the wing covers flat above and bent sharply down at
the edge of the body, suggesting the lid of a box, instead of meeting in a ridge
above the body like a roof. As a rule, the males have a very different appear-
ance from the females — a difference so marked that in one instance the sexes
were placed in separate genera. There are in Hawaii about forty species of
crickets belonging to ten genera. Of that number, three dozen or more are
recognized as peculiar to Hawaii, and for the most part confine their range to
the native forests on the different islands. Sixteen of the native species are
placed in a single genus with a brown mountain cricket174 as the most widely-
distributed, abundant and easily-captured species. They are fond of the wet

102 Mantoidea. 163 Orthodera pmsina. ie* Tenodera sinensis. 165 Acridiodea.
loo Atractomorpha crencticeps. lfl7 Oxya velox. 168 Locustoidea. 169 Xiphidium varipenne.

170 Flimce-a appendicvlata. 171 Brachymetopa. 172 Conocephaloides hawaiiensis. 178 Gryllodea.
174 Paratrigonidium paciftcum.

430 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

woods and damp gulches, and are usually found on the ground. They sing* all
day long and most of the night, with a plaintive chirp that is an audible sign of
the moist virgin forest. Their chirp can usually be heard a long way, and as
they occur in localities frequented by tree snails, their song is often spoken of
by the layman as the chirp of these tree-dwelling animals.

The leap of these insects is worthy of remark, as during the first leaps
they can cover several feet in a single bound. But after a few jumps they
lose their strength and make for cover on a run. The habits and appearance
of the remaining species of the genus, and of the remaining mountain genera
varies greatly, some being arboreal, some hiding beneath the bark of- trees,
and some frequenting peculiar species of trees or plants.

The introduced species, including the curious mole-cricket,175 elsewhere
referred to, and two species of the true crickets, one of which 17G is common and
well established, the other 177 a more recent introduction, occur about houses
and gardens, especially in Honolulu. The familiar chirp of the true crickets
adds a homely note to the music of the soft tropical evening in Hawaii, and
all agree that their song more than repays the slight damage they may do to
vegetation and to stored food.

Wingless Bird-Lice.

The wingless bird-lice 178 are minute parasitic insects with biting mouth
parts that live among the feathers of birds. They are to be found on
both the native and introduced birds of Hawaii. The list includes upwards of
twenty species taken from a dozen species of the common birds and doubtless
falls far short of a complete enumeration of the bird-lice to be found in the
group, since, of the twenty species recorded, seventeen are described as new to
science. While the rule is for each species of birds to have its own peculiar
form, it is not unusual to find several species of bird-lice infesting a single
bird. The beautiful red iiwi,179 for example, is infested with three genera
representing three species, and the Chinese dove with two.

SlLVERPISH AND SPRING-TAILS.

The spring-tails180 are included in an order of insects that are entirely
without wTings in all stages of growth. Five species so far reported from
Hawaii are minute silvery, yellowish or pale-colored creatures usually less
than two millimeters in length. They are provided with a curious tail-like
organ which is bent under, when the insect is at rest, that reaches almost to the
head. This organ, when suddenly straightened, throws the insect into the air
like a rocket to land several feet away, presumably in a place of safety. The
species so far secured have been taken from the high mountains under bark
and from other sheltered places, but their general habits are unknown.

Coming to the most primitive order of living insects,181 familiarly known
as bristle-tails, fish-moths or silverfish, we find the order represented by

75 Gryllotalpa africana. 17fl Gryllus innotabilis. 17T Gryllus sp. 178 Mallophaga. 179 Vestiaria coceinea.
80 Collembola. 1S1 Thysanura.

? THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 431

several species peculiar to the islands. At least one or two among them,
especially the common silverfish,182 were introduced. They are all active
insects that live in obscure places and, like the spring-tails, they never exhibit
any trace of wings. The silverfish has a distinctly segmented body, covered
with minute hairs or scales, which terminate in two or three bristle-like appen-
dages. The four native species so far reported belong to two families and
have all been described from specimens collected in the native forest. The
native species from Oahu183 occurs also on both Maui and Kauai, and is about
thirteen millimeters in length. Doubtless there are other species to be dis-
covered, as the mountains of the islands mentioned are the only localities
from which these interesting insects have as yet been reported.

CHAPTER XXXIII.
LAND AND FRESH WATER SHELLS.

The land shells of the Hawaiian Islands have been more extensively col-
lected and minutely studied than any other group of animals in the islands,
and it is doubtful if any single group of animals in the world has contributed
more really striking material for systematic study or received more attention
from students of evolution.

Land Shells.

The first Hawaiian land shells to be examined by Europeans were speci-
mens secured by Captain Dixon from a shell lei or necklace which was pro-
cured in the islands on the occasion of his memorable visit. He carried the
specimens back to England and described the first species as Turbo apex-fulva
in the report of his voyage round the world, which was published in 1789.
From that time to the present land shells from Hawaii have been eagerly col-
lected by almost every one with a taste for general natural history.

Almost every boy in Hawaii has at one time or another made his collec-
tion of land shells, and a long list of scientific men and energetic collectors,
past and present, have given much time and thought to the collection and
study of this most interesting group of mollusks.

While there are perhaps fifteen well-established families with as many as
thirty-five genera represented in the entire land and fresh-water shell fauna
of the islands, it is the beautifully and conspicuously-colored tree-dwelling
forms, commonly known as "tree snails," that are most generally sought for
by the shell enthusiasts. Moreover, they are the forms upon which most of
the important systematic and philosophic work of the past has been based. Ac-
cording to Mr. E. R. Sykes, who published an extensive paper on the subject of the
Hawaiian Mollusea as late as 1900, at least three hundred and twenty-two of

! Lepisma saccharina. 183 Machilis heteropus. 1 A chatin ellidce (see page 438).

*44444*4

44*4*444

4>444&N

,I4444<A&"*

1 2 S ■#• 6. if 8

<ATK Mil. COLOR VARIETIES KXIflBITKh 1-5 V TWO <''OM.MON HLM-X'I I-

LAM) HHRLLK.

.U'lmt,'„tlll,istrnm

, * THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 433

the approximate five hundred species and varieties of Hawaiian land and
fresh-water shells then known, were placed in the one family * which, accord-
ing' to his view, was made up of nine genera. Of that number the four genera,
Achat inella, Amastra, Leptachatina and A-uriculella, contain the great bulk of
the species. These names occur so often in the literature on the shells of the
group, and are represented by such extensive and handsome series in the
various noteworthy collections in the islands, that the remaining genera of
the family and the long list of genera belonging to other Hawaiian families
too often appear to be lost sight of.

Variations.

The super-genus Acliatinella, for example, is represented by upwards of
one hundred species,2 the majority of which grade through such a perplexing
variety of shades and forms that it is usually impossible to fix the exact limits
of the species. Indeed, Rev. E. W. Thwing collected from various sources
and published no fewer than three hundred and fifty-eight descriptions that
have been applied by different authors to the various forms in the above
genus alone.

With so long a list of names founded on such variable characteristics as
size, shape, locality, color pattern, banding and other variable markings to
be considered for the most part as synonyms, the amateur collector although
he may be provided with the literature on the subject — a literature which
includes more than two hundred titles — finds himself involved in an almost
endless confusion of names. What is worse there is such a diversity of opinion
among the authorities on the minute points involved in the classification of
the shells in this important genus, that for the present, at least, the student in
desperation is reduced, as a rule, to simply keeping his shells, gathered from
various localites carefully separated — usually labeling them by valleys, ridges,
side ridges, spurs and in some cases indicating the particular bush or tree
from which they wTere taken, in the hope that some day the subject of nomen-
clature will be definitely settled.

Nevertheless, this tendency to wide divergence in form and color in the
various groups and species furnishes to the true shell collector his chief source
of interest and relaxation at home and a worthy excuse for any number of all-
day rambles in the mountains. This point can better be appreciated by taking
one or two fairly typical examples.

Color Varieties.

Extending over both sides of the mountains back of Honolulu, from Niu
Valley to and including Makiki Valley, are distributed the species and varie-
ties of what for convenience is known to some authors as the Fulgens group.
To this group seven described species have been referred. But each of the
so-called species ranges through a series of varieties sufficient in the opinion of

The exact number varying with different authorities.

434 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

some to unite it very nicely with other species in the group. Under one
species 3 are described no fewer than forty-two color varieties ! Some are
bluish-gray, others ashy-chestnut with black bands. Some are with two bands,
others have three. Others are white or yellowish at the base, reddish-gray
above, with a dark spiral line between. Others, again, are smaller and more
elongatedly ovate. Still others are thinner than the typical varieties. Some
have the spire more convex and colors less streaked, and so on, to the end that
almost every specimen collected is found upon close examination and compari-
son to vary, much or little, from its next neighbor. But, unfortunately for
the collector, this remarkably variable species, name and all, in the opinion of
a second authority, is reduced to the rank of a synonym under the name of
one of the other species 4 in the Fill gens group of our first authority, and in
company with a species 5 from Waimea Valley, at the extreme opposite end
of the Koolau range that has been carefully referred by our first authority to
an entirely separate group, the range of the species is thus made to extend
over this chain of mountains from end to end !

With such confusion in almost every species, it is little wonder that all
those who collect Hawaiian land shells — and there are those in Honolulu who
have private collections numbering into scores of thousands of specimens —
are looking patiently forward to the completion of the work* by the more

Note: — Since the manuscript for this chapter was written, Volumes XXI (1911) and
XXII (1912-1914), and a more recent supplement to Volume XXI, of the Manual of Con-
chotomy have appeared. Both volumes are splendidly illustrated with colored [dates and
include synonomy and descriptive4 text treating fully the Hawaiian terrestrial Atnast rida' and
the tree-dwelling Achalincllidtr. This review of these interesting families of lam) mollusks by
Dr. Henry A. Pilsbry, with the assistance of a number of local collectors, has been anxiously
awaited by students and eonchologists generally. The volumes are in every way praiseworthy,
and are indispensable to those who are interested in this section of the Hawaiian fauna.

Volume XXI is devoted to the sub-family Amastriiur, which in the subsequent volume is
elevated to full family rank (Amastridae). It is made to include seven Hawaiian genera,
namely: Lcptachatina, with 117 species and a number of sub-species; Carclia, with eleven
species and nine sub-species and varieties; Ptcrodiscus, seven species, two sub-species; Plana-
viastra, two species; Armsia, one species; Amaslra. 114 species with numerous sub-species and
varieties; La mint lla, fourteen species and six sub-species and varieties, the last genus being
arboreal in habit.

Volume XXII treats fully of the true Achatinellidae, recognizing three well-defined genera,
namely: Navcomhia, Partulina and Achat inclla. The Partulina are further divided into four
(Pcrdicclla, Partulina, BaUhciniana, Lurnella), and the Achat inclla into three (Bulitnclla,
Aclxttincllastrum, Achat inclla) sections. The genus Ncwcombia includes nine species and
three sub-species; Partulina, fifty-one species and a number of sub-species, varieties and
forms; and AcJiatinclla forty-one species with a very large number of sub-species and minor
forms. In the appendix to Volume XXII, and the supplement mentioned, as many as two
score of species and sub-species are described, in addition to the large numbers of new species
described in the text of the volumes. They are divided quite equally among the various
genera, in proportion to the number of forms already known, and represent graphically the
progress made during the period (1911-1915) of publication towards a more complete syste-
matic knowledge of the land shell fauna of the group. The rapid increase in new species
indicates that the possibility of collecting new forms is by no means exhausted. A comparison
of the text and synonomy of these later volumes with the earlier (1900) work of Mr. K. Ti.
Sykes will show the sweeping changes that have taken place in the nomenclature during the
period of fifteen years.

It is to be hoped that the remaining families of Hawaiian air-breathing mollusks (Pul-
nwnaia) may receive a similar review by the author of these epoch-fixing volumes at an
earlv date.

:? Achatiiiflln plum at a. 4 ArhatincUa huddii. •*"' A chat hi ell a cii'ftla.

, *■■ THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 435

recent and most painstaking authorities, the renowned Dr. H. A. Pilsbry, of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and the local specialist, Dr. C.
Montague Cooke, of the Bishop Museum. It is hoped that their conclusions
as published from time to time, since they are based on extensive field collec-
tions and the examination of the hundreds of thousands of shells now in
museum collections, will at least settle once and for all the question of "which
is which" in the shell fauna of these islands.

But we cannot afford to pass without comment in this connection the
interesting investigation of my friend and colleague, Dr. Cooke, on the distri-
bution and variation of a single species ° of Achatinella from Nuuanu Valley,
published by the Bishop Museum.

For his purpose he selected a shell from Nuuanu Valley that, as a recog-
nizable species, seemed to be fairy abundant and is commonly regarded as oc-
curring only in that single valley. The northwest side of the valley was care-
fully explored and about three thousand shells collected, over half of which
belonged without question to the single species under investigation. Begin-
ning at the upper end of the valley, at the famous Nuuanu Pali, the habitat
studied included the main ridge on the left and the sub-ridges and valleys that
extend into the main valley of Nuuanu from one hundred to three hundred
yards at almost right angles to the main ridge. On account of the sedentary
habits of the land snails, these ridges, owing to the deep valleys that separate
them one from another, form isolated habitats. Of the twenty-three sub-
ridges the upper seventeen were all found to offer a very uniform environ-
ment as far as food, moisture and elevation were concerned. All were
found to be inhabited by the particular species of land shell being studied. In
some instances the sub-ridges were further sub-divided into special localites
so that the area of none of the localities was over one hundred and fifty yards
in diameter. Specimens were found to favor the more open localities between
one thousand and fourteen hundred feet elevation.

With the data and material at hand Dr. Cooke was able to describe twenty-
five well-marked color varieties, all of which were more or less closely con-
nected by intermediate specimens. When we remember that the species in its
various forms is distributed over an area only a few hundred yards wide at
most, by two or three miles in length, it is clear that much scientific interest
must attach to such studies. Among many other interesting facts it was
found that the shells varied not only from one ridge to another, but from one
colony to another. In fact, the specimens secured from a given limited locality
often varied among themselves to a remarkable degree.

It wTas the early appreciation and observation of facts such as these, and
a desire to find the law7 that underlies such facts, that led my friend, the dis-
tinguished evolutionist, Rev. John T. Guliek, in his early youth to begin a
systematic collection of land shells. Later, through the inspiration of Dar-
win's great book on "The Origin of Species,"7 he set to work in earnest, with

6 Achatinella multizonata . "' Published in 1859.

X: THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 437

the result that he soon published a considerable amount of valuable data
based on Hawaiian land shells, the object of which was to show that isolation,
segregation and variation were exceedingly important and until then almost
neglected factors in the theories advanced in efforts to explain the formation
of natural species.

In the study of so small and apparently unimportant a subject as a land
snail. Dr. Gulick's philosophic mind found abundant material for the elucida-
tion of such profound subjects as the variation of species as related to their
geographical distribution illustrated by the Achatinellidce (1872) ; diversity of
evolution under one set of external conditions ; divergent evolution through
cumulative segregation ; intensive segregation ; divergent evolution and the
Darwinian theory ; the inconsistencies of utilitarianism as the exclusive theory
of evolution, and lastly the preservation and accumulation of cross-infertility
(1890-97). All of these were contributions to knowledge of the most far-
reaching significance.

Important Families Represented.

Scarcely less in numerical importance when compared with the genus
Achatinella are the one hundred and fifteen or more species of the genus
Amastra, representatives of which are distributed over all the large islands
of the group. The Leptaehatina, with an equally extended list of species, is
likewise distributed ; and so the enumeration could be extended, but it is not
the intention in this place to attempt more than to encourage the beginner to
enter this fascinating field of study, where so much has already been accom-
plished and where yet so much remains to be done before this remarkably rich
and varied fauna will be completely understood.

In the gathering of these "jewels of the forest" the collector will find
many forms occupying a great variety of habitats, so that bushes, grass, trees
(including their leaves, trunks and limbs), the ground, dead leaves, the rocks
in the streams, the streams themselves — in short, almost every conceivable
place, but particularly the moist regions of the mountains — is liable to have its
shell inhabitant. The great majority of those species found on the ground,
however, are more liable to belong to some of the fourteen families other than
the AchaiineUidce, but they will not be found entirely devoid of interest for

Description of Plate.

1, 2, 3. Chinese Snail (Viviparus chinensis). 4, 5. Melania (Melania mauiensis) . 6, 7.
Melania mauiensis (Badly eroded). 8, 9, 30, 11. Melania newcombii. 12. Neritina vesper-
Una. 13. Neritina cariosa. 14. Pipipi (Nerita picea) on rocks at low tide. 15. Opercu-
lum from Viviparus chinensis. 16. Limnaea (Limnma oahuensis). 17. Shrimp [Opae] (Ma-
crobrachium grandimanus). 18. Dragon Fly [Pinau] nymph (Introduced). 19. Brackish
water Crab (Metograpsus messor). 20. Native Dragon Fly [Pinau] nymph. 21. Shrimp
(Macrobrachium grandimanus). 22. Water Beetles (Hydrobius semicylindricus) . 23. Lim-
nsea (Limncea binominis) . 24. Fresh water Clam (Spharium sp.). 25. Water Beetles
(Mhanthus pacipcus). 26. Sow-bug (Porcellio scaber). 27. Waterboatman (Arctocorisa
blackburni) .

438 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

that reason. As many of them are scarcely an eighth of an inch in length,
they require that careful search and much patience be expended in collecting
them.

Among the more conspicuous of the various families, not included in the
extensive divisions of the Achatinellidw, are the Succineidce. There is but
the single genus 8 in the family, with perhaps thirty species known from the
islands ; the larger number being found on the Island of Hawaii. They are
delicate thin-shelled mollusks with a slightly spiral shell, the last whorl of
which is large and flattened, giving the empty shell the appearance of a
twisted finger-nail. The majority of the species prefer damp situations, usually
under luxuriant foliage, though there are species that vary their habitat
somewhat. Another family 9 with very fragile spiral shells is represented by
perhaps a dozen species of the genus Limncea. At least half the known species
are from Oahu. The best representative of the genus is the small shell10
found floating on the surface of the water in taro and rice ponds about Hono-
lulu, Other forms occur in the cool mountain water at high elevations ; a
horn-colored species xl found on the rocks beside the waterfalls at the head of
Manoa Valley furnishing a good example. Eriuna newcomhia is the only
known Hawaiian species of this related genus; it was reported only from the
Hanalei river, on Kauai, until the author collected specimens from the Lima-
huli stream.

A very minute cap-shaped shell12 found in various streams on the under
side of decaying leaves, especially the leaves of kukui and hau, also belongs in
this group, although there is little in the shape of the tiny paper-like shell to
suggest such a relationship. While they are fairly common and are quite
generally distributed, on Oahu at least, they are very seldom seen even by
expert collectors.

The conspicuous and abundant long spiral fresh-water shells common in
the lower portion of the streams on Kauai, Oahu, Maui and Molokai are sure
to belong to one family.13 The six known species are all placed in one
genus.14 The species15 with the entire surface roughened is the more widely
distributed, being taken on all of the islands mentioned. The smooth species 1G
has so far been collected on Oahu and Kauai, but both species often occur
together in the same stream.

Some years ago the Chinese introduced an edible snail17 which has become
firmly established in the taro and rice ponds of Kauai, Oahu, Maui and Molokai,
and doubtless on the other islands. Large specimens may be collected, often two
inches or more in length, but as a rule they are seldom so large. They are,
however, easily the largest species of land or fresh-water shells in the group
and belong to a family18 without other representatives in the islands.

The small globular snails 10 with short spires occurring in damp woods
have as many as a dozen or more known species. They are the only repre-
sentatives of the operculate shells in the land fauna ; but as the largest

8 JSuccinea. 9 Limncmdcr. 10 Limncea oahuensis. ll Limncea hinominw. 12 Ancytus 8 liar pi.

13 Melaniidce. 14 Melania. 15 Melania mauiensis. 16 Melania newcombia.

it Yiviparus chinesis. lg Viinparidw. 19 Helicinidm.

« - THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 439

examples are less than a quarter of an inch in diameter, they are seldom taken
by other than a specialist with a taste for collecting the small "pin head'7
groups of Hawaiian mollusks.

Occurring in similar localities with the species mentioned above are found
the beautiful spiral, translneid, shining Opens. A common species 20 occurs
on all the islands, but as there are but four species belonging to the two genera
in the family,21 they are not regarded is important.

The streams, particularly towards their mouths, are liable to be inhabited
by one or more of the five or six species of Neritina found in the islands. A
large fiat black species with an orange mouth and roughened shell 22 is found
higher up in certain streams, adhering to stones. They are gathered for the
markets, the finest specimens perhaps coming from Pelekunu Valley, on Mo-
lokai. All of the species are liable to be found on any of the islands, their
occurrence apparently depending on the habitat. The several fresh and
brackish-water members of this family 2;* adhere to stones and other objects
in the water, and all are eaten by the Hawaiian s.

A very common coiled snail shell 24 that grows to be three-fourths of an
inch in diameter, is common all over the island, but especially plentiful about
Honolulu, where they occur under boards and flower pots, or in moist weather
may be found slowly creeping about over the grass, fences, walks and shrub-
bery. They are the largest representatives of the Helix family 25 in Hawaii,
and as this species is widely distributed, it is doubtless an introduced form.
Specimens are abundant in scattered and isolated places on Oahu, indicating
that it is by no means a new arrival.

During a period of drought the animal draws back into the coils of the
shell and secretes a whitish paper-like false operculum over the aperture. They
will live in this condition for many months, but in the rainy season they
become active again.

The curious black slug,20 about two inches in length with a pale line
down the center of the back, is also an introduced species that at times is very
plentiful about Honolulu. They are nocturnal in habit, coming out at night
from moist places where they remain hidden during the day. Slugs often
leave a trail of slime or mucous behind them as they creep along. They are
supposed to feed upon decaying vegetation. Although an introduced species, it
serves very well to represent the family of true slugs,27 of which there are five
or six species known from the mountains on the different islands. They are
not abundant, however, the most common native slug 28 on Oahu being a small
species that occasionally occurs in the mountains of Kauai and Maui.

While the species of several families of Hawaiian shells 29 are too minute
to be often seen or to admit of a brief characterization, they are, nevertheless,
sure to occur in the material gathered by a careful collector. Probably be-
tween seventy-five and one hundred species of Hawaiian shells are placed in the

20 Opeas juneeus. 21 Stenogyridce. 2" Neritina granosa. 23 Neritidw. 24 Eulota similaris.

25 Helicidce. 26 Veronicella sp. 27 Limacidce. 2H Agriolimax bevenoti.

29 Zonitadw. Philomycidce, Endodotidce, Pupidce, Tornatellinidce.

440 THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP.

various families here grouped as being too small to be illustrated or to receive
notice in a book of this character.

The tiny fresh-water clams 30 are represented, so far as known, by a very
minutes species 31 and a still smaller form 32 on Oahu, Molokai, Kauai, and
perhaps other islands of the group. Both of these forms are very small, the
larger being less than two-tenths of an inch in diameter.

Earthworms.

The worms of the islands have never been exhaustively studied. A dozen
species of earthworms 33 representing three genera are enumerated by Dr. F. E.
Beddard, who examined and reported on the material collected by Dr. Per-
kins. The species occurring in cultivated grounds appear to have been trans-
ferred to the islands by man. The leeches 34 have not been studied. Two
species are quite common in the streams of Oahu, and there are doubtless
other species on the different islands. But in general the fresh-water streams
of Hawaii have received but little attention from zoologists, doubtless owing
to the fact that they are known to be very sparingly inhabited by animals of
any considerable size, save a few fish and fresh-water shrimp. Of recent
years, however, frogs, tadpoles, mosquito fish and dragon-fly larvae have added
a welcome touch of life to the streams.

CHAPTER XXXIV.
SHELLS FROM THE SEA-SHORE: PART ONE.

Pleasure of Collecting Shells.

A ramble by the sea-shore usually results in gathering shells, seaweed,
fragments of coral and such odd remnants of life as are cast up by the waves,
and it is from the desire to know more of the natural history of such objects
that many a person has been led into the systematic study of the life of the
sea and thereby become a life-long student of nature. To one with a taste
for such pursuits, the sea-shore of the Hawaiian Islands furnishes a never-
failing and ever-changing lure. Winter or summer, day or night, one may
wander up and down the beach or wade in the shallow water for miles, know-
ing that he can never grow too old nor become too full of knowledge to enjoy
nature's open school by the sea-shore.

The class of objects most liable to attract the novice are the dead shells
strewn here and there along the sandy beach. Little by little one comes to
realize that there are many different kinds of shells, and that realization
usually is the starting point of the collection of shells, for one soon appre-
ciates the necessity of specimens for comparison; and the pleasure of adding
little by little to the storehouse of one's treasures by one's own efforts is a
pleasure that has in it all of the joys of discovery, knowledge and j)ossession.

0Cyrenidce. 31 Sphwrium sp. 32 Pisidium. sa Terrieohe. 34 Eirudinea.

, THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 441

Persons coming to Hawaii imbued with the idea that the shores of all
coral-wreathed islands in the tropics are piled high with large and showy
shells, such as adorn the curiosity dealers' windows throughout the country,
and that are often labeled "from Hawaii,'7 or more often the "Sandwich
Islands," are sure to be disappointed. Such shells are usually gathered from
islands far to the south of Hawaii. They are labeled "from Hawaii/' not
so much from a desire to give their proper locality, a thing the collector soon
learns to appreciate as a matter of very great importance, as to make of them
mere "curiosities," something rare and strange to sell to the unsuspecting.
For that reason it is better to collect such specimens as one can gather, even
though they are not as large or brilliant as those one can buy, and exchange
such duplicates as are gathered with associates, be they schoolmates, traveling
companions or professional collectors.

The first expedition, perhaps a stroll along the bathing beach at Waikiki,
is an auspicious one if two dozen different kinds of small beach-worn shells
are gathered ; for with shells, as with almost all forms of life, only the most
resistant types can withstand the grinding action of the waves. If the same
beach is visited the following day, a week later, or when opportunity offers,
without doubt other species will be found ; thus the little collection grows.

The enthusiast soon learns that different environments, as sandy beaches,
rocky coasts, coral reefs, sheltered bays and the open coast line, are inhabited
by different groups of mollusks and that in due time their shells are cast upon
the shore. The pleasure and the profit in visiting the same localities and dif-
ferent localities under varying conditions at different seasons, again and again,
soon comes to have a fascination that only those who have become enthusiasts
themselves can understand in others.

Three Types op Mollusc a.

So far as the writer knows, no one has ever succeeded in gathering a
complete collection of all the shells that may be collected from the waters
about the islands, or even from the shore of a single island. A complete col-
lection would number many hundreds, if it were made to include all of the
many-celled animals without a backbone and with unsegmented bodies, with-
out paired, jointed appendages and wTith or without a hard shell, that are
included in the great phylum Mollusca.

Such a group would include three widely different types of animals. The
squid, the octopus and their kind,1 in which the head is well developed and in
which the front part of the foot surrounds the mouth and is remarkable for
its bearing a series of lobes or tentacles — called the "arms" in the octopus —
form one class.

The snails, slugs, whelks and periwinkles form a second class and are
called Gasteropods. They are usually, though not always, with spiral shells,
but they may be without shells at all. The name gasteropod means stomach-

1 Cephalopoda.

29

* " THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 443

foot, and is an allusion to the fact that the entire lower portion of the body is
thickened and flattened to form a broad muscular foot adapted to their cling-
ing and crawling habits. In the common and more typical forms, the aper-
ture, which is the opening into the spiral shell, is closed when the animal is
retracted, by a small horny or shelly plate called the operculum, but both the
spiral shells and the operculum are absent in certain gasteropjods.

The third division 2 includes such creatures as the mussels, clams, scallops
and oysters, in which a right and left valve or shell can be plainly recog-
nized. For this reason they are commonly spoken of as bivalves. The living
animal has broad, flat gills on each side of the body to which water is brought
through a tube called the siphon. The food, consisting of minute plants and
animals, is strained out of the water as it passes through the incurrent and exeur-
rent tube. The bulk of the soft part of the animal is called the foot and is
suited for digging.

Mussels, Clams, Scallops and Oysters.

While there are a number of species of bivalves in the waters about the
islands, perhaps not more than fifteen or twenty species are common on Oahu.
Of these the one most frequently met with is the common mussel,3 which in
many places, as at Diamond Head and Pearl Harbor, almost pave the shore
below the low-tide mark. They are from an inch to two inches in length ; the
right and left valves are equal, slightly ridged, and are covered with an epi-
dermis which varies from black to light yellow. The hinge has minute
teeth, and the beak is at one end of the hinge-line. They live attached to
rocks, shells, piles or other objects by a number of threads called the
byssus. A species occurring in Europe is much esteemed as food. The Ha-
waii ans use the nahawele, as they are called, but so far as the writer knows they
have never been gathered for market.

A method formerly employed by the natives in preparing this common
mollusk for food should be of interest to sea-shore campers. A spot was found
where the mussels were exposed at low tide, and over the bed of shells, drift-
wood wTas piled and a fire lighted. The heat caused the shells to open and at
the same time roasted the fleshy part within, rendering it very palatable. The
natives also gathered them from the shallow water and placed them in wooden
calabashes in which water was heated by means of hot stones. In a few min-
utes the animal would be thoroughly cooked. The water was then drained off
and a pinch of sea salt added to bring out the flavor of the food.

The Mytilus, or edible mussel, is readily separated from the two or three
common species of Perna, especially a small black form 4 which it somewhat
resembles, by the more compressed form of the shell and by the several tooth-
like notches along the straight hinge-line. The Perna are further marked by
conspicuous flaky lines of growth which are important characters in the
various common forms. One species, the papaua of the natives, common at

2 Pelecypoda or LameUibrane Mala. 3 Mytilus crebristriatvs. 4 Melina = (Perna) californica.

444 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Kiwalao, is cream color with black teeth. A third species is dark-brown in
color, with the hinge-line somewhat elongated and marked with fan-like lines
radiating from the beak.

A species of the pearl oyster family 5 occurs at Pearl Harbor. The com-
mon species "pa" is often three or four inches or more across. The hinge-line
in the common pearl oyster ° found here is long and straight, without teeth,
and is produced to form wing-like projections of the shell at either side of
the beak, which is much nearer the middle of the hinge. Without doubt it was
the presence of this shell with the iridescent interior, occurring at Pearl Har-
bor, on Oahu, that gave that sheet of water its name. Although they belong to
the same sub-family,7 they are not the famous pearl shell 8 of the South Pacific
islands. However, a pearl-bearing species is found in Pearl Harbor and at cer-
tain other places about the group in the deeper water offshore, and pearls were
found to some extent by the natives, but the pa was chiefly used by them for
making fishhooks and to some extent in making the curious shell-eyes for their
wooden gods.

Fine specimens of the chest or ark shell,0 locally known as kupukele, are
to be found living in the water and bedded in the solid rock in certain locali-
ties in the uplifted coral reef about Pearl City. They, in common with other
species of the family,10 have the beak near the middle of the hinge. The
hinge-line is strong and straight and is furnished with fine interlocking teeth.
The outside is fluted with pronounced squarish riblets. A second species n
found washed up on the sand beaches is oblong in shape, and in the dead shell
the whitish surface is marked with many fine riblets wThich in old age become
broken up into squarish points by the lines of growth. The inside of the shell
within the pallial line is also roughened by lines radiating from the beak.

The true oysters, the scallops and the saddle oysters differ from other
bivalves in that they have but one, instead of two, adductor muscles for pulling
the shells together. They lie on their sides instead of standing on edge as other
bivalves do, and the under valve becomes flattened or otherwise modified in
consequence.

There is a large species of extinct oyster ] 2 to be found in the uplifted beds
about Pearl Harbor, but there also occurs a smaller living species 13 seldom more
than two inches in length. On account of its sharp edge it is called pioeoe by
the natives. It makes a rough, rude, irregular foliated shell, the edge inter-
locking by numerous notch-like folds. They are too small and scarce to be
used extensively for food. Nevertheless, they, and their extinct cousins, indi-
cate that a commercial species could be grown in the islands if the proper kinds
were introduced and proper care taken in their planting, despite the fact that
efforts in this field have so far proved unsuccessful.

5 Aviculidce. ft Margaritifera fim-briotn. 7 Aviculince. 8 Avicula margaritifera.

9 Area. 10 Areidce. X1 Area Candida. 12 Ostrea retusa. 13 Ostrea rosacea.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 445

*. Attempts at Oyster Culture.

In 1871 the first attempt was made to introduce the Eastern oyster14 into
Hawaii. Again in 1883, Mr. Allen Herbert purchased three hundred Eastern
oysters in San Francisco and planted them in Kalihi Bay, but heavy freshets
in the stream covered them with mud. In October, 1893, another attempt
was made. This time one thousand Eastern and three thousand California
oysters15 were secured in San Francisco and planted in ponds at Ewa in
shallow water. In a very short time the California oysters died. The Eastern
oysters thrived better, and by 1895 Mr. J. F. Colburn undertook a more exten-
sive planting. More than thirty-eight thousand oysters were planted in that
year, but they did not thrive, and by 1901 only a few living shells could be
found.

Next to the oysters come the pretty scale-like golden saddle oyster (pipi)
or Anomia shells. The common species 10 are irregular in form and the valves
are unequal. The lowTer and usually the flatter valve is remarkable for the
hole near the hinge through which a plug-like peduncle passes by which the
shell is attached to other shells or rocks. Fine specimens occur about Ford's
Island, at Pearl City, and are to be found in suitable places in other localities.

The scallops or pectens,17 of which two or three species are quite common,
as well as a related genus,18 are more regular and symmetrical in the growth
of the shell. They are usually flushed with rose color and ornamented with
radiating ribs. The wing-like ears together wTith the symmetrical outline of
the shell renders the genus10 an easy one to identify, and as the species are
fond of sandy bottoms and shallow water their shells are scattered here and
there along our beaches. The shell of Hinnites is irregular in growth. As they
are usually attached to some submerged object, they are less commonly found
on the shore.

Coming to the clam-like mollusks of the islands, first place should be
given to the olepe 20 by reason of its being the most important shell-bearing
food mollusk of the group, though the present day Hawaiians apply the same
name indiscriminately to a number of edible bivalves that are in no way
closely related to the common species. Full-grown specimens of the olepe are
two inches or more in length and are creamy white in color. They are slightly
flattened, but are rounded in front and angular and slightly folded posteriorly.
The shell is beautifully sculptured with wavy lines which become more and
more pronounced as the shell advances in age. They are fond of burying
themselves in the soft mud at the mouths of rivers and have long been an
article of food especially prized by the Hawaiians. A smaller, smoother, more
delicate milk-white species 21 known by the same name by the natives is often
found in large numbers on the sandy beaches on the windward side of Oahu.

A small, round, white clam 22 also occurs in Pearl Harbor, both as a living

14 Ostrea virginica. 15 Ostrea lurida, 10 Anomia nobilis. 17 Pectinidce. 18 Hinnites giganteus.

19 Pecten. 20 Tellina rugosa. -x Tellina dispar. 22 Cadokia = (Lucina) ramulosu.

446 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

and a fossil species. It has its firm shell sculptured with a large number of
radiating riblets, and the margin minutely roughened or crenulated.

The genus Cytherea is represented by a heart-shaped clam 23 that is sim-
ilar to the Venus clam but is much rounder and thicker. Like it, the hinge
has three strong teeth, but the species has its surface beautifully marked with
radiating blotches of brown. These markings, however, often disappear from
beach-worn specimens, or in old age, leaving the pure white shell slightly
roughened with minute hair-like growth lines. The markings are responsible
for the common name tent or encampment shell.

In Hawaii, as elsewhere, one of the commonest forms of clam shell everywhere
along the beach is a species of Venus 24 or round clams. Its stout white
shell is beautifully roughened by prominent concentric bands which are
broken up into numerous rectangular spaces by the radiating rib-like lines.

The typical species of Cardium or heart shell 25 found on Oahu is easily
identified by its heart shape when both valves are joined, and by the strongly
convex valves, which are deeply ribbed, the ribs interlocking on the margin of
the shell. In addition to the center teeth there is also a strong tooth at the
extreme end of the hinge line. The inner surface shows the furrows of the
rib lines, and even in beach-worn specimens it is of a delicate pink color.

Several species belonging to the family of rock oysters 2e> are found on
the beaches, as they are fond of attaching themselves to various objects,
especially the dead and growing coral. At first glance they may be mistaken
for oyster shells, but their thick, heavy, solid, foliated shell is somewhat spiral
at the tip and the unequal valves are united by teeth, two in the left, or at-
tached valve, and one in the upper, or lid valve. The name of the genus 27
has reference to their gaping appearance. Some of the specimens are four
inches in length and the two valves together often weigh a pound. The inside
of the shell may be white or colored, especially about the margin, with rose,
lavender or brown. As they are very thick and strong, they long withstand
the grinding of the sea and sand, and fragments lie along the shore which are
worn down perfectly smooth. Other specimens are much roughened by nu-
merous small holes drilled in the shell by various worms which enter them for
protection. They are sometimes used as food by the natives, either cooked or
raw, and are known to them as kupakala.

Gasteropods, Including Snails, Slugs, Whelks, Cowries, Etc.

In a book of this character it is obviously impossible to give more than the
briefest mention of some of the more common and interesting of the several
hundred species of gasteropod mollusks that have been reported from the
Hawaiian Islands. However, it is hoped that by reference to the accompanying
figures and the brief description given of the more common species occurring
in the waters about the islands, that many of the shells found along the shore

28 Lioconcha hieroglyphic a. 2* Venus reticulata. 25 Cardium orbiter. 26 Chamidw.
27 Chama.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 447

may readily be placed in their proper genera by those who do not have access
to more minute description. To make the illustrations more useful to those
whose collections are made mainly from the beach, the majority of the speci-
mens shown are in the beach-worn condition in which they are liable to occur.
They were selected from material collected on four holiday excursions, one to
Waikiki and Diamond Head, one to the dredger-dumped material from Hono-
lulu harbor, one to Pearl Harbor and one to Kahana Bay. Ninety-two species
belonging to forty-one genera were collected in this way. Of this number six-
teen species belonging to fifteen genera are included in a list of forty-five
species reported by Mr. D. Thaanum as commonly found on shore and in the
shallow water about Hilo. Mr. Thaanum 's collection, which includes the land
and fresh-water shell collection made by the Kuhns brothers, is one of the
largest and most systematic private collections in the islands. The marine
collection numbers upwards of two hundred and fifty species belonging to
ninety of the one hundred and twenty or more genera commonly included in
a list of Hawaiian gasteropods.

As an example of the unusual reward to be had for more exhaustive col-
lecting in a given locality for a single group of shells, it is interesting to report
that Mr. J. M. Ostergaard has been able, in a few years, to secure from the
dredging from Honolulu harbor and other sources, thirty of the forty species
and sub-species of the beautiful Cyprce-a, or cowry family, so far listed in the
literature of the subject as occurring in the Hawaiian Islands.

The univalve or gasteropod mollusks are by far the largest division of
the Mollusca. Some are free swimming animals, living far from land out in
the open seas, but the greater number inhabit shallow water, usually about the
low-tide mark; while others dwell in brackish water, in fresh water and on
the land. The typical gasteropod — and it is only this division that can be
considered in any detail here — is normally a crawling animal bearing a coiled
shell. They all move slowly by the continual contraction and expansion of
the muscular foot. Many of the common marine forms have interesting habits,
and may be kept alive with very little trouble in a simple salt-water aquarium.
In a small aquarium one should be careful not to overstock. Two or three
healthy, happy specimens are less trouble and far more interesting for the
purposes of observation and study.

In general it will be found that the species that have the base of the aper-
ture rounded as in Littorvna, Crepidula, Nerita and the like, are herbivorous in
habit, feeding on seaweed, moss and minute aquatic plants. Shells in which
the aperture is deeply notched or prolonged into a canal, as in Nassa,
Strombtts, Mitra and Cyprcea, are usually carnivorous or flesh-eating species
and are perhaps more difficult to supply with their accustomed food on that
account.

^^= v^

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 449

•£. Spiny Rock Shells.

The extensive family 28 known as the spiny rock shells is represented in
Hawaii by ten genera with perhaps twenty-eight or more species. The typical
genus Murex is seldom found on the shore, but the genus Purpura, named in
allusion to a purple dye formerly secured from certain species, has three
species, one of which is quite common. These, together with the castor bean-
pod shells,29 the banner shells 30 and the rattle shells 31 shown in the plates,
will be sufficient to give an idea of the more common forms belonging to this
family.

Of the rattle shells there are several small species known from Hawaii.
The mulberry shell 32 is appropriately named from its appearance. It is quite
generally distributed, but is not conspicuous, since it is less than an inch in
length. To these, and in fact to the great majority of shells of the same
general shape, the Hawaiians gave the class name pupu. It seems that the
number of species was so great that the natives applied specific names to only
a few of the more important ones.

Tritons.

The triton family 33 is represented in the islands by a dozen or more
species belonging to the typical genus 34 and as many as eight or more of the
frog-shell35 group, which differ from their cousins in having a pronounced
ridge or varix on each side of the shell, which forms a thick ridge on the oppo-
site sides making the shell distinctly two-edged. They live on the coral reef,
and all but one of the species has been taken from Honolulu harbor.

The fine triton trumpet30 is seldom taken on shore. But as they grow to
splendid proportions and are the largest shell that occurs in Hawaii and were
used by the ancient Hawaiians as a war trumpet, they are worthy of special
mention. They are said to attain a length of eighteen inches, but specimens
a foot in length are more commonly seen. Such shells are treasured as a real
possession by the old Hawaiian fishermen, for they know how scarce they are
and how hard they are to secure, living or dead.

The hard shell has a peculiar resonant quality. When the tip of the spire
is cut or ground away and the shell used as a bugle (pu), it emits a peculiar

-* Mnricidtv. 29 Ricitnita. 30 Vexilla. 31 Sistrum. 32 Sistrum morus. 3Z Triton ida>.

31 Triton. 3r> Kan ella. 30 Triton tritonis.

Description of Plate.

1. Amastra violacece var. wailauensis. 2. Carelia sinclairi. 3. Laminella gravida. 4.
Laminella gravida. 5. Amastra turrit ella. 6. Laminella sanguinea. 7. Amastra rubricun-
da. 8. Amastra text His. 9. New comb ia canaliculata var. wailauensis. 10. Leptachatina sp.
11. Partulina dubia. 12. Perdicclla fulgurans. 13. Laminella venusta. 14. Auriculella sp.
15. Endodonta sp. 16. Suceinea sp. 17. Helicina sp. 18. Pupa sp. 19. Pterodiscus rex.
20. Endodonta sp. 21. Philanesia baldwini. 22. Eulota similaris. 23. Opeas pyrgiscus.
24. Suceinea sp. 25. Leptachatina chrysalis. 26. Pterodiscus discus. 27. Philonesia sp.
28. Amastra frosti. 29. Achat in ella (Apex) lorata. 30. Partulina confusa. 31. BiiUmeUa
bacca. 32. Achat enallast rum plumata.

450 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

foggy sound that carries for a. long distance. In former times it was a con-
venient instrument with which to summon the laborers from their slumbers, or, in
more strenuous times, to cheer the faithful on to victory at arms. The grace-
fully tapering shell is variegated with buff, brown, purple and red in a very
rich and characteristic pattern. The outer lip is toothed, and whitish, with
double streaks of brown which soon fade into the ruddy aperture.

The more common species, especially in Honolulu and Pearl Harbor, is the
hairy triton 37 known as pupu ole. It may be recognized by its bristly olive-
colored epidermis. On beach-worn specimens this peculiarity disappears, leav-
ing the whole exterior of the shell streaked with revolving bands and folds. In the
tritons, as with most shells, as age advances the lip thickens and changes take place
between young and old specimens which confuse even those who profess to
considerable knowledge of the science which deals with the shell-bearing
animals.38

The quilted triton 39 is a smaller, more solid species, seldom more than two
inches in length, and is far from being the most common triton in the islands.
It exhibits considerable variation in coloring and other characters, but is
usually light or dark brown with the ribs and tubercles lighter, and there is
sometimes an ill-defined whitish band on the large or body whorl. The nodu-
lated teeth and the mouth of the shell are whitish and thickly enameled. The
interior of the aperture is orange-red.

Spindle Shells.

The spindle-shell 40 family has a typical Hawaiian form in a graceful
white species 41 in which the long canal equals, or exceeds, the spire in length.
The species is fond of mud-flats, where it burrows in the soft deposits. For
this reason it is a common shell in harbor dredgings. The chick-pea shells 42
and the genus Peristernia are common shells that are grouped in a sub-
family 43 of the spindle shells, but to the ordinary observer, unacquainted with
all the details of classification, they appear to have little in common with the
more typical forms.

Whelks.

So far as is known, the whelk 44 family, which includes the f ulgur
shells commonly figured in books on sea shells, are represented in Hawaii by
only a few small species. The family as a whole is described as thick, ovate
or pear-shaped shells with a short canal and with the columella (the pillar
around which the whorls or turns of a spiral shell revolve) without plications
or folds. The sub-family 45 to which the island species belong is characterized
as small heavy shells, usually less than an inch in length, with teeth on the
outer lip and the columella rough and thickened. The pisa shells 40 and the
tankard shells 4T belong to this group. They are few in number and difficult
to place even by skilled collectors.

37 Triton pilearis. 88 Conchology. 89 Triton tuberosvs. 40 Fitsidcc. 4i Fusus nova hollandicv.

42 Latiriis, *3 Peristerniinre. 44 Buccinidce. 45 Pisaniince. 46 Pisania. 47 Cantkarus.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 451

*... Dog Whelks.

The dog* whelk48 family has four species occurring in the islands, all
belonging to the one genus 40 of fish-basket shells. The name is given them
from the resemblance of certain species to the tapering narrow-mouthed
wicker baskets used in Europe by the fishermen in the fish and lobster business.
The small notch at the base of the aperture is an important characteristic.
They are predatory50 in habit and are usually found near the shore. The
largest species 51 is whitish, more or less blotched with yellowish-brown, and
has the spire tipped wTith pink. The various species of the genus seem to
intergrade to a remarkable degree. To the common small, light-yellowish or
orange-brown specimens with a pale central band is given the name Nassa hirta.
The one wTith narrow red revolving lines and irregular broad bands, a variable
species, is called Nassa gaudiosa, while Nassa splendidula, smaller than the
foregoing, is white, shining and distinctly granose, caused by the crossing of
the longitudinal ribs by deeply incised lines.

Mitre Shells.

The mitre shells collected in the islands are usually included in the great
genus wrhich is typical of the family,52 according to the best authorities, al-
though this large genus is variously divided by other specialists. Three or
four additional genera, including the small "gutter-tile" shells,53 which ap-
proach the cone shells in general form ; the little turret shells,54 of which there
are four or five species, and a small, slender representative of the genus Thala
are regarded as forming good genera, but they all have characteristics that
are common to the true mitre shells, and all may be known by their sharp
spire and the conspicuous and strongly marked folds on the columella. How-
ever, their size and the character of the body of the shell varies greatly, espe-
cially in sculpture and marking. There are more than two hundred species of
mitre shells in the tropics, and some of them are of large size and great beauty.
Of that number more than three dozen species, most of them less than an inch
and a half in length, have been reported as occurring in the waters about
these islands. Of a possible twenty-six species, seventeen of the genus Mitra
have been collected from Honolulu harbor by the author.

The living shells are gregarious 5f> and avoid the daylight by hiding in the
masses of coral on the reefs or by burrowing in the sand. At night, however,
like many of their marine associates, they creep out to feed. Their heavy, hard
shells will long resist the action of the waves, so that they are to be found
among the small pebbles on the shore. On almost every ramble by the sea
the careful collector may gather one or more species of these attractive shells.

By reference to the accompanying plates they can readily be identified as
Mitra, a name given out of a fancied resemblance to a priest's mitre; but to

48 Nassidw. i9 Nassa. B0 That is, feeding on other animals. 51 Nassa papulosa. 52 Mitridce.

53 Imbricaria. 54 Turricula. 55 Inclined to gather in companies.

452 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

describe the various species accurately, in a way to be of use in identifying the
beach-worn specimens, is obviously a task beyond the scope of this volume.

Margin Shells.

The margin shell 56 family includes small shells related to the cowries and
mitres. They are pear-shaped, porcelanous in appearance, and are marked by
the large body whorl. The aperture is usually nearly the whole length of the
shell, and the outer lip has a narrow thickened margin which may be toothed
or smooth within, but the columella is distinctly plicated much as in the mitre
family.

Since the largest of the four species of margin shells so far collected in
Hawaii is less than a fourth of an inch in length, they are liable to be secured
only by those accustomed to close observation. The largest species 57 is
smooth, pale rosy-white, with twro brownish bands, and has the outer lip
slightly thickened in the middle. It is the only species belonging to the genus
taken here, but is, of course, too small for satisfactory photographic illustra-
tion. The typical genus of margin shells 5S embraces perhaps two hundred and
fifty species. Of this number a dozen or more are Polynesian, three being
credited to this group, two of which have been taken on Oahu. They have
the outer lip conspicuously thickened, with the inner margin smooth, ridged
or toothed in different species.

Olive Shells.

The olive shells are rare in Hawaii. The family 50 is so far represented
by four species, none of which seem to be common. Only the beautiful conoid
harp-shell 00 is commonly collected. This species, which shares the Hawaiian
name pu with the triton shell, belongs to an important sub-family 61 in which
the species differ from those in the typical 'sub-family62 in several important
respects, among them being the conspicuous and characteristic longitudinal
parallel ribs on the shell. These ribs, together with the general harp-like
shape of the shell, amply justify the common name. The color scheme is
brown in many shades, and the pattern, resembling the banding of an agate,
makes of the harp shell an object greatly admired.

The typical olive shells are smooth, solid, highly-colored, and agree with
the group just described in having the outer lip simple and the aperture
obliquely notched below. The red-mouthed olive03 is a typical species. It
has a deep orange-red aperture, and the pale creamy ground is variously
banded with chestnut, but the general color scheme varies greatly. The species
is said to inhabit muddy sand in deep water, where it attains a length of two
or three inches. A small species of olive64 less than an inch in length, is white
within and without, and is marked with two wide and one narrow rich orange
bands. It is a common wide-ranging species and together with a third unde-
termined species has been collected by Mr. Thaanum on Hawaii.

i MartjinelUda:. 57 Erato snndwicensis. 58 Marginella. 59 Olividce. 60 Harpa conoidalis.

Harpinci'. rt- Olivimr. 03 Oliva erythrostoma. 64 Oliva carneola.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 453

*. Dove Shells.

The little "dove shells" belong to a tropical family65 to which more
than eight hundred species have been referred by conchologists. Of that
number fifteen or more species belonging to two genera have been reported
from these islands. Among so many similar forms the characteristics dis-
tinguishing the species are often obscure and confusing. This is especially true
in the present family, as the largest species are scarcely an inch in length,
while the great majority are less than half that size. However, they are all
solid shells of varying form with short anterior canals. The inner lip ante-
riorly is usually tuberculated ; the outer lip as a rule is thickened and
variously roughened on its inner margin. The most abundant and best known
representative of the family in the islands is the little Niihau shell.66 It is
a trifle over a third of an inch in length and varies greatly in the markings
and sculpture of the shell, but usually has the base of the columella stained
with chocolate. These pretty bead-like shells, especially those from the Island
of Niihau, were formerly used by the Hawaiians in making shell necklaces or
leis. Necklaces made from them are still manufactured for sale and are much
prized by tourists.

A slightly larger, and perhaps more typical form, is shown in Columbella
turturina. It is white, variegated with clouds of yellowish-brown. The col-
umella and teeth of the outer lip are usually stained with violet. The zebra
dove shell 67 has a higher spire and the white ground is so curiously marked
with zebra-like chestnut markings that it always attracts attention along the
beach in spite of its small size.

A genus of "grey" shells 68 with three species, one of which Mr. Thaanum
includes in his manuscript list of Hawaiian shells as occurring on Hawaii, and
which also occurs on Oahu, is included in this family, though it is admitted that
they bear but little resemblance to the typical genera. They are all longitudinally
ribbed, the ribs broken up into nodules by revolving lines. The form Engina
farinosa, a yellowish-brown shell with indistinct dusky bands, is found on
Hawaii and doubtless elsewhere in the group.

CHAPTER XXXV.

SHELLS FROM THE SEA-SHORE: PART TWO.
The Cone Shells.

The cone shells * are sufficiently characterized by their common name to
need no further general description than to say that in addition to being
cone-shaped, the aperture is long and narrow, the lips are straight and parallel
and are always without teeth or ridges. Perhaps four hundred species are

65 ColumbelUdce. 6C Columbella vavians. 6T Columbella, zebra. 68 Engina. l Con idee.

454 NATUBAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

known to occur in the tropical waters of the globe. Of this number one hun-
dred and thirty-three are enumerated by one authority as occurring in the
Eastern Asiatic province in which the Hawaiian Islands are included. Twenty-
five species and well-marked varieties have been recorded from this group.
Specimens of all but three of the Hawaiian species Mr. Thaanum reports having
personally secured, chiefly in the vicinity of Hilo, while the writer has secured
a similar number of species on the Island of Oahu. In the little collection of
common beach shells secured on the four excursions mentioned are ten species
ranging in size from tiny shells less than a half inch in length to heavy solid
specimens three and a half inches long. Unfortunately most of the beach
specimens secured are badly worn, in some cases past positive identification.
The great weight of the dead shell in proportion to its size makes its progress
over the wave-swept reef much slower and the grinding much more severe
than would be the case with a lighter shell that might be caught up and laid
down again high on the sandy shore, well out of harm's way, by a single wave.

The cones are fond of the coral reefs and hide in holes in the rocks on the
reef and along the shore. They are carnivorous animals, and move slowly
about seeking their food, which is usually obtained by means of curious poison
fangs by which they paralyze their prey.

The most common and without doubt the most beautiful of the cone shells
found in the dredgings from Pearl Harbor and Honolulu harbor is a species
identified as Conns quercinus. The shell itself is a delicate tan color and is
ornamented with numerous parallel revolving pen-lines of brown. Over this
in fresh specimens is a thin rich-brown epidermis. They appear to prefer the
muddy brackish water conditons at the harbor mouth to a life on the coral reef
in the open sea. A more ordinary type of marking is found on the spotted
cone shell.2 It is about two inches long and has the creamy white ground ir-
regularly covered with chocolate spots about the size of a pin-head. These
spots are somewhat thickened towards the ends, thus forming three ill-defined
bands about the shell.

The Hebrew cone 3 is so called from a fancied resemblance of the large
deep-chocolate colored markings on the white ground to the characters used
in the Hebrew alphabet. It is an inch and a half in length and is a reef-
dwelling species, found usually on sandy shores with fragments of broken
shells and other debris.

The largest species is the lettered cone,4 which bears row after row of
oblong brown characters on its white surface. A yellow undercolor groups
these rows into indistinct bands. Specimens seven or eight inches in length
are not uncommon, especially on the coast of Molokai, and a number of very
large specimens come up in the dredgings of Honolulu harbor.

Unfortunately the worn specimens of any of the cones can seldom be
identified without reference to perfect examples. The local collector should
have no trouble, however, in identifying any shell he may secure by use of

2 Conus pulicarius. s Conns heforceus. *Conus litteratus var. millepunctatus.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 455

the labeled, specimens in the extensive collection of Hawaiian shells at the
Bishop Museum.

Leis were occasionally made by the Hawaiians of certain species of cone
(leho) shells, but as a rule they were too scarce to be much used, although
there is a string several feet in length in the Bishop Museum and the author has
two such leis in his private collection.

Auger Shells.

The auger shells 5 are most appropriately named, for the long, tapering,
many flat-whorled spire at once characterizes them, while the small aperture,
notched in front, renders them easily placed in the single genus to which about
two dozen Hawaiian species belong. These hard, sharp-pointed shells were of
much use to the Haw^aiians in various ways. They were formerly used as drill
points in their crude but ingenious rotary drills. There they served their true
purpose of an auger, but the hard, sharp outer lip was equally effective as a
tool when used as a scraper. They made excellent stoppers for the small-
necked gourds that once were used for the storage of water.

Even the fragment of the crenulated auger shell c washed ashore is suffi-
cient for the identification of this large species in which the whorls are obtusely
nodulated below the suture.7 Fresh specimens are cream-colored, streaked
with chestnut between the nodules, and with three revolving rows of chestnut
spots on the body-whorl and two rows on the remainder of the spire. Adult
specimens are five inches in length. The spotted auger shell,8 when fully
adult, is almost as large as the foregoing, but is orange-browrn with a row of
large white spots just below the suture and a second row below the middle of
the body- whorl. The largest species occurring in Hawaii is Terebra maciilata.
Specimens in the writer's collection vary from three to nine inches in length.
Large shells were much sought for by the natives, as they were fond of the
animal and used the chisel-like edge of the shell in scraping out the wooden
hulls of their canoes.

Perhaps the Gould auger shell9 is the commonest species found on our
Hawaiian sand-rimmed bays. It is a smaller species and one of a large num-
ber of this group of shells Avhich is peculiar in that it has what appears to be
a double suture about the spire. This band is slightly nodulated, while the
body of each whorl is longitudinally plicated. The shell is creamy-white
banded writh very pale chestnut, and has three bands on the body- whorl. The
cancellated auger shell10 is smaller and has the narrow nodulous band white.
To the unpracticed eye it is otherwise very similar to the preceding form.

A fifth form which is fairly common on sandy shores is Terebra aciculina.
It is about an inch and a half in length, varies in color from deep chocolate to
pale ash color, and is wdiite-banded at the suture, as well as on the free edge of
the body-whorl. Perhaps twenty species of auger shells can be secured in

5 Terebridm. ° Terebra crenulata. 7 The line where the whorls of the shell unite.

8 Terebra oculata. 9 Terebra gouldi. 10 Terebra cancellata.

##*$!

i-i..v!"K P1;. ( ■( i\i M- -v \i \i;im: hi \ \(.v?x

I. Hawaiian J-Mil.1i« MussH INnlinwHH {Mutihix whrMri<it„#\. '1. Hani Sh.'ll |'lli-
hiwsii| (;!/r/»«,i = (I'm,,,) rofifuruu-a. 11 l>n\<mm (l',r„,i *,,.). -I. 1 »n j,.«,itji (./',»•«,/ */,.).

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 457

Hawaii by a* careful collector, but as many of them are small and rare, their
description would be out of place here.

Conch Shells.

The typical conch shell family lx has but nine species reported from
Hawaii, the most common species being the little spotted conch,12 the puleho
of the Hawaiians. They are found usually in the shallow water along shore,
hidden away during the day under a coral rock or in crevices in the growing
reef. The species is less than an inch and a half in length, and can hardly be
made to agree with one's notion of this family founded, usually, on the fine
large conch shell that everywhere, a generation ago, adorned the mantel, held
the honored place in the curiosity cabinet or served a useful and ornamental
purpose as a door brick in the homes of people not given to the pursuit of
natural history. Nevertheless, if the species were compared it would be found
that they differ mainly in size and color. They have the same solid shell, with
a well-developed spire, the thickened, expanded outer lip similarly lobed; the
columella without plaits and the posterior canal well developed. The living
shell has a strong muscular foot adapted to leaping ; a peculiarity which makes
them interesting inhabitants for an aquarium. The shell of the common
species, when the epidermis is removed, is creamy white, spotted and macu-
lated with chocolate and orange-brown, and has the aperture white. S trombus
heUii is a smaller yellowish-brown species regularly ribbed and crossed by
spiral striae. Strombus samar is larger and the outer lip has three large
teeth, and the interior of the aperture radially ridged.

The only species of spider shell13 so far found in the islands is five or six
inches in length. They are stromb-like, but have the outer lip exaggerated by
long curved fingers that make the mollusk look like a huge spider traveling on
seven legs.

The Cowry Family.

The cowry14 shells are all so well known to everyone who visits the sea-
shore that a description seems unnecessary. The living animal is interesting,
since from the long, narrow, centrally-located aperture emerges the curious,
often brilliantly-colored, foot and mantle. The latter when fully expanded
almost envelops the smooth, glossy shell. The young shells almost always show
a short spire, but as they mature the spire is usually enveloped by the growth
of the body whorl.

11 Strombidm. i2 Strombus macvlatvs. 13 Pterocera aurantia. 14 Cyprceidce.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

5. Pearl Oyster [Pa] (Margaritifera fimbriata). 6. Ark Shell (Area sp.). 7. Area Can-
dida. 8. Hawaiian Oyster [Pioeoe] (Ostrea rosacea). 9. Jingle Shell (Anomia nobilis).
10. Anomia nobilis (young). 11. Scallop (Pecten sp.). 12. Scallop (Pecten sp.). 13.
Purple-hinged Scallop (Hinnites giganteus). 14. Tellen Shell [Olepe] (Tellina rugosa). 15.
Tellina dispar. 16. Hawaiian Cytherea (Cytherea = (Lioconcha) hieroglyphica) . 17. Venus
€lam (Venus reticulata). 18. Lucina Sheil (Cadalcia ramulosa). 19. Heart Shell (Cardium
orb iter). 20. Rock Oyster [Kupakala] (Chama sp.). 21. Rock Oyster (Chama sp.).

30

458 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Of a possible two hundred living species there are more than three dozen
forms of these interesting mollusks reported as occurring in Hawaii, all of
which are known as leho by the natives. With possibly one or two exceptions,
however, they cannot be said to be abundant or common in the islands. . Ref-
erence has been made in another connection to the large number of species
belonging to this family that have been secured in Honolulu harbor. In the
small collection of common beach forms, in the lot before me from Oahu, no
fewer than ten recognizable species occur. Of that number three or four are
sufficiently common to be liable to occur in almost every collection.

By far the most abundant species is the snake-head cowry.15 It is seldom
more than an inch and a quarter in length, and is often found along rocky
coasts or in coral heads in shallow water. It is reddish or blackish-brown
with unequal snow-like spots on the back. The extremities are tipped with
white, the base gray ; the teeth are strong and white. These and other species
of cowries, especially the money cowry,10 a small yellowish species, and another
small form ornamented with wThite and brown spots, a saffron base and pale
violet extremities, known as Cyprcea helvola, were used by the Hawaiians to
some extent in making their leis.

The hump-backed cowry 17 when full-grown is more than three and a half
inches in length. Its brown color is varied by light brown or white spots of
irregular size, while the sides and base are dark brown or almost black. The
teeth are prominent and the edge of the shell is much thickened and angular.
This fine shell is said to be the strongest and heaviest of the genus. It is one
of the large sea shells in which the native children, like the children of many
other lands, could hear the sound of the sea. It is a choice food of the Ha-
waiians and is often to be seen offered for sale in the market. Its shell was
much used in making their ingenious squid-hooks. As a part of the hook the
shell served as bait, and was attached to a stone sinker of similar size and
shape, so that the flattened surfaces were together. Between the shell and the
sinker there was fastened a stick, to the lower end of which was attached a
hook of bone or, in more recent years, of iron. About the hook was usually
fastened a bunch of leaves, which kept the point hidden from the eye of the
cautious animal. The squid has a great fondness for this particular species of
cowry. They seize the hook by wrapping their arms about the shell, when
they are easily captured. "Humpbacks" (leho) were always in great demand
among the fishermen for that reason. The flesh-colored cowry,18 a large spe-
cies ornamented with four or five deep flesh-colored bands and with a red
animal, was also sometimes used as squid bait. The squid if captured under
certain conditions by this species of shell, wras supposed to be a very valuable
remedy in the healing of the sick.

5 Cyprcea capid-serpcntis. 16 Cyprcea moneta. 17 Cyprcea mauritiatia. 18 Cyprcea carneola.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 459

The following, translated by Dr. N. B. Emerson, is a portion of ancient pule
repeated by the native doctor (kahuna) fisherman as the baited hook was low-
ered to capture a squid to be used for curative purposes :

"Here is the cowry,

A red cowry to attract the squid to his death.

Here is the spear, a mere stick,

A spear of lama wood for the squid that lies flat.

O Kanaloa of the tabu nights,

Stand upright on the solid floor!

Stand upon the floor where lies the squid!

Stand up to take the squid of the deep sea!

Eise up, O Kanaloa!

Stir up! agitate! let the squid awake!

Let the squid that lies flat awake, the squid that lies spread out."

Two large species related to the more familiar tiger cowry10 (the largest
of the family, and common in collections) have spots extended over the base.
The Arabian cowrry 20 has the base tinged with brown. If the spots are
crowded and run together, the sides thick, and the base milky or bluish-white,
with a dark blotch near the middle of the shell, it is the closely-related species
(Jyprcm reticulata. All three species occur in the group, and, like most of the
larger forms, were used as food by the Hawaiians. A small form usually
about an inch in length, that is ashy-fulvous, without spots, and has the teeth
white and the extremities saffron-red (that is usually collected in the group),
is Isabella's cowry.21

A curious species of cowry, occurring quite commonly in the islands,
belongs to the group in which the shell is covered wTith little nodules. It is a
wide-ranging form, known as the Madagascar cowry,22 and is a species in
wrhich the ridges on the outer lip are alternately large and small. The list of
rare or occasional species -could easily be extended into a small volume.

Five minute white or pinkish species of the coffee-bean shell 2;* have been
reported from Hawaii. As the largest of them are less than half an inch in
length, they are seldom seen by amateurs. They are all cowry-shaped, rather
roundish and curiously cross-ribbed shells that can at once be identified by
their resemblance to the larger members of the family.

Egg Shells.

The egg shells24 are so seldom seen on our beaches that a description of
the species seems unnecessary, farther than to say that in general form they
resemble the cowries, are whitish or dull, in color and the extremities are usually
drawn out to form two canals. They differ from the family mentioned above
in having the inner or columella side of the aperature smooth. The shells
occur throughout Polynesia, where in many of the islands they are much
prized as personal ornaments.

Tun Shells.

The tun shells,25 or wine jars, as the name given to the family signifies.

20

10 CUfpra'a tigri.s. 20 Cyprcea arabica, 21 Cyprma isabella. 22 Cyprma madaguseariensis.
23 Trivia. 2* Ovulidm. 25 Doliidce. -6 An allusion to their capacious size.

i'LATE 10.1. SMMK OF TTIK IiAI.MiHR ('OM.MO.N SKA SHELLS,

I'tii-plt- * * Slu'Il ll'upji] (Pur/mm apuia); m «tll<«i l,v n-stson of a ptirplo <\v<
i>m rcrt.-iin split's. '2. I»u,m (Pnr)>,im */», ). 3. Hairy Tr'urni | J'it|»n ol»< | ( 7Y»'fni

THE ANIMAL LIFE OP THE GROUP. 461

are represented in Hawaii by two species, there being but fifteen species
described. The partridge tun 27 is the more common, though a specimen is a
real prize. It is fairly typical of the family. The tun is a large shell with a
stout spire and swollen body-whorl that is banded by strong spiral ribs. The
shell is marked with crescents and irregular lines of white on a rich brown
ground color, suggesting the breast of a partridge. They are said to attain a
length of fifteen inches, but the specimens found on the beach are seldom more
than a third that size. The black- mouthed tun 28 is much rarer. It is dirty
white in color and has the outer lip dark brown.

Cameo Shells.

The helmet or cameo shells20 are active predatory mollusks that live
along sandy shores in the warm seas. There are perhaps three dozen species
and sub-species, of which five or six are known to occur in the waters about
Hawaii. They all agree in being thick, heavy shells with short spires. The
aperture is long and ends in a recurved channel. The typical horned helmet 30
occurs in the islands. Although it is a rare shell here, it is of more than ordi-
nary interest since it is one of the shells used elsewhere in the manufacture
of cameos, cutting a white figure on an orange-brown ground. It is the giant of
the family, reaching a foot in length. The shell is yellowish-white tinged with
yellowish-brown, and is studded over the back with three rows of tubercles.
Blotches of dark brown occur on both the curiously expanded lips and on
the knobs.

The more common form on Oahu is Cassis vibex, which has four short
spines at the base of the lip and is seldom more than three inches in length.
It is a fleshy-ash color, obscurely banded and varied with light and dark chest-
nut. The lip on its outer margin is marked with chocolate spots. A variety 31
also occurs that is smaller, thicker and has small elongated tubercles on the
shoulder.

Moon Shells.

In the family of moon shells, or naticas,32 the shell is more or less globular
or ear-shaped and the aperture differs from that of the preceding families in

27 Dolium perdix. 28 Dolium melon o stoma. 2i) Cassidm. 30 Cassis comuta.

31 Cassis vibex erinacea. 32 Naticidm.

(Description of Plate Cout\nu< d from Opposite Page.)

pilearis). 4. Quilted Triton (Triton tuberosxs) . .">. Spindle Shell (Fasus nova -holhmdia').
6. Chocolate-lined Cone (Conus qnereinux). 7. Lettered Cone (Conus pulicariux). 8. He-
brew Cone (Conus hebrceus). 9. Conus lividus. 10. ('onus miliaria. 11. Auger shell sp.
(Terebra sp.). 12. Terebra youldi. Y,\. Tcrcbra oeulata. 14. Terebra acieulina. 15.
Hermit Shell (Cassis vibex var.). J 6. Hawaiian Top Shell (Trochus sandwicetisis). 17.
Hump-backed Cowry [Leho] (Cypnm muuriliana) . 18. Cyprcra reticulata. 19. Turban
Shell (Turbo chrysostomus) . 20. Turbo infereostalis ; showing the operculum in place. 21.
Cyprcea sulcidentata. 22. Worm Shell [ Pohokupele | (Vermetus sp.). 23. Vermetus sp. 24.
Kannoa (Vermetus sp.). 25. Partridge Tun |Puonionio] (Dolium perdix). 20. Umbrella
Shell [Opihi kapuailio] (Heleioniseus c.raratus) . 27. Conoid Harp Shell (TJarpa eonoidalis).

462 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

that it is smooth and without canals. The outer lip is smooth and sharp.
The inner lip is turned back in some species so as to conceal the umbilicus,33
as may be plainly seen in one of the species of the genus here shown. The
shells, placed in the two hundred and twenty-five or more species in the dif-
ferent genera, vary greatly in shape. Examples of the same species often vary
through a long series of color patterns, rendering the ten or more species that
occur here difficult of determination, even in the hands of specialists and
when aided by a large series of shells.

The living animal is remarkable for the very large foot, which is used to
crowd the creature through the sand in search of other mollusks, mostly
bivalves, upon which they feed. Their habits are interesting, and as living
specimens may occasionally be secured from the sand where their favorite food
is abundant, they may be studied to advantage in a small aquarium partly
filled with sand and stocked with other living shells.

Slipper Shells.

Perhaps the most abundant shells along the coast of our islands are the
various species of slipper shells,34 cup-and-saucer limpets,35 the horse-hoof
shells 36 and their allies, all of which are placed in the one family 37 including
the various cap-shaped or limpet-like shells. They usually have a more or less
spiral apex, and the interior is often provided with a septum or internal plate
of variable shape.

The living animals are found adhering closely to stones and shells, and as
they spend most of their lives in one spot the shell is usually irregularly shaped
to fit some particular spot on rock or coral. They feed on the minute
free-swimming animals that come their way. In due time they die and add
their shells to those light particles of debris cast up at high tide. Represen-
tatives of four genera, including the nine or ten species usually found in the
islands, are shown. From these the main characteristics for the genera may
be determined.

Horse-Hoof Shells.

Of the horse-hoof shells, four species occur about Honolulu and Hilo.
Hipponyx antiquatus has the apex posterior of the center and is rudely and
closely laminated with more or less distinct radial striae. When alive it has a
hairy epidermis. Hipponyx barbatus is more compressed, is strongly radially
striated, and has a brown hairy epidermis. Hipponyc imbricatus has the in-
terior stained with chestnut.

Worm Shells and Eulimas.

Without doubt the most curious of the shell-bearing mollusks are those
included in the worm shell family,38 in which the twisted shell might be mis-
taken for the tube of some marine worm, as they much resemble them in that

3a The name given to the cavity in the central base of the shell when the columella or axis is hollow.
84 Crepidula. 85 Crucibulum. R(i Hipponyx. 87 Calyptrwidw. 88 Vermetidw.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 463

they are similarly twisted and are attached to stones, coral and shells in much
the same \vay. In early life they are spiral in form and crawl about as free
moving; animals, but later they become attached and take on various con-
torted shapes. While the species are not numerous, their irregular growth,
sculpture and coloring render them difficult to characterize, but the general form
and appearance may be made out from the figures shown. The caecum shells 39
are also represented in the islands by one or two species. They are minute
shells which, as adults, are curved cylindrical tubes that are closed at one end
by a septa.

The eulimas 40 are all small, white, polished slender shells in which the
spire is often curved to one side. Three genera occur here; Eulima is the
most important. It includes fifteen of the seventeen species commonly re-
ported from Hawaii. Some of the species belonging to the family are known
to live in or upon the sea-cucumber (loli). Eulima major is an inch in length
and is one of the larger species found in the islands.

Pyramid and Sun-Dial Shells.

The pyramid shells41 have slender spires of many whorls. The columella
lip may have one or several folds. Pyramidella tercbelliim is smooth, creamy
white, wTith three or four narrow spiral lines on the body, and two on the spire
whorl. Pyramidella sulcata is longitudinally streaked with pale orange-chest-
nut, usually forming a series of revolving dots ; the columella has three plicated
folds. Pyramidella mitralis is whitish clouded and banded with pale brown;
is strongly ribbed, usually forming little knobs at the sutures.

The family Turbonellidce is represented in Hawaii by four small species
which resemble the species in the preceding family, except that they are
usually more pronounced in their sculpturing and usually have the columella
without folds.

The curious spiral sun-dial shells42 are easily recognized by their top-like
shape and angular aperture and wide and deep umbilicus. Although they
resemble Trochus to some extent, they are never pearly in texture. Six species
belonging to two genera have been recorded from Hawaii. They are seldom
taken in beach specimens, but their beauty of form and color make them
especially prized by professional as well as amateur collectors. Solarium per-
spectivum has the umbilical crenulations brown ; in Solarium cingulum they
are white. The genus T ovinia differs from the foregoing in some respects, but
mainly in having the spire more elevated and the edge of the whorls rounded.
T ovinia variegata, here shown, occurs occasionally on Oahu. It is reddish-
brown, variously marked with white and brown, the margin of the umbilicus
crenuiated and the center of the umbilical wall with a crenulated mid-rib.

Violet Snails.

Shells of the three beautiful species of violet snails 4a are often found on

39 Coecidm. *° Eulimidce. 41 Pyramidellidce. *2 Solariidce. 4S Ianthinidce.

464 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the beaches of all the islands after a heavy gale. They float on the surface of
the ocean, usually in large companies. They are supported by a raft-like
structure formed by a large mass of cells filled with air. All the species recog-
nized by Tyron were gathered at Kahana Bay, on Oahu, on the beach on the
same collecting trip. The base of the thin shell is always deep violet, while the
spire is almost white, tinted with violet. The large violet snail 44 is an inch or
more in diameter. It is slopingly-eonvex, is slightly angular on the edge, and
has the outer lip very slightly sinous. Ianthina globosa is inflated with a
short spire, the whorls are rounded, and the outer lip is slightly more sinuous
in the middle. The third species 45 is much smaller and more conical, the
whorls forming an obtuse angle on the outer edge, and there is a deep incision
on the outer lip. The species are all said to feed on small surface-swimming
animals, especially minute jellyfish.

Ladder Shells.

The staircase shells, or ladder shells,40 are usually white and polished. The
numerous ribs across the whorls are prominent and look like the steps of a
ladder, whence they derive their name. They live in the ocean below the low-
water mark. They are carnivorous in habit and are fairly common about
Hawaii. Ten or more of the many species known, have been reported
from the group. The chief characteristics center about their size, the number
of whorls and the size and number of the ridges. Scalaria lamellosa, which
is representative, has seven or eight whorls, is a fleshy color with a more or less
definitely darker band at the suture and above the basal rib.

Herald 's Horn Shells.

The family Cerithiidce, a name derived from that given to the principal
genus,47 is represented by almost fifty species of small shells belonging to four
genera. They are all long, many-whorled, spiral shells, with both anterior
and posterior canals, and have the lip more or less dentate. They live on the
rocks and among the marine vegetation. The species figured 48 are found in
dredging from Honolulu harbor. They will serve to aid the amateur in plac-
ing such shells as may be gathered in the proper family, but the specific char-
acteristics for the twenty or more species that may be collected are too minute
for consideration here.

Periwinkles.

Of the familiar periwinkle 49 family two or three species are everywhere
abundant on rocky coasts, where they are to be found usually at or above the
high-tide mark. They feed on alga? and inhabit brackish and salt water. The
species 50 most common at Waikiki are flesh color or nearly white and have the
aperture orange-brown, and may be easily identified as distinct from a spe-
cies 51 common at Pearl Harbor, which is larger. The latter are gray to red-

44 Ianthina fragilis. 45 Ianthina exigua. *e Scalariidm. 47 Cerithium . — Herald' 's horn.

48 Cerithium columna and Cerithium obeliscvs. 49 Littorinidw. 50 Littorina obesa.

51 Littorina snabra.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 465

brown in color, are usually banded with chocolate, and have the aperture
often streaked with the same color. Two other genera 52 belonging to this
family also occur about the shores of the islands. They are small shells seldom
seen by amateur collectors, and differ so much in appearance from the more
common forms that their relationship is not easily understood. The Fossaridm
is a small family closely allied with the family just considered, the chief dif-
ferences being in the soft parts. The family Planaxidce is a small family, the
common species 53 being nearly smooth, light yellowish varied with orange,
brown and chestnut, is little over a quarter of an inch in length and varies
greatly in form and color. The Rissoidw include another group of shells to
which a dozen or more forms from Hawaii have been referred. Of this num-
ber live or six small species may occasionally be taken among the very small
shells on the shore, but they are too tiny to be of interest to anyone except the
professional collector.

Sea Snails.

The sea snails 54 include such well-known shells as the small black species
commonly found clinging to the lava rocks along the shore near the upper
tide-mark. They are all fond of seaweed and are nocturnal in their habits,
the thick body whorl and small spire give them a characteristic form, but they
may be identified also, by the character of the operculum, which is peculiar
in that it has a process jetting out from beneath that fits under the toothed or
wrinkled columella r lip, when the animal retires within its shell.

Of the six species of Nerita reported from Hawaii, the black form with
a white aperture and with fine spiral grooves on the shell is most abundant on
the sea-shore of Oahu. It is commonly known as pipipi.55 The native Ha-
waiians are very fond of them and often spend hours gathering the little black
shells from the rocks at low tide. The fleshy part is easily picked from the
shell with a pin after they have been heated in warm water or in the imu— the
native underground oven. A similar species,50 which is without teeth on the
outer lip, and a larger variegated species 57 showing fine growth lines and with
the shell flecked, spotted or banded with white, yellow, orange, red or black
on a varying ground color, are fairly common about the islands. Both these
latter species, and doubtless others, were used by the natives in bracelets worn
as an emblem of mourning for the alii. A specimen in the author's collection
is shown on the accompanying plate. They were often polished or cut in
various shapes.

A genus 58 belonging to this family, which has four or five Hawaiian
species, is not easily separated from their cousins just described. They are
somewhat thinner shells and are usually found under stones or clinging to the
rocks just below the low-water mark, most commonly in the brackish water

52 Modulus tectum and Risella spp. 5fi Plrnajcis lineatus. 5* Neritidm. ** Nerita picea.

s6 Nerita sp. 57 Nerita polita. 58 Neritina.

466 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

at the mouths of streams. The wi 50 is found only in fresh water. It is
the largest species of the genus in the islands, being more than an inch in
diameter. It is black in color and the shell is curiously granular over the
surface. One species60 commonly found at Waikiki is horn color, while a
second species 61 from the same locality has distinct growth lines. The black
epidermis is marked with numerous minute yellowish spots, sometimes scarcely
visible ; the outer lip of the aperture is bluish in color.

Turban Shells.

The large family of turban shells,02 to which belong the typical turban
shells,03 the pheasant shells °4 and the star shells,05 is represented in Hawaii by
perhaps a dozen and a half species. Not more than a third of that number
are liable to be collected, however. Only two species appear in the collection
of beach specimens before me from the shores of Oahu. The larger one °° is
brownish or white marbled with chestnut; the smaller one is dirty white
strongly tinged with green and variously marked on the body whorl with dark
brown. The characteristics employed in descriptions of the species in this
family are confusing, and much skill is required in order to make the identifi-
cation of the species certain.

Top Shells.

Of the top shells,67 only two of the ten or a dozen species which have
been recorded from Hawaii occur in the little collection of shore shells that
serves as the basis of this brief account of the common mollusks of Hawaii.
Of these, the Hawaiian top shell 08 is by far the most common. It is a shallow-
water species occurring at Pearl Harbor, Hilo and elsewhere about the group
where slightly brackish water may be found. The second species °° was col-
lected only at Kahana Bay and appears to be a rare form.

Limpets.

Several species of limpet-like shells may be easily collected from the rocks
between the tide-marks, or may be found cast up on the sand beaches along
the shores of all the islands. While the keyhole limpets 70 are represented by
one or two species, they are by no means as common as the species belonging to
the old-world limpets,71 from which they differ by having a small hole through
the apex of the shell. The families and species of this sub-order of conical,
cup-shaped shells are separated in the main by obscure and difficult character-
istics that render them almost beyond definite determination by amateur col-
lectors. Two species belonging to the keyhole limpets 72 are occasionally col-
lected, especially at Hilo, and Honolulu harbor.

To the old-world limpets belong the opihi 7S of the natives. It is a favorite
food with the Hawaiians, and fine specimens may often be secured alive in the

50 Neritina granosa.- The native name hihiwai is applied to all the brackish and fresh water forms of
Neritina. 80 Neriti?ia vespertina. 61 Neritina cariosa. 62 Turbinidce. 63 Turbo. 64 Phasianella.

aB Astralium. 60 Turbo chrysostomus. 67 Trochidce. 68 Trochus sandwicensis. 09 Trochus sp.
70 Fissurellidce. ti Patellidce. 72 Glyphis granifera and Subemarginula oblonga,
73 Helcioniscus exaratus.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 467

markets.' This knee-cap or umbrella shell is roughly though evenly ribbed
without and pearly white within. They attain a diameter of two inches or more
and are usually completely covered with a growth of sea-moss. As they
are fond of the dash of the spray, they usually cling with great tenacity to
the moss-grown rocks along the more exposed portion of the sea-coast. Like
their relatives, they feed on algae of various kinds, but are commonly found
sticking tight to the rocks, although they are known to move about in search
of food.

Experiments have been made on certain European species of limpets for
the purpose of showing how difficult they are to dislodge from their resting
places. It was found that it required one thousand nine hundred and eighty-
four times the weight of the living animal to detach it from the rocks.

Chitons.

The chiton shells 74 are also represented in the sea-shore fauna and, like
the members of the preceding family, they are found adhering firmly to the
rocks. The shell is remarkable in that it is composed of several separate over-
lapping plates suggesting a "coat of mail," a name often applied to various
species. Specimens may be taken from under stones on the shore at Pearl
Harbor and about Hilo, but as there are more than two hundred and fifty
living species in the world, more than one of which occurs in Hawaii, the
beginner can hardly hope to definitely identify his material. Specimens are
of unusual interest, however, as they are believed to be a very primitive type
of mollusk and are known to occur elsewhere in very ancient geologic strata.

One of the prettiest shells to be picked up occasionally on the sea-shore in
the islands is the beautifully-banded bubble shell,75 the body whorl of which
is characteristically marked by two delicate pink bands that are set off from
the white ground by well-defined blackish bands. Another species,76 with a
greenish body, is often found well concealed on mossy rocks along our coasts.
The thin pale-green shells are so delicate, however, that they are seldom
found except living and attached to the rocks. Although related to the pre-
ceding 77 family, they are held separate from it as Scaphandridm.

Sea Slugs.

The sea slugs,78 and especially the sea hares,79 are curious naked mol-
lusks occasionally found cast up on the shore, entangled in the seaweed or else
caught in tide-pools along the shore. The numerous species vary in size from
small animals up to creatures several inches in length. They also vary in
form and color to such an extent that they are not easily recognized as mem-
bers of the great phylum to which the more ordinary shell-bearing animals
belong.

74 Chitonidce. 75 Hydatina amplitstrc. 76 SmaragdineUa viridis. 77 Bullidce.
78 Order Nudibranchiata. 79 Aplysiidw.

468 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

CHAPTER XXXYI.

PLANTS AND ANIMALS FROM THE CORAL REEFS : PART ONE.

Of the many groups of animals living on or about our tropic shores, the
fishes and mollusks have received attention in other chapters. There remains
for consideration some of the more common and striking of the many varied
forms of plant and animal life that are sure to awaken the interest of any one
who visits the shore or, better still, is so fortunate as to spend even a few
hours wading in the shallow water that covers the fascinating coral reefs.

The Common Crabs.

Of the various orders of the larger animals yet to be considered, the crabs
and their marine relatives are perhaps the most conspicuous and at the same
time the most omnipresent. Some one of the tribe inhabits almost every rod of
the sand beach and almost every loose stone along the shore furnishes a shelter
for one or more of these active, interesting, curious creatures.

Nearly every child is familiar with some of the more common shore forms
and perhaps can call them by their native names and tell something of their
many peculiar habits. But few, indeed, even of those who are skilled in such
matters, can name the rarer of the odd forms of crab-like animals that inhabit
the ocean and are liable to be captured by almost anyone who will take the
trouble to turn over a stone, stir up the sand and mud, or break up the masses
of living and dead coral along the shore.

As the number of marine species belonging to this huge class far exceeds
any other group of marine animals, wre can do little more than point out the
main characteristics of the class by calling attention to a few of the common
forms. The body of an animal of this class is typically made up of a number
of hard plates or rings variously arranged, but always forming an outer hard
or thickened shell or skeleton. The skeleton plates are usually so arranged
as to divide the animal into a variable number of segments. Each segment
ordinarily bears paired, jointed legs or swimming organs. t

The wTide variation in form and plan among these creatures can be gath-
ered from the examination of such animals as crabs, crawfish, prawns, shrimps,
mantis shrimps, sand-hoppers, fish-lice, whale-lice, acorn and stalked barnacles,
and a long list of less known denizens of the deep, all of which belong to this
grand division of the animal kingdom of which the lobster is taken as the typical
form.

The Lobster.

The so-called Hawaiian lobster,2 the ula of the native fishermen, is the
large species of marine crawfish so abundant in the Hawaiian market. Those
familiar with the large pincer-clawed American lobster 3 will appreciate at
once that the local species is quite a different creature. By zoologists the

1 Crustacea. 2 Panulirus japonicus, s Homarus americanus.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OP THE GROUP. 469

Hawaiian* species is placed in a separate family and is known as the rock
lobster.4 The large size, enormously long, stout antenna) and spiny carapace
of the ula, and the absence of the pincer-claw, are among its most conspicuous
characteristics and serve to separate it at once from the fifteen or twenty
species of crabs, lobsters, shrimps and prawns that find their way into the
markets.

The ula is caught in lobster traps, or more commonly by stringing a net
about the reef and leaving it during the night. As lobsters are active at
night, they become entangled in the net when they come out of their hiding
places among the rocks to seek food. Although they appear large and showy
in the market stalls, their color is such that they harmonize perfectly with
the rocks and seaweed where they make their home. They are, therefore, very
difficult to detect on the reef, and are not often seen by one unfamiliar with
their appearance or habits.

They feed upon both fresh and decayed fish, various invertebrate animals,
and to some extent on seaweeds. The lively demand for them, owing to their
excellent food qualities, brings large numbers of them fresh and sprawling
into the markets every day. The ulaapapa 5 is also a large species of crawfish-
like animal, quite common in the markets, that is a favorite food of the native
people.

Prawns.

Prawns ° of several species and brackish and fresh-water shrimps 7 are
common in the fish stalls and are of excellent quality.

Turning to the short-tailed Crustacea, or the crabs, a dozen species at
least are offered for sale. The papai, the aama, and the alamihi are the more
common forms, while such crabs as the kukuma, the papa and the papai lanai
are less abundant. The alamihi is a notorious scavenger on the coral reefs
about Honolulu. The kumimi is regarded as poisonous by the Hawaiians.
They are fairly common along the shore, and they and their close relatives
are quite generally avoided by experienced crab catchers.

The common black rock-crab s is the species usually found hidden under
stones at low tide. A similar dark-colored, but more active, species prefers
the dash of the spray along rocky shores, while a pale sand-colored crab °
lives in burrows that it makes for itself in the sandy shore just above high
tide. Other forms live their lives hidden away in the coral heads ; and so the
list might be extended almost indefinitely, as more than three hundred species
belonging to the short-tailed10 and the long-tailed11 Crustacea are enumer-
ated by Miss Mary J. Rathbun in her report on this section of the Hawaiian ma-
rine and fresh-water fauna. As eighty of the species are described by her for the
first time, the brief characterization of the common forms is too difficult a

4 PnlinuridcB. B Scyllarides sguammosus.

*Aloalo; this native name is most commonly applied to the mantis-shrimp.
7 Opae. 8 Grapsus grapsus tenuicru status. 8 Ocypode ceratopthalma.

10 Maerura. 1X Brachyura.

^0 •■^■1

4:

M.MJiKK « iiaIjMN m:a .-il Ki.i »-.

Sl,«.l! (IV.r»|/n rr.rHhim

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 471

task to be undertaken here. The reader is referred to the accompanying
plates for the names of a number of the more common shore species.

Hermit Crabs.

Mention should be made of the species of hermit crabs12 that occur in
such abundance along our shores. They are especially interesting, since they
do not have the long, hard tail of the shrimp or lobster, nor a short one that
can be doubled underneath as is the case with the ordinary crabs. Instead
they have a soft fleshy tail that requires to be covered and protected. Appar-
ently aware of this defect in its organization, the hermit crab, be it large or
small, old or young, invariably thrusts itself for shelter into some empty sea
shell. Once established in its shell house, it is subsequently never quite ready
to leave it, except to exchange its abode for a larger one when it finds its
quarters too cramped for comfort, owing to its own growth ; or, occasionally,
for a new home that in weight and design is more closely in accord with its
notion of what a domicile should be. For these reasons they may be styled
the professional house-hunters along the shore. Once sheltered and protected
in the empty shell of some mollusk, they become aggressive and are always
on the lookout to better themselves. Occasionally one will forcibly eject the
living animal or another crab from the shell it chooses.

This house-hunting process may be easily seen by placing a few hermit
crabs in an aquarium together with a variety of empty shells and a liberal
supply of food. With a full stomach the necessity for a larger house is soon
felt. But if the process becomes too tedious to watch, the crab may be ejected
by force, when, if care is taken not to injure the two or three pairs of rudi-
mentary feet, by means of which it retains possession of its borrowed dwelling,

li; Sub-order Onomura.

(Description of Plate Continued from, Opposite Page.)

chlorostoma var. 6. Tankard Shell (Cantharus sp.). 7. Cantharus sp. 8. Cantharus
sp. 9. Fish-Basket Shell (Nassa hirta). 10. Mitre Shell {Ultra sp.). 11. Mitra sp.
12. Mitra sp. 13. Mitra sp. 14. Mitra tabanula. 15. Dove shell (Columhella turturina).
16. Zebra Dove Shell (Columhella zebra). 17. Niihau Shell (Columhella varians). 18.
Spotted Conch [Pu leholeho] (Strombus maculatus). 19. Strombus maculatus; var. 20.
Madagascar Cowry [Leho puupiiu] (Cyprcea madagascariensis) . 21. Money Cowry (Cyprcea
moneta). 22. Isabella Cowry (Cyprcea Isabella). 23. Cyprcea semiplota. 24. Snake-head
Cowry (Cyprcea caput-serpentis) . 25. Cyprcea canieola, var. 26. Moon Shell (Natica mela-
nostoma). 27. Natica marochiensis. 28. Horse-hoof Shell (Hipponyx antiquatus). 29.
Hipponyx barbatus. 30. Hipponyx imbricatus. 31. Slipper Shell (Crepidula aculeata). 32.
Eulima Shell (Eulima sp.). 33. Eulima major. 34. Pyramid Shell (Pyramidella terebel-
lum). 35. Sun-Dial Shell [Pupu puhi] (Solarium perspectivum). 36. Ornament Shell (T ovi-
nia variegata). 37. Violet Snail (Ianthina fragilis). 38. Ianthina exigua. 39. lanthina
ftlohosa, 40. Ladder Shell (Scalaria sp.). 41. Pupu alapii (Scalaria lamettosa). 42. Horn
Shell (Cerithiiim columna). 43. Cerithium oheliscus. 4:4:. Small Periwinkle (Littorina pinta-
do). 45. Mottled Periwinkle [Kolealea] (Littorina scahra). 46. Measure Shell (Modulus
tectum). 47. Sea Snail Shell [Kupee] (Nerita polita). 48. A wrist ornament made of
Kupee shells; often worn as an emblem of mourning. 49. Little Sea Snail (Neritina neglccta).
50. Pipipi (Nerita picea). 51. Neritina cariosa. 52. Neritina vespertina. 53. "Wi (Neri-
Una granosa) ; a fresh water species. 54. Top-shell (T rochus sp.) . 55. Patella sp. 56. Pa-
tella sp. 57. Pupu moo (J sclino chiton sp.), 58. Bubble-shell (Ilydatina amplustre) . 59.
Little Emerald Shell (Smciragclinellci viriclis).

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 473

it will immediately seek shelter in the nearest shell at hand. The crab will
back into its new home, inserting its tender abdomen into the shell until the
aperture is plugged by its claws and the hard part of its body.

Often at low tide during the day a dozen or more of these active creatures
will be found carefully hidden away under some loose stone on the reef.
When disturbed they start off in all directions, each sheltered in a different
species of shell and each carrying its own borrowed house on its back like a
snail. Not infrequently other animals, as barnacles, oysters and sea-anemonies
take up their permanent residence on the shell occupied by a hermit crab and
are in this way carried about by them.

Barnacles.

There is little in the appearance of adult barnacles to suggest that they
are in any way related to their crab and lobster cousins. Such is the case,
nevertheless, and by zoologists they are looked upon as furnishing an excellent
example of degeneration through quiescence, for when they hatch from the
egg they are free swimming animals that closely resemble the young13 form
of the crabs and shrimps, with but a single eye. Later on they have six pairs
of swimming feet, a pair of compound eyes, and two well-developed antennae,
and are still free swimming animals. But when the creature makes the final
change to the adult condition, it attaches itself by means of a cement-like sub-
stance to a stone, shell, pile or floating log, or to the bottom of a ship, and
gives up all attempts at locomotion. It then loses its compound eyes and its
feelers, and develops a protecting shell. The swimming feet become modified
into grasping organs and henceforth it abandons any attempt to look and act
like other Crustacea and devotes its energies to fanning such food as comes its
way into its mouth, with its legs. There are two main groups of the order,14
including the barnacles, that are liable to attract attention on the sea-shore.
One family15 includes the stalked species familiarly known as goose mussels or
goose barnacles, a name derived from an ancient belief that if one fell from its
support it turned into a goose. They usually occur hanging by the long stalk 10
to the bottoms of ships, to floating timber or submerged wood of any kind.
The sessile barnacles,17 acorn shells, or pioeoe as they are called by the natives,
are everywhere abundant along the shore. The entire animal is enclosed in a
tent-shaped shell composed originally of six pieces, which is capped by an
operculum made up of four valves.

Unfortunately, the shore forms have not as yet been fully studied. A
dozen species of barnacles were enumerated by my friend, Dr. Pilsbry, from
the material gathered by the ship Albatross. But one of these, a species of
acorn barnacle18 belonging to the typical genus of that family, was secured in
shallow water. The remainder were deep-water or off-shore forms, most of
them occurring in Avater two or three hundred fathoms deep. Of the twelve
species secured, eight proved to be undeseribed. A careful study of the shore

13 NaupHus. 14 Cirripedia. 15 Lepadidw. 16 Peduncle. 17 Balanidw. 18 B alarms amphitrite.

31

\TK !•- i-rr,|.\|<>>. >\;\)\> AM' I ■ \ !.' \ \< ! ,i> " I-' Till-

1. r<hh>i,hlhuhnufi vioil (iVnui

h, put mm <>.■<„ x. 4, Purribtti-Hs mi'larlii-

Po,h>phthah»>i.< vi,/il (nialf). ?.. Sn/Haridrx
Pmmbni* jo pon hit's. 0. Ihinhmns ticiiuiuilu*.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OP THE GROUP. 475

fauna would "doubtless add many new forms to the list of Hawaiian species.
For example, a large flat white species apparently undescribed, perhaps a
coronet barnacle/9 attaches itself to the skin of the sea turtle. Moreover, there
are doubtless examples of the truly parasitic species that are still more degen-
erate in form and habit and occur as parasites feeding on the larger crus-
taceans.

Common Corals.

The fragments of coral occasionally cast up on the sand beach are suffi-
cient to awaken in everyone a desire to know more of the life and habits of
the living creatures that produce the curious stony structure, and this desire
has tempted many to explore for themselves the wonderful reefs for which the
islands are so celebrated.

The public long ago accepted, apparently without question, the assertion
of a worthy poet 20 that the coral animal was an insect. Zoologists, however,
have long known that it is not an insect, but a polyp — a very different creature,
indeed — belonging to the great phylum,21 including all such animals as
hydroids, corals, sea -fans, sea-pens, jellyfish, sea-anemonies and their allies.

There are, of course, many kinds of polyps, varying through a great
variety of shapes and sizes, but they all conform fairly well to a general plan
of body structure, a little more complex in its organization than that of the
sponge. They have a more or less typical cylindrical body, with an interior
cavity connected with the outside world by a single large opening at the free
end. This opening is surrounded by a circle of arm-like processes or tenta-
cles, hence the name polyp, meaning "many-footed." The tentacles are con-
tinuations of the body wall and composed of the same tissues. The fresh-
water Hydra, a minute animal less than an eighth of an inch in length,22 is
usually figured as the type of the whole great phylum. But for our purpose
the common type of sea-anemonie, of which there are many species living on
the rocks and along sandy shores or attached to piles and wharves, may be
taken as an enlarged example of a single polyp. The chief difference between
the two is that the animals known as the coral polyp usually live in enormous
colonies and form skeletons of lime,23 whereas the sea-anemonies are solitary,
or at most gregarious, and secrete no hard skeleton. Both the anemonies 24
and the calcareous corals,25 however, are included in the same class.20 Though
belonging to different orders, they seem to have the same general food habits.

19 Coronula sp. 20 Alexander Montgomery. 21 Coelenterato,

22 This interesting animal has not so far been reported from the fresh water pools and streams of Hawaii.

23 Calcium carbonate. 24 Actiniaria. 2r» Madreporaria. 2& A nthozoa or Actinozoa.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

7. Podophthalmus vigil (male). 8. Calappa hepatica (male). 9. Carpilius convexus. 10.
Calcinus elegans. 11. Ocypode ceratophthalma. 12. Calappa hepatica (female). 13. Grap-
sus grapsus tenuicrustatus. 14. Calcinus latens. 15. Carpilius maculatus. 16. Chelonobia
testudinaria. 17. Elisus Icevimanus. 18. Metopograpsus messor. 19. Calappa hepatica.
20. Metopograpsus messor. 21. Balanus amphitrite. 22. Macrophthalmus telescopicus, 23.
Thalamita integra. 24. Portunus sanguinolentus.

476 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Sea-Anemonies.

The food and general habits and life history of the sea-anemonies may be
studied with profit by placing the living examples of any of the common
shore forms, with the bit of rock to which they are usually attached, into an
aquarium. When disturbed they contract into an almost unrecognizable mass,
but wdien unmolested they expand into beautiful aster-shaped, flower-like, bril-
liantly-colored animals, so that a collection of living species is a veritable
sea flower-garden. That they are not flowers, however, may be shown by at-
taching a small piece of meat to a thread and dropping it into the circle of
petal-like tentacles. Almost instantly the long tentacles close over the food
and shift it to the mouth, where the juices are extracted and the flesh digested.

As a rule, sea-anemonies settle where food is most liable to be carried to
them by currents of wrater. Sometimes they attach themselves to other ani-
mals, as crabs, and in this way are carried about from place to place. That
there are a large number of species about Hawaii is apparent to the most
casual observer, but as far as the writer knows, they have never been studied
and classified.

Turning now to the stony corals,27 so important as reef builders, wre find
that though they are much more minute as individuals, they are more
liable to develop into large colonies. Thus a single cabinet specimen of coral
often represents, as a life work, the combined involuntary secretion of myriads
of these patient and persistent animals. Interesting and beautiful as the
bleached skeletons of the stone corals are, the living animals in their habitat on
the growing reef are infinitely more fascinating to study. In the different
species the expanded animals cover the skeleton with their soft bodies, giving
to them a variety of colors as varied and as delicate as those in the rainbow.

The Growing Coral Reef.

Those persons who for the first time see a growing coral reef through a
glass-bottomed boat, or, failing that, through a water-box with a glass bottom,
are invariably lost in admiration. Though they are privileged to repeat the
experience again and again, they never tire of viewing the peaceful, brilliant
scene beneath the wave. There, with the living and dead coral as a back-
ground, are mingled in wild and ever-changing confusion a multitude of
nature's curious plants and singular animals. All are garbed in the most
wonderful, striking and varied colors imaginable, and as they swim in and out
among the corals or tranquilly wave to and fro with the rise and fall of every
wave, they form a veritable vision of delight that time and distance cannot dim.

To have visited Hawaii without visiting some of these tropical submarine
gardens is to have missed a golden opportunity, but to live in Hawaii, often
within the sound of the surf that breaks over her fringing coral reefs, and not
to have first-hand knowledge of their wronders, is to be remiss indeed.

27 Madreporaria.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 477

The coral "reefs of the Pacific have been much studied by oceanographers,
zoologists and geologists who have sought to wrest from them something of the
history of the formation of the islands in this vast ocean. The geologic sig-
nificance of the Hawaiian reefs has been pointed out in another connection.

While but few have ever attempted to list the various species of corals
found here, their study was first undertaken seriously long ago. In 1840-41
the renowned geologist James D. Dana, whose epoch-making book on the coral
islands is a scientific classic, visited Hawaii and examined the reefs, as a
member of the scientific staff of the United States Exploring Expedition. As
a result a dozen of the more common shallow-water forms were described as
new by him in a portion of the report of that expedition, published in 1846.
Since then others have added to the list, but it remained for my friend, Dr.
T. W. Vaughan, to give the subject the attention it deserves. As a result of his
labors, based primarily on the collections secured by the Albatross expedition
in 1902, but supplemented by a large collection of shallow-water coral secured
by members of the staff of the Bishop Museum, we now have available for
the specialist a handsome monograph in which representatives of fifteen fami-
lies, including thirty-four genera, to which, according to that author, are re-
ferred one hundred and twenty-three species, varieties and forms. Of that
number more than three-fifths are described and figured for the first time.
Some idea of the richness of the coral fauna of any given locality can be
gathered from the fact that the reef and shallow waters along the south side
of Oahu, but especially at Waikiki, yielded examples of thirty-four of the
species enumerated.

While a single species 28 of mushroom-like coral wras brought to the sur-
face by the dredges of the Albatross from the great depth of eleven hundred
and fifty fathoms, the great majority of the forms, seventy-seven in number,
occur in water from one to twenty-five fathoms in depth. Of the fourteen
genera that occur in this shallow water zone throughout the group, ten were
collected on reefs of Oahu from Pearl Harbor to Diamond Head. Represen-
tative specimens of the common genera from this locality are here figured.
The figures will aid in the generic determination of such forms as are most
liable to be collected, but definite identification of the species and the almost
numberless forms of certain species is in many cases almost impossible, even
when the type specimens can be seen.

The genera occurring in the shallow water about Oahu may be regarded
as the living representatives of the reef-building forms that for thousands
perhaps millions of years have been building the lime rock that fringes the
islands.

Of the several genera Forties, the pohaku puna of the natives is the most
abundant and is represented by the largest number of forms. The Pocillopora are
perhaps next both in size and abundance, and like the preceding genus, they
range through an extensive list of varied forms. Montipora is next in abun-

28 Bathyactes haivaiiensis.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 479

dance, wnile such genera as Pavonia, Favia, Leptastrea and Cyphastrea occur
in isolated places here and there in certain favorable localities.

The mushroom coral,20 or huahua akai, forms a remarkable group of
solitary corals that are fairly common, especially in holes or reef pools on the
outer edge of the reef. They take their name from their resemblance to the
inverted head of an expanded mushroom. They are remarkable and beautiful
objects, and make handsome souvenirs of a day's visit to a coral reef. The
"sea mushroom/7 or in fact any of the corals, can be easily cleaned if they
are placed in a bucket of fresh water before they have been out of the sea-
water long enough for the animal to die and begin to dry up. Each day or so
the wrater should be changed and the macerating animal washed out by a
stream of water from the hydrant. When thoroughly cleansed the coral
should be placed on a clean board in the sun to bleach.

Perhaps the most strikingly beautiful of the stalked corals is a species 30
which so far has only been found on Oahu, growing on the edge of the small
coral islands in Kaneohe Bay. When alive the animal is a rich red-orange
color and has the top of each short branch surrounded by a single, orange-
yellow polyp that when expanded is three-fourths of an inch in diameter. On
the approach of danger the animal can completely withdraw within the cup
in which it lives.

So far as known, the brain corals 31 have never been taken in Hawaiian
waters. They, together with many other forms offered for sale in the curi-
osity shops of Honolulu, doubtless come from the islands of the south Pacific
or from the Philippines.

The Eight-Rayed Corals.

While the Alcyonarians are seldom seen by the reef collector, it is a
matter of interest to know that of the sixty-eight species of the "eight-rayed
corals" taken by the Albatross on its epoch-making cruise about the islands,
thirty-nine were described as new to science in Dr. 0. C. Nutting's reports on the
material. He states that of the three orders of Alcyonaria discussed in his paper,
the first,32 including the colonial forms, usually typified by the organ-pipe coral,
are represented by only five species.

Sea-Pens and Sea-Fans.

The order33 including the sea-pens and similar forms where the colonies
are arranged bilaterally and symmetrically on an axial stem, have sixteen
species in the off-shore fauna. The sea-fans, sea-plumes and their allies form
the most abundant order.34 Like the other orders of the class, they all have
eight-rayed polyps. The beautiful horny tree or bush-like growth to be seen
in museums, however, gives but little idea of the appearance of the living
animal. Forty-eight species are included in the list of Hawaiian species, but

29 Fungiidce. 30 DendrophilUa manni. 31 Meandrina. 32 Aleyonacea?. 33 Pennatulacea.

34 Gorgonacea.

480 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

they so very seldom reach the sea-shore that their presence in the islands would
be unknown but for the work of such expeditions as that of the Albatross.

Jellyfish.

Those who have been boating on the beautiful Pearl Harbor lochs are
almost sure to have seen large numbers of the curious swimming-bells of the
jellyfish35 floating gracefully about through the water. If one is captured it
will sting the hands like a nettle. For this reason the pololia, as it is known
to the Hawaiian fishermen, is let severely alone by those who have once expe-
rienced the stinging, itching sensation, which is the result of a poison injected
by myriads of little stinging cells. These stinging cells or lasso cells are
common to many forms of Ccelenterata, and are very effective in protecting these
apparently helpless animals from their enemies. • Other species of large jelly-
fish are occasionally seen as they slowly swim at the surface of the ocean, or are
rarely found stranded on the shore by the receding tide, but not more than a half
dozen species all told are known from the islands.

Hydroids.

The Hydromediisw resemble the members of the foregoing family, differing
mainly in being smaller in size, and in the fact that the medusa) or heads found
floating at the surface, in most cases, are in reality budded off from small
animals,-0'6 which form colonies and are permanently fixed at the bottom of the
sea. The young medusae after leaving the hydroids or stems, begin an indepen-
dent free-swdmming career. In the course of growth they pass through a
series of stages and finally become sexually adult. The eggs of the female
medusa do not, as a rule, develop into medusae, but into hydroids, so that there
is an alteration of generations. As the hydroids seldom grow in water more
than a few hundred fathoms deep, the medusae are usually found in shallow
water offshore, though there are pelagic forms that are exceptions to the rule.
Only a fewr species of the free-swimming forms have so far been reported from
Hawaii. The common form,37 a new species, is a very small bell-shaped animal
with from twelve to fourteen lash-like tentacles suspended from the edge of
the bell.

Dr. Nutting visited the Hawaiian Islands on the cruise of the Albatross,
and subsequently devoted much time to a study of the hydroids collected
about the islands. He found the fauna very rich, varied and interesting, but
as the material examined was that secured in water from ten to five hundred
fathoms deep, the littoral fauna is yet to be studied. His list enumerates forty-
nine species, twenty-nine of them proving new. As the species are placed in
twenty-seven genera belonging to eleven families, the great variation in the
forms wall be apparent. The shore species are often called moss animals,38
since many of them are pretty feathery, plume-like creatures, so closely re-

35 S cyphom edusce. 86 Zoophytes or Hydroids. 37 Solmaris insculpta.
88 This name is more properly applied to the Polyzoa.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 481

sembling *sea-mosses that it is with difficulty that the untrained observer is
convinced that they are really animal colonies. Some of the genera39 are
well-known animals and occasionally figured in general reference books. The
Hawaiian species in every case are rarer forms that can only be recognized by
experts when aided by elaborate descriptions.

In this connection mention should be made of certain colonial hydroids 40
that secret masses of carbonate of lime out of which the animal protrudes like
a coral polyp. They are usually pink or orange-colored, and are often called
corals. Several species are found very plentifully on our coral reefs. On
close examination it will be seen that they differ in structure from the true
corals. The solid-looking masses with lobed processes, or bosses, are the most
common,41 though fine branching examples 42 also occur. In both families the
whole surface can be seen, with the aid of a lens, to be covered with small
pore-like openings. If a vertical section is examined, indistinct layers can be
seen running parallel with the outer surface. Only the surface is alive, the
inner mass being composed of the dead skeletons. Thus these animals secrete
lime and build up a coral-like skeleton in much the same way as do the true
corals, which are polyp colonies and quite different in their organization,
though secreting similar masses of lime.

Zoologists often cite this peculiar fact as an example of "convergence,"
meaning thereby that two animals of different types have become adapted to
similar conditions of life and come to superficially resemble each other. Other
animals, as whales and fishes, birds and bats, show similar evidence of con-
vergence. Indeed, it has not been uncommon for naturalists to place totally
different animals in the same group on account of their resemblance. The
Hawaiian Hydrocorallince have not been fully studied as yet, and there appears
to be no list of even the common species.

The Portuguese Man-of-War.

Sea-bathers occasionally make the acquaintance of the Portuguese man-
of-war,43 which is perhaps the best known member of a third family 44 of the
jellyfish tribe. It floats, by means of an air sack, on the surface of the sea.
Its stinging power is tremendous, producing a maddening, scalding pain which
lasts for hours. As the stinging tentacles are long and thread-like and float
out loosely in the water, the beautiful "blue bottles" are things that can be
more safely admired at a considerable distance. On the windward shore of all
the islands they are often stranded by thousands by the ebbing tide, where they
dry down to a mere bubble in a few hours.

Sea Money.

Another common form 45 is a flat coin-shaped disk with fine radiating
wThite lines. About the edge are innumerable fine tentacles. The animal,

39 Sertularia, Campanularia and Plumularia. 40 Hydrocorallince. 41 Milleporidce.

42 Stylasteridce. 43 Physalia utriculua. 44 Siphonophorce. 45 Porpita pacifica.

^.f % ' • fit'

THE ANIMAL LIFE OP THE GROUP. 483

tentacles" and all, is less than two inches in diameter and is a beautiful blue
color. When stranded the soft parts soon disappear, leaving a white disk about
the size of a dime, which is often appropriately called "sea money." There is
also another form46 that is fairly common at times. It somewhat resembles
the Portuguese man-of-war in that it is surface-swimming and bears on its
upper surface an oblique sail. It differs from the man-of-war most notice-
ably in having short rather than long pendant tentacles.

A curious transparent balloon-shaped little animal47 with two long re-
tractile tentacles, with odd tag-like appendages attached, has also been taken
in Hawaiian waters. It belongs to a fourth family,48 which also includes an
odd transparent, many-ribbed cylinder-shaped animal,49 four or five inches in
length, one end of which is rounded, the other truncated and occupied entirely
by the immense mouth. As these animals are jelly-like, they seldom, almost
never, reach the shore. For that reason they are rare curiosities when once
they are secured. It is a matter of interest to know, however, that as many
as twenty species of jellyfish or medusag-like animals have been reported by
Dr. A. G. Mayer as occurring in the collections made by the Albatross.

Moss-Animals.

Mention has been made of the sea-mats or moss-animals.50 They are
usually found attached to stones, forming an incrustation which, upon examina-
tion, seems to be made up of very minute cells each perforated by a small pore.
Besides the encrusting forms there are branching forms that resemble hydroids,
but unfortunately our fauna has not yet been studied, so that the species are
not known.

Allied to the Polyzoa, and by most authors placed in the same phylum,51
are the very rare, but very interesting, lamp shells 52 or arm-footed animals.
The shells of these animals are so like the common clam shells in general form
that they were once classed as a division of the mollusks, but they may be dis-
tinguished from them by the fact that their valves are unequal in size, and that
they are attached by a small stalk which passes out through a hole in the apex
of the larger valve. While it is to be presumed that species occur offshore, the
only examples58 that have come under the writer's immediate observation were
a few delicately-colored specimens a half inch in diameter, secured in a small
collection of shells brought up in dredging operations in Honolulu harbor, and

46 Vellela pacifica. *7 Hormiphora • fusiform ia. 4S Ctenophora?. 4B Boroe sp. 50 Polyzoa.

51 Molluseoidea. 52 Brachiopods. 58 Terebratula sanguined.

Description of Plate.

1. Maerobracliium grandimanus (immature). 2 and 3. Crangon = (AlpJieus) loevis. 4.
Macrobrachium grandemanus (mature). 5. Actcea affinis. 6. Platypodia eydouxii. 7. Me-
topograpsus messor. 8. Palwmon pacificus. 9. Pseudosquilla ciliata. 10, 11, 12. Leptodius
sanguineus. 13. Etisus Icevimanus. 14. Nerocila australasice. 15. Leptodius sanguineus.
16. Lophozozymm dodone. 17. Actcea speciosa. 18. Phymodius nitidus. 19. Xanthias ca-
naliculars. 20. Carpilodes Monticulosus. 21. Trapezia cymodoce intermedia. 22. Trapezia
digitalis. 23. Bhymodius ungulatus. 24, 25. Simocarcinus simplex. 26, 27. Perinea tumida.
28. Domecia hispida. 29. Hippa adactyla.

484 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

a few shells of apparently the same species, gathered on Laysan Island. They
are of more than ordinary interest, since they represent a group which was very
abundant in early geologic times and of which a few type-forms have persisted,
almost unchanged, to the present day.

Sea-Squirts.

The sea-squirts or ascidians form a class 53 that is well represented on the
reef and the sea-bottom offshore. To look at the shapeless sack-like mass of
a leathery or gelatinous texture having two openings through which, in the
living creature, currents of water enter and leave the body, no one would for
a moment believe that they could claim even a remote relationship with the
typical vertebrate animals. Nevertheless, they are placed by modern zoolo-
gists in a phylum 54 with several other unusual animals thought to form a
group 55 more closely allied to the typical vertebrates than to any of the many
varied types of invertebrate animals. In order to trace the affinities, how-
ever, the larval condition of the sea-squirt must be studied, as they are
strangely degenerated animals in the adult form. They begin life as a free-
swimming tadpole-like larvae which approaches somewhat to the vertebrate
type of structure. That is, they possess a notochord,56 a central nervous
system, gill slits, and certain other fundamental characteristics. As they
attain the adult condition, however, radical changes in form and structure take
place. They usually find a suitable location and become attached, remaining
for their life-time in one place, firmly adhering to various objects, as a shell,
a coral, a rock, or a bit of seaweed. The pelagic free-swimming sea-squirts
or salpa I have never seen in Hawaii, but there are both simple and compound
ascidians in abundance about the islands. Among the compound fixed types,
the colonies, as they are called, are produced by budding from a single parent
animal. They commonly form jelly-like incrustations in which a whitish star-
like pattern can be seen. They abound on the under side of submerged objects,
or on seawreeds. But the simple forms, being much larger, are sure to attract
the notice of the naturalist on the reef. On being lifted from the water, at-
tached to a stone or coral, they squirt a small stream of water from the open-
ings as they contract.

The Balanoglossus.

A curious soft-bodied worm-like animal,57 whose claim to a place among
the Chordata rests upon the fact that an outgrowth of the intestine extends
into the probosis, where it forms a solid rod which, in its origin, suggests the
notochord in more typical forms, occurs in the sand in shallow water along our
shores; in pockets in the reefs, as, for example, in the reef at Kahala, Oahu.
Specimens may be secured by passing the sand through a sieve, or dredging it

^Tunieata. 54 Chordata. 55 Protovertebrata.

5e A dorsal longitudinal rod of supporting cells that corresponds to the primitive backbone.

57 Balanoglossus,

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 485

up on the tines ,of a rake. They are much sought by zoologists owing to their
primitive chorclate characters, but uninformed collectors would place them
at once among the wTorms. If specimens are carefully collected and placed in
a jar of sea water and sand, they make interesting exhibits in the schoolroom
or laboratory.

CHAPTER XXXVII.
PLANTS AND ANIMALS FROM THE CORAL REEF : PART TWO.

The Hawaiian reefs abound in representatives of the phylum,1 including
such odd and diverse animals as the starfish, sea-urchins, brittle-stars and
the sea-cucumbers. The curious bleached white skeletons of the sea-urchins,
with the beautiful lace-like pattern pierced in fine holes over the biscuit-shaped
shell or test, are among the objects picked up with shells and seaweed on the
sand beach. They are hardly to be recognized, however, as the remains of
the spiny sea-urchin so often stepped on by incautious bathers. They are the
"hedge-hogs" of the sea, since the numerous calcareous plates forming the
shell are covered in the several species with variously-shaped spines. These
spines serve the ina, as the sea-urchins are called by the natives, as a means of
protection, and in certain species they are used to assist in boring the burrows
often inhabited by them in the solid rock below low-tide.

Sea-Urchins.

The common forms are a black species,2 or ina eleele, and a whitish
form,3 ina keokeo. They both are very plentiful on the coral reefs about
Honolulu and are gathered and eaten by the natives. If one is taken alive
from its hiding place beneath the loose stones on the outer edge of the reef and
examined, the spines will be found to move on a ball-and-socket joint. The
tubercles on the test forming the attachment for the spines are arranged
mainly in five broad bands extending from the top round to the bottom or oral
side. Alternating with these are five narrow bands bearing fewer tubercles,
but pierced by the small holes arranged in rows as referred to above. Through
these holes pass numerous curious tube-feet, each provided with a sucker on the
end. These are therefore the walking bands.4 The vent is situated in the
summit or aboral side of the test. The membrane on the bottom or flat side
surrounds the mouth, from which protrude the tips of five pointed teeth. If
the membrane is removed a curious conical structure will be seen commonly
called Aristotle's lantern.

One of these animals dropped into a salt-water aquarium will prove an
interesting object. Placed in water, the tube walking feet expand and the
creature will slowly glide along, or if placed on its back it will right itself.

1 Echinodermata. 2 Echinometra sp. s Echinometra sp. * Ambulacra] zones.

pi. atk in

A \|> COI.'AI.

/.. .,»,/,//•, ,.• /,.,..,.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 487

They are 'said to feed on seaweed and also on dead fish and decaying matter of
various kinds. The large purple-black species,5 with long, slender, awl-shaped
spines, prefers the deeper water in the holes toward the outer edge of the reef.
With it occurs a similar species 6 in which the long spines are banded gray and
black. Both species are known as Wana, or sea eggs, and are much sought
for by the Hawaiians, who are very fond of them.

The spines of the wana are both sharp and brittle and inflict a serious
wound. If the native fisherman is so unfortunate as to be injured by one he
will bite the wound savagely in order to grind the spine into fine fragments
so that the pieces will come out later on with the pus.

The beautiful club-spined 7 urchins are quite common at certain places
on the reef, and are often on exhibition in the Aquarium in Honolulu. They
are as large as the preceding species, but are a reddish-brown color, and the
spines are heavy and blunt and imperfectly triangular.

A curious rough rock urchin,8 the haukeuke, has the spines short and
blunt over the back, but long and dull-pointed about the edge. They are
fond of the rough sea and adhere to the black lava rocks exposed to the full
dash of the waves.

A large heart-shaped urchin,9 covered with fine short brown hair-like
spines, is known as the sea biscuit or heart-urchin. Other forms are occasion-
ally collected in shallow water, but the majority of the Echinoidea are found
in deeper water offshore. The number of species inhabiting the Hawaiian
waters is not determined, but it is known to be a rich fauna, there being a
number of rare species.

Starfishes.

While the true starfishes10 are fairly common in the deeper water off-
shore, they are not very abundant on the coral reef. As a matter of fact,
it is a great find to collect a specimen of any size from the reefs about Oahu.
It is necessary to understand at this point that in the typical starfish the arms
are usually, though not always, five in number and that, as a rule, they are not
sharply marked off from the central disk, as is the case with the brittle-star-
fish,11 two or three species of which are plentiful in shallow water. In
the true stars the feet are located in a definite groove, while in the brittle stars
the grooves are not present.

The connection of the feet with the water-vascular system is very inter-
esting. On the back between two of the arms may be seen a curiously rough-
ened plate 12 that in reality is § sieve through which the water is strained before
it enters the system. Connected with this sieve-like body is the stone-canal.
It runs downward and connects with the ringed-canal which encircles the
mouth; from this canal five radial canals, one for each arm, pass outward
just above the ambulacral grooves. The radial-canals give off side branches

5 Diadema paucispinum. 6 Echinothrix desori. 7 Eeterocentrotes sp. 8 Podophora pedifera.

9 Bris.ws carinatus. 10 Asterioidea. 1X Ophiuroideo. 12 Madreporite.

/mm*

w

r*

^^gfc*

;.f^

•life.

•KAI.S AM) UKKF IMM'K,

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 489

to connect with the bulb-like sacks 13 that in turn connect with the tube-feet.
Sea water is forced into this system of tubes and by the expansion or contrac-
tion of the little sacks, the feet are thus extended or withdrawn.

The favorite food of the starfishes is said to consist of the common bivalves,
but it is asserted that there is no animal that it can catch that it will not
devour. On the oyster beds, especially along the Atlantic coast, they are very
destructive. They wrap themselves about the oyster and in so doing literally
turn the stomach inside out through the mouth. In a little while the bivalve is
forced to relax its muscles and allow the shell to open. The edge of the
stomach is then inserted between the valves of the shell and the soft parts of
its prey are thus digested outside the starfish's body. The habits of our Ha-
waiian species have not as yet been studied, though it would not be a difficult
matter to do so.

Large specimens of an eight-rayed starfish14 are occasionally captured at
Pearl Harbor. They are often a foot and a half in diameter, are cream-colored
above, mottled with burnt sienna and chocolate, and are white below. A
similar but very small species is to be found abundantly in the coarse green
sponges in Kalihi bay and at Pearl Harbor. A small, stiff, irregularly-de-
veloped pink leather-like species,15 without spines, is occasionally found
crowded into small holes in the coral reef. It is remarkable for its powers of
reproducing new and complete animals from the broken fragments of the old
one ; a single specimen in the laboratory has been made to produce a dozen or
more complete animals from the fragments broken from the parent, while the
parent disk has gone on and reproduced all the lost parts.

A curious five-sided form, ten inches or more in diameter, has also been
taken in the shallow water in Pearl Harbor, but of recent years the dredging
operations have apparently driven the large species away. My friend Dr.
Walter K. Fisher was on the great Albatross expedition and has described
fifty-two of the sixty species taken on that cruise as new to science. They are
placed in twenty families and are distributed into no fewer than forty-six genera.
As can be imagined, the collection represents a most astonishing variety of
starfish forms. But as the collection was made in water from ten to a thou-
sand fathoms down, his splendidly-illustrated monograph is an index to what
is in the great deep offshore, rather than a guide to the forms liable to be
gathered by hand by the wading naturalist.

The Brittle-Starfish.

The brittle-stars 1(j have long serpent-like arms attached to a relatively
small and usually rounded disk-shaped body. They differ from the true stars
in a number of ways. It is important to note that the digestive system does
not extend into the arms, but is confined in the central body, and that they
have no grooves on the under side of the arms, such as exist in the typical star-
fish. The arms are long and very flexible and are used almost entirely as the
organs of locomotion.

13 Ampulla?. 14 Lmdia hystrix. 15 Linekia sp. 16 Ophiuroidea.

32

$*<$?)

I-LA i'h Ji.». MiM. KliliAM-;ut:s MARLXK A.NIMAW.

:i ,4 fomtnoi, T.n.ir:.^, .",. .Marin.. «-„ni. | Kuo ) f.'um tlio ,«„,«] ,,-,<>k. .1. Fi.-.f
IVnlOK-nrs,. M:,„-of w.-.r | I'oMi;, | ( PI,,, ..aim ,ilri<;th,). 8. Mariiu- worn, (<;,,,/,,,

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 491

The common blue-black brittle-star,17 known to the Hawaiians as pea, is
sure to give the unsuspecting person a start as it scrambles out of some hole in
a dead block of coral lifted from the water and held in the hands for closer
inspection. Like the true starfish, the brittle-stars are inclined to be gre-
garious. Often a dozen or two will be gathered under a single head of coral,
or a stone half buried in sand in a hole in the coral reef. As they go scurry-
ing off in all directions they look so weird and snake-like that one instinctively
shrinks from taking them up in the hand, though they are known to be per-
fectly-harmless.

They can be kept for a short time in an aquarium, where their habits can
be studied to advantage. Their food, however, is difficult to provide, since it
consists of marine organisms and decaying organic matter lying on the mud
and sand on the sea bottom. It is scooped into the mouth by special tube-feet,
two pairs for each arm. The stomach is a simple sac that cannot be pushed out
of the mouth. A small pink species ] 8 with remarkably long, slender arms,
with short bristle-like spines, is occasionally found in holes in coral rock, but
is exceedingly difficult to secure, owing to the arms being very easily broken.

The term "brittle-star" is derived from the habit of these animals of
breaking off their arms on the slightest provocation. By so doing they can
readily escape from their enemies. The loss of two or three arms is of no
serious consequence, since new arms are speedily regenerated. The new
growth, however, may be easily recognized, as it seldom is as large as the
portion it replaces. This remarkable power of regenerating lost members is
a common one in the animal kingdom, worms, crabs, lizards and the like fur-
nishing interesting examples.

Zoologists include the basket-stars,19 with branching arms, in the same
class with the brittle-stars, but they have never been taken by naturalists on
the Hawaiian reefs.

Sea-Cucumbers.

Every Hawaiian child is familiar with the loli, and most of them can tell
at a glance the species that are used as food and those that are to be left lying
on the reef or unmolested in the holes in the coral rock where they commonly
seek attachment or shelter. They are known to Europeans by various names,
as sea-cucumbers, trepang or beche-de-mer, but whatever the name, whether
they are fresh from the sea or dead, or for sale in the markets, they are the
same repulsive, uninteresting-looking objects.

They are all included by zoologists in one class 20 of sausage-shaped,

17 Phioema sp. 18 Ophiothrix sp. 19 Cladiophiurm. 20 Holothuroidea,

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

rea) from the dead coral. 9. A Coelenterate (sp. indet.) from Honolulu harbor. 10. Sea-
squirt (Tunicate). 11. Marine worm from a piling in Honolulu harbor. 12. Portion of the
tube of a ship worm (Teredo) in a piece of timber. 13. Hue. 14. Sea-anemonie. 15. Sea-
squirt. 16. Sea-anemonie.

I'LATK 111. COMMON '.MAR INK PLANTS AT WA1KIKI'

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 493

leathery marine animals with the mouth at one end of the body, which is
sometimes surrounded with tentacles which may be expanded or withdrawn.
They appear to bear but little resemblance to their cousins, the sea-urchins, or
their second cousins, the starfish, but if one is closely examined it will be
found to resemble the sea urchins in certain fundamental features, especially
in possessing a ringed canal about the mouth which gives off tubes that run
up and backward to supply water to the tube-feet when they are present.
While they are far from being star shaped and are without the long, sharp
spines of the typical sea-urchins, they appear to trace their ancestry back to a
generalized starfish-like animal, and for that reason they are all included in
the one great phylum.21

An energetic collector may secure a half dozen species on a single expe-
dition on the reef at low tide, but if one turns to Dr. Fisher's very compre-
hensive paper based on the Albatross collection, the list of Hawaiian species
will be found to be a much more extensive one.

Of the forty-four species of sea-cucumbers enumerated by this careful nat-
uralist, nineteen are described for the first time. The fauna is placed in four
families, including twenty-one genera in all. Perhaps a dozen species are
liable to be gathered from the tide pools on the reef, but as they are difficult
to describe in popular terms, they are even more difficult to identify. A few
forms, however, may be recognized by their popular names or simple de-
scriptions.

To all of these animals the Hawaiians applied the class name loli, but
several species were recognized by definite specific names, such as loli kai,
which grows about six inches long and is eaten raw or cooked ; loli pua, the
large black species often fifteen inches in length, which was also eaten, and loli
koko, which is red inside and was not eaten by the natives.

The names thus applied by the Hawaiians are fairly accurate and con-
stant throughout the group. As the definite detection of the characters which
separate the species in most cases can only be made out by the examination
of the calcareous deposits in the skin of the animal, their classification is a
far too difficult problem for the average collector. But to collect specimens of
many of the species is an easy task, since they are sluggish, inactive creatures
which lie buried in the sand or seek shelter underneath stones or in the
crevices in the coral reef. The large, dark-brown, blackish species with
ambulacral feet scattered all over the body,22 commonly found in lava rock pools,
is perhaps as well known as any of the group owing to its size when adult.
A reddish, heliotrope-purple or brownish-purple species 23 frequently found
in company with the large black one just mentioned, and a brown or reddish-
browrn species 24 of large size with a whitish ventral surface, are also common
in shallow water. A well-known species 2r> on the Honolulu reef is about
three inches long and variously colored, the tentacles being straw color, the

21 Echinodermata. 22 Ilolothuria atra. 2S Ilolothuria eineraseens. 2i Ilolothuria vagabimda.

25 Ilolothuria partialis.

>MMON HAWAIIAN KL'OWKS ll'l'l]

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 495

dorsal surface brownish straw color, varied with lighter, the ventral surface
lighter than the back. The species may or may not have two rows of dorsal
spots.

A curious and striking wTorm-like sea-cucumber 2Q is common at Pearl
Harbor, Kaneohe Bay, and at other points in similar places in the shallow
water on sandy and coral bottoms. Large specimens are two or three feet in
length and an inch and a half in diameter. They vary greatly in coloration,
but are usually reddish-orange spotted with brown, the brown forming mot-
tlings and irregular bands. They have fifteen or more greenish tentacles an
inch or more in length. These animals may be seen by the hundreds in favor-
able localities at certain seasons, as they slowly creep about in the algae on the
bottom, in shallow quiet water. On being lifted to the surface they completely
collapse, as the water which fills the entire animal runs out, leaving only the
thin contracted bladder-like skin.

Another very common variegated olive-brown species,27 varied with
whitish circles and blotches over the back, takes little care to conceal itself
during the day and is quite plentiful, usually in lava rock pools. A fair-sized,
dark-greenish species 28 mottled with dark brownish-green is also quite com-
mon, especially in the large tide pools on the outer edge of the reef near
Honolulu.

The food of most sea-cucumbers consists of minute particles of organic
matter extracted from the sand and mud, taken into the alimentary canal.
The species mentioned above as common in Pearl Harbor may be seen in the
process of feeding. The plume-like tentacles round the mouth are stretched to
their full length. When they have gathered sufficient food particles from the
water they are alternately curved round and drawn over the mouth and the
food-charged water forced into the central mouth opening.

The tube-feet, when present, are the organs of locomotion; by them the
animal is pulled along on its ventral surface. Several of the species, but
especially the loli koko, have a disgusting habit, when disturbed, of exuding a
mass of long white sticky fibers that adhere tenaciously to any object, and in
which the enemies of the animals are entangled. These threads are part of
the respiratory apparatus known as the gill tree, but the threads themselves
are termed Cuvierian organs. When the loli becomes excessively irritated it
contracts the muscles of the body wall to such an extent that the thin wall of
the intestine is ruptured and a portion of the long, coiled intestine is pushed
out. The animal is only temporarily inconvenienced by this experience, how-
ever, as in a short time, after a brief period of quiescence, nature refurnishes it
with an entire new set of digestive organs.

Crinoids.

While the beautiful and rare sea-lilies or Crinoids are never found on the
reef, it is a matter of general interest to know that they belong in the great

! Opheodesoma spectabiles. 2T Actinophyga mavritiana. 28 Stiehopus tropiealis.

.ATI: IHJ. ST.M.TIMI. sKA I'Kfll I Ns AND SKA < T<T \! l'.KI

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 497

phylum including the starfish, sea-urchins and sea-cucumbers. A dozen species
of this class 20 of animals, often known as feather-stars, or when fossilized as
stone-lilies, were collected by the Albatross. They were placed in eight genera
assigned to four families of the non-stalked forms. In the hands of Dr. A. H.
Clark, the American authority on the crinoids, they all proved to be species
heretofore unknown. Although it is thought that the collection secured repre-
sents only a small portion of the entire crinoid fauna of the islands, it should
be remembered that all of the species were collected from water more than a
hundred fathoms deep. The lower range of their distribution about the
group, for want of fuller knowledge, is placed at about the one-thousand-
fathom line. Although the species are peculiar to Hawaii, they all belong to
wide-ranging genera.

Sea- Worms.

The great group of worm-like creatures is at best not an especially attrac-
tive one to collectors of animals, and the general naturalist is very liable to
pass them by without much attention. Yet there is such a variety of marine
forms that make their home on or in the living and dead coral, and in the sand
and mud along the shore, that they are at least worthy of passing notice.

Of the various groups of flat-worms, a division 30 collectively termed Pla-
narians is well represented. As they are very curious in form, being broad
and flat, they are usually sufficiently out of the ordinary to attract attention
when seen gliding from the under side of some object picked up on the reef.
Many of them are brilliantly colored and have an easy, graceful gliding
motion, enabling them to move smoothly over the surface of shells, seaweeds
or stones.

The Nemertinea have a superficial resemblance to the flat-worms. They
may be recognized by their soft, extensile bodies and their long thread-like
proboscis, an organ which can be completely withdrawn within the animal.
They are often conspicuously colored and of varying form ; some are fragile,
others are very slender and of great length.

By far the most important group on the reef, however, is that wdiich
includes the bristle-worms 31 and their allies, all members of the phylum,32
including the common earthworm, the leeches and similar forms. They can
be placed in the phylum without much difficulty by the fact that the body is
divided into numerous similar parts called segments.

They occur in various places, some living in canals in the dead coral rock,

20 Crinoklea. 30 Turbellaria. 31 Polyehwta. «2 Annelida.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

Ina keokeo (Echinometra sp.). 6. Aboral view of the shell or test of Eehinometra. 7. Oral
view of the same. 8. Bough Rock Urchin [Haukeuke] (Podophora pedifera). 9. Oral view
of the same. 10. Ina liilii (Echinometra sp.). 11. Crab (Simoearcinus sp.). 12. Starfish
(not Hawaiian). 13. Oral view of the same. 14. Arm of a Starfish [Pea] (Luidda hystrix) .
15. Same as No. 14. 16. Sea-cucumber [Loli]. 17, 18. Brittle Starfish (Phioema sp.). 19.
Sand Crab (Oeypode ccratophthahna) . 20, 21, 22, 23, 24. Sea-cucumbers [Loli].

IM.VN-; 117. MALINK PLANTS AND PLANT LINK \NIMAI.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 499

some forming tubes for their habitations, while still others are noted for mak-
ing paper-like tubes. Some species burrow beneath the sand and mud ; others
fasten their tubes to stones or coral and cover them with sand or bits of shell.
Another group of worm-like animals 33 may easily be found by breaking
up old coral rocks in which they are able to drill round holes. In the common
forms 34 the anterior part of the body can be drawn into the posterior part.
They are tough and leathery, blunt at the tail, and taper gradually to the end
of the proboscis.

Sponges.

It is a matter of regret that the many species of sponges35 that occur on
our reefs and to moderate depth in the water about them have never been
systematically collected and studied. This need not prevent one from ad-
miring and examining them, however, not only on their own account, but on
account of the large number of worms, Crustacea, starfish and other animals
that enter them for protection.

There is scarcely a stone of any size on the reef that is without one or
more of these curious creatures attached to it. Red, black, white, yellow and
purple sponges are common, but almost every color one can suggest is repre-
sented. Many of them are shapeless encrusting masses ; still others have a
definite form, so familiar as to render their identification complete at a glance.
Still others look more like weird plants than animals, and it is not strange
they are often mistaken for such, when we consider their irregular plant-like
growth. Although they were once claimed by botanists as part of the plant
kingdom, they are now generally regarded as reixresentatives of the simplest
form of the many types of many-celled animals 30 as distinguished from the
single-celled animals,37 which are nearly all microscopic.

Sponges are free swimming animals for only a very short time, at an early
stage of their development. They soon become attached to some object, and
not infrequently modify their form so as to conform with the shape of the
object to which they adhere. For this reason they seem to have no fixed shape
of body, as individuals of the same species vary greatly.

The sponge is a very simply-organized animal and lives a very simple life
indeed. Their food is the minute organisms in the water. Currents are
created in the animal by means of minute flagella which wave to and fro in the
tiny tubes that lead into the animal through small pores scattered over its
body surface. The food is digested out of the water before it is allowed to
pass out again through the large holes 38 distributed over the animal at irregular
intervals. Sponges arc of considerable interest to zoologists, as they are the
lowest types in which cells are found differentiated for certain purposes, as
skeleton cells, reproductive cells, and so on.

Sponge culture has never been attempted in Hawaii, though the subject
has been occasionally discussed. While none of the species now growing on

1 Gephyrea. 84 Sipnnculoidea. 35 Porifera. 3<J Metazoa. S7 Protozoa. 38 Oscelum.

500 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the reefs have any great commercial value, it is not improbable that the fine
soft species of commerce, suited to our climate and conditions, could be intro-
duced and grown here.

Anyone who sees the living sponge will realize that the familiar bath
sponge is only the bleached skeleton of the animal from which all of the soft
part has been macerated and washed away, leaving only a substance known as
spongin — a substance very like silk in its composition.

The division of the sponges is made not on color or shape nor habits, but
on the differences in their skeletons. Two principal classes are recognized:
one where the skeleton is composed of limy spicules 30 ; the other class includes
species with glassy 41 spicules or with horny 42 fibers. To the non-calcarious
class belong the majority of the larger sponges on the Hawaiian reefs.

Seaweed.

It is a very natural transition in this connection to pass from the curious
sponge animals, that so often resemble plants, to the consideration of the
flora of the coral reef, since these curious marine representatives of the vege-
table and animal kingdoms occur together, often in the most intimate relation,
about our shores. In fact, many of the species of seaweed are attached to
various species of sponges, and even more frequently sponges will be found
growing on the larger forms of alga?.

The examination of the heaps of curious bright-green, brown, purple or
red plants east ashore by the sea, particularly after a heavy storm, gives to
the beach ramble a charm in any quarter of the globe, but in Hawaii, with its
hundreds of miles of ever-varying coast line, the gathering of the sea-mosses holds
out allurements to the lover of the beautiful in nature that few can long resist.

How to Collect Hawaiian Alg^e.

To gather and preserve these bright-colored floweiiess plants is so easy
and so fascinating a task that tourists who visit the islands, as wrell as old
and young people who call Hawaii home, can find no more pleasant diversion
than making a collection of the more common forms.

The first step in reef collecting of any kind is to find out the time each
day when the tide wrill be low and arrange to be on the reef two or three hours
before extreme low water, so that the tide may be followed out. However,
alga* hunting, as well as reef collecting generally, may be greatly facilitated if
the collector can have the use of a boat, a fine-toothed long-handled rake and a
water box with a glass bottom. Still more ambitious collectors will want to
use a dredge, though dredging about a coral reef is very difficult work. Those
who are not able to dredge or wade, will find the sea-coast at high tide fur-
nishes specimens of most of the species to be gathered first-hand farther out.

The collector will want a light canvas bag, or wicker basket, and a small

39 Calcarea, *° Non-calearia. 41 Silicious. 42 Spongin.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OP THE GROUP. 501

assortment of bottles and containers of odd sizes. A good quantity of old
newspapers will also be useful. A lens, a stout knife, a pair of forceps, and a
wading costume that protects the arms and legs from the sun are very important
parts of the field equipment, but nothing is more necessary than a pair of stout
shoes to protect the feet when wading over the rocks on the rough coral reef.

The Hawaiian tides are so uniform and slow that there is no danger to be
feared from their sudden return, so the collector can work in safety and at his
leisure, always taking time to gather the finest specimens to be found in the
given locality. A little practice with the lens will enable the beginner to
discover the fruiting bodies on the different algae. If they ever attempt the
task of naming their specimens, the importance of having perfect specimens
will be appreciated; still, an imperfect example is not to be despised, since it
will be of value in giving a clue to the nature of the flora of a given locality.

The specimens may be roughly dried in a shady place or salted dowrn, or,
better still, mounted and pressed while they are fresh. To do this the plants
should be carefully washed and sorted in sea water, as they retain their colors
better than when washed in fresh water.

The next step is to "float out" the specimen in fresh or salt water on a
piece of substantial, tough, unglazed paper of the proper size. Several methods
of "floating out" the specimens may be employed. A good way is to take a
shallow dish or enameled pan and lay in the bottom a square piece of gal-
vanized iron that is a trifle smaller than the pan. If the corners of this
mounting table are turned down so as to make legs a quarter to a half inch
long, the apparatus will work much better.

Place the floating table in the pan and cover it with water and lay upon
it a piece of mounting paper that has been moistened on both sides. The
specimen to be mounted is then laid on the paper and held in place with the
left hand, while with the right hand, needle points and tweezers are used to
smooth the branches of the specimen out on the paper. The specimen, mount-
ing table and all, is then gently lifted out of the water and the card laid to
one side to drain. When the paper is fairly dry, the specimen and its mounting
sheet is placed on a sheet of blotting paper, a piece of thin muslin cloth, free
from starch, spread over it and a second dryer laid over the cloth. The speci-
mens are piled up in this way, one on top of the other, until the lot is finished,
when they are placed between two flat boards, to which a little weight is
added, and left to dry thoroughly. Specimens that do not adhere to the
mounting sheet may be fastened in place with narrow strips of gummed paper.

The collector will soon learn that algaj, like land plants, favor certain
localities, and moreover that they have their special seasons of growth. So
that to gather all of the attached or fixed alga* 43 in a given locality will require
many expeditions over the same locality at different seasons. It is not im-
probable that almost every collecting ground would yield as many as fifty

43 For there are many microscopical species that are free swimming plants.

502 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

species, and there are some of the more favorable localities in the islands
where with close and persistent work a more extended list can be secured.

It is impossible to give in a few pages a systematic survey of so exten-
sive a group as the Hawaiian algae. A few of the more common forms found
at Waikiki are figured. These will serve to show how curious and interesting
these plants are. But as not a few of the species to be gathered about the
islands are as yet unnamed, the collector who is not a botanist may feel sure
that he can render good service to science, and at the same time afford
himself a pleasant recreation by making a carefully collected and well-
labeled collection from almost any locality. The label should note such facts
as the season, depth, character of the bottom, whether in brackish or salt
water, exposed to tide-rush or surf or in quiet pools, and other observations of
interest.

While Hawaiian algae have been studied to some extent for years, and
several important collections have been made, no one, so far as the writer
knows, has ever given more than a guess at the probable extent of the flora of
the Hawaiian reefs. The literature begins with a list published more than
thirty years ago by Mr. J. E. Chamberlain, which gave the names of one
hundred and twelve species of marine algie common in Hawaii. In 1900 Miss J.
E. Tilclen spent some months in Hawaii collecting the fresh-water and marine
algte, and subsequently published a list of one hundred species in Thrum's
Annual. But as the list published was only a small part of "the several hun-
dred species collected/7 many of which were not described, it is to be hoped
that this authority will be induced to make a more exhaustive review of the
material.

Miss Minnie Reed has also made extensive collections of the alga^ of the
islands in connection with her especially interesting investigation of the eco-
nomic seaweeds of Hawaii and their food value — for limu, as the fresh and
salt-water algie are called by the natives, has always had an important place
in the native bill-of-fare. As many as seventy-five species of edible alga* were
known to the Hawaiians by name. As this list of edible species is referred by
botanists to thirty-eight genera, some idea of the variety of forms of the useful
species can be gathered.

Almost every day at low tide native women and children may be seen on
the reef gathering the daily supply; and at least a dozen species are offered
for sale in the markets, along with other Hawaiian delicacies, the favorite
species being limu kohu,44 limu eleele,45 limu oolu 4G and limu lipeepee.47

Seaweed has also had an important place among the native medicinal plants.
But Europeans, as a rule, seldom regard this product of the sea as a market-
able or an edible commodity. Nevertheless, thousands of dollars' worth of
Hawaiian limu is consumed by the natives, and even a greater quantity is
imported by the Oriental population.

44 Asparagopsis sanfordiana. 45 Entiromorpha spp. 4n Chondria tenuissemn. *7 Laurencia spp.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 503

In addition to the long list of marine species there is an extended list of
fresh-water limu, many species of which were also used for food by the natives
living at some distance from the sea.

But important as limu is as a food for man, its importance as a food for
the myriads of animals of the coral reef that feed on it exclusively, or at one
stage or another of their existence, is far greater. It is perhaps in this indirect
way that it has its most significant bearing on the food supply in Hawaii, and
it is the cecological relation of these curious plants and animals to their envi-
ronment, that is of such absorbing interest to the student of natural history.

End of Book Two

PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATIONS, PAPERS, LEC-
TURES, ADDRESSES, ETC., BY THE AUTHOR, ON
HAWAIIAN AND KINDRED SUBJECTS.

1900 Notes on the Birds of Kauai. Bryan and Seale. Occ. Papers, B. P. Bishop Museum,

Vol. 1, No. 3.

1901 Key to the Birds of the Hawaiian Group. Memoirs B. P. Bishop Museum, Vol. 1,

No. 3. (13 plates, 17 text illustrations.)
How to see a Museum (Address). P. C. Advertiser, February 10th.
List of Hawaiian Birds in the St. Louis College Collection, Including Records of Several

North American Species. Auk, Vol. XVIII, No. 4.

1902 Monograph of Marcus Island. Occ. Papers, B. P. Bishop Museum, Vol. II, No. 1.

1903 Hawaiian Birds in the Crater of Kilauea. Condor, Vol. V, No. 3, p. 79.
Notes on Loxiodes bailleui from Hawaii. Condor, Vol. V, No. 3, p. 80.

1904 Birds of the Waianae Mountains. Occ. Papers, B. P. Bishop Museum, Vol. II, No. 3.
Notes on the Nesting Habits of the Hawaiian Owl. Occ. Papers, B. P. Bishop Museum,

Vol. II, No. 3.
Nest and Eggs of Chlorodrepanis virens (Gmel.). Occ. Papers, B. P. Bishop Museum,

Vol. II, No. 3.
Bird's Nest of Pele's Hair. Occ. Papers, B. P. Bishop Museum, Vol. II, No. 3.
TJndescribed Nests and Eggs of Two Hawaiian Birds. Occ. Papers, B. P. Bishop

Museum, Vol. II, No. 3.
"Wilson's Snipe in Hawaii. Osprey, Vol. VI, p. 78.
Bird Protection in the Pacific. Report National Assoc. Audubon Societies, p. 68.

1905 Three New Hawaiian Fishes. Occ, Papers, B. P. Bishop Museum, Vol. II, No. 4.
Report of a Visit to Midway Island. Occ. Papers, B. P. Bishop Museum, Vol. II, No. 4.
Nest of the Hawaiian Hawk. Occ. Papers, B. P. Bishop Museum, Vol. II, No. 4.

Egg of the Hawaiian Goose. Occ. Papers, B. P. Bishop Museum, Vol. II, No. 4.
Paternalism in Agriculture (Address before Social Science Club). Published by Ha-
waiian Forester and Agriculturist (July), Vol. II, No. 7.

1906 Outline of a Plan to Establish a Pacific Scientific Institution. (Pamphlet) November.

1907 Some Birds of Molokai. Occ. Papers, B. P. Bishop Museum, Vol. IV, No. 2.

t>raft of Charter of Incorporation and By-laws of the P. S. I. (Pamphlet). Honolulu,
December.

1908 Habits of the Black Mamo (Paper). Meeting of American Ornith. Union, Nov. 18th.
Volcano of Kilauea (Lecture). Brooklyn Museum, Dec. 12th.

Mission of the Pacific Scientific Institution (Address). Lake Mohonk Conference, Oct.

1909 Invention Among the Ancient Hawaiians (Paper). Baltimore Meeting, A. A. A. S.
Laysan Island Scheme (Communication). Iowa Alumnus, Jan.

Visit to Kilauea (Illustrated Lecture). Amer. Assn. Adv. Science, Baltimore, Dec. 27th.
Hunting Uau on Molokai (Reprint). P. C. Advertiser, April 1st.
Adventure in Chase of Rare Birds (Reprint). P. C. Advertiser, April 8th.
Birds as Assistant Bug-catchers (Communication). P. C. Advertiser, Oct. 31st.
Bird Slaughter on Midway Island (Address). Washington Biolog. Soc, Jan. 13th.

1910 Bird Slaughter in the Pacific Islands. National Assoc, of Audubon Socs. Bulletin in

Birdlore, April.
Volcano House Records (Excerpt). P. C. Advertiser, Jan. 9th.
New Fields of Industry (Communication). P. G. Advertiser, March 16th.
Methods in Aquatic Photography (Address). Meeting American Fisheries Society,

Sept. 10th.
Popular Lectures (J. B. Pond Lyceum Bureau).

Fire Fountains: A Visit to Hawaii's Volcano, Kilauea.

Hawaii: The Land of Heart's Desire.

Six Weeks' Life on a Coral Island.

Lost Islands: The Diplomatic Adventure of a Naturalist.

Trekking the Black Mamo.

The Mutiny of the Bounty.

The God of Our Fathers.
Hawaii's International Mission (Address). Lake Mohonk Conference, Oct. 21st.
The Volcano of Kilauea (Lecture). Minneapolis Meeting Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science

December.

33 505

506 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Hawaii as a Meeting Place for the A. A. A. S. Portions of (Pamphlet).
Aquatic Photography for Naturalists (Paper). A. A. A. S., Minneapolis Meeting, Dec.
Study of the Sea (Lecture). March 11th.
Department of Zoology. Hawaiian Collegian, June.

1911 The Kilauea Park Bill (Communication). P. C. Advertiser, April 11th.

Starvation May Face Rare Birds on Laysan (Preliminary Report). P. C. Advertiser,

May 7th.
Race Contact (Paper). The Friend, June.

Scientific Expedition to Laysan. Audubon Society Dist. of Col., Aug. 8th.
Mosquitoes Reduced at Small Cost (Communication). Honolulu Star, Aug. 23rd.
Introduction of Birds Into Hawaii. Proc. Hawaiian Entomol. Soc, Vol. II, No. 4.
Laysan Island : A Visit to Hawaii 's Bird Reservation. The Mid-Pacific, Vol. II, No. 4.

1912 Introduction and Acclimatization of the Yellow Canary on Midway Island. Auk (July),

Vol. XXIX, No. 3.
What Hawaii Teaches. San Francisco Call, Aug. 14th.
Help for Real Farmers (Communication). P. C. Advertiser, Nov. 11th.
A Marine Biological Laboratory for Hawaii. Science Seminar, College of Hawaii

(Pamphlet).
Report of an Expedition to Laysan. U. S. Biol. Survey Bull. No. 42.
The Commission Form of Government for Our City (Address). Pamphlet (Dec. 19th).

1913 Rare Seals from Hawaii Waters (Communication). New York Zool. Soc. Bull., Nov.
Miscellaneous Papers, etc.

Beginnings of a Free Port (Communication). P. C. Advertiser, May, 1913.
No Mastery of the Pacific Ocean (Communication). Star-Bulletin, Feb. 12th, 1913.
Panama Canal and Hawaii's Opportunity as a Treaty Port. Thrum's Annual, 1913.
Hawaii as an Open Port. Mid-Pacific, Vol. V, No. 2 (1913).

1914 In preparation, or awaiting publication:

Ecology of Laysan Island.

Fresh-water Mollusca of Hawaii.

Relation of Hawaiian Melania to Environment.

1915 In press:

An undescribed Species of Drepanididse from Nihoa, Hawaiian Group. Auk,
Dec, 1915.

Evidences of the Deep Subsidence of the Waianae Mountains. Thrum's An-
nual, 1916.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

It seems unnecessary to attempt a complete bibliography of even the more inclu-
sive publications dealing with the phases of the extensive subject treated in this volume.
The following list is therefore calculated to serve as a guide indicating the way to the
chief of the many and varied sources used in the preparation of the text. An examination
of the references given will suggest through bibliographies and citations still other reliable
original sources to which the reader in search of fuller information can safely go for a
more systematic and detailed handling of the various subjects touched upon in the pre-
ceding pages than is possible within the cumpass of one brief volume — particularly if that
volume, in purpose and design, is planned to meet the requirements of the average reader.

The author takes this final opportunity to again express his indebtedness to those
who have preceded him, and through their published works, made this popular synoptical
view of nature in Hawaii possible.

GENEEAL.

In addition to standard works on anthropology, ethnology, geology, topography,
physiography, botany, agriculture, horticulture, and general natural history, mention should
be made of the 40 volumes of Thrum's Annual, wThich collectively constitute an encyclo-
pedia of Hawaiian subjects.
Thrum's Almanac and Annual will long be Hawaii's greatest source book. (Consult tables

of contents, indices, etc.).
Memoirs B. P. Bishop Museum. Honolulu, 1899 to 1915 (see indices).
Occasional Papers of the B. P. Bishop Museum. Honolulu, 1898 to 1915 (see indices).
Hawaii's Young People, Bound volumes of. Lahainaluna (see indices).
The Missionary Herald. Boston ,1819-1899.
The Friend. Honolulu, 1844-1915.

The Sandwich Island Gazette and Journal of Commerce. Honolulu, 1836-1839.
The Hawaiian Spectator. Honolulu, 1838, 1839.
The Hawaiian Gazette. Honolulu, 1892-1899.

VOYAGES AND TKAVEL.

James Cook and James King, A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. 3 vols. London, 1784,
George Dixon, A Voyage Bound the World. London, 1789.
Nathaniel Portlock, A Voyage Bound the World, etc. London, 1789.
George Vancouver, A Voyage of Discovery, etc. 3 vols. London, 1798.

F. W. Beechey, Narrative of a Voyage in the Pacific, etc. Philadelphia, 1832.

G. A. Byron (Lord), Voyage of H. M. S. Blonde. London, 1826.
William Churchill, The Polynesian Wanderings. Carnegie Institution, 1911.

HISTOBIES AND BIOGBAPHY.

O. S. Stewart, A Besidence in the Sandwich Islands. 5th edition. Boston, 1839.

Sheldon Dibble, History of the Sandwich Islands. Lahainaluna, 1843.

J. J. Jarvis, History of the Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands. London, 1843.

J. J. Jarvis, History of the Sandwich Islands. 3rd edition. Honolulu, 1847.

Hiram Bingham, A Besidence of Twentv-one Years in the Sandwich Islands. Hartford,
1848.

H. T. Cheever, Life in the Sandwich Islands. New York, 1851.

A Haole (G. W. Bates), Sandwich Island Notes. New York, 1851.

Bufus Anderson, The Hawaiian Islands: Their Progress and Condition Under Missionary
Labors. Boston, 1864.

Manley Hopkins, Hawaii: The Past, Present and Future of Its Island Kingdom, 2nd edi-
tion. New York, 1869.

Titus Coan, Life in Hawaii. New York, 1882.

Liliuokalani (Queen), Hawaii's Story, by Hawaii's Queen. Boston, 1898.

William D. Alexander, A Brief History of the Hawaiian People. New York. 1891 and 1898.

Sheldon Dibble, A History of the Sandwich Islands. (Bepublished by T. G. Thrum.) Ho-
nolulu, 1909.

SECTION ONE.
THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE.

William Ellis, Narrative of a Tour Through Hawaii, or Owhyhee. London, 1826.

507

508 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

William Ellis, Polynesian Researches, etc. 2 vols. London, 1829.

Charles Wilks, Narrative of U. S. Exploring Expedition. 5 vols. Philadelphia, 1845.
Lorrin Andrews, Grammar of the Hawaiian Language. Honolulu, 1854.
Sir George Grey, Polynesian Mythology. London, 1855.
Lorain Andrews, Dictionary of the Hawaiian Language. Honolulu, 1865.
Hawaiian Club Papers. Boston, 1868.

Abraham Fornander, An Account of the Polynesian Race, etc. 2 vols. London, 1878, 1880.
H. E. Hitchcock, An English-Hawaiian Dictionary. San Francisco, 1887
Kalakaua (King), The Legends and Myths of Hawaii. New York, 1888.
Annual Reports of the Hawaiian Historical Society. Honolulu, 1893 to 1915.
Papers of the Hawaiian Historical Society. Honolulu, 1893 to 1915.
J. M. Alexander, The Islands of the Pacific. New York, 1895.

David Malo, Hawaiian Antiquities (translated by N. B. Emerson). Honolulu, 1898.
W. T. Blackman, The Making of Hawaii. New York, 1899.
T. G. Thrum, Hawaiian Folk Tales. Chicago, 1907.

W. D. Alexander, Short Synopsis of the Most Essential Points in Hawaiian Grammar. Ho-
nolulu, 1908.
N. B. Emerson, Unwritten Literature of Hawaii. Bureau of Amer. Ethnology, 1909.
W. D. Westervelt, Maui a Demi God. Honolulu, 1910.

S. M. Kamakau, Ancient Hawaiian Religious Beliefs. Thrum's Annual, 1911.
Mary C. Alexander, The Story of Hawaii. New York, 1912.
Mary S. Lawerence, Old-time Hawaiians. New York, 1912.
(See also titles under General.)

SECTION TWO.

GEOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY.

J, D. Dana, Geology, U. S. Exploring Expedition. Philadelphia, 1845.

W. T. Brigham, Notes on the Volcanic Phenomena of the Hawaiian Islands. Memoirs of

the Boston Society of Natural History, 1868.
C. E. Dutton, Hawaiian Volea/noes. Fourth Annual Report U. S. Geological Survey, 1882-83.
W. L. Green, Vestages of the Molton Globe. (Part I.) London, 1875.
W. L. Green, The Volcanic Problem from the Point of View of Hawaiian Volcanoes.

Honolulu, 1884.
W. L. Green, Vestages of the Molton Globe. (Part II.) Honolulu, 1887.
T. Munson Coan, The Hawaiian Islands. Bull. American Geographical Society, 1889.
J. D. Dana, Characteristics of Volcanoes. New York, 1891.
A. B. Lyons, Fossils of Hawaii-nei. Thrum's Annual, 1891.
S. E. Bishop, Geology of Oahu. Thrum's Annual, 1901.
O. H. Hitchcock, Geology of Oahu. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. XI, 1900.
S. E. Bishop, Cold Current System of the Pacific. Thrum's Annual, 1905.
T. G. Thrum, Table of Eruptions of Hawaiian Volcanoes. Thrum's Annual, 1908.
C. W. Baldwin, Geography of the Hawaiian Islands. New York, 1908.

C. H. Hitchcock, Hawaii and Its Volcanoes. Honolulu, 1909.

W. T. Brigham, The Volcanoes of Kilauea and Mauna Loa. Memoirs B. P. Bishop Museum.
Honolulu, 1909.

XJ. S. Geological Survey (Water Supply Papers), Water Resources of the Hawaiian Islands.
(See indices.)

Bulletins of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. Honolulu, 1911-1915.

Whitman Cross, Lavas of Hawaii and Their Relations. IT. S. Geological Survev Profes-
sional Paper 88, 1915. " '

SECTION THREE.

FLORA OF THE GROUP. •
Charles Derby, List of Hawaiian Ferns. Hawaiian Annual, 1875.

D. D. Baldwin, List of Hawaiian Mosses and Hepatica. Thrum's Annual, 1877, 1888.
J. E. Chamberlain, Algae of the Hawaiian Islands. Thrum's Annual, 1881.

J. M. Lidgate, Indigenous Ornamental Plants. Thrum's Annual, 1882.
J. M. Lidgate, Hawaiian Woods and Forest Trees. Thrum 's Annual, 1883
William HiUebrand, Flora of the Hawaiian Islands. Heidelberg, 1888.
A. B. Lyons, Artificial Key to Hawaiian Ferns. Thrum's Annual, 1891.
A. B. Lyons, Native Plants of Hawaii. Thrum's Annual, 1897.

John M. Lidgate, Endemic Character of the Hawaiian Flora. Thrum's Annual, 1911.
Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. Vols. 36-42 (1915). See Indices.

(See also titles under section four.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 509

SECTION FOUR.

AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE.

Transactions of the Royal Agricultural Society. Yols. I, II. Honolulu, 1850-1856.

Fruit and Their Seasons. Thrum's Annual, 1886.

A. B. Lyon, What a Botanist May See in Honolulu. Thrum 's Annual, 1900.

W. C. Stubbs, Report on the Agricultural Resources and Capabilities of Hawaii. U. S.
Dept. of Agr. Bull. 95. Washington, 1901.

Wray Taylor, List of the Palms in the Hawaiian Islands. Thrum's Annual, 1901.

Hawaiian Forester and Agriculturist. Vols. 1 (1904) to 1915. (See indices).

G. P. Wilder, Fruits of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu, 1907 (Enlarged edition, 1911).

W. T. Pope, Ornamental Plant Life of Honolulu. Thrum's Annual, 1911.

Hawaiian Planters' Record. H. S. P. Assn. Exp. Sta. Organ, 1 to 13 vols. (1915).

Reports of the Board of Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry of the Territory of
Hawaii. Honolulu, 1905 to 1915.

Annual Reports Hawaiian Agricultural Experiment Station. Honolulu (see contents, etc.)

Reports of the Work of the Experiment Station of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Associa-
tion. (Numerous Bulletins and Reports.)

Planters' Monthly, Bound Volumes of. Honolulu (see indices).

Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletins, Bound Volumes. Honolulu (see in-
dices, etc.).

SECTION FIVE.

ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP.

General Zoology.

G. H. Fowler, Life of the Sea. London, 1912.

John Murray and Johan Hjort, Depths of the Ocean. London, 1912.

Fauna Hawaiiensis, or the Zoology of the Sandwich (Hawaiian) Islands, Edited by David
Sharp, F. R. S. 3 vols. Cambridge, 1899-1913.

Contributors.

W. H. Ashmead, Hymenoptera Parasitica; R. S. Bagnall, Thysanoptera; F. E. Beddard,
Earthworms; B. L. Chapman, vide Kellogg and Chapman; Adrien Dollfus, Crustacea,
Isopoda; Aug. Forei, Heterogyna or Formicid®; Col. H. H. Goodwin- Austein, Ana-
tomy of Mollusca; P. H. Grimshaw, Diptera; G. W. Kirkaldy, Hemiptera; E. Mey-
rick, Macrolepidoptera; N. D. F. Pearce, Acrina; R. C. L. Perkins, Essay on Land
Fauna, Vertebrata, Hymenoptera Aculeata, Coleoptera, Strepsiptera, Diptera, Or-
thoptera; Hugh Scott, Coleoptera; D. Sharp, Coleoptera; A. E. Shipley, Entozoa;
F. Silvestri, Thysanura; Eugene Simon, Aracnida; P. Speiser, Diptera Pupipara;
T. R. R. Stebbing, Crustacea Amphipoda; E. R. Sykes, Mollusca; Lord Walsingham,
Microlepi doptera.

Proceeding of the London Zoological Society (see indices). Bound volumes.

Reptiles.

Leonhard Stejneger, Land Reptiles of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian Institution,
Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 1899.

Birds.

S. B. Wilson and A. H. Evens, Aves Hawaiiensis. London, 1890-1899.

W. A. Bryan, Key to the Birds of the Hawaiian Group. Memoir B. P. Bishop Museum.

Honolulu, 1901.
Walter Rothschild (Lord), Avifauna of Laysan, etc. 2 vols. London (published in parts).
H. W. Henshaw. Birds of the Hawaiian Possessions. Honolulu, 1903.
W. K. Fisher, Birds of Lavsan and the Leeward Islands. Bull. 23, Part 3, U. S. Fish

Comra, 1903.
The Auk, Bound volumes of (see indices).
The Osprey, Bound volumes of (see indices). Washington.
The Condor, Bound volumes of (see indices).
The Ibis, Bound volumes of (see indices).
(See also General Works on the Islands and General Zoology.)

Fishes

D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, The Aquatic Resources of the Hawaiian Islands.
Part I. Shore Fishes Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., 1903.

510 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

D. S. Jordan, Guide to the Study of Fishes. New York, 1905.

C. H, Gilbert. The Deep Sea Fishes. Aquatic Resources of the Hawaiian Islands, Part

II, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm, 1905.
J. N". Cobfc. The Commercial Fisheries, ditto, 1905.
XI. S. Fish Comm. Bulletins (see indices).

XJ. S. Fish Commission Reports, Bound volumes (see indices).
(See also General Zoology Works; Thrum's Annual, etc.)

Invertebrates.

T. Blackburn, Hawaiian Entomology. Thrum's Annual, 1882.

Mary J. Kathbun, Brachyura and Macrura of the Hawaiian Islands. Bull. 23, Part 3,
I". S. Fish Comm., 1903.

A. E. Ortman, Schizopods of the Hawaiian Islands. Bull. 23, Part 3, IT. S. Fish Comm.,

1903.

Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society. Bound volumes. Honolulu (see in-
dices).

Gk W. Tryon, Structural and Systematic Conchology. Philadelphia, 1882.

D. D. Baldwin, Catalogue Land and Fresh Water Shells of the Hawaiian Islands. Hono-

lulu, 1893.

E. W. Thwing, Original Descriptions of the Genus Achatinella. Occ. Pa. B. P. B. Mus.,

Honolulu, 1907.
Julia E. Eodgers, The Shell Book. New York, 1908.

B. S. Stillman, Some New Hawaiian Cephalopods. Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 1913.

S. S. Berry, Cephalopods of the Hawaiian Islands. IT. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 1914.
Henry A. Pilsbry, Vol. 21, Achatinellidae (Amastrinae), 1911, and Vol. 22, Achatinelli-

dae, 1914, of the Manual of Conchology, Philadelphia (published by the Academy

of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia).
Manual of Conchology. Published by the Conehological Department of the Academy of

Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. (23 vols, in 1915.)
A. L. Treadwell, Polychaetonus Annelids of the Hawaiian Islands. Bull. 23, Part 3,

IT. S. Fish Comm., 1903.
W. B. Coe, Nemertians of the Hawaiian Islands. Bull. 23, Part 3. IT. S. Fish Comm.. 1903.
W. K. Fisher, Star Fishes of the Hawaiian Islands. Bull. 23, Part 3, U. S. Fish Comm.,

1903.
W. XL Fisher, Holothurians of the Hawaiian Islands. Proc. IT. S. Natl. Mus., 1907.
A. H. Clark, Description of New Species of Crinoids, etc. Proc. IT. S. Natl. Mus., 1908.
J. D. Dana, Coral and Coral Islands. New York, 1872.
Charles Darwin, Coral Beefs. 3d Edition. New York. 1897.
A. G-. Mayer, Medusa* of the Hawaiian Islands. Bull. 23, Part 3, IT. S. Bureau of Fisheries,

1903.

C. C. Nutting, Hydroids of the Hawaiian Islands. Bull. 23, Part 3, IT. S. Fish Comm.. 1903.
T. W. Vaugban, Recent Madreporaria of the Hawaiian Islands. IT. S. National Museum,

Bull. 59, 1907.
C. C. Natting. Description of the Aleyonarians. etc. Proc. IT. S. Natl. Mus.. 1908.
R. M. Bagg, Foraminifera Collected Near the Hawaiian Islands. Proc. IT. S. Natl. Mus.,

1908.

Marine Botany.

Josephene E. Tilden, Collection of Algae From the Hawaiian Islands. Thrum's Annual,
1902.

Josephene E. Tilden, Collecting Algae in the Hawaiian Islands. Thrum's Annual, 1905.

(See also general works on the Islands, Thrum's Annual, Occ. P. B. P. B. Museum, Keports
of the Hawaiian Agricultural Experiment Station, Board of Agriculture and For-
estry, Hawaiian Forester, etc.)

Minnie Reed, The Economic Seaweeds of Hawaii and their Economic Value. Annual Rc-
port Hawaii Agrl, Exp. Station, 1906.

inde:x to scientific names.

Note: — The technical names used in the volume are those in current use in the scientific
literature on the Islands, and will aid the student in finding the detailed descriptions of
plants and animals to be found in the standard literature on the fauna and flora of the group.
Some of the more important synonyms are indicated as being equivalent terms. Where recent
changes have been made in the nomenclature, the more recent or preferred name is printed in
bold-faced type. Plate numbers are also indicated in bold face (54) ; the figures immediately
following the plate number is the rage on which the plate occurs; the additional numbers
have reference to the occurrence of the name in the text. Important sub-genera follow the
generic name in parenthesis; generic equivalents for certain species are indicated as such.
Additional scientific names for objects mentioned in the compendium will be found only in
the general index. Typographic errors in the text have been corrected in the index.

Abrus precatorius Linn., 207
Abudefduf sordidus (Forskal), 349
Acacia dealbata Link., 247

decurrens Willd., 247

Farnesiana Willd., 54, 198, 205

Koa Gray., 52, 194, 56, 202, 211

Koaia Hbd., 226
Acanthocybium solandri (Cuv. & Val.), 349
Acanthuridse, 372

Acanthurus unicornis (Forskal), 349, 372
Aearina, 400

Achitinella, 433, 434, 437
Achatinella (Achatinellastrum) plumata
Gul. = Achatinella fulgens, 103, 448,
434

(Apex) lorata Fer., 103, 448

(Apex) mustelina Migh., 100, 432

buddii Newc, 434

eaisia Gul., 434

multizonata Baldw., 435

plumata Gul. — Achatinella fuigens
Newc, 434
Achatinellastrum (see Achatinella)
Achatinellastrum plumata Gul., 103, 448

varia Gulick, 100, 432
Achatinellidse, 119, 121, 123, 433, 434, 437,

438
Achatinellina% 123, 434
Achras Sapota Linn., 266
Acridiodea, 429

Acridotheres tristis (Linn.), 306
Acrocephalus familiaris Roths., 314
Aetata affinis (Dana), 110, 482

speciosa (Dana), 110, 482
Actiniaria, 475
Actinophyga mauritiana (Quov & Gaim.),

495
Actinozoa, 475
Aculeata, 412

Adenanthera pavonina Linn., 203
Adiantum eapillus- Veneris Linn., 223
Adoretus tenuimaculatus Waterh., 99, 406,

394, 417
^Egosoma reflexum Karsch., 99, 406, 388

jEstrelata sandwichensis Ridgw., 309, 312

hypoleuea Salv., 78, 310, 80, 323, 312
Agriolimax bevenoti Collin, 439
Agrion, 424
Agave Americana Linn., 280

Mexicana var. sisalana Lam., 280
Agrion paeificum Lachl., 424

xanthomelas Selys., 424
Agromyza sp., 383
Agrotis crinigera (Butl.), 98, 398, 396

dislocata (Walk.), 396

ypsilon Rott., 396, 422
Alauda arvensis Linn., 307
Albula vulpes (Linn.), 87, 344, 349, 354
Albulidae, 354
Alcyonaceffi, 479
Alcyonaria, 479

Alectis ciliaris (Bloch), 92, 366, 349
Aleurites Moluccana Wild., 56, 202, 210, 239
Aleyrodidse, 427
Algae, 28, 116, 500
Allamanda cathartica Linn., 248
Alocasia macrorrhiza Schott, 225
Alopias vulpes (Gmel.), 86, 340
Alphitonia excelsa Reiss., 215
Alticus, 353

Alticus marmoratus (Bennett), 94, 374
Alyxia oliva'formis Gaud.=Grynopogon oli-

viformls (Gaud.), 59, 214, 216, 221
Arnarantus spinosus Linn., 53, 196
Amastra, 433, 434, 437

frosti Ancey, 103, 448

rubricunda Baldw., 103, 448

textilis Fer., 103, 448

turritella Fer., 103, 448

violaceffi var wailauensis Pils., 103, 448
Amastrida}, 434
Amastrina1, 123, 434
Ameriurus nebulosus (Le Sueur), 377
Amorbia emigratella Busck., 98, 398
Amphipoda, 409
Anampses cuvier Quoy & Gaim., 92, 366, 349

sp., 359
Ananas sativus Schult.— Ananassa sativa

Lindl. 69, 258, 261
Ananassa (see Ananas)

511

512

SCIENTIFIC INDEX.

Anas laysanensis Roths., 318

wyviliiana Scl., 80, 323, 328, 335
Anatidae, 309
Anax, 425

Junius Druiy, 97, 392, 424

strenuus Hagen, 424
Anchovia purpurea (Fowler), 87, 344, 349,

351
Aneylus sliarpi Sykes, 438
Andropogon (see also Heteropogon)
Andropogon (Heteropogon) eontortus Linn.,
61, 192, 209

Sorghum Brot., 285
Anisolabis annulipes Luc, 98, 398

littorea White, 428

pacifiea Erichs., 428
Annelida, 28, 116, 497
Anobiidae, 418

Anobium paniceum Linn., 418
Anomia nobilis Gray, 104, 456, 445
Anomura, 471
Anona, 266

Cherimolia Linn., 266

muricata Linn., 266

reticulata Linn., 266

squamosa Linn., 266
Anosia erippus Oram., 421
Anous stolidus (Linn.), 78, 310, 311
Antennariidae, 355
Antennaris leprosus (Eydoux & Soulevet),

94, 374
Anthicidae, 418
Anthomyia sp., 99, 406
Anthozoa, 475

Anthrenus scrophulariae (Linn.), 395
Anthribidae, 418
Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Am., 68, 250,

' 248
Apex (see Achatinella)
Aphidae, 389, 415, 427
Aphis bambusae Fullaway, 390

gossypii Glover, 390

maidis Fitch, 389

sacehari— Loxerates saccharl (Zehnt-
ner), 389
Apis mellifica Linn.,99, 406, 404, 415
Aplysiidae, 467
Apocynaceae, 252
Apodes, 355, 361
Aprion virescens Cuv. & Val., 91, 362, 349,

371
Apsilus (see also Roosvelti)
Apsilus uiicrodon (Steindachner), 349, 371
Asplenium nidus Linn., 50, 191
Arachis hypogaea Linn., 285
Arachnida, 409
Aracea3, 249

Araecesus fascieulatus (De Geer), 395
Aralia Guilfoylei Cong. & March., 253
Arainigus fulleri Horn, 99, 406, 394
Araneida, 409
Araucaria excelsa R. Br., 237

imbricata Pav., 237
Area Candida GmeL, 104, 456, 444

sp.. 104. 456, 444

Arcea cathecu Linn., 236
Arcidse, 444

Arctocorisa blackburni White, 101, 436, 426
Arenaria interpres (Linn.), 78, 310, 324
Arenga saccharifera Labill., 237
Argemone Mexicana Linn., 54, 198
Argiope avara Thor., 410
Argyroxiphium Sandwicense D. C, 57. 206,
229

virescens Hbd., 229
Armsia, 434
Arthropoda, 400, 405
Artocarpus incisa Linn., 69, 258, 70, 264,

239
Asclepias Curassavica Linn., 58, 212
Asimina triloba Dunl., 262
Asio accipitrinus sandvicensis (Blox.), 336
Asiracidae, 427

Asparagopsis sanfordiana Harv., 501
Aspidium, 50, 191

aculeatum Sw.rrrPolystichum aculea-
tum, 227

sp., 63, 228
Aspidiotus hederae (Vail.), 391

lataniaa Green = Aspidiotus transparent
Green, 391

persearum Ckll., 391
Asplenium, 50, 191

contiguum Kaulf ., 63, 228

erectum Bory., 63, 228

nidus Linn., 66, 240, 223, 253

pseudofalcatum Hbd., 63, 228

sp., 63, 228

Trichomanes Linn., 227
Asterolecaniuin miliaria = A. pustulans

(Cock.), 391
Astelia veratroides Gaud., 57, 206, 62, 224
Asteroidea, 487

Asteroleeanium pustulans (Cock.), 391
Astralium, 466

Athlennes hians (Cuv. & Val.), 88, 350, 364
Atractomorpha crenaticeps Bl., 97, 392, 429
Attidae, 409
Aulacaspis pentagona Trag., 391

rosae (Bouche), 391
Aulostomus valentini (Bleeker), 88, 350, 375
Auriculella, 433

sp., 103, 448
Avicula margaritifera Lam., 444
Aviculinae, 444
Awaous genivittatus (Cuv. & Val.), 374, 357

spp., 357

stamineus (Eydoux & Souleyet), 357

Bacilus pestes Kitasato, 401
Bala3iia mysticetus Linn., 301

spp., 301
Balanidae, 473
Balanoglossus, 484

Balanus amphitrite Darwin, 108, 474, 473
Baldwiniana, 434
Balistes, 373, 375

SCIENTIFIC INDEX.

513

Balistapus aeltleatus (Linn.), 349

rectangulus (Bloch & Schneider), 93,
370, 375
Balistidge, 373

Bathyactes hawaiieiisis Vaughan, 477
Batis maritima Linn., 51, 192, 199
Baumea (see Cladium)
Beaumontia grandiflora "Wall., 68, 250
Bedellia minor Bnsck, 423

somnulentella (Z.), 423
Belonidae, 363
Beroe sp., 483
Bid ens pilosa Linn., 53, 196
Bignonia gracilis H. B. K.— Bignonia un-
guis-cati. Linn., 248

unguis-cati Linn., 68, 250

venusta Ker-Gawl., 68, 248, 250
Blattodea, 428
Blenniidae, 353

Bcerhaavia diffusa Linn., 51, 192
Boehmeria nivea Hook. & Am., 217
Bombyx mori Linn., 397
Bos bufalus, 277

Bostrichus migrator Sharp, 99, 406
Bostryehidse, 418
Bougainvillea, 66, 240

spectabilis Willd., 247
Bowersia violescens Jord. & Evermann, 91,

362, 349
Brachiopods, 483
Brachymetopa, 429

discolor Eedt., 97, 392
Braehyura, 469
Brissus carinatus, 487
Bromeliaceae, 261

Bronssaisia pallucida Gaud., 62, 224
Broussonetia papyrifera Vent., 217
Bruchus obtectus Say, 405, 418

prosopis Le Conte, 395
Bryophyllum calycium Salisb., 66, 240, 208
Bryozoa, 28, 116
Buccinidae, 450
Budleya Asiatica, 59, 214
Buenoa pallipes (Fabr.), 426
Bufo columbiensis, 96, 384
Bulimella bacca Reeve, 103, 448
Bullidae, 467

Bulweria bulweri (Jard. & Selby.), 78, 310
Buprestidae, 417

Buteo solitarius Peale, 80, 323, 81, 327, 336
Byronia (see Ilex)

Cadakia — (Lucina) ramulosa Gould, 456,

445
Caecidae, 463

Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swtz., 244
Calandra oryzse (Linn.), 395, 405, 418
Calappa hepatica (Linn.), 108, 474
Calcinus elegans (Milne Edwards), 108, 472

latens (Randall), 108, 474
Calidris arenaria (Linn.), 324
Calliphora dux Esch., 99, 406
Callithmysus, 418

Gaily don lauia (Jord. &■ Everman), 349
'miniatus (Jenkins), 93, 370, 349, 365

perspicellatus (Steindachner), 365
Calophyllum Inophyllum Linn., 201, 247
Calotermes castaneus Brum., 425

marginipennis Latr., 402, 425
Calotomus sandvicensis (Cuv. & Val.), 365
Calyptraeidae, 462
Campanularia, 4.81
Camponotus maeulatus Fabr., 99, 406

maculatus var. hawaiieiisis Forel, 403
Campylotheca sp., 61, 220
Campy lotheca spp., 227
Canna, 391

Indica Linn., 207
Cantharus, 450

sp., 106, 470
Cantherines sandwichiensis (Quov & Gaim.),

349
Canthigaster epilamprus (Jenkins), 93, 370
Cantlrigasteridae, 367

Capparis Sandwichiana D. C, 51, 192, 199
Carabidai, 416
Caradrinidaa, 420, 422
Caradrinina, 420
Carangidae, 364

Carangoides ferdau (Forskal), 91, 362
Carangus (large size), 349

(small size), 349

affinis (Ruppell), 92, 366

ignobilis (Forskal), 91, 362, 364

melampygus (Cuv. & Val.), 349
Carassius auratus (Linn.), 376
Carcharias melanopterus Q. & G., 86, 340
Carcharodon carcharias (Linn.), 87, 344, 345
Cardium orbiter Reeve, 104, 456, 446
Carelia, 434

sinclairi Ancey, 103, 448
Carex Oahuensis C. A. Meyer, 58, 212

sp. 192
Carica (see Papaya)
Carica Papaya Linn., 70, 264
Carpilius convexus (Forskal), 108, 472

maeulatus (Linn.), 108, 474
Carpilodes monticulosus A. Milne Edwards,

110, 482
Carpodacus mexicanus obscurus McCall, 304
Caryoborus gonagra (Fabr.), 395
Caryota urens Linn., 237
Cassia Fistula Linn., 244

grandis Linn., 244

nodosa Buch., 244

sp. 68, 250
Cassida>, 461
Cassis cornuta Linn., 461

vibex Linn., 461

vibex var. Linn., 105, 460

vibex var. erinacea Linn., 461
Casuarina equisetifolia Linn., 237
Cavia cutleri, 293
Cenchrus echinatus Linn., 287
Centrolypus sp., 427
Cephalacanthidse, 357

Cephalacanthus orientalis (Cuv. & Val. L
94,374,357

514

SCIENTIFIC INDEX.

Cephalopoda, 441

Cerambycida1, 417

Gerataphis lantaniae (Boisd.), 389

Ceratiidse, 369

Geratitis eapitata (Wied.), 99, 406, 386

Cereus triangularis Haw., 67, 246, 254

CerithiidaB, 464

Cerithium, 464

columna Sowb., 106, 470, 464

obeliseus Brug., 106, 470, 464
Cervus axis Erxl., 296
Cetacea, 300
Chaetodon, 353

lunula (Lacep.), 349

miliaria Quoy. & Gaim., 93, 370

unimaeulatus Bloeh, 93, 370
Chajtodontidae, 353

Chaetogaedia monticola (Big.), 99, 406
Chaetoptila angustiphnna (Peale), 83, 332,

335
Chalcolepidius erythroloma Cand., 99, 406
Chama, 117, 446*

sp., 104, 456
Chamidai, 446
Ghanos chanos (Forsk.), 87, 344, 349, 360,

363
Charadrius dominicus fulvus (Gmel.), 78,

310, 321
Chasiempis gayi Wilson, 85, 337, 329

sandvicensis (Gmel.), 85, 337, 329

sclateri Ridgw., 84, 334, 329
Cheilinus sp., 359
Cheilio inermis (Forskal), 349
Cheirodendron platyphyllum Seem., 62, 220
Chelifer hawaiiensis Simon, 408
Chelone imbricata (Linn.), 300

mydas (Linn.), 76, 294, 300
Chelonobia testudinaria (Linn.), 108, 474
Chenopodium Sandwicheum Moq., 79, 316
Chilocorus circumdatus (Sehoen.), 394
Chilomycterus affinis Gunther, 349
Chilopoda, 407
Chitonidae, 467

Chloridops kona Wilson, 82, 330, 338
Ghl oris radiata Sw., 53, 196
Chlorodrepanis spp., 329

stejnegeri (Wilson), 84, 334

wilsoni (Roths.), 83, 332
Chondria tenuissema, 501
Chordata, 484

Chrysomphalus ficns Ashm. = Chrysompha-
lus aonidum (Linn.), 391

ficus Ashm, 66, 384
Chrysopa microphya McLaehl., 424
Chrysopogon aeiculatus Trim, 286

verticillnta (L.), Seribon, 53, 196
Cibotinm, 50, 191, 63, 228

Chamissoni Brack., 222

Menziesii Hook., 50, 191, 222

sp., 52, 194
Gimex lectularins Linn.— Klinophilos lectu-

larlus (Linn.), 402
Gintiamomum eamphora T. Xo(>s & Eberm.,
262

Zevlatiieum Xees, 2<)2

Cioidae, 418

Ciridops anna (Dole), 82, 330
Cirrhitidse, 354

Girrhitus marmoratus (Lacep.), 94, 374, 349
Cirripedia, 473
Gistelidse, 418

Gitrullus vulgaris Schrad., 269
Citrus acida Hook. = Citrus medica Li-
metta, 265

Aurantium Linn., 263

Deeumana Linn., 265

Japonica Thumb., 265

Limon Linn, = Citrus medica lirnonum,
265
Cladiophiurae, 491
Cladium (Baumea) Meyenii Kth., 57, 206,

62, 224
Clarias fuscus (Lacepede), 377
Cleridae, 417
Clermontia, 226

macrocarpa Gaud., 58, 212

persieaefolia Gaud., 59, 214
Glerodendron Thomsons Balf., 66, 240
Clubionidse, 409
Clupeidee, 358
Clytarlus, 418

Clytus crinicornis Chevr., 99, 406 #

Coccidse, 391, 427
Coccinellida3, 393, 416
Coccus viridis (Green), 391
Cocos nueifera Linn., 201, 233
Codiaeum variegatum Linn., 64, 234, 251
Ccelastrea sp., Ill, 486

tenuis Verrill, 111, 486
Ccelenterata, 28, 116, 113, 490, 475
Coelophora ina^qualis (Fabr.), 394

pupillata (Sehoen.), 393
Coffea Arabica Linn., 50, 191, 279

Liberica Hiern., 279
Coix lacryma Jobi Linn., 54, 198, 207
Coleoptera, 388, 394, 412, 415, 418
Goleotichus blackburnia> White, 98, 398
Coleus, 251
Collembola, 430
Columbella turturina Lam., 106, 470, 453

varians Schwb., 106, 470, 101, 453

zebra Gray, 106, 470, 453
Golumbellidffi, 453
Coin brina Asiatica Brongn., 204

oppositifolia Brong., 215
Composite sp., 59, 214
Conida?, 453

Conocephaloides hawaiiensis Perkins, 429
Gonus, 117

hebraeus Linn., 105, 460, 454

litteratus var. millepunctatns Lam., 454

lividus Hwass., 105, 460

miliaris Hwass., 105, 460

pulicarius Hwass., 105, 460, 454

quercinus Hwass., 105, 460, 454
Coprosoina ernodeoides Gray, 256

spp., 227
Coptops sedificator Fabr., 99, 406
Cordia subcordata Lam., 54, 198, 201

SCIENTIFIC INDEX.

515

Cordvline 'termihalis Kunth., 50, 191, 210,

251
Corixa (see Arctoeorisa), 426
Corixidae, 426
Coronula sp., 475

Corvus hawaiiensis Peale, 81, 327, 335
Coryphaena hippurus Linn., 91, 362, 349, 354
Cosmophila sabulifera (Guen.), 397
Crabro, 413
Crambidae, 420
Crangon = (Alpheus) lcevis (Randall), 110,

" 482
Cremastobombycia lantanella Bnsck, 385
Crepidula, 447, 462

aeuleata GmeL, 106, 470
Crinoidea, 497
Crotalaria sp., 53, 196
Crucibulum, 462
Crustacea, 28, 116, 468, 469
Cryptolaemns montrouzieri Mills, 394
Cryptophlebia illepida (Btl.), 397
Cryptorhvnchus mangiferae (Fabr.), 99, 406,

395
Ctenocephalus eanis— Pulex canis Dtiges,

401
Ct en o phone, 483
Cueulid*, 419
Cueumus Melo Linn., 269
Cucurbita maxima Duch., 209
Culex fatigans Wied., 387
Cupressus macrocarpa Hartw., 237
Curculionidae, 418

Cuscuta sandwiehiana Chios., 201, 204
Cyanea angustifolia Hbd., 62, 220
Cyathodes Tameiameiae Cham.— Styphelia

Tameiameia Cham., 225, 230
Cyeas circinalis Linn., 237

revolnta Thumb., 237

sp., 66, 240
Cylas formicarius (Fabr.), 418
Cynodon dactylon (L) Kuntz., 19, 90, 208,

286
Cyperus alternafolia Linn., 64, 234

pennatus Lam., 54, 198

rotundus Linn., 287
Cyphastrea, 479

Cyphastrea ocillina (Dana), 111, 486
Oypraea, 447

arabica Linn., 459

carneola Linn., var., 106, 470, 458

eaput-serpentis Linn., 106, 470, 458

helvola Linn., 458

Isabella Linn., 106, 470, 458

madagaseariensis GmeL, 106, 470, 459

mauritiana Linn., 106, 460, 458

moneta Linn., 106, 470, 458

reticulata Mart., 105, 460, 459

semiplota Migh., 106, 470

sulcidentata Gray, 105, 460

tigris Linn., 459
Cyprseida?, 457
Cypranus carpio, 376

Cypsilurus simus (Cuv. & Val.), 92, 366, 349
Cyrenida?, 440

hieroglyphica

Cyrtandra sp., 59, 214
Cytherea, 446
Cytherea«= (Liochoucha)
Conrad, 104, 456

D

Dacus cucurbitse Coq., 99, 406, 387

Dafila acuta Linn., 328

Dardanus gemmatus (Milne Edwards), 108,

472
Dasyatis hawaiiensis Jenkins, 86, 340
Datura Stramonium Linn., 54, 198, 287
Deilephila calida Butl., 98, 398

lineata (Fabr.), 98, 398

smaragditis Meyr., 420, 421
Delphinus delphis Linn., 301
Dermaptera, 428

Dermestes cadaverinus Fabr., 405
Dermestidae, 417

Dendrophillia manni (Verrill), 479
Desmodium uncinatum = (Meiobemia un-

cinatus) I). C, 53, 196
Diadema paucispinum, 487
Dianella ensifolia (Linn.), D. C, 56, 202
Diaspis bromeliae (Kern.), 96, 384, 391
Dinoderus minutus (Fab.), 405, 418
Diodon nudifrons Jenkins, 93, 370, 365
Diodontida?, 365
Diomedea immutabilis Roths., 20, 92, 313

nigripes And., 78, 310, 312
Dioscorea sativa Linn., 210
Diplopoda, 408
Diploptera, 414
Diptera, 387, 402, 419
Dolichopodida), 419
Doliidaj, 459
Doliurn meJanostoma Jay, 461

perdix Linn., 105, 460, 461
Domecia hispida Eydoux & Souleyet, 110,

482
Dracaena, 211, 251

aurea Mann., 56, 202, 210
Drepanididae, 331, 336
Drepanis pacifica (Gmel.), 83, 332, 333
Drepanorhamphus funereus (Newton), 83,

332, 335
Drosophila ampclophila Loew., 420
Drosophilida?, 420
Dubautia, 227 (Dubantia=ztypog. error)

laxa Hook. & Arm, 61, 220

plantaginea Gaud., 61, 220
Dytiscida*, 416

Echeneis sp., 368

Echidna nebulosa (Ahl.), 88, 350, 361
Eehinodermata, 28, 116, 485, 493
Echinometra, 116, 496
sp., 116, 496, 485
Echinothrix desori, 487
Echthromorpha maculipennis Holmgr., 99,

406
Eclipta alba Hassk., 53, 196
Elaeocarpua bifidius Hook. & Am., 56, 202

516

SCIENTIFIC INDEX.

Eteis guinensis Jacq., 237

Elapboglossum = (Scrostichum) conforme

SW., 63, 228
Elateridae, 417
Eleocharis (see Scirpus)
Eleotris sandwicensis Vaillant & Sauvage,

94, 374, 349, 357
Eleusine Indica Garrtn., 53, 196
Eleutheroda dytiscoides Coqueb., 97, 392,

388
Elimaea appendiculata Brunn., 97, 392, 429
Elisus laevimanus Randall, 108, 474
Elopidae, 364
Elops saurus Linn., 360
Embiidae, 425
Endodonta sp., 103, 448.
Endodontidae, 439
Engina, 453

farinosa Gould, 453
Enneapterygius atriceps (Jenkins), 94, 374,

353
Entiromorpha spp., 501
Eopenthes, 417

Epinephelus quern us Seale, 91, 362, 349, 369
Epitragus diremphus Kersch., 99, 406
Epitrix parvula (Fabr.), 395
Eragrostis major Host., 53, 196

variabilis Gaud., 62, 224
Erato sandwicensis Pease, 452
Erigeron Canadensis Linn., 58, 212, 287
Erinna neweombia A. Adams, 438
Eriobotrya Japonica LindL, 266
Erythrina inonosperma Gaud., 52, 194, 203.

210
Etelis marshi (Jenkins), 91, 362, 349, 371
Ethmia colonella. Walsm., 98, 398
Etisus lasvirnanus Randall, 110, 482
Etrumeus micropus (Schlegel), 87, 344, 349,

358
Euchenididae, 367
Eucolia impatiens Say, 387
Eugenia (see also Jambosa)
Eugenia Jambolana Lam=rSyzygium Jam-
bolana (Lam), 268

Jambos Linn. = Eugenia (Syzygium)
Jambolana, 267

Malaccensis (Linn.)=Jain'bosa Malac-
censis (Linn.), 216

Mitchelii Lam. — Eugenia unlflora
Linn., 267

Euleptorhampus longirostris (Cuvier), 88,

350
Eulima, 463
Eulima major Sovvb., 106, 470, 4(53

sp., 106, 470
Buliinidae, 463

Eulota similaris Fer., 103, 448, 439
Eumenids3; 414

Euphorbia clusiaefolia Hook. & Am., 59,
214, 61, 220

cordata Meyen., 51, 192

geniculata Ort., 53, 196

lorifolia Hbd., 283

multiformis Hook. & Am., 58, 212

pulcherrima Willd., 249

pilulifera Linn., 53, 196
Euphorbiacese, 249, 283
Euplexoptera, 415
Eurnella, 434

Euthyrrhapha pacifica. (Coqueb.), 07, 392
Eutreta sparsa, 385
Euxesta annone (Fabr.), 388
Euxolus viridis Moq., 53, 196
Eviota epiphanes Jenkins, 94, 374, 357
Exoccetidae, 355
Exoeoetus volitans Linn., 349

Favia, 479

Felis domestica Linn., 293

Ficus Benghalensis Linn., 245

Cariea Linn., 245, 266

elastica Roxb., 245, 283

Indica Linn., 67, 246

pumila Linn., 245

religiosa Linn., 66, 240, 283
Fissurellidae, 466
Fragaria Cliilensis Ehrli., 255
Frangilla canaria Linn., 319
Fregata aquila Linn., 78, 310, 313
Freycinetia Arnotti Gaud., 50, 191, 56, 202,

60, 218, 211
Fulgoridaa, 427

Fulica alai Peale, 80, 323, 326
Fundulus grandis, 378
Fungia sp., 112, 488
Fungiidae, 479
Fusidse, 450

Fusus novaB-hollandiae Eve., 105, 460, 450
Formicaleo purjurus (Walk.), 425
Formicidae, 413
Formicina, 403
Fossaridae, 465

Gahnia Beeeheyi Mann, 62, 224

Galleriidse, 420

Gallinula sandvicensis Streets, 80, 323, 326

Gambusia affines, 378

Gareinia inangostana, 269

Morella Desr., 67, 246

xanthochymus, 269
Gastrophilus equi. (Clark), 99, 406, 387
Geckonidae, 297

Geleehia gossypiella (Sndrs.), 400, 423
Gepliyrea, 113, 490, 116, 499
Geranium Carolinianum Linn., 287
Germo germo (Laeep.), 349, 361
GerridaB, 426

Gleichenia dicliotoma Hook., 223
Gleichenia Mnearus (Burm.) Clarke=(Gl.
dichotoma Hook.), 52, 194, 63, 228

longissima BL, 63, 228, 253
Gobiidae, 355
Gompliosus sp., 359
Goniodes stylifer Nitzzch., 400

SCIENTIFIC INDEX.

517

Gorgonacea, 479

Gossypium Barbadense Linn., 281

drynarioides Seem., 203, 281

sp., 281

tomentosum Nutt, 199, 203, 281
Grapsus grapsus tenuicrustatus (Herbst.),

108, 474, 469
Grevillea robusta Cunn., 247
Gryllodea, 429

Gryllodes poeyi Sausa., 97, 392
Gryllotalpa africana Fabr., 97, 392, 388,

430
Gryllus innotabilis Walk., 430

sp., 430
Gunnera petaloidea Gaud., 52, 194, 225
Gygis alba kittlitzi Hart., 78, 310, 318
Gymnosarda alletterata (Rafinesque), 92,
366, 349

pelamis (Linn.), 92, 366, 349, 361, 363
Gymnothorax, 349, 361

undulatus (Lacep.), 88, 350, 361

ereodes Jenkins, 88, 350

petelii (Bleeker), 88, 350
Gynerium argenteum Stapf., 65, 238
Gynopogon (see Alyxia)

H

Hamiatobia serrata Desv., 387

Haematopinus urius Nitzseh., 400

Haliseris plagiogramma Mont., 222

Haptoncus sp., 388

Harpa conoidalis Lam., 105, 460, 452

Harpina?, 452

Helieidse, 439

Helicina sp., 103, 448

Helcioniscus exaratus Nutt., 105, 460, 466

Heliophila unipuncta (Haw.), 396

Heliothis, 422

Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis Louche, 428
rubrocinetus Giard., 428

Heliotropiurn anomalum Hook & Arn., 54,
198, 199
Curassavieum Linn., 51, 192, 1.99

Helieinidte, 438

Hemerobiida4, 424

Hemignathus liehtensteini Wilson, 83, 332
obscurus (Gmel.), 82, 330
procerus (Jab,, 82, 330

Hemiptera, 389, 400, 402, 412, 425

Hem ir am pliidae, 3 5 8

Hemiramphus depauperatus Lay & Bennett,
88, 350, 349, 358

Herpestes griseus Geoff., 296

Hepatica, 59, 214

Hepatus achilles (Shaw), 349, 372

Hepatus dussumieri (Cuv. & Val.), 349
elongatus (Lacep.), 349
guntheri (Jenkins), 93, 370, 372
olivaceus (Bloch & Schneider), 93, 370,

372
sandvicensis (Streets), 91, 362, 349, 372
xanthopterin (Cuv. & Val.), 349

Hcteractitis incanus (Gmel.), 78, 310, 80,
323, 324

Heterocentrotus sp., 487
Heteropoda regia Fabr., 409, 410
Heterorhynchus affinis Roths., 84, 334

hanapepe (Wilson), 82, 330

lucidus (Lieht.), 82, 330

wilsoni Roths., 83, 332
Heteropogon (see also Andropogou)
Heteropogon — ( Audropogon) contortus R.

& Sch., 286
Hevea Braziliensis Muell., 283
Hibiscus (see also Paritium)
Hibiscus, 391

Arnottianus Gray, 56, 202, 213

Braekenridgei Gray, 213

Kokio Hbd., 213

tiliaceus Linn., 54, 198

Youngianus Gaud., 213
Himantopus knudseni Step)., 81, 327, 310,

325
Himatione freethi Roths., 314

sanguinea (Gmel.), 84, 334. 85, 337, 329
Hinnites giganteus (J ray, 104, 456, 445
Hippa adaetyla Fabr., 'llO, 482
II ippoboseidtp, 420
Hippocampus, 365

fisheri (.lord. & Evermann), 88, 350
Hipponyx, 462
Hipponyx antiqnalus Linn., 106, 470, 462

barbatus Sowh., 106, 470. 46)2

imbricatus Gould., 106, 470, 462
Hirundinea, 440
Histerida\ 417
Holocentrida\ 371
Holocentrns spp., 371

microstomus Giinther, 92, 366
Holotliuria. atra Jager., 493

einerascens (Brandt), 493

pardalis Selonka, 493

vagahunda Selenka, 493.
Holothuroidea, 491
Ilomarus americamis (M-Kdw.), 468
Hormiphora fusiformia, 4N3
Homoptora, 427
1 1 ova carnosa R. Br., 248
Hydatina amplustra Linn., 106. 470, 467
Hydra, 475

Hydriomonida\ 397, 420
Hydrobius semicylindricns Kseh., 101, 436
Hydrocorallime, 481
Hy<!romedusa\ 480
Hydrophida\ 299
Hydrophilida\ 416
Hymcnoptera, 403, 412
Hydrus platnrus Linn., 299
Hyophorbe amaricaulis Mart., 237
Hypodorma bovis DeG., 3S7

Jineata (Villiers), 387
Ilyposmocoma, 423
Hvpothonemus sp., 3)88

I

Tanthina exigua Lam., 106, 470. 464
fragilis Lam., 106, 470, 464
globosa Swain., 106, 470, 464

518

SCIENTIFIC INDEX.

lanthinida?, 463

Icerya purchasi Mask., 391, 393

Idiopterus nephrolepidis Davis, 389

Ilex — (Byronia) Sandwicensis Endl., 59,

214, 62, 224
Imbriearia, 451

Indigofera Anil Linn., 58, 212, 207
Inga dulcis Willd.=Plthecoiobium dulce

(Roxb.), 54, 198
Insecta, 409
Ipomoea ( not Ipomaea ) , 197

Batatas Lam., 197, 284

bona-nox Linn., 56, 202

ehryseides Ker., 248

insularis Steud., 197

pes-caprae Sw., 51, 192, 60, 218, 197

tuberculata Boem. & Seh., 51, 192, 197
Ischnochiton sp., 106, 470
Isometrns maculatus Be Geer, 98, 398, 407
Isopoda, 408
Isoptera, 402

Isuropsis glauca (Mull. & Henle), 86, 340
Ixora, 249
Ixoreae, 249

Jacquemontia Sandwicensis Gray, 51, 192

Jambosa (see also Eugenia)

Jambosa, 216

Jambosa — (Eugenia) Malaccensis Linn.,

256
Jasminum Sambae Soland., 248

grandiflorium Linn., 68, 250, 248
Julis, 359

spp., 359

lepomis (Jenkins), 93, 370
Jussiaea villosa Lam., 58, 212

Kadua sp., 61, 220

Klinophllos (see Cimex)

Kuhlia malo (Cuv. & Val.), 92, 366, 349,

358
Kuhliidae, 358
Kyllingia obtiisifolia=Kyllingia monoce-

phala Rottb., 58, 212
monocephala Bottb., 53, 196, 287

Labridae, 359, 365
Lagenaria vulgaris Set*., 209
Lamellibranehiata, 443
Laminella, 123, 434

gravida Fer., 103, 448

sanguinea Newc, 103, 448

venusta Migli., 103, 448
Lantana Camara Linn., 54, 198, 209, 383
Laridee, 309

Lasioderma serrieorne (Fabr.), 395, 405, 418
Lasiurus semotus Harr. Allen., 295
Latania glaucophylla Hort.=Latania Lod-

digesli Mart., 237
Latirus, 450

Lauracese, 262
Laurencia spp., 501
Leguminosa?, 203, 205
Lepadidse, 473
Lepidaplois spp., 359
Lepidium Virginicum Linn., 287
Lepidoptera, 388, 395, 396, 411, 420
Lepidosaphes pallida (Mask.), 391
Lepisma saccharina Linn., 403, 431
Leptachatina, 433, 434, 437
chrysalis Pfeiff., 103, 448
sp., 103, 448
Leptastrea, 479

agassizi Vaughan, 111, 486
hawaiiensis Vaughan, 111, 486
sp., Ill, 486
Leptodius sanguineus (Milne Edwards), 110,

482
Lepus sp., 293

Leucsena glauca Benth., 54, 198, 207
Leucania, 422

Leucophaja surinamensis (Fabr.), 97, 392
Lichens, 52, 194
LimnaL'a binominis Sykes, 101, 436, 438

oahuensis Soul., 101, 436, 438
Limna?a, 438
Limnseidse, 438
Limacidse, 439
Linckia sp., 489
Liochoncha (see Cytherea)
Lioconcha hieroglyphica Conrad., 446
Lipochaeta integrifolia Gray, 199
Litchi (see Nephelium)
Littorina, 447

obesa Lam., 464
pintado Wood, 106, 470
seabra Linn., 106, 470, 464
Littorinidae, 464
Lobelia hypoleuca Hbd., 62, 224

sp., 57, 206
Lobeliaceas, 225
Locustoidea, 429
Lophocateres pusilla, 405
Lophortyx calif orniea (Shaw), 308
Lophozozymus dodone (Herbst.), 110, 482
Ijoxerates (see Aphis)
Loxops, 333

camileirostris (Wilson), 85, 337
ochracea Boths., 83, 332, 85, 337
mfa (Blox.), 83, 332
Lucanida;, 417
Lucilia ca>sar (Linn.), 99, 406, 387

sericata (Meigen.), 99, 406, 387
Lucina (see Cadakia)
Luidia hystrix Fisher, 116, 496, 489
Lutianidse, 369
Lycaena (see Thecla)

Lycaena bastica Linn. = Thecla bastica
(Linn.), 98, 398, 421
blackburni (Tuely.) = Thecla black-
burni (Tuely."), 421
Lycamida?, 385, 420, 421
Lycopodium cernuum Linn. ,59, 214
pachystachyon Spr., 59, 214
serratum Thbg., 59, 214

SCIENTIFIC INDEX.

519

Lyctidse, 418

Lyga?ida>, 425

Lysimachia daphnoides Hbd., 230

Lythrum maritimuni H. B. K., 58, 212

M

Machilis lieteropus Silvestri, 431
Macrobrachium grandimanus (Randal]), 101,

436, 110, 482
Macrolepidoptera, 420
Macrosiphum rosa? (Linn.), 389

sanborni Gillette, 389
Macrophtbalmus teleseopicus (Owen), 108,

474
Macrura, 469
Madreporaria, 475, 476
Mallophaga, 400, 430
Malva rotundifolia Linn., 53, 196
Malvaceae, 203, 281

Malvastruni tricuspidatum Gray, 53, 196
Mangifera Indica Linn., 69, 258, 241
Manihot Glaziovii Mull., 281

utilissima Pohl., 284
Mantoidea, 429

Mapo fuscus (Ruppell), 94, 374, 357
Marattia Douglassii Baker, 223
Margaritifera fimbriata Dunk., 104, 456, 444
Marginella, 452
Marginellida?, 452
Meandrina, 479
Medicago sativa Linn., 286
Megaehile, 415

diligens Smith, 99, 406
Megaptera, 301

boops (Linn.), 302
Meiobemia (see Desmodium)
Melania, 438

mauiensis Lea, 101, 436, 438

newcombii Lea, 101, 436, 438
Melaniida?, 438
Melia Azedarach Linn., 244

sempervirens Sw., 244
Melina= (Perna) calif omica Conrad., 104

456, 443
Membracidre, 427
Metazoa, 499
Metograpsus messor (Forskal.), 101, 436,

108, 474, 110, 482
Metrosideros polvmorpha Gaud., 50, 191,
209, 215

polymorpha var. Gaud., 61, 220

rugosa Gray, 61, 220

tremaloides* Heller, 61, 220
Micranous hawaiiensis (Roths.), 78, 310, 80,

323, 311
Microlepia strigosa Presl., 222

tenuifolia Metten., 63, 228
Microlepidoptera, 420, 422, 423
Micropterus salmoides (Lacep.), 378
Microvelia vagans White, 426
Milleporidae, 481
Mimosa pudica Linn., 287
MirabiKs Jalapa Linn., 254
Mirida*, 426

Mirosternus, 418
Mitra, 447, 451

sp., 106, 470

tabanula Lam., 106, '470
Mitridse, 451
Mobula japonica (Muller & Henle), 347,

349
Modulus tectum Gmel., 106, 470, 465
Mono apicalis Gould, 82, 330, 335

bishopi (Roths.), 82, 330 •

braccatus (Cassin), 85, 337

nobilis (Merrem.), 82, 330, 333
Molienesia lattipinna, 378
Mollusea, 28, 116, 447
Molluscoidea, 483

Monachus schauenslandi, 76, 294, 303
Monotaxis grandoculis ( Forskal) , 92, 366,

349, 367
Monstera deliciosa Liebn., 67, 246, 249
Montipora, 477

spp., Ill, 486
Morinda citrifolia Linn., 201, 205
Morns alba Linn., 267, 397

nigra Linn., 267
Mugil cephalus Linn., 91, 362, 349, 359
MugilidsB, 359
Mullidae, 372

Mulloides aurirlauima (Forskal), 91, 362,
349, 373

rlammeus (Jord. & Evermaim), 92, 366
Munia nisoria (Temm.), 304
Muraenidffi, 361
Murex, 449
Muricidae, 449
M\m alexandrinus (Goeffroy), 292

decumanus=M'us norvegicus Erxleben.,
291

musculus Linn., 292, 293

norvegicus Erxleben., 292

rattus Linn., 292
Musa Cavendishii Paxt., 69, 258, 259

sapientum Linn., 50, 191, 222

textilis Nees, 280
Musca domestica Linn., 387
Muscidaj, 419
Mycetophilidae, 419
Myctophidaj, 359
Myodochidae, 426

Myoporum Sandwicense Gray, 210, 222, 226
Myripristis berndti Jord. & Evermann, 91,
362, 349, 371

murdjan (Forskal), 349, 371
Myrmeleonidae, 425
Mytilus, 109, 478, 443

crebristriatus Conrad., 104, 456, 443
Myzus citricidus, 389

N

Nabid«, 426
Kassa, 447, 451

gaudiosa Hinds., 451

hirta Kien., 106, 470, 451

papillosa Linn., 451

splendidula Dunk., 451
Nassida*, 451

520

SCIENTIFIC INDEX.

Nasturtium officinale B. Br., 208
Natica, 447

marochiensis Gmel., 106, 470
Naticidse, 461

Naucrates ductor (Linn.), 92, 366
Nelumbium speciosum=N"eliinibo nucifera

Gaertn., 285
Nelumbo (see jVelumbium)
Nemathelminthes, 28, 116
Nemertinia, 28, 116, 497
Neoliodes theleproetus Herm., 401
Nephelium Litchi Cambes = Litchi chinen-

sis, 269
Nephrolepis exaltata Sehott, 63, 228
Nertera depressa Banks., 59, 214
Nerita picea Reclz., 101, 436, 102, 442, 106,
470, 465

polita Linn., 106, 470, 465

sp., 465
Neritida?, 439, 465
Neritina, 439, 465

cariosa Gray, 101, 436, 106, 470, 466

granosa Sowb., 106, 470, 439, 466

negleeta Pease, 106, 470

vespertina Nutt., 101, 436, 106, 470, 466
Nerium Oleander Linn., 252
Nerocila australasiae Schioedte & Meinert,

110, 482
Nesochen sandvicensis (Vig.), 78, 310, 80,

323, 335
Nesoprosopis, 415
Neuroptera, 423
Newcombia, 434

canaliculata var. wailauensis Pils., 103,
448
Nicotiana glauea Grah., 51, 192

Tabacum Linn., 283
Nitidulida?, 417
NotonectidsR, 426
Notodontina, 420, 422
Noctuidae, 396

Novius ear din alls (Muls.), 393
Nudibranchiata, 46 7

Numenius taliitiensis (Gmel.), 78, 310, 324
Nvcticorax nvcticorax namus (Bodd.), 78,

310, 325
Nymphalidre, 420, 421
Nysius, 426

o

Oceanodroma cryptoleucura (Ridgw.), 80,

323, 309
Octopus sp., 102, 442
Oeypode ceratoplithalma (Pallas), 108, 472,

116, 496, 469
Odonata, 424
Odynerus, 414

uigripennis (Holm.), 99, 406, 414

spp., 414
(Kchalia grisea (Brum.), 98, 398
(Kdemeridte, 418
(KstridiV, 420
O-lstrus ovis Linn., 387

Olea Sandwicensis Gray, 227
Oliva carneola Gmel., 452

erythrostoma Lam., 452
Olividas, 452
Olivine, 452
Omiodes accepta (Butl.), 388, 395

blaekburai (Butl.), 395, 422

monogona Meyr., 395

meyricki Swezey, 395
Ompatrum serratum Boisd., 395
Oodemas, 418
Opeas junceus Gould, 439

pyrgiscus Pfeiff., 103, 448
Opheodesoma spectabilis Fisher, 495
Ophicephalns striatus Blocli, 377
Ophiotnrix sp., 491
Ophiuroidea, 487, 489
Opuntia Tuna Mill., 209, 269
Orcus chalybeus (Boisd.), 394
Oreodoxa regia H. B. K., 67, 246, 232
Oreomyza (see Oreomystis)
Oreomystist=r( Oreomyza), 331, 338

bairdi (Stejn.), 85, 337

maculata (Cab.), 83, 332

montana (Wilson), 83, 332
Oribata oriformis Pearce, 401
Oribatidse, 401, 420
Ortalidae, 388

Orthezia insignia Dough, 96, 384, 385
Orthodera prasina Brum., 429
Orthoptera, 388, 428
Orthurethra, 121
Oryza sativa Linn., 276
Osteomeles anthyllidi folia Lindl., 215
OstraciidaB, 375

Ostracion sebae Blocker, 94, 374, 375
Ostrea, 117

lurida Cpr., 445

retusa Sby., 115, 445

rosacea Chem., 104, 456, 4.45

virginica Lister., 445
Ovulida?, 459

Oxya velox (Fabr.), 97, 392, 388, 429
Oxalis corniculata Linn., 53, 196

Pagiophalus atomarius Simon, 410
Fakcmon pacificus (Stimpson), 110, 482
Palinuridae, 469

Palmeria dolei (Wilson), 82, 330
Pandanus odoratissimus Linn., 50, 191, 52,

194, 204, 221
Panieum maxima Jacq., 286

Molle SW., 286

pruriens Trim, 286

torridum Gaud., 209
Pantala, 425

flavescens Fabr., 97, 392, 424
Panulirus japonicus (de Seebold), 108, 472,

468*
Papaya vulgaris B.C. = Carica Papaya

" Linn., 262
Papilionina, 420, 421

SCIENTIFIC INDEX.

521

Paraeirrhites areatus (Cuv. & Val.) 354

cinctus (Giinther), 349

forsteri (Bloeh & Schneider), 94, 374,
354

spp., 354
Parasita, 400

Paratenodera sinensis Sauss., 97, 392
Paratrigonidium pacificum (Scudd.), 429
Parexocoetus brachypterus (Solander), 92,

366, 349, 355
Paritium tiliaceum St. Hill=Hibiscus tilia-

ceus Linn., 201
Parribacus antarticus (Lund), 108, 472
Partulina, 434

confusa Sykes, 103, 448
Paspalum conjungatum Berg., 208, 286

orbiculare Forst., 209, 286
Passer domesticus Linn., 304
Passiflora caerulea Linn., 268

edulis Tims., 69, 258

laurifolia Linn., 268

quadrangularis Linn., 70, 264, 268
Passifloreaceas, 268
Patella sp., 106, 470
Patellida*, 466
Pavonia, 479
Peeten., 445

sp., 104, 456
Pectinidaj, 445
Pediculidi, 400
Pediculus capites Be Geer, 400

vestimenta Nitzsch, 400
Pelea anisata Mann., 221

clusia>folia Gray, 61, 220
Pelecypoda, 443

Pelop&ms csementarius (Drury), 99, 406, 413
Peimatulacea, 479

Peunula ecaudata King, 81, 327, 333
Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq., 389
Peperomia sp., 56, 202
Perdicella, 434

fulgurans Sykes, 103, 448
Peregrinus maidas Ashm., 98, 398, 389
Perinea tumida Dana, 110, 482
Periplaneta americana (Linn.), 97, 392, 402,
428

australasiae (Fabr.), 97, 392, 402, 428
Peristernia, 450

chlorostoma Sby., 106, 470
Peristerniina4, 450
Perkinsiella saccharicida Kirk., 98, 398, 381,

427
Perna (see also Melina)
Perna sp., 104, 456, 443
Perottetia Sandwicensis Gray, 5, 40
Petrea volubilis Linn., 68, 250, 248
Persea gratissima Gaertn., 69, 258, 261
Pha»ornis myadestina Stejn., 85, 337

obscura (Gmel.), 84, 334

palmed Roths., 82, 330

spp., 331
Phaethon lepturus Lacep. & Daun., 309

rubricauda Bodd., 78, 310, 309
Phasianus torqnatus Gmel., 307

versicolor Yieill., 308

Phasianella, 466

Pheidole megacephala (Fab.), 403

Phenacaspis eugeniae (Mask.), 391

Philodendron, 64, 234, 249

Philomycidae, 439

Philonesia baldwini Ancev, 103, 448

sp., 103, 448
Phicema sp., 116, 496, 491
Phoenix dactylifera Linn., 67, 246, 70, 264,

233
Phormium tenax Linn., 281
Phthirus pubis Linn., 400
Phtliorimaea opereulella (Z.), 423
Phycitidae, 420

Phyllanthus roseo-pietus Hort., 252
Phyllodromia hieroglyphiea Brunn., 97, 392

obtusata Brunn., 428
Phyllostegia grandiflora Benth., 59, 214

sp., 59, 214
Phylodendron, 66, 240
Phymodius nitidus Dana, 110, 482
Physalia utricnla, 113, 490, 481
Physalis Peruviana Linn., 257
Physeter macroeephalus Linn., 301
Phytophaga, 417
Pieridai, 420, 422
Pieris rapae Linn.=Pontia rapae (Linn.),

399, 422
Piophila casei (Linn.), 405
Piper methysticum Forst., 216
Pipturus albidus Gray, 58, 212, 217
PipunculidsB, 419
Pisania, 450
Pisaniinav, 450
Pisces, 28, 116
Pisidium, 440

Pisonia umbellifera Seem., 59, 214
Pithecolobium (see Inga)
Pithecolobium Samang Griseb., 242
Pittosponim glabrum Hook. & Am., 58, 212

spathulatum Mann, 61, 220
Plagithmysus, 418
Planamastra, 434
Planaxida?, 465

PJanaxis lineatus DaCosta., 465
Plantago major Linn., 58, 212, 287
Platyhelminthes, 28, 116
Platypodia eydouxii (A. Milne Edwards),

110, 482
Platyomus lividigaster Muls., 393
Platophrys pantherinus (Ruppell), 349, 371
Platyptilia sp., 383
Pleuronectidae, 371
Plumbago Capensis Thumb., 254
Plumeria sp., 253
Plumularia, 481
Plusia chalcites Esp., 397, 422
Plusiada?, 397, 420, 422
Pocillopora, 477

sp., 112, 488

spp., 112, 488
Podophora pedifera, 116, 496, 487
Podophthalmus vigil (Fabr.), 108, 472
Poceiliidae, 378
Poinciana regia Boj., 243

34

522

SCIENTIFIC INDEX.

Polistes aurifer Sauss., 404, 414

hebrseus (Fabr.), 99, 406, 404
Polychaeta, 497

Polydaetylus sexfilis (Cuv. & Val.), 349
Polypodium spectrum Kaulf., 63, 228

tamariscinum Kaulf., 63, 228
Polystaelmm (see Aspidium)
Polyzoa, 480, 483
Ponera perkinsi Forel, 413
Pontia (see Pieris)
Pontia rapse (Linn.), 97, 392
Porcellio scaber Latr., 98, 398, 101, 436,

408
Porifera, 28, 116, 499
Porites, 477

sp. 112, 488

spp., Ill, 486
Porpita paeifica, 481
Portulaea oleracea Linn, 53, 196, 287
Portunus sanguinolentiis (Herbst.), 108, 474
Priaeanttiida?, 354

Priacanthus alalaua Jord. & Evermann, 92,
366

eriientatus (Lacep.), 349, 354
Priofinns cuneatus (Salvin), 78, 310, 81, 327,

312
Prionace glauca (Linn.), 86, 340
Pritchardia Gaudiehaudii H. Wendl., 236

Martii H. Wendl., 236
Prodelphinus, 300

attenuatus (Gray), 300
Prosopis juliflora D. C, 66, 240, 242
Proterhinida?, 419
Proterhinus, 419
Protoparce= ( Sph in x )

399
Protovertebrata, 484
Protozoa, 499

Prozanula palmori Proh., 314, 318
Primus Persica Sieb. & Zucc, 207
Pseudochcilinns octotaMiia Jenkins,
Pseudoeoccus bromelia* (Moueho),

eitri (Risso), 391

filamentosus (Gkll.), 391

nipa> (Mask.), 391

sacehari (Gkll.), 3*9

saecharifolii (Green), 389

sp., 391
Pseudolus longulus (Mob.), 395,
Pseudonestor xanthophrys Roths., 82, 330
Psondoscarus jordani Jenkins, 93, 370, 365
Pseudoscorpiones, 408

Pseudosquilln ciliata ( Pabricius) , 110, 482
Pseudupeneus bifaseiatus Jord. & Ever-
mann, 92, 'MM'), 373

multifaseiatus (C^uoy & Gaim.), 373

porphyrons Jenkins, 91, 362, 349, 373

spp., 373
Psidimn Guayava Liini.=Psidium Gkiajava

Linn.., 70*, 264, 263

Gattleyanum (Sabine), 263
Psittacirostra psittacea (Gmel.), 85, 337,

3151
Psocidas 424, 425
Psvchodida>, 419

eonvolvuli (Linn.).

349
391

418

Pteris, 419

aquilina Linn., 223

deeipiens Hook., 223
Pterocera aurantia Lam., 457
Pterodiscus, 123, 434

discus. Pils. & Vann., 103, 448

rex. Sykes, 103, 448
Pterophoridae, 420
Puffinus nativitatis Streets, 78, 310, 312

newel li Henshaw, 309
Ptilex (see Ctenoeephalus)
Pulex irritans Linn., 401
Pulmonata, 434
Pulvinaria mammeae Mask., 391

psidii Mask., 391
Puniea Granatum Linn., 269
Pupa sp., 103, 448
Pupidse, 439
Purpura, 117, 449

aperta Blainv., 105, 460

sp., 105, 460
Pyralidida*, 420
Pyralidina, 420, 422
Pyralis mauritialis Boisd., 98, 398
Pyramidella mitralis Ads., 463

sulcata Ads., 463

terebellum Mull., 106, 470, 463
Pyramidellidse, 463
PyraustidaB, 420, 422
Pyrrhocoridai, 426
Pyrus Mains Linn., 267

R

Baillardia, 226

Ban a catesbiana, 299

Banella, 449

Banzania makua Jenkins, 94, 374, 358

Ravenala Madagascariensis J. F. Gmel., 65r

238, 257 "
Bediiviida?, 426
Reduviolus, 426
Beptilia, 28, 116

Beynoldsia Sandwieensis Gray, 203, 209
Bicinula, 449

rieinus Linn., 106, 470
Rieinus communis Linn., 285
Risella spp., 465
Rissoidae, 465
Rhabdocnemis = (Sphenophorous) obseurus

(Boisd.), 95, 380, 99, 406, 383
Rhanthus pacificus Sharp, 101, 436
Rhapis flabelliformis L'Herit., 237

humilis Blume., 237

Cochinchinensis Mart., 66, 240, 237
Rh i pieephalus sangu ineus, 40 1
Rhodacanthis palmeri Roths., 83. 332
Rhopalosiphum viola?, 389
Bhymodius ungulatus (Milne Edwards), 110,

482
Bhynoehophora, 41 8

Bhynehospora thyrsoidea Nees & M., 62, 224
Bhyncogonus, 418

Boilandia calycina G. Don., 58, 212, 62, 220*
Bubiacea\ 249

SCIENTIFIC INDEX.

523

Rubus Jamaieensis, 69, 258

Macraei Gray, 256
Roosevelti — (Apsilus) brighami

369
Rotifera, 28, 116

(Scale),

Saccharum officinarum Linn., 272
Saclleria, 50, 191

cyatheoides Kanlf., 63, 228, 222

pallida Hook. & Arn., 222

Souleytiana Hbd., 222
Saissetia hemispherica (Targ.), 391

nigra (Met.), 391

olese (Bern.), 391
Salaris zebra Vaillant & Sauvage, 94, 374,

353
Santalum elliptieum Gaud., 219

Freycinetianum var. littorale Hbd., 51,
192, 199

Haleakalae Hbd., 219
Sarcophaga barbata Thorns., 99, 406, 387
Sarcophaga pallinervis Thorns., 387
Sarcophagidse, 419
Sarcoptes scabei Linn., 401
Sassafras officinale Nees, 262
Saurida gracilis (Quoy & Gaim.), 349
Sceevola -Chamissoniana Gaud., 56, 202, 222

Koenigii Vahl., 19, 90

Lobelia Linn.=S. fruteseens., 195

mollis Hook. & Arn., 61, 220
Sealaria lamellosa Lam., 106, 470, 464

sp., 106, 470
Scalariidae, 464
Scaphandridee, 467
Searabeida*, 417
" Scamhe, 365
Sceliphron camientarium (Drury), 404
Scenopinidae, 4.19
Schinus Moile Linn., 66, 240, 245
Seincidse, 397

Seirpus laeustris Linn., 54, 198, 199
Seirpus pain tr is Linn.=Eleochris palus-

trus Linn., 54, 1.98
Scolopendra rapens Wood, 98, 398, 405
Seolytida?, 419
Scomber, 349

japonicus Houttuyn, 92, 366, 349, 361
Scomberoides tolooparah (Ruppell), 349
Scombridse, 361
Scorpamida1, 368
Seorpamopsis gibbosa (Blcoh & Schneider),

94, 374, 368
Scoparia, 422
Seorpionida, 407
Scotorythra, 422
Scrotichum (sec Elaphoglossum)
Sevllarides squammosus (Milne Edwards),

108, 472, 469
Scy p h o me d u see , 480
Selidosemida?, 420
Senebiera didyma Pers., 287
Seriola pnrpuraseens Schlegel, 91, 362, 349
8erranida\ 369

Sertularia, 481

Sesuvium Portulacastrum Linn., 51, 192
Sicydium stimpsoni Gill, 94, 374, 3^
Sida cordifolia Linn., 209

fallax Walp., 209

rhombif olia Linn., 209

spinosa Linn., 51, 192, 53, 196

spp., 203
Silphidaj, 416
Simocarcinus simplex (Dana), 110, 482, 116,

497
Simodaetylus einnamomeus Boisd., 99, 406
Siphanta' acuta (Walk.), 98, 398, 402
Siphonaptera, 401, 419
Siphonophone, 481
Sipuneuloidea, 499
Sistrum, 449

morns Lam., 106, 470, 449
Sitotroga cereatella (01.), 405, 423
Smaragdinella viridis Q. & G., 106, 470, 467
S:nilax Sandwicensis Kth., 56, 202, 213
Solarium aeuleatissimum Jacq., 58, 212

triflorum, 58, 212

tuberosum Linn., 284
Solariidje, 463
Solarium cingulum Kein., 463

perspoetivum Linn., 106, 470, 463
Solciche, 371
Sol maris insculpta, 480
Sonelms oloraceus Linn., 53, 1&)
Sophora chrysophylla Seem., 226
Spalangia hirta Hal., 387
Sparida», 3(57

Spatula clypeata (Linn.), 328
Spluerium sp., 101, 436, 440
Spheeina, 413
Spliegida% 404, 413
Sphenophorous (see Rhabdocnemis)
Sphingida\ 420, 421
Sphinx (tier Protoparce)
Sphinx convolvuli Linn., 98, 398, 421
Spliyrama helleri Jenkins, 92, 366
Sphynena snodgrassi Jenkins, 349
Sphyra>nida\ 353

Sphyrna zygama Linn., 86, 340, 346
Spodoptera, 422

exigua (Hub.), 396

mauritia Boisd., 306, 388, 396
Spondias dulcis Forst., 70, 264, 266
Sporobolus Virginicus Kth., 51, 192
Squalus mitsukurii .lord. & Snyder, 86, 340,

346, 3,49
Staphylinida\ 41(5

Stegomyia fasciata (Fab.) — Stegomyia ea~
lopus (Meigen), 387

Scutellaria (Walk.), 387
Stenogvrida\ 439
Stenolaphrum Americanum Sehrank, 208,

286
Sterna fuliginosa Gmel., 78, 310, 312
Sterna lunata (Peale), 78, 310, 318
Stetho.julis, 359

axillaris (Quoy & Gaim.), 92, 366, 349

sp., 359
Stepanaria sp., 112, 488

524

SCIENTIFIC INDEX.

Stichopus tropiealis Fisher, 495

Stoasdon narinari (Euphrasen), 86, 340,

847
Stomoxys calcitrans (Linn.), 387
Subemarginula oblonga Pease, 466
Sueeinea, 438

sp., 103, 448
Succineidse, 438
Sul a eyanops Sund., 78, 310

piscator (Linn.), 78, 310
Sus sp., 295
Straussia Kaduana Gray, 61, 220

Mariniana Gray, 56, 202

spp., 227
Strombida1, 457
Stroinbus, 447

liellii Rous., 457

maculatus Nutt., 106, 470, 457

samar Dillw., 457
Stylasterida?, 481
►Svmpetrum blackburni (MeLaehl.), 97, 392,

425
Styphelia (see Cyathodes)
Sy n gn a t h i da? , 365
Synodontidai, 359

Synodus varius (Lacep.), 87, 344, 359
Syrphida), 419

Syzygium (see also Eugenia)
Syzygium = (Eugenia) Sandwicensis Gray,
* 61, 220

Talitrida% 40!*

Tamarindus Indica Linn., 245
Teeca pinnalifida Forst., 284
Teloonemia lantame Dist., 385, 426
Telespiza. cantans Wilson, 314
Tellina dispar Conrad, 104, 456, 445

rugosa Born., 104, 45(5, 445
TVnebrionida1, 418

Tonebroides muritanicus (Linn.), 395, 405
Tenodera sinensis, 429
Tcphrosin j)iseatoria Pers., 207
Terebra aciculina Kve., 105, 460, 455

canceliata Quoy, 455

erenulata Linn., 455

gouldi Desli., 105, 4(50, 455

macnlata Linn., 455

oeulata Lam., 105, 460, 455

sp., 105, 460
Terebratula sanguinea Chem., 483
Terebrantia, 41.2
Terebrida\ 455
Teredo, 113, 490
Terminalia catappa Linn., 245
Tcrmitidas 424, 425
Terrieola\ 440
Testudo sp., 300
Tetranveims sp., 101
Tetraodon hispidus Linn., 367
Tetraodontida\ 367

Tetraplasandra meiandra Hbd., 62, 224
Tettigoniida>. 427
Tliala, 451

Thalamita integra Dana, 108, 474
Thalassoma duperrev (Quon & Gaimard),
349

sp., 359

umbrostigma (Ruppell), 93, 370
Theela— (Lyeama) sp., 385

agra Hewiston, 385

echion Linn., 385
Thespesia populnea Corr., 201
Theveta neriifolia Jess., 252
Thurnbergia laurifolia Lindl., 68, 250
Thysanoptera, 427
Thysanura, 403, 430
Tinea pellionella (Linn.), 405, 423
Tineidae, 423
Tinguidae, 426
Torinia, 463

variegata Gmel., 106, 470, 463
Tornatellinidae, 439

Touchardia latifolia Gaud., 56, 202, 217
Toxoptera aurantise Koch, 390
Trachinocephalns myops (Forster), 87, 344,

349, 353, 359 *
Trachurops crumenophthalma (Bloch), 91,

362, 349
Tramea, 425

laeerata Hagen, 424
Trapa bicornis=TraP'a natans Linn., 285
Trapezia cymodoee intermedia Miers, 110,
482 "

digitalis (Latreille), 110, 482
Trachurops erumenopthalina (Bloch), 349
Triboliurn ferrugineum (Fabr.), 395, 405,

418
Tribulus cistoides Linn., 51, 192, 199
Trichomanes davallioides Gaud., 63, 228
Tri folium, 286
Triton, 449

pilearis Linn., 105, 460, 450

tritonis Linn., 449

tuberosus Lam., 105, 460, 450
Tritonida?, 449
Trivia, 459

Troehalopterum eanorum Linn., 308
Trochida}, 466
Trochus, 463

sandwicensis Soul., 105, 460, 466

sp., 106, 470, 466
Trypetida?, 420
Tunicate, 113, 490, 116, 484
Turbellaria, 497
Turbinidae, 466
Turbo, 466

apex fulva (Dixon), 431

chrysostomus Linn., 105, 460, 466

intereostalis Menke, 105, 460
Tiu-bonellida, 463
Turricula, 451

Turtur (Spilopelia) chinensis (Scop.), 305
Tylosurus, giganteus (Sehlegel), 349

u

Urticacea?, 245

SCIENTIFIC INDEX.

t>:to

V

Vaccinium reticulatum Smith, 69, 258, 225,
256

penduliformis var. Gaud, 61, 220
Vanessa atlanta Linn., 421

tarameamea Esch., 97, 392, 421
Vellela pacifiea, 483
Venus, 446

reticulata Linn., 104, 456, 446
Verbena Bonariensis Linn., 205
Vermetidae, 462
Vermetus sp., 105, 460
Veronieella sp., 439
Vespidae, 404, 414

Vestiaria coccinea Forster, 84, 334, 329, 440
Vexilla, 449

vexillum Cliem., 106, 470
Vinca rosea Linn., 68, 250, 207, 254
Viridonia sagittirostris Roths., 83, 332, 335
Viscum articulatum Bruin., 59, 214, 225
Vitex trifolia Linn., 199
Vitis spp., 267
Viviparida?, 438

Viviparus chinensis Gray, 101, 436, 438
Volncella obesa (Fabr.), 99, 406

w

Waltheria Americana Linn., 51, 192
Washington ia filifera Wendl., 67, 246, 237
Wikstroemia spp., 227

x

Xanthias canaliculars Eathbun, 110, 482
Xanthium struinarium Linn., 53, 196, 287
Xiphias gladins Linn., 92, 366, 349, 373
Xiphidium fuscatnm = Xiphidium Vari-

penne SW., 388

varipenne SW., 97, 392, 429
Xiphiida1, 373
Xyletobius, 418
Xylocopa braziliensis Linn., 99, 406, 403,

415
Xystrocera globosa (Olivier), 99, 406

Zamia sp., 67, 246
Zanelida?, 361

Zanculus eanescens (Linn.), 93, 370
Zelus pereginus Kirkl.=Zelus renardi
Kol., 402.

renardi Kol., 98, 398, 426
Zingiber, 257

officinale Linn., 215

Zerumbet Rose, 56, 202, 221, 213
Zizania aquatica Linn., 277
Zonitida1, 439

INDEX.

GLOSSORY AND COMPENDIUM.

Note. — The black-faced numbers indicate that the subject is illustrated upon the
page cited. In such cases the subject may be referred to only in the explanation of the
plate, or it may also be referred to in the text. Scientific names used in the text have
been segregated and appear as an INDEX to SCIENTIFIC NAMES. Vernacular names
in English are entered twice as Crow, Hawaiian, and Hawaiian Crow; Hawaiian names
are entered but once. The work is so fully indexed that it will serve as a synonomy of
the common names in current use. Frequently, where Hawaiian and English names are
given as Alae (Hawaiian gallinule), both names should be consulted for additional informa-
tion on the species. The important subjects treated are indexed very fully with the object
of rendering the volume useful to teachers and students as a collateral reference book.
Notes, explanation of terms, etc., appear in small type, and are alphabetically arranged,
usually without reference to the text.

A-a (Rough lava), 162, 349
and pahoehoe shown, 162
flows on Mauna Loa, 155
Huge block of, 160

A-a, 0-o=Oo-aa, 337

Aahumamo. A yellow feather robe worn by the
king or high chief.

Aahuula. A royal cloak usually adorned with
red feathers.

Aaka. A name given to the dry wood of the
bastard sandalwood (Myoporum sandwicense
Gray). When dry this wood becomes very
fragrant and when burned gives off the odor
of sandalwood, hence the name. The living
tree is known as Naio, which see. The wood
is very durable and was much used far
house posts.

Aama, 469

A'awa, 359

"Ababai?? (sec Papaya)

Abbreviations — sp. = species; spp. = two or more
species belonging to the same genus; sn.
indt. = an undetermined species; = the same
as ; — when following a scientific name and
before a locality — of or from.

Abdomen of insects, etc., (409). The hind
body ; the posterior one of the three parts
of a perfect insect.

Aboral and oral view of Sea-urchin. 496

Abortion was commonly practiced among the an-
cient Hawaiians and was accomplished in
various ways, as by the use of sharp pointed
bamboo instruments, jumping, etc.

Abutilon (see Mao)

Acacia, Species of, 205

Accidental. Said of a species that only occa-
sionally occurs in the islands and is not
considered as an established species. (See
also occasional visitors.)

Accidental visitors [Birds] (see Rare
birds)

Achatinella (Achatinellastrum) varia, 432
( Achatenallastrum error)

AchatinelidsB [Tree shells], 434
Color variation in, 432

Acknowledgments, General, 11
Specific, 12

Acorn barnacles, 468
shells, 473

Active volcanoes, Kilauea, 164

Mauna Loa, 183
Activities, Yolcanic, tabulated, 183
Adductor muscles defined, 444
Adjustment of population to food supply,

* 45
Adzes, how made, 75

Sizes of, 75

Stone, 75
Aeae=Koae
Mgle (see Bhel)
Aeolian deposits at Mana, 108

Aerial roots (204). Those that strike from the
stem in the open air.

Aerial roots, Examples of, 204, 211

Banian, 246, 245
Affinities, Racial, of the Hawaiians, 25

with other Polynesians, 25
Africa, 208, 213, 245, 269, 279, 285, 386,

388, 397 407
African mole-cricket 388
Agassiz, Louis (Geologist, Naturalist), 94

Age of Hawaiians. The census of 1896 brought
to light several Hawaiians who were then 110
years of age. The well authenticated case
of Kepoolele Apau was investigated by Hon.
Alatau Atkinson and the patriarch was ex-
amined by Dr. W. D. Alexander and Mrs.
Emma M. Nakuina. Mrs. Apau was then
124 years old. She was born in Puna, on
Hawaii.

Age of Kohala Mts. shown bv erosion,

[Waipio], 154

of Oahu, 117
Aged kahuna, 52
Agriculture (cattle raising), 282

Effects of on plants and animals, 269

Enemies of, 381

Growing cane, 278

Hawaiian, 63

in recent times, 269

Eice growing, 270

Taro growing, 270
Agricultural industries, Minor, 270

industries (Growing sugar-cane), 274

Alia. A cord braided from the husk of cocoanuc,
or from human hair ; or strings made from
the intestines of animals.

Ahaaha (Needle-fish), 350, 349, 364

527

528

INDEX.

Aha-aina (feast), 355

Ahakea. Name of a species of yellowish wood
(Bohea spp.) used for rims of canoes, poi
boards and paddles. The tree in the forest
is conspicuous by reason of its light green
foliage.

Aha-moa. The name of an assembly collected at
a cock-fight.

Ahanui, 206, 224

Ahi, 349, 361

Ahinahina (Silver-sword), 206, 229

Aholahola, 341

Aholehole (Sea-perch), 336, 349, 358

Ahuhu, 207, 227, 341

similar to digitalis, 207

Uses of, 207 '
Ahuula (Feather cape), 48, 70

of feathers, 44
Aiea=Kaawau
Aiea, Mill at, 274
Ainahau Garden, 234

Lily pond in, 234
Air breathing mollusks, 434
Air-plant, 240, 208, 254

peculiarity of, 208
Akaakai (Bullrush), 198, 199.
Akai, 227

AJkai. Name applied to the different species of
the genus Wikstroemia. The shrubby plants
have a tough bark furnishing a strong native
fiber and contain an intoxicating narcotic
which was employed by the natives to poison
fish in fresh water as auhuhu was used in
salt water.

Akailoa, Kauai, 330

Akala, 256

Akala Falls, 176

Akepe, 333

Akialoa, 330

Akikihi, 337

Akilolo, 359

Akoakoa=general name for coral, 486

Akoko, 192, 212, 220, 283

Aku (Ocean bonito), 366, 349

and Opeln tabu (see Opelti)
Akule (Big-eyed scad), 362, 341, 349, 364
Akulikuli, 192
Akulikulikai, 199

Alaa. A name applied to the species of the
genus of trees Sideroxylon. The sap of the
more common species (S. Sandwieense Benth.
& Hook.) was used as a bird lime.

Alaala=(Fig. 9), 482

Alaalahee. The spawn or eggs found in the
'squid.' It was eaten, with kukui nuts as a
relish.

Alaalapuloa, 192

Alaalawainui, 202

Alae (Hawaiian gallinule), 323

Legend of, 326

keokeo (Hawaiian coot), 323

Alahee. The name of a tree (Plectronin odorati
Benth. & Hook.); from its wood instru-
ments were made for tilling the soil. (See
Oo.) The leaves were also used to produce
a black dye. A shrub or small tree with
glossy leaves and fragrant, sweet-scented
flowers common on all islands, but especially
on Molokai.

Alaihi, 371

Alala (Hawaiian crow), 327

Alalaua (Catalufa), 366
Alamihi, 466

Alaneo. The name of a cloak, or royal robe,

made of the feathers of the mamo only.
Alani, 220
Alaska, 324
Alauhiio, 332
Albatross, 312

Black-footed, 310

Black-footed, following a steamer, 316

care of young, 315

"dance,*" 316, 314

eggs, 316

eggs, Use of, 316

Laysan, 92, 294, 316
Albatross, U. S. Fish Com. ship, 351 (fre-
quent mention in subsequent pages)
Albinism, Examples of (see Sparrows)
Alcyonarians, 479
Aleihi lakea, 349
Alexia, 192

Alexander, Dr. William D., (Historian), 12
Alfalfa, 286
Algae, 500

Common, at Waikiki, 492

Edible, 502

from the reef, 498

How to collect, 500

Literature on, 502

on the summit of Mauna Kea, 152
Algaroba, 208, 242

habitat of, 243

bean weevel, 395

gum, 243

honey, 243

pod weevel, 395

Phylodendron in an, 240

scale, 391

tree [Kiawe], 240

trees at Waikiki, 116

uses of, 243

when introduced, 242
Alkali feldspar lava, 155

Alii. One who rules or has authority over men.

Aalii or Alii. The name of a small hard wood
tree (Do don ma viscosa Linn.) common on all
islands up to the 4000 foot leevl. The wood
is used to some extent for fence posts: the
leaves were used for medicine by the natives.

Alii (Chief ess), 60

how buried, 52

Alii kapu. The high chiefs were styled alii kapu
or sacred chiefs and almost divine honors
was paid to them.

Aliipoe, 207

Allamanda, 248, 252

Alligator pear=Avocado pear, 258, 261

(see also Avocado), 262
Alluvial plain, Examples of [Hanalei], 106
Almond, Demerara, 245

nuts of, 248

Tropical, 245
Alphabet, The Hawaiian, 39
Alps, 229
Altars, Fishermen 's, 339

INDEX.

529

Alteration of generations, Example of. 391
explained, 390

Alternate (208). Leaves placed one after an-
other; but one leaf growing out from each
joint of the stem.

Ama (the outrigger), 80
Amaama (Mullet), 362, 349, 359
Amakaha, 368
Amakihi, 329

Kauai, 334

Maui, 332
Amakuas, 49

Thorny, 196
Amastridse (Ground shells), 434
Amaumau, 228, 222
Ama'uama'u— [amaumau] which see.
Amber colored ivory, how made, 79

Fish [Kahala], 362, 365
Ambergris, 302

Ambulacral zones explained, 485
America, 293, 297, 325, 376, 394, 397, 410

422, 428, 249, 252, 254, 286
American, 303, 336, 402

cockroach, 402

continent, 3 9.1, 242, 262, 268 280 ';>84

lobster, 468 ,--,--.

toad, 384
Amaranth, Common, 196
Ampullae explained, 489
Amusements at Waikiki, 80

Hawaiian ,74

The hula, etc., 81

surf riding, 80
Anacardium (see Cashew nut)

Anal fin (364). The fin on the lower side of a

fish just in front of the tail fin.
Anapanapa 204

Anchorages (see Harbor anchorage)
Anchovie [Nehu] 350 351
Ancient voyages, 27
wooden idol, 52
Anemonies attached to crabs, 476

Sea, 490
Andes, 229
Angelica, 253

Angoumois grain moth, 405
Anklets, 78, 82

Animals and plants brought to Hawaii, 27
dyes, 69

industry in Hawaii, 287
life, Effects of agriculture ori, 269
as gods, 49
Domestic, 287

from the coral reef (part one), 468
from the coral reef (part two), 485
from land and sea, 291
Hawaiian marine, 294
Introduced, 231, 295
Native, 295

to be collected at Waikiki, 116
Annual plant (276). Flowering and fruiting
the year it is raised from seed; then dying.
Annual yield of sugar, 271
Anona, 266
Anomia 445

nobilis (young,) 456

Antarctic, 229

Antenna? (407). Organs occurring in pairs on

the head of insects, crabs, etc., and serving

as feelers or tentacles. They vary greatly in

size, shape and function.
Anthicids, 418
Ants, 387, 403

Ants, bees and wasps, 403, 412
Ant-lion, 425
Ant, native, 413

poison, 403

White, 402
Anvil, Tapa, 64
Ao=Puflinus neweJU Henshaw,
Apahu (Headfish), 374, 358
Apapane, Hawaiian, 334, 337, 329

Laysan, 320

Use of feathers of, 77
Ape, 225

Apeape, 194, 225
Apekepeke (Kauai elepaio), 334

Aperature (447). An opening: hence the mouth

of a gasteropod shell.
Aphids, 265, 389, 425, 427

on, 389, 390, 391
Apii, 225

Appearance of Honolulu, 231
Apple banana, 259

Custard, 266

Mountain, 256

Rose, 267

Tahiti [Wi], 264, 266
Apples, 267
Apuu-u, 364
Aquatic beetles, 416

bugs, 426
Aquarium, Fish at the 356

Honolulu, 348, 354, 359, 360, 367, 368,
375

Octopus at the, 442

View of, 356
Arabia, 379
Arabian cowry, 459

jasmine, 248
Aralia, 253
A ran c aria, 237

Arbor (201). A bower formed by trees, shrubs
or vines usually trained over 'a lattice work
to form a shelter from the sun.

Arboreal (245). Tree like; the size and shape of
a tree.

Arch, Onomea, 150
Arch&olithothannivm sp. (fig. 4) 398
Archipelago, Development of Hawaiian

290
Arctic, 301

right whale, 301
Area of various islands (see Length, etc.)
Argyreia (see Pilikai)
Ark shell, 456, 444
Aristotle 's lantern, 496, 485
Armadillo-bugs, 408
Arm of a starfish, 496
Armor, Hawaiian, 79
Army stores, 51
worms, 396
Arrangement of text explained, 10

530

INDEX.

Arrow-root, Hawaiian, 284
Artesian springs, 127

wells, 127

Cause of brackish, 127

Evidence from, 220

First, 127

how formed, 127

Number of 127
Arthropods, 409
Artocarpus (see Jack fruit)
Arts, Hawaiian, 74
Ascent of Haleakala, 148

Kilauea, 176

Mauna Kea, 151

Mauna Loa, 155
Ash eruption from Diamond Head, 121

Punchbowl, 121

Tantalus, 121
Ashmead, Dr. W. H. (Entomologist), 413
Asia, 235, 245, 257, 267, 269, 285, 286, 397
Asiatic, 191, 225
Assam, 283

rubber, 283
Assassin bug, 402, 426

Astringent (217). A substance which binds or
contracts the tissues and canals of the body.
Astrologer 51

Astronomy, Knowledge of, 30
Atlantic, 346, 358
Atoll, Example of, 94
Attack, Methods of, 51

Au. The handle or helve of an ax. They were
often made of hau wood.

A'u (Swordfish), 366, 373

Auamo. The stick or pole used to carry burdens
when balanced across the shoulder. See
plate 12.

Auamo (Carrying stick), 57, 68

Auau. The stalk of loulu (Prichardia spp.)
made into a spear.

Auger shells, 455

shells used for, 455
Auhola=Auholo
Auholo, 207
Auhuhu=Ahuhu

Aukuu kohili (Black-crowned night heron),
310

Aulima. The name of the stick held in the

hand when rubbing to produce fire. The

name of the stick rubbed is aunaki. The
action of rubbing is hia.

Aunaki (sec Aulima)

Australia, 191, 213, 320, 381, 386, 402, 410.

429
Australian cockroach, 402

grasshopper, 429

ladybird beetles, 384

ladybirds introduced into Hawaii, 384

mantis, 429

oak, 248
Author, Photographs by the, 14

Portrait of (see Frontispiece), 4
Autochthonous (see Endemie)
Averrhoa (see Carambola)
Avocado, 261

or Alligator pear, 258

(see also Alligator pear), 262

Introduction of, 262
mealy-bug, 391
Names for, 262
not injured by fruit-fly, 262
Propagation of, 262
scale, 391
Yield of, 262
Awa, 67, 216, 227, 236, 249
(Milk-fish), 350, 360
-aua, 360
-awa=awa-aua
How made, 216, 217

Awa drinking. The root of the awa plant pro-
duces a numbing effect on the mucus mem-
brane of the tongue, and is thought to allay
thirst by its pleasant aromatic flavor. The
Hawaiians recognize six or seven varieties
of awa all of which are regarded by botan-
ists as forms of the one species. Awa from
Puna, Hawaii, was considered of the best
quality. In former times the drink was used
almost exclusively by the chiefs. Later, it
came to be a prevalent habit among old na-
tives, and awa drinking is still quite com-
mon throughout the group in native settle-
ments. The object of drinking is primarily
to produce stupification. The drink is made
from either the fresh or drv roots. The
regular drink was one cup full from a cocoa-
nut cup, cut lengthwise of the nut. The
plant is an upland growth and is found
where the ground is both damp and shady.
It was, and is, planted by the natives in
suitable localities. The ground is loosened
and a joint or cutting set in, after the na-
tive method of planting sugar-cane. After a
time it is hilled and left to grow without
further care. It continues to grow and
spread its roots abroad. Roots 20 years old
are enormous in size — sometimes being all
two or three men can carry. See awa.

Awapuhi (Native ginger), 202, 215
Use of, 215, 221

Awikiwiki. Name of a leguminous vine (Cana-
valin galeata Gaud.) common on all islands.
According to Andrews the "berries" were
used as a medicine, operating as an emetic
and cathartic. The species bears 4 to 8
large seeds in a pod.

Awela, 359
Aweoweo, 349, 354
Axes (see Adzes)

Axillary (Bot.). Occurring in the axils; i. e., in
the angle on the upper side between the stem
and the leaf.

A.xis deer, 296

B

Back-scratcher, 62

-swimmers, 426
Bacilus, Plague, 401
Bael (see Bhel)
Bagasse, 275
Bag-nets, 341
Baked taro, 67

Baked pig [puaa], Dish for, 70
Baker, R. J., Photographs by, 14
Bakery beetles, 405
Baking in the imu, 66
Bait, Fish, 242, 339

Human flesh as, 343

seins, 339
Balanoglossus, 484

INDEX.

531

Baldwin, Prof. Charles W., (Geographer),
12

Photographs bv, 14
Baldwin, Mr. E. IX, 163
Balistes, 375
Bamboo (or Bambu) aphis, 391

beetles, 405, 418

rattles, 82

Use of, 82
Banana(s), 67, 207, 248, 255

as a fiber plant, 280

aphis, 389

Apple, 259

Bluefield, 259

Brazilian, 259

business. Development of, 261

Carious flowers of, 260

Cavendish, 259

Chinese, 258, 259

introduced from, 260

Cooking, 259

Cultivated, 257

Diseases of, 200

Dried, 260

Eating, 259

flour, 260

Home of, 257

Jamaica, 259

Kusaie, 259

Largo, 259

leaf-roller, 395

leaves, Uses of, ()6

Martinique, 259

Native varieties of, 259

Nomenclature of, 259

Pests of, 260

Propagation of, 260

ftose, 259

Seed of, 260

Sweet scented, 259

Varieties of wild, 222

Wild, 190

yield per acre, 260
Banded bubble-shell, 467
Banian, 245

Aerial roots of, 245

Bengal, 245

-fig, 283

Number of species of, 245

Rubber producing, 283

Sacred, 240

tree, 246
Banner shell, 470
Banyan (.w Banian), 245

Barbados cherry (Molpighia j/labra Linn.)- A
well established, though not a common fruit
in Honolulu gardens, coming originally from
the West Indies. It is a small bushy shrub
with dull green, opposite, ovate leaves. The
rose-colored, five-parted flowers spring from
the axils at the base of the leaves; they are
followed by a cherry-sized, rich, red fruit,
with acid pulp surrounding a hard seed.
The fruit may be used for Jam and preserves.

Barbadoes, Pride of the, 244

Barbels [fish J (372). A small, slender, elon-
gated process appended to the mouth of cer-
tain fishes (Barbules error).

Barber's Point, 109

Bark cloth clothing, 38

lice, 391

rope, 201
Barking sands, 108

sands, Makua station, 122
Barnacles, 473

Acorn ,473

Coronet, 475

from the sea-shore, 474

Goose, 473

Sessel, 473

Stalked, 473

Barnard, E. W., 299

Barracuda [Kawalea], 366, 351

Barrier reef at Midway, 94

Barter (mc Hawaiian markets)

Basalt. The term basalt is used, in a some-
what comprehensive way, for dark compact
igneous rocks that appear to be nearly
homogeneous owing to the smallness of the
crystals which are usually so minute as to
be" identified only under the microscope.
There is usually * a considerable range in
chemical composition, but the basalts are
relatively poor in silica, but rich in lime,
magnesia and iron. They are classed as
basic rocks and are sometimes highly so.
See Hawaiian Igneous Rocks.

Basalt as building stone, 129

Columnar, 109
Basaltic craters, Small, 115
Base of the columella (453). Applied to the ex-
treme lower portion of the inner wall of the
shell which surrounds the axis.
Bases of Hawaiian mountains, 155
Baskets, Fish, 70

Pandanus, 70

stars, 491
Bas-relief groups (Kamehameha I. statue)

described, 44
Bass, Black, 377
Bast (fibers), 22

Bastard sandalwood, 210, 222, 226
Batavia, 279
Bath rubbers, 63
Bathing beach at Waikiki, 116
Baths, Hawaiian medical, 79
Bats, 295
Battle(s), Naval and land, 51

Notice of sent, 51

Preliminary to a, 51

Women in time of, 46

Bays, Harbors, Landings, etc. ON OAHU —
Honolulu Harbor, Pearl Locks, Kaneohe
Bay, Waialua Bay, Kahana Bay. ON HA
WAIT — Hilo Bay, Kealakekua Bay, Kawaihae
Bay, Kailua Bay, Mahukona, Laupahoehoe,
Honuapo, Hoopuloa, Napoopoo, Keauhou; ON
MAUI — Kahului, Maalaea, Han a Bay, Kea
nae. Nahiku, Kipahulu, Kaupo, Makena, Mc-
Gregor's Ldg., Olowalu, Lahaina, Kaaiiapal
(Kekaa), Honolua ; ON KAUAI — Hanale
Bay, Hanamaulu Bay, Nawiliwili Bav, Ahu
kini, Kapaa, Anahola, Kilauea, Wa:niha
Koloa, Eleele, Hananepe, Makaweli, Waimea
Port Allen ; ON MOLOKAI — Kaunakakai
Karnalo, Pukoo, Halawa, Wailau, Pelekuna
Kalaupapa.

Bay, Kahana (Oahn), 128
Waimea (Oahu), 128

532

INDEX.

Bays on Hawaii, 148

on Kauai, 104

on Maui, 134

On Oahu, 110
Beach at Hilo, 352

grass, 192

heliotrope, 192, 199

morning-glory [Pohuehue], 192, 218

sand, use of, 129

-worm shells, 441

sandalwood [Iliahi], 192, 199
Beaches, Olivene sand, 129
Beak of the swordfish, 373
Bean leaf -roller, 395

weevils, 405, 418
Beater, Tapa, 70
Beaumontia, 250
Beaver, Sea, 496
Bedbugs, 402

Beddard, F. E., (Zoologist), 440
Beds, Sulphur, at Kilauea, 170
Beefwood, 237
Beer, Hawaiian, 210
Bee(s), 412

Carpenter, 403

Common, 406

feeding on Palm blossoms, 232

Honey, 404

Leaf-cutting, 415

Long-tongued, 415

Solitary, 415

Wad-cutting, 415
"Beestill-tree,M 252
Beetle(s), 395, 405, 415

Australian ladybird, 384

Common, 406

Japanese, Enemies of, 384, 394

Japanese, on grape, 267

Ladybird, 393

on sugar-cane, 388

-roach, 388

Salt marsh, 418

Water, 436
Belgian hare, 293
Bell-shaped animals, 480
Beneficial birds, Introduction of, 308
Bengal banian, 245
Bermuda grass, 286
Berry (Berries), Christmas, 225

Coffee, 270

Japanese raspbeurv (Thimble berrv),
258

Ohelo, 258, 256

Thimble, 258
Betel nut, 236

Use by South Pacific islanders, 236
Betrothal/ 43, 45
Betting (see Gambling)

among Hawaiians, 86

Bliel or Bael fruit (iEgle sp.). This small,
strongly-spinose tree with alternate trifoliate
leaves is not uncommon in Honolulu gar-
dens. It is distinguished from the nearly
related Citrus genus bv the hard gourd-like
rind of its fruits which, when ripe, is yel-
lowish-brown and 3 — 4 inches in diameter.

Big-headed ant, 403
"Big-eye" (Fish), 354

Big-eyed flies, 419

scad [Akule], 362
Bignonia, 248

Biologist (385). One skilled in or a student
of the science of life and living things, in
the widest sense.

Bird-catchers were an important class in old
Hawaii who captured birds for their feath-
ers. In addition to several well-known bird-
limes (which see), they employed nets and
spears. They recognized two seasons for
catching birds: one from March to May, the
other from August to October. These corre-
spond with the flowering season of the ohia
lehua. The trees in the lower woods flow-
er in the spring; those higher up in the
fall season. The birds they sought move
from place to place, wherever flowers and
food is plentiful. The bird-catcher of former
times said prayers and made offerings to his
gods that the birds of the forest might be
gathered into his gum-traps and held fast.
It is reported that Kamehameha I was the
first to appreciate the importance of protect-
ing the birds. He reproved his bird hunters
for taking the lives of birds they caught.

Bird-claw vine, 250, 248

Bird colony at Laysan, Large, 92, 95
feathers, Source of, 98
Fishing (Heron), 325
flies (Louse-flies), 421
groups in Bishop Museum, 310
Island [see Nihoa] (volcanic), 88, 96,

98
-lice, Wingless, 400, 430
life on Laysan, Views of, 310, 316

Bird lime, 226

Bird-lime was usually made from the juice of
certain Lobelias. Breadfruit gum was also
used, as was the juice of the species of
papala (Pisonia spp.), Oha (Clermontia sp. )
was perhaps the best source of gum. The
gum of the last two was prepared by boiling.

Bird, Man-o'-war, 310

Miller, and nest, 316

notes (see species in question), 331

pirates, 318

poachers on Lisiansky Island, 95

poachers on Midway Island, 94

Red-headed alae, 328

reservation, Hawaiian Islands, 93

songs (see species in question), 331

White-headed alae, 328

Accidental visitors (see Rare birds),
310
Birds as food (see species in question), 311

Birds as pets. It was quite the custom with bird
catchers to keep the o-o, iiwi and apapane
alive in special cages to use as decoys in
bird catching. They were feed, daily, on
the nectar of their favorite flower and in
time became very tame.

Birds as ocean wraifs, 308
as regular visitors, 308
Beneficial, introduction of, 308
Capture of, at night, 311
Cliff-nesting species, 311
Finch-like, Hawaiian, 331
Hawaiian, Peculiar odor of, 331
Identification of sea, 309
Introduced, 304
of Laysan Island, 312
of the marshes, 320
of the mountain forests, 334, 328

INDEX.

533

of the mountain forests, Some rare and

extinct, 332
of the ocean islands, 308
of the sea, 308
of the shore, 320
of the streams, 320
Native, 332
Night flying, 304
Occasional visitors, 308
Rare and extinct, 332
Eice, 277

Some rare and extinct, 330
Various orders of, 323
Weaver, 277
Winter visitors, 308
Bird's nest fern [Ekaha], 190, 240, 223

Natural habitat of, 190
Bishop Museum, Bird groups in, 310

Mention of, 98, 173, 176, 188, 223, 291,

299, 302, 304, 348, 435, 455
Objects deposited in, 57
Spern whale in the, 298
Bishop, Dr. Sereno E., (Geologist), 98, 115,

120, 124
Bite of centipede, 405
Bivalves, 443
defined, 443
Common marine, 456
Black bass, 377

Introduction of, 378
Black blight, 386
Blackburn's butterfly, 421
Black-crowned night heron, 325
Black cutworm, 396, 422
-eyed susans, 207
-eyed susans, Uses of, 207
fly, 265

-footed Albatross, 310, 312, 315
mamo [Hoi], 332, 335
-mouthed tun, 46 L
mulberry, 267
rat, 291*
rock crab, 469
sand, 117
scale, 391
slug', 439

Point, Spouting horn at, 131.
wasps, 414
wattle, 248
Blennie, 374, 353
Blight, Black, 386
Maui, 384, 385
on the mango, 242
Block of a-a, Huge, 160
Blossoms of (see plant in question)
from Honolulu gardens, 250
of sugar-cane, 278
Blow-hole (see Spouting horn), 108, 131

Specimen of a, 184
Blubber (302). The fat of whales from which
a fine oil is obtained. The blubber lies under
the skin and covers the muscles.
"Blubber," Whale ship stripping off, 298
Bluebottle fly, 387, 419
"Blue bottles,' > 481
Blue butterfly, 421

dragon-fly, Big, 424

leadwort, 254

palm, 237

parrot fish, 370, 365

shark, 340

-faced booby, 310, 316
Bluefield banana, when introduced, 259
Board, Poi, 66

Surf, 80
Boar's tusks, 79

Use of, 77
Boatman, Water, 436
Bohea spp. (see Ahakea)
Bodies, how disposed of, 52
Body louse, 400

Body whorl (452). The last and usually the
largest whorl or turn of a shell, endaig in
the aperture.

Bog flora, 218

on Waialeale, 105

on West Maui, 138
Boilers, Sugar (Evaporating pans), 274
Bold, Governor, 279
Boll worm, Cotton, 281, 399
Bombs (see Volcanic bombs)
Bone, Implements of, 74

meal beetles, 405

stone and wood, Uses of, 75

Use of, 63, 73
Bone-fish [Oio], 350, 354
Bone fishhooks, 242
Bones, Concealment of (see plate 8)

Human, use of, 77
Bonin petrel, 323, 360, 312
Bonine, R. K., Photographs by. 14
Bonito, California, 363

Fishing for, 363

Little, 366

Ocean, Catching, 344, 366, 361

Bony fishes (.'{51). Fishes with bony instead of
cartifatfinous skeletons. Sharks, rays, etc.,
;ire examples of the latter class.

Boobv. Blue-faced, 310, 316

Bed-footed, 310, 316
Boobies, 314

robbed by, 31 7
Book, Contents of Book One, 15 to 19

Contents of Book Two, 19 to 22

-lice, 424, 425

-worm beetle, 41 S
Borer, Sugar-cane, 380, 383
Boring ants (termites), 102

Ifymenoptera. 412
Boston fern, 253
Bottle gourd, Use of, 61, 209

Palm, 240, 237
'Bottomless' pit on Haleakala, 146

pit on Ilualalai, 152
Bougainville, Louis Antoine de (Naviga-
tor), 248
Bougainvillea in bloom, 240

named for, 248

Yarieties of, 248
Boulders, Field (Oahu), 130
Bowling alley, Primative, 83

stones [ulu-maika], 57
Bowls and dishes, 59

Finger, 70

534

INDEX.

Bow and arrow, 81

made of, 215

not used in warfare, 81

Use of, 293
Box-fish, 375
Boxing [mokomoko]

the national game, 83
Bracelets of shells, 79, 465
Brachiopods, 483

Brackish artesian wells, Cause of, 127
Brackish water crab, 436

fish, 358

fish (gobies), 357

shells, 439

Bracts (201). The small leaf or scale from the
axil of which the flower or its stem proceeds.

Braided hair ornament, 60
Brain corals, 479
Brake, Common, 223
Branching coral, 486, 488
Brazil, 257, 262, 267, 268, 283, 285
Brazilian banana, 259

Brazilian plum (Eugenia BramUensis Lam.) or

Spanish cherry is widely known as the

grumiehama of Brazil. It was probably

first introduced by Don Marin, but fine trees

may be seen in the garden of Mrs. Mary E.

Foster, introduced by Dr. Hillebrand. The

deep purple fruit is the size of a cherry;

the leaves are oval or obovate 3 inches long

by 1 xk broad and occur scale-like along the

branches. The edible fruit has a very

a gr e e abl e fl a v o r .
Breadfruit [ITlu], 258, 264, 239, 241

how cooked, 67

how propagated, 67, 241

groves, old, 138

stems, Use of, 71

Uses of, 241

Wood of the, 241
Breaker, Canoe, 81
Breakers at Laysan Island, 92

on Oahu, 122
Breccia. A rock composed of angular fragments

cemented together bv nature. It is to be

compared with conglomerate in which the

fragments are rounded.
Breccia at Diamond Head, 219

Calcarious, 121
Breeding cages, Entomologist insect, 380
Brick, 127

Lava, 129
Brigham, Dr. W. T. (Museum Director),

155
Bristletails, 403, 430
Bristle- thighed curlew [Kioea], 310, 316,

325
Bristle-worms, 497
Brittle starfish, 498, 485, 487, 489
Broken bones, how treated by old natives,

197
Brooks, Capt., 94
Broom, Hawaiian, 76, 62
Brown house-spider, 409

ant, Big, 403

grasshopper, 429

mountain cricket, 429

rat, 291
' Brownie' ladybird, 394

Bryan, Dr. Elizabeth Letson, (Concholo-

gist), 12
Bryan, W. A., Photographs by, 14
Bubble, Caved in (Kilauea),'l86

dome in Kilauea, 186
Bubble-shell, 470

Banded, 467
Bubonic plague, 292
Buffalo, Water, 282
Bugs, Aquatic, 426

Chick- (Beetle), 417

True, 425

Sow, 436
Bugle, Hawaiian [Pu], 449
Building material, 129

sand, 129

timber, 213

of a house, 58

stone, Basalt as, 129

Bulb (213). Usually an underground leaf-bud
with fleshy scales.

Bulbs (Aerial), 213

Bull frogs, 299

Bullhead catfish, 377

Bullrush [Akaakai], 198, 199

Bulwers petrel, 310

"Bunn," 280

Bureau of Agriculture and Forestry (see-

Reforesting), 14
Burial cave, Hawaiian, 52
Burr, Sand, 287
BurrowTs, Bird, 313
Bushes (low) on Ocean Island, 90
Butter, Tamarind, 245
Butterflies, 421

Cabbage, 392, 399
Butterfly-fish [Kikakapu], 370, 353

Kamehameha, 392

-like fishes (Scorpion), 368
By-path in Ainahau Garden, 234
Byssus of Mytilus shown, 478

Cachlot, 301

Cabbage butterfly, 392, 399

butterfly, White, 422

tree, 210

worm, 399, 422
Cable Company, 93
(■actus, Common, 209
Cadelle beetle, 395

worm, 405
Caecum shells, 463

Calabash (sec also Umeke), 57, 76, 59
Calabash gourd, 57, 61, 67, 209

nets, 59

Introduced, 61

Use of pulp of, 79

Diameter of, 59
Calabashes, how polished, 59

of wood, How made, 59

INDEX.

535

Calcarious concretions on Maui, 139
corals, 475
sponges, 500

Caldera. The name often applied to the bowl-
shaped cavity otherwise known as the crater

of a volcano.
California, 262, 266, 284, 293. 295, 299, 304,
308, 345, 353, 363, 376, 377, 387, 393,
408, 445

bonito, 363

house finch, 304

lizards, 299

oysters, 445

palm, 237

partridge, 308

peanuts, 285

pepper tree, 240, 245

Scale in, control by, 393

Calyx (257). The outer set of the floral envelope
or leaves of a flower.

Cameo shells, 461
' Camp ' Moomumi, 136
Campbell, James, i 26
Camphor, 262

Canal jMollusea] (447). When the aperture is
notched or produced to receive a fleshy
tube, the respiratory organ.

Canary, Laysan, 314, 319, 320

Laysan, nest and eggs of, 316

Yellow, 320
Canavalia (see Awikiwiki)
Cancellated auger shell, 455
Candle-nut tree ([ Kukui], 202, 239
Candolle, Alphonse Loius Pierre Pyramus

de (Swedish Botanist), 235
Candy, Hawaiian, 210
Cane (see also Sugar-cane and Sugar)

-borer, 388

cars, 278

fields, Rots in, 291

fields, Spiders in the, 410

loader, Patent, 278

Canine (367). Dog-like in reference to the
sharp pointed, tearing teeth of a dog.

Canna, 207, 257

Cannibalism. Dr. W. I). Alexander has asserted
in his History of the Hawaiian People that
cannibalism was regarded with detestation
and horror. On the same subject, the Rev.
Sheldon Dibble, author of a much earlier
History of the Sandwich Islands, states:
"The practice was not common, and it is due
to the Hawaiians to say that those few in-
stances that did exist were looked upon by
most of the people with horror and detesta-
tion."

Canoe [Waa], 80
breaker, 81
Burial, 52
Fishing, 339
house, 58
Hull of a, 80
model, 57
races, 86
surf riding, 86
War, 48

Canoes, Decked, 29
Double, 29
Dimensions of large, 29

how made, 29

of koa, 211

Single, 80
Canon, Olokele, 102, 106

Waimea, 106
Canons on Kauai, 104, 107
Cape Gooseberry, 257

Capes. On OAHU— Kahuku Pt., Mokapu Pt.,
Mokapuu Pt., Diamond Head, Barber's Pt.,
Kaena Pt. ; on HAWAII — Upolu Pt., Kumii-
kuahi Pt., South (Ka Lae) Pt.; on MAUI —
Kahakuloa Pt., Kauiki Pt. ; on KAUAI —
Haena Pt. ; on MOLOKAI— Kalae o Kailio,
Ka Lae o ka Laau, Kapuupoi.

Capes and Points on Oahu, 110

Feather, 77

on Hawaii, 148

on Kauai, 104
Captain Cook 's death, Date of, 84

Place of, 84
Captain Cook's monument, 84
Capt. Walker, Home of (Ship wrecked on

Midway), 90

Carambola (Averrhoa Carambola Linn.) has long
been cultivated in the islands. It doubtless
came from China or India. It may be
identified most readily by its acid fruits
which are about the size of a lemon, yellow
in color, acutely five-angled, with a thin skin
and watery pulp. The fragrant fruit is used
when half grown for pickles; when ripe for
preserves. The flowers are rosy purple; the
tree usually 15 — 20 feet high, has alternate
odd pinnate leaves. It is said to produce
three crops a year.

Cardinal-fish, 369

Cardium, 446

Care of young (sec species in question)

Carnivorous (357). Subsisting on animal food.

Carol in as, 345

Carp, 376

Carpenter bee, 406, 403, 415

Carpet beetle, 395

Carrion beetles, 416

Carrying nets, 61

stick [auamo], 51, 68, 61
Carthagenians, 269
Carved dish, 70
Carving, Hawaiian, 59

Stone, in caves, 129

tools of stone, 74
Case-forming moths, 423

Cashew nut (A nacardimn occidental? Linn.).
The kidney-shaped nut consisting of a kernel
inside a very hard shell is borne upon a
swollen pear-shaped yellow edible stalk.
When roasted the kernals are also edible.
The small spreading tree is a native of the
West Indies, but occurs sparingly in Hono-
lulu gardens. One of the first trees intro-
duced was planted by Mr. Henry Davis in
his garden in Punahou, Honolulu. The
flowers are pink and sweet-scented; the
leaves light green, oval in shape and with
a rough leathery texture.

Cassava, 283, 284

Uses of, 284
Cassia, 205

flower, 205

Horse, 244

Purging, 244

Species of, 244
Cassis, 461

536

INDEX.

Castor bean, 285

bean bean-pod shells, 449
Casts, Fossil root-, 140

Root, 118

Sand, 118
Catalufa [Alalaua], 366, 354, 369
Cat-claw vine=Bird-claw vine

Caterpillar (885). Usually the larvae of a moth
or butterfly, but also applied to the same
stage of development for other insects.

Caterpillars stung by wasps, 414
Catfish, 377

Cats. Cats were an early introduction into Ha-
waii. A breed of bob-tailed eats is com-
mon— the tail having a curious corkscrew
kink at the end.

Cats, 293

cradles, 86
Cattle, effect on forest, 226

Loading, 282

Introduction of, 295

raising in Hawaii, 282

towed to steamer, 282

White-faced, 282

Wild, 295
Cavalla |Omilu'|, 362

Cavalla (small -papiopio, medium size = paupau,

Ifivsje — nlua).
Cavalla [Puakahala], 366
Cave in a lava ilow on Hawaii (Rainbow

falls), 160

dwelling, Abandoned, at Mooomumi,
140
Caved-in bubble (Kilauea), 186
Cavendish banana, 259
< 'avengerie, 273
Cavern in Kilauea, 186
Caves, Burial, 52, 129

at llaena, 1 OS

in Kilauea, 170

Stone carvings in, 129
Cavey, Cutlers, 293
Cayenne cherry, 2(57
Ceara rubber, Seeds of, peculiar, 281

rubber tree, 281
Ccnozoic, 1 17
Centimeter (sec Meter)
(Vntipede, 398, -405

Bite of, 405

Barge specimens from, 407
Central America, 211, 266
Centrifugals, Sugar, 275
Century plant, 2S()
Cephalopoda, 441
Cereus, Night-blooming, 246, 254

Night-blooming (in flower), 246

season, 25 1
Cerithium, 404

Certain foods forbidden to women, 46
Cevlon, 221, 296
Chamberlain, Mr. J. K.. 502
Changes produced by agriculture, 271
Channels, Maui-Molokai, 134
( hannels (*<r Inter-island channels)
Chapter— I, pages 25-31; II, 31-37; III, 37-

47; IV, 47-56; V, 56-63; VI, 63-74;

VII, 74-S7; VIII, 89-99; IX, 99-109;

X, 109-132; XI, 132-147; XII, 147-164:

XIII, 164-183; XIV, 183-188; XV, 189

210; XVI, 210-230; XVII, 231-243

XVIII, 243-254; XIX, 255-269; XX,

269-287; XXI, 290-304; XXII, 304-308

XXIII, 308-320; XXIV, 320-328; XXV,

328-338; XXVI, 338-347; XXVII, 348

360; XXVIII, 360-375; XXIX, 376

378; XXX, 379-390; XXXI, 390-410

XXXII, 410-431; XXXIII, 431-440

XXXIV, 440-453; XXXV, 453-467

XXXVI, 468-485; XXXVII, 485-503.
Character of the native insect fauna, 411

fish fauna, 351
Character of the (see order family genus

or species in question)
Characteristic gulch on Hawaii, 150

shore-line (Hawaii), 150

trees [Lauhala] on the shore line, 150

undershrub (Middle forest), 200
Chastity, 42
Checkered beetles, 417
Checkers, Hawaiian, 86
Cheese maggots, 405
"Cheeses," 196
Cheribon cane, 273
Cherimoya, 266
Cherry, French, 267

Ground, 257

Surinam, 267
Chest shell, 444
Chewing gum, made from, 266
Chicken louse, 400
Chickens, Wild. 295, 308
Chick-pea shells, 450
Chief food fish (Mullet), 359

industry (Cane growing), 274

magistrate, The King, 55
Chief ess [alii], 60
Chiefs and common people one race, 38

and intrigue, 55

Council of, 55

feared by common people, 55

Marriage of, 45

Powers of, 54

Rivalry among, 55

Size of the, accounted for, 39

Stature of, 39

Superiority of, 54

superior to common people, 38

The, 54
Children, Hawaiian, 32, 45
Chile, 360

Chilian strawberry, 255

China, 210, 222, 236, 260, 266, 269, 276, 281,
285, 291, 304, 305, 307, 320, 376, 377,
399

fish, 377

goldfish, 376
Chinch bugs, 425
Chinese banana [Maia], 258, 259

catfish, 377

ginger, 215

harrow, 282

horned nut, 285

lotus, 285

mantis, 429

INDEX.

537

orange, 266
palm, 237
pheasant, 307
reed -warbler, 308
snail, 436, 438
sparrow, 304
thrush, 308
turtle-dove, 305, 430
violet, 248
Chitons, 467

Chocolate, or cacao (Theobroma Cacao) Is a
small evergreen tree from 16 — 40 feet high
m its native wild state in tropical America.
Its fruit is a somewhat pear-shaped pointed
pod, 10 furrowed, from 5—10 inches long
and contains numerous large irregular seeds
embedded in a sweet pulp. These seeds are
very nutritive and agreeable in flavor and
are used both fresh and dried as articles of
rood. ihey are roasted, ground into a paste
mixed with sugar and flavoring matter to
make the chocolate of commerce. A few ex-
perimental trees are growing in Hawaii.
ihey may be recognized by their large
pointed leaves, the wine-colored new growth
and the small flowers with inflexed petals
hanging from the trunk and branches, and
by the pods.

Chocolate-lined cone, 460

Choice Hawaiian market fish, 362

Ch or date, 484

Christmas berry, 225
flower, 249
island shearwater, 310, 312

Chrysanthemum aphis, 389

Chrysolite or olivine occurs commonly in Ha-
waiian lavas as green or olive-green, some-
times yellowish, orthorhombic crystals They
are essentially a magnesium-iron "silicate • with
vitrious luster and a hardness between 6
and 7. The name olivine is more commonly
used by geologists.

Chrysophyllum (see Star apple)
Cigarette beetle, 395, 405, 418
Cinder cone, 160
Cinnamon, 262
"Circassian seed/7 203, 204
Circumcision (see Omaka)
Cirrhitidae, 354
Cirrhitoid fish [Pilikoa], 374
Cistelid, beetles, 418
City of refuge, 48, 51
at Honannau, 182
Cities on Oahu, 110
Cities Towns, Villages, Places, etc.. on OAHU—

5m, £iu'- Aiea' PearI Citv- Waipahu, Ewa
Mill, Waianae, Waialua, Wahiawa, Kahuku,
i-jaie, Hauula, Heeia, Kaneohe, Kailua,
^aimanalo; on HAWAII— (In Kohala)
Puako, Kawaihae, Mahukona, Hawi, Ka-
paau, Makapala. Wairaea: (In Haraakua)
Waipio, Kukuihaele, Honokaa, Paauhau,
laauilo, Kukaiau; (In Hilo) Ookala, Laupa-
hoehoe Papaaloa, Hakalau. Honomu, Ono-
mea, Papaikou, Hilo Town; (In Puna)
Keaau, June Miles, Mountain View, Pahoa
Kapoho, Kalapana: (In Kau ) Pahala, II ilea,
Honuapo, Naalehu, Waiohinu : (In Kona)
I apa, Hookena, Honaunau, Napoopoo, Kai-
^a'tVt Keauhou, Holualoa, Kailua; on
MALI— Lahama, Olowalu, Waikapu, Wai-
luku, \Vaihee, Kahului, Puunene, Sprcckels-
ville, Paia Haiku, Hamakuapoko. Makawao.
tauwela Huelo, Keanae, Hana, Kipahulu,
Kaupo, I Iupalakua, Kihei ; on KAUAI—
liihiie Kanaia, Hanamaulu, Kapaa, Kealia
Anahola, Kilauea, Kalihiwai. Hanalei Wai-

niha, Haena, Koloa, Lawai, Eleele, Hana-
ffi'At^Tka^e,i' Waimea, Kekaha ; on
MOLORAI— Kaunakakai, Kawela. Kamalo
Kalaeloa Pukoo, Honomuni, Pauwalu, Waia-
lua, Halawa, Lepau, Wailau, Pelekuna
Kalawao Kalaupapa ; on LANAI— Manna-
lei, Manele.

Citron, 265
Citrus fruits, 248

fruits, Pests of, 265
leaves, Scale on, 384
Clam(s), 443

Fresh-water, 436, 440
Heart=Heart shell, 456
Bound, 445
Tent, 446
Venus, 456
Clark, Dr. A. H. (Zoologist), 497
Classes among the Hawaiians, 54
Classification (see Nomenclature)

of (see species in question), 415
Clavicorn beetles, 416
Clay not used in pottery, 59
Cleanliness of Hawaiians, 38
Cleghorn, Hon. A. S., 307
Chick beetles, 417

Cliff disintegration, Example of, 136
Cliffs, Napali, 107

Sea, at Wailau valley, 136
Sea-formed, on Hawaii, 150
Climate, 33

Climate. While the Hawaiian language does not
have a word which is the equivalent of our
word climate, the language is rich in weather
words. I he dictionary gives 86 words per-
taining to clouds, 82 to precipitation, 189 to
wind movements, 23 to temperature, 11 to
optical meteorology, 18 to electric meteor-
ology and 12 general weather words.
Climate, changes in. Abundant evidence exists
to prove that the climate of the islands has
undergone changes in the past sufficient to
seriously effect the plants and animals. (See
Hiamond Head, Geology of. Forests, De-
forestation ,etc.)
Clinkstone. A name applied to phonolite be-
cause of its metalic, clinking sound when
shuck. it is a common product of Ha-
waiian volcanoes and was used bv the na-
tives m making stone adzes, etc.
Clinkstone, uses of, 74
Cloak [ahuula J of feathers, 44, 75, 333
Clothes-moth, 405, 423
Clothing (see Tapa)

of Hawaiians, 38
(loud belt on Haleakala, 143

cap over Kamalo, Molokai, 142
effects, Hilo Bay, 352
in Haleakala, 145
Clover, 286

nub-Mosses (Lf/copotiiacrr). Perhaps one hun-
cirort or more species occur in the group.
Ihey grow 111 crcvaccs of rocks, forks of trees
and among other plants usually occurring
in the higher forested regions.

Club rush, 198

-spined urchins, 487

Clubs, War, 79

Coan, Dr. Titus Munson, 45

Coan, Rev. Titus (Earlv Missionary) 157
172, 173 *h ?

Coan's account of 1852 eruption, 157, 158

35

538

INDEX.

Coast line of Oahu, 129

of Molokai, Northwest, 142

scenery on Hawaii, 344

scenery (Oahu), 130
Coastal (208). Pertaining to the coast or shore.
Coastal plain of Maui, 138
Coccids, 427

Cock-fighting. At Pan o Keokeo, on Hawaii,
immense crowds of Hawaiians gathered to
witness the cock-fights in former times. The
pens still stand as they were in the time of
Umi — three and a half centuries ago.

Cock fighting, 86
Cocklebur, 196, 287
Cockroaches, 402, 428

Number of species of, 428
Coco grass, 287
Cocoanut cups, 62

cord, Uses of, 75, 81

fiber, Use of, 73

hula drum [pahu hula], 64

Island (Volcanic), 150, 175, 176

Island, Palm trees on, 150

leaf-rib broom, 76

leaf -roller, 395

leaf, Use of, 65

milk (juice), 235, 236

oil, Uses of, 222, 236

palm as a symbol of hospitality, 233

palm (see also Palm), 233

Habitat of the, 233

History of the, 235

leaf-ro'ller, 422

shell drums, 82

spoon, 62

tree, 28, 234

trees (Laysan Island), 92

trees protected from rats, 235

Tree rats in the, 235, 292

uses of the, 236

Varieties of the, 236

wood hula drums, 70

Yield of a, 235
Cocoanuts, 67

Falling, danger from, 235

how distributed, 236
Cocoon, Silkworm, 399

Cocoon (309). The silky envelope which the

larva? of many insects spin as a covering

for themselves in the resting (chrysalis)
stage.

Oodiamms, 249

Varieties of, 251
Coelenterata, 480
Coffee, 190, 279

aphis, 39.1

-bean shells, 459

-bean weevil, 396

berries, Size of, 270

Harvesting of, 280

How gathered, 270

Kona, 219

native of, 279

Picking, 270

Types of Hawaiian, 280

when introduced, 279
Coffer-fish, 375

Coiled snail shell, 439

Colburn, J. F., 445

Coleus, 251, 386

Collumella defined, 450

Collecting ground at Waikiki, 116

on the reef, 478

outfit, 478

Water glass for, 478
Collection of taxes (see Taxes)
Colonial habit, Example of, 402, 404

hydroids, 481
Colony of Hawaiian tern, 316
Color of Hawaiians, 38

variation in land shells, 432, 433
Colors, Tabu, 73
Columnar basalt, 109
Commelina (sec Honohonowai)
Comments, notes, observations, where

found, 10
Commercial Pacific Cable Company, 93
Common amaranth, 196

beetles, wasps, bees, flies, etc., 406

brake, 223

corals, 486, 475

crabs, 482

crabs from the coral reef, 474

dolphin [Mahimahij, 362

ferns on Oahu, 228

Hawaiian birds, 337

Hawaiian fish, 366

Hawaiian sponges, 494

insects, 392

littoral species, 195

marine bivalves, 456

marine plants at Waikiki, 492

mealy-bug, 391

people, Houses of the, 58

people, How ruled, 55

people, Marriage among .the, 45

people, The, 54

plants of the lower forest (Oahu), 202

roadside plants, 198

sea shells, 460

side, 196

tunicates, 490

weeds, 196

Compass, Variation of, 88
Complete domestic arrangement, 58
Composite, 214

High mountain, 227

Compounded fish bait, 242

Compressed (364). Flattened from side to side;
narrower than high.

Concealment of bones (see plate 8)

Conch shells, 457

Spotted, 470
Concrete, 129

Condensed history of Kilauea, 183, 188
Cone, Cinder, 160

building in Halemaumau, 174

Chocolate-lined, 460

Hebrew, 460

Lettered, 460

shells, 453
Conqueror, Spoils of war belong to, 53

INDEX.

539

Conger-eel, 355

Conglomerate. A rock composed of cemented
gravel.

Connecting bars [iako] of hau, 80

Conoid harp shell, 460, 452

Conservation, Kamehameha I on, 221

of fish supply, 359
Consonants, Hawaiian, 39
Conspicuous insects, 392
Contents, 15-22

Convergence, Examples of, 481
Convict fish [Manini], 372
Convolvulus, 197

Cultivated, 248
Cook, Capt, James (Navigator), 153, 168
182, 209, 287, 291, 295

Cook killed at, 182
Cook 7s monument, Inscription on, 84
Cooke, Dr. C. Montague (Conchologist),
435 ■ s- ■ )y

Cooking (.see imu, also plate 4)
bananas, 259, 260
birds, Hawaiian method of, 324
shellfish, Native method, 443
Coot, Hawaiian, 323, 326
Coral (s), 475

and coral rock, 488
Branching, 486, 488
Collecting, 142
Common, 486
Common genera of, 477
Dead, 488
Eight-rayed, 479
growth prevented by, 211
How to clean, 479
lime, 129
Mushroom, 488
Organ pipe, 479
polyp, Work of, 93
Reef -building, 486, 488
rock, 486

rock, Worms from, 490
' ' tree, > y 203
Worms in, 497
Corallines, 498

Coral reef(s) at high tide, 478
at Molokai, 135
at Waikiki, 131
Early formation of, 220
Elevated, 115

Elevated (Ford Is., Pear] Harbor), 130
Elevated (Pearl Harbor), 130
Geologic significance of, 477
Miscellaneous animals from, 490
on Oahu, 110
Plants and animals from (part one),

468
Plants and animals from (part two),

485
The growing, 476
Cord (see aha)

Cordage from morning-glory vines, 197
Corduroy road (fern stems), 200
Cordyline, 251

Corolla (195). The leaves of the flower within
the calyx; usually bright colored.

Corn aphis, 389
cutworm, 396
leaf-hopper, 389
moth, 423
Coronation celebration, Hula dancers at, 78
Corpulency among the Hawaiians, 38
Coronet barnacles, 475
Cosmetics, Hawaiian, 215, 222
Cotton, 203
aphis, 391

boll-worm, 281, 399, 423
Early export of, 281
Native, 199

peculiarities of the fiber, 281
Pests of, 399
Sea Island, 281
tree, 281
Upland, 281
Varieties of, 281
Cottony cushion scale, 391

guava scale, 391
Council of chiefs, 5o
Cowboys, 282
Cowries as food, 458
Cowry, 447

Ancient pule to the, 459
Hump-backed, 460
Isabella, 470
Madagascar, 470
Money, 470
Snake-head, 470
used as medicine, 459
shells, 457
shells as bait, 458
shells as leis, 458
Crabs, 468, 469, 491

Brackish water, 436
common, How to identify, 471
Hermit, 474, 471
Sand, 496
Small, 482
Crab-like animals, 482

louse, 400
Crack in the the floor of Kilauea, 184
Crater formation shown bv Dewev crater
160 l

Hotel, 177

Koko (Oahu), from Haunama Pay, 128
"lake'7 on Hawaii, 160
of Mokuaweowreo, 186, 155
on Haleakala, 143, 152
Crawfish, 468
Creeper, Mexican, 248

Mountain, 250
Creeping fig, 245

grass, 208, 286
Crenulated auger shell, 455
Crickets, 428, 429

Common, chirp of, 430
Crime, 55
Crinoids, 495

Cross, Dr. Whitman (Geologist), 153
"Cross bill" flinch, 333
Crotons, 234, 249
Croton scale, 391
Crow-foot, 196

540

INDEX.

Crow, Hawaiian, 327, 335
Crowns, Pineapple, 261
Crystal cave, 146
Crystallizers, Sugar, 275

Cryptogams (191). Plants of low order; flower-
less plants having no stamens or pistils, but
reproducing by spores (as ferns, fungi, etc.).

Cub-shark, Hawaiian, 340
Cucumber fly (melon fly), 387
Cultivated fruits, 258

plants (see Garden plants)

plants, 246
Cultivation, Effect of, on native flora, 201
Curculios (sec also weevils), 418
"Curiosities," Shells as, 469
Curlew, Bristle-thighed, 310, 316, 324
Curious fishes, 374

forms of lava, 186

Hawaiian fish, 366

insects, 392

native plants, 206

plants and plant-like animals, 498
Custard apple, 266
Cuscuta (see Popolo)
Custom the basis of law, 5
Cup and saucer limpets, 462
Cutter's cavey, 293
Cutting and stripping sugar-cane, 278
Cuttlefish, 302
Cutworms, 396

Black, 422
Cuvierian organs, 495
Cycads, 237
Cyeas, 240
Cyclones are unknown in Hawaii

Cymes (219). Flower cluster in which the cen-
tral flowers are first to open.

Cyprsna, 447
Cyperus (see Ehuawa)
Cypress roach, 388
Monterey, 237
Cytandra (see Mapele)
Cytheria, Hawaiian, 456

D

"Daddy long-legs," 409
Daggers, 79

Dall, Dr. W. H. (Conchologist), 117
Damage by wild goats, 221
Damsel-bugs, 426

flies, 424
Dana, James D. (Geologist), 94, 113, 477
' Dance, ' Albatross, 314
Dancing (see Hula)
Darkling beetles, 418
Dark-rumped petrel [Uau], 310
Darwin, Charles (Evolutionist), 94, 435
Date, Indian, 245

palm, 238, 246, 236

palm, Fruit of, 236
Dates, 264, 236

of eruptions of Halemaumau, 183-188

of eruption of Mauna Loa, 183-188
Day mosquito, 387
Dead coral, Worms from, 490

Death caused by gods, 49

in the royal family, presaged by, 354
Decay, (Geologic) Period of (Oahu), 121
Deciduous tree, Poinciana, 244

Examples of, 194, 203
Deer axis, 296

introduced, 296

Molokai, 296

Spotted, 296
Defense, Method of, 51

Deforestation. Less than a century ago the trees
on the mountains of east and west Maui met
on the low plain connecting them; Lanai and
Molokai were well covered. The plain at Wa-
hiawa, on Oahu, was well covered with large
trees, while the native forest extended well
down to Honolulu. Kauai was also well
covered well down toward the sea-shore. The
changed condition now existing is generally
ascribed to over-stocking the forest with cattle.

Deformed inflorescence, 220

Degration through quiescence Example of,

473
Deification of nature (see Religion)
Demerara almond, 245
Dentate (217). Toothed.
Depth of Kilauea, 170
Depths of harbors (see Harbor anchorages)

Depths of Inter-Island channels (greatest depths
obtained in fathoms) : Niihau — Kauai chan-
nel, 550; Kauai-Oahu, 1872; Oahu-Molokai,
3 74; Molokai-Lanai, 73; Molokai-Maui, 135;
Lanai-Maui, 42 ; Maui-Kahoolawe, 100 ;
Maui-Hawaii, 1032. Depth five miles south
of Keauhou (Hawaii), 1285 f . ; five miles
south of Diamond Head, 33 7; five miles
south of Waimea (Kauai), 1019. Granting
a uniform elevation of the group sufficient to
connect the islands from Niihau and Kauai
to Kohala, on Hawaii, with dry land as sug-
gested by Dr. H. A. Pilsbry and others, the
old mountains on the various islands in their
youth doubtless stood much higher than at
present, but in no case would their youthful
altitude, of necessity, be greater than that
shown by Haleakala, Mauna Kea and Mauna
Loa as they now stand. Assuming the exist-
ance in remote time of a large pan-Hawaiian
island there is much reason to suppose that
the old mountain cones were slowly built up
by additions of new lava as their bases sank
beneath sea level, so that elevation of the
cones and general submergence of the great
island might proceed at the same time.
Should submergence take place as postulated
Kauai would first be detached: Kohala (and
Hawaii) next; Oahu third, Niihau fourth,
and Molokai, Maui, Lanai, Kahoolawe last
and at about the same time. There is
much biological evidence to substantiate this
view of the order of separation of the high
islands of the group.

Dermestes, 417

Descent into the crater of Kilauea, 178

of rank, 46

Description of (see order, family or species

in question)
Destructive insects, 380
Development of a fern frond, 228
"Devil's picture frame/' The (lava

forms), 186, 180
Devil, Sea, 347
Dewey crater (Mauna Loa) in eruption,

160*161
Diagram of sugar mill, 274

INDEX.

541

Diamond Head, 80, 115, 121
Age of, 124
Breccia, at, 219
Concretions at, 131
Fossils from, 118
Fossils at, 219
from Waikiki, 116
Height of, 115
History of, 219
Map of, 118
Plan map of, 118
Pot-holes at, 131
Root casts at, 131
Sea slope of, 131
Speculations based on, 115
Tufa cone of, 80
Vertical section through, 118

Diatomes. Both marine and fresh water species
abound in the group. Recent study of ma-
terial collected by the Albatross, and by the
writer, has added many species to the list of
this group of single-celled plants from this
region.

Dibble, Rev. Sheldon (Historian), 68, 221.

"Die-back," 265

Digger, The foo], 75
wasps, 413

Dikes, 121

Examples of, on Punchbowl, 121

Dioecious plant, Papaya, examples of, 263

Dip nets, 341
Large, 344

Dipthongs, Hawaiian, 39

Dipthongs. A dipthong is a union of two
vowels pronounced as one syllable. In
uttering a dipthong both vowels are
sounded but are so blended as to be
considered as forming one syllable.
In scientific nomenclature proper diph-
thongs occur frequently and are
usually indicated by the union of the
letters involved. In the present
volume the italic a* and oe used in the
Latin names occuring in the foot-notes
and the explanation of plates are so
similar in appearance that as a con-
venience, in the varification of spell-
ing, those words formed with an a1
have been here collected. Those oc-
curring in the description of the
plates are: Boerhaavia diffusa, Cler-
montia coerulea, Coelastrea tenuis,
Ocelenterata, Crangon = (Alpheus)
loevis, Ipomcea spp., (Echalia grisea,
Parexoccetus brachypterus, Phioema
sp., Phoenix dactylifera, Seaevola
Koenigi. Those occurring in the
foot-notes for the text are: Boehmeria
nivea, Ccelenterata, Coelophora spp.,
Exoccetida4, Exocoetus volitaus, Ipo-
mcea spp., (Edemeridtfe, (Estridse,
(Estrus, Parexoccetus brachypterus,
Phicema, Phcenix dactylifera, Pcecil-
liidse.

Disease, caused by gods, 49

Diseased inflorescence, 202

Diseases of the banana, 260

Pineapple, 261
Disemboweling weapon, 81
Dishes, 59
Disk-head fish, 367

Distances by sea from Honolulu to Kalaupapa, 52
miles; Lahaina, 72 m.; Kahului, 90 in.;
Hana, 128 m. ; Maaleae, 86 m. ; Makena,
90 ni. : Mahukona, 134 m. ; Kawaihae, 144
m. ; Kailua (on Hawaii), 157 in.; South
Point (Ka Lae), 233 m. ; Honuapo, 244 m. ;
Hilo (direct), 192 m. ; Hilo (via Kawai-
hae), 230 m. ; Nawiliwili. 98 m. : Koloa,
102 m. ; Waimea, 120 m. ; Hanalei, 125 m.

Distances on Hawaii, 148
on Kauai, 104
on Maui, 134
on Oahu, 110
(see Overland Distances)

Distilling (see Okolehao)

Distribution of fauna and flora explained,
290

Distributors, This volume is privately
published and may be secured, at the
net price $5.50 per copy postpaid, from
the author direct (address) P. O. Box
38, Honolulu, Hawaii, or from the fol-
lowing authorized book dealers and
distributors;

Thrum's, Limited, Fort St., Honolulu, Ha-
waii.

H. S. Crocker Co., 565-571 Market St., San
Francisco.

Gt. E, Stechert & Co., 151-155 W. 25th St.,
New York.

G. E. Stechert & Co., 2 Star Yard, Carey
Street W. C, London.

Districts: On OAHU — Honolulu, Ewa, Waia-
nae, Waialua, Koolauloa, Koolaupoko. Ho-
nolulu, with about one-fourth the population
of the whole group, is the capital city. On
KAUAI — Waimea, Koloa, Lihue, Kawai-
hau, Hanalei (including Napali) ; on
MAUI — Lahaina, Wailuku, Makawao, Hana;
on HAWAII — Kohala (divided into North
and South Kohala), Hamakua, Hilo (divided
into North and South Hilo), Puna, Kau,
Kona (divided into North and South Kona) ;
on MOLOKAI — Undivided.

Divergence »(433). Differentiation in action or
character.

Diviners (see Nana uli)
Diving beetles, Predaeeous, 416

boys in Honolulu harbor, 60

from high places, 8(5
Division of lands (see King and the lands)
Dixon, ("apt. George (Navigator), 431
Doctor-fish, 372
Dodder, 199, 204
Dodonaja (see Alii)
Dog-flea, 401
Dog whelks, 451

-fish, Hawaiian, 346

Food for, 67

fish, Hawaiian, 346

-shark, 340

teeth, use of, 82

-tick, 401

travs, 61

Wild, 29o
Dogs' teeth, use of, 77

542

INDEX.

Dolium, 460, 461
Dolphin, 300, 354

Common, 362, 301

Whale, 355
Domestic animals, 287

animals, Hawaiian, 295

arts of women, 46
Dorsal fin (353). The fin on the back of a fish.
Dosalane (see Hawaiian igneous rocks)
Double canoes, 29

gang plow, 278

pronged fish spear, 344

war canoe, 48
Dove, Chinese turtle, 305

Eggs of, 305

shells, 453

shell, 470

shooting, 305
Dowsett, Capt., 97

Reef, 88, 97
Dracaena, 251

[ki], 190, 251
Dragon fly [Pinau], 392, 423

larvae, 440

nymah, 436

tree, 211
Dredger dump, Shells collected on the, 447
Drepanidida*, Genera of, 332

Various genera of, 330
Dress of Hawaiian women, 38
Dried fish, 364
Drill, Rotary, 35
Drive, Date palm, 234

Drowned valley (Hanalei), Example of,
106

Kahana a, 131

Kahana, Oahu, an example of, 128

on Kauai, Example of, 106

Waipio a. 154
Drum fish (Puffer), 367

heads, Hula, 346
Drums, Cocoanut shell, 82

Gourd, 82

Hula, 82

Drupe [Hot. J. A stone-fruit.
Dryland taro, 225

taro culture, 65
Duck, Foreign, 328

Hawaiian, 323, 328, 335

Laysan, 318

Pintail, 328

Shoveler, 328
Dunes, Erosion of, 142

Root-casts in, 140

(see Sand dunes), 131
Dung beetle, 417
Dutch East Indies, 279
Duties of Hawaiian women, 46
Dwarfs, Work of, 359
Dyes for tapa, 69

Dye stuff. The Hawaiians had an extended list
of materials which served as dye stuff
for ornamenting their tapas. Among the
plants so used were akoa, awapuhi, haa, niu,
holei, mao, na'u, noni, ohia, olenia, koa,

pili (eharcoal of), walahee ,etc. Other dyes
were made from earth, eharcoal, ashes, red
oeher, etc.
Dye stuff, Source of, 205

Eagle fern, 223

rays, 347
Early voyages, 26

Difficulties encountered in, 29
Ears slit as a mark of humiliation, 51
Earth oven [imu], 36, 66
Earthquake of 1868, 159
Earthenware not made by Hawaiians, 59
Earthworms, 440, 497
Earwigs, 415, 428
E-a (Sea turtle), 299
Eastern oysters, 445
East Indies, 235, 346, 407
Eating bananas, 259

poi, 76
Echinoidea, 487
Echo trail, 178
Economic entomology, Study of, 380

insects (part one), 380*

insects (part two), 391

insects, Some, 384

study of native plants, 283
Edible algas, 502

mussel, Hawaiian, 456

ohia, 216

snail, 438
Eel(s), 355

-conger, 355

fishing, 242, 355

-like fish, 361

spear, 341

Species of, 355

and other curiously shaped fishes, 350

Egg fruit (Lucuma Rivicoa Ga?tn.). A native of
Brazil and of rare occurrence in Hawaii.
The fruit is described as being "about the
size and shape of an egg and tastes like the
yolk sweetened."

Egg parasites, 382

of (see Species in question)

shells, 459
Eggs, Albatross, 316

Fossil, 315
Eight-marked ladybird, 394

-rayed corals, 479

-rayed starfish, 489
Ehrhorn, E. M. (Economic Entomologist),
12, 410

Ehuawa. A species of sedge (Cy perns hicvigatus
Linn.) from which a strong cord was made;
but its chief use was in the manufacture ot
of the fine Niihau mats. It is common in
shallow sweet and brackish water.

Ekaha (Birds-nest fern), 190, 240, 223, 253

Ekaha, 228

Ekaha-ula=Ekaha

Elseocarpus (see Kalia)

Elepaio, 329

Hawaii, 337
Kauai, 334
Oahu, 337

INDEX.

543

Elevated coral reefs, evidence from, 127

coral reef (Pearl Harbor), 130

reef at Kahuku, 132
Elevation and submergence (see Depths of
Inter-island channels)

of Hawaiian Islands (see Depths of
Inter-island channels)
Elevations on Maui indicated, 134

on Molokai, indicated, 134

(sec Mountains)

Elliptical (216). Oblong or oval with the ends
similarly rounded.

Ellis, Rev. William (Early Missionary),

42, 154, 169, 171, 172, 182*, 221

Embalming, Hawaiian method of, 52, 223

Embalming. Sometimes the human body was
partially embalmed bv being salted and dried.
See plate 8.

Embayed shore-line, 270
Emerald shell, 470

Emerge (382). To come out of the covering:
to come forth, as a butterfly from a cocoon.

Emergency diet, 69

Emerson, Jos. S., 342

Emerson, Dr. N. B. (Ethnologist, Hawaiian

scholar), 459
Emoloa, 224
Encampment shell, 446

Endemic (193). A species peculiar to the islands:
'autochthonous' is often used in the same
sense. Peculiar to and hence characteristic
of a given locality.

Endemic fauna. Dr. Perkins estimates that nine-
teen-twentieths of the endemic species now
existing in Hawaii have their home in the
true forest belt on the islands.

Endemic plants, 191

Endogenous plant, Palm example of, 233

End of new flow (1907), 162

of book one, 288

of book two, 504
Enemies, bones, use of, 63

of lantana, The natural, 384
Engines, Traction, on a plantation, 274

used in plowing, 278

England, 29.f, 307, 401

English names. The approved as well as cur-
rent English names are given in the text,
and are referred to proper scientific names.
(See also Nomenclature.)

English, 304

skylark, 307

sparrow, 277, 304

sparrow, Eggs of, 304

Engraver beetle, 41 8

Entire [Bot] (252). The edge of the leaf is
perfectly smooth, not being notched, toothed
or otherwise modified.

Entomological collection, Portion of, 380
Entomological Society, Hawaiian, 411

Entomologists (383). One versed in or engaged
in the study of insects.

Entomology, Economic, The study of, 380
Entrance to Pele 's Reception room, 184
Environment effect of, 441

effect on habits, 39

its effect on the people, 31

Natural, its effect, 31

Eocene, 117, 127, 220

Epidermis [Mollusea] (450). The outermost
covering of the body of an animal.

Erect [Bot.]. Said of plants when they grow
upright from the root.

Erosion by the sea, Example of, 142
Examples of, Molokai, 136
Example of in sandstone, 140
in the Waianae range, 122
Koko Head example of, 472
of the Koolau range shown, 112, 130
of Waipio valley ,154
on Kauai, Example of, 106
on Molokai, Example of (Halawa), 140
Sea, on Hawaii, 150

Eruption and flow of 1840, 172
General view of (1905), 162
on Mauna Loa (Dewey crater), 160
1905, Party visiting, 162

Eruptions of Kilaueu, 174

Escaped (205). Introduced as a domesticated
plant or animal but now run wild.

Escaped introduced plants, 200
Establishment of the Hawaiian race, 30
Ethnographic collection, Hawaiian, 57

groups in the Bishop Museum, 64
Eugenia, 267, 268
Eulima shell, 470, 462
Euphorbias, 249

Rubber producing, 283

Wild, 196
Europe, 208, 249, 269, 286, 292, 377, 428, 451
Europeans, 191, 205, 215, 259, 284, 297, 3113
Evaporating pans, Sugar mill, 274
Evaporators, Sugar, 275
Evergreen-like trees, 237
Evidence from artesian wells, 220

of elevation at Pearl Harbor, 130
Evolution, Material for study of (shells),
435

of the Hawaiian birds, 338
Example of color variation, 432

of fore-plain (Kamalo), 142

of Pahoehoe in Kilauea, 184

of promontory [Kohala], 148

of rain forest, 190

of sheet lava flows, 122

of sub-aerial erosion, 136

of Talus debris, 136
Exchange of wares among Hawaiians, 74
Exchanges, Shell, 441

Executive, judicial and legislative func-
tions, 54

Executions were anciently in the form of assas-
sinations, without any trial or any public
sentence, and were performed in the most
rude and barbarous manner bv assault
usually at. night. Often the vict:m was
attacked from the rear and done to death
by strangulation or by breaking the back.

Exile-oil, 252

Exotic (381). Not native; introduced from a
foreign country.

Exotic flora, 231

plants, 246

plants (Government Nursery), 238
Exposed fossil root-casts, 140

544

INDEX.

Extinct birds, Explanation for, 335

Hawaiian birds, 333

oyster, 444
Eyes of Hawaiians (characteristic), 38

Fairy tales. The stories of the achievements of
the menehune people correspond with the
fairy tales of other races. The menehunes
are sometimes represented in Hawaiian
legends as a race of industrious dwarfs that
employed themselves in many ways, as build-
ing heiaus, fish ponds, etc.

Falling (palm) leaf, 232
Falls in Halawa valley, 142

of Moaula, Middle, 136

Wailua, 102

False [Mynah] (306). Having some superficial
resemblance to a given species or thing.

False geranium, ' ' Cheeses, 1 ' 196

koa, 198

mallow, 196

operculum, 439

scorpions, 408
Familiar Hawaiian birds, 337

insects, 392
Family, 42, 43

discipline among Hawaiians, 45

(see Nomenclature)
Fan palm, 240, 236
Fans, 57, 62

Hawaiian, 70
Fan-tailed fly catcher, Hawaiian, 329
Farmer, Chinese, 282
Farming, Small, industries, 270
Father of race, Home of, 50

Fauna (328), The animals living in a given

area.
Fauna and flora, Distribution of, ex-
plained, 290

Hawaiiensis, 407, 414

Isolation of explained, 290

Native insect, 411
Fearless birds on Laysan, 314
Feather cape [ahuula], 70

cloak [ahuula], 48, 75

leis, 57, 77

ornaments, 75

robes, how made, 75

robe of Kamehameha I, 75

-stars, 497
Feathers, Use of, 75, 77

Use of (see species in question)
Features of Hawaiians, 38
Federal Experiment Station, U. S. (sec

Hawaii Agri. Exp. Sta.)
Feeding habits of (see species in question)
Female children, how regarded, 46

line, Rank descended through, 46
Females, Special tabus for, 46
Fern or ferns

aphis, 389

Bird's nest, 223, 253

Birds nests (Cultivated), 240

Boston, 253

Eagle, 223

Fish-tail, 253

frond, Development of a, 228

Giant [Heii], 190, 223

Maiden hair, 223, 419

roots, uses of, 223

stem road, 200

Tree, 222, 253

Uses of, 221, 223
Ferns, 253

along Olympus trail, 206

in the moist woods (Hawaii), 190

in upper forest, 227

Number of species and genera of, 223

Pulu, 222

Staghorn, 228
Festooning vines, 234
Feudal organization of Hawaiians, 47
Feudalism, 55, 56
Fiber, Cotton, 281

plant, Banana as, 280

plant, Sisal as, 280

plants, 69, 280

plants, Native, 217

Sisal, First step in making, 270
Field and roadside plants, Common, 198

boulders (Oahu), 130

boulders (Waianae range), 122

Introduced plants and animals of the,
231

laborers, 278

mice, 293

of cane in blossom, 278

and lower forest, Plants of, 212

stone as building material, 129
Fig, Banian, 283

Common, 245

Creeping, 245

native of, 267

Smyrna, 267
Figs, 266
Fiji, 397
Files, Stone, 75
Finch, California house, 304

-like birds, Hawaiian, 331
Finches, ' l Cross bill, J ' Hawaiian, 333
Finger bowls, 70, 61
Fire, 62
Fire, How carried, 62

Hawaiian method of lighting, 62

lake in Kilauea, 174

Legend of origin of, 326

Method of making, 40

how made, 328
Fire-cracker vine, 250, 248
Fireplace, 59

in the Volcano house, 184

Fires, Forest. Forest fires of a more or less de-
structive nature occasionally occur. They
were also known in ancient Hawaii. Fire
was used to some extent by the natives to
clear land in the forest for native crops.

Fires, trash, 275

First fruits. When the first fruits of any crop
were ripe they were offered to the family
gods on the proper day of the moon.

INDEX.

545

First impressions of Honolulu, 231

land shell described by, 431

slain in battle ,a sacrifice, 53
Pish, Amber, 362

bait 242

bait, Method of securing, 343

Baking, 349

-baskets, Hawaiian, 70

-baskets, Native, 341

-baskets shell, 470, 451

Blue parrot, 370

for boiling, 349

Butterfly, 370, 353

Cirrhitoid, 374

Common, 362, 366

Conservation of, 359

Dried, 364

eaten raw, 355, 365

fauna, Character of the, 351

Floating, 355

Flying, 366

Flying gurnard, 374

Fresh water, 376

Frying, 349

Goat, 362, 366

Gobies, 374

Lizard, 350

market, Fish at the, 348

Moorish Idol, 370

-moth, 403, 430

Needle, 350

nets, 73

Pan, 349

Parrot, 370

pens, 341

photographers (How made indicated),
356

Pilot, 366

pond, 270

ponds, The first, when built, 27

poison, 341

use of, 358

Poisonous, a, 367

Porcupine, 370

Protection of, 359

Scorpion, 374

snare, 242

-spear, Double-pronged, 344

Spearing, 344, 341

Species of, 348

Squirrel, 362, 366

Sucking fish attached to, 368

Surgeon, 370

Surgeon, striped, 362

Sword, 366

-tail fern, 253

Thread, 366

traps, 341

traps, Hawaiian, 70

Trigger, 370

Trumpet, 350

Trunk, 374

Wrasse, 366, 370
Fisherman with a throw net, 344

Hawaiian, 472

Fisher, Dr. Walter K. (Zoologist), 12, 489,
493, 314

Photogarphs by, 14
Fishes at the Aquarium, 356

Curious, 366, 370, 374

Curiously shaped, 350

Deep sea, 354

Hawaiian (Part one), 338

Hawaiian (Part one), 348

Hawaiian (Part two), 374

Fish gods. Several species of fish arrive in
large numbers on the coast every year in
their respective seasons. The fish first se-
cured was always carried to the fisherman's
heiau and there offered to the fish god whose
influence, it was thought, had driven the
school of fish to the land. It is suggested
that the natives, at some remote date, had
seen the fish pursued through the islands by
sharks and that the occurrence may have led
them to respect the shark as a powerful
god of the fishermen.

heiaus, 50, 73
Fish-hooks, Bone, ivory, tortoise shell, 242

Fish-hooks were made of shell, bone, tortoise-shell
and ivory ; iron was substituted in most cases
at an early date. But few fish-hooks [he
makau] are now made in the ancient style.

Fishing, 73

Ancient method of shark, 343

and idol wTorship, 73

apparatus, 64

at night, 242

birds, 325

equipment, Ancient Hawaiian, 339

from sailing vessel, 344

from the jibboom, 344

Hand, 242

in former times, 339

in Hilo Bay, 352

Reef, 344

Religious ceremony observed, 339

Shark oil, 346

with a net, 344

Fishing torch. Torches were made of kukui nuts
strung on a rush, or on a cocoanut mid-rib
and bound together with ki leaves. They
would burn in almost any kind of weather.
The natives believed that when the torch
burned poorly, the fishing would be poor,
but if it burned bright the fishing would be
good. The light from the torch blinds or
dazzles the fish. Sometimes a fire is made
on the bow of the boat to aid in fishing.
Often the blinded fish may be killed with a
club.

Fish-lice, 468
Fish-line container, 57

of olona, 217
Five-fingered morning-glory [Koali ai], 192
Five-sided starfish, 489
Flamboyant tree, 244
Flame tree, 244

Flashlight view Pele's reception room, 170
Flat black-scale, 391
Flatfish, 360, 371
Flat-worm, 490, 477

Fleabane or Horse-weed [lliohe], 262, 287
Fleas, 401, 419
Flesh-colored cowry, 458
Flesh fly, 387, 419 *

546

INDEX.

Flies, 419

Common, 406
Flightless rail killed as sport, 293

rail, Laysan, 314
"Floating out,? algae, 501
Floor at Haleakala, 145

of Keanakakoi, 186

of main crater, Kilauea, 166
Flooring, Hard wood, 215

Flora (189). The plant life of a given region;
in a similar way the 'fauna' includes the
animal life.

Flora, Bog (Molokai), 218

Development of the, 189

Exotic, 231

Isolation of explained by subsidence,
290

Isolation of the, 189

Littoral, 195

Mountain bog, 229

Native, 192

of the group, 189

Relations of the, 189

Sources of the, 191

The island, 189

Variation in, from island to island,,
193
Floral zones, 195

zones, Lee and windward sides differ,
222
Florida, 364

red scale, 384, 391
Flounders, 371
Flow from Halemaumau, 174

of 1832, 170

of 1907, End of, 162

of ropy lava, 162

structure of lava, 186
Flower leis, 77

of the taro, 66

peddler, 246
"Flower pots, " Lava (Puna), 156

Flowering plants (native). Except for the red
flowers of the ohia tree there is very little
in the way of conspicuous flowering plants
in the native flora. Other species with
interesting flowers and foliage occur such
as Gardenia, Hibiscus, HiUebrandia, certain
Compositm, Freycinetia, Sophora, the Lo-
belias, etc., hut thev seldom attract the atten-
tion of the casual observer by reason of
their color alone.

Flowers as ornaments, 38

form for adornment, 38
Flume, Modern, 28
Flute, Nose, 82
Fluted scale, 391
Fly, Black, 265

Dragon, 392, 436

transmitting infant paralysis, 419
Fly-catcher [Elepiao], 337

catcher, Hawaiian, 329

Fly-flaps were small kahilis used as insigna of
chieftainship and also as* fly-flaps. (See
plates 6 and 13.)

Fly-flaps, 60, 77

Flying fish [Malolo], 366, 355, 364

fish, Curious, 357

fish, Food for, 318

fish, shooting, 355

gunard [Lolo-oau], 374, 357
Folk songs, 41
Food fish, 348

fish, Abundance of, 351

fish, Chief, 359

of Hawaiian goose, 255

of (sec species in question)

supply and population, 45

Two mollusks used as, 442
Foot racing, 83
Forage plants, 285, 286
Forbes, Charles N. (Botanist), 12, 226
Forbes, Rev. Mr. (Early Missionary), 139
Ford Island, Map of, 110
Foreign duck, 328

Forel, Prof. A. (Entomologist), 413
Foreplain at Kamalo, 142
Forest (see also Deforestation and Re-
foresting)

Birds of the, 328

Effect of animals in, 287

Introduced plants and animals of the,
231

jungle, View in a, 200

on Oahu, View in, 218

Plants from the lower, 201

Vegetation in the, 200

zone, Lower, 201, 210

zone, Middle, 228

zone, Upper, 227
Forms of lava, Curious, 186
Formation of sand hills, 90
Fortifications, Hawaiian, 51

Fossil (193). The petrified forms of plants or

animals.
Fossils from Diamond Head, 118, 131, 219

eggs, 315

roots, 118

root-casts, Exposed 140

shells at Pearl Harbor, 130

tree moulds, 1 81
Fossores, 413

Foster, Mrs. Mary E., 300
Foundations of houses, 58
Four-banded fly, 388
Four-footed butterflies, 421
Four o'clock, 254
France, 205

Frear, Hon. W. F., Photographs by, 14
French cherrv, 267

Frigates Shoal (volcanic), 88, 96, 97

Frigates Shoal, Discovery of, 97
Fresh water clam ,436, 440

fishes (Gobies), 357, 376

fauna of Oahu, 436

Hydra, 475

limu, 503

shells, 431, 438

shrimp, 436, 409, 4(39

Fresh water springs. Springs often occur in the
ocean about the islands, as about Diamond
Head, along the southern coast of Molokai,
the east end of Maui, at Hana, at Kawaia-
hae, Keauhou and Punaluu. In some sec-
tions they determined the location of villages
as they furnished a dependable supply of

INDEX.

547

fresh water. Springs are, of course, abund-
ant in the mountainous districts on all the
large islands,
springs in the sea, 127, 131

Frigate bird (see Man-o '-war bird), 312
mackerel, 361

Frog fish, 374, 355, 449

Frogs, 297, 440

Species of, 297

Fronds (225). The leaf of a fern; that which

corresponds with the leaf in higher plants.
Frontispiece (Portrait by Rochlitz, New

York, 1909), 4
Frost Shoal, 97
Fruit culture in Hawaii, 255

-fly, Mediterranean, 265, 386, 419, 421

-fly, not serious pest of Avocado, 262

Pineapple, 261

trees in the tropical setting, 36

Introduced, 255

Island, 255

Native, 255

Native and introduced, 258, 264

Tropical, in Hawaii, 255

Wild and cultivated, 258
Fulgens group (Land shells), 433
Fulgur shells, 450

li Fulgurites" (Root casts which see), 118
Fullaway, David T. (Entomologist), 12,

427
Fuller's rose-beetle, 394
Fumes, Sulphur, on vegetation, 170

Fungi. Many species occur in the islands,
usually in the native forests. An ed.hle
species occurs on decaying kukui wood. A
number of species have been introduced since
the islands were first discovered.

Fungi, Beetles in, 418

on Japanese beetles, 394

Fungus (242). Fungi consist of slender cells
"which form thread-like filaments. The group
is a very diverse one including mushroom
molds, etc., and forms one of the lowest,
orders of Cryptogams.

Fungus gnats, 419

Furnishings for a house, 59

Fusability of lava. The Hawaiian basalt is
among the most readily fused of lavas. It
melts at a temperature of about 2500° Fahr.,
depending somewhat upon its chemical com-
position.

Future state, The, 50

Galapagos, 300

land tortoise, 300
Galingale, 198

Gallinule, Hawaiian, 323, 326
Galls on Lantana, 385
Gambia, Whaleship, 303
Gambier Shoal, 94

Discovery of, 94, 95

Position of, 94
Gambling, 86
Gamboge tree, 246
Games and amusements —

Bathing, 86

Boxing, 83

cats cradles, 86

cock righting, 86

diving, 86

flying kites, 86

jumping the rope, 86

hiding the pebble, 86

foot racing, 83

mock fights, 83

noa, 86

of chance, 86

Pahee (see Pahee)

spear throwing, 84, 83

* ' summer tobogganing, ' ' 86

Surf-riding, 86

top spinning (which see)

Maika (see Ulu)

Wrestling, 83
Gaps on Haleakala, Significance of, 144
Garcinia (see Mangosteen)
Garden grass, 196

Introduced plants and animals of the
231

looper, 397

plants, 240

Ramble in a Honolulu (part one), 231

Ramble in a Honolulu (part two), 243

spider, 409, 410

spurge, 196
Gardenia, 386
Gardens, Submarine, 476

Ainahau, 234

Tropical, 234

Views in Honolulu, 246
Gardner Island, 88, 97, 103

Discovery of, 97
Gar-like fish/364
Gartley, A., Photographs by, 14
Gasteropods, 441, 446
Gathering pipipi, 442

sisal, 270

sugar-cane, 274
Gang plow, Double, 278
Geckos, 296

Species of, 297
Geese, Foreign, 328
Genealogies and History, 26

Hawaiian, 26

Time measured by, 26

Genealogy. The genealogv of the more ancient
Hawaiian chiefs are the same as those of the
chiefs of the Society Islands; the names of
the important idols in one group are the
same as those in the other. The names of
the principal gods were also much the same
and all pointing to the common remote origin
of the Polynesian race.

Genera (see Nomenclature)

of comomn corals, 486

of common ferns, 228

of plants, Number of, 191
General view 1905 eruption, 162

Koko Head, 472

summit of Mauna Kea, 154

of Haleakala, 145

of Kilauea, 186

of a lava flow, 162

of Moana valley, 270

548

INDEX.

of mouth of Halawa valley, 140

of the Aquarium, 356

of the Pali, 125

of Waianae range, 122

on Hawaii, 162

on Hawaii, 154, 156, 160, 162

on Oahu shore-line, 270
Genesis of the Polynesian race, 25
Geologic development of Kauai, Stages in
the, 290

economic products (Oahu), 127

history of Oahu, 219, 220, 221
Geological survey, U. S., 153
Geographic position of the islands, 93
Geography of the Hawaiian Islands, 89-188
Geology of the Hawaiian Islands, 89-188
Geranium, 229

False, 196

Wild, 287
Giant fern [Heii], 190, 223
Giants among the Hawaiians, 37
Gill nets, 339
Ginger, 221, 257

Chinese, 215

Native, 202, 213

Species of, 215
Glass-bottomed boat, Use of, on the reef,

131
Glen wood, 176
Gnats, Fungus, 419
Globe-fish, 365, 367
Globular mealy-bug, 391

snail, 438
Goat(s), introduced, 287, 295

-fishes, 372

-fish [Kumu], 362

-fish [Mumu], 366

Forest damaged bv, 287

Wild, 295
Gobies, 355
Goby [Oopu], 374
God of war [Kukailimoku], 52, 77
Goddess of the hula, 82
Gods as spirits, 49

Fish, 73, 339

in human form, 49

Lesser, 49

of ancient Hawaii, 49

Plants and animals as, 49

Sacrifice to, in war, 53
Golden plover, 321

plover, Migrations of, 322

plover, Pacific, 310

saddle oyster, 445

shower, 244
Goldfish, Varieties of, 376
Goober-nuts, 285
Goodrich, Rev. Joseph (Early Missionary),

155
Gooneys (Albatross), 316, 312
Goose barnacles, 473

-berry, 257

Hawaiian, 310, 323, 335, 336

mussels, 473
Gossamer- winged butterflies, 385, 421
Gould augur shell, 455

Gourd, Bottle, 209

Bottle, uses of, 61

calabash, 57, 61, 209

containers, 68

drums, 82

fish-line container [polio alio], 57

hulu drum [pahu hula], 57, 70, 78

masks worn, 48, 79

water bottle [huewai], 57
Gourds, how prepared for use, 61

Ornamentation of, 209

uses of, 209
Government collection, Portion of, 57

Nursery, Old (King St.), 238
Graft, A natural, 218
Granadilla, 268
Grampus, 301

Grape, Isabella (Vitis Labrusca) 267
Grape fruit, 265
Grapes, 266
Grass army-worm, 388, 396

Beach, 192

Bermuda, 286

Coco, 287

Creeping, 208, 286

Garden, 196

Guinea, 286

Hilo, 208, 286

Introduced species of, 286

Japanese, 287

Native, 286

Nut, 196, 287

Pampus, 238

Para, 286

Pepper, 287

Pili, 209

Stick -tight, 196
Grasses, 208

Forage, 285, 286,

used for thatch, 286
Grasshoppers, 388, 428
Gray, Dr. Asa (Botanist), 283
"Great crack" in floor of Kilauea, 184,

187
Greatest active volcano, 164
Green-breasted pheasant, 308

garden looper, 397

grasshopper, 429

islet (in distance) Midway, 90

Lake in Puna, 160, 176

pool, Puna, 160

-scale. 391

silversword, 229

turtles [Honu], 294, 300
Greenhouse pest, A, 384
Grenadilla, 264
"Grey backs" (Louse), 400

-backed tern, 310, 318

-crowned tern, 311

rats, 291

shells, 453

sugar-cane mealy-bug, 389
Grimshaw, P. H. (Entomologist), 419
(Grimsham error)

INDEX.

549

Grindstone, or more properly whetstones (pohaku
hookala) were made from hard, more or
less gritty roek. They were used in an-
cient times for sharpening stone implements
and in modern times may occasionally be
seen in use for whetting knives, etc.

Grindstones, 75

Ground cockroach, 388

beetles, 416

cherry, 257

nesting birds, 311

-nuts, 285

pine [Wawae iole], 214
Group, The flora of the, 189

in Bishop Museum, Bird, 310

in the Bishop Museum, Ethnographic,
64
Grouper [Hapuupuu], 362, 369
Growing coral reef, 476

of taro, 63
Grubs, Beetle, defined, 416
Guano beds on Laysan, 315

Lighter load of, 92

Loading, 92

on Laysan, 95

rock, Pile of, 316

Kate of deposition of, 97

Guava. The genus Psidium is represented in
Hawaii by several species and varieties, all
introduced from the West Indies, South
America and China. The common guava
(P. Gnajava var. pyriferum Linn.) is the
yellow fruited form common everywhere by
the roadside. The sweet red species
(P. Guajava Linn.) is also common and has
a sweet, firm, red pulp. A white lemon-
shaped form is also common in certain locali-
ties; it has a white, sweet pulp. Another
variety of early introduction known as
waiawi has small pear-shaped fruits with
yellow flesh and numerous large seeds. The
strawberry guava (P. Catteianwm Sabine)
is a very different species with round red
fruits. A variety {P. G. lucidum Hort.)
with small, round, yellow fruit is also culti-
vated.

Guava, 263

Effect of on soil, 263

Lemon, 264, 263

Species of, 263

Strawberry, 263

Uses of, 263
Guessing game [Puhenehene], Playing a, 76
Guinea grass, 286

fowl, 308

pigs, 293

pigs, howT used, 293
Gulch, A characteristic, on Hawaii, 150

crossed by flume, 274
Golick, Dr. John T. (Evolutionist), 12, 119,

435, 437
Gum (see Varnishes)

Algaroba, 243

disease, 265

Kukui, 239
Gunard, Flying, 374, 357
Gunnera, 225

Gtinther, Dr. A. (Ichthyologist), 377
Gunwale [moo] of ulu, 80
Gurrey, A. P., Jr., Photographs by, 14
Gutter-tile shells, 451

H

Haae. The name applied to a beer made of sugar-
cane after it is fermented and foaming.
Habitats, Bird, shown,310, 316
Habitat of (see species in question)
Haena, Caves at, 108
Hair of Hawaiians, 38

how cut, 62
Hairy triton [Pupu ole], 460, 450
Hala (see Lauhala), 204

leaves, Dried, 60
Halapepe, 202, 210

Uses of, 211
Halawa falls, 140, 148

valley, 140, 133

valley, Palls in, 142

valley, Hipuapua falls shown, 140

valley, Moaula falls in, 136

valley, Sacred grove in, 140

valley, Sea beach of, 140
Haleakala, 138

Ascent of, 143

Clouds in, 145

Craters in, 143

described, 139

Floor of, 146

General view of, 145

Hawaii peaks seen from, 144

Height of, 139

History of, 146

Inside of, 145

Last eruption on, 147

Lateral craters in (indicated), 134

Legend of, 139

Map of, 134

Old mountain house on, 145

Secondary craters in, 134, 145

Small craters on, 143

Silversword from, 206

Sunrise on, described, 144

Sunset from, described, 143

Trail up, 134
Halemaumau, after a breakdown, 166

bj* day and night, 180

Condensed history of, 183-188

Cone building in, 174

Flow from, 174

from the Volcano House, 166

in 1894, 174

in 1909, 174

Map showing, 148

Near view of, 166

overflowing, 174

Rise and fall of lava in, 167

smoking, 166

Spatter cone near, 184

Steam cloud over, 166

Vapors from, 166

View looking down into, 174
Halema'nma'u (see Ma 'it)
Hauling sugar-cane, 274
Half -beak [lheihe],350
Half-bill, Hawaii, 332

Maui, 334

550

INDEX.

Half-bills (Fish), 358, 364

Haleone. A shelter built as a temporary resi-
dence (see plate 5, fig. 4.)

Ham maggots, 405

shell [Hihiwai], 456
Hamakua coast, 151

Hawaii, 150

Shore line of, 150

spider, 410
Hammer-headed shark [Mano kihikihil,

340, 346
Hana, 139

Hanai poepoe, 57, 70
Hanalei, Coast view at, 102

river, 106, 107
Hanamaulu, Kauai, 102
Hanapepe valley, 107
Hanauma Bay (Oahu), 111, 128, 131
Hand fishing, 242
Handles, Kahili, 77
Hand-picking coffee, 270
Hanging valleys on Hawaii, 151

Haniu. The thick, heavy end of a cocoanut
leaf, used in beating- the bottom and sides
of a taro pond to render it water-tight.
Happiness, Abode of, 50
Hapu ill [Heii], 222

iii (me Hapu ili)
Hapu'u pu'u, 369
Hapuupuu (Grouper), 362, 349
Harbor. Anchorage (Depths in fathoms). HA-
WAII— Hilo Bay, 2-7 (deeper at entrance);
Kawaihae, 7; Kailua, 7; Keauhou, 2-8;
Kealakekua, 8-20. MAUI — Kapuehokahi
(Hana) Bay, 6-8; Kahului, 4-7; Napali, 3-5;
Lahaina Road, 10-20; Maalaea Bay, 6-10-
Makena, 8. MOLOKAI — Kaunakakai, 3-lu'.
OAHU — Honolulu Harbor, 35 feet (33 feet
at entrance), well dredged; Pearl Harbor
dredged channel 31 feet (East Loch 3-6,
Middle Loch 1-5, West Loch 1-9): Ha-
nauma, 4-8; Kaneohe Bav, 4-10 (at en-
trance 15 feet); Laie Bay, *4-5 ; Waimea, 9;
Waialua, 2-6; Port Waianae (open roadstead
and steamer landing). KAUAI — Hanalei,
5-7; Waimea, 3-4; Hanapepe, 3-6; Nawiliwili
Harbor, 3-5 (at entrance 22 feet); Hana-
maulu Bay, 3-6. MIDWAY — Seaward
Road 4% -7 (into Wells Harbor, 3]/2).
Harbor, Honolulu, 109

Pearl, 109, 211
Harbors (wr Hays, etc.)

and landings on Hawaii, 148
and landings on Kauai, 104
and landings on Maui, 134
on Oahu, 110
Hardwood flooring, 215
Hare, Sea, 467
Harrow, Chinese, 282
Harp-shell, Coneoid, 460, 252
Flan. Usually meaning the name of a tree the
hark of which was made into tapa, ropes,
etc.. but the word also means snow, ee,
frost, and is applied to a cool breeze.
Hau, 198, 201
moth, 397
Native use of, 80
Uses of, 201
tree bark, use of, 71
Hauhele, 202
Haukeuke, 487

Haupu, 105

Hawaii, A round-up on, 282

Agricultural Experiment Station, 281,

283
Agriculture in, 269
Bays on, 148
Capes on, 148
Cattle raising in, 282
Cave in lava flow (Kainbow falls), 160
Characteristic gulch on, 150
Characteristic shore-line on, 150
coast scenery, 344
Cocoanut Island, 150
'Crater lake' on, 160
Distances on (see Overland Distances)
Districts on, 148
elepaio, 337

Elevations on indicated, 148
Fishing scenes in, 344
Forest scenes on, 200
Cleneral views on, 154, 156, 160, 162
half -bill, 332
Hamakua, 150
Hanging valleys on ,151
High flumes on, 274
Highest point on, 147
Hilo Bay, view of, 352
Tee on mountains of, 151
Island of, 147
Kilauea on, 166
Kohala range on, 149
Kona district on, 182
Landing at Laupahoehoe, 154
Lava boulder on, 160
Light-houses on, 148
Livestock in, 282, 287
Map of, 148

Map showing recent lava flows, 148
Mauna Kea on, 154
Miscellaneous views on, 150
Natural environment in, 9
Northeast coast of, 154
No snakes in, 299
Number of peculiar plants on, 193
Onomea arch on, 150
Part in whaling industry, 303
Position of, 100
Pele 's journey to, 89
Points on, 148
Ports and landings on, 148
Pheasants in, 307
Rainbow Falls on, 160
Rice in, 276
Rivers on, 147
Roads on, 148
Scenery on, 150, 156, 170
Sea-cliffs on, 154
Sea-formed cliffs on, 150
Sea-snakes in, 299

Secondary craters on (indicated), 143
Size and position of, 147
Snow on mountains of, 151
Spirit leaps on, 50
Stages in geological development of,

290
Streams on, 148

INDEX.

551

Steamship lines to, 100

Sugar production in, 275"

Territory of, 99

Tropical fruits in, 255

Valleys on, 148

Vegetation on, 156, 160

Volcanoes on (indicated), 148

Volcanic scenery on, 156, 160, 162, 166,

170, 174
Waterfalls along the coast of, 154
Waterfalls on | Akala] (500 feet), 162
Wraipio valley on, 154
Hawaii's Volcanoes, Work of, 163

Hawaiian a name language. The Hawaiian lan-
guage is sometimes classed as a name lan-
guage owing to the great number of name
words it contains. Definite names were ap-
plied to almost every object in their environ-
ment.

Hawaiian (see also Native), 429
aquatic, 294
agriculture, 63

alphabet, Pronunciation of, 39
alphabet, The, 39
amusements, 74
Ancient gods of the, 49
armor, 79
arrow-root, 284

archipelago, Development of, 290
arts, 74

back-scratchers, 62
bark-cloth clothing, 38
bat, 295
bed, 72

birds becoming extinct, 338
birds, Common, 337
birds, Evolution of the, 338
birds, Extinct, 333
bird groups, 310
birds, Origin of the, 338
birds, Peculiar family of, 336
birds, Rare, 333
birds, Six interesting, 327
birds, Various orders of, 323, £27
broom, 62
boy, 32

bow and arrow, 81
Brownies, Work of, 359
burial cave, 52
cabinet wTood, 21 1
candy, 210
carving, 59
children, 32

children, how dressed, 38
centipedes, 390, 407
checkers, 86
crickets, 429

coot [Alae keokeo], 323, 326
cosmetics, 215
crow [Alala], 327, 335
cub-shark [Manoj, 340
Cytherea, 456
dialect, 27
dirge, 42
divers, 86
dogfish, 346
domestic animals, 295

duck [Koloa maoli], 323, 328, 335
Experiment Station (see Hawaii Agri-
cultural Exp. Station)
edible mussel [Nahawele], 456
Entomological Society, Proc, 411
fans, 70, 62

flora, Striking plants in, 194
feudalism, 55, 56
fish baskets, 70
fish baskets and nets, 341
fish, Common, 366
fish, Curious, 366
fish, Species of, 35.1
fish traps, 70
fishes, 374

fishes (Part one), 338
fishes (Part two, 348
fishes, (Part three), 360
finch-like birds, 331
fireplace, 59
forest birds, 328
folk songs, 41
fortifications, 51
fruits, 264

Gallinule [Alae], 323
games of chance, 86
girls, 32, 84
genealogies, 26, 41
goose [Nene], 310, 323, 335, 336
goose, food of, 255
group, Affinities of plants of, 193
group, Biologic evidence of subsidence

of, 124
group, Geologic development of, 290
group, low islands of, 89
group, Position of, 100
group, Theory of formation of, 121
group, Stages in isolation of, 123
group, Submarine base of, 123
group, Subsidence of shown, 290
hawk [To], 323, 327, 336
heralds, 53

herring [Makiawa], 350
honey-dew honey, 391
historians, 41
history, 41
house, 40, 56

house, Furnishings for, 56
implements, 74

Hawaiian igneous rocks (analyses of) : Various
samples analyzed by Dr. Washington exhibit
the following variations in chemical composi-
tion given in per cent.

Class DOSALANE, including: specimens of Ande
site, Augite, Basalt, etc., contains: SiO<>
from 58.06 to 45.61; Al.O, from 18.21 to
15.98; Fe20:, from 8.25 to 2.23; FeO from
11.60 to 2.01; MgO from 4.85 to 1.59; CaO
from 11.85 to 3.29; Na20 from 6.12 to 3.50-
K20 from 2.80 to 0.80; TiO» from 5.35 to
trace; H20 from 0.27 to none; P206 from
0.72 to trace; MNO from 0.36 to trace; SO-?
from 0.20 to none; S from 0.05 to none:
CuO from 0.05 to none; Sp. Gr. from 3.03
to 2.94.

Class SALPEMANE, including specimens of
Basalt, Pele's Hair, etc., contains: Si()-»
from 56.79 to 47.61; A120:! from 16.09 t>
12.10; Fe20» from 9.65 to 3.09; FeO from
11.97 to 2.61; MgO from 9.40 to 1.90;
CaO from 10.25 to 5.92; Na»0 from 5.95 to

552

INDEX.

2.98; K20 from 1.80 to 0.30; H20 from 1.19
to none; TiO« from 3.97 to none; P205 from
0.76 to trace; MnO from 1.72 to 0.10; S03
from 2.54 to none; CuO from 0.48 to none;
S from 0.02 to none ; Cr203 from trace to
none: Sp. Gr. from 2.93 to 2.74.
"INFERIOR ROCKS", including specimens of
tuffs, ashes and decomposed rocks, contains:
Si02 from 50.00 to 4.54; A1203 from 41.35
to 12.10; Fe203 from 40.87 to 7.82; FeO
from 8.20 to trace; MgO from 11.75 to
0.37 ;CaO from 13.39 to trace; Na20 from
5.23 to trace; K20 from 1.77 to trace; H20
from 1.87 to none; Ti02 from 8.99 to trace;
P205 from 1.25 to none; MnO from 1.13 to
trace; C02 from 5.56 to none; S03 from 0.55
to none; CuO from 0.14 to none; S from
0.14 to none; FeS 1.40 to none: CoO from
0.04 to none; sp. Gr. from 2.80 to 2.77.

Hawaiian Islands, Climate of, 31

Bird Keservation, 93, 94

Extent of, 93

Geography of, 89-188

Geology of, 89-188

Leeward islands of, 88

Pilsbry theory of isolation of, 121-124

Principal ports in, 100

Position of, 100, 93

Temperature in, 33

Topography of, 89-188

Jew's harp, 83

land shells, Important genera of, 448

language, Character of the, 39

language, The, 39

language, when first written, 39

legends, 41

lips (characteristic), 38

lobster, 468

mahogany [Koa], 194, 211

markets, 74

medicinal plants numerous, 79

medicine, 79

medical diagnosis, 79

method of cooking birds, 324

method of embalming, 223

mistletoe [Kaumahana], 214, 225

keeper [kahu], 57

kissing bug, 402

mirror, 62

Middle-aged, 60, 68

moon flower, 202

modern music, 42

mountains, Ice on, 151

mouse, 295

napkins, 62

nose of (characteristic), 38

ornaments, 38

Old, 25, 60

oyster fPioeoe), 456

people and their natural history, 86
Ancestors of, 26
Bearing the names of, 37
Giants among the, 37
Height of, 37
Literary efforts of the, 41
Note on text on the, 11
Personal appearance of the, 37
Physical characteristics of, 24, 37
Point of origin in the, 26
Stature of, 37
The (Section one), 25-87

Hawaiian perfumes, 21

pillow [uluna], 57, 62

pipe, 284

poets, 41

poetry, Example of, 41

poltice, 79

race, Development of, 31

race, Early and later conditions com-
pared, 31

race, Early immigration of, 26

race, Early records how preserved, 41

race, establishment of, 30

race, Progress of, 31

race, Transformation of, 31

rats, 291

rays and sharks, 340

red birds, 329

reefs, 485

reef at low-tide, 472

rail [Moho], 327

rice, 276

rubber, 283

salt, 73, 129

sanctuaries, 51

seal, 294, 303

sharks and rays, 340

shore birds, Groups of, 310

short-eared owl, 336

singing, 42

soap (plant), 204

songs, 41

spearing fish, 344

sponges, Common, 494

spoon, 62

starch, 284

stilt [Kukuluaeol, 310, 327, 325

stormy petrel [Oeoe], 323, 309

sword, 81

temples of refuge, 51

tern [Noio], 310, 316, 323, 311, 318

tern, Colony of, 316

thrush [Oraau], 334, 331

tobacco, 284

traditions, 41

tools, 74

top shell, 460, 466

traveler, 68

type, 68

white ant, 425

woman, 60

women 's dress, 38

words when first written, 39

youth, 80
Hawaiians, adornment of, 38

An appreciation of, 31

and the struggles for existence, 45

as native people, 31

at home, 84

attachment for children, 45

Betting among, 86

Characteristics of (sec aslo nose, hair,
eyes, etc.), 31, 38

Cleanliness of, 38

Color of, 38

Corpulency among, 38

Clothing of, 38

INDEX.

553

Descent of rank among, 46

Division of labor among, 59

Early achievements of, 27

Early Settlement of, 26

excelled in tapa making, 77

Exchange of wares among, 74

Eyes of (Characteristic), 38

Features of, 38

Family discipine among, 45

Feudal organization of, 47, 54

Hair of, 38

Habits of, due to environment, 39

ideal of personal beauty, 38

ignorant of continents, 27

Infanticide among, 45

Insane among, 45

Large skeletons of, 38

Life of, in the open, 39

Long voyages of, 26

Lyric talent of, 42

Marriage among, 42, 45

Nose of (Characteristic), 38

Old, 84

Old age among, 45

Occupations of, 63

Political development of, 31

Polynesian affinities of the, 25

Polynesian ancestry of, 25

Physical conditions effecting, 36

Rank and position among, 54

Religion of the, 47

Separation among, 45

Sex relations among, 42

Tattooing among the (see also Tattoo-
ing), 38

The chiefs and common people among,
38

The culture of the, 31

the first settlers, 25

their methods of warfare, 47

Traditions of origin, etc., 26

Types of old, 24

Use of material at hand by, 75

Use of whale-ivory by, 302
Hawaii-nei, Position of, 101
Hawk, Hawaiian, 323, 327, 336

-moth, 421
Hawks-bill turtle, 300
Headfish [Apahu J, 374, 358
Heart-shaped clam, 446

-shaped urchin, 487

shell, 456, 446
"Heart's desire/' The land of, 231
Heat cracks at Kilauea, 179

Popping corn over, 184
Hebrew cone, 460, 455
Hedge, Cereus, 254

plants, 251

Hei [Cat's cradle], which see

Heiau. Usually meaning a large temple of
idolatry among the Hawaiians, but it was
also the name of the house for the gods in
every man's regular establishment, as well
as for the small secret enclosure in the
large temple.

Heiau at Kawaihae, Entrance to, 48

Iliiliopai, on Molokai, 140

of Mookini, 343

of Puukihola, 48

pyramidal type, 48
Heiaus, 50

dedicated to special gods, 50

Fish, 339

Milo in, 203

Number of, 50

The priests for, 50
Heii (tree fern), 190, 194
Helmet [Mahiole], 44 77, 333

shells, 461
Heliotrope, Beach, 192, 199
Helix, 439

He makau (sec fish-hook)
Hemerobians, 424
Hemispherical scale, 391
Henshaw, Prof. Henry W. (Biologist), 12,

14, 299
Hepatica, 214

Hepatica?. In 1877 D. I). Baldwin enumerated
73 species. Dr. C. Montague Cooke and
others have added several species since,,
bringing the total up to near one hundred.

Heralds, Hawaiian, 53
Heralds7 horn shells, 464

Herb. A plant not woody above the ground, if
at all.

Herbert, Allen (Agriculturist), 445

Herbivorous (365). Feeding upon vegetable
matter.

Hercules' club, 252

Hereditary poets and historians, 41

Hermit crab, 474, 471

crabs, House-hunting bv, 471

shell, 460
Heron, Black-crowned night, 310, 325
Herring, 358

Hawaiian, 350
Hevea, rubber, 283
Hia (see Aulima)
Hibiscus, 213

Cotton related to, 281

Cultivated, 251

Varieties of, 251
Hides and tallow, Animals slaughtered

for, 287
Higgins, J. E. (Horticulturist), 12
High chiefs, how buried, 52

mountains, Plant life of, 210

points on Oahu (indicated), 110

-tide, The reef at, 478
Highest mountain in the Pacific, 147
Height of Hawaiians, 37

of Polynesians, 37
Hihimanu (Spotted stingray), 340,347,349
Hihiwai, 436

Hihiwai, (Ham shell), 456

Hiliu. The sound produced by a shell trumpet.
Hiiaka, 41
Hillebrand, Dr. W. F. (Botanist), 189, 191,

195, 201, 208, 211, 306
Hilo Bay, Cocoa-nut Island in, 150

Bay, Fishing scene in, 352

Bay, Maima Kea in distance, 352

36

554

INDEX.

coast (fig. 4), 194

coast, 151

coast at Laupahoehoe, 154

described, 175

Distances from (sec Overland Dis-
tances)

grass, 208, 286

grass, when introduced, 286
Hilu, 349, 359

Hilu lauwili (Wrasse fish), 370
Hilu pilikoa, 354
Hinahina, 198
Hinalea lauwili, 349, 359
Hind, 369
Hinnites, 445
Hipponyx, 462

Hipuapua— (Hipupua) falls, 140, 133
Histerid. beetles, 417
History of Diamond Head, 219

of Oahu, 219, 220, 221

of Kilauea, Condensed, 183-188

of Mokuaweoweo, 155-163

of the eruptions of Mauna Loa, 155
Historians, Hawaiian, 41
Hitchcock, D. Howard (Artist), Painting

of Halemaumau, Plate 47, No. 2
Hitchcock, Prof. Charles H. (Geologist),

12, 101, 115, 119, 120, 152, 153, 155
Hoary Head range, 105
Hoawa, 212, 220
Hog louse, 400

Hog plum (tfpondiati lutea Linn.) or golden apple
of Jamaica or Jamaica plum is rare in Ha-
waii although cosmopolitan in the tropics. It
is a tall tree with yellow ovoid fruits some-
times 2 inches long, and odd-pinnate leaves
in panicles 6 inches to a foot long.

Hogs, 287

teeth bracelets, 82

Wild, 295
Hoi (Black raarao), 335

(Yam), 213

Hoilo. The season of the year answering to win-
ter in the northern latitudes. The opposite
season or kau was the hot summer season.

Hollyhock, 281

Holoku or dress, 32, 60

Home life of (see species in question)

scene, Hawaiian, 84
Honaunau, City of refuge at, 48, 182
Honey, 391

Algaroba, 243

bee, 404, 415

dew, 381

dew, secreted by, 391

-eater, Laysan, 314, 320

-eater, Yeilow-tufted, 330
Honu (Green turtles), 294, 299
Honuapo, Road from Kilauea to, 1 82

Honohonowai (often contracted to 'honohono').
The name of the day-flower (Commelina
nudiflora Linn.), a representative of the
spider-wort family, sometimes called spider-
wort, hearing small hlue irregular flowers.
Growing on alluvial banks and moist places
throughout the group. This Amer'can plant
with jointed, creeping, often branching stems,
bearing parallel nerved leaves with sheathing
petiole is much used as feed for livestock.

Honolulu as the center of the group, 101

Appearance of, 231

compared with Kew Gardens, 232

First impressions of, 231

flower, Hibiscus as the, 251

gardens, Blossoms from, 250

garden, Ramble in a (Part one), 231

garden, Ramble in a (Part two), 243

gardens, Views in, 240, 246

harbor, 109

statue, The, 44

Streets of, 232

Name derived from, 21 1

to various island ports (sec Distances,
etc.)

to various Pacific ports (ser Ocean
distances)

Position of, 110
Honomu, 176

Akala falls (500 ft.) in, 162
Hook, Fish (see fish hooks)

Shark, 343
Horn -worm, Sweet-potato, 399
Horned helmet shell, 461
Horned-nut, Chinese, 285

-pout, 377
Hornets, 414
Horse Cassia, 244

chestnut, 283

-hoof shells, 462

-weed, 212

Horses, 287

introduced, 295
Horn fly, 387, 419

shell, 470
Horse bot-flv, 387, 421

-hoof shell, 470

Sea, 360
Hotel at Kilauea, 166
Horticulture, Enemies of, 381

Host. An animal or plant upon which a para-
site habitually lives.

House, A temporary, 40

cockroaches, 428

fly, 387, 419

fly parasite, 387

for idols, 58

for isolation, 58

foundation for a, 58

furnishings, 59

lizards, 297

Men 's eating, 58

mouse, 293

Rethatched, 59

Sleeping, 58

spiders, 409

Thatching for a, 59

The building of a, 58

Timbers used in a, 58

Time employed in building a, 59

Women 's eating, 58
Household implements, 61

pests, 405

pets, Spiders as, 410

utensils, 56
How to collect algae, 500
Hu (wr Top spinning)

INDEX.

555

Huahekili (Hua^egg, hekili = thunder). A "thun-
der egg" ; a hailstone. It generally thunders
during hailstorms in the mountains of Ha-
waii,

Huahua akai, 479

Huakai. Hua, foam of the sea, hence a sponge.

Hualalai, 152

Eruption of 1801, 152

Position of, indicated, 148
Hue, 490

Hukaa. A general name for pitch, resin or gum
from a tree.

Hula. A term applied by Hawaiians to music,
singing and dancing. The dance took manv'
forms, usually, however, a few danced while
others sang and played instruments. The
hula god was Laka {see plate 15).

ala'a papa (stanaz from), 41

anklets, 78

dancer, 40

dancers, Six, 78

drums, 82

drum, Gourd, 57

drum heads, 346

drum [pahu hula], Large, 64

drums of cocoanut wood, 70

girl, 78

musicians, 78

Musical instruments for the, 82

skirt, 82

The, 81

The profanation of the, 82

Translation of stanza from, 41
Hulas, 41

Huli, The, how planted, 65
Hull of a canoe, how made, 80
Hurnahuma, 375

nukunuku a pua'a, 375
Human hair, Leis of, 79

hair, use of, 81

flea, 401

sacrifice (see Sacrifice)

teeth as ornaments, 70
Humming-bird moth, 398, 399, 421
Hump-backed cowry [Lehoj, 460, 458
Humpback whale, 301
Humuhumu nukunuku apua'a (Trigger

fish), 370, 349
Hunting land shells, 437

-spider, 409
Hut built on Green islet, 9€
Hybrid pheasants, 308
Hydra, Fresh water, 475
Hydrocorallinae, 481
Hydroids, 475, 480

I

Tako (part of outrigger), 80

lanthina, 464

lao valley (Maui), 134

valley, 138
Tee on Hawaiian mountains, 151
Ideal of personal beauty among Haw7aiians.

38
Tdlewild, 141, 143
Tdol, 57
Idolatry, 49

Idol, Moorish, 370, 361

Small, 57

Wooden, 52

worship, 49

worship and fishing, 73, 339
Idols carved from, 211

House for, 58

how disposed of, 52

of wood and stone, 49

used in wrarfare, 53

worshiped by fishermen, 73
I'e defined, 339
leie, 190, 202, 211

Natural habit of, 190

roots, Use of, 77

Uses of, 211

vines, Natural habitat of, 200
Te kuku (see Tapa beaters)
Iheihe (Half-beak), 350, 349, 358

Ihi. The name of the pigweed {Pot-ulaca oleraor i
Linn.), the roots of which were used in na-
tive medicine as a mild cathartic.

Ihi (Purslane), 196

Iholena. A variety of banana which was permitted
to be eaten under the kapu system.

Iholena, 259

liwi, 334, 329, 430

Use of feathers of, 77

Iliiliopai, Heiau of, 140
Information about 60

Iliiopoi (error see Iliiliopai)

llikala. The name of the rough shark skin
fastened over a cocoanut shell to form a
drum.

Iliki. A kind of varnish made of kukui bark,
etc.

Uima, 192, 203, 209

lei, 78

Species of, 209

uses of, 209
llioha=Iliohe

Iliohe (Fleabane or horse-weed), 212, 287
Illuminating oils, 62
Illustrations, Credit for, 14

Number of, 7
Immigrations, Early, 26

Immigrant. A species occurring elsewhere but

having reached the islands by natural means.
Implements, Hawaiian, 74

of stone, bone and wood, 74

of warfare, 79
Important economic insects (Part one), 38)

economic insects (Part two), 391

food fish, 348

Imu. A place for baking made by heating stones

under ground {see plate 4).
Imu, 210

how made, 66

Shells cooked in an, 465
In a, 485

eleele, 485

keokeo,496, 485

liilii, 496

Inamona. The meat of the kukui nut, roasted
and pounded up with salt, used as a relish
at table.

Incas of Peru, 293

556

INDEX.

Index to glossary. Note on the, 10
India, 219, 221, 225, 242, 245, 276, 296, 361),
400, 407

cotton boll worm, 400

Pride of, 244

rubber tree, 245
Indian date, 245

licorice, 207

shot, 207

shot, uses of, 207
Indigenous grasses, 286
Indigo [Inikoa], 212, 207

Uses of wild, 207

When introduced, 207
Indo-China, 263
Industries, Agricultural, 270

Coffee, 279

New, Cassava, 284

New, Castor bean, 285

New, Fiber, 284

New, Peanuts, 285

New, Rubber, 281

New, Sisal, 280

New, Tobacco, 283

Potato, 284

Rice, 284

Sugar, 284

Tropical (see Sugar, coffee, rice, etc.)
Industry, Animal, 287

Chief, 271
Infanticide, 45

Explanation of, 45
Infantile paralysis transmitted by, 419
Inferior rocks (see Hawaiian igneous rocks)

Inflorescence. The arrangement of the flowers

on the stem.
Inflorescence, Deformed, 220

Diseased, 202
Inhabited islands, 100

islands, The, 101

islands, Position of, 101
Iniko (error see Inikoa)
Inikoa (Indigo), 212, 207
Injurious plants and animals, how intro-
duced, 271
Ink, Squid (see Pikopiko)
"In Memory of Keeaumoku ' ' (dirge), 42
Insane among Hawaiians, 45
Insect cabinets, 380

fauna, Character of native, 411

fauna (see Total insect fauna)
Inseetory, Interior of an, 380
Insects affecting (see plant in question)

Collecting of, 380

Common, 392, 398

Conspicuous Hawaiian, 392

Control of by, 381

Curious, 392

Economic (Part one), 380

Economic (Part two), 391

Familiar, 392

groups not yet studied, 412

Highest order of, 412

important destructive species, 380

Injurious introduction of (see species
in question), 387

Lantana, 383

Lowest living order of, 430

on Mamaki, 411

Native, 440

Native and introduced, S92

Nerve-winged, 423.

Some economic, 384

Study of, 380

Sugar-cane, 388

Two-winged, 419
Inside of Haleakala, 145
Insigna of rank, 75
Instrument, Modern [ukulele], 78
Intensive study of mamaki insects, 411
Intercourse resumed with Polynesia, 27
Inter-island channels, 100

Inter-island channels, Width of: Qahu-Molokai
[Kaiwi], 23 miles; Molokai-Maui [Pailolo],
8 m. ; Maui-Lanai [Auau], 7 m. ; Hawaii-
Maui [Alenuihaha], 26 m. ; Oahu-Kauai
[Kaieie Waho], 63 m. ; Kauai-Niihau
[Kumukahi], 15 m.

Inter-island channels (see Depths of)
Inter-island distances by sea (see Distances,

etc.)
Inter-island variation in flora, 193
Intoxicating drink [ Awa], 216

[Okolehau], 210
Intrigue among chiefs, 55
Introduced. A species imported by man.
Introduced and native fruits, 264

animals, 231, 295

birds, 304

fish, 376

fruits, 255

grasses, danger from, 286

plants, 205, 231
plants, Effect on native flora of, 205

plants ,Escaped, 200

When (see species in question), 296
Introduction of birds, 320

of destructive insects, 380

of leaf -hopper parasites, 382

of plants, 283

of sugar-cane, 271
Invisible double, 49
Io (Hawaiian hawk), 323, 327, 336
Ioli, 291
Ipecac, Wild, 212

Ipu. The general name for all kinds of gourds,
calabashes ,etc, and for containers of any
kind made from them.

Ipu, 209

hula (Gourd drums), 78

nui, 209

Ipu Lono. The name egiven to a certain class
of small heiaus built in order to induce rain
in time of drouth. The same term was ap-
plied to a sacred calabash kept in private
houses in which offerings were made to the
family gods.

Irish potatoes, 284

Ironwood, Australian, 237

Irrigation ditches, 27

flume (high), 274

flume, Modern, 28

of taro, 270

INDEX.

557

Isabella cowry, 470, 459

grape, 267
Island fruits, 255

Gardner, 88

Hawaii, 147

Kauai, 88

Kau la, 88

Kahoolawe, 132

Lahua, 88

Lanai, 132

Laysan, 88

Lisiansky, 88

Maui, 132

Midway, 88

Molokai, 132

morning-glory, 197

Necker, 88, 96

Nihoa, 96

Niihau, 88

Oahu, 88, 109

Ocean, 88

The pan-Hawaiian, 290
Islands, Leeward, Elevations of, 93

Shoals, etc., Map of, 88

The inhabited, 100
Isolation of fauna graphically explained,
290

of flora graphically explained, 290
Tsthmus of Maui, 139 *

"Neck of Maui/' Example of, 134
Itch mite, 401
Ivory and tortoise shell, use of, 60

fishhooks, 242

necklaces, 79

hook [paiaoa], 60
Ivy scale, 391

Twa (Man-o'-war bird), 310, 77
Iwaiwa, 223
Txora, 249
Txora named for, 249

Jack fruit (Artoearpus integrifolia Linn.)- A
tree belonging to the breadfruit genus, and
having a milky juice. The leaves are 4-6
inches long and are variously shaped. The
fruits, which are usually oval, are often
enormous, occasionally weighing 50 pounds.
They occur on both the trunk and branches.
The green rind resembles the breadfru't in
being covered with rough six-sided knobs.
The pulp is seldom eaten owing to the of-
fensive odor. This tree should not be con-
fused with the durion (which see) .

Jam, Guava, 263

Poha, 257
Jamaica, 244, 296
Jambosa (see Ohia ai)
Jamestown weed ( Timson weed), 198, 287
Japan, 236, 266, 296, 297, 308, 345, 346,

360, 376
Japanese beetle, 394, 415, 417

beetle, Enemies of, 384

beetle on grape, 267

flower peddler, 246

goldfish, 376

grass, 287

palm, 237

pheasant, 307

plum, 266

poachers, 95
Jasmine, 248

Arabian, 248

Snow-white, 248

Spanish, 250
Jassids, 427
Java, 207, 279, 280

plum, 268
Javelins, 79
Jelly, Guava, 263
Jellyfish, 475, 480
Jew-fish, 369
Jim son weed [Kikania] (sec Jamestown

weed), 198, 287
Jingle shell, 456
Job 's tears, 198, 207

Uses of, 207
Journey to Kilauea, 175
Judd, Dr. A. F., 286
Judd street cave, 129

Jujubi (Zizyphus Jujuba Lam.). Occurs in Ha-
waii, having been introduced originally from
China. The small tree is characterized by
thorny branches and triple-nerved leaves,
which are alternate, 1-3 inches long, green
above and nearly white beneath. The small
axillary flowers are followed by the fruits,
which are about the size of a cherry and
yellow-green when ripe and bitter to the
taste; they make excellent preserves. Sev-
eral varieties are grown in China and India
and more than one occurs in Hawaii; one is
known as the Chinese date.

Jumping-spider, 409

Jumping the rope, Game of, 86

Jungle, Fern, 194

K

Kaala, 132

Vision point of the group, 132
Kaapeape, 228
Kaawau, 214
Kadua (see Kopa)

sp., 220
Kaena Point, 109

Surf at, 122
Kaeo, the high point on Niihau, 101
Kahala (Amber fish), 362, 349
Kahana a drowned valley, 131

bay, 128, 211

bay, Natives fishing at, 344
Kahiki, 27

Useful plants and animals brought
from, 29
Kahili (fly-flap), 60
"Kahili" Lobelia, 224
Kahilis, 57, 77

how made, 77

Small, 60, 70

Kahoolawe was for a time used as a place of
exile for state offenders. The only article of
food produced on the island at that time was
sweet potatoes, in a small quantity.

Kahoolawe, 135
Area of, 237
Island of, 132
Position of, 100
Rats on, 291

558

INDEX.

Kahoalii (see Opehi tabu)

Kahu, 57

Kahuku Point, 109

Kahului Bay, 338

Distances from (see Overland Dis-
tances)

Kahuna, A general name applied to such per-
sons as have a trade, an art or practice or
profession. Some qualifying term is gener-
ally added, but in Hawaiian antiquities the
word kahuna without any qualifying term
refers to the priest or person who offers
sacrifice.

Kahuna (s), 54

An aged, 52

and the tabu, 46

doctors, 79
Kahuna lapaau (Medicine men).
Kailua Bay, 21.1
Kaimuki, 115
Kaiulani 's flower, 248
Kakonakona, 209
Kaku, 349
Kala, 372, 349

Kalaipahoa (Poison god), 70
Kalakaua, Coronation celebration of

(hula), 78
Kealakekua Bay, 182
Kalalau valley, 108
Kalau=Kilau
Kalauhauoni peak (3282 ft.) [Kalawao].

136
Kalaupapa, 135

Landing at,134
Kalawao, 135

Kalauhauoni peak shown, 1S6

Leper Settlement, 134

Olokui (4600 ft.) in the distance, 136

Kalia. A common tree (Elmocarpus hifidus Hook,
and Arn.). Its flowers are stung by an
insect (see plate 56) which causes them to
be deformed. The red growth is sure to
attract attention.

Kalia, 202

Kaliumaa, 131

Kaluha (Nut grass), 196, 212

Kamaa (Sandals). Sandals made of lauhala
leaves, etc., were worn when traveling on
rough lava and similar places in the open
country.

Kamakahala. A name applied to several spec'es
of Hawaiian plants belonging to the same
genus (Labordea spp.), but especially to the
yellow flowered species on Molokai and Oahu.
Leis made of these sweet-scented flowers were
tabu to the common people, being reserved
for the use of the high chiefs alone.

Kamakua peak, 133
Kamalo, Cloud cap over, 142

Mountain of (Molokai), 142
Kamani, 59, 201, 222, 245

grove, Sacred, 140

Native, 248
Kamau, 337
Kamehameha butterfly, 392, 421

Brig, 97
Kamehameha L, 211, 221, 281, 295, 343

Feather robe of, 75

on conservation, 221

Statue of, 44

Kamehameha III., 300
Kamehameha V., 266

Kamole. The name of a plant (Polygonum
glabrum Willd.) common about taro patches
and running water extending its rang along
the water courses and swampy land well into
the mountains.

Kamole, 212

Kanae valley, 144

Kanaka (Pacific islander), 25

Kanaloa, 49

Kanapi. Hawaiian for centipede.

Kanawau, 224

Kane, 49

Kaneohe, 115

Bay, 211

craters, 121
Kao (fish spear), 344
Kapana, 214
Kapena nehu, 341
Kapiolani breaks the spell of Pele, 171

Park, Drive in, 234
Kapoho, 176
Kau (see Hoilo)
Kau, 183

Hawaii, Dodder in, 205

The summer season (see Hoilo)
Kauai, 103

Age of (shown by erosion), 106

akialoa, 330

Arnakihi, 334

Boys on, 104

Coast line of, 103

Canons on, 102, 104, 107

Capes on, 104

Coral reefs about, 103

Description of, 101

Distances on, 104

Distances on (see Overland Distances)

Districts of, 104

Examples of erosion on, 106

Geologic development, 290

Hanalei bay, 102

Hanalei river on, 106

island, 88

Lighthouses on, 104

Map of, 104

Miscellaneous views on, 102

Number of native plants on, 193

Olokele canon on, 106

Points on sea-coast, 104

Position of, 100, 104

Relief map of, 104

Rivers and streams on, 104

River view on, 102

Roads on, 104

Secondary craters on, 104

Secondary volcanic cones on, 105

Shore scene on, 102

Soil of, 105

Sperm whale on, 298

the oldest island, 193

thrush, 330

Topographic map of, 104

Towns and villages on, 104

Typical village on, 102

INDEX

Valleys on, 104
Village of Hanainaulu, 102
Villages and towns on, 104
Wailua falls on, 102
Waterfalls on, 102
Waimea canon on, 106
Kauila, 215

Native use of, 80
uses of, 215
Kaula Island, 88, 101

^aumahana (Hawaiian mistletoe) 214
Kaumana eaves, 176 loe^' Z14

Kaunoa, 460
Kaupo gap (Maui), 134, 139 144

Kaupu (Black-footed albatro< ) 227 «iq
Kawaihae Bay, 149 *"o^s;, 227, 319

Keian at," 48

K379,k36W3a (Litt,e tUIla °r b°"*o), 366,

Kawalea (Barracuda), 366

Kawau, 224

Kawelea (Lizard-fish) 350 <uq oro

Kealakekua Bav 84 ' ' 3o9

Keanakakoi, a pit crater, 186, 178

Floor of, 186

Map of showing, 148

Keke^V^0^11^16^182
Kendrick, Capt., 219
Keona, 183
Kewelea, 353

Ke7hSrlS3i0,,40« ° COmM Wi*h> ***
was])s, 414

Kiawe (Algaroba tree), 240

^?lia(,w sausage tree)
Kinikihi, Moorish, 370, 361

KihoJo. The n'imn r.f ,

formerly m^V'woJ^f ,klnd of » hf><>*
Ki «»d other la4e°Lr°d' U8ed to c"'<* «*ar*
Ki, 190, o9, 67, 221, 251

leaf skirt, 78 ' "''

leaves, uses of, 60

roots, use of, 910

(«<'<' Ti), 210

uses of, 190, 210

Kikakapu (Butterfly fish), 370 349 <$.y>
K ikama (Jimson weed), 198 ' '
Kilua, 223
Kilau, 228
Kilauapueo=Kilna
Kilauea, a bubble dome in, 186
Activity of in 1909 170
Activity of in 1907? 173
Ahanui at, 206
an independent crater, 105
an exploded mountain, 167
Ascent of, 176, 177
Cavern in, 186
<aves in, 170
Condition at in 18^3 169
Condition of from year to vear 183 IS*
Condensed history' of, i83-'l88 ' *

Dates of eruptions of, 183-188
Depth of, 170

Descent into crater of, 178
Dimensions of, 165

559

Eruptions 0f, 174
Eruption of 1789, 168
Eruption and flow of 1840, 179
Eiuption and flow of 1892-94 "l 73
Examples of pahoehoe in, 184
Explosive eruI,tion at, uk
* ire lake in, 174

Eirst view of the crater, 177
flow of 1868, 159

General view of, 166

Hir^v; ;yhe floor °f- *«

^ote] at, 166

-iki, 170, 178

El o or of, 170

Map of, 148

showing lava streams, 170

^oa forest at, 181

Lava falls in, 186

Lava floor of, 166

Lava flows in, 166, 174

Lava mounds in, 186

Lava pool in, 174

Location of, 164

Map of, 148

Model of, 173

Ni^mberof eruptions of, 169
on Hawaii, 166

Eahoehoe flows in, 166

Eainui at, 206

Dele, Goddess of, 91

Popping corn in/ 184

Ew and fall of Java in, 167
«opy lava in, 186

lre;salol^theroadt°,2oo

oi'le trips from, 181

Spatter cones at, 179

Btaghorn fern at, 194

Meam cracks at, 177

Sulphur banks at, 170, 177

Vegetation at, 166, 170, 200

views in, 174, 184

Visit toin 1909, 175

Caldron's ledge at, 170

Walls of shown, 184
Killer, 301

whale, 346
Killifish, 378
Kilohana crater, 105
Kingfisher. A st,..,v „ ;

{>y Prof. H. W Henshiw fT r^ ^P^'ted
<> one of them i™^ hT^^ ^e ski»

Jvmg ot the herring/ 358

of the mackerel, The, 358

Street, Government Nursery 238

The, and the land, 55

The, and the power, 54

I he, and the tabu, 46
Lings, The, sacrifice k\
Kiokio, 83
Kipahulu, Maui, 139
Kipi, 332
Kipu kai, 199
Kirkaldy, 0. W. (Entomologist), 425

560

INDEX.

Kissing bug, Hawaiian, 402, 426

Klu=Kolu, 198, 205

Knee-cap shells, 467

li Knife-edge " ridges (Koolau range), 130

Knife fishes (Surgeon fish), 372

Koa, 202, 59, 207, 211, 226

Curious ' leaves' of, 211

(Hawaiian mahogany), 194

False, 198

Native use of, 80

use of, 86, 211, 213

used in canoes, 29

Varieties of, 211

wood, Varieties of, 211
Koae (Tropic bird), 310, 259

Use of feathers of, 77
Koaia, 226
Koali, 197
Koali ai, 197
Koe (Marine worn), 490
Koebele, Mr. A. (Economic Entomologist),

385, 393
Kohala Mountains, Age shown by erosion
(Waipio), 154

plantation, one of the first, 149

Promotory, an example of, 148

range, 149

range, small cones in, 149

Soil of, 149

spider, 410

statue of Kamehameha I., 44
Kohola (Humpback whale), 302

Kohola. A reef, a dry place: hence a whale
from his spouting water like the water on
the reef. The flesh of the whale was for-
bidden to women under the tabu system.

Kokio. The name of a native tree belonging to
the Malvaceae occurring on Molokai (rare)
known as the native red cotton owing to its
showy red flowers. The hark was used by
the natives as a dye for fish nets.

Kokio, 281

Koko (plant), 283

(Calabash net), 68, 76, 59, 61
crater from Koko Head, 128
Head, 472, 115, 121

Kokolau, 220, 227

Kolea. A name applied to almost all of the sev-
eral species and varieties of the genus Sut-
tonia common on all islands.

Kolea, 226, 324

Kolea (Pacific golden plover), 310

Kolealea, 470

Koloa maoli (Hawaiian duck), 323

Koloa, Spouting horn at, 108

Kolokolo kuahiwi, 230

Kolu (Kiu), 205

-bush moth, 397

Uses of, 205
Kona coffee, 279

thick-bill, 330

weather, 31
Konahuanui (3105 feet), 125, 114

Plants from summit of, 224

View of, from Olympus trail, 206

Konane was a checker-like game played usually
on the flat surface of a slab of sandstone or
lava rock in which a varying number of

small depressions were dug out to form the
stations. Small black and white stones were
used for the counters in the game (see Ha-
waiian checkers).
Kookolau— Kokolau
Kookoolau=Kokolau
Koolau gap (Maui), 134, 144
mountains, 211
mountains, Age of, 124
mountains /Early appearance of, 220
range, 1.14, 132

range, Erosion of shown, 112, 130
range, mountains in the, 112
range, Structure of the core of, 125

Kopa. A shrub (Kadua spp.) the fruit of which

is made into beads.
Kopiko. Name of a tree (Strati 8 sia spp.) the

wood of which was used for the Kua or

anvil in making tapa ; it is also a good

firewood.

Kopiko, 202, 220, 226

Kou, 198, 59, 61, 63, 201

Krauss, Prof. F. G. (Agriculturist), 12,

276, 281
Kukailimoku, the god of war, 52, 77
Kukai neenee, 256
Kukuluaeo (Hawaiian stilt), 327
Kukui (Candle nut tree), 202, 210, 226, 239

a recent arival, 239

gum, 239

leaves, use of, 65

nut, 57

nut leis, 57

nuts, use of, 62, 71

Wood of the, 239
Kumimi, 469
Ku, 49

Kua kuku (Wooden tapa anvil), 64
Kualoa headland, 111
Kuhns Bros., D. B. and J. M., 447
Kuhns, I). B., 12
Kukaepuaa, 286

Kumquat (Citrus Japonica Thumb.) or kin-kan,
is a native of China, or Cochin China, but it
has long been known in Hawaii. The fruits
are small, round or oval, and are orange-
like in appearance. In America it is com-
ing to be prized as a preserve ; the sweet
rind and the pulp may be eaten raw. The
Chinese make excellent; preserves of the
fruit. Only the attacks of insect pests pre-
vent this fruit from more general cultivation,
in the islands. The rich green dense foliage
makes a truly ornamental as well as useful
tree.

Kumquat, 265

Kumu (Goat-fish), 362, 349, 373

Kupakala (Rock oyster), 456, 446

Kupaoa. A plant (Raillardia scabra D. C.)
used to scent tapa.

Kupaoa, use of, 71

Rupee (sea snail shell), 470

Rupee, Wrist ornament of, shells, 470

Kupipi, 349

Kupikipikio, Map showing, 118

Kupua. A sorcerer; a person of extraordinary
powers of body or mind. Sorcerers, w zards
and witches are frequently spoken of in Ha-
waiian antiquities in their kaaos and meles
as things that existed and were fully be-
lieved in.

INDEX.

561

Kupoupou, 349

Kupukele, 444

Kusaie banana, 259

Kuula, a fish god (sec Shark god)

Laau. A general name for what grew out of the
ground, but often used as the name of medi-
cine. The ancient Hawaiian medicines were
numerous, and consisted mostly of mixtures
of leaves of trees, bark, roots, etc. Some
were exeedingly nauseous, while other were
very acrid, but the physicians depended more
on their enchantments, their invocations to
the gods and to the sacrifices offered, than to
the virtue of their medicines as such.

Laau, 221

Laborers, Plantation, 274
Labroid fishes, 359
Lace-winged fly, Common, 424
Ladder shell, 470, 464
Ladybird beetles, 393, 416

beetles, Australian, 384
Lady-bugs, 416
Lady- fish, 354
Lae,' 349, 364

Laeloa craters, Age of, 124
Lagoon on Laysan Island, 316, 95
Lahua Island, 88
La-i (Lauki), 210
Laie, 131, 211

Laka, Goddess of the hula, 82
Lake, Green, on Hawaii, 160

Lama. The name of a forest tree (Mabu Sandwi-
censis A. DC.) common on all the islands of
the group. Its very hard wood was much
used in building houses for the gods and
always occurred as an alter piece in the
worship of laka, the goddess of the hula.
The reddish-yellow berries and thick, leath-
ery, dull green alternately arranged leaves
are conspicuous characters.

Lamb tree, The, 281
Lamellibranches, 443
Lamellicorn beetles, 417
Lamp-shells, 483
Lamps [Kukui] of stone, 70, 62

Lanai. A bower, a shed, a piazza, a porch.
The term is in very general use in Hawaii
being applied to any form of an open struc-
ture intended for shelter.

Lanai, 135

Dimensions of, 135

Highest point on, 135

Island of, 132

Map of, 134

of palm leaves, 23 6

of hau, 201

Position of, 100
Lananuu (see Oracle)
Lance-fish, 372

Lanceolate (227). Shaped like a lance.
Land belonged to the king, 54

and the king, 55

fauna, Isolation of graphically ex-
plained, 290

fresh water and marine fauna (sec
Total land, etc.)

shells, 431

shells , Color variation in, 432

shells, Important families of, 437

shells, Important genera of, 448

shells, Significance of, 121

shells, use of, 77

slide of 1868 ,159

Sugar, 271

titles, 55, 56

tortoise, Galapagos, 300

Various animals from, 291
Landing a sea net, 334
Landings (see Bays, etc.)
Lanihuli peak (2781 feet), 112, 125, 114
Language, Hawaiian, Character of, 41

The Hawaiian, 39

The Polynesian and Hawaiian, 39
Lantana, 198, 205, 209

blight, 385

bug, 426

butterflies, 385, 421

-fly, 419, 427

gall-fly, 385

Imported enimies of, 384

insects, 383

Introduction of, 383

leaf -bug, 385

leaf -minor, 385

scale, 385

seed-fly, 383

pi ume -moth, 383
Lantern, Aristotle 's, 496

fishes, 359
Lapalapa, 224
La Perouse, Compe de Jean Francois

(Navigator), 97
La Platte tobacco, 192
Largo banana, 259

Larvse (299). The earlv stages in the develop-
ment of any animal in which it is unlike the
parent in appearance.

Lasso cells, 480

Last eruption on Maui, 147

human sacrifice (see Sacrifice)

Lateral band or line (351). Along the sides of

a fish is a line of peculiar scales called the
lateral line.
Lateral craters on Maui (indicated), 134
Latitude in the Pacific, 100
Latex defined, 283

occurs in ,283

producing trees, 283
Latin names, why used, 10 (see also No-
menclature)
Lauhala, 194, 59, 204, 211

fruits, Uses of, 204

leaf skirts, 78

mat, 57

mats, how made, 72

mat, Materials for, 60

mat, Plaiting of, 60, 84

nuts, 204

trees, 150, 190

use of, 81, 204, 221
Lauia, 349
Lauki (La-i), 210
Laupahoehoe, Hawaii. Landing at, 154

Hilo coast at, 154

362

INDEX.

Lava around trees in Pima, 156
brick, 129

boulder on Hawaii, 160
column, height lifted, 164
discharge, 1907 flow, 163
floor of Kilauea, 166
flow, General view of, 162
flows in Kilauea, 166, 174, 186
'flower pots,' Puna, 156
flows, Recent, on Hawaii, 148
Flow structure of, 186
flow, Surface of, 160
forms of (curious), 186
mound in Kilauea, 186
' pillars' (Puna), 156
pool in Mokuaweoweo, 186
Rise and fall of, 167
rock as building stone, 129
soil, 107

Solidified (recent), 166
tree casts in Puna, 162
tree moulds (Puna), 156

Lavas of Hawaii and their Relations. Under
the above title Dr. Whitman Cross discusses
the Hawaiian rocks in an exhaustive and
able paper (Professional Paper 88, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1915) to which the technical
student of Hawaiian lavas is referred for de-
tailed information bearing on the composi-
tion, classification and theoretic problems
involved in a study of this subject.

Law of custom, 55

Lay san albatross, 92, 294, 3.12

albatross — the end of the dance, 316

Bird life, Views of, 310, 316

canary, 314, 319, 320

canary as cage bird, 319

canary nest and eggs, 316
. Discovery of, 95

duck, 318

honey-eater, 314, 320

rail, 314, 318

Laysan Island, 95

" Birds of, 312

Description of, 313

General view on, 92, 316

Guano on, 95

Harbor at, 92, 95

Manager's quarters at, 92

Position of, 88

Rabbit on, 293

Salt-water lagoon on, 316

Struggle for existence on, 313

Views on, 92, 294
Lead wort, 254
Leaf, A falling (palm), 232

-cutting bees, 415

-miners, 423

-miner beetle, 419

-hoppers, 388, 427

-hopper, ISugar-cane, 381

-hopper, Sugar-cane, Parasites of, 382

rolling moths, 395

Leaflets. One of the divisions or blades of a
compound leaf.

Leahi (svr Diamond Head), 115
Lenloa, 115

Leaping place of ghosts (see Jumping off
places)

off places for spirits, 53
Lechoso (see Papaya)
Ledyard, John (With Capt. Cook), 153
Leechee (see Lichi)
Leeches, 440, 497
Leeward chain, Map of, 88

(Midway and Ocean Islands), Views
on, 90

Miscellaneous views from, 96
Leeward Islands, 93

Elevations of, 93

Formation of, 93

Geologic history of, 93

Number of, 93
Legend and science agree, 91

Coming of Pele, 89

of Haleakala, 139

of Naupaka flower, 197

of Maui and the alae, 326
Leho, 455, 458
Leho (Hump-backed cowry), 460

puupuu (Madagascar cowry), 470
Lehua, 101, 216

Ohia, 220
Lei, Feather, 57

ilima, 78

maile, 78

or necklace of flowers, 32

palaoa, 60
Leis, 77

Black -eved Susan, 207

Feather, 333

Kukui nut, 57

of cone shells, 455

of dried fruit, 77

of human hair, 79

of nuts and seeds, 77

Seeds for, 204

Lelau. The name of a native banana of fine

flavor.
Lele (Alter), 259
Lemon, 263, 264

scab, 265

guava, 264, 263

Silvery, cause of, 265

Water, 268

(Water) Purple, 258, 268

Length, Width, Area and Population of Hawaiian
Islands (U. S. Census 1910): HAWAII-
DO by 74 miles, area 4015 square miles,
population 55,382; MAUI — 46x30 miles, area
728 square miles, population 28,625; OAHC
— 46x25 miles, area 598 square miles, popu-
lation 81,993; KAUAI — 25x22 miles, area
547 square miles, population 23,952; MOLO-
KAI — 21x8 miles, area 261 square m les,
population 1791; LANAI— 97 square miles,
population 131; Midway population 35; total
population, 191,909.

Leper Settlement, 135
Kalawao, 134
Kalapapa Landing ,134
View in, 136

Leprosy. This disease was introduced from abroad
prior to 1853, probably about 1840. The
policy of segregation was entered upon in
1863* the disease having become widespread
bv that date.

INDEX.

563

Lesser gods, 49
Lettered cone, 460, 455
Lice, 400
Lichee (see Lichi)

Lichen (226). Plants of low order appearing in
crusts, scale}' patches and bush-i ke tor. as
on trees, rocks, the ground, etc.

Lichens are found everywhere in the group on
rocks, trees and the bare ground. Bailey
(Thrum's Annual, 1887) records 186 species.
The list could doubtless be extended by care-
ful study.

Lichens in the rain forest, 194

on citrus fruit trees, 265
Lichi, 269

Licorice, Indian, 207

Life history of (see animal in question),
499

plant-lice, 391
Light, Artificial, 62

Effect of, on birds, 311
Lighter load of gnano, 92
Lighthouses on Kauai, 104

on Hawaii, 148

at Laysan, 92

on Oahu, 110
Lilac wreath (Purple wreath), 248
Lilikoi (Purple water-lemon), 258, 268
Liliuokalani (Queen), 48, 300
Lily, Palm, 210

pond (Ainahou), 234
Lime, 129

Coral as source of, 475
Limes, 263, 264
Limestone, 117, 129
Limna>a, 436
Limpets, 462, 466

Force necessary to dislodge, 467

Limn. The class name for seaweed ($ee also
Pumice) .

Limu, 500-503

as medicinal plant, 502

Common at Waikiki, 492

eleele, 502

koha, 214

kohu, 502

lipeepee, 502

oolu, 502
Linear (204). With parallel margins; narrow.
Lip [Mollusca] (452). The inner or the outer

side of the aperture.

Lipoa, 222

Lips of Hawaiians (Characteristic), 38
Liquid lava. Rise and fall of, 167
Lisiansky Island, 80, 95

Bird poachers on, 95

Discovery of, 95
List of Distributors (*ee Distributors)
Lite hi (xee Lichi)

Literary efforts of Hawaiian people, 41
Lithophj/ltum sp. (fig. 1), 498
"Little Beggar' ' spatter cone, 184, 180

emerald shell, 470

sea snail, 470

tuna or bonito | Kawakawa], 368, 361,
363
Littoral flora defined, 195

Liver fluke, 299
Livestock, 287

Effect of, on, 287

in Hawaii, 282

wThen introduced, 287
Lizard, California, 299

-fish [Ulae], 350

-fishes, 359
Lizards [Moo], 297, 491

Change of color of, 297

Species of, 297
Loading cattle, 282

guano, 92

sugar-cane, 278
Lobed (197). Cut into small lobes or rounded

points.
Lobelia, 212, 224, 228

Fruit of flower of, 206
Lobelias, Common, on Oahu, 206

Genera and species of, 225

"Kahili/' 224

Typical, 224
Lobster, 468

Hawaiian, 474

how caught, 469
Location of Islands (wr Position of)
Lochs, Pearl (arc also Pearl Harbor), 115
Lohiau, 41
Loin cloth, 38
Loli, 493

kai, 493

koko, 493

pua, 493
Lolo, 359

Lolo-oau (Plying gurnard), 374, 357
Lomilomi, use of, 79
Long-distance runners, 83

-horned beetles, 388, 395, 417

-horned grasshopper, 388, 429

-legged flies, 419

sea net, 344

-tongued bees, 415

-tailed Crustsea, 466

-tailed field mice, 293

-tailed rat, 292

voyages by Hawaiians, 26

voyges, how made, 26

voyages, Provisions for, 29, 67
Longitude in the Pacific, 100
Loopers, 397
Loqnat, 266
Lotus, 285

Flower of, 285
Loulu. The name of the native palm (Prit-

rhardia) of which ten species are now recog-
nized by O. Beecari as belonging to the Ha-
waiian flora.
Loulu hiwa, 236

lelo, 236
Louse (*ee Lice), 400

flies, 421
Love birds, 318

whistle, 83
Low bushes on Ocean Island, 90

islands of the group, 89

564

INDEX.

Lower forest and field plants 212

zone, 210

zone, Plants of, 202, 210
Lowland zone, 195, 201

Plant life of the, 189
Low-tide Fishing for squid at, 472

Hawaiian reef at, 472
Luakini. A heiau of the largest class.
Lucerne, 286
Lucina shell, 456
Lucuma (see Egg fruit)
Lycopersicum (see Tomato)
Lycopodiacae (see Club-mosses)
Lyric talent of Hawaiians, 42

M

Maalaea Bay, 138
Mabu (see Lama)
Mackerel, 361

shark, 340, 346
Macadamia (see Queensland nut)
MacCaughey, Prof. Vaughan (Botanist),
12, 152

Photographs by, 14
Machinery, Plantation, 274
Madagascar cowry [Leho puupuu], 4/70, 459

periwinkle, 250
Madreporite explained, 487

Maggot (405). The larva of a fly, but often ap-
plied to other worm-like creatures.
Maggots, 405, 419
Mahihi, 344, 354

Mahimahi (Common dolphin), 362
Mahiole. A war cap ; a helmet (see plate 6.

fig. 2).
Mahiole, 44
Mahogany, American, 211

Hawaiian, 211
Mahukona violet, 199
Makika, 388
Maia (Banana), 19D, 257

(Chinese banana), 258
Maiapilo, 192, 199
Maiden-hair fern, 223, 419
Maieli, 230
MaiTi, 349

Maika, game of (see Ulu and maika)
Maile, 214, 216, 221

lei, 78, 216

lei, How made, 216

Use of, 71
Mairi— Maile
Major agricultural industries (raising

sugar-cane), 274
Makaloa mat, 57

mats, how ornamented, 73
Makapuu Point, 109, 131
Makaweli canon, 107
Makaweli valley, 107
Makiawa (Hawaiian herring), 350, 349,

358
Makiki valley, 117
Making fire, 40

of lauhala mats, 72

of salt, 73

stone adzres, 75

tapa, 76
Makua, 358

station, Barking sands at, 122
Malabar, 221, 249
Malay archipelago, 210, 249

peninsula, 304
Male children, How regarded, 46

Malo. A strip of tapa cloth girded about the
loins of men ; in former times the malo was
the only dress worn by men when at work
(see plate 5, fig. 1).

Malo, David (Native Hawaiian Antiquar-
ian), 329
Malo ,Feather, 57

Tapa, 44

The, 38

of TJmi, 44
Malolo (Flying fish), 366, 349, 355
Malpighia (see Barbados cherry )
Mamak e=Mamaki
Mamake, 212, 217

Insects on, 411
Mamamo, 349
Mamani, 226

Use of wood of, 226

Mamanu=Mamano

Mamero (see Papaya)

Mammalia (295). The highest group of animals
containing those forms that suckle their
young.

Mammea (sec Mammee apple)

Mammee apple (Mammea Americana Linn.) or St.
Domingo apricot is well known in Hawaii,
having doubtless been introduced from the
West Indies where it is a native. The fruits
are 3 to 6 inches in diameter, round, russet-
colored or brown, with a yellow juicy pulp
which may be eaten raw without flavoring — ■
as the taste does not have to be acquired.
Its nearest ally in Hawaii is the Garcinia.
The tree, 20 to 40 feet high, has rigid leath-
ery leaves.

Mamo, 332

Black, 332, 333, 335

feathers, use of, 75

Oahu, 335
Mana flats, 103

Sands at, 108

Mandarin orange (Citrus nobilis Lour.) is some-
times called the kid-glove orange, owing to
the ease with which the ruddy, orange-yellow,
loose, baggy rind may be removed. The
fruits, small, slightly flattened and rough, are
seldom more than two inches in diameter.
The dense, low, thornless tree is a favorite
with the Chinese.

Man-eater shark [Niuhu], 344, 345

Maneo (see Papaya)

Mango, 258, 241

Blight on the, 242

Fruit of, 241

Fruiting season of, 241

Fungus disease of, 242

Propagation of, 242

Species of, 242

-thrip, 428

Varieties of, 242

weevel, 395

INDEX.

565

Mangosteen (Garcinia spp.). There are about
forty species known from tropical Asia and
Africa ; two or more occur, rarely, in Hono-
lulu gardens. The dried juice * of various
species forms the yellow resinous pigment
and purgative drug known as gamboge. All
the known species have a yellow juice, op-
posite coriaceous leaves and a fleshy fruit
with a thick rind.

Mangosteen, 246, 269

Manienie (Introduced), uses of, 208, 286

Native, 208
Manila hemp, 280

Manini mango is a small variety introduced by
Don Marin, perhaps one hundred years ago.
It is said to be the first mango introduced
into Hawaii.

Manini (Fish), 349, 372

Mano, a shark. There are many species of
sharks, etc., which Hawaiians call by the
general name mano. They were all tabu to
women to be eaten only under penalty of
death.

Mano (Hawaiian cub-shark), 340, 349

kihikihi (Hammer-head shark), 340.
346
Manoa valley, General view of, 270

Head of, 206, 270
Mano '-war [Iwa], 310, 312, 314

Gular pouch of, 310

Nesting habits of, 317

birds on the nest, 36
Man-of-war, Portuguese, 490
Mantis, Praying, 429

-shrimp, 468

Mantle [Mollusca] (457). An outgrowth of the
dorsal body wall.

Manufacture of poi, 66

of salt, 129

of tapa, 69

of (*ee object in question)
Many celled animals, 499

Mao. A kind of shrub (Abutilon incanum Don.)
used in dying tapa. The plant is common in
low rocky districts. The name is also given
to the wild cotton.

Mao (Cotton), 203, 281

Mapele. Name of a tree (Cyrtandra spp.) form-
erly much used in building a heiau in the
worship of the god Lono.

Mapulehu valley, 135

Heiau in, 140
Map of Ford's Island, 110

Haleakala, 134

Hawaii, 148

Kauai, 104

Keanakakoi (showing), 148

Kilauea, 148

Kilauea-iki, 148

Lanai, 134

lava flowrs (recent) on Hawaii, 148

Leeward chain, 88

Maui, 134

Molokai, 134

the Pacific Islands, 100

Pacific Ocean, 100

Pearl Harbor, 110

Pearl Lochs, 110

South Seas, 100

Map showing Kupikipikio, 118

Topographic, of Hawaii, 148

Topographic of Kauai, 104

Topographic of Maui, 134

Topographic of Oahu, 110
Margin shells, 452

Marin, Don. Francisco de Paula (Early Horticul-
turist). Arrived in Hawaii 1791, died 1837.

Marine animals, Miscellaneous, 400
bivalves, Common, 456

Marine gardens. It was not uncommon in old
Hawaii for the natives to have marine gar-
dens, reserved for the growth of certain fa-
vorite species of limu. Choice species were
occasionally transplanted from one locality to
another by them. The care of these gardens
as well as the gathering of limu was the
work of Hawaiian women and children.
Limu was the third most important article
of diet in former times.

Marine plants and plant dike animals, 498

plants, Common at Waikiki, 492

worm, 490
Marker at Kealakekua Bav (old copper),

84 "

Market-fish, Choice, 362

Fish in the, 348
Marketing, Suggestions on, 348
Markets, Hawaiian, 74
Maro Beef, 88, 97
Marquesas Islands, 189
Marriage, 42

among persons of rank, 45

Ceremony of, 42

how solemnized, 45

-tie among Hawaiians, 45
Marsh, Birds of the, 320
Mar tain, Mr. 279
Marvel of Peru, 254
Masks, Gourd, 48
Mat, 57

making, Method of, 84, 72
Mats, 59

Lauhala, 72

made by women, 73

Makaloa, 72

Niihau, 57, 72

uses of, 72

used as sails, 48, 72
Materials for tools, 74
Maternal relation, The loose, 45

Ma'u. The name of a fern (Sadleria pallida
Hook. & Arn.) with a trunk 2-3 feet high,
very common about Kilauea. It was eaten
in time of scarcity and is the species said by
some authorities to be referred to in the name
of the crater pit Halema'uma'u.

Maua. A tree (Xylosma Hawaiiense Seem.)
found in the forests of Kauai and Oahu
where it is conspicuous by reason of the red-
dish color of the young leaves. On Maui
and Hawaii, etc., a second species (X. Ilille-
brandii Waw. ) occurs known by the same
native name.

Maui, Age of, 237
amakihi, 332
Area of, 237
a volcanic doublet, 237
beetle, 394

blight or Lantana scale, 384, 385
Canons on, 138

566

INDEX.

Costal plain of, 138

Distances on (see Overland Distances)

Districts on, 134

Elevations on, indicated, 134

half -bill, 334

Harbors and landings on, 134

Iao vallev on, 134

Island of, 132

Isthmus of, 134, 139

Kaupo gap, 134

Koolau gap, 134

Landings and harbors on, 134

Last eruption on, 147

Legend of, and the alae, 326

Map of, 134

-Molokai channels, 134

-Molokai-Lanai-Kaahoolawe group
shown, 134

Outline of, 138

parrot-bill, 330

Position of, 100, 134

Principal lateral craters on, indicated,
134

Principal towns and villages on, 134

Relief map of, 134

Roads on, 134

Sand dunes on, 139

Scenery on Haleakala, 145

Secondary craters on, 134

Stages in geologic development of, 29 D

The 'Valley Isle,' 237

Topographic map of, 134
Manna. A mountain ; the inland region of an

island.
Mauna Kea, 144, 149, 151

Alga^ on, 152

Ascent of, 151

Small cones on, 151

Snow on, 154

Summit of, 154, 152

Summit of (near view), 154

Position of indicated, 148
Mauna Loa, 144, 151, 155

Ascent of, 155

Building of, 164

Dates of eruptions «f, 183-188

Dewey crater on, 160, 161

Eruption of 1852, Ooan 's account of',
157

Eruption of 1914, 163

flow of 1907, 163

Plows on, 151

History of eruptions of, 155, 183-188

Lava discharged,! 907, 163

Mokuaweoweo, 186

1905 eruption on, 162

Number of eruptions of, 155

on Molokai, 133

second largest active volcano, 155

Maxillary [fish] (369). The jaw bone.

May beetle, 417

Mayer, Dr. A. G. (Zoologist), 483

'May-pops' (Pasmflora foetida Linn.) have long
been cultivated as a garden and veranda vine
on account of their passion-flower blossoms
which are followed by bright red, nearly

globular fruits, nearly an inch in diameter.
Children amuse themselves by popping the
green and red seed pods. The fine green
leaves are three-pointed.

Meadow grasshopper, 429
Meal worm, 405
Mealy-bug(s), 391, 427

-bug ladybird, 394

-bug on citrus trees, 265
Meandering River (Hanalei), Example

of, 106
Measure shell, 470
Measuring worms (Loopers), 397
Me'e me'e (Half-beak), 350
Medicine, Hau used as, 201

Hawaiian, and botany, 79

of the Hawaiians, 79

practiced by women, 46
Mediterranean, *346, 360, 367

fruit fly, 386
Medusa explained, 480
Meek, ('apt. John, 300
Melania, 436

Mele, Instruments to accompany, 83
Meles, 41

Type of composition of, 42
Melting point of lava (nee Fusabilitv of)
Melon-fly, 387, 419
Melon, Musk, 269

Tree (sec Papaya)

Water, 269

Zapote (see Papava)
Me 'me'e, 358
Menehunes, Work of, 359

(sec Fairy tales)
Menzie, Archibald, 153
Mesh gauge, 75
Mesquit, 242
Metallic wood-borer beetle, 41 7

Metamorphosis (403). The alternations, or
transformation which an insect, or more
generally, an animal undergoes in its de-
velopment.

Meter. The unit of length of the French meterical
system is the meter (abbreviation m.) which
equals 39.370482 inches. The centimeter is
the hundredth part of a meter (0.3937
inch) ; hence one inch equals very nearly
2.54 centimeters. The millimeter (mm.) is
the thousandth part of a meter and equals
very nearly 1-25 of an inch. One inch
equals 25.4 mm. The metric system is much
used by the scientific men of all countries as
an international unit of measure.

Method of aquatic photography, 356
of gathering wauke, 59
of making calabashes, 59

Methods of warfare, 47

Mexican creeper or Mountain rose, 250,
248

Mexican poppy [Puakalaj, 198

Mexico, 242, 243, 249, 269, 284, 300, 388

Meyrick, E. (Entomologist), 420

Mice, 293

hunted as royal sport, 292

M ic r ol epid opt er a, 422

Middle-aged Hawaiian, 68

Middle forest zone, Plants of, 220, 222
Scene in, 200
Character of, 226

INDEX.

567

Mid -rib (210).
leaf.

The middle or main rib of a

Midway Island, 88, 90, 94

Bird poachers on, 94

Bird poachers hut at, 93

Cable station on, 90

Discovery of, 94

Introduced birds on, 320

Position of, 94

Sand grass on, 90

Views across lagoon at, 90

Views on, 90

Vegetation on, 90
Migration, Remarkable record of bird, 322

Migratory. Said of a species that makes regular
or periodic visits to the islands from other
lands.

Military organization, Ancient Hawaiian,
51

reservations at Pearl Harbor, 110

reservations on, 110

strategy, Hawaiian, 51
Milk, Coeoanut (juice), 235, 230
Milk-fish [Awa],'350, 354, 363
Milkweed butterfly, 421
Miller-bird and nest, 316

Laysan, 314, 319
Milling sugar-cane, Process of, 274
Millimeter (see Meter)
Millipede, 398
Millipeds, 408

Characteristic odor of, 408
Milo, 201, 203

in the native temples, 203

Uses of, 201, 203

Milu. The god of the under world. His abode
was that of the deepest realm of misery,
where those who were consigned to his care
must live on lizards and butterflies.

Mimosa seed, Uses of, 207
Mina (see Mynah )
Mineral dyes used, 69
Minnows, 378

Minor agricultural, industries (see also in-
dustry in question)

industries, Cattle raising, 282

Fishing, 344

Rice growing, 270
Mint, 198

Minute land shells, 439
Miocene, 117
Mirror, Hawaiian, 62
Miscellaneous cultivated plants, 240

fishing scenes, 344

marine animals, 490

views in Honolulu gardens, 246

views on Hawaii, 150

views (Hilo Bay), 352

views on Kauai, 102

views on Laysan, 92

views on Leeward Chain, 96

views on Molokai, 136, 142, 218

views on Oahu, 270
Misery, Abode of, 50
Mistletoe, Hawaiian, 214, 205, 225
Mite(s), 400, 409

Orange, 265

Mitre shell, 470, 451

Moa (Chicken), 308

Moa (Cotton plant), (error see Mao)

Moa (Trunk fish), 374, 375

Moano, 373

Moanui valley, 135

Moaula falls," 133

Middle falls of, 136

Upper falls of, 140
Moepuu sacrifice [Human] (see Sacrifice)
Model of a canoe, 57
Modern music, Hawaiian, 42
Moho (Hawaiian rail), 327, 333
Moi (Fish), 349

(King), 55
Moiliili, 121

Moist woods, Ferns in (Hawaii), 190
Mokihana, 221

Use of, 71, 221
Mokomoko (Boxing), which see
Mokuaweoweo, 155

History of, 155-163

Lava pool in, 186

Night view of, 186

on Maun a Loa, 186

Vapors from, 186
Mole cricket, African, 388, 430
Mollusca defined, 441

Types of, 441
Molluscoidea, 483
Mollusks, Air-breathing, 434

Living examples of primitive, 467

Native methods of cooking, 443
Molokai, Anchorage on, 134

a volcanic doublet, 133

Bog flora on, 218

(loud cap over Kamalo, 142

deer, 296

distance from Oahu, 132

Distances on (see Overland Distances)

Dunes on, 142

Elevations on, indicated, 134

Examples of talus debris on, 136

Fossil root-casts on, 140

Great heiau on, 140

Hipuapua falls on, 140

Island of, 132

Lanai, Kahoolawe, stages in geologic
development of, 290

-Lanai -Maui-Kahoolawe, Group, 134

Landings on, 134

mamo, 335

Map of, 134

Miscellaneous views on, 142, 136, 21&

Mountain of Kamalo, 142

Northwest coast of, 142, 133

o-o, 330

Position of, 100

Principal villages on, 134

reef, 135

reef, Gathering coral on, 142

Scenery on, 136, 140

Trail on, 218

Water falls on, 140
Monarch butterfly, 421
Money cowry, 470, 458

568

INDEX.

Mongoose, 296, 308, 311, 328, 335, 339

Monkey-pod, 242
Size of, 242

Monstera, 246, 249

Curious fruit of, 249

Monterey cypress, 237

Montipora, 477

Monument, Capt. Cook '8,84

erected by British govt., 84

in front of the Judiciary bldg., 44

Moo. A general name for all kinds of lizards;
hence Mookaala a species common about
rocks in dry regions; Mookaula a species oc-
curring about dwellings, etc.

Moo (Lizards), 297

Mookaala (see Moo)
Mookaula (see Moo)
Mookini, Heiau of, 343
Moomumi, Camp at, 136

Cave dwelling at, 140

Dune erosion at, 142

General view of, 142
Moon-flower, Hawaiian, 202

-shell, 470, 461
Moorish idol [Kihikihi], 370, 361
Moray [Puhi], 350, 361
Morays (Eel-like fish), 350
Morning-glory, Beach, 192, 218

Five-fingered [Kooli ai], 192

Island, 197

leaf -miner, 423

Medical use, by natives, 197

Moon-flower, 202

Sea, 197
Morrison, I)., 320
Mortars, 68, 70, 63
Moses, Ernest, Photographs by, 14
Moss animals, 480
"Moss" stone, 129

Mosses. In 1877 I). D. Baldwin published a list
of 92 species of Hawaiian mosses. Other in-
vestigators have added species since bringing
the total up to more than one hundred
species.

Mosquito fish, 376, 378, 440
Mosquitoes, 387, 419
Moth, Clothes, 405

Hau, 397

Humming-bird, 398, 399

-like flies, 419

Sphinx, 398
Moths, 421 '

Leaf-rolling, 395
Mottled periwinkle [Kolealea], 470
Mountain apple, 28, 216, 256

apple trees, Birds frequent, 257

bog flora, 229

forests, Birds of the, 330, 334, 328

forest, Plants of the, 214

house, Old, on Haleakala, 145

ranges on Oahu, 110

ridges, Vegetation of, 218

rose, 248

scenery on Oahu, 130

scenery on Kauai, 102

scenery of Haleakala, 145

stream. Typical view along, 200

trail, 218

vegetation, Example of on Oahu, 125

Mountains: ON OAHU— Kaala (Waianae Range)
4030 ft., Palikea (Waianae Range) 3111 ft.,
Konahuanui 3105 ft., Lanihuli 2775 ft.,
Tantalus (Puu Ohia) 2013 ft., Olymphus
(Awawaloa) 2447 ft., Round Top (Ualakaa)
1049 ft., Punchbowl (Puowaena) 498 ft.,
Diamond Head (Leahi) 761 ft. ON HA-
WAII— Mauna Kea 13,825 ft., Mauna Loa
13,675 ft., Hualalai 8269 ft,, Kohala Mts.
5489 ft., Kilauea 4000 ft. ON MAUI — Hale-
akala 10,032 ft,, Puu Kukui 5788 ft,, Eke
4500 ft, ON KAUAI— Waialeale 5250 ft.,
Hoary Head (Haupu) 2030 ft., Kilohana
Crater 1100 ft. ON MOLOKAI— Kamakou
4958 ft., Mauna Loa 1382 ft., Olokui 4600
ft. Oin LANAI — Highest Point 3400 ft
ON KAHOOLAWE— Highest Point 1472 ft.
ON MOLOKINI— Highest Point 160 ft ON
NIIHAU — Highest Point 1300 ft.

Mountains, Koolau, 211
Plants from the, 218
Waianae, 211

Mourning customs were various. Wailing was
always indulged in. Some knocked out one
or more of their front teeth; others cut their
hair in odd ways; some tattooed their ton-
gues; others burned their bodies in differ-
ent places. Clothing, as well as moral re-
straint, was often discarded; houses were
burned and general anarchy was liable to
prevail.

Mourning, Shells as emblems of, 465
Mouse, 293

Mu (Porgie), 366, 349, 367
Mud-daubers, 404, 413

flow of 1868, 159
Mnir, Dr. Fredrick (Entomologist), 383
Mulberry, 397

Black, 267

food for, 267

Paper, 217

shell, 470, 449

White, 267
Mulberries, 266
Mullet [Amaama], 362, 359

Pish destructive to, 353

ponds, Area of, 360

ponds, Old, 359

pond, 270, 359

Snake-head, 377

substitute for, 364

Value of, 360
Mumu (Goat-fish), 366, 373
Manienie, when introduced, 286

Murder was not uncommon in ancient Hawaii,
the object usually being theft. Professional
robbers lurked along the highways. Many
of them were expert in their vocation, en-
tangling their victim with a rope and leap-
ing upon him so as to break his bones. Mur- .
derers when apprehended were usually stoned
to death.

Murex, 449

Muscular young Hawaiian, 44

Mushroom coral, 488, 477, 479

Music, Modern, 42

Musical instruments, 82

Musk-melon, 269

Mussel, Common, 443

Hawaiian edible, 456
Mussels, 443

Goose, 473

INDEX.

569

Mutilations (see Mourning customs)

* Mutton' birds, 312

Muumai, 115

Mynah (Mina), 245, 306, 395

and the native birds, 30(3

feed on, 232, 268

Food habits of the, 306

Introduction of the, 306

Nest of eggs of the, 306
Myoporum (see Aaka)
Mvtilus, 443

shells, (duster of, 478

N

Naenae, 220, 227

Naenae (Surgeon fish), 370, 372

Nahawele (Hawaiian edible mussel), 456,

443
Naieo (error see Naio)
Kaio, 222, 226
Nakuina, Mrs. Emma Metcalf (Hawaiian

Scholar and Antiquarian), 12
Names (see Nomenclature), 318

Nana uli (diviners) or soothsayers were a class
supposed to be able to predict future events, as
changes in the weather, the death of import-
ant persons, wars and the like from certain
events, as the appearance of the sky, arrival
of certain fish, tidal waves, etc.

Napaka (error see Naupaka)

Napali cliffs, 107

Nape (368). The upper or back part of the
neck, usually writen 'the nape of the neck.'

Napkins, Hawaiian, 62

Napoopoo, 182

Narcotic (207). Generally producing sleep or
stupor, though variously applied.

Narwhale, 301

Nassa, 451

Nasturtium, 208

Naticas, 461

National game, Boxing the, 83

Native amphipods, 409

and introduced fruits, 258, 264

ant, 413

bat, 295

birds (see Chapters XXTII, XXIV,
XXV)

centipeds, 407

cotton, 199, 203, 281

cutworm, 396

dogs, 295

fibre plants, 217

fish baskets and nets, 341

flora, 192

fruits, 255

ginger [ Awapuhi], 202

grasses, 286

houses, how used, 39

in characteristic European dress, 44

insects, 410

milipeds, 408

oven, how made, 66

palms, .236

plants, 192, 191

plants, Curious, 206

plants, Economic study of? 283

poultice, 197

rat, 291
Native (see also Hawaiian), 429

slug, 439

strawberry, 227

tobacco, 284

white ant, 425

woods, Number of species of, 226
Natural arch, Onomea, 150

bridge at Makaha, 222

bridge, Haleakala, 146

bridge on Oahu, 122

enemies, Insects controlled by, 381

enemies of lantana, 384

graft shown, 218

habitat of birds' nest fern, 190

habitat of ieie vines, 190, 200

history of the Hawaiian people, 25-87

Naturalist (335). Usually one who is devoted to
the study of the natural sciences.

Nature's school by the sea, 429
Na ukewae (Laysan albatross), 310
Naupaka, 202, 220, 195, 222

Curious flowers of the, 197

Legend of the, flower, 197

Nauplius (373). An early stage in the develop-
ment of the crab-like animals in which the
larva has six legs and a median eye.

Naval battles, 51

Navigation of ancient Hawaiians, 30

Nawiliwili Bay, 105

Distance from (see Overland Dis-
tances)
Near view of Halemaumau, 166
Neck of Maui, 139

an isthmus, 134
Necker Island, 88, 98, 97

Discovery of, 97
Necklaces, 77

of ivorv, 79

Seeds for, 204
"Needle," The in lao valley, 138
Needle-fish [ Ahaaha], 350, 363

Sein, 75
Needles, Spanish, 196
Nehe, 199

Nehu (Anchovie), 350, 349, 351
Nemertinea, 497

Nene (Hawaiian goose), 310, 323
Nerita, 465
Neritina, 465

Nerves [Bot] (213). The name applied to the
•ribs or veins of a leaf when simple or parallel.

Nerve-winged insects, 423

Nesting habits of the Man-o '-war bird, 317

(see species in question)
Nestlings (see species in question)
Nests, Bird (see species in question)

Spider, 410

Wasp, 404
Net, Dip (large), 344

fishing, 344

Long sea, 344, 352

Sea, Landing a, 344

Throw, 344

37

570

INDEX.

Nets [Koko], 68

Bag, 341

Dip, 341

Fish, 73

Gill, 339

of olona, 73

Opelu, 341
Nettle, Sea, 480
Newa, 44

Newell 's shearwater, 309
New industries (see Industries), 281

Zealand, 229, 281, 307
Night birds, 309

blooming Cereus, 246, 254

fishing, 242

heron, Black-erowTned, 310, 325

-mare, How interpreted, 49

mosquito, 387

view of Mokuaweoweo, 186

Niho. A tooth, especially a whale's tooth ; hence
Nihopalaoa, an ivory ornament, worn pendent
from the neck, made from the ivory of the
whale or walrus. Originally this ornament
was worn only bv high chiefs (see plate 10,
fig. 1).

Nihoa (Bird Island), 88, 96, 98

Position of, 98

Visited by, 98
Niihau, Description of, 101

Island, 88

mats [makaloa], 57, 72

mats, how ornamented, 731

Position of, 100, 101

shell, 470, 10.1, 453
Nitidulid beetles, 388, 417
Nitrogen in soil, 105

Niu. The name of the cocoanut tree. Under
the tabu system females were forbidden to
eat the nuts under penalty of death.

Niu (see also cocoanut), 201, 236

uses of ,236
Noah's ark shell (Ark shell), 456
Nobility a powerful class, 54
Nectuids, 396

Nocturnal (309). Active at night, appearing at
night.

Noddy tern, 310, 311, 318
Nohu (Scorpion fish), 374, 168
Nohu, 92, 199, 368
Nohuanu, 229

Nomenclature. The svstematic naming of things.
Scientific knowledge is based primarily on
the classification of facts. Classification in
general consists in observing objects and plac-
ing those which are alike in one or more char-
acters in the same group under a common
name. As the study of living objects has
advanced, and the number of species been
increased through research, the detail of pro-
viding a separate and definite name for each
ljving thing has become an enormous task.
This labor is largely performed by specialists,
who working as botanists, zoologists, ento-
mologists and the like, are guided in the
naming of objects in their respective fields, by
certain more or less definite rules known as
the miles, or canons of nomenclature. By
these rules scientific <^"or technical names are
applied which are intended to serve the
double purpose of providing a definite name
for the animal or plant, and at the same
time, one which will indicate its relation to
other similar groups and to still other groups

from which it differs more or less in import-
ant characters. Natural classification at-
temps to indicate the relation of groups to
' other groups of varying degrees of similarity.
In this scheme of classification and nomen-
clature a number of terms are quite gener-
ally applied, in the biological sciences, with the
general meaning of which every person should
be acquainted. The classification of the do-
mestic cat is a familiar example and one that
serves well to indicate the important points
in the whole scheme of classification and
nomenclature in force among both botanists
and zoologists.

The many varieties or breeds of domestic cats indi-
cates the variation liable to occur within a
given species. The lion and the tiger differ
more widely in their characters and for that
reason are given different specific names,
but they, together with the common cat (as
well as numerous other species), are all
grouped together as species belonging to one
GENUS (Felis). The genus Felis and other
genera, in which are placed less common cat-
like animals, are grouped together in a
larger group — the FAMILY (Felida1). This
important group, together with the members
of the dog familv form a still larger group —
the ORDER (Carnivora). These families,
as an order, are included with other orders to
form a CLASS and so on, as indicated in the
following diagram:
Kingdom — Animalia.
Phylum — Chordata .
Class Mammalia.
Order — Carnivora .
Family — Felida?.
Genus — Felis.

Species — Felis dom estica .

The name of the animal is generally understood
to be its generic name followed by its specific
name. To this, under varying rules, is
usually added as authority for the name, the
family name of the person first publishing an
accurate description of the animal or plant.
Variety names are added under the same
general rule; the names of the sub-species or
variety following that of the species as Asio
accipitrinus sandvicensis (Blox.). The name
indicating that the Hawaiian owl is a variety
of the short eared owl of America and that
it was first described by Bloxham. The
name of the authority being enclosed in
parenthesis (Bloxham) indicates, to the
student of nomenclature, that the species has
been changed from the original genus to
which Bloxham referred it in the original
description.

Non-calcarious sponges, 500

Noni, 201, 205

Distribution of, 205

uses of, 205
Norfolk Island pine, 237
North America, 191, 204, 226, 346

coast of Molokai, 133

-east coast of Hawaii, 154

Pacific currents, 191, 248
Norway, 291

rat, 291
Nose flute, 82

how played, 82

player, 40, 76

of Hawaiians (characteristic), 38
Notes, comments, observatioi .s, where

found, 10
Notochord, 484
Noxious animals, 35
Nuihi, 345

INDEX.

571

Number of eruptions of Manna Loa, 155

of illustrations, 7

of species of palms, 232

of species of (sec genus, family, class,
or order in question)
Nunn (Trumpet-fish), 350, 375
Nut(s), 285

Almond,248

Betel, 236

Candle, 239

Ooeoanut palm, 236

grass, 287

grass [Kaluha], 196

Kukui, how used, 239

Lauhala, 204
Nutting, Dr. C. C. (Zoologist), 479, 480
Nuuanu Pali, 125

valley, 109

valley, View in, 112
Nuumele (Wild ipecac), 212
Nymph, Dragon fly, 436

Oahu, Age of, 117

A laboratory in vulcanology, 109

a volcanic doublet, 113

Boys on, 110

Breaks at Kaena, 122

Capes and points on, 110

Cities on, 110

College— PUNAHOU ACADEMY, 246

Common corals from, 486

Common ferns on, 228

Common Lobelias on, 206

Coral reefs on, 110

Dimensions of, 109

Depression of, 121

Distances on, 110

Distances on (see Overland Distances)

Districts on, 110

Economic products (geologic), 127

elepaio, 337

Erosion on shown (Maunawili), 130

Estimated age of, 124

Evidence of subsidence of, 220

Examples of sea cliff on, 122

Field and roadside plants on, 198

Field boulders on, 130

Fresh water fauna of, 436

General view of Koko Head, 472

Geologic history of, 219, 220, 221

Harbors on, 110

Haunama Bay, 128

Highest point on, 109

Highest points on (indicated), 110

General view on shore-line, 270

Geologic objects of interest on, 129

Island, 88, 109

Islands visible from, 132

Kahana Bay, 128

Kahana valley (drowned valley), 128

''Knife edge" ridges on, 130

ma mo, 335

Manoa valley on, 270

Military reservations on, 110

Miscellaneous views on, 112, 116, 122,
125, 128, 130, 270

Mountain scenery on, 130

Mountain ranges on, 110

Natural bridge on, 122

Plantation scenes on, 274

Plants of the mountains on, 214

Plants of Lower forest zone on, 202

Plants of Middle forest zone on, 220

Papa holau slides on, 86

Position of, 100, 110

Pond life on, 436

Babbit Island, 128

railway, Exposures on, 132

railway on, 110

Re-elevation of, 121

Reef on, at lowT tide, 472

Rivers on, 110

Rivers on, 100

Roads on, 110

Rocky shoredine, 130

sand dunes on, 122

Scenery on, 270

Secondary craters on ,110

Shore-line of, 109

Small tuff and basaltic craters, 115

Spirit leaps on, 50

Stages in the geologic development
of, 290

Streams on, 110

Surf at Waimea, 128

Topographic may of, 110

Towns and villages on (principal), 110

Valleys on, 110

Water falls on | Waipuhia=Blown
water], 112

Wind blown sand on, 122
Oak, Australian, 248

Silk, 248
Objects of geologic interest on Oahu, 129

of recent manufacture, Hawaiian, 60

of worship, 49

tabued, 47
Observations, notes, comments, where
found, 10

Obsidian, commonly called volcanic glass, is a vol-
canic rock, in various conditions closely re-
sembling bottle-glass in appearance and tex-
ture. It belongs to the trachyte group of
rocks, but is of rare occurrence in the islands
in the typical form. Specimens variously
colored, as black, brown, greenish and bluish-
white have been found by the author on vari-
ous islands of the group, Pele's hair and
pumice (which see) are forms of this rock.

Occasional visitor (Birds). Said of a species
that occurs in small numbers at irregular
intervals.

Occupations of Hawaiians, 63

Ocean boneto [Aku], 344, 366, 361

-borne plants, 195

Ocean Distances: HONOLULU to San Fran-
cisco 2100 miles; San Diego, 2260 miles;
Portland, 2360 miles: Panama, 4720 miles;
Tahiti, 2440 miles; Samoa, 2290 miles; Fiji,
2700 miles; Auckland, 3810 miles; Sydney,
4410 miles; Hongkong, 4920 miles; Yoko-
hama, 3400 miles; Guam, 3300 miles; Ma-
nila via N. E. Cape, 4890 miles: Victoria,
B. C, 2460 miles; Midway Island, 1200
miles.

572

INDEX.

Island, 88, 94

Islands, Birds of, 308

Island, Position of, 94

Island, View on, 90
Oeherous ladybird, 394
Octopus or Devil fish [Hee], 442, 441

at the Aquarium, 442
Odd fishes, 374
Odor of Hawaiian birds, Peculiar, 331

of sandalwood, 221
Oedenrerids, 418

Oeoe (Hawaiian stormy petrel), 323
Offerings to stop the 1801 flow, 152

in time of war, 51

Peace, 53
Oha wai, 212, 214

uses of, 226
Ohe, 224, 203, 209
Ohekapala (Ohe =bamboo and kapala = to print).

A piece of bamboo carved for the purpose of

printing tapa (see tapa making).
Ohelo berries, 258, 227, 256

papa, 255

Tall, 220
Ohia, 190, 220, 215, 216, 226, 228
Ohia ai, A useful fruit tree (Jambosa Malaccen-

sis) usually known as Eugenia malaccensis

Linn., bearing the mountain apple. The

wood was also used in house building, etc.

Ohia ai, 216, 256
ha, 220

lehua, 220, 209, 215, 216
wai (error sec Oha wai)
uses of, 215

Ohua, 340

Ohulenui (old Hawaiian), 60

Oi, 205

Oil, Cocoanut, uses of, 22, 236
' Exile, 252
Illuminating, 62
Kukui nut, use of, 62
Palm, 237
Shark, 346
Whale, 302
Whale, vield of, 303

Oio (Bone-fish), 350, 349, 354

Okelehao. The name given to an intoxicating
liquor formerly distilled by natives and for-
eigners from hi roots. Its manufacture in
illicit stills continues in the back country sec-
tions.

Okolehau, 210

Okupuluipu, 228

Old ago among Hawaiians, 45

Hawaiians, 24, 60

Government Nursery, 238

'Stump leg' (plover), 322

-world limpets, 46(5
Oiea (fire Olive)
Oleander, 252

poisonous, 252

white scale, 391

Yellow, 252

Olena. The name of a plant (Curcuma longa)
the root of which was used in dyeing yellow.
It resembles the airapuhi, which see.

Olepe (Tellen shell), 456, -145

Olinda beetle, 394

Olive (Olea Europa Linn.), although seldom fruit-
ing in Hawaii, the 'oil tree' is nevertheless
well established, and is grown usually as an
ornamental tree. The dull, whitish green,
small, thick, lanceolate opposite leaves are
characteristic of this low-growing tree.- It
has been cultivated from the earliest times in
Syria and Palestine and in remote antiquity
was distributed throughout the whole Medi-
terranean region. In recent times it has
been successfully planted in America, Aus-
tralia and elsewhere. The wild olive (O.
Oleaster) was once sacred to Pallas and its
leaves were used for victors' wreaths among
the Greeks and Romans — hence 'the olive
branch.' Many cultivated varieties of O.
sativa are recogniezd.

Olive shells, 452
Olivine (see Chrysolite)

sand, 129
Olohu stones, 83
Olokele canon, 102, 106, 107
Olokui, 133

mountain, Sea end of, 136
Olomea, 40
Olona, 202, 67, 21 7

board [laau kahi olona], 64

cord, 64

cord, uses of, 75

fiber, How secured, 217

how cleaned, 299

how grown, 73

Method of preparing, 64

Nets of, 73

use of, 73, 77, 79, 81, 203
Olowalu valley, 138
Olympus trail, Perns along, 206
Omaka. The foreskin in males removed in cir-
cumcision as formally practiced among the

Hawaiian. Also the nipple of a female.

The surgical instrument used in circumcision

was usually a sharp splinter of bamboo.

The operation was resorted to chiefly as a

sanitary measure.
Omaka (Wrasse fish), 366, 349, 359
Oman (Hawaiian thrush), 334
Omilu (Ca valla), 362, 349
Ono, 349
Onomea, Arch at, 150

gulch, 176
Ornament of braided hair, 60
Oo. An instrument anciently and in a modified

form still used by Hawaiians in cultivating

the ground. It was made of hard wood as

alahee, ulei, kauila, uhiuhi, etc., and was

long and flattened at one end to form a

digger.
O-o a-a, 337
O-o (Bird), 330, 333

Feathers of, use of, 77
Oo (Digger), 75
Oopu (Goby), 374, 349, 357

how captured, 357
Oopuhue, 349, 367
Oopukai (Cirrhitoid fish), 374, 349
Oopu kawa (Porcupine fish), 370, 365
Opae (Shrimp), 436
Opae (fig. 1), 482

baskets, 341
Opakapaka (Snapper), 362, 349, 364, 371
Opeapea, 295

INDEX.

573

Opeas, 439

Opelu. The opelu and aku were two kinds of

fish that were sacred and tabu by turns for

six months at a time. On January 13th each

year a human sacrifice was offered together

with the fish aku. The Kahoalii, a man

personifying the god of that name, is said to

have plucked out and ate the eye of each.

By this ceremony the tabu was taken from

the aku and the opelu in turn became tabu

for six months.
Opelu, 349, 363, 364

nets, 341

palahu (Mackerel), 366, 349
Operculate land shells, 438
Operculum defined, 413

False, 439

from Viviparus, 436

in Turban shell, 460
Opihi, 466

"Opium" tree [Opiuma], 198
Opu. A protuberance with an enclosure as the

belly, stomach, bladder, etc. The Hawaiians

supposed the seat of thought, intelligence,

etc., also the seat of moral power to reside

in the small intestines; hence opu or naau

was used bv them for what we call the heart.
Opule (Wrasse fish), 366, 349, 359
Oracle [Lananuu]. A tall framework of poles in

the temples shaped like an obelisk. It was

four to six feet square and hollow. In it the

priest stood to get in direct communication

with his god that he might learn the will of

the* god on important matters.
Oral and aboral view of sea-urchin, 496
Orange, 263, 264

aphis, 265, 389

Chinese, 266

groves, Old, 135

Introduction of, 264

Large trees of, 265

mite, 265

-red birds [Akepa], 333

Russet, cause of, 265
Orea, 347

Order (w Nomenclature)
Oreoniystis, Genus, 331
Organ pipe coral, 429
Oriental method of rice cultivation, 276
Origin of bird fauna, 338

Hawaiian plants, 193

the Hawaiian race, 26

the Polynesian race, 26
Ornamental palms, 236
Ornaments, 38

Feather, 75

Flowers as, 38

Human teeth as, 70

Nut shells ,ivory, as, 38
Ornament shell, 470*
Ornithologist (329), One who is devoted to the

study of birds.
Osculum explained, 499
Ostersaard, J. M., 447
On, 331

use of feathers of, 77
O-u, 337

holowai, 337
Outline of head of Maui (sec map of), 134
Outfit for reef collecting, 478
Otaheite gooseberry (Phyllanthus distichns, Mull.)

Although extensively cultivated in the tropics

for its acid fruits, which are used for pickles,
it is rare in Hawaiian gardens. This low
growing tree with large pinnate leaves be-
longs to the very large tropical genus Phyllan-
thus. commonly represented in the islands by
the variegated Phyllanthus roaeo-pict-us, much
used as a hedge plant. It is a native of
Java. The fleshy green fruits, an inch or
more in diameter, occur in long clusters.
A related species with finely pinnate leaves
(Phyllanthus emblica Linn.) is rare in Ha-
waii. A single tree may be seen in the
Mausoleum grounds in Nuuanu Valley. The
round fruits, % inch in diameter, are slightly
flattened and six-striated.

Ovary [Bot] (260). The part of the pistil
which contains the future seeds.

Ovate (203). Like the section of an egg with
the broader end of the leaf next to the stem.

Overland Distances: ON OAHU — From Honolulu
P. O, to Diamond Head 5.9 miles. Koko Head
11.8 m., Makapuu 14.8 m., Waimanalo (by
the Pali) 12 m., Pali 6.6 m., Kaneohe 11.9
m., Waiahole 18.9 m., Kali ana 26.4 m., Ka-
huku Mill 3 7.2 m., Waialua 28 m., Ka-
huku Ranch (via Waialua 89.4. By Rail
from Honolulu Depot — To Puuloa 6.23 in.,
Aiea 9.37 m., Pearl City 11.76 m., Walrawa
Station 25.20 m., Ewa Plantation Mill 18.25
in., Waianae Station 33.30 m., Kaena Point
44.50 m., Waialua station 55.80 m., Kahuku
Plantation 69.50 m., Punaluu 80.50 m.
ON KAUAI — Nawiliwili: to Koloa 11.0 in.,
Hanapepe 20.0 m., Waiawa 31.5 m., Nuololo

44.8 in., Hanamaulu 3.3 m.. Wailua River
7.7 m. Kealia 11.9 m., Kilauea 23.6 m,
Hanalei 31.8 m., Wainiha 34.8 m. ON
MAUI — from Kahului : to Spreckelsville 4.0
m., Paia P. (). 7.2 m., Haiku 11.0 m., Huelo
20.2 m., Nahiku Landing 49.9 m., liana
P. O., 55.6 m., Kipahulu Mill 66.2
m., Wailuku 3.8 m., Waikapu 5.9 in.,
Maalaea 10.3 m., Kihei 12 m., Makawao 11.6
m., Olinda 18.5 in., Haleakala (crater edge)
26.6 m Haleakala summit 28.6 m., Olowalu

19.9 in., Lahaina Court House 25.5 m.,
Waihee 7.3 m., Kahakuloa 16.3 m., Napili
29.8 m. ON HAWAII — from Foreign
Church (Kohala) to Hainakua boundary 4.5
in., Kukuihaele Mill .11.0 m.. Mana 7.7 m.,
Honoipu 7.25 in., Mahukona 10.5 m., Mahu-
kona to Court House 9.2 m., Kawaihae to
Waimea Court House 11.8 m., Mana 19.5 in.,
Kohala Court House 15.0 m., Kealaktkua
to Kailua 12.0 in., Kiholo 27.6 m., Kawaihae
42.0 m., Honaunau 4.0 m., Hookena 7.7 m.,
Kahuku Ranch 36.5 in., Volcano to Halfwav
House 13 m., Pahala 23 in., Punaluu 27.6
m., Honuapo 32.6 in., Waiohinn 3 7.1 m.,
Kahuku Ranch 43.1 m. From Hilo Court
House 13 m., Pahala 23 m., Punaluu 27.6
Road 9 m., Pahoa 20.0 m., Pohoiki 28 m.,
Kapoho 32.0 in., Furneaux's 13.2 in.. Moun-
tain View 16.8 m., Volcano House 31.0 m.
ON MOLOKAI — From Kaunakakai: to
Meyers, Kalae, 5.0 m., Kalaupapa 9.0 m.,
Kamalo 9.0 m., Pukoo 15.0 m., Halawa
25.0 m.

Oviparous fishes, Example of, 358
Ovipositer (429). An organ by which many in-
sects place their eggs in places suited to
their devel opm en t .

Owalii, 227

"OwlM fish [Moa], 375

Owl, Hawaiian short-eared, 33<i

Owlet moths, 396

Owls, Sacred. In time of danger the appearance

of an owl was regarded as a favorable, omen.

Kukauahi was the god of owls.
Ox bot-fly, 421
Oyster beds attacked by starfish, 489

culture, Attempts at, 445
Extinct, 444

Fossil, 115

574

INDEX.

Hawaiian, 456
Pearl, 456, 444
Rock, 456, 446
Saddle, 444, 445
Oysters, 443, 473
California, 445
Eastern, 445
True, 444

Pa (shell), 444

kuikui, 372

(Pearl oyster), 456
Pacific, .191/ 216, 225, 236, 300, 301, 303,
312, 346

Coral reefs of the, 477

golden plover [Kolea], 303, 321

Highest mountain in, 147

Islands, 203, 257, 320

Islands, Map of, 100

Islanders (Polynesians), 25

Ocean ,95, 99, "ill, 324

Ocean, Cross roads of, 99

Ocean, Map of, 100

Sphynx of the, 115

Whaling in the, 303
Paddle [Hoi], Canoe, 70, 80
Paddy, 276

Pahee was a game in which short blunt darts of
polished hard wood from two to four feet in
length were thrown along the ground be-
tween two darts laid down at a certain
distance.

Pahoehoe and a-a shown, 162

Examples of in Kilauea, 184
flows in Kilauea, 166
flows on Mauna Loa, 155

Palm. The pahu was originally a hollow cocoa-
nut stem or other tree with a shark skin
drawn over one end and used as a drum (see
plate 11, fig. 1).

Pahu hula, 57

Paiai, 66

Painted fish, 359

Painters' brush (a composite), 262

Painui, 206, 224

Pakii, 349, 371

Pakuikui, 347

Palagonite. A volcanic rock closely allied to

basalt having a somewhat vitrous structure;

the craters of Diamond Head, Punchbowl,

etc., are largely composed of this rock.
Palahola. A paste made from the fern amaumau

(Sadle-ria cyantheoides Kaulf.) which was

used as a gum in repairing tapa.
Palaoa, 79, 301
Palapalai, 221
Palaui— Palawi
Palawi, 349
Pali, Eruptive center beyond, 220

Height at the, 114

road (1214 feet), 125

The, 125, 114

The, a wind gap, 125

The, View near, 112

Pallial line. The line or mark made by the
mantle in certain Mollusc a on the inner side
of the shell.

Palmate (262). Said of a leaf when the leaf, or

the divisions of the leaf, spreads from its

stalk like the open hand.
Palm blossoms, Bees feeding on, 23?

Blue, 237

Bottle, 240, 237

Chinese, 237

Cocoanut, 233

Date, 234, 238, 246, 264, 236

Fan, 240, 236

Japanese, 237

leaf, Danger from falling, 233

leaf -roller parasites, 396

leaves, how used, 23

236

leaves, Scale on, 384

lily, 210

mealy-bug, 391

oil, 237

Rhapis, 240, 237

Royal, 246, 232

Sago, 237

Sugar, 237

Sunday, 236

Travelers, 238, 257

trees on Cocoanut Island, 150

trees on the sea-shore, 150

Washington, 246, 237

"Weeping," 237

Wine, 246, 237

Wine, fruit and flowers of, 246
Palms, 232

as a domestic setting, 233

at Waikiki, 233

Cocoanut, age of, 233

Native, 236

Number of species of, 232

Ornamental, 236

The "prince of," 233
Palm thatch, 236
Palolo-Manoa trail, View on, 218

Palolo. Sticky mud. A bluish-white clav of the
islands.

Pamoho=Okupukupu
Pampanos, 364
Pampas grass, 238
Pandanus, 204, 252

Aerial roots of, 252

baskets, 20

distribution of, 204

Species of, 252

use of, 62, 81
Pan-Hawaiian Island, 290

Panicles (227). A loose branching cluster of
flowers.

Panini, 209

Pantheon, The Hawaiian, 49

Papa hee malu (surf board), 80

holua, 57, 86

holau slides on Oahu, 86

Papa, wife of Wakea. They were regarded as

the founders of the Hawaiian race.
Papai lanai, 469
Papaia (see Papaya)

Papain is a ferment obtained from the half-ripe
fruit of the papaya. It differs from pepsin
in that its proteolytic action goes on in the
neutral or alkaline solutions. It is also called
papayin, papayotin, and carican.

INDEX.

575

Papala, 214
Papaua, 456, 443
Papaw, 262
Papaw (see Papaya)

Papaya. The common name for both the tree
and fruit of Carica Papaya is derived from
the Carab^ "ababai" which doubtless is a cor-
ruption of the American name papaya since
the species is known to be of South Ameri-
can or West Indian origin. The papaya has
so long been in cultivation in the tropics
that it is known under at least a dozen
common names, variously spelled, some of
which are used interchangeably even by the
same authors. Papaya seems* preferable as
the distinctive English name, although papaia
is a common spelling. Other current Eng-
lish names are tree-melon, pawpaw (which
see), papaw, melon zapote, lechoso, maneo,
and mamero.

Papaya 264, 262

Property of the juice of, 263

Varieties of, 262
Paper mulberry [Wauke], 67, 69, 217

wasps, 404
Papiopio (Ca valla), 362, 349
Papipi. The prickly pear. Also called panini.
Para grass, 286

rubber, 283
Paralysis, transmitted by, 419
Parasitic Hymenoptera, 412

plant, Example of a, 204, 225
Parasites (381). An animal that lives in or on

or at the expense or by the exertion of an-
other species.

Parasites, Egg, 382

of the leaf -hopper, 382
Parents and children, E elation between, 45
Parrot-bill, Maui, 330

fish, 365

-fish, Common [Uhu], 370

-fish, Blue, 365
Parrots, 308
Parthenogenesis, 391

Parthenogenesis (390). In some animals in
which fertilization normally occurs, the ova
may develop in the absence of the male ele-
ment; hence virgin reproduction.

Partridge, California, 308

tun [Puonionio], 460, 161

Party visiting 1905 flow, 162

Paspalum, 208

Passenger and mail landings (see Bays,
etc.)

Passi flora (see Mav-pops, Water-lemon,
etc.)

Passion flowers, 268

flower, Origin of name of, 268
fruit (Grandilla), 264

Paste (see Varnishes)

Pa 'u, Feather, 57
hula, 82
Made of, 38
The, 38

Pa'u. The principal garment of a Hawaiian
female in former times, consisting of a num-
ber of tapas, generally five, wound around
the waist and reaching about to the knee (see
plate 11, fig. 3).

Pauohiiaka, 192

Paupau (Ca valla), 362

Paupilipili,196

Paving blocks, 215

Pawpaw (see Papaya)

Pea, 489, 491

Peace, How proclaimed, 53

offerings, 53
Peaches, 267

scale, 391
Pea-fowl, 308
Peahi, 228

Peanut, native of, 285
Peanuts, 285
Pear, Alligator, 261

Alligator=Avocado, 258, 261

Prickley, 269

Pears. Pears (Pyru<% communis) occasionally

fruit in the islands in the higher altitudes.

They are of fairly ."rapid growth and produce

a fruit of good quality. Thev thrive best at

from 4000-5000 feet elevation.
Pear, Sapota, 266
Pearl and Hermes Reef, 88, 94

and Hermes Reef, Seal on, 96

City Peninsula, 110

City, Plan of, 110

Harbor, 109, 211

Harbor, Map of,. 110

Harbor, Evidence of elevation of, 130

Harbor, Fortification of, 211

Harbor, Fossil shells at, 130

Harbor, Military reservation at, 110

Harbor, Shark Ashing off, 344

Harbor, Soundings in, 110

Lochs, Map of, 110

Lochs (see also Pearl Harbor), 115, 132

oyster [Pa], 456, 444

shell, use of, 77
Pearls, 444

Peculiar. A species occurring only on the islands

of the group (see endemic).
Pectoral fins (847). Situated on the side of the

body, usually just behind the head.

Peduncle defined, 473

Peduncle (Mollusca), explained, 445

Peel u a, 388

Pele, Coming of (legend), 89

Kapiolani breaks the spell of, 171

Ohelo offering to, 225

The journey to visit, 132
Pelekunu valley, 133

valley, Bog flora at, 218
Pele's hair (nee Obsidian)

hair, 180

kitchen, 179

reception room, 179

reception room, Flashlight of, 170

reception room, Entrance to, 184

Pendent [Roots] (211). Hanging like the aerial
roots of a banian.

Pendulum Peak, 143

Peninsula at Pearl City, 110

Pens, Fish, 341

Pepeiao kai ("Sea ear"), fig. 1, 492

Pepper, California, 240

grass, 287

tree, 245

576

INDEX.

Perch-like fishes, 369
Sea, 366

Perennial (205), Living on from year to year,
as distinguished from an annual.

Perfumes, Hawaiian, 221
Periwinkle (s), 441, 464

Madagascar, 250

Mottled, 470
Perkins, Dr. E. C. L. (Entomologist, Na-
turalist), 12, 295, 407, 414, 411, 422, 424,
440
Perna, 443
Persons tabued, 47
Pern, 254, 266, 284, 293

Marvel of, 254

Earthquake, 1868, 159
Pestles, 68

Stone, 70
Pests, Household, 405

Mongoose, 296

of the banana, 260

of citrus fruits,, 265

Pineapple, 261

Petiolate (254). Said of a leaf when born on
its own leaf-stalk.

Petos, 361.
Petrel, Bonin, 310

Bulwers, 310

Dark-rumped fIJau ), 310

Hawaiian stormy, 323
Petrels, 309
Pheasant, Chinese, 307

Japanese, 307

Ring-neck, 307

shells, 466
Pheasants, 307

Hybrid, 30S
Philippine Islands, 235, 280
Philodendron, 234, 240, 249
Phosphate of lime, 95
Phosphoric acid in soils, 105
Photographs. Credit for, 12, 14
Phyllanthus, 252

(see. Otaheite gooseberry)
Phylodendrou (error see Philodendron)

Phylum (x<'<> Nomenclature). One of the large
branches of the animal kingdom.

Physical characteristics of Hawaiian peo-
ple, 37
Pia, 284

Picking coffee, 270
Pickle weed, 192, 199
Pig fPuaa], dishes, 61

prepared for baking, 36

Dish of baked, 70
Pigs, 287

Food for, 67

Wild, Forest damaged by, 287

introduced, 295

(see also Hogs) introduced, 295

Wild, 295
Piiku. A drink made from the leaves, branches

and fruit of the kukui tree and used for

medicine.
Piipii (Stick-tight grass), 196, 286
Pikopiko, The name of the ink or sepia in the

squid. When emitted it clouds the water a

murky brown, enabling the animal to escape.

Pilali. The gum of the kukui tree, but also a
general term for a gum.

Pili, 192, 59, 209, 286

Pilikai. The name of a stout woody climber
(Argyreia tilicefolia Wright) with pale purple
flowers the seeds of which were used as a
cathartic for children.

Pilikoa'a, 354

Pilikoa (Cirrhitoid fish), 374, 354

Piling, Worms from, 490

* Pillars' lava (Puna), 153

Pill-bug, 398, 408, 409

Pillow, Hawaiian, 57, 62

Pilo, 227

Pilot-fish, 365

Pilot fish or Romero, 366, 365

Pilsbry, Dr. Henry A. (Conchologist), 12,

121, 123, 124, 290, 434, 435, 473
Pinau (Dragon fly), 436, 424
Pinch-bug (beetle), 417
Pineapple, 258, 255, 261

disease of sugar-cane, 261

Flowers of, 261

mealy-bug, 391

Propagation of, 261

Seasons for, 261

Seeds of, 261

scale, 384, 391

Size of, 261

Varieties of, 261
Pine, Ground, 214

Screw, 252
*' Pin-head" shells, 439
Pink shower, 244

sugar-cane mealy-bug, 389

cotton boll worm, 399

Pinnate [leaves] (244). When the small leaflets
are arranged along the side of a common
stem.

Pintail duck, 328
Pioeoe (Barnacles), 473

(Hawaiian oyster), 456, 444
Pioi, 213
Pipe-fish, 365
Pipe, Hawaiian, 284
Pipi, 445

Pipipi, 436, 442, 444, 470, 79, 465
Pipul tree, 283
Pirate bird, 3.18
Pisa shells, 450

Pistil (216). The seed-bearing organ of a flower.
Pit crater, Keanakakoi, 186

of Halemaumau, 166

(see Halemaumau), 174

scale, 391
Places (see Cities, etc.)

tabued, 47
Plague carried by fleas, 401

Carriers, Eats as, 292

Germ of, 292

how contracted, 292

organism, 401
Plain (Alluvial), Examples of, 106
Plaiting lauhala mats, 84
Planarians, 497

Plan map of Diamond Head, 118
Plant and animal dyes, 69

INDEX.

DM

Plantain, 259

Plantains, Cooking, 212, 260

Plantation, General view of (sugar), 278

laborers, 274

machinery, 274

rice, 270 "

scene, 274

Sisal, 270

Traction engine on a, 274

Trash fire on, 270
Plant controlled bv its enemies, Example
of a, 384

Juices use of (sec Ki, Awapahi, Hau)

lice, 389, 425, 427

lice, Life history of, 391

life, Effect of agriculture on, 269

life of the high mountains, 210

life of the lowlands, 189

life of the sea -shore, 189

-like animals, 498

parasite (see Dodder, Mistletoe, etc.)

Umbrella, 234
Planting and harvesting sugar-cane, 278

seed cane, 278
Plants and animals brought as baggage, 27

as gods, 49

at Waikiki, 116

by the sea-shore [Lauhala], 194

Common roadside, 198

cultivated by the natives, 67

Economic study of native, 283

Endemic, 191

Fiber, 69

Field and roadside (common), 198

from the coral reef (Part one), 468

from the coral reef (Part two), 485

from the mountains and the shore, 218

from the rocky coast, 192

from the sea-shore, 192

from the shore to the forest, 201

from the summit of Konahuinui, 224

Hedge, 251

Introduced, 19.1, 205, 231

Introduction of, 283

Lantana, spread controlled by, 385

Marine, at Waikiki, 492

Native, 192

Native fiber, 217

Number of genera and species of, 191

of the lower forest and fields, 212

of the lower forest zone, 202

of the middle forest zone, 220

of the mountain forest, 214

peculiar to Hawaii, 193

Preeinctive, 193

Rare exotic, 238

Second zone of, 201

transported by currents, 191
Plates engraved by Hawaiian Gazette Co.,

Ltd., Honolulu
Plates, List of, numerically arranged,

SECTION I— THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE.

1. Typical old Hawaiians of today, 24

2. Hawaiian grass house with typical

setting, 28

3. Hawaiian children, 32

4. Preparing Hawaiian food, 36

5. Hawaiian home life, 40

6. Hawaiian types, 44

7. Heiaus, war canoes and a city of

refuge, 48
7. Burial caves, war gods and idols, 52
9. Portion of the Hawaiian government

collection, 57

10. Hawaiian types at work and play, 63

11. Ethnographic groups in the Bishop

Museum, 64

12. Stone implements and calabashes, 68

13. Objects of native manufacture, 70

14. Hawaiian girls at work and play, 76

15. Hula dancers, 78

16. The surf -riders, 80

17. Miscellaneous Hawaiian pictures, 84
SECTION II— THE GEOLOGY, GEOGRA-
PHY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF THE

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.

18. Map of the leeward chain of islands

of the Hawaiian arehipelago,88

19. Yiews on Midway and Ocean Islands,

90

20. Yiews on Laysan Island, 92

21. Reefs and islands in the leeward

chain, 96

22. Map of the high or inhabited islands

of the Hawaiian group, 100

23. Yiews on Kauai, 102

24. Map of the Island of Kauai, 104

25. Canons and valleys on Kauai, 106

26. Map of the Island of Oahu, 110

27. Yiew in Nuuanu valley near the Pali

showing the peak of Lanihuli, 112

28. Waikiki Beach and Diamond Head,

116

29. Specimens from Diamond Head.

30. Scenery on Oahu, 122

31. Nuuanu Pali, 125

32. Coast scenes on Oahu, 128

33. Formations of geologic interest on

Oahu, 130

34. Map of Maui and the Islands of

Molokai, Lanai and Kahoolawe,
134

35. Scenes on the windward side of

Molokai, 136
3(5. Halawa valley on Molokai, 140

37. Lanai and Molokai, 142

38. The summit of Haleakala,145

39. Map of the Island of Hawaii, 148

40. Yiew of the windward coast of Ha-

waii, 150
4.1. Shore and mountain view on Ha-
waii, 154

42. Tree moulds in Puna, 156

43. Volcanic scenery on Hawaii, 160

44. Various Hawaiian views, 162

45. Views of Kilauea, 166

46. In and around Kilauea, 170

47. View of the pit of II alemaumau, 174

48. Objects of interest in the crater of

Kilauea, 185

49. Views at Kilauea and Mokuaweo-

weo, 186

578

INDEX.

SECTION n— THE FLORA OF THE
GROUP.

50. Vegetation of the lower and middle

forest, 190

51. Common plants from rocky coast

and sandy shores, 192

52. Striking plants in the Hawaiian

flora, 194

53. Twenty common weeds, 196

54. Common plants of the fields and

roadside (Oahu), 198
5o. Vegetation in the forests, along the
streams and the roadside, 200

56. Kukui and common plants of the

lower forest (Oahu), 202

57. Curious native plants, 206

58. Plants of the open fields and lower

forests on Oahu, 212

59. The maile and its plant associates

on Oahu, 214

60. Plants on the mountains and along

the shore, 218

61. Ohia and some of its plant associates

on Oahu, 220

62. Plants from near the summit of

Konahuanui, Oahu, 224

63. Common genera of ferns on Oahu,

228
SECTION IV— AGRICULTURAL AND
HORTICULTURE IN HAWAII.

64. Views in tropical gardens in Hono-
lulu, 234

View in the old Government Nur-
sery showing a number of rare
exotic plants ,238

Miscellaneous group of cultivated
plants, 240

Various views in Honolulu gardens,
246

Blossoms from a Honolulu garden,
248

Wild and cultivated fruits, 258

Hawaiian fruits, 264

Minor agricultural industries, 270

72. The milling* of sugar-cane, 274

73. Planting and harvesting sugar-cane,

279

74. Cattle raising in Hawaii, 282

75. Four stages in the development of

the Hawaiian archipelago, 290

SECTION V— THE ANIMAL LIFE OF
THE GROUP.
Hawaiian aquatic animals, 294
Whales and whaling scenes, 298
Groups of Hawaiian birds in the

Bishop Museum, 310
Bird life on Laysaii, 316
Hawaiian birds of various orders,

323
Six interesting Hawaiian birds, 327
Some song birds of the Hawaiian

islands, 330
Some rare and extinct birds of the

mountain forests, 332
84. Six familiar mountain birds, 334

65.

66.
67.

68.

69.
70.
71.

76.

77.
78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

85. Common Hawaiian birds, 337

86. The sharks and rays, 340

87. Fishing scenes in Hawaii, 344

88. Eels and other curiously shaped

fishes, 350

89. Fishing in Hilo Bay, 352

90. Fishes at the Aquarium, 356

91. Choice Hawaiian market fish, 362

92. Curious and common Hawaiian fishes,

366

93. Parrot fish, butterfly fish, puffers

and their relatives, 370

94. Gobies, blennies, frog fish, trunk fish

and other odd forms, 374

95. The study of economic insects, 380

96. Some economic insects, 384

97. Conspicuous Hawaiian insects, 392

98. Some common insects and their rela-

tives, 398

99. Common beetles, bees, wasps, flies,

etc., 406

100. Color varieties exhibited by two

common species of land shells, 432

101. Fresh water fauna on Oahu, 436
.102. Two mollusks used by Hawaiians as

food, 442.

103. Important genera of land shells, 448

104. Common marine bivalves, 456

105. Some of the larger common sea

shells, 460

106. Smaller common sea shells, 470

107. The reef at low tide, 472

108. Common crabs and barnacles of the

coral reef, 474

109. Collecting on a reef, 478

110. Small crabs and crab-like animals

from the reef, 482

111. Common corals and coral rock, 486

112. Corals and reef rock, 488

113. Miscellaneous marine animals, 490

114. Common marine plants at Waikiki,

492

115. Common Hawaiian sponges [Upi],

494

116. Starfish, sea-urchins and sea-cueum-

bers, 496

117. Marine plants and plant-like ani-

mals, 498
Playing Puhenehene — a guessing game, 76

* the nose flute, 76
Flectromia (variously called Walahee or alahee

which see).
Plecyopods, 443
Pleistocene, 117
Pliocene, 115
Plover. Golden, 321

Migration of, 321

Pacific golden, 310
Plowing (Sugar plantation), 278
Plumeria (error see Plumieria)
Plumier, Charles (Botanist), 253
Plumieria, 252
Plum, Japanese, 266

Java, 268
Pocillopora, 477

INDEX.

579

Pod (201). Generally applied to any sort of a
seed capsule, but more correctly the pod of a
bean-like plant.

Poetry, Examples of Hawaiian, 41, 42, 459
Poets, Hawaiian, 41
Poha, 257

Species of, 257

Pohaku. The general name for stones, rocks,

pebbles, etc. Large stones were called pali

pohaku; lesser ones pohoku uuku ; rough

lava, aa ; smooth lava, pahoehoe : small

smooth stones, iliile, and sand, one.
Pohaku km poi, 57

puna (Coral stone), 486, 477

hookala (sec Grindstone)
Pohakupele (Worm shell), 460
Pohuehue, 218, 197
Poi, 66

board, 60, 66

Breadfruit, 241

dog, 295

Eating, 76

Grades of, 67

howr eaten, 67

Keeping qualities of, 66

Manufacture of, 66

pounding (group), 64

pounding on a double board [papa kui
poi J, 36

pounders [pohaku kui poi], 57, 68, 63

pounders (ring form), 70
Poinciana, 243

named for, 244

Pods of the, 244

Yellow, 244
Poinsett, Hon. J. R., 249
Poinsettia, 249

named for, 249
Poison god, The, 70

fang (Cone shell), 455

Fish, 341
Poisonous fish, 373, 367

weed, 341
Points and capes on Oahu, 110

of interest on Oahu, 131

on Hawaiii, 148

Sea coast on Kauai, 104

(w Capes)
Polinalina, 199
Polishing calabashes, Method of, 59

stones, 75
Polliwog (Tadpole), 299
Pololia (Jellyfish), 480

(Portuguese man-o'-war), 490
Pololo, 199, 204
Polygamy, 42

Polygonium glabrumm Willd. (see Kamole)
Polynesia ,191, 193, 204, 210, 215, 225, 239,

247, 257
Polynesian, 295, 297, 452

and Hawaiian language, 39

race, Genesis of, 25
Polynesians, 25, 216, 235

" Height of, 37
Polyp, 475

Colonies of, 475
Polyzoa, 483
Pomace fly, 421

Pomegranates, 269
Pomelo, 265
Pond, Fish, 270

life on Oahu, 436

Mullet, 270

on summit of Manna Kea, 151
Ponds, Lotus, 285

Mullet, 359

(see altto mullet ponds), 360

Taro, 270, 63
Poni, 259
Ponohunuhu, 365
Pool, Green, in Puna, 160

Lava in Kilauea, 174

Lava in Mokuaweoweo, 188
Poopa 'a, 349
Poou, 359

Pope, Prof. W. T., Photographs by, 14
Popoki, 293

Popolo (Solarium nodiflorum Jaeq.) is well estab-
lished in Hawaii. Its small black tomato-
like fruits and the tomatodike appearance of
the foliage renders it easy to identify. It
thrives on waste land, about fences, and by
the roadside. The fruit and leaves were
much used by the ancient Hawaiians and
doubtless possess certain medical properties
not appreciated by Europeans.

Popolo, 212

Popping corn over heat cracks, 184
Poppy (Mexican thistle), 198, 204
Population and the food supply, Relation
of, 45

of various islands (sec Length, etc.)
Porcupine fish [Oopu kawa], 370, 365, 367
Porgie [Mu], 366, 367
Porites, 477

Pork tabu to women (see Women)
Porpoise, 300, 347

Schools of, 300
Portrait of the author (see Frontispiece)
Ports and landings on (xcc map of islands

in question, also Bays, etc.)
Portuguese, 267

man-o '-war [Pololia], 490, 481
Portulaca flhi], 320
Position of Hawaii, 100

of Honolulu, 110

of Hualalai indicated, 148

of Kahoolawe, 100

of Kauai, 100

of Kilauea indicated, 148

of Lanai, 100

of Maui, 100, 134

of Mauna Kea indicated, 148

of Mauna Loa indicated, 148

of Molokai, 100

of Niihau, 100

of Oahu, 100, 110

of Sandwich Islands (see Hawaiian
Islands) 100

of the Hawaiian group, 100

of the Islands, Geographic, 93
Potash in soils, 1 05
Potassium, Presence of, 117
Potatoes, 284

Early planting of, 284

exported from, 284

580

INDEX.

Irish, 284

Sweet, 284

Varieties of, 284
Pot-holes at Diamond Head, 131
Pottery not made by Hawaiians, 59
Power, where held, 54
Prayer beads, 207
Prayers and religious rites, 64

for growth of crops, 63
Praying mantis, 429

to death, 54

to death (A group), 64

to death, Method of, 64
Prawns, 468, 469
Precinctive (defined), 193
Predaeeous beetles, 416

Predaceous (426). Living on prey, preying on
other animals.

Preliminary to a battle, 51

Preopercle [fish] (355). A ridge usually oc-
curring just forward of the large bony flap
covering the gills.

Preorbital [fish] (369). A bony prominence be-
fore the eye.

Price of Natural History of Hawaii (see

distributors)
Prickly pear cactus, 209, 269
Pride of India, 211, 244

of the Barbadoes, 244
Priesthood, 50
Priests, 54

Orders of, 50

accompanying the army, 53
Primitive bowling alley. 83
Principal Ports (Hawaiian Ids.), 100

towns, villages, etc. (see Cities, towns,
etc.)
Printed by, Natural History of Hawaii,

Hawaiian Gazette Co., Ltd., Honolulu
Pritchardia (see Loulu)

Procumbent (230). Trailing or creeping on the
ground.

Promontory, Kohala, an example of, 148

Prostrate (199). Lying flat on the ground; not
erect.

Protection of fish, 359

Protective coloration, Lizards example of
297

Protovertebrata, 484

Provisions, 30

for a long voyage, 29

Psidium (see Guava)

Ptkjridium aqtilixtm | Kilauapueo ] =
Pterus aqulina | Kilua |

I 'torus aqulinn = Pterimum aquilinitm
| Kilauapueo |

l'ua. The Hawaiian for a flower. Puaa, a hog.

Puaiohi, 330

Puakahala (Cavalla), 366, 3(54

Puakala (Mexican poppy), 198, 204

Puakoawe, 225

Puakeawe ■-- Pukeawe. A shrub (('i/athoth'.?

tdtnciaiiwia Cham.) common on the mountains
of the group (xee text). Dr. Emerson states
that it was with the smoke of this hush that
the ancient kapu-chiefs are said to have
smudged themselves before mingling with the
people. on equal terms. Ci/ntfunles is some-
times made a sub-genus in the genus
Styi>hcl\a.

Puala (Surgeon fish), 370

Pualele (Sow thistle), 196

Paulu, 349, 372

Public policy, forwarded by marriage, 45

Pudding stick tree, 244

Pu, 449, 452

leholeho (Spotted conch), 470
Pueo (Owl), 336
Puffers, 365, 367

Common, 370

Sharp-nosed, 370
Puhenehene, Playing, 76
Puhi (Moray), 350, 349, 355

laumili,'350, 361

kapa, 361

kapa (Moray), 350, 361

laumili=puhi laumelo

uha, 355

Puhiki'i, 349

Puk am ole=K am o 1 e

Pukaoaa point, 143

Pule, Ancient, to the corwy, 459

Puleho, 457

Puiu. Any soft substance, as for example, the
mass from which the tapa was made; hence
the name of the material that grows on and
is collected from certain large ferns (Cibothrut
spp.) and used to some extent as down for
pillows, etc.

Pulu, Uses of, 222, 228

Pumice (limn) is usually a form of obsidian
(which see) and contains a large per cent
of silica. It is usually the froth-like lava
ejected from volcanoes and has a loose spongy
or cellular structure which is produced by
the escape of gas or steam while the lava,
of which it is formed, was becoming consoli-
dated. Light specimens will float and are
carried far and wide by the sea; small pieces
are occasionally picked up by sea birds,
especially the albatross. It was much used
by Hawaiians for polishing, and was also
used in the last stages of preparing a pig
for baking. Pumice is in reality porous vol-
canic glass, the pores being small.

Pump drill, Hawaiian, 75

Puna=General name for Porites, 486

Puna, Green Lake in, 160

Lava tree casts in, 162

Lava 'tree moulds,' 156
Punahou Academy, Night-blooming Oereus

at, 246, 254
Punaluu, Underground stream at, 182
Punchbowl Hill, 115, 121

Points of interest at, 129, 130, 131, 132

Pupa (385). The third and usually the resting
stage of insects which undergo complete meta-
morphosis.

Puonionio (Partridge tun), 460

Pupil, 449

alapii, 470

Chinese, 436

ole (Hairy triton), 460, 450

moo, 470

('Purple shell'), 460

puhi (Sun-dial shell), 470
Pupukeawe, 230
Purging Cassia, 244

INDEX.

581

Purple-hinged scallop, 456

shell [Pupu], 460

shell, Spotted, 470

scale, 265

wreath, 250, 24S
Purpura, 449

Purslane [Ihi], 196, 286, 287
Pussly, 287
Puu, 226

kukui, 138

olai (Sharp-nosed puffer), 370

Waawaa, 155
Puuhonua (City of refuge), 48
Puunene spider, 410
Pyramid shell, 470, 463
Pyrus (see Sand Pear, also Pear)

Q

Queensland nut (Macadamia ternifoUa Muell).
More properly the Australian nut is a medium
sized tree producing a round smooth, shiny
brown nut, with a very hard shell. The
kernal resembles the filbert and may be eaten
raw or roasted. Other species of the genus
also occur in Hawaii, in most instances hav-
ing been introduced by Mr. E. W. Jordan.

Quash y - q u a s h e r , 252
Quilted triton, 460, 450

R

Babbit Island, 128, 293
Babbits, 293

Raceme (248). A flower cluster in which one-
stemmed flowers are arranged along the side
of the main stem.

Racing in the surf, 80

Bail, Extinct, 327
Flightless, 314
Flightless, How killed, 293
Flightless Laysan, 318
Hawaiian, 327

Baillardia (see Kupaoa)

Bailroad ties, 215

Railway on Oahu, 110

distances (see Overland Distances)

Rainbow Falls (Hawaii), 160, 176

Rainfall. Precipitation in the islands varies
greatly from place to place and year to year.
At Honolulu statistics (U. S. Weather
Bureau) gives the rainfall varying in ten
years from 16.99 (1905) to 30.13 (1909)
inches. On Tantalus (three miles distant)
in 1905 it was 99.68 inches. On Hawaii
in Hamakua, at 1200 feet elevation, it was
260.67 inches (1907). At Waikea, in the
rainy Hilo district (1907) it rained 333
days: at Waianae, a dry district on Oahu,
it rained on 60 days.

Bain forest, Characteristic growth in, 218

forest, Lichens in the, 194

forest, Typical view in, 190

heiaus, 50

heiaus (see Tpu o Lono)
• tree, 242
Ramble in a Honolulu Garden (Part one),
231

in a Honolulu Garden (Part two), 243
Ramie, 217

Ranch scenes on Hawaii, 282
Bange, Koolau, 21 1

Waianae, 21 1

Bank and hereditary position, 54

Descent of, 46

Marriage among persons of, 45

Positions of, How descended, 45
Bare and extinct birds, Some, 332

exotic plants (Government Nurserv)
238

fruits in Hawaii, 255

Hawaiian birds, 333
Rarest Hawaiian bird (Chcetoptila), 335
Raspberries, Native, 256
Bat, Black, 291

Brown, 291

nests, 292

Long-tailed, 292

Norway, 291

Short-tailed, 292

Tree, 292
Bats as plague carriers, 292, 401

Grey, 291

Hawaiian, 291

Species of, 292

Tree, 235

Rats-foot (Lyeopodium sp.) is a common moss-like
plant common about the outskirts of the for-
ests where it often forms thickets after the
manner of the staghorn fern. The two
species occurring here are widespread over
the globe.

Rathburn, Dr. Marv J. (Crustaeeolo.oist).
12, 469

Ratoon (261). A shoot or sprout coming up
from the root of a plant after it has been cut
(also rattoon).

Batoons, Pineapple, 261
Rattlebox, 196
Rattle shells, 449
Rattles [IJlinli], 70

Bamboo, 82

Seed, 82
Rattoon (see Ratoon)
Ray, Spotted sting, 340, 347

Sting, 340
Rays, 347

and sharks, 340

Sting, 347

Eagle, 347
Raw fish, 355, 365
Recruits for warfare, 51
Bed birds, Hawaiian, 329

-bug family, 426

-fish, 354, 371, 373

-footed body, 310, 316

-rush flour beetle, 395, 405, 418

sandalwood, 203

-scale, 391

spiders, 401

-tailed tropic bird, 310, 316, 309
Reed, Miss Minnie (Marine Botanist), 502

-warbler, Chinese, 308

-warbler, Laysan, 319
Reef at Honolulu Harbor, 211

at low tide, 472

-building corals, 486, 488, 476

collecting, 478

Dowsett, 88, 97

fishing, 344

Miscellaneous animals from the, 490

582

INDEX.

Maro, 88, 97

Pearl and Hermes, 88, 96, 94

rock, 488

Tide pools in the, 472
Beefs, Coral, elevated, 115

Coral, on Oahu, 110
Reflex action, Example of, 346

Reforesting. Efforts have been, and are being,

made to restore forests in localities where

they have been depleted, or have disappeared.

Several of these efforts have not only re-
sulted in great benefit to the localities, but

are serving as object lessons, showing the

need of enclosing and defending the existing

forest areas. This work is now carried on

under the able direction of the Hawaiian

Bureau of Agrictulture and Forestry.
Regeneration of lost parts, Examples of,

491
Relief map of Kauai, 104

map of Hawaii, 148

map of Maui, 134

map of Oahu, 110
Religion and tabu, Relation of, 47

of the Hawaiians, 47
Rem or a, 367

Reservation, Hawaiian Island Bird, 93
Resin, 2.11
Rhapis palm, 240

palm, peculiarity of, 237
Rice, 276

Area under cultivation, 276

birds, 277, 304

birds, Damage by, 305

birds, Protecting crop from, 305

Diseases of, 277

farmer, Chinese, 282

fields in Waipio valley, 154

Harvesting of, 277

Hawaiian, 276

how planted, 277

Irrigation of, 277

Method of cultivation, 276

mill, 279

Oriental method of cultivation, 276

paddy, 276

Pests of, 277

propagation, 276

related to^, 276

Thrashing of, 279

Varieties of, 276

weevel, 395, 405, 418

Wild, 277

Yield of, 276
Riding the surf, 86
Right whale, 301
Ring form poi pounder, 70

-necked pheasant, 307
Rio de Janeiro, 279
Ripe rot, 265

Rise and fall of lava column, 164
River (s) (see Streams)

and streams on Kauai, 104

Meandering, Example of, 106

Hanalei, 106

on Oahu, 110

view on Kauai, 102
Road, Fern stem, 200

material, 129

Roads on Kauai, 104

on Hawaii, 148

on Maui, 134

on Oahu, 110
Roadside, Scenes along the (Hawaii), 200
Robes, Feather, 75

of state, 75
Rock, Building, 129

Coral, 486, 129

crabs, 474, 469

lobster, 474, 469

oyster [Kupakala], 456, 446

urchins, 487

wasp, Black, 414
Rocky coast, Viewr on a (Oahu), 122

coasts, Plants from, 192

Hill, 220

Hill, Age of, 124

ledge at Laysan, 92

shore-line (Oahu), 130

stream, Typical, 28
Rocks (see Hawaiian Igneous Rocks)
Romero (Pilot fish), 366
Root-casts at Diamond Head, 118, 131.

-rot, 265
Roots, Curious lotus; 285

Fossil, 118
Rope, Banana fiber, 281

Cocoanut, 236

of olona, 217
Ropes of ieie, 211
Ropy lava in Kilauea, 174, 186

lava [pahoehoe], 162
Rosa de la Montana, 248
Rose aphis, 389

apple, 267

banana, 259

-bay, 252

beetle, Fuller's, 394

-laurel, 252

Mountain, 250, 248

-scale, 391

South sea, 252

Roselle (Hibiscus Sabdariffa Linn.) Is widely
cultivated in the tropics, including Hawaii,
where its pleasing acidulous rose-red calyxes
are used for tarts, jellies, etc. A cooling
drink can also be made from them. The
bark yields a fiber elsewhere known as roselle-
hemp* In the West Indies the plant is
known as Indian or red-sorrel. It is a true
Hibiscus coming originally from the East
Indies.
Rotary drill, how made, 75
Round clam, 445

-up on Hawaii, 282
Rough rock urchin [Haukeuke], 496

lava (a-a), 162
Royal Agricultural Society, 297

birth, Drum used to announce, 64

emblem, 77

flower, Ilinfa a, 203

palm (see alxo palm), 246, 232, 233

palm, 246, 232

palm, Blossoms of the, 232

palm, Introduced from, 232

sport, 292

tax, 56

INDEX.

583

Rubber, 281"

Assam, 283

Hawaiian, 283

Hevea, 283

India, 245

Introduction of, 281

Para, 283

producing, Euphorbia, 283

producing trees, 283
Runners (Fish), 365

Long distance, 83
Rush=Bullrush, 198
Rush Club, 198
Russet oranges, cause of, 265
Rove beetles, 416, 417

Sacred banian, 240

kamani grove (Halawa), 140

Sacrifice, Human. While sacrifice was an im-
portant part of formal worship in old Ha-
waii, human sacrifices were offered only on
special occasions. It was, however, the su-*
preme act of ancient worship in the import-
ant heiaus of the highest class. Such occa-
sions as the launching of a war-canoe, the
building of a house for a chief, the sickness
of a king or queen, the securing of a new
idol, or the burial of a chief, called for a
human offering to the appropriate gods. The
victims were always males and were either
taken in war or persons rightly or wrongly
accused of violating some of the innumerable
tabus. The mode of securing the victim
was usually by secret assault, commonly by
a blow with a club, though other methods
were employed. The Mu was the person
whose duty it was to secure the required
sacrifice. The dead body of the person so
slain was dragged to the heiau and laid on
the altar [lele] for sacrifice, together with
hogs, dogs and other offerings — there to
putrify. It is stated that as many as
eighty" persons were sometimes immolated at
once."

The last human sacrifice in the islands oc-
curred in 1807. Queen Keopuolani was
then dangerously ill. The priest asserted that
her illness was caused by the gods who were
offended by certain men eating tabu cocoa-
nuts. Eight men were at once seized by
the king's orders and offered in the heiau
that then stood at the foot of Diamond Head.

Sacrifice to Pele. The goddess of volcanoes
was much feared on Hawaii. When an
eruption took place at Kilauea it was the
custom to make offerings to her of hogs, etc.,
which were thrown into the liquid lava.
Devout persons sometimes gave the bodies of
their relatives to Pele by throwing them into
Kilauea that they might Join the volcanic
deities and in this way befriend the family.
The ohelo berries were the usual offering to
Pele.

Saddle oysters, 444

Sadleria (sec Palahola)

Sago palm, 237

Sailing vessels, Fishing from, 344

Salangore cane, 273

Salfemane (ace Hawaiian igneous rocks)

Salmon, 378

Salt, 129

Effect of on cane, 271
from Salt Lake, 74
Lake crater, 115, 132
Lake crater, Age of, 124

manufacture, 73

marsh beetles, 418
Samang, 242

Sanctuaries, Hawaiian, 51
Sandalwood, 217

Bastard, 210, 222, 226

Bastard (see Aaka, a! so Naio)

Beach [Iliahi], 192, 199

damaged by goats, 221

Discovery of, 219

Odor of, "221

Red, 203

roots of used, 221

uses of, 219
Sand beach, 218
Sand, Black, 117

Building, 129

-burr, 287

crab, 496

concretions at Diamond Head, 13.1

dunes on Maui, 139

dunes on Oahu, 122, 131

grass, 90

hills, How formed, 90

hoppers, 409, 468

island, View on a (Lay sail), 294

island, Vegetation on a, 90

Olivine, 129

Sand pear (Pyrus Sinense Lindl.) bears an apple-
like fruit, 2 inches in diameter, with a sandy,
tough, flesh, which has a very fine flavor
when baked. This ornamental tree is char-
acterized by dark green, apple-shaped leaves,
pointed at the tip, edged with fine teeth ;
the flowers are large and white. Although
not common in the islands, the sand pear is
well established.

Sand root casts, 118
Sanderling, 321, 324
Standstone, 129

aeolian, 140

boulder, Erosion of, 136

eroded by sea waves, 142

Laminated, 140

cliffs at Moomumi, 140
Sandwich Islands, Position of (sec Ha-
waiian Islands), 100
San Francisco, Distance to, 101

Route from to Islands, 100
Sapodilla, 266
Sapota pear, 266
Sargassum sp. (fig. 15), 498
Sassafras, 262
Sausage-like roots of lotus, 285

-shaped animals [Loll], 491

Sausage tree (Kigelia pinnata) is a curiosity
wherever grown. It is a large tree with
whitish bark and spreading branches, coming
originally from Africa. The fruit, rough and
green in color, is sometimes two feet in
length and hangs from a long stalk. It has
a corky rind, filled with pulp and numerous
rounded seeds. In Nubia this tree is held
sacred, and religious festivals are conducted
under it by moonlight. A few trees, doubt-
less ir. roduced by Dr. Hillebrand, may be
seen it; old gardens; a fine specimen is in
the g* »unds at the Queen's Hospital in
Honolulu.

Savaii, center of dispersal, 26

584

INDEX.

Scab, Lemon, 265
Scad, Big-eyed, 362
Scale-bugs, 391, 427

Florida Red, 384

insects, 391, 425

Lantana, 384

on citrus and palm leaves, 384

Pineapple, 384

Purple, 265
Scallop, 456, 443, 444, 445

Purple-hinged, 456
Scarabffiids, 417
Scavenger beetles, Water, 416
Scene or Scenery, Plantation, 274

in middle forest zone, 200

Miscellaneous fishing, 344

Ranch, 282

Waipio falls, 154

on Molokai, 140

on Hawaii, 150, 156, 170

Volcanoes made (Haleakala), 145

Whales and whaling, 298

Scented woods (see Iliuhi, Naio; there are nix or
eight rarer speoiets in the Hawaiian flora.)

Scents (sir Perfumes), 221

Scents for tapas were made from the following

plants — awapuhi, iliahi, kupaoa, maile, olapa,

etc.
Schlemtner, Max, 322
Schooner Ouano trade, 92
Science and legend agree, 91
Scientific names (xcr Nomenclature)

names, arrangement of, 9

names, why used, 1(1
Scorpion, 398, 407, 409

fishes, Venon in, 30S

fish |Nohu], 374, 30N
Scorpions, 407

False, 40S

Lnrge species from, 407
Screw pine jLauhalaj, 190, 194, 221, 252
Scraping; olona ((J roup), 64
Scrapers of bone, shell and wood, 75

Olona. 73
Sea -Mnemonic, 490, 473, 475, 476

bass, Characteristic of (xee Snappers),
3 lis, 309

-beach, Halawa valley, 140
beaver (Heart urchin), 493

Birds of the, 30S

bird squabs, 31 1

biscuit, 187

caves at Black Point, 131

cliff, Kxampie of Oahu, 122

cliffs on Hawaii, 154

-cucumber |Loli|, 496, 4S5, 491

devil, 347, 309

"ear" jBepeiau], (fig. 1), 492

egg or Sea-urchin |Wana], 496, 487

end of Olokuai mountain, 136

erosion, Example of, 142

Krosion by the (Sandstone), 142

-fans, 479*

fights (*/r Naval battles)

formed cliffs on Hawaii, 150

hares, 407

' ' hedge-hog, 7 ' 485

-horse, 350, 365

Island cotton, 281

-money, 481

morning-glory, 197

-moss as perfume, 222

-moss, Common, at Waikiki, 492

mushroom, 479

perch [Aholehole], 366

-pens, 475, 479

-plumes, 479

robin (Gounard), 357

shells, Common, 460

-shore at Wailau valley, 138

-shore, Plants by the (Lauhala), 194

-shore, Crab fauna of the, 474

-shore, Palm trees on the, 150

-shore, Plants from, 192, 218, 189, 201

-shore, Shells from the (Part one), 440

-shore, Shells from (Part twro), 453

slugs, 467

-slug, Dye from, 69

snakes, 299

snail shell [Rupee], 470, 465

snail, Little, 470

-snappers, 367

-squirt, 490, 484

turtles [Honu], 294, 299

turtle, Barnacles on, 475

-urchins, 496, 485

-urchin, Dye from, 69

-urchin, Heart, 478

-urchin, Masticating organ of, 496

-urchin, Test of a, 496

Various animals from, 291

worms, 497
Seaweed, 500

How to collect, 500
Seal, 303

Hawaiian, 294

on Pearl and Hermes Reef, 96
Sealskin, 304
Second plant zone, 201
Secondary craters in Haleakala, 145

craters on Hawaii (indicated), 148

craters on Kauai, 104

craters on Maui, 134

craters on Oahu, 110

craters (Oahu), Time of formation,
220

volcanic cones on Kauai, 105
Section I, page 25; II, 89; III, 189; IV,

231; V, 293
Securing fish bait, 343

Sedge (199). A grass-like plant belonging to the
large genus Carex. More generally the name
is applied to the whole family Cyperacew.

Sedge, 192, 198

Seed cane, Planting, 278

rattles, 82
Seeds for leis, 207

Lotus as food, 285
Sein needle, 75
Seins, 339

damaged by, 353

of olona, 217

INDEX.

585

Senna, 250
Sensitive plant, 287
Separation among Hawaiians, 45
of the Hawaiian Islands, 290
Serricorne beetles, 417
Serriere, Dr., 207

Sessile [Bot]. Leaves without any foot-stalk; the
leaf joined to the branch without a foot-stalk.

Sessile barnacles, 473

Sex relations among Hawaiians, 42

relations, Influence of foreigners on, 42
Shaddock, 265

Shade in Honolulu streets, 232
Shark, Blue, 340

Dog, 340

Fish attached to, 368

fisherman, Kamehameha I, a great, 343

fishing, 344

fishing in ancient times, 343

fishing in modern times, 343

Shark gods. There were a number of shark gods
usually worshipped by fishermen. Their
small heiaus were numerous and still stand
on almost every important headland through-
out the group. They were often called
Kuula, the name of an important fish god,
and in them the shark gods were worshiped.
When Kuula would not give the people fish
they prayed to Hina, his wife, to intercede
for them.

god, Bespect for the, 346

Hammer-head, 340, 346

'holes/ 346

-hook (sec Kiholo), 343

Mackerel, 340, 346

Man-eater, 344

oil, 346

pens, 341

skin, use of, 82, 346

Snaring, 346

stew, Story of a, 345

stories, 345

tabu to women, 346

teeth, 346

teeth, uses of, 74, 81

Thrasher, 340
Sharks and rays, 340

Bones of extinct, 345

Man-eater, 345

Species of Hawaiian, 343

teeth sword, 81

Tiger, 345

teeth, use of, 62
Sharpening stones, 75
Sharp-nosed puffer [Puu olai], 370, 367
Shearwater, 309, 318

Christmas Island, 310

Wedge-tailed, 310, 316
' ' She dragon ' ? tree, 211
Sheet flow structure shown on Molokai, 140

lava flows, Examples of, 122
Sheep, 287

-head maggot fly, 387

introduced, 295

-maggot fly, 387, 419
Shell, Ark, 456

Augur, 460

Banner, 470

bracelets, 465

Bubble, 470

Dove, 470

Eulima, 470

Fish-basket, 470, 242

Harp, 460

Ham, 456

Hawaii top, 460

Heart, 456

Hermit, 460

Horn, 470

Horse-hoof, 470

hunting, 437

Jingle, 456

Ladder, 470

Little emerald, 470

Lueina, 456

Measure, 470

Mitre, 470

Mottled periwinkle, 470

Mulberry, 470

Moon, 470

Niihau, 470

Ornament, 470

Pyramid, 470

Sea snail, 470

Slipper, 470

Spindle, 460

Spotted purple, 470

Stair-ease—Sim-dial shell, 470

Sun-dial, 470

Tankard, 470

Tell en, 456

Top, 470

Turban, 460

Umbrella, 460

V'iolet snail, 470

Worm, 460

Zebra dove, 470
Shells as curiosities, 441

as emblems of mourning, 465

Brackish water, 439

Carnivorous, 447

Common sea, 460

cooked in an imu, 465

Land, Distribution of explained, 290

Fresh water, 431

Fresh water, of Oahu, 436

from the sea-shore (Part one), 440

from the sea-shore (Part two), 453

for an aquarium, 447

Herbivorous, 447

Land, 431

Land /Important genera of, 448

Pleasure in collecting, 440
Sheltered shore-line, Example of, 116
She-oak, 237

Shields, Spears used as, 79
Ship, Full-rigged whale, 298

wrorm, 490
Shoal, French Frigates, 88, 96, 97

Frost, 97

Gambier, 94
Shoals, Islands, etc., Map of, 88

38

586

INDEX.

Shore birds Group of, 310

Birds of the, 320

crabs, How to identify, 471

plants, 192

views on Oahu, 128

-line, Embayed, 270

-line, Hamakua, 150

-line (sheltered), Example of, 116

-line, Trees on, 150

scene on Kauai, 102
Short-horned grasshopper, 388, 429

-tailed Crustacea, 469

-tailed rat, 292
Shoveler duck, 328
Shrimp, 436, 376

as bait, 343

baskets, 341

Fresh water, 440
Shrimps, 468

Shrub (195). A woody plant living from year
to year and of considerable size.

Shrubs and vines, 248

Siberia, 296

Sicyos (see Kupala)

Sida, Common, 196

Side trips from Kilauea, 181

Sideroxylon {sec Ala a)

Silk culture, 399

oak, 248
Silkworm, 397

food of, 267
Silversword [ Ahinahina], 206, 146, 227, 229

Green, 229
Silver wattle, 248
Silverfish, 403, 430
Silvery lemon, Cause, 265
Singing, Hawaiian, 42
Single-celled animals, 499
Single canoes, 80
Sisal, 280

Curious blossoms of, 280

Gathering, 270

tilantation, 270

weevel, 395

when introduced, 280
Skates, 347
Skeleton, Coral, 475

Whale (in Bishop Museum), 298
Skeletons of sponges, 500
Skin beetle, 417
Skinks, 296, 297
Skirt [Pa-u], 57

Ki leaf, 78

Lauhala leaf, 78
Skip-jacks [Aku], 344

beetle, 417

Catching, 344
Skylarks, 143, 307

Introduced, 307

Song of the, 307
Slater or pill -bug, 398
Slaves, how used, 343
Sled [papa holua], 57
1 Sleeping' trees, 242
Slides, Papa holau, 86
Sliding game (see * Summer tobogganing')

Slings used in warfare, 81
Slip-noose, a weapon, 81
Slipper shells, 462
Slips, Pineapple, 261
Slop bowl, 70

basins, 61

jars, 63
Slng(s), 439, 441

Black, 439

Sea, 467
Small cones in Kohala range, 149

cones on Hualalai, 152

cones on Mauna Kea, 151

crabs and crab-like animals, 482

craters on Haleakala, 143

farming industries, 270

farming, taro growing, 270

farming, rice plantation, 270

industries, taro growing, 270

industries, cattle raising, 282

periwinkle,. 470
Smilax, Native, 213

Smith, Prof. Jared G. (Agriculturist), 284
Smoke from trash-fire, 270
Smooth (Ropy) lava | Pahoehoe], 162
Snail (s), Chinese, 436

Edible, 438

Tree, 431

Sea, 465

Violet, 470, 463
Snake-head cowry, 470, 458

mullet, 377
Snakes, No, in Hawaii, 299

Sea, 299
Snaring fish, 242

shark, 346
Snapper [Opakapaka], 362, 369

bug, 417
Snout beetles, 418, 419

Rose, 394

Snow. On the high mountains of Hawaii and
Maui snow falls in winter, descending in
some cases to the upper forest belt. Frost
rarely occurs in winter below 4000 feet.

Snow on Hawaiian mountains, 151

on Mauna Kea, 154
Soap plant, Hawaiian, 204
Social wasps, 414
Soils of Kohala, 149

Plant food in, 105

Sugar-cane, 273
Solanum (see Popolo)
Soles, 371
Solidified dunes, Erosion of, 142

lava (Recent), 166
Solitary bees, 415

wasps, 414
Song birds of Hawaii, Some, 330

of birds (see species in question)
Songs, Hawaiian, 41
Soothsayers (see Nana uli)
Sooty mould on lemons, 265

tern, 310, 312

with eggs,, 316
Sorcerer, 64
Sorcery, Gods of (see Uli)

INDEX.

587

Sorghum, 285
Sorosis (defined), 261
Soundings in Pearl Harbor, 110
Sources of the flora, 191

The author's, 11
Sour sop, 266
South America, 191, 248, 249, 268, 383

Pacific, 235, 266, 271, 444

sea rose, 252

Seas, Map of, 100
Sow-bug, 436, 408

thistle [Pualele], 196
Spalding, Irwin (Collector of Mollusca), 12
Spanish, 268

jasmine, 250

needles, 196, 227
Span-worms (Loopers), 397
Sparrow, English, 304

Chinese,. 304
Sparrows. Albinism among the English sparrows

is quite common. Occasionally birds that

are almost white will be seen in Honolulu.
Spathe (249). A bract which, with others,

wraps the unfolding flower.
Spatter cone, 180

at Kilauea, 179

how formed (shown), 184

"Little Beggar," The, 184

near Halemaumau, 184
Spatulate (251). Shape like a spoon, or spatula;

the broad end at the outer end of the leaf.

Spear [Newa], 44

practice, 84

throwing, 83
Spearing fish, 341
Spears, 57, 79, 215

used as shields, 79
Special taxes, 56

Specialization among Hawaiian birds, 338
Specific characters (arc species in question)
Species («w Nomenclature)

of fish, Number of, 351

of native woods, Number of, 226

of, Number (arc genus, family or order
of question)

of plants, Numbers of, 191

of rats, 292
Specimen of a blow hole, 184
Sperm whale, 298, 301
Sphagnum (229). Any of the peat or bog

mosses, hence applied to a moss-grown bog.
Sphinx or Humming-bird moth, 398, 399,
421

of the Pacific, 115
Spider (s), 409

as household pets, 410

House-, 409

Eed, 401

shell, 457
Spike [Bot] (208). Flower clusters in which

the sessile flowers are arranged similarly to

those in a raceme.
Spine [Bot] (205). Hardened branches or tips

of stems called spines or thorns.
Spindle shell, 460, 450
Spineless raspberry, 256

Spiney-raved fishes (355). Fishes with one or

more hard rays or spines in some of the

fins.
Spiney rock shells, 449
Spiral shells, Class of, 441

sun-dial shell, 463
Spire (461). The turns of a shell forming the

apex and including all but the last or largest

turn.

Spirit as 'a double,' 49
Spirits, Abode of the, 49

returned to the body, 49
Spittoons, 70
Spondias (see Hog plum)
Sponge culture, 499

Substance of, 500
Sponges, 499

Common Hawaiian, 494
inhabited by, 499
of commerce, 500
resemble plants, 499
Sport, Royal, 292

Shark fishing as, 344
Shooting flying-fish, 355
Sports, 83

Spear throwing, 84
Spotted augur shell, 455

conch [Pu leholeho], 470, 457
cone shell, 45
deer, 296
purple shell, 470
sting ray [Hihimanu], 340, 347
Spouting horn, 118

horn at Black Point, 131
Springtails, 430

Springs (nee Fresh water springs)
Fresh water ,in the sea, 127
Sprouting-leaf plant, 254
Spurge, Garden, 196
Squabs, Sea bird, 311
Square-headed grasshoppers, 429
Squid (Octopus), 472, 302

-hook, Cowry shell as bait on, 458
Dye from, 69
fishing, at low tide, 472
-hook sinkers, 68
ink (see Pikopiko)
spawn («cc Alaalahee)
spear, 472, 341
Sqnirrel-fish, 37.1
[U-u|, 362
| Alaihi], 366
Squirt, Sea, 490, 484
Stag beetle, 417
Stable-fly, 387, 419

Stages in geologic development of Hawaii,
290
in geologic development of Kauai, 290
in geologic development of Maui, 290
in geologic development of Oahu, 290
Stag-horn fern. A name usually applied to cer-
tain introduced species of the genus Platy-
cerium commonly grown in baskets; so-called
because the fronds are forked like a stag's
horn. The name is also applied to native
ferns.
Staghorn fern [Uluhe], 194, 228, 223, 253
Stair-case shell (Sun-dial shell), 470, 464

588

INDEX.

Stalactite eaves, 179
Stalagmites, 179
Stalked barnacles, 4(38, 473
corals, 479

Stamens (216). Slender knobbed stalks within
the circle of petals of a flower.

St. Andrew's Cathedral built of, 129

Star apple (Chrysophyllum eanito Linn.). The
tree is a native of the West Indies,' but is
quite common in Hawaii, having been intro-
duced at an early date. It may be identified
by its leaves which are a handsome green,
with the under surface dull golden. The
tree, 20 to 30 feet tall, bears abundant sym-
metrical fruits, larger than a peach, which
vary in color from white to purple, as does
also the flesh. The frtiit is delicious, if al-
lowed to ripen thoroughly, and when cut in
cross-section shows a star-shaped core, whence
the common name. There is also a white
variety which bears larger fruit that are pale
green flushed with purple.

Starch, produced from, 284
Starfish [Pea], 496, 485, 487
Arm of a, 496

Brittle, 496
Station on Midway Island, 90
Steam brick, 129

cloud over Halemaumau, 166

cracks at Kilauea, 1 77
Steamship lines to Hawaii, 100
Steel-blue ladybird, 394
Steering a course by the stars, 30
Stejneger, Dr. L. (Herpetologist, Bio-
logist), 297
Stephanotis, 248
Stick-tight grass [JPiipii], 196
Stilt, Hawaiian, 310, 327, 325
Sting ray, 340, 347
Stinging cells (Jelly fish), 480

Hy m e n op t e r a, 412
Stock food, Algaroba beans as, 243
Stokes ,John F. G. (Polynesian Ethnolo-
gist), 291

Photographs by, 14
Stone adz, 74

age, Ancient Hawaii in, 74

bone and wrood, uses of, 75

carvings in caves, 129

carving tools, 74

cups, 68

files, 75

hammers, 75

house, 58

idols, 49

Implements of, 74

implements, Group of, 68

lamps, 70, 62

lilies, 497

mortar, 70, 63

4 moss, ' 129

pestle, 70

poi pounders, 63

tools, used in house building, 58
Stones, Polishing, 75

Sharpening, 75

Uses' of, 63
Stony corals, 476
Stormy petrel, Hawaiian, 304
Strand plants, 195

Street tree, Monkey-pod not suited as, 242

Streets, Trees in Honolulu, 232

Striking plants in the Hawaiian flora, 194

Striped fish (Squirrel fish), 372

Striped surgeon fish [Manini], 362

Stripping and cutting sugar-cane, 278

Stream, Wailua, 102

Streams and rivers on Kauai, 104

Animals of the, on Oahu, 436

Birds of the, 320

on (see Map of island in question)

Vegetation along the, 200
Strenuous dragon fly, 424
Strongholds in warfare, 51
Strong's Island, Cocoanut trees from, 92
Struggle for existence among Hawaiian*,
45

on Laysan, 313
' Stump leg,' Old (Plover), 322
Styphelia (see Puakeawe)
Sub-aerial erosion, Example of, 136, 131
Submarine base of the group, 123

gardens, 476
Submergence in Hawaiian Islands (see

Depths of Inter-Island Channels)
Subsidence, Biologic evidence of, 124

Evidence of on Oahu (Embayed shore-
line), 270

of the Hawaiian group shown, 290

of Oahu, Evidence of, 220
Subterranean water, 127

Suckers [Bot]. Plants coming up from branches
or roots under ground.

Suckers, Pineapple, 261

Sucking-fish, 367

Sugar (see also sugar-cane), 27.1

apple (see Sweet sop)

Grades of, 275

industry, 271

Manufacture of, 273, 275

mill, Views of, 274

palm, 237

plantation, General view of, 278

Process of producing, 275

Sugar production (1912) was 1,205,165,000
pounds, valued at $49,961,509.00, and
1,734,318 gallons of molasses, valued at
$72,241.00, making the total sugar produc-
tion valued at $50,038,750.00. The 1913
crop was 546,798 tons.

Raw, 275
Refining of, 276
Sack of (weight), 275
when first made, 273
Sugar-cane, 67

Age of maturity, 273
Annual yield of, 271
aphis, 389
Area for, 271
borer, 380, 383
Cultivation of, 273
Cutting and stripping, 278
Diagram of, Mill process, 274
Factors in production of, 271
Gathering, 274
Harvesting, 274, 273
in blossom, 278

INDEX.

589

insects, 3«8

Introduction of, 271

Irrigation of, 278

Hauling, 274

leaf -hopper, 381, 427

leaf-roller, 388, 395

leaves, 59

mealy-bug, 389

Milling of, 275

Pineapple disease of, 261

plant, Description of, 273

Planting and harvesting, 278

Propagation of, 273

related to, 273

Scenes on a, Plantation, 274

soils, 273

Stripping of, 273

Unloading, 278

Use of, 79

Varieties of, 273

yield, how increased, 273

Yield per acre, 271, 389 (see also Sugar
production)

where cultivated, 271

Work of, borer, 380
Sulphur bank at Kilauea, 170, 177

fumes, Effect of on vegetation, 170
Summer [ Kau] (see Hoilo)

tobogganing, 86
Summit of Manna Kea, 154
Sun-dial shell [Pupu puhi j, 470, 463
Sun-fish, 377
Surf bathing, 80

along the coast, Kaena Point, 122

board [papa hee nalu], 80, 86

board, Shape and size of, 80

board, Standing erect on the, 86

canoeing, 80

near Waimea Pay, 128
Surface of a lava flow, 160
Surgeon fish [Puala], 370, 372

'Striped, 362
Surmullets, 372

| Weke ula], 362, 366
Surinam cherry, 267
Suttonia (see Kolea)

Swezey, Prof. Otto II. (Economic and sys-
tematic entomologist), 12, 411, 414
Sylvan (210). Pertaining to the woods or forest.
Syrphus flies, 419
Syrup, Sugar-cane, 275
Sweeping, 76
Sweet-potato, 197

horn-worm, 399, 421

Propagation of, 284
weevil of, 418
Sweet-potatoes, 67, 284

grown by Hawaiians, 284
Varieties of, 199, 284
Sweet scented banana, 259

sop, 266
Swimming bells, 480
Swine, 287

Swordfish [Ay], 366, 373
Sword of shark teeth, 81

Tabu and religion, relation of, 47

and the kahunas, 46

colors, 73

Fishermen *s, 73

ground, 48

Religious and political nature of, 46

Kigorous nature of, 47

Sharks were, 346

The, 46

The foundation of, 46

where practiced, 46
Tabued persons, places, objects, 47
Tabus, Fishing, 399

for women, 46

Nature of, 46
Tadpoles, 299, 440

Transformation of, 299
Tahiti, 260, 262, 263

apple [ Wi], 264, 266
Tails of lizards, Curious facts about, 297
Tallow (sec Hides), 287
Talus debris on Molokai, 136
Tamarind, 245

butter, 245

Drink from, 245

Wood of, 245
Tan bark, 213
Tangs, 372

Tankard shell, 470, 450
Tanna cane, 273
Tantalus, 115, 220

Age of, 124

Ash eruption from, 121

Tapa [se-fi also Kami). The following native
plants were used in the manufacture of tapa
or bark cloth : Akala, hau, maaloa, mamake.
olona, poulu, wauke, and later the introduced
mulberry.

Tapa, 57

Tapa heaters (ie kuku ) were made with various
more or less complicated designs on their four
faces to produce water-mark designs on the
finished cloth. The designs were designated
by names; as many as fifty designs are
known.

Tapa beater, 70, 215
colors of, 69
common in Polynesia, 71
how long worn, 38
how printed, 71
Labor employed in making, 71
maker gods, 71
making, 76
making a fine art, 71
making (group), 64
Manufacture of, 69
Materials for making, 64
Method of dying, 69
Method of making, 64
no longer made, 72
patterns and designs, 71
Perfumes for, 71
plants, 21 7
repairing of, 69
Use of old, 62
Water-proof, 71

590

INDEX.

Tapas, 57

Tape worms (Cestoidea) of many species occur in
Hawaii. Almost all species of domestic ani-
mals are affected more or less by these para-
sites which live in the adult stage in the
alimentary canal. Dogs, horses, cattle, sheep,
swine, and even men have one or more
species peculiar to each ; in fact, a large ma-
jority of vertebrate animals are subject to
tape worms. These parasites are peculiar
in that they have no mouth nor alimentary
canal, absorbing their nourishment from that
intended for the host.

Taro and its uses, 65

Cooked, flavor of, 66

Description of plant, 66

Dry-land, 225

flowers cooked, 67

Flower of the, 66

growing, 63

Irrigation of, 270

leaves cooked, 67

plant, Description of, 65

Period of growth of, 65

ponds, 28, 63

ponds, how made, 63

roots, 60

stems cooked, 67

Varieties of, 65
Tarpons, 364
Tassels, Sugar-cane field in, 278

Tattooing was practiced in ancient times to a cer-
tain extent. The acrid poisonous juice of
Ilieo {Plumbago Zeylandica), a small shrub
occurring on the lowlands, was used to pro-
duce black tattoo-marks. The acrid juice of
iSisyrinchium acre, from the high mountains
of Hawaii and Maui, produced a blue tattoo-
mark. Contact with sailors, soon after the
discovery of the group, tended to stimulate
the art of tattooing. During the early whal-
ing days tattooing the body became very
common with the result that almost every
old Hawaiian sailor of that period waa
marked with the conventional designs used
by sea-faring men. The practice was not
regarded at any time as a religious ceremony
(as in certain Polynesian islands), but simply
as a matter of personal fancy or sometimes
as a token of affection or as an indication
of bereavement.

Tatooing, Purpose of, 38
Tattler/Wandering, 310, 323, 321, 324
Tatuing (Tatooing), 38
Taxes, 56

by custom, 56

in olona ,217

payable in, 56

Special, 56
Tea pest, Maui blight the, 385
Tears, Job 's, 198

Technical terms, where explained, 9
Tellen shell [Olepe], 456
Temples [Heiaus], 27, 50

Forms of, 50

of refuge, 51

Templeton, W. A., 378

Temperature. The highest shade temperature (U.
S. Weather Bureau in Honolulu) in ten
years has been 86° Fahr. The lowest 56°.
Occasionally on the lowlands a temperature
as high as 90° and as low as 52° occurs,
but these extremes are rare indeed. Tem-
perature decreases about 1° for each 320
feet of ascent in the mountains.

Temperature in Hawaii, 33
Ten-spotted ladybird, 393
Tent shell, 446 "

Tentacle. Slender elongated appendages used as
organs of touch.

Terebra, 455

shells used for, 455
Termites, 402, 424
Tern(s), 311, 314, 318

Grey-backed, 310

Hawaiian, 310, 316, 323

Noddy, 310

Sooty, 310, 316

White, 310, 318
Terraces (sec Taro ponds)
Territorial Entomologist, Study of the, 380
Tertiary, 117, 121, 220
Test of sea-urchin, 496
Tetraplasandra (see Ohe)
Texas, 378

Text, Arrangement of, explained, 10
Thaanum, Mr. D. (Conchologist), 447, 452,

453, 454
Thatch, Grasses used for, 286

Theft. Thieving was a widespread habit among
the Hawaiian people at the time of their
first contact with Europeans. Within a few
years after the arrival of the missionaries
conditions had so changed, however, that
valuables might be left unprotected without
loss.

The inhabited islands, 100

'The Palms,' 1013 Punahou St., Honolulu,

13
Theobroma (see Chocolate)
Thetis, U. S. Revenue Cutter, 95, 304
Thick-bill, Kona, 330
Thimble berry, 258
Thistle, Mexican, 204

Sow, 196
Thrasher shark, 340
Thread-fin, 364

fish [Ulua kihikihi], 366

-waisted wasps, 404, 413
Thrips, 427

Thorax (409). In insects that part of the body
situated between the head and the abdomen.
Thorns (203). (See spines.)

Thorny amaranth, 196
Thousand-legged wrorms, 408
Thrum, Thomas G. (Historian and Ha-
waiian Authority), 12
Thrum, D. F., Photographs by, 14
Thrum's Annual, 12, 155
Thrush [Oman], 334

Chinese, 308

Hawaiian, 334, 331

-like bird, Kauai, 330
Thumber^ia, 250
Thwing, Rev. E. W., 433
Ti (sec also Ki), 210

uses of, 210, 324
Ticks, 400, 409
Tidal wave of 1868, 159
Tide pools in the reef, 488
Tiger cowry, 459

sharks, 345
Tilden, Miss J. E. (Marine Botanist), 402

INDEX.

591

Tillering plant, Rice an example of, 277
Time of formation of secondary craters

(Oahu), 220
Tinder, Fire from, 62
Title page, 7
Titular deities, 49
Toad, American, 384, 297
Tobacco, 283

Early introduction of, 284

Hawaiian, 284

La Platte, 192

leaf -beetle, 395

leaf -miner, 423

native of, 284
Toboggan slide at Keauhou, 182

Tomato. The tomato (Ly coper sicum eseulentum
Mill.) is a race that has been developed
during 200 years of cultivation. It is closely
related to the potato and the two can be
grafted on each other with ease, although
they will not cross. They thrive in Hawaii
and are perannual. Species and varieties
have been introduced that have run wild,
among them the current tomato (L. pimpi-
nelUfolivm Dunal.), a weak plant with small
leaves and small currant-like red berries.
The cherrie (L. e. var. cerasiforme Hort. )
or grape tomato with its small red and yellow
fruits is common and the fruits are some-
times used for preserves and pickles.

Tomato-fly (Melon fly), 387

Tools, Hawaiian, 74

Topographic map of Hawaii, 148
Kauai, 104
Maui, 134
Oahu, 110

Topography of Hawaiian Islands, 89-188

Top-minnows, 378
-shell, 470, 466

Top spinning was a favorite game with Hawaiian
children. The top was made of little gourds
called hu.

Torch fishing, 242
Torches, uses of, 3.11
Tor in i a, 463
Torpedo bug, 402

shell (Spindle shells), 450
Tortoise, Land (Galapagos), 300
Tortoise shell, 299

fish hooks, 242

scraper [Uhi kahi olona kuakonu], 64

Use of, 73
Total Inhabitants (see. Length, Area, Popu-
lation, etc.)

Total Insect Fauna. Dr. Perkins estimates that
the total insect fauna previous to man's inter-
ference with nature in Hawaii may have
yielded 5,780 species. Of this number some-
thing over one-half the species have been
collected and described. The total known
fauna (1913) is about 3,325. About 1,500
of this number are not regarded as belonging
to the natural fauna.

Total land, fresh water and marine fauna of Ha-
waii has never been estimated. Excluding
Protozoa, but including native and introduced
species from Pontes to man, there would
probably be at least 12,000 species.

Towns (sec Cities, etc.)

and villages on (see Map of island in
question, <tlse> Cities, towns, etc.)
Trade in sandalwood, 219

winds, 31

Traditions of the origin and migration of

Hawaiians, 26
Trail, Crest of the Wailau-Mapulahu, 218

up Haleakala, 134

Pololo, View from, 218
Transformation of tadpoles, 299
"Transition" burial, 52
Traps, Fish, 70, 341

Lobster, 469
Trash fire, Smoke from, 270

fires, 275
Traveler's palm, 238, 257

tree, 257
Tree casts, Lava, in Puna, 162

cotton, 281

fern [Heii], 190, 194, 222, 223, 253

-hoppers, 427

melon (see Papaya)

moulds, 181

moulds in Puna, 156

on the shore-line, 150

rats, 235, 292

snail, attached to a leaf, 220

snail, Singing of explained, 430

Travelers, 238

snails, 431

snails, Important genera of, 448
Triassic, 204

Trigger fish, 370, 373, 375
Trignometric station on Midway, A, 90
Triton, Hairy, 460

Quilted,' 460

shells used for, 450

trumpet, 449
Tritons, 449
Trochus, 463
Tropical almond, 245

America (we American continent)

fruits in Hawaii, 255

gardens, Views in, 234

industries (sec. Sugar, Rice, Coffee,
etc)
.Tropics, Symbols of the, 231
Trout, 378
Tropic bird fKoae], 310

on the nest, 316.

Red-tailed, nest of, 316
Tropic Birds, 309

Use of feathers of, 309
True wasps, 414

bugs, 389, 402, 425
Trumpet creeper, 248

fish [Nunu'], 350, 375

Trunk fish [Moa], 374, 375

Trusses (247.) A compact terminal flower clus-
ter of any kind.

Try on, G. W, (Conchologist), 464

Tube dwelling bristle-worms (Serpula), 460

nosed swimmers, 312

Tubes, Worm, 499

Tuber (197). Any thickened portion of the root
provided with buds (eyes), as a potato.

Tuff. Fine volcanic products, as volcanic ash,
that has become coherent, as by cementa-
tion is called tuff, sometimes tufa, though the
latter term is more properly applied to cal-

592

INDEX.

carious materials of a similar nature. In
Hawaiian geologic literature both terms have
heen used in describing tuff cones.

Tuff cone, Diamond Head a, 80
cone, Sea erosion of, 128
<*ones, Small, 11;")

craters (Oahu), Time of eruption, 121
Tumble-bug (beetle), 417
Tuna, Little, 366, 361
Tunicates, 4<S4

Common, 490, 484
Tunnels, Water supply, 127
Tun, Partridge, 460

shells, 4.19
Turban shell, 460, 466
Turkev louse, 100

Wild, 29o
Turkevs, 2S7, 3 OS

Turnstone [Akekeke), 310, 221, 224
Turret shells, 451
Turtle-dove, Chinese, 305
Turtle, (Jreen, 294, 300

Hawks' bill, 300

spear, 3-1 1

Sen, 294, 299

Sea o<rgs of, 300

Fish attached to, 368

Method of capture, 294

on shore, 294
Twining (vine) Ascending by coiling about some

other object for support.
Two mollusks used as food, 442
Two-winged insects, 419
Types of mollusea, 441
Typical beach view on a sand island, 96

Hawaiian children, 32

flies, 419

growth of staghorn fern, 194

lobelia, 224

native house of old Hawaii, 28

native village (Halawa), 140

scene along a mountain stream, 200

view in a rain forest, 190

u

TJala, 284
Uau,' 310
U hi, 202, 213

Uses of, 213
Uhu (Parrot fish), 370, 349, 3(55

uliuli, 365
Uki, 202
Ukikiki, 369
Ukiuki, 5S

lTku (Snapper), 362, 319, 371
Uku (Plant), 202
Ukulele (Flea), 401

(a modern musical instrument). 78
Ula, 46X

Ulaaihawane, 330
Ulaapapa, 469

Ulae | Lizard-fish], 380, 349, 359
Ulaula (Snapper), 362, 349, 371
Plehihi, 213
Hi. The ehief srod of sorcerers was I'li. although

this class worshiped numerous other deities.

The class of lesser demons were chiefly fe-

males, as the reptile goddess [Kiha-wahine],
the goddess Hiiaka, etc. Certain shark gods
were also worshiped by sorcerers.
Ulili, A bamboo flute (see plate 5, fig. 1)

(Wandering tattler), 310
Uliuli hula (rattles), 70
Ulu (Breadfruit), 258, 264, 239, 241

Native use of, 80

Ptoiies, 83
Ulua (Cavalla), 362, 349, 364

kihikihi (Thread fish), 366, 349, 364
Uluhe (Staghorn fern), 194, 228, 223

laiinui, 228
Ulukaka=Ulu
Ulumaika, 57
Uluna (a pillow). They were made of lauhala

or of very light wood as wiliwili, etc.

Uluna, 57

Ulva sp. (fig. 4), 492

Umbrella shell [Opihi kapuailio], 460, 467

plant, 234

tree, 244
Umbillical cord. The cutting of the umbillical

cord was attended by important religious

ceremony.

Umbilicus defined, 462

Umeke. A calabash usually used to contain poi

and then called umekepoi
Umeke (see also calabash), 57, 59
Umekes (bowls), 57, 70

in nets [Koko], 57
Umoki. The stopple for a water gourd. The

shell of one of the marine Terebra spp. was

commonly used as a stopple.

Unaoa. The barnacles found clinging to the

hulls of vessels.
Underground water, 127
Undershrubs, Characteristic, (Middle for-
est), 200
Unicorn fish, 372
Unisexual [Bot,] (217). Flowers having either

stamens or pistils only.
United States, 242, 259, 262, 276, 284, 360

Exploring expedition, 477

Fish Commission, 35.1
Univalve explained, 447
Unloading sugar-cane, 278
Unukane (Wedge-tailed shearwater), 327
Upena hehe, 341

kuu (Long sea net), 344

poo, 341

pua, 341

uhu, 341
Upi (sponge), Common, 494
Upland cotton, 281

ranch on Hawaii, 282
Upper falls of Moaula, 140

forest zone, 227
Urchin (Sea-urchin), 496, 487

Heart, 496

Bough-rock, 496
U. S. Experiment Station (see Hawaii

Agricultural Exp. Station)
U-u (Squirrel-fish), 362, 349, 371
Uulai, Use of, 215

Uuna. The shell of a tortoise.
Uwekahuna, 184, 183

INDEX.

593

V

"Vacation Island," The (Molokai), 140
Valley (s), on Kauai, 104

on Hawaii, 148

Isle, The, Maui, 237

on Oahu, 110

Principal, on Maui, 134
Value of sugar crop (w Sugar production)

Valve (445). One of the two shells of any

clam-like' animal.
Vancouver, George (Navigator), l.">3, 219,

263, 267, 289, 295
Vapors from Halemaumau, 186

from Mokuawoewoe, 186
Variation, Color, in land shells, 432
Variation (433). Departure from the normal!
Variation, Example of (shells), 435

of flora, 193

Plant, Causes of, 193

Shells, Example of, 433
Varieties (-see Nomenclature)

Color, 433
Various animals from land and sea, 291

Varnishes, gums, paste, etc. The natives made
varnish of kukui bark, banana buds and ki
leaves; paste of ama'uma'u; gums of the
breadfruit juice.

Vaughan, Dr. T. Wayland (Geologist,

Zoologist), 477

Vein [Bot.J (215). The small branching ribs
forming the framework of the leaf.

View(s) across Hanauma Bay, 128

in a forest jungle, 200

in an ohia forest, 200

in Honolulu gardens, 240

Government Nursery, 238

in Kilauea, 174, 184

in Leper Settlement, 136

in Nuuanu valley, 112

in Olokele canon, 106

in the forests, 200

in the Koolau range, 112

in Tropical gardens, 234

in Waimea canon, 106

near the Pali, 112

of Halemaumau, 166

of Honolulu aquarium, 356

of Lanihuli peak, 112

on Ocean Island, 90

showing bog flora, 218
Vegetable flies, 421

fly (Melon fly), 387

Vegetable Oils. Wrestlers used the oil from
kukui nuts to make their limbs supile and
render the body slippery. (>See Oil.)

Vegetation along the streams, 200
at Kilauea, 166

in a wet forest (figs. 2, 3), 190, 200
in Kilauea, 170
in Kilauea-iki, 170
in the forests, 200
on Hawaii, 156, 160
on K on oh u i nu i, 224
on Midway, 90
on mountain ridges, 218
Sulphur fumes, effect on, 170

Ventral tins (368). Fins on the ventral side of
the body corresponding to the hind limbs in
other animals.

Venus clam, 456, 446

Verbena, 205

Vermifuge, Papaya seeds as, 263

Vartebrates (299). The great group of animals
provided with a jointed spinal column.

Vertical section through Diamond Head,
118

Vessels, Birds following, 312

Villages and towns on Kauai, 104

and towns, Principal, on Hawaii, 148
Typical ,on Kauai, 102
(,svf Cities, etc.)

Vinea, 207, 250, 254

Vine(s), and shrubs, 248
Bird-claw, 250, 248
Festooning, 234
Fire-cracker, 250, 248
Fruiting, 248

' 'Museum'1— Bird -claw vine, 250
"Stick tight "=Bm]-cl aw vine, 250

Vinegar-fly, 421

Violet aphis, 389
Chinese, 248
Mahukona, 199
Native, 229
snail, 470, 463

Viridonia, 332

Viscid (217). Sticky. Having a glutinous sur-
face.

Volcanic Bombs. Masses of lava that have solidi-
fied into more or less rounded masses in the
crater and are hurled out as bombs. Speci-
mens occur at various places in the group, as
Palolo crater, Haleakala, etc.

Volcanic craters, Active, 1.01
craters, Extinct, 101
glass [svc Obsidian)
islands, The, 101
sand, 117

Volcano House, distance from, to import-
ant points (w Overland Distances)
House, Elevation at, 166, 165
House, Fern jungle at, 194
House, Fireplace in, 184
House, Halemaumau from the, 166
House, Staghorii fern near, 194
-made scenery (Haleakala), 145
-made scenery on Hawaii, 162, 156, 160,
166, 170, 174

Volcanoes on Hawaii indicated, 148
Work of Hawaii's, 163

Voracious (361). Taking food in large quanti-
ties.

Vowels, Hawaiian, 39

Vows were usually made and kept by Ha-
waii ans — through fear of their gods. A vow
once made was regarded as a very sacred
engagement.
Vnlcanology, Oahu a laboratory in, 109

w

Waa. A canoe. The ancient Hawaiian canoes
were dug out of a single koa log. Among
the specific names were waa kaukuhi = a
single canoe; waa kaulua = a double canoe;
waa pelelua = a blunt canoe.

594

INDEX.

Waa (outrigger canoe), 80
Wad cutting bee, 415
Wahiawa, 114, 132

plain, how formed, 220
Wahine noho mauna, 228

Wai. A general name for that which is liquid;
fresh water as distinguished from salt water
(kai). A word with many compounds.

Waiahole tunnel, 127
Waialae Bay, 211

Bay, Fresh water springs at, 131
Waialeale mountain, 103
Waialua Bay, 2.11

Waialua orange (Citrus Aurantium, sinensis
Engler). This is the common sweet orange
of wide cultivation. It is known as the
'native orange,' though it was doubtless intro-
duced by Vancouver..

Waianae mountains, 122, 211

mountains, Age of, 124, 213

mountains, Early appearance of, 220

range, 132

range, Erosion of, 122

range, Gneral view of, 122
Waihee valley, 138
Waikiki, Animals to be collected at, 116

beach, 80, 116

Common alga^ at, 492

Common marine plants at, 492

Common sea moss at, 492

Coral reef at, 131

Diamond Head from, 116

Palms at, 233

Plants at, 116

Surf at, 80
Wailau valley, 133

sea-shore at, 136
Wailua Falls, 102

stream, 102

valley ( Kauai), 107
Wailupe valley, 129
Waimanu valley, 149
Waimea Bay, Oahu, Surf at, 128, 21 1

cation, 106, 107

on Hawaii, 149
Wainiha valley, 107
Waipio valley, 154, 149

valley, Erosion of, 154

evidence of a drowned valley, 154

General view of, 154

Rice fields in, 154

Scenery of, 154

Water "fall 'in, 154
Waipuhea (Blown water) falls, 112
Waistband, 57
Wakea, 50

Walahee (see Alahee)
Waldron's ledge at Kilauea, 170, 179
Wallace, Alfred Russel (Evolutionist), 94
Walled enclosure (Mullet ponds) ,270
Walls of Kilauea (shown), 184
Walsingham (Lord), 420, 422, 423
Walu, 349
Wana, 487
Wandering tattler [Ulili], 310, 323, 321

Warble-fly, 387

War canoe, 48
councils, 50
Influence of, 34

War months. The five months following Janu-
ary [kaelo] were war months. During the
remainder of the year there could he no war.

Warfare, 50

at certain seasons, 79
Canoes used in, 51
Captives in, 53
Fatality from, 53
Implements of, 79
Method of, 84, 47
Peace after, 53
Recruits for, 51
The challenge in, 53
The dead in, disposition of, 53
Termination of, 54
Use of forts in, 51
Use of idols in, 53
Women's part in, 51
Wargods, 52, 77

gods kept by priests, 54
Warren, J. T., Photographs by, 14
Warrior, Hawaiian, 44, 51
Washington, Dr. H. S. (see Hawaiian
Igneous Rocks)
palm, 246, 237
Wasps, 404, 412
Common, 406
Digger, 413
Experiments with, 415
Keys to species of, 414
nests made of, 404
Water beetles, 436, 416

bottles, Stoppers for, 61
Buffalo, 282
cress, 208

fall in Waipio valley, 154
falls [ Akaka] (500 ft.) on Hawaii, 162
falls along the coast (Hawaii), 154
falls on Kauai, 102
falls on Molokai, 140
falls on Oahu [Waipuhia= Blown
water], an intermittent fall near the
Pali, 112
falls (see name of falls in question)
-glass for collecting, 478, 476
-lemon, 268

-lemon, Purple, 258, 268
-melon, 269

-nut (sec Chinese Horned-nut), 285
-proof tapas, 71
scavenger beetles, 416
supply tunnels, 127
Waterboatman, 436, 426
Wattle, 248

Black, 248
Silver, 248
Wauke, 69, 217
Wauki (error hcc Wauke)
Wawae iole, 214
Wax plant, 248

Weathering, Examples of, Molokai, 136
Example of (The Pali), 125

INDEX.

595

Weaver birds, 277, 304

Wedge work, done by guava, 263

-tailed shearwater, 310, 316, 327, 312,
313
Weed, Jamestown, 287

Jimson (Jamestown weed), 198

Poisonous, 341
Weeds, 286

Common, 196
"Weeping" palm, 237
Weevils, 395, 405, 418
Weke, 373

ula [Surmullet], 362, 373, 349

ul aula (Surmullet), 366

Weli. The name given to the curious worm-like
Holothurian at Pearl City, Kaneohe, etc.

Welling of liquid lava, 168

Wells (*<r Artesan wells), 127

Well-to-do, Houses of the, 58

West Indies, 211, 232, 244, 252, 262, 266,

296
Wet forest, Vegetation in (figs. 2, 3), 190,

200
Whale, A race for a, 298

Arctic right, 301

Boat fast to a, 298

Whalebone, 301

Capture of, 303

Humpback, 301

in the Bishop Museum, 302

ivory, 302

ivory, use of, 79, 302,

4 Killer,' 346

-lice, 468

oil, 302

Right, 30.1

Sperm, 298, 301
Whaleboat, 298
Whalebone, Yield of, 303

whale, 301
Whales, 301

and whaling scenes, 298

attach bv Orca, 347

food of, 301, 302

Size of, 301

' Soundings ' of, 303

teeth, use of, 82
Whaling industry, 301, 303
Whaleship, Full-rigged, 298

stripping off ' ' blubber, ' ' 298
Whelks, 441, 450
When introduced (ace species in question),

296
Whetstones [pohoku hookala], 75

(xvv Grindstone)
White ants, 402, 424, 425

ant, Hawaiian, 425

-breased albatross, 312

cabbage butterfly, 422

mice, 293

mulberry, 267

potatoes, 284

rats, 293

-tailed tropic bird, 309

tern, 310, 318
Wi (Shell), 470, 466
Wi (Fruit), 264, 266

Wicker-work basket | Hanai poepoe], 57

for helmets, 77
Wide ranging shore forms, 195
Width of channels (xve Inter-Island Chan-
nels)

of various islands ($vc Length, etc.)
Wild bananas, 190

cats (Introduced), 293

euphorbia, 196

fowl, 308

fruits, 258

geese (foreign), 328

geranium, 287

goats, Damage by, 221

Ipecac [Nuumele], 212

rice, 277

strawberry, 255
Wilder, William (Collector of Mollusca), 12
Wiliwili, 194, 203, 210, 395

Native use of, 80, 204

The so-called, 203

wood, use of, 86
Wilkinson, John, 279
Wikstrcemia {xvc Akai)
Williams, James J., Photographs by, 14
Wind blown sand on Oahu, 122

Erosion by (sandstone), 142

gap, The Pali, example of, 125
Winds, Trade, 31
Windward Islands, 93

side of Oahu, 131
Window flies, 419
Wine-jar shells, 459
Wine palm, 246, 237
Wingles bird-lice, 430

bird, So-called, 318, 333
Winter (w Hoilo)
Winter visitors (ducks), 328
Wire grass (Dog's tail), 196

-worm, 399, 417
Woman, Status of, 46
Women, Certain duties of, 46

Medicine practiced by, 46

in times of war, 51

Special tabus for, 46

dress, The Hawaiian, 38

work, Mat making, 73
Wood, bone and stone, uses of, 75

-borer beetles, 417, 418

cabinet, 213, 245

Implements of, 74

of tamarind, how used, 245

sorrel, Yellow, 196
Wooden calabashes [Tlmeke], 57

idol, 52, 70, 49

image, 70

tapa anvil, 64
WTood-louse, 408

Wood-peckers. There being no native wood-
peckers their introduction has been repeated-
ly urged to cope with the koa tree borer and
other insects injurious to the Hawaiian
forest.

Work of Hawaii's volcanoes, 163

sugar-cane borer, 380
Worm, Black cut, 422

Book, 418

596

INDEX.

Cabbage, 399

Flat, 490

-like animal, 484

-like sea-cucumber, 495

Marine, 490

shells, 462

shell [Pohokupele], 460

Ship, 490

Sweet-patoto horn-, 399

tubes, 499
Worms, 49.1

Bristle, 497

Cabbage, 422

Flat, 497

Sea, 497

Tape- (see Tape-worm)

Thousand-legged, 408
Worship, Idol, 49

Objects of, 49
Wreath, Purple, 248
Wrasse-fishes, 366, 370, 359, 365

[Hilu lauwili], 370

[Omaka], 366

[Opule], 366
Wrays, Batavian cane, 273
Wreath, Purple, 250, 248
Wrestling, 83
Wrigglers (defined), 419

x

Xylosma (see Maua)

Y

Yam(s) [Hoi], 67, 213
uses of, 213

Yellow canaries, 320

Bignonia (Bird-claw vine), 250

dragon-fly, 424

fever spread bv, 387

-head [Ou], 337

-headed ou, 331

jackets, 404, 414

oleander, 252

Otaheite cane, 273

poinciana, 244

-shouldered ladybird, 393

-tufted honey-eater, 330

wood-sorrel, 196
Yield per acre of sugar-cane, 271
Yokohama, Route from to Hawaii, 100
Young, Care of (see species in question)

Hawaiian, 80, 84

Lay san albatross, 316
Yosemite, Iao compared with, 138

Zamia, sp., 246

Zebra dove shell, 453
dove shell, 470

Zizyphus (see Jujubi)

Zones, Floral, 195
Lowland, 195
Lowland, 201
Lower forest ,210
Middle forest, 222
Upper forest, 227
Second plant, 201

Zoophytes, 480

FEB 1 8. 1916

THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
GRADUATE LIBRARY

DATE DUE

APR 4 19 '8

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

3 9015 03108 6526

DO NOT REMOVE

OR
MUTILATE CARD

■ ■■I

1

iilllllli

-"■ -"i\/iit.Hh^iMuSv.^:;:|

\\ V: iz M=.- -.:M^ = :,■:; \^

mmmm

li§&

mim.

i;«;s^;;