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Copyright 1910
BIRDSELL MANUFACTURING CO.
South Bend, Ind.
Manufacturers of Alfalfa and Clover Hullers, Automatic
Wind Stackers, Farm and Freight Wagons.

| GROWING for SEED AND HA

LFALFA!

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ALFALFA

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By J. M. WESTGATE, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Alfalfa has been cultivated for many years in the irrigated
sections of the United States, where it is by far the most important
forage crop grown. Although it is one of the staple forage crops
of every continent on the Globe, it is only within comparatively
recent years that its culture has been taken up in many portions
of the United States that are now proving adapted to its growth.

The history of the spread of alfalfa is interesting. The Persian
armies carried it with them when they invaded Greece in about 490
B. C. The Arabs also raised, it extensively and in fact the name
‘‘alfalfa’’ is the old Arabic term meaning ‘‘the best fodder’’. From
Greece it spread successively to Italy and Spain, and finally to
Mexico at the time of the Spanish conquest. From Mexico it was
soon carried to the South American countries. It was taken from
Chile to San Francisco in 1851. From there it has spread rapidly
to all the irrigated portions of the West. Within the past 20 years
it has proved successful in the Great Plains region, where irrigation
is not possible, and where the reduced rainfall is insufficient for the
production of the ordinary tame grasses which thrive in the East-
ern States. By the adoption of suitable methods of dry farming
successful crops of alfalfa are also being produced in some of the
non-irrigated sections of the mountainous region of the West.

The value of leguminous crops both as feed and soil improvers
has been recognized throughout historic times, but so far is practice
behind theory that much remains to be accomplished in the way

3

of the extension before every farmer makes the best use of such
leguminous crops. ;

The early attempts at its introduction dating back as far as
1750 show the East to have been the pioneer in its introduction in
the United States. It has been grown scatteringly for more than a
century in the limestone sections from New York southward to
Texas. The varied attempts with alfalfa were made under many
difficulties and most of them met with failure. It is especially in
sections of light rainfall that it shows its superiority over red clover
and timothy. The interest of the East in Alfalfa is of concern to the
Western farmer in that it annually calls for large amounts of alfalfa
seed, which can be produced only in the Western States. So great
is the importance of alfalfa throughout the West that the whole
farming system is built up in reference to the harvesting and curing
of this crop. As the yield of each cutting runs from one to two tons
per acre it is obvious that a large field of alfalfa requires the major
part of the farmer’s time to care for the three or four cuttings
of hay usually obtained.

DISTRIBUTION OF ALFALFA IN THE UNITED STATES

According to the accompanying map, which was compiled from
data secured from the census of 1899, the general distribution of
the large alfalfa growing sections is indicated. Each dot represents
one thousand acres in the county where the dot is located. For this
reason, only the large alfalfa producing sections are dotted, as
counties having less than one thousand acres are not marked.

3, 6/2

Fig. 1.—Map of the United States, showing the distribution of alfalfa
in 1899. (Westgate—Farmers’ Bul. 339. U. S. Dept. Agriculture. )

4

In the irrigated sections of the West, the production of alfalfa
has greatly increased, especially where new areas have been thrown
open to irrigation. The extension of alfalfa in the eastern half of
the country has been so great that there is probably three times as
much alfalfa being grown as there was ten years ago. Its rapid
extension in the Great Plains region is indicated by the fact that in
Kansas the assessors’ reports in 1891, when alfalfa was first listed
separately, showed 34,384 acres, while in 1907 there were 743,050
acres reported. Advance reports for the Fall of 1909 indicate ap-
proximately 1,000,000 acres in Kansas for the year 1909.

In the arid regions of the western half of the country, on the
areas which have been brought under cultivation in the last ten
years, alfalfa has been extensively planted. In the eastern half
of the country the limestone sections offer the best prospects for
the successful production of alfalfa. The limestone regions around
Lake Champlain, and in Central New York are producing successful
results. The limestone valleys of Maryland and Virginia, and the
black prairie soils of Alabama and Mississippi are also proving
adapted to alfalfa and offer good possibilities for farmers who are
acquainted with the production of alfalfa in the West. The Eastern
States call for a large amount of alfalfa seed from the West, and
the chances of success with alfalfa in the East increase greatly as
the special requirements for its production are understood and
provided for.

DESCRIPTION OF ALFALFA.

The Western farmer needs no description of this well-known
plant. The accompanying illustration, however, indicates its gen-
eral appearance.

Alfalfa may briefly be described as being a deep-rooted, long-
lived, herbaceous forage plant belonging to the same family as. do
the peas and beans. Its clover-shaped flowers are purple or violet
in color and are borne in clusters from an inch to an inch and a
half long. The pods are small and are quite tightly coiled in two
or three spirals. The seeds are kidney-shaped and about one-twelfth
of an inch long, and each pod contains several seeds.

One important characteristic of alfalfa is its long tap root.
A specimen was on exhibition at the Chicago exposition which had
a root thirty-three feet long. This had been produced in Colorado.
The long tap-root enables the plant to reach the deep-lying plant
food in the soil which is not available to the ordinary shallow-
rooted crops. The long root system is also of importance in sections
of limited rainfall, as by this means the plant is able to withstand
severe droughts, which might otherwise be injurious. The extensive
root system also enables the plant to respond quickly after cutting
and produce several successive crops during the course of the
season.

Fig. 2.—Alfalfa Plant in Early Bloom.
(Westgate—Farmers’ Bul. 339. U.S. Dept. Agriculture.)

The wide distribution of alfalfa throughout the world indicates
its remarkable adaptability to different climates and conditions. So
far as climate is concerned, alfalfa can be grown in every State in
the Union. It is, however, very exacting in the humid sections in
the Eastern part of the United States as to soil conditions and treat-
ment. It is grown below the sea level in southern California, and
also at an altitude exceeding eight thousand feet in the Rocky
Mountains. Under proper irrigation it yields abundant crops in the
deserts of Arizona, where the climate is practically as hot as any-
where in the world. The hardier strains are also able to withstand
the severe winters of the north central states, where the thermometer
may fall as low as fifty degrees below zero, Fahrenheit. It succeeds
without irrigation where the rainfall is only fourteen inches a year,
and also in the portions of the Gulf States where the annual rainfall
may reach as high as sixty-five inches. <A rainfall of thirty-six
inches a year is ample for this crop, and an amount in excess of
this is usually a detriment. About twenty-four inches a year is best
for seed producing purposes.

The young plants are not especially adapted to withstand alkali,
although old plants will stand as much as any of the ordinary
cultivated crops.

The natural conditions in the West are much more favorable
to the production of alfalfa than are the conditions in the eastern
part of the country.

SOIL REQUIREMENTS OF ALFALFA.

It is necessary in the East to exercise great care in the selec-
tion of soil for the prospective alfalfa field, but in the Western
half of the United States most of the ordinary fields are well suited
to its growth. In the East a deep, fertile, well drained soil, rich
in lime and reasonably free from weeds is necessary. The lack cf
any one of these essentials is very apt to be the cause of failure. In
the West, however, it is necessary only to ascertain that soil is
fertile enough to grow the ordinary farm crops, and is deep enough
to provide for the necessary deep-growing alfalfa roots. It is also
essential that the soil be not too alkaline, as the young plants will
not stand a large excess of alkali in the soil. If the soil lacks depth,
the alfalfa plant is unable to utilize its deep-feeding root system,
and is also less able to withstand the severe droughts which occur
in parts of the West. Alfalfa will not withstand wet feet or sour
soil. Fortunately, however, these conditions are very rarely to
be met with in the Western half of the country. Some eare, how-
ever, must be taken to avoid land that is subject to prolonged over-
flows from streams. During the growing period it will not generally
withstand more than twenty-four hours of complete submersion,
nor more than forty-eight hours of partial overflow. During the
winter, however, fields have been known to remain under flowing
water for over two weeks without serious injury. Stagnant water
is always fatal to the alfalfa plants.

PREPARATION OF THE SEED BED.

The tender nature of the young alfalfa plant makes it desirable
that the soil be in good tilt at planting time. The seed bed should
be fine on top, but firm and thoroughly settled. In the Great Plains
area, harrowing and packing should immediately follow the plowing.
In addition, subsurface packing is to be advised when the seeding is
to take place within six weeks of the plowing. If the firming of
the seed bed does not take place there will be, at the bottom of
each furrow, a dry mass of clods which were turned down from
the old top soil. If this condition is at hand, it is apt to result
fatally to the young alfalfa plants, as their roots can not usually
puncture this mass of dry eclods and air spaces. When the plowing
is done in the fall it is usually desirable to leave the ground com-
paratively rough to catch the snow, and to prevent the loss of any
rains or melting snow. This conservation of moisture is of special
importance in the non-irrigated sections of the West, but also merits
attention, even where there is water for irrigation. It is important
that the preparation of the soil be uniformly good, as the poorly
prepared spots are apt to fail and these bare places form the center
from which weeds may spread and eventually destroy the stand.
Summer-fallowing is often practiced in the semi-arid sections to

tf

conserve sufficient moisture for the germination of the seed at
planting time. This method is also effective in any section for
ridding the ground of weeds. It may be practiced with good results
in humid sections where late summer seeding is desirable, but
where droughts are apt to occur at this time.

PREPARATION OF SANDY GROUND FOR ALFALFA.

It is quite difficult to establish alfalfa on soils that are so
sandy as to drift when bare. On such soils the young unprotected
alfalfa plants are very apt to be cut off by the drifting sand unless ~
special precautions are taken. This danger may be avoided by
applying a light top dressing of straw or horse manure just after
seeding. This may be disked in with a disk set straight to imbed
the straw so that there will not be any shifting of the covering.
The disk should be run at right angles to the direction of the
prevailing wind. Another method is to drill the alfalfa into the
high-eut stubble of cane, kafir corn or millet. Still another method
is to seed the alfalfa in a thin young stand of small grain, such as
oats, which makes a rapid, early growth, and thus protects the
alfalfa plants. Fortunately, these areas are usually quite limited
in extent, but where they do occur, the problem of starting alfalfa
is a serious one, and merits most careful attention, as when once
established the stand is usually a permanent success.

SELECTION OF SEED.

Other things being equal, Northern grown seed should be used
as the seed produced in the Northern alfalfa districts 1s very suc-
cessful, but the Southern grown seed is apt to lack in hardiness,
should it be seeded in the North. It is usually desirable to secure
samples from several sources, and test them as to germination and
purity before purchasing. The germination test may be made quite
easily by counting out one or two hundred seeds and placing them
in the home-made tester, consisting of two plates or saucers and two
damp cloths or pieces of blotting paper.

Since the demand for alfalfa seed in this country has for some
time exceeded the supply, there is, as a consequence, very little old
seed on the market.

The securing of particularly fresh seed is not of as vital im-
portance as the securing of seed free from bad weeds, as alfalfa
seed usually retains a satisfactory germination for from five to
seven years. (The loss of vitality due to age is usually indicated
by the seed turning a reddish brown.) The greatest care should
be taken to get the seed free from dangerous weeds. The weed seeds

8

most apt to be present in alfalfa seed are shown in the accompanying
drawing.

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: Fig. 3.—Seeds of alfalfa and common impurities. (Enlarged;
natural size at the right.) A, alfalfa; B, yellow trefoil; C, sweet clover;
D, buckhorn; EH, wild carrot; F, wild chicory; G, curled dock; H, large-
seeded dodder; I, small-seeded dodder. (Westgate—Farmer’s Bul. 339,
U. S. Dept. Agriculture. )

It is generaliy ac.visable if possible to order the samples the
winter before seeding, as it is often impossible in the rush seasen
just before seeding to purchase seed from the same lot from which
tne sampies were ordered. Some seed firms will book orders for
seeds subject to satisfactory germination and purity tests. This
practice should be more common, however, than it is at present,
and would doubtless become more general if there was a sufficient
demand for it on the part of the American farmer. In the great
alfalfa producing sections of the West, the seed such as produced
in Kansas, Colorado, Nebraska, Montana and Utah has _ been
found to give excellent results in comparative tests including
alfalfas from all parts of the world. The Turkestan alfalfa is quite
eold resistant and will sometimes do better than the ordinary
alfalfa in the semi-arid sections. The sand lucerne, which has to
be imported from Germany and Bohemia, is both drouth and cold
resistant, and is a more vigorous grower than is the Turkestan
alfalfa. The Grimm alfalfa, of Minnesota, is also very hardy and
cold resistant. These special strains of alfalfa, however, are usually
to be recommended only in sections where the ordinary alfalfa
fails, by reason of drouth or cold, and it must be borne in mind that
even the most drouth resistant alfalfas are relatively slightly su-
perior to the ordinary strains. There is yet to be discovered the

9

alfalfa that will grow without irrigation in desert sections. The
dry land alfalfa, of Utah, is also to be included in the list of alfalfas
that are slightly more drouth resistant than the ordinary alfalfa
of the irrigated sections.

TIME OF SEEDING ALFALFA.

Alfalfa may usually be seeded any time that the ground is not
frozen, and successful germination will be obtained. The extreme
variation in climate and other conditions, however, usually make
one or at most two months of the year the best for any particular
locality. In the extreme North, late spring seeding is necessary,
owing to the danger of winter killing of the small seedlings if the
seeding is done in the late summer or fall. The Central and South-
ern districts usually call for spring seeding, as the alfalfa plants
are usually able to withstand the weeds of midsummer, which prove
so destructive to the newly-seeded alfalfa fields in the East, where
late summer seeding is necessary. South of latitude 40 and west from
the Mississippi River as far as central Kansas, seeding from the
middle of August to the first week in September is usually success-
ful. The general principle which should underlie the selection of
the time of seeding is that the seedlings should be the largest possible
size at the time when the most dangerous or critical period of their
first year is anticipated. In the North, winter killing is the worst
danger and hence spring seeding is to be reeommended. In sections
where winter weeds are bad, it is also desirable to seed in very early
spring, in order to produce a good growth of plants by the time
the weeds begin to trouble in the late fall. Where the weeds of
midsummer constitute the worst enemy or danger, it is best to seed
just after midsummer upon thoroughly prepared, weed freed
ground. This makes the plants nearly a year old by the following
midsummer when the weeds would be apt to cause trouble. Spring
seeding with oats is good in such irrigated areas as Colorado, where
alfalfa succeeds exceedingly well and is not subject to any great
dangers. The accompanying illustration indicates the relative size
of different seedings of alfalfa at the approach of winter. Spring
seeded alfalfa would have been much larger and is to be recom-
mended where there is no danger from midsummer weeds.

METHODS OF SEEDING.

The manner of seeding varies considerably in different parts
of the country. The various methods agree in that it is necessary
for the seed to be covered and not left exposed on the surface of
the ground, as is often done with grasses and clovers. Alfalfa may
be drilled or seeded broadeast either by hand or with a hand seeder
or wheelbarrow seeder. It is an excellent plan to sow half the seed

10

one way across the field and the other half at right angles to the
line of the first sowing. This insures a more even stand. The
depth of planting varies to some extent with the soil and climatic
conditions. Covering from three-fourths to one inch deep is usually
sufficient on clay soil, but one and one-half inches are necessary for
sandy soils or in the semi-arid sections, where deep covering is
required to insure sufficient moisture for the germination of the
seed. If the seed is sown broadcast, a light harrow weeder or brush
may be used to cover the seed to the required depth. It is not usually
advisable to roll the soil unless it be exceptionally light, as the
soil is more apt to become dried out before the plants have become
well set. A smaller quantity of seed can be used when it is drilled
than if it is seeded broadeast. If the grain drill is used the amount
seeded may be regulated by the use of leather thongs to reduce the
feed.

Corn chop may be mixed with the alfalfa to secure a more even
seeding. If a drill is used it is an excellent idea to first test it on
hard ground, with the shoes not touching the ground. By this
method it is possible to observe the rate at which the seed is being
dropped, and by this method a proper regulation of the seeding ean
be secured.

RATE OF SEEDING.

The quantity of seed required per acre is much greater in the
humid and irrigated sections of the country than in the semi-arid
regions. In the West, fair stands have been secured with as little
as from one to five pounds per acre, but this has been under partieu-
larly ideal conditions. Good stands are frequently secured from
five pounds of seed to the acre in the drier portions of the West,
where irrigation is not possible. A pound of ordinary alfalfa con-
tains about 220,000 seeds. As there are 43,560 square feet in an
acre each pound of alfalfa seeded per acre would give about five
seeds to the square foot. Ten pounds of seed would provide fifty
plants per square foot. Many of the seeds, however, fail to grow
and a great portion of the young plants meet with fatal accidents.
Old alfalfa fields have shown from one to six plants per square foot,
and the field with but one plant per square foot producing as good
yields as where there were six plants per square foot.

The following recommendations as to the rate of seeding are
made as to the different settions of the country. Atlantie and
Southern states 24 and 28 pounds per acre. States west of the
Appalachian Mountains and East of the Ninety-eighth meridian, 20
to 24 pounds. Semi-arid sections, 5 to 15 pounds, depending on the
average rainfall. In the irrigated sections, experienced growers
usually seed about 15 pounds per acre. In all the above cases, where
seed production is desired, it is necessary to use considerable less
seed than when hay only is desired. A thick stand of alfalfa very

ala!

Fig. 4.—Alfalfa seedlings at the beginning of winter. 1, seeded
August 15, 13 inches high; 2, seeded September 1, 5% inches high; 38,
seeded September 15, 21%4 inches high. The larger, early-seeded plants
are much better able to withstand the winter than are the small, late-
seeded ones. (Westgate—Farmer’s Bul., 339. U.S. Dept. of Agricul.)

12

seldom produces a good seed crop. The idea should be to get
about one plant per square foot over the field, if good yields of
both hay and seed are desired. It is usually safest to seed a little
thicker than desired, and then thin the plant to the desired stand
by disking.

USE OF A NURSE CROP.

In the Eastern and Southern States, and in the semi-arid sec-
tions of the West, a nurse crop usually proves disastrous to alfalfa,
even resulting in the ruining of the stand. In the irrigated sections
of the West, however, alfalfa can usually be seeded safely with a
nurse crop such as oats. In this case, however, the alfalfa succeeds
in spite of the nurse crop, rather than by reason of it. In the extreme
Southwest, barley is sometimes seeded with alfalfa in the fall.
In the States bordering on Lake Michigan, a spring seeding of barley
is often a success as a nurse crop for alfalfa. In this section, how-
ever, it is generally recommended that alfalfa be seeded alone in
mid or late summer. In sandy soils a very light seeding of small
grain as a nurse crop is sometimes used to prevent the sand from
blowing and injuring the young plants. In all eases, the nurse crop
when used should be cut as soon as it shows signs of injury to young
alfalfa plants.

INOCULATION FOR ALFALFA.

The legumes or pod-bearing plants are different from other farm
crops in that they normally possess a species of bacteria upon their
roots. These bacteria, or minute organisms, are able to utilize
the nitrogen of the air and convert it into a substance that can
be used by not only the leguminous plant itself, but also by succeed-
ing crops grown upon the same soil. Alfalfa is no exception and
in fact it usually fails to succeed unless the roots are supplied with
these bacteria which produce the nodules on the roots. Fortunately
most of the soils of the western’ half of the United States appear
to possess these now or are so well adapted to their growth that
what comes in the dust storms or by floods or with the seed itself,
is enough to give the plants a start. After this, the bacteria can
spread rapidly. In the humid sections, where the soils lack lime,
and have a tendency to be poorly drained, artificial moculation is
necessary. For this purpose, soil from a successful alfalfa field or
soil from around the roots of sweet clover may be used. The arti-
ficial cultures are more convenient, but are not so sure as the soil
inoculation. The latter method is open to some danger of carrying
harmful weed seeds or plant diseases.

13

TREATMENT OF A STAND OF ALFALFA.

As a usual thing a successful alfalfa field requires little treat-
ment after seeding, other than the prompt removal of the different
cuttings. Any delay in cutting after the next growth starts results
unfavorably to the succeeding crops. Disking a field of mature
alfalfa plants usually rejuvenates the stands if the disks are set
properly so as to split the crowns rather than to cut them off. If
the stand be too thick as it is apt to be if seed production is desired,
the disk harrow with the disks set to cut off a portion of the crowns,
is effective in thinning the stand. The cultivation of the ground
seems to have a very beneficial effect upon the growth of the plants.
If insect enemies threaten the stand it is usually best to immediately
eut and rake off the young growth. The insects thus deprived of
their food supply either die or move on to other quarters.

It is also important to remove the windrows or cocks from the
field as promptly as possible in event of rain, as the plants under-
neath are soon smothered out and these bare places form the centers
from which weeds may spread. Some large growers of alfalfa make
it a practice to disk their neids lightly at least once a season.
An implement known as an alfalfa renovator is sometimes employed
where the ground is free from stones or gravel. This is a disk
harrow with the disks: armed with teeth as shown in the accom-
panying illustration.

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Fig. 5.—An alfalfa harrow. (Farmers’ Bul. 342. U.S. Dept. Agriculture.)

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14

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION.

Practically all of the alfalfa seed raised in the United States
is produced west of the one hundredth meridian. Even in the West
- the seed production industry is apparently only in its infancy. The
results in any particular section are usually somewhat uncertain,
since the yield may be enough one year to pay for the land upon
which the crop is grown and the next year it may not pay the
expenses of harvesting the seed. A study of the general principles
underlying the production of alfalfa seed indicates that when all
the factors are better understood the production of a paying crop
of seed each season will be much more uniform than at present. The
strong demand for alfalfa seed at high prices makes this branch of
farming operations offer one of the most promising lines of endeavor
for all farmers situated in sections where seed production is a
possibility. The alfalfa plant, while naturally adapted to a very
wide range of conditions is decidedly particular as to what conditions
must be present in order to make it produce satisfactory crops of
seed. A great many fields of alfalfa are left for seed each season
under conditions where seed crops are out of the question. These
experiences are unfortunate as they tend to deter others from pro-
ducing seed under conditions where success would be reasonably
certain. For this reason it is important to have in mind the con-
ditions which bring about failure or success with the alfalfa seed
crop. .

REQUIREMENTS FOR ALFALFA SEED CROP.

A thin stand is essential and the lack of this perhaps more than
anything else has been the cause of many of the failures to produce
satisfactory crops of seed. It is perhaps most essential to have the
plants far enough apart on the ground so that each plant- may
develop without contact with its neighbors. In this way each plant
will present a semispherical mass of blossoms to the sunlight, where-
as, if the plant were crowded there would be room for only rela-
tively few blossoms at the top of the plant. The undulating surface
of a thin alfalfa field in bloom has about twice the area of blossoms
as does a thick stand where the blossoms can exist only on the tops
of the plants. The accompanying illustration shows a plant grown
isolated from its neighbors and bearing its pods over the entire
plant rather than merely at the top.

Importance of a Relative Shortage of Water at Seed Setting
time:—If there is an abundance of water present in the soil by
irrigation or from rains at the time the seed is supposed to be
setting, failure will be almost certain. In other words, it is neces-
sary to have a period of relative drought at this time, as otherwise
the succeeding crop of stems will come on and develop at the
expense of the seed crop. With the soil relatively dry, however,

15

the basal shoots to form the next crop will be unable to start up
and as the result the small amount of water which is available will
be used by the seed crop instead. It has often been a matter of
common observation that in such sections as eastern Kansas, where
as a rule there is too much rain for a successful seed crop, that in
years so dry that the corn crop fails there will be a very large seed
crop on the alfalfa fields that are left to stand for seed. Experiences
such as these give us a hint as to what conditions must be provided
for the best possible crops of seed. In other words, sections of the
country where there is a hot summer drought, or in irrigated

Fig. 6.—Heavily seeded alfalfa plant grown near Washington, D.
C., where the climatic conditions are much more unfavorable to the
production of alfalfa seed than in the semi-arid regions. (Brand and
Westgate—B. P. I. Cire., 24, U. S. Dept. Agriculture. )

16

sections where there is apt to be a shortage of water at the second
erop, offer special advantages for alfalfa seed production.

Hot Weather Necessary for Seed Production.—k'or some cause
alfalfa will not set seed in cool weather and for this reason the sec-
tions which are relatively warm during July and August afford the
best possibilities as regards the temperature for alfalfa seed setting.

Which Crop to Leave for Seed.—In deciding which crop to leave
for seed the conditions required for setting a good crop should be
carefully considered and that crop left stand which will most nearly
receive these ideal conditions. As a rule the first crop does not
produce a good seed erop. This is partly because the plants are
uneven in ripening and partly because there is apt to be too much
moisture in the soil and too little warm weather for the best results.
In the north and in the higher altitudes the second crop may be
matured so late that the cold nights of August will injure the seed
prospects, and on the other hand the disadvantages of the saving of
the first crop may be great. This will necessitate the clipping of
the first crop quite early to even up the stand and bring on the
second crop at the time the hottest weather of summer may be
expected. A very good rule is to figure on the number of cuttings
of hay normally to be secured in the section, and then let the next
to the last cutting stand for seed. That is, if three crops are usually
secured, it is best to let the second crop stand for seed.

Whether to Cut for Hay or Seed.—As a general rule it can be
determined when the plants are in full bloom whether or not it
will pay to allow the crop to stand for seed or not. If the blossoms
blight and fall without setting more than four or five pods per clus-
ter, or if heavy rains come at blooming time, it is usually useless |
to expect a seed crop, and more profit will be obtained by cutting
promptly for hay. When the basal shoots for the next crop are
observed to be starting, this generally means that the seed pods will
blight and fall and the seed crop be a failure.

The points brought out in the above pages indicate the fact
that in the humid sections or where the rainfall is more than thirty
inches a year but little can be expected of alfalfa seed production.
This is extremely fortunate for the drier sections of the country,
us it gives such sections a veritable monopoly of the seed-producing
business and furnishes a very valuable crop, which can usually be -
turned promptly into cash. Since the methods of producing alfalfa
seed vary in the irrigated and non-irrigated sections, these two
types of localities will be considered separately.

PRODUCING ALFALFA SEED UNDER IRRIGATION.

One of the advantages which irrigated sections offer to the
alfalfa seed producer is the fact that the moisture supply is under

Es

control. This is a most important consideration owing to the special
requirements of the alfalfa seed field for just the right amount of
water at the time the seed is setting. The only drawback from the
standpoint of the alfalfa seed producer is the fact that the relatively
small areas of land that can be irrigated make the land extremely
valuable for other purposes, which while not always netting more
than would a good seed crop, yet are somewhat more certain as
to their yields.

Irrigated sections not possessing good transportation facilities
by reason of great distance from railroads, offer especially good
possibilities for alfalfa seed production, since the produce of an
entire field may be transported at a comparatively small cost.

There also exist numerous localities where there is sufficient
water for irrigating purposes up to early or middle summer. These
sections are exceedingly well adapted to the production of alfalfa
seed as the relative shortage of water after July first is just what
the seed-producing alfalfa plants need for the best development
of seed. In this way the alfalfa fields bring in good revenues in
spite of the shortage of water, whereas, if hay alone or other crops
were to be produced, the yield of the same would be materially
reduced.

In supplying water to an irrigated alfalfa field which is to be
allowed to stand for seed, the idea is to give it just enough water
to enable it to make good, but not too rapid growth up to the
blooming period. After this blooming stage is reached, there should
not be sufficient water in the soil to enable the basal shoots to
start to make the next crop, as this would ruin the seed crop. It
will usually be sufficient to give one irrigation shortly after cutting
and this should last until the seed is harvested. However, in soils
not retentive of moisture, it may be necessary to give a second
irrigation when the plants are about a foot high or twenty days
after cutting. An irrigation at blooming time is practically certain
to ruin the prospects for seed.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION.

In irrigating an alfalfa seed producing field, care should be
taken not to give certain parts of the field overly heavy applications
of water, as this will be apt to materially reduce the prospects for
seed on these parts of the field. For this reason the flooding system
from ditches, which is in rather common use throughout most of
the alfalfa sections of the West, and the check system much used
in California are not ideal in this respect, as the portion of the field
at the intake is apt to be flooded too much if the further stretches
of the field or check be allowed to receive a sufficient supply. .To
overcome this objection the method of irrigating by shallow furrows

18

across the field is often to be reeommended, as this allows of a rapid
and light irrigation and permits the water to be controlled to a
much greater degree of certainty than by either of the flooding sys-
tems just mentioned.

HARVESTING THE ALFALFA SEED CROP.

If the alfalfa plant ripened all its seed at once as do wheat and

corn, it would not be difficult to determine just when the seed crops

~ should be harvested. Unfortunately the pods never ripen with abso-

lute uniformity and the cutting must be done during a time when the

greatest number of pods are in the proper condition. This will mean

that a small percentage of the pods are so ripe as to shatter badly,

while a corresponding percentage are too green to have matured

seeds. A good rule is to cut when about two-thirds of the seed pods
are brown in color.

There are numerous devices for cutting the seed crop, but the
underlying principle is to get it into bunches and thrashed with ~
as ttle handling and consequent shattering as possible. The most
primitive method is to cut the plants with a mowing machine and
rake in windrows and load on the wagons the same as though the
crop were being cut for hay. This is not to be recommended, as
much of the seed is lost in this way. It is a much better plan to
have some sort of dropping attachment on a mowing machine or
to use a self-rake reaper. One attachment on the ordinary mowing
machine is shown in the accompanying illustration.

This consists of a slat-box at the rear of which a board ean
be lifted, allowing the accumulated plants to slide off the slat teeth
at the bottom. It is usually advisable to mow the alfalfa while
the dew is still on in the morning, and get it into shape to leave
on the field as soon as possible to avoid shattering. When the seed
erop is ripe most of the leaves have fallen and the stems are com-
paratively dry and on this account it is possible to put the alfalfa
into cocks very soon after cutting. This prevents bleaching of the
seed and unless heavy rains occur the inside of the cock is not apt
to be damaged. In sections where it is desirable to leave the cocks

standing for any length of time in the field, heavy muslin shock
covers may be recommended. These should be forty inches square,
with a stone, one-half of a horse-shoe or a ball of cement attached
to each corner. A great deal of shattering can be avoided if the
cocks are made large enough so that two good pitchers can place
the entire cock on the rack at once. It is very desirable to have a
rack bottom made of matched flooring with an extra board placed
around the outside to hold in the seed. A large canvas ean also
be utilized to catch the fallen seeds at the bottom of the rack.

If a self rake reaper is used the bunches can be nicely placed.
out of way of the horses and machine. Three or four of the bunches
should be placed together to prevent bleaching and reduce the

19

danger from rain. In very dry sections where there is no danger
from rain, alfalfa may, if necessary, be cut with a header, leaving

ye

Fig. 7.—Mowing machine with dropper attachment in operation in
a field of alfalfa in cultivated rows in western Nebraska. The rows in this
case are one-half mile long. (Brand and Westgate—B. P. I. Cire. 24—U.
S. Department Agriculture.

the alfalfa in windrows across the field, to be removed within a
week or two after harvest. An ordinary grain binder can be used
either with or without the binder attachment. If the bundles are
bound they may be readily shocked and can also be stacked the
same as are wheat bundles.

INJURY TO THE ALFALFA SEED CROP BY RAIN.

Attention has already been called to the injury of the seed of
the alfalfa crop if a rain comes at the blooming period. The rain
may do almost as much damage to the seed crop if it comes when
the newly-cut crop is fully exposed to the elements. For this reason
it is important to so handle the crop as to reduce the danger from
rain to a minimum. A single rain is not especially injurious to the
alfalfa if it is in cocks, but a long period of wet weather will cause
the seeds to sprout and will greatly injure the appearance of the
seeds which are not actually destroyed. The alternate wetting and
drying of the seed pods even from ordinary dew will sometimes

20

cause the pods to burst and lose a considerable portion of their seed.
Considerable care must be taken in stacking to prevent heating.
The stems pack very closely and will be apt to heat even when
apparently nearly dry when stacked. With some farmers it is a
practice to mix grain straw with alfalfa hay to permit it to be
stacked a little greener than would otherwise be possible. As a
usual thing alfalfa may be stacked in from four to six days after
eutting if it has been allowed to cure in the windrows or in small
cocks. If cured in large cocks more than a week may be necessary.
Alfalfa is ready for stacking several days before it will do for
threshing or hulling from the field. If alfalfa is stacked it must
be borne in mind that the relative absence of leaves on the stems
make the stack less able to shed water than where alfalfa hay has
been stacked. For this reason it is desirable to provide some sort
of a cover for the stack. Long hay, straw, millet or even a load of
freshly cut alfalfa hay may be used to top off the stack if it is not
possible to provide a tarpaulin. If seed is desired for fall sowing
it is usually necessary to hull or thrash either from the field or
very shortly after stacking, as otherwise the alfalfa in the stack
will go into a sweat which will make the pods so tough that the
seed can be removed from the hulls only with great difficulty. I[f
the seed is not desired for immediate use or sale the stack should
be given good protection from the rain and thrashed or hulled late
in the fall when work is slack. The methods described are those
practiced in the alfalfa seed producing sections of the West. Much
more primitive methods are to be observed in parts of Asia where al-
falfa has been grown for untold centuries. Much of the Turkestan
alfalfa imported into this country is thrashed out on outside thrash-
ing floors by oxen and horses. A layer of the heavily-seeded alfalfa
plants are spread over the floor for a depth of about a foot and
horses or oxen are then driven around the alfalfa covered enclosure
until the greater part of the seed has been shattered. The straw
is then pitched away and the seed freed from dust by throwing
it into the air with shovels and allowing the winds to blow away
the lighter particles. These conditions, however, will not last long,
_as the American method of using special machines is being adopted
by them, as it is possible to save a much greater portion of the seed
and the product is rendered of a much better grade.

IMPORTANCE OF PRODUCING PRIME ALFALFA SEED.

With proper precautions No. 1 alfalfa seed may be procured
with but little more expense, than second quality seed and the price
will be much better. It is also important that the light seeds and
the weed seeds be removed. This ean be accomplished with a
good fanning mill before selling. It is often the practice of a number
of local dealers to fit up an alfalfa cleaning room for the use of their
farmer patrons. In other instances farmers may club together and
obtain a fanning mill and the power for operating the same. In
this way the seed of an entire locality may be uniformly graded and

21

will command a relatively higher price than if each lot had to be
graded separately, or if the second quality seed were bulked with
that of the first quality. Prime alfalfa seed is of a light yellow color,
with a slightly greenish cast. The seed which is of a brown dead
color is usually low in vitality and reduces the selling quality of
the seed. In localities where it is the practice to bulk the seed of
a number of farmers it is important that poor lots of seed should
be sold separately and not bulked with the good lots, as the grade
of the seed will be reduced considerably more than the value of
the poor lots of seed. One advantage which the Western farmer
has over his European competitors in the alfalfa seed producing
business is the relative freedom from obnoxious weeds if he exercises
reasonable care. Dodder is probably the worst weed with which
he has to contend, as this is quite difficult to clean out from the
seed entirely if it is present, and a very small percentage of the
dodder seed in alfalfa is dangerous, owing to the rapidity with which
a single dodder plant spreads from plant to plant. The illustration
on page 8, (Fig. 3) shows a number of weed seeds which are usually
found in imported alfalfa seed. The dodder and dock are sometimes
present in the American grown seed. Foxtail and lamb’s quarter
are also apt to be present in seed produced in the western part of
this country. In the Great Plains area, Russian thistle is often
present, and this seed may be found in some of the alfalfa seed
secured from these regions. It is quite difficult to entirely remove
it from the alfalfa seed.

YIELD OF ALFALFA SEED.

The yield of alfalfa seed secured in this country ranges from
nothing up to twenty bushels per acre. A yield of two bushels per
acre is usually considered necessary to pay expenses, while from
three to four bushels per acre may be considered a fair average
over considerable sections. In certain sections under very favorable
conditions yields have been known to run as high as twenty bushels
per acre. The conditions, however, for such yields must be ideal
and it is a study of the conditions present when such yields are
secured that serve to indicate the best possible conditions for the
production of an alfalfa seed crop. At Chinook, Montana, little
attention had been paid to the production of seed until one year
when there was a great shortage of water for irrigation. The
ground was so dry that the hay production was apparently hardly
worth cutting and many farmers let the crop stand for seed. The
result in many instances was enough seed to more than pay for
the ground upon which the alfalfa was growing. This clearly shows
the necessity of a relative lack of water at the time of seed setting
and offers a hint to parties located in irrigated sections even where
there is no shortage of water at this period.

22

ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION IN SEMI-ARID REGIONS.

Certain parts of the semi-arid regions offer special facilities
for the production of alfalfa seed. These sections comprise part
of the Great Plains extending from Texas to South Dakota, where
the rainfall averages from 14 to 25 inches annually. Where the
rainfall is less it is insufficient for the proper development of the
plants to enable them to set seed and where the rainfall is greater
than 25 inches the seed setting is apt to be greatly reduced by
rain. Other semi-arid regions which offer promise in alfalfa seed
production are parts of New Mexico, Utah, Eastern Oregon and
Washington. Alfalfa seed production is always more or less of a
gamble where the moisture conditions are not under perfect control
and it must be borne in mind that seasons unfavorable to the produc-
tion of seed may occur at any time. If, however, the alfalfa is
planted so that it can be given surface cultivation in order to
conserve moisture if the drought be too severe, failure is much less
apt to result in the unfavorable years.

ALFALFA IN CULTIVATED ROWS FOR SEED IN SEMI-ARID
REGIONS.

Almost every grower of alfalfa seed has noted that the isolated
alfalfa plants are usually loaded with seed. Instances have been
noted where single plants produced enough seed to make fifteen
bushels per acre if the plants were grown singly in hills 30 inches
apart each way. This indicates the possibilities of the method,
although in actual practice no such yields can be expected. The
method of growing alfalfa in wide cultivated rows so that the
plants may be cultivated the same as corn, is comparatively new in
this country, although it was advocated more than a hundred years
ago in England, where hay alone was desired. Since this phase of
the industry is so new rather detailed instructions will be given, as,
if the results obtained by the few pioneers who have gone into this,
can be repeated by everyone, the semi-arid sections of the country
will come to be the principal source of alfalfa seed in this country
and give in addition a probable surplus for export to less favorably
situated portions of the world.

23

PREPARING THE SEED BED FOR CULTIVATED ALFALFA
ROWS.

The preparation of the ground should be such as to rid it as
far as possible of weeds and weed seeds, as the young alfalfa plants
in the dry regions are very slow in growth at first and no intertillage
is possible until they are large enough to prevent them from being
covered up by the cultivation. It is also necessary to provide a
seed bed very well firmed either by settling or rolling and in the
drier sections of the semi-arid regions summer fallowing for the
entire preceding season may be necessary to insure sufficient mois-
ture in the ground to provide for the quick germination of the
seed. This summer fallowed land must not be allowed to grow up
to weeds and should be harrowed frequently enough to keep the
weeds down, and in any event should be harrowed after each rain
in order to break the crust which would otherwise allow the soil to
dry out. The soil mulch thus secured will reduce the loss of water
by evaporation and in the following year will place at the disposal
of the young plants a considerable proportion of the two years’
rainfall.

In the northern sections, where spring planting is advisable
on account of winter-killing of fall planted seedlings, surface tillage
must be continued until seeding time. If the ground has been
planted to corn or cane and given good cultivation the preceding
year it may be unnecessary to summer fallow.

In the Great Plains country, where spring seeding is also
advisable, the ground should be harrowed and rolled immediately
after plowing, especially if the plowing is done in the spring. If
fall plowing is practiced the natural settling of the land will do
much toward bringing it into proper condition for the young alfalfa
plants. In Utah and in the southern part of the Great Plains area
the fall plowing may be left unharrowed until the following spring.
Rough plowed land in the winter time usually holds a larger pro-
portion of rain and snow than if it has been harrowed.

Dr. W. J. Workman, of Ashland, Kansas, has developed a meth-
od which is giving very good results on buffalo-grass sod. A
16-inch sod plow is used to cut a furrow 214 inches deep through
the sod, a-stirring plow following immediately in the, furrow left
by the breaking plow and leaving a furrow 8 inches deep. On the
next round the breaking plow puts the strip of sod in the bottom of
the deep preceding furrow, where it is completely covered by the
new soil turned up by the stirring plow. The harrow is kept at
work to smooth and firm the ground as fast as it is turned, and
the alfalfa is seeded with the grain drill while the soil is still moist.
This method possesses the special advantage of allowing the alfalfa-
seed to be put into the ground practically free from weeds or weed
seeds.

24

PREVENTING DRIFTING OF SOIL IN ALFALFA ROWS FOR
SEED IN SEMI-ARID REGIONS.

If the ground is so sandy as to drift or blow during high winds
it is a good practice to sow alternate rows of oats or barley and
make these rows run at right angles to the direction of the worst
winds. The first cultivation of the alfalfa plants will destroy the
grain, which should not in any ease be left long enough to injure
the young alfalfa plants. Another method is to sow the alfalfa
between rows of high cut thickly seeded sorghums or kafir corn.
The disadvantage of this method is the danger of covering up the
young alfalfa plants when the sorghum or kafir corn stubble is
plowed up in cultivating. Still another method is to seed the alfalfa
in shallow listed furrows running at right angles to the direction
of the prevailing heavy winds. These furrows should be shallow
or occasionally heavy rains would be apt to cover the young plants.
If this method is used it will probably be necessary to seed the
alfalfa either with a garden drill or with a grain drill by making
the necessary changes in the plate holes. The ridges made by the
lister will also prove efficient in catching the snow during the pre-
ceeding winter and spring harrowing will lower the ridges if they
are too high at planting time.

DISTANCE BETWEEN ALFALFA ROWS FOR SEED.

The best results have been obtained by sowing the seed in rows
about three feet apart. In the drier sections 42 inches is none too
narrow, but in any event the rows should never be less than 28
inches apart or there will be difficulty in cultivating them. If an
ordinary grain drill with shoes 8 inches apart is used, four out of
every five holes may be stopped up. This will make the rows 40
inches apart. On the other hand if three out of every four holes are
stopped up the rows will be 32 inches apart.

RATE OF SEEDING ALFALFA IN CULTIVATED ROWS.

When the plants are grown they should average about a foot
apart in the row. They must. however, be considerably closer than
this at first, as many of the plants are apt to succumb to the
unfavorable conditions. Satisfactory results have been secured in
seeding the alfalfa with an ordinary grain drill so regulated that
it would sow 12 pounds of seed per acre if all the holes were in
operation. Since, however, four out of every five holes are to be
stopped up, only about 214 pounds of seed will be sown per acre,.
by this method. The stand in cultivated rows should be about as
thick as rows in ordinary drilled alfalfa fields where the rows
are usually about eight inches apart. It will usually be quite diffi-

25

cult to make the grain drill seed the alfalfa slowly enough. This
difficulty may be overcome by mixing corn chop with the alfalfa
seed or by reducing the feed in the grain drill with strips of
leather. In any event the drill should be first tested on bare ground
with the shoes not touching the ground. In this way it is possible
to note the rate at which the seed is being dropped and to properly
regulate it.

TREATMENT OF ALFALFA IN ROWS THE FIRST SEASON.

The well settled moist seed bed which is to be provided for the
best growth of alfalfa unfortunately furnishes the same ideal con-
ditions for the rapid development of the weeds. Several cultivations
are necessary even the first season to hold the weeds in check. A
two-row cultivator provided with narrow shovels or bull tongues
is best for this work. A small box sled or good fenders should be
attached to the cultivator so as not to cover up the young alfalfa
plants. The rows should not be ridged up, as this will interfere
with the mowing of the plants later on. The stand will be thicker
the first season than in the subsequent seasons. Some of the plants
are destroyed by cultivation and the less vigorous plants are killed
by the droughts of summer or the cold of the first winter. Unless
the plants are so thick as to crowd one another no thinning should
he done by cross harrowing while the plants are still small. Exper-
ience indicates that the best growth may be expected if the plants
are not clipped the first season, especially if they do not cume into
bloom and start to set seed. If the latter condition prevails it
may be necessary to clip high with a mower.

TREATMENT OF ALFALFA IN ROWS AFTER THE FIRST
SEASON.

During subsequent seasons the treatment will not differ much
from that of the first season. At the beginning of the second season
the plants should not average more than four to the foot. These,
however, should be reduced by cross disking or otherwise until
when the plants are fully grown they may be a foot or even more
apart in the row. There should always. be a noticeable space
between each plant. If the thinning is done with a hoe or mattock
it is often desirable to do this when the plants are beginning to
set a crop of seed, as then the undesirable individuals can be elim-
inated and the heavy seeders kept. Cross disking will thin the
plants very readily and is generally best where the work is done
on a very large scale. The first clipping should be so timed as to
bring the time of seed setting in mid summer or slightly later, when
the most favorable conditions for seed production are present.
Where the seasons are short, this first clipping must be made while

26

_ the plants are still very small. It will usually be well for persons
with an experimental turn of mind to undertake some experiments
along this line to obtain definite information. One row may be
given an early clipping and then left for seed; another a later
clipping and still another left for seed after the first crop has been
eut for hay at the usual time. In this way the experience which
would take a number of seasons will be obtained in one year. The
methods of harvesting are not essentially different from those em-
ployed in the irrigated sections.

POSSIBILITIES OF SEED PRODUCTION IN CULTIVATED
ROWS IN SEMI-ARID SECTIONS.

Since this method promises to be adapted to sections where
thick broadcasted stands of alfalfa produce at best very light yields .
of hay too much must not be expected of such a field for alfalfa
seed. That is, if three bushels of seed per acre can be secured on
cheap short grass land the method will pay abundantly. The
results thus far obtained show that this method gives promise in
Utah, eastern Colorado, western Kansas, western Nebraska and also
South Dakota. Yields of seed to the rate of five bushels per acre
have been obtained. It is suggested that persons who are interested
in this, try it out on a comparatively small scale until they see just
what it will do under their conditions. Such an experiment should
be surrounded by other alfalfa or be of sufficient size so that the
grasshoppers will not ruin all the stand.

It is expected that machinery now in use in most communities
can be adapted to the growing of alfalfa seed in rows. Those under-
taking the work will be pioneers in every sense of the word and to
them will fall the work of inventing new types of machines to suit
the needs, and upon these will depend for a large extent the
practical success of this method. The secret of the success of this
method lies in the fact that the isolated alfalfa plants produce the
heaviest crops of seed, coupled with the power of the farmers in
the semi-arid regions to regulate the supply of moisture by surface
tillage, thus bringing about just the conditions required for the best
success in this line.

ALFALFA AS A HAY PLANT.

It is estimated that 80 per cent of the alfalfa of the country is
utilized in the form of hay. The number of cuttings varies from
eight in the extreme southwest to only two in the extreme northern
and semi-arid sections. Three cuttings per season may be taken
as a fair average the country over. In very dry sections, however,
one cutting may be all that can be secured in dry seasons. In good

27

growing weather alfalfa will usually grow nearly an inch per day,
and usually 30 or 40 days in good growing weather are all required
for it to reach a growth for a good crop of hay.

TIME OF CUTTING ALFALFA FOR HAY.

The general rule as to the time of cutting alfalfa is to mow
it just as it is coming into bloom, or when about one-tenth in bloom.
Feeding experiments performed in several of the State experiment
stations show that the feeding value is higher when the alfalfa
is cut in early bloom. Experiments at the Kansas Experiment
Station show that with hay cut when only one-tenth in bloom, the
protein content, the muscle building part of the hay was 18.5 per
eent, while with that cut when one-half in bloom, the protein con-
tent had become 17.2 per cent, and when cut in full bloom contained
only 14.4 per cent of protein. At the Utah Experiment Station in
an experiment extended over a period of five years it was found
that hay cut when in full bloom produced 562 pounds of beef annu-
ally to the acre, while that cut in early bloom produced 706 pounds
per acre and the hay that was not cut until one-half the blooms had
fallen produced only 490 pounds of beef per acre per year. From
this experiment it will be seen how important it is from the feeding
standpoint to cut the alfalfa early enough. Another good indication
as to the time of cutting is the appearance of the basal shoots at
the base of the old stems. These are to form the next crop, and
the cutting should not be delayed after they are more than an
inch in length, as otherwise they will be clipped off and the next
erop greatly retarded. In case of dry weather, however, these
basal shoots do not form early and in no ease should the cutting
be delayed after the early bloom if, the best cutting of hay is
desired.

METHODS OF HARVESTING ALFALFA HAY.

Methods of harvesting vary a good deal in the different parts
of the United States. The underlying motive in each section, how-
ever, is to get the hay to the feed lot, the barn, or the stack with
the least possible amount of handling and exposure to the weather.
In the Western States, where the rainfall is relatively lght, the
problem of obtaining a prime quality of hay is much less difficult
than in the humid sections, where the rainy weather often makes
first quality of hay an impossibility. In the great alfalfa sections
it is usually the practice to start the mowers in the morning and
rake the hay in the windrows the following day. The hay is then
cocked or is stacked or baled direct from the windrows as soon as
the hay is sufficiently cured. The stacking can usually take place
in two days after the hay has been raked, but at least three days

28

must elapse before it is in condition to bale. The raking, however,
begins as soon as the leaves are wilted, or while the stems are
still green. It may be cocked as soon as the stems are what is
known as ‘‘half dry’’. It may be stacked when the moisture can
no longer be twisted out of the stems. It is not in condition for
baling, however, until the stems will break under heavy twisting
in the hand.

MACHINERY FOR MAKING ALFALFA HAY.

There has been an increasing tendency to introduce machinery
which will enable the alfalfa to be put up on as large a scale as
possible, and with the least amount of hand labor. Mowing ma-
chines cutting a swath six or eight feet in width are sometimes used
on the large alfalfa fields. The rakes may be the usual dump rakes
or they may be the side-delivery rakes, which leave the hay in
a continuous windrow parallel with the swath. In this latter
condition it is then in proper position to load on the rack with the
hayloader or to be gathered with sweep rakes, buck rakes or ‘‘go-
devils’’ as they are sometimes called. At the barn, hay forks or
stackers do away with the necessity of much of the hand pitching.
With them it is possible to lift 100 to 500 pounds of hay from the
load and drop it in the desired place on the stack or in the mow.
In this way with proper attention to curing in the field the loss of
the valuable and and nutritious leaves is reduced to a minimum.

IMPORTANCE OF LEAVES FOR HAY.

One of the worst dangers to be guarded against in the whole
process of alfalfa hay making is the loss of the leaves due to shatter-
ing. Although but two-fifths of the total weight of the alfalfa
plant is in the leaves, yet three-fifths of all the protein, or muscle-
making part of the alfalfa plant is contained in them. To put it in
another way, it requires 100 pounds of stems to contain as much
protein as is found in 45 pounds of the leaves. Analyses have
indicated that the leaves are even richer than bran for feeding pur-
poses. Much of the loss of the leaves, mostly occuring during har-
vesting operations, might be saved by proper attention to the curing
of the hay. If the hay be cocked or put into large windrows when
. the leaves are wilted but are not yet dry, the moisture in the stem
passing into the leaves will cause the hay to sweat, and in this way
the whole plant becomes gradually wilted and the leaves are ren-
dered pliable on ultimately drying, instead of being brittle as when
dried out completely in the sun. The author has harvested crops
of alfalfa where by giving careful attention to the curing process
the entire crop was removed without leaving any leaves behind on
the ground. On the other hand he has observed fields where the
loss from the shattering of the leaves was probably 25 per cent.

29

When one considers that the shattered leaves are really as valuable
or.even more valuable than good wheat bran, the importance of
saving them must appeal to any interested observer.

ALFALFA HAY GREATLY INJURED BY RAIN.

Unfortunately a good deal of the protein or nutritious portion
of the alfalfa hay can be dissolved by rain, just as is so much sugar.
As much as 40 per cent of the protein content of hay has been lost
by a two weeks’ exposure, aggregating a total of less than two
inches in experiments conducted by the Colorado Experiment
Station. The protein content of the hay was reduced from 18.71 per
cent to only 11.01 per cent. This shows clearly one of the handicaps
to the success of raising alfalfa hay in sections where heavy rainfall
is apt to be great during the alfalfa season. Even a slight rain
destroys the green color of the hay which is so characteristic of
the western-grown hay cured without having been wet. In this
respect the States having a light rainfall have a great advantage
over the States having an abundance of rain during the summer
months.

STACKING ALFALFA HAY.

The use of hay forks and stackers in almost all of the alfalfa
districts makes it possible to build very large stacks. The large size
stacks indicated in the illustration have a decided advantage over
the smaller stacks as a smaller percentage of the hay is exposed
to the weather, which usually injures the outside of the stack to
a depth of several inches.

Fig. 8.—Stacking alfalfa in the West. The new crop is stacked on
the top of the preceding crop by the use of large hay forks. (Westgate—
Farmers’ Bul., 339—U. S. Dept. Agriculture.)

30

Alfalfa hay does not shed water readily and if barn protection
or a shed roof cannot be provided it is commonly the practice to
cover the stack with canvas or with grass hay or millet to shed the
water. A load of green alfalfa placed upon top of the stack will,
on drying, form a fair protection from the rain, since the leaves
will lay folded one over the other somewhat after the fashion of
shingles on a roof. The fact that alfalfa suffers so severely from
being wet makes it highly important that care be taken to protect
the alfalfa stacks from any rain which may fall before the hay is
used. It is also desirable that the stack be built upon some sort
of a foundation, especially if water is apt to run under the stack,
as otherwise a considerable portion of the base of the stack may
be rendered practically worthless.

BALING ALFALFA HAY.

When alfalfa is fed on the farm where it is raised, there is
little need for baling, but where it has to be transported to any

Fig. 9.—Baling alfalfa hay. The sweep-rake; or “‘go-devil’”’, is used
to bring in the hay from the windrow. (Westgate—Farmers’ Bul. 339.
U. S. Dept. Agriculture).

31

considerable distance it is usually more economical to use the bales.
While the baling is quite often done from the stack it may be done
from the windrow, as shown in the accompanying illustration.

If baled from the windrow, great care must be taken to have the
hay at just the right stage of curing, so that it will not be so damp
as to heat and spoil or on the other hand be so dry as to shatter its
leaves. The ordinary bale weighs about 90 pounds, although
specially large bales are made for transportation to the mining
regions. Where the alfalfa is shipped by ocean, it is sometimes
doubly compressed, thus bringing them to about one-half the bulk
of the ordinary bale. These bales on being released usually turn
to powder, so great has been the pressure exerted upon them.

SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION OF ALFALFA HAY.

When alfalfa hay is stacked or put away in the barn too green
or wet it is apt to heat and may, in extreme cases become so heated
as to take fire and burn. When alfalfa is observed to be heating,
care should be taken to admit no air into the heating mass, which
will then be.unable to burn for lack of oxygen. If this heating
process is not carried too far it results in what is known as brown
hay. In this form it is well relished by stock, and apparently loses
none of its feeding value. Some persons make brown hay by
stacking alfalfa while it is still quite green. It is usually done at
some risk of over-heating, especially .at the hands of one unaccus-
tomed to the process.

ALFALFA FOR ENSILAGE.

The readiness with which alfalfa hay may be cured and handled
in the alfalfa sections makes its use as ensilage usually unnecessary.
In the humid sections, however, the first crop is apt to be injured
by rain unless it can be put up green in the form of ensilage. When
the first crop is utilized in this way it is usually put up alone. The
third cutting, however, is usually ready about the same time as is
corn, and the two may be put in together. If put in the silo alone, it
is usually too slimy to make an ideal stock feed. Considerable losses
are liable to occur around the edges of the silo and for this no
effective remedy has been found. It is usually necessary to use a
deep silo for alfalfa, to make possible sufficient pressure to prevent
spoiling. The Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station found that
ensilage made from the whole alfalfa showed a loss of 10.7 per cent,
while the chopped alfalfa was damaged to the extent of 7.3 per
Cent.

32

ALFALFA AS A SOILING CROP.

Alfalfa is an ideal plant for soiling purposes in that it may be
eut and carried to the stock continuously during the growing season.
The readiness with which it renews its growth after each cutting,
as well as its value as a feed, makes it especially valuable for this
purpose. Handled in this way, there is practically no danger from
bloat, and in this respect it is superior to pasturing. The field or
patch from which the daily cuttings of green feed are made, should
be sufficiently large to be cut over every four or five weeks, as under
such conditions the part of the field first cut will be ready for the
second cutting by the time the last of the field or patch has been
fed.

ALFALFA FOR PASTURE.

Alfalfa should not be pastured during the first or second season
of the growth, and even an old field should be grazed rather spar-
ingly, if a good stand is to be maintained continuously. The last
erop of alfalfa is often pastured off instead of being cut, as at this
season of the year the grazing pastures are apt to be very short.
When pastured in the autumn, care should be taken not to pasture
too closely, as otherwise the plants will go into the winter with
little growth upon the crowns, and in this way they will be unable
_ to stand the winter as well or be able to store up food material for
a vigorous early growth the next spring. Where the trampling
of the stock has been heavy, the packing of the ground can be
overcome by disking.

All kinds of live stock may be pastured upon alfalfa. Horses
and sheep graze more closely than do cattle and are consequently
somewhat more destructive to the stand. If hogs are pastured on
alfalfa they should have their noses ringed in order to prevent
them from rooting up the entire plants. An average field of alfalfa
will support continuously during the growing season about ten large
hogs to the acre and will enable them to make good gains, especially
if a small quantity of grain is fed in addition. It is usually the
custom to allow one pound of grain a day for every 100 pounds
live weight of the hogs.

The principal drawback of pasturing cattle and sheep on
alfalfa is their tendency to bloat. This danger can be reduced
to a minimum by not allowing the cattle to go on the alfalfa when
hungry or when the alfalfa is wet. When the animals become
bloated, several remedies are usually at hand for the trouble. A
large wooden bit an inch in diameter may be tied in the mouth or
a piece of rubber tubing may be passed through the mouth to the
first stomach. Should neither of these remedies be at hand or prove

33

effective, or if the animal is too far gone to make them practical,
the paunch may be punctured or tapped to allow the escape of the
gas. For this purpose a trochar, such as is used by veterinarians,
is the best, but if this is not at hand a small-bladed knife may be
used to make the incision about six inches in front of and slightly
below the left hip bone. A large straw or quill may be used to allow
the escape of the gas. If a quill is used, it is best to cut off the
bottom and cut a small hole at the upper portion of the quill where
the feather begins. The feather end should be left attached, as it
will prevent the quill from working into the hole and becoming
lost. If the straw is used a string should be tied around it or some
other protection taken to prevent its being worked down into the
hole by the breathing of the animal.

ALFALFA MEAL.

There have been a great number of mills established during the
past ten years for the grinding of alfalfa hay into meal. This meal
is nearly as valuable as bran for feeding purposes and is con-
venient for city trade for feeding to poultry or to horses where :t
is not convenient to feed the hay for any reason. In the alfalfa
sections where hay is readily procured, it is doubtless more econom-
ical to let the animals do the grinding of the hay for themselves,
as the feeding value of the alfalfa is not greatly increased by the »
grinding. The animals will make practically as good gains on alfalfa
hay as on the alfalfa meal.

The meal is often mixed with a cheap grade of molasses in order
to make it more nearly a balanced ration, as when fed alone it is
too rich in protein for the most economical results with most animals.
The cost of transporting alfalfa meal is considerably less than that
of the baled alfalfa, as the freight rates are less. Such grains as
corn and oats are sometimes crushed and added to the alfalfa meal.

FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA.

Alfalfa is one of the most highly nutritious and most valuable
of feeds for all classes of farm animals either in the form of green
alfalfa or as hay or alfalfa meal. The following tables taken in
part from a book called ‘‘Feeds and Feeding’’ by Professor W. A.
Henry indicates the results of experiments to determine the rela-
tive value of the different kinds of feeds.

34

Average percentage composition of alfalfa and other forage crops..

Z Number | |Nitrogen| Ether

Kind of forage. of analy- Water, Ash. |Protein. eee free |extract

ses. | | fiber. extract. (fat).

Per Cent Per Cent) Per Cent |Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent
Cowpea hay ..... 23 1.8 | 2.7 4.8 TAs 12: 1.0
Fresh alfalfa ....... 480 (70:8 4). 2.1 AAP NSA =|) E855 ia
Fresh clover ....... 21 Sab 164 14.3 | 25.0 | 42.7 2.2
Aifaifa hay <.s... 5 15.3 | 6.2 12.3 24.8 38.1 3.3
CTOVET NaAVine ie chatcie aie GE I) 5.9 29.0 45.0 2.5
Mimothy, hay es. o5- SieeelONte eb 16.6 | 20.1 YO) NOP}

*In part from Henry’s “Feeds and Feeding,’ Appendix.

Average perceutage of digestibility of alfalfa and other forage crops.

] (Experiments with ruminants.)

Number Crude |Nitrogen| Ether

Kind of forage. of experi |Protein. free exaract

ments. fiber extract | (fat).
: ry Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Ne Per Cox:
Breslau ta Liars tse.) hai. cl's) syste) se) « 2 81 45 76 52
GES CLOVER. ccpc.cus hashes rs or ese ce 2 67 53 78 . 65
FARADAY: (eieisth siecauersve we svcyers 1 28 73 43 66 54
GTOMER NB Sisiss sisteiers silos ss ais s 46 55 49 69 53
BTM OTN § WY; oste-vle wis sicye os sis eis 26 48 52 63 57
COWPEA NAY 2 ccc s see os ees 2 65 43 tal 50

Digestible nutrients in

alfalfa and other forage crops.

Fresh alfalfa
Fresh clover

Alfalfa hay
Clover hay

Timothy hay
Cowpea hay
Wheat bran
Shelled corn

Digestible nutrients in 100
Dry mat- pounds
Kind of forage. ter in 100 |
pounds. . |Carbohy-| Ether
Protein.
| drates. |extract
Pounds. |Pounds. |Pounds. Pounds
SMe ors tone reve Sede s¥sheceaetanerouciers 28.2 3.9 1257 0.5
Ricyiar chen s eo) Wake rosettes cl arohetisneue iene 29.2 2.9 14.8 0.7
Buccra cal ever cis ep alersere ofaus lene diel sya 91.6 11.0 39.6 1.2
A 8 Ra a eo Ree nee Saree 84.7 6.8 35.8 aay
AS CRE tice sao OGL Oe aioe 86.8 2.8 43.4 1.4
PENS Teute keewictetenone, aie enol ehsnclkon 89.3 10.8 38.6 eal
Weis ats ths ane woie ape chalsy ays Suet dele 88.1 12.2 39.2 2.7
pase A ahin's Stoic papateke use alacecalete 89.1 7.9 66.7 4.3

35

In order to make the above figures appear more intelligible, the
actual value in dollars and cents per ton has been figured out as
given below. The price of protein, carbohydrates and fats vary
considerably from season to season and in different localities. The
values per hundred pounds assigned in the present calculation are:
fats, $1.12; starches, $0.64; protein, $6.74. It will be noted that the
feeding value of alfalfa hay is shghtly more than double that of
timothy, although in many places timothy hay sells for more than
does the alfalfa hay, since it is more of a favorite with livery stable
proprietors.

Actual feeding value of different feeds based on amount of digestible nutrients

Value Value

FEED per ton FEED per ton
Ryreshwaltalitay swe leekersiorsuerere $ 7.00 Timothy hiaivi sels ae sels enone $ 9.80
Reresh- ClOVeTN ies osewouensevemasyancn 5.96 COWPEA LNaAYs weletels cts clcievetenene 19.76
JMG Mb Socio Soca bine Oro OdS 20.16 AWAKE ey sal ogee: rele ss menos biG GOI odo 6 22.80
(CNOA ING eo ogo ouGoGoRoS 14.12 Shelled (Gorm! Gere croc heloveeieiees 20.16

ALFALFA FOR SHEEP.

Alfalfa is an ideal hay for sheep, as it is fine and the sheep can
readily eat both the leaves and stems. There is some loss from bloat
if the sheep are pastured on alfalfa fields. It is often the practice
in the mountainous regions of the West to graze the sheep on the
wild grasses in the mountains during the summer and then drive
them to the protected valleys during the winters, where they are
fed on alfalfa hay. The Wing Brothers, of Mechanicsburg, Ohio,
demonstrated the worth of alfalfa hay for lambs when they showed
that spring lambs cost them $6 per hundred pounds when alfalfa
was not used in the ration, as compared. with $2.50 per hundred
pounds when alfalfa formed a large part of their feed. It is usually
customary to cut alfalfa hay for sheep just as it commences to
bloom instead of when one tenth in bloom, as is usual for dairy
eattle, or when from one-half to one-third in bloom, as for horses.

ALFALFA FOR BEEF CATTLE.

’

Alfalfa forms the best of roughage for fattening cattle, as it is
quite a concentrated feed and the animals are able to consume
sufficient quantities to make large and rapid gains. Owing to its
bone and muscle building power it is also valuable to feed young
growing stock before the fattening period begins.

36

The Utah Experiment Station showed in an experiment covering
five years that much more beef can be obtained per acre if the hay
is cut in early bloom. They were able to average 490 pounds of
beef per acre where the hay was not cut until one-half the blooms
had fallen, and they made 562 pounds of beef annually per acre
when the alfalfa was cut in full bloom. By cutting it in early bloom
they were able to average 706 pounds of beef per acre each year.
In other words there was an increase of 25 per cent in the beef
produced per acre in favor of the alfalfa cut in early bloom, as
compared with that cut in full bloom. At the Nebraska Ex-
periment Station where cattle were fed a full ration of corn
and alfalfa they made 2.41 pounds gain per day. When they
fed on corn with prairie hay they made only 1.48. This differ-
ence is usually more than the difference between success and failure
in feeding a yard of fattening cattle. One large feeder in Nebraska
states that he is able to secure alfalfa hay at $5 a ton for his steers
and that at this price he could not afford to feed timothy or prairie
hay even though it were delivered free to him.

ALFALFA FOR DAIRY CATTLE.

In order to produce the best flow of milk, dairy cows require
feeds very high in protein. This can be supplied by feeding non-
leguminous roughage as corn-fodder and a grain ration of such
concentrates as bran and corn meal. These concentrated feeds,
however, are expensive, and can usually be replaced by a feed lke
alfalfa, especially in the alfalfa growing districts. The Tennessee
Experiment Station showed that it was possible to replace each
pound of wheat bran in a cow’s ration by feeding her 1144 pounds
of alfalfa. The tests showed that with alfalfa at $10 a ton and wheat
bran at $20 the saving effected by substituting the alfalfa for the
wheat bran was $2.80 for every 100 pounds of butter and nearly
20 cents for every 100 pounds of milk. The saving is often greater
than this in sections where alfalfa hay can be easily raised and
where concentrated feeds are more expensive.

é

ALFALFA FOR HOGS.

Alfalfa is fed to hogs usually in the green state, either as pas-
ture or as a soiling crop. It has been found, however, that hogs
ean be brought through the winter when fed nothing but alfalfa
hay, and will come through in good farrowing condition. Wherever
possible brood sows should be fed alfalfa either as hay or in the
green state during the latter portion of their period of. gestation.
There appears to be no other crop which will give such good results
in making bone and muscle in both the sows and the pigs.

37

The Kansas Experiment Station showed in an experiment that
an acre of alfalfa produced 776 pounds of pork during a season
when the pigs were pastured on the same. These figures compare
favorably with the 706 pounds of beef which the Utah Experiment
Station secured by feeding hay cut in early bloom for fattening
steers. Although the number of hogs fed alfalfa on any one farm
is not usually large, yet the practice is so common in most of the
alfalfa sections that the aggregate use of alfalfa for hogs is very
large and should be much more universal than is even now the ease.

ALFALFA FOR HORSES.

Alfalfa may be fed to horses either green or as hay. When
necessary, horses have shown themselves able to do heavy work
throughout the summer with nothing but green alfalfa. Liverymen
are generally opposed to the use of alfalfa for their horses, owing
to its laxative effect. It has often been stated that the kidneys are
unduly stimulated by alfalfa, but experiments which have been tried,
do not seem to bear out this statement. There are many cases on
record where alfalfa hay and green alfalfa have formed a large
part of the work horse’s feed for years without there being a notice-
able injurious effect. In addition to being a good feed for working
animals it is very good for young growing stock, especially horses.
Care must be taken, however, to avoid feeding | too much hay to
colts, as coarseness of bone may be developed. The accompanying
illustration shows a portable feeding rack, which is convenient for —
feeding alfalfa either green or as hay to horses or cattle which
are allowed to run loose in a yard.

Fig. 10.—A portable alfalfa feed rack which avoids the necessity of
unloading the hay in the feed yard. This device is also applicable to
other kinds of hay. (Westgate—Farmers’ Bul., 339—U. S. Dept. Agri-
culture.

38

ALFALFA FOR POULTRY.

Alfalfa is a good feed for all kinds of poultry. If the chickens
and turkeys are given the range of an alfalfa field during the
summer they will thrive by eating both the alfalfa and insect
enemies found in the alfalfa field. The plants may also be cut and

fed green. In the winter alfalfa may be fed as meal in a warm mash

mixture, with an excellent effect in increasing the production of
eggs.

ALFALFA FOR BEES.

The development of the honey-producing industry throughout
the West has been made almost entirely in the sections where
alfalfa culture has been extended. The heaviest yields of honey
are secured in sections where there is an abundance of alfalfa.
Honey produced from alfalfa fields is of very good quality. The
fact that an alfalfa field will come in bloom several times during
the season makes it possible for the bees to gather successive crops
of honey during the year.

ALFALFA IN MIXTURES FOR PASTURE.

Although alfalfa is generally grown alone, there are exceptions
to the general practice that indicate that its use in mixtures may
be. extended. Alfalfa fed or pastured alone is apt to be a richer
feed that is necessary for a continuous diet for any kind of stock.
For this reason it may well be used in connection with some of the
tame grasses. The tendency of a pure stand of alfalfa to produce
bloat when sheep or cattle are pastured upon it seems to be over-
come if the stock are at the same time allowed access to the ordinary
tame grasses, such as timothy, brome grass, red-top or orchard grass. .
An adjoining field of tame grass, upon which the cattle can feed upon
being turned out at first, will answer this purpose, but it is usually
best to have the alfalfa in a mixture with one or more of the staple
tame grasses which are known to succeed in the section in question.

A seeding of one-half alfalfa is to be recommended. While in the
_ East, orchard grass and meadow fescue may be used, it is usually

advisable to use brome grass in most of the alfalfa producing
sections of the Great Plains. This grass spreads by underground

- rootstocks and thus has a tendency to crowd out the alfalfa,

q

7

especially when pastured without being cut for hay.

39

WINTER GRAIN IN ALFALFA FIELDS.

In the Southwest the occurrence of much of the rainfall during
the winter months, together with the mild winters, makes it quite
possible to seed wheat or barley in a stand of alfalfa after the last
cutting and harvest it at the proper stage for hay the next spring
along with the first cutting of alfalfa. The grain crop has an addi-
tional advantage in that it prevents the growth of troublesome
winter seeds, which would otherwise detract from the value of the
mixed hay the following spring. As a usual thing it is more difficult
to obtain the carbonaceous or starchy foods in the Southwest than
it is to obtain the feed high in protein, for this reason grain hay
will often sell higher than alfalfa hay. The seeding of the
grain in the alfalfa field has the further advantage of giving a
mixed crop of alfalfa and grain hay, which often sells for more
than the pure alfalfa. The method is especially recommended
when for any reason the stand of alfalfa has become thin. This
condition may be brought about by field mice, gophers or other
enemies. The question as to how much grain should be seeded and
disked in, depends on the thickness of the stand of alfalfa. While
this practice is not at all general, yet the marked success which
it has met in the sections where tried, indicate that it might well
be extended with profit to other sections where the conditions are
similar.

EFFECT OF ALFALFA ON THE LAND.

Alfalfa is able to increase the fertility of the land in the same
way as are the clovers and other leguminous crops. In this way
they are able to increase the yields of the succeeding crops. The
roots by means of the bacteria which live upon them add nitrogen
directly to the soil and are also efficient because of their deep-
feeding habit, which allows them to bring up other mineral fer-
tilizers from the lower layers of the soil and thus render them
available to the shallow-rooted crops which follow.

The Wyoming Experiment Station showed that on irrigated
land the effect of alfalfa was to increase the value per acre of the
succeeding crops as follows: Wheat, $8 to $12 per acre; oats, $16
per acre, and potatoes, $16 per acre. These increased gains were
made without any additional cost in fertilizmg the land, as the
alfalfa had been cut regularly for hay for five years preceding. Jn
Colorado and Nebraska the yields of corn are sometimes nearly
doubled when immediately preceded by alfalfa. One 40-acre field
just west of Alma, Nebraska, averaged 992-5 bushels per aere,
while a measured acre in the field produced 114 bushels. This was
immediately following alfalfa. The nearest field that had not been
in alfalfa produced corn that season at the rate of 60 bushels per
acre.

40

In Colorado the increase in the yield of wheat and truck crops
is very marked when the land has been in alfalfa for a few years. _

The value of a successful alfalfa field is so great that there is
always the temptation to keep on mowing it as long as paying crops
are produced. The difficulty of getting rid of a stand of alfalfa as
well as the slight uncertainty of a satisfactory new stand works
against the use of alfalfa in ordinary rotations of the farm. In
the West the alfalfa field does not reach full maturity until the
second or third year and except in certain regions, it is not cus-
tomary to plow up the alfalfa until it has been in at least five years.
In the humid sections, as in the East, the rotation period is shorter
owing to the tendency of alfalfa to run out in from three to five
years. With the gradual exhaustion of soil fertility in the West,
however, alfalfa must come to be recognized as possessing great
importance in the plan of rotations on the ordinary farm. Even
at the present time a compound rotation is being recommended.
This calls for allowing the alfalfa to remain in for from five to
seven years and then producing successively a number of non-le-
guminous crops, repeating certain crops if desired, for a series of
years, after which alfalfa is again seeded down.

ALFALFA IN SHORT ROTATIONS.

The cost of establishing an alfalfa field makes it usually of
doubtful economy to plow under the alfalfa at the end of the first
or second year unless with the object of increasing the productivity
of the land for some very profitable crop. In eastern Colorado the
soils are low in nitrates and phosphates and as a consequence it
is usually impossible to grow more than two successive crops of
sugar beets, potatoes or cantaloupes on the same land. At the end
of the second year in truck crops the land is put in wheat, to be
followed by alfalfa, seeded with oats. The alfalfa makes a moderate
growth the first season and at the end of the second season is turned
under in preparation of another series of truck crops. In this
section alfalfa is sometimes, but not usually allowed to stand for
more than two years.

GETTING RID OF A STAND OF ALFALFA.

To one unaccustomed to plowing under a stand of alfalfa, the
problem of getting the land in shape for the succeeding crop is
apt to present many difficulties. In irrigated sections the land can
be flooded for two or three days during the growing period, and in
this way the plants will be killed. The farmers of Eastern Colo-
rado have practiced the growing of alfalfa in short rotations with
their truck crops to such an extent that the difficulties of plowing

41

under an alfalfa field have been materially reduced. The usual
method is to plow shallow in the fall, preferably with a riding plow,
drawn by at least three steady horses. The plows are sometimes
provided with a knife or cutting attachment on the land side of
the plow to cut the roots near the outer edge of the next furrow.
The fall plowing followed by harrowing, exposes the crowns and a
small portion of the roots, to the weather. The following spring
the land is plowed quite deep. The shallow plowing of the fall
before prevents there being a great length of tap root in which
reserve material can be stored and as a result the deep plowing
covers them so deeply that they have not the strength to reach the
surface. Deep plowing also prevents the cultivator teeth from
eatching on the alfalfa roots when cultivating the succeeding crop.
In other sections throughout the west and elsewhere it is sometimes
the practice to pasture very heavily the fall before plowing. This
greatly reduces the vitality of the plants and exhausts the roots
of their reserve material, so that it is comparatively easy to get
rid of them by plowing. It is always essential to have the plow
share very sharp and it is recommended that the share be so set
as to be able to cut the roots without sliding off and away from
them as is apt to be the case if the share is set sloping. Prof.
P. K. Blinn, of the Colorado Experiment Station recommends certain
modifications of the ordinary breaking or sod plow. The essential
points to consider are: a long, strong beam to steady the plow; a long
landside to resist the great cutting strain. It is often necessary to
reinforce the beam with heavy iron to withstand the draft. The
plow should be adjusted to cut a narrow furrow and _ the extra long
share should lap a part of the last furrow to prevent the roots near
the heel from slipping around. The next essential is a very sharp
share, drawn thin and tempered so that it will not be brittle. A
sharp share should be replaced each day and frequent filings during
the day are necessary to maintain a keen cutting edge. The share
should be long, heavy and well pointed, with a wide wing six or-
eight inches at the heel. The outside two inches of ~the share
should be rolled so as to run flat and cut some distance ahead of
the ‘‘lift’’ and thus avoid a dragging cut.

Fig. 11.—Plow with an attachment for cutting the alfalfa roots at
the outer edge of the succeeding furrow. (Westgate—Farmers’ Bul., 339,
U. S. Dept. Agriculture.)

42

WEEDS IN ALFALFA FIELDS.

Alfalfa fields have been known to exist uninjured for thirty
years or more where every condition was favorable; however, the
appearance of enemies of one kind and another usually reduce the
length of the life of an alfalfa field to seven years or less. Weeds
present the most apparent drawback to the production of alfalfa,
but these usually appear after some injury has been done to the
stand. These are especially troublesome in those sections where
there is considerable rainfall. The winter-growing weeds prove
quite obnoxious in the southwest quarter of the United States, since
_ they are able to make their growth while the alfalfa is dormant and
unable to crowd them out as it is in the warm growing months of
the summer. Foxtail grass, Russian thistle and tumble weeds are
especially bad in the Great Plains area, while the wild barleys are
perhaps the worst of all weeds in the southwestern quarter of the
United States. These wild barleys make their growth during the
- winter and early spring and mature a short time previous to the
‘first cutting of alfalfa. In this way the hardened beards frequently
ruin the first crop of hay. This is sometimes remedied by burning
the first crop to destroy the grass seed. Another method is to cut
the first crop very early, while the wild barley is still unmatured.
This mixture of alfalfa and wild barley hay can be fed on the farm.
Disking is usually the most effective remedy for weeds. Alfalfa is
generally benefitted by the operation while the weeds are greatly
injured owing to their branch root system, while the alfalfa pos-
sesses a vertical tap root, which is not usually injured by the disks.
Dodder is one of the worst weeds so far as alfalfa is concerned.
The dodder seeds germinate in the ground and the young plants
soon attach themselves to the alfalfa stems. As soon as the thread-
like stem is firmly attached to the plant its connection with the
ground withers and dies away. After this the dodder plant lives
entirely on the alfalfa stems, spreading from plant to plant by
means of its long, yellow, tendril-like branches. The young plants
are illustrated in the accompanying figure. Dodder is very difficult
_ to destroy when once established and as a consequence great care
should be taken to prevent the sowing of alfalfa seed with dodder
in it or of thrashing seed from plots infested with this plant.
Grazing close with sheep has sometimes proven effective in holding
the dodder in check. If there are only a few patches of dodder
in the field it is often practicable to cut the alfalfa plants very low
as with a hoe and remove them from the field. Gasoline torches
have also been used to burn out these patches, but this is quite
an expensive method. If a stand of alfalfa is very badly infected
with dodder it may be necessary to plow up the alfalfa before the
dodder goes to seed. The land should then be kept in cultivated
crops for two or three years. The seed of two of the different
dodders is illustrated in the eut on page 7.

43

FIG. 12.—Young alfalfa plants attacked by dodder. As soon as the
dedder thread fastens itself to the alfalfa the stalk attaching it to the
ground withers and dies. (Westgate—Farmers’ Bul. 339—U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture. )

ANIMAL PESTS IN ALFALFA FIELDS.

The gophers, ground squirrels, prairie dogs and mice are the
worst animal pests with which the alfalfa plants must contend.
These are troublesome, particularly in the western half of the
United States, where they injure both the alfalfa stems and roots
by eating and gnawing. The mounds of the gophers are troublesome
when the field is mowed. Poisoning with some form of strychnine
is usually the most effective remedy, although they may be held in
check by traps and eats.

44

INSECT ENEMIES IN THE ALFALFA FIELDS.

Grasshoppers are among the worst of the insect enemies which
trouble alfalfa. These are worse in the arid and semi-arid sections
of the West, where the alfalfa fields are usually the only succulent
green growth for miles. The grasshoppers from extended areas
are thus led to congregate upon the relatively small fields of alfalfa.
A flock of turkeys is usually effective in holding the grasshoppers
in check, but when they become especially numerous the device
known as a ‘‘hopperdozer’’ is to be recommended. This consists
of a sheet-iron device on wheels, which is run over a field and catches
the grasshoppers in the open oil-filled pan placed at the rear of the
bottom piece of sheet iron and at the bottom of the vertical surface
at the back of the device. Disking the field in late winter also tends
to hold the grasshoppers in check, as this exposes the young hoppers
to the early spring frosts and also to the attacks of birds which are
usually hungry at this season of the year. This disking is also
quite effective against the alfalfa webworm and any other insects
which may pass the winter in the alfalfa field.

Blister beetles and the army worm also prove troublesome at
times when they appear in considerable numbers. The general
practice is to cut the alfalfa immediately on the appearance of any
such pests, when they will be forced to migrate or starve. There
is a little black bee or wasp-like insect, which lays its eggs in the
young alfalfa seeds. The insect then develops inside the seed just
as the grain weevil develops in the kernels of grain. On careful
examination the hole in the pod made by the female insect to lay
its egg may be seen where this insect is proving troublesome. The
brood of newly-developed insects appear after the seed is harvested
and may be seen crawling over the top of the seed, having left the
hollow seed behind them. This insect has been observed in nearly
all the alfalfa seed producing sections of this country and it is
probable that many of the failures to produce a satisfactory seed
crop may be laid up against this inconspicuous, but exceedingly
destructive enemy. This insect is known as the clover and alfalfa
seed chaleis fly.

DISEASES OF THE ALFALFA PLANT.

There are two types of diseases which affect alfalfa, namely,
those which exist on roots and those which attack the stems and
leaves. In Texas, the root rot is especially destructive and has been
observed to prove troublesome as far west as Arizona. This disease
appears to be similar or identical with the cotton root rot and does
much to prevent the successful production of alfalfa over a consider-
able portion of eastern and southern Texas. This disease spreads
in widening circles in various places over the field. In this way

45

the almost complete destruction of the stand is gradually brought
about as the disease progresses. No practical remedy has thus
far been obtained and the land so affected must be kept out of
alfalfa or cotton for several years. Of the diseases which attack the
leaves and stems, the leaf-spot disease is the most important. This
disease appears as minute black spots on the matured alfalfa leaves.
The leaf rust somewhat resembles the leaf spots except that the
spots are reddish in color and usually give a reddish powder when
rubbed. The most effective remedy against these alfalfa leaf
diseases is to mow the field when they begin to prove destructive.
This mowing destroys most of the spores or little seed-like bodies,
by which the disease is spread and at the same time enables the
plant to put out a vigorous second growth, which quite often is
able to largely overcome the next attack of the disease.

SUMMARY.

Although alfalfa is such an ancient forage crop in the world
there is still much to be learned regarding its requirements. It
has been raised in the West for two generations and yet it may be
said that the seed production industry is still in its infancy. By a
proper study of the conditions affecting the yield of the alfalfa
seed crop the yield may be greatly increased in most of the Western
sections, which will always enjoy a monopoly of the seed-producing
business in this country. The rapid extension of alfalfa to sections
of the United States where it is impossible to produce seed, promises
to maintain the price of the seed at a high level for years to come.
Other things being equal, that seed will be the most successful,
which is free from weed seeds and for this reason special precautions
should be taken to maintain the quality of seed, especially in sections
that wish to become recognized centers for the production of first-
class alfalfa seed.

Alfalfa is probably the oldest forage crop in existence and yet
is a comparatively new crop in many sections of this country. It
is adapted to a wide range of soils, but under couditions not per-
fectly suited to its growth it demands careful attention to the
details of its management. Its long tap root enables it to bring
up plant food from the deeper layers of soil which are out of reach
of shallow-rooted crops. In this way and also by reason of the
nodules on its roots it is able to add to the fertility of the surface
layers of the soil. This materially increases the yields of any grain
or truck crops which may follow. Besides being of great value
as a soil improver it produces several cuttings each season of the
most nutritious hay which is relished by all classes of live stock.
It increases the flow of milk in the dairy herd, as well as serving
to maintain the egg production of the farmer’s flock of hens. It
ean also be utilized to good advantage as a feed for hogs, either
green or dry, as hay. It thus not only works for nothing, but has

46

justly been said to pay for the privilege by increasing the fertility
of the land upon which it grows.
\

The heavy yields and the readiness with which it may be grown
in the regular alfalfa sections have led to somewhat wasteful prac-
tices which are being corrected as the value of the hay becomes
recognized. The importance of harvesting the hay so as to retain
the leaves on the stems is especially important as the leaves are
worth twice as much for feed as the stems. More care might also
be taken to prevent damage by exposure to the elements after
being stacked. Those unacquainted with the alfalfa as a hay and
pasture plant have difficulty in realizing the value of this crop
to American agriculture, especially in the West, where other hay
and forage is scarce, especially in winter. By its use whole valleys
have been converted into homes for worthy people who could not
otherwise have established homes in those sections not adapted to
the crops commonly grown in the Eastern States. In passing
through the arid sections of the country the alfalfa fields will often
be the only green stretches visible in a journey of hundreds of miles.
The coming census will doubtless show how rapid has been the
extension of the area of successful alfalfa culture in the United
States. The greatest percentage of increase will probably be in
some of the Hastern States where the acreage is small, but the
greatest actual increase in acreage will presumably be in those
Western States which have recently had large valleys brought
under irrigation and seeded largely to alfalfa.

In the preceding pages the statements have been conservative
rather than otherwise. » Many of the remarks hight be more opti-
mistic. The alfalfa is really a very wonderful plant and too much
ean hardly be said in its favor. It merits the most careful attention
and consideration from all parties who have land suspected of being
adapted to this crip. The repeated cuttings which may be secured
during a single season place this crop in a class by itself. Perhaps
no other crop requires such a variety of different treatments,
depending upon the special locality in which it is grown, as does
alfalfa. The lack of a complete understanding of all essentials
for its successful growth is all that keeps it from being grown upon
a much more extensive scale than is at present the case.

There are many sections of the United States where alfalfa is
a staple crop and in many other sections it should become a much
more staple crop than it is at present. In both classes of sections
there is much which has to be learned in regard to the best methods
of handling the crop. In the sections where it is a staple crop the
points to be learned are the best methods of curing the hay, how
to preserve the life of the stand and under what conditions the
best seed crops may be secured. In sections where alfalfa is not
yet a common crop and where seed is produced with difficulty, the
main points to be learned are the essentials to the production of a
satisfactory stand. These call for more or less experimenting in
the preparation of the ground, time, rate and manner of seeding.
In such sections, some special treatment of the stand is usually

47

necessary during succeeding years in order to enable it to maintain
its vitality. The experiment may be on a small scale, but should
always have a check plot which is given the ordinary treatment.
This will serve as a definite basis of comparison. The experiment
giving the best results can be applied to an increased acreage the
succeeding seasons. In this way the experience which would other-
wise require a number of seasons to procure can be obtained at
the end of the first year. For this reason it would be a valuable
addition to American agriculture if each farmer should undertake a
small experiment even though it were to determine the relative
merits of two kinds of treatment during a single year. With a
number of such experiments under way in a community the com-
bined results would not only be of value to those conducting them,
but would also prove of great benefit to other interested parties in
the adjoining localities.

48

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