~MARYLAND » GEOLOGICAL SURVEY viv ALLEGANY COUNTY BALTIMORE THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS 1900 = roa ee Cc] ‘ABO! Presented to the LIBRARIES of the UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO by The Association of Geoscientists for International Development (Canada) Meo LAND) GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ALLEGANY COUNTY FEB 16 2005 ersiry op ow MARYLAND PPeOro@m@alL SURVEY ALLEGANY (COUNTY BALTIMORE THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS 1900 g Baltimore s The Friedenwafd Company BALTIMORE, MD., U.S. 4.~ COMMISSION JOHN WALTER SMITH, . : . : , PrestDENT. GOVERNOR OF MARYLAND. JOSHUA W. HERING, COMPTROLLER OF MARYLAND. DANIEL C. GILMAN, . , : : Executive Orrrcer. PRESIDENT OF THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY. Rk. W. SILVESTER, . : : : : : SECRETARY. PRESIDENT OF THE MARYLAND AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. SCIENTIFIC STAFF Wm. Buttock Ciark, . : ; ; : Srare GEooaist. SUPERINTENDENT OF THE SURVEY. Epwarp B. Maruews, . , , Assistant SrarE GEoLoaist. Cuartes S. Prosser, Carer or Diviston or APPALACHIAN GEOLOGY. L. .A. Bavzr, 3 Curer oF Drviston or TerrestrraAt MaGNetisM. C. C. O’Harra : : : F . Assistant GEOLOGIST. R. B. Rowe, ; ; . , 3 Assistant GEOLOGIST. Also with the cooperation of several members of the scientific bureaus of the National Government. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/alleganycount0Omary LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL To His Excellency Jonny Watrer Smrru, Governor of Maryland and President of the Geological Survey Commission. Sir:—I have the honor to present herewith a report on The Physi- eal Features of Allegany County. The Volume constitutes the first of a series of reports on county resources, and is accompanied by an Atlas with large scale topographical and geological maps. The infor- mation brought forward in these publications is of both economic and educational significance and I believe will prove of interest and value both to fhose who are residents of the county and those from a distance who may be considering sites for homes or for the investment of capital therein. I am, Very respectfully, Wm. Buttock Crarxk, State Geologist. JoHNs Hopkins UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, November, 1900. SEAT RIESN IRA Gy Eo) ater aercmere cetesenmreteeiorets rt ammeter miisea ais are arcs (ost at Natntelonet@rent gt sRefa Maren beara ndiaG cls) s eho PRIN AS ECe) ED UL rN eur ctirai eens eyeneretetetinte mestelivials NGI GIANT ae ee ooSn ae adn on COS ben SOMERS pebO Ose hoon bce oouraat The Topography of the Ridge District... ... 2.0... 0-22 -. eee eee eee The Drainage of the Ridge District... 2... cee ee ee cee meee ENG HEBUCENTG OL TNE BGP OVLIBUMIC Us cre sis cs. aie.cls su cteieta%el simp cfelemeye rele eunardimiin Stream Adjustments in the Ridge District .........-....-+-....000. SEO G kt APE MELE DOR, «ol ar ctagenete eraeetite tat fein ae alo 6 Slee Ney a miele mie} d even, ole Sele lala aa aw Stages in the Topographic History ..........--..-- 2 es sees eee ene MHOIELESENE NTA aa sinialelelwiinteleie alereloiete «lel iaswie(ajaie e's iajeiei Venn ayels/staye dietsiaferalens The Werrace-LOLMING SLAG Cs sires mayan isco cceieve =o oleic ccnlele ie plPinnratni)oiin eieim ies The Shenandoah Plain Stage. ..-. 0... c cece ee eee ener etme ee teens The Schooley Plain Stage . 0... cc ewe see eee cee cterolel eee niin ttn oo The Paleozoic Period and the Appalachian Revolution .................. THE GEOLOGY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. By Creopnas C. O’'Harra... PRU EDISTO ciel ove, 5) ohio al esatprntats (ele sivlel= lesalinye fas cl's/s\e oie e.eree sisra\e w\laleln:'saefointslale aisle ® GEOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC RELATIONS... .......00- 22 ce ees eye ne cee nore TS eop a Coy WOMAN AON) CORES Sc Ses CAO on Go DOCU EEE IOtrae Oo FOP Tio coor ESSE GICAL Neh cic) w alcpal nilatudereleveltie wivksretelnis\s 0's att iae/o\e\w » tock an ‘s eisyatnierm a emcnemage SUIRAMIGRAPHY AND “AREA DISTRIBUTION: 6 <.c00c 0c ve diem s eheae tale mie ener «lee UR Rres Poo Liter aru ey a7u,3i0) ae atneeh nape rars: © GR cases noe.0'd a wie a alin aralecg Cette Ratitrctcter teeta bs tae DG ye LAL MOON MOLOM een ete es o.o nie opel eles oe wins Sei Mlelsateennetaigyereanel tatwre ore PNG) MM ACALONA MN OLITADLOM co aro: 5/0 ss ose: 0 rq) eaher diay a, tener e folevanetetibel im terey wltehertel eet Wier AS UA GONL OOP GIAELONG cine ve w (0.0 o:-/ weave a, vhelele rehire weore RMN URE tae cath barat 2 TRG MINER ALAM OTM AMO ete an5i 2-0 ax Qe eee teens ae 109 The’ Pocono FOrmmMawOn bisa eR emit on 6 109 The Greenbrier Formation |..2.5. 2) n=-lsawacae hs => see's ny a Mipitemictees 110 The Marcel Chunk Formation... dvds wd = 2.5 cee. oon ne ~ 5.5 ocean ea ep ae eee 160 The Lower Carboniferous; Pernod) 7s neces <0~ ~awin.c,- a's = bisitioll tein eie stn ree aes 162 The Coal Measures Period 2: (once scc-s sea = == 2sabeiena- mse eaee ener 162 Subsequent History.-\..5- 2 o .s 6s oe ors eee 165 GORGES Oise eG ain we Sw cpe esate Sala aten Eee eat = Wim GIO sia eneie Grats te» eee 166 Description.of the Coal Basinw.o<...kines wees « seo. o am eke pee ore rs 166 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY HISEORVANOL AUS: DEVELO DIMEN Gs, .28 asia s ~ cuca are where eialers nic \elesal ic t'sa’e sate) cis paveters NSE BES SOMO Tat LOO MMB ASN. eet eretetiate aia ger see teciasels\-Unxarel sinless aiciesere« TIE CREIL GING po Bong pans He beem one CbemoU oe tS ah oidlonatene cao thoy ra een TIPO TEENY (CORI 56 d6cbensonubaooncie alot Sb conn oSSoO Rm apenodos ges AEPAlLee nou pe Coal acer ces ee ae Namen ee alnead vices nid Anahi tere WG COMET GH AGGIES: 5 BL eceaae Scop Ac CPE On Gt de OCHO En BBE BORAnIan eae ho. ANU) IGS OEP TES (Cl EES 3 od scold ae HE aU oe lads Oem | HO TEACY epee Pain aes aac etausintaotees heist aigieterett eee nue Ura Saabslsroksiais bs asc grave otaleneveh sane el stalls MU SOET Git p sa g0e aoe be atsOn aac tr Se Se Coc OOO AOR OQGOme ero aaerame corse MSIE ha AGS Ris cence Se ACO ORE ROR aon Gb CUNO Ae nUICOgeS Tce Neneh eer emer STITH (CHER Oe oy Sia) no oct ae Senor AD Maio Ope amas ein ona besa IVER HIO ENE casgg aOUnU CSA EA DAL Rea O0 30 00. so POU COMA aed ome IME SAND GCE MENT ROD U OMS asc saidlavecle:Sectte loys ole eyelets wl aiasersieuec Dai siciokes tiene ERRI MIRED Grim SOON USS rate vere ct cisrese oer eoeta ven seat aecyote Vat ole aieriov alto ne raj acs cans fare oy oie, an eaavage Sor, FORMATIONS ........ The Juniata LU SPER UNS wed Gouna MEROUSSE Gace tine GTash Dot mosh moon ehp.oF 0 EGU SUIDIES dae plben th CRORE ASGIneGise pa widiou DAE Got ab opoaporatecupe. Boog MberMelderberts: cc as cis Ser ss SPSS SA beeen. ton Saale aha P eR era eo ANTE OS ONO N ABBR C SOE OU DEED LOCI Raa OOH OO SO DORENT C CObm OR: Ne Seren oe te SMOKE OTMME VI OMNIM ES! see ec) = ccc cynic farsiacaleiewwiatey Weserinesuel soe mn hae Maceercrcicen MING P RA TATIS UNG Coe Rerctecraverake oi oise, ecevope ue raichsrovoile eared oteneas rameter ere ee cateua aianere MGR OCR ET ce ota rsts ge eel anc hese, a a a care wie's im oidacuc Rava einai ttaletat eka eaalplriad oeets MIT GRANLE Nem veers wcintersstoprreiye sraicte rome teliamre petite aa tener gen eibicle as sasteraes ANY CSCO LS AG CTT Rg Ate i ORS APMED ECs SB CIOL Eis cineca Ora craeR ea TGS CES) WO is See ch ogA Snipe ace cts Gon Dooce alinuco dam ab Ac hea) abooke RERUN NT Oates tere cy dleyepctancia/t afeseila( cts, Gre ale ven areca ee Palche Semaine cen aie bcaaysye7 14 CONTENTS p PAGE RAINMAD Toth ctl teiestate okie ais o te ered ole PO OOO OE Cob icc OE dais xie o's 223 DESORIPTION| OF STATIONS |, ns ics arslaie melgswietsieln os a eye'ania, wield uals siaiavaaie ie : - 228 GMD BPR Sines sym war ia'al= aes. alee aide Rep arexas bien <0 awa ace. ole wiered mie ol Rnie Mies & 228 BOB URCILER WIL Clears lyn, Simone coxa ereionete cafes ealttionwteter seat -linieha) cual sista aenuteteeege aia etaioea ms 229 WEB UGE PON Gin ctere celsisralstcherealcieacis Beiter MOM ROA eke nscars (nln aalela) ten ataleeteaa ib teteiata 229 BINLSHONE (rae vars bee ee RAChiena eck t St NOE DO OIA re LC eT ha oe 230 DOG U TO over, (ates ote yare ta eeatefaiains pr sfeumnin iermitiara« a aimratare\aretelal stats sete oie igiatetniots 250 MOUNGRS AVAL Bio coess cred resmwhagrn deere lenel Wala) wre 0 [ocwla(eie «ese, orm 'aielv sin ahelsiern ae lale yaa Bou CORKS (chy 4 een ee eR fair ia 5 Hho or OTN TOM ESTA PICS oR AOAC CRG Ciro 230 THE HYDROGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. By F. H. NEwELL...... 233 THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION IN ALLEGANY COUNTY. By L. A. BAUER iakotaeriesaie eraborehabaretohas erate val Het cia ale 01 atte /a.s''a’'s, oo area \aPpyeyayataale Statgts ae 253. DERCHIPP TION OF SEATUOND iodo its ete sales share a6 ofan pn eiwinie ae eiciote ieieus! iat 254 On THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SuRVEYOR’s Merivian Line at CUMBER- LAND sc =< aaosiod. cc Oo a at igo Dee CAO SOB OAnbte Abe COLmac seas oS 259: THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. By GeonrGe B. SupWorTH...... 263 PN TROM MOON MG re Nae ert oes iby Ran rA eh oh « cles hoioicis lee iaaiep malate ete ae 263 ME To) Av GN OV. ee rot eee ea Sa rep No RP REE nT MONE RII ERE R cy SIRO Sie wt PVetr | 264 FT CEH AEAED TOAD EERO HES seb a eat ls fats ote Sl wt sive aol Zi’ “a7s)| arenes ae o ata ofetalsteleracate ofete 264 SCN ic es oso eat a et NER RE eS Tae ROTE Ware oT PEE SE WAC IU CNY Nin eh aps odin ey 265 NYMR RRS eranstctraNeesie pester a: cteuscals oeiaia ore Mist dei: cde-shtuela la cables, Since von ‘ 265 WV O ODDIE Da BG ILONS ctor cta aon aparasatatatcte ale oy apt ate ea ye yar’ cvcym aii o’s]e chal nietevetatere tore rotate mae ela CHARACTER OF THE ForEsST 267 COMPOSITIONS OFMEORESTSY enc. 2 ies sce ve's aie o.e 268 GENERAL, DISURIBUDION | OR PORESD) GHREES sw. coc ie/eic cies ow ojs nails mato ners 269 Distribution of Principal: Timber Trees oie ccc once cc uaeb sae wee nee 270 Distribution of Subordinate Timber Trees.......- 1... 00. -e eee ee eee eee 272 Distribution of Occasional Timber Trees ........ BR onnon accra ire 274 IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES: THEIR ABUNDANCE AND USES..........--..0.- 275 RELATION OF LUMBERING AND MINING TO REPRODUCTION ..............-- 279 Forest FIRES AND THEIR RELATION TO REPRODUCTION ... ........--.0+5 282 MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION OF FOREST RESOURCES .........-.....-05- 285 PROTECTION (OF; ROREST WANDS PROM MEIER ciscics.c sts © nes carciacs)e tele eretoele alee 286 EXCLUSION: OF ‘GRAZING FROM QHOREST UURNDS~ oo. on ck ce ac nee ne ate hae 287 REGULATION OF INDISCRIMINATE CUTTING ......... olathe Weta aetgtous is 1S ely ae 288 REGULATION OF INDISCRIMINATE GUEARING., 2. onc nss oobi wee se bite erases 290 THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. By C. Hart Mer- BRIAR AND EDWARD A. PREBIUE cs depsisioleles hele alsioslsieise asic eis ests atee 291 THE LIFE ZONES OF ALLEGANY County. By C. Hart Merriam............ 201 Tue SumMMeER Birpds OF WESTERN MARYLAND. By Edward A. Preble...... 296 XI. XID XII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. “XVIII. XIX. XX. ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PAGE Cumberland and the Narrows of Wills Mountain, from Shriver Ridge View of Model of Allegany County......-----+-+ssereee eee eteee View from Wills Mountain, showing Escarpment of Tuscarora Sand- Tiago ed Sale Gen eee e om teb n>. Or ac Ob & HOR sD Cr U On ae OO Anticline in Salina formation at Cement Mills, Cumberland......... Georges Creek Valley, near Barton ......------++esreererrrretrsee The Narrows of Will8 Creek, near Cumberland ........-.----++++ Views of Allegany County... 2... 22 -- 202 eee n ee see eter ets ents Fig. 1.—Toll-house on the National Road.... ......+++++++-+5- « 2.—Pulp-mill, near Westernport.....-..--.22+2s+serereeee View of North Branch of the Potomac, near Keyser, W. Va........ View from Dans Rock, looking across the Potomac Valley......--- Geological Sections in Allegany County. ...-.----+-++e+esecsse eres Fig. 1.—Characteristie Exposure of Clinton Sandstone.........-- « 2,Hard Strata in Helderberg Formation, Devil’s Backbone. Geological Sections in Allegany County. ...----.-+++-2+s+errrestee Fig. 1.—Fold in Oriskany Sandstone, near Mouth of South Branch OMMENG. POUORTAC! Sarctciels a f-/= leis «we nse 7 jp islenalacehn ter aiaieymjntmietevelninsa issih iaiiahs Fig. 2.—Oriskany Exposure, Monster Rock, near Keyser, W. Va.. Geological Sections in Allegany (Onn aan eno etCO OOO Ey DOO ODDS c Fig. 1.—Exposure of Jennings Sandstone, Corriganville ......- « 2.—Exposure of Pottsville Sandstone, Westernport......--. Geological Sections in Allegany County... .---.---++++ eee reeeeeee Fig. 1.—The «Railroad Seam,’ near Piedmont .........-..+++++> « 2.—View of “Big Vein’? Coal, in Ocean Mine No. 3........ Geological Sections in Allegany County. ....-- +--+ +++see+ererreeee Fig. 1.—Faulted Anticline in Silurian Strata, five miles southwest OE GR MBSTIANG 22 woe ne oie o ac.2 0 6 Bint we acme nia wii) Siinlen se 0 wi iahe woe Fig. 2.—Sharp Fold in Devonian Sandy Shales near Little Orleans. Dans Rock, showing Pottsville Conglomerate. ...-.----..+++++-++-> Structural Sections in Allegany County...-.-....-. sessseseeeeee Coal-mining in Allegany County. ....-.-.-.++++e+- sess eee ertte ees Fig. 1.—Pumping Station, Consolidation Coal Co. ...........--- « 2.—Mining Plant at Ocean No. 1........--- 2... 2-1-2 ese eeee Hydrography of Allegany County....----+-+sseseseee treet eset es Fig. 1.—Car used in Measuring Velocity of River Water......... «2. Measuring Velocity of River Water from Boat.......... Price Electric Current Meters, with Buzzers.....-....-..+ee0e5000> Hydrography of Allegany County....-..-++-+++-+sessteessreceeee Fig. 1.—Georges Creek at Westernport, near the Confluence with NortheBranch of Potomac.......+.....e cere eee cette eee 23 28 36 40 ao ~ D = oo © 5 SCcwwn qe = —} —) 100 112 112 112 120 120 120 156 136 156, 148 160 176 176 176 23838 233 2335 236 240 240 16 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE FACING PAGE Fig. 2.—Georges Creek at Westernport, looking up-stream from Washington Street Bridge........-..se2ee cere seer eee renee 240 XXI. Wills Creek at Cumberland..........-eceeeesrececrerererseceres 244 XXII. Dam at Cumberland for Diverting Water into the Chesapeake and Obio Canals. .c. om pm ow lo THE PRESENT STAGE. At the present time all the streams of Allegany county are at work fashioning their channels. In many cases they are putting the finish- ing touches to the even slopes which they prefer to flow on, and some 4 50 THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY streams have even completed this slope in places. All the streams, however, are here and there interrupted by rapids and shallows, which show that, in spite of the plains or bottom-lands built during floods, they have not yet perfectly graded their channels. The Potomac has reduced its channel to so flat a slope that the low dam for the canal at Cumberland backs up the water for a distance of two miles upstream. But even this large stream, flowing eight or ten feet below its flood-plain during its ordinary stages, has many un- reduced ledges in its channel. The present downward tendeney of the streams may be traced back to the close of the Shenandoah Plain period, for it has resulted in the carving out of trenches below the general level of that plain. THE TERRACE-FORMING STAGE. This down-cutting has not been uninterrupted, however. Border- ing the lower courses of all the larger streams of the county, and of many of the smaller streams, are two well-defined stream-terraces. Such stream-terraces indicate former positions of the stream-bed, and when found along the banks of a stream indicate that its vertical cutting has been interrupted for a while. Instead of cutting ver- tically, the stream may have cut horizontally, or even stopped cutting and begun to build up by depositing gravel and sand. The stream-terraces in Allegany county are usually gravel-strewn, often deeply so; but never consist wholly of gravels and sand. Always beneath this looser covering can be found smooth, even surfaces which were cut across the bedding of the rocks by the streams and later strewn with gravel and sand. The higher terrace has an eleva- tion of about 800 feet along the Potomac above Cumberland, and the one next below stands at about 650 or 700 feet. This lower one is generally better defined, particularly at Cresaptown and Cedar Cliff and above Riverside station, on the West Virginia Central and Pitts- burg Railway. The 800-foot terrace forms the cobble-strewn hills overlooking Cumberland and South Cumberland, while the town is built on the lower one. These terraces, with one or two lower and minor ones in the imme- . MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Dill diate vicinity of the streams, may be traced along the Potomac from one side of the county to the other, and also up the larger streams flowing into it. Going up the tributary streams the terraces natur-. ally rise, since the smaller volumes of these streams will always leave their channels steeper than that of the Potomac. The levels also seem to draw together somewhat. The best traces of the terraces can be found near Allegany Grove (1000 feet) on Braddock Run, about Corriganville, and between that place and Ellerslie (750 feet), on Wills Creek. They also occur along the lower courses of the streams joining the Potomae at Oldtown (720 feet); and all along Town Creek at about 680 feet. Since these terraces are both cut out of the rock and slightly built up also, it is evident that they are the indices of stages in the post- Shenandoahan down-cutting. Just why they were formed is not yet clear. They may indicate a temporary loss of speed due to a slight westward tilting of the river channel and a consequent cessation in downward cutting accompanied by deposition of gravels. Or it may prove to be the case that these benches indicate the positions of the land during periods of temporary rest when the streams really cut down to their lowest possible grade—the rock-plains of the terraces. Whatever may be their final explanation, these terraces are still significant as indicating that there has not been a steady downward tendency of the streams, but an intermittent one. Periods of rest or of sluggish work, accompanied by lateral cutting, sueceeded periods of active vertical attack. THE SHENANDOAH PLAIN STAGE. Immediately preceding the uplift which inaugurated the recent gorge-cutting and terrace-forming activities, there came a period of some length during which not only Allegany county but the whole Atlantic slope stood fast with reference to sea-level. This gave the streams the opportunity to etch out valleys on the yielding limestones ‘and shales, while they left the more resistant rocks standing. So long a time was allowed that the valleys thus determined by yielding rocks were worn down very low indeed. Their surfaces were almost D2 THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY smooth, even plains; the streams began to wind back and forth across flat bottom-lands and paid no attention to the rocks which, earlier, had formed low ridges in the valleys. The later gorge-cutting dis- sected these level valley-floors, but many hill-tops and ridges between the streams still retain a portion of this old intermontane plain. To it belong the tops of many hills along Town Creek, Evitts Creek and Fifteenmile Creek, reaching elevations of about 900 feet above sea- level. Along the meandering course of the Potomac, also, are many hills rising to 900 or 1000 feet, and lying between still higher ridges. They are most noticeable between Paw Paw and Little Orleans, where they have an elevation of about 900 feet. About Cumberland, also, the old valley-level is preserved in the crest of Shriver Ridge (1100 feet) and the long flat spur (1115 feet) forming the north end of Knobly Mountain. These traces of the Shenandoah Plain, found in the hilltops bordering the meandering and trenched Potomac lend support to the theory that these meanders are inherited from flood- plain meanders of the Shenandoah Plain stage. The fact that the meanders are not found cutting across ridges which rise above the Shenandoah Plain is additional evidence in favor of this theory. The Shenandoah Plain period also gave opportunity for the further and closer adjustment of many streams in existence at the opening of the period. This was notably the case with Wills Creek, Fifteen- mile Creek and Town Creek. Numbers of smaller streams which came into existence during this period started on yielding rocks and in later times have simply continued along their originally subsequent courses. Towards the close of the period, however, many streams lost their finer adjustments by reason of their flood-plained condition. The best instances of this have been referred to already, viz., Town Creek and Fifteenmile Creek. Other smaller streams seem to have been thrown out of adjustment by the influence of the broad flood- plain along the Potomac. This is notably the case with the streams entering near Oldtown and also with Sideling Hill Creek. These streams instead of joining the Potomac by the most direct line, which is the rule, are deflected down stream when within two miles or less of the river. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE VI. CUMBERLAND, NARROWS OF WILLS CREEK, NEAR THE MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 53 THE SCHOOLEY PLAIN STAGE. The gorge-cutting period was inaugurated by a general warping and uplifting of the Shenandoah Plain, the uplift being greatest in the southwestern districts and least in the east. The Shenandoah Period was inaugurated by a closely similar uplift of the Schooley Plain. The Schooley Plain was produced in the same way as the Shenandoah Plain. The main difference between the two features is the absence from the Schooley Plain of extensive mountain ranges or ridges looking down upon it. This resulted simply from the fact that the earlier period was of much longer duration, so that oppor- tunity was given for the complete reduction to the general level of the zones of resistant rock. Of this former surface there are now numerous remnants to be found in the long even crests of the higher ridges in the county. On account of the much greater erosion which this older plain has suffered, its traces are much fewer than are those of the younger Shenandoah Plain. They are preserved only by the most resistant rocks of the county; but they are sufficient to show that the old surface was widespread and imposed upon all the rocks of a large area regardless of differences in resistance. By the time that the agents of denudation had established this surface, all the streams had adjusted themselves to the structures revealed by the widespread planing off. Probably all the well- grown streams of the time had meandering courses, except the young- est streams, initiated towards the close of the period which would have had more direct and vigorous paths. Among these younger streams were probably found the forerunners of Jennings Run, Braddock Run and Fifteenmile Creek, as their present discordant courses are at variance with features which were then much less significant than they are to-day. The other streams, such as Evitts Creek and Sideling Hill Creek, probably existed during the Schooley Plain period as smaller, adjusted, subsequent streams flowing into the contemporary representative of the North Branch of the Potomac. Wills Mountain lay several hundred feet below that surface, not yet revealed by the erosion which followed upon the uplifting of the plain. Town Hill also was still m embryo, but for a different reason. 54 THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY The hard sandstone which was to form its crest was not buried beneath many feet of overlying rocks, but lay almost at the surface of the plain. It had formed the floor of a trough of rock which had been folded down so low that it escaped removal in the general planing off which resulted in producing the Schooley Plain. Thus when re-elevation revived the streams and enabled them to etch out the softer rocks, this long slab of sandstone still remained to protect the rocks beneath it. A similar reason may be found for the preserva- tion of the coal-beds of the Georges Creek basin. These would not now be available had it not been for the fortunate accident whereby the broad synclinal trough of the Plateau District was so greatly depressed below the general level to which the whole county was reduced. Because of this depression, the coal-formations were not worn away from this district. Since their position was higher over the western portion of the county, they were all removed during its reduction to the Schooley Plain. THE PALEOZOIC PERIOD AND THE APPALACHIAN REVOLUTION. Thus far one may read the history of Allegany county topography from existing surface features. The earliest stage related in that his- tory, the Schooley Plain, cannot be the beginning, however. The very folds and breaks in the great series of strata which form the foundations and skeleton of present topography, themselves suggest the possibility of a time, preceding all the periods just recounted, when the earth’s surface was cut into valleys and mountains which were due directly to the great folds now traceable only where valleys eut down across them. If there ever was such a time and such topography, the scenery must have been much grander than it is to-day. Thousands upon thousands of feet of rock have been re- moved since the folding began, so that the=folds themselves must have given rise to mountains five or six times_as high as the present Appalachians with some correspondingly deep valleys between. These would have been the earliest mountains and valleys. It is probable, however, that the surface which would have thus appeared, never existed in an altogether unmodified state. As soon MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 55 s as the folds appeared above the sea, the rain and wind and frost would have begun to wear away their surfaces, cut out gullies and cross- valleys, rapidly changing the new surface. Thus the earliest land topography here would have been at best, the original folds, troughs and ridges, modified by the rain and other denuding agents. These folds were produced in rocks of horizontal strata deposited on the floor of a great sea. This sea washed the western shores of a land-area located about where the present Blue Ridge is, and it was the waste washed from this land which formed the rocks of the sea- floor. According to geological chronology, those rocks are said to be of Paleozoic age, and the sea in which they were deposited may be called the Paleozoic sea. This period, during which the present rocks were being deposited in the Paleozoic sea, is the earliest one of which there is any trace in Allegany county. In fact, it was the beginning of the geographic history of the county. The great fold- ing and upthrusting of the horizontal strata on this old sea-floor put an end to further accumulations by raising them above sea-level. The change was so complete and tremendous and comparatively rapid that it is often spoken of as a revolution. Since it resulted in the building up of the forerunners of the Appalachian Mountains, it is usually referred to as the Appalachian Revolution. It should be remembered, however, that the present Appalachians resulted only indirectly from this so-called revolution. The imme- diate predecessor of the present topography of Allegany county was a broad, almost featureless plain, and the mountains, ridges, valleys and cliffs of to-day have all resulted from the wearing away of areas of yielding rock and the continuance of the resistant ones standing out in relief. ; fige GEOLOGY, OF ALLEGANY COUNTY BY CLEOPHAS C. O’HARRA INTRODUCTORY. Particular attention is given in the following pages to the strati- graphy, structure and areal distribution of the various formations exposed in Allegany county; the processes and conditions under which the sediments were deposited; and the forces that have operated in bringing about the present attitude of the strata. A brief review of previous work is given, and a bibliography is added. Only such gen- eral references to the paleontology, physiography and soils of the region have been made as are necessary to give a clear understanding of the geological features since these branches are more fully dis- cussed in other places. GEOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC RELATIONS. The situation and boundaries of Allegany county have been de- scribed in earlier pages. Although bounded on the north and west by straight lines whose combined length approximates only 50.8 miles, the entire periphery is about 145 miles, the amount being very much increased by the tortuous channels of the Potomac river and Sideling Hill Creek. The county contains several mountains of importance. Naming them in order from the east, they are: Town Hill, Green Ridge, Stratford Ridge, Polish Mountain, Warrior Mountain, Tussey Moun- tain, Martin Mountain, Collier Mountain, Evitts Mountain, Nicholas Mountain, Shriver Ridge Mountain, Wills Mountain, Allegheny Mountain and Dans Mountain. ‘The last two, which may really be 58 THE GEOLOGY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY considered as one mountain, and which are alluded to in this paper as the Dans-Allegheny Mountain, form a part of the great Allegheny Front. Tussey Mountain dies out almost immediately after entering the county from Pennsylvania, and Evitts Mountain becomes oblit- erated nearly as quickly. Other ridges and hills of less geological importance are named on the map. The drainage of the county is wholly to the south. Among the more important streams entering the Potomac are the following: Sideling Hill Creek, Fifteenmile Creek, Town Creek, Martins Spring Run, Colliers Run, Evitts Creek, Wills Creek, Georges Creek and Stony Run. Among the other streams, lying wholly or partly within Allegany county, whose waters eventually find their way into the Potomac are Flintstone Creek, Murley Branch, Jennings Run, Brad- dock Run, Moores Run, Jackson Run, Hill Run, Elk Lick Run, Matthew Run, Neffs Run, Winebrenner Run, Staub Run, Wrights Run, Squirrel Neck Run, Koontz Run, Laurel Run, Bartlett Run, Mill Run, Rock Gully Creek, Maple Run, White Sulphur Creek, Piney Ridge Run. Flintstone Creek, Murley Branch and Maple Run flow into Town Creek; Jennings Run and Braddock Run flow into Wills Creek; Rock Gully Creek flows into Evitts Creek; White Sulphur Creek and Piney Ridge Run flow into Fifteenmile Creek; while all of the others named enter Georges Creek. The area covered by Allegany county forms an integral part of the Appalachian Province, hence an accurate and exhaustive study of the geology of the county can be made only by adequate reference to the conditions governing the complete geologic history of the entire province. The province itself is composed of three genetically re- lated physiographic divisions, the principal features of which have been brought about by geographic conditions that no longer exist.’ The eastern division isa part of the ancient continent of Appalachia, a land-mass of uncertain area from which most of the sediments of the Appalachian Province were derived. The western limit of this division of the province is now represented by the Blue Ridge. 1 Willis, Bailey. The Northern Appalachians, Geographic Monographs, vol. i, 1895. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 59 Lying to the west of Appalachia there was a great inland sea in which the sediments from this ancient continent were gradually laid down. The littoral zone of this mediterranean sea having received many thousands of feet of various kinds of sediments, was from time to time affected by powerful organic movements, possibly not yet ceased, the result of which has been to bring the formerly almost horizontal beds into a greatly folded condition. This old littoral zone, now constituting the central physiographic division of the province, cor- responds to what is sometimes known as the Greater Appalachian Valley, using that term in its wider sense to include the area between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghany Front. Along the outskirts of the littoral zone the strata were much less influenced by the enormous forces which so disturbed the central and eastern divisions; and, although considerably elevated, they have, as a rule, been left in a more nearly horizontal position. This part which now forms the Alleghany Front and the Alleghany Plateau constitutes the western physiographic division of the Appalachian Province. Structurally, the area which is covered by the central and western physiographie divisions as above defined, is divided somewhat differ- ently. According to the structure, two divisions are recognized, but the line of separation falls much farther east. In Maryland, the western structural division known as the district of open folding is limited on the eastern side by North Mountain, while the western limit extends beyond the western borders of the state. East of North Mountain lies the structural division known as the district of close folding. Jn Maryland it occupies approximately the position of the Hagerstown Valley. Structurally, then, Allegany county lies wholly within a single dis- trict, that of open folding. Physiographically, it includes parts of two divisions, viz., the Greater Appalachian Valley and the Alleghany Plateau. Stratigraphically, it is not referable to any well-defined district or division. The stratigraphic features are, in a sense, much the same as for all of the area west of the great limestone valley. Furthermore, the various structural features, as well as the contacts of the various formations found in the county, extend in many 60 THE GEOLOGY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY instances without a break or disappearance for miles beyond the limits of the county. It will thus be seen that the county is not a geological unit and has not been so considered in this paper. How- ever, lying along the Potomac and favorably situated for the display of the structural, physiographic and stratigraphic features of a con- tinuous series of sediments, from the middle Silurian to the late Carboniferous or Permian, rich in easily accessible and well-preserved fossils, and containing also in the western part large deposits of economic importance, the county has for many years been known as a region of peculiar interest, and one deserving careful geologic study. HISTORICAL REVIEW. The most prominent physiographic features of Allegany county have long been known. Natural facilities for a careful study of the rocks have always been good, and in addition, especially favorable opportunities have at times been provided by means of the various extensive improvements made for military and commercial purposes. During the middle of the eighteenth century military expeditions to Fort Cumberland and beyond necessitated the construction of a good road from the Atlantic coast to the Ohio valley. George Washington, in a letter to Colonel Bouquet, dated “Camp at Fort Cumberland, 2, August, 1758,” says that the first good road for commercial inter- course between the traders of Virginia and Pennsylvania and the Indians along the Ohio was by way of Wills Creek [Cumberland], which place had been selected by intelligent Indians who had been hired to choose the most favorable route of communication. He further states that the Ohio Company in 1753 opened the road at a considerable expense, and that in the following year his own troops greatly repaired it. In 1755 it was widened and completed by Gen- eral Braddock to near Fort Duquesne. Early in the present century the National Road was surveyed and constructed, the military road being in part utilized for this purpose. Later extensive surveys were made for the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the latter reaching Cumberland in the year 1842 and MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE VII. Fic. 1.—TOLL-HOUSE ON THE NATIONAL ROAD. Fig. 2.—PULP-MILL, NEAR WESTERNPORT. VIEWS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 61 the former in 1850. These surveys, references to which are given in the bibliography, added much to the general knowledge of the physiography and gave considerable detailed information concerning the character of the rocks and their folded condition, but there appears to have been little attention given to the purely scientific study of the geology of the area. During the autumn of 1831, Samuel Whyllys Pomeroy traveled through the county and made some hasty observations on the geology along the National Road, particularly in the vicinity of Cumberland and Frostburg (2). ; In “Some Notices of the Geology of the Country between Balti- more and the Ohio River, with a Section illustrating the Superposi- tion of the Rocks,’ by William E. A. Aiken, published in the American Journal of Science, volume xxv, 1834, we have one of the earliest attempts to explain the structure of the mountains and to correlate the various kinds of rocks (3). Unhappily, Mr. Aiken’s observations in Allegany county were so meagre that many of the conclusions were necessarily faulty and little definite advance was made, In the same year, 1834, J. T. Ducatel, State Geologist, and J. H. Alexander, State Topographical Engineer, in a “ Report on the Pro- jected Survey of the State of Maryland, pursuant to a resolution of the General Assembly,” give general statements concerning the geology of the county (4). Mention is made of the mineral and warm springs near Flintstone, and of the Frostburg coal-field. Much of the information was taken from the collection of reports and letters of the engineers of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. In his “ Report of a Geological Reconnaissance made in 1835 from the seat of government by way of Green Bay and the Wisconsin territory on the Coteau du Prairie, an elevated ridge dividing the Missouri from the St. Peters river,’ G. W. Featherstonhaugh gives considerable geological information concerning Allegany county (8). He traveled under the direction of the United States government and passed through the county while en route westward, evidently entering the county by the National Road. East of Cumberland he 62 THE GEOLOGY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY makes little mention of the rocks, but refers to fossils found in the limestone at Flintstone. This limestone he erroneously correlates with the Carboniferous limestone further west. Shriver Ridge is mentioned as being composed of shale and limestone with “ producta,” “spirifer” and “cardia.” The Wills Creek gorge he describes with considerable detail, and gives a sketch of the same. A crude hypothesis for the anticlinal structure of Wills and neighboring mountains is also given. From Cumberland he went to Frostburg, thence down the Georges Creek valley to the Potomac, which he ascended beyond the mouth of Savage river, then returned along the Potomac to Cumberland. He speaks briefly of the Georges Creek coal area and believed that the coal-bearing strata were deposited after the movement which produced the folding to the east. About this time much interest began to be manifested in the coal, iron, cement, and fire-clay of the coal basin. With the prospect of an opportunity to ship by rail and canal, a greater interest was aroused in the mineral wealth of the county, various mining com- panies were incorporated, and reports began to appear giving more or less accurate descriptions of the geology of this part of the state. Some of these papers show the result of original work; but not a few were only compilations from the writings of others. In a report dated October, 1836, to the Georges Creek Coal and Iron Company, one of the earliest companies to develop the mineral resources of the Georges Creek basin, J. H. Alexander and P. T. Tyson give two maps of portions of the Georges Creek area, one columnar section known as the “ Dug Hill Section,” one structure section and various other details (10). Two months later, Mr. Dueatel, the State Geologist, in his official report to the Governor of Maryland, included a description of the Frostburg coal-field in which the columnar section made for the Georges Creek Coal Com- pany is given. In this report there is also given a carefully prepared hachured map of the entire area on which the various streams, towns and mines are located and named. Frostburg is given on the map as Frost Town, and the coal area is called after it. During this year, 1836, the State Topographical Engineer, J. H. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 63 Alexander, directed the execution of a chain of triangles with a plane- table survey over a part of the Georges Creek area. The work of this survey was accomplished at individual expense, but the results were generously offered for the use of the state survey. During the same year, 1836, George W. Hughes made a report to the Maryland Mining Company in which he gives the result of an examination of the coal measures and iron ore deposits belonging to the company (9). The paper includes various analyses and columnar sections. Tn this year also, James C. Booth studied the area and published the results in a short paper entitled “ Report of the Examination and Survey of the Coal-fields and iron ores belonging to the Barton and New York Coal Company” (7). The next year, 1837, further notes by Mr. Beoth, as well as short reports by L. Howell and John Powell were published for the same company. On February 9, 1837, Professor Philip T. Tyson read before the Maryland Academy of Sciences and Literature a paper entitled “A description of the Frostburg coal formation of Allegany county, Maryland, with an account of its geological position” (12). Later this was published in the Transactions of the Society. With the de- scription of the area one columnar section and two structure sections are given. In the same year, D. B. Douglas spent three weeks in the coal- field. He made a columnar section and studied the physical and chemical character of the coals (15). The following year, 1838, Benjamin Silliman made a brief study of the area in the employ of the Maryland Mining Company (16). During the year 1840, the State Geologist, J. T. Ducatel, made a study of the physical geography, geology and agricultural and mineral resources of Western Maryland (23). The results of his observations were published in the “ Annual Report of the Geologist of Maryland, 1840” (23). This is a paper of 46 pages, 30 pages of which are, how- ever, taken up with a study of the area now included in Garrett county. Mr. Dueatel’s report was the first published document of any considerable length which reviewed with reasonable accuracy the 64 THE GEOLOGY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY geology of the entire county. It includes the geology and physical geography with remarks on the actual agricultural condition, pros- . pects and resources, as well as information concerning the mineral wealth of the county and the best means of developing it. Two columnar sections of the coal-fields, one structure section along the “Cumberland and National roads,” and a topographical map of Alle- gany and Washington counties on the scale of 1:400,000 are given. The year 1842 is one of particular interest on account of Sir Charles Lyell’s visit to the county. In May of that year he passed through the county by way of the National Road, stopping at Cum- berland and Frostburg. In the vicinity of the latter place a number of plants and marine shells were obtained from the coal measures. Among the shells, he mentions Bellerophon, Huomphalus, Nucula, Loxonema and Producta—seventeen species in all. Of the plants, Bunbury, who described them, gives Danaeites, Neuropteris, Pecop- teris, Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, Stigmaria, Asterophyllites and Calamites—twenty species altogether (30). In 1844, the classic paper “* A Report to the Navy Department of the United States on American coals applicable to steam navigation and other purposes,’ by Walter R. Johnson was published (27). Coals from several Maryland mines were among those studied. During the next few years little original investigation was carried on in the county, but this period marks the time of much of the valuable work done by the illustrious brothers, W. B. Rogers, Direc- tor of the Geological Survey of Virginia, and H. D. Rogers, State - Geologist of Pennsylvania, who published many reports giving valu- able information concerning the geology of their respective states, much of which information was extremely helpful in interpreting the geology of Allegany county. In 1852 reports were published by the Phoenix Mining and Manu- facturing Company which included a “ topography of the mineral regions” by Professor Forrest Sheppard and a report on the topog- raphy and structure of the coal-field by Professor C. U. Shepard (33). Two years later, 1854, George W. Hughes, President and Engineer of the Hampshire Coal and Iron Company, published a report dealing especially with the lands controlled by his company (34). MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE VIII. VA. Ww. NEAR KEYSER, BRANCH OF THE POTOMAC, NORTH VIEW OF MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 65 In 1855, Robert G. Rankin published a report on the economic value of the semi-bituminous coal of the Cumberland basin (36). This is an excellent paper in which the author gives a description of the basin, analyses, use and origin of the coal and the facilities for transportation. In 1859 a great advance*was made in the historical study of the rocks. Professor James Hall, State Geologist of New York, who was so exhaustively studying the Paleozoic fossils of his own state, made also from time to time large collections from several of the states to the west and south. In September, 1856, he visited Cumberland, made some geological examinations and studied the extensive collec- tion of Mr. Andrews. Later Professor Hall purchased Mr. Andrews’ collection and continued his studies upon it. Three years after his visit volume 3 of the Paleontology of the State of New York was published. In this volume sixty-three species are described from Cumberland and vicinity, many of which are figured. Several of the subsequent paleontological reports published under the direction of Professor Hall also contain descriptions and figures of numerous species from the same locality. The year 1860 marks the appearance of the state geological map by Philip T. Tyson, published in his official report as, State Agricul- tural Chemist (40). This map, which is on the scale of twelve miles to the inch, represents the first serious attempt to arrange in accurate detail the various geological formations in Allegany county. With the map there are three structure sections, one of which crosses the county from west to east near the Maryland-Pennsylvania line. During the summer of 1868, Professor James T. Hodge of Boston, studied the coal basin and made an extensive survey of the coal properties (47). In his report, published the following year, he gives much attention to property lines, but also discusses the coal region as « whole, including the drainage of the basin, access to the coal-bed, system of mining, area covered by the Big Vein and product of Big- Vein coal to the acre. ‘To the property-owner this has been a most valuable work, but the report is now almost wholly inaccessible. In 1874, Professor James Hall published his paper on ‘“ The 5 66 THE GEOLOGY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Niagara and Lower Helderberg Groups; their relations and geo- graphical distribution in the United States” (51). In this paper brief but valuable references are made to the relations of the groups as they oeeur at. Cumberland. In 1878, under the direction of the United States Navy Depart- ment, B. F. Sherwood, Theodore Zeller and Henry L. Snyder made careful experiments on various coals, including the Frostburg coal (58). Particular attention was given to the physical structure of the coal, to its action while burning, to its heat-producing power and to the residual ash, clinker and soot. In 1878, Professor J. J. Stevenson published two articles in the American Journal of Science on the geology of portions of Pennsyl]- vania, Maryland and West Virginia. In one article particular men- tion is made of the terraces in Garrett and Allegany counties, and in this article the causes of the present physiographic features are dis- eussed (60). The other article deals with the Upper Devonian rocks (61). The year 1882 was one of particular interest in the development of a correct knowledge of the structural geology of the county. Among the important publications which appeared during this year was a paper by Howard Grant Jones and one by Professor I. C. White. In Mr. Jones’ paper a section west of Cumberland was given which was accompanied by a discussion of the correlation of the various rocks (72). Professor White later reviewed the work and rectified some of Mr. Jones’ conclusions. Professor White’s paper is the first publication showing conclusively the conformity and proper relations of the rock formations as found in the western part of Allegany county (76). It was during this year also that report TT of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania was published (75). This report is by Pro- fessor J. J. Stevenson and deals with the geology of Bedford and Fulton counties, which lie immediately north of Allegany county. In this report frequent reference is made to Allegany county, and much of the general discussion concerning the Pennsylvania counties is directly applicable to it. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 67 In the Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, _ vol. xiv, 1886, R. S. Cook gives an account of the manufacture of fire-brick at Mt. Savage, which included a discussion of the oceur- rence and composition of the clay and a description of the methods of manufacture (90). During the years 1883-4-5 considerable topographical mapping was done in Western Maryland and adjacent portions of West Virginia by the United States Geological Survey. The topographic party in the early part of the work was in charge of Mr. S. H. Bodfish. Later, Mr. Bodfish’s health having failed, Mr. W. T. Griswold took charge of the party and remained in charge during the following two field seasons (86). During the year 1886 much of this work was examined, reviewed and prepared for publication by Mr. Merrill Hackett (87). Of the sheets surveyed at this time which include portions of Alle- gany county, only those covering the Piedmont and the Romney quadrangles have been published. In the year 1897, topographic work was resumed in Allegany county by the United States Geological Survey in connection with the Maryland Geological Survey, since which time the survey of the county has been completed. In volume 34 of the American Journal of Science, 1887, Professor J. J. Stevenson discusses the lower Carboniferous rocks of Pennsyl- vania, Maryland and the Virginias, and mentions various Allegany county localities (95). In the same journal and in the same year, Professor I. C. White discusses the probable causes which have brought about the deposition of rounded boulders at high altitudes on the eastern side of the Alle- ghanies and makes particular mention of the vicinity of Cumberland (96). In the 42d Annual Report of the New York State Museum, 1889, Professor John M. Clarke discusses ‘The Hereynian Question,” in connection with which he gives important notes on some of the for- mations in the region about Cumberland (101). During the year 1891, Bulletin No. 65 of the United States Geo- logical Survey was published. ‘This is by Professor I. C. White on 68 THE GEOLOGY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY “The Stratigraphy of the Bituminous Coal Field of Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia” (113). In this bulletin reference is made: to the Coal Measures of Maryland, and the map which accompanies the bulletin includes the Cumberland-Georges Creek district. It was in May of this year, 1891, that the students in the Geo- logical Department of the Johns Hopkins University visited Allegany county under the direction of the late Professor George H. Williams for the ‘purpose of studying Appalachian geology. The results of their study are given in volume xi, number 94, of the University Circulars for that year (114). In 1893, in the Maryland World’s Fair Book, entitled “ Maryland, its Resources, Industries and Institutions,” a general summary of the geology of the state was published by Professors George H. Wil- liams and William B. Clark of the Johns Hopkins University, in which the geology of Western Maryland is discussed at considerable length (144). With this publication there is a geological map of the state in which the areal distribution of the various formations and the structure of the rocks of Allegany county are represented in much greater detail and accuracy than on any previous map. In 1894, Mr. Howard Shriver, of Cumberland, published a short paper containing a catalogue of fossils found in the vicinity of Cum- berland (150). In the Fourteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, published during the same year, 1894, Joseph D. Weeks, under the title of ‘“‘The Potomac and Roaring Creek Coal Fields,” describes at some length the Cumberland-Georges Creek district, and gives a columnar section of the same (151). During the years 1894 and 1895, H. O. Hofman and C. D. Demond describe, in the Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, extensive experiments which were carried on by them for the purpose of determining the refractiveness of fire-clays (148). Various experiments were made with the Mt. Savage fire-clay, and in the paper a number of analyses are given. In 1896, the Piedmont Folio, No. 28 of the Geologie Atlas of the United States, was published by the United States Geological Survey MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 69 (159). The geological work was done by Messrs. N. H. Darton and Joseph Taff under the direction of Mr. Bailey Willis, and was begun in the autumn of 1894. The quadrangle covered by this folio in- eludes a small area in the southwestern part of Allegany county, and the geology of the entire quadrangle is very similar to that of this county. Several of the formational names used in the folio have been adopted by the Maryland Geological Survey, and much of the discussion concerning the various geological features is directly applicable to Allegany county. In the early part of the year 1896, the Maryland Geological Survey was organized, and at the opening of the field season began work in various parts of the state. Since then three volumes have been pub- lished by the survey under the direction of Professor William B. Clark, State Geologist. In volume I a general preliminary discussion of the various geological features of the state is given, including much new and valuable information concerning the stratigraphic, physiographic, economic and structural features of Allegany county. Volume II includes a description of the various building stones and of the geologie maps of the state, with particular mention of Alle- gany county. Volume III treats especially of the highways of the state, their present conditions and the material at hand in each of the counties for road-construction. BIBLIOGRAPHY. CONTAINING REFERENCES TO THE GEOLOGY AND ECONOMIC RESOURCES OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. 1824. 1. Suriver, James. An Account of the Examination and Surveys, with Remarks and Documents relative to the Chesapeake and Ohio and Lake Erie Canals. Baltimore, 1824. 116 pp., map. 1832. 2. Pomeroy, Sam. Wuytiys. Remarks on the Coal Region be- tween Cumberland and Pittsburg, and on the Topography, Scenery, 70 THE GEOLOGY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY ete., of that portion of the Alleghany Mts. [Letter written Nov., 1831. ] Amer. Jour. Sci., vol. xxi, 1832, pp. 342-347. 1834. 3. Arken, Wittram E. A. Some of the notices of the Geology of the Country between Baltimore and the Ohio River, with a section illustrating the superposition of the rocks. Amer. Jour. Sci., vol. xxvi, 1834, pp. 219-232, plate. 4, Ducaret, J. T., and Arexanper, J. H. Report on the Pro- jected Survey of the State of Maryland, pursuant to a resolution of the General Assembly. S8vo. 39 pp. Annapolis, 1834. Map. Md. House of Delegates, Dec. Sess., 1833 (Annapolis, 1834). Another edition, Annapolis, 1834, 8vo., 58 pp. and map. Another edition, Annapolis, 1834, 8vo., 43 pp. and folded table. 5. Mercer, Cuas. Fenroy. Report of the Hon. Charles Fenton Mercer [on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal]. House Mise. Doec., 23rd Cong., Ist Sess., Doc. 414. Washington, 1834, 378 pp. 1836. 6. Anon. Charter, etc., of the Georges Creek Coal and Iron Company, containing a detailed account of the Geology, &c., of this locality. Baltimore, 1836. 7. Booru, Jas. C. Report of the Examination and Survey of the Coal Lands, etc., belonging to the Boston Purchase, near Cumber- land, in the State of Maryland. New York, D. Fanshaw, 1836. 8. FrarnprstonnaucnH, G. W. Report of a Geological Recon- naissance made in 1835 from the seat of government by way of Green Bay and the Wisconsin Territory on the Coteau du Prairie, an ele- vated ridge dividing the Missouri from the St. Peters River. 169 pp. 4 plates. Washington, 1836. 9. Huenrs, Grorce W. Report of an Examination of the Coal Measures, including the Iron-ore deposits, belonging to the Mary- land Mining Company, in Allegany County, &c., &e. 1836. 1837. 10. Ducater, J. T., and Atexanprer, J. H. Report on the new Map of Maryland, 1836. S8vo. 104 pp. and 5 maps. [Annapolis, 1837.] ' Md. House of Delegates, Sess. Dec., 1836. Another edition, 117 pp. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 71 11. Expreper, N. T. Report of the Special Agent sent to exam- ine the Mines of the Company. Sm. 8vo. 13 pp. New York, 1837. 12. Tyson, Pure T. . 1.2.1 < «/s/\cle's 1 vioe/elei=ia}s 317 THE SALINA FORMATION. The Salina formation receives its name from Salina, New York, where it is typically developed. The rocks of this formation follow those of the Niagara conformity and are distributed about Wills Mountain, Evitts Mountain and Tussey Mountain in much the same manner as the two preceding formations. Along the eastern base of Wills Mountain the Salina has been cut through by the meanderings of the Potomac, thus throwing portions of the outcrop on the West Virginia side. The formation is composed of sandstones, shales and limestones. The sandstones predominate near the bottom and the limestones in the upper portions, while the shales are rather abundant throughout MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE X. Fig. 1.—CHARACTERISTIC EXPOSURE OF CLINTON SANDSTONE. Fic. 2.—HARD STRATA IN HELDERBERG FORMATION, DEVIL’S BACKBONE. GEOLOGICAL SECTIONS IN ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 93 the formation. Cement rock of importance is found in the lower part. The location of the four cement beds of commercial value is given in the section below. The rocks of this formation are not well exposed except along Wills Creek in Cumberland, along the Potomac river near Potomac Station, and along Flintstone Creek at Flintstone. Much of the Wills Creek section can be made out only with difficulty, but the Potomac section is well shown. West of the cement mill in Cumber- land the red sandstone beds at the bottom of the formation can be readily seen, as can also considerable portions of the shales and lime- stones, including the cement series. Immediately north of Flint- stone, along Flintstone Creek, various lower beds are fairly well exposed. Around Evitts Mountain the rocks are almost wholly con- cealed. The Potomae section, the best exposed section of Salina in the county, measures as follows:' , Feet. Salina-Helderberg contact ........0. esse eee eee eee eee Gray papery shales, dark drab magnesian limestone, dark blue limestone and yellowish and green sandstones in various relations to each other and all thin bedded. Fossils (Ostracods) are present, especially near the bottom...... 450 “Fourth” cement rock. A twelve-inch band of limestone is found about five feet from the bottom ................... uz, Bluish gray shaly rock with some thin arenaceous and cal- mains DEER Sho noossandoode sondcnaddo co Cao dco opuc sence 191%, OOM rina lee BEV eee CoS oR GORD COU CHD OO SOD On SEbU Cane SOamEONC 12%, Light greenish, fossiliferous shales with some calcareous and ATEMAGEOUS TAYETS) Givierccioclajnal= «'alnin\n:cinca) a cJe's 0 eie\e\eieinloin =\c)=' eet sivls 54 SSE CONG Man CCIMENG, TOC Hits aictateta: etoNe ct chara! are a tae fousavaralet el aisle rors aos Ceca 15 eSBs ACETIETUGETOC Ke tits aie Bey ethane ca, caafaltaan stele tata ta civ tie siajel luis) ciclo o- aceinince > wtagelele afeinie tesla 8 Below this comes a coarse grayish sandstone which is considered as marking the top of the Pocono, thus giving for the total thickness of the Greenbrier at this place two hundred and twenty-seven feet. THE MAUCH CHUNK FORMATION. The Mauch Chunk formation, which is very similar to the Canaan formation of the Piedmont quadrangle, receives its name from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, where the formation is well shown. Like the preceding formation, it is exposed in Allegany county only along the eastern face of the Alleghany Front. This formation, together with the underlying Greenbrier, lies obscurely in the depressions extend- ing in a line across the county between the heavy crest of Alleghany Front and the Pocono knobs a little lower down on the eastern face. The Mauch Chunk is composed chiefly of red arenaceous and argil- laceous shales, the argillaceous shales being a bright red and par- ticularly prominent in the lower part. A little above the middle of the formation there lies in one almost continuous body about one hundred feet of soft, flagey, fine-grained, reddish-green to brownish- red sandstone. The sandstones are very generally micaceous, as are also many of the middle and upper shales. Between the Mauch Chunk and the Greenbrier there is a greenish brecciated sandstone which near the mouth of Stony Run is four feet thick. At the top of the Mauch Chunk there is also a four-foot transi- tion band of highly brecciated reddish arenaceous limestones above MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE Xil. Fig. 1.—EXPOSURE OF JENNINGS SANDSTONE, CORRIGANVILL Fig. 2.—EXPOSURE OF POTTSVILLE SANDSTONE, WESTERNPORT. GEOLOGICAL SECTIONS IN ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 113 which lie the lower flags of the succeeding Pottsville formation. This brecciated limestone can be seen to best advantage on the Cumber- land and Pennsylvania Railroad one hundred twenty rods east of Barrelville. It is apparently continuous southward, since a similar breeciated limestone at the same horizon may be seen outcropping on the Keyser-Piedmont wagon road on the West Virginia side of the Potomac about one and one-half miles below Piedmont. The total thickness of the formation in the Potomac gorge east of Westernport is about eight hundred feet. Along Jennings Run, twenty-five miles to the northeast, the space oceupied by the Mauch Chunk and Greenbrier combined is approximately nine hundred and thirty feet or about one hundred feet less than the combined thickness of the two formations in the Potomac gorge. THE POTTSVILLE FORMATION. The Pottsville formation, which is approximately equivalent to the Blackwater formation of the Piedmont quadrangle, receives its name from Pottsville, Pennsylvania, near which place it is exten- sively developed. It is this formation which, at its easternmost out- crop in the county, makes the bold ‘crest of Alleghany Front, and dip- ping westward passes beneath the surface and forms the massive floor of the Cumberland-Georges Creek coal district. It is to this formation more than to any other that is due the preservation of the present area of the coal-field. By its resistance to erosion it has governed the position of Alleghany Front, and although its eastern edge is greatly notched by Jennings Run, by Braddock Run and by the Potomac river, the latter having, indeed, cut into the formation westward across the synclinal axis, the formation nevertheless retains its full thickness throughout almost all of the area in Allegany county west of the easternmost Pottsville outerop. The formation is slightly eut into by Georges Creek near the southern end of the coal basin, but passes beneath the creek bed a few yards north of the Cumberland and Pennsylvania car-shops in the northern suburbs of Westernport. Messrs. N. H. Darton and Joseph A. Taff, in their general de- 8 . 114 _ THE GEOLOGY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY scription of the Blackwater formation with which the Pottsville so closely agrees, mention the following important characteristics of the area in the northeastern part of the Piedmont quadrangle: “In the vicinity of Piedmont the uppermost and lowest sandstone beds are conglomeritic and are one hundred and ten and thirty feet thick respectively, while the medial sandstone is fine-grained and only fourteen feet thick.”’ The triple character of the formation can be readily made out by means of the many extensive outcrops of sandstone and conglomerate ledges; nevertheless there is no really good exposure of the whole formation found in the county, the softer strata being very largely concealed. Furthermore this, like most of the other Carboniferous formations, shows exceedingly rapid changes within short distances, so that a measurement in one locality, even if favorable conditions prevail, will but poorly suftice, so far as details are concerned, for an area only a short distance away. It is perhaps for this reason alone that such wide discrepancy is observed in the details of all published sections made near the Potomac in the southern part of the Georges Creek basin. The following sec- tion, constructed from measurements made at various places, is be- lieved to represent with reasonable accuracy the general character of the Pottsville formation in that vicinity: Feet. Inches. Pottsville-Allegheny ‘contact <2... 22 <- 20s se geile on sale Massive! sandstone) © 2 DOWER | Be SoSapou ne adacn SOSH OACeL Ove aged oUeo 10 ONG COBW. © acces cen == 0m ini oko G op on aoes 6 MONCH Stack clea he (aie) aeetie Wi awe olla tae oho! o\Sie sjeiacs. siavy 1 11 BOER ance en ae Piotcte ioc fe sena lavage lotr atelieapin = tater no aati 4 BURL Shr arats aigice coco rataroe ce cireetesnn eer < Ww ave te so 2 2 174 THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF ALLEGANY COUNTY The Davis vein in Allegany county generally has a roof composed of shale, overlain by heavy sandstone. The Davis coal is situated about 125-150 feet above the base of the Allegheny formation. This vein is generally regarded as the approximate equivalent of the lower Kittanning coal of Pennsylvania. The Thomas (Three-foot) Coal.—The Thomas coal, so-ealled by the geologists of the U. S. Geological Survey on account of its occurrence at Thomas, West Virginia, covers an extensive area in the Georges Creek basin, outcropping around the higher margins of the syncline, and also eut through by the Georges Creek itself in its lower course. This seam is commonly known in the region as the “ Three-foot” vein (by some erroneously called “ Four-foot ” vein), although it sel- dom contains workable coal of that thickness. The vein varies in thickness from 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet 2 inches. It thickens to the southward and at Thomas has nearly twice the thickness reached in the Georges Creek valley. This coal is quite clean and has been successfully opened to the north of Westernport. The following see- tion of the “ Three-foot ” vein represents its thickness and character throughout the lower Georges Creek area: Feet. Inches. RBG sors cia ate cretexaicheesee antes ob eeriate Sints hoses alstetae © x BOY ICOMl mre deniers yeisie ois ie ie ace as reree nate 3-5 GME thy pices cig plaka mks pit cine lak et. pele slo bi ichemeae 7 (Oro f L S SAN OrasOOU ane anand Socio oc 2 10 Diy ponte C5 Cay ae ae mee ere ear Se x The Thomas vein has a very characteristic shale roof and a fire-clay floor. It is situated directly at the top of the Allegheny formation, and about 155 feet above the Davis coal before described. The coal is generally regarded as the approximate equivalent of the upper Freeport coal of Pennsylvania. Other Coals.—Several other coal veins are found in the Allegheny formation, but none of them have been successfully exploited, and under present conditions cannot be regarded as having much com- mercial value. The most important is the so-called “ Split Six-foot Vein,” which in the lower Georges Creek Valley has been found to contain locally nearly four feet of workable coal. Partings of slate MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY pl ass and bone seriously interfere with the value of the vein. It is situ- ated about 25 to 35 feet below the Davis coal. THE CONEMAUGH COALS. The Conemaugh coals are of less importance than the Allegheny coals, although affording one vein that has already been successfully exploited in the Georges Creek basin and in adjacent areas. This coal, the Barton (Four-foot) coal, may be regarded as possessing much future commercial value. The Barton (Four-foot) Coal.—The Barton coal, so-called from its occurrence in the vicinity of Barton, covers a considerable area in the Georges Creek region. This vein is locally called the “ Four-foot ” vein, although, by an unfortunate interchange of names, it has at times been erroneously referred to by some as the “ Three-foot ” vein. The Barton coal varies in thickness from 2 feet 0 inches to 2 feet 11 inches, its thickness, therefore, being considerably less than its name indicates. Its principal features appear fairly persistent throughout the southern part of the basin, where it has been most examined. Like all of the coal-beds situated below the Big Vein, its position in the north-central part of the district is so far beneath the surface that it may be considered of little immediate value, even though the purity and thickness should prove wholly satisfactory. Southward, how- ever, it gradually approaches the surface and emerges above the bed of Georges Creek fifty yards north of the long railroad bridge one- half mile north of the village of Moscow. At this point, where a small amount of coal has been taken out by private individuals for home use, the thickness is 2 feet 8 inches. One-half mile east of Barton on the Potomac tramroad, where this seam has been opened, the workable coal is 2 feet 6 inches thick. Southward from its point of emergence above Georges Creek the coal outerops along the hillsides, and, continually rising higher above the creek level, can be easily traced by means of the many excavations made in it. The Barton coal is generally quite clean at the points where it has been opened in the central and lower portions of the Georges 176 THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Creek valley. The following section of the Barton coal is character- istic of the lower Georges Creek area: Feet. Inches. Black jack, Done and (slate... oc... oe wow elses = Conkle ree wactist een lore eee ree at ae 2 4 Bone CORE Sooo 73sicriesinw ip vo wie ela iene oa x The Barton coal is situated about 250 feet above the Thomas coal and is commonly about 425 feet below the Big Vein. It is prob- ably the equivalent of the Bakerstown coal of adjacent states, although this equivalency cannot be very satisfactorily shown. The Franklin (Dirty Nine-foot) Coal—The Franklin coal, so- called from Franklin in the lower Georges Creek valley, where a good section of the vein is exposed in the old Franklin Plane, is locally called the “ Dirty Nine-foot” vein. This coal had never been worked to any great extent, and has little commercial value. It i is, as its popular name signifies, very dirty, and at many points entirely unworkable. With its contained slates it varies in thickness from 5 feet 10 inches to 10 feet 4 inches. It is somewhat thicker at Franklin than in the portions of the Georges Creek valley to the north and south of it. The following section near the Franklin Plane shows the general character of the coal: Feet. Tnehes. Sandstone: < coef ies aide wee eee see a= Se tee x HMI SU mint nein pe oie Poa aeee eee oie ae eae ai 1 6 Shale with thin coal vein................... an oe COAL £0 So, Jorvins ooo ga, ch a marae oe ke ela 2 3 Nikte tant coals <. WOTe Se sewn cs vie ie ole oe are atte x The Franklin coal is the approximate equivalent of the Little Clarksburg Vein of West Virginia. Other Coals.—There are a number of other small veins found in the Conemaugh formation, but they have little commercial value, either on account of the extreme thinness of the coal vein itself or the numerous slates which are interstratified with the coal. It is hardly probable that they can ever be worked with profit. THE MONONGAHELA COALS. The Monongahela coals, although of much less areal extent than those which have hitherto been described, are by far the most impor- tant in Allegany county, since they contain the wonderful Fourteen- foot or Big Vein. The smaller Monongahela coals are much less MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XVII. Fic. 1.—PUMPING STATION, CONSOLIDATION COAL CO. Fic. 2.—MINING PLANT AT OCEAN, NO. I. COAL MINING IN ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY aU Gr important than several of the small veins occurring in the Allegheny and Conemaugh formations and their operation hitherto has not been attended with any great success. The three more important veins found in the Monongahela formation are the Elkgarden (Fourteen- foot or Big Vein) coal, the Tyson (Gas) coal, and the Koontz . (Waynesburg) coal. The Elkgarden (Fourteen-foot or Big Vein) Coal—The Elkgarden coal, so named by the geologists of the U. S. Geological Survey from Elkgarden, West Virginia, where this seam is well represented, is generally referred to in Maryland as the Fourteen-foot or Big Vein coal and is much more extensively developed in the Georges Creek Basin than in West Virginia. The Big Vein originally covered an extensive area in the Georges Creek Basin, but in the more than a half of a century that this coal has been actively mined large tracts have become entirely exhausted. It occurs at present in largest volume in the central and northern portions of the field, in the vicinity of Frostburg. This Big Vein varies in thickness from 5 or 7 feet up to more than 20 feet, the latter thickness having, more- over, been exceeded at one or two isolated points where pockets of unusual thickness have been reached. Its usual thickness is from 10 to 12 feet and, in general, it has been found to thicken southward. The coal is very clean and of the highest quality, affording a low per- centage of both ash and sulphur. It is in most respects the finest steam-coal known, and is extensively used where the highest grade coals are demanded. The following section made just below Lona- coning, is representative of the Big Vein coal in that part of the Georges Creek Basin: Feet. Inches. ALB seteistoialacrotnnite cia. sul's ebee ac oie aapeon wees x Witlelaco plier cia cietye re chi nercir sie sete araretecvenc © 1 BARD C LUV saa tcban acts ste o/s chys)aastnyoYephs aYafs,ade:stard 1 OCI Od lean teenie steep eeideke hatele scien 2 ERIE SCOR AG ys Seieiche aleiomiekatehut bales istpietvtor cea toes 8 SPOR SUNCOM te ot otve aie atlas cra) o es; oS egitaza ta aera! rs suayd a 8 ULE Tin i eae! SR ent pnds b dithos ROE TRONE aD ECR ERE 1 Coal 4 in. | Slate ...........- 1 | CN se dgie aan ge 1 ft. ‘ Bottom coal.. 2 33 SEG ROSE QarianbGr | ‘ OBIE c lee. 6 1u J 178 THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF ALLEGANY COUNTY The Elkgarden coal occurs at the base of the Monongahela forma- tion, and is probably the equivalent of the Pittsburg Vein of Penn- sylvania and West Virginia, although on account of the structural conditions under which it is found it differs materially from the latter in its physical and chemical properties. Thin persistent bands of slate or dry partings subdivide the Big Vein coal into three definite members, each of which possesses spe- cial characteristics. These beds are known as Roof coal, Breast coal and Bottom coal. The Roof coal includes several more or less important layers of coal of varying purity and thickness separated by thin beds of shale. Except in the northern part of the basin these roof coals are not removed in mining, since they are of particular importance as a sup- port for the overlying strata. The Breast coal is the thickest and the most valuable member of the Big Vein coal. North of Frostburg it seems to retain its purity through a thickness of scarcely more than two feet, while south of Lonaconing it is sometimes more than seven feet thick and without impurities. Near the top there is a two to eight-inch layer of bony coal, but this is rarely sufficiently impure to necessitate its rejection. Near the bottom there is a four to six-inch band of soft “ mining ply ” which is jet black, has a brilliant luster, and shows a strong tendency to break into small cubical blocks. The Bottom coal is from two and one-half to three feet thick and generally contains two thin slate bands. Other impurities are some- times present but they are seldom of a very serious nature. On account of the slate bands the Bottom coal for many years was not mined, but under an improved system of mining these thin slates are now easily removed and the coal readily taken up. On the whole the slates thin perceptibly from north to south and the coal members thicken greatly in that direction, the total thick- ness of workable coal in the vicinity of Franklin being in some places considerably more than fourteen feet. The structure of the coal is chiefly columnar though sometimes shaly. The columnar portions generally have a deep, shining jet MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY : 179 appearance, the shaly portions a dull black. The cohesion is weak, a slight blow causing fracture. The coal is semi-bituminous and contains on an average about nine- teen per cent. volatile carbon, seventy-four per cent. fixed carbon, less than six per cent. ash and less than one per cent. sulphur. The Big-Vein coal is mined by all of the leading coal companies, among them The Consolidation Coal Co., The Georges Creek Coal and Iron Co., The Black, Sheridan, Wilson Co., The American Coal Co., the Maryland Coal Co., the New Central Coal Co. and the Davis Coal and Coke Co. The Tyson (Gas) Coal.—The Tyson coal, often referred to locally as the “Gas” coal, is found widely in the Georges Creek Basin. Attempts have been made from time to time to work this coal, but the results have not been very satisfactory. The vein varies from 4 feet 7 inches to 7 feet 3 inches in thickness. The coal is moderately clean, but in other respects is inferior to the Big Vein coal in quality. Like the Big Vein, the Tyson coal is separated by thin slates into three members, the top coal being generally more than twelve inches thick, the middle coal from three to four feet and the bottom from one to two and one-half feet. Near Franklin the thickness of good workable coal is seven feet, but in the vicinity of Lonaconing it is scarcely four feet. The following section represents the general character of the Tyson seam in the Georges Creek region. Feet. Inches. SO ong G pp onotn a odbo this DUO HE acnas FaObeD x Chala chine EC Oa a ad ooeipe a aBee Do odo Siti oo 6 2 RSPR DA PET CUL BVI onetec sy tice alee, xetaca a wie oxeie Mave. chais)ia's ae The Tyson seam occurs at about 120 feet above the top of the Big Vein. It is probably the equivalent of the Sewickley coal of Penn- sylvania. The Koontz Coal——The Koontz coal, so-called from its occurrence in the vicinity of Koontz near the head of Koontz Run, has been pros- pected with some success, but the coal has not been worked to any great extent up to the present time. The areal extent of the Koontz is very small, oceupying the higher lands of the Georges Creek Basin. 180 THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF ALLEGANY COUNTY The vein varies from 5 feet 9 inches to 7 feet 9 inches. The coal is moderately clean, but like the Tyson vein, is inferior to the Big Vein. Near the Koontz mine, where this seam has been perhaps the most extensively worked, great trouble was occasioned by numer- ous fissures, on account of which the mining of it was finally aban- doned. The main drift entered this seam a distance of 1164 feet, during the course of which twenty-one fissures were found, one ot the fissures being more than twelve feet in thickness. The following section represents the general character of the seam in-its typical locality. Feet Inches. Coal cess ovo hire see ee iy een Ou) oe pee ours 2 3 IBOMGR care ne eters ctaniele aloha ete hicera rere Ure wie Rierkagees a 4 Goal ee Sa cdetatici tala able toatl Meincint)>tdews mates 6 BONG sh cin a oeateiels lake cobenetsien otal squeal ole oteis tae sinteielgisisiiate 7 CORTE a atten, rote rnc ire a nat nations materaek liane pias 1 3 Blstel: fod te Gets ds ve oes Bn eerdeb sree ete ae 10 COB ee take caters ic texetobel staimie fini allot ctislinte Tare 7 ete" oh die) ale aioe 5 SNale wera curtis ei iemeiec mers ri lee ee eres x The Koontz seam caps the Monongahela formation and is found at an elevation of about 110-130 feet above the Tyson vein and about 230-250 feet above the top of the Big Vein. The Koontz coal is the probable equivalent of the Waynesburg coal of Pennsylvania. Other Coals.—Several other small veins are found in the Monon- gahela formation, one on the west side of the valley being found at 29 feet above the Big Vein and containing about 43 feet of coal. This coal has been hardly more than prospected for as yet, and it is doubtful if it has any commercial importance. It is the approximate equivalent of the Redstone coal of Pennsylvania. Crays. The clay resources of Allegany county include fire-clays, residual clays, sedimentary clays and shales. They represent an inexhaust- ible supply of material capable of being used in the manufacture of different grades of clay products. While the value of the fire-clays has been known since an early date, the other clay materials remain practically untouched. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 181 FIRE-CLAYS. All of the beds of fire-clay thus far discovered in the county lie in the Pottsville formation, their position being under the Homewood sandstone. Extending across the western border of the county in a N.E.-S.W. direction is the great synclinal trough of the Georges Creek coal basin, and it is near the rim of this that the fire-clay beds outerop and are mined. ‘These fire-clays were first discovered in 1837 at Mt. Savage, and employed for lining two blast-furnaces then in use at that locality by the Maryland and New York Coal and Iron Com- pany. In 1841 a fire-brick plant was opened at Mt. Savage, which has been in operation ever since, so that now bricks made from Mt. Savage fire-clay bear a national reputation. The fire-clay beds have been opened up at three different mines, viz., on Savage Mountain, 23 miles northwest of Frostburg, on the same mountain 24 miles west of Mt. Savage, and on Little Alle- gheny Mountain 2 miles west of Ellerslie. At these three points the clay oceurs in a bed from 8-14 feet thick, and is commonly overlain by a thin bed of coal. Two types of fire-clay are found, viz., the soft or plastic clay and the hard or flint clay. Both possess the im- portant quality of refractoriness, and they may even agree closely in composition, but thev differ widely in plasticity. The soft clay is highly plastic, while the hard clay, even after being ground, is devoid of this character. They therefore serve two different purposes: the one acts as a bond, the other decreases the shrinkage; and they are consequently mixed in suitable proportions, care being taken to use as much of the hard as possible. No fixed method of occurrence of the two clays exists, for in one mine the soft may be on top, while in another the hard clay forms the upper members. : In mining the custom is to run in a drift from the face of the slope until the bed of clay is met and then follow it with gangways in dif- ferent directions. In these gangways tracks are laid for the ears. Owing to the looseness of the roof, much timbering has to be em- ployed. 182 THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF ALLEGANY COUNTY The prevailing method of manufacture is to charge the hard and soft clay into a wet pan, adding the necessary amount of water. This results in grinding up the clays and tempering or mixing them at the same time. One exception to this is the Ellerslie works, where the clay receives a preliminary grinding in a dry pan. The tempering in the wet pan takes but a few minutes, and one pan can in 5 or 6 hours temper enough clay for eight or ten thousand brick. The tempered mixture is carried to the molding tables and pressed by hand in wooden molds, after which the soft bricks are spread out on brick-drying floors heated by flues underneath. After remaining several hours on this floor, the bricks are put into a repressing machine, which not only makes the bricks denser but gives them a more regular shape. They are then burned in kilns, of which sey- eral different types of either up or down-draft pattern are used in the Allegany county works. A noteworthy feature of the Union Mining Company’s plant at Mt. Savage is the use of two continuous kilns, which are heated by means of producer gas, generated in producers run on a track alongside the kiln. The use of these producers causes economy of fuel and, furthermore, with the continuous kiln system the waste heat is used for heating up the chambers not yet burned. The burning occupies 5-6 days, and the cooling several days more. The Mt. Savage Enameled Brick Company is engaged in the manu- facture of enameled brick, the raw materials used being a mixture of hard and soft fire-clay. The bricks made are mostly white, although other colors are used. Recently the company has undertaken the manufacture of fancy shapes. Among the buildings in which large quantities of these bricks are used are the Buffalo Post Office; Back Bay Station, Boston; Union Depot, Boston; ete. SHALES. The Carboniferous and Devonian rocks of Allegany county con- tain a vast series of shales, as can be seen from an inspection of the geological map and sections accompanying this report. Shale is simply clay which has been consolidated by pressure, and, MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 183 consequently, when ground and mixed with water, it usually develops the same degree and kind of plasticity that soft clay shows. It is often found especially adapted to the manufacture of vitrified goods, for its extreme fineness of grain and homogeneity permit it to soften evenly and thoroughly by the action of heat. Allegany county pos- sesses a large supply of this material, distributed not only in the east- ern but also in the western half of the county. The former are of Devonian and the latter of Carboniferous age. The Carboniferous shales are at times closely associated with the coal-seams, while at others they are several feet distant from them. It is a common custom among coal miners to speak of shale under- lying coal as fire-clay; and while this often holds true in some regions, it must not be taken as a universal fact. Along the Georges Creek valley there are numerous outcropping beds of shale, some of them favorably located for working. Among them may be mentioned outcrops on the hillside opposite Gannon’s plane between Franklin and Piedmont, West Virginia; on the east side of Georges Creek at Barton; also in Gannon’s new tunnel oppo- site Franklin School House, and again beyond the pumping shaft. On the western side of Savage Mountain the Mauch Chunk shale is well exposed, and in places affords very plastic outcrops. Its mix- ture with the neighboring fire-clays might yield interesting results. These shales are usually fine-grained, moderately hard and would probably grind up to plastic mixtures without much trouble. The Devonian shales form a series of beds of great thickness in Allegany county, and are well exposed in places, especially east of Cumberland. While they also occur at the southern end of the county, still they are usually hidden by a heavy covering of talus. At* Keyser, West Virginia, the Romney shales are exposed along the railroad tracks on the north side of the creek. Passing east from Cumberland, one traverses a series of outcrops of Jennings, Portage, Genesee, Hamilton and Marcellus shales. The upper portions could be well utilized in the manufacture of clay pro- duets, and even the lower parts may find similar use. 184 THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF ALLEGANY COUNTY At South Cumberland, at a point near the crossing of Evitts Creek by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the upper shales of the Jennings (Portage) are yielding excellent results in the manufacture of a brick of high density and fine red color. The shales employed here, although in part appearing extremely hard, slake down to a plastic clay. The South Cumberland Brick Works have five kilns in opera- tion here. ‘ At Potomac Station the Clinton and Salina shales are well ex- posed, the former on the hill above the cement works and the latter on the slope to the south and adjoining the quarries. The Salina, owing to its siliceous character, is not worth considering, but the Clinton, if not too calcareous, might be useful. The Juniata (Medina) shales are exposed along the northern side of the “ Narrows”’ just west of Cumberland, but they are so inter- bedded with sandstone as to render their working impracticable. Aside from their use in the manufacture of clay products, such as brick, terra cotta, ete., there is still another direction in which the shales might be employed, and that is for the manufacture of Port- land cement. The shales at Keyser, West Virginia, have Helderberg limestone near by, the Carboniferous shales in Georges Creek valley are not far from Carboniferous limestone, and the same conditions apply to the shales around Cumberland. SEDIMENTARY CLAYS. : Sedimentary clays are mostly found in the broader valleys. They underlie the flats at Cumberland, Potomae, ete. They are commonly siliceous, and while well adapted to the manufacture of common brick or even flower pots, their use ends there. RESIDUAL CLAYS. Residual clays, derived from the Helderberg limestone, occur in the northern central portion of the county on the Maryland side of the Potomac river. At Bier and at Keyser it is used exclusively for the manufacture of brick. At Cumberland both brick and pottery are made. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 185 In the north-central part of the county the residual clays resulting from the decomposition of the Helderberg and Silurian limestones are available in abundance but have been little used. In addition to the soft clays the argillaceous shales of the Romney and Jennings formations would no doubt afford an inexhaustible supply of good clay if for any reason it should seem desirable to work them. Line anp Cement Propvucts. Lime and hydraulic cement are extensive products of Allegany county. That part of the Salina formation commonly known as the “ Waterlime Group ” which is so much utilized in the northern Appa- lachian region for the manufacture of hydraulic cement, is worked at Cumberland and at Potomac. Operations have been important and almost continuous at Cumberland since 1836, at which time the cement from the Salina beds was first used in Maryland. Work at Potomac was begun in 1891, since which time the cement rock there has been mined extensively. The cement mine at Cumberland, which is under the management of the Cumberland Hydraulic Cement and Manufacturing Company, is situated on the south side of Wills Creek, where the cement beds are folded and well exposed, allowing convenient access to the rock along the strike. At Potomac, where the rock is mined by the Cum- berland and Potomac Cement Company, the strata stand upright and are even better exposed than at Cumberland. The cement rock proper occurs, as earlier shown, in beds of vary- ing thickness separated by impure calcareous shales. Only four of these beds have sufficient thickness and purity to be economically worked. These all lie within the “cement series” of the Salina formation, and vary in thickness from six to seventeen feet. -The first or lowest cement rock is of but little value when worked alone, but when mixed with material from the other beds can be used to advantage. The second is worked most extensively and yields the finest quality of cement. The third is not so good as the second, but can be profitably used by mixing with it. The fourth is also not so good as the second, but is better than either of the others. 186 THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF ALLEGANY COUNTY In general, the rock varies from a dark bluish gray to a dull black; is quite shaly, frequently showing thin limestones, breaks readily and usually contains few or no fossils. The chemical composition of the rock at Cumberland has been found to be as follows: Garbonate Of 1IMG. . foci. eb eds gees = 0000 ee winicele site 41.80 Carbonate of magnesia ........f.. 20s cee eece scene reees 8.60 PTLIGH, <5: 0.0/ar eels /armeee a albe who Rial icis 5.5 ab/ela cote Ree GLAS 24.74 ON bb tet Ms eo becris SUG Ard cb 6 CCUG EO OES ths tooo 16.7 Oxide Of SrOn ein. sien hccte 0 mis cla » theivicre oi6ieiels men ta Mund aipisl® 6.30 Aside from the exposures at Cumberland and Potomac, the cement beds are not well shown in Allegany county, although with a little effort they might be reached in other localities. In the north-central part of the county the beds are doubtless developed as fully as further west, but they are not well exposed and lack of transportation facili- ties necessarily prevents their development. The Helderberg formation supplies nearly all of the lime made in the county. The limestone is extensively burned at several places in the immediate vicinity of Cumberland, and in addition to sup- plying the local demand for building purposes, considerable shipments are made. A kiln at a small quarry north of Cresap near the Georges Creek and Cumberland Railroad supplies a part of the Frostburg demand. In a few places west and southwest of Flintstone small kilns have been constructed, but the burning of the lime has been carried on at very irregular intervals and then only for local use, chiefly for fertilizing purposes. In addition to the Helderberg limestone, the Coal Measures lime- stones have been burned to some extent for agricultural and building purposes and have also been used for fluxing iron ores. For the latter purpose one of the higher limestones of the Dunkard formation, quar- ried about. two miles southeast of Frostburg, was used extensively during the time of the development of the Carboniferous iron ores in the Cumberland-Georges Creek region. The heavy limestone of the Conemaugh exposed on the Potomae gravity-plane was quarried for a time, but that has been abandoned. Other limestones of the Coal Measures have been burned occasionally in a small way, but at present they are rarely used. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 187 The Greenbrier limestone would no doubt make lime of excellent quality, but it has apparently never been tested in Allegany county. The outcrops, however, are usually not good, and even on Stony Run, where the formation is best exposed, many of the purest beds are not accessible. ‘ Likewise the Niagara and the Romney limestones are rarely well exposed, and the far greater ease of access to the excellent Helderberg limestone will perhaps always prevent their use. Buirprne Stone. Building stone in almost unlimited quantity is found in the Tus- earora, Oriskany, Pottsville and Conemaugh formations. The heavy Carboniferous sandstones and conglomerates of the Pottsville and the Conemaugh have been used considerably for heavy bridge ma- terial on the various railroads in the county and for general founda- tion work in the coal basin. For all of these purposes this material has proved to be satisfactory, but no building of importance has been constructed entirely of it, the highly iron-stained condition of this stone precluding its use for such purposes. The Oriskany formation has in the past furnished the material: used in the construction of many good buildings in Cumberland, the most prominent being the Protestant Episcopal Church, the stone for which was quarried from a hillside near the center of the city. When fresh, this stone varies in color from a pure white to a bluish- gray, but with slight exposure it changes to a light brown or buff. It is made up of medium fine to coarse slightly angular fragments held together usually by a calcareous cement. Owing to its rapid dis- coloration and to the marked disintegration around the numerous fossils which this stone contains, its use in the construction of impor- tant buildings is much less extensive than in former years. Its con- venience, however, to Cumberland and the ease with which it is quar- ried give to this stone a permanent local value. The Tuscarora quartzite, until comparatively recently, has been little used. It is less heavily bedded than the Oriskany and much harder to dress, but owing to its almost snowy whiteness and its com- 188 THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF ALLEGANY COUNTY parative freedom from substances likely to mar its beauty, the Tus- carora deserves, and is now commanding, much more attention than formerly, especially in the vicinity of Cumberland, where it is found. The stone thus far quarried from the Tuscarora has been used largely for curbs, steps and cemetery work, as, well as for trimmings in some of the best buildings in Cumberland. It is nowhere systematically quarried for building purposes, but it can be advantageously reached by railroad in many places along Wills Mountain. Roap MareErtats. Good road material is abundant in Allegany county. Limestone in available quantity is found at several geological horizons and only in the eastern part of the county is it wholly absent. The cherty beds at the bottom of the Oriskany formation disintegrate deeply into a talus of small angular fragments which furnish an easily prepared material of excellent quality. The massive limestone beds in the Helderberg formation below the cherty layers, although nowhere systematically quarried for road use, have nevertheless furnished at various times large quantities of highly satisfactory stone for use on the National Road. _ Some of the Niagara limestones might be of local value should a demand for them arise, but these are perhaps too much concealed and too near the better exposed Helderberg to be used very exten- sively. Likewise the limestone beds near the bottom of the Romney formation are available in a few places, but their impurities and their general concealment will no doubt always prevent their extensive use. Greenbrier limestone makes excellent road-metal, and although not worked in Allegany county, large quantities have been brought into the county and used as ballast on the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- road. In Allegany county the Greenbrier can be successfully quar- ried in only three localities, viz., on Jennings Run, Braddock Run and on Stony Run. Even at these places the outcrops are much concealed. The Coal Measures limestones are numerous but rarely well ex- posed. Along the Cumberland and Pennsylvania Railroad about MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 189 two hundred and fifty yards north of the Frostburg tunnel limestone from the lower part of the Dunkard formation has been obtained for the streets of Frostburg. Formerly a considerable amount of ma- terial was obtained for the same purpose in the upper part of the Dunkard formation near the Consolidation Coal Company’s pumping shaft two miles south of Frostburg. Monongahela limestone appar- ently of excellent quality could be procured at slight expense along the Carlos Branch Railroad south of Frostburg. This is a massive dark blue limestone which gives a very perceptible metallic ring when struck with a hammer. For local uses other limestones in the coal basin could be made available if desired. The enormous talus slopes of Tuscarora quartzite in the Narrows near Cumberland yield an abundance of hard white rock which for several years has been crushed for use as railroad ballast. Tron Ore. No iron ore is now mined within the county and the future gives little promise in this direction. ‘i Allegany county in the past, how- ever, has been closely connected with the iron trade and of this especial mention needs to be made. As early as 1837 the iron industry was fairly inaugurated. During this year the Georges Creek Coal and Tron Company began the erection of a furnace at Lonaconing fifty feet high and fourteen and one-half feet wide at the boshes. In June, 1839, it was making about seventy tons of good foundry iron per week, using coke as fuel. In 1837 two large blast furnaces were begun at Mount Savage by the New York Coal and Iron Company and were completed during the following year. In 1845 the same company built another furnace, but it was not lined and was never used. The Mount Savage rolling-mill was built in 1848 especially to roll iron rails and during the summer of 1844 it rolled the first heavy rails rolled in America. In honor of that event the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia awarded a medal to the proprietors in ‘October, 1844. The rails were of inverted U form and weighed, forty-two pounds to the yard, and the first few hundred tons were laid on the railroad between Mount Savage and Cumberland. J. M. 190 THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Swank says that Allegany county is entitled to two of the highest honors in connection with the American iron trade: “It built the first successful coke furnace and rolled the first heavy iron rails.” * In 1846 a ffrnace was built at Cumberland which at first used char- coal and afterwards used coke. This furnace was not long in opera- tion. The blast furnace at Mount Savage continued in operation longer, but the gradually changing conditions of the iron trade caused its final abandonment in 1868. The foundry, however, was not given up and continues in operation at the present time. So far as known, most of the iron ore used in Allegany county came from the Coal Measures strata. Much of it was found near the middle of the Conemaugh formation, but not a little was obtained from the lower part of the Monongahela. According to Professor Tyson, the fossil ore of the Clinton formation was also used exten- sively for a time both at Mount Savage and at Lonaconing. Iron ore occurs in almost every geological formation in the county and even where not well exposed may frequently reveal itself as loose pieces lying upon the surface of the ground. Much of the ore is, however, of no practical value, but when the condition of the iron trade is not at its best, attempt at the development even of the richest of deposits is almost sure to prove unsuccessful. Aside from the Car- boniferous and Clinton ores which have already been worked, the only horizon which, so far as known, might give even the slightest hopes of success is near the bottom of the Romney. Iron ore has been prospected for in many localities, but in no place has it been found in sufficient quantity to be available. It is liable to oceur in pockets of no great extent, and generally of slight thickness. The iron ores of the Clinton formation are exposed to good ad- vantage in several places in the county where they can be easily reached at any time if desired. The lower ore is one hundred sixty feet above the Clinton-Tusearora contact, as observed south of Cumberland on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad one mile south of Bradys. Here the ore is in two bands, the lower one four and one-half ‘Swank, James M. History of the Manufacture of [ron in all Ages. Philadelphia, 1884. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 191 feet thick and the upper one more than eight feet thick. Between the two are six and one-half feet of shales. Apparently the ore bed exposed on both sides of Wills creek west of the cement mill in Cumberland is the same as that near Bradys, but the twin character is not so prominently developed at Cumberland. The upper Clinton ore band, very similar to those just mentioned, is found immediately above the ten-foot sandstone, near the top of the formation. This ore was formerly mined, and for a time furnished much of the ore used in the county. The Clinton ore is a highly fossiliferous hematite varying in color in weathered outcrops from a dull brown to a deep red. Concerning the changes brought about in the limestone beds, in connection with which the ore was formed, Professor J. P. Lesley says: ‘“ The pro- toxide of iron is mostly in combination with carbonate of lime as a triple compound, carbonate of protoxide of, iron and lime. The iron- ore beds when followed far enough beneath drainage level, show by chemical analysis that this is their constitution. Above drainage their carbonate of lime has been dissolved and carried off; their car- bonate of iron has received a double charge of oxygen, and remains behind as red hematite iron ore.” The Coal Measures ore bands are carbonates and limonites, the relative purity and thickness of which vary greatly. Little is known regarding the character and extent of these deposits, as they have been but little exploited hitherto. Their position and approximate thick- ness are indicated in the various sections which have been given in the chapters on the Stratigraphy and Structure. Minerat anp Orpinary Sprines. The only springs in Allegany county that have been especially noted for their mineral properties are the sulphur springs situated in the north-central part of the county. One of these, known as the Flintstone Sulphur Spring, is near the center of the village of Flint- stone, and was for many years a source of considerable revenue. About four miles southeast of Flintstone there is a group of springs formerly considered of much importance. These are situated be- 192 THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF ALLEGANY COUNTY tween Polish Mountain and Green Ridge on property once owned by William Carroll, and are known as the Carroll White Sulphur Springs. The sulphur in these springs, as well as in the Flintstone spring, is very perceptible to the taste, and a deposit of sulphate quickly settles upon the rocks over which the water flows. Little need be said concerning the ordinary springs except to speak of their abundance and general distribution. Along the Tuscarora- Clinton, the Oriskany-Romney, and the Mauch Chunk-Pottsville con- tact lines excellent springs are particularly numerous. Many good springs occur elsewhere, but throughout the greater part of the county they are not so strong nor so regularly distributed as along the lines indicated. A few important exceptions occur. These are often closely related to disturbed strata, an excellent example of which may be seen to good advantage at the “ Big Spring” one mile south- west of Rush. This is perhaps the strongest spring in the county and its waters flow from a local anticline in the Helderberg limestone. Miscettanrous MarteErIats. In addition to the economic resources already discussed, the pos- sible development of some other industries deserves mention. Glass- sand is now obtained in the Narrows near Cumberland as a by-pro- duct in the crushing of Tuscarora quartzite for railroad ballast. The quality of the sand thus obtained is excellent, but for extensive use the rock is too difficult to pulverize. The Oriskany sandstone is the great glasssand producer of the Northern Appalachians and - there are such extensive outcrops of this rock in Allegany county that the question of its utility has merited some study. Owing to the great abundance of good glass-sand elsewhere, and the somewhat limited demand for the article as compared with the supply, it is necessary for the rock to be of the highest quality and most favorably located to become of economic value. So far as known, no special prospect- ing has been done hitherto to learn of the possible value of the Oris- kany sandstone as a glass-sand producer in Allegany county, but the surface indications are unfavorable. Generally this sandstone is highly iron-stained, but where not so, especially along Warrior Moun- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 198 tain, its exposed surfaces show a hardness almost equal to that of the Tuscarora. The deep red argillaceous shales at the bottom of the Mauch Chunk possess qualities which seem to indicate their adaptability as a cheap paint, and it has been used, although not extensively, for that purpose. Recently attention has been called to the dark reddish-brown loam which is sometimes found at the outcropping ‘edge of the Big Vein coal, where seepage of its highly charged iron waters has caused the deposition of much ferruginous coloring matter. Recently several ear-loads of this loam were shipped from near the Potomac mine to the paint works at Keyser, West Virginia, for testing as to its value as a paint producer. Near the bottom of the Pottsville formation a four-foot bed of black siliceous oolitie rock, strikingly like some of the Tennessee phosphate rock, has been observed. Upon analysis it was found that the rock contains considerable phosphate, but not in sufficient quantities to make it of economic value. It is not impossible that further investi- gation in other areas may reveal deposits richer in phosphate. The only place in Allegany county where this phosphatic rock has been observed is about forty feet above the bed of the Potomae river on the wagon road one and one-fourth miles southeast of Westernport. The rock here is much weathered and possesses little of the character- istics of the fresh material. Loose slabs of the rock, in a much less weathered condition, were found in considerable abundance on the West Virginia side of the Potomac. 13 194 THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF ALLEGANY COUNTY LIST OF OPERATORS IN MINERAL PRODUCTS IN ALLEGANY COUNTY. Coat. NAME. ADDRESS. Consolidation Coal Company..............--esssees Baltimore. Black, Sheridan, Wilson Company..............-+.+-- “ Georges Creek Coal and Iron Company ............. U Bip: Vein) GomliGomip anys i 2 oe cmrslaesais ict aselmiel-istelegeiniatale ts Lonacoéninp ‘Coal Conipany ©... 1... secs nels se ste cele “ Barton: Mining Company, « ire.ccrre.!2 2 sie ease a = n)e= Barton. Sinclair Mining Companys. c- 6 cclee mens os nee ctene Cumberland. Malcolmipine lain ist; sciske «atest cae) strip leben emi atsc. “ Borden Mining Company .. .. 22.0 5. se ce ssceccene Frostburg. ACs) IAS) ERE CHIN GE h 2 sporctatas store store ete see gle ee lelelere = atrial “ ‘Amehican CoaliCompan yo ct cwilete cares leains amine ate Lonaconing. Maryland Coal Company ..............-+.2--e sees “ New Central Coal Company .........-.-000-s00000s “ pA a) ss LODIUEL streterolalateratsie el=ie fatelsy aieTeielele! bigtaia (ate aval liar Westernport. eA Oe ied s MOU E OE Foye ys) otelteere: oieler ot eye ere relies =ieteie Ua a mi iota ia fale Ms Atlantic and Georges Creek Consolidation Coal Co... Piedmont, W. Va. Piedmont-—Cumberland Coal Company ......... teks “ “ Piedmont Mining Company..........0-.02+-++eee- ts se Davis Coal and Coke Company .............-.-.-s:- Philadelphia, Pa. CLAYS AND SHALES. 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Ww = ra ‘tm | smu mm | um | tum | cur | ‘oor ° K AZ =go9"_| 00-10") TO-<0") Bese] &5 =o = fy n O40 ® ; +O bos 50 pe i=} 5 a he no = me Be BS ©. 5 re B a a “ALNNOO ANVOATIV woud STIOSHOS GNV SITIOS AO SUSATVYNY TVOINVHOUW AHL AO AYVWWOS The CLIMATE OF ALLEGANY ‘COUNTY BY OLIVER L. FASSIG Iyrropucrion. So variable are the elements of the weather in an inland region in our latitudes that many years of continuous observations of tempera- ture and rainfall are required to obtain an accurate average value. To obtain a value for the mean annual temperature correct within 1° Fahrenheit requires from twenty to thirty years of daily obser- vations. In the tropics near the ocean, where weather conditions are more uniform, an equally accurate value may be obtained from four or five years of observations. Allegany county is particularly fortunate in the possession of a long series of valuable observations of climatie conditions. One of the first objects to claim the attention of Professor Joseph Henry, after the establishment of the Smithsonian Institution in 1849, was the organization of an extensive network of stations for recording weather conditions, and collecting facts for the study of American storms. Professor Henry soon succeeded in enlisting the services of a devoted body of intelligent observers. Among the early and faith- ful members of this system was Mr. Edwin Thomas Shriver of Cum- berland. Mr. Shriver began the daily reading of the thermometer, and his observations of wind and weather, in January of 1859. With splendid persistence, and with the true spirit of devotion ta science, he continued his daily observations uninterruptedly for thirty-seven years. In 1871 the measurement of rainfall was added to his record. The last report of Mr. Shriver, for January, 1896, made a month before his death, was as complete as those of his early days. Few individual records of the weather in this country can compare with 218 THE CLIMATE OF ALLEGANY COUNTY those of Mr. Shriver in completeness and continuity. But two records in Maryland are longer. Frederick has a continuous record from about 1821, but made by numerous observers; Baltimore has a record, though not entirely continuous and made under different auspices, beginning in 1817. To Cumberland belongs the distinction of having the longest continuous record in Maryland made by a single observer. The topography of Allegany county is described in detail else- where in this volume. It is desirable here to bear in mind only the most general topographic features. The county is in the heart of the Alleghany mountain system; its surface is made up of parallel ranges rising in places to elevations of nearly 3000 feet, and extend- ing northeast and southwest. The valleys are narrow. The popula- tion of the county is mostly in the valleys, largely along the Potomac river, at elevations varying between 700 feet and 1000 feet above sea-level. Cumberland, Boettcherville, Westernport, Flintstone, and Oldtown are all under 1000 feet elevation and have approximately similar climatic conditions. The annual and monthly values for tem- perature and rainfall at all of these stations, as shown by accompany- ing tables, agree very closely with the normal values obtained from Mr. Shriver’s long record for Cumberland, after making due allow- ance for the short periods of observation. The climate of Cumber- land represents very well the climate of the valleys of Allegany county. Climatic conditions change rapidly with change in elevation. In round numbers the mean temperature falls 1° Fahrenheit for every 300 feet in elevation above the surface of the earth. A similar fall in the mean temperature is experienced, at sea-level, in the Middle Atlantic states, by traveling northward about 40 miles. To state the same fact in another way: Frostburg, at an elevation of about 1500 — feet above Cumberland, should have a mean annual temperature of about 5° Fahrenheit less than that at Cumberland, or about 48°. A similar fall in the mean annual temperature is met with in going northward from Cumberland, across the state of Pennsylvania, into the southern portions of New York state. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 219 At the present time we have but little over one year’s observations for Frostburg, a period totally inadequate to establish a reliable mean value for the annual temperature. The mean annual temperature obtained for the period from September, 1898, to August, 1899, is 50.7° Fahrenheit. During this period the temperature at neigh- boring stations was about 1.5° above normal; substracting this amount from 50.7°, we have 49.2° as a closer approximation to the normal value for Frostburg. Probably a still more accurate value would be the mean for five years of observations made at the neighboring station of Grantsville, in Garrett county, which has about the same elevation as Frostburg and is but a few miles to the north. This is 48°. TEMPERATURE. The climatic factor of most concern to us, viewed from the stand- point of personal comfort, is the variability of the temperature in our vicinity. In tables and diagrams here presented, may be found the average annual and monthly values for all stations established in Allegany county, the mean daily variation, the mean monthly varia- tion, and the absolute extremes of temperature. In Table I may be found the results of Mr. E. T. Shriver’s extremely valuable record of the temperature at Cumberland for thirty-seven years. The nor- mal mean temperature for the year is 51.5°; the annual average has varied between the limits of 49.1° in 1867 and 54.6° in 1893. The mean monthly temperatures have a range varying from 18° dur. ing the winter months to less than 10° during the summer months. January is the month of greatest variation, with February a close second, while August is decidedly the month of least variation. Table II presents the mean monthly and annual temperatures for each station in Allegany county at which observations have been made during a period of one year or more. The average daily range, the average monthly range, and the absolute maximum and minimum values are also shown. In the valleys the average daily range of temperature is about 24°, at Frostburg the average daily range is but 21°. 220 THE CLIMATE OF ALLEGANY COUNTY TABLE I.—MONTHLY AND ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURES AT CUMBERLAND FROM 1859-1895. Recorp or E. T. SHRIVER. | 57.6 65.0 | 67.5 50.5 57.0 | 69.1 48.0 62.5 | 69.9 0 4 0 5 a) 0 0 5 1881.. 25.0 27.5 | 37.0 1882.. 33.3 37.9 | 42.7 1883.. 37.0 33.4 35.0 1884.. 26.6 | 56.3 | 40.8 1 2 0 i) 9 3 9 Mi 6 9 bad 61.4 | 68.7 ~ be ) | | | = Year | Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May |June|July Aug.| Sept. Oct. Novy.) Dec. E <4 1859. .| 31.4 | 34.9 | 41.8 | 45.3 62.0 | 67.4 | 70.8 | 69.1 | 63.5 | 50.6 | 43.5 | 34.3 | 51.3 1860..} 33.4 | 31.7 | 43.3 | 50.4 | 64.1 | 68.4 | 70.4 | 68.6 | 59.7 | 50.7 42.8 33.3 | 51.6 1861. .} 30.6 | 34.7 | 41.5 | 48.3 | 55.5 | 71.8 | 72.6 | 72.6 | 64.8 | 55.5 | 44.5 | 34.7 | 52.3 1862. .| 32.9 | 82.2 | 36.4 | 46.0 57.7 | 69.6 | 72.4 70.8 | 59.4 | 53.8 | 42.0 | 33.1 | 50.5 1863. .| 31.2 31.3 | 34.5 | 48.4 58.4 | 66.4) 74.8 | 73.4 | 59.2 51.3 | 43.1 | 33.8 | 50.5 1864. .| 30.3 | 32.2 | 35.2 | 46.1 62.7 | 70.6 | 70.5 | 74.0 | 70.9 | 50.6 42.3 | 33.0 | 50.7 1865..| 22.4 31.2 | 41.7 | 50.6 56.5 | 74.9 | 74.3 | 69.6 | 77.0 | 48.2 | 41.6 | 34.0 | 51.3 1866..| 31.4 | 27.9 | 37.3 | 51.4 | 53.9 | 71.1 | 72.5 | 67.0 | 64.4 | 51.4 | 40.9 | 27.5 | 49.8 1867..| 22.4 | 31.7 | 36.3 | 49.0 | 54.0 | 69.9 | 70.9 69.9 | 62.5 | 48.0 | 42.9 | 30.8 | 49.1 1868. .| 28.2 | 22.4 | 28.5 | 48.8 | 58.4 | 69.8 | 75.2 | 69.7 | 62.3 | 48.9 | 41.2 | 50.7 | 49.7 1869. .| 36.4 | 35.0 | 36.4 | 47.6 | 58.4 | 68.5 | 70.5 71.0 | 62.0 | 45.8 | 36.3 | 33.8 | 50.3 1870..| 36.1. 32.7 | 36.0 | 49.2 | 59.4 | 69.3] 75.3 | 70.7 | 62.9 | 53.4 | 41.2 | 32.0 | 50.3 1871..| 28.2 | 30.7 | 41.4 | 49.5 | 62.0 | 69.2 | 73.6 | 75.7 | 61.1 | 54.1 | 40.5 | 30.5 | 51.4 1872. .| 30.2 | 31.4 | 33.2 | 51.8 | 63.9 | 72.0] 76.6 | 75.7 | 66.4 | 52.6 | 38.8.| 27.9 | 51.7 1873..; 28.7 | 32.3 | 38 51.7 | 61.5 | 72.3 | 74.0 | 71.2 | 64.3 | 52.9 | 39.0 | 37.6 | 51.9 1874... 36.0 36.1) 41 45.0 62.0 74.0 | 74.4 | 69.6 | 67.0 | 53.0 | 40.0 | 35.0 | 52.8 1875.. 29.0 | 25.2 | 30. | 47.0 | 68.0 | 71.0 | 72.0 | 69.0 | 63.0 | 52.0 | 40.0 | 37.0} 49.8 1876.. 38.0 | 35.3 | 36.5 | 49.0 | 62.0) 73.0 | 76.0 | 73.0 | 62.0 | 49.0 | 41.0 | 29.5 | 52.0 1877.. 30.0 | 38.0 | 37.5 | 51.2 | 59.5 | 69.0 | 73.0 | 7 E 5 1878.. 29.0 | 36.0 | 46.0 | 55.0 | 59.0) 65.3 | 76.4 | 7 1879... 27.0 | 27.2 | 39.0 | 50.0 | 62.0 | 67.0 | 74:0 | 6 1880.. 39.0) 36.2 | 38.5 | 58.0 | 67.0 | 69.0 | 71.0 | 7 73.5 | 7 71.4 | 6 72.91 6 70.5 74.5 70.8 77.7 70.3 73.6 73.9 8.7 2.9 7.7 5.2 0.3 SHOKUMMUYNYWNSSHSSOCSOCOSOOCarRwN PORMSSSSSSSOR SASS ES 7 3. | 41. 1885.. 29.0 | 25.9 | 33.1 | 50.4 | 60.0 | 68.8 70.0 | 63.0 | 51.0| 42.6 35.4 1886.. 25.0 | 29.9 | 40.2 | 54.8 | 61.4 | 67.2 70.5 | 65.3 | 54.2 | 41.1 | 29.1 1857.. 28.6 | 36.4 | 35.0 | 49.2 | 65.8 | 69.6 | 70.2 | 62.0 | 50.0 | 39.8 | 32.9 1888..| 26.6 | 32.8 | 35.7 | 50.3 | 60.2 | 70.2 | 69.2 | 59.3 | 48.0 | 42.8 | 33.6 | 1889.. 34.7 | 28.0 | 41.9 | 52.8 | 62.9 | 67.2 69.2 | 64.0 | 49.5 | 41.8 | 43.2 1890..| 40.7 | 40.0 | 36.3 | 51.8 | 61.4 | 72.6 69.8 | 68.2'| 52.7 | 44.3 31.8 | j 1891.. 33.2 | 38.0 | 35.9 54.2 | 60.9 | 70.1 | 68.7 | 70.5 | 67.1| 51.5 | 40.9 39.6 1892.. 30.0 | 34.5 | 35.7 | 49.3 | 62.8 | 73.8 | 72.9 | 75.2 | 64.0 | 52.6 | 41.0 | 31.6 1893. .| 25.3 | 32.8 | 42.6 | 55.8 | 64.8 | 75.1| 77.7 | 74.0 | 66.0 | 56.7 | 44.6 | 40.6 1894. . 35.0 | 31.2| 47.9 | 51.0 63.2 | 72.2 | 75.2 | 70.8 | 68.8 | 55.0 | 38.6 | 33.0 1895.. 26.0 | 22.0 | 37.8 | 52.0 | 62.2 | 72.2 | 70.3 | 74.0 | 70.0 | 48.8 | 42.8 | 33.9 | | | ; Means 30.8 | 32.2 | 38.0| 50.3 | 60.9 | 70.1 | 73.1 | 71.1 | 64.2 52.3 41.4 33.5 | 51: a | | | Range 18.3 | 18.0 | 16.4 | 12.6 13.1) aN bea 7.2 | 11.8} 14.4) 9.7117.2| 5.5 Nore.—Observations prior to July, 1871, were made at 8 A. M. daily, and reduced to true mean. After that date observations were made at 7 A. M., 2 P. M. and 9 P. M. 221 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY “6681 “ISNSNY OF ‘*g6gT “Tequiaqdeg WOT Y » 9°0 soe c* “ATBNUB sel 61— | 601 cg r a | F°FL/9 1X8" G96 1416 6E)2 1 | | | | | | 3) - +6 2 we T |8°0S\6 agig FFL“ 1¢|F° col "04 6 OFS 96 | Ott Go— | F6 9¢ Te 1 |L°0S|2°Tg\9"48\¢" Ts|0F9Ie" aL) 6° LEIS" Se a3) | | OLL GI— | 86 09 6 6 peeled led pak aeeas SOF 6° 3S . | OGL SI— | 201 8¢ FG G |G TSIL GE|h LF0° 1S/0°29)0° ad) # SSi0 86 86T 1° 61— | 60L 8¢ Sal 8. |S [G0 Sg|0 LF 1S|0° SO|F 1L|9 SL/S “TLS °S9|9 OSiG OFF 0S SIT GI— | €0T 7 wi OL GEO SES PEL FES L90'FL L 92/8 SLIT S9il SiO SFie°¢s ‘en . a 4 vs LE |G ISIS SSiP THES SSS FOIL TLIT S2|T 02/6 09/8 OSI0 8E\a as =. = — | z os = 2 a2) m | b ou ou > Lt ze Be BE Bo zee 14 5 3 3 1 8 | 48 eg |e ]e = 3 = ic} g2) Ge | Re Gee Bes lee le ee ele le lee [21212 |e Se | Be | Be |Sen|S groduseqsa Ay “79 OTTLALOTIO9900q ~ (q) putpiaqmnuy **(B) pUBLaquiny) "7" O5BABQ “VIN vets 4 Hinqysorg “ss guo04qszUIT “""* qroduiajsa Ay “** OT [TALoTOyeog » (q) Puvproqmug (8) puvproqmng “HO BIS 222 THE CLIMATE OF ALLEGANY COUNTY The highest temperature ever officially recorded in Allegany county and also in the state of Maryland, is 109°, the maximum of Fig. 6. (a) Absolute maximum temperatures in Allegany County. (6) Average maximum temperatures in Allegany County. (c) Normal temperatures in Allegany County. (dq) Average minimum temperatures in Allegany County. (e) Absolute minimum temperatures in Allegany County. July 3, 1898, reported by Mr. F. F. Brown of Boettcherville, near Cumberland. On the 13th of February of the following year a MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 223 temperature of —22° Fahrenheit was reported from Frostburg, the lowest officially recorded within the limits of Allegany county. The occurrence of the absolute maximum and absolute minimum of temperature for Allegany county within the short period of two successive seasons is a striking coincidence, and has probably fixed the absolute range of temperature, 131°, for this county for many years to come. The records for the highest and for the lowest tem- peratures were broken throughout the state on these dates. The fluctuations in temperature from year to year at Cumberland from 1859 to 1895 are graphically shown in Figure 7. From 1861 to 1871 the mean temperature was continuously below the average, while from 1872 to 1884 and from 1889 to 1894 it was above, ex- cepting for the years 1875 and 1879. Year 1860 ae 4865 1870 1875 1880 1885 4890 1895 55° Fic. 7.—Fluctuations in mean annual temperature at Cumberland. Ratna. The rainfall record for Allegany county begins with August, 1871, and extends to the present time without interruption. The record from 1871 to December, 1895, is that of Mr. E. T. Shriver. In 1840 Mr. T. L. Patterson kept a record of the rainfall at Cum- berland for nearly one year, in connection with the construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. In Table III we have the results of the long series of observations for Cumberland extending over a period of twenty-seven vears. The maximum and minimum amounts of rainfall for each month and for the year are in italics, to show more clearly the fluctuations. The variations are graphically shown in the diagrams of Figures 8 and 9. At the valley stations, Cumberland, Boettcherville, Westernport, 224 THE CLIMATE OF ALLEGANY COUNTY and Flintstone the annual rainfall is approximately 34 inches. We have at present but little more than one year’s observations of rainfall at the high-level station at Frostburg. From September, 1898, to August, 1899, the rainfall measured 47.66 inches at this place. During the same period the fall at Cumberland was about 38.74 TABLE III.—RAINFALL AT CUMBERLAND, 1871-1895. Recorp oF E. T. SHriver. | a Year | Jan. Feb.| Mar. Apr.| May | June July Aug. Sept. Uct. Nov. Dee. = | < — aes es Eee | + <7 Se tyAlepere Waste [ates || accel ese) peewee Metre nia stat 8-20)] 2-4 OBS One 26 0.90 |. eee They AS pio 0.55 | 0.70 | 0.40 | 1.20 | 2.80] 2.60 | 2.70 | 3.00 | 2.90 | 4.30 1.30} 2.10} 27.65 DBRS at 2.50 | 2.70 | 2.90 | 2.80 | 4.20| 4.40 4.90 | 3.80 0.40 | 2.00 1.30) 1.10 | 32.50 1874..... 2.40 | 2.40 | 1.80 | 6.50) 1.50} 1.70 | 4.00 | 2.80) 2.10 0.80 1.80) 1.10 | 28.90 USWb eee 1.00 | 1.20 | 2.20 | 1.20] 4.30] 2.90 | 4.60 | 6.10 | 2.50 | 1.30 | 3.80} 2.40 | 29.50 LOG ester 1.401 4. 1.60} 3.30} 4,60 | 0.90 8.20 0.60 1.90 1.30 | 30.60 UBii = a 0.80 Bee 1.90 | 2.90 | 4.60 | 1.30 2.20 3.70 5.10 0.80 | 29.40 1.70; 3.90 | 2.70 | 1.70 | 1.30 | 3.30 2.30 | 2.70 | 29.70 1,10} 1.90) 4.10} 4.60 1.00 2.00 2.10 3.40 | 22.50 2.34 | 5.84 | 2.35 | 1.62 2.30 | 2.13 2.43 | 3.45 | 33.99 1.29] 5.22 | 3.82 | 0.37 | 2.09 | 2.05 | 1.38 | 4.50 | 29.52 8.80 | 2.08 | 2.05 | 8.09 8.50 1.31 | 1.44) 1.10 | 45.98 4.78 | 5.38 | 4.05 | 1.46 | 2.59 | 2.09 | 0.87 | 1.75 | 32.29 5.33 | 3.33 | 4.61) 1.49 0.93 1.98 0,92) 4.25 | 35.43 sae 2.58 | 0.86 | 1.01| 8.87 0.75 | 4.14 | 1.78 | 1.55 | 25.90 1e8G oer 2.90 3.62 | 4.02 | 2.87 / 3.25 1.88 | 0.50 4.15 | 1.77 | 32.00 LSB ste 0.30 5.64 | 3.87 | 5.59/1.12 3.68 | 0.39 | 0.82 | 32.97 IS88.. 3.85 3.47 | 3.76 | 4.34 | 8.00 | 2.95 | 2.60 | 2.60 41.06 1889...../5 3.01 7.02 | 3.10 | 2.74 | 1.52 | 4.16 | 2.84 | 5.34 40.17 1890..... 1.46 | 4. 7.13 | 8.07 | 1.67) 7.07 6.77 | 6.65 | 1.83 52.42 ABO eat i 2.93 | 8.95 2.57] 7.69 | 5.17 | 3.44 | 2.46 | 2.21 | 2:92 | 46.29 1892..... 3.18 | § 3.31 |10.08 | 1.15 | 1.90| 2.86 | 0.24 | 3.16 | 34.66 1893.....| 0.72 4.37 | 2.12] 1.40 | 3.74 | 1.97 | 4.37 | 2.01 30.04 1894. .... 1.22 6.13 | 1.64 | 3.23 1.15 1.74 2.25 | 0.63 | 2.63 | 28.12 1895.....| 3.58 1.52 | 4.42 | 2.49] 1.81 | 0.15 | 1.20 | 0.34 | | 23.03 — } —_—__—} — —_ - — | | Means ...| 2.16 | 2.57 | 2.90 | 2.49 | 3.33 | 3.75 | 8.36 | 3.09 | 2.71 | 2.45 | 2.17 | 2.20] 32.86 inches, which is 5.29 inches above the normal for Cumberland. Allowing a similar excess for this year at Frostburg we have 42.37 inches as an approximate normal rainfall for Frostburg, or between 8 and 9 inches more than at the valley stations. The monthly values for all stations are given in Table IV. In Figure 8b we have a graphic representation of the distribution 225 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ‘Tenuuy Its | #9 | 60°S | SOS *19Q0190 “raqmaydag ‘qsnsny a 66ST-F6ST 6EST-S6sT L6OSL-9681 S6ST-G6ST GOS L-68sL SOST-LLSL “ses yrodusezse Ay if | } eT [TAsaqoqja0g | l soos puBpiaquing cag yo pee qaodusaysea * Sanqjsory Servet au0qsyUtT a “7 OT [LAda oO yje0g “= "(q) pavpioqmny “+= (R) puvpequing “saBnigey — “VOL *suOTaIS “TIVANIVE TVONNV GQNV ATHINOW GOVUAAV AL WTEV 15 226 THE CLIMATE OF ALLEGANY COUNTY of rainfall during the year at Cumberland, based on twenty-seven years of observations. The curve indicates a fairly well-distributed rainfall throughout the year, with a maximum during the summer months and a minimum in winter. A marked feature of the curve is the sudden deflection downward during the month of April, indi- cating a decrease in the rainfall. A similar diminution in the amount of precipitation is shown in the records for all the stations in Allegany county. Figure 8e shows that there has been no period of one month without some rain at Cumberland since August, 1871, though during Sep- tember, 1895, there was but 0.15 inch. In this connection a quotation from a recent letter received from Mr. T. L. Patterson of Cumber- Year ot 70 1875 1880 1885 1890 1895 2 4gea [Ty BBG SSSR S IGE HH SEEaune Hyena ans nee seseae/ACiaee VAN BEST SSesoo Bos SHY CVT N am PERE ene an vance | 30 LH va He HS Ho eS 25 seafiiee EERE EEE EEE 20 Fic. 8.—Flnctuations in the mean annual rainfall at Cumberland. land by the writer is interesting: “In 1838 there was no fall of rain here from May until early in October, excepting a smart shower on the 4th of July. It was the hottest and dryest year I have ever known.” In Figure 10, representing the average number of rainy days dur- ing each month of the year, we see again a fairly equal distribution of rain throughout the year, a characteristic feature of the weather in regions traversed by cyclonic storms. While the amount and character of the rainfall of Allegany county are affected to a considerable extent by local topography, the chief controlling factor is the position of the county with reference to the centers of passing cyclonic storms. The rainfall and storm- paths have been carefully investigated for Maryland by Mr. F. J. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 227 Walz, the meteorologist of the Maryland State Weather Service, and the results recently published in Volume I of its reports. Bea ss fv is} BERD aes ERaea | Hh BEE GBRESEOEEREEESDRESSESEes B Sf eeeeeeS eeeees SecEeEnGUGREEE Be DESSeSs VN PONG a ae] GREENE BERD BREESE SEeaSaeas Fig. 9.—Rainfall at Cumberland (averages for 25 years). (a) Maximum monthly amounts. (b) Average ts “ (ce) Minimum “ Figure 10 shows the fluctuations in the amount of rainfall from year to year at Cumberland from 1872 to 1898, a period ot twenty- 228 THE CLIMATE OF ALLEGANY COUNTY seven years. In Table IV the average monthly and annual rainfall is given for each station and also the average number of rainy days during the year. Description oF Stations. Cumpertanp.—The early observations of Mr. E. T. Shriver were made at 8 A. M. daily. After 1871 he adopted the hours prescribed by the Smithsonian Institution, namely: 7 A. M., 2 P. M., and 9 P. M. The location of the station was near Washington and Allegany streets. The climatic factors recorded were temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind direction and force, cloudiness, and the general character of the weather. After the death of Mr. Shriver the observations were continued by Mr. Webster Bruce for about one year. J F M A M J J A $ e) N 8) J EE RSht RRB REESE ESS Som a — BEEP URERP ap GEGeee — Bank HOPS REE Peet HH ECEPE CCC NEE (ESRB SHRERER ira — COLL eee ee ee 6 PGP ie et et oe i od Fic. 10.—Average number of rainy days in the valleys of Allegany County. In May of 1889 Mr. Howard Shriver began an elaborate series of observations at his residence near Fayette and Smallwood streets, and has continued them without interruption to the present time. Mr. Shriver’s instrumental equipment is very complete, comprising maxi- mum and minimum self-registering thermometers, exposed and wet- bulb thermometers, a Draper’s self-recording thermometer, a barom- eter, and a rain-gage. In comparing the two series of temperature observations made in Cumberland during the period of simultaneous observations from 1889 to 1896, a difference of nearly four degrees is observed in the value for the mean annual temperature. How much of this discrep- ancy may be accounted for by difference in hours of observation, in the character of the thermometers used, and to difference of exposure, MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 229 it is difficult to determine. The monthly mean values of Mr. Howard Shriver are uniformly from 3° to 5° higher than those of his brother. They are also higher than the readings at Boettcherville and Western- port by an equal amount. Comparing the mean daily maximum values with those at the neighboring stations at Flintstone and West- ernport we find a close agreement. In the minimum readings, on the other hand, there is a wide difference, Mr. Howard Shriver’s values being nearly 7° higher, as shown by the following figures: Cumberland, Flintstone. Westernport. , Mean daily maximum,.......... 65.19 64.6° 63 5° « SOSPOTIANIDITIN IRONY ain'is clase eiere 463° 39.4° 89.5° ss CO SVAN BO. vile veces ones 18 ,8° 25.2° 24.0° The discrepancy in the mean annual temperature must therefore be sought in the readings of the minimum thermometer. The two series of temperature observations at Cumberland have been separately reduced to mean values in Table II. Borrrenervitte.—In 1891 Mr. Howard Shriver loaned some of his instruments to Mr. F. F. Brown in order to secure comparative observations in a neighboring locality. In November of 1891 Mr. Brown became a regular observer of the Maryland State Weather Service. From 1891 to October, 1897, temperature readings were made daily at 7 A. M. and2 P.M. Since October, 1897, Mr. Brown has used self-registering maximum and minimum thermometers. The rainfall has been recorded regularly since November, 1891. The station is located at Boettcherville, about three miles to the west of Cumberland, in the narrow east and west valley of Braddock Run, and has an elevation of 780 feet above sea-level; it is at the base of a ridge, which rises abruptly to an elevation of about 1300 feet. Wesrerxrorr.—Observations were begun in Westernport by Pro- fessor Oliver H. Bruce in November, 1894, and have been continued without interruption to the present time. The station is equipped with a maximum and a minimum self-registering thermometer and a standard rain-gage. Westernport is built upon a slight eminence in a valley entirely shut in by mountains. The city has an elevation of about 1000 feet above sea-level. 230 THE CLIMATE OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Furststoxe.—The station at Flintstone was established in Febru- ary of 1896 and continued in operation a little over two years. It was provided with the usual instrumental equipment of the Maryland State Weather Service, namely, a maximum and a minimum self- registering thermometer and a rain-gage. From February to May, 1896, observations were made by Mr. Newton T. Downs, from June, 1896, to April 1, 1898, by Mr. Justin Barkman. The town of Flint- stone is closely hemmed in by mountains, the valley at this point - being not over half a mile wide. Froststrc.—The station at Frostburg was established but little over a year ago by Mr. G. G. Townsend. Observations were begun on June 1, 1895, and were continued, with the assistance of Mrs. Townsend, to the present time. Frostburg has an elevation of about 2100 feet above sea-level, and is the only active high-level station within the limits of Allegany county. The observations consist of daily readings of the maximum and minimum thermometers and a rain-gage. In addition the direction of the wind and state of the weather are recorded. The situation of Frostburg, upon the divide between Jennings Run and Georges Creek, permits a free movement of the atmosphere from any direction. We have at the present time a little more than one year of observations. While this record is not sufficient to deter- mine definitely the character of the climate, there is sufficient evidence to show that conditions are distinctly different from those of the lower . stations. : Movnt Savace.—We have one complete year’s record of the tem- perature at Mount Savage, made by Mr. T. C. Atkinson in 1846. Mr. Atkinson reported to the Smithsonian Institution the daily read- ings of the thermometer at 7 A. M., 2 P. M., and 9 P.M. Observa- tions were made at the Eyrie House. Oxtptrows.—The record at Oldtown covers but a fraction of one year, from May to August, 1895, and consists of readings of the maximum and minimum thermometers and the rain-gage by Dr. H. C. Shipley. 231 MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY *95B5-UIBI PUB “UIOy, “UlUT paw xB 000'T | /80 o6L *9DB5-UIBL pus “Uey} “arar pus “xv 0OL “L& o8h ‘dg puv “dg ‘uy qu -untay) o0g't | 9 o8t ‘O5R5-UIL pus ‘unio, ‘atu pus “xv! 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ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XvViil. Fig. 1.—CAR USED IN MEASURING VELOCITY OF RIVER WATER. FiG. 2.—MEASURING VELOCITY OF RIVER WATER FROM BOAT. HYDROGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. THE HYDROGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY BY P.HyNEWELE Owing to the peculiar shape of Allegany county a study of its hydrography involves not merely an examination of a few small streams but. the consideration of problems whose successful solution affects the prosperity of large communities situated in several states. The county, as described in other chapters, extends along the north side of the Potomae river for a distance of about 93 miles following the course of the stream, and extending back or northerly from it for a distance of from five to fifteen or twenty miles. For simplicity of description, the name Potomac is here applied, not only to the main stream formed by the junction of the North and South forks at a point about opposite the center of the county, but also to the North Fork itself which, above this point, forms the southern boundary of the area under consideration. The general course of the river is easterly, crossing the trend of the ranges which make up the moun- tain system, and the Potomac thus receives from the north a con- siderable number of small streams draining the narrow valleys. Tak- ing these in order down the stream, that is, from west to east, the first is Georges Creek, the only stream of importance whose drainage area is almost entirely included within the county; following this are Wills Creek, Evitts Creek, Big Spring Run, Town Creek, 15-mile Creek, and, finally, Sideling Creek, forming the eastern boundary of the county. Most of these streams rise in Bedford county, Penn- sylvania, and flow in a general southerly direction across the narrow strip of Maryland constituting Allegany county. 234 ‘THE HYDROGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY The Potomac and the smaller tributaries flowing along or within the boundaries of Allegany county receive the run-off from precipita- tion which has fallen upon relatively steep and undulating surfaces covered for the most part with woodland or scattered growth of trees. The valuable timber of the original forest has long since been cut away, leaving the unmerchantable wood or second growth. The valleys and rounded hills have been partly cleared and brought under cultivation; there are no ponds or marshes such as occur in the north- ern glaciated regions of the United States, and thus there is little to retain the water in its course from the hillsides to the various creeks. The run-off is rapid and the amount of water percolating into the soil to reappear as springs and to feed the summer flow is relatively small. In times of deficient rainfall the streams shrink rapidly to mere rivulets, and this diminution in discharge has pre- vented the utilization of the flowing water in the production of power. The principal industrial uses of the streams and springs of the region are in town or municipal supply and in manufacturing opera- _ tions. There is, however, a large problem inseparably connected with the study of water resources which may be considered as bear- ing on the negative side, that is to say, whose proper solution may result in preventing injury to these resources rather than promoting them; this is the great question of stream-pollution—one which is not only of interest to the people of the county, but to all persons resident along the streams flowing from this area. The matter of stream-pollution within or near Allegany county has already become one of public interest and has even reached the acute stage of contention in the courts; it is therefore not desirable to discuss the matter in a way which might be considered as reflecting upon one side or another, but to give merely some of the principal physical facts noted by a reconnaissance of the area. These will be given in connection with statements regarding the quantity of water found by the measurements made at various times. The only systematic series of observations of flow of water within or near Allegany county has been that made at Cumberland, the results of which have been given from time to time in the reports MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 935 of the Division of Hydrography of the United States Geological Survey. Observations of river height were begun on June 11, 1894, at the West Virginia Central Railroad bridge about 200 yards below the dam on the Potomac, The gage was a vertical rod 10 feet long, bolted to the east end of the abutment of the head-gates above the dam. The channel consists of loose rocks and did not change notably. The discharge measurements were made from the bridge.’ Measurements were made not only of the discharge of the river but also of the amount of water taken out above the.dam by the feeder of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. On June 5, 1895, when there were 216 cubie feet per second, or second-feet, in the river, there were in the canal feeder 40 second-feet. On June 6 the river dis- charged 530 second-feet and the canal feeder carried 79 second-feet; on June 13 the river discharged 149 second-feet and the canal feeder earried 38 second-feet; on July 17 the river discharged 266 second- feet and the canal feeder carried 79 second-feet.© Measurements were continued through 1896, the results being shown on pages 22-24 of the Eighteenth Annual Report, Part IV, of the United States Geological Survey.’ Observations were discontinued in November, ISBT). The following tables give the daily gage height as observed during the years 1895, 1896 and 1897: The heights of water noted above show from day to day the eleva- tion of the surface of the stream as noted upon an arbitrary gage. In order to interpret these into quantity of flow it has been necessary Report of Progress of the Division of Hydrography for the calendar year 1893 and 1894, Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey, No. 131, Washing- ton, 1895, p. 88. *Report of Progress of the Division of Hydrography for the calendar year 1895, Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey, No. 140, Washington, 1896, p, 46. *For daily gage heights, 1896, see Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 11, of the U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, 1897, p. 8. ‘ Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 15, of the U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, 1898, p. 15; Report of Progress of Stream Measurements for the Calendar Year 1898, extract from the Nineteenth Annual Report, Part IV, Washington, 1899, p. 146. 236 THE HYDROGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY to make a number of measurements of the amount of water passing the given point. For this purpose the locality has been visited at various dates given below, the width of the stream ascertained, and also its depth at short intervals across from one side to the other. At the same time the speed with which different parts of the current DAILY GAGE HEIGHT OF POTOMAC RIVER AT CUMBERLAND, MD., FOR 1895. : Day Jan. Feb. Mar, | Apr. | May June! July | Aug. Sept. Dec. | | | 1s eee | 3.00 | 3.60 | 6.00 | 3.90 | 3.40 | 3.00 | 3.10 | 2.80 | 1.00 ee re | 3.00 | 3.60 | 5.70 | 8.80 | 8.80 | 3.00 | 3.40 | 2.70 | 1.00 | .... See | | 3.00 | 3.50 | 4.90 | 4.40 | 3.80 | 3.00] 3.80 | 2.70 | 1.00 | .... Fa ie | 8.00 | 3.50 | 4.60 | 3.90 | 3.60 | 2.90 | 8.10 | 2.70 | 1.90] .... eee Sean | 8.00 | 3.50 | 4.20 | 3.80 | 3.60 | 2.90 | 3.10 | 2.70 | 1.90 | . Sai ia | 3.10 | 3.50 | 4.00 | 3.70 | 3.40 | 3.00 | 8.20 | 2.60 | 1.90 ist a oe | 4.80 | 3.50 | 8.80 | 3.60 | 3.30 | 3.00 | 3.20 | 2.60 | 1.80 Cae ee | 6.00 | 3.50 | 3.80 | 3.80 | 3.20 | 3.00 | 3.20 | 2.60 | 0.80 | Da se 4.80 | 3.50] 4.20 | 5.60 | 3.40 | 2.90 | 3.30 | 2.50 | 0.70 | .... TOM see | 4.70 3.50 | 4.00 | 5.50 | 3.20 2.90 | 3.70 | 2.50 | 0.50 Us BS ah arn | 4.10 3.50 | 4.00 | 4.70 | 3.20 | 2.90 | 3.40 | 2.40 | 0.50 PON gress tid | 3.80 | 3.40 | 3.80 | 4.70 | 3.70 | 2.80 | 3.20 | 2.40 | 0.60 iE ese aac | 3.50 8.40 | 3.80 | 4.90 | 3.70.| 2.80 | 3.20 | 2.40 | 1.10 Laspaetee ee) | 3.50 | 3.40 | 4.50 | 3.80 | 3.70 | 3.30 | 3.30 | 2.80 | 1.20 Tene: 8 3.50 | 3.40 | 4.80 | 3.80 | 3.50 | 3.30 | 3.30 | 2.20 | 1.00 LORE ere 3.90 3.30 | 5.20 | 3.80 | 3.30 | 3.20 | 3.80 | 2.10 | 0.90 ister Ae 3.90 3.40 | 4.70 | 3.80 | 3.40 | 3.20 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 0.90 TOM. tes rite | 3.90 | 3.40 | 4.50 | 3.70 | 8.40 |. 3.10 | 8.00 | 1.90 | 0.80 | . LOLS aaa 3.80 | 3.40 | 4.30 | 3.60 | 3.40 | 3.00 | 2.90 | 1.80 | 0.70 | ... Sly a aneeea 3.80 | 3.40 | 4.10 | 3.50 | 3.30 | 3.00 | 2.90 | 1.70 | 0.50 | ... Bate too a 3.90 | 3.40 | 3.80 | 3.40 | 3.40 | 2.90 | 2.70] 1.60 | 0.40) ... eS Ae 4.60 | 3.40 | 3.70 | 3.40 | 3:40 | 3.00 | 2.70 | 1.30 | 0.30 | 3.00 ISU ON 4.00 | 3.40 | 3.70 | 3.30 | 3.40 | 3.00 | 2.70 | 1.20 | 0.20 | 8.20 Bde ee phe | 3.70 | 3.40 | 3.70 | 8.80 | 3.40 | 8.00 | 2.70 | 1.10 | 0.10 | 2.90 BENS, Soto 3.60 |-3.40 | 3.70 | 3.20 | 3.30 | 2.90 | 2.70 | 1.00] (a) | 2.90 Bl Be fiers 3.50 | 3.60 | 4.50 | 3.30 | 3.20} 3.00 | 2.70 | 0.90 | .... | 3.00 Fy (hi Beare se 3.50 | 4.10 | 4.30 | 3.30 | 3.80 | 3.00 | 2.70 | 0.90 . 2.90 Bice etal | 3.40 | 5.00°| 4.80 | 3.80 | 8.20 | 3.30 | 2.80 | 0.90 | 2.90 20 eta ces ae 3.40 5.10 | 3.30 | 3.10 3.20 | 2.90 | 0.90 | 2.90 SOva ree eee 3.70 4.50 | 3.40 | 8.10 | 3.00 | 2.90 | 0.80 | 3.10 4:50 | .... | 3.10 | .... | 2.80] 0.90 3.00 i ee a ela | 3.70 (a) Water 5 inches below gage. Readings discontinued till December 22. is moved has been ascertained by means of suitable devices known as current meters. These usually consist of small wheels or turbine serews so constructed that the flowing water causes them to revolve. The rate of revolution of the wheel is dependent upon the speed of the water. Each revolution is made known or recorded by suitable MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. PRICE ELECTRIC CURRENT METERS, ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XIX. WITH BUZZERS. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 237 electrical device, and when the relation between the revolution of the wheel of the current meter and the velocity of the stream has once been ascertained it is a relatively simple mechanical matter to com- pute the rate of flow at any point across or beneath the surface of a river. The following table gives in eubie feet per second, or seeond- DAILY GAGE HEIGHT OF POTOMAC RIVER AT CUMBERLAND, MD., FOR 1896. | Day Jan. Feb. | Mar.| Apr. May | June July Aug. Sept.| Oct. | Noy. | Dec. | | Distesalate <'sc01= 2.90) 4.60} 3.90) 5.00) 4.50) 3.60) 3.10) 3.80) 2.60) 5.50 3.10) 3.70 eS cca epee 2.90) 4.80) 3.70] 4.80) 4.50) 3.50, 3.10) 3.80} 2.70) 4.50) 3.10) 3.50 Sereiareter<| 1s 3.00) 4.00] 3.00) 4.40 4.50) 8.40) 3.10 3.80 2.70) 4.50) 3.10] 3.40 ie oageuee 2.90) 3.80) 3.50) 4.20 4.50) 3.50) 3.10 3.70) 2.70) 3.50) 3.20) 3.30 Te She neee 2.90) 3.80) 3.10| 3.80) 3.40) 3.30) 3.10) 3.30) 2.70) 3.40) 3.20] 3.30 USS cadbe 2.90] 3.80) 3.10] 3.80) 3.30] 3.30] 2.90) 3.30) 2.80) 3.30) 5.50) 3.30 (locke 2.90) 4.50) 3.10)-3.70) 3.10] 3.80) 2.90) 3.20 2.90) 3.10) 4.50) 3.30 Soba aGpee 2.90) 3.90) 3.60) 3.70) 3.00] 3.70 2.90 3.20, 2.90) 3.10) 3.80] 3.20 Ota e eo 5 2.90) 3.00) 3.40) 3.70) 3.00) 3.40) 3.10) 3.40 2.90) 3.10, 3.80) 3.30 ls 5 -oyeane 2.90) 3.40| 3.30] 3.70) 3.00] 3.40) 8.70 3.40 2.90) 3.00 3.70) 3.30 ING Sogpay see 2.90! 3.10} 3.30) 3.70| 2.90) 3.40) 3.40 3.30) 2.80) 3.00 3.60] 3.40 i: Se eeoee 3.00) 3.30) 3.40) 4.30) 2.90] 3.40) 3.30 3.30 2.70) 3.10 3.50) 3.60 BBiterere staict1-¥s 3.00) 4.90] 3.10) 4.30) 3.50} 3.20) 8.10 3.10 2.90 3.10 3.50) 3.40 ARS oencoe 3.00) 4.10) 3.10) 4.10) 3.50] 3.20) 3.00 3.60 3.00) 3.00 3.40) 3.30 LE Geops sen: 3.00} 3.80) 3.10] 3.90| 3.30) 3.30] 3.00| 3.50] 8.10] 8.00, 8.20] 3.30 TS aapocoee 3.00 3.80) 3.20) 3.80) 3.20) 3.30 3.00 3.30, 3.50) 3.00, 3.10) 3.30 (Sonndepebe 3.00 3.50) 3.30) 8.80) 8 10) 8.70 8.00 3.10 3.00) 3.00 3.10) 3.30 CESS ete note 3.00) 3.50) 3.30) 3.70) 3.40] 4.10) 8.30) 3.00 3.00) 3.00 3.20) 3.30 i esecegues 2.90) 3.20) 3.50) 3.50 3.50) 3.70 3.10) 2.90 3.00! 2.90 3.30) 3.30 RO ey stn slot cle 2.90 3.20 3.60 3.50, 3.80| 3.60, 3.10 2.90 2.90 2.90 3.30, 3.30 2A Seek 3.00 8.20) 8.70) 8.50 8.80) 3.30) 3.30 3.00 3.00) 3.10) 3.20) 3.20 Do eietasia slo \- 3.00) 3.20] 3.70) 3.50 3.60) 3.30) 4.00 3.00 3.10) 3.10 3.30) 3.20 ‘hi 2uasce dc 3.00, 3.30) 4.00) 3.30, 8.40) 3.20 4.70 3.00 3.10) 3.10 8.30) 3.20 we Scho 3.10| 3.10) 3.90| 8.40 3.40) 3.50 4.60, 3.20 3.00) 3.30 3.40) 3.20 bese ite 3.50) 3.30) 3.70) 8.50) 8.50) 8.50/10.00) 3.00 3.00) 3.70 3.30) 3.20 PJ We Reon sane 3.30) 3.30] 4.00) 3.50 3.50) 3.60 6.50) 2.90 3.00) 8.50 3.30) 3.20 ie ee apo or 3.10 3.30) 5.00) 3.50 4.00) 3.50) 4.70 2.90 3.00) 3.20 3.20) 3.10 2S eae sone 3.00) 3.20] 4.50) 3.50 3.70) 3.30 4.90) 2.90) 2.90) 3.20 3.20] 8.10 en eGas. Soe 3.00) 3.70] 5.80) 3.50 4.10) 3.30) 4.50) 2.90) 2.90) 3.10 3.90| 3.10 3.70 8.00) 3.40 4.00) 3.20) 4.50 2.9010.00) 3.10 4.00) 3.10 4.20 | 6.00 3.80 4.50 | 8.10 3.20 feet, the results of these measurements made at various times since 1894. It also shows the height of water, the area of the section in square feet, and the average or mean velocity of the entire stream at that time and place. From the observations of height of water and the measurements of discharge made at various times, rating tables have been made 238 THE HYDROGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY giving approximately the amount of water flowing in the stream corresponding to different heights on the gage. This has been con- structed by plotting upon cross-section paper the height of water and the discharge by the relative distance from one side of the drawing; in other words, by plotting these points according to rectangular DAILY GAGE HEIGHT OF POTOMAC RIVER AT CUMBERLAND, MD., FOR 1897. Day | dan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May | June} July Aug. Sept. Oct. | Nov. Dee. Ane my | 1 eee on | 3.20) 8.40] 4.00) 3.50] 3.50) 2.90] 2.70] 3.00) 2.60} 2.20] 2.80) Oe etsy | 3.20) 3.50) 3.80) 3.40] 7.50) 2.80] 2.70) 3.00, 2.50) 2.00 3.00, Shy Eats 3.30) 3.60] 3.90] 3.40] 5.50) 2.80) 2.70) 2.90) 2.50) 1.90) 3.00 Daan 3.30) 3.40| 5.20} 3.70] 5.00) 2.80| 2.70] 2.90) 2.50) 1.70) 3.10 Bodacieshn € | 4.00) 3.40] 4.90) 3.80] 4.60) 2.80) 2.70) 3.50 2.40) 1.70, 3.00 . (eaters LEON F | 4.00) 3.50] 6.00) 3.70] 4.10) 2.80} 2.60) 3.20) 2.40] 1.60) 2.90 i Seneca. | 3.70) 4.50] 5.00] 3.60] 4.10) 2.80] 2.60] 3.10 2.20] 1.50) 2.90) .... SRE ee 3.40, 4.20) 4.40] 5.20] 3.90] 2.80] 2.70) 3.20, 1.90] 1.40] 3.00, . ( ne asa 3.30, 4.00] 4.60] 5.40] 3.70) 2.90] 2.70) 3.10) 1.80) 1.40) 4.00 UO. seer | 3.40) 3.70) 4.20] 4.501 3.70] 2.70] 2.70] 3.00) 1.80] 1.50) 3.40 flee | 3.20) 3.60] 4.00) 4.50] 3.60) 2.70] 2.80) 3.00) 1.70) 1.30] 3.40) 5 ere a ae 3.20) 3.50] 4.00] 4.10] 4.00) 2.70) 2.90) 2.90, 1.60) 1.30) 3.30 pia seep | 3.20) 3.70) 3.90] 4.00] 4.40) 2.60] 2.90) 2.90, 1.50] 1.30) 3.20) ...- Dae | 3.20 4.00) 3.80] 3.80} 5.40) 2.50) 2.80) 2.80 1.40) 1.40) 3.20 Tine eee 3.20) 4.20] 4.00] 3.90] 4.60) 2.50) 2.80) 3.00) 1.30) 1,50) 3.50) . Teg ae ne ee 3.20) 4.70) 3.80] 3.90] 4.30) 3.00] 2.80) 3.00 1.20) 1.50) 3.50} . 17..........| 3.40] 4.50] 3.70] 3.70) 3.90) 3.00) '2.70| 2.90) 1.20] 1.40] 3.40 1Shtoaee coy | 3.70) 5.00) 4.00] 3.70] 3.80] 2.90] 2.80] 2.80) 3.20) 1.40) 3.30) . 1 wesee er: 3.50) 4.80) 4.50] 3.60) 3.70 2.90) 2.80) 2.90, 3.00) 1.40) 3.30 0) setae ea | 3.40) 8,50) 4.80] 3.70) 3.50) 2.90] 2.90) 2.90 2.90) 1.40) 3.20 Panes raya | 3.40) 3.50] 4.60] 3.50] 3.30] 3.00] 3.20) 2.90) 2.80] 1.40] RE aio | 3.5010 50) 4.20] 3.30] 3.30) 3.00] 3.00) 2.90) 2.70) 1.30] OS are eer | 8.40) 8.70) 4.00] 3.30] 3.30) 2.90] 3.00) 2.90) 2.60] 1.30) . 24..........| 3.40] 6.20) 4.20] 3.30} 3.00) 2.90] 3.00] 2.90) 2.80] 1.50 25.......+.-| 3.30) 5.10) 4.10] 3.20] 3.00) 3.00] 3.00] 2.90) 3.00] 1.60 Serie, Let | 3.30| 4.50) 4.00] 3.10] 3.00) 2.90] 2.90] 3.00 3.00) 1.60 27 | 8.30) 4.30] 3.90] 3.00] 3.00) 2.90) 3.20) 3.00) 2.90) 1.70 ese ee os 3.30) 4.00) 3.80] 3.00) 3.00) 2.90) 3.10) 3.00 2.80) 1.70) .... DG ae eerie eh | 3.30 | 3.70] 3.00] 2.90) 3.90| 3.10] 2.90 2.80) 2.40 + Ue a Bee 8.30] ....| 3.60] 2.90} 2.90) 2.80] 3.10) 2.80| 2.70} 2.70 Bhestesonr cs | 3.30 3.60 2.90, 3.00) 2.60 .| 2.70 co-ordinates. Through the series of points thus obtained a smooth curve has been drawn averaging the conditions and giving for each tenth of a foot height on the gage a corresponding flow of discharge. These rating tables are given below in condensed form. By applying the values given in the above tables, a statement has been prepared of the average daily flow throughout the period. From MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 239 LIST OF DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS MADE ON POTOMAC RIVER AT CUMBERLAND, MD.! - S| «6 Area of | Mean | niach No.| Date Hydrographer. | 33 | neignt | ection | velocity | cccond- sz (feet). feet). | second). | feet). 1894. 1 May 24 |C.C. Babb........ 23 1,166 2.60 3,087 1895. : 2 Mar. 30 “aC eibaas. sae 29 1 4.50 1,088 3.17 3,446 3 | Apr. 10 ol ada doseor 29 1 5.40 1,560 3.88 6,054 Be Assays = «OOi.\stycinvere' st acts 29h 3.30 423 1.49 630 5 | May 83 spa O Pet metemin sors 29 h 3.75 722 2.39 1,728 6 May 9 bale Center an Soar 29h 3.40 465 1.67 rews 7 May 238 Sch iy 85 Seer Se COR 29 h 3.40 569 1.46 831 8 | June 5 RAG CTS font A Seo 29h 2.95 373 0.69 256 9} June 6 ROOT serch otals 29h 3.10 445 1.37 609 LOW MNS A Ses Peis. MON ir eines 'o) arore 29 h 3.00 334 0.86 287 11 uly Wp: h-dOy sce nnsse ate 76 3.05 BdoT 0.97 545 1896. | 12 | June 24 D.C. Humphreys.. W. B. 3.31 580 1.42 822 LN AUS Ot ree RO emi etd osata ms W. Bz 3.30 355 eral 605 Le eNOV: 18: |A- P. Davis < ccc. 68 3.38 577 1-33 765 15 | Feb. 10 Broly es A Ee 66! ereoe 3.75 +3 1,307 16 {EPR OG) eet Gs aE Reet one [eavetante 3.93 1,995 ie wune so ii. dla. o.caccees | ateRtere 3.00 425 18 Pept aE Nic OO Soest Al scree 2 2.60 86 19! Sept. 22 Over ties aye sick lteter 2.70 92 1 Gagings include discharge of canal feeders. RATING TABLES FOR POTOMAC RIVER AT CUMBERLAND, MD., 1895, 1896 AND 1897. Discharge in second-feet. Discharge in second-feet. Heightin Height in Tee oaaes feet. feet. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1895, | 2.7 160 160 110 4.5 3 2.8 | 200 200 140 4.4 3,¢ 2.9 250 240 180 4.5 3 3.0 325 300 255 4.6 3 3.1 425 400 75 4.7 4 3.2 525 500 525 4.8 - 4 3.5 650 650 680 4.9 4 3.4 800 | 800 835 5.0 4 3.5 1,080 1,000 990 5.2 5 3.6 1,285 1,285 1,165 5.5 6 3.7 1,540 1,540 1,365 6.0 7 3.8 1,795 1,795 1,615 7.0 8.9 | 2,050 2,050 1,895 8.0 4.0 2,305 2,305 2,175 9.0 4.1 2,560 2,560 2,455 10.0 4.2 2,815 2,815 2,735 11.0 240 THE HYDROGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY these averages a condensed table giving the greatest and least flow for each month and the average for that month in second-feet has been compiled for convenience of reference. The average flow for the month is also given in another form in comparison with the area ESTIMATED MONTHLY DISCHARGE OF POTOMAC RIVER AT CUMBERLAND, MD. [DRAINAGE AREA, 891 SQUARE MILES.] Discharge in second-feet. Run-off. Month. | | Second- |/Maximum, ae Mean. aes mae | mile. : = 1895 | J PLINUD BUT Y(-srn\/anereleia elec eset eiaiel ¢ 7,405 325 | 1,844 2.39 2.07 WGRERAry 20) ¥2ia.m vee titer eae ns 4,855 650 | 1,128 1.32 1.27 IMRT Cine ie. abd teccteteretece reverse" «sat 7,405 1,540 | 3,185 4.12 3.57 ON ele rem Mae on acal Soy eeaouG 6,585 B2Dy seul Bgl 2.35 1.10 Mavs Le hee Sethe cree 1,795 425 |° 870 1.18 0.98 UG sys ee, ohatenehe USNR) ale] afea «ota ee 650 200 | 855 0.45 0.40 Ain Bement. upon. Sao oa 1,540 160 431 0.55 0.48 1896. DADIVALY sta thahs cae eeatetneee secon 2,815 240 438 0.56 0.49 NIGER egteyatheod ced neodonesed 4,600 400 | 1,498 1.81 1.68 MIRY OR oo iz Poeyelfontast tie. ol anelo¥o Siok 12,505 500 1,991 2.57 2.23 ATL, Fereeanenatta, fee onstoap Tete tay Ac yavetetaroM 4,855 650 | 1,792 2.24 2.01 Mayen catch decmytte looms stare 3,580 240) [| 1.851 175 1.52 ACS Sinkipes con avec tO 2,560 500 1,896 1.75. i bat aied DULG cctatiet inet eletteghe ain -agake nN eke 17,600 300 2,141 2.07 2.40 AMIS MSE ay ov cartofeieee ters a: terete See 1,540 400 | 654 0.84 0.73 Per ANNUM es aga aenlaraisrahs 17,600 140 1,230 18.72 1.38 } 1897 | CUES EN Zee RAL giociae cicipina yee } 2,175 525 836 1.08 0.94 Hebraary? 2. ice aetceouas sl entre eck 20,375 835 3,610 4.21 4.05 March: ...... aiecvnne otter ec cians 7,775 1,165 2744 | 98.55 3.08 Fo) ot RAR Oo acto EEC dbodins Soe 6,095 180 1,570, 1.96 1.76 Mace i. . cou Memon e taareteasteate airs 11,975 180 2,162 2.79 2.42 OT UMS wages, ontc ie Ss NOS er op aaa ebay 255 80 165 0.21 0.19 DULG isietare.e, hecutnhatee ove peel ebeelaats sts 525 85 199 0.25 0.22 AUP USES ccotastonstursiny stele mintere wala rare 990 85 256 0.35 0.29 September (@)iqa.c sor seins tieew 525 10 70 0.09 0.08 OeCbODSL a)! .% 6) -shetes te cle es arable 110 20 40 0.04 0.04 (a) Approximate, MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE Xx. Fic. 1.—GEORGES CREEK AT WESTERNPORT, NEAR THE CONFLUENCE WITH NORTH BRANCH OF POTOMAC. Fic. 2.—GEORGES CREEK AT WESTERNPORT, LOOKING UP-STREAM FROM WASHINGTON STREET BRIDGE. HYDROGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 241 drained. ‘That is to say, above the point of measurement there are 891 square miles; if it is assumed that the water comes equally from all parts of this surface (which, however, it does not do) and that the average for the month is 1,782 second-feet, there would be an average JAN MARCH] APRIL MAY 10 20 10 20 10 20 10 20 | | ii + | } } + 10 20 10 20 VERS AUG SEPT ocr NOV. 10 20 1020 10 20 10 20 rT T | | | al | +—+ | | eH | at | +—} pot 4—+ | | Fies, 11 AND 12.—Diagram showing discharge of the North Branch of the Potomas at Cumberland for 1895 and 1896 of 2 second-feet per square mile drained. This expression is of con- venience in considering the probable amount discharged from a larger or smaller drainage area of similar character, that is to say, 16 242 THE HYDROGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY from a portion of the drainage area above Cumberland, embracing say 500 square miles, it is reasonable to assume that about 1,000 cubic feet per second flowed during the month. As a matter of fact, however, the run-off from a smaller drainage area is usually relatively greater than from a large drainage area, because the smaller often includes a greater proportion of mountain or rough land at the head- waters of the streams. The table also gives the average flow per month in terms of depth in inches over the whole surface drained. 70 1920 | 1020 | 1% 10 20 10 20 | 10 20 10 20 19 20 10 270 1020 ne pe SD ES Fic. 13.—Diagram showing discharge of the North Branch of the Potomac at Cumberland for 1897. The rainfall records give the precipitation upon the surface in depth in inches and the amount flowing from the surface has also been computed in depth in inches for convenience of comparison of the run-off with the rainfall. In addition to the measurements of discharge at Cumberland, a number of determinations of the flow of various streams were made during the reconnaissance of the Potomac Basin before mentioned. This was carried on during the unusual drought of the fall of 189%, MARYLAND GEOLOGICAI, SURVEY 243 the field work being by Mr. Arthur P. Davis and his assistants, Mr. E. G. Paul-and Mr. Gerard H. Matthes.’ The country was systematically examined as far as practicable and facts bearing upon the quantity of water and also upon its utiliza- tion or pollution were obtained. From time to time samples of water were taken. These were referred to the Supervising Surgeon-Gen- eral of the Marine Hospital for examination, the results being pub- lished in a report * by the latter organization. The following details have been taken largely from the field-notes of the hydrographers above named. The water of the North Branch ofthe Potomac, even near its head, is naturally somewhat dark im color, and it is stated by the older inhabitants of the region that it has always been thus dark, owing, probably, to the presence of decaying vegetable matter from the forests. This discoloration is further increased by the effluents from sawmills, tanneries and coal mines, so that at the old mill- dam near Keyser, where the polluted water, agitated by the falls, boils and foams, a thick layer of whitish-brown froth is formed. Within the northern part of its drainage area, including Allegany county, and particularly in the vicinity of Cumberland, are, as is well known, a considerable number of large coal mines furnishing employment to hundreds of laborers. “The drainage water from these mines, as they are deepened, becomes considerable in quantity, and as this is pumped directly into the smaller streams, stains the waters of the creeks which, above point of inflow, are usually bright and clear. The headwaters of the North Branch proper are at the Potomac Spring near the Fairfax Stone on the present West Virginia and Maryland state line at an elevation of about 3,000 feet. From this the river flows in a northeasterly direction for about 46 miles, form- ing the dividing line between Garrett county, Maryland, and Grant county, West Virginia, to the confluence of Savage river, where the * Drainage Basin of the Potomac, Fifty-fifth Congress, second session, Sen. Doe. No. 90; also Nineteenth Annual Report, Part IV, pp. 132-161. * Bacteriological Examination of the Potomac River, Senate Doc. No, 211, Fifty-fifth Congress, second session. 244 THE HYDROGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY elevation is over 950 feet.’ From this point on it forms the boundary of Allegany county, separating it from Mineral county, West Vir- ginia. From the mouth of Savage river the course is southeasterly for a distance of 6 miles to Keyser, on the West Virginia side of the river. Here the stream abruptly resumes its northeasterly course and continues for 23 miles, reaching Cumberland at an elevation of 600 feet. At this point again, the river sharply turns and continues southerly for 12 miles, where it joins the South Branch to form the main Potomac. ; Along the upper part of its course, down to Westernport, the most westerly town in Allegany county, the North Branch flows through a narrow, tortuous valley, the steep, wooded hillsides of which afford little opportunity for settlement. The roads are few and bad, and the West Virginia Central and Pittsburg Railway affords the only means of transportation. The extensive lumber trade in this region is responsible for a number of small settlements along the river and the existence of the two towns of Bayard, West Virginia, with an estimated population of 700, and Gormania, West Virginia, with an estimated population of 600 inhabitants. Owing to its considerable fall along this section, which averages 46 feet per mile, but in some portions exceeds 60 feet per mile, the river assumes much the nature of a mountain torrent, presenting one con- tinuous series of riffles and falls, the latter in some instances having a drop of 5 feet and over. There seems to be little opportunity for developing the waterpowers of this stream, however considerable they may be. Freshets are frequent and heavy, and would inflict serious damage to the cheaper forms of milldams. Stone and brush dams, crib dams, and loose-rock dams would either be swept away or would require incessant repairs and rebuilding. On account of the narrow- ness of the valley, waste-weirs would be impracticable, and dams would have to be built to withstand the heaviest floods passing over them, which would render their construction elaborate and expensive. It is only difficult to find good mill sites. The following discharge measurements, made in September and October of 1897, will serve to * Nineteenth Annual Report, Part IV, U. S. Geological Survey, p. 141. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XXI. WILLS CREEK AT CUMBERLAND. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 245 throw light upon the capacity of the river during the dry season: September 23 a measurement made at Gormania, West Virginia, gave a discharge of 54 second-feet. On September 25 the discharge of the river at Schell was 136 second-feet. Measurements made above the junction with Savage river on September 27 and October 27 gave discharges of 122 and 102 second-feet, respectively, the latter fairly representing the capacity of the North Branch at this point during the severe drought of 1897. These results, together with the large amount of available head and the fact that the river does not freeze over in winter, seem to indicate that there would be ample power at all times for average milling purposes. The fact that no attempt has been made by any of the sawmills and tanneries along the river to make use of waterpower has, however, sufficient explanation. The first-named enterprises use steam by preference, because they are primarily of a temporary character, liable to be shifted whenever it may be found advantageous to shorten the dis- tance which the raw materials are to be hauled, and also because they are supplied with an abundance of fuel, at no cost, in the form of sawdust. The tanneries, though of a more permanent character, invariably prefer steam power, because, besides being able to utilize tan bark as fuel, they require the use of steam in their processes. A small waterpower has been developed by two mills at Blaine, West Virginia, but the amount is trifling in comparison with what might be obtained at that point. One 15-inch and one 18-inch turbine under 74 feet head furnish about 8 horsepower to a small woolen mill. On the same mill-race is situated a sawmill and grist-mill combined, which obtains about 25 horsepower from one 36-inch turbine under 9 feet head. Water is taken from the river at a point about one-half mile above the mills, where there is a low natural dam across the river. The more important tributaries were visited and the discharges measured. September 24 the discharge of Buffalo Creek at Bayard, West Virginia, was found to be 23 second-feet. The water was heavily laden with sawdust from the Buffalo Lumber Company. Stony river, the principal tributary above the mouth of Savage river, was visited September 25. Its discharge was 38 second-feet. This 246 THE HYDROGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY stream flows through a hilly region, covered with thick timber growths, and has no settlements along it except a few logging camps. The headwaters rise in the highest part of the Potomac Basin, at an altitude of 4,000 feet. September 25 Abram Creek showed a dis- charge of 7.4 second-feet. The water of this creek carries much coaldust from the mines at Elk Garden, West Virginia, and also receives sawdust from a sawmill at Emory, West Virginia. The North Branch all along this upper section is polluted by large quantities of sawdust produced by fourteen sawmills, some of which discharge the sawdust directly into the river, and others into the tributaries. The more important of these are the sawmill of the J. L. Rumbarger Company, at Dobbin, West Virginia, with a capacity of 100,000 feet of lumber a day, the saw- and planing-mills of M. N. Wilson, at Wilson, Maryland, with a capacity of 20,000 feet of lumber a day, and of the Buffalo Lumber Company, at Bayard, West Virginia, with a capacity of 50,000 feet of lumber a day. It furthermore receives the wastes from two tanneries—those of the Middlesex Leather Company, at Bayard, West Virginia, with a capacity of from 600 to 800 hides a day, and the J. T. Hoffmann’s Sons Company, at Gormania, West Virginia, with a capacity of 300 hides a day. The wastes from the latter establishments consist of tan liquor, lime water, and a certain amount of tan bark, which is washed from the banks at times of high water. The total amount of this pollution is such that the river, especially during the dry season, has a foul appearance in spite of its dashing course over the bowlders of its rough but picturesque bed. The water has a dark- brown tinge, very suggestive of contamination by tan liquor, and particles of sawdust are extremely plentiful and are carried for long distances. In many places where irregularities in the current have caused accumulations of sawdust, small banks and bars composed of solid strata of sawdust are to be found. It is a noteworthy fact that Stony river, though free from artificial pollution, exhibits to a certain degree the same dark color peculiar to the waters of the main river. About 2 miles above Westernport, Savage river empties into the North Branch. It is a small stream of great purity, having its MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY QA7 headwaters in Garrett county. Only two small sawmills are located on its banks, and the pollution caused by them is insignificant. A dis- charge measurement made October 27 at the mouth of the stream, above the intake of the Piedmont water supply, gave a discharge of 11.3 second-feet. The town of Piedmont and part of Westernport are supplied with drinking water by a gravity system, from a reser- voir which is kept filled by pumping water from Savage river. The quantity pumped daily is estimated at 375,000 gallons. One-half mile above Westernport, at Luke, is the factory of the Piedmont Pulp and Paper Mill Company, which has a daily capacity of 40 tons of book paper and 50 tons of pulp. Im the process of manufacturing the pulp from spruce and poplar wood the wood-fiber is disintegrated by treating with bisulphite of lime, and a number of chemical residuals are formed which are discharged into the river. These chemicals consist principally of sulphates and sulphites of cal- cium, some free sulphuric and sulphurous acids, chloride of calcium used in bleaching the fiber, and a large amount of resinous matter? An analysis, made of a sample of the effluent from one of the digesters, shows acids as follows: Grams per liter. SO, (sulphuric acid and sulphates) ....................20.e00s 1.030 SO, (sulphurous acid; sulpho-acids, etc.) ...................05- 8.800 Total SO, after complete oxidation ................0cseeseeees 12.030 It further appears from the analysis that but little of the acid oceurs in a free state, being chiefly combined with organic matter contained in the effluent. Besides these chemical compounds, wastes of a more solid nature are discharged into the river at this point. A small amount of pulp is lost in the washing of the fiber; its escape is more or less accidental, signifying a loss against which the owners of the mill keep careful watch. The sediments from the filter tanks, representing the ma- terials carried in suspension by the river water, are screened out before the water can be used in the process of manufacturing pulp and paper, and are returned into the river. The filtering plant, established solely for this purpose, was put in at a cost of $35,000. The water of the North Branch is, therefore, hardly fit for industrial 248 THE HYDROGRAPHY OF ALLEGANY COUNTY purposes, much less for domestic use. The action of the acids on the clay contained in the water, together with the small amount of pulp referred to, forms a gray compound which is found to coat the stones in the bed of the river below the mill, and is frequently spoken of as waste pulp. The North Branch, in passing the towns of Piedmont and Weest- ernport, receives a large amount of impurity in the form of sewage and garbage, and is badly polluted by the water of Georges Creek, which enters the river at Westernport. This small stream, in its course of 17 miles, receives the effluents of a number of coal mines, besides the drainage and sewage of several towns, the most important of which are Frostburg, Lonaconing and Westernport, with popula- tions of 6,000, 4,200 and 2,000 respectively. When measured at Westernport September 28, 1897, the discharge of Georges Creek was found to be 6 second-feet, a very low stage. The water, which is very clear, possesses such acidity that horses and cattle refuse to drink it, and no living organisms can be seen in it. An analysis shows acids as follows: Grams per liter. Combined sulphuric acid; as SO, 52 ets6-+< sso ees eee 0.7350 Bree sulphuric acid, as. SOs... ...-s 260 THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION IN ALLEGANY COUNTY Za length. The line passing through the centers of the crosses cut on these bolts is the true north and south line. The magnetic declination (variation of the compass) jalan to its average value for the day (24 hours) was found to be at the south, or reference, monument: Date. Amount. Apast AA; Taio 2es sae S ot ae oe 4° 06.4’ west. This, as will be seen by referring to Table I, agrees very well with the value that was obtained on October 10, 1896, on Camp Hill, near Rose Hill Cemetery, viz., 4° 02’.7. If we refer this value to August 14, 1897, we get 4° 05’.2. It would seem, therefore, that the site selected on the County Poor House Farm is free of local disturbing influences. The annual change of the magnetic declination may be taken to be at the present time as: ‘ 3’ (three minutes). The table * below shows how the magnetic declination has changed at Cumberland between the years 1750 and 1900. N Year. aed ) Year palo Year. etn °o 4 ° 4 ° 4 Ue ee eee 2 03 W. S800 ae. aad 0 42 E. b= eee 049 W SSO 5 edocs OL Wiss StSOS, su. 0 45 E. JSSS Svssth 108 W eG. «ae oe 1 22 W. SHAG A eae 0 46 E. ea Ue ree oer 127 W. A ery ai 1 03 W. isis. 7-6-5 0 45 E. IGS ye oe 147 W Te | epee 0 41 W. LBZ0 ey eo 0 43 E. pty a 208 W Ey Oa 0:30 W. 4} 18s ee ee 0 33 E. rt.) (> nee 2 29 W MED Se rats 0 02 W. a er we 0 20 E. A880 Sones 2 50 W. 1785 ..... .} 013 E. Bsa) Pose 0 03 E. 1685... s0n% 311W pi es 0 25 E. EAE ae 015. W. A ess ici 3 32 W ihe eee 0 35 E. DRAR Soe ah 0 335 W. 1 ee 353 W PROD aE oes 0 42 E. 1850) oe J on 0 49 W. ISD) .b gue 412 W These figures enable the surveyor to ascertain the precise amount of change of the magnetic declination or pointing of the compass between any two dates between 1750 and 1900. It should be empha- * Extracted from Report of Maryland Geological Survey, vol. i, pt. v, p. 482. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 261 sized, however, that when applying the quantities thus found in the re-running of old lines, the surveyor should not forget that the table cannot attempt to give the correction to be allowed on account of the error of the compass used in the original survey. To reduce an observation of the magnetic declination to the mean value for the day of 24 hours, apply the quantities * given in the table below with the sign as affixed: A | Month. 6 7 | 8 9 LON Lee 1 2 Bh ff ich. 6 A.M. Zz | P.M. — | / / tat / 7 / / 7 / | / | if / / January... .|—0.1/+0.2) +1.0) +2.1/+2.4) +1.2)—1.1/—2.5|—2.6]—2.1)—1.3|—0.2) + 0.2 February ..|+0.6/+0.7|+1.5/+1.9|+1.4|—0.1|—1.5|—2.1/—2.5|—2.0/—1.2|—0.8|—0.4 March ..... +1.2)+2.0 +90 +2.8) +1.6|—0.6|—2.5|—3.4|—3.7|—3.3|—2.3/—1.2/—0.5 Aprile see 2.5) +3.1/+3.4| +2.6| +0.8|—2.1/—4.0|—4.1| 4.2/3.6] —2.3/—1.2|—0.2 May .......|+3.0|/+3.8| +3.9) +2.6| +0.1/—2.4|—4.0|—5.0/—4.5| 3.6 —2.3|—0.9/ + 0.1 UNG errs +2.9|+4.4|+4.4) +3.3/ + 1.1/—2.0|—3.6) —4.5|—4.5|—3.8|—2.6|— 1.2/0.2 Dalvie re. +3.1/+4.6|+4.9|+3.9| + 1.8|—1.2|—3.4] 4.4) -4.7|-4.2|—2.8|—-1.3|—0.8 August ..../+2.9/+4.9|+5.4)+3.7/+0.4|—2.8|—4.7) 5.1/4.9) —3.7/—1.9|—0.6) + 0.3 September .|+1.8 +2.8)+3.4/+2.5| + 0.3|—2.7/—4.4|—4.6|—4.2|—4.0|—1.4)—0.3]—0.1 October....|+0.5 +1.6/+3.1 +2.8) + 1.4|—1.0|—2.7|—3.3|—3.4|—2.4|—-1.3—0.4/—0.4 November. .|+0.5|+1.2|+ 1.7/+1.8]+1.1|—0.5|—2.0/—2. 7|2.6|—1.8|—1.0|—0.2/+.0.2 December ..|+0.2 +0.3|+0.8\+1.8/+1.8] 0.0|—1.6|—2.4|—2.3|—1.8|—1.1]—0.3) + 0.1 | | | TRUE BEARINGS TAKEN AT SOUTH MERIDIAN STONE. Tip of Court House Tower............ oe ele 8B wot. S. Spire of St. Patrick’s Catholic Church, middle Oe alles (am)! ssrscaisier4 sieiaterera s De reeeeNcterorienche tis Sil 38} 13, he Sh The latitude of the south meridian stone may be taken to be 39° 40’ and the longitude 76° 46’ W. of Greenwich or 1° 45’ W. of Washington. To obtain true local mean time, subtract from eastern or standard time 15 minutes and 4 seconds. In conclusion, it may be well to state the purposes of the meridian line. They are: 1. To enable the surveyor to determine readily at any time the declination or the “variation of the compass” at the County Seat and thus to provide the means for determining the amount of change. * From Report of Maryland Geological Survey, vol. i, pt. v, p. 457. 262 THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION IN ALLEGANY COUNTY 2. To furnish a common line whose magnetic bearing from year to year, as well as its true one, has been accurately determined, on which surveyors can from time to time test and compare their com- passes. It gives me great pleasure to acknowledge the able assistance ren- dered in the establishment of the line by Messrs. Patterson and Shriver, surveyors. Pie PORESTS OF ALLEGANY, COUNTY BY GEO. B. SUDWORTH INTRODUCTION. An explanation of the circumstances under which this investigation took place seems proper. The earnest desire of Professor William B. Clark, State Geologist of Maryland, to develop all the économie resources of the state, naturally led to a consideration of the forests. The writer was detailed to examine the forests of Allegany county as a beginning of this work. The co-operation of the U. S. Division of Forestry in this work was deemed proper on the ground that the information obtained would be of mutual value both to the Division of Forestry and the Maryland Geological Survey. With the exception of the photographs taken, all expenses attend- ing this field work were defrayed by the Maryland Geological Survey. These photographs, some of which are reproduced for the present paper, number about ninety, and remain the property of the Division of Forestry. The purpose of this investigation was to supply information as to- the condition, composition, character and uses of the forests of this county. The relation of timber-cutting, grazing, and forest fires to reproduction were also subjects of special study, with a view to pointing out a means of abating their evil effects, and thus increasing the productiveness of Allegany forests. The examination of this county was accomplished by personal travel either on foot, by rail, or by team and wagon. As only the southern and western boundaries.of the county are accessible by rail, most of the necessary travel was performed on foot and by team. __ The county is well provided with private and public wagon-roads 264 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY and trails, giving abundant opportunity for thoroughly exploring the region from east to west and from north to south. The method of examining the county was, briefly, to gain first a general impression of the topography and location of the wooded portions by inspection from the summits of the highest mountains or hills. A careful study of the various forest growths, the effects of fires, timber-cutting,-and mining was then carried out by actual travel over representative portions of the wooded sections, including all of the larger mountains. The photographs taken illustrate the main features studied. Several county officials and other residents of the county identified with railway and mining interests have kindly supplied important data on the local prices of lumber and the amount of timber con- sumed for mining props. Thanks are due for such information to Mr. Somerville of Lonaconing, Messrs. Davidson, Armstrong, and B. 8. Randolph of Frostburg, and to Mr. J. W. Cook of Cumberland. Special thanks are due Mr. B. 8S. Randolph for his cordial attention to the writer while visiting the mines and timberlands of the Con- solidation Coal Company. Location. Washington, Allegany and Garrett counties form the western, tongue-like portion of Maryland. Allegany county constitutes the middle or narrowest section, with Garrett on the west and Wash- ington on the east. The south boundary of Allegany county is defined by the Potomac river; the east boundary, by Sideling Hill Creek; the north boundary, by Pennsylvania (roughly between longi- tude 78° 20’ and 79° 55’); while the west boundary is formed by a straight line from the crest of Savage Mountain at the Mason and Dixon Line to the mouth of Savage river. The area of this county is 477 square miles, or 305,280 acres. TopocrapnHic FEATURES. The surface of this county is uniformly broken into low moun- tains and hills, trending mostly in a northeasterly and southwesterly MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 265 direction. The intervening valleys are, for the most part, narrow, merging into low foothills which form the lower slopes to the higher mountains. The salient features in the topography are the long high ridges known as Town Hill, Warrior Ridge, Wills Mountain and Dans Mountain. Sideling Hill and Savage Mountain are equally promi- nent barriers on the east and west, but are mainly outside of Alle- gany county. The west boundary of the county lies on the east slope of Savage Mountain, while the east boundary lies at the bottom of the west slope of Sideling Hill. The elevation of these mountains ranges from 1,000 to 2,900 feet. Most of the larger mountains have long and gradual slopes, in- eluding also broad flat benches at elevations of 800 to 1,200 feet. Less commonly, the mountain slopes are precipitous, notably on the south border of the county. The surface of the mountains and higher hills is often broken by exposed boulders of quartzite and sandstone. The summits of the mountains are marked by mostly bare rocky cliffs. Sort. The soil of nearly all the hills and mountain slopes is thin, being composed largely of fine slaty shale. Cultivated portions are rap- idly worn out, and even where the timber grows the soil is often poor in humus. This poor top-soil under forest cover is due partly to a necessarily slow disintegration of the substratum of pure shale and broken rock which lies close to the surface and partly to the fre- quent forest fires which continually destroy the enriching leaf mould. The soil of the lower hills and valleys is rocky, but deeper and richer. The best agricultural lands are, therefore, situated mostly in the valleys and on low adjacent hills (Plate XXV, Fig. 2). Con- siderable land has been cleared on the higher mountain slopes, but it is far less productive than the lower areas. Water Frow. The county is well watered by numerous rocky streams fed by innumerable cold springs among the low hills and on the higher 266 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY mountain sides. All are tributary to the Potomac river. The most important of these streams are Sideling Hill Creek, Fifteen-Mile Creek, Flint river, Town Creek, and Georges Creek. They vary in width from twelve to twenty-five feet and carry from six to fifteen inches of water. At high water their volume is increased to two or three times the normal flow. The water of most of these streams is pure and wholesome. That of Georges Creek and several of its tributaries is, however, so strongly impregnated with iron, sulphur and drainage from coal and fire-clay mines as to be unwholesome. No fish exist in these waters. In earlier days these streams supplied waterpower for small saw- mills and flour-mills throughout this region. Few of these mills are in existence now. The flow of streams is chiefly important to farmers in affording an abundant and convenient supply of water for stock. The small transient steam sawmills also depend on this source of water supply. The maintenance of the numerous springs peculiar to this region is of prime importance to nearly all farmers and residents of the smaller towns, many of which depend on this source of water supply. At present these resources are well protected by forest cover, as are also the headwaters of all the streams draining the county. As indicating the close relationship, however, between water flow and forest cover it is interesting to note in this connection that the oldest inhabitants of this region assert the existence of a greater rush of water in the spring and fall of recent years than was formerly observed, when the country was more continuously wooded. In earlier times the larger streams are said to have carried a uniform flow, with little or no sudden increase during spring and fall. The heavy rains and melting snow under present conditions, however, occasion an immediate and often dangerous rise of water in the larger streams at certain points. The rise of water sometimes prevents farmers crossing fords for a week or more, thus cutting off their communication with markets, ete. To obviate such difficulties, the county has built a few new roads to avoid impassable fords. The explanation of this rush of water is simple. Increased, indis- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XXvV. Fic. 1.—THIN FOREST COVER, POTOMAC RIVER. Fic. 2.—FARM AND FOREST LAND, MARTIN MOUNTAIN. FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 267 criminate clearing of woodland, especially on the larger slopes, brings about a more direct and rapid drainage than was permitted by the original close forest cover of the county. Wooprep Rearons. With the exception of a few treeless swampy meadows of small size, the entire county was once a continuous forest. The heaviest timber existed in the coves, on the low hills, and on the lower slopes and benches of the mountains, where the soil is deepest and most porous. The rocky upper slopes and summits appear to have borne a forest of small stunted trees. The wooded portions of the county are now confined to the larger hills and mountain ridges, with irregular extensions into the valleys. Most of the streams also bear fringes of forest growth. Roughly estimated, the agricultural land of this county is about thirty per cent of the entire area, the remainder being mostly in forests with a small per cent of brush land. The latter, however, contains forest tree species of brush size, and is, therefore, to be classed strictly as reforested land. The forests of the mountains form for the most part a continuous cover down to the usually cleared valleys (Plate XXV). Only ocea- sional clearings and worn-out, abandoned farms are seen on the mountain sides; but wherever these cleared lands have been long neglected, they are already reforested, or are rapidly becoming so as shown in Plate XXVIII, Fig. 1. CHARACTER OF THE Forests. The character of the forests, changeable throughout, varies especi- ally from north to south. The prevailing growth is deciduous, but this is conspicuously mingled with patches, and often large areas of conifers, the latter being somewhat more abundant in the central and southern parts of the county. Small detached hills in these regions bear a pure growth of conifers as seen in the region of Pine Hill and Piney Grove, while portions of surrounding slopes are covered largely with deciduous forest. In 268 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY other cases similar hills bear a growth chiefly of conifers on their north slopes and a deciduous forest on their south slopes. As a rule the larger mountain slopes bear a variously mixed growth of conifers and deciduous trees, sometimes evenly mingled or with the conifers in alternating vertical belts. The slopes near the larger waterways also bear conspicuous fringes of conifers, which give way to the hardwoods higher up on adjacent slopes. Composition oF Forests. The peculiar position of Western Maryland, intermediate be- tween the North and the South, gives Allegany county a forest flora rich in species. The higher summits, coves and valleys exhibit a climate and soils closely similar to those of the more northern states, while the climate and soils of the lower valleys, glades and hills are characteristic also of the adjacent southern states. As a result, there is a conspicuous association of northern and southern tree species. This association is of more than passing interest, since the kinds represented are of economic importance. Conifers and hardwoods of the middle South and North mingle here almost on the same ground. The following is a complete list of coniferous and hardwood trees of Allegany county: CONIFERS. PNT WNUGC SEA @oe7scerayetatoteve site tereicine ecient toractale Pinus strobus. DOUG gD read HOORRCM EP OL ADDO GOG UOT 5 Pinus rigida. Sisal ati Cinaion a opaaacdada peo nore .otodc Pinus virginiana. 4. Table-Mountain Pine. ©...» 2% -... ROO Aaron IO ae OSs Acer rubrum. (ie MLM ENE Cll ong n ae DE ORO UN Geen dco Tilia heterophylla. (io, Ifa Gri heen np cnchibdemaenco Odeon nome Cornus florida. by, BEG ete Rods | 85 comp onAddeno seine aor noe Nyssa sylvatica. Ws WHO LEN WEIL. SC heooon coBaodsn bommaoul: Kalmia latifolia. Offer ROGOdandromnerrcere fete eicevete aici trials tetera Rhododendron maximum. GS seereimmon, . reise ei cieieies cele suger «ei easteiee'e Diospyros virginiana. Ue AC ROAS Iitoretoeyeite store sete rere crate oie / erage ateretors Fravinus nigra. UCMNVDALLE WA Site cits els t epeevayn sale sts oi kia cetera Fraxinus americana. fils (Omer WAT eee a tar arencio ol Gon ean mptoceh was Fraxinus lanceolata. ietrmaN AUN DOLE Y fatafe tats tishehctatliclarercianate als, teks sl Siacies Viburnum prunifolinm. Gernerat Distrreution or Forest Tres. The limitation of certain trees to particular areas forms somewhat conspicuous features in the composition of the forests of this region. There are, of course, no very sharp lines of separation between the 270 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY ranges of tree species, but within general limits, at which there is more or less overlapping or mingling of two or more species, it may be noticed that finally one kind of tree disappears and another ap- pears. For example, in ascending one side of a mountain, Beech, Maple, Basswood, ete., may appear at the base of the mountain. Above these a sueceeding zone may contain Chestnut, Sweet Bireh, ete.; and the next higher zone, Chestnut Oak, Table-mountain Pine, Wild Red Cherry, ete. These zones blend into each other more. or less by the mingling of the trees peculiar to each zone. Similarly. defined areas of tree growth of still other species may be met with on the opposite slope of the same mountain. Or in passing from deep valleys on a mountain side to adjoining ridges or benches at the same altitude, often there may be found an assemblage of trees peculiar to each of these dissimilar localities. The explanation of these phenomena is believed to lie in the fact that certain trees have become so completely adapted to a given kind or condition of soil (dry, moist, loose or compact), or climate, that they cannot exist where the required soil and climate are wanting. Thus the presence of a northern climate in portions of this region appears to account for the presence, by extension, of northern trees into this county which are prevalent in their wider northern range under the same conditions. The more cosmopolitan trees of this region are conspicuous over a greater area, while the less widely adapted kinds appear within narrower limits. The part also which some trees and shrubs play by taking first possession of denuded lands, thus rendering the soil favorable by protection of moisture for the introduction of still other trees, is a most interesting and practical consideration in the distribution of trees. This is especially true where fire and the axe have destroyed a part or the whole of an original forest. The full value of all the trees in a region cannot be determined without a knowledge of the relationship of species in their natural succession. DISTRIBUTION OF PRINCIPAL TIMBER TREES. The most conspicuous of the timber species are the White Oak, Chestnut Oak, Red Oak, Chestnut and White Pine. They form MARYLAND”GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XXVI. Fig. 1—WOODED HILL IN SOUTHWESTERN ALLEGANY COUNTY. ~ NC) ations Te Fig. 2.—NARROW AGRICULTURAL VALLEY IN SOUTHEASTERN ALLEGANY COUNTY. FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 271 forests in which, according to exposure and altitude, the one or the other predominates; in fewer instances areas occur with mixtures of all five species, together with other kinds which do not form forests. The White Oak occurs on all the low hills and on the lower and middle slopes and benches of the high mountains. Originally it also oceupied the high valleys now cleared. Its presence usually indi- cates the deeper, richer, and less rocky soils. The Chestnut Oak appears commonly on all the upper, rocky, gravelly slopes and summits of the mountains and hills. It grows persistently even on precipitous slopes where the surface consists en- tirely of broken quartzite and sandstone; but here the trunks are short and gnarled. The larger and better formed trees are found where the rock is broken and carries a thin cover of soil. The White and Chestnut Oak often occur together, but in most cases the one or the other prevails under the peculiar conditions which suit it best. Few and scattering White Oaks are found on the rocky sites chosen by the Chestnut Oak, and vice versa. Chestnut is confined chiefly to poor, dry, gravelly, southern, east- ern and western slopes. It is sometimes mingled with Chestnut Oak, but more often constitutes the principal growth over a consid- erable area, giving way ‘in richer moist coves and on benches to White Oak and other hardwoods, and appearing again on the thinner soils. As with Chestnut Oak, the best growth occurs on the middle and lower slopes; that found on and near the summits of the moun- tains is short and of small diameter. The Red Oak is a constant associate of the White Oak, Chestnut Oak and Chestnut, but far less abundant than these species. In stands of 60 to 80 trees to the acre the Red Oak forms only from five to ten per cent. It is a tree singularly well adapted to a variety of soils, often producing well-formed trunks even in the deep crevices of almost bare rock. The largest trees occur in rich coves and sinks where the underlying rock is broken. The White Pine occurs almost entirely on northern and eastern slopes, ascending to the summits of the highest mountains (Mt. Savage, Warrior Ridge and Dans Mountain). It is especially con- 272 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY spicuous along the rocky north slopes of streams, often forming dense, narrow belts of pure growth down to the water’s edge (Fig. 14). Higher up on the slopes it is usually mingled with hard- woods. The White Pine forest shown in Fig. 14 is composed chiefly of young timber (25 to 75 years old), ranging from 6 to ocea- sionally 15 inches in diameter, and under 60 feet in height. A much older, scattered growth of this pine is found among hardwoods. Under these conditions the trunks are 18 to 30 inches in diameter Fic. 14.—Pure growth of white pine, near Flintstone. and 80 to 100 feet high. The White Pine of this county grows best in moist, well drained, clayey loam soils, such as produce the finest White Oak. DISTRIBUTION OF SUBORDINATE TIMBER TREES. The next most conspicuous timber trees are, among conifers, the Pitch Pine, Shortleaf Pine, Table-mountain Pine and Serub Pine. Of hardwoods, the principal remaining species are Sugar Maple, Red Maple, Shagbark Hickory, Tulip-tree, White Ash, White Basswood, Locust, Black Gum and American Elm. The pines commonly pass MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 273 for one species. Together, they constitute an important element in the forest cover of very exposed, bare, rocky, southern slopes. The Scrub Pine forms a dense cover in the poorest shaly soils on the lower southern slopes of the high ridges, or more frequently on the south side of low hills throughout the middle and southern sec- tions of the county (Plate XX VII, Fig. 2). It is peculiarly adapted to exposed, sterile soils, often taking possession of abandoned, worn- out fields to the exclusion of all other species. In richer soils and less exposed localities it gives way to patches of hardwoods. Most of the Serub Pine now standing is of small size, ranging from two to six inches, with occasional trees eight to fourteen inches in diameter. The largest trees which grow on least exposed sites have straight clear trunks twenty to thirty feet long. The growth found on the most exposed, precipitous sites is usually low, crooked, and much branched. At higher elevations, comprising the middle benches and summits of the mountains, Pitch and Table-mountain Pine occupy sterile, rocky situations on southern, southeastern and southwestern ex- posures. Scattered individuals also occur mingled with hardwoods on the low shaly hilltops adjacent to the mountains (Plate XXIX, Figs. 1, 2). Where these pines form the principal growth, the two species are usually mingled in about equal numbers. Not infre- quently, however, the Table-mountain Pine forms pure open stands of ten to fifty acres on narrow, rocky benches high up on the moun- tain sides. In exceptional instances also, stunted Shortleaf Pine is to be seen among these mountain groves, notably on Town Hill. Little merchantable timber is produced by the Pitch Pine and Table- mountain Pine, as their principal growth is low and much branched and the wood coarse-grained and knotty. The hardwoods of this group appear more or less scattered among the deciduous species already mentioned as forming forests. One of the most abundant of these is the Sugar Maple. It occurs in all the moist rocky coves and in the vicinity of streams throughout the county. Its ability to thrive in the seams of almost bare limestone and quartzitic rock is remarkable. Well-formed large trees were 18 274 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY frequently met where only a seanty deposit of soil had filled the narrow crevices in the ro Closely associated witl Sugar Maple, but in fewer numbers, are the Red Maple, White Basswood, White Ash, Shagbark Hickory, Locust, Tulip-tree and Beech. These scantily represented species form open forests in which none oceur abundantly or continuously, but at irregular and often long intervals. These trees were doubtless more abundant in former years. The present economic value of this growth is small, except for fuel, as no considerable yield of any one kind can be secured without very wide culling. DISTRIBUTION OF OCCASIONAL TIMBER TREES. Still less prominently represented are a few other valuable timber trees, notably the Black Walnut, Butternut, Mockernut and Pignut Hickory, Swamp White Oak, Cucumber-tree, Black Cherry, Syca- more, Black Ash and Red Juniper. Excepting the Black Ash and Swamp White Oak, which are peculiar only to swampy glades of the high valleys, all of these trees are found as stragglers among the preceding more abundant kinds. Very probably the original forests of this region contained much larger numbers, as the special conditions favorable to their growth are prevalent. The other trees enumerated are nearly all small and of little im- portance. They are generally distributed among the more conspicu- ous forest growth. A few only are confined to certain localities, and interesting because of their rarity in this region, or special usefulness in establishing a cover under which better kinds may grow. Among those species are the Sweet Birch and Wild Red Cherry, which oceur only on the highest summits. The latter is not a tree of economic value and is mentioned only on account of its rarity. The Sweet Birch supplies an important furniture wood in mountainous parts of the adjacent states where the rocky soil is deep and rich. The timber produced is of large size. Im Allegany county, however, this Birch is necessarily small on account of the present extremely sterile soil. The Barren Oak is the most conspicuous of small trees in the ——————— = MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XXVII. Fig. 1—SCRUB PINE, NEAR OLDTOWN. Fig. 2.—DEFECTIVE LARGE WHITE PINE IN YOUNG HARDWOOD, FIFTEEN MILE CREEK. FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 275 region. It forms low, dense, brushy thickets high up on the moun- tains and ridges wherever the original deciduous forests have been entirely cut or burned off. Being partial to the poor, shaly soils of these high elevations, it serves a useful purpose in establishing a ground cover, which prevents violent washing of the soil. Useful timber species soon follow under the protection of the more hardy Barren Oak. Finally, the Hackberry, Sweet Crab, Thorny Haws, Wild Plum, Serviceberry, Redbud, Nannyberry and Sumachs are small fore- runners in the natural reforestation of abandoned cleared lands in the valleys on the lower hills. Together with briars and other shrubs, these small trees take complete possession of such lands in from ten to fifteen or more years. Following this growth may be seen the slow, sure introduction of the better kinds of forest trees. Ineortant Trower Trees: Terr Anunpance anp Uses. The most abundant and commercially important timber trees of this region are White Pine, Shortleaf Pine, Hemlock, White Oak, Chestnut Oak, Red Oak, Chestnut, Shagbark Hickory, Sugar Maple, ~White Ash, Tulip-tree, Basswood and Black Walnut. Other species represented supply much useful timber, but oceur too sparingly to afford large supplies. The original forests of this county produced considerable White and Shortleaf Pine and large quantities of White Oak, Yellow Poplar and Hickory timber, together with an abundance of Chestnut Oak and Hemlock tan-bark. The timber was large and of excellent quality, and is estimated to have frequently given an acre yield of from 8,000 to 10,000 board feet, over large areas, or possibly more in some localities. The old, slow water sawmills made but small inroads upon this supply; but evidence is everywhere present of the nearly complete culling made later by portable steam sawmills (Fig. 15). The latter have so completely lumbered out the large sound timber on all the principal streams, in the once heavily wooded coves and on the rich mountain benches and gentle slopes, that at present sizable timber of good quality is scarce and distant from public roadways. 276 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Most of the large White Pine is now gone. Defective old White Pines are frequently seen scattered over slopes now covered with young hardwood forests (Plate XX VII, Fig. 2); only an oceasional sound White Pine is to be found. Shortleaf Pine is similarly exhausted. Small groups and seat- tered single trees are to be found in patches of hardwoods on farms in the lower hill country, or forming thin belts skirting the lower slopes of the higher, wooded mountains. Only occasional large Fic. 15.—Portable steam sawmill. trees are to be found (Plate XXX, Fig. 1). The majority are now too few or of too small size to furnish any considerable amount of timber. The saw timber now available consists chiefly of White Oak, Chest- nut Oak, Red Oak and Chestnut, with only occasional logs of second growth White Pine, Shortleaf Pine, Pitch Pine, Basswood and Shag- bark Hickory. The approximate acre yield of timber now standing amounts to from less than 500 to about 2,000 board feet; exceptional, isolated small bodies would cut from 3,000 to 6,000 feet per acre. These supplies occur, however, at long intervals, and, as already MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 277 stated, are profitably reached only by small portable sawmills, which find employment mostly for only a few months in one place. Siz- able timber is especially scarce near railways and the principal wagon-roads, over which the original stock has largely been taken. A few portable sawmills are cutting small quantities of the above- mentioned timber at various points through the northern and middle portions of the county. In some cases the output is a mixed cut of hardwoods and pine, while in other localities the cut is principally either oak or pine. The best quality of lumber produced is oak. The pine cut is very knotty and of second- or third-rate quality. Owing most likely to the absence of convenient railway connections, a comparatively low price, $8.00 to $12.50 per 1,000 board feet, is received for the average local output of lumber. The demand for mining props and railway ties is apparently large and relatively more profitable to the producer than lumber. The output of this material is, however, confined chiefly to localities near the coal and fireclay mines and the railways in the western part of the county, and to the region of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. Poor roads and high hills render it unprofitable to haul such heavy material from the more distant interior sections lying to the north. The mining props cut show that nearly all the trees of the region contribute to this material. The species commonly ent are White Oak, Chestnut Oak, Searlet Oak and Red Oak, Shagbark Hickory, Pignut Hickory and Mockernut Hickory, Chestnut, Red Mulberry, Loeust, Sugar Maple, Red Maple, Black Gum, White Ash, Black Cherry, White Pine, Pitch Pine, Scrub Pine, Table-mountain Pine and Shortleaf Pine. All are used without distinction, but those most highly prized for their strength and durability are White Oak, Chestnut and Locust. The props range from five to seven inches in diameter at the butt, and are nine feet long. It is rare, therefore, that a tree furnishes more than three props. The present stand of young timber fit for this purpose affords a yield of 35 to 50 props per acre. Where the stand is largely Chestnut and Locust, which is often the case, such cuttings may be made approximately every 278 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY ten to fifteen years. For young forests containing mixtures of the other species mentioned, a cutting for mining props can be made in from fifteen to eighteen or more years. Excluding the conifers, much of this material is supplied by coppice sprouts, the Chestnut and Locust far outstripping the other hardwoods in growth. The remainder of the props comes from pole stock, grown from seed, 25 to 30 years old. The annual consumption of mining props in the coal and fire-clay mines of western Allegany county is roughly esti- mated at about 1,000,000. This represents an annual culling of about 28,000 acres. The wastefulness of cutting such timber as White Oak, Hickories, Maples, White Ash and White Pine at the short interval of fifteen to eighteen years should be apparent, and will be discussed later. The use of the other less valuable timber species, and especially the rapid growing Chestnut and Locust is more advisable. This county has produced large quantities of Chestnut Oak tan- bark and considerable Hemlock in the western part. The sources of supply are, however, now greatly diminished or exhausted. No bodies of Hemlock exist in the county. The small quantity of young timber scattered along rocky north slopes of streams in west- ern Allegany, is insufficient to supply tan-bark. The once abundant stand of Chestnut Oak has likewise been nearly exhausted by bark peelers. The comparative lightness of this product has enabled producers to secure bark from even the steep, rocky slopes of the highest mountains, from which the hauling of heavier saw-timber would have been unprofitable. The large tanning establishment which continued for many years at Gilpintown, in the north central part of the county, had to be abandoned a number of years ago for lack of tan-bark. With scarcely an exception, the exploitation of tan-bark in the past was attended by a total waste of the timber, and most of the bark peeling of the present time leaves the trunks unused. The only exception observed by the writer was in recent work on the lands of the Consolidated Coal Company in the western part of the county. Here all peeled Chestnut Oak is being sawed up for mining timber with the other timber stripped,from coal-bearing land. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 279 Retation or Lumpertye anp Mrytye to Repropvcrion. It would be diffieult to find a region in which the useful timber has been more generally removed than in this county, and at the same time, one in which so much forest cover has been left intact. Doubtless only the non-agricultural nature of the greater part of the original forest-bearing regions has prevented an almost complete deforestation. In cutting the timber no pains were taken to assist the reproduction of original timber species. The purpose of all cut- tings was the same, whether for sawlogs, tan-bark, ties, or mining props; the largest amount of useful material, regardless of conse- quences, was the prime object. That all but the twenty-five or thirty per cent of arable land in the county has continued to bear a forest cover, is evidence of the greatest natural persistence in reproduction, which often takes place under very unfavorable conditions. The reforesting of denuded land in this humid region is, therefore, one of the easiest problems. In spite of abusive methods of lumber- ing and other cutting there is no evidence of the disappearance of any of the original timber species. A careful study of the young tim- ber and seedlings shows all the old species to be present in the young growth. The absence, however, of large-sized trees of certain species, in fact, sometimes of any but small seedlings, usually sug- gests to the casual observer that once prevalent trees have perma- nently disappeared from a region. The fact also that the commer- cial supply of such timber as White and Shortleaf Pine appears to remain exhausted, may add to the impression that these trees can never again produce the original abundance of timber. But the natural reproduction of these trees in this region is peculiarly good. It required one to two or more hundred years to produce the supply of large White and Shortleaf Pine found in this county forty years ago; and the various stages of struggle between the contending hard- woods and pines for the possession of this ground were unseen by those who cut off the finally dominant pines. Much of the area thus wooded now bears a principally young deciduous forest with only seattered remnants of the once abundant pine; trees which at the time the larger timber was taken escaped the axe either because they 280 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY were too defective for use or of undersize. The old defective trees have continued to exist, and the undersized are now large enough for saw-timber, but generally too few to claim attention. The establishment of another growth of pine like the one removed can be accomplished only by another long struggle. The seed trees left standing are centers of reproduction. But each of the pines must spread under conditions best suited to its reproduction. The White Pine of this county will establish itself in pure growth on cleared land on exceptionally moist, protected, portions of northern slopes, and elsewhere only under the moderate shade of young hard- woods. Once established, however, the young pines do not require further protection; but, as a matter of fact, they must remain sup- pressed till accident or design removes enough of the hardwoods to allow the pines to grow up. The Shortleaf Pine must spread from the few seed trees left here and there by pushing into sunny, partly shaded openings. among the hardwoods. It makes a successful stand in such places, if it outstrips or keeps up in height growth with the hardwoods. This reproduction of pine, which is going on now, would, if unin- terrupted, require so many years that the generation of settlers who saw and helped to remove the original crop of pine could not witness the perfection of the returning crop. Moreover, the commercial condi- tions of the region are now greatly changed from those attending the former growth. The present increasing and constant demand for small-sized timber in this region prevents the White or Shortleaf Pine and many other useful timbers from reaching mature growth. Thousands of pine props are made from very young trees, thus cut- ting off all chance for the production of the more valuable mature timber. In conclusion, it may be restated that while the present and past cutting of saw-timber, ties, mining props and timber for tan-bark has locally depleted or entirely exhausted the supply of timber, it has not materially changed the composition of the forests now standing. The original species remain, and the hardwoods promptly increase wher- ever the axe, fire and grazing are withheld; the conifers come back MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XXVIII. Fic. 1.—NEGLECTED FARMLAND, EASTERN ALLEGANY COUNTY. Fic. 2.—SHORTLEAF PINE AND PITCH PINE, TOWN HILL. FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. Lois oe a, came MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY : 281 more slowly. Moreover, as already shown, where cleared agricul- tural land is long abandoned, this land quickly reverts to the original forested condition. It is not to be presumed, however, that with a widespread and complete removal of existing species a serious change would not be made in the composition of the subsequent forest growth. The reproduction of all trees, as with other plants, depends emphatically on the presence of seed trees, be they far from or near the cleared land. But the lumbering and other timber-consuming industries of previous years have by chance left enough seed trees to assure the perpetuation of all species for the present. The removal of large deposits of coal from beneath wooded areas may permanently change the surface, kill the existing timber and retard subsequent reproduction. As is well known to those familiar with these coalmining opera- tions, as much as possible of the big coal-veins, about 6 to 9 feet thick and lying in a horizontal position, is taken out before aban- doning the mines. In agricultural regions these worked-out coal- beds may doubtless be left sufficiently shored up by pillars of coal to prevent any collapsing of the surface. In the rougher hill country, however, mostly with brush or forest cover, such expensive precau- tions are not likely to be taken. The coal is taken out and the sur- face left to sink or retain its position, as circumstances permit. When coal-beds lie over one hundred feet below the surface, the unsup- ported cavity seems not to result in any but an irregular depression in the surface. Where the removal of deposits is nearer the surface (30 to 75 feet), the final dropping of the surface is usually violent. Cavernous pits are produced which engulf the forest growth in min- gled masses of variously tilted, fallen and upright trunks; but much of this continues to grow. The timber thus involved is almost en- tirely inaccessible. These breaks in the surface are gradually much smoothed in their more abrupt portions by the washing and sliding of soil and rocks. Smaller vegetation covers the bare spots, and the undermined rough surface is finally overgrown with brush and forest trees. 282 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Wherever coal lands bearing considerable useful timber are con- trolled by ownership, the usual plan is to remove all usable timber before the coal is mined. This takes all sound trees down to about three inches in diameter. If uninterrupted, the final recovery by original species is well assured. For when carefully examined, the forest floor of such denuded lands is found to contain well established seedlings of the principal timber species from two to ten years old. In addition to these, much of the sapling growth comprising the same kinds survives the destructive lumbering methods employed and also the caving-in of the surface. The much greater value of the coal deposit must always properly have precedence over the present timber crop lying above, and also over that which would have been possible during the term of years necessary for the land to recuperate from the effects of the under- mining. It only remains to be said, therefore, respecting the rela- tionship of coal-mining operations and forest reproduction that there is an appreciable loss in timber production on undermined forest land. The period of this loss will vary, according to the purpose for which the timber rotations are taken, from twenty to one hundred or more years. The actual annual loss of timber growth for the species represented could not be accurately stated without an ex- tended study of the productiveness of abandoned coal lands. Some permanent damage is also to be mentioned as a result of a fixed change in the surface of undermined forest lands. The inac- cessibility of such lands for future lumber operations is greatly in- creased. In many places the timber is likely to be difficult to get at, and the building of roadways is expensive on so broken a surface. Forest Frres anp THerR Retation to Repropwcrion. Forest fires have been widely prevalent in this county, but their effects are not strikingly evident. Types of the widespread and long- enduring devastation so common in the more western timbered states are nowhere seen in this region. However severe the damage done may be, the ravages of Allegany county fires are soon. greatly con- cealed by rapid and abundant reproduction. Moreover, very little large timber appears to have been killed by fire. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 283 Two factors explain the rapid recovery and small injury to large timbe?. The largest areas of timber land are comprised in the prin- cipal mountain ranges. The most prevalent fires have occurred in these localities. Now the principal reason that destructive fires do not occur, is in the fact that there is no deep humus and little aceumu- lated débris to feed a deep burning fire. In its present condition, the soil and humus cover in these forests is only from one to two inches deep and lies on bare rock and shale. Large areas bear no soil or humus at all, except in the crevices of the rock, while elsewhere the bare soil is composed largely of slaty shale. With very little dry, fallen timber or brush, the fires occurring in these sections are fed mostly by the heavy fall of leaves. The ex- posed rock and shale immediately beneath permits only a surface fire, which almost never reaches the tree roots lying deep in crevices or beneath the shale. The ordinary effect upon the larger timber trees is a noticeable but harmless scorching of the thick bark from two to six feet up; the resin-covered trunks of the Table-mountain, Pitch and Shortleaf Pine bear the higher fire marks. The greatest damage to large timber observable within recent times resulted from a fire which occurred about six years ago. Considerable dry, down timber in some locali- ties where selective cutting for saw-timber had been done, attended by a dry season, resulted in an unusually severe fire. Few large trees were killed, but many were badly burned in spots at the collar, evidently from the burning of unused logs and treetops lying near or in contact with green trunks. While these burney trees sur- vived the fire perfectly, the trunks are, as a result of burning, with- out an exception, decaying at the heart and deteriorating for saw- timber. The effect of surface fires on seedlings and coppice sprouts is disas- trous in killing most growth from one to ten feet high. The thin- barked stems of all species are severely scorched so that they die down to the ground. An encouraging feature is, however, that the roots of seedlings over one year old are rarely killed. They pro- duce vigorous sprouts the following season. The scorching of Chest- 284 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY nut and Oak sprouts is often so slight as to kill only the thin bark, leaving the sapwood uninjured; a few immature leaves are then put forth, but the stems finally die down to the ground. While in general the damage by fires in this region appears not to be great, especially since there is little or no apparent decrease in the forest cover, nevertheless, the combined effects upon all ages of growth are very appreciable. The greatest damage is done in the periodic destruction of from one to ten or more years’ growth of seed- lings and coppice sprouts. A few very young seedlings are also killed. Clearly, therefore, the productiveness of these forests is much reduced; in fact, where fires run through this young growth at short intervals it is practically held at a standstill for many years. Actual growth is confined only to such saplings and older trees as are, from their size, capable of withstanding light fires. The direct effect of - retarded reproduction would be much more apparent to consumers of timber in the region than it is now, if these forests were systematically cut over for the fullest utilization of timber. The present timber- producing stock would eventually be exhausted. "Wooded areas which now give the impression to many of being constantly stocked and improving would soon be reduced to an unproductive state. Many acres of woodland are thus to be found which yield practically noth- ing, from the fact that all small stock is periodically destroyed. Closely related to this retardation is the fact that constant destrue- tion of humus reduces the productive power of the forest soil, both in point of richness and in the power of retaining moisture. » A loss of the latter directly affects all agricultural lands below the wooded mountain slopes. For with all small vegetation and absorbing humus burned off, a large percentage of rain- and snow-water rushes over the clean surface to wash and erode the tilled lands below. The common belief expressed by many people in this region, that the frequency of forest fires is beneficial in rendering each sueceed- ing fire less and less dangerous is a pernicious fallacy, overlooking the damage just recited. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XXIXxX. Fig. 1.—PITCH PINE, NEAR PINE PLAINS, EASTERN ALLEGANY COUNTY. Fic. 2.—TABLE MOUNTAIN PINE, DANS MOUNTAIN. FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 285 ManaGement anp Utiization or Forrest Resources. Without a much more detailed examination than was possible in the brief time given the work by the writer, it would not be possible to formulate an adequate plan of management for the various forest types and conditions of this county. The needs of different sections of the county are not the same, and would, therefore, require special study. It is believed, however, that a statement of some of the general needs of Allegany county gorests in point of treatment and utilization will not be out of place, and may even prove of consid- erable practical value to intelligent owners of woodlots. Indeed, it is gratifying to state in this connection that the farmers and other owners of woodlands, and officers in charge of forest lands in this region are remarkably well informed upon the condition and com- position of their forests. The average intelligent farmer is _per- fectly familiar with the location and character of the principal timber trees of his region, and recognizes most of them even in their younger stages of growth. Such information is of great practical value, and with the suggestions to be given, will, for the time being, enable thoughtful men to improve their woodlots considerably.’ Nearly sixty years of constant drain upon the forests of this county has reduced them to a state of the lowest productiveness, which has in turn led to an impression among many people that this resource is irretrievably gone. As already pointed out, however, the rapid natural reproduction in this region is most encouraging for a recupera- tion of these depleted forests if the latter can be placed under a con- servative management. Moreover, it is believed that the large per- centage of rocky hills and mountain land now in forest can be most profitably held in this condition; in fact, much of the hill and moun- tain land, once cleared and now abandoned, was evidently neglected because of low agricultural productiveness. In conclusion, attention is called to the following general recom- For careful improvement and utilization of their forest lands owners are especially recommended to apply to the Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, for Circular 21, entitled “ Practical Assistance to Farmers, Lumbermen and Others in Handling Forest Lands.” (1898.) 286 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY mendations which are believed to be important in the management of woodlands in this county, both as looking to increased production of timber and to the protection of agricultural lands from erosion and the consequent deterioration. Discussions of these recommenda- tions follow in detail: 1. Protection of forest lands from fire. 2. Exclusion of grazing from forest lands. 3. Regulation of indiscriminatg cutting. 4. Regulation of indiscriminate clearing. Protection or Forest Lanps rrom Fire. Sufficient has been said as to the injury to forests by fires. Fires in this region are commonly believed to be caused through the carelessness of pleasure parties, hunters, woodsmen and other peo- ple in the forests. The penalty imposed by the Maryland law’ for wilfully or eare- lessly setting forest fires appears to be adequate, but it is believed will never completely control the evil. The great difficulty under * By an early statute in this state, it was forbidden to maliciously set on fire any woods, fences, marshes, lands, leaves, or rubbish thereon, within the counties of Baltimore, Anne Arundel, Frederick, Montgomery, Allegany, Queen Anne’s, Harford, Cecil, or Prince George’s, so as to occasion any loss, damage, or injury to other persons, under penalty of a fine not exceeding $100, one-half to the informer and the other half to the county, besides the costs; or, if unable to pay this fine, by imprisonment not over six months. A slave thus convicted might be punished by whipping, not exceeding thirty- nine lashes, on the bare back, unless his owner chose to pay a fine not exceeding ten pounds. The owner of property injured or destroyed by such fires might recover its value from the party who caused it. By an act passed March 29, 1838, entitled ‘“‘ An act to repair injuries done by fire from railroad engines,” it was provided, that if any woods, fields, or other property, real or personal, be burned or injured by fire from engines, the company should pay the loss, Actions for damages under this act were to be tried at the first term of the court in which they are brought, if process be served on the defendant ten days before the court convenes, or, if not, then at the court next following. Service might be had upon any director, officer, attorney, agent, or servant of the defendant. Upon failure to appear, the court might, after the second term, upon proof of service by the sheriff’s return, or by affidavit, enter a judgment by default against the defendant, by a jury impanelled at bar, as in cases of writs of inquiry. : MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 287 the present status of securing conviction must always render this law an inadequate protection unless special provision be made to enforce it. This can be accomplished thoroughly only through the services of special officers. Protection from forest fires in other states has been secured by the appointment of fire-wardens, whose duties are to enforce the fire law and exterminate forest fires. Chief fire-wardens are now regularly appointed by state authority in New York, Pennsylvania and Minne- sota. In other states, where, as yet, these officers are not provided, local officers of the law (constables, ete.) have been made fire-wardens. The benefit of these systems of fire service in states, counties and townships possessing woodland is unquestionably great. As an example of this, it may be stated that the work of fire-wardens in the Preserve counties of northeastern New York has resulted in a recent very marked control and reduction in the number of forest fires. In addition to the special state fire-warden of New York, over two hun- dred supervisors in these counties are appointed deputy fire-wardens. The state provides that a compensation of two to two and one-half dollars a day be paid to deputy fire-wardens for actual time spent in fighting fires. In special cases of need these officers may hire a tem- porary force of men to assist In subduing fires; and for such service a per diem rate of two dollars is paid. The establishment of a fire service for Western Maryland seems imperative. This section combines the most heavily wooded coun- ties—Washington, Allegany and Garrett—and should, therefore, very fitly form the basis for establishing such protection. It is be lieved that the plan of combining the duties of fire-wardens with those of supervisors of these counties would be thoroughly feasible. Exciuston or Grazinec From Forest Lanps. The damage done to forest land by grazing is in the destruction of seedlings, by tramping and browsing, and in laying bare the surface, which is afterward dried out and washed. Under these con- ditions reproduction is either seriously checked or prevented. A well-managed forest cannot serve for two purposes—good pas- 288 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY ‘4 ture and the fullest production of timber. If woodland affords good grass pasture it is proof that the ground is not fully stocked with trees; and if trees are wanting in grassy places, most likely it is be- cause the incoming seedlings have been trampled down from season to season by grazing cattle and so crowded out by the hardier grasses. A properly stocked forest managed for short rotations of small tim- ber, such as mining props, ties, ete., should afford no forage for stock. Grazing should be relegated to cleared lands or to brush and wood- lands intended only for grazing. Reeuratrion oF Inpiscrrmmyate Currie. The injuries resulting from indiscriminate cutting are: removing needed seed trees of the most useful species, the leaving of old: trees which are suppressing valuable young growth, and neglecting to lop waste tops and trunks which otherwise fail to rot and supply fuel for fire. Timber-cutting in the past has not left a sufficient number of seed trees of the valuable species. The loss of a proper number of seed trees is a disadvantage to the forest in depriving it of immediate means of reproducing the kinds thus taken out. The return of species from distant sources is slow and involves a loss of valuable time. Care should be taken, therefore, in marking trees to be cut out, that three to four seed trees of all the original useful timber species of a locality be left evenly distributed on every acre. The timely removal of old trees which are suppressing and dam- aging young timber is urgent. The need of such discriminative cutting is very apparent in the forests of this county. As an example of this need may be mentioned the suppression caused by a single large White Oak standing on the lower east slope of Warrior Moun- tain. Eight large sapling White Pines, four White Oaks, two Hick- ories, two Walnuts, and one Shortleaf Pine were all entirely over- topped by the heavy crown of the old White Oak, and were becoming stunted and twisted in their efforts to reach the needed light. The removal of the White Oak would have allowed these saplings to advance. Failure to relieve them at the proper time has already pre- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ALLEGANY COUNTY, PLATE XXX. Fra. 1.—SHORTLEAF PINE AND HARDWOOD, NEAR PINEY GROVE. Fig. 2.—CUT-OVER HARDWOOD FOREST, SAVAGE MOUNTAIN. FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 289 vented five to six years of profitable growth. Suppression of this kind is easily recognized and remedied by any intelligent farmer or woodsman. In the majority of cases where timber is cut for sawlogs, ties and props, from 10 to 30 per cent or more of the trees is left on the ground as waste tops; and in the case of timber cut for tan-bark, the entire trunks are commonly left unused. The danger of neglecting unlopped, waste treetops, especially of hardwoods, is that the timber is usually braced up from the ground where it seasons thoroughly and rots very slowly, affording additional fuel for forest fires. The burning of this material was observed to have done severe damage to large trees standing near or in contact with it. Strict economy would not allow hardwood tops to be wasted when they can be eut into fuel. But if cireumstances are such as to make this entirely impracticable or unprofitable, the refuse should be cut and disposed on the ground so that it will decay as rapidly as possible. The essential point is to bring it all in contact with the ground, where it will decay. To accomplish this properly it will be necessary to lop all large limbs which stand above ground. Precaution should be used in felling large timber so as not to drop a big top, which must be left unused, near or in contact with large standing tregs. Such refuse tops should be placed, in felling, in open places distant as far as possible from standing timber in order to avoid burning the latter in ease of fire. The labor of properly reduc- ing waste hardwood tops will often be considerable, while the lopping of the much smaller branches of unused conifer tops can be done more quickly. Most farmers can easily carry out these precautions when doing the cutting themselves or superintending it. It will be difficult, however, to enforce this extra work in contract cutting, except under the most rigid insistence. In the case of timber stolen, which not infrequently occurs in the mountain forests, attention to waste tops will of course be entirely neglected. 290 THE FORESTS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Reeuration or IypiscormMin ave CLEARING. Examples of injudicious clearing are to be seen in many sec- tions of this county, and include the instances where narrow hill- tops, mountain ridges and steep slopes have been stripped of their forest cover. Heavy surface washing and deep trenching follow these clearings not only on the high slopes thus cleared, but also on the better lands lower down. The result is a constant impoverish- ment of the soil. The rapid deterioration of these naturally thin hill soils under constant surface washing is abundantly attested in the fact that many acres are now abandoned. Reference has been made also to the increased rise of water in streams during the spring and fall as a result of indiscriminate clearing. THE FAUNA AND FLORA THE LIFE ZONES AND AREAS OF ALLEGANY COUNTY BY C. HART MERRIAM | The best guide to the agricultural capabilities of a region is afforded by the distribution of the native animals and plants; for experience has shown that areas characterized in a state of nature by the presence of particular species are adapted to the cultivation of particular varieties of agricultural crops. The importance of this fact is so great that the national government has been engaged for years in a biological survey of the United States with a view to determining the boundaries of the areas inhabited by different associations of animals and plants. It has been found that North America may be divided primarily into two vast regions: a northern or Boreal, and a southern or Austral, according to the sources from which the native animals and plants were derived. The boundary between these areas lies, in the main, north of the United States, but disconnected arms or tongues of the Boreal area push far southward into the United States along the sum- mits of the higher mountain ranges—the Alleghanies in the east and the Rocky Mountains and Sierra-Cascade system in the far west. The state of Maryland, owing to its southern position, is in the southern or Austral region, but the high mountains in the western part of the state are so much colder than the lower lands on the east that their summits are in places inhabited by species characteristic of the northern or Boreal region. Excepting these small mountain summits, the total area of which is insignificant, Maryland lies wholly 292 THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY within the Austral region. This region is commonly divided into several belts, known to naturalists as Lower Austral, Upper Austral, and Transition. The Transition, as its name implies, is a belt of overlapping of northern and southern types. The Lower Austral, or Austroriparian, belt begins on the east coast at the mouth of Chesa- peake Bay and takes a southerly and westerly course around the south- ern end of the Alleghanies. The Upper Austral, or Carolinian, belt extends from the neighborhood of New York City southerly along the coast to Chesapeake Bay and includes the whole state of Mary- land except. the mountains. The mountains fall mainly within the Alleghanian division of the Transition zone, and, as already remarked, a few of their higher summits are strongly tinged with Boreal forms. While the Boreal region has too cold a climate for successful agri- culture, all of the Austral zones are of agricultural importance. The whole of the state of Maryland, therefore, so far as its climatie con- ditions and life zones are concerned, is an agricultural state—no part being too cold for the cultivation of crops. The rainfall and humidity also are neither too scanty nor too excessive for agriculture; hence, except where unfavorable topographic and soil conditions prevent, the whole state may be made productive. A very hasty examination of Allegany and Garrett counties recently made by my assistants, Vernon Bailey and E. A. Preble, at the request of Professor William Bullock Clark, Director of the Maryland Geological Survey, shows that Garrett county and the western part of Allegany county (west of Piney Mountain and the Potomac valley) are mainly in the Alleghanian area of the Transition zone, and that the eastern part of Allegany county (east of Cumber- land) is mainly in the Carolinian area of the Upper Austral zone. Tongues of the Carolinian fauna, characterized by the tulip tree, sycamore, red bud, sassafras, sweet gum, dogwood, and scrib pine, oceupy the narrow valleys of the North Branch of the Potomac river, Wills Creek, Jennings Run and Braddock Run, and reach up, ‘Among the characteristic animals of the Carolinian area of Maryland are the opossum, fox squirrel, cardinal bird, Carolina wren, tufted titnrouse, gnatcatcher, Carolina chickadee and summer tanager. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 293 as a rule, to an altitude of 1200 or 1300 feet. Above this, the whole county, except the warmest slopes, which are tinged with Carolinian forms, belongs to the Transition zone. In Garrett county, in the upper part of the Transition zone (above 2600 feet altitude) cold sphagnum and alder swamps abound. These swamps contain a strong admixture of high Transition and even Boreal species, such as the Junco, or Slate-colored Snowbird (Junco hyemalis), Solitary Vireo (Vireo solitarius), Magnolia Warbler (Dendroica maculosa), Canadian Warbler (Wilsonia canadensis), Redbreasted Nuthatch (Sitta canadensis), Hermit Thrush (Hylocichla aonalaschkae pallasii), Redbacked Mouse (Hvotomys gappert), Canadian White-footed Mouse (Peromyscus canadensis), two species of Jumping Mouse, or Jerboa (Zapus hudsonius and Z. insignis), Varying Hare (Lepus americanus virginianus), and the northern Sooty Shrew (Sorex fumeus), all of which were obtained by E. A. Preble at Finzel post- office, six miles north of Frostburg. Still farther west the Boreal tinge is even stronger, and in some very extensive swamps between Accident and bittinger (mainly on the west side of the wagon roaa) Mr. Preble found spruce trees common. The cutting off of the spruce and hemlock from these small boreal islands lets in the hot sun and results, in numerous instances, in changing the fauna and flora from Canadian to Alleghanian. The fauna of Allegany county is a mixture of Carolinian and Alle- ghanian species and comprises, so far as known, no boreal islands. The Potomae valley, and valleys of the principal streams, are Caro- linian; the uplands, Alleghanian. THE SUMMER BIRDS OF WESTERN MARYLAND BY EDWARD A. PREBLE During the summer of 1899 three short trips were made to west- ern Maryland for the purpose of studying its fauna and flora in the joint interests of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the Mary- land Geological Survey. The time spent in the field aggregated about a month. Special attention was paid to birds and mammals— the plants, for lack of time, being merely noted incidentally with reference to their bearing on the different life areas of the region. A short preliminary trip was made in May. Reaching Frostburg, near the western border of Allegany county, eleven miles west of Cumberland, a suitable place for a few days’ work was found in Finzel, a postoffice near the northeast corner of Garrett county, about a mile and a half west of the main ridge of Great Savage Mountain, at this point having an altitude of nearly 3000 feet. Finzel lies some 400 feet lower. About midway in distance and altitude between Finzel and Great Savage lies Little Savage Mountain. These ridges are covered with a rather sparse growth of oaks and chestnuts. In the shallow depression between them is a dense swamp, the main source of Savage river. This swamp is densely grown up to hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), black spruce (Picea mariana), tamarack (Larix laricina) and several other species, with a dense undergrowth com- posed mainly of Rhododendron maximum. To the west of Finzel the country is cut up by numerous ridges mainly covered with oak and chestnut, the intervening valleys being rather.swampy and tra- versed by small brooks, and usually clothed with heavy forest, hem- lock and rhodedendron predominating and often extending nearly to the summit of the ridges on their western slopes. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 295 After spending several days about Finzel, mainly engaged in trap- ping mammals; having obtained a fair knowledge of the mammalian fauna, it seemed desirable to ascertain the conditions in other por- tions of the county. The turnpike road was traversed westward from Frostburg across Great Savage, Meadow and Negro mountains to Keyser Ridge, and thence, leaving the turnpike, the country was examined southward to Accident, across Negro Mountain to Bittinger, thence by a circuitous route to Grantsville, and back to Frostburg. Several large tracts of coniferous woods were located and gave promise of interesting results if visited later in the season. Beginning June 17th, 5 days were spent in studying and collect- ing the birds about Finzel, among which were several species not be- fore recorded as breeding within the state. On June 22, the point of study was shifted westward to Grantsville in Garrett county, a small town situated on a ridge overlooking the valley of the Castleman, about two miles south of the Pennsylvania line, and a point of de- parture was located at a farmhouse about two miles east of town from which the valley of the Castleman and the ridges to the eastward could be easily worked. Most of the country is covered with a rather heavy growth of deciduous trees, oaks and chestnuts predominating. A good-sized tract of hemlock stands near the turnpike three miles east of Grantsville and a considerable quantity also remains on the western slopes of the ridges near the Castleman, where red-berried elder and rhododendron abound. At this point the valley of the Castleman lies at an altitude of about 2100 feet, while the ridges in the vicinity rise four or five hundred feet higher. White pine was formerly found in this region in great abundance, but has now almost entirely disappeared. The axe of the lumber- man has latterly been directed to the hemlock and spruce, which in turn are fast disappearing. On June 27 the field of observation was transferred to Bittinger, a postoffice about nine miles south of Grantsville on the plateau be- tween the north and south branches of the Castleman. Its altitude is about 2600 feet. Considerable tracts of hemlock and spruce oceur in the vicinity, and in their shade were found Taxus minor, Dirca 296 THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY palustris, Oxalis acetosella and other northern plants, and also many interesting birds to be mentioned later. On July 1 another change was made to Mountain Lake Park in the southern part of Garrett county. Here, as throughout the county, the face of the country is traversed by numerous chestnut ridges having a general northeast and southwest trend, but coniferous for- ests are entirely absent. In the vicinity of Kearney, some hemlock woods still remain and there are several species of birds not observed at Mountain Lake Park. A considerable quantity of hemlock occurs on the western slopes of Great Savage Mountain in the vicinity, with an undergrowth of Rhododendron maximum, Taxus minor, and Oxalis acetosella. Study and collecting trips were also made to Rawlings, Dans Moun- tain, Oldtown, and Little Orleans, where short stops were made to ascertain what birds were common in the vicinity. Following is a list of the birds observed during the several trips. They were all seen between June 17 and July 24 (with the exception of Otocoris), and while of course the nests of all the species were not found, there is no doubt that all were breeding in the vicinity. A male horned lark in full song, observed near Accident on May 18, was doubtless breeding. Several olivebacked thrushes were seen near the borders of the tamarack swamp near Finzel on May 15 and may breed there, but, since they may have been migrants, and since they were not found there in June, the species is not included in the following list. The wild turkey occurs throughout the wilder parts of the region but was not observed. The number of species recorded would doubtless have been considerably increased had it been possible to devote the time entirely to birds. LIST OF SUMMER BIRDS IN WESTERN MARYLAND. Ardea virescens. Green Heroy.—Though doubtless oceurring elsewhere in the region, Green Herons were observed only along the Potomac and its tributaries. One was seen near Rawlings and a number of adults and young were observed at Little Orleans and Old- MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 297 town. At the latter place two broods of young, which had left the nests and were climbing about among the branches, were seen. Philohela minor. Wooncocx.—The tracks and borings of a Wood- cock were seen at the edge of a swamp at Finzel, and several were seen at Grantsvilke and Mountain Lake Park. Actitis macularia. Sprorrep Sanpprrrer.—Several were noticed on the shores of the Castleman, near Grantsville, and also a number along the Potomac at Oldtown and Little Orleans. Aegialitis vocifera. Kitrtprer Prover.—A pair of Killdeer Plovers were seen in a field near Rawlings on July 21. Colinus virginianus. Quatt.—This species seemed to be fairly common throughout the region. It was heard several times near Grantsville, where they are said to be abundant some seasons. Sev- eral were heard between Grantsville and Bittinger, and the species was also noted at Mountain Lake Park, Rawlings, Oldtown, and Little Orleans. Bonasa umbellus. Rurrep Grovuse.—This species was abundant in the higher parts of the region. Three females each, with a brood of young, were observed near Finzel and the birds seemed equally abundant near Grantsville, and were also observed at Bittinger and on Dans Mountain, near Rawlings. Zenaidura macroura. Movuryinec Dove.—The Mourning Dove was noted in small numbers at Bittinger, Mountain Lake Park and Swanton. It was abundant near Rawlings and Oldtown. Cathartes aura. Turkey Buzzarp.—This species was seen in small numbers at Bittinger, Swanton, Dans Mountain, Oldtown and Little Orleans. Accipiter velox. Swarpr-soiynep Hawk.—A pair seen at Moun- tain Lake Park, and one in deep woods near Swanton. Its actions seemed to indicate that it had a nest in the vicinity. Accipiter cooperi. Coorrr’s Hawk.—One was seen perched in a dead tree on a partially cleared hillside near Swanton. I decoyed it quite near by imitating the cry of a bird in distress. Buteo borealis. Rep-rarrep Hawx.—Only seen once, a few miles north of Rawlings. The bird was sailing about over the valley. 298 THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Buteo lineatus. Ren-snoutperrp Hawx.—A very noisy pair seen daily at Finzel, and the species was also noted near Grautsville. A nest in a large birch in deep woods near Bittinger had probably been oeeupied by a pair of these birds, which were several times observed in the vicinity. . Buteo latissimus. Broap-wincep Hawx.—One was taken on the summit of the ridge about three miles east of Grantsville. Falco sparverius. Sparrow Hawx.—This species was noted at Grantsville, Bittinger and near Mountain Lake Park, only one being seen at each place. Megascops asio. Screecn Owx.—The familiar notes of this species were heard several times during the night of June 24, at Grantsville. Though doubtless found throughout the region, the bird was not elsewhere noted. Bubo virginianus. Great Hornep Owit.—The remains of a brood of full-grown young were seen in the woods near Finzel. I saw one near Bittinger, one evening about dusk, perched on a high dead tree, at the edge of the forest. It soon started off in search of food. Coccyzus americanus. YELLOW-BILLED CucKkoo.—Several were seen and heard at Finzel and one was taken on June 20. Coccyzus erythrophthalmus. Buack-stttep Cuckoo.—One was taken near Grantsville on June 26. Ceryle alcyon. KinerisHer.—One was seen near Oldtown on July 238. Dryobates villosus. Harry Wooprrecker.—Fairly common over the higher portions of the region. One was taken at Finzel and several seen in oak and chestnut woods near Grantsville. A pair, accompanied by young, were seen in deep woods near Bittinger. Dryobates pubescens. Downy WooprrcKrer.—Evidently not com- mon. ‘The species was noted at Grantsville, Bittinger, and near Rawlings, only a single individual being noted in each ease. Sphyrapicus varius. YELLOW-BELLIED Woopprcker.—Rather common and generally distributed over the higher portions of the region. A few were noted near Finzel. A pair seen near Grants- ville June 23 evidently had a nest near by. Old birds, accompanied MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 299 by young not long from the nest, were seen at Bittinger and Moun- tain Lake Park, and later both old and young birds were observed at Swanton. Ceophloeus pileatus abieticola. Norraern Pirrarrep Woopprcker. —A bird of this species was seen in heavy mixed woods near Swanton. It doubtless occurs sparingly throughout the region, as it was heard in several places. Melanerpes erythrocephalus. Rep-Heapep WooprrckEer.—Quite generally distributed and common throughout the greater part of Garrett county traversed. It was fairly common about Grantsville and abundant’ at Bittinger and Mountain Lake Park. The birds seemed to delight in the tall dead oaks and chestnuts left in the clear- ings. They paid frequent visits to the cultivated cherry trees which are common throughout the region. Colaptes auratus luteus. NortHern Fricker.—Very common and generally distributed throughout the region. Antrostomus vociferus. Wuirpoorwitt.—Whippoorwills were heard nightly at Finzel and near Grantsville. I also heard several at Swanton during the night of July 18, but did not note the species elsewhere. Chordeiles virginianus. NicurHawx.—A few were seen at Bit- tinger, Mountain Lake Park, Swanton, Rawlings and Oldtown. Chaetura pelagica. CumtNry Swirt.—This species was very gen- erally distributed throughout the region and was everywhere common, and in the vicinity of the towns, abundant. Trochilus colubris. Rusy-rHroatED Humminesrrp.—The ruby- throat seemed to be uncommon. Only one was seen at Bittinger and one near Rawlings. A number were noted at Swanton and along the roadsides near Oldtown. Tyrannus tyrannus. Wixesirp.—Rather common and generally distributed throughout the region, being noted at all the places visited. Myiarchus crinitus. Crestrp Fryoarcuer.—Rather common near Grantsville, Mountain Lake Park, Swanton and about Rawlings and Dans Mountain. 300 THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Sayornis phoebe. Puorse.—Generally distributed but rather rare. With the exception of Mountain Lake Park, it was seen in small numbers at all the localities visited. Contopus virens. Woop Pewrr.—Fairly common and very gen- erally distributed, being noted as more or less common at all the localities visited. Empidonax virescens. Acaptan Frycarcurer.—This species was seen on only one oceasion, at Oldtown. ; Empidonax traillii alnorum. Atper Frycarcuer.—A number were seen in alder thickets in the meadows and springy places near Mountain Lake Park, and two males were taken July 3 and 4. They were rather active and frequently uttered their characteristic note, but were shy and generally kept concealed on the opposite side of a thicket of alders, and the specimens taken were secured with some difficulty. Empidonaz minimus. Least FrycatcHer.—One was seen and taken in an apple orchard near Grantsville. Otocoris alpestris praticola. Prarrtze Hornep Larx.—While driving through Garrett county on May 18, I saw a male bird of this species. He was on a rail fence singing lustily and was not at all shy. It was near the town of Accident, about ten miles from the northwest corner of the county.” There can be little doubt that the bird was breeding. Cyanocitta cristata. Biur Jay.—This bird was noted as common at all the places visited except Oldtown and Little Orleans. Young, not long from the nest, being fed by their parents, were observed at Bittinger on June 28. They had notes very similar to those of young crows. Corvus corax principalis. NorrHern Raven.—A pair of ravens were seen on several occasions at Finzel. They were said to have a nest in a large hemlock near that place which they had occupied for several successive seasons. Corvus americanus. Common Crow.—Fairly common and gen- erally distributed, being noted at all the localities visited. Young birds not long from the nest were seen at Grantsville and Bittinger late in June. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 301 Dalichonyx oryzivorus. Boxotryx.—A pair of Bobolinks were observed in a field near Grantsville on June 23. The bird is said to be a regular summer visitor, but is not common. No others were seen. Molothrus ater. Cowxstrp.—A small flock of Cowbirds was seen in a field near Rawlings on July 22. Agelaius phoeniceus. Repwirncep Bracksrrp.—Quite common in the meadows and low fields in the valley of the Castleman near Grantsville. A few were also seen at Mountain Lake Park, Bit- tinger and Oldtown. Sturnella magna. Meravow Larx.—Common and quite gener- ally distributed throughout the region. Numbers were seen at Grantsville, Bittinger, Mountain Lake Park, Rawlings and Oldtown. Icterus galbula. Batrimorr Orrore. During my stay near Grantsville I saw several in a cherry tree near the house. At Moun- tain Lake Park, I took one, which was feeding on the berries of the “Service Tree” (Amelanchier). Several individuals, evidently a family, were seen in the oak woods near the base of Dans Mountain, near Rawlings. Quiscalus quiscula. Purpte-Grackie.—Several bands, consisting’ of old birds accompanied by young not long from the nest, were seen at Bittinger. They seemed interested mainly in the cherry trees, which at the time were loaded with ripening fruit. They were very noisy, and except when feeding, were quite shy. Specimens taken were intermediate between quiscula and aeneus, as might be expected. The species was also noted at Mountain Lake Park and Swanton. Astragalmus tristis. American Go.tprincu.—This species was common and very generally distributed throughout the region, being seen almost daily at all the places visited. Pooecetes gramineus. Vesper Sparrow.—This species was abund- ant in the fields about Finzel, Grantsville and Bittinger and was also noted at Rawlings. Ammodramus savannarum passermus. GRASSHOPPER SPARROW. —A number of these birds were seen along roadsides in the vicinity of Rawlings. 302 THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Spizella socialis. Cutprrnc Sparrow.—This familiar species was common and very generally distributed throughout the region. A nest containing four fresh eggs was found at Finzel on June 21. Spizella pusilla. Firup Sparrow.—This species was noted in con- siderable numbers at all the places visited, excepting Oldtown and Little Orleans. Junco hyemalis carolinensis. Carorixa Junco.—Fairly common about the open portions of the hemlock woods in the vicinity of Finzel. It was also seen in the vicinity of a hemlock forest about 3 miles east of Grantsville on June 22. During my stay at Bittinger the species was observed daily and young, apparently just from the nest, were seen June 29. During a drive through Garrett county, on May 18, I found a nest of this species near Bittinger, containing four apparently fresh eggs. The site was beneath the edge of a mossy bank within a few feet of the highway. Melospiza fasciata. Sona Sparrow.—This bird was noted as common at all the places visited. Pipilo erythrophthalmus. Townrr.—Noted in considerable num- bers in scrubby oak woods in the vicinity of Finzel, Grantsyille, Moun- tain Lake Park, Swanton, and on Dans Mountain, near Rawlings. Cardinalis cardinalis. Carptnat.—This species was rather com- mon in the valley of the Potomac near Rawlings, Oldtown and Little Orleans. In the higher portions of the region it was observed but once, in the valley of the Castleman about three miles northeast of Grantsville. Zamelodia ludoviciana. RosesrEastEp Grosprak.—Rather com- mon in mixed and deciduous woods about Finzel. I saw a pair in mixed woods near Bittinger, and one near Swanton. Cyanospiza cyanea. Inpiao Buntixe.—Common and very gen- erally distributed throughout the region, being noted at all the places visited excepting Bittinger and Swanton, where it was probably over- looked. A nest found near Grantsville on June 23 contained young just hatched. Piranga erythromelas. Scartet Tanacer.—Fairly abundant at all the places visited excepting Oldtown and Little Orleans. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 303 Progne subis. Purrre Martin.—Several colonies were observed about Mountain Lake Park, and a colony at Frostburg in the north- western part of Allegany county. Petrochelidon lunifrons. Cir Swattow.—This familiar species noted in the vicinity of nearly every farmhouse throughout the higher part of Garrett county. It was common near Finzel, Grantsville, Bit- tinger and Mountain Lake Park. Great numbers of their nests were seen beneath the overhanging portions of the old-fashioned barns. Hirundo erythrogaster. Barn Swattow.—Generally distributed and common throughout the region, being noted, usually in large numbers, at every place visited, excepting Oldtown. They nested in nearly every barn through the country. In the vicinity of Grants- ville, June 22-27, great numbers of young birds just from the nest were observed. Clivicola riparia. Banx Swattow.—A single bird was seen at Little Orleans on July 24. Ampelis cedrorum. Crpar Waxwine.—Noted in abundance at Finzel, Grantsville, Bittinger, Mountain Lake Park and Swanton. A nest found at the latter place on July 19 contained three eggs. A few individuals were also seen at Oldtown. Vireo olivaceus. Rep-byep Virr0.—This species was very abund- ant and generally distributed throughout the region, being observed at all the places visited. Vireo flarifrons. Yxrtuow-rHroateD Vireo.—A number were observed in thickets bordering the Potomac at Oldtown. Vireo solitarius. Sorrrary Virro.—This species was fairly com- mon in hemlock and mixed woods near Finzel, Grantsville and Bit- tinger. I took a specimen near Kearney, a few miles southeast of Mountain Lake Park, and the song of one was heard at Swanton. I also saw several on Dans Mountain. Specimens taken at Finzel and near Kearney show some slight approach in measurements and color of upper parts to V. s. alticola, but, on the whole, seem much nearer to the typical form. Minotilta varia. Brack anp Wuirr Warster.—Common and quite generally distributed. It was seen at all the places visited ex- 304 THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY cepting Grantsville and Little Orleans, where it was probably present, but overlooked. About the base of Dans Mountain, near Rawlings, a number were seen searching for food on the rail fences, often at a considerable distance from the roads. Helmitherus vermivorus. Worm-EaTtnc Warster.—One was taken about half-way up Dans Mountain, near Rawlings, on July 21, and a day or two later I saw one at Oldtown. Helminthophila chrysoptera. GotpEN-winceD Warsier.—A num- ber were seen and one taken in young growth near Swanton, and I saw several on Dans Mountain near Rawlings. Composthlypis americana. Paruta Warsier.—One was seen at Oldtown on July 23, and another the day following at Little Orleans. Dendroica aestiva. Yettow Warsiter.—A pair observed near Grantsville late in June, and several at Oldtown and Little Orleans, were the only ones noted during my trip. Dendroica caerulescens. Buack-tHroatED Broz Warsier.— Rather common at Finzel and Bittinger, where deserted nests were noticed and at Swanton. I also took an individual near Kearney, a few miles southeast of Mountain Lake Park. Several specimens taken exhibit considerable black on the back, supposed to be indicative of subspecies cairnsii, but which seems more likely to be an indication of high plumage increasing in intensity as the bird grows older. Dendroica maculosa. Macnotta Warster.—Common in the hemlock and spruce forests throughout the higher portions of Garrett county. It was noted in considerable numbers at Finzel, Bittinger and Swanton, and several seen in a grove of hemlocks near Kearney several miles southeast of Mountain Lake Park. A nest found near Bittinger on June 27 contained three fresh eggs; another was depos- ited the next day. The nest was situated in a small hemlock about four feet from the ground, a characteristic situation. The late date would seem to indicate a second litter, though I saw no young birds. Dendroica pennsylvanica. CHEsTNUT-SIDED WaARBLER.—A com- mon bird over most of the higher portions of Garrett county. Many were observed at Finzel, and a newly-built nest was seen. It was also common at Grantsville and Mountain Lake Park, and young birds were taken on Dans Mountain, near Rawlings, on July 21. MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 305 Dendroica blackburniae. BuacKkeurntan Wars_er.—Rather com- mon in the hemlocks about Finzel. I saw one near Bittinger on June 30 and took one on Dans Mountain, near Rawlings, on July 21. Dendroica virens. Buiack-THroateD Green Warsier.—A female was seen at Finzel on June 18. Dendroica discolor. Prarrtre Warsier.—Several were seen in bushy woods at Oldtown July 22-23. Seiurus aurocapillus. Oveyx-srrp.—A very common species throughout the region. Seiurus noveboracensis. WaArrr-rHrusu.—This species was fairly common about Finzel, especially in a swamp between Big and Little Savage Mountains. Nearly every small stream flowing through low woods had a pair or two. A single bird was observed at Swanton. Seiurus motacilla. Lovtstaya Warer-rHRusH.—Though normally affecting low altitudes, this species frequently follows small streams up to their source. One was thus observed near Finzel along a brook flowing through a dense hemlock forest, whose undergrowth of Rhodo- dendron and Kalmia also afforded a congenial shelter to S. novebora- censis. Several were seen along Crabtree Run, near Swanton, and I-took a specimen on Dans Mountain July 21. Geothlypis trichas. Maryitanp YELLow-THRoAtT.—Noted in rather small numbers at Finzel, Grantsville, Mountain Lake Park, Rawlings, Oldtown and Little Orleans. Icteria virens. YELLOW-BREASTED CuHar.—A pair or two noted in the vicinity of Finzel. It was rather common about Mountain Lake Park, Swanton, Rawlings, Oldtown, and Little Orleans. Wilsonia mitrata. Wutson’s Warster.—In thickets of young growtlr on the lower slopes of Dans Mountain, near Rawlings, this species was rather common. Wilsonia canadensis. Canapian Warsirer.—This was the most abundant warbler at Finzel, where old birds were seen feeding young just from the nest about June 20. The species was rather common in the rhododendrons, which abounded in favorable situations in the valley of the Castleman near Grantsville. It was also rather com- mon about Swanton. 20 306 THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF ALLEGANY COUNTY Setophaga ruticilla. Amertoan Repstart.—A pair observed at Finzel, and a number seen at Swanton, Rawlings, Oldtown and Little Orleans. Galeoscaptes carolinensis. CarTprrp.—A very abundant breeder throughout the region. Harporhynchus rufus. Brown Turasner.—A few were seen near Finzel, Grantsville and Bittinger. Thryothorus ludovicianus. Carotixs Wrex.—One was noted in a garden near Oldtown. Thryomanes bewickii. Brwicxs Wren.—I saw one by the road- side near Bittinger on June 30, and found both old and young birds rather common on Dans Mountain, near Rawlings, on July 21. Troglodytes aedon. Hovusrk Wrren.—A male in full song was seen several times about Little Orleans on July 24. Certhia familiaris fusca. Brown Creerer.—A female was taken in heavy hemlock woods near Bittinger on June 28. Sitta carolinensis. Wutrr-BrEastep NutHatcu.—Very common and generally distributed throughout the region. Sitta canadensis. Rep-Breastep Nurnatca.—aA small flock of these birds, evidently a family, was seen on the branches of a tall dead tree, in the deep woods near Bittinger. It was also seen near Finzel about the middle of May, when it was doubtless breeding. Parus bicolor. Turrep Titmousr.—A number were seen in thickets beside the Potomac near Oldtown on July 23. Parus atricapillus. Buack-caprep Tirmovse.—Rather common about Finzel, Bittinger and Mountain Lake Park. Hylocichla mustelinus. Woon Turusy.—A very common bird about Finzel, Grantsville, Bittinger and Mountain Lake Park. Its song was also heard on Warrior Mountain about 4 miles north of Old- town. Hylocichla fuscescens. Wutson’s Turuse.—Generally distributed over the higher portions of Garrett county, being common about Finzel, Grantsville, Bittinger, Mountain Lake Park and Swanton. A few were also seen on Dans Mountain, near Rawlings. Hylocichla aonalaschkae pallasii. Hermir Tarusu.Several of @ MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 307 these birds were heard in the “oak barrens” near Finzel. Its song was also heard once near Grantsville and once at Bittinger. In the white oak woods near Mountain Lake Park, several were heard and two taken. Merula migratoria. Rosix.—A vey common breeder throughout the region. Sialia sialis. Buivrsrrp.—Common and generally distributed throughout the region. A brood of young, accompanied by their parents, was seen near Finzel on June 17. 5 me ee all 4 é i ’ P Py, , & { as 4 ar cageel oii Mane Bue - ee ‘ 7 Lele moet! an ie Wey a its. Pee ra Mab oyna Sri tte ' ba Sr ammene, nie Nat eR ss i b ‘ ‘ i gee 4\0 A we ae ty ia ial co Yoaare a. : “ 4 neraabi mata eras A 7 hi: baht tony yok edad Or Eiie 4, OL yh Ae uy . , : s Ps { Ag , ke) ae hae ; Aa i ne oe heal, ny J - * ae ny i ph sr anes Fak : j “ie ‘Vit pes ‘ ay a te 6d, oll AAs in} ue A ah : - a Me M ? ‘ F ai Fpl ee ee rn NS Mads t Rot ee a ale ia es ms tte. 7) oe lle G ye ile eee = . bie : ae fag, a yy ORE hd * vote si! mee oN ie tA, hero) de trata eh i aye pal ae bi any Oo em RS ss : ai , alin’ hee van ‘rin ie Theat edhe Gin ao nc ae, ru A = eet) My HN emia ens a hi Th 1 fi ee ey 4 ae ea aU BAS i) i "i i es , ; W Satyr Aga De : estis A . te eal ca Lee ‘h! bat inte theta As ‘ 7 t ‘ . ‘ AS u? her Fu si Sha le 4 4 { i a) ee j ne = ie if 4 r y ’ if z a a + Si : p Deine s | m oa OM. ’ ‘ \ a ir i INDEX A. Abbe, Cleveland, Jr., 17, 85. Abram Creek, discharge of, 246. Acadian Flycatcher, occurrence of, 300. Agricultural products of Allegany county, 198. Aiken, Wm. E. A., 61, 70. Alder Flycatcher, occurrence of, 300. Alexander, J. H., 61, 62, 63, 70, 71. Allegany county, agricultural pro- ducts of, 198. Allegany county, area of, 264. Allegany county, birds of, 293-307. Allegany county, boundaries of, 23, 264. Allegany county, climate of, 217. Allegany county, economic re- sources of, 24. Allegany county, flora and fauna of, 291. Allegany county, forests of, 263. Allegany county, forest needs of, 285. Allegany county, geographic and geologie relations of, 57. Allegany county, geological forma- tions of, 86. Allegany county, geology of, 57. Allegany county, hydrography of, 233. Allegany county, important moun- tains of, 57. Allegany county, important streams of, 58. Allegany county, life zones and areas of, 291. Allegany county, list of conifers and hardwood trees of, 268. Allegany county, location of, 23. Allegany county, magnetic declina- tion in, 253. Allegany county, mineral resources of, 165 Allegany county, physical features of, 21, 23. Allegany county, physiography of, 27. Allegany county, rainfall in, 223. Allegany county, soils of, 195, 265. Allegany county soils, analyses of, 214-216. Allegany county, stratigraphy and areal distribution of forma- tions in, 85. Allegany county structure, 132. Allegany county, temperatures of, 219. Allegany county, topographic feat- ures of, 264. Allegany county, topographic map of, 64. Allegany county, waterflow in, 265. Allegany county, wooded regions of, 267. Allegany Grove, terraces at, 51. Alleghany Plateau, 27. Alleghanian fauna, 293. Allegheny coals, 171. Allegheny formation, 31, 115, 166, 169. Allegheny formation, composition of, 115. Allegheny formation, extent of, 1b. Allegheny formation, sections in, 116, 117, 118. Allegheny formation soils, 210. Allegheny formation, thickness of, 1alsakly geri ke: Alluvial and other late deposits, 130. Alluvial soils, 212. American Coal Company, 179. American Goldfinch, occurrence of, 301. American Redstart, occurrence of, 306. Analysis of cement rock, 186. 310 INDEX Analysis of effluent from Savage river, 247. Analyses of soils from Allegany county, 214-216. Andrews, ——, 65. Anticlinal ridges, 36. Anticlines, 132-136, 138, 139, 140, 142-146, 148, 149, 150, 152, 154, 163. Appalachia, 58, 155. Appalachian Province, 27, 58. Appalachian Province, boundaries of, 27. Appalachian revolution, 54, 55. Appalachian strata, origin of, 161. Appalachian structure, 152. Archean continent, 155. Areal distribution of geological formations in Allegany county, 85. Argillaceous sediments, 158. Armstrong, ——, 264. Armstrong, S. C., 78. Ashburner, Chas. A., 78, 79, 80. Atkinson, T. C., 230. Austral faunal region, 291. B. Babb, Cyrus C., 81. Baily, Vernon, 292. Baird, G. W., 83. Baltimore Oriole, occurrence of, 301. Bank Swallow, occurrence of, 303. Bannon, Benj., 74. Barkman, Justin, 230. Barn Swallow, occurrence of, 303. “Barren Measures,” 118. Barren Oak, occurrence of, 275. Bartlett Road, magnetic station on, 258. Barton (Four-foot) coal, 119, 175, 176. Bauer, L. A., 7, 17, 84, 258, 254. Beech, occurrence of, 274. Bewicks Wren, occurrence of, 306. Bibliography, 69. “ Big Spring,” 192. Big Spring Run syncline, 144. “Big Vein” coal, 65, 124, 177. Biological survey of the United States, 291. Birds of Allegany county, 293-307. Black Ash, occurrence of, 274. Black-billed Cuckoo, occurrence of, 298. Blackbird, occurrence of, 301. Blackburnian Warbler, occurrence of, 305. Black-capped Titmouse, occurrence of, 306. Black Cherry, occurrence of, 274. Black Sheridan Wilson Compaiy, 179. . Black Spruce, occurrence of, 294. Black-throated Blue Warbler, cc- currence of, 304. Black-throated Green Warbler, cc- currence of, 305. Black Walnut, occurrence of, 274. Blackwater formation, 114. Black and white Warbler, occr- rence of, 303. Bloomington (Railroad) coal seam, 115, 170. Bluebaugh coal seam, 116, 172. Bluebird, occurrence of, 307. Bluegrass land, 205. Blue Jay, occurrence of, 300. 3 Blue Ridge (Catoctin) district, 27. Bobolink, occurrence of, 301. Bodfish, S. H., 67. Boettcherville, elevation of, 229. Boettcherville, meteorological s‘ta- tion at, 229. Booth, Jas. C., 63, 70. Borden mine, 126. Borden Mining Co., 125. Boreal faunal region, 291. Brackett, F. E., 255. Braddock, General, 60. Braddock Road, magnetic station on, 256. Breccia, 162. Breccia, limestone chert, 131. Brick, 181, 182, 184. Broad Top anticline, 141. Broad-winged Hawk, occurrence of, 298. Brown, F. F., 222, 229. Brown Creeper, occurrence of, 306. Brown, Thomas, 76, 77. Brown Thrasher, occurrence of, 306. Brown, W. M., 254. Bruce, Oliver H., 229. Bruce, Webster, 228. INDEX 311 Buckwheat, 210. Buffalo Creek, discharge of, 245. Buffalo Lumber Company, 246. Building-stone in Allegany county, 165, 187, 188, 194. Bunbury, C. J. F., 64, 72, 130. Butternut, occurrence of, 274. Cc. Cain, Peter, 76. Cambrian time, early, 155. Cameron, F. K., 201. Canadian Warbler, occurrence of, 305. Carboniferous, 109. Carboniferous shales, 183. Cardinal bird, occurrence of, 292, 302. Carolina Chickadee, 292. Carolina Junco, occurrence of, 302. Carolina Wren, occurrence of, 292, 306. Carolinian fauna in Maryland, 292. Carroll White Sulphur Springs, 192. Catbird, occurrence of, 306. Cedar Waxwing, occurrence of, 303. Cement, 93, 165, 185, 194. Cement rock, analysis of, 186. Channel-cutting stage, 49. Chemung Upper Conglomerate, 142. Chert, 96, 99, 100, 103, 131, 194. “Chert lintel,” 99. Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, 25. Chestnut, occurrence of, 271, 294, 295. Chestnut Oak, occurrence of, 271. Chestnut-sided Warbler, occur- rence of, 304. Chimney Swift, occurrence of, 299. Chipping Sparrow, occurrence of, 302. Clarion coal seam, 116. Clark, Wm. Bullock, 7, 9, 17, 68, 69, 81, 83, 84, 165, 263, 292. Clarke, J. M., 67, 79, 159. Clays, 87, 130, 165, 184, 194, 200. Clays, residual, 184. Clays, sedimentary, 184. Ciearing, regulation of indiscrimi- nate, 290. Clearsville syncline, 141. Cliff Swallow, occurrence of, 303. Climate of Allegany county, 217. Climate, influence on soils of, 197. Clinton formation, 153, 158, 190. Clinton formation, composition of, 89. Clinton formation, description of, 89. Clinton formation, section in, 90, 91. Clinton formation, thickness of, 90-91. Clinton soils, 202. Close folding, district of, 59. Clover, 203, 205. Coal, 113, 115-129, 162, 165-180, 194. Coal basin, description of, 166. Coal basin, history of its develop- ment, 167. Coal basin, names used for, 168. Coal, first shipment of, 167. Coal Measures, 153, 161. Coal Measures limestone, 188. Coal Measures Period, 162. Coal Measures strata, 190. Coal-mining, effect on forest growth of, 281. Coal veins, position of, 169. Collier Mountain anticline, 144. Collier Run synecline, 144, 153. Commission, 5. Conemaugh coals, 175. Conemaugh formation, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 166, 169, 176, 186, 187, 190. Conemaugh formation, composi- tion of, 118. Conemaugh formation, extent of, 118. Conemaugh formation, thickness of, 122. Conemaugh soils, 211. Conglomerate, 102, 106, 107, 109, 110, 130, 142, 160, 162, 187. Conifers, 267. Consolidation Coal Company, 19, 125-127, 179. Contents, 11. Corn, 208, 204, 208, 209. Cook, George H., 75. Cook, J. W., 264. Cook, R- S., 67, 78. Cooper’s Hawk, occurrence of, 297. County Commissioners, Board of, 259. Cowbird, occurrence of, 301. 312 Crested Flycatcher, occurrence of, 299. Cretaceous peneplain, 163. Crow, occurrence of, 301. Cuckoo, occurrence of, 298. Cucumber-tree, occurrence of, 274. Cumberland basin, report on _ bi- tuminous coal of, 65. Cumberland, chart showing rain- fall at, 227. Cumberland, climate of, 218. “Cumberland Coal Region,” 168. Cumberland, diagram showing dis- charge of North Branch at, 241. Cumberland, magnetic station at, 254, 255. Cumberland, drainage about, on Schooley plain, 48. Cumberland, drainage about, on Shenandoah plain, 44. Cumberland, elevation of, 218. Cumberland, establishment of sur- veyor’s meridian line at, 259. Cumberland, fluctuations in the mean annual rainfall at, 226. Cumberland, fluctuations in mean annual temperature at, 223. Cumberland Hydraulic Cement and Manufacturing Company, 185. Cumberland, meteorological station at, 228. Cumberland, monthly estimated discharge at, 240. Cumberland, observations of flow of water at, 234. Cumberland and Railroad, 25. Cumberland and Potomac Cement Company, 185. Cumberland, present drainage in vicinity of, 41. Cumberland, rating tables for Po- tomac river at, 239. Cumberland, table showing dis- charge measurements of Poto- mac river at, 239. Cumberland, table of rainfall at, 224, Cumberland, terraces at, 50. Cumberland Turnpike Road, 24. Current, speed of, 236. Cutting, regulation of indiscrimi- nate forest, 288. Pennsylvania INDEX D. Daddow, S. H., 74. Dana, J. D., 76, 83, 96. Darton, N. H., 69, 84, 106, 113. Davidson, ——, 264. Davis Coal and Coke Company, a by ft Fy ly ( F Davis (Six-foot) coal seam, 116, 173. Davis, Arthur P., 243. Davis, Wm. M., 33. DDE RA IB EAU ye Deflected lower courses of streams, 39. Demond, C. D., 68, 83. Description of the coal basin, 166. Description of magnetic stations, 254. Description of meteorological sta- tions, 228. Detmold Hill, magnetic station on, 257. Devil's Backbone section, 97. Devonian formations, 94, 151. Devonian Shale Period, 160. Diagram showing discharge of North Branch of the Potomac at Cumberland, 241. Dip of strata, 152. Discharge of Abram Creek, 246. Discharge of Evitts Creek, 251. Discharge of Frog Hollow, 251. Discharge of Georges Creek, 248. Discharge of New Creek, 249. Discharge of North Branch, meas- urements of, 245. 5 Discharge of Patterson Creek, 251. Discharge of Pursley Run, 251. Discharge of Savage river, 247. Discharge of Sideling Creek, 251. Discharge of Stony river, 245. Discharge of Town Creek, 251. Discharge of tributaries of North Branch, measurements of, 245. Dorsey, C. W., 18, 195. Douglas, D. B., 63. Dove, occurrence of, 297. Downs, Newton T., 230. Downy Woodpecker, occurrence of, 298. Drainage about Cumberland on Schooley plain, 48. INDEX 313 Drainage about Cumberland on Shenandoah plain, 44. Drainage about Cumberland at present, 41. Drainage of Plateau District, 30. Drainage of Ridge District, 37. Ducatel, J. T., 61, 62, 63, 69, 72. Dunkard formation, 32, 128-130, 186, 189. Dunkard formation, composition of, 128. Dunkard formation, extent of, 128. Dunkard formation, thickness of, 129. Dunkard soils, 212. E. Economic materials, miscellaneous, 192. Eckhart mine, 168. Eldredge, N. T., 71. Elk Garden District, 169. Elkgarden (Fourteen-foot or Big Vein) coal seam, 177. Elevation of valleys in Ridge Dis- trict, 36. Elevations of the Plateau District, table of, 29. Enameled brick, 182. Erickson, Capt., 71. Evitts Creek, discharge of, 251. Evitts Creek syncline, 146. Evitts Mountain anticline, 145, 152. F. Fassig, O. L., 18, 217. Faults, 153. : Faunal zones, description of, 29 Featherstonhaugh, G. W., 61, 7 Felling timber, 289. Field Sparrow, occurrence of, 302. Fifteenmile Creek, discharge of, 251. Firebrick, 67, 68, 182. Fires, laws against setting, 286. Fire-clay, 67, 68, 162, 165, 171, 181, 182. Fire-clay, use of, 67, 182. Fires, forest, and their relation to reproduction of forests, 282. Fire-wardens, 287. Flint, 194. 2. 0. Flintstone, meteorological station at, 230. Flintstone Sulphur Spring, 191. Flora and fauna of Allegany county, 291. low of water at Cumberland, ob- servations of, 234. Fluctuations in mean annual tem- perature at Cumberland, 223. Flycatcher, 299, 300. Fontaine, Wm. M., 75, 76, 129, 130. Formations in Allegany county, table of, 86. Forests of Allegany county, 263. Forests, character of, 267. Forests, composition of, 268. Forest fires, law against setting, 286. Forest fires and their relation to reproduction of forests, 282. Forest lands, exclusion of grazing from, 287. Forest lands, protection from fire of, 286. Forest resources, management and utilization of, 285. Forest trees, general distribution of, 269. Forestry survey, method of, 263. Fort Hill anticline, 150. Fox Squirrel, occurrence of, 292. Franklin (Dirty-Nine-foot) coal seam, 176. Franklin Hill, magnetic station on, 258. Frazer, Persifor, Jr., 76. Frog Hollow, discharge of, 251. Frostburg, elevation of, 230. Frostburg, mean annual tempera- ture of, 218. Frostburg, meteorological station at, 230. Frostburg syncline, 150. “Frost Town,” 62. G. Gage, description of, 235. Gannett, Henry, 78, 81, 83. Garrett county, creation of, 23. Genesee shales, 183. Geographic and geologic relations, 57. Geology of Allegany county, 57. 314 Georges Creek coal area, early men- tion of, 62. Georges Creek Coal and Iron Com- pany, 62, 179, 189. Georges Creek basin, coal-beds of, 54. Georges Creek Coal Region, 168. Georges Creek, discharge of, 248. Georges Creek and Cumberland Railroad, 25. Georges Creek syncline, 150, 153. Georges Creek, valley of, 30. Gilman, Daniel C., 5. Glass-sand, 192. Gnatcatcher, 292. Golden-winged Warbler, occur- rence of, 304. Goldfinch, occurrence of, 301. Gorges, transverse, 38. Grass, 203, 204. Grasshopper Sparrow, occurrence of, 301. Gravel, 30, 50, 130, 212. Grazing, exclusion of, from forest lands, 287. Green Heron, occurrence of, 296. Great-horned Owl, occurrence of, 298. Great Savage Mt., altitude of, 294. Greater Appalachian Valley, 27. Greenbrier formation, 32, 110, 111, 112, 155. Greenbrier formation, composition of, 110. Greenbrier formation, extent of, 110. Greenbrier formation, section in, fi Opa ine Greenbrier-Mauch Chunk soils, 210. Greenbrier formation, thickness of, 112. Greenbrier limestone, 187, 188. Griswold, W. T., 67. Grouse, occurrence of, 297. Gypsum, occurrence of, 159. H. Hackberry, occurrence of, 275. Hackett, Merrill, 67. Hairy Woodpecker, occurrence of, 298. Hall, James, 65, 74, 75, 79,96, 102, 158. INDEX Hamilton shales, 183. Hampshire formation, 32, 36, 132, 135, 136, 151, 160. Hampshire formation, composition of, 108. . Hampshire formation, extent of, 108. Hampshire formation, thickness of, 109. Hampshire soils, 208. Hawks, occurrence of, 297, 298. Helderberg formation, 94, 97, 143, ' -:146, 149, 153, 155, 184, 186. Helderberg formation, description of, 94. Helderberg formation, thickness of, 97. Helderberg Period, 159. Helderberg soils, 204. Hemlock, occurrence of, 294, 295, 296. Henry, Joseph, 217. Hering, Joshua W.., 5. Heron, occurrence of, 296. Higgins, James, 73, 198, 205, 208, 209. eS we Historical review of geology of Al- legany county, 60. Historical sketch of soil work, 198. Hodge, James T., 65, 74. Hofman, H. O., 68, 83. Hofman mine, 118. Hoffmann’s Sons Company, 246. Homewood sandstone, 181. House Wren, occurrence of, 306. Howard, A. B., 81. Howell, L., 63. : Hughes, Geo. W., 63, 70, 73. Hummingbird, occurrence of, 299. Hydraulic cement, 185. Hydrography of Allegany county, 233. I. - Illustrations, 15. Indigo Bunting, occurrence of, 302. Industrial uses of streams and springs, 234. Interpretation of the sedimentary record, 155. Tron ore, 90, 105, 119, 120, 165, 186, 189. INDEX E31 U5 J. Jennings formation, 136, 141, 154, 155, 160, 185. Jennings formation, composition of, 106. Jennings formation, extent of, 106. Jennings formation, thickness of, 108. Jennings shales, 183. Jewell, L. E., 19. Johns Hopkins University, investi- gations by, 68. Johnson, Walter R., 64, 72, 73. Jones, Howard Grant, 66, ‘/. Jones, John H., 80, 81. Juniata formation, 86, 87, 156. Juniata formation, composition of, 86, 87. Juniata formation, description of, 86. Juniata formation, thickness of, 87. Juniata soils, 201. K. Kemp, James, 83. Keyes, Chas. R., 80. Keyser, W., 82. Kingbird, occurrence of, 299. Killdeer Plover, occurrence of, 297. Kingfisher, occurrence of, 298. Kinnecut, L. P., 80. Koontz (Waynesburg) coal seam, 124, 179. Koontz Hill, magnetic station at, 257. Koontz mine, 126. L. Lark, occurrence of, 300, 301. Law against setting forest fires, 286. Least Flycatcher, occurrence of, 300. hesley,.J: P:, 18; 1, 085 Sl. 8%; 111; 191. Levant Red Sandstone, 86. Life zones and areas of Allegany county, 291. Lime, 165, 185, 194. Limestone, 44, 46, 51, 62, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 105, 110, 112, 119, 125, 126, 128, 129, 131, 155, 156, 159, 160, 162, 186, 187, 188, 203, 204, 205, 212. Limestone clay soils, 199. List of birds in Allegany county, 296. List of conifers and hardwood trees in Allegany county, 268. Little Clarksburg Vein, 176. Loams, 193, 201, 203, 205, 210, 211. Loamy soils, 199. Locust, occurrence of, 274. Lonaconing, magnetic station at, 255, 257. Lonsdale, W., 72. Louisiana Water-thrush, occur- rence of, 305. Lowdermilk, Will H., 76. Lower Carboniferous Period, 162. Lower Kittanning coal, 116. Lower Pentamerus sub-formations, 96. Lowndes, Lloyd, 24, 259. Lumbering, relation of, to repro- duction of timber, 279. Lyell, Chas., 64, 72. M. MacFarlane, James, 75, 80. Magnetic declination in Allegany county, 253. Magnetic declination, changes in, 260. Magnetic declinations, table show- ing, 253, 254. Magnetic stations, descriptions of, 254. . Magnetic station on Bartlett Road, description of, 258. Magnetics station on Braddock Road, description of, 256. Magnetic station at Cumberland, description of, 254, 255. Magnetic station on Franklin Hill, description of, 258. Magnetic station on Koontz Hill. description of, 257. Magnetie station at Lonaconing, description of, 255, 257. Magnetic station at mound on Ma- son and Dixon Line, descrip- tion of, 255. Magnetic station on Miller Road, description of, 257. Magnetic station at Mount Savage, description of, 255. 316 INDEX Magnetic station on National Pike, description of, 256. Magnetic station on North Pickell Hill, description of, 258. Magnetic station at Paw Paw, de- scription of, 255. Magnetic station on Pea Ridge Road, description of, 257. Magnetic station on Phoenix Hill, description of, 258. Magnetic station on Piney Hill, description of, 255. Magnetic station on Roaring Hill, description of, 256. Magnetic station at mouth of Sav- age river, description of, 258. Magnetic station on Staub Run, description of, 257. Magnetic station on South Pickell Hill, description of,.258. Magnetic station on Swanton Hill, description of, 258. Magnetic station at Westernport, description of, 255. Magnetic station on Winebrenner Run, description of, 257. Magnolia Warbler, occurrence of, 304. Mahoning sandstone, 118. Manufacture of fire-clay, 182. Marcellus formation, 103. Marcellus shales, 183. Martin Mountain anticline, 144. Martin Spring Branch syncline, 144. Martinsburg formation, 156. Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station, 199. i Maryland Coal Company, 179. Maryland Geological Survey, or- ganization of, 69. Maryland Mining Company, 63. Maryland Weather Service, 47, 227. Maryland Yellow-throat, occur- rence of, 305. Mason and Dixon Line, descrip- tion of magnetic station on, 255. Mathews, Edward B., 7, 84, 85. Matthes, Gerard H., 243. Mauch Chunk formation, 32. Mauch Chunk formation, composi- tion of, 112. Mauch Chunk formation, extent of, 112. Mauch Chunk formation, thickness of, 113. Mauch Chunk shale, 183. McCreath, Andrew A., 76. Meadow Lark, occurrence of, 301. Measurements of discharge of North Branch, 245. Measurement of water height, 235. Mechanical analyses of soils and subsoils from Allegany county, 214-216. Mercer, Chas. Fenton, 70. Meridian line, establishment of the surveyor’s, at Cumberland, 259. Meridian line, method used in ob- taining, 259. . ‘ Merriam, C. Hart, 18, 291. Merrill, G. P., 79. Merrill, Wm. E., 75. Meteorological stations in Alle- gany county, table of, 231. Meteorological station at Boettch- erville, 229. Meteorological station at Cumber- land, 228. Meteorological station at Flint- stone, 230. Meteorological station at Oldtown, 230. Meteorological station at Mt. Sav- age, 230. Meteorological station at Western- port, 229. Middlesex Leather Company, 246. Miller, S. A., 79. Miller, W. J., 259. Miller Road, magnetic station on, 257. Mineral products, list of operators in, 194. Mineral resources of Allegany county, 165. Mineral Springs, 165, 191. Mining, relation of to reproduction of timber, 278. Mockernut, occurrence of, 274. Monoclinal ridges, 36. Monongahela formation, 166, 169, 176, 189, 190. Monongahela formation, composi- tion of, 125. Monongahela formation, extent of, 124. INDEX Monongahela formation, section in, 126, 127. Monongahela formation, thickness of, 126-128. Monongahela soils, 211. Monthly discharge of Potomac river at Cumberland (table), 240. Mt. Savage bricks, 181. Mt. Savage, magnetic station at, 255. Mt. Savage, meteorological station at, 230. Mt. Savage Enameled Brick Com- pany, 182. Mt. Savage fire-clay, 68. Mountains, important, in Allegany county, 57. Mountain Pasture soils, 207. Mourning Dove, occurrence of, 297. N. “The Narrows,” 49, 148. National Pike, magnetic station on, 256. National Road, anticlines on, 133. Nautilus Ledge, 105. New Central Coal Company, 179. New Creek, discharge of, 249. New York Coal and Iron Company, 189. “New Detmold” mine, 126. Neweil, F. H., 18, 83, 85, 233. Niagara formation, 91, 155. Niagara formation, composition of, 91. Niagara formation, description of, 91. Niagara formation, section in, 92. Niagara formation, thickness of, 92. Niagara limestone, 188. Niagara Period, 158. Niagara soil, 203. Nicolls, Wm. Jasper, 84, 85. Nighthawk, occurrence of, 299. North Branch, description of, 2438, 247-250. North Branch, measurements of discharge of, 245. North Branch, pollution of, 243. North Pickell Hill, magnetic sta- tion on, 257. raul fy Northern Flicker, occurrence of, 299. Northern Pileated Woodpecker, oc- currence of, 299. Northern Raven, occurrence of, 300. Nuthatch, occurrence of, 306. oO. Oak, occurrence of, 294, 295. Oats, 203, 205, 208, 209, 211, 212. O’Harra, C. C.,; 7, 17, 57, 165. Oldtown, meteorological station at, 230. Oldtown and Pratt Valley folds, 139. "i Open folding, district of, 59. Operators in mineral products, 194. Opossum, 292. Oriskany formation, 36, 38, 98, 138, 144, 146, 149, 153, 155, 187, 188, 192. Oriskany formation, composition of, 99. Oriskany formation, extent of, 99. Oriskany formation, description of, 98. Oriskany formation, section in, 101, 102. Oriskany formation, thickness of, 101. Oriskany period, 160. Oriskany soils, 206. Orleans anticline, 132. Oven-bird, occurrence of, 305. Owl, occurrence of, 298. Oxalis acetosella, 296. Leh Paint rock, 193. Paleozoic Period, the early, 155. Paleozoic Period and The Appala- chian Revolution, 54. Paleozoic sea, 55. Paleozoic strata, 32. Parker, E. W., 81-85. Parker coal seam, 116, 172. Parula Warbler, occurrence of, 304. Potomac Basin, altitude of, 246. Potomac river, 236, 237, 238. Potomac river at Cumberland, table showing daily gage height of, 236, 237, 238. 318 Patterson, ——, 262. Patterson Creek, discharge of, 251. Patterson, T. L., 223, 226. Paul, E. G., 243. Paw Paw, magnetic station at, 255. Peale, A. C., 78, 81. Pea Ridge Road, magnetic station on, 257. Peat, 163. Peneplains, 163. Pennsylvania Railroad, 25. Permian formations, 128. , Pewee, occurrence of, 300. Phillips, G. Jenkins, 73. Phoebe bird, occurrence of, 300. Phoenix Hill, magnetic station on, 258. Phoenix Mining Manufacturing Company, 64. Phosphate rock, 193. Physical features of Allegany county, 21, 23. Physiography of Allegany county, 27 Physiographic divisions, 28. Piedmont Pulp and Paper Mill Company, 247. Pignut Hickory, occurrence of, 274. Pilsbry, H. A., 131. Piney Hill, magnetic station on, 255. Pitch of strata, 152. Pitch Pine, occurrence of, 273. Pittsburg Vein, 178. Plateau District, drainage of, 30. Plateau District, table of elevations of, 29. Plateau District, topography of, 28. Plateau District, stream adjust- ment in, 33. Plateau District, structure of, 32. Pleistocene, The, 130. Pocono formation, 31, 32, 34, 36, 49, 136, 155, 162. Pocono .formation, composition of, 109. Pocono formation, extent of, 109. Pocono formation, thickness of, 109. Pocono Plateau, 109. Pocono sandstone, 49. Pocono soils, 209. Polish Mt. syncline, 141. INDEX Pomeroy, Samuel Whyllys, 61, 69. Portage formation, 106. Portage shales, 183. Potatoes, 206, 211, 212. Potomac Bottom soils, 199. Porter, Dwight, 85. Pottsville coals, 170. Pottsville formation, 29, 31, 32, 34, 49, 151, 155, 166, 169, 181, 187. Pottsville formation, composition of, 114. Pottsville formation, extent of, 113. Pottsville formation, section in, 114, 115. Pottsville formation, thickness of, 114. Pottsville sandstone, 29. Pottsville soils, 210. Powell, John, 63. Prairie Horned Lark, occurrence of, 300. Prairie Warbler, oecurrence of, 305. Pratt Valley, 139-141. Preble, Edward A., 18, 292, 294. Preface, 17. Present or Channel-cutting stage, 49. Prosser, Charles S., 7, 122. Pumpelly, R., 78. Purple Grackle, occurrence of, 301. Purple Martin, occurrence of, 303. Pursley Run, discharge of, 251. Q. Quail, occurrence of, 297. Quartz, 109, 110. Quartzite, 33, 87, 88, 89, 106, 130, 145, 148, 153, 187. R. Railroad coal seam, 115. Rainfall affected by topography, 226. Rainfall, table of average monthly and annual, 225. Rainfall in Allegany county, 223. Rainfall at Cumberland (chart), 227. Rainfall at Cumberland, table of, 224, Rainfall, fluctuations in the mean annual, at Cumberland, 226. Randolph, B. S., 264. INDEX Rankin, Robt. G., 65, 73. Rating tables for Potomae river at Cumberland, 239. Raven, occurrence of, 300. Rawlings syncline, 149. Redbird, oceurrence of, 275. Red-breasted Nuthatch, occurrence of, 306. Red-eyed Vireo, occurrence of, 303. Red-headed Woodpecker, occur- rence of, 299. Red Juniper, occurrence of, 274. Red Maple, occurrence of, 274. Red Medina, 86. Red Oak, occurrence of, 271. Red sandstone soils, 199. Red-shouldered Hawk, occurrence of, 298. Redstart, occurrence of, 306. Redwinged Blackbird, ‘occurrence of, 301. Reforesting, 279. Relation between waterflow and forest-cover, 266. Reproduction, relation of lumber- ing and mining to, 279. Residual clays, 184. Review, historical, of the geology of Allegany county, 60. Rhododendron maximum, 294, 295, 296. Ridge District, drainage of, 37. Ridge District, elevation of valleys in, 36. Ridge District, stream adjustment in, 40. Ridge District, structure of, 40. Ridge District, topography of, 34. Ries, H., 17, 83, 165. Riordan, O., 76. Riser, ——, Frostburg coal discov- ered by, 167. River height, observations of, 235. Road-metal, 165, 188, 189. Roaring Hill, magnetic station on, 256. Robin, occurrence of, 307. Rogers, H. D., 64, 72, 73, 161. Rogers, J. F., 80. Rogers, W. B., 64, 77. Romney formation, 139, 144, 149, 160, 185, 188. Romney formation, composition of, 104, 319 Romney formation, extent of, 103, 105. * Romney-Jennings soil, 207. Romney shales, 183. Rosebreasted Grosbeak, occurrence of, 302. Rowe, R. B., 7; 17, 93, 165. Ruby-throated Hummingbird, oc- eurrence of, 299. Ruffed Grouse, occurrence of, 297. Rumbarger Company, J. L., 246. Run-off, 234. Rye, 202, 204, 205, 208, 211, 212. Ss. Salina formation, 92, 143, 146, 153, 154, 155, 159, 185: Salina formation, composition of, 92. Salina formation, description of, 92. Salina formation, thickness of, 93. Salina soils, 203. Salt in Allegany county, 159. Sand, 30, 202. Sandpiper, 297. Sandstone, 29, 32, 33, 36, 38, 48, 46, 54, 86, 87, 89, 91, 99, 100, 101, 104, 106, 108, 110, 112, 114, 115, 118, 119, 120, 125, 128, 143, 145, 146, 154, 155, 159, 160, 162, 165, 187, 201, 204, 206, 207, 209, 210, 211, 212. Savage river, analysis of effluent from, 247. Savage river, magnetic station at mouth of, 258. Savage river, discharge of, 247. Savage river, pollution of, 247. Scharf, J. Thomas, 77, 80, 81, 199. Scarlet Tanager, occurrence of, 3802. Schooley Plain, 48. Schooley Plain stage, 53. Schoot, Chas. A., 75. Schuchert, Chas., 79. Schumann, C. H., 81. Screech Owl, occurrence of, 298. , Scrub Pine, occurrence of, 273. Section showing position of lead- ing coal veins, 169. Section in Allegheny formation, 116, 117, 118. Section in Barton coal seam, 176. 320 Section in Bloomington coal seam, 170. Section in Bluebaugh coal seam, 172. Section in Big Vein coal seam, 177. Section in Clinton formation, 90, 91. Section in Conemaugh formation, 119, 120. Section in Davis coal seam, 173. Section in Franklin coal seam, 176. Section in Greenbrier formation, 141, 112. Section in Monongahela formation, 126, 127, 128, Section in Helderberg formation, OT: Section in Niagara formation, 92. Section in Oriskany formation, 101, 102. Section in Pottsville formation, 114, 115. Section in Parker coal seam, 172. Section in Salina formation, 93. Section in Thomas coal seam, 174. Section in Tyson coal seam, 179. Section in Westernport coal seam, uly ans Sedimentary clays, 184. Sediments, general character and variation of, 155. Sedimentary record, interpretation of, 155. Serviceberry, occurrence of, 275. Shagbark Hickory, occurrence of, 274. Shales, 36, 44, 51, 62, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 99, 104, 105, 106, 108, 110, 112, 215, 118, 119, 125, 128, 144, 155, 156, 158, 162, 165, 182, 184, 194, 202, 204, 207, 211. Shaly Red Sandstone soils, 199. Sharp-shinned Hawk, occurrence of, 297. Shavers Creek anticline, 141. Shenandoah Plain, 49, 52. Shenandoah Plain epoch, 46. Shenandoah Plain stage, 51. Shepard, C. U., 64. Sheppard, Forrest, 64, 71. Sherwood, B. F., 66, 75. Shipley, H. C., 230. Shriver, ——, 262. Shriver, Edwin Thomas, 217, 219, 223, 224, 228. Shriver, Howard, 68, 83, 228, 229, Shriver, Jas., 69. Sideling Creek, discharge of, 251. Sideling Hill syncline, 132. Silliman, Benj., 63, 71, 72. Silvester, R. W., 5. Silurian formations, 86, 142. Silurian limestone, 159. Silurian Period, Later, 158. Silurian rocks, 151. Smith, John Walter, 5, 9. Smithsonian Institution, establish- ment of, 217. Smock, J. C., 77. Snyders Ridge anticline, 141. Soils of Allegany county, 195, 265. Soil, composition of, 195. Soil, external and internal condi- tions of, 197. Soil formations, 200. Soil, formation of, 195. Soils, mechanical analyses of, 214- 216. Soil work, historical sketch of, 198. Solitary Vireo, occurrence of, 303. Somerville, R. L., 264. Song Sparrow, occurrence of, 302. South Pickell Hill, magnetic sta- tion on, 258. Sparrow, occurrence of, 301, 302. Sparrow Hawk, occurrence of, 298. Speed of current, 256. Spencer, A. C., 156. Spencer, S. B., 82. Split-six coal seam, 116, 174. Spotted Sandpiper, occurrence of, 297. : South Cumberland Brick Works, 184. Staub Run, magnetic station on, 256, 257. Stephens, Thos., 75. Stevenson, J. J., 66, 67, 76, 77, 79, 82, 1380, 141, 142. Stony river, discharge of, 245. Stratford Ridge anticline, 138, 139. Stratigraphy and areal distribution of Allegany county, 85. Streams of Allegany county, 58. Stream adjustments in the Plateau District, 33. INDEX Stream adjustments in the Ridge District, 40. ~ Stream-pollution, 234. Stream-revival, 48. Strike of strata, 152. Structure in Allegany county, 132. Structure of Plateau District, 32. Structure of Ridge District, 40. Structure sections, explanation of, 154. Subsequent history of sedimenta- tion, 163. Subsequent valleys, 37. Sudworth, G. B., 18, 263. Sugar Maple, occurrence of, 273. Sumachs, occurrence of, 275. Summer birds of western Mary- land, 294. Supervising Surgeon-General of the Marine Hospital, 243. Swain, Geo. F., 78. Swallow, occurrence of, 303. Swamp White Oak, occurrence of, 274. Swank, Jas. M., 78, 79, 190. Swanton Hill, magnetic station on, 258. Sweet Birch, occurrence of, 274. Sweet Crab, occurrence of, 275. Sycamore, occurrence of, 274. Synclines, 133, 136-138, 141, 144, 146, 149, 150, 153, 163. Synclinal ridge, 36. Snyder, Henry L., 66, 75. hs Table of Allegany county forma- tions, 86. } Table of average monthly and an- nual rainfall, 225. Table of elevations of the Plateau District, 29. Table showing daily gage height of Potomac river at Cumberland, 236, 237, 238. Table showing discharge measure- ments on. Potomac river at Cumberland, 239. Table showing estimated monthly discharge of Potomac river at Cumberland, 240. Table showing magnetic declina- tions, 253, 254. 21 321 Table of meteorological stations in Allegany county, 231. Table of monthly and annual mean temperatures at Cumberland, 220. Table-Mountain Pine, occurrence of, 273. Table of rainfall at Cumberland, 224. Table of temperature data, 221, 222. Taff, Joseph A., 69, 84, 113. Talus, 88, 100, 111. Tamarack, 294. Tanager, 292, 302. Tarus minor, 295, 296. Taylor, R. C., 73. Temperature of Allegany county, 219. Temperatures at Cumberland, table of monthly and annual mean, 220. Temperature data, table of, 221, 222. Temperature, highest record of in Allegany county, 222. Temperature, lowest record of in Allegany county, 223. Tentaculite limestone, 96. Terrace-forming stage, 50. Tertiary peneplain, 163. Thomas (Three-foot) coal seam, 116, 174. Thorny Haws, occurrence of, 275. Thrush, occurrence of, 306. Timber trees, 276, 277. Timber trees, distribution of occa- sional, 274. Timber trees, distribution of prin- cipal; 270. Timber trees, distribution of sub- ordinate, 272. Titmouse, occurrence of, 306, 392. Topographic cycle, 157, 158. Topography, effect of on rainfall, 226. Topographic features of Allegany county, 264. Topographic history, stages in, 49. Topography, influence on soils of, 197. Topography of Plateau District, 30. Towhee, occurrence of, 302. Town Creek, discharge of, 251. co Town Creek, recent geologic his- tory of, 42. Town Hill syncline, 136, 153. Townsend, G. G., 230. Transition faunal zone, 292, 293. Transmittal, letter of, 9. Transverse gorges, 38. Tributaries of North Branch, ' measurements of discharge of, 245. Tufted Titmouse, occurrence of, 292, 306. Tulip-tree, occurrence of, 274. Turkey Buzzard, occurrence of, 297. Tuscarora formation, 87, 142, 145, 148, 153, 155, 156, 158, 160, 189. Tuscarora formation, composition of, 88. Tuscarora formation, description of, 87. Tuscarora formation, thickness of, 89. Tuscarora quartzite, 187, 192. Tuscarora soils, 201. Tussey Mt. anticline, 142, 152. Tyson (Gas) coal seam, section in, 179. Tyson, P. T., 62, 65, 71, 74, 120, 126, 127, 190. U. Upper Clinton iron ore, 90, 190. Upper Potomac District, 169. Union Mining Company, 182. United States Leather Company, 249. U. S. Geological Survey, work of in Allegany county, 67. Vi Valleys, elevation of, in Ridge Dis- trict, 36. Valleys of Allegany county, aver- age number of rainy days in, 228. Vesper Sparrow, occurrence of, 301. Vireo, 303. Ww. Walz, F. J., 227. Warbler, 303, 304, 305. Ward, Lester F., 79. Washington county, topographic map of, 64. 22 INDEX Washington, George, letter of, 60. Waterflow in Allegany county, 265. Watergaps, 43. Waterlime formation. 96, 185. Water-thrush, occurrence of, 305. Watkins, J. Elfreth, 80. Weeks, Joseph D., 68, 78, 83, 168. Weld, Henry Thomas, 71. Wellersburg District, 169. Westernport (Two-foot) coal, 115, 170, 171. Westernport, magnetic station at, 255. Westernport, elevation of, 229. Westernport, meteorological sta- tion at, 229. West Virginia Central and Pitts- burg Railway, 25. Wheat, 203, 208, 209. Whip Cove anticline, 132. Whippoorwill, occurrence of, 299. White, I. C., 66, 67, 77, 79, 80, 85, 115, 117; 129, 130, 131. White Ash, occurrence of, 274. White Basswood, occurrence of, 274. White-breasted Nuthatch, occur- rence of, 306. White Medina, 87. White Oak, occurrence of, 271. White Pine, occurrence of, 271. Whitney, Milton, 18, 82, 84, 199, 205, 207, 208, 209. Wilbur, F. A., 77. Wild Plum, occurrence of, 275. Wild Red Cherry, occurrence of, 274. ; Willis, Bailey; 58, 69, 82, 84, 160. Wills Creek, 249, 250, 251. Wills Creek gorge described, 62. Wills Mt. anticline, 46, 148, 152. Williams, George Huntington, 68, 80, 81, 82. Wilson, M. N., mills of, 246. Wilson’s Thrush, occurrence of, ” 306. Wilson’s Warbler, occurrence of, 305. Winebrenner Run, magnetic sta- tion on, 251. Woodcock, occurrence of, 297. Wooded region in Allegany county, 267. Woodpecker, occurrence of, 298, 299. Wood Pewee, occurrence of, 300. Wood Thrush, occurrence of, 306. Worm-eating Warbler, occurrence of, 304. Wren, occurrence of, 306. VE - Yellow-breasted Chat, occurrence of, 305. 325 Yellow-billed Cuckoo, occurrence of, 298. Yellow-billed Woodpecker, occur- rence of, 298. Yellow-throated Vireo, occurrence of, 303. Yellow Warbler, occurrence of, 304. Z. Zeller, Theodore, 66, 75. de Pin Ong 7 ep * ann ic erase _ mre Hi 3 SLRLIE STO ;